,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #dda ,,new ,,york1 ,,june #ad1 #ahhd ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xvii41 ,no4 #dda4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,i4 ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,metallurgy4--,on ,electrolysis4--,precipitation ( lead1 ?allium1 silv]1 bismu?1 manganese1 etc4--,by ,h4 ,,s*u*t ,! ,electro-,*emical ,equival5t ( ,silv] ,zircon4--,h[ x c be r5d]$ soluble4--,by ,f4 ,,/olba ,a ,new ,process = ,mak+ ,wr\ght ,iron ,directly f ! ,ore4 --,comp>ison ) o!r processes4--,) descriptions & engrav+s ( ! app>atus us$ ,"s ,rem>ks on ! ,det]m9ation ( ,h>dness 9 ,wat] ,on ! *anges :i* ,take ,place 9 ! ,conv]sion ( ,hay into ,ensilage4--,by ,f4,j4 ,lloyd ,,ii4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,& ,,me*anics4--,faure's ,ma*9e = ,decorticat+ ,sug> ,cane4--,) full description & #ac figures ,! ,g5]ation ( ,/eam & ! ,!rmodynamic ,problems ,involv$4--,by ,,wm4 ,,&]son4--,app>atus us$ 9 ! exp]im5tal det]m9ation ( ! heat ( combu/ion & ! laws :i* gov]n its developm5t4--,+r$i5ts ( fuel4--,pot5tial en]gy ( fuel4--,) #g figures & sev]al tables ,planet>y ,:eel ,tra9s4--,rotations ( ! :eels relatively to ! tra9 arm4--,by ,pr(4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord ,! ,pantanemone4--,a ,new ,w9d:eel4--#a engrav+ ,relvas's ,new ,life ,boat4--,) engrav+ ,exp]im5ts ) ,d\ble ,b>rel$ ,guns & ,rifles4 --,cause ( ! div]g5ce ( ! *>ge4--#d figures ,improv$ ,ball ,turn+ ,ma*9e4--#a figure ,cool+ ,app>atus = ,injection ,wat]4--,) engrav+ ,corrugat$ ,disk ,pulleys4--#a engrav+ ,,iii4 ,,te*nology4--,a ,new ,/&>d ,light ,dr4 ,feussn]'s ,new ,pol>iz+ ,prism4--,po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! old & new prisms4--,by ,p4,r4 ,,sleeman ,d5sity & ,pressure ( ,detonat+ ,gas ,,iv4 ,,electricity1 ,,light1 ,,etc4--,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ! ,telegraph4 --,pyrsia1 or ! sy/em ( telegraphy among ! ,greeks4 --,communication by means ( *>act]s & ! telescope4 --,introduction ( ! magnetic telegraph betwe5 ,baltimore & ,wa%+ton ,! ,kravogl ,electro ,motor & its ,conv]sion ,into a ,dynamo ,electric ,ma*9e4--#e figures ,bornh>dt's ,electric ,ma*9e = ,bla/+ 9 ,m9es4 --#ae figures ,prit*ett's ,electric ,fire ,al>m4--#a figure ,a ,/&>d ,!rmopile ,telephonic ,transmission )\t ,receiv]s4--,"s ( ! app>atus exhibit$ at ! annual meet+ ( ! ,fr5* ,society ( ,physics4--,telephonic transmission ?r\gh a *a9 ( p]sons ,diffraction ,ph5om5a dur+ ,total ,sol> ,eclipses4--,by ,g4,d4 ,hiscox ,v4 ,,botany ,,& ,,horticulture4--,gum ,diseases 9 ,trees4-- ,cause & contagion ( ! same ,dr9k/one ,p>k4--,trees & plants cultivat$ !re94-- ,) #b engrav+s ,,vi4 ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,hygi5e4--,mirya*it4--,a newly-discov]$ disease ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & its analogues4--,by ,,wm4 ,a4 ,,hammond ,,vii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,turki% ,ba?s = ,horses4--,) diagram4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,faure',s ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,decorticat+ ,,sug>-,,cane4 ,! object ( ! app>atus %[n 9 ! accompany+ engrav+ is to effect a sep>ation ( ! t\gh epid]mis ( ! sug>-cane f ! int]nal spongy pi? :i* is to be press$4 ,its function consi/s 9 isolat+ & sep>at+ ! cells f _! cortex1 & 9 putt+ !m 9 direct contact ) ! roll]s or cyl9d]s ( ! mill4 ,aft] _! passage into ! app>atus1 :i* is naturally plac$ 9 a l9e ) ! endless *a9 t c>ries !m to ! mill1 ! canes arrive 9 less compact lay]s1 pass ?r\gh mu* n>r[] spaces1 & f9ally und]go a m effici5t pressure1 :i* is %[n by an abundant fl[ ( juice4 ,! fir/ trials ( ! ma*9e 7 made 9 #ahgi at ! ,po9te ,simon ,works1 at ,m>t9ique1 ) ! small type t 0 %[n at ! ,p>is ,exhibition ( #ahgh4 ,^! exp]im5ts1 :i* 7 appli$ to a "w ( #c1jjj kilos ( cane p] h\r1 gave entire satisfaction1 & decid$ ! own]s ( ?ree ( ! colonial works 7,po9te ,simon1 ,l>c9ty1 & ,m>97 to adopt x = ! season ( #ahhj4 ,! app>atus is %[n 9 longitud9al section 9 ,fig4 #a1 & 9 plan 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c gives a transv]se section pass+ ?r\gh ! l9e #c-d1 & ,fig4 #d an ext]nal view on ! side :5ce ! decorticat$ canes make _! exit f ! app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,faure',s ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,decorticat+ ,,sug> ,,cane4 ,! o!r figures relate to details t w be ref]r$ to fur!r along4 ,! ,decorticat+ ,cyl9d]4--,! pr9cipal "p ( ! app>atus is a holl[ drum1 ,a1 ( ca/ iron1 #dcj mm4 9 int]nal diamet] by #a4da m4 9 l5g?1 :i* is key$ at its two extremities to ! %aft1 a4 ,ext]nally1 ?is drum 7:i* is repres5t$ ap>t 9 transv]se section 9 ,fig4 #e7 has ! =m ( an octagonal prism ) well dress$ projections betwe5 :i* are fix$ ! eight plates1 ,c1 t con/itute ! decorticat+ cyl9d]4 ,^! plates1 :i* are ( temp]$ ca/ iron1 & "o ( :i* is %[n 9 transv]se section 9 ,fig4 #g1 :5 once 9 place =m a cyl9drical surface provid$ ) #dh helicoidal1 d5tate *annels4 ,! l5g? ( ^! plates is #dgj mm4 ,!re are ?ree ( !m 9 ! direction ( ! g5]atrices ( ! cyl9d]1 & ?is makes a total ( #bd4 ,all are /r5g!n$ by ribs 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #h71 & ea* is fix$ by #d bolts1 c1 #bjmm4 9 diamet]4 ,! pit* ( ! helices ( ea* too? is v elongat$1 & rea*es ab\t #g4eb m4 ,! dep? ( ! too?+ is #ah mm4 ,frame & ,endless ,*a94--,! cyl9d] ?us con/ruct$ rotates ) a velocity ( #ej revolutions p] m9ute ov] a cyl9drical vessel1 ,b'1 ca/ 9 a piece ) ! frame1 ,b4 ,?is vessel is l9$ ) two s]ies ( temp]$ ca/ iron plates1 ,d & ,d'1 call$ exit & entrance plates1 :i* re/ !reon1 ?r\gh ! int]m$ium ( well dress$ p$icels1 & :i* are held 9 place by six #bj-millimet] bolts4 ,_! l5g? is #gjh mm4 ,! entrance plates1 ,d1 are provid$ ) #f spiral *annels1 ^: pit* is equal to t ( ! *annels ( ! decorticat+ cyl9d]1 ,c1 & 9 ! same direction4 ,! dep? ( ! too?+ is #aj mm4 ,! exit plates1 ,d'1 are provid$ ) #g spiral *annels ( ! same pit* & direction z ^? ( ! prec$+1 b ! dep? ( :i* increases f #b to #aj mm4 ,! axis ( ! decorticat+ cyl9d] does n co9cide ) t ( ! vessel1 ,b'1 s t ! free int]val = ! passage ( ! cane cont9ues to dim9i% f ! entrance to ! exit4 ,! passage ( ! cane to ! decorticator gives rise to a small quantity ( juice1 :i* fl[s ?r\gh two orifices1 b'1 into a sort ( ca/ iron tr\gh1 ,g1 susp5d$ b5ea? ! vessel4 ,! cane1 :i* is br\ght to ! app>atus by an endless belt1 empties 9 a conduit =m$ ( an incl9$ bottom1 ,e1 ( plate iron1 & two ca/ iron sides provid$ ) ribs4 ,^! sides re/ ^u ! two ends ( ! vessel1 ,b'1 & are cross-brac$ by two flat b>s1 e1 to :i* is bolt$ ! bottom1 ,e4 ,?is conduit is prolong$ beyond ! decorticat+ cyl9d] by an incl9$ *ute1 ,f1 ! bottom ( :i* is made ( plate iron #g mm4 ?ick & ! sides ( ! same mat]ial #i mm4 ?ick4 ,! holl[ frame1 ,b1 ^: g5]al =m is l t ( a saddle1 c>ries ! be>+s1 b1 9 :i* revolves ! %aft1 a4 ,"o ( ^! be>+s is repres5t$ 9 detail 9 ,figs4 #i & #aj4 ,x w be se5 t ! cap is held by bolts ) sunk5 heads1 & t ! be>+ on ! bu%es is ?r\gh horizontal surfaces only4 ,9 a piece ) ?is frame are ca/ two simil> brackets1 ,b1 :i* support ! axle1 h1 ( ! endless *a94 ,to ?is axle1 ^: diamet] is #ajj mm41 are key$1 t[>d ! extremities1 ! p9ions1 ,h1 to :i* correspond ! endless pit* *a9s1 i4 ,^! latt] are =m$1 z may be se5 9 ,figs4 #aa & #ab1 ( two s]ies ( l9ks4 ,! %ort] ( ^! latt] are only #ajj mm4 9 l5g?1 :ile ! long] are #baj mm41 & are holl[$ out s z to receive ! butts ( ! bo>ds1 ,i4 ,! *a9 ?us =m$ passes ov] two pit* p9ions1 ,j1 l ! p9ions1 ,h1 t are m\nt$ at ! extremities ( an axle1 j1 t revolves 9 be>+s1 ,i'1 ^: position ) reg>d to ! app>atus is capable ( be+ v>i$ s z to slack5 or taut5 ! *a91 ,i4 ,?is arrangem5t is %[n 9 elevation 9 ,fig4 #ac4 ,transmission4--,! driv+ %aft1 k1 revolves 9 a pill[ block1 ,k1 ca/ 9 a piece ) ! frame1 ,b4 ,x is usually actuat$ by a special motor1 & c>ries a fly-:eel 7n %[n 9 ! figure = want ( space74 ,x receives 9 addition a cog-:eel1 ,l1 :i* transmits its motion to ! decorticat+ cyl9d] ?r\gh1 ! int]m$ium ( a l>ge wood5-too!d ge> :eel1 ,l'4 ,! %aft1 a1 ^: diamet] is #bbh mm41 actuates 9 its turn1 ?r\gh ! p9ions1 ,m' & ,m1 ! pit* p9ion1 ,n1 ^u ^: prolong$ hub is key$ ! p9ion1 ,m4 ,?is latt] is m\nt$ loosely ^u ! int]m$iate axle1 m4 ,motion is transmitt$ to ! driv+ %aft1 h1 ( ! endless *a91 ,i1 by an ord9>y pit* *a91 ?r\gh a ge>+ :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,! pit* p9ion1 ,n'1 is ca/ 9 a piece ) a holl[ friction cone1 ,n1 :i* is m\nt$ loosely ^u ! %aft1 h1 & to :i* corresponds a second friction cone1 ,o4 ,?is latt] is connect$ by a key to a socket1 o1 ^u :i* x slides1 & :i* is itself key$ to ! %aft1 h4 ,! hub ( ! cone1 ,o1 is connect$ by a r+ ) a bronze nut1 p1 m\nt$ at ! ?read$ end ( ! %aft1 h1 & c>ry+ a h&-:eel1 ,p4 ,x is only necess>y to turn ?is latt] 9 "o direction or ! o!r 9 ord] to ?r[ ! two cones into or out ( ge>4 ,if we all[ t ! motor has a velocity ( #gj revolutions p] m9ute1 ! decorticat+ cyl9d] w run at ! rate ( #ej1 & ! sug>-cane w move =w>d at ! rate ( #ab met]s p] m9ute4 ,?is new ma*9e is a v simple & p[]ful "o4 ,! decortication is effect$ ) wond]ful rapidity1 & ! canes1 op5$ ?r\gh\t _! entire l5g? & at all po9ts ( _! circumf]5ce1 leave ! app>atus 9 a /ate t all[s ( no d\bt z to :at ! result ( ! pressure w be t !y h to und]go4 ,!re is no te>+1 no trituration1 no loss ( juice1 b m]ely a simple prep>ation = a rational pressure effect$ "u mo/ favorable conditions4 ,! app>atus1 :i* is made 9 sev]al sizes1 has already receiv$ num]\s applications 9 ,m>t9ique1 ,tr9idad1 ,cuba1 ,antigua1 ,/4 ,dom+o1 ,p]u1 ,au/ralia1 ! ,mauritius ,isl&s1 & ,brazil4--,publication ,indu/rielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mov+ ,a ,,bridge4 ,an int]e/+ piece ( eng9e]+ "w has rec5tly be5 accompli%$ at ,bri/ol1 ,engl&1 :i* consi/$ 9 ! mov+ ( a foot-bridge #acd feet 9 l5g?1 bodily1 d[n ! riv] a consid]able di/ance4 ,! pontoons by means ( :i* ! bridge 0 float$ to its new position consi/$ ( f\r #hj-ton b>ges1 brac$ toge!r s z to =m "o solid /ructure #fd feet 9 wid?1 & 7 plac$ 9 position soon aft] ! tide comm5c$ to rise4 ,at six o'clock ,a4,m4 ! top ( ! /ages1 :i* 0 #bd feet above ! wat]1 t\*$ ! "u "p ( ! bridge1 & 9 a qu>t] ( an h\r lat] bo? ends rose f _! f\ndations4 ,:5 ! tide _h ris5 #d ft4 ! /age & bridge 7 float$ to ! new position1 :5 at #h4cj ! gird]s dropp$ on to _! b$s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam1 ,,& ,,! ,,!rmodynamic ,,problems ,,involv$4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lecture deliv]$ at ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 session #ahhc-hd4 ,= ! illu/rations we are indebt$ to ! c\rtesy ( ,mr4 ,j4 ,=re/1 ! secret>y4 ,by ,mr4 ,,william ,,&]son1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,x w n be necess>y to comm5ce ?is lecture by expla9+ ! orig9 ( fuel2 x w be suffici5t if ,i rem9d y t x is to ! action ( ! complex rays ( ! sun ^u ! foliage ( plants t we ma9ly owe our supply ( combu/ibles4 ,! tree trunks & bran*es ( our =e/s1 z well z ! subt]ranean deposits ( coal & naph?a1 at "o "t =m$ portions ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid gas2 t gas 0 decompos$ by ! en]gy ( ! sol> rays1 ! c>bon & ! oxyg5 7 plac$ 9 positions ( advantage ) respect to ea* o!r--end[$ ) pot5tial en]gy2 & x is my duty ?is ev5+ to %[ h[ we c be/ make use ( ^! relations1 & by once m comb9+ ! con/itu5ts ( fuel ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 rev]se ! action :i* caus$ ! gr[? ( ! plants1 t is to say1 by de/roy+ ! plant reproduce ! heat & light :i* fo/]$ x4 ,! en]gy :i* c be set free by ?is process _c be great] ?an t d]iv$ orig9ally f ! sun1 & :i*1 act+ ?r\gh ! frail me*anism ( gre5 leaves1 tore asund] ! /rong bonds ( *emical aff9ity :]e9 ! c>bon & oxyg5 7 h\nd1 conv]t+ ! =m] into ! ligne\s portions ( ! plants & sett+ ! latt] free = o!r uses4 ,! p[] ?us sil5tly ex]t$ is enorm\s2 = e ton ( c>bon sep>at$ 9 twelve h\rs necessitates an exp5diture ( en]gy repres5t$ by at lea/ #a1jeh horse p[]1 b ! action is spread ov] an enorm\s area ( leaf surface1 r5d]$ necess>y by ! small proportion ( c>bonic acid conta9$ 9 ! air1 by measure only #a_/bjjj "p1 & h5ce ! action is sil5t & imp]ceptible4 ,x is n[ conc$$ on all h&s t :at is t]m$ heat is ! en]gy ( molecul> motion1 & t ?is motion is conv]tible into v>i\s k9ds & obeys ! g5]al laws relat+ to motion4 ,two sub/ances br\ght )9 ! range ( *emical aff9ity unite ) m or less viol5ce2 ! motion ( transition ( ! p>ticles is trans=m$1 :olly or 9 "p1 into a vibratory or rot>y motion1 ei!r ( ! p>ticles !mselves or ! int]atomic e!r2 & accord+ to ! quality ( ! motions we are z a rule1 besides o!r effects1 made consci\s ( heat or light1 or ( bo?4 ,:5 ^! emanations come to be exam9$ !y are f\nd to be complex 9 ! extreme1 intimately b\nd up toge!r1 & yet capable ( be+ sep>at$ & analyz$4 ,z soon z ! law ( def9ite *emical comb9ation 0 firmly e/abli%$1 ! circum/ance t *anges ( temp]ature accompani$ mo/ *emical comb9ations 0 notic$1 & *emi/s 7 n long 9 suspect+ t ! am\nt ( heat develop$ or absorb$ by *emical reaction %\ld be z mu* a prop]ty ( ! sub/ances ent]+ into comb9ation z _! atomic weights4 ,solid gr\nd = ?is expectation lies 9 ! dynamic !ory ( heat4 ,a body ( wat] at a giv5 height is compet5t by its fall to produce a def9ite & inv>iable quantity ( heat or "w1 & 9 ! same way two sub/ances fall+ toge!r 9 *emical union acquire a def9ite am\nt ( k9etic en]gy1 :i*1 if n exp5d$ 9 ! "w ( molecul> *anges1 may also by suitable arrangem5ts be made to manife/ a def9ite & inv>iable quantity ( heat4 ,at ! end ( la/ c5tury ,lavoisi] & ,laplace1 & aft] !m1 d[n to our own "t1 ,dulong1 ,desprez1 ,favre & ,silb]mann1 ,&rews1 ,b]!lot1 ,?omson1 & o!rs1 devot$ mu* "t & labor to ! exp]im5tal det]m9ation ( ! heat ( combu/ion & ! laws :i* gov]n$ its developm5t4 ,messrs4 ,favre & ,silb]mann1 9 p>ticul>1 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahde & #aheb1 c>ri$ out a spl5did s]ies ( exp]im5ts by means ( ! app>atus p>tly repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #a 7opposite71 :i* is a draw+ "o-?ird ! natural size ( ! calorimet] employ$4 ,x consi/$ ess5tially ( a combu/ion *amb] =m$ ( ?9 copp]1 gilt int]nally4 ,! upp] "p ( ! *amb] 0 fitt$ ) a cov] ?r\gh :i* ! combu/ible c\ld be introduc$1 ) a pipe = a gas jet1 ) a peep hole clos$ by adia!rman\s b transp>5t sub/ances1 alum & glass1 & ) a bran* lead+ to a ?9 copp] coil surr\nd+ ! l[] "p ( ! *amb] & desc5d+ bel[ x4 ,! :ole ( ?is portion ( ! app>atus 0 plung$ into a ?9 copp] vessel1 silv]$ int]nally & fill$ ) wat]1 :i* 0 kept ?or\ghly mix$ by means ( agitators4 ,?is second vessel /ood inside a ?ird "o1 ! sides & bottom ( :i* 7 cov]$ ) ! sk9s ( swans ) ! d[n on1 & ! :ole 0 imm]s$ 9 a f\r? vessel till$ ) wat]1 kept at ! av]age temp]ature ( ! laboratory4 ,suitable !rmomet]s ( great delicacy 7 provid$1 & all mann] ( precautions 7 tak5 to prev5t loss ( heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #a4 ,x is impossible n to admire ! +5uity & skill exhibit$ 9 ! details ( ! app>atus1 9 ! v>i\s accessories = g5]at+ & /or+ ! gases us$1 & = absorb+ & weigh+ ! products ( combu/ion2 b x is a matt] ( regret t ! exp]im5ts %\ld h be5 c>ri$ out on s small a scale4 ,= example1 ! little cage :i* held ! solid fuel te/$ 0 only #e_/h in* diamet] by b>ely #b in*es high1 & held only #ch gra9s ( *>coal1 ! combu/ion occupy+ ab\t sixte5 m9utes4 ,favre & ,silb]mann adopt$ ! plan ( asc]ta9+ ! weight ( ! sub/ances consum$ by calculation f ! weight ( ! products ( combu/ion4 ,c>bonic acid 0 absorb$ by cau/ic pota%1 z also 0 c>bonic oxide1 aft] hav+ be5 oxidiz$ to c>bonic acid by heat$ oxide ( copp]1 & ! vapor ( wat] 0 absorb$ by conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,! adoption ( ?is sy/em %[$ t x 0 9 any case necess>y to analyze ! products ( combu/ion 9 ord] to detect imp]fect action4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( sub/ances conta9+ c>bon1 c>bonic oxide 0 always pres5t to a v>iable ext5t ) ! c>bonic acid1 & corrections 7 necess>y 9 ord] to det]m9e ! total heat due to ! complete comb9ation ( ! sub/ance ) oxyg54 ,ano!r advantage ga9$ 0 t ! absorption ( ! products ( combu/ion prev5ts any s5sible alt]ation 9 ! volumes dur+ ! process1 s t corrections = ! heat absorb$ 9 ! "w ( displac+ ! atmosph]e 7 n requir$4 ,! exp]im5ts on v>i\s sub/ances 7 repeat$ _m times4 ,! mean results = ^? 9 :i* we are imm$iately int]e/$ are giv5 9 ,table ,i41 next column4 ,comp>ison ) lat] det]m9ations h e/abli%$ _! sub/antial accuracy4 ,! g5]al conclusion arriv$ at is ?us /at$3 ,z a rule !re is an equality betwe5 ! heat dis5gag$ or absorb$ 9 ! acts1 respectively1 ( *emical comb9ation or decomposition ( ! same elem5ts1 s t ! heat evolv$ dur+ ! comb9ation ( two simple or com-p\nd sub/ances is equal to ! heat absorb$ at ! "t ( _! *emical segregation4 ,,table ,i4--,,sub/ances ,,ent]+ ,,into ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,fuel4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,heat evolv$ 9 ,symbol & ,atomic ! ,combu/ion ( ,weight4 #a lb4 ( ,fuel4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,9 ,p\nds ,9 ( ,wat] ,briti% ,evaporat$ ,be=e ,aft] ,!rmal f & ,combu/ion ,combu/ion ,units4 at #bab4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,hydrog5 burn$ ,h #a ,h#b,o #ah #fb1jcb #fd4ba 9 oxyg54 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c>bon burn$ to ,c #ab ,,co #bh #d1dea #d4fa c>bonic oxide4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c>bon burn$ to ,c #ab ,,co#b #dd #ad1edd #ae4jf c>bonic acid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c>bonic oxide burn$ ,,co #bh ,,co#b #dd #d1cbf #d4dh to c>bonic acid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,olefiant gas 7e?yl5e7 ,c#b;,h#d #bh #b;,,co#b #abd #ba1cdc #bb4ji burnt 9 oxyg54 #b;,h#b,o ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,m>% gas 7me?ane7 ,,*#d #af #b;,,co#b #hj #bc1eac #bd4cd burnt 9 oxyg54 #b;,h#b,o ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,composition ( air-- by volume #j4ghh ,n #j4aig ,o #j4jja ,,co#b #j4jad ,h#b,o ---------------------------------------- ------------ by weight #j4gga ,n #j4bah ,o #j4jji ,,co#b #j4jag ,h#b,o ,?is law is1 h[ev]1 subject to "s app>5t exceptions4 ,c>bon burn$ 9 protoxide ( nitrog51 or laugh+ gas1 ,n#b,o1 produces ab\t #ch p] c5t4 m heat ?an ! same sub/ance burn$ 9 pure oxyg51 not)/&+ t ! "w ( decompos+ ! protoxide ( nitrog5 has to be p]=m$4 ,9 m>% gas1 or me?ane1 ,,*#d1 aga91 ! en]gy ( combu/ion is consid]ably less ?an t due to ! burn+ ( its c>bon & hydrog5 sep>ately4 ,^! exceptions probably arise f ! circum/ance t ! en]gy ( *emical action is absorb$ to a great] or less degree 9 effect+ molecul> *anges1 z1 = example1 ! combu/ion ( #a p\nd ( nitrog5 to =m protoxide ( nitrog5 results 9 ! absorption ( #a1aeg units ( heat4 ,b]!lot /ates1 z "o ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( !rmo*emi/ry1 t ! quantity ( heat evolv$ is ! measure ( ! sum ( ! *emical & physical "w accompli%$ 9 ! reaction2 & su* a law w no d\bt acc\nt = ! ph5om5a above not$4 ,! equival5t heat ( combu/ion ( ! comp\nds we h practically to deal ) has be5 exp]im5tally det]m9$1 & !re=e con/itutes a secure basis on :i* to e/abli% calculations ( ! caloric value ( fuel2 & 9 do+ s1 ) respect to sub/ances compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 x is conv5i5t to r$uce ! hydrog5 to its heat-produc+ equival5t ( c>bon4 ,! heat ( combu/ion ( hydrog5 be+ #fb1jcb units1 t ( c>bon #ad1edd units1 x foll[s t #d4bfe times ! weight ( hydrog5 w repres5t an equival5t am\nt ( c>bon4 ,) respect to ! oxyg51 x is f\nd t x exi/s 9 comb9ation ) ! hydrog5 9 ! =m ( wat]1 &1 be+ comb9$ already1 ab/racts its comb9+ equival5t ( hydrog5 f ! effici5t +r$i5ts ( ! fuel2 & h5ce hydrog51 to ! ext5t ( #a_/h ( ! weight ( ! oxyg51 mu/ be d$uct$4 ,! g5]al =mula !n becomes3 ,heat ( combu/ion #ad1edd ,c #d4bfe 7,h-7,o_/#h771 & wat] evaporat$ f & at #bab1 tak+ #iff units z ! heat necess>y to evaporate #a p\nd ( wat]1 lb4 evaporat$ #ae4jf ,c #d4bfe 7,h-7,o_/#h771 c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 be+ tak5 at _! weight p] c5t4 9 ! fuel4 ,/rictly speak+1 m>% gas %\ld be sep>ately det]m9$4 ,x (t5 happ5s t available en]gy is n 9 a =m 9 :i* x c be appli$ directly to our ne$s4 ,! wat] fl[+ d[n f ! m\nta9s 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,alp9e tunnels 0 compet5t to provide ! p[] necess>y = bor+ ?r\gh !m1 b x 0 n 9 a =m 9 :i* x c\ld be directly appli$4 ,! k9etic en]gy ( ! wat] _h fir/ to be *ang$ into ! pot5tial en]gy ( air "u pressure1 !n1 9 t =m1 by suitable me*anism1 x 0 us$ ) signal success to dis9tegrate & excavate ! h>d rock ( ! tunnels4 ,! en]gy result+ f combu/ion is also incapable ( be+ directly trans=m$ into useful motive p[]2 x mu/ fir/ be conv]t$ into pot5tial =ce ( /eam or air at high temp]ature & pressure1 & !n appli$ by means ( suitable heat eng9es to produce ! motions we require4 ,x is probably to ?is circum/ance t we mu/ attribute ! sl[ness ( ! human race to take advantage ( ! en]gy ( combu/ion4 ,! hi/ory ( ! /eam eng9e h>dly dates back #bjj ye>s1 a v small fraction ( ! c5turies dur+ :i* man has exi/$1 ev5 s9ce hi/oric times4 ,! app>atus by means ( :i* ! pot5tial en]gy ( fuel ) respect to oxyg5 is conv]t$ into ! pot5tial en]gy ( /eam1 we call a /eam boil]2 & al?\gh x has nei!r cyl9d] nor pi/on1 crank nor fly :eel1 ,i claim = x t x is a v]itable heat eng9e1 because x transmits ! undulations & vibrations caus$ by ! en]gy ( *emical comb9ation 9 ! fuel to ! wat] 9 ! boil]2 ^! motions exp5d !mselves 9 ov]com+ ! liquid cohesion ( ! wat] & imp>t+ to its molecules t vigor ( motion :i* conv]ts !m into ! molecules ( a gas :i*1 imp++ on ! surfaces :i* conf9e x & =m ! /eam space1 decl>e _! pres5ce & en]gy 9 ! %ape ( pressure & temp]ature4 ,a /eam pump+ eng9e1 :i* furni%es wat] "u high pressure to raise loads by means ( hydraulic cranes1 is n m truly a heat eng9e ?an a simple boil]1 = ! latt] conv]ts ! lat5t en]gy ( fuel into ! lat5t en]gy ( /eam1 j z ! pump+ eng9e conv]ts ! lat5t en]gy ( /eam into ! lat5t en]gy ( ! pump$-up accumulator or ! hoi/$ weight4 ,if ,i am ju/ifi$ 9 tak+ ?is view1 !n ,i am ju/ifi$ 9 apply+ to my heat eng9e ! g5]al pr9ciples laid d[n 9 #ahbd by ,sadi ,c>not1 namely1 t ! proportion ( "w :i* c be obta9$ out ( any sub/ance work+ betwe5 two temp]atures dep5ds entirely & solely ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures at ! beg9n+ & end ( ! op]ation2 t is to say1 if ,t be ! high] temp]ature at ! beg9n+1 & t ! l[] temp]ature at ! end ( ! action1 !n ! maximum possible "w to be got out ( ! sub/ance w be a function ( 7,t-t74 ,! greate/ range ( temp]ature possible or conceivable is f ! absolute temp]ature ( ! sub/ance at ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation d[n to absolute z]o ( temp]ature1 & ! fraction ( ?is :i* c be utiliz$ is ! ratio :i* ! range ( temp]ature ?r\gh :i* ! sub/ance is work+ be>s to ! absolute temp]ature at ! comm5cem5t ( ! action4 ,if ,w ! greate/ am\nt ( effect to be expect$1 ,t & t ! absolute temp]atures1 & ,h ! total quantity ( heat 7express$ 9 foot p\nds or 9 wat] evaporat$1 z ! case may be7 pot5tial 9 ! sub/ance at ! high] temp]ature1 ,t1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation1 !n ,c>not's law is express$ by ! equation3 _/ ,t - t ,w ,h7 ------- 7 ,t _/ ,i w illu/rate ?is important doctr9e 9 ! mann] :i* ,c>not himself sugge/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #b4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts a hillside ris+ f ! sea4 ,"s di/ance up !re is a lake1 ,l1 f$ by /reams com+ d[n f a /ill high] level4 ,l[] d[n on ! slope is a millpond1 ,p1 ! tail race f :i* falls into ! sea4 ,at ! millpond is e/abli%$ a factory1 ! turb9e driv+ :i* is suppli$ ) wat] by a pipe desc5d+ f ! lake1 ,l4 ,datum is ! mean sea level2 ! level ( ! lake is ,t1 & ( ! millpond t4 ,q is ! weight ( wat] fall+ ?r\gh ! turb9e p] m9ute4 ,! mean sea level is ! l[e/ level to :i* ! wat] c possibly fall2 h5ce its greate/ pot5tial en]gy1 t ( its position 9 ! lake1 ,,qt ,h4 ,! wat] is work+ betwe5 ! absolute levels1 ,t & t2 h5ce1 accord+ to ,c>not1 ! maximum effect1 ,w1 to be expect$ is-- _/ ,t - t ,w ,h7 ------- 7 ,t _/ _/ ,t - t b ,h ,,qt !re=e ,w ,q ,t7 ------- 7 ,t _/ ,w ,q 7,t - t71 t is to say1 ! greate/ am\nt ( "w :i* c be expect$ is f\nd by multiply+ ! weight ( wat] into ! cle> fall1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 self-evid5t4 ,n[1 h[ c ! quantity ( "w to be got out ( a giv5 weight ( wat] be increas$ )\t 9 any way improv+ ! effici5cy ( ! turb9e8 ,9 two ways3 #a4 ,by collect+ ! wat] high] up ! m\nta91 & by t means increas+ ,t4 #b4 ,by plac+ ! turb9e l[] d[n1 ne>] ! sea1 & by t means r$uc+ t4 ,n[1 ! sea level corresponds to ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature1 & ! heights ,t & t to ! maximum & m9imum temp]atures betwe5 :i* ! sub/ance is work+2 !re=e simil>ly1 ! way to increase ! effici5cy ( a heat eng9e1 su* z a boil]1 is to raise ! temp]ature ( ! furnace to ! utmo/1 & r$uce ! heat ( ! smoke to ! l[e/ possible po9t4 ,x %\ld be not$1 9 addition1 t x is immat]ial :at liquid !re may be 9 ! lake2 :e!r wat]1 oil1 m]cury1 or :at n1 ! law w equally apply1 & s 9 a heat eng9e1 ! nature ( ! work+ sub/ance1 provid$ t x does n *ange its physical /ate dur+ a cycle1 does n affect ! "q ( effici5cy ) :i* ! heat be+ exp5d$ is s utiliz$4 ,to make ?is matt] cle>]1 & give x a practical be>+1 ,i w give ! symbols a num]ical value1 & = ?is purpose ,i w1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 suppose t ! fuel us$ is pure c>bon1 su* z coke or *>coal1 ! heat ( combu/ion ( :i* is #ad1edd units1 t ! specific heat ( air1 & ( ! products ( combu/ion at con/ant pressure1 is #j4bch1 t only suffici5t air is pass$ ?r\gh ! fire to supply ! quantity ( oxyg5 !oretically requir$ = ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon1 & t ! temp]ature ( ! air is at #fj ,fahr5heit #ebj absolute4 ,! symbol ,t repres5ts ! absolute temp]ature ( ! furnace1 a value :i* is easily calculat$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #a lb4 ( c>bon requires #b-b_/c lb4 ( oxyg5 to conv]t x into c>bonic acid1 & ?is quantity is furni%$ by #ab4b lb4 ( air1 ! result be+ #ac4b lb4 ( gases1 heat$ by #ad1edd units ( heat due to ! en]gy ( combu/ion2 !re=e3 #ad1edd units ,t #ebj ------------------ #e1aej absolute4 #ac4b lb4 ,x #j4bch ,! l[] temp]ature1 t1 we may take z t ( ! fe$ wat]1 say at #ajj or #efj absolute1 = by means ( artificial draught & suffici5tly ext5d+ ! heat+ surface1 ! temp]ature ( ! smoke may be r$uc$ to v ne>ly t ( ! fe$ wat]4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! proportion ( heat :i* c be realiz$ is #e1aej - #efj --------------- #j4hia2 #e1aej t is to say1 "u ! extremely favorable if n impracticable conditions assum$1 !re mu/ be a loss ( #aa p] c5t4 ,next1 to give a num]ical value to ! pot5tial en]gy1 ,h1 to be d]iv$ f a p\nd ( c>bon1 calculat+ f absolute z]o1 ! specific heat ( c>bon be+ #j4be1 & absolute temp]ature ( air #ebj3 ,units4 #a lb4 ( c>bon ,x #j4be ,x #ebj #acj #ab4b ( air ,x #j4bch ,x #ebj #a1dhe ,heat ( combu/ion #ad1edd ------ #af1aei ,d$uct heat equival5t to "w ( displac+ atmosph]e by products ( combu/ion rais$ f #fj to #ajj1 #cb or f #adi4h cubic feet to #afa4c cubic feet1 _/ ------ ,total units ( heat available #af1abg ,equal to #af4fi lb4 ( wat] evaporat$ f & at #bab4 ,h5ce ! greate/ possible evaporation f & at #bab f a lb4 ( c>bon-- #af1aei u4 ,x #j4hia - #cb u4 ,w --------------------------- #ad4hg lb4 #iff u4 ,i w n[ take a def9ite case1 & comp>e ! pot5tial en]gy ( a c]ta9 k9d ( fuel ) ! results actually obta9$4 ,= ?is purpose ! boil] ( ! eight-horse portable eng9e1 :i* ga9$ ! fir/ prize at ! ,c>diff %[ ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society 9 #ahgb1 w s]ve v well1 because ! trials1 all ! details ( :i* are set =? v fully 9 vol4 ix4 ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society1 7 c>ri$ out ) great c>e & skill by ,sir ,fr$]ick ,bramwell & ! late ,mr4 ,m5elaus2 inde$1 ! only fact left undet]m9$ 0 ! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 an omission due to ! want ( a tru/wor?y pyromet]1 a want :i* has n be5 satisfi$ to ?is day4#b ,footnote #b3 ,9 ! fifty-second volume ( ! ,proce$+s 7#ahhg-gh71 page #aed1 w be f\nd a rem>kable exp]im5t on ! evaporative p[] ( a v]tical boil] ) int]nal circulat+ pipes4 ,! exp]im5t 0 conduct$ by ,sir ,fr$]ick ,bramwell & ,dr4 ,russell1 & is rem>kable 9 ?is respect1 t ! quantity ( air admitt$ to ! fuel1 ! loss by convection & radiation1 & ! composition ( ! smoke 7 det]m9$4 ,! facts obs]v$ 7 z foll[s3 ,/eam pressure #ec lb44444444444444444444444444444444444 #cjj4f ,f4 lb4 ,fuel--,wat] 9 coke & wood444444444444444444444444444 #bf4jh ,a%4444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444 #aj4ec ,hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & sulphur4444444444 #g4ah ------ ,total non-combu/ible444444444444444444444 #dc4gi ,c>bon1 be+ useful combu/ible44444444444444444 #aid4df ------ ,total fuel44444444444444444444444444444444 #bch4be ,air p] p\nd ( c>bon44444444444444444444444444444444 #ag-a_/h lb4 ,"t ( exp]im5t44444444444444444444444444444444 44444 #d h4 #ab m94 ,wat] evaporat$ f #fj into /eam at #ec lb4 pressure #a1fbj lb4 ,heat lo/ by radiation & convection444444444444444444 #gj1dcj units4 ,mean temp]ature ( *imney4444444444444444444444444444 #gjj ,f4 air44444444444444444444444444444444 #gj ,f4 ,no combu/ible gas 0 f\nd 9 ! *imney4 ,i w apply ,c>not's doctr9e to ?is case4 ,pot5tial en]gy ( ! fuel ) respect to absolute z]o3 ,units4 #bci4be lb4 #ecj abs4 #j4bch 4444444444444444444444 #cj1jec #aid4df lb4 #ag-a_/h #ecj #j4bch1 ! weight & heat ( air44444444444444444444444 #dbj1ffj #aid4df #ad1edd units heat ( combu/ion ( c>bon444 #b1hbh1bjj --------- ,total en]gy #c1bgh1hac ,heat absorb$ 9 evaporat+ #bf4jh lb4 ( wat] 9 fuel444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444 -#bi1hhh --------- ,available en]gy44444444444444444444444444 #c1bdh1dbe ,temp]ature ( furnace-- ,! :ole ( ! fuel 0 heat$ up1 b ! heat absorb$ 9 ! evaporation ( ! wat] l[]$ ! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 & mu/ be d$uct$ f ! heat ( combu/ion4 ,units4 ,heat ( combu/ion4444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #b1hbh1bjj evaporation ( #bf4jh lb4 wat]444444444444444 -#bi1hhh --------- ,available heat ( combu/ion44444444444444 #b1gih1cab ,divid+ by #bch4be lb4 gives ! heat p] #a lb4 ( fuel us$44444444444444444444444444444444444 #aa1gde units4 ,& temp]ature ( furnace3 #aa1gde units_/7#ah4abe lb4 #j4bch7 #ecj444444444 #c1bec ,temp]ature ( *imney #gjj #dfj444444444444444 #a1afj ,maximum duty 7#c1bec - #a1afj7_/c1bec444444444444 #j4fdc ,"w ( displac+ atmosph]e by smoke at #gjj3 ,cubic feet4 ,volumes ( gases at #gj444444444444444444444444 #bbh4c #gjj444444444444444444444444 #dii4h ----- ,increase ( volume44444444444444444444 #bga4e ,units4 ,"w done 7#aid4df lb4 #bga4e cub4 ft4 #add sq4 94 #ae lb47 _/#gbb units 4444444444444444444444444444444444444 #adg1gbj ,maximum am\nt ( "w to be expect$ #c1bdh1dbe #j4fdc444444444444444444444444444444 #b1aja1gjj ,d$uct "w ( displac+ atmosph]e4444444444444 #adg1gbj --------- ,available "w444444444444444444444444 #a1iec1ihj ,actual "w done3 ,units4 #a1fbj lb4 ( wat] rais$ f #fj & turn$ into /eam at #ec lb44444 4444444444444444444444 #a1hee1ijj ,loss by radiation & convection44444444444444444 #gj1dcj #aj-a_/b lb4 a%es left1 say at #ejj444444444444444 #a1abi --------- ,total "w actually done44444444444444 #a1ibg1dei ,unacc\nt$ =4444444444444444444444444444444444 #bf1eba --------- ,calculat$ available "w444444444444444444444444 #a1iec1ihj ,! unacc\nt$-= "w1 !re=e1 am\nts to only #a p] c5t4 ( ! calculat$ available "w4 ,sir ,fr$]ick ,bramwell +5i\sly arrang$ 8 data 9 ! =m ( a balance %eet1 & %[$ #bec1igi units unacc\nt$ =2 b if f ?is we d$uct ! "w lo/ 9 displac+ ! air1 ! unacc\nt$-= heat falls to less ?an #d p] c5t4 ( ! total heat ( combu/ion4 ,^! results %[ h[ extremely accurate ! obs]vations mu/ h be51 & t ! loss ma9ly arises f convection & radiation f ! boil]4 ,! data necess>y = our purpose are3 ,/eam pressure #hj lb4 temp]ature #cbd #ghd absolute4 ,mean temp]ature ( smoke #chi #hdi ,wat] evaporat$ p] #a lb ( coal1 f & at #bab #aa4hc lb4 ,temp]ature ( ! air #fj #ebj absolute4 ( fe$ wat] #bji #ffi ,heat+ surface #bbj squ>e feet4 ,grate surface #c4bi feet4 ,coal burnt p] h\r #da lb4 ,! fuel us$ 0 a smokeless ,wel% coal1 f ! ,llang5ne* coll]ies4 ,x 0 analyz$ by ,mr4 ,snelus1 ( ! ,d[lais ,ironworks1 & 9 ,table ,,ii4 are exhibit$ ! details ( its composition1 & ! weight & volume ( air requir$ = its combu/ion4 ,! total heat ( combu/ion 9 #a lb ( wat] evaporat$3 #ae4jf 7#j4hdig #d4bfe 7#j4dbf - #j4jce_/h77 #ae4bd lb4 ( wat] f & at #bab #ad1gbg units ( heat4 ,,table ,,ii4--,,prop]ties ,,( ,,llang5ne* ,,coal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,products ( ,oxyg5 ,combu/ion at #cb ,f4 ,analyses requir$ -------------------- ( #a lb4 = ( ,coal4 ,combu/ion4 ,cubic ,volume ,p\nds4 feet4 p] c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c>bon44444444444 #j4hdig #b4bff #be4c #aa4a ,hydrog5444444444 #j4jdbf #j4cji #g4f #c4d ,oxyg544444444444 #j4jcej --- --- --- ,sulphur4444444444 #j4jjdb --- --- --- ,nitrog5444444444 #j4ajde --- #j4ah ,a%44444444444444 #j4jedj --- --- ---------------------- #he4e ,total44444444444 #a4jjjj #b4egb --- #i-a_/c4lb nitrog5 --- --- #aah4i #f lb4 excess ( air4 --- --- #ga4d ---------------------------------------- -- ,total cubic feet ( products p] #a lb4 ( coal44444444444 -- -- #bbf4d #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! temp]ature ( ! furnace n hav+ be5 det]m9$1 we mu/ calculate x on ! supposition1 :i* w be ju/ifi$ lat] on1 t #ej p] c5t m air 0 admitt$ ?an 0 !oretically necess>y to supply ! oxyg5 requir$ = p]fect combu/ion4 ,?is w\ld make #ah lb4 ( air p] #a lb4 ( coal2 consequ5tly #ai lb4 ( gases w\ld be heat$ by #ad1gbg units ( heat4 ,h5ce3 #ad1gbg u4 ,t ---------------- #c1beg #ai lb4 #j4bch above ! temp]atures ( ! air1 or #c1ggg absolute4 ,! temp]ature ( ! smoke1 t1 0 #hdi absolute2 h5ce ! maximum duty w\ld be #c1ggg - #hdi --------------- #j4ggeb4 #c1ggg ,! specific heat ( coal is v ne>ly t ( gases at con/ant pressure1 & may1 )\t s5sible error1 be tak5 z su*4 ,! pot5tial en]gy ( #a lb4 ( coal1 !re=e1 ) ref]5ce to ! oxyg5 ) :i* x w comb9e1 & calculat$ f absolute z]o1 is3 ,units4 #ai lb4 ( coal & air at ! temp]ature ( ! air conta9$ #ai lb4 #ebj #j4bch #b1cej ,heat ( combu/ion #ad1gbg ------- #ag1jgh ,d$uct heat exp5d$ 9 displac+ atmosph]e #aea cubic feet - #dbb ------ ,total pot5tial en]gy #af1fef ,h5ce "w to be expect$ f ! boil]3 _/ #c1ggg - #hdi #ag1jgh units ,x 7 --------------- 7 - #dbb units #c1ggg _/ ---------------------------------------- ------ #ac4bg lb4 #iff units ( wat] evaporat$ f & at #bab1 correspond+ to #ab1hai units4 ,! actual result obta9$ 0 #aa4hc lb42 h5ce ! effici5cy ( ?is boil] 0 #aa4hc ------- #j4hib4 #ac4bg ,i h already claim$ = a boil] t x is a v]itable heat eng9e1 & ,i h v5tur$ to con/ruct an indicator diagram to illu/rate its work+4 ,! rate ( transf] ( heat f ! furnace to ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 at any giv5 po9t1 is "s way proportional to ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 & ! quantity ( heat 9 ! gases is proportional to _! temp]atures4 ,draw a base l9e repres5t+ -#dfj ,fahr41 ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature4 ,at "o end erect an ord9ate1 ^u :i* set (f ,t #c1ggg1 ! temp]ature ( ! furnace4 ,at #hdi t1 on ! scale ( temp]ature1 draw a l9e p>allel to ! base1 & m>k on x a l5g? proportional to ! heat+ surface ( ! boil]2 jo9 ,t by a diagonal ) ! extremity ( ?is l9e1 & drop a p]p5dicul> on to ! z]o l9e4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] be+ uni=m1 ! ord9ates b\nd$ by ! slop+ l9e1 & by ! l9e1 t1 w at any po9t be approximately proportional to ! rate ( transmission ( heat1 & ! %ad$ area above t w be proportional to ! quantity ( heat imp>t$ to ! wat]4 ,jo9 ,t by ano!r diagonal ) extremity ( ! heat+ surface on ! z]o l9e1 !n ! l>g] triangle1 /&+ on ! z]o l9e1 w repres5t ! :ole ( ! heat ( combu/ion1 & ! ratio ( ! two triangles w be z ! l5g?s ( _! respective bases1 t is1 z 7,t - t7 _/ ,t1 :i* is ! expression we h already us$4 ,! heat+ surface 0 #bbj squ>e feet1 & x 0 compet5t to transmit ! en]gy develop$ by #da lb4 ( coal consum$ p] h\r #ab1hai u4 #da u4 #ebe1egb units1 equal to an av]age ( #b1chi units p] squ>e foot p] h\r2 ?is value w correspond to ! mean pressure 9 an ord9>y diagram1 = x is a measure ( ! en]gy ) :i* molecul> motion is transf]r$ f ! heat$ gases to ! boil]-plate1 & s to ! wat]4 ,! mean rate ( transmission1 multipli$ by ! area ( heat+ surface1 gives ! area ( ! %ad$ portion ( ! figure1 :i* is ! total "w :i* %\ld h be5 done1 t is to say1 ! "w ( evaporat+ #edd lb4 ( wat] p] h\r4 ,! actual "w done1 h[ev]1 0 only #dhe lb4 ,to give ! speculations we h indulg$ 9 a practical turn1 x w be necess>y to exam9e 9 detail ! t]ms ( ,c>not's =mula4 ,c>not labor$ "u great disadvantages4 ,he adh]$ to ! emission !ory ( heat2 he 0 unacqua9t$ ) its dynamic equival5t2 he did n "k ! reason ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! specific heat ( air at con/ant pressure & at con/ant volume1 ! idea ( an absolute z]o ( temp]ature _h n be5 broa*$2 b ! g5ius ( ! man1 :ile x made him lam5t ! want ( k :i* he felt mu/ be atta9able1 also enabl$ him to p5etrate ! gloom by :i* he 0 surr\nd$1 & enunciate propositions respect+ ! !ory ( heat eng9es1 :i* ! k we n[ possess enables u to admit z true4 ,8 propositions are3 #a4 ,! motive p[] ( heat is indep5d5t ( ! ag5ts employ$ to develop x1 & its quantity is det]m9$ solely by ! temp]ature ( ! bodies betwe5 :i* ! f9al transf] ( caloric takes place4 #b4 ,! temp]ature ( ! ag5t mu/ 9 ! fir/ in/ance be rais$ to ! highe/ degree possible 9 ord] to obta9 a great fall ( caloric1 & z a consequ5ce a l>ge production ( motive p[]4 #c4 ,= ! same reason ! cool+ ( ! ag5t mu/ be c>ri$ to z l[ a degree z possible4 #d4 ,matt]s mu/ be s arrang$ t ! passage ( ! ela/ic ag5t f ! high] to ! l[] temp]ature mu/ be due to an increase ( volume1 t is to say1 ! cool+ ( ! ag5t mu/ be caus$ by its r>efaction4 ,?is la/ proposition indicates ! defective in=mation :i* ,c>not possess$4 ,he knew t expansion ( ! ela/ic ag5t 0 accompani$ by a fall ( temp]ature1 b he did n "k t t fall 0 due to ! conv]sion ( heat into "w4 ,we %\ld /ate ?is clause m correctly by say+ t ! cool+ ( ! ag5t mu/ be caus$ by ! ext]nal "w x p]=ms4 ,9 accordance ) ^! propositions1 x is immat]ial :at ! heat$ gases or vapors 9 ! furnace ( a boil] may be1 provid$ t !y cool by do+ ext]nal "w &1 9 pass+ ov] ! boil] surfaces1 imp>t _! heat en]gy to ! wat]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 x foll[s1 mu/ be kept z high z possible4 ,! process ( combu/ion is usually complex4 ,fir/1 9 ! case ( coal1 close to ! fire-b>s complete combu/ion ( ! r$ hot c>bon takes place1 & ! heat s develop$ di/ills ! volatile hydroc>bons & moi/ure 9 ! upp] lay]s ( ! fuel4 ,! inflammable gases ignite on or ne> ! surface ( ! fuel1 if !re be a suffici5t supply ( air1 & burn ) a bright flame = a consid]able di/ance ar\nd ! boil]4 ,if ! lay] ( fuel be ?91 ! c>bonic acid =m$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance passes ?r\gh ! fuel & mixes ) ! o!r gases4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! lay] ( fuel be ?ick1 & ! supply ( air ?r\gh ! b>s insuffici5t1 ! c>bonic acid is decompos$ by ! r$ hot coke1 & twice ! volume ( c>bonic oxide is produc$1 & ?is1 mak+ its way ?r\gh ! fuel1 burns ) a pale blue flame on ! surface1 ! result1 z f> z evolution ( heat is conc]n$1 be+ ! same z if ! int]m$iate decomposition ( c>bonic acid _h n tak5 place4 ,?is prop]ty ( coal has be5 tak5 advantage ( by ! late ,sir ,w4 ,siem5s 9 8 gas produc]1 :]e ! supply ( air is purposely limit$1 9 ord] t nei!r ! hydroc>bons sep>at$ by di/illation1 nor ! c>bonic oxide =m$ 9 ! ?ick lay] ( fuel1 may be consum$ 9 ! produc]1 b rema9 9 ! =m ( crude gas1 to be utiliz$ 9 8 reg5]ative furnaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 ,fig #g4 7,to be cont9u$47 99 99 99 99 99 ,cont9u$ f ,,supplem5t ,no4 #dcg1 page #figj4 ,,planet>y ,,:eel-,,tra9s4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord1 ,sc4,d4 ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ad ,x has already be5 %[n t ! rotations ( all ! :eels ( a planet>y tra91 relatively to ! tra9-arm1 are ! same :5 ! arm is 9 motion z !y w\ld be if x 7 fix$4 ,n[1 9 ,fig4 #ad1 let ,a be ! fir/ & ,f ! la/ :eel ( an incomplete tra91 t is1 "o hav+ b "o sun-:eel4 ,z be=e1 let ^! be s connect$ by int]m$iate ge>+ t1 :5 ,t is /ation>y1 a rotation ( ,a ?r\gh m degrees %all drive ,f ?r\gh n degrees3 & also z be=e1 let ,t 9 ! same "t move ?r\gh a degrees4 ,!n1 if m' repres5t ! total motion ( ,a1 we h aga91 m' m a1 or m m' - a4 ,?is is1 cle>ly1 ! motion ( ,a relatively to ! fix$ frame ( ! ma*9e2 & is measur$ f a fix$ v]tical l9e ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ,a4 ,n[1 if we wi% to express ! total motion ( ,f relatively to ! same fix$ frame1 we mu/ measure x f a v]tical l9e ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ,f1 :]ev] t maybe2 :i* gives 9 ?is case3 n' n a1 or n n' - a4 b ) respect to ! tra9-arm :5 at re/1 we h3 ang4 vel4 ,a n ------------ ---1 :5ce aga9 ang4 vel4 ,f m n' - a n ------ --- 4 m' - a m ,?is is ! mann] 9 :i* ! equation is d$uc$ by ,pr(4 ,willis1 :o expressly /ates t x applies :e!r ! la/ :eel ,f is or is n conc5tric ) ! fir/ :eel ,a1 & also t ! tra9 may be compos$ ( any comb9ations :i* transmit rotation ) bo? a con/ant velocity ratio & a con/ant directional relation4 ,he designates ! quantities m'1 n'1 absolute revolutions1 z di/+ui%$ f ! relative revolutions 7t is1 revolutions relatively to ! tra9-arm71 indicat$ by ! quantities m1 n3 add+1 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! absolute revolutions ( ! :eels ( epicyclic tra9s are equal to ! sum ( _! relative revolutions to ! arm1 & ( ! arm itself1 :5 !y take place 9 ! same direction1 & equal to ! diff]5ce ( ^! revolutions :5 9 ! opposite direction4 ,9 ?is d$uction ( ! =mula1 z 9 t ( ,pr(4 ,rank9e1 all ! motions are suppos$ to h ! same direction1 correspond+ to t ( ! h&s ( ! clock2 & 9 its application to any giv5 tra91 ! signs ( ! t]ms mu/ be *ang$ 9 case ( any contr>y motion1 z expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ article4 ,& bo? ! d$uction & ! application1 9 ref]5ce to ^! incomplete tra9s 9 :i* ! la/ :eel is c>ri$ by ! tra9-arm1 cle>ly involve & dep5d ^u ! resolv+ ( a motion ( revolution into ! compon5ts ( a circul> translation & a rotation1 9 ! mann] previ\sly discuss$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ae ,to illu/rate3 ,take ! simple case ( two equal :eels1 ,fig4 #ae1 ( :i* ! c5tral "o ,a is fix$4 ,suppos+ fir/ ,a = ! mom5t releas$ & ! arm to be fix$1 we see t ! two :eels w turn 9 opposite directions ) equal velocities1 :i* gives n_/m -#a2 b :5 ,a is fix$ & ,t revolves1 we h m' #j1 :5ce 9 ! g5]al =mula n' - a ------ -#a1 or n' #b a2 -a :i* means1 be+ int]pret$1 t ,f makes two rotations ab\t its axis dur+ "o revolution ( ,t1 & 9 ! same direction4 ,aga91 let ,a & ,f be equal 9 ! #c-:eel tra91 ,fig4 #af1 ! =m] be+ fix$ z be=e4 ,9 ?is case we h3 n --- #a1 m' #j1 :i* gives m n' - a ------- #a1 !re=e n' #j2 -a t is to say1 ! :eel ,f1 :i* n[ evid5tly has a motion ( circul> translation1 does n rotate at all ab\t its axis dur+ ! revolution ( ! tra9-arm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #af ,all ?is is p]fectly consi/5t1 cle>ly1 ) ! hypo!sis t ! motion ( circul> translation is a simple "o1 & ! motion ( revolution ab\t a fix$ axis is a comp\nd "o4 ,:e!r ! hypo!sis 0 made to sub/antiate ! =mula1 or ! =mula con/ruct$ to suit ! hypo!sis1 is n a matt] ( consequ5ce4 ,9 ei!r case1 no difficulty w arise s long z ! equation is appli$ only to cases 9 :i*1 z 9 ^? "h m5tion$1 t motion ( revolution c be resolv$ into ^? compon5ts4 ,:5 ! def9ition ( an epicyclic tra9 is re/rict$ z x is by ,pr(4 ,rank9e1 ! consid]ation ( ! hypo!sis 9 "q is entirely elim9at$1 & :e!r x be accept$ or reject$1 ! :ole matt] is r$uc$ to m]ely add+ ! motion ( ! tra9-arm to ! rotation ( ea* sun-:eel4 ,b 9 attempt+ to apply ?is =mula 9 analyz+ ! action ( an incomplete tra91 we are requir$ to add ?is motion ( ! tra9-arm1 n only to t ( a sun-:eel1 b to t ( a planet-:eel4 ,?is is evid5tly possible 9 ! examples %[n 9 ,figs4 #ae & #af1 because ! motions to be add$ are 9 all respects simil>3 ! tra9s are compos$ ( spur-:eels1 & ! motions1 :e!r ( revolution1 translation1 or rotation1 take place 9 p>allel planes p]p5dicul> to p>allel axes4 ,?is condition1 :i* we h emphasiz$1 be x obs]v$1 mu/ hold true ) reg>d to ! motions ( ! fir/ & la/ :eels & ! tra9-arm1 9 ord] to make ?is addition possible4 ,x is n ess5tial t spur-:eels %\ld be us$ exclusively or ev5 at all2 = in/ance1 9 ,fig4 #af1 ,a & ,f may be made bevel or screw-:eels1 )\t affect+ ! action or ! analysis2 b ! tra9-arm 9 all cases revolves ar\nd ! c5tral axis ( ! sy/em1 t is1 ab\t ! axis ( ,a1 & to ?is ! axis ( ,f mu/ be p>allel1 9 ord] to r5d] ! d$uction ( ! =mula1 z made by ,pr(4 ,willis1 & also by ,pr(4 ,goodeve1 correct1 or ev5 possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ag ,?is w be se5 by an exam9ation ( ,fig4 #ag2 9 :i* ,a & ,b are two equal spur-:eels1 ,e & ,f two equal bevel :eels1 ,b & ,e be+ secur$ to ! same %aft1 & ,a be+ fix$ to ! frame ,h4 ,z ! arm ,t goes r\nd1 ,b w also turn 9 its be>+s 9 ! same direction3 let ?is direction be t ( ! clock1 :5 ! app>atus is view$ f above1 !n ! motion ( ,f w also h ! same direction1 :5 view$ f ! c5tral v]tical axis1 z %[n at ,f'3 & let ^! directions be consid]$ z positive4 ,x is p]fectly cle> t ,f w turn 9 its be>+s1 9 ! direction indicat$1 at a rate precisely equal to t ( ! tra9-arm4 ,let ,p be a po9t] c>ri$ by ,f1 & ,r a dial fix$ to ,t2 & let ! po9t] be v]tical :5 ,,oo is ! plane conta9+ ! axes ( ,a1 ,b1 & ,e4 ,!n1 :5 ,f has gone ?r\gh any angle a measur$ f ,,oo1 ! po9t] w h turn$ f its orig9al v]tical position ?r\gh an equal angle1 z %[n also at ,f'4 ,n[1 !re is no conceivable s5se 9 :i* ! motion ( ,t c be said to be add$ to ! rotation ( ,f ab\t its axis1 & ! expression absolute revolution1 z appli$ to ! motion ( ! la/ :eel 9 ?is tra91 is absolutely mean+less4 ,nev]!less1 ,pr(4 ,goodeve /ates 7,elem5ts ( ,me*anism1 p4 #afe7 t ,we may ( c\rse apply ! g5]al =mula 9 ! case ( bevel :eels j z 9 t ( spur :eels4 ,let u try ! exp]im5t2 :5 ! tra9-arm is /ation>y1 & ,a releas$ & turn$ to ! "r1 ,f turns to ! left at ! same rate1 :5ce3 n --- -#a2 also m' #j :5 ,a is fix$1 m & ! equation becomes n' - a ------ -#a1 !re=e n' #b;a3 - a or 9 o!r words ,f turns twice on its axis dur+ "o revolution ( ,t3 a result too palpably absurd to require any comm5t4 ,we h se5 t ?is id5tical result 0 obta9$ 9 ! case ( ,fig4 #ae1 & x w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be ! same 7 ! =mula appli$ to ,figs4 #e & #f2 :]eas x has nev]1 s f> z we are aw>e1 be5 pret5d$ t a mit] or a bevel :eel w make m ?an "o rotation ab\t its axis 9 roll+ once ar\nd an equal fix$ "o4 ,aga91 if ! =mula be g5]al1 x %\ld apply equally well to a tra9 ( screw :eels3 let u take1 = example1 ! s+le pair %[n 9 ,fig4 #h1 ( :i*1 :5 ,t is fix$1 ! velocity ratio is unity4 ,! directional relation1 h[ev]1 dep5ds ^u ! direction 9 :i* ! :eels are twi/$3 s t 9 apply+ ! =mula1 we %all h n_/m #a1 if ! helices ( bo? :eels are "r h&$1 & n_/m -#a1 if !y are bo? left h&$4 ,?us ! =mula leads to ! surpris+ conclusion1 t :5 ,a is fix$ & ,t revolves1 ! planet-:eel ,b w revolve ab\t its axis twice z fa/ z ,t moves1 9 "o case1 :ile 9 ! o!r x w n revolve at all4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ah ,a favorite illu/ration ( ! peculi>ities ( epicyclic me*anism1 introduc$ bo? by ,pr(4 ,willis & ,pr(4 ,goodeve1 is f\nd 9 ! contrivance kn[n z ,f]guson's ,me*anical ,p>adox1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ah4 ,?is consi/s ( a fix$ sun-:eel ,a1 engag+ ) a planet-:eel ,b ( ! same diamet]4 ,^u ! %aft ( ,b are secur$ ! ?ree ?9 :eels ,e1 ,g1 ,i1 ea* hav+ #bj tee?1 & 9 ge> ) ! ?ree o!rs ,f1 ,h1 ,k1 :i* turn freely ^u a /ud fix$ 9 ! tra9-arm1 & h respectively #ai1 #bj1 & #ba tee?4 ,9 apply+ ! g5]al =mula1 we h ! foll[+ results3 n #bj n' - a #a ,= ! :eel ,f1 --- ---- ---------1 !re=e n' - ---- a4 m #ai -a #ai n n' - a ,h1 --- #a --------1 !re=e n' #j4 m -a n #bj n' - a #a ,k1 --- ---- ---------1 !re=e n' ---- a4 m #ba -a #ba ,! p>adoxical appe>ance1 !n1 consi/s 9 ?is1 t al?\gh ! driv]s ( ! ?ree la/ :eels ea* h ! same numb] ( tee?1 yet ! c5tral "o1 ,h1 hav+ a motion ( circul> translation1 rema9s always p>allel to itself1 & relatively to x ! upp] "o seems to turn 9 ! same direction z ! tra9-arm1 & ! l[] 9 ! contr>y direction4 ,& ! appe>ance is accept$1 too1 z a reality2 be+ expla9$1 agreeably to ! analysis j giv51 by say+ t ,h has no absolute rotation ab\t its axis1 :ile ! o!r :eels h2 t ( ,f be+ positive & t ( ,k negative4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ah ,! ,me*anical ,p>adox1 x is cle>1 may be reg>d$ z compos$ ( ?ree sep>ate tra9s1 ea* ( :i* is precisely l t ( ,fig4 #af3 & t1 aga91 diff]s f ! "o ( ,fig4 #ae only 9 ! addition ( a ?ird :eel4 ,n[1 we submit t ! tra9 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ag is me*anically equival5t to t ( ,fig4 #ae2 ! velocity ratio & ! directional relation be+ ! same 9 bo?4 ,& if 9 ,fig4 #ag we remove ! index ,p1 & fix ^u its %aft ?ree :eels l ,e1 ,g1 & ,i ( ,fig4 #ah1 we %all h a comb9ation me*anically equival5t to ,f]guson's ,p>adox1 ! ?ree la/ :eels rotat+ 9 v]tical planes ab\t horizontal axes4 ,! relative motions ( ^? ?ree :eels w be ! same1 obvi\sly1 z 9 ,fig4 #ah2 & accord+ to ! =mula _! absolute motions are ! same1 & we are invit$ to p]ceive t ! c5tral "o does n rotate at all ab\t its axis4 ,b x does rotate1 nev]!less2 & ?is unque/ion$ fact is ( itself en\gh to %[ t !re is some?+ wrong ) ! =mula z appli$ to tra9s l ^? 9 "q4 ,:at t some?+ is1 we ?9k1 has be5 made cle> by :at prec$es2 s9ce x is impossible 9 any s5se to add toge!r motions :i* are unlike1 x w be se5 t 9 ord] to obta9 an intelligible result 9 cases l ^!1 ! equation mu/ be ( ! =m n'_/7m' - a7 n_/m4 ,we %all !n h3 n #bj n' #bj ,= ! :eel ,f1 --- ---- ----1 !re=e n' - ---- a2 m #ai -a #ai n n' ,= ! :eel ,h1 --- #a ----1 !re=e n' -a2 m -a n #bj n' #bj ,= ! :eel ,k1 --- ---- ----1 !re=e n' - ---- a1 m #ba -a #ba :i* corresponds ) ! actual /ate ( ?+s2 all ?ree :eels rotate 9 ! same direction1 ! c5tral "o at ! same rate z ! tra9 arm1 "o a little m rapidly & ! ?ird a little m sl[ly4 ,x is1 !n1 absolutely necess>y to make ?is modification 9 ! g5]al =mula1 9 ord] to apply x 9 det]m9+ ! rotations ( any :eel ( an epicyclic tra9 ^: axis is n p>allel to t ( ! sun-:eels4 ,& 9 ?is modifi$ =m x applies equally well to ! orig9al arrangem5t ( ,f]guson's p>adox1 if we ab&on ! artificial di/9ction betwe5 absolute & relative rotations ( ! planet-:eels1 & reg>d a spur-:eel1 l any o!r1 z rotat+ on its axis :5 x turns 9 its be>+s2 ! action ( ! device %[n 9 ,fig4 #ah be+ ?us expla9$ by say+ t ! :eel ,h turns once backw>d dur+ ea* =w>d revolution ( ! tra9-arm1 :ile ,f turns a little m & ,k a little less ?an once1 9 ! same direction4 ,9 ?is way ! classification & analysis ( ^! comb9ations are made m simple & consi/5t1 & ! incongruities above po9t$ out are avoid$2 s9ce1 )\t reg>d to ! k9d ( ge>+ employ$ or ! relative positions ( ! axes1 we h ! two equations3 n' - a n ,i4 -------- ---1 = all complete tra9s2 m' - a m n' n ,,ii4 -------- ---1 = all incomplete tra9s4 m' - a m ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ai ,z ano!r example ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! application ( ^! =mul1 let u take ,watt's sun & planet :eels1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,?is device1 z is well kn[n1 0 employ$ by ! illu/ri\s inv5tor z a sub/itute = ! crank1 :i* "s "o _h succe$$ 9 pat5t+4 ,x consi/s m]ely ( two :eels ,a & ,f connect$ by ! l9k ,t2 ,a be+ key$ on ! %aft ( ! eng9e & ,f be+ rigidly secur$ to ! connect+-rod4 ,suppose ! rod to be ( inf9ite l5g?1 s z to rema9 always p>allel to itself1 & ! two :eels to be ( equal size4 ,!n1 accord+ to ,pr(4 ,willis' analysis1 we %all h-- n' - a n -s -------- --- -#a1 n' #j1 !re=e -------- -#a1 :5ce m' - a m m' - a -a a - m'1 or m #b;a4 ,! o!r view ( ! "q is1 t ,f turns once backw>d 9 its be>+s dur+ ea* =w>d revolution ( ,t2 :5ce 9 ,eq4 #b we h-- n' n -------- --- -#a1 n' -a1 m' - a m -a !re=e -------- -#a1 :i* gives -a a - m'1 or m' #b;a1 m' - a z be=e4 ,x is next to be rem>k$1 t ! errors :i* arise f apply+ ,eq4 ,i4 to incomplete tra9s may 9 "s cases c\nt]balance & neutralize ea* o!r1 s t ! f9al result is correct4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #bj ,= example1 take ! comb9ation %[n 9 ,fig4 #bj4 ,?is consi/s ( a tra9-arm ,t revolv+ ab\t ! v]tical axis ,,oo ( ! fix$ :eel ,a1 :i* is equal 9 diamet] to ,f1 :i* receives its motion by ! int]v5tion ( "o idle :eel c>ri$ by a /ud ,s fix$ 9 ! arm4 ,! second tra9-arm ,t' is fix$ to ! %aft ( ,f & turns ) x2 ,a' is secur$ to ! arm ,t1 & ,f' is actuat$ by ,a' also ?r\gh a s+le idl] c>ri$ by ,t'4 ,we h "h a comp\nd tra91 consi/+ ( two simple planet>y tra9s1 ,a--,f & ,a'--,f'2 & its action is to be det]m9$ by consid]+ !m sep>ately4 ,fir/ suppose ,t' to be remov$ & f9d ! motion ( ,f2 next suppose ,f to be remov$ & ,t fix$1 & f9d ! rotation ( ,f'2 & f9ally comb9e ^! results1 not+ t ! motion ( ,t' is ! same z t ( ,f1 & ! motion ( ,a' ! same z t ( ,t4 ,!n1 accord+ to ! analysis ( ,pr(4 ,willis1 we %all h 7sub/itut+ ! symbol t = a 9 ! equation ( ! second tra91 9 ord] to avoid confusion73 n n' - a #a4 ,tra9 ,a--,f4 --- #a --------2 m' #j1 m m' - a n' - a :5ce -------- #a1 n' #j1 rot4 ( ,f4 a n n' - t #b4 ,tra9 ,a'--,f'4 --- #a --------2 m' #j1 m m' - t n' - t :5ce aga9 -------- #a1 t #j1 rot4 ( ,f'4 -t ,( ^! results1 ! fir/ is explicable z be+ ! absolute rotation ( ,f1 b ! second is n2 & x w be readily se5 t ! =m] w\ld h be5 equally absurd1 _h ! axis ,,ll be5 incl9$ in/ead ( v]tical4 ,b 9 ei!r case we %\ld f9d ! errors neutraliz$ ^u comb9+ ! two1 = accord+ to ! !ory n[ "u consid]ation1 ! :eel ,a'1 be+ fix$ to ,t1 turns once ^u its axis ea* "t t tra9 arm revolves1 & 9 ! same direction2 & ! revolutions ( ,t' equal ! rotations ( ,f1 :5ce f9ally 9 tra9 ,a'--,f' we h3 n n' - t #c4 --- #a --------2 9 :i* t #j1 m' a1 m m' - t n' - #j :i* gives --------- #a1 or n' a4 a - #j ,?is is1 unque/ionably1 correct2 & inde$ x is q obvi\s t ! effect ^u ,f' is ! same1 :e!r we say t dur+ a revolution ( ,t ! :eel ,a' turns once =w>d & ,t' n at all1 or adopt ! o!r view & ass]t t ,t' turns once backw>d & ,a' n at all4 ,b ! latt] view has ! advantage ( giv+ concordant results :5 ! tra9s are consid]$ sep>ately1 & t )\t reg>d to ! relative positions ( ! axes or ! k9d ( ge>+ employ$4 ,analyz+ ! action ^u ?is hypo!sis1 we h3 ,9 tra9 ,a--,f3 n n' n' --- #a --------2 m' #j1 !re=e ---- #a1 or n' -a2 m m' - a -a ,9 tra9 ,a'--,f'3 n' n' n' --- #a --------2 m' #j1 !re=e ---- #a1 or n' -t2 m m' - t -t ,9 comb9+1 we h 9 ! latt] tra9 m' #j1 t -a1 :5ce n n' n' --- #a -------- gives ---- #a1 or n' a1 z be=e4 m m' - t a ,n[ x happ5s t ! only examples giv5 by ,pr(4 ,willis ( incomplete tra9s 9 :i* ! axis ( a planet-:eel ^: motion is to be det]m9$ is n p>allel to ! c5tral axis ( ! sy/em1 are simil> to ! "o j discuss$2 ! :eel 9 "q be+ c>ri$ by a second>y tra9-arm :i* d]ives its motion f a :eel ( ! prim>y tra94 ,! application ( 8 g5]al equation 9 ^! cases gives results :i* agree ) obs]v$ facts2 & x w\ld seem t ?is circum/ance1 9 connection d\btless ) ! complexity ( ^! comp\nd tra9s1 l$ him to ! too ha/y conclusion t ! =mula w\ld hold true 9 all cases2 al?\gh we are /ill left to wond] at 8 ov]look+ ! fact t 9 ^! v cases ! absolute & ! relative rotations ( ! la/ :eel are id5tical4 ,illu/ration3 ,,planet>y ,,:eel ,,tra9s4 ,fig4 #ba ,9 ,fig4 #ba is %[n a comb9ation consi/+ also ( two di/9ct tra9s1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 !re is b "o tra9-arm ,t turn+ freely ^u ! horizontal %aft ,,oo1 to :i* %aft ! :eels ,a'1 ,f1 are secur$2 ! tra9-arm has two /uds1 ^u :i* turn ! idl]s ,b ,b'1 & also c>ries ! be>+s ( ! la/ :eel ,f'2 ! fir/ :eel ,a is annul>1 & fix$ to ! frame ( ! ma*9e4 ,let x be requir$ to det]m9e ! results ( "o revolution ( ! crank ,h1 ! numb]s ( tee? be+ assign$ z foll[s3 ,a #fj1 ,f #cj1 ,a' #fj1 ,f' #aj4 ,we %all !n h1 = ! tra9 ,,abf 7,eq4 ,i471 n #fj n' - a --- - ---- -#b --------1 9 :i* n' #a1 m' #j1 m #cj m' - a' #a - a #a :5ce -#b -------1 #b;a #a - a1 #c;a #a1 a ---4 -a #c ,& = ! tra9 ,a',b',f' 7,eq4 ,,ii471 n #fj n' #a --- ---- #f --------1 9 :i* a ---1 m' #a1 m #aj m' - a' #c n' :5ce #f -----------1 or n' #d4 #a - 7#a_/c7 ,t is1 ! la/ :eel ,f' turns f\r times ab\t ! axis ,,ll dur+ "o revolution ( ! crank ,h4 ,b accord+ to ,pr(s4 ,willis & ,goodeve1 we %\ld h = ! second tra93 n #fj n' - a #a --- ---- #f --------1 9 :i* a ---1 m' #a1 m #aj m' - a' #c n' - 7#a_/c7 :i* gives #f -----------1 n' - 7#a_/c7 #d1 n' #d-a_/c1 #a - 7#a_/c7 or f\r & "o-?ird revolutions ( ,f' = "o ( ,h4 ,?is result1 no d\bt1 might be ne> en\gh to ! tru? to s]ve all practical purposes 9 ! application ( ?is me*anism to its orig9al object1 :i* 0 t ( p>+ apples1 impal$ ^u ! =k ,k2 b x c h>dly be reg>d$ z entirely satisfactory 9 a g5]al way2 nor c ! analysis :i* r5d]s su* a result possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,pantanemone4 ,! ne$ ( irrigat+ prairies1 inundat+ v9es1 dry+ m>%es1 & accumulat+ electricity *eaply has1 = "s "t pa/1 l$ to a se>* = "s means ( utiliz+ ! =ces ( nature bett] ?an has ev] hi!rto be5 done4 ,w9d1 :i* figures 9 ! fir/ rank z a =ce1 has ?us f>1 ) all ! mills kn[n to u1 r5d]$ s]vices t are mu* inf]ior to ^? t we h a "r to expect f x ) improv$ app>atus2 = ! "w produc$1 :atev] ! velocity ( ! w9d1 has nev] be5 great] ?an t t c\ld be effect$ by w9d ( sev5 met]s p] second4 ,b1 ?anks to ! exp]im5ts ( rec5t ye>s1 we are n[ obta9+ an effective p]=mance d\ble t :i* we did ) app>atus on ! old sy/em4 ,desir\s ( mak+ kn[n ! ef=ts t h be5 made 9 ?is direction1 we lately describ$ ,mr4 ,dumont's atmosph]ic turb9e4 ,9 speak+ ( ?is app>atus we /at$ t a]ial motors g5]ally /op or are de/roy$ 9 high w9ds4 ,rec5tly1 ,mr4 ,s&]son has communicat$ to u ! result ( "s exp]im5ts t he has be5 mak+ = ye>s back by means ( an app>atus :i* he /yles a pantanemone4 ,! engrav+ t we give ( ?is ma*9e %[s m]ely a cab9et model ( x2 & x goes )\t say+ t x is simply design$ to exhibit ! pr9ciple ^u :i* its con/ruction is bas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,pantanemone4 ,two plane surfaces 9 ! =m ( semicircles are m\nt$ at "r angles to ea* o!r ^u a horizontal %aft1 & at an angle ( #de ) respect to ! latt]4 ,x results f ?is t ! app>atus w op]ate 7ev5 )\t be+ set7 :atev] be ! direction ( ! w9d1 except :5 x bl[s p]p5dicul>ly ^u ! axle1 ?us p]mitt+ 7ow+ to ! impossibility ( r$uc+ ! surfaces7 ( ?ree-score days m "w p] ye> be+ obta9$ ?an c be ) o!r mills4 ,?ree di/9ct app>atus h be5 successively con/ruct$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! has be5 runn+ = n9e ye>s 9 ! vic9ity ( ,poissy1 :]e x lifts ab\t #dj1jjj lit]s ( wat] to a height ( #bj met]s e #bd h\rs1 9 a w9d ( a velocity ( f #g to #h met]s p] second4 ,! second raises ab\t #aej1jjj lit]s ( wat] to ! ,villejuif res]voir1 at a height ( #aj met]s1 e #bd h\rs1 9 a w9d ( f #e to #f met]s4 ,! ?ird supplies ! laboratory ( ! ,monts\ris obs]vatory4 ,! fir/ is n directible1 ! second may be direct$ by h&1 & ! ?ird is direct$ automatically4 ,^! ?ree ma*9es defi$ ! hurricane ( ! #bf? ( la/ ,janu>y4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,relvas',s ,,new ,,life-,,boat4 ,! ,spani% & ,portuguese pap]s h rec5tly made kn[n "s int]e/+ exp]im5ts t h be5 made by ,mr4 ,c>los ,relvas ) a new life-boat :i* p>ts ! waves ) great facility & exhibits rem>kable /ability4 ,?is boat1 :i* is %[n 9 front view 9 "o ( ! corn]s ( our engrav+1 is ,t-%ap$1 & consi/s ( a v ?9 keel connect$ ) ! side-timb]s by iron rods4 ,cu%ions ( cork & canvas are adapt$ to ! upp] "p1 &1 :5 ! boat is on ! sea1 x has ! appe>ance ( an ord9>y canoe1 al?\gh1 z may be se51 x diff]s ess5tially !refrom 9 ! subm]g$ "p4 ,:5 ! sea is heavy1 says ,mr4 ,relvas1 & ! high waves are tumbl+ ov] ea* o!r1 !y pass ov] my boat1 & are p[]less to capsize x4 ,my boat cle>s waves t o!rs are oblig$ to recoil be=e4 ,x has ! advantage ( be+ able to move =w>d1 :atev] be ! fury ( ! sea1 & is capable1 besides1 ( approa*+ rocks )\t any dang] ( its be+ brok54 ,illu/ration3 ,,relvas',s ,,new ,,life ,,boat4 ,a committee 0 appo9t$ by ! ,portuguese gov]nm5t to exam9e ?is new life-boat1 & comp>ative exp]im5ts 7 made ) x & an ord9>y life-boat at ,porto on a v r\gh sea4 ,mr4 ,relvas's boat 0 mann$ by eight r[]s all provid$ ) cork girdles1 :ile ! gov]nm5t life-boat 0 mann$ by twelve r[]s & a pilot1 all likewise we>+ cork girdles4 ,! *ief ( ! m>itime dep>tm5t1 an eng9e] ( ! ,portuguese navy & a ,portuguese deputy 7 pres5t at ! trial 9 a pilot boat4 ,! ?ree boats proce$$ to ! entrance ( ! b>1 :]e ! sea 0 r\ghe/1 & num]\s spectators collect$ ^u ! %ore & :>fs foll[$ _! evolutions f af>4 ,! exp]im5ts began at half pa/ ?ree o'clock 9 ! aft]noon4 ,! two life-boats %ot =w>d to seek ! mo/ furi\s waves1 & 7 se5 f af> to surm\nt ! bill[s & !n sudd5ly disappe>4 ,x 0 a spectacle z mov+ z x 0 curi\s4 ,x 0 obs]v$ t ,mr4 ,relvas's boat cleft ! waves1 :ile ! o!r float$ ^u _! surface l a nut-%ell4 ,aft] an h\r's navigation ! two boats return$ to _! />t+ po9t4 ,! (ficial committee t presid$ ov] ^! exp]im5ts has aga9 f\nd 9 ?is new boat decid$ advantages1 & has po9t$ out to its inv5tor a few slight modifications t w r5d] x /ill m effici5t4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,d\ble-,,b>rel$ ,,guns ,,& ,,rifles4 ,! s]ies ( exp]im5ts we are ab\t to describe has rec5tly be5 made by ,mr4 ,horatio ,phillips1 a practical gun mak] ( ,london4 ,! results w no d\bt prove ( int]e/ to ^? conc]n$ 9 ! use or manufacture ( fire>ms4 ,! reason t ! two b>rels ( a %ot gun or rifle w1 if put toge!r p>allel1 ?r[ _! *>ges 9 div]g+ l9es has nev] yet be5 satisfactorily acc\nt$ =1 al?\gh _m plausible & +5i\s !ories h be5 advanc$ = ! purpose4 ,! natural supposition w\ld be t ?is div]g5ce result$ f ! axes ( ! b>rels n be+ 9 ! same v]tical plane z ! c5t] l9e ( ! /ock4 ,t ?is is n ! true explanation ( ! fact1 ! foll[+ exp]im5t w\ld t5d to prove4 ,illu/ration3 ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,d\ble-,,b>rell$ ,,guns4 ,fig4 #a repres5ts a s+le b>rel fitt$ ) sights & firmly atta*$ to a heavy block ( bee*4 ,?is 0 plac$ on an ord9>y rifle re/1 be+ fa/5$ !reto by a p9 at ! corn]1 ,a1 ! block & b>rel be+ free to revolve ^u ! p9 z a c5t]4 ,sev]al %ots 7 fir$ bo? ) ! p9 9 position & ) x remov$1 ! b>rel be+ c>efully po9t$ at ! t>get ea* "t4 ,no practical diff]5ce 9 ! accuracy ( fire 0 disc]nible "u ei!r condition4 ,:5 ! p9 0 hold+ ! corn] ( ! block1 ! recoil caus$ ! b>rel to move f "r to left 9 a circul> pa?2 b :5 ! p9 0 remov$1 s t ! block 0 n atta*$ to ! re/ 9 any way1 ! recoil took place 9 a l9e ) ! axis ( ! bore4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! conditions :i* are pres5t :5 a d\ble b>rel$ gun is fir$ 9 ! ord9>y way f ! %\ld] 7 9 "s respects mu* exagg]at$ 9 ! app>atus1 = ! p9 0 a di/ance ( #c 94 lat]ally f ! axis ( ! b>rel1 :]eas ! c5t] ( resi/ance ( ! /ock ( a gun aga9/ ! %\ld] w\ld ord9>ily be ab\t "o-six? ( ?is di/ance f ! axis ( ! b>rel4 ,?is exp]im5t w\ld app>5tly t5d to prove t ! recoil does n appreciably affect ! pa? ( ! projectile1 z x w\ld seem t ! latt] mu/ cle> ! muzzle be=e any consid]able movem5t ( ! b>rel takes place4 ,) a view to obta9 a fur!r confirmation ( ! result ( ?is exp]im5t1 x 0 repeat$ 9 a diff]5t =m by a numb] ( %ots be+ fir$ f a cross-ey$ rifle1#a 9 :i* ! sights 7 fix$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! rib4 ,v accurate %oot+ 0 obta9$ ) ?is arm4 ,footnote #a3 ,a cross-ey$ rifle is "o made ) a crook$ /ock = ! purpose ( %oot+ f ! "r %\ld]1 aim be+ tak5 ) ! left eye4 ,a second !ory1 (t5 broa*$1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! div]g5ce ( ! *>ge1 is t ! b>rel :i* is n be+ fir$1 by its vis in]tia 9 "s way causes ! %ot to div]ge4 ,9 ord] to te/ ?is1 ,mr4 ,phillips took a s+le rifle & secur$ x ne> ! muzzle to a heavy block ( metal1 :5 ! accuracy ( ! %oot+ 0 9 no way impair$4 ,s f> ! exp]im5ts 7 ( a negative "*1 & ! next /ep 0 made ) a view to discov] ! actual cause ( ! div]g5ce ref]r$ to4 ,a s+le b>rel 0 n[ tak51 to :i* a template 0 fitt$1 9 ord] to record its exact l5g?4 ,! b>rel 0 !n subject$ to a heavy int]nal hydro/atic pressure4 ,"u ?is treatm5t x exp&$ circumf]5tially & at ! same "t 0 r$uc$ 9 l5g?4 ,?is1 x 0 consid]$1 gave a clew to ! solution ( ! problem4 ,a pair ( b>rels 0 n[ tak5 & a template fitt$ accurately to ! side ( ! "r-h& "o4 ,z ! template fitt$ ! b>rel :5 ! latt] 0 n subject to int]nal pressure1 ^u su* pressure be+ appli$ any alt]ations t might ensue 9 ! l5g? or cont\r ( ! b>rel c\ld be duly not$4 ,! "r-h& b>rel 0 !n subject$ to int]nal hydro/atic pressure4 ,! result is %[n 9 an exagg]at$ =m 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,x w be se5 t bo? b>rels are b5t into an ar*$ =m4 ,?is w\ld be caus$ by ! b>rel "u pressure becom+ ext5d$ circumf]5tially1 & !reby r$uc$ 9 l5g?1 because ! metal t is requir$ to supply ! increas$ circumf]5ce is tak5 to "s ext5t f ! l5g?1 al?\gh ! sub/ance ( metal 9 ! walls ( ! b>rel by its expansion contributes also to ! increas$ diamet]4 ,a simple illu/ration ( ?is effect is suppli$ by subject+ an ,india-rubb] tube to int]nal pressure4 ,suppos+ ! mat]ial to be suffici5tly ela/ic & ! pressure /rong en\gh1 ! tube w\ld ultimately assume a sph]ical =m4 ,x is a well kn[n fact t heavy b>rels ) light *>ges give less div]g5ce ?an light b>rels ) heavy *>ges4 ,aft] ! above exp]im5ts x 0 hop$ t1 if a pair ( b>rels 7 put toge!r p>allel & sold]$ only = a space ( #c 94 at ! bree* end1 & 7 !n c\pl$ by two encircl+ r+s jo9$ toge!r z 9 ,fig4 #d1 ! left-h& r+ only be+ sold]$ to ! b>rel1 v accurate %oot+ w\ld be obta9$4 ,=1 x 0 argu$1 t by ^! means ! b>rel "u fire w\ld be able to contract )\t affect+ or be+ affect$ by ! o!r b>rel2 t on ! "r-h&1 x w be se5 by ! illu/ration1 0 ! "o to slide 9 its r+4 ,a pair ( able #j4ejj bore express rifle b>rels 7 accord+ly fitt$ 9 ?is way4 ,fig4 #c %[s ! arrangem5t ) ! r+s 9 position4 ,^u fir+ ^! b>rels ) ord9>y express *>ges x 0 f\nd t ! l9es ( fire f ea* b>rel respectively cross$ ea* o!r1 ! bullet f ! "r-h& b>rel /rik+ ! t>get #aj 94 to ! left ( ! bull's eye1 :ile ! left b>rel plac$ its projectile a simil> di/ance 9 ! opposite direction2 or1 z w\ld be te*nically said1 ! b>rels cross$ #bj 94 at #ajj y>ds1 ! latt] di/ance be+ ! range at :i* ! exp]im5t 0 made4 ,^! la/ results h be5 acc\nt$ = 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! two b>rels 7 rigidly jo9$ = a space ( #c 941 & = t di/ance !y w\ld behave 9 a mann] simil> to t illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #b1 & 7 !y n c\pl$ at ! muzzles by ! connect+ r+s !y w\ld %oot v wide1 ! *>ges tak+ div]g+ c\rses4 ,:5 ! connect+ r+s are fitt$ on1 ! b>rel n be+ fir$ w rema9 practically /raight1 &1 z x is c\pl$ to ! b>rel be+ fir$ by ! r+s1 ! muzzle ( ! latt] w be re/ra9$ f po9t+ outw>d4 ,! result w be z %[n 9 an exagg]at$ mann] by ! dott$ l9es on ! "r b>rel 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,x w\ld appe> f ^! exp]im5ts t :5 v accurate %oot+ is requir$ at long ranges ) d\ble-b>rel$ rifles1 !y %\ld be m\nt$ 9 a mann] simil> to t adopt$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! ,nord5felt ma*9e gun1 9 :i* weapon ! b>rels are fitt$ into a plate at ! extreme bree* end1 ! muzzles project+ ?r\gh holes bor$ to receive !m 9 a metal plate4 ,no unequal expansion w\ld !n take place1 & ! b>rels w\ld be free to become %ort] indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r4 ,we give ! above exp]im5ts on ! au?ority ( _! au?or1 :o1 we believe1 has tak5 great pa9s to r5d] !m z exhau/ive z possible1 s f> z !y g4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ball ,,turn+ ,,ma*9e4 ,! di/+ui%+ feature 9 ! ball turn+ ma*9e %[n opposite is t ! tool is /ation>y1 :ile ! "w revolves 9 two directions simultane\sly4 ,9 ! case ( an ord9>y sph]ical object1 su* z brass clack ball1 ! ca/+ is made f a p]fect patt]n hav+ two small caps or %anks1 9 :i* ! c5t]s are also m>k$ to avoid c5t]+ by h&4 ,x is fix$ 9 ! ma*9e betwe5 two c5t]s c>ri$ on a face plate or *uck1 ) :i* !y revolve4 ,"o ( ^! c5t]s1 :5 ! ma*9e is 9 motion1 receives a cont9u\s rot>y motion ab\t its axis f a worm:eel1 ,d4 ,?is is driv5 by a worm1 ,c1 c>ri$ on a %aft at ! back ( ! *uck1 & driv5 itself by a worm:eel1 ,b1 :i* ge>s ) a screw :i* rides loosely ^u ! m&rel1 & is kept f rotat+ by a f+] on ! head/ock4 ,?is c5t]1 9 its rotation1 c>ries ) x ! ball1 :i* is ?us sl[ly mov$ r\nd an axis p>allel to ! face plate1 at ! same "t t x revolves ab\t ! axis ( ! m&rel1 ! result be+ t ! tool cuts ^u ! ball a scroll1 ( :i* ea* convolution is approximately a circle1 & lies 9 a plane p>allel to ! l9e ( c5t]s4 ,:5 ! *uck is set = "o size ( ball1 :i* may be done 9 a few m9utes1 any quantity ( t diamet] may be turn$ )\t fur!r adju/m5t4 ,a r\gh+ cut = a #b 94 ball may be done 9 "o m9ute1 & a f9i%+ cut leav+ ! ball q bright 9 ! same "t4 ,! two paps are cut (f )9 "o-sixte5? ( an in* & !n brok5 (f1 & ! ball f9i%$ 9 ! usual way4 ,on acc\nt ( ! "w be+ geometrically true1 ! f9i%+ by ! f]rule tool is done 9 "o qu>t] ( ! "t usually requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,ball ,,turn+ ,,ma*9e4 ,! *uck may be appli$ to an ord9>y la! or may be comb9$ ) a special ma*9e tool1 z %[ 9 our illu/ration4 ,9 ! latt] case ev]y?+ is arrang$ 9 ! mo/ h&y way = rapid work+1 & six brass balls ( #b 94 9 diamet] c be turn$ & f9i%$ 9 an h\r4 ,! ma*9e is specially adapt$ = turn+ ball valves = pumps1 pulsomet]s1 & ! l1 & 9 ! l>g] sizes = turn+ gov]nor balls & sph]ical nuts = armor plates1 & is manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,wilk9son & ,li/]1 ( ,brad=d ,road ,iron ,works1 ,keighley4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cool+ ,,app>atus ,,= ,,injection ,,wat]4 ,x (t5 happ5s 9 t[ns & :]e manufactories are cr[d$ toge!r1 t ! supply ( wat] = cond5s+ purposes is v small1 & consequ5tly t x atta9s an inconv5i5tly high temp]ature "u unfavorable conditions ( wea!r1 result+ 9 ! det]ioration ( ! vacuum & a consequ5t increase 9 ! consumption ( fuel4 ,to rem$y or to dim9i% ?is difficulty1 ,messrs4 ,boase & ,mill]1 ( ,london1 h br\ght out ! wat] cool] illu/rat$ above4 ,?is consi/s1 says ,eng9e]+1 ( a revolv+ basket ( wire gauze surr\nd+ an inn] /ation>y vessel pi]c$ ) num]\s small holes1 ?r\gh :i* ! heat$ wat] dis*>g$ by ! air pump f9ds its way into ! basket1 to be ?r[n out 9 ! =m ( f9e spray to a di/ance ( #bj ft4 at ea* side4 ,! drops are receiv$ 9 ! tank or pond1 & 9 _! rapid passage ?r\gh ! air are suffici5tly cool$ to be aga9 inject$ into ! cond5s]4 ,! illu/ration %[s a cool] hav+ a basket ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 revolv+ at #cjj revolutions p] m9ute1 & dis*>g+ into a tank #dj ft4 squ>e4 ,x requires #c to #d indicat$ horse-p[] to drive x1 & w cool #cjj gallons p] m9ute4 ,! foll[+ decrease ( temp]ature has be5 obs]v$ 9 actual practice3 ,wat] ent]+ at #ie deg4 fell #bj deg4 9 temp]ature2 wat] ent]+ at #ajj deg4 to #aaj deg4 fell #be deg42 & wat] ent]+ at #aaj deg4 to #abj deg4 fell #cj deg4 ,! ma*9e ) :i* ^! trials 7 made 0 s plac$ t ! top ( ! basket 0 f\r ft4 f ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! pond4 ,) a great] elevation1 z %[n 9 ! engrav+1 bett] results c be obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,wat] ,,cool+ ,,app>atus4 ,! advantages claim$ = ! cool] are t by its means ! temp]ature ( ! injection wat] c be r$uc$1 ! co/ & size ( cool+ ponds c be dim9i%$1 & cond5s+ eng9es c be employ$ :]e hi!rto !y h n be5 possible4 ,! app>atus has be5 = two ye>s 9 op]ation at sev]al l>ge factories1 & !re is e reason to believe t its use w ext5d1 z x supplies a real want 9 a v simple & +5i\s mann]4 ,messrs4 ,duncan ,bro!rs1 ( ,dundee & #cb ,que5 ,victoria ,/reet1 ,e4,c41 are ! manufactur]s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,corrugat$ ,,disk ,,pulleys4 ,?is is a pulley rec5tly introduc$ by ,messrs4 ,j4 & ,e4 ,hall1 ( ,d>t=d ,eng4 ,) ! exception ( ! boss1 :i* is ca/1 x is compos$ entirely ( /eel or %eet iron4 ,9 place ( ! usual arms a cont9u\s web ( corrugat$ %eet metal connects ! boss to ! rim2 ?is web is atta*$ to ! boss by means ( ,sp5ce's metal4 ,inside ! rim1 :i* is flang$ inw>d1 a d\ble hoop iron r+ is fix$ = /r5g!n+ purposes4 ,! advantage\s disposition ( metal obta9$ by means ( ! corrugat$ web enables ! pulley to be made ( a giv5 /r5g? ) less weight ( mat]ial1 & f ?is cause & also on acc\nt ( be+ accurately balanc$ ^! pulleys are well adapt$ = high spe$s4 ,illu/ration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,kansas ,,city ,,review4 ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,telegraph4 ,al?\gh ! electric telegraph is1 comp>atively speak+1 a rec5t inv5tion1 yet me?ods ( communication at a di/ance1 by means ( signals1 h probably exi/$ 9 all ages & 9 all nations4 ,!re is reason to believe t among ! ,greeks a sy/em ( telegraphy 0 9 use1 z ! burn+ ( ,troy 0 c]ta9ly kn[n 9 ,greece v soon aft] x happ5$1 & be=e any p]son _h return$ f ,troy4 ,polybius names ! diff]5t in/rum5ts us$ by ! anci5ts = communicat+ in=mation--pyrsia1 because ! signals 7 always made by means ( fire lights4 ,at fir/ !y communicat$ in=mation ( ev5ts 9 an imp]fect mann]1 b a new me?od 0 inv5t$ by ,cleox5us1 :i* 0 mu* improv$ by ,polybius1 z he himself in=ms u1 & :i* may be describ$ z foll[s3 ,take ! lett]s ( ! alphabet & arrange !m on a bo>d 9 five columns1 ea* column conta9+ five lett]s2 !n ! man :o signals w\ld hold up ) 8 left h& a numb] ( tor*es :i* w\ld repres5t ! numb] ( ! column f :i* ! lett] is to be tak51 & ) 8 "r h& a numb] ( tor*es t w repres5t ! p>ticul> lett] 9 t column t is to be tak54 ,x is ?us easy to und]/& h[ ! lett]s ( a %ort s5t5ce are communicat$ f /ation to /ation z f> z requir$4 ,?is is ! pyrsia or telegraph ( ,polybius4 ,x seems t ! ,romans _h a me?od ( telegraph+ 9 _! wall$ cities1 ei!r by a holl[ =m$ 9 ! masonry1 or by a tube fix$ !reto s z to conf9e ! s\nd1 9 ord] to convey in=mation to any "p !y lik$4 ,?is me?od ( communicat+ is 9 ! pres5t age frequ5tly employ$ 9 ! well kn[n speak+ tubes4 ,x does n appe> t ! mod]ns _h ?\ght ( su* a ?+ z a telegraph until #affa1 :5 ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 9 8 ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 affirm$ t he _h discov]$ a me?od by :i* a man c\ld hold disc\rse ) 8 correspond5t z f> z !y c\ld rea*1 by night z well z by day2 he did n1 h[ev]1 describe ?is inv5tion4 ,dr4 ,hooke deliv]$ a disc\rse be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 #afhd1 %[+ h[ to communicate at great di/ances4 ,9 ?is disc\rse he ass]ts ! possibility ( convey+ intellig5ce f "o place to ano!r at a di/ance ( #abj miles z rapidly z a man c write :at he w\ld h s5t4 ,he takes to 8 aid ! !n rec5t inv5tion ( ! telescope1 & expla9s h[ *>act]s expos$ at "o /ation on ! top ( "o hill may be made visible to ! next /ation on ! top ( ! next hill4 ,he inv5t$ tw5ty-f\r simple *>act]s1 ea* =m$ ( a comb9ation ( ?ree deal bo>ds1 ea* "* repres5t+ a lett] by ! use ( cords2 ^! *>act]s 7 pu%$ f beh9d a scre5 & expos$1 & !n )drawn beh9d ! scre5 aga94 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until ! ,fr5* revolution t ! telegraph 0 appli$ to practical purposes2 b ab\t ! end ( #agjc telegraphic communication 0 e/abli%$ betwe5 ,p>is & ! fronti]s1 & %ortly aft]w>d telegraphs 7 introduc$ into ,engl&4 ,! hi/ory ( ! inv5tion & introduction ( ! electric telegraph by ,pr(4 ,morse is "o ( inexhau/ible int]e/1 & e incid5t relat+ to x is wor?y ( pres]vation4 ,! incid5ts describ$ bel[ w be f\nd ( special int]e/4 ,! article is f ! p5 ( ! late ,judge ,neilson ,poe1 & 0 ! la/ pap] writt5 by him4 ,he prep>$ x dur+ 8 rec5t illness1 ! lett] embodi$ 9 x f ,mr4 ,latrobe be+ ( c\rse obta9$ at ! "t ( its date4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,on ! #e? ( ,april1 #ahdc1 :5 ! mon?ly meet+ ( ! directors ( ! ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad ,company 0 ab\t to adj\rn1 ! ,presid5t1 ! ,hon4 ,l\is ,mc,lane1 rose ) a pap] 9 8 h& :i* he said he _h almo/ ov]look$1 & :i* ! ,secret>y w\ld read4 ,x prov$ to be an application f ,pr(4 ,morse = ! privilege ( lay+ ! wires ( 8 electric telegraph along ! l9e ( ! railroad betwe5 ,baltimore & ,wa%+ton1 & 0 accompani$ by a communication f ,b4,h4 ,latrobe1 ,esq41 ,*ief ,eng9e]1 recomm5d+ ! project z wor?y ( enc\ragem5t4 ,on motion ( ,john ,spe> ,ni*olas1 second$ by ! ,hon4 ,john ,p4 ,k5n$y1 ! foll[+ resolution 0 !n consid]$3 ,resolv$1 ,t ! ,presid5t be au?oriz$ to af=d ,mr4 ,morse su* facilities z may be requisite to give 8 inv5tion a prop] trial ^u ! ,wa%+ton road1 provid$ 9 8 op9ion & 9 t ( ! eng9e] x c be done )\t injury to ! road & )\t emb>rassm5t to ! op]ations ( ! company1 & provid$ ,mr4 ,morse w conc$e to ! company ! use ( ! telegraph ^u ! road )\t exp5se1 & res]v+ to ! company ! "r ( discont9u+ ! use if1 ^u exp]im5t1 x %\ld prove 9 any mann] injuri\s4 ,:atev]1 said ,mr4 ,mc,lane1 may be our individual op9ions z to ! feasibility ( ,mr4 ,morse's inv5tion1 x seems to me t x is our duty to conc$e to him ! privilege he asks1 & to l5d him all ! aid 9 our p[]1 especially z ! resolution c>efully protects ! company aga9/ all pres5t or future injury to its works1 & secures u ! "r ( requir+ its removal at any "t4 ,9 view ( ! fact t no railroad c n[ be run safely )\t ! aid ( ! telegraph1 ! cauti\s c>e ) :i* ! "r to remove x if x %\ld become a nuisance 0 res]v$1 /rikes "o at ?is day z ne>ly ludicr\s4 ,a %ort pause ensu$1 & ! ass5t ( ! company 0 ab\t to be assum$1 :5 "o ( ! old] directors1 fam$ = ! vigilance ) :i* he wat*$ ev5 ! mo/ trivial measure1 begg$ to be he>d4 ,he admitt$ t ! rights & int]e/s ( ! "w 7 all c>efully gu>d$ by ! t]ms ( ! resolution1 & t ! company 0 n call$ ^u to lay out any ( its means = ! promotion ( ! s*eme4 ,b not)/&+ all ?is1 he did n feel1 z a consci5ti\s man1 t he c\ld1 )\t fur!r exam9ation1 give 8 vote = ! resolution4 ,he knew t ?is idea ( ,mr4 ,morse1 h[ev] plausible x might appe> to !ori/s & dream]s1 & s-call$ m5 ( sci5ce1 0 reg>d$ by all practical p z de/9$1 l _m o!r simil> projects1 to c]ta9 failure1 & mu/ consequ5tly result 9 loss & possibly ru9 to ,mr4 ,morse4 ,= "o1 he felt consci5ti\sly scrupul\s 9 giv+ a vote :i* w\ld aid or tempt a vision>y en?usia/ to ru9 himself4 ,=tunately1 ! views ( ?is cauti\s1 practical man did n prevail4 ,a few words f ! mov] ( ! resolution1 ,mr4 ,ni*olas1 :o /ill lives to behold ! wond]s he help$ to create1 & f ,mr4 ,k5n$y1 )\t ^: aid ! appropriation w\ld n h pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 reliev$ ! o!r directors f all fe> ( contribut+ to ,mr4 ,morse's ru91 & ! resolution 0 adopt$4 ,( ! ,presid5t & ?irty directors :o took "p 9 ?is transaction1 only ?ree1 ,samuel ,w4 ,smi?1 ,john ,spe> ,ni*olas1 & ! writ]1 survive4 ,"u x ,morse at once ent]$ ^u t te/ ( 8 inv5tion ^: fruits are n[ enjoy$ by ! p ( all ! cont95ts4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until ! spr+ ( #ahdd t he _h 8 l9e & its appo9tm5ts 9 su* a condition z to all[ ! transmission ( messages betwe5 ! two cities1 & x 0 9 ,may ( t ye> t ! incid5t occurr$ :i* has *iefly l$ to ! writ+ ( ?is pap]4 ,,mr4 ,,latrobe',s ,,recollections4 ,,my ,,de> ,,mr4 ,,poe3 ,agreeably to my promise1 ?is morn+ ,i put on pap] my recollection ( ! introduction ( ! magnetic telegraph betwe5 ,baltimore & ,wa%+ton4 ,i 0 c\nsel ( ! ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad ,co4 at ! "t1 & call+ on ,mr4 ,l\is ,mc,lane1 ! ,presid5t1 on "s pr(essional matt]1 0 ask$ 9 ! c\rse ( conv]sation :e!r ,i knew any?+ ab\t an electric telegraph :i* ! inv5tor1 :o _h obta9$ an appropriation f ,congress1 want$ to lay d[n on ! ,wa%+ton bran* ( ! road4 ,he said he expect$ ,mr4 ,morse1 ! inv5tor1 to call on him1 :5 he w\ld introduce me to him1 & w\ld be glad if ,i took an opportunity to g ov] ! subject ) him & aft]w>d let him1 ,mr4 ,mc,lane1 "k :at ,i ?\ght ab\t x4 ,:ile we 7 yet speak+1 ,mr4 ,morse made 8 appe>ance1 & :5 ,mr4 ,mc,lane introduc$ me he ref]r$ to ! fact t1 z ,i _h be5 educat$ at ,we/ ,po9t1 ,i might ! m readily und]/& ! sci5tific be>+s ( ,mr4 ,morse's inv5tion4 ,! ,presid5t's (fice be+ no place = prolong$ conv]sation1 x 0 agre$ t ,mr4 ,morse %\ld take tea at my dwell+1 :5 we w\ld g ov] ! :ole subject4 ,we met accord+ly1 & x 0 late 9 ! night be=e we p>t$4 ,mr4 ,morse w5t ov] ! hi/ory ( 8 inv5tion f ! beg9n+ ) an int]e/ & en?usiasm t _h surviv$ ! we>y+ toil ( an application to ,congress1 & ) ! aid ( diagrams drawn on ! in/ant made me ma/] ( ! matt]1 & wrote = me ! telegraphic alphabet :i* is /ill 9 use ov] ! _w4 ,n a small "p ( :at ,mr4 ,morse said on ?is occasion _h ref]5ce to ! future ( 8 inv5tion1 its influ5ce ^u communities & individuals1 & ,i rememb] reg>d+ z ! wild speculations ( an active imag9ation :at he prophesi$ 9 ?is connection1 & :i* ,i h liv$ to see ev5 m ?an realiz$4 ,nor 0 8 conv]sation conf9$ to 8 inv5tion4 ,a di/+ui%$ arti/1 an educat$ g5tleman1 an obs]vant travel]1 x 0 delightful to he> him talk1 & at ?is late day ,i recall few m pleasant ev5+s ?an ! only "o ,i pass$ 9 8 company4 ,( c\rse1 my fir/ visit ! next morn+ 0 to ,mr4 ,mc,lane to make my report4 ,by ?is "t ,i _h become almo/ z en?usia/ic z ,mr4 ,morse himself1 & repeat$ :at _h pass$ betwe5 u4 ,i soon saw t ,mr4 ,mc,lane 0 becom+ z eag] = ! con/ruction ( ! l9e to ,wa%+ton z ,mr4 ,morse c\ld desire4 ,he ent]$ w>mly into ! _s ( ! ?+1 & laugh$ he>tily1 if n incr$ul\sly1 :5 ,i told him t al?\gh he _h be5 ,m9i/] to ,engl&1 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 & ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 8 "n w\ld be =gott51 :ile t ( ,morse w\ld nev] cease to be rememb]$ ) gratitude & praise4 ,we !n consid]$ ! "q z to ! "r ( ! company to p]mit ! l9e to be laid 9 ! b$ ( ! road--! plan ( con/ruction at t "t be+ to bury 9 a tr5* "s eight or t5 in*es deep a half in* lead5 tube conta9+ ! wrapp$ wire t 0 to =m ! electric circuit4 ,ab\t ?is !re 01 9 my op9ion1 no d\bt1 & x 0 n long aft] t ! "w ( con/ruction comm5c$4 ,i met ,mr4 ,morse f "t to "t :ile he liv$1 & (t5 recurr$ to ! ev5+'s discussion at my h\se 9 ,baltimore4 ,! above is ! sub/ance ( :at ,i h m ?an once relat$ to o!r p]sons4 ,i hope y w p]si/ 9 y\r design ( putt+ on pap] y\r own v int]e/+ recollections 9 ?is connection1 & if :at ,i h contribut$ ( m9e is ( s]vice to y1 ,i %all be mu* pleas$4 ,mo/ truly y\rs1 ,,john ,h4,b4 ,,latrobe4 ,m>* #c1 #ahha4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,kravogl ,,electric ,,motor4 ,at ! orig9 ( e sci5ce1 ( :atev] nature x may be1 !re is always a fruitless p]iod1 ( great] or less l5g?1 *>act]iz$ by ! w>f>e ( a few sup]ior m9ds aga9/ g5]al apa?y4 ,! f9e/ discov]ies pass unp]ceiv$1 s to speak1 s9ce !y _c cross ! limits ( a n>r[ circle2 & x (t5 happ5s t !y fall into oblivion be=e !y h be5 s]i\sly judg$4 ,mean:ile1 a sl[ progress is imp]ceptibly made1 &1 9 measure z !oretical pr9ciples m cle>ly dis5gage !mselves1 a few indu/rial applications spr+ up & h ! effect ( awak5+ curiosity4 ,an impulse is ?us giv51 & f ?is mom5t a movem5t 9 advance goes on increas+ at a headlong pace f day to day4 ,) electricity ?is p]iod has be5 ( comp>atively %ort duration1 s9ce sc>cely a c5tury & a half sep>ate u f ! fir/ exp]im5ts made 9 ?is l9e ( rese>*4 ,n[ t x has truly tak5 its place 9 a rank ) ! o!r sci5ces1 we l to g back to ! hesitations ( ! fir/ h\r1 & trace1 /ep by /ep1 ! hi/ory ( ! progress made1 s z to assign to ea* "o t portion ( ! m]it t belongs to him 9 ! common "w4 ,:5 we ?us ca/ a retrospective glance we f9d ourselves 9 ! pres5ce ( "o /range fact1 & t is ! simultane\sness ( discov]ies4 ,t an absolutely orig9al idea1 f]tile 9 practical consequ5ces1 %\ld rise at a giv5 mom5t 9 a f9e bra9 is well2 we admire ! discov]y1 &1 9 spite ( u1 a little surprise m+les ) our admiration4 ,b is x n a truly curi\s ?+ t sev]al individuals %\ld h _h at ne>ly ! same "t t idea t 0 s a/oni%+ 9 "o8 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a fact t ! hi/ory ( electrical inv5tions (f]s m ?an "o example (4 ,no "o ignores ! fact t ! inv5tion ( ! telephone gave rise to a notori\s lawsuit1 two inv5tors hav+ _h ?is +5i\s app>atus pat5t$ on ! same day & at ne>ly ! same h\r4 ,?is is "o example among a ?\s&4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( dynamo-electric ma*9es x is an equally delicate matt] to fix ^u ! "o to :om belongs ! honor ( hav+ fir/ cle>ly conceiv$ ! possibility ( eng5d]+ cont9u\s curr5ts4 ,we d n wi% to take up ?is debate nor to g ov] ! hi/ory ( ! "q aga94 ,e "o kn[s t ! fir/ cont9u\s curr5t electric g5]ator ^: =m 0 practical is due to ,z5obius ,gramme1 & dates back to ,july1 #ahga1 an epo* at :i* appe>$ a memoir 7entitl$ ,note ^u a magneto-electric ma*9e t produces cont9u\s curr5ts7 t 0 read to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces by ,mr4 ,jam94 ,t5 ye>s previ\s1 ,pac9otti _h _h a glimpse ( ! ph5om5on1 & ( its practical realization1 b 0 un=tunately unable to appreciate ! importance ( 8 discov]y & ! b5efit t might be reap$ f x4 ,x is ( slight consequ5ce :e!r ,gramme knew ( ?is exp]im5t or n1 = ! glory t atta*es to 8 "n c\ld n be dim9i%$ = all t4 ,b an int]e/+ fact t we propose to dwell ^u n[ has rec5tly be5 br\ght to light 9 an electrical review publi%$ at ,vi5na4#a ,x results f docum5ts ^: au!nticity _c be d\bt$ t1 z f> back z #ahfg1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,pfaundl]1 a pr(essor at ,innsbruck1 v cle>ly ann\nc$ ! rev]sibility ( a magneto-electric motor con/ruct$ by ,kravogl1 a me*anician ( ! same place1 & t he succe$$ "s "t be=e ,gramme 9 obta9+ cont9u\s curr5ts4 ,footnote #a3 ,zeits*rift des ,electrote*nis*5 ,v]e9es 9 ,wi51 ,july1 #ahhc4 ,! ,kravogl motor t figur$ at ! ,univ]sal ,exhibition ( #ahfg is b little kn[n1 & x is n[ v difficult to obta9 draw+s ( x4 ,:at is c]ta9 is t ?is motor is an application ( ! prop]ties ( ! sol5oid1 &1 f ?is /&po9t1 resembles ! ,bessolo motor t 0 pat5t$ 9 #ahee4 ,we may figure ! app>atus to our m9d v well if we suppose t 9 ! ,gramme r+ a half & almo/ two-?irds ( ! core are remov$1 & ! spirals are movable ar\nd ! said core4 ,if a curr5t be s5t into a portion ( ! spirals only1 & 9 su* a way t only half ( ! core be expos$1 ! latt] w move ) respect to ! bobb9 or ! bobb9 ) respect to ! core1 accord+ z we suppose ! sol5oid or ! bobb9 fix$4 ,9 ! fir/ case we h a ,bessolo motor1 & 9 ! second a ,kravogl "o4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a cont9u\s motion x is only necess>y to all[ ! curr5t to circulate successively 9 ! diff]5t portions ( ! sol5oid4 ,x is difficult to keep ! core 9 place1 s9ce x is unrea*able1 be+ plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! bobb94 ,kravogl solv$ ?is difficulty by con/ruct+ a holl[ core into :i* he p\r$ melt$ lead4 ,?is heavy piece1 m\nt$ ^u roll]s1 assum$ a position ( equilibrium t result$ f its weight1 f friction1 & f magnetic attraction4 ,b = a curr5t ( giv5 int5sity ?is position1 once rea*$1 did n v>y1 & s necessitat$ a simple adju/m5t ( ! rubb]s4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 ) a some:at l>ge numb] ( sections1 ! pol>ity ( ! core 0 ne>ly con/ant4 ,! spirals z a :ole 7 atta*$ to a s(t iron armature t _h ! effect ( clos+ up ! l9es ( =ces & =m+ a %ell1 s to speak4 ,l ,bessolo1 ,kravogl nev] ?\ght ( mak+ any?+ b a motor1 & did n p]ceive t 8 ma*9e 0 rev]sible4 ,x results f "s correspond5ce betwe5 ,dr4 ,a4 ,von ,walt5h(5 & ,mr4 ,l4 ,pfaundl] at ?is epo* t ! latt] cle>ly saw ! possibility ( utiliz+ ?is motor z a curr5t g5]ator4 ,"u date ( ,novemb] #i1 #ahfg1 he wrote1 9 speak+ ( ! ,kravogl motor1 :i* _h j be5 tak5 to ,innsbruck 9 ord] to s5d x to ,p>is4 ,i regret t ,i %all n be able to see x any m1 = ,i %\ld h lik$ to try to make x act 9 an opposite direction1 t is to say1 to produce a curr5t or an electric light by means ( me*anical "w4 ,a little m ?an two ye>s lat] ^! exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ out on a l>g] motor con/ruct$ by ,kravogl 9 #ahfi1 & ,mr4 ,pfaundl] 0 enabl$ to write z foll[s3 ,^u runn+ ! ma*9e by h& we obta9 a curr5t ^: en]gy is t ( "o ,buns5 elem5t4 ,?is lett] is dat$ ,febru>y #aa1 #ahgj1 t is to say1 x is a ye> ant]ior to ! note ( ,gramme4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( ! hi/oric int]e/ t atta*es to ! "q1 we d n ?9k x w be out ( place to reproduce "h ! consid]ations t guid$ ,pr(4 ,pfaundl] 9 ! rese>*es t l$ him to conv]t ! ,kravogl motor into a dynamo-electric ma*9e4 ,let u consid] two magnetiz$ b>s1 db & bd'1 plac$ end to end & surr\nd$ by a cyl9drical armature =m+ a %ell1 ?is armature be+ likewise suppos$ to be a p]man5t magnet & to pres5t poles ( contr>y direction opposite ! poles ( ! b>s4 ,= ! sake ( great] simplicity ?is %ell is repres5t$ by a "p only 9 ! figure1 s n n s4 ,if1 into a magnetic field ?us =m$1 we pass a spiral f left to "r1 ! spiral w be trav]s$ by a curr5t ^: direction w *ange accord+ to ! way 9 :i* ! mov+ is done4 ,x is only necess>y to apply ,l5z's law to see t a rev]sal ( ! curr5ts w occur at ! po9ts1 a & c1 ! direction ( ! curr5t be+ repres5t$ by arr[s 9 ! figure4 ,if we suppose a cont9ual displacem5t ( ! spirals f left to "r1 we %all collect a cont9u\s curr5t by plac+ two rubb]s at a & c4 ,ei!r ! core or ! %ell may be replac$ by a piece ( s(t iron4 ,9 su* a case ?is piece w move ) ! spiral & keep its poles t are develop$ by induction fix$ 9 space4 ,f ?is1 9 ord] to rea* a dynamo-electric ma*9e x is necess>y to try to develop ! en]gy ( ! magnetic field by ! action ( ! curr5t itself4 ,if we suppose ! core to be ( s(t iron1 & make a clos] /udy ( ! action ( ! curr5t z reg>ds ! pol>ity t occurs "u ! influ5ce ( ! poles1 s1 n1 s1 we %all see t f d to a & f b to c ! curr5t is contr>y1 :ile t f a to b & f c to d' x is favorable to ! developm5t ( su* pol>ity4 ,9 %ort1 ) a spiral mov+ f d to d' ! result+ effect is nil1 a fact1 moreov]1 t is self-evid5t4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 if we suppose ! %ell1 z well z ! core1 to be ( s(t iron1 we %all obta9 a feeble curr5t due to ! pres5ce ( reman5t magnetism2 b ?is magnetism w n be able to cont9ue increas+ "u ! influ5ce ( ! curr5t4 ,to solve ?is difficulty two means pres5t !mselves3 7#a7 to cause a1 favorable magnetic curr5t & act ^u ! armature1 & 7#b7 to suppress su* portions ( ! curr5t 9 ! spirals z are injuri\s 9 effect4 ,! fir/ solution 0 ?\ght ( by ,gramme 9 #ahga1 & is repres5t$ diagramatically 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,! second is due to ,pr(4 ,pfaundl]1 & dates back to #ahgj4 ,! core is cut ?r\gh ! c5t] 7,fig4 #c71 & ! portion to ! "r is suppress$2 ! curr5t is int]rupt$ betwe5 da & cd'1 & is clos$ only betwe5 a & c 7v1 ,fig4 #a74 ,x results f ?is arrangem5t t1 "u ! action ( ! curr5t1 ! pol>ity due to reman5t magnetism does no?+ b increase4 ,x suffices !n = b little reman5t magnetism to prime ! ma*9e2 ! pol>ity ( ! %ell cont9ues to increase1 & ! en]gy ( ! magnetic field1 & consequ5tly ( ! curr5t1 has = a limit only ! saturation ( ! s(t iron4 ,if1 n[1 we curve ! core1 ! spirals1 & ! armature into a circle1 we h a ,gramme or a ,pfaundl] ma*9e1 accord+ z we consid] ,fig4 #b or ,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,?is latt] app>atus has 9 ?is case ! =m %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,! spiral1 s m b1 is movable1 & ! core1 ,n o s1 is kept 9 a position ( equilibrium by virtue ( its weight1 & is provid$ ) roll]s4 ,= ! sake ( great] cle>ness1 ! front "p ( ! armature is suppos$ to be remov$4 ,! curr5t does n circulate 9 ! spirals to ! "r ( ! diamet]1 ,w ,o1 :i* latt] is n absolutely v]tical4 ,! position ( ! rubb]s & armature is regulat$ once = all4 ,we d n "k j :at 7 ! means devis$ by ,kravogl to suppress ! curr5t 9 ! sph]es to ! "r4 ,at all ev5ts1 x is probable t ! sy/em has gr[n old s9ce ,gramme inv5t$ 8 collector4 ,9 ! application ( ! ,kravogl motor to ! g5]ation ( cont9u\s curr5ts1 ,pr(essor ,pfaundl] n[ proposes to +5i\sly utilize ! ,gramme collector4 ,9 su* a case ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #e w\ld be adopt$4 ,let u suppose an ord9>y collector hav+ z _m plates z !re are sections 9 ! r+1 ^! plates be+ connect$ z usual ) ! entrance & exit wires ( ! sections4 ,! diametrically opposite t\*es t are 9 ! l9e1 ,w ,o1 are divid$1 & "o ( ! halves is connect$ at ! entrance1 c a' 7,fig4 #d71 ) ! correspond+ section1 :ile ! o!r communicates ) ! exit1 c' a1 ( ! neighbor+ section4 ,ea* ( ^! halves is prolong$ by a piece ( metal b5t into ! =m ( an arc ( a circle & embrac+ a little less ?an a semi-circumf]5ce4 ,betwe5 ^! prolongations !re is an insulat+ "p4 ,9 ! rot>y motion ( ! spiral1 at lea/ "o ( ! t\*es is always outside ( ! arc compris$ betwe5 ! bru%es1 ,r4 ,9 ord] to secure a cont9uity ( ! circuit 9 ! effective arc1 ,w ,s o1 x is only necess>y to arrange a rubb]1 ,m1 9 su* a way z to e/abli% a communication betwe5 ! two p>ts ( ! divid$ t\* z soon z ?is latt] ent]s ! arc "u consid]ation4 ,9 ord] to produce a curr5t 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s %[n 9 ,fig4 #d1 ! spiral & axle mu/ revolve f "r to left4 ,9 ?is case ! rubb]1 ,m1 occupies ! position %[n 9 ! same figure1 ! bru%es embrac+ an arc ( a little less ?an #ahj4 ,z soon z ! l[] t\* comes 9 contact ) ! bru%1 ,r1 :5 ! revolution is be+ effect$ f left to "r1 ! rubb]1 ,m1 e/abli%es a communication betwe5 ! two halves t h until n[ be5 isolat$1 & ! curr5t is no long] int]rupt$4 ,! second t\* dur+ ?is "t is at any po9t :atev] ( ! arc1 ,w ,n o1 & ! spirals correspond+ to ! latt] arc outside ( ! circuit4 ,9 %ort1 ?anks to ! rubb]1 ,m1 we h an ord9>y ,gramme collector 9 t portion ( ! circuit compris$ betwe5 ! bru%es1 & a collector ) a breakage ( ! circuit 9 ! portion to ! "r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,?is type ( ma*9e is entirely !oretical4 ,9 ! app>atus us$ = ,pr(4 ,pfaundl]'s exp]im5ts 9 #ahgj1 ! armature revolv$ ) ! sol5oid4 ,! core & armature 7 ( s(t iron1 & ! core 0 arrang$ 9 a mann] analog\s to ! prec$+1 & rema9$ 9 place "u ! action ( its weight1 & ! %ell1 =m+ a complete circle1 revolv$ ) poles fix$ 9 space4 ,practically1 ! ma*9e t we h j describ$ w\ld prove inconv5i5t to realize1 & w\ld pres5t s]i\s inconv5i5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x seems to u q difficult to transmit ! motion ( ! sol5oid to ! axle1 suppos+ ! =m] to revolve )9 ! armature4 ,9 ! second place1 consid]able friction w\ld surely occur betwe5 ! spirals & core1 & ! axle1 be+ submitt$ to a lat]al /ress1 w\ld be plac$ 9 a poor condition = "w4 ,x is ev5 all[able to d\bt :e!r su* a type c\ld be practically got up4 ,at all ev5ts1 no trial has z yet be5 made ( x4 ,comp>$ ) ! ,gramme ma*9e1 f an absolutely !oretical po9t ( view1 ! ,pfaundl] app>atus pres5ts und\bt$ advantages4 ,a !oretically p]fect dynamo electric ma*9e w\ld be "o 9 :i* !re 0 a complete reciprocity betwe5 ! magnetiz+ action ( ! curr5t & ! inductive action ( ! magnetic field4 ,n[1 su* is n ! case 9 ! ,gramme ma*9e4 ,9 ?is app>atus ! s(t iron core is at ! same "t a magnet ?r\gh favorable induction & a disadvantage\s electro-magnet4 ,?is d\ble pol>ization is only rem$i$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by ! adju/m5t ( ! bru%es4 ,9 ! ,pfaundl] ma*9e1 on ! contr>y1 ! electro-magnetism & magnetism ?r\gh induction act 9 ! same direction1 & concur 9 effect+ a pol>ization t favors ! production ( ! curr5t4 ,look$ at x 9 ?is light1 ! latt] ma*9e m ne>ly approa*es ! type ( p]fection ?an does t ( ,gramme4 ,b we mu/ n =get t su* qualities are purely !oretical4 ,9 practice ! be/ ma*9e is t 9 :i* ! copp] is be/ utiliz$1 t is to say1 t :i* ) a giv5 weight ( ?is metal furni%es ! mo/ "w4 ,n[1 ?is is c]ta9ly n ! case 9 ! ,pfaundl] ma*9e1 = "h half or m ?an half ( ! r+ is in]t--a defect :i* is app>5t at fir/ sight4 ,x results f ?is t z soon z we propose to obta9 an electromotive =ce1 h[ev] slight x be1 we mu/ get x ) ma*9es ( l>ge dim5sions4 ,n[1 x is p]missible to believe t "u su* circum/ances 7tak+ into consid]ation ! complication ( me*anical means t ! con/ruction ( su* app>atus necessitates1 & ! great friction t occurs7 x w\ld be impossible to obta9 practical rot>y velocities4 ,comp>+ 8 ma*9e ) ,gramme's1 ,pr(4 ,pfaundl] expresses ! idea t betwe5 !m !re is ! same analogy z !re is betwe5 a con/ant pressure & an expansion eng9e4 ,) cyl9d]s ( equal diamet]s ! "w p]=m$ by ! =m] ( ^! is great] ?an t done by ! second1 b 9 ! latt] ! expansive =ce ( ! /eam is bett] utiliz$4 ,?is comp>ison seems to u to be m +5i\s ?an exact4 ,w\ld x n be com+ ne>] to ! tru? if we 7 to suppose a case ( a hydraulic motor ^: p]=mance cont9u$ dim9i%+ ) ! height ( ! fall1 & w\ld x n be advantage\s "u su* circum/ances to utilize only a portion ( ! fall = ! purpose ( increas+ ! motor's p]=mance8 ,?is ma*9e1 h[ev]1 z be=e /at$1 has nev] z yet be5 con/ruct$1 s t exp]im5tal data relative to its mode ( work+ are want+4 ,x is especially int]e/+ z reg>ds its orig91 :i* dates back to an epo* at :i* rese>*es on ! dynamo electric ma*9e 7 at _! heat4 ,x is 9 its hi/orical aspect t x is prop] to reg>d x1 & x is f su* a po9t ( view t we h deem$ x well to say a few words ab\t x 9 ?is place4--,la ,lumi]e ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bornh>dt',s ,,electric ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,bla/+ ,,9 ,,m9es4 ,we %all n attempt to pass 9 review ! sev]al app>atus t h hi!rto be5 devis$ = ignit+ bla/s 9 m9+ op]ations1 b %all simply describe 9 ?is place a ma*9e rec5tly inv5t$ = ?is purpose by ,mr4 ,bornh>dt1 an eng9e] to ! ,gr& ,duke ( ,brunswick4 ,?is app>atus 7%[n 9 ! accompany+ engrav+s7 consi/s ess5tially ( two h>d-rubb] disks1 ,a 7,figs4 #b & #c71 key$ to an iron axle1 & ( two rubb]s1 ,b1 t are =m$ ( sk9 & are held aga9/ ! disks by small spr+s1 ,r2 motion is communicat$ to ! axle1 a1 by means ( a pair ( ge>+s1 a & b1 & a crank1 f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bornh>dt',s ,,electric ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,bla/+ ,,9 ,,m9es4 ,ea* disk revolves betwe5 two metallic r+s1 c1 provid$ ) po9ts t attract & collect 9 ,leyd5 j>s1 ,d1 ! electricity produc$ by ! friction4 ,= dis*>g+ ! cond5s]s !re is employ$ a manipulator =m$ ( a rod1 mm1 :i* c be act$ ^u1 f ! ext]ior1 by means ( a button1 k4 ,^u br++ ! ball1 m1 ( ! rod 9 contact ) ! ball1 p1 ( ! cond5s]1 ! lev] 7:i* !n takes ! position %[n by ! dott$ l9e7 cont9ues to rema9 9 connection ) a small r+1 q1 ?r\gh a special spr+4 ,ano!r r+1 t1 is connect$ 9 ! same way ) ! ext]nal armature ( ! cond5s]4 ,^u connect+ ! r+s1 p & t1 by a wire to :i* c>tridges are atta*$1 any numb] ( ! latt] may be ignit$4 ,! p>ts t we h j enum]at$ are inclos$ 9 a t9 box cov]$ ) a wood5 cas+1 ,p4 ,betwe5 ! two !re is ins]t$ a %eet ( h>d rubb] 9 ord] to prev5t a loss ( electricity2 ! :ole is held 9 place by /rong spr+s4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! normal /ate ( ! cond5s]1 a scale consi/+ ( #ae metallic buttons to give ! dim5sions ( ! sp>ks1 is arrang$ at ,x4 ,?is scale is capable ( be+ connect$ ) ! r+s1 q & t1 by means ( *a9s2 :5 ! sp>k obta9$ aft] #ae or #bj revolutions consid]ably exce$s ! int]vals ( ! scale1 x is a sure ?+ t ! ma*9e is 9 a prop] /ate4 ,9 ord] to prep>e ! app>atus = c>riage1 ! w9* is tak5 (f & plac$ 9 ! comp>tm5t1 m1 :i* is clos$ by means ( a door1 ,q4 ,figs4 #e & #f %[ ! arrangem5t ( ! dynamite c>tridges & wires 9 ! bla/ hole4 ,figs4 #g to #aj %[ diff]5t arrangem5ts ( ! ignit+ wires4 ,figs4 #aa & #ab give ! g5]al arrangem5t = ignit+ a numb] ( c>tridges simultane\sly by means ( ! electric ma*9e4 ,fig4 #ac %[s ! arrangem5t :]e p[d] is employ$4 ,fig4 #ad %[s ! arrangem5t ( a horizontal hole4--,annales ,indu/rielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improv$ ,,electric ,,fire ,,al>m4 ,! object ( ?is app>atus is to close an electric circuit :5 ! temp]ature ( a room rises above a c]ta9 po9t4 ,_m devices h be5 inv5t$ = effect+ ?is object1 ea* ( :i* h _! own advantages or disadvantages4 ,! inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,prit*ett enables ! requir$ result to be obta9$ 9 a v satisfactory mann]4 ,! app>atus consi/s 7z %[n by ! figure7 ( a long glass vessel conta9+ air2 connect$ to ?is vessel !re is a glass tube fill$ ) m]cury4 ,! :ole is m\nt$ on a metal cradle1 :i* turns on pivots4 ,accord+ to ! position :i* ! glass vessel & its adjuncts occupy 9 ! cradle 7?is position be+ adju/able by means ( a ?umb-screw1 se5 at ! upp] "p ( ! cradle71 s w ! same h a t5d5cy to rock longitud9ally ov] to "o side or ! o!r4 ,n[1 if we suppose ! position to be su* t ! "r h& end ( ! glass vessel is depress$1 & ! left h& end rais$1 !n if ! vessel becomes subject$ to an elevation ( temp]ature1 ! air inside ! same w become exp&$1 & ! m]cury column 9 ! tube w be driv5 ov] to ! left1 & w rise 9 ! turn$ up end ( ! tube4 ,?is w cause ! left h& bran* ( ! glass vessel1 & its atta*m5ts1 to become increas$ 9 weight1 :ile ! "r h& bran* w become proportionally light]2 ! consequ5ce ( ?is w be t ! vessel & its cradle w cant ov]1 & by fall+ on an electrical contact w close a circuit & s\nd an al>m4 ,x is obvi\s t ! app>atus is equally well adapt$ = indicat+ a dim9ution z well z an increase ( temp]ature1 = if ! electrical contact be plac$ "u ! "r h& portion ( ! cradle1 & ! latt] be adju/$ s t 9 its normal position its left h& portion is depress$1 !n :5 ! glass vessel becomes cool$1 ! air 9 x w contract1 & ! m]cury w fall 9 ! turn$-up portion ( ! tube be=e ref]r$ to1 & w rise 9 ! limb connect$ to ! vessel1 consequ5tly ! cradle & glass vessel w cant ov] 9 ! rev]se way to t :i* x did 9 ! fir/ case4 ,ow+ to ! surface :i* ! glass vessel exposes1 ! air inside quickly responds to any ext]nal *ange ( temp]ature1 consequ5tly ! app>atus is v s5sitive4 ,ano!r important feature is ! fact t ! cradle & vessel 9 cant+ ov] acquires a c]ta9 mom5tum1 & ?us ! contact made becomes v c]ta94 ,illu/ration3 ,,prit*ett',s ,,electric ,,fire ,,al>m4 ,mr4 ,prit*ett proposes t 8 app>atus %all give ext]nal evid5ce outside ! h\se by r++ a gong1 & by dropp+ a semaphore arm releas$ by an electromagnet4 ,he also proposes 7z has (t5 be5 sugge/$7 t a wat] supply %all be automatically turn$ on4--,electrical ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,/&>d ,,!rmopile4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,gore1 ,f4,r4,s41 has inv5t$ an improv$ !rmopile = measur+ small electromotive =ces4 ,x consi/s ( ab\t #cjj pairs ( horizontal1 sl5d]1 p>allel wires ( iron & ,g]man silv]1 ! =m] be+ cov]$ ) cotton4 ,!y are m\nt$ on a wood5 frame4 ,ab\t #a 94 ( ! opposite ends ( ! wires are b5t d[nw>d to a v]tical position to enable !m to dip into liquids at diff]5t temp]atures conta9$ 9 long n>r[ tr\ghs2 ! liquids be+ non-conductors1 su* z melt$ p>aff9 = ! hot junctions1 & ! non-volatile petroleum1 kn[n z ?9 ma*9]y oil4 ,! electromotive =ce obta9$ v>ies ) ! temp]ature2 a pile ( #bie pairs hav+ a resi/ance ( #ie4f ohms at #af deg4 ,c5t4 gave ) a diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( #ajj deg4 ,c5t4 an electromotive =ce ( #j4ggbi volts1 or ) #acj deg4 ,c5t4 an electromotive =ce ( #a4jje volt4 ,ea* elem5t1 !re=e1 equal$ #j4jjjjbfb volt = ea* degree ,c5t4 diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,on hav+ be5 v]ifi$ ) a /&>d voltaic cell ! app>atus becomes itself a /&>d1 especially = small electromotive =ces4 ,x is capable ( measur+ ! #a_/cdhfa "p ( a volt4 ,= high] electromotive =ces ?an a volt1 sev]al ( ^! piles w\ld h to be connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,! fractional electromotive =ce is obta9$ by means ( a slid+ contact :i* cuts out s _m pairs z is requir$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,telephonic ,,transmission ,,)\t ,,receiv]s4 ,! annual meet+ ( ! ,fr5* ,society ( ,physics1 ! success ( :i* is cont9ually increas+1 took place ?is ye> 9 ! salons ( ! ,obs]vatory1 :i* 7 k9dly plac$ at ! ,society's disposal by ,admiral ,m\*ez4 ,!re 7 ?ree consecutive sessions1 ! "o ( ,tuesday1 ,april #ae1 be+ set ap>t = ! memb]s ( ! ,association1 ! "o ( ! #af? = ! invit$ gue/s ( ,admiral ,m\*ez1 & t ( ! #ag? = ! invit$ gue/s ( ! ,society4 ,! salons 7 p>tially light$ by ! ,siem5s diff]5tial arc1 cont9u\s curr5t lamps1 & p>tially by ! ,swan inc&esc5t lamp suppli$ by a di/ribut+ ma*9e t p]mitt$ ( ! lamps be+ light$ & ext+ui%$ at w )\t *ang+ ! normal op]ation ( all ! re/4 ,_m app>atus figur$ at ?is exhibition1 b we %all on ! pres5t occasion m]ely call att5tion to ^? t pres5t$ a c]ta9 "* ( novelty or ( orig9ality4 ,among ! app>atus t we %all res]ve a description ( = ! pres5t 0 ,messrs4 ,ri*>d ,bros4' regi/]+ !rmomet] design$ = ! ,conc>neau laboratory1 an in/rum5t :i*1 :5 sunk at "o mile f ! coa/1 & to a dep? ( #dj met]s1 w give a diagram ( ! temp]ature ( ! ocean at t dep?2 & ,mr4 ,hospitali]'s cont9u\s electrical indicators1 design$ = mak+ kn[n f a di/ance su* me*anical or physical ph5om5a z velocities1 levels1 temp]atures1 pressures1 etc4 ,among ! mo/ important ( ! app>atus exhibit$ we mu/ reckon ,mr4 ,cailletet's devices = liquefy+ gases1 & ^? ( ,mr4 ,masc>t = det]m9+ ! ohm4 ,! results obta9$ by ,mr4 ,masc>t 7:i* h be5 submitt$ to ! ,committee on ,unities ( ! ,congress ( ,electricians n[ 9 session at ,p>is71 are s5sibly concordant ) ^? obta9$ indep5d5tly 9 ,engl& by ,"l ,rayleigh4 ,ev]y?+ leads to ! hope1 !n1 t a rapid & def9ite solution w be giv5 ( ?is important "q ( electric unities1 & t no?+ fur!r w prev5t ! int]national developm5t ( ! ,c4,g4,s4 sy/em4 ,mr4 ,jules ,duboscq made a numb] ( v successful projections1 & we p>ticul>ly rem>k$ ! peculi> exp]im5t made 9 conjunction ) ,mr4 ,p>9aud1 t gave 9 projection two l spectra produc$ by ! same prism1 & :i*1 ?r\gh sup]position1 7 capable ( increas+ ! int5sity ( ! colors1 or1 on ! contr>y1 ( recon/itut+ :ite light4 ,among ! optical applications we may cite ,mr4 ,leon ,laur5t's app>atus = controll+ plane1 p>allel1 p]p5dicul>1 & oblique surfaces1 & magic mirrors obta9$ ) an ord9>y light2 ,mr4 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson's app>atus = demon/rat+ ! propagation ( electro-magnetic waves 9 e!r 7accord+ to ,maxwell's !ory71 z well z "s new pol>iz+ prisms2 & a mode ( light+ ! microscope 7pres5t$ by ,mr4 ,yvon71 t 0 q analog\s to ! "o employ$ m ?an a ye> ago by ,dr4 ,van ,heurck1 director ( ! ,botanical ,g>d5 ( ,anv]s4 ,ac\/ics 7 repres5t$ by an electro-magnetic brake sir5 ( ,mr4 ,b\rb\ze2 ,konig's app>atus = ! syn!sis ( s\nds2 & ,mr4 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson's cymatograph--a p5dulum app>atus = demon/rat+ ! ph5om5a ( beats4 ,x 0 electricity aga9 t occupi$ ! l>ge/ space 9 ! programme ( ! session4 ,app>atus = tea*+ are assum+ great] & great] importance e day1 & ! exhibit ( ,mr4 ,ducretet includ$ a l>ge numb] ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ^!4 ,! h\se ( ,breguet exhibit$ on a r$uc$ scale ! magnific5t exp]im5ts ( ,ga/on ,plante1 :]e9 #cbj lead5 wire second>y elem5ts *>g$ = quantity ) #c ,daniell elem5ts1 & aft]w>d c\pl$ = t5sion1 s]v$ to *>ge a rheo/atic ma*9e =m$ ( #ej cond5s]s c\pl$ = quantity4 ,^! latt]1 c\pl$ anew = t5sion1 furni%$ ^u be+ dis*>g$ a sp>k due to a diff]5ce ( pot5tial ( ab\t #cb1jjj volts t pres5t$ all ! *>act]s ( ! sp>k produc$ by induction coils on ! ma*9es s improp]ly call$ /atic4 ,f9ally1 we may cite ! app>atus arrang$ by ,mr4 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson = /udy+ ! developm5t ( curr5ts 9 magneto-electric ma*9es4 ,! inv5tor /udies ! influ5ce ( ! =ms ( ! inductors & armatures ( ma*9es by means ( an arrangem5t t all[s him to *ange ! r+s or armatures at w & to take out ! induc$ bobb9s 9 ord] to s\nd e "p ( ! magnetic field4 ,^u giv+ ! armature an angul> motion limit$ by two /ops1 !re develops a c]ta9 quantity ( electricity t may be measur$ by caus+ x to trav]se an appropriate balli/ic galvanomet]4 ,messrs4 ,deprez & ,d',arsonval's galvanomet] answ]s v well = ?is purpose1 & its ap]iodicity1 :i* causes x quickly to return to z]o z soon z ! induc$ curr5t ceases1 p]mits ( a l>ge numb] ( read+s be+ tak5 )9 a v %ort space ( "t4 ,measur+ app>atus 7 repres5t$ by a new & v elegant arrangem5t ( ,sir ,william ,?omson's reflect+ galvanomet]s1 due to ,mr4 ,j4 ,c>p5ti]4 ,! m\nt+ adopt$ by ,mr4 ,c>p5ti] p]mits ( an easy removal ( ! bobb9s & ( an in/antane\s sub/itution !re=4 ,! galvanometric "p1 compos$ ( ! ne$les & mirror1 !re=e rema9s entirely free1 ?us all[+ ( its be+ v]ifi$1 & mak+ x conv5i5t to atta* ! silk5 fib]4 ,mr4 ,c>p5ti] has1 moreov]1 adopt$ = all ! m9or app>atus a transp>5t celluloid scale :i* simplifies !m1 facilitates obs]vations1 & r5d]s ! use ( reflection almo/ indu/rial4 ,we %all complete our enum]ation ( ! measur+ app>atus by cit+ ,ducretet's non-oscillat+ galvanomet]1 ,sir ,william ,?omson's amp]emet]s1 voltamet]s1 ohmmet]s1 & mhosmet]s1 con/ruct$ & exhibit$ by ,breguet1 & a new ap]iodic galvanoscope ( ,mr4 ,mai*e4 ,mr4 ,baudot exhibit$ ! rec5t improvem5ts t he has made 9 8 multiplex pr9t+ telegraph1 & ,m4 ,b\det ( ,p>is %[$ a new sy/em ( telephone transmission by subm>9e cables4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,diagram ,,exhibit+ ,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,= ,,telephonic ,,transmissions ,,)\t ,a ,,receiv]4 ,f9ally1 we %all conclude our enum]ation by ref]r+ to ! curiosities4 ,! h\se ( ,siem5s exhibit$ a m9iature electric railway actuat$ by a new model ( ,reyni] accumulators2 ,m4 ,mai*e op]at$ a sy/em ( musical telephonic auditions t diff]$ only 9 detail f ^? in/itut$ by ,mr4 ,ad] at ! exhibition ( #ahha2 & ,mr4 ,hospitali] pres5t$ a new =m ( an exp]im5t devis$ by ,mr4 ,giltay1 consi/+ ( a telephonic transmission ( s\nds )\t ! use ( receiv]s4 ,mr4 ,giltay's exp]im5t is no?+ b ,mr4 ,dun&'s speak+ cond5s] )\t ! cond5s]4 ,a glance at ,fig4 #a w %[ h[ ?+s are arrang$ = ! exp]im5t4 ,! transmitt+ sy/em comprises two di/9ct circuits1 viz43 7#a7 "o =m$ ( a pile1 ,p1 ( #b or #c ,leclan*e elem5ts1 or ( #a or #b small siz$ accumulators1 an ,ad] microphane transmitt]1 ,m1 & ! induct+ wire ( a small induction coil1 ,b2 & 7#b7 ! o!r =m$ ( ! induc$ wire ( ! coil1 ,b1 ( a pile1 ,p'1 ( #aj or #ab ,leclan*e elem5ts1 & ( a l9e ^: extremities t]m9ate at ,r1 9 two ord9>y electro-m$ical h&les4 ,) ?is arrangem5t ! exp]im5t p]=m$ is z foll[s3 ,:5 any "o speaks or s+s 9 front ( ! transmitt]1 ,t1 :ile two p]sons1 ,a & ,b1 ea* hav+ "o h& glov$1 are hold+ ! h&les 9 ! unglov$ h&1 x is only necess>y = ,a to place 8 glov$ h& ^u ,b's e>1 or = ! latt] to place 8 h& ^u ,a's1 or = ea* to place 8 h& on ! o!r's e> simultane\sly1 9 ord] t ,a or ,b1 or ,a & ,b simultane\sly1 may he> a voice issu+ f ! glove4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ,mr4 ,giltay's exp]im5t is expla9$ l ,dun&'s speak+ cond5s]--! h& ( ,a & ! e> ( ,b "h con/itut+ ! armature ( an elem5t>y cond5s] 9 :i* ! glove p]=ms ! role ( dielectric4 ,^u repeat+ ?is exp]im5t at ! laboratory ( ! ,s*ool ( ,physics & ,indu/rial ,*emi/ry ( ,p>is1 x has be5 f\nd t ! glove maybe replac$ by a %eet ( pla9 or p>aff9$ pap]4 ,9 ?is case1 :5 two p]sons are hold+ ! h&les1 & h _! e>s appli$1 "o aga9/ ! o!r1 if a %eet ( pap] be int]pos$1 airs or words w be he>d to proce$ !refrom4 ,f9ally1 x has be5 f\nd possible to entirely suppress ! pap]1 or dielectric1 & to he> directly1 by simply int]pos+ ! auditor or auditors 9 ! circuit4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s =ms ( ! exp]im5t is ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,"h a ?ird p]son1 ,c1 he>s ! h&s ( ,a & ,b speak :5 a circuit is =m$ by means ( ?ree p]sons1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 ! two =m]1 ,a & ,b1 ea* hold+ "o ( ! wires ( ! circuit & apply+ 8 free h& to ! e> ( ,c4 ,al?\gh ! exp]im5t is "o t requires entire sil5ce1 & c\ld n on t acc\nt be p]=m$ at ! laboratory1 a sort ( telephonic *a9 c be =m$ 9 :i* five or six p]sons may he> at ! same "t4 ,a1 putt+ 8 h& on ! e> ( ,b1 ! latt] putt+ 8 to t ( ,c1 & s on up to ! la/ p]son1 :o closes ! circuit by grasp+ "o ( ! h&les1 ! o!r "o be+ held by ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,exp]im5t ,,on ,,telephonic ,,transmission ,,)\t ,,receiv+ ,,app>atus4 ,x is difficult 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce to expla9 v cle>ly h[ ^! telephonic transmissions are effect$ )\t a receiv]4 ,all t we c conclude f x s f> is t ! e> is an in/rum5t ( incomp>able delicacy & ( exquisite s5sitiv5ess1 s9ce x p]ceives vibrations 9 :i* ! en]gy develop]1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! telephonic *a91 is exce$+ly feeble4 ,)\t any desire to seek an application = an exp]im5t t is simply curi\s1 we yet believe t !re is "h a ph5om5on ( a nature to be /udi$ by physici/s4 ,discov]ies 9 telephony & microphony h c]ta9ly op5$ up to sci5ce1 z reg>ds bo? !ory & practice1 new horizons t /ill promise o!r surprises = ! future4 ,b to return to ! obs]vatory3 ,! success obta9$ by ! exhibition ( ! ,fr5* ,society ( ,physics %[s t ^! reunions respond to a g5u9e ne$--t ( in/ruct+ 9 & popul>iz+ sci5ce4 ,:ile w>mly congratulat+ ! organiz]s ( ^! meet+s1 we may express a wi% t ! good example set by ! ,society ( ,physics may be foll[$ by o!r societies4 ,we are conv9c$ 9 advance t an equal success awaits !m4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,gr\nd ,,conductors4 ,9 telegraphy1 z well z 9 ! "q ( lightn+ rods1 att5tion has be5 b incid5tally paid to ! improvem5t ( gr\nd conductors1 & ?is po9t has n be5 ! object ( t c>eful /udy t has be5 be/[$ ^u ! e/abli%m5t ( a]ial l9es4 ,x is only rec5tly t ! int]e/ creat$ by lightn+ rods has giv5 rise to new =ms ( conductors diff]+ f ^? =m]ly us$4 ,! publications ( ! ,prussian ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( f #ahgf to #ahhj conta9 "s in=mation ( special importance 9 reg>d to ?is4 ,x is /at$ !re9 t ! effect ( gr\nd conductors may be notably increas$ by ! division ( ! e>? plates & ! use ( metallic rods1 )\t necessitat+ a great] output ( mat]ial4 ,^! facts1 h[ev]1 h n z yet be5 put to pr(it 9 practice = ! reason1 p]haps1 t ! consid]ations1 :i* h rema9$ g5]al1 h n at once p]mitt$ ( obta9+ =ms :at c\ld be employ$ ) p]fect k ( ! results4 ,?is is :at l$ ,mr4 ,ulbri*t1 ( ,dresd51 to make calculations = a few =ms ( conductors1 & to te/ _! approximate values4 ,! results ( ^! rese>*es are pr9t$ 9 ! ,elektrote*nis*5 ,zeits*rift = #ahhc 7p4 #ah74 ,illu/ration ,! equations f\nd %[1 9 ! fir/ place1 t !re exi/ ?ree means ( obta9+ a consid]able effect1 z reg>ds ! gr\nd conductor1 ) a slight exp5diture ( mat]ial3 ,! cyl9drical electrode may be drawn out into ! =m ( a b> or wire2 ! plate may be r5d]$ n>r[1 & elongat$ 9 ! =m ( a ribbon2 &1 besides1 ! annul> plate may be enl>g$ 9 less5+ ! metallic surface4 ,f9ally1 a %ort1 op5 cyl9d] ) a v]tical axis may be =m$ by curv+ a n>r[ plate or ribbon4 ,x is n necess>y to see ! =mula to recognize ! fact t ?is cyl9d] mu/ behave l a ribbon & a flat r+4 ,! radius increas+1 & ! surface rema9+ con/ant1 ! resi/ance ( ! e>? "h likewise approa*es z]o4 ,z ! resi/ance ( ! e>? is inv]sely proportional to ! diamet] ( ! plates1 ! z]o resi/ance c also be rea*$ by divid+ a plate ad inf9itum4 ,z ! p>ts ( ! plate may be br\ght q close to ea* o!r )\t p]ceptibly int]f]+ ) ! action1 a network has f9ally be5 rea*$ by a division c>ri$ v f>1 yet limit$1 & by connect+ ! p>ts ) "o ano!r by conduct+ cyl9d]s4 ,if we seek to det]m9e :at =ms ( gr\nd conductors are effici5t & economical "u giv5 conditions1 we %all h to beg9 by in=m+ ourselves z to ! *oice ( mat]ial to be us$ = ! electrode1 & %all !n h to asc]ta9 :e!r putt+ x 9 ! gr\nd w or w n necessitate mu* outlay4 ,! mo/ suitable mat]ial is copp]1 :i* may be us$ ) advantage1 9 t x la/s pretty well und]gr\nd1 & t ! facility :i* x may be work$ p]mits ( easily giv+ x m appropriate =ms ?an ^? t c be obta9$ ) ca/ iron1 :i* is ( itself less co/ly4 ,if ! bury+ 9 ! gr\nd requires little or no labor1 z :5 !re exi/ ponds1 riv]s1 & wells1 or subt]ranean /rata ( wat] ne> ! surface ( ! e>?1 elongat$ =ms ( conductors w be employ$1 su* z ! solid or holl[ cyl9d]1 ! wire1 ! ribbon1 ! n>r[ r+1 & ! network4 ,plates approa*+ a squ>e or circul> %ape are n advantage\s4 ,b if ! gr\nd has to be dug deeply 9 ord] to s9k ! conductor1 ! =m ( ! electrode mu/ be m cond5s$1 & select$ 9 su* a way t ! necess>y action may be obta9$ ) a m9imum output ( copp] & labor4 ,= great dep?s1 & :5 ! gr\nd w p]mit ( bor+1 an elongat$ & n>r[ cyl9d] w be us$4 ,su* a sy/em1 h[ev]1 c only be employ$ :5 ! cyl9d] is surr\nd$ by spr+ wat]1 s9ce1 )\t t1 an intimate contact ) e>? t is only moi/1 _c be obta9$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,9 e>? t is only moi/ & = mod]ate dep?s1 pref]5ce may be giv5 to an electrode laid d[n flat4 ,! digg+ necess>y 9 ?is case is on]\s1 x is true1 b x p]mits ( v accurately det]m9+ ! /ate ( ! e>? b5ea? & ( obta9+ a v p]fect adh]5ce ( ! electrode !re)4 ,two =ms1 ! annul> ribbon or ! flat r+ & ! network1 pres5t !mselves1 accord+ to calculations1 z a sub/itute = copp] plates1 :i* are s exp5sive2 & ^! =ms are satisfactory on condition t ! labor ( digg+ be n notably increas$4 ,^! =ms %\ld always h a diamet] a little great] ?an t ( ! plate4 ,! flat r+ & ! network1 h[ev]1 (f] "o weak po9t1 :i* !y possess 9 common ) ! plate1 & t is1 _! dim5sions _c be easily adapt$ to ! nature ( ! gr\nd met ) )\t a notable increase 9 ! exp5se4 ,n[1 if ! gr\nd %\ld (f] a conductivity less ?an :at 0 anticipat$1 & x 7 desir$ to increase ! plate1 say by "o-?ird1 x w\ld be impossible to d s z a consequ5ce ( ! clos$ =m4 ,"o important advantage is realiz$ 9 ?is respect by comb9+ ! r+ & ! network 9 ! =m ( a reticulat$ r+ hav+ a diamet] ( f #a to #a met]s4 ,on cutt+ ?is r+ at a giv5 place & accord+ to a c]ta9 radius we obta9 ! reticulat$ ribbon %[n 9 ! accompany+ figure4 ,! ?ickness ( ! wires is #b4e mm41 & _! weight is #j4dge kilo4 p] met]4 ,l1 ,l1 & ,l are ! po9ts at :i* ! conduct+ cable is sold]$4 ,a reticulat$ ribbon ( copp] c be made 9 advance ( any l5g? :atev]1 &1 accord+ to local exig5cies1 x may be easily curv$ & giv5 ! =m ( a flat or cyl9drical r+ ( v>y+ wid?4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! ribbon has already be5 cut = a r+ ( giv5 diamet]1 x may be /ill fur!r enl>g$ by draw+ x out & leav+ a bit ( ! r+ op51 s z to ?us obta9 a ne>ly correspond+ dim9ution 9 ! resi/ance4 ,su* a resi/ance may be /ill fur!r dim9i%$ by r5d]+ ! r+ high]1 t is to say1 by employ+ an annul> cyl9drical =m4 ,aft] assur+ himself1 by exp]im5ts on a small scale1 t calculation & obs]vation gave concordant results = ! flat r+1 ! au?or made an exp]im5t on a l>g] scale ) ! annul> network4 ,= practical reasons he employ$ = ?is purpose a copp] wire #b4e mm4 9 diamet]1 :i* may be expect$ to la/ z long z "o ( iron plate #b mm4 9 ?ickness4 ,calculation %[$ t 9 a ribbon #afj mm4 wide1 me%es #dj mm4 9 bread? 7 advantage\s & favorable z reg>ds rigidity4 ,a reticulat$ ribbon l ?is1 #d met]s 9 l5g?1 0 made & =m$ into a flat r+ hav+ an ext]nal diamet] ( #a4db m4 & an int]nal "o ( #a4aj m4 ,! resi/ance ( ?is r+ 0 f\nd to be ,w #j4cdhe 7#a_/k71 & t ( a plate "o met] squ>e1 ,w#j #j4cfh 7#a_/k74 ,z ! conductivity ( ! e>? is v v>iable1 & z we _c h an absolute gu>antee t ! ramm+ w be uni=m1 x seem$ prop] to make ! measurem5ts ( ! resi/ance by fix+ ! plate & ! r+ 9 succession to ! l[] surface ( a small raft1 9 su* a way t ! contact ) ! wat] %\ld correspond z well z possible to ! suppositions made = ! calculation4 ,z a second gr\nd conductor1 a sy/em ( wat] pipes 0 us$1 &1 aft] ?is1 a lightn+ rod conductor1 etc4 ,repeat$ & v>i$ exp]im5ts gave1 = ! calculation ( ! values ( ! resi/ances1 equations s concordant t ! foll[+ results may be consid]$ v approximate4 ,! squ>e plate _h a resi/ance ( #ce4e ,siem5s units1 & ! reticulat$ r+ "o ( #cb4e4 ,f ! fir/ figure we d$uce k #a_/ia4ab1 t is to say1 ! specific conductivity ( riv]-wat] is #a3iaabjjjj4 ,calculation1 !n1 gives z ! resi/ance ( ! e>? 9 ,siem5s units3 ,calculat$4 ,obs]v$4 ,squ>e plate4 #cc4e #cc4e ,annul> r+4 #ca4gf #cb4e ,^! figures prove ! accuracy ( ! calculations t _h be5 made 9 an approximate way4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 p]=m$ ^u ! ,elba1 above ,dresd54 ,o!r exp]im5ts /ill _h ref]5ce to ! influ5ce ( imm]sion4 ,9 ord] to dim9i% pol>ization1 only in/antane\s curr5ts f ! measur+ pile 7 employ$4 ,x 0 to be suppos$ t ! curr5t ( wat] ?r\gh :i* ! bubbles ( gas 7 remov$ f ! electrodes w\ld n h p]mitt$ ( a notable resi/ance ( pol>ization4 ,lat] measurem5ts1 made ^u a ribbon buri$1 l ! plates1 9 ! e>?1 gave likewise mo/ favorable results4 ,z a result ( ^! exp]im5ts1 ! ,/ate railways ( ,saxony h1 9 su* cases z 7 practicable1 introduc$ ! annul> network ( copp]4 ,!re are "s manufactur]s1 too1 :o seem desir\s ( adopt+ ?is sy/em1 al?\gh x has h>dly em]g$ f ! p]iod ( exp]im5t4 ,! pecuni>y advantages t w result f an application ( x ought1 x w\ld seem1 to dispel a l>ge proportion ( ! criticisms direct$ aga9/ ! erection ( lightn+ rods1 f ! /&po9t ( exp5se1 & contribute to ext5d an arrangem5t :i* may be consid]$ z a v happy "o4 ,if we comp>e ! squ>e plate ) ! equival5t annul> network1 con/ruct$ z above indicat$1 & :i* %\ld possess1 accord+ to ! au?or an ext]nal diamet] ( #a4bf m4 & ( #c4de m41 we f9d t3 ,! squ>e plate1 #a mm4 ?ick weighs #h4i kilos4 #b #ag4h ,! annul> network #a4fd ,! co/ ( reticulat$ ribbon p] met] am\nts to ab\t #d4d francs1 suppos+ x to be arrang$ z %[n 9 ! cut4 ,z t]m ( comp>ison1 we may admit t ! foll[+ =ms are ne>ly ! equival5t ( a horizontal1 unburi$ plate "o met] squ>e4 ,l5g?4 ,diamet]4 ,v]tical cyl9d] buri$ #a4dj m4 #j4ac m4 #a4hj m4 #j4jf m4 ,v]tical b> #b4fj m4 #j4jac m4 ,horizontal b> #e4bj m4 #j4jac m4 ,horizontal flat r+ #a4cb m4 9 ext]nal diamet]1 & #a4jh m4 int]nal4 ,horizontal network #a4ja m4 squ>e1 & hav+ me%es ( ! same size z ^? ( ! reticulat$ ribbon4 ,horizontal reticulat$ ribbon #c m4 9 l5g? & ( ! /ructure describ$4 ,horizontal annul> r+ #a4bf m4 9 ext]nal diamet]1 #j4id m4 int]nal4 ,9 conclusion1 let u meet an objection t might be made to ! accuracy ( ! hypo!ses t s]ve z a base to ! prec$+ calculations1 9 cases :]e gr\nd plates = lightn+ rods & n = telegraphs are conc]n$4 ,betwe5 ! two gr\nd plates ( a telegraph l9e !re is g5]ally a di/ance su* t ! curves ( ! curr5t und]go no deviation 9 ! vic9ity ( "o ( ! electrodes 7! only "p important = integrations7 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! o!r4 ,b x might be admitt$ t su* w\ld prove ! case ) a lightn+ rod 9 a /orm1 at ! "t ( ! passage ( ! fluid into ! e>?4 ,! gr\nd plate "h is "o ( ! electrodes1 & ! o!r is replac$ by ! surface ( ! e>? /rongly *>g$ to a great di/ance "u ! /orm cl\ds4 ,if we suppose 7:at may be admitt$ 9 a good lightn+ rod7 t !re no long] occurs any sp>k f ! po9t d[nw>d1 ! curves ( ! curr5t1 9 />t+ p]p5dicul>ly f ! gr\nd plate1 w\ld be oblig$ to leave _! rectil9e> trajectory & /rike ! surface ( ! e>? at "r angles4 ,:5 ! electricity fl[s ?r\gh a plane surface into an inf9ite body1 x is only :5 su* surface pres5ts a v great developm5t t ! respective pot5tials decrease v sl[ly 9 ! vic9ity ( ! said surface4 ,no notable modification occurs1 !n1 9 ! curves ( equal pot5tial1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! gr\nd plate ?r\gh ! action ( ?is ext5d$ *>ge1 nor consequ5tly any modification 9 ! curves ( ! curr5t2 b ! electricity :i* spreads has b a %ort di/ance to travel 9 ord] to ov]come ! mo/ important resi/ances4 ,! calculations ( resi/ances giv5 above h1 !n1 ! same value = dis*>ges ( atmosph]ic electricity4--,bull4 du ,musee de l',indu/rie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,electrolysis4 ,by ,h4 ,,s*u*t4 ,conc]n+ ! sep>ations :i* take place at ! positive pole1 ! composition ( ! p]oxides1 & ! mann] ( _! det]m9ation1 relatively little has be5 done4 ,if solutions ( ! salts ( lead1 ?allium1 silv]1 bismu?1 nickel1 & cobalt are decompos$ by ! curr5t betwe5 plat9um electrodes1 metal is deposit$ at ! negative1 & oxide at ! positive electrode4 ,manganese is precipitat$ only z p]oxide4 ,! =mation ( p]oxide is1 ( c\rse1 effect$ by ! ozone f\nd 9 ! electrolytic oxyg5 at ! positive pole2 ! oxide exi/+ 9 solution is br\ght to a high] degree ( oxidation1 & is sep>at$ out4 ,its =mation may be decreas$ or entirely prev5t$ by ! addition ( readily oxidizible bodies1 su* z organic acids1 lactose1 glyc]9e1 & pref]ably by an excess ( oxalic acid2 b only until ! organic matt] is trans=m$ into c>bonic acid4 ,9 ?is mann] ,class5 sep>ates o!r metals f manganese 9 ord] to prev5t ! sal9e solutions f be+ reta9$ by ! p]oxide4 ,) solutions ( silv]1 bismu?1 nickel1 & cobalt1 x is (t5 practicable to prev5t ! sep>ation ( oxide by giv+ ! curr5t a great] resi/ance--increas+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! electrodes4 ,! proportion betwe5 ! quantities ( metal & ( p]oxide deposit$ is n con/ant1 & ev5 if we disreg>d ! conc5tration ( ! solution1 ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t & second>y influ5ces 7action ( nasc5t hydrog57 is diff]5t 9 acid & 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,9 acid solutions mu* p]oxide is =m$2 9 alkal9e liquids1 little or none4 ,! reason ( ! diff]5ce is t ozone is evolv$ pr9cipally 9 acid solutions1 b appe>s 9 small quantities only 9 alkal9e liquids1 or "u c]ta9 circum/ances n at all4 ,! quantity ( p]oxide deposit$ dep5ds also on ! temp]ature ( ! sal9e solution2 at ord9>y temp]atures ! au?or obta9$ m p]oxide--! solution1 ! "t1 & ! /r5g? ( curr5t be+ equal--?an f a heat$ liquid4 ,! cause is t ozone is de/roy$ by heat & conv]t$ into ord9>y oxyg54 ,) ! exception ( lead & ?allium ! quantity ( metal deposit$ f an acid solution is always great] ?an t ( ! p]oxide4 ,lead4--,luck[ has %[n t f acid solutions--no matt] :at may be ! acid--lead is deposit$ at ! anode z a mixture ( anhydr\s & hydrat$ p]oxide ( v>iable composition4 ,only v /rongly acid solutions let all _! lead fall d[n z p]oxide2 ! precipitation is rapid imm$iately on clos+ ! circuit1 & complete sep>ation is effect$ only 9 pres5ce ( at lea/ #aj p] c5t4 ( free nitric acid4 ,z ! curr5t becomes /rong] ) ! increase ( free acid1 !re is deposit$ ^u ! fir/ compact lay] a new /ratum ( loosely adh]+ p]oxide4 ,9 pres5ce ( small quantities ( o!r metals :i* are ?r[n d[n by ! curr5t 9 ! metallic /ate1 su* z copp]1 m]cury1 etc41 p]oxide alone is deposit$ f a solution ( lead conta9+ small quantities only ( free nitric acid4 ,! lead p]oxide deposit$ is at fir/ light br[n or d>k r$1 & becomes con/antly d>k] & f9ally tak+ a velvet-black4 ,z its /ratification ^u ! plat9um is unequal1 x =ms beautifully color$ r+s4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t ! quantity ( p]oxide deposit$ dep5ds on ! nature ( ! solution & ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t4 ,9 case ( v feeble curr5ts & slight acidity1 its quantity is s small t x does n ne$ to be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,if ! lead solution is v dilute sc>cely any curr5t is obs]v$1 lead solutions p] se be+ v bad conductors ( electricity4 ,fa9tly acid conc5trat$ lead solutions give loose p]oxide along ) mu* spongy metallic lead4 ,free alkali decreases ! sep>ation ( p]oxide2 feebly alkal9e solutions1 conc5trat$ & dilute1 yield relatively mu* p]oxide along ) metallic lead1 :ile /rongly alkal9e solutions deposit no p]oxide4 ,dri$ lead p]oxide is s sp>+ly hygroscopic t x may be weigh$ z su*2 its weight rema9s con/ant ^u ! balance = a long "t4 ,9 ord] to apply ! p]oxide = quantitative det]m9ations1 a l>ge surface mu/ be expos$ to action4 ,z positive electrode a plat9um capsule is conv5i5t1 & a plat9um disk z negative pole4 ,! capsule %ape is necess>y because ! p]oxide :5 deposit$ 9 l>ge quantities adh]es only p>tially1 & falls 9 "p 9 ?9 loose scales4 ,x is necess>y to siphon (f ! nitric solution1 s9ce1 l all p]oxides1 t ( lead is n absolutely insoluble 9 nitric acid4 ,! me?ods ( ,ri*e & ,may give results :i* are always too high1 s9ce portions ( sal9e solution are reta9$ by ! spongy deposit & c be b v imp]fectly remov$ by wa%+4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 pres5ce ( free alkali4 ,! au?or has proce$$ z foll[s3 ,! lead p]oxide is dri$ 9 ! capsule1 & !re is pass$ ov] x pure dry gase\s sulphur\s acid 9 a /rong curr5t f a r n>r[ deliv]y tube4 ,lead sulphate is =m$ ) evolution ( heat2 x is let cool "u ! exsiccator1 & weigh$ z su*4 ,or he ignites ! p]oxide along ) f9ely pulv]iz$ ammonium sulphite2 ! mass mu/ h a pure :ite color4 ,aft] ! conclusion ( ! reaction x is ignit$ = ab\t #bj m9utes4 ,! results are too high4 ,! proportion ( actual lead p]oxide 9 ! deposit ranges f #id to #id4gf p] c5t4 ,! p]oxide precipitat$ f a nitric solution may1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 be anhydr\s4 ,?is result is due to ! second>y influ5ces at ! positive pole1 :]e ! free acid gradually )draws wat] f ! p]oxide4 ,! p]oxide ?r[n d[n f alkal9e solutions reta9s alkali s ob/9ately t x _c be remov$ by wa%+2 ! p]oxide plays "h ! "p ( an acid4 ,! lead nitrate me*anically inclos$ 9 ! p]oxide is resolv$ by ignition into oxide1 hyponitric acid1 & oxyg52 ?is small proportion ( lead oxide does n ex]t an important influ5ce on ! f9al result4 ,! quantity ( matt] me*anically inclos$ is relatively high1 z 9 ! precipitation ( mu* lead p]oxide !re is relatively m sal9e matt] occlud$ ?an :5 a few c5tigrammes are deposit$4 ,! p]oxide incloses also m =eign matt] if x is ?r[n d[n ^u a small surface ?an if x is deposit$ 9 a ?9 lay] ov] a broad surface4 ,f num]\s analyses ! au?or concludes t 9 pres5ce ( mu* free nitric acid ! proportion ( wat] is increas$2 ) free alkali ! rev]se holds good4 ,?allium behaves simil>ly to lead4 ,f a nitric acid solution x is ?r[n d[n1 accord+ to ! proportion ( free acid1 ei!r z sesquioxide only or 9 small quantities z silv]y1 metallic leaflets2 f alkal9e solutions x is deposit$ z sesquioxide & metal1 ! latt] ( a lead-gray color4 ,?allium solutions conduct ! electric curr5t badly4 ,?allium oxide resembles lead p]oxide 9 color2 at a /rong heat x melts1 becomes d>k]1 & is conv]t$ into p]oxide1 9 :i* /ate x c be weigh$4 ,silv]4--,all solutions ( silv] salts1 except ! nitrate1 & ^? conta9+ a v l>ge quantity ( free nitric acid or nitrates1 deposit electrolytically m]ely metallic silv]4 ,9 ! above m5tion$ exceptional cases !re is =m$ a small quantity ( p]oxide :i* adh]es to ! anode z a blacki%-gray deposit4 ,! greate/ quantity ( p]oxide is obta9$ on employ+ a conc5trat$1 /rongly acid solution ( ! nitrate1 & a /rong curr5t4 ,if ! solution is v dilute we obta9 no p]oxide1 or m]e traces :i* disappe> aga9 t[>d ! end ( ! process4 ,! p]oxide is deposit$ at fir/ 9 small1 d>k1 %9+ octah$ral cry/als2 subsequ5tly1 9 an amorph\s /ate4 ,at #aaj x evolves oxyg5 sudd5ly1 & is conv]t$ into metallic silv]4 ,x dissolves 9 ammonia ) a viol5t escape ( nitrog54 ,9 nitric acid x dissolves )\t decomposition & ) a r$ color4 ,! au?or uses a galvanic curr5t = r$uc+ silv] residues1 consi/+ ( sulphocyanide4 ,! salt is mix$ ) sulphuric acid 9 a roomy plat9um capsule1 & a f9e plat9um wire gauze is us$ z positive electrode4 ,bismu?4--,! curr5t resolves bismu? solutions into metal & bismutic acid4 ,! latt] is deposit$ at ! positive pole1 & 9 ?9 lay]s appe>s ( a gold5-yell[1 b 9 ?ick /rata is d>k]1 approa*+ to r$4 ,its =mation is v gradual1 & 9 "t x disappe>s aga91 ow+ to second>y actions ( ! curr5t4 ,on ignition x becomes lemon yell[1 & transitorily d>k]1 ev5 br[n1 & passes into ! sexquioxide4 ,nickel & ,cobalt4--,on ! electrolysis ( ! ammonical solution ! sesquioxide appe>s at ! positive pole4 ,its =mation is prev5t$ by an excess ( ammonia4 ,! au?or nev] obta9s m ?an #c p] c5t4 ( ! quantity ( ! metal4 ,! sesquioxides dissolve 9 ammonia )\t escape ( nitrog51 & are usually anhydr\s4 ,manganese4--,manganese is ! only metal :i* is precipitat$ only z p]oxide4 ,x is deposit$ at once on clos+ ! circuit1 & is at fir/ br[n1 !n black & %9+4 ,organic acids1 f]r\s oxide1 *romic oxide1 ammonium salts1 etc41 prev5t ! =mation ( p]oxide & ! r$ color produc$ by p]manganic acid4 ,9 v dilute /rongly acid nitric solutions !re is =m$ only p]manganic acid1 :i* accord+ to ,ri*e is pla9ly visible 9 solutions conta9+ #a_/ajjjjjj grm4 manganese4 ,on electrolyz+ a manganif]\s solution ( copp] nitrate1 r$ p]manganic acid appe>$ 9 a /ratum float+ above ! plat9um disk coat$ ) br[n p]oxide4 ,no manganese p]oxide 0 deposit$4 ,! p]oxide adh]es firmly to ! plat9um :5 ! proportion ( free acid is small1 n exce$+ #c p] c5t41 & ! curr5t is n too /rong4 ,if ! action ( ! curr5t is prolong$ aft] ! p]oxide is ?r[n d[n1 x falls (f 9 lam94 ,accord+ to ,ri*e1 9 a nitric solution ! manganese is deposit$ z p]oxide1 also at ! negative pole4 ,?is =mation is n directly due to ! curr5t1 b is a precipitate occasion$ by ! production ( ammonia by ! r$uction ( nitric acid4 ,to det]m9e ! manganese 9 p]oxide electrolytically precipitat$1 x is heat$ to bright r$ness 9 ! plat9um capsule until ! weight becomes con/ant4 ,! results are too high4 ,sel5ium & ,tellurium4--,bo? ^! bodies are readily & completely r$uc$ by ! curr5t ei!r 9 acid or alkal9e solutions4 ,sel5ium is ?r[n d[n at fir/ ( a f9e br[ni% r$1 :i* gradually becomes d>k]4 ,! deposit ( tellurium is ( a blui% black color4 ,if ! curr5t is feeble1 ! deposit ( sel5ium is mod]ately compact2 t ( tellurium is always loose1 & x (t5 floats on ! liquid4 ,a /rong curr5t precipitates bo? z p[d]s4 ,! positive pole is coat$ dur+ electrolysis ) a film ( a d>k color 9 case ( sel5ium1 b ( a lemon yell[ ) tellurium4 ,z 9 case ( ars5ic & antimony1 ! hydrog5 evolv$ at ! negative pole comb9es ) ! r$uc$ sub/ances1 =m+ hydrog51 sel5ide1 or telluride1 :i* rema9 9 "p 9 solution 9 ! liquid4 ,! r$uc$ metal sep>ates out at ! anode 9 a friable condition4--,zeits*rift fur ,analytis*e ,*emie1 & ,*emical ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,electro-,,*emical ,,equival5t ,,( ,,silv]4 ,a v c>eful & important det]m9ation ( ! electro*emical equival5t ( silv] has be5 made at ! obs]vatory ( ! ,physical ,in/itute ( ,wrzb\rg1 & ! results are t an amp]e curr5t fl[+ = a second1 or a c\lomb ( electricity deposits #a4aahc milligrammes ( silv] or #j4cbha milligramme ( copp]1 & decomposes #j4jicbh milligramme ( wat]1 a result agree+ closely ) t ( ,"l ,rayleigh rec5tly communicat$ to ! ,physical ,society4 ,an amp]e !re=e deposits #d4jbei grammes ( silv] p] h\r2 ,kohlraus*'s value is #d4jhbd1 a value hi!rto accept$ univ]sally4 ,?is value is s useful 9 measur+ electric curr5ts ) accuracy1 & free f ! di/urbances ( magnetism1 etc41 t x is em95tly satisfactory to f9d ! ,g]man value agree ) t ( ,"l ,rayleigh1 :i* w probably be adopt$ by ,engli% electricians4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,/&>d ,,light4 ,h]r ,hefn]-,alt5eck has sugge/$ a new /&>d light = photometric purposes1 :i* promises to be v simple & effective 9 op]ation4 ,! light is produc$ by an op5 flame ( amyl-acetate burn+ f a wick ( cotton fib] :i* fills a tube ( ,g]man silv] #a 94 long & #caf mils4 int]nal diamet]2 ! ext]nal diamet] be+ #cbd mils4 ,! flame is #a4eh 94 high f top to bottom2 & x %\ld be light$ at lea/ t5 m9utes be=e us+ ! light = te/+4 ,a cyl9drical glass *imney surr\nds x to w>d (f air curr5ts4 ,ab\t #b p] c5t4 ( ! light is absorb$ by ! glass4 ,! p[] ( ! flame is t ( a /&>d ,engli% c&le2 & exp]im5ts h %[n t amyl acetate1 :i* besides is n exp5sive1 is ! be/ fuel = /ead9ess & brilliance4 ,nei!r ! sub/itution ( comm]cial amyl-acetate = pure nor ! use ( a wick ( cotton ?read = loose cotton fib] alt]s ! illum9at+ p[]2 b ! wick %\ld be trimm$ squ>e across ! m\? ( ! tube1 = if x project & droop ! illum9at+ p[] is increas$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,dr4 ,,feussn]',s ,,new ,,pol>iz+ ,,prism4 ,9 a rec5t numb] ( ! ,zeits*rift fur ,in/rum5t5kunde 7iv41 #db-ej1 ,febru>y1 #ahhd71 ,dr4 ,k4 ,feussn] ( ,k>lsruhe has giv5 a detail$ description ( a pol>iz+ prism lately devis$ by him1 :i* pres5ts sev]al po9ts ( novelty1 & = :i* c]ta9 advantages are claim$4 ,! pap] also conta9s an acc\nt1 al?\gh n an exhau/ive "o1 ( ! v>i\s pol>iz+ prisms :i* h f "t to "t be5 con/ruct$ by means ( diff]5t comb9ations ( ,icel& sp>4 ,! lit]ature ( ?is subject is scatt]$ & some:at difficult ( access1 & moreov] only a small "p ( x has hi!rto be5 translat$ into ,engli%2 & x w\ld appe> !re=e t a brief ab/ract ( ! pap] may n be )\t s]vice to ^? among ! read]s ( ,nature :o may be unacqua9t$ ) ! orig9al memoirs1 or :o may n h ! necess>y ref]5ces at h&4 ,foll[+ ! ord] adopt$ by ,dr4 ,feussn]1 ! subject may be divid$ into two p>ts3 ,i4--,,old] ,,=ms ,,( ,,pol>iz+ ,,prisms4 ,9 comp>+ ! v>i\s =ms ( pol>iz+ prisms1 ! ma9 po9ts :i* ne$ att5tion are--! angul> ext5t ( ! field ( view1 ! direction ( ! em]g5t pol>iz$ ray1 :e!r x is %ift$ to "o side (1 or rema9s symmetrical to ! long axis ( ! prism2 ! proportion :i* ! l5g? ( ! prism be>s to its bread?2 & la/ly1 ! position ( ! t]m9al faces1 :e!r p]p5dicul> or incl9$ to ! long axis4 ,^! requirem5ts are fulfill$ 9 diff]5t degrees by ! foll[+ me?ods ( con/ruction3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a41 ,fig4 #b41 & ,fig4 #c4 #a4 ,! ,nicol ,prism 7,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 #ahbh1 vi41 #hc74--,?is 7,fig4 #a71 z is well kn[n1 is con/ruct$ f a rhomboh$ron ( ,icel& sp>1 ! l5g? ( :i* mu/ be fully ?ree times z great z ! wid?4 ,! end faces are cut (f 9 su* a mann] t ! angle ( #gb :i* !y orig9ally =m ) ! lat]al edge ( ! rhomboh$ron is r$uc$ to #fh4 ,! prism is !n cut 9 two 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! new end surfaces1 ! section be+ c>ri$ obliquely f "o obtuse corn] ( ! prism to ! o!r1 9 ! direction ( its l5g?4 ,! surfaces ( ?is section1 aft] hav+ be5 c>efully poli%$1 are cem5t$ toge!r aga9 by means ( ,canada balsam4 ,a ray ( light1 on ent]+ ! prism1 is sep>at$ by ! d\ble refraction ( ! calc-sp> into an ord9>y & an extraord9>y ray2 ! =m] und]goes total reflection at ! lay] ( balsam at an incid5ce :i* all[s ! extraord9>y ray to be transmitt$2 ! latt]1 !re=e1 passes ?r\gh un*ang$4 ,?is pr9ciple ( obta9+ a s+le pol>iz$ ray by means ( total reflection ( ! o!r is common to all ! =ms ( prism n[ to be describ$4 ,dr4 ,feussn] gives a ma!matical analysis ( ! pa?s tak5 by ! two pol>iz$ rays )9 ! ,nicol prism1 & f9ds t ! em]g5t extraord9>y ray c include an angul> field ( #bi1 b t ?is extreme value holds good only = rays incid5t ^u t portion ( ! end surface :i* is ne> to ! obtuse corn]1 & t f !nce x gradually decreases until ! field includes an angle ( only ab\t half ! previ\s am\nt4 ,he f9ds1 moreov]1 t1 al?\gh ( c\rse ! ray em]ges p>allel to its direction ( incid5ce1 yet t ! zone ( pol>iz$ light is %ift$ to "o side ( ! c5tral l9e4 ,also t ! great l5g? ( ! ,nicol--#c4bh times its bread?--is n only an inconv5i5ce1 b ow+ to ! l>ge pieces ( sp> ?us requir$ = its con/ruction1 prisms ( any b small size become v exp5sive4 ,to ?is x may be add$ t !re is a consid]able loss ( light by reflection f ! fir/ surface1 ow+ to its incl9$ position 9 reg>d to ! long axis ( ! prism4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d41 ,fig4 #e41 & ,fig4 #f4 ,x is ) ! view ( obviat+ ^! defects t ! modifications repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #b to #f h be5 devis$4 #b4 ,! ,%ort5$ ,nicol ,prism4--,?is arrangem5t ( ! ,nicol prism is con/ruct$ by ,dr4 ,/eeg & ,reut] ( ,homburg v4d4,h4 ,= ! sake ( facility ( manufacture1 ! end surfaces are cleavage planes1 & ! oblique cut1 in/ead ( be+ p]p5dicul>1 makes ) ^! an angle ( ab\t #hd4 ,by ?is alt]ation ! prism becomes %ort]1 & is n[ only #b4hc times its bread?2 b if ,canada balsam is /ill us$ z ! cem5t1 ! field w occupy a v unsymmetrical position 9 reg>d to ! long axis4 ,if balsam ( copaiba is made use (1 ! index ( refraction ( :i* is #a4ej1 a symmetrical field ( ab\t #bd w be obta9$4 ,a prism ( ?is k9d has also be5 design$ by ,pr(4 ,b4 ,has]t ( ,eis5a* 7,pogg4 ,ann41 cxiii41 #ahi71 b its p]=mance appe>s to be inf]ior to ! above4 #c4 ,! ,nicol ,prism ) ,p]p5dicul> ,ends4--,! t]m9al surfaces 9 ?is prism are p]p5dicul> to ! long axis1 & ! sectional cut makes ) !m an angle ( ab\t #ge4 ,! l5g? ( ! prism is #c4ge times its bread?1 & if ! cem5t has an index ( refraction ( #a4ebe1 ! field is symmetrically dispos$1 & includes an angle ( #bg4 ,prisms ( ?is k9d h be5 manufactur$ by ,dr4 ,/eeg1 ,mr4 ,c4,d4 ,ahr5s1 & o!rs4 #d4 ,! ,f\cault ,prism 7,comptes ,r5dus1 #aheg1 xlv41 #bch74--,?is con/ruction diff]s f all ^? hi!rto m5tion$1 9 t a film ( air is employ$ betwe5 ! two cut surfaces z ! totally reflect+ m$ium in/ead ( a lay] ( cem5t4 ,! two halves ( ! prism are kept 9 position1 )\t t\*+ ea* o!r1 by means ( ! m\nt+4 ,! l5g? ( ! prism is 9 ?is way mu* r$uc$1 & am\nts to only #a4ebh times its bread?4 ,! end surfaces are cleavage planes1 & ! sectional cut makes ) !m an angle ( #ei4 ,! field1 h[ev]1 includes n m ?an ab\t #h1 s t ?is prism c be us$ only 9 ! case ( ne>ly p>allel rays2 & 9 addition to ?is ! pictures :i* may be se5 ?r\gh x are to "s ext5t veil$ & indi/9ct1 ow+ to repeat$ int]nal reflection4 #e4 ,! ,h>tnack ,prism 7,ann4 de ,*4 et de ,physique1 s]4 iv41 vii41 #aha74--,?is =m ( prism 0 devis$ 9 #ahff by ,,mm4 ,h>tnack & ,prazm[iski2 ! orig9al memoir is a valuable "o2 a translation ( x1 ) "s additions1 has lately be5 publi%$ 7,j\rn4 ( ! ,r4 ,microscopical ,soc41 ,june1 #ahhc1 #dbh74 ,x is consid]$ by ,dr4 ,feussn] to be ! mo/ p]fect prism capable ( be+ prep>$ f calc-sp>4 ,! ends ( ! prism are p]p5dicul> to its l5g?2 ! section c>ri$ ?r\gh x is 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! pr9cipal axis ( ! cry/al4 ,! cem5t+ m$ium is l9se$ oil1 ! index ( refraction ( :i* is #a4dhe4 ,?is =m ( prism is c]ta9ly n s well kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry z x des]ves to be2 a v excell5t "o1 suppli$ to ! pres5t writ] by ,dr4 ,/eeg is ( rectangul> =m ?r\gh\t1 ! t]m9al surfaces are #ai #ae mm41 & ! l5g? #da mm4 ,! lat]al %ift+ ( ! field is sc>cely p]ceptible1 ! prism is p]fectly colorless & transp>5t1 & its p]=mance is f> sup]ior to t ( ! ord9>y ,nicol4 ,! field ( view af=d$ by ?is con/ruction dep5ds ^u ! cem5t+ sub/ance us$1 & also ^u ! incl9ation ( ! sectional cut 9 reg>d to ! end ( ! prism2 x may v>y f #bj to #da4 ,if ! utmo/ ext5t ( field is n requir$1 ! prism may be %ort5$ by less5+ ! angle ( ! section1 at ! exp5se1 h[ev]1 ( int]f]+ ) ! symmetrical disposition ( ! field4 #f4 ,! ,glan ,prism 7,c>l's ,rep]torium1 xvi41 #egj1 & xvii41 #aie74--,?is is a modification ( ! ,f\cault1 & 9 a simil> mann] includes a film ( air betwe5 ! sectional surfaces4 ,! end surfaces & also ! cut c>ri$ ?r\gh ! prism are p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis ( ! calc-sp>4 ,! ends are normal to ! l5g?1 & ! field includes ab\t #h4 ,?is prism is v %ort1 & may inde$ be ev5 %ort] ?an x is broad4 ,x is subject to ! same defect z t m5tion$ 9 ! case ( ! ,f\cault1 al?\gh p]haps n q to ! same ext5t4 ,,ii4--,,! ,,new ,,pol>iz+ ,,prism4 ,?is prism diff]s v consid]ably f ! prec$+ =ms1 & consi/s ( a ?9 plate ( a d\bly refract+ cry/al cem5t$ betwe5 two w$ge-%ap$ pieces ( glass1 ! t]m9al faces ( :i* are normal to ! l5g?4 ,! ext]nal =m ( ! prism may ?us be simil> to ! ,h>tnack1 ! calc-sp> be+ replac$ by glass4 ,! indices ( refraction ( ! glass & ( ! cem5t+ m$ium %\ld correspond ) ! great] index ( refraction ( ! cry/al1 & ! directions ( greate/ & lea/ ela/icity 9 ! latt] mu/ /& 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! direction ( ! section4 ,"o ( ! advantages claim$ = ! new prism is t1 x disp5ses ) ! l>ge & valuable pieces ( sp> hi!rto f\nd necess>y2 a fur!r advantage be+ t o!r cry/all9e sub/ances may be us$ 9 ?is prism in/ead ( calc-sp>4 ,! latt] advantage1 h[ev]1 occurs only :5 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! indices ( refraction = ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays 9 ! p>ticul> cry/al made use ( is great] ?an 9 calc-sp>4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 ! field becomes enl>g$1 & ! l5g? ( ! prism is r$uc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,! sub/ance :i* ,dr4 ,feussn] has employ$ z be+ mo/ suitable = ! sep>at+ cry/al plate is nitrate ( soda 7natronsalpet]71 9 :i* ! above-m5tion$ values are omega #a4ehg & eta #a4ccf4 ,x cry/allizes 9 simil> =m to calcite1 & 9 bo? cases ?9 plates obta9$ by cleavage may be us$4 ,z ! cem5t+ sub/ance = ! nitrate ( soda1 a mixture ( gum damm> ) monobromonaph?al5e 0 us$1 :i* af=d$ an index ( refraction ( #a4eh4 ,9 ! case ( ?9 plates ( calcite1 a solid cem5t+ sub/ance ( suffici5tly high refractive p[] 0 n available1 & a fluid m$ium 0 !re=e employ$4 ,= ?is purpose ! :ole prism 0 inclos$ 9 a %ort glass tube ) airtight ends1 :i* 0 fill$ ) monobromonaph?al5e4 ,9 an exp]im5tal prism a mixture ( balsam ( tolu 0 made use (1 giv+ a cem5t ) an index ( refraction ( #a4fb1 b ! l[ refractive p[] result$ 9 a v consid]able r$uction ( ! field4 ,! ext5t & disposition ( ! field may be v>i$ by alt]+ ! incl9ation at :i* ! cry/al lam9a is ins]t$ 7,fig4 #g71 & !reby r$uc+ ! l5g? ( ! prism1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,h>tnack4 ,9 ord] to obviate ! effects ( reflection f ! int]nal side surfaces if ! prism1 ! w$ge-%ap$ blocks ( glass ( :i* x is built up may be made mu* broad] ?an w\ld o!rwise be necess>y2 ! edges ( ?is extra wid? are cut obliquely & suitably black5$4 ,! accompany+ diagram 7,fig4 #h7 repres5ts a prism ( cyl9drical ext]nal =m con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! l[] surface be+ t ( ! incid5t light4 ,9 ?is ! field am\nts to #cj1 & ! bread? is ab\t d\ble ! l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,dr4 ,feussn] rem>ks t a prism simil> 9 "s respects to 8 new arrangem5t 0 devis$ 9 #ahfi by ,m4 ,jam9 7,comptes ,r5dus1 lxviii41 #bba71 :o us$ a ?9 plate ( calc-sp> inclos$ 9 a cell fill$ ) bisulphide ( c>bon2 & also by ,dr4 ,z5k]1 :o replac$ ! liquid 9 ,m4 ,jam9's con/ruction by w$ges ( fl9t glass4 ,among o!rs1 ! c>efully consid]$ modifications ( ! ,nicol prism :i* h rec5tly be5 devis$ by ,pr(4 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,novemb]1 #ahha1 #cdi1 & ,j\r4 ,r4 ,micros4 ,soc41 ,augu/1 #ahhc1 #ege71 & by ,mr4 ,r4,t4 ,glazebrook 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,may1 #ahhc1 #ceb71 d n appe> to h be5 kn[n to ,dr4 ,feussn]4 ,! foll[+ tabul> view ( diff]5t =ms ( pol>iz+ prisms is tak5 f ! conclusion ( ,dr4 ,feussn]'s pap]3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,incl9a- ,ratio tion ( ( section l5g? 9 reg>d to to long cle> ,field4axis4 wid?4,fig4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,i4 ,,! ,,old ,,pol>is+ ,,prisms4 #a4 ,nicol's prism4 #bi #bb #c4bh #a #b4 ,%ort5$ ,nicol prism-- a4 ,cem5t$ ) ,canada balsam4 #ac #be #b4hc #b b4 ,cem5t$ ) copaiba #bd #be #b4hc #b #c4 ,nicol ) p]p5dicul> ends-- a4 ,) ,canada balsam4 #bj #ae #c4gc #c b4 ,) cem5t ( index ( refraction ( #a4ebe4 #bg #ae #c4gc #c #d4 ,f\cault's prism4 #h #dj #a4ebh #d #e4 ,h>tnack's prism-- a4 ,orig9al =m4 #ce #ae4i #c4ea #e a b b4 ,) l>ge/ field4 #da4i #ac4i #d4jd #e a a c4 ,) field ( #cj4 #cj #ag4d #c4ai #e a c d4 ,) field ( #bj4 #bj #bj4c #b4gj #e a d #f4 ,glan's prism4 #g4i #ej4c #j4hca #f ,,ii4 ,,! ,,new ,,pol>is+ ,,prism4 #a4 ,) calc-sp>3 l>ge/ field4 #dd #ac4b #d4bf #e a a #b4 field ( #cj4 #cj #ag4d #c4ai #e a c #c4 field ( #bj4 #bj #bj4c #b4gj #e a d #d4 ,) nitrate ( soda3 l>ge/ field4 #ed #af4g #c4ec #g a a #e4 field ( #cj4 #cj #bd #b4be #g a b #f4 field ( #bj4 #bj #bg #a4if #g a c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,z an analyz+ prism ( ab\t #f mm4 cle> wid?1 & #ac4e mm4 long1 ! new prism is /at$ by its inv5tor to be ( ! mo/ ess5tial s]vice1 & x w\ld c]ta9ly appe> t ! arrangem5t is r bett] adapt$ = small prisms ?an = ^? ( consid]able size4 ,any means by :i* a beam ( pol>iz$ light ( l>ge diamet]--say #c to #c in*es--c\ld be obta9$ ) all ! conv5i5ce ( a ,nicol w\ld be a real advance1 = sp> ( suffici5t size & purity = su* a purpose has become s sc>ce & !re=e s valuable t l>ge prisms are difficult to procure at all4 ,s f> z an analyz] is conc]n$1 ! exp]i5ce ( ! writ] ( ?is notice w\ld lead to ! op9ion t improvem5ts are to be look$ = r 9 ! way ( ! discov]y ( an artificial cry/al :i* absorbs "o ( ! pol>iz$ rays ?an by fur!r modifications dep5d+ ^u total reflection4 ,! rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,h]apa? on iodosulphate ( qu99e 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #aheb1 #afa1 & ,novemb]1 #ahec1 #cdf7 are 9 ?is direction2 b cry/als ( ! s-call$ h]apa?ite require great manipulative skill = _! production4 ,if ^! c\ld be readily obta9$ ( suffici5t size1 !y w\ld be invaluable z analyz]s4 ,?is op9ion is support$ by ! exi/5ce ( an inconv5i5ce :i* att5ds e =m ( analyz+ prism4 ,x is frequ5tly1 & especially 9 project+ app>atus1 requir$ to be plac$ at ! focus ( a sy/em ( l5ses1 s t ! rays may cross 9 ! int]ior ( ! prism4 ,?is is an unfavorable position = a prismatic analyz]1 & 9 ! case ( a p[]ful beam ( light1 su* z t f ! electric arc1 ! cross+ ( ! rays )9 ! prism is n unatt5d$ ) dang] to ! cem5t+ sub/ance1 & to ! surfaces 9 contact ) x4 ,,philip ,r4 ,,sleeman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,zircon4 ,by ,f4 ,,/olba4 ,f9ely gr\nd zircon is quickly r5d]$ soluble if fus$ ) a mixture ( potassium bor(luoride & potassium c>bonate4 ,! au?or takes two p>ts ( ! =m] to ?ree ( ! latt]1 & prep>es an intimate1 f9ely divid$ mixture1 :i* is kept ready = use4 ,( ?is mixture f\r p>ts are tak5 to "o ( zircon1 ?or\ghly mix$1 & melt$ 9 a plat9um crucible at a r$ heat4 ,! mass fuses readily1 fro?s at fir/ & gives (f bubbles ( gas1 & fl[s !n quietly1 =m+ a v fluid melt4 ,if ! zircon is f9ely gr\nd1 #ae m9utes are suffici5t = ?is op]ation4 ,! loss ( weight is #af p] c5t41 & is n notably increas$ on prolong$ fusion4 ,x corresponds approximately to ! weight ( ! c>bonic anhydride pres5t 9 ! potassium c>bonate4 ,z pung5t vapors are giv5 (f dur+ fusion1 ! op]ation %\ld be conduct$ "u a draught hood4 ,! activity ( ! mixture 9 attack+ zircon appe>s f ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 ,two zircon cry/als1 ea* weigh+ grm41 7 introduc$ into ! melt$ mixture & subject$ to prolong$ heat4 ,9 a %ort "t !y decreas$ p]ceptibly 9 size2 ea* ( !m broke up into two fragm5ts1 & )9 an h\r !y 7 entirely dissolv$4 ,! melt$ mass is p\r$ ^u a dry metal plate1 & :5 congeal$ is ?r[n into wat]4 ,x is at once int]sect$ ) a numb] ( fissures1 :i* facilitate pulv]ization4 ,?is process is ! m necess>y z ! unbrok5 mass is v sl[ly attack$ by wat] ev5 on prolong$ boil+4 ,! p[d] is boil$ 9 a l>ge quantity ( wat] s z to remove ev]y?+ soluble4 ,!re is obta9$ a fa9tly alkal9e solution & a s$im5t insoluble 9 wat]4 ,f ! filtrate alkalies ?r[ d[n zirconium hydroxide1 free f iron4 ,! portion insoluble 9 wat] is readily dissolv$ 9 hydr(luoric acid1 & is conv]t$ into zircon potassium fluoride4 ,! *ief bulk ( ! zirconium is f\nd 9 ! aque\s solution 9 ! /ate ( d\ble fluorides4 ,! plat9um crucible is n 9 ! lea/ attack$ dur+ melt+4 ,on ! contr>y1 dirty plat9um crucibles may be advantage\sly clean$ by melt+ 9 !m a little ( ! above m5tion$ mixture4 ,if f9ely divid$ zircon is boil$ = a long "t ) cau/ic lye1 x is p]ceptibly attack$4 ,x is v probable t 9 ?is mann] zircon might be entirely dissolv$ "u a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es4 ,potassium bor(luoride may be readily prep>$ f cryolite4 ,crucibles ( nickel seem especially well adapt$ = ! fusion ( zircon 9 cau/ic alkalies4--,b]4 ,boehm4 ,gesell4 ,wiss5s*aft2 ,*em4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,process ,,= ,,mak+ ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,direct ,,f ,,! ,,ore4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a pap] read at ! ,c9c9nati ,meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,m9+ ,eng9e]s1 by ,will>d ,p4 ,w>d1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,e41 ,febru>y1 #ahhd4 ,! num]\s direct processes :i* h be5 pat5t$ & br\ght be=e ! iron ma/]s ( ! _w1 diff] mat]ially f t n[ introduc$ by ,mr4 ,wilson4 ,aft] a c>eful exam9ation ( 8 process1 ,i am conv9c$ t ,mr4 ,wilson has succe$$ 9 produc+ good blooms f iron ore1 & ,i ?9k t ,i am able to po9t out !oretically ! *ief reasons ( ! success ( 8 me?od4 ,)\t go+ deeply into ! hi/ory ( ! metal1 ,i may m5tion ! well kn[n fact t wr\ght iron 0 ext5sively us$ 9 almo/ all qu>t]s ( ! globe1 be=e pig or ca/ iron 0 ev] produc$4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! details ( ! processes by :i* ?is wr\ght iron 0 made1 x suffices = my pres5t purpose to say t !y 7 crude1 wa/eful1 & exp5sive1 s t !y c be employ$ to-day only 9 a v few localities favor$ ) good & *eap ore1 fuel1 & labor4 ,! con/ruction ( l>g] furnaces & ! employm5t ( high] temp]atures l$ to ! production ( a highly c>boniz$1 fusible metal1 )\t any special design on ! "p ( ! manufactur]s 9 produc+ x4 ,?is pig iron1 h[ev]1 c\ld be us$ only = a few purposes = :i* metallic iron 0 ne$$2 b x 0 produc$ *eaply & ) little loss ( metal1 & ! attempt to dec>bonize ?is product & br+ x into a /ate 9 :i* x c\ld be hamm]$ & weld$ 0 soon successfully made4 ,?is process ( dec>bonization1 or "s modification ( x1 has successfully held ! field aga9/ all s-call$1 direct processes up to ! pres5t "t4 ,:y8 ,because ! old fa%ion$ bloom]ies & ,catalan =ges c\ld produce blooms only at a high co/1 & because ! new processes introduc$ fail$ to turn out good blooms4 ,^? produc$ 7 inv>iably r$ %ort1 t is1 !y conta9$ unr$uc$ oxide ( iron1 :i* prev5t$ ! contact ( ! metallic p>ticles1 & r5d]$ ! weld+ toge!r ( ^! p>ticles to =m a solid bloom impossible4 ,! process ( puddl+ ca/ iron1 & trans=m+ x by dec>bonization into wr\ght iron1 has1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 be5 9 successful practical op]ation = _m ye>s1 & ! direct process ref]r$ to s closely resembles ?is1 t a %ort description ( ! !ory ( puddl+ is n out ( place "h4 ,! mat]ial op]at$ on 9 puddl+ is iron conta9+ f #b to #d p] c5t4 ( c>bon4 ,dur+ ! fir/ /age ( ! process ?is iron is melt$ d[n to a fluid ba? 9 ! bottom ( a rev]b]atory furnace4 ,!n ! oxidation ( ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! iron comm5ces1 & at ! same "t a fluid1 basic c9d]1 or slag1 is produc$1 :i* cov]s a portion ( ! surface ( ! metal ba?1 & prev5ts too ha/y oxidation4 ,?is slag results f ! union ( oxides ( iron ) ! s& adh]+ to ! pigs1 & ! silica result+ f ! oxidation ( ! silicon conta9$ 9 ! iron4 ,?is c9d] n[ plays a v important "p 9 ! process4 ,x takes up ! oxides ( iron =m$ by ! contact ( ! oxidiz+ flame ) ! expos$ portion ( ! metal ba?1 & at ! same "t ! c>bon ( ! iron1 com+ 9 contact ) ! "u surface ( ! c9d] cov]+1 :]e x is protect$ f oxidiz+ influ5ces1 r$uces ^! oxides f ! c9d] & re/ores !m to ! ba? 9 metallic =m4 ,?is alt]nate oxidation ( expos$ metal1 & its r$uction by ! c>bon ( ! ca/ iron1 cont9ues till ! c>bon is ne>ly exhau/$1 :5 ! iron assumes a pa/y condition1 or comes to nature1 z ! puddl]s call ?is *ange4 ,! *>ge is !n work$ up into balls1 & remov$ = treatm5t 9 ! squeez]1 & !n hamm]$ or roll$4 ,9 ! ,wilson process ! conditions :i* we h not$ 9 ! puddl+ op]ation are v closely approximat$4 ,iron ore r$uc$ to a co>se s& is mix$ ) ! prop] proportion ( *>coal or coke du/1 & ! mixture f$ into upright retorts plac$ 9 ! *imney ( ! puddl+ furnace4 ,by exposure = #bd h\rs to ! heat ( ! wa/e gases f ! furnace1 9 ! pres5ce ( solid c>bon1 a consid]able portion ( ! oxyg5 ( ! ore is remov$1 b little or no metallic iron is =m$4 ,! ore is !n drawn f ! deoxidiz] into ! re> or second he>? ( ! puddl+ furnace1 situat$ bel[ x1 :]e x is expos$ = #bj m9utes to a mu* high] temp]ature ?an t ( ! deoxidiz]4 ,"h ! pres5ce ( ! solid c>bon1 mix$ ) ! ore1 prev5ts any oxidiz+ action1 & ! temp]ature ( ! mass is rais$ to a po9t at :i* ! c9d] beg9s to =m4 ,!n ! *>ge is c>ri$ =w>d by ! workm5 to ! front he>?1 9 :i* ! temp]ature ( a puddl+ furnace prevails4 ,"h ! c9d] melts1 & at ! same "t ! solid c>bon reacts on ! oxyg5 rema9+ comb9$ ) ! ore1 & =ms metallic iron2 b by ?is "t ! molt5 c9d] is pres5t to prev5t undue oxidation ( ! metal =m$1 & solid c>bon is /ill pres5t 9 ! mixture to play ! same role1 ( r$uc+ protoxide ( iron f ! c9d]1 z ! c>bon ( ! ca/ iron does 9 ! ord9>y puddl+ process4 ,i h said t ! ca/ iron us$ z ! mat]ial = puddl+ conta9s ab\t #c p] c5t4 ( c>bon2 b 9 ?is process suffici5t c>bon is add$ to effect ! r$uction ( ! ore to a metallic /ate1 & leave en\gh 9 ! mass to play ! "p ( ! c>bon ( ! ca/ iron :5 ! metallic /age has be5 rea*$4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to comp>e ! ,wilson ) ! num]\s o!r direct processes to :i* allusion has already be5 made1 b !re h be5 s _m ( !m1 & ! data conc]n+ !m are s incomplete1 t ?is is impossible4 ,two processes1 h[ev]1 ! ,blair & ! ,siem5s1 h attract$ suffici5t att5tion1 & are suffici5tly mod]n to des]ve notice4 ,9 ! ,blair process a metallic iron sponge 0 made f ! ore 9 a clos$ retort1 ?is sponge cool$ d[n 9 receptacles f :i* ! air 0 exclud$1 to ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 !n *>g$ into a puddl+ furnace & heat$ = work+4 ,9 ?is way 7& ! same plan ess5tially has be5 foll[$ by o!r inv5tors71 ! metallic iron1 9 ! f9e/ possible /ate ( subdivision1 is subject$ to ! m or less oxidiz+ influ5ces ( ! flame1 )\t liquid slag to save x f oxidation1 & ) no c>bon pres5t to aga9 r$uce ! iron oxides f ! c9d] aft] x is =m$4 ,! loss ( metal is consequ5tly v l>ge1 b oxides ( iron be+ left 9 ! metal ! blooms are inv>iably r$ %ort4 ,9 ! ,siem5s process pieces ( ore ( ! size ( beans or peas1 mix$ ) lime or o!r flux+ mat]ial1 =m ! *>ge1 :i* is introduc$ into a rotat+ furnace2 & :5 ?is *>ge has become heat$ to a bright-r$ heat1 small coal ( uni=m size is add$ 9 suffici5t quantity to effect ! r$uction ( ! ore4 ,! size ( ! pieces ( ! mat]ial employ$ prev5ts ! intimate mixture ( ! p>ticles ( iron ) ! p>ticles ( c>bon1 & h5ce we w\ld1 on !oretical gr\nds1 anticipate j :at practice has prov$1 viz41 t ! r$uction is incomplete1 & ! result+ metal be+ *>g$ ) oxides is r$-%ort4 ,9 practice1 blooms made by ?is process h be5 s r$-%ort t !y c\ld n be hamm]$ at all4 ,x w\ld be impracticable 9 ?is process to employ ore & c>bon 9 z f9e p>ticles z ,wilson does1 z a v l>ge portion ( ! *>ge w\ld be c>ri$ (f by ! draught1 & a /ick+ ( ! mat]ial to ! sides ( ! rotat+ furnace c\ld sc>cely be avoid$4 ,i d n imag9e t a division ( ! mat]ial into any?+ l ! suppos$ size ( molecules is necess>y2 we "k t ! graphitic c>bon 9 ! pig-iron employ$ 9 puddl+ is n s f9ely divid$1 b x is mu* small] p>ticles ?an bean or pea size1 & by approximat+ ! size ( ! graphite p>ticles 9 pig iron1 ,wilson has succe$$ 9 obta9+ good results4 ,if we exam9e ! utilization ( ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion ( a giv5 quantity ( coal 9 ?is process1 & comp>e x ) ! result ( ! combu/ion ( an equival5t am\nt ( fuel 9 a bla/ furnace1 we %all soon see ! !oretical economy ( ! process4 ,! coal is burn$ on ! grate ( ! puddl+-furnace1 to c>bonic acid1 & ! flame is m fully utiliz$ ?an 9 an ord9>y puddl+-furnace1 = besides ! ord9>y he>? !re is ! second or re> he>?1 :]e additional heat is tak5 up1 & !n ! products ( combu/ion are fur!r utiliz$ 9 heat+ ! retorts 9 :i* ! ore is p>tly r$uc$4 ,aft] ?is ! heat is /ill fur!r utiliz$ by pass+ x "u ! boil]s = ! g5]ation ( /eam1 & ! heat lo/ 9 ! gases1 :5 !y f9ally escape1 is v small4 ,9 a bla/ furnace ! c>bon is at fir/ burn$ only to c>bonic oxide1 & ! products ( combu/ion issue ma9ly 9 ?is =m f ! top ( ! furnace4 ,!n a portion ( ! heat result+ f ! subsequ5t burn+ ( ^! gases is pretty well utiliz$ 9 mak+ /eam to supply ! p[] requir$ ab\t ! works1 b ! re/ ( ! gas c only be utiliz$ = heat+ ! bla/1 & "h !re is an enorm\s wa/e1 ! am\nt ( heat return$ to ! furnace by ! heat$ bla/ be+ v small 9 proportion to ! am\nt g5]at$ by ! burn+ ( t portion ( c>bonic oxide exp5d$ 9 heat+ x1 & ! gases escape f bo? ! hot-bla/ & ! boil]s at a high temp]ature4 ,9 ! direct process "u consid]ation ! fuel burn$ is m completely utiliz$ ?an 9 ! puddl+ process1 to :i* ! ca/ iron f ! bla/ furnace is subject$ to conv]t x into wr\ght iron4 ,! economy claim$ = ?is process1 ov] ! bla/ furnace & puddl+ practice = ! production ( wr\ght iron1 is t ne>ly all ! fuel us$ 9 ! puddl+ op]ation is sav$1 & t ) ab\t ! same am\nt ( fuel us$ 9 ! bla/ furnace to produce a ton ( pig iron1 a ton ( wr\ght iron blooms c be made4 ,i _h no opportunity ( weigh+ ! *>ges ( ore & coal us$1 b ,i saw ! process 9 actual op]ation at ,rockaway1 ,n4,j4 ,! iron produc$ 0 hamm]$ up into good solid blooms1 conta9+ b little c9d]4 ,! muck-b> made f ! blooms 0 fibr\s 9 fracture1 & %[$ e appe>ance ( good iron4 ,i am in=m$ by ! manag] ( ! ,s&]son ,bro!rs' /eel works1 at ,syracuse1 ,n4,y41 t !y pur*as$ blooms made by ! ,wilson process 9 #ahha-ahhb1 t none ( !m %[$ r$-%ortness1 & t !y discont9u$ _! use only on acc\nt ( ! injuri\s action ( ! titanium !y conta9$ on ! melt+ pots4 ,^! blooms 7 made f magnetic s&s f ! ,long ,isl& & ,connecticut coa/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,new ,,process ,,= ,,mak+ ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,f ,,! ,,ore4 ,! draw+ giv5 %[s ! con/ruction ( ! furnace employ$4 ,i quote f ! publi%$ description3 ,! upp] "p1 or deoxidiz]1 is support$ on a /rong mantel plate re/+ on f\r ca/ iron columns4 ,! retorts & flues are made entirely ( fire-brick1 f special patt]ns4 ,! outside is protect$ by a wr\ght iron jacket made ( ,no4 #ad iron4 ,! puddl+ furnace is ( ! ord9>y con/ruction1 except 9 ! work+ bottom1 :i* is made long] to accommodate two *>ges ( ore1 & ?us utilize m ( ! wa/e heat 9 r$uc+ ! ore to metallic iron4 ,! op]ation ( ! furnace is z foll[s3 ,! pulv]iz$ ore is mix$ ) #bj p] c5t4 ( pulv]iz$ *>coal or coke1 & is f$ into an elevator :i* dis*>ges into ! hopp] on ! deoxidiz] lead+ into ! retorts m>k$ ,c4 ,^! retorts are proportion$ s t !y w hold ore en\gh to run ! puddl+ furnace #bd h\rs1 ! "t requir$ = p]fect deoxidation4 ,aft] ! retorts are fill$1 a fire is />t$ 9 ! furnace1 & ! products ( combu/ion pass up ?r\gh ! ma9 flue1 or well1 ,b1 :]e !y are deflect$ by ! ar*1 & pass out ?r\gh suitable op5+s1 z indicat$ by arr[s1 into ! d[n-takes m>k$ ,e1 & out ?r\gh an annul> flue1 :]e !y are pass$ "u a boil]4 ,x w be notic$ t ! ore is expos$ to ! wa/e heat on ?ree sides ( ! retorts1 & ow+ to ! great surface s expos$1 ! ore is v ?or\ghly deoxidiz$1 & r$uc$ 9 ! retorts be=e x is introduc$ into ! puddl+ furnace = f9al r$uction4 ,! curv$ ca/ iron pipes m>k$ ,d are provid$ ) slides1 & are = ! purpose ( introduc+ ! deoxidiz$ ore into ! second bottom ( ! furnace4 ,z be=e /at$1 ! furnace is int5d$ to accommodate two *>ges ( ore1 & z fa/ z x is ball$ up & tak5 out ( ! work+ bottom1 ! *>ge rema9+ 9 ! second bottom is work$ up 9 ! place occupi$ by ! fir/ *>ge1 & a new *>ge is introduc$4 ,z fa/ z ! ore is drawn out f ! retorts ! elevator supplies a new lot1 s t ! retorts are always fill$1 ?us mak+ ! process cont9u\s4 ,! temp]ature ( ! *>ge 9 ! deoxidiz] is f #hjj to #a1jjj ,f4--,am]4 ,eng9e]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,"s ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,! ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,h>dness ,,9 ,,wat]s4 ,by ,,h]b]t ,,jackson4 ,hav+ _h occasion "s %ort "t ago to exam9e a h>d wat] :i* ow$ half its h>dness to salts ( magnesium1 ,i notic$ t ! soap te/1 appli$ 9 ! usual way1 gave a result :i* diff]$ v mu* f t obta9$ by ! quantitative e/imation ( calcium & magnesium4 ,a p]fectly normal la!r 0 obta9$ :5 soap _h be5 add$ 9 quantities suffici5t to neutralize #ad ( h>dness1 :]eas ! wat] conta9$ salts ( calcium & magnesium equival5t1 on ,cl>k's scale1 to a h>dness ( #bg4 ,al?\gh ,i 0 aw>e t simil> obs]vations _h be5 made be=e1 ,i ?\ght t x might be useful to det]m9e ! conditions "u :i* ! soap te/ c\ld n be dep5d$ ^u = reliable results4 ,i f\nd ) wat]s conta9+ calcium or magnesium alone t1 :5ev] salts ( ei!r ( ^! metals 7 9 solution 9 quantities suffici5t to give #bc ( h>dness on ,cl>k's scale1 no dep5d5ce c\ld be plac$ ^u ! results giv5 by ! soap te/4 ,9 ! case ( wat]s conta9+ salts ( bo? calcium & magnesium1 ,i f\nd t if ! salts ( ! latt] metal 7 9 solution 9 quantities suffici5t to give m ?an #aj ( h>dness1 no evid5ce c\ld be obta9$ ( _! pres5ce s long z ! salts ( calcium 9 ! same wat] exce$$ #f2 9 su* a case a p]fect & p]man5t la!r 0 produc$ :5 soap _h be5 add$ equival5t to #g ( h>dness4 ,if any wat] be dilut$ s z to r$uce ! proportions ( ! salts ( calcium & magnesium bel[ ^? /at$ above1 p]fectly reliable results w ( c\rse be obta9$4 ,in/ead ( dilution ,i f\nd t heat+ ! wat] to ab\t #gj ,c4 0 suffici5t to cause a complete reaction betwe5 ! soap & ! salts ( calcium & magnesium1 ev5 if ^! 7 pres5t 9 f> l>g] quantities ?an any giv5 "h4 ,! exp]im5ts s f> _h all be5 made ) a solution ( ,ca/ile soap ( ! /r5g? sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,wanklyn 9 8 book on ,wat] ,analysis4 ,my att5tion 0 next direct$ to ! use ( any "o ( ! comp\nds ( :i* su* a soap is compos$4 ,i comm5c$ ) sodium oleate1 & f\nd t by employ+ ?is sub/ance 9 a mod]ately pure condition1 p]fectly reliable results c\ld be obta9$ 9 v h>d wat]s )\t ! tr\ble ( ei!r dilut+ or heat+4 ,i 0 unable to try sodium /e>ate directly because ( ! slight solubility ( ?is sub/ance 9 cold wat] or dilute alcohol2 b ,i f\nd t a mixture ( sodium oleate & /e>ate behav$ 9 exactly ! same mann] z ! ,ca/ile soap4 ,i am n prep>$ at pres5t to /ate ! exact reaction :i* takes place betwe5 salts ( calcium & magnesium & a comp\nd soap conta9+ sodium oleate & /e>ate4 ,i publi% ^! results because ,i h n notic$ any:]e ! fact t "s wat]s %[ a great] h>dness ) soap :5 _! temp]atures approa* ! boil+ po9t ?an !y d at ! av]age temp]ature ( ! air1 x be+1 ,i believe1 ! ord9>y impression t cold wat] wa/es m soap ?an hot wat] be=e a good & useful la!r c be obta9$1 :]eas ) v _m wat]s ! case is q ! rev]se4 ,nei!r am ,i aw>e at pres5t :e!r x is well kn[n t ! use ( sodium oleate unmix$ ) sodium /e>ate disp5ses ) ! process ( dilution ev5 9 v h>d wat]s4--,*em4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,d5sity ,,& ,,pressure ,,( ,,detonat+ ,,gas ,,mixtures4 ,,mm4 ,b]!lot & ,vielle h rec5tly be5 /udy+ ! influ5ce ( ! d5sity ( detonat+ gase\s mixtures ^u ! pressure develop$4 ,! measure ( pressure develop$ by ! same gase\s sy/em1 tak5 "u two initial /ates ( diff]5t d5sity to :i* ! same quantity ( heat is communicat$1 is an important matt] 9 !rmodynamics4 ,if ! pressures v>y 9 ! same ratio z ! d5sities1 we may conclude1 indep5d5tly ( all special hypo!ses on ! laws ( gases1 fir/1 t ! specific heat ( ! sy/em is indep5d5t ( its d5sity 7t is to say1 ( its initial pressure71 & dep5ds only on ! absolute temp]ature1 :atev] t may mean2 & secondly1 t ! relative v>iation ( ! pressure at con/ant volume1 produc$ by ! introduction ( a det]m9ate quantity ( heat1 is also indep5d5t ( ! pressure1 & a function only ( ! temp]ature4 ,la/ly1 ! pressure itself w v>y proportionally ) ! absolute temp]ature1 z def9$ by ! !ory ( a p]fect gas1 & w s]ve to det]m9e x4 ,,mm4 ,b]!lot & ,vielle op]at$ ) a bomb1 at fir/ kept at ord9>y temp]atures 9 ! air1 & aft]w>d heat$ 9 an oil ba? to #aec deg4 ,c5t4 ,!y also employ$ isom]ic mixtures ( ! gases2 me?ylic e!r1 cyanog51 hydrog51 acetyl5e1 & o!r gases 7 exp]im5t$ ^u1 & ! g5]al conclusions are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! same quantity ( heat be+ furni%$ to a gase\s sy/em1 ! pressure ( ! sy/em v>ies proportionally to ! d5sity ( ! sy/em4 #b4 ,! specific heat ( ! gas is s5sibly indep5d5t ( ! d5sity z well t[>d v high temp]atures z ab\t deg4 ,c5t4 ,?is is all true = d5sities ne> to ^? t ! gas possesses cold "u normal pressure1 & :i* v>i$ 9 ! exp]im5t to d\ble ! orig9al value4 #c4 ,! pressure increases ) ! quantity ( heat furni%$ to ! same sy/em4 #d4 ,! app>5t specific heat increases p>allel ) ?is quantity ( heat4 ,^! conclusions are indep5d5t ( all hypo!ses on ! nature & laws ( gases1 & 7 simply drawn f ! exp]im5ts 9 "q4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,turki% ,,ba?s ,,= ,,horses4 ,! ,turki% ba? has become an e/abli%$ in/itution 9 ?is c\ntry2 m5 ( all classes n[ use x = sanit>y z well z rem$ial purposes4 ,a?letes ( v>i\s descriptions f9d x invaluable 9 tra9+1 & all ! di/+ui%$ jockeys & light weights keep !mselves 9 condition by its use4 ,x 0 ?\ght probable t :at 0 good = man might also be good = ! horse1 & ! fact has be5 prov$4 ,messrs4 ,pick=d1 ! em95t c>ri]s1 9 _! hospital = horses at ,f9*ley1 h _h a ba? 9 op]ation ov] elev5 ye>s1 & f9d ! horses d]ive great b5efit f its use4 ,! ba? is put 9 op]ation ?ree days a week1 & is adm9i/]$ to ov] tw5ty horses 9 ?is "t4 ,! value ( ! ba? hav+ be5 ?us prov$1 x is r /range t x has n be5 m g5]ally adopt$ by ! l>ge c>ry+ firms4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,great ,nor!rn ,railway ,company at _! new hospital = horses at ,tott]idge1 are erect+ a v complete ,turki% ba?4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree rooms4 ,fir/1 a l>ge wa% room or groom+ room1 f :i* is ent]$ ! fir/ hot room1 or tepid>ium1 f #adj to #aej ,fahr42 f ?is room1 ! horse1 aft] be+ ?or\ghly acclimat$1 c1 if necess>y1 pass to ! hotte/ room1 or calid>ium1 f #afj to #agj ,fahr41 & )\t any turn+ r\nd c pass on into ! groom+ & wa%+ room aga94 ,?is la/ room is slightly heat$ f ! two o!r rooms1 & 9 ea* are /ocks 9 :i* ! animal c he fa/5$ if requir$4 ,! heat+ is done mo/ economically by ,con/ant9e's convolut$ /ove1 & ?or\gh v5tilation is secur$ f ! l>ge volume ( hot air con/antly suppli$1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! ba?s1 & z x becomes vitiat$ is drawn (f by specially design$ outlets4 ,! wa% room is suppli$ ) hot & cold wat]1 :i* c1 ( c\rse1 be mix$ to any requir$ temp]ature4--,build+ ,news4 ,illu/ration ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,f\l ,,air ,,f\l ,,air ,,f\l ,,air _/ _/ _/ _/ #a,,/ ,,hot ,,room _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,curta9 ,,wa%+ ,,room #b,,nd ,,hot ,,room ,,fre% _/ ,,air ,,w>m ,,f\l ,,air ,,f\l ,,air ,,air ---------------------------------------- --- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,s ,t ,o ,k ,e ,r ,y ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mirya*it1 ,a ,,newly ,,describ$ ,,disease ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em1 ,,& ,,its ,,analogues4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read be=e ! ,new ,york ,neurological ,society1 ,febru>y #e1 #ahhd4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,hammond1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon-,g5]al1 ,u4,s4 ,army 7,retir$ ,li/72 ,pr(essor ( ,diseases ( ! ,m9d & ,n]v\s ,sy/em 9 ! ,new ,york ,po/-,graduate ,m$ical ,s*ool & ,hospital4 ,9 a v int]e/+ acc\nt ( a j\rney f ! ,pacific ,ocean ?r\gh ,asia to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by ,lieut5ant ,b4,h4 ,buck+ham & ,ensigns ,george ,c4 ,f\lk & ,walt] ,mc,lean1#b ,unit$ ,/ates navy1 ,i f9d an affection ( ! n]v\s sy/em describ$ :i*1 on acc\nt ( its rem>kable *>act]i/ics1 z well z by reason ( c]ta9 kn[n analogies1 ,i ?9k %\ld be br\ght to ! special notice ( ! m$ical pr(ession4 ,i quote f ! "w ref]r$ to1 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ?is disease4 ,! p>ty is on ! ,ussuri ,riv] n f> f its junction ) ! ,amur 9 ,ea/]n ,sib]ia3 ,:ile we 7 walk+ on ! bank "h we obs]v$ our messmate1 ! capta9 ( ! g5]al /aff 7( ! ,russian army71 approa* ! /ew>d ( ! boat sudd5ly1 &1 )\t any app>5t reason or rem>k1 clap 8 h&s be=e 8 face2 in/antly ! /ew>d clapp$ 8 h&s 9 ! same mann]1 put on an angry look1 & pass$ on4 ,! incid5t 0 some:at curi\s1 z x involv$ a degree ( famili>ity ) ! /ew>d h>dly to h be5 expect$4 ,aft] ?is we obs]v$ a numb] ( que] p]=mances ( ! /ew>d1 & f9ally compreh5d$ ! situation4 ,x seem$ t he 0 afflict$ ) a peculi> m5tal or n]v\s disease1 :i* =c$ him to imitate ev]y?+ sudd5ly pres5t$ to 8 s5ses4 ,?us1 :5 ! capta9 slapp$ ! paddle-box sudd5ly 9 ! pres5ce ( ! /ew>d1 ! latt] in/antly gave x a simil> ?ump2 or1 if any noise 7 made sudd5ly1 he seem$ compell$ aga9/ 8 w to imitate x in/antly1 & ) rem>kable accuracy4 ,to annoy him1 "s ( ! pass5g]s imitat$ pigs grunt+1 or call$ out absurd names2 o!rs clapp$ _! h&s & %\t$1 jump$1 or ?rew _! hats on ! deck sudd5ly1 & ! poor /ew>d1 sudd5ly />tl$1 w\ld e*o !m all precisely1 & sometimes sev]al consecutively4 ,frequ5tly he w\ld expo/ulate1 begg+ p n to />tle him1 & aga9 w\ld gr[ furi\sly angry1 b ev5 9 ! mid/ ( 8 passion he w\ld helplessly imitate "s ridicul\s %\t or motion direct$ at him by 8 pitiless torm5t]s4 ,frequ5tly he %ut himself up 9 8 pantry1 :i* 0 )\t w9d[s1 & lock$ ! door1 b ev5 !re he c\ld be he>d answ]+ ! grunts1 %\ts1 or p\nds on ! bulkhead outside4 ,he 0 a man ( middle age1 fair physique1 r intellig5t 9 facial expression1 & )\t ! slighte/ indication 9 appe>ance ( 8 disability4 ,z we desc5d$ ! bank to g on bo>d ! /eam]1 "s "o gave a l\d %\t & ?rew 8 cap on ! gr\nd2 look+ ab\t = ! /ew>d1 = ! %\t 0 evid5tly made = 8 b5efit1 we saw him viol5tly ?r[ 8 cap1 ) a %\t1 into a *ick5-coop1 into :i* he 0 ab\t to put ! result ( 8 =ag+ exp$ition among ! h\ses ( ! /anitza4 ,footnote #b3 ,obs]vations ^u ! ,korean ,coa/1 ,japanese-,korean ,ports1 & ,sib]ia1 made dur+ a j\rney f ! ,asiatic ,/ation to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?r\gh ,sib]ia to ,europe1 ,june #c to ,septemb] #h1 #ahhb4 ,publi%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy ,dep>tm5t1 ,wa%+ton1 #ahhc1 pp4 #ea4 ,we aft]w>d witness$ an incid5t :i* illu/rat$ ! ext5t ( 8 disability4 ,! capta9 ( ! /eam]1 runn+ up to him1 sudd5ly clapp+ 8 h&s at ! same "t1 accid5tally slipp$ & fell h>d on ! deck2 )\t hav+ be5 t\*$ by ! capta91 ! /ew>d in/antly clapp$ 8 b&s & %\t$1 & !n1 9 p[]less imitation1 he too fell z h>d & almo/ precisely 9 ! same mann] & position z ! capta94 ,9 speak+ ( ! /ew>d's disord]1 ! capta9 ( ! g5]al /aff /at$ t x 0 n uncommon 9 ,sib]ia2 t he _h se5 a numb] ( cases ( x1 & t x 0 commone/ ab\t ,yakutsk1 :]e ! w9t] cold is extreme4 ,bo? sexes 7 subject to x1 b m5 mu* less ?an wom54 ,x 0 kn[n to ,russians by ! "n ( 'mirya*it'4 ,s f> z ,i am aw>e--& ,i h look$ c>efully ?r\gh sev]al books ( travel 9 ,sib]ia--no acc\nt ( ?is curi\s disease has be5 hi!rto publi%$4 ,! description giv5 by ! naval (fic]s at once1 h[ev]1 br+s to m9d ! rem>ks made by ! late ,dr4 ,george ,m4 ,be>d1 be=e ! meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,neurological ,association 9 #ahhj1 relative to ! ,jump]s or ,jump+ ,fr5*m5 ( ,ma9e & nor!rn ,new ,hamp%ire4#c ,footnote #c3 ,j\rnal ( ,n]v\s & ,m5tal ,diseases1 vol4 vii41 #ahhj1 p4 #dhg4 ,9 ,june1 #ahhj1 ,dr4 ,be>d visit$ ,moosehead ,lake1 f\nd ! ,jump]s1 & exp]im5t$ ) !m4 ,he asc]ta9$ t :atev] ord] 0 giv5 !m 0 at once obey$4 ,?us1 "o ( ! jump]s :o 0 sitt+ 9 a *air ) a knife 9 8 h& 0 told to ?r[ x1 & he ?rew x quickly1 s t x /uck 9 a beam opposite2 at ! same "t he repeat$ ! ord] to ?r[ x ) a cry ( al>m n unlike t ( hy/]ia or epilepsy4 ,he also ?rew away 8 pipe1 :i* he 0 fill+ ) tobacco1 :5 he 0 slapp$ ^u ! %\ld]4 ,two jump]s /&+ ne> ea* o!r 7 told to /rike1 & !y /ruck ea* o!r v =cibly4 ,"o jump]1 :5 /&+ by a w9d[1 0 sudd5ly comm&$ by a p]son on ! o!r side ( ! w9d[ to jump1 & he jump$ up half a foot f ! floor1 repeat+ ! ord]4 ,:5 ! comm&s are utt]$ 9 a quick1 l\d voice1 ! jump] repeats ! ord]4 ,:5 told to /rike he /rikes1 :5 told to ?r[ he ?r[s :atev] he may happ5 to h 9 8 h&4 ,dr4 ,be>d tri$ ?is p[] ( repetition ) ! fir/ "p ( ! fir/ l9e ( ,virgil's neid & ! fir/ "p ( ! fir/ l9e ( ,hom]'s ,iliad1 & out-(-!-way words ( ! ,engli% language ) :i* ! jump] c\ld n be famili>1 & he repeat$ or e*o$ ! s\nd ( ! ^w z x came to him 9 a quick1 %>p voice1 at ! same "t he jump$1 or /ruck1 or ?rew1 or rais$ 8 %\ld]s1 or made "s o!r viol5t muscul> motion4 ,!y c\ld n help repeat+ ! ^w or s\nd t came f ! p]son t ord]$ !m1 any m ?an !y c\ld help /rik+1 dropp+1 ?r[+1 jump+1 or />t+2 all ( ^! ph5om5a 7 inde$ b p>ts ( ! g5]al condition kn[n z jump+4 ,x 0 n necess>y t ! s\nd %\ld come f a human be+2 any sudd5 or unexpect$ noise1 z ! explosion ( a gun or pi/ol1 ! fall+ ( a w9d[1 or ! slamm+ ( a door--provid$ x 0 unexpect$ & l\d en\gh--w\ld cause ^! jump]s to exhibit "s "o or all ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,"o ( ^! jump]s came v ne> cutt+ 8 ?roat1 :ile %av+1 on he>+ a door slam4 ,!y _h be5 kn[n to /rike _! fi/s aga9/ a r$-hot /ove1 to jump into ! fire & into wat]4 ,!y c\ld n help /rik+ _! be/ fri5d if ne> !m :5 ord]$4 ,! noise ( a /eam :i/le 0 especially obnoxi\s to !m4 ,"o ( ^! jump]s1 :5 tak+ "s bromide ( sodium 9 a tumbl]1 0 told to ?r[ x1 & he da%$ ! tumbl] ^u ! floor4 ,x 0 dang]\s to />tle !m 9 any way :5 !y _h an ax or an knife 9 _! h&s4 ,all ( ! jump]s agre$ t x tir$ !m to be jump$1 & !y dread$ x1 b !y 7 con/antly annoy$ by _! companions4 ,f ?is description x w at once1 ,i ?9k1 be p]ceiv$ t !re are /rik+ analogies betwe5 mirya*it & ?is disord] ( ! ,jump+ ,fr5*m5 ( ,ma9e4 ,inde$1 x appe>s to me t1 if ! two affections 7 c>efully /udi$1 x w\ld be f\nd t !y 7 id5tical1 or t1 at any rate1 ! ph5om5a ( ! "o c\ld readily be develop$ into ^? ( ! o!rs4 ,x is n /at$ t ! subjects ( mirya*it d :at !y are told to d4 ,!y require an example to rea* _! bra9s ?r\gh ! s5se ( sight or t ( he>+1 :]eas ! ,jump]s d n app>5tly p]=m an act :i* is execut$ be=e !m1 b !y require a comm&4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t a ,jump] />ts :5ev] any sudd5 noise rea*es 8 e>s4 ,9 bo? classes ( cases a sugge/ion ( "s k9d is requir$1 & !n ! act takes place indep5d5tly ( ! w4 ,!re is ano!r analog\s condition kn[n by ! ,g]mans z ,s*laftrunk5heit1 & to ,engli% & ,am]ican neurologi/s z somnol5tia1 or sleep-drunk5ness4 ,9 ?is /ate an individual1 on be+ sudd5ly awak5$1 commits "s incongru\s act ( viol5ce1 (ttimes a murd]4 ,sometimes ?is appe>s to be excit$ by a dream1 b 9 o!rs no su* cause c\ld be discov]$4 ,?us1 a s5try fell asleep dur+ 8 wat*1 &1 be+ sudd5ly ar\s$ by ! (fic] 9 comm&1 attack$ ! latt] ) 8 sword1 & w\ld h kill$ him b = ! int]position ( ! by/&]s4 ,! result ( ! m$ical exam9ation 0 t ! act 0 involunt>y1 be+ ! result ( a viol5t confusion ( m9d consequ5t ^u ! sudd5 awak+ f a pr(\nd sleep4 ,o!r cases are cit$ by ,:>ton & ,/ille 9 _! "w on m$ical jurisprud5ce1 by ,h(fbau]1 & by myself 9 ,sleep & its ,d]angem5ts4 ,! foll[+ cases among o!rs h occurr$ 9 my own exp]i5ce3 ,a g5tleman 0 r\s$ "o night by 8 wife1 :o he>d ! /reet-door bell r+4 ,he got up1 &1 )\t pay+ att5tion to :at %e said1 dragg$ ! %eets (f ( ! b$1 tore !m hurri$ly into /rips1 & proce$$ to tie ! pieces toge!r4 ,%e f9ally succe$$ 9 br++ him to himself1 :5 he said he _h ?\ght ! h\se 0 on fire1 & he 0 provid+ means = _! escape4 ,he did n recollect hav+ _h any dream ( ! k9d1 b 0 "u ! impression t ! idea _h occurr$ to him at ! in/ant ( 8 awak+4 ,ano!r 0 sudd5ly ar\s$ f a s\nd sleep by ! slamm+ ( a w9d[-%utt] by ! w9d4 ,he sprang in/antly f 8 b$1 &1 seiz+ a *air t 0 ne>1 hurl$ x ) all 8 /r5g? aga9/ ! w9d[4 ,! noise ( ! break+ ( glass fully awak5$ him4 ,he expla9$ t he imag9$ "s "o 0 try+ to get into ! room & _h let 8 pi/ol fall on ! floor1 !reby produc+ ! noise :i* _h />tl$ him4 ,9 ano!r case a man dream$ t he he>d a voice tell+ him to jump out ( ! w9d[4 ,he at once arose1 ?rew op5 ! sa%1 & jump$ to ! gr\nd bel[1 =tunately only a di/ance ( ab\t t5 feet1 s t he 0 n injur$ beyond receiv+ a viol5t %ock4 ,su* a case z ?is appe>s to me to be v simil> to ^? describ$ by ,dr4 ,be>d 9 all its ess5tial aspects4 ,a few ye>s ago ,i _h a g5tleman "u my *>ge :o w\ld attempt to execute any ord] giv5 him :ile he 0 asleep by a p]son :isp]+ into 8 e>4 ,?us1 if told 9 ?is way to %\t1 he %\t$ z l\d z he c\ld2 if ord]$ to get up1 he at once jump$ f ! b$2 if direct$ to repeat c]ta9 words1 he said !m1 & s on4 ,i am n able to give any c]ta9 explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( mirya*it or ( ! ,jump]s1 or ( c]ta9 ( ^? cases ( sleep-drunk5ness :i* seem to be ( l "*4 ,b !y all appe> to be due to ! fact a motor impulse is excit$ by p]ceptions )\t ! necess>y concurr5ce ( ! volition ( ! individual to cause ! dis*>ge4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 analog\s to reflex actions1 & especially to c]ta9 epileptic p>oxysms due to reflex irritations4 ,x w\ld seem z ?\gh ! n]ve cells 7 v mu* 9 ! condition ( a package ( dynamite or nitro glyc]91 9 :i* a v slight impression is suffici5t to effect a dis*>ge ( n]ve =ce4 ,!y diff]1 h[ev]1 f ! epileptic p>oxysm 9 ! fact t ! dis*>ge is consonant ) ! p]ception--:i* is 9 ^! cases an irritation--& is h5ce an app>5tly logical act1 :]eas 9 epilepsy ! dis*>ge is m viol5t1 is illogical1 & does n cease ) ! cessation ( ! irritation4 ,c]ta9ly ! :ole subject is ( suffici5t importance to dem& ! c>eful /udy ( compet5t obs]v]s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,gum ,,disease ,,9 ,,trees4#a ,footnote #a3 ,communicat$ to ! ,m$ical ,times by ,sir ,james ,paget4 ,an essay by ,dr4 ,beij]9ck1 on ! contagion ( ! gum disease 9 plants1 lately publi%$ by ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,am/]dam1 conta9s "s useful facts4 ,! gum disease 7gummosis1 gum-flux7 is only too well kn[n to all :o gr[ pea*es1 apricots1 plums1 *]ries1 or o!r /one fruits4 ,a simil> disease produces gum arabic1 gum tragacan?1 & probably _m res9s & gum res9s4 ,x %[s itself op5ly 9 ! exudation ( ?ick & /icky or h>d & dry lumps ( gum1 :i* cl+ on bran*es ( any ( ^! trees :]e !y h be5 crack$ or w\nd$ ?r\gh ! b>k4 ,dr4 ,beij]9ck 0 induc$ to make exp]im5tal inoculations ( ! gum disease by suspicions t1 l "s o!rs obs]v$ 9 plants1 x 0 due to bact]ia4 ,he asc]ta9$ t x is 9 a high degree contagi\s1 & c easily be produc$ by ins]t+ ! gum "u ! edge ( a w\nd ?r\gh ! b>k ( any ( ! trees above nam$4 ,! obs]vation t heat$ or long boil$ pieces ( gum lose _! contagi\s prop]ty made x mo/ probable t a liv+ organism 0 conc]n$ 9 ! contagions2 & he !n f\nd t only ^? pieces ( ! gum convey$ contagion 9 :i*1 :e!r ) or )\t bact]ia1 !re 7 spores ( a relatively highly organiz$ fungus1 belong+ to ! class ( ,ascomycetes2 & t ^! spores1 ins]t$ by !mselves "u ! b>k1 produc$ ! same pa?ological *anges z did ! pieces ( gum4 ,! fungus ?us detect$1 0 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,oudemans1 :o asc]ta9$ x to be a new species ( ,coryneum1 & has nam$ x ,coryneum ,beij]9cki4 ,! inoculation exp]im5ts are be/ made by means ( incisions ?r\gh ! b>k ( "y bran*es ( heal?y pea* trees or *]ry trees1 & by slightly rais+ ! cut edge ( ! b>k & putt+ "u x little bits ( gum f a diseas$ tree ( ! same k9d4 ,9 ne>ly e in/ance ^! w\nds become ! seats ( acute gum disease1 :ile simil> w\nds 9 ! same or o!r bran*es ( ! same tree1 into :i* no gum is ins]t$1 rema9 heal?y1 unless1 by *ance1 gum be wa%$ into !m dur+ ra94 ,! inoculation fails only :5 ! ins]t$ pieces ( gum conta9 no ,coryneum4 ,by simil> inoculations simil> diseases c be produc$ 9 plum1 almond1 & apricot trees1 & ) ! gum ( any "o ( ^! trees any o!r c be infect$2 b ( _m o!r sub/ances :i* ,beij]9ck tri$1 n "o produc$ any simil> disease4 ,! inoculation ) ! gum is commonly foll[$ by ! dea? ( m or less ( ! adjac5t /ructures2 fir/ ( ! b>k1 !n ( ! wood4 ,small bran*es or leaf /alks ?us infect$ 9 w9t]1 or 9 _m places at ! same "t1 may be completely kill$2 b1 9 ! m in/ructive exp]im5ts ! fir/ symptom ( ! gum disease is ! appe>ance ( a beautiful r$ color ar\nd ! w\nd4 ,x comes out 9 spots l ^? :i* (t5 appe> spontane\sly on ! gre5 "y bran*es ( pea* trees t h ! gum disease2 & 9 ^! spots x is usual to f9d ,coryneum /romata or mycelium filam5ts4 ,! color is due to ! =mation ( a r$ pigm5t 9 "o or m ( ! lay]s ( ! cells ( ! b>k4 ,b 9 its fur!r progress ! disease ext5ds beyond ! p>ts at :i* ! ,coryneum or any /ructures d]iv$ f x c be f\nd2 & ?is ext5sion1 ,beij]9ck believes1 is due to ! production ( a fluid ( ! nature ( a f]m5t1 produc$ by ! ,coryneum1 & p5etrat+ ! adjac5t /ructures4 ,?is1 act+ on ! cell walls1 ! />* granules1 & o!r con/itu5ts ( ! cells1 trans=ms !m into gum1 & ev5 *anges into gum ! ,coryneum itself1 rem9d+ ! obs]v] ( ! self-dige/ion ( a /oma*4 ,9 ! cells ( ! cambium1 ! same fluid p5etrat+ unites ) ! protoplasm1 & s alt]s x t ! cells produc$ f x =m1 n good normal wood1 b a morbid p>5*ymat\s /ructure4 ,! cells ( ?is p>5*yma1 well kn[n among ! features ( gum disease1 are cubical or polyh$ral1 ?9 wall$1 & ri* 9 protoplasm4 ,?is1 9 its turn1 is trans=m$ into gum1 su* z fills ! gum *annels & o!r cavities f\nd 9 wood1 & sometimes reg>d$ z gum gl&s4 ,& f ?is also ! new f]m5t fluid con/antly produc$1 & track+ along ! tissues ( ! bran*es1 conveys ! ,coryneum infection beyond ! places 9 :i* its mycelium c be f\nd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dr9k/one ,,p>k4 ,dr9k/one has long be5 di/+ui%$ on acc\nt ( ! successful cultivation ( rem>kable plants4 ,x lies "s eight miles s\!a/ f ,bury ,/4 ,edmund's1 & is ! seat ( ,t4,h4 ,p[ell1 ,esq4 ,! mansion or hall is a l>ge old-fa%ion$ edifice1 a l>ge portion ( its s\? front be+ cov]$ by a magnific5t specim5 ( ! ,magnolia gr&iflora1 n less ?an #dj feet 9 height1 :ile o!r portions ( its walls are cov]$ ) ! f9e/ v>ieties ( climb+ roses & o!r suitable plants4 ,! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 al?\gh some:at flat1 is well wood$1 & ! soil is a ri* loam ^u a sub/ratum ( gravel1 & is consequ5tly admirably suit$ to ! developm5t ( ! f9] k9ds ( conif]\s & o!r ornam5tal trees & %rubs1 s t ! p>k & gr\nds conta9 a f9e & well select$ assortm5t ( su* plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,sn[flake1 ,,leucojum ,,v]num1 ,,at ,,dr9k/one ,,p>k4 ,conif]\s trees are sometimes consid]$ z out ( place 9 p>k sc5]y2 ?is1 h[ev]1 does n hold good at ,dr9k/one1 :]e ,mr4 ,p[ell has be5 display$ excell5t ta/e 9 ! way ( improv+ ! l&scape & creat+ a really *>m+ effect by s skillfully bl5d+ ! dress$ gr\nds ) ! ri* gre5sw>d ( ! p>k t x is n easy to tell :]e ! "o t]m9ates or ! o!r comm5ces4 ,! p>k1 :i* cov]s "s #bjj acres1 includ+ a f9e lake ov] eight acres 9 ext5t1 conta9s also v>i\s l>ge gr\ps or clumps ( su* species z ! ,sequoia gigantea1 ,taxodium semp]vir5s1 ,c$res deodora1 ,picea d\glasii1 ,p9sapo1 etc41 int]sp]s$ ) gr\ps ( ornam5tal decidu\s trees1 produc+ a w>m & v pleas+ effect at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,among species :i* are conspicu\s 9 ! gr\nds are f9e1 well-gr[n examples ( ,arauc>ia imbricata1 "s #cj feet high2 ,c$rus deod>a1 #fj feet 9 height2 ,abies p9sapo1 #dj feet2 & f9e specim5s ( ,abies gr&is1 ,a4 nobilis1 & ,a4 nordmanniana1 etc41 toge!r ) ,abies alb]tiana or m]t5siana1 a f9e1 free-gr[+ species2 also ,liboc$rus gigantea1 ,?uiopsis borealis1 ,?uia lobbii1 ,junip]us recurva1 ,taxas adpressa1 f9e plants2 ) f9e gold5 yews & equally f9e examples ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( v>iegat$ hollies1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,odontoglossum ,,rossi ,,major ,,v>4 ,,rubesc5s1 ,,at ,,dr9k/one ,,p>k4 ,p>ticul> att5tion is "h paid to e>ly spr+ fl[]s4 ,dr9k/one is also celebrat$ z a fruit gr[+ e/abli%m5t1 m p>ticul>ly z reg>ds ! grape v9e2 ! weight & quality ( ! crops ( grapes :i* are annually produc$ "h are v rem>kable4--,! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,*anges ,,:i* ,,take ,,place ,,9 ,,! ,,conv]sion ,,( ,,hay ,,into ,,ensilage4 ,by ,,fr$k4 ,,jas4 ,,lloyd1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,lectur] on ,agriculture1 ,k+'s ,college4 ,! rec5tly publi%$ numb] ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society's ,j\rnal conta9s "s in=mation ^u ! subject ( silage :i* appe>s to me ( consid]able int]e/ to ^? *emi/s :o are at pres5t inve/igat+ ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! conv]sion ( grass into silage4 ,! data#a are1 s f> z ,i "k1 unique1 & ?\gh ! analytical "w is n my own1 yet x is t ( an agricultural *emi/1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,sme?am1 ( ,liv]pool1 ^: "w ,i "k f p]sonal exp]i5ce to be ?or\ghly c>eful & reliable4 ,i h !re=e no hesitation 9 bas+ my rem>ks ^u x4 ,footnote #a3 ,royal ,agricultural ,society's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xx41 "p i41 pp4 #age & #chj4 ,we h "h = ! fir/ "t an accurate acc\nt ( ! quantity ( grass put into a silo1 ( ! quantity ( silage tak5 out1 & ( ! exact composition bo? ( ! grass & result+ silage4 ,i desire m]ely to place myself 9 ! position (1 s to speak1 a *emical acc\ntant4 ,! ensilage has be5 analyz$ at ?ree dep?s1 or r 9 ?ree lay]s1 ! fir/ be+ #a foot1 ! second #a ft4 to #a ft4 #f 941 & ! ?ird #a ft4 #f 94 to #b ft4 f ! bottom ( ! silo4 ,by d\bl+ ! figures ( ! bottom lay] analysis1 add+ ^! to ! second & ?ird lay] analysis1 & divid+ by #d1 we obta9 a fair repres5tation ( ! av]age composition ( ! silage tak5 ?r\gh\t ! silo1 = by s do+ we obta9 ! av]age ( ! analyses ( ea* #f-;in* lay] ( silage4 ,! results ( ! analyses are z foll[s1 calculat$ on ! dry matt]4 ,! moi/ure 0 practically ! same1 be+ #gj4dh p] c5t1 9 ! grass & #gb4ig 9 ! silage4 ,composition ( ,grass & ,silage 7dri$ at #ajj;,c474 ,grass4 ,ensilage4 ,fat 7e!r extract7 #b4hj #e4ch ,soluble album9\s comp\nds #c4jf #e4ih ,insoluble album9\s comp\nds #f4id #c4gg ,mucilage1 sug>1 & extractives1 etc4 #aa4fe #d4ih ,dige/ible fib] #cf4bd #cc4cg ,indige/ible woody fib] #cb4cc #ca4gi ------- ------- #ic4jb #he4bg ,soluble m9]al matt]s #e4bd #ab4fb ,insoluble m9]al matt]s #a4gd #b4aa ------- ------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,! /rik+ diff]5ce 9 ! m9]al matt] ( ! grass & silage ,i w m]ely draw att5tion to2 x is n due to ! salt add$ to ! silage4 ,i may say1 h[ev]1 t o!r analy/s & ,i myself h f\nd simil> /rik+ diff]5ces4 ,= in/ance1 ,pr(4 ,k9*#b f\nd 9 grass #h4ej p] c5t4 m9]al matt]1 9 silage #aj4aj p] c5t41 :i*1 z be po9ts out1 is equival5t1 to a loss ( ab\t #ah p] c5t4 ( combu/ible con/itu5ts--a loss :i* we h no pro( ( hav+ tak5 place4 ,9 ,mr4 ,sme?am's sample ! loss w\ld h to be #ej p] c5t41 :i* did n occur1 & 9 fact is n possible4 ,:at is ! explanation8 ,footnote #b3 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,society1 ,m>*1 #ahhd1 p4 #abd4 ,i am1 h[ev]1 consid]+ n[ ! organic con/itu5ts4 ,calculat+ ! p]c5tages ( ^! 9 ! grass & silage1 we obta9 ! foll[+ figures3 ,p]c5tage ,composition ( ,organic ,comp\nds4 ,grass4 ,ensilage4 ,fat 7e!r extract7 #c4ja #f4ca ,soluble album9\s comp\nds #h4bi #g4ja #aj4ge #aa4dc ,insoluble #g4df #d4db ,mucilage1 sug>1 & extractives #ab4eb #e4hd ,dige/ible fib] #ch4if #ci4ad ,indige/ible woody fib] #cd4gf #cg4bh ------- ------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,! diff]5ce 9 ! total nitrog5 9 ! grass & silage is equal to #j4fh p] c5t4 ( album9oids4 ,practically x is a matt] ( impossibility t ! nitrog5 c\ld h increas$ 9 ! silo1 & x w be a v safe premise ^u :i* to base any fur!r calculations t ! total am\nt ( nitrog5 9 ! silage 0 id5tical ) t 9 ! grass4 ,!re may h be5 a loss1 b t is n yet prov$4 ,argu+ !n ^u ! fir/ hypo!sis1 x is evid5t t #ajj p>ts ( ! organic matt]s ( silage repres5t m ?an #ajj p>ts ( ! organic matt] ( grass1 & by ! equation we obta9 #aj4ge3aa4dc 33 #ajj3ajf approximately4 ,if n[ we calculate ! composition ( #ajf p>ts organic matt] ( grass1 x w repres5t exactly ! organic matt] :i* has gone to =m #ajj p>ts ( t pres5t 9 silage4 ,! foll[+ table gives ^! results1 & also ! loss or ga9 9 ! v>i\s con/itut5ts aris+ f ! conv]sion into silage3 ,organic ,matt]4 ,9 #ajf pts4 ,9 #ajj pts4 ,loss or ,grass4 ,silage4 ,ga94 ,fat 7e!r extract7 #c4ai #f4ca #c4ab ,soluble album9\s comp\nds #c4di #g4ja #c4eb ,insoluble #g4ia #d4db -#c4di ,mucilage #ac4bg #e4hd -#g4dc ,dige/ible ,fib] #da4cj #ci4ad -#b4af ,indige/ible woody fib] #cf4hd #cg4bh #j4dd ------- ------- #ajf4jj #ajj4jj ,^! calculations %[1 provid$ my reason+ be correct1 t ! *ief *anges :i* take place are 9 ! album9\s comp\nds1 :i* has already be5 po9t$ out by ,pr(essors ,voelck]1 ,k9*1 & o!rs2 & 9 ! />*1 gum1 mucilage1 sug>1 & ^? num]\s bodies t]m$ extractives1 :i* 0 to be expect$4 ,b !y %[ mo/ conclusively t ! decrease 9 ! am\nt ( indige/ible fib] & increase 9 dige/ible s mu* spok5 ( is1 s f> z our pres5t v imp]fect me?ods ( analyz+ ^! comp\nds p]mit u to judge1 a my?2 & ,i h n yet f\nd any suffici5t evid5ce to support ?is /atem5t4 ,a loss1 !n1 ( #f p>ts ( organic matt] out ( e #ajf p>ts put into ! silo has 9 ?is in/ance tak5 place1 due *iefly to ! decomposition ( />*1 sug>1 & mucilage1 etc4 ,& z ! grass conta9$ #gj p>ts ( wat] :5 put into ! silo1 ! total loss w\ld only be #a4g p] c5t4 ( ! total weight4 ,?is !oretical d$uction 0 f\nd by practical exp]i5ce correct1 = ,mr4 ,smi?1 ag5t to ,"l ,eg]ton1 ^u ^: e/ate ?is silage 0 made1 9 8 report to ,mr4 ,j5k9s says ! actual weight out ( ! silo corresponds exactly ) ! weight we put into ! same4 ,9 my judgm5t ^! figures are ( int]e/ to ! agricultural *emi/ = _m reasons4 ,fir/1 !y w cle> ! gr\nd = future work]s & elim9ate f _! rese>*es :at w\ld h greatly complicat$ !m--*anges 9 ! cellulose bodies4 ,secondly1 !y are ( int]e/ because our pres5t me?ods ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 & e/imat+ dige/ible & indige/ible fib] is mo/ r\gh1 & probably inaccurate1 & may n 9 ! lea/ repres5t ! p[] ( an animal--say a c[--to dige/ ^! v>i\s sub/ances2 & mo/ ( u "k t :5 a new me?od ( analysis becomes a necessity1 a new me?od is g5]ally discov]$4 ,la/ly1 !y are ( int]e/ to ! agriculturi/1 = !y po9t out1 ,i believe = ! fir/ "t1 ! exact am\nt ( loss :i* grass--or at lea/ "o sample--has und]gone 9 conv]sion into silage1 & also t mu* ( ! nitrog5\s matt] is *ang$1 & s f> z we "k at pres5t1 lo/ its nutritive value4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only comp>+ silage ) grass4 ,:at is want$ is to comp>e silage ) hay--bo? made out ( ! same grass4 ,!n1 & !n only1 w x be possible to sum up ! relative advantages or disadvantages ( ! two me?ods ( pres]v+ grass z food = cattle4--,*em4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,illum9at+ ,,p[] ,,( ,,e?yl5e4 ,dr4 ,p]cy ,frankl& has obta9$ results :i* may be ?us briefly summ>iz$3 7#a47 ,t pure e?yl5e1 :5 burnt at ! rate ( #e cubic feet p] h\r f a ,ref]ee's ,arg& burn]1 emits a light ( #fh4e /&>d c&les4 7#b47 ,t ! illum9at+ p[] ( equal volumes ( mixtures ( e?yl5e ) ei!r hydrog5 c>bonic oxide or m>%-gas is less ?an t ( pure e?yl5e4 7#c47 ,t :5 ! proportion ( e?yl5e 9 su* mixtures is above #fc p] c5t4 ! illum9at+ p[] ( ! mixture is b slightly affect$ by ! nature ( ! dilu5t4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! proportion ( e?yl5e 9 su* mixtures is l[1 ! illum9at+ p[] ( ! mixture is consid]ably ! highe/ :5 m>%-gas is ! dilu5t1 & ! l[e/ :5 ! e?yl5e is mix$ ) c>bonic oxide4 7#d47 ,t if #e cubic feet ( e?yl5e be uni=mly consum$ irrespectively ( ! composition ( ! mixture1 ! calculat$ illum9at+ p[] is 9 e case equal to or actually great] ?an t ( pure e?yl5e until a c]ta9 degree ( dilution is atta9$4 ,?is intr9sic lum9osity ( e?yl5e rema9s almo/ con/ant :5 ! latt] is dilut$ ) c>bonic oxide1 until ! e?yl5e =ms only #dj p] c5t4 ( ! mixture1 aft] :i* x rapidly dim9i%es to z]o :5 ! e?yl5e =ms only #bj p] c5t4 ( ! mixture4 ,:5 ! e?yl5e is dilut$ ) hydrog51 its intr9sic lum9osity rises to #ha c&les :5 ! e?yl5e con/itutes #cj p] c5t4 ( ! mixture1 aft] :i* x rapidly falls to z]o :5 ! e?yl5e am\nts to only #aj p] c5t4 ,9 ! case ( mixtures ( e?yl5e & m>%-gas1 ! intr9sic lum9osity ( ! =m] is augm5t$ ) increas+ rapidity z ! proportion ( m>% gas rises1 ! intr9sic lum9osity ( e?yl5e1 9 a mixture conta9+ #aj p] c5t4 ( ! latt]1 be+ betwe5 #agj & #ahj c&les4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,diffraction ,,ph5om5a ,,dur+ ,,total ,,sol> ,,eclipses4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a pap] read be=e ! ,am]ican ,a/ronomical ,society1 ,may #e1 #ahhd4 ,by ,g4,d4 ,hiscox4 ,! reality ( ! sun's corona hav+ be5 ca/ 9 d\bt by a lead+ obs]v] ( ! la/ total eclipse1 :o1 f ! erratic display obs]v$ 9 ! spectroscope1 has decl>$ x a subjective ph5om5on ( diffraction1 has l$ me to an exam9ation & inquiry z to ! be>+ ( an obscurely consid]$ & h]et(ore only casually obs]v$ ph5om5on se5 to take place dur+ total sol> eclipses4 ,?is ph5om5on1 x seems to me1 ought to acc\nt =1 & w possibly satisfy1 ! spectroscopic conditions obs]v$ j be=e1 dur+1 & aft] totality2 :i* has probably l$ to ! epi!t us$ by "s lead+ obs]v]s--! fickle corona4 ,! peculi> ph5om5on obs]v$ 9 ! spectroscope1 ! flick]+ b&s or l9es ( ! sol> spectrum fla%+ ^u & across ! coronal spectrum1 has caus$ no little speculation among obs]v]s4 ,! diffraction or int]f]5ce b&s project$ by ! passage ( a /rong beam ( light by a solid body1 z discov]$ long s9ce by ,grimaldi1 & inve/igat$ lat] by ,newton1 ,fresnel1 & ,fraunh(]1 are expla9$ & illu/rat$ 9 our text books2 b ! gr& display ( ?is ph5om5on 9 a total sol> eclipse1 :]e ! sun is ! s\rce ( light & ! moon ! int]cept+ body1 has z yet receiv$ b little att5tion f obs]v]s1 & is n m5tion$ to my k 9 our text books4 ,9 ! in/ructions issu$ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,naval ,obs]vatory & ! ,signal ,(fice at ,wa%+ton = ! obs]vation ( ! eclipse ( ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 att5tion 0 casually direct$ to ?is ph5om5on1 & a few ( ! obs]v]s at ,pike's ,peak1 ,c5tral ,city1 ,d5v]1 & o!r places h giv5 lucid & int]e/+ descriptions ( ! flight ( ! diffraction b&s z se5 c\rs+ ov] ! face ( ! e>? at ! spe$ ( ! moon's %ad[1 at ! app>5t enorm\s velocity ( ?irty-?ree miles p] m9ute1 or fifty times ! spe$ ( a fa/ railway tra94 ,f a kn[n optical illusion d]iv$ f int]f]5ce or fits ( p]ception1 z illu/rat$ 9 quick mov+ %ad[s1 ?is great spe$ 0 n realiz$ to ! eye1 z ! obs]v$ motion ( ^! %ad[s 0 app>5tly f> less rapid ?an _! reality4 ,! ultra or diffraction b&s outside ( ! %ad[ 7 di/9ctly se5 & describ$ by ,mr4 ,j4,e4 ,keel] at ,c5tral ,city1 bo? be=e & aft] totality4 ,he e/imates ! %ad[ b&s at #h in*es wide & #d feet ap>t4 ,pr(essor ,e4,s4 ,hold51 also at ,c5tral ,city1 e/imat$ ! d>k b&s z ab\t #c feet ap>t1 & v>iable4 ,f e/imates :i* he obta9$ f o!r obs]v]s ( 8 p>ty1 ! di/ances betwe5 ! b&s v>i$ f #f to l feet1 b s quickly did !y pass t !y baffl$ all attempts to c\nt ev5 ! numb] t pass$ 9 "o second4 ,he obs]v$ ! "t ( cont9uance ( _! passage f we/ to ea/ z =ty-eight seconds1 :i* indicates a wid? ( #cc miles ( diffraction b&s /ret*+ outw>d f ! edge ( ! %ad[ to ! numb] ( _m ?\s&s4 ,mr4 ,g4,w4 ,hill1 at ,d5v]1 a little to ! nor? ( ! c5tral track ( ! %ad[1 obs]v$ ! infra or b&s )9 ! %ad[1 allud+ to ! fact t !y mu/ be mov+ at ! same rate z ! %ad[1 al?\gh _! app>5t motion 0 mu* sl[]1 or l ! %ad[s ( fly+ cl\ds4 ,he attributes ! discrepancy to optical illusion4 ,at ,virg9ia ,city ! colors ( ! ultra b&s 7 obs]v$1 & e/imat$ at five seconds' duration f ! edge ( ! %ad[1 :i* is equal to ab\t #d miles 9 wid?4 ,^! are kn[n to be ! /ronge/ color b&s 9 ! diffraction spectrum1 :i* acc\nts = _! be+ g5]ally obs]v$4 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,bu%1 obs]v+ at ,c5tral ,city1 9 a communication to ,pr(4 ,hold5 alludes to ! brilliancy ( ! colors ( ^! b&s z se5 ?r\gh small cl\ds float+ ne> ! sun's place dur+ totality1 & ( ! rapid *ange ( _! ra9b[ colors z obs]v$ da%+ across ! cl\ds ) ! rapidity ( ?\ght4 ,all ( ^! b&s1 bo? ultra & infra1 z se5 9 optical exp]im5ts1 are color$ 9 rev]se ord]1 be+ f violet to r$ = ea* b& outw>d & inw>d f ! edge ( ! %ad[4 ,x is v probable t ! velocity ( ! passage ( all ! b&s dur+ a total eclipse v mu* modifies ! di/9ctness ( ! colors or possibly oblit]ates !m by optically bl5d+ s z to produce ! dull :ite & black b&s :i* occupi$ s l>ge a portion ( ?is gr& panorama4 ,! ph5om5on ( ^! fa9t color$ b&s1 ) ! obs]v$ light & d>k %ad[s1 may be attribut$ to "o or all ( ! foll[+ causes3 #a4 ,a *ange 9 ! direction ( a small portion ( ! sun's light pass+ by ! solid body ( ! moon1 x be+ deflect$ outw>d by repulsion or reflection f its surface1 & o!r portions be+ deflect$ inw>d aft] pass+ ! body by mutual repulsion ( its own elem5ts t[>d a light vacuum or space devoid ( ! elem5t ( vibration4 #b4 ,! color$ spectral b&s be+ ! direct result ( ! prop]ty ( int]f]5ce1 or ! want ( correspond5ce ( ! wave l5g?s due to div]g5ce2 ! same ph5om5on be+ also obs]v$ 9 conv]g5t light4 ,?is is practically illu/rat$ 9 ! hazy def9ition ( ! r$uc$ ap]ture ( telescopes1 & its peculi>ities %[n 9 ! spectral r+s )9 & beyond ! focus4 #c4 ,*romatic disp]sion by our atmosph]e1 toge!r ) selective absorption1 also by our atmosph]e & its vapors1 h be5 sugge/$ z causes 9 ?is curi\s & complicat$ ph5om5a4 ,9 none ( ! reports descriptive ( ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization ( ! corona is !re ! slighte/ allusion to ! influ5ce t ! diffraction b&s may possibly h 9 modify+ or produc+ ! v>i\s conditions ( pol>ization obs]v$2 al?\gh ^! obs]vations h be5 made & comm5t$ ^u dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,inve/igations n[ 9 progress ( ! modify+ relation ( ! ph5om5on ( diffraction 9 its effect ^u n only ! physical aspect ( ! corona1 b also 9 "s /range spectroscopic anomalies t h be5 obs]v$ ne> ! sun at o!r times ?an dur+ a total sol> eclipse1 w1 x is hop$1 result 9 a full] int]pretation ( ! physical nature ( "o ( ! gr&e/ elem5ts ( creation--light2 let !re be m ( x4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,catalogue conta9+ brief notices ( _m important sci5tific pap]s h]et(ore publi%$ 9 ! ,,supplem5t1 may be _h gratis at ?is (fice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,t]ms ( ,subscription1 #e a ,ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej1 /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej1 b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn 4 ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #ci ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all ,inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! 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