,,timaeus          by ,plato            
,translated by ,benjamin ,jowett        
,contents     ,,introduction ,,and      
,,analysis4   ,section #a4   ,section   
#b4   ,section #c4   ,section #d4       
,section #e4   ,section #f4   ,section  
#g4   ,section #h4     ,,timaeus        
,,introduction ,,and ,,analysis4        
,of all the writings of ,plato the      
,timaeus is the most obscure and        
repulsive to the modern reader1 and has 
nevertheless had the        greatest    
influence over the ancient and mediaeval
 world4 ,the        obscurity arises in 
the infancy of physical science1 out of 
the        confusion of theological1    
mathematical1 and physiological         
notions1 out of the desire to conceive  
the whole of nature        without any  
adequate knowledge of the parts1 and    
from a greater        perception of     
similarities which lie on the surface   
than of        differences which are    
hidden from view4 ,to bring sense under 
the        control of reason2 to find   

some way through the mist or labyrinth  
of appearances1 either the highway of   
mathematics1 or more        devious     
paths suggested by the analogy of man   
with the world1 and        of the world 
with man2 to see that all things have a 
cause and        are tending towards an 
end--this is the spirit of the ancient  
physical philosopher4 ,he has no notion 
of trying an experiment        and is   
hardly capable of observing the         
curiosities of nature        which are  
#8tumbling out at his feet1' or of      
interpreting even the        most       
obvious of them4 ,he is driven back from
 the nearer to the        more distant1 
from particulars to generalities1 from  
the earth to        the stars4 ,he lifts
 up his eyes to the heavens and seeks to
 guide        by their motions his      
erring footsteps4 ,but we neither       
appreciate        the conditions of     
knowledge to which he was subjected1 nor
 have        the ideas which fastened   
upon his imagination the same hold upon 

us4 ,for he is hanging between matter   
and mind2 he is under the               
dominion at the same time both of sense 
and of abstractions2 his                
impressions are taken almost at random  
from the outside of        nature2 he   
sees the light1 but not the objects     
which are revealed        by the light2 
and he brings into juxtaposition things 
which to us        appear wide as the   
poles asunder1 because he finds nothing 
between them4 ,he passes abruptly from  
persons to ideas and        numbers1 and
 from ideas and numbers to              
persons1--from the heavens        to    
man1 from astronomy to physiology2 he   
confuses1 or rather does        not     
distinguish1 subject and object1 first  
and final causes1 and        is dreaming
 of geometrical figures lost in a flux  
of sense4 ,he        contrasts the      
perfect movements of the heavenly bodies
 with the        imperfect              
representation of them 7,rep471 and he  
does not always        require strict   

accuracy even in applications of number 
and figure        7,rep474 ,his mind    
lingers around the forms of mythology1  
which he        uses as symbols or      
translates into figures of speech4 ,he  
has no        implements of observation1
 such as the telescope or microscope2   
the great science of chemistry is a     
blank to him4 ,it is only by        an  
effort that the modern thinker can      
breathe the atmosphere of        the    
ancient philosopher1 or understand how1 
under such unequal        conditions1 he
 seems in many instances1 by a sort of  
inspiration1        to have anticipated 
the truth4          ,the influence with 
the ,timaeus has exercised upon         
posterity is        due partly to a     
misunderstanding4 ,in the supposed      
depths of this        dialogue the      
,neo-,platonists found hidden meanings  
and connections        with the ,jewish 
and ,christian ,scriptures1 and out of  
them they        elicited doctrines     
quite at variance with the spirit of    

,plato4        ,believing that he was   
inspired by the ,holy ,ghost1 or had    
received        his wisdom from ,moses1 
they seemed to find in his writings the 
,christian ,trinity1 the ,word1 the     
,church1 the creation of the            
world in a ,jewish sense1 as they really
 found the personality of        ,god or
 of mind1 and the immortality of the    
soul4 ,all religions        and         
philosophies met and mingled in the     
schools of ,alexandria1        and the  
,neo-,platonists had a method of        
interpretation which could        elicit
 any meaning out of any words4 ,they    
were really incapable        of         
distinguishing between the opinions of  
one philosopher and        another--    
between ,aristotle and ,plato1 or       
between the serious        thoughts of  
,plato and his passing fancies4 ,they   
were absorbed in        his theology and
 were under the dominion of his name1   
while that        which was truly great 
and truly characteristic in him1 his    

effort        to realize and connect    
abstractions1 was not understood by them
        at all4 ,yet the genius of      
,plato and ,greek philosophy reacted    
upon        the ,east1 and a ,greek     
element of thought and language overlaid
        and partly reduced to order the 
chaos of ,orientalism4 ,and kindred     
spirits1 like ,st4 ,augustine1 even     
though they were acquainted        with 
his writings only through the medium of 
a ,latin translation1        were       
profoundly affected by them1 seeming to 
find #8,god and his        word         
everywhere insinuated' in them 7,august4
 ,confess47          ,there is no danger
 of the modern commentators on the      
,timaeus        falling into the        
absurdities of the ,neo-,platonists4 ,in
 the        present day we are well     
aware that an ancient philosopher is to 
be interpreted from himself and by the  
contemporary history of        thought4 
,we know that mysticism is not          
criticism4 ,the fancies of        the   

,neo-,platonists are only interesting to
 us because they        exhibit a phase 
of the human mind which prevailed widely
 in the        first centuries of the   
,christian era1 and is not wholly       
extinct        in our own day4 ,but they
 have nothing to do with the            
interpretation of ,plato1 and in spirit 
they are opposed to him4        ,they   
are the feeble expression of an age     
which has lost the power        not only
 of creating great works1 but of        
understanding them4 ,they        are the
 spurious birth of a marriage between   
philosophy and        tradition1 between
 ,hellas and the ,east--7,greek7        
7,rep474 ,whereas        the so-called  
mysticism of ,plato is purely ,greek1   
arising out of        his imperfect     
knowledge and high aspirations1 and is  
the growth        of an age in which    
philosophy is not wholly separated from 
poetry        and mythology4          ,a
 greater danger with modern interpreters
 of ,plato is the        tendency to    

regard the ,timaeus as the centre of his
 system4 ,we do        not know how     
,plato would have arranged his own      
dialogues1 or        whether the thought
 of arranging any of them1 besides the  
two        #8,trilogies' which he has   
expressly connected2 was ever present to
        his mind4 ,but1 if he had       
arranged them1 there are many           
indications that this is not the place  
which he would have        assigned to  
the ,timaeus4 ,we observe1 first of all1
 that the        dialogue is put into   
the mouth of a ,pythagorean philosopher1
 and        not of ,socrates4 ,and this 
is required by dramatic propriety2 for  
the investigation of nature was         
expressly renounced by ,socrates        
in the ,phaedo4 ,nor does ,plato himself
 attribute any importance to        his 
guesses at science4 ,he is not at all   
absorbed by them1 as he        is by the
 ,,idea of good4 ,he is modest and      
hesitating1 and        confesses that   
his words partake of the uncertainty of 

the        subject 7,tim474 ,the        
dialogue is primarily concerned with the
        animal creation1 including under
 this term the heavenly bodies1         
and with man only as one among the      
animals4 ,but we can hardly             
suppose that ,plato would have preferred
 the study of nature to        man1 or  
that he would have deemed the formation 
of the world and        the human frame 
to have the same interest which he      
ascribes to        the mystery of being 
and not-being1 or to the great political
        problems which he discusses in  
the ,republic and the ,laws4 ,there     
are no speculations on physics in the   
other dialogues of ,plato1        and he
 himself regards the consideration of   
them as a rational        pastime only4 
,he is beginning to feel the need of    
further        divisions of knowledge2  
and is becoming aware that besides      
dialectic1 mathematics1 and the arts1   
there is another field        which has 
been hitherto unexplored by him4 ,but he

 has not as yet        defined this     
intermediate territory which lies       
somewhere between        medicine and   
mathematics1 and he would have felt that
 there was        as great an impiety in
 ranking theories of physics first in   
the        order of knowledge1 as in    
placing the body before the soul4       
,it is true1 however1 that the ,timaeus 
is by no means confined to              
speculations on physics4 ,the deeper    
foundations of the ,platonic            
philosophy1 such as the nature of ,god1 
the distinction of the        sensible  
and intellectual1 the great original    
conceptions of time        and space1   
also appear in it4 ,they are found      
principally in the        first half of 
the dialogue4 ,the construction of the  
heavens is        for the most part     
ideal2 the cyclic year serves as the    
connection        between the world of  
absolute being and of generation1 just  
as        the number of population in   
the ,republic is the expression or      

symbol of the transition from the ideal 
to the actual state4 ,in        some    
passages we are uncertain whether we are
 reading a        description of        
astronomical facts or contemplating     
processes of        the human mind1 or  
of that divine mind 7,phil47 which in   
,plato is        hardly separable from  
it4 ,the characteristics of man are     
transferred to the world-animal1 as for 
example when intelligence        and    
knowledge are said to be perfected by   
the circle of the ,same1        and true
 opinion by the circle of the ,other2   
and conversely the        motions of the
 world-animal reappear in man2 its      
amorphous state        continues in the 
child1 and in both disorder and chaos   
are        gradually succeeded by       
stability and order4 ,it is not however 
to        passages like these that      
,plato is referring when he speaks of   
the        uncertainty of his subject1  
but rather to the composition of        
bodies1 to the relations of colours1 the

 nature of diseases1 and        the     
like1 about which he truly feels the    
lamentable ignorance        prevailing  
in his own age4          ,we are led by 
,plato himself to regard the ,timaeus1  
not as the        centre or inmost      
shrine of the edifice1 but as a detached
        building in a different style1  
framed1 not after the ,socratic1        
but after some ,pythagorean model4 ,as  
in the ,cratylus and        ,parmenides1
 we are uncertain whether ,plato is     
expressing his own        opinions1 or  
appropriating and perhaps improving the 
philosophical speculations of others4   
,in all three dialogues he        is    
exerting his dramatic and imitative     
power2 in the ,cratylus        mingling 
a satirical and humorous purpose with   
true principles of        language2 in  
the ,parmenides overthrowing            
,megarianism by a sort of               
ultra-,megarianism1 which discovers     
contradictions in the one as            
great as those which have been          

previously shown to exist in the        
ideas4 ,there is a similar uncertainty  
about the ,timaeus2 in the        first 
part he scales the heights of           
transcendentalism1 in the        latter 
part he treats in a bald and superficial
 manner of the        functions and     
diseases of the human frame4 ,he uses   
the thoughts        and almost the words
 of ,parmenides when he discourses of   
being        and of essence1 adopting   
from old religion into philosophy the   
conception of ,god1 and from the        
,megarians the ,,idea of good4 ,he      
agrees with ,empedocles and the         
,atomists in attributing the            
greater differences of kinds to the     
figures of the elements and        their
 movements into and out of one another4 
,with ,heracleitus1 he                  
acknowledges the perpetual flux2 like   
,anaxagoras1 he asserts the             
predominance of mind1 although admitting
 an element of necessity        which   
reason is incapable of subduing2 like   

the ,pythagoreans he        supposes the
 mystery of the world to be contained in
 number4        ,many1 if not all the   
elements of the ,pre-,socratic          
philosophy are        included in the   
,timaeus4 ,it is a composite or eclectic
 work of        imagination1 in which   
,plato1 without naming them1 gathers up 
into        a kind of system the various
 elements of philosophy which           
preceded him4          ,if we allow for 
the difference of subject1 and for some 
growth in        ,plato's own mind1 the 
discrepancy between the ,timaeus and the
        other dialogues will not appear 
to be great4 ,it is probable that       
the relation of the ideas to ,god or of 
,god to the world was        differently
 conceived by him at different times of 
his life4 ,in        all his later      
dialogues we observe a tendency in him  
to personify        mind or ,god1 and he
 therefore naturally inclines to view   
creation        as the work of design4  
,the creator is like a human artist who 

frames in his mind a plan which he      
executes by the help of his             
servants4 ,thus the language of         
philosophy which speaks of first        
and second causes is crossed by another 
sort of phraseology3 #8,god        made 
the world because he was good1 and the  
demons ministered to        him4' ,the  
,timaeus is cast in a more theological  
and less        philosophical mould than
 the other dialogues1 but the same      
general spirit is apparent2 there is the
 same dualism or        opposition      
between the ideal and actual--the soul  
is prior to the        body1 the        
intelligible and unseen to the visible  
and corporeal4        ,there is the same
 distinction between knowledge and      
opinion which        occurs in the      
,theaetetus and ,republic1 the same     
enmity to the        poets1 the same    
combination of music and gymnastics4    
,the doctrine        of transmigration  
is still held by him1 as in the         
,phaedrus and        ,republic2 and the 

soul has a view of the heavens in a     
prior state        of being4 ,the ideas 
also remain1 but they have become types 
in        nature1 forms of men1 animals1
 birds1 fishes4 ,and the attribution    
of evil to physical causes accords with 
the doctrine which he        maintains  
in the ,laws respecting the             
involuntariness of vice4          ,the  
style and plan of the ,timaeus differ   
greatly from that of any        other of
 the ,platonic dialogues4 ,the language 
is weighty1 abrupt1        and in some  
passages sublime4 ,but ,plato has not   
the same mastery        over his        
instrument which he exhibits in the     
,phaedrus or        ,symposium4 ,nothing
 can exceed the beauty or art of the    
introduction1 in which he is using words
 after his accustomed        manner4    
,but in the rest of the work the power  
of language seems        to fail him1   
and the dramatic form is wholly given   
up4 ,he could        write in one style1
 but not in another1 and the ,greek     

language        had not as yet been     
fashioned by any poet or philosopher to 
describe physical phenomena4 ,the early 
physiologists had        generally      
written in verse2 the prose writers1    
like ,democritus        and ,anaxagoras1
 as far as we can judge from their      
fragments1        never attained to a   
periodic style4 ,and hence we find the  
same        sort of clumsiness in the   
,timaeus of ,plato which characterizes  
the philosophical poem of ,lucretius4   
,there is a want of flow and            
often a defect of rhythm2 the meaning is
 sometimes obscure1 and        there is 
a greater use of apposition and more of 
repetition than        occurs in        
,plato's earlier writings4 ,the         
sentences are less        closely       
connected and also more involved2 the   
antecedents of        demonstrative and 
relative pronouns are in some cases     
remote and        perplexing4 ,the      
greater frequency of participles and of 
absolute        constructions gives the 

effect of heaviness4 ,the descriptive   
portion of the ,timaeus retains traces  
of the first ,greek prose               
composition2 for the great master of    
language was speaking on a        theme 
with which he was imperfectly           
acquainted1 and had no words        in  
which to express his meaning4 ,the      
rugged grandeur of the        opening   
discourse of ,timaeus may be compared   
with the more        harmonious beauty  
of a similar passage in the ,phaedrus4  
,to the same cause we may attribute the 
want of plan4 ,plato had        not the 
command of his materials which would    
have enabled him to        produce a    
perfect work of art4 ,hence there are   
several new        beginnings and       
resumptions and formal or artificial    
connections2        we miss the         
#8callida junctura' of the earlier      
dialogues4 ,his        speculations     
about the ,eternal1 his theories of     
creation1 his        mathematical       
anticipations1 are supplemented by      

desultory remarks        on the one     
immortal and the two mortal souls of    
man1 on the        functions of the     
bodily organs in health and disease1 on 
sight1        hearing1 smell1 taste1 and
 touch4 ,he soars into the heavens1 and 
then1 as if his wings were suddenly     
clipped1 he walks        ungracefully   
and with difficulty upon the earth4 ,the
 greatest        things in the world1   
and the least things in man1 are brought
        within the compass of a short   
treatise4 ,but the intermediate         
links are missing1 and we cannot be     
surprised that there should        be a 
want of unity in a work which embraces  
astronomy1 theology1        physiology1 
and natural philosophy in a few pages4  
,it is not easy to determine how        
,plato's cosmos may be presented        
to the reader in a clearer and shorter  
form2 or how we may supply        a     
thread of connexion to his ideas without
 giving greater        consistency to   
them than they possessed in his mind1 or

 adding on        consequences which    
would never have occurred to him4 ,for  
he has        glimpses of the truth1 but
 no comprehensive or perfect vision4    
,there are isolated expressions about   
the nature of ,god which have        a  
wonderful depth and power2 but we are   
not justified in assuming        that   
these had any greater significance to   
the mind of ,plato than        language 
of a neutral and impersonal character444
 ,with a view to        the illustration
 of the ,timaeus ,i propose to divide   
this        ,introduction into sections1
 of which the first will contain an     
outline of the dialogue3 7#b7 ,i shall  
consider the aspects of        nature   
which presented themselves to ,plato and
 his age1 and the        elements of    
philosophy which entered into the       
conception of them3        7#c7 the     
theology and physics of the ,timaeus1   
including the soul        of the world1 
the conception of time and space1 and   
the        composition of the elements3 

7#d7 in the fourth section ,i shall     
consider the ,platonic astronomy1 and   
the position of the earth4        ,there
 will remain1 7#e7 the psychology1 7#f7 
the physiology of        ,plato1 and    
7#g7 his analysis of the senses to be   
briefly commented        upon3 7#h7     
lastly1 we may examine in what points   
,plato approaches        or anticipates 
the discoveries of modern science4      
,section #a4            ,socrates begins
 the ,timaeus with a summary of the     
,republic4 ,he        lightly touches   
upon a few points1--the division of     
labour and        distribution of the   
citizens into classes1 the double nature
 and        training of the guardians1  
the community of property and of women  
and children4 ,but he makes no mention  
of the second education1 or        of   
the government of philosophers4         
,and now he desires to see the ideal    
,state set in motion2 he would          
like to know how she behaved in some    
great struggle4 ,but he is        unable

 to invent such a narrative himself2 and
 he is afraid that        the poets are 
equally incapable2 for1 although he     
pretends to        have nothing to say  
against them1 he remarks that they are a
        tribe of imitators1 who can only
 describe what they have seen4          
,and he fears that the ,sophists1 who   
are plentifully supplied with           
graces of speech1 in their erratic way  
of life having never had a        city  
or house of their own1 may through want 
of experience err in        their       
conception of philosophers and          
statesmen4 #8,and therefore to          
you ,i turn1 ,timaeus1 citizen of       
,locris1 who are at once a              
philosopher and a statesman1 and to you1
 ,critias1 whom all        ,athenians   
know to be similarly accomplished1 and  
to ,hermocrates1        who is also     
fitted by nature and education to share 
in our        discourse4'               
,,hermocrates3 #8,we will do our best1  
and have been already        preparing2 

for on our way home1 ,critias told us of
 an ancient        tradition1 which ,i  
wish1 ,critias1 that you would repeat to
        ,socrates4' #8,i will1 if       
,timaeus approves4' #8,i approve4'      
,listen        then1 ,socrates1 to a    
tale of ,solon's1 who1 being the friend 
of        ,dropidas my                  
great-grandfather1 told it to my        
grandfather ,critias1        and he told
 me4 ,the narrative related to ancient  
famous actions        of the ,athenian  
people1 and to one especially1 which ,i 
will        rehearse in honour of you   
and of the goddess4 ,critias when he    
told this tale of the olden time1 was   
ninety years old1 ,i being        not   
more than ten4 ,the occasion of the     
rehearsal was the day of        the     
,apaturia called the ,registration of   
,youth1 at which our        parents gave
 prizes for recitation4 ,some poems of  
,solon were        recited by the boys4 
,they had not at that time gone out of  
fashion1 and the recital of them led    

some one to say1 perhaps in             
compliment to ,critias1 that ,solon was 
not only the wisest of men        but   
also the best of poets4 ,the old man    
brightened up at hearing        this1   
and said3 ,had ,solon only had the      
leisure which was required        to    
complete the famous legend which he     
brought with him from        ,egypt he  
would have been as distinguished as     
,homer and ,hesiod4        #8,and what  
was the subject of the poem8' said the  
person who made        the remark4 ,the 
subject was a very noble one2 he        
described the        most famous action 
in which the ,athenian people were ever 
engaged4 ,but the memory of their       
exploits has passed away owing        to
 the lapse of time and the extinction of
 the actors4 #8,tell us1'        said   
the other1 #8the whole story1 and where 
,solon heard the        story4' ,he     
replied--,there is at the head of the   
,egyptian ,delta1        where the river
 ,nile divides1 a city and district     

called ,sais2        the city was the   
birthplace of ,king ,amasis1 and is     
under the        protection of the      
goddess ,neith or ,athene4 ,the citizens
 have a        friendly feeling towards 
the ,athenians1 believing themselves to 
be related to them4 ,hither came ,solon1
 and was received with        honour2   
and here he first learnt1 by conversing 
with the ,egyptian        priests1 how  
ignorant he and his countrymen were of  
antiquity4        ,perceiving this1 and 
with the view of eliciting information  
from        them1 he told them the tales
 of ,phoroneus and ,niobe1 and also of  
,deucalion and ,pyrrha1 and he          
endeavoured to count the generations    
which had since passed4 ,thereupon an   
aged priest said to him3 #8,o           
,solon1 ,solon1 you ,hellenes are ever  
young1 and there is no old        man   
who is a ,hellene4' #8,what do you      
mean8' he asked4 #8,in mind1'           
replied the priest1 #8,i mean to say    
that you are children2 there        is  

no opinion or tradition of knowledge    
among you which is white        with    
age2 and ,i will tell you why4 ,like the
 rest of mankind you        have        
suffered from convulsions of nature1    
which are chiefly        brought about  
by the two great agencies of fire and   
water4 ,the        former is symbolized 
in the ,hellenic tale of young ,phaethon
 who        drove his father's horses   
the wrong way1 and having burnt up the  
earth was himself burnt up by a         
thunderbolt4 ,for there occurs at       
long intervals a derangement of the     
heavenly bodies1 and then the           
earth is destroyed by fire4 ,at such    
times1 and when fire is the             
agent1 those who dwell by rivers or on  
the seashore are safer        than those
 who dwell upon high and dry places1 who
 in their turn        are safer when the
 danger is from water4 ,now the ,nile is
 our        saviour from fire1 and as   
there is little rain in ,egypt1 we are  
not harmed by water2 whereas in other   

countries1 when a deluge        comes1  
the inhabitants are swept by the rivers 
into the sea4 ,the        memorials     
which your own and other nations have   
once had of the        famous actions of
 mankind perish in the waters at certain
        periods2 and the rude survivors 
in the mountains begin again1           
knowing nothing of the world before the 
flood4 ,but in ,egypt the               
traditions of our own and other lands   
are by us registered for        ever in 
our temples4 ,the genealogies which you 
have recited to us        out of your   
own annals1 ,solon1 are a mere          
children's story4 ,for        in the    
first place1 you remember one deluge    
only1 and there were        many of     
them1 and you know nothing of that      
fairest and noblest        race of which
 you are a seed or remnant4 ,the memory 
of them was        lost1 because there  
was no written voice among you4 ,for in 
the        times before the great flood 
,athens was the greatest and best of    

cities and did the noblest deeds and had
 the best constitution of        any    
under the face of heaven4' ,solon       
marvelled1 and desired to be            
informed of the particulars4 #8,you are 
welcome to hear them1' said        the  
priest1 #8both for your own sake and for
 that of the city1 and        above all 
for the sake of the goddess who is the  
common foundress        of both our     
cities4 ,nine thousand years have       
elapsed since she        founded yours1 
and eight thousand since she founded    
ours1 as our        annals record4 ,many
 laws exist among us which are the      
counterpart        of yours as they were
 in the olden time4 ,i will briefly     
describe        them to you1 and you    
shall read the account of them at your  
leisure in the sacred registers4 ,in the
 first place1 there was a        caste  
of priests among the ancient ,athenians1
 and another of        artisans2 also   
castes of shepherds1 hunters1 and       
husbandmen1 and        lastly of        

warriors1 who1 like the warriors of     
,egypt1 were        separated from the  
rest1 and carried shields and spears1 a 
custom        which the goddess first   
taught you1 and then the ,asiatics1 and 
we        among ,asiatics first received
 from her4 ,observe again1 what care    
the law took in the pursuit of wisdom1  
searching out the deep        things of 
the world1 and applying them to the use 
of man4 ,the        spot of earth which 
the goddess chose had the best of       
climates1        and produced the wisest
 men2 in no other was she herself1 the  
philosopher and warrior goddess1 so     
likely to have votaries4 ,and           
there you dwelt as became the children  
of the gods1 excelling all        men in
 virtue1 and many famous actions are    
recorded of you4 ,the        most famous
 of them all was the overthrow of the   
island of        ,atlantis4 ,this great 
island lay over against the ,pillars of 
,heracles1 in extent greater than ,libya
 and ,asia put together1 and        was 

the passage to other islands and to a   
great ocean of which        the         
,mediterranean sea was only the harbour2
 and within the        ,pillars the     
empire of ,atlantis reached in ,europe  
to ,tyrrhenia and        in ,libya to   
,egypt4 ,this mighty power was arrayed  
against ,egypt        and ,hellas and   
all the countries bordering on the      
,mediterranean4        ,then your city  
did bravely1 and won renown over the    
whole earth4        ,for at the peril of
 her own existence1 and when the other  
,hellenes had deserted her1 she repelled
 the invader1 and of her        own     
accord gave liberty to all the nations  
within the ,pillars4 ,a        little   
while afterwards there were great       
earthquakes and floods1        and your 
warrior race all sank into the earth2   
and the great        island of ,atlantis
 also disappeared in the sea4 ,this is  
the        explanation of the shallows  
which are found in that part of the     
,atlantic ocean4'          ,such was the

 tale1 ,socrates1 which ,critias heard  
from ,solon2 and        ,i noticed when 
listening to you yesterday1 how close   
the        resemblance was between your 
city and citizens and the ancient       
,athenian ,state4 ,but ,i would not     
speak at the time1 because ,i           
wanted to refresh my memory4 ,i had     
heard the old man when ,i was a         
child1 and though ,i could not remember 
the whole of our        yesterday's     
discourse1 ,i was able to recall every  
word of this1        which is branded   
into my mind2 and ,i am prepared1       
,socrates1 to        rehearse to you the
 entire narrative4 ,the imaginary ,state
 which        you were describing may be
 identified with the reality of ,solon1 
and our antediluvian ancestors may be   
your citizens4 #8,that is               
excellent1 ,critias1 and very           
appropriate to a ,panathenaic           
festival2 the truth of the story is a   
great advantage4' ,then now        let  
me explain to you the order of our      

entertainment2 first1        ,timaeus1  
who is a natural philosopher1 will speak
 of the origin        of the world1     
going down to the creation of man1 and  
then ,i shall        receive the men    
whom he has created1 and some of whom   
will have        been educated by you1  
and introduce them to you as the lost   
,athenian citizens of whom the ,egyptian
 record spoke4 ,as the law        of    
,solon prescribes1 we will bring them   
into court and        acknowledge their 
claims to citizenship4 #8,i see1'       
replied        ,socrates1 #8that ,i     
shall be well entertained2 and do you1  
,timaeus1        offer up a prayer and  
begin4'          ,,timaeus3 ,all men who
 have any right feeling1 at the         
beginning of        any enterprise1 call
 upon the ,gods2 and he who is about to 
speak        of the origin of the       
universe has a special need of their    
aid4        ,may my words be acceptable 
to them1 and may ,i speak in the manner 
which will be most intelligible to you  

and will best express my        own     
meaning6          ,first1 ,i must       
distinguish between that which always is
 and never        becomes and which is  
apprehended by reason and reflection1   
and        that which always becomes and
 never is and is conceived by           
opinion with the help of sense4 ,all    
that becomes and is created        is   
the work of a cause1 and that is fair   
which the artificer        makes after  
an eternal pattern1 but whatever is     
fashioned after a        created pattern
 is not fair4 ,is the world created or  
uncreated8--that is the first question4 
,created1 ,i reply1 being        visible
 and tangible and having a body1 and    
therefore sensible2        and if       
sensible1 then created2 and if created1 
made by a cause1        and the cause is
 the ineffable father of all things1 who
 had        before him an eternal       
archetype4 ,for to imagine that the     
archetype was created would be          
blasphemy1 seeing that the world        

is the noblest of creations1 and ,god is
 the best of causes4 ,and        the    
world being thus created according to   
the eternal pattern is        the copy  
of something2 and we may assume that    
words are akin to        the matter of  
which they speak4 ,what is spoken of the
 unchanging        or intelligible must 
be certain and true2 but what is spoken 
of        the created image can only be 
probable2 being is to becoming what     
truth is to belief4 ,and amid the       
variety of opinions which have          
arisen about ,god and the nature of the 
world we must be content        to take 
probability for our rule1 considering   
that ,i1 who am the        speaker1 and 
you1 who are the judges1 are only men2  
to        probability we may attain but 
no further4          ,,socrates3        
,excellent1 ,timaeus1 ,i like your      
manner of approaching        the        
subject--proceed4          ,,timaeus3   
,why did the ,creator make the          
world8444,he was good1 and              

therefore not jealous1 and being free   
from jealousy he desired        that all
 things should be like himself4         
,wherefore he set in order        the   
visible world1 which he found in        
disorder4 ,now he who is the        best
 could only create the fairest2 and     
reflecting that of        visible things
 the intelligent is superior to the     
unintelligent1        he put            
intelligence in soul and soul in body1  
and framed the        universe to be the
 best and fairest work in the order of  
nature1        and the world became a   
living soul through the providence of   
,god4          ,in the likeness of what 
animal was the world made8--that is the 
third question444,the form of the       
perfect animal was a whole1 and         
contained all intelligible beings1 and  
the visible animal1 made        after   
the pattern of this1 included all       
visible creatures4          ,are there  
many worlds or one only8--that is the   
fourth        question444,one only4 ,for

 if in the original there had been more 
than one they would have been the parts 
of a third1 which would        have been
 the true pattern of the world2 and     
therefore there is1        and will ever
 be1 but one created world4 ,now that   
which is        created is of necessity 
corporeal and visible and               
tangible1--visible and therefore made of
 fire1--tangible and        therefore   
solid and made of earth4 ,but two terms 
must be united        by a third1 which 
is a mean between them2 and had the     
earth been        a surface only1 one   
mean would have sufficed1 but two means 
are        required to unite solid      
bodies4 ,and as the world was composed  
of        solids1 between the elements  
of fire and earth ,god placed two       
other elements of air and water1 and    
arranged them in a        continuous    
proportion--                            
fire3air33air3water1 and                
air3water33water3earth1          and so 
put together a visible and palpable     

heaven1 having harmony        and       
friendship in the union of the four     
elements2 and being at        unity with
 itself it was indissoluble except by   
the hand of the        framer4 ,each of 
the elements was taken into the universe
 whole        and entire2 for he        
considered that the animal should be    
perfect        and one1 leaving no      
remnants out of which another animal    
could be        created1 and should also
 be free from old age and disease1 which
        are produced by the action of   
external forces4 ,and as he was to      
contain all things1 he was made in the  
all-containing form of a        sphere1 
round as from a lathe and every way     
equidistant from the        centre1 as  
was natural and suitable to him4 ,he was
 finished and        smooth1 having     
neither eyes nor ears1 for there was    
nothing        without him which he     
could see or hear2 and he had no need to
        carry food to his mouth1 nor was
 there air for him to breathe2          

and he did not require hands1 for there 
was nothing of which he        could    
take hold1 nor feet1 with which to walk4
 ,all that he did        was done       
rationally in and by himself1 and he    
moved in a circle        turning within 
himself1 which is the most intellectual 
of        motions2 but the other six    
motions were wanting to him2 wherefore  
the universe had no feet or legs4       
,and so the thought of ,god made a ,god 
in the image of a perfect        body1  
having intercourse with himself and     
needing no other1 but        in every   
part harmonious and self-contained and  
truly blessed4        ,the soul was     
first made by him--the elder to rule the
 younger2 not        in the order in    
which our wayward fancy has led us to   
describe        them1 but the soul first
 and afterwards the body4 ,god took of  
the        unchangeable and indivisible 
and also of the divisible and           
corporeal1 and out of the two he made a 
third nature1 essence1        which was 

in a mean between them1 and partook of  
the same and the        other1 the      
intractable nature of the other being   
compressed into        the same4 ,having
 made a compound of all the three1 he   
proceeded        to divide the entire   
mass into portions related to one       
another in        the ratios of #a1 #b1 
#c1 #d1 #i1 #h1 #bg1 and proceeded to   
fill up the        double and triple    
intervals thus--      - over #a1 #d_/c1 
#c_/b1 - over #b1 #h_/c1 #c1 - over #d1 
#af_/c1 #f1  - over #h3    - over #a1   
#c_/b1 #b1   - over #c1 #i_/b1 #f1 -    
over #i1 #bg_/b1 #ah1 - over #bg2       
in which double series of numbers are   
two kinds of means2 the one             
exceeds and is exceeded by equal parts  
of the extremes1 e4g4 #a1        #d_/c1 
#b2 the other kind of mean is one which 
is equidistant from        the          
extremes--#b1 #d1 #f4 ,in this manner   
there were formed intervals        of   
thirds1 #c3b1 of fourths1 #d3c1 and of  
ninths1 #i3h4 ,and next he        filled

 up the intervals of a fourth with      
ninths1 leaving a        remnant which  
is in the ratio of #bef3bdc4 ,the entire
 compound was        divided by him     
lengthways into two parts1 which he     
united at the        centre like the    
letter ,x1 and bent into an inner and   
outer circle        or sphere1 cutting  
one another again at a point over       
against the        point at which they  
cross4 ,the outer circle or sphere was  
named        the sphere of the same--the
 inner1 the sphere of the other or      
diverse2 and the one revolved           
horizontally to the right1 the          
other diagonally to the left4 ,to the   
sphere of the same which was            
undivided he gave dominion1 but the     
sphere of the other or        diverse   
was distributed into seven unequal      
orbits1 having        intervals in      
ratios of twos and threes1 three of     
either sort1 and        he bade the     
orbits move in opposite directions to   
one        another--three of them1 the  

,sun1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 with equal      
swiftness1 and the remaining four--the  
,moon1 ,saturn1 ,mars1        ,jupiter1 
with unequal swiftness to the three and 
to one another1        but all in due   
proportion4          ,when the ,creator 
had made the soul he made the body      
within her2        and the soul         
interfused everywhere from the centre to
 the        circumference of heaven1    
herself turning in herself1 began a     
divine life of rational and everlasting 
motion4 ,the body of        heaven is   
visible1 but the soul is invisible1 and 
partakes of        reason and harmony1  
and is the best of creations1 being the 
work        of the best4 ,and being     
composed of the same1 the other1 and the
        essence1 these three1 and also  
divided and bound in harmonical         
proportion1 and revolving within        
herself--the soul when touching         
anything which has essence1 whether     
divided or undivided1 is        stirred 
to utter the sameness or diversity of   

that and some other        thing1 and to
 tell how and when and where individuals
 are        affected or related1 whether
 in the world of change or of           
essence4 ,when reason is in the         
neighbourhood of sense1 and the         
circle of the other or diverse is moving
 truly1 then arise true        opinions 
and beliefs2 when reason is in the      
sphere of thought1        and the circle
 of the same runs smoothly1 then        
intelligence is        perfected4       
,when the ,father who begat the world   
saw the image which he had        made  
of the ,eternal ,gods moving and living1
 he rejoiced2 and in        his joy     
resolved1 since the archetype was       
eternal1 to make the        creature    
eternal as far as this was possible4    
,wherefore he made        an image of   
eternity which is time1 having an       
uniform motion        according to      
number1 parted into months and days and 
years1 and        also having greater   
divisions of past1 present1 and future4 

,these        all apply to becoming in  
time1 and have no meaning in relation to
        the eternal nature1 which ever  
is and never was or will be2 for        
the unchangeable is never older or      
younger1 and when we say that        he 
#8was' or #8will be1' we are mistaken1  
for these words are        applicable   
only to becoming1 and not to true being2
 and equally        wrong are we in     
saying that what has become ,,is become 
and that        what becomes ,,is       
becoming1 and that the non-existent ,,is
        non-existent444,these are the   
forms of time which imitate eternity    
and move in a circle measured by number4
          ,thus was time made in the    
image of the eternal nature2 and it was 
created together with the heavens1 in   
order that if they were                 
dissolved1 it might perish with them4   
,and ,god made the sun and        moon  
and five other wanderers1 as they are   
called1 seven in all1        and to each
 of them he gave a body moving in an    

orbit1 being one        of the seven    
orbits into which the circle of the     
other was        divided4 ,he put the   
moon in the orbit which was nearest to  
the        earth1 the sun in that next1 
the morning star and ,mercury in the    
orbits which move opposite to the sun   
but with equal        swiftness--this   
being the reason why they overtake and  
are        overtaken by one another4    
,all these bodies became living         
creatures1 and learnt their appointed   
tasks1 and began to move1        the    
nearer more swiftly1 the remoter more   
slowly1 according to        the diagonal
 movement of the other4 ,and since this 
was controlled        by the movement of
 the same1 the seven planets in their   
courses        appeared to describe     
spirals2 and that appeared fastest which
 was        slowest1 and that which     
overtook others appeared to be overtaken
        by them4 ,and ,god lighted a    
fire in the second orbit from the       
earth which is called the sun1 to give  

light over the whole        heaven1 and 
to teach intelligent beings that        
knowledge of number        which is     
derived from the revolution of the same4
 ,thus arose day        and night1 which
 are the periods of the most intelligent
 nature2        a month is created by   
the revolution of the moon1 a year by   
that        of the sun4 ,other periods  
of wonderful length and complexity are  
not observed by men in general2 there is
 moreover a cycle or        perfect year
 at the completion of which they all    
meet and        coincide444,to this end 
the stars came into being1 that the     
created heaven might imitate the eternal
 nature4          ,thus far the         
universal animal was made in the divine 
image1 but        the other animals were
 not as yet included in him4 ,and ,god  
created them according to the patterns  
or species of them which        existed 
in the divine original4 ,there are four 
of them3 one of        gods1 another of 
birds1 a third of fishes1 and a fourth  

of        animals4 ,the gods were made  
in the form of a circle1 which is the   
most perfect figure and the figure of   
the universe4 ,they were        created 
chiefly of fire1 that they might be     
bright1 and were made        to know and
 follow the best1 and to be scattered   
over the        heavens1 of which they  
were to be the glory4 ,two kinds of     
motion        were assigned to          
them--first1 the revolution in the same 
and        around the same1 in peaceful 
unchanging thought of the same2 and     
to this was added a forward motion which
 was under the control of        the    
same4 ,thus then the fixed stars were   
created1 being divine        and eternal
 animals1 revolving on the same spot1   
and the        wandering stars1 in their
 courses1 were created in the manner    
already described4 ,the earth1 which is 
our nurse1 clinging around        the   
pole extended through the universe1 he  
made to be the        guardian and      
artificer of night and day1 first and   

eldest of gods        that are in the   
interior of heaven4 ,vain would be the  
labour of        telling all the figures
 of them1 moving as in dance1 and their 
juxta-positions and approximations1 and 
when and where and behind        what   
other stars they appear to disappear--to
 tell of all this        without looking
 at a plan of them would be labour in   
vain4          ,the knowledge of the    
other gods is beyond us1 and we can only
        accept the traditions of the    
ancients1 who were the children of      
the gods1 as they said2 for surely they 
must have known their own               
ancestors4 ,although they give no proof1
 we must believe them as        is      
customary4 ,they tell us that ,oceanus  
and ,tethys were the        children of 
,earth and ,heaven2 that ,phoreys1      
,cronos1 and ,rhea came        in the   
next generation1 and were followed by   
,zeus and ,here1 whose        brothers  
and children are known to everybody4    
,when all of them1 both those who show  

themselves in the sky1 and        those 
who retire from view1 had come into     
being1 the ,creator        addressed    
them thus3--#8,gods1 sons of gods1 my   
works1 if ,i will1        are           
indissoluble4 ,that which is bound may  
be dissolved1 but only        an evil   
being would dissolve that which is      
harmonious and happy4        ,and       
although you are not immortal you shall 
not die1 for ,i will        hold you    
together4 ,hear me1 then3--,three tribes
 of mortal beings        have still to  
be created1 but if created by me they   
would be like        gods4 ,do ye       
therefore make them2 ,i will implant in 
them the seed        of immortality1 and
 you shall weave together the mortal and
        immortal1 and provide food for  
them1 and receive them again in         
death4' ,thus he spake1 and poured the  
remains of the elements        into the 
cup in which he had mingled the soul of 
the universe4        ,they were no      
longer pure as before1 but diluted2 and 

the mixture        he distributed into  
souls equal in number to the stars1 and 
assigned each to a star--then having    
mounted them1 as in a        chariot1 he
 showed them the nature of the universe1
 and told them        of their future   
birth and human lot4 ,they were to be   
sown in the        planets1 and out of  
them was to come forth the most         
religious of        animals1 which would
 hereafter be called man4 ,the souls    
were to        be implanted in bodies1  
which were in a perpetual flux1 whence1 
he said1 would arise1 first1 sensation2 
secondly1 love1 which is        a       
mixture of pleasure and pain2 thirdly1  
fear and anger1 and the        opposite 
affections3 and if they conquered these1
 they would live        righteously1 but
 if they were conquered by them1        
unrighteously4        ,he who lived well
 would return to his native star1 and   
would        there have a blessed       
existence2 but1 if he lived ill1 he     
would        pass into the nature of a  

woman1 and if he did not then alter his 
evil ways1 into the likeness of some    
animal1 until the reason        which   
was in him reasserted her sway over the 
elements of fire1        air1 earth1    
water1 which had engrossed her1 and he  
regained his        first and better    
nature4 ,having given this law to his   
creatures1        that he might be      
guiltless of their future evil1 he sowed
 them1        some in the earth1 some in
 the moon1 and some in the other        
planets2 and he ordered the younger gods
 to frame human bodies        for them  
and to make the necessary additions to  
them1 and to        avert from them all 
but self-inflicted evil4                
,having given these commands1 the       
,creator remained in his own            
nature4 ,and his children1 receiving    
from him the immortal        principle1 
borrowed from the world portions of     
earth1 air1 fire1        water1         
hereafter to be returned1 which they    
fastened together1        not with the  

adamantine bonds which bound themselves1
 but by        little invisible pegs1   
making each separate body out of all the
        elements1 subject to influx and 
efflux1 and containing the              
courses of the soul4 ,these swelling and
 surging as in a river        moved     
irregularly and irrationally in all the 
six possible ways1        forwards1     
backwards1 right1 left1 up and down4    
,but violent as        were the internal
 and alimentary fluids1 the tide became 
still        more violent when the body 
came into contact with flaming fire1    
or the solid earth1 or gliding waters1  
or the stormy wind2 the        motions  
produced by these impulses pass through 
the body to the        soul and have the
 name of sensations4 ,uniting with the  
ever-flowing current1 they shake the    
courses of the soul1        stopping the
 revolution of the same and twisting in 
all sorts of        ways the nature of  
the other1 and the harmonical ratios of 
twos        and threes and the mean     

terms which connect them1 until the     
circles are bent and disordered and     
their motion becomes        irregular4  
,you may imagine a position of the body 
in which the        head is resting upon
 the ground1 and the legs are in the    
air1 and        the top is bottom and   
the left right4 ,and something similar  
happens when the disordered motions of  
the soul come into contact        with  
any external thing2 they say the same or
 the other in a        manner which is  
the very opposite of the truth1 and they
 are        false and foolish1 and have 
no guiding principle in them4 ,and      
when external impressions enter in1 they
 are really conquered1        though    
they seem to conquer4          ,by      
reason of these affections the soul is  
at first without        intelligence1   
but as time goes on the stream of       
nutriment abates1        and the courses
 of the soul regain their proper motion1
 and        apprehend the same and the  
other rightly1 and become rational4     

,the soul of him who has education is   
whole and perfect and        escapes the
 worst disease1 but1 if a man's         
education be        neglected1 he walks 
lamely through life and returns good for
        nothing to the world below4     
,this1 however1 is an after-stage--at   
present1 we are only concerned with the 
creation of the body and        soul4   
,the two divine courses were encased by 
the gods in a sphere which        is    
called the head1 and is the god and lord
 of us4 ,and to this        they gave   
the body to be a vehicle1 and the       
members to be        instruments1 having
 the power of flexion and extension4    
,such was        the origin of legs and 
arms4 ,in the next place1 the gods gave 
a        forward motion to the human    
body1 because the front part of man     
was the more honourable and had         
authority4 ,and they put in a face      
in which they inserted organs to        
minister in all things to the           
providence of the soul4 ,they first     

contrived the eyes1 into which          
they conveyed a light akin to the light 
of day1 making it flow        through   
the pupils4 ,when the light of the eye  
is surrounded by        the light of    
day1 then like falls upon like1 and they
 unite and        form one body which   
conveys to the soul the motions of      
visible        objects4 ,but when the   
visual ray goes forth into the darkness1
        then unlike falls upon          
unlike--the eye no longer sees1 and we  
go        to sleep4 ,the fire or light1 
when kept in by the eyelids1            
equalizes the inward motions1 and there 
is rest accompanied by        few       
dreams2 only when the greater motions   
remain they engender in        us       
corresponding visions of the night4 ,and
 now we shall be able        to         
understand the nature of reflections in 
mirrors4 ,the fires        from within  
and from without meet about the smooth  
and bright        surface of the mirror2
 and because they meet in a manner      

contrary        to the usual mode1 the  
right and left sides of the object are  
transposed4 ,in a concave mirror the top
 and bottom are inverted1        but    
this is no transposition4               
,these are the second causes which ,god 
used as his ministers in                
fashioning the world4 ,they are thought 
by many to be the prime        causes1  
but they are not so2 for they are       
destitute of mind and        reason1 and
 the lover of mind will not allow that  
there are any        prime causes other 
than the rational and invisible         
ones--these he        investigates      
first1 and afterwards the causes of     
things which are        moved by others1
 and which work by chance and without   
order4 ,of        the second or         
concurrent causes of sight ,i have      
already spoken1        and ,i will now  
speak of the higher purpose of ,god in  
giving us        eyes4 ,sight is the    
source of the greatest benefits to us2  
for if        our eyes had never seen   

the sun1 stars1 and heavens1 the words  
which we have spoken would not have been
 uttered4 ,the sight of        them and 
their revolutions has given us the      
knowledge of number        and time1 the
 power of enquiry1 and philosophy1 which
 is the        great blessing of human  
life2 not to speak of the lesser        
benefits        which even the vulgar   
can appreciate4 ,god gave us the faculty
 of        sight that we might behold   
the order of the heavens and create a   
corresponding order in our own erring   
minds4 ,to the like end the        gifts
 of speech and hearing were bestowed    
upon us2 not for the        sake of     
irrational pleasure1 but in order that  
we might harmonize        the courses of
 the soul by sympathy with the harmony  
of sound1        and cure ourselves of  
our irregular and graceless ways4       
,thus far we have spoken of the works of
 mind2 and there are other        works 
done from necessity1 which we must now  
place beside them2        for the       

creation is made up of both1 mind       
persuading necessity as        far as   
possible to work out good4 ,before the  
heavens there        existed fire1 air1 
water1 earth1 which we suppose men to   
know1        though no one has explained
 their nature1 and we erroneously       
maintain them to be the letters or      
elements of the whole1        although  
they cannot reasonably be compared even 
to syllables or        first compounds4 
,i am not now speaking of the first     
principles of        things1 because ,i 
cannot discover them by our present mode
 of        enquiry4 ,but as ,i observed 
the rule of probability at first1 ,i    
will begin anew1 seeking by the grace of
 ,god to observe it still4          ,in 
our former discussion ,i distinguished  
two kinds of being--the                 
unchanging or invisible1 and the visible
 or changing4 ,but now a        third   
kind is required1 which ,i shall call   
the receptacle or        nurse of       
generation4 ,there is a difficulty in   

arriving at an        exact notion of   
this third kind1 because the four       
elements        themselves are of       
inexact natures and easily pass into one
        another1 and are too transient  
to be detained by any one name2         
wherefore we are compelled to speak of  
water or fire1 not as        substances1
 but as qualities4 ,they may be compared
 to images made        of gold1 which   
are continually assuming new forms4     
,somebody asks        what they are2 if 
you do not know1 the safest answer is to
 reply        that they are gold4 ,in   
like manner there is a universal nature 
out of which all things are made1 and   
which is like none of them2        but  
they enter into and pass out of her1 and
 are made after        patterns of the  
true in a wonderful and inexplicable    
manner4 ,the        containing principle
 may be likened to a mother1 the source 
or        spring to a father1 the       
intermediate nature to a child2 and we  
may also remark that the matter which   

receives every variety of        form   
must be formless1 like the inodorous    
liquids which are        prepared to    
receive scents1 or the smooth and soft  
materials on        which figures are   
impressed4 ,in the same way space or    
matter is        neither earth nor fire 
nor air nor water1 but an invisible and 
formless being which receives all       
things1 and in an                       
incomprehensible manner partakes of the 
intelligible4 ,but we may        say1   
speaking generally1 that fire is that   
part of this nature        which is     
inflamed1 water that which is moistened1
 and the like4          ,let me ask a   
question in which a great principle is  
involved3 ,is        there an essence of
 fire and the other elements1 or are    
there        only fires visible to      
sense8 ,i answer in a word3 ,if mind is 
one        thing and true opinion       
another1 then there are self-existent   
essences2 but if mind is the same with  
opinion1 then the visible        and    

corporeal is most real4 ,but they are   
not the same1 and they        have a    
different origin and nature4 ,the one   
comes to us by        instruction1 the  
other by persuasion1 the one is         
rational1 the        other is           
irrational2 the one is movable by       
persuasion1 the other        immovable2 
the one is possessed by every man1 the  
other by the        gods and by very few
 men4 ,and we must acknowledge that as  
there        are two kinds of knowledge1
 so there are two kinds of being        
corresponding to them2 the one          
uncreated1 indestructible1              
immovable1 which is seen by intelligence
 only2 the other created1        which  
is always becoming in place and         
vanishing out of place1 and        is   
apprehended by opinion and sense4 ,there
 is also a third        nature--that of 
space1 which is indestructible1 and is  
perceived        by a kind of spurious  
reason without the help of sense4 ,this 
is        presented to us in a dreamy   

manner1 and yet is said to be           
necessary1 for we say that all things   
must be somewhere in space4        ,for 
they are the images of other things and 
must therefore have a        separate   
existence and exist in something 7i4e4  
in space74 ,but        true reason      
assures us that while two things 7i4e4  
the idea and        the image7 are      
different they cannot inhere in one     
another1 so as        to be one and two 
at the same time4          ,to sum up3  
,being and generation and space1 these  
three1 existed        before the        
heavens1 and the nurse or vessel of     
generation1        moistened by water   
and inflamed by fire1 and taking the    
forms of        air and earth1 assumed  
various shapes4 ,by the motion of the   
vessel1 the elements were divided1 and  
like grain winnowed by        fans1 the 
close and heavy particles settled in one
 place1 the        light and airy ones  
in another4 ,at first they were without 
reason        and measure1 and had only 

certain faint traces of themselves1     
until ,god fashioned them by figure and 
number4 ,in this1 as in        every    
other part of creation1 ,i suppose ,god 
to have made things1        as far as   
was possible1 fair and good1 out of     
things not fair and        good4        
,and now ,i will explain to you the     
generation of the world by a            
method with which your scientific       
training will have made you             
familiar4 ,fire1 air1 earth1 and water  
are bodies and therefore        solids1 
and solids are contained in planes1 and 
plane rectilinear        figures are    
made up of triangles4 ,of triangles     
there are two        kinds2 one having  
the opposite sides equal 7isosceles71   
the other        with unequal sides     
7scalene74 ,these we may fairly assume  
to be        the original elements of   
fire and the other bodies2 what         
principles are prior to these ,god only 
knows1 and he of men whom        ,god   
loves4 ,next1 we must determine what are

 the four most        beautiful figures 
which are unlike one another and yet    
sometimes        capable of resolution  
into one another444,of the two kinds of 
triangles the equal-sided has but one   
form1 the unequal-sided has        an   
infinite variety of forms2 and there is 
none more beautiful        than that    
which forms the half of an equilateral  
triangle4 ,let us        then choose two
 triangles2 one1 the isosceles1 the     
other1 that        form of scalene which
 has the square of the longer side three
        times as great as the square of 
the lesser side2 and affirm that1       
out of these1 fire and the other        
elements have been constructed4         
,i was wrong in imagining that all the  
four elements could be        generated 
into and out of one another4 ,for as    
they are formed1        three of them   
from the triangle which has the sides   
unequal1 the        fourth from the     
triangle which has equal sides1 three   
can be        resolved into one another1

 but the fourth cannot be resolved into 
them nor they into it4 ,so much for     
their passage into one        another3  
,i must now speak of their construction4
 ,from the        triangle of which the 
hypotenuse is twice the lesser side the 
three first regular solids are          
formed--first1 the equilateral          
pyramid or tetrahedron2 secondly1 the   
octahedron2 thirdly1 the                
icosahedron2 and from the isosceles     
triangle is formed the cube4        ,and
 there is a fifth figure 7which is made 
out of twelve        pentagons71 the    
dodecahedron--this ,god used as a model 
for the        twelvefold division of   
the ,zodiac4          ,let us now assign
 the geometrical forms to their         
respective        elements4 ,the cube is
 the most stable of them because resting
 on        a quadrangular plane surface1
 and composed of isosceles              
triangles4 ,to the earth then1 which is 
the most stable of bodies        and the
 most easily modelled of them1 may be   

assigned the form of        a cube2 and 
the remaining forms to the other        
elements1--to fire        the pyramid1  
to air the octahedron1 and to water the 
icosahedron1--according to their degrees
 of lightness or heaviness        or    
power1 or want of power1 of penetration4
 ,the single particles        of any of 
the elements are not seen by reason of  
their smallness2        they only become
 visible when collected4 ,the ratios of 
their        motions1 numbers1 and other
 properties1 are ordered by the ,god1   
who harmonized them as far as necessity 
permitted4          ,the probable       
conclusion is as follows3--,earth1 when 
dissolved by        the more penetrating
 element of fire1 whether acting        
immediately        or through the medium
 of air or water1 is decomposed but not 
transformed4 ,water1 when divided by    
fire or air1 becomes one part           
fire1 and two parts air4 ,a volume of   
air divided becomes two of        fire4 
,on the other hand1 when condensed1 two 

volumes of fire make        a volume of 
air2 and two and a half parts of air    
condense into        one of water4 ,any 
element which is fastened upon by fire  
is cut        by the sharpness of the   
triangles1 until at length1 coalescing  
with the fire1 it is at rest2 for       
similars are not affected by            
similars4 ,when two kinds of bodies     
quarrel with one another1 then          
the tendency to decomposition continues 
until the smaller either        escapes 
to its kindred element or becomes one   
with its conqueror4        ,and this    
tendency in bodies to condense or escape
 is a source of        motion444,where  
there is motion there must be a mover1  
and where        there is a mover there 
must be something to move4 ,these cannot
        exist in what is uniform1 and   
therefore motion is due to want of      
uniformity4 ,but then why1 when things  
are divided after their        kinds1 do
 they not cease from motion8 ,the answer
 is1 that the        circular motion of 

all things compresses them1 and as      
#8nature        abhors a vacuum1' the   
finer and more subtle particles of the  
lighter elements1 such as fire and air1 
are thrust into the        interstices  
of the larger1 each of them penetrating 
according to        their rarity1 and   
thus all the elements are on their way  
up and        down everywhere and always
 into their own places4 ,hence there is 
a principle of inequality1 and therefore
 of motion1 in all time4          ,in   
the next place1 we may observe that     
there are different kinds        of     
fire--7#a7 flame1 7#b7 light that burns 
not1 7#c7 the red heat of        the    
embers of fire4 ,and there are varieties
 of air1 as for        example1 the pure
 aether1 the opaque mist1 and other     
nameless        forms4 ,water1 again1 is
 of two kinds1 liquid and fusile4 ,the  
liquid is composed of small and unequal 
particles1 the fusile of        large   
and uniform particles and is more solid1
 but nevertheless        melts at the   

approach of fire1 and then spreads upon 
the earth4        ,when the substance   
cools1 the fire passes into the air1    
which is        displaced1 and forces   
together and condenses the liquid mass4 
,this process is called cooling and     
congealment4 ,of the fusile        kinds
 the fairest and heaviest is gold2 this 
is hardened by        filtration through
 rock1 and is of a bright yellow colour4
 ,a        shoot of gold which is darker
 and denser than the rest is called     
adamant4 ,another kind is called copper1
 which is harder and yet        lighter 
because the interstices are larger than 
in gold4 ,there is        mingled with  
it a fine and small portion of earth    
which comes out        in the form of   
rust4 ,these are a few of the           
conjectures which        philosophy     
forms1 when1 leaving the eternal nature1
 she turns for        innocent          
recreation to consider the truths of    
generation4          ,water which is    
mingled with fire is called liquid      

because it        rolls upon the earth1 
and soft because its bases give way4    
,this        becomes more equable when  
separated from fire and air1 and then   
congeals into hail or ice1 or the looser
 forms of hoar frost or        snow4    
,there are other waters which are called
 juices and are        distilled through
 plants4 ,of these we may mention1      
first1 wine1        which warms the soul
 as well as the body2 secondly1 oily    
substances1 as for example1 oil or      
pitch2 thirdly1 honey1 which            
relaxes the contracted parts of the     
mouth and so produces        sweetness2 
fourthly1 vegetable acid1 which is      
frothy and has a        burning quality 
and dissolves the flesh4 ,of the kinds  
of earth1        that which is filtered 
through water passes into stone2 the    
water        is broken up by the earth  
and escapes in the form of air--this in 
turn presses upon the mass of earth1 and
 the earth1 compressed        into an   
indissoluble union with the remaining   

water1 becomes        rock4 ,rock1 when 
it is made up of equal particles1 is    
fair and        transparent1 but the    
reverse when of unequal4 ,earth is      
converted        into pottery when the  
watery part is suddenly drawn away2 or  
if        moisture remains1 the earth1  
when fused by fire1 becomes1 on         
cooling1 a stone of a black colour4     
,when the earth is finer and        of a
 briny nature then two half-solid bodies
 are formed by        separating the    
water1--soda and salt4 ,the strong      
compounds of        earth and water are 
not soluble by water1 but only by fire4 
,earth        itself1 when not          
consolidated1 is dissolved by water2    
when        consolidated1 by fire only4 
,the cohesion of water1 when strong1    
is dissolved by fire only2 when weak1   
either by air or fire1 the        former
 entering the interstices1 the latter   
penetrating even the        triangles4  
,air when strongly condensed is         
indissoluble by any        power which  

does not reach the triangles1 and even  
when not        strongly condensed is   
only resolved by fire4 ,compounds of    
earth        and water are unaffected by
 water while the water occupies the     
interstices in them1 but begin to       
liquefy when fire enters into        the
 interstices of the water4 ,they are of 
two kinds1 some of        them1 like    
glass1 having more earth1 others1 like  
wax1 having        more water in them4  
,having considered objects of sense1 we 
now pass on to sensation4        ,but we
 cannot explain sensation without       
explaining the nature of        flesh   
and of the mortal soul2 and as we cannot
 treat of both        together1 in order
 that we may proceed at once to the     
sensations        we must assume the    
existence of body and soul4             
,what makes fire burn8 ,the fineness of 
the sides1 the sharpness of        the  
angles1 the smallness of the particles1 
the quickness of the        motion4     
,moreover1 the pyramid1 which is the    

figure of fire1 is        more cutting  
than any other4 ,the feeling of cold is 
produced by        the larger particles 
of moisture outside the body trying to  
eject        the smaller ones in the    
body which they compress4 ,the struggle 
which arises between elements thus      
unnaturally brought together            
causes shivering4 ,that is hard to which
 the flesh yields1 and        soft which
 yields to the flesh1 and these two     
terms are also        relative to one   
another4 ,the yielding matter is that   
which has        the slenderest base1   
whereas that which has a rectangular    
base is        compact and repellent4   
,light and heavy are wrongly explained  
with        reference to a lower and    
higher in place4 ,for in the universe1  
which is a sphere1 there is no          
opposition of above or below1 and       
that which is to us above would be below
 to a man standing at the               
antipodes4 ,the greater or less         
difficulty in detaching any             

element from its like is the real cause 
of heaviness or of        lightness4 ,if
 you draw the earth into the dissimilar 
air1 the        particles of earth cling
 to their native element1 and you more  
easily detach a small portion than a    
large4 ,there would be the        same  
difficulty in moving any of the upper   
elements towards the        lower4 ,the 
smooth and the rough are severally      
produced by the        union of evenness
 with compactness1 and of hardness with 
inequality4          ,pleasure and pain 
are the most important of the affections
 common        to the whole body4       
,according to our general doctrine of   
sensation1 parts of the body which are  
easily moved readily        transmit the
 motion to the mind2 but parts which are
 not easily        moved have no effect 
upon the patient4 ,the bones and hair   
are of        the latter kind1 sight and
 hearing of the former4 ,ordinary       
affections are neither pleasant nor     
painful4 ,the impressions of            

sight afford an example of these1 and   
are neither violent nor        sudden4  
,but sudden replenishments of the body  
cause pleasure1 and        sudden       
disturbances1 as for example cuttings   
and burnings1 have        the opposite  
effect4          ,from sensations common
 to the whole body1 we proceed to those 
of        particular parts4 ,the        
affections of the tongue appear to be   
caused by contraction and dilation1 but 
they have more of        roughness or   
smoothness than is found in other       
affections4 ,earthy        particles1   
entering into the small veins of the    
tongue which        reach to the heart1 
when they melt into and dry up the      
little        veins are astringent if   
they are rough2 or if not so rough1 they
        are only harsh1 and if          
excessively abstergent1 like potash and 
soda1 bitter4 ,purgatives of a weaker   
sort are called salt and1        having 
no bitterness1 are rather agreeable4    
,inflammatory bodies1        which by   

their lightness are carried up into the 
head1 cutting        all that comes in  
their way1 are termed pungent4 ,but when
 these        are refined by            
putrefaction1 and enter the narrow veins
 of the        tongue1 and meet there   
particles of earth and air1 two kinds of
        globules are formed--one of     
earthy and impure liquid1 which boils   
and ferments1 the other of pure and     
transparent water1 which are            
called bubbles2 of all these affections 
the cause is termed acid4        ,when1 
on the other hand1 the composition of   
the deliquescent        particles is    
congenial to the tongue1 and disposes   
the parts        according to their     
nature1 this remedial power in them is  
called        sweet4          ,smells   
are not divided into kinds2 all of them 
are transitional1        and arise out  
of the decomposition of one element into
 another1        for the simple air or  
water is without smell4 ,they are       
vapours or        mists1 thinner than   

water and thicker than air3 and hence in
        drawing in the breath1 when     
there is an obstruction1 the air        
passes1 but there is no smell4 ,they    
have no names1 but are                  
distinguished as pleasant and           
unpleasant1 and their influence         
extends over the whole region from the  
head to the navel4          ,hearing is 
the effect of a stroke which is         
transmitted through        the ears by  
means of the air1 brain1 and blood to   
the soul1        beginning at the head  
and extending to the liver4 ,the sound  
which        moves swiftly is acute2    
that which moves slowly is grave2 that  
which is uniform is smooth1 and the     
opposite is harsh4 ,loudness            
depends on the quantity of the sound4   
,of the harmony of sounds ,i        will
 hereafter speak4          ,colours are 
flames which emanate from all bodies1   
having        particles corresponding to
 the sense of sight4 ,some of the       
particles are less and some larger1 and 

some are equal to the        parts of   
the sight4 ,the equal particles appear  
transparent2 the        larger contract1
 and the lesser dilate the sight4 ,white
 is        produced by the dilation1    
black by the contraction1 of the        
particles of sight4 ,there is also a    
swifter motion of another        sort of
 fire which forces a way through the    
passages of the eyes1        and elicits
 from them a union of fire and water    
which we call        tears4 ,the inner  
fire flashes forth1 and the outer finds 
a way in        and is extinguished in  
the moisture1 and all sorts of colours  
are        generated by the mixture4    
,this affection is termed by us         
dazzling1 and the object which produces 
it is called bright4        ,there is   
yet another sort of fire which mingles  
with the moisture        of the eye     
without flashing1 and produces a colour 
like blood--to        this we give the  
name of red4 ,a bright element mingling 
with red        and white produces a    

colour which we call auburn4 ,the law of
        proportion1 however1 according  
to which compound colours are           
formed1 cannot be determined            
scientifically or even probably4        
,red1 when mingled with black and white1
 gives a purple hue1 which              
becomes umber when the colours are burnt
 and there is a larger        admixture 
of black4 ,flame-colour is a mixture of 
auburn and dun2        dun of white and 
black2 yellow of white and auburn4      
,white and        bright meeting1 and   
falling upon a full black1 become dark  
blue2        dark blue mingling with    
white becomes a light blue2 the union of
        flame-colour and black makes    
leek-green4 ,there is no difficulty     
in seeing how other colours are probably
 composed4 ,but he who        should    
attempt to test the truth of this by    
experiment1 would        forget the     
difference of the human and divine      
nature4 ,god only is        able to     
compound and resolve substances2 such   

experiments are        impossible to    
man4          ,these are the elements of
 necessity which the ,creator received  
in        the world of generation when  
he made the all-sufficient and          
perfect creature1 using the secondary   
causes as his ministers1        but     
himself fashioning the good in all      
things4 ,for there are two        sorts 
of causes1 the one divine1 the other    
necessary2 and we        should seek to 
discover the divine above all1 and1 for 
their        sake1 the necessary1       
because without them the higher cannot  
be        attained by us4               
,having now before us the causes out of 
which the rest of our        discourse  
is to be framed1 let us go back to the  
point at which        we began1 and add 
a fair ending to our tale4 ,as ,i said  
at first1        all things were        
originally a chaos in which there was no
 order or        proportion4 ,the       
elements of this chaos were arranged by 
the        ,creator1 and out of them he 

made the world4 ,of the divine he       
himself was the author1 but he committed
 to his offspring the        creation of
 the mortal4 ,from him they received the
 immortal soul1        but themselves   
made the body to be its vehicle1 and    
constructed        within another soul  
which was mortal1 and subject to        
terrible        affections--pleasure1   
the inciter of evil2 pain1 which deters 
from        good2 rashness and fear1    
foolish counsellors2 anger hard to be   
appeased2 hope easily led astray4 ,these
 they mingled with        irrational    
sense and all-daring love according to  
necessary laws        and so framed man4
 ,and1 fearing to pollute the divine    
element1        they gave the mortal    
soul a separate habitation in the       
breast1        parted off from the head 
by a narrow isthmus4 ,and as in a house 
the women's apartments are divided from 
the men's1 the cavity of        the     
thorax was divided into two parts1 a    
higher and a lower4 ,the        higher  

of the two1 which is the seat of courage
 and anger1 lies        nearer to the   
head1 between the midriff and the neck1 
and assists        reason in restraining
 the desires4 ,the heart is the house of
        guard in which all the veins    
meet1 and through them reason sends     
her commands to the extremity of her    
kingdom4 ,when the passions        are  
in revolt1 or danger approaches from    
without1 then the heart        beats and
 swells2 and the creating powers1       
knowing this1        implanted in the   
body the soft and bloodless substance of
 the        lung1 having a porous and   
springy nature like a sponge1 and being 
kept cool by drink and air which enters 
through the trachea4          ,the part 
of the soul which desires meat and drink
 was placed        between the midriff  
and navel1 where they made a sort of    
manger2        and here they bound it   
down1 like a wild animal1 away from the 
council-chamber1 and leaving the better 
principle undisturbed to        advise  

quietly for the good of the whole4 ,for 
the ,creator knew        that the belly 
would not listen to reason1 and was     
under the        power of idols and     
fancies4 ,wherefore he framed the liver 
to        connect with the lower nature1
 contriving that it should be           
compact1 and bright1 and sweet1 and also
 bitter and smooth1 in        order that
 the power of thought which originates  
in the mind        might there be       
reflected1 terrifying the belly with the
 elements        of bitterness and gall1
 and a suffusion of bilious colours when
        the liver is contracted1 and    
causing pain and misery by twisting     
out of its place the lobe and closing up
 the vessels and gates4        ,and the 
converse happens when some gentle       
inspiration coming from                 
intelligence mirrors the opposite       
fancies1 giving rest and                
sweetness and freedom1 and at night1    
moderation and peace        accompanied 
with prophetic insight1 when reason and 

sense are        asleep4 ,for the       
authors of our being1 in obedience to   
their        ,father's will and in order
 to make men as good as they could1     
gave to the liver the power of          
divination1 which is never active       
when men are awake or in health2 but    
when they are under the        influence
 of some disorder or enthusiasm then    
they receive        intimations1 which  
have to be interpreted by others who are
        called prophets1 but should     
rather be called interpreters of        
prophecy2 after death these intimations 
become unintelligible4        ,the      
spleen which is situated in the         
neighbourhood1 on the left        side1 
keeps the liver bright and clean1 as a  
napkin does a        mirror1 and the    
evacuations of the liver are received   
into it2        and being a hollow      
tissue it is for a time swollen with    
these        impurities1 but when the   
body is purged it returns to its natural
        size4          ,the truth       

concerning the soul can only be         
established by the word        of ,god4 
,still1 we may venture to assert what is
 probable both        concerning soul   
and body4          ,the creative powers 
were aware of our tendency to excess4   
,and so        when they made the belly 
to be a receptacle for food1 in order   
that men might not perish by insatiable 
gluttony1 they formed the               
convolutions of the intestines1 in this 
way retarding the passage        of food
 through the body1 lest mankind should  
be absorbed in        eating and        
drinking1 and the whole race become     
impervious to        divine philosophy4 
,the creation of bones and flesh was on 
this wise4 ,the foundation        of    
these is the marrow which binds together
 body and soul1 and        the marrow is
 made out of such of the primary        
triangles as are        adapted by their
 perfection to produce all the four     
elements4        ,these ,god took and   
mingled them in due proportion1 making  

as many        kinds of marrow as there 
were hereafter to be kinds of souls4    
,the        receptacle of the divine    
soul he made round1 and called that     
portion of the marrow brain1 intending  
that the vessel containing        this  
substance should be the head4 ,the      
remaining part he divided        into   
long and round figures1 and to these as 
to anchors1        fastening the mortal 
soul1 he proceeded to make the rest of  
the        body1 first forming for both 
parts a covering of bone4 ,the bone     
was formed by sifting pure smooth earth 
and wetting it with        marrow4 ,it  
was then thrust alternately into fire   
and water1 and        thus rendered     
insoluble by either4 ,of bone he made a 
globe which        he placed around the 
brain1 leaving a narrow opening1 and    
around        the marrow of the neck and
 spine he formed the vertebrae1 like    
hinges1 which extended from the head    
through the whole of the        trunk4  
,and as the bone was brittle and liable 

to mortify and        destroy the marrow
 by too great rigidity and              
susceptibility to        heat and cold1 
he contrived sinews and flesh--the first
 to give        flexibility1 the second 
to guard against heat and cold1 and to  
be        a protection against falls1   
containing a warm moisture1 which in    
summer exudes and cools the body1 and in
 winter is a defence        against     
cold4 ,having this in view1 the ,creator
 mingled earth with        fire and     
water and mixed with them a ferment of  
acid and salt1 so        as to form     
pulpy flesh4 ,but the sinews he made of 
a mixture of        bone and unfermented
 flesh1 giving them a mean nature       
between the        two1 and a yellow    
colour4 ,hence they were more glutinous 
than        flesh1 but softer than bone4
 ,the bones which have most of the      
living soul within them he covered with 
the thinnest film of        flesh1 those
 which have least of it1 he lodged      
deeper4 ,at the        joints he        

diminished the flesh in order not to    
impede the flexure        of the limbs1 
and also to avoid clogging the          
perceptions of the        mind4 ,about  
the thighs and arms1 which have no sense
 because        there is little soul in 
the marrow1 and about the inner bones1  
he        laid the flesh thicker4 ,for  
where the flesh is thicker there is     
less feeling1 except in certain parts   
which the ,creator has made             
solely of flesh1 as for example1 the    
tongue4 ,had the combination        of  
solid bone and thick flesh been         
consistent with acute                   
perceptions1 the ,creator would have    
given man a sinewy and fleshy           
head1 and then he would have lived twice
 as long4 ,but our        creators were 
of opinion that a shorter life which was
 better was        preferable to a      
longer which was worse1 and therefore   
they        covered the head with thin  
bone1 and placed the sinews at the      
extremity of the head round the neck1   

and fastened the jawbones        to them
 below the face4 ,and they framed the   
mouth1 having teeth        and tongue   
and lips1 with a view to the necessary  
and the good2        for food is a      
necessity1 and the river of speech is   
the best of        rivers4 ,still1 the  
head could not be left a bare globe of  
bone on        account of the extremes  
of heat and cold1 nor be allowed to     
become dull and senseless by an         
overgrowth of flesh4 ,wherefore it      
was covered by a peel or skin which met 
and grew by the help of        the      
cerebral humour4 ,the diversity of the  
sutures was caused by        the        
struggle of the food against the courses
 of the soul4 ,the        skin of the   
head was pierced by fire1 and out of the
 punctures        came forth a moisture1
 part liquid1 and part of a skinny      
nature1        which was hardened by the
 pressure of the external cold and      
became hair4 ,and ,god gave hair to the 
head of man to be a light               

covering1 so that it might not interfere
 with his perceptions4        ,nails    
were formed by combining sinew1 skin1   
and bone1 and were        made by the   
creators with a view to the future when1
 as they        knew1 women and other   
animals who would require them would be 
framed out of man4          ,the gods   
also mingled natures akin to that of man
 with other        forms and            
perceptions4 ,thus trees and plants were
 created1 which        were originally  
wild and have been adapted by           
cultivation to our        use4 ,they    
partake of that third kind of life which
 is seated        between the midriff   
and the navel1 and is altogether passive
 and        incapable of reflection4    
,when the creators had furnished all    
these natures for our        sustenance1
 they cut channels through our bodies as
 in a garden1        watering them with 
a perennial stream4 ,two were cut down  
the        back1 along the back bone1   
where the skin and flesh meet1 one on   

the right and the other on the left1    
having the marrow of        generation  
between them4 ,in the next place1 they  
divided the        veins about the head 
and interlaced them with each other in  
order        that they might form an    
additional link between the head and the
        body1 and that the sensations   
from both sides might be diffused       
throughout the body4 ,in the third      
place1 they contrived the        passage
 of liquids1 which may be explained in  
this way3--,finer        bodies retain  
coarser1 but not the coarser the finer1 
and the        belly is capable of      
retaining food1 but not fire and air4   
,god        therefore formed a network  
of fire and air to irrigate the veins1  
having within it two lesser nets1 and   
stretched cords reaching        from    
both the lesser nets to the extremity of
 the outer net4 ,the        inner parts 
of the net were made by him of fire1 the
 lesser nets        and their cavities  
of air4 ,the two latter he made to pass 

into        the mouth2 the one ascending
 by the air-pipes from the lungs1 the   
other by the side of the air-pipes from 
the belly4 ,the entrance        to the  
first he divided into two parts1 both of
 which he made to        meet at the    
channels of the nose1 that when the     
mouth was closed        the passage     
connected with it might still be fed    
with air4 ,the        cavity of the     
network he spread around the hollows of 
the body1        making the entire      
receptacle to flow into and out of the  
lesser        nets and the lesser nets  
into and out of it1 while the outer net 
found a way into and out of the pores of
 the body1 and the        internal heat 
followed the air to and fro4 ,these1 as 
we affirm1        are the phenomena of  
respiration4 ,and all this process takes
        place in order that the body may
 be watered and cooled and              
nourished1 and the meat and drink       
digested and liquefied and              
carried into the veins4          ,the   

causes of respiration have now to be    
considered4 ,the        exhalation of   
the breath through the mouth and        
nostrils displaces        the external  
air1 and at the same time leaves a      
vacuum into which        through the    
pores the air which is displaced enters4
 ,also the        vacuum which is made  
when the air is exhaled through the     
pores is        filled up by the        
inhalation of breath through the mouth  
and        nostrils4 ,the explanation of
 this double phenomenon is as           
follows3--,elements move towards their  
natural places4 ,now as every           
animal has within him a fountain of     
fire1 the air which is        inhaled   
through the mouth and nostrils1 on      
coming into contact        with this1 is
 heated2 and when heated1 in accordance 
with the law        of attraction1 it   
escapes by the way it entered toward the
 place        of fire4 ,on leaving the  
body it is cooled and drives round the  
air which it displaces through the pores

 into the empty lungs4        ,this     
again is in turn heated by the internal 
fire and escapes1 as        it entered1 
through the pores4          ,the        
phenomena of medical cupping-glasses1 of
 swallowing1 and of        the hurling  
of bodies1 are to be explained on a     
similar        principle2 as also       
sounds1 which are sometimes discordant  
on        account of the inequality of  
them1 and again harmonious by reason    
of equality4 ,the slower sounds reaching
 the swifter1 when they        begin to 
pause1 by degrees assimilate with them3 
whence arises a        pleasure which   
even the unwise feel1 and which to the  
wise        becomes a higher sense of   
delight1 being an imitation of divine   
harmony in mortal motions4 ,streams     
flow1 lightnings play1 amber        and 
the magnet attract1 not by reason of    
attraction1 but because        #8nature 
abhors a vacuum1' and because things1   
when compounded or        dissolved1    
move different ways1 each to its own    

place4          ,i will now return to   
the phenomena of respiration4 ,the fire1
        entering the belly1 minces the  
food1 and as it escapes1 fills the      
veins by drawing after it the divided   
portions1 and thus the        streams of
 nutriment are diffused through the     
body4 ,the fruits or        herbs which 
are our daily sustenance take all sorts 
of colours        when intermixed1 but  
the colour of red or fire predominates1 
and        hence the liquid which we    
call blood is red1 being the nurturing  
principle of the body1 whence all parts 
are watered and empty        places     
filled4          ,the process of        
repletion and depletion is produced by  
the        attraction of like to like1  
after the manner of the universal       
motion4 ,the external elements by their 
attraction are always        diminishing
 the substance of the body3 the         
particles of blood1        too1 formed  
out of the newly digested food1 are     
attracted towards        kindred        

elements within the body and so fill up 
the void4 ,when        more is taken    
away than flows in1 then we decay2 and  
when less1        we grow and increase4 
,the young of every animal has the      
triangles new and closely        locked 
together1 and yet the entire frame is   
soft and delicate1        being newly   
made of marrow and nurtured on milk4    
,these triangles        are sharper than
 those which enter the body from without
 in the        shape of food1 and       
therefore they cut them up4 ,but as life
        advances1 the triangles wear out
 and are no longer able to              
assimilate food2 and at length1 when the
 bonds which unite the        triangles 
of the marrow become undone1 they in    
turn unloose the        bonds of the    
soul2 and if the release be according to
 nature1 she        then flies away with
 joy4 ,for the death which is natural is
        pleasant1 but that which is     
caused by violence is painful4          
,every one may understand the origin of 

diseases4 ,they may be        occasioned
 by the disarrangement or disproportion 
of the elements        out of which the 
body is framed4 ,this is the origin of  
many of        them1 but the worst of   
all owe their severity to the following 
causes3 ,there is a natural order in the
 human frame according to        which  
the flesh and sinews are made of blood1 
the sinews out of        the fibres1 and
 the flesh out of the congealed         
substance which is        formed by     
separation from the fibres4 ,the        
glutinous matter which        comes away
 from the sinews and the flesh1 not only
 binds the        flesh to the bones1   
but nourishes the bones and waters the  
marrow4 ,when these processes take place
 in regular order the body        is in 
health4          ,but when the flesh    
wastes and returns into the veins there 
is        discoloured blood as well as  
air in the veins1 having acid and       
salt qualities1 from which is generated 
every sort of phlegm and        bile4   

,all things go the wrong way and cease  
to give nourishment        to the body1 
no longer preserving their natural      
courses1 but at        war with         
themselves and destructive to the       
constitution of the        body4 ,the   
oldest part of the flesh which is hard  
to decompose        blackens from long  
burning1 and from being corroded grows  
bitter1        and as the bitter element
 refines away1 becomes acid4 ,when      
tinged        with blood the bitter     
substance has a red colour1 and this    
when        mixed with black takes the  
hue of grass2 or again1 the bitter      
substance has an auburn colour1 when new
 flesh is decomposed by        the      
internal flame4 ,to all which phenomena 
some physician or        philosopher who
 was able to see the one in many has    
given the        name of bile4 ,the     
various kinds of bile have names        
answering to        their colours4      
,lymph or serum is of two kinds3 first1 
the whey of        blood1 which is      

gentle2 secondly1 the secretion of dark 
and        bitter bile1 which1 when     
mingled under the influence of heat with
        salt1 is malignant and is called
 acid phlegm4 ,there is also white      
phlegm1 formed by the decomposition of  
young and tender flesh1        and      
covered with little bubbles1 separately 
invisible1 but        becoming visible  
when collected4 ,the water of tears and 
perspiration and similar substances is  
also the watery part of        fresh    
phlegm4 ,all these humours become       
sources of disease when        the blood
 is replenished in irregular ways and   
not by food or        drink4 ,the       
danger1 however1 is not so great when   
the foundation        remains1 for then 
there is a possibility of recovery4 ,but
 when        the substance which unites 
the flesh and bones is diseased1 and    
is no longer renewed from the muscles   
and sinews1 and instead of        being 
oily and smooth and glutinous becomes   
rough and salt and        dry1 then the 

fleshy parts fall away and leave the    
sinews bare        and full of brine1   
and the flesh gets back again into the  
circulation of the blood1 and makes the 
previously mentioned        disorders   
still greater4 ,there are other and     
worse diseases which        are prior to
 these2 as when the bone through the    
density of the        flesh does not    
receive sufficient air1 and becomes     
stagnant and        gangrened1 and      
crumbling away passes into the food1 and
 the food        into the flesh1 and the
 flesh returns again into the blood4    
,worst        of all and most fatal is  
the disease of the marrow1 by which the 
whole course of the body is reversed4   
,there is a third class of              
diseases which are produced1 some by    
wind and some by phlegm and        some 
by bile4 ,when the lung1 which is the   
steward of the air1 is                  
obstructed1 by rheums1 and in one part  
no air1 and in another too        much1 
enters in1 then the parts which are     

unrefreshed by air        corrode1 and  
other parts are distorted by the excess 
of air2 and        in this manner       
painful diseases are produced4 ,the most
 painful        are caused by wind      
generated within the body1 which gets   
about        the great sinews of the    
shoulders--these are termed tetanus4    
,the        cure of them is difficult1  
and in most cases they are relieved     
only by fever4 ,white phlegm1 which is  
dangerous if kept in1 by        reason  
of the air bubbles1 is not equally      
dangerous if able to        escape      
through the pores1 although it          
variegates the body1        generating  
diverse kinds of leprosies4 ,if1 when   
mingled with        black bile1 it      
disturbs the courses of the head in     
sleep1 there        is not so much      
danger2 but if it assails those who are 
awake1        then the attack is far    
more dangerous1 and is called epilepsy  
or        the sacred disease4 ,acid and 
salt phlegm is the source of            

catarrh4          ,inflammations        
originate in bile1 which is sometimes   
relieved by        boils and swellings1 
but when detained1 and above all when   
mingled with pure blood1 generates many 
inflammatory disorders1                 
disturbing the position of the fibres   
which are scattered about        in the 
blood in order to maintain the balance  
of rare and dense        which is       
necessary to its regular circulation4   
,if the bile1 which        is only stale
 blood1 or liquefied flesh1 comes in    
little by        little1 it is congealed
 by the fibres and produces internal    
cold        and shuddering4 ,but when it
 enters with more of a flood it         
overcomes the fibres by its heat and    
reaches the spinal marrow1        and   
burning up the cables of the soul sets  
her free from the        body4 ,when on 
the other hand the body1 though wasted1 
still holds        out1 then the bile is
 expelled1 like an exile from a factious
        state1 causing associating      

diarrhoeas and dysenteries and similar  
disorders4 ,the body which is diseased  
from the effects of fire is        in a 
continual fever2 when air is the agent1 
the fever is        quotidian2 when     
water1 the fever intermits a day2 when  
earth1        which is the most sluggish
 element1 the fever intermits three     
days and is with difficulty shaken off4 
,of mental disorders there are two      
sorts1 one madness1 the other           
ignorance1 and they may be justly       
attributed to disease4        ,excessive
 pleasures or pains are among the       
greatest diseases1 and        deprive   
men of their senses4 ,when the seed     
about the spinal        marrow is too   
abundant1 the body has too great        
pleasures and        pains2 and during a
 great part of his life he who is the   
subject        of them is more or less  
mad4 ,he is often thought bad1 but this 
is        a mistake2 for the truth is   
that the intemperance of lust is due    
to the fluidity of the marrow produced  

by the loose consistency        of the  
bones4 ,and this is true of vice in     
general1 which is        commonly       
regarded as disgraceful1 whereas it is  
really        involuntary and arises    
from a bad habit of the body and evil   
education4 ,in like manner the soul is  
often made vicious by the               
influence of bodily pain2 the briny     
phlegm and other bitter and             
bilious humours wander over the body and
 find no exit1 but are        compressed
 within1 and mingle their own vapours   
with the motions        of the soul1 and
 are carried to the three places of the 
soul1        creating infinite varieties
 of trouble and melancholy1 of          
rashness and cowardice1 of forgetfulness
 and stupidity4 ,when men        are in 
this evil plight of body1 and evil forms
 of government and        evil          
discourses are superadded1 and there is 
no education to save        them1 they  
are corrupted through two causes2 but of
 neither of        them are they really 

the authors4 ,for the planters are to   
blame        rather than the plants1 the
 educators and not the educated4        
,still1 we should endeavour to attain   
virtue and avoid vice2 but        this  
is part of another subject4             
,enough of disease--,i have now to speak
 of the means by which the        mind  
and body are to be preserved1 a higher  
theme than the other4        ,the good  
is the beautiful1 and the beautiful is  
the symmetrical1        and there is no 
greater or fairer symmetry than that of 
body and        soul1 as the contrary is
 the greatest of deformities4 ,a leg or 
an        arm too long or too short is  
at once ugly and unserviceable1 and     
the same is true if body and soul are   
disproportionate4 ,for a        strong  
and impassioned soul may #8fret the     
pigmy body to decay1'        and so     
produce convulsions and other evils4    
,the violence of        controversy1 or 
the earnestness of enquiry1 will often  
generate        inflammations and rheums

 which are not understood1 or assigned  
to        their true cause by the       
professors of medicine4 ,and in like    
manner the body may be too much for the 
soul1 darkening the        reason1 and  
quickening the animal desires4 ,the only
 security is        to preserve the     
balance of the two1 and to this end the 
mathematician or philosopher must       
practise gymnastics1 and the            
gymnast must cultivate music4 ,the parts
 of the body too must be        treated 
in the same way--they should receive    
their appropriate        exercise4 ,for 
the body is set in motion when it is    
heated and        cooled by the elements
 which enter in1 or is dried up and     
moistened by external things2 and1 if   
given up to these processes        when 
at rest1 it is liable to destruction4   
,but the natural        motion1 as in   
the world1 so also in the human frame1  
produces        harmony and divides     
hostile powers4 ,the best exercise is   
the        spontaneous motion of the    

body1 as in gymnastics1 because most    
akin to the motion of mind2 not so good 
is the motion of which        the source
 is in another1 as in sailing or riding2
 least good        when the body is at  
rest and the motion is in parts only1   
which        is a species of motion     
imparted by physic4 ,this should only be
        resorted to by men of sense in  
extreme cases2 lesser diseases are      
not to be irritated by medicine4 ,for   
every disease is akin to the            
living being and has an appointed term1 
just as life has1 which        depends  
on the form of the triangles1 and cannot
 be protracted        when they are worn
 out4 ,and he who1 instead of accepting 
his        destiny1 endeavours to       
prolong his life by medicine1 is likely 
to        multiply and magnify his      
diseases4 ,regimen and not medicine is  
the true cure1 when a man has time at   
his disposal4          ,enough of the   
nature of man and of the body1 and of   
training and        education4 ,the     

subject is a great one and cannot be    
adequately        treated as an         
appendage to another4 ,to sum up all in 
a word3        there are three kinds of 
soul located within us1 and any one of  
them1 if remaining inactive1 becomes    
very weak2 if exercised1        very    
strong4 ,wherefore we should duly train 
and exercise all        three kinds4    
,the divine soul ,god lodged in the     
head1 to raise us1 like plants          
which are not of earthly origin1 to our 
kindred2 for the head is        nearest 
to heaven4 ,he who is intent upon the   
gratification of his        desires and 
cherishes the mortal soul1 has all his  
ideas mortal1        and is himself     
mortal in the truest sense4 ,but he who 
seeks after        knowledge and        
exercises the divine part of himself in 
godly and        immortal thoughts1     
attains to truth and immortality1 as far
 as is        possible to man1 and also 
to happiness1 while he is training up   
within him the divine principle and     

indwelling power of order4        ,there
 is only one way in which one person can
 benefit another2        and that is by 
assigning to him his proper nurture and 
motion4 ,to        the motions of the   
soul answer the motions of the universe1
 and        by the study of these the   
individual is restored to his original  
nature4          ,thus we have finished 
the discussion of the universe1 which1  
according to our original intention1 has
 now been brought down to        the    
creation of man4 ,completeness seems to 
require that something        should be 
briefly said about other animals3 first 
of women1 who        are probably       
degenerate and cowardly men4 ,and when  
they        degenerated1 the gods       
implanted in men the desire of union    
with        them1 creating in man one   
animate substance and in woman another  
in the following manner3--,the outlet   
for liquids they connected        with  
the living principle of the spinal      
marrow1 which the man has        the    

desire to emit into the fruitful womb of
 the woman2 this is        like a       
fertile field in which the seed is      
quickened and matured1        and at    
last brought to light4 ,when this desire
 is unsatisfied the        man is       
over-mastered by the power of the       
generative organs1 and        the woman 
is subjected to disorders from the      
obstruction of the        passages of   
the breath1 until the two meet and pluck
 the fruit of        the tree4          
,the race of birds was created out of   
innocent1 light-minded men1        who  
thought to pursue the study of the      
heavens by sight2 these        were     
transformed into birds1 and grew        
feathers instead of hair4        ,the   
race of wild animals were men who had no
 philosophy1 and        never looked up 
to heaven or used the courses of the    
head1 but        followed only the      
influences of passion4 ,naturally they  
turned to        their kindred earth1   
and put their forelegs to the ground1   

and        their heads were crushed into
 strange oblong forms4 ,some of them    
have four feet1 and some of them more   
than four1--the latter1 who        are  
the more senseless1 drawing closer to   
their native element2        the most   
senseless of all have no limbs and trail
 their whole        body on the ground4 
,the fourth kind are the inhabitants of 
the        waters2 these are made out of
 the most senseless and ignorant and    
impure of men1 whom ,god placed in the  
uttermost parts of the        world in  
return for their utter ignorance1 and   
caused them to        respire water     
instead of the pure element of air4     
,such are the        laws by which      
animals pass into one another4          
,and so the world received animals1     
mortal and immortal1 and was            
fulfilled with them1 and became a       
visible ,god1 comprehending the         
visible1 made in the image of the       
,intellectual1 being the one            
perfect only-begotten heaven4           

,section #b4            ,nature in the  
aspect which she presented to a ,greek  
philosopher        of the fourth century
 before ,christ is not easily reproduced
 to        modern eyes4 ,the            
associations of mythology and poetry    
have to be        added1 and the        
unconscious influence of science has to 
be        subtracted1 before we can     
behold the heavens or the earth as they 
appeared to the ,greek4 ,the philosopher
 himself was a child and        also a  
man--a child in the range of his        
attainments1 but also a        great    
intelligence having an insight into     
nature1 and often        anticipations  
of the truth4 ,he was full of original  
thoughts1 and        yet liable to be   
imposed upon by the most obvious        
fallacies4 ,he        occasionally      
confused numbers with ideas1 and atoms  
with numbers2        his a priori       
notions were out of all proportion to   
his        experience4 ,he was ready to 
explain the phenomena of the heavens    

by the most trivial analogies of earth4 
,the experiments which        nature    
worked for him he sometimes accepted1   
but he never tried        experiments   
for himself which would either prove or 
disprove his        theories4 ,his      
knowledge was unequal2 while in some    
branches1 such        as medicine and   
astronomy1 he had made considerable     
proficiency1        there were others1  
such as chemistry1 electricity1         
mechanics1 of        which the very     
names were unknown to him4 ,he was the  
natural        enemy of mythology1 and  
yet mythological ideas still retained   
their hold over him4 ,he was            
endeavouring to form a conception of    
principles1 but these principles or     
ideas were regarded by him as           
real powers or entities1 to which the   
world had been subjected4        ,he was
 always tending to argue from what was  
near to what was        remote1 from    
what was known to what was unknown1 from
 man to the        universe1 and back   

again from the universe to man4 ,while  
he was        arranging the world1 he   
was arranging the forms of thought in   
his        own mind2 and the light from 
within and the light from without       
often crossed and helped to confuse one 
another4 ,he might be        compared to
 a builder engaged in some great design1
 who could        only dig with his     
hands because he was unprovided with    
common        tools2 or to some poet or 
musician1 like ,tynnichus 7,ion71       
obliged        to accommodate his lyric 
raptures to the limits of the tetrachord
        or of the flute4          ,the  
,hesiodic and ,orphic cosmogonies were a
 phase of thought        intermediate   
between mythology and philosophy and had
 a great        influence on the        
beginnings of knowledge4 ,there was     
nothing        behind them2 they were to
 physical science what the poems of     
,homer were to early ,greek history4    
,they made men think of the        world
 as a whole2 they carried the mind back 

into the infinity of        past time2  
they suggested the first observation of 
the effects of        fire and water on 
the earth's surface4 ,to the ancient    
physics        they stood much in the   
same relation which geology does to     
modern        science4 ,but the ,greek  
was not1 like the enquirer of the last  
generation1 confined to a period of six 
thousand years2 he was        able to   
speculate freely on the effects of      
infinite ages in the        production  
of physical phenomena4 ,he could imagine
 cities which        had existed time   
out of mind 7,states42 ,laws71 laws or  
forms of        art and music which had 
lasted1 #8not in word only1 but in very 
truth1 for ten thousand years' 7,laws72 
he was aware that natural               
phenomena like the ,delta of the ,nile  
might have slowly        accumulated in 
long periods of time 7,hdt474 ,but he   
seems to have        supposed that the  
course of events was recurring rather   
than        progressive4 ,to this he was

 probably led by the fixedness of       
,egyptian customs and the general       
observation that there were        other
 civilisations in the world more ancient
 than that of        ,hellas4           
,the ancient philosophers found in      
mythology many ideas which1 if          
not originally derived from nature1 were
 easily transferred to        her--such1
 for example1 as love or hate1          
corresponding to        attraction or   
repulsion2 or the conception of         
necessity allied        both to the     
regularity and irregularity of nature2  
or of chance1        the nameless or    
unknown cause2 or of justice1           
symbolizing the law        of           
compensation2 are of the ,fates and     
,furies1 typifying the fixed            
order or the extraordinary convulsions  
of nature4 ,their own                   
interpretations of ,homer and the poets 
were supposed by them to        be the  
original meaning4 ,musing in themselves 
on the phenomena of        nature1 they 

were relieved at being able to utter the
 thoughts of        their hearts in     
figures of speech which to them were not
 figures1        and were already       
consecrated by tradition4 ,hesiod and   
the ,orphic        poets moved in a     
region of half-personification in which 
the        meaning or principle appeared
 through the person4 ,in their vaster   
conceptions of ,chaos1 ,erebus1 ,aether1
 ,night1 and the like1 the        first 
rude attempts at generalization are     
dimly seen4 ,the ,gods                  
themselves1 especially the greater      
,gods1 such as ,zeus1 ,poseidon1        
,apollo1 ,athene1 are universals as well
 as individuals4 ,they were             
gradually becoming lost in a common     
conception of mind or ,god4        ,they
 continued to exist for the purposes of 
ritual or of art2 but        from the   
sixth century onwards or even earlier   
there arose and        gained strength  
in the minds of men the notion of #8one 
,god1        greatest among ,gods and   

men1 who was all sight1 all hearing1 all
        knowing' 7,xenophanes74         
,under the influence of such ideas1     
perhaps also deriving from the          
traditions of their own or of other     
nations scraps of medicine        and   
astronomy1 men came to the observation  
of nature4 ,the ,greek                  
philosopher looked at the blue circle of
 the heavens and it        flashed upon 
him that all things were one2 the tumult
 of sense        abated1 and the mind   
found repose in the thought which former
        generations had been striving to
 realize4 ,the first expression of      
this was some element1 rarefied by      
degrees into a pure        abstraction1 
and purged from any tincture of sense4  
,soon an inner        world of ideas    
began to be unfolded1 more absorbing1   
more        overpowering1 more abiding  
than the brightest of visible objects1  
which to the eye of the philosopher     
looking inward1 seemed to        pale   
before them1 retaining only a faint and 

precarious        existence4 ,at the    
same time1 the minds of men parted into 
the two        great divisions of those 
who saw only a principle of motion1 and 
of those who saw only a principle of    
rest1 in nature and in                  
themselves2 there were born             
,heracliteans or ,eleatics1 as there    
have been in later ages born            
,aristotelians or ,platonists4 ,like    
some philosophers in modern times1 who  
are accused of making a        theory   
first and finding their facts           
afterwards1 the advocates of            
either opinion never thought of applying
 either to themselves or        to their
 adversaries the criterion of fact4     
,they were mastered by        their     
ideas and not masters of them4 ,like the
 ,heraclitean        fanatics whom      
,plato has ridiculed in the ,theaetetus1
 they were        incapable of giving a 
reason of the faith that was in them1   
and        had all the animosities of a 
religious sect4 ,yet1 doubtless1        

there was some first impression derived 
from external nature1        which1 as  
in mythology1 so also in philosophy1    
worked upon the        minds of the     
first thinkers4 ,though incapable of    
induction or        generalization in   
the modern sense1 they caught an        
inspiration        from the external    
world4 ,the most general facts or       
appearances of        nature1 the circle
 of the universe1 the nutritive power of
 water1        the air which is the     
breath of life1 the destructive force of
        fire1 the seeming regularity of 
the greater part of nature and          
the irregularity of a remnant1 the      
recurrence of day and night        and  
of the seasons1 the solid earth and the 
impalpable aether1        were always   
present to them4          ,the great    
source of error and also the beginning  
of truth to them        was reasoning   
from analogy2 they could see            
resemblances1 but not                   
differences2 and they were incapable of 

distinguishing        illustration from 
argument4 ,analogy in modern times only 
points        the way1 and is           
immediately verified by experiment4 ,the
 dreams        and visions1 which pass  
through the philosopher's mind1 of      
resemblances between different classes  
of substances1 or between        the    
animal and vegetable world1 are put into
 the refiner's fire1        and the     
dross and other elements which adhere to
 them are purged        away4 ,but the  
contemporary of ,plato and ,socrates was
 incapable of        resisting the power
 of any analogy which occurred to him1  
and was        drawn into any           
consequences which seemed to follow4 ,he
 had no        methods of difference or 
of concomitant variations1 by the use of
        which he could distinguish the  
accidental from the essential4 ,he      
could not isolate phenomena1 and he was 
helpless against the        influence of
 any word which had an equivocal or     
double sense4          ,yet without this

 crude use of analogy the ancient       
physical        philosopher would have  
stood still2 he could not have made even
        #8one guess among many' without 
comparison4 ,the course of natural      
phenomena would have passed unheeded    
before his eyes1 like fair        sights
 or musical sounds before the eyes and  
ears of an animal4        ,even the     
fetichism of the savage is the beginning
 of reasoning2        the assumption of 
the most fanciful of causes indicates a 
higher        mental state than the     
absence of all enquiry about them4 ,the 
tendency to argue from the higher to the
 lower1 from man to the        world1   
has led to many errors1 but has also had
 an elevating        influence on       
philosophy4 ,the conception of the world
 as a whole1        a person1 an animal1
 has been the source of hasty           
generalizations2 yet this general grasp 
of nature led also to a        spirit of
 comprehensiveness in early philosophy1 
which has not        increased1 but     

rather diminished1 as the fields of     
knowledge have        become more       
divided4 ,the modern physicist confines 
himself to one        or perhaps two    
branches of science4 ,but he            
comparatively seldom        rises above 
his own department1 and often falls     
under the        narrowing influence    
which any single branch1 when pursued to
 the        exclusion of every other1   
has over the mind4 ,language1 two1      
exercised a spell over the beginnings of
 physical philosophy1        leading to 
error and sometimes to truth2 for many  
thoughts were        suggested by the   
double meanings of words 7,greek71 and  
the        accidental distinctions of   
words sometimes led the ancient         
philosopher to make corresponding       
differences in things 7,greek74         
#8,if they are the same1 why have they  
different names2 or if they        are  
different1 why have they the same       
name8'--is an argument not        easily
 answered in the infancy of knowledge4  

,the modern        philosopher has      
always been taught the lesson which he  
still        imperfectly learns1 that he
 must disengage himself from the        
influence of words4 ,nor are there      
wanting in ,plato1 who was              
himself too often the victim of them1   
impressive admonitions that        we   
should regard not words but things      
7,states474 ,but upon the        whole1 
the ancients1 though not entirely       
dominated by them1 were        much more
 subject to the influence of words than 
the moderns4        ,they had no clear  
divisions of colours or substances2 even
 the        four elements were          
undefined2 the fields of knowledge were 
not        parted off4 ,they were       
bringing order out of disorder1 having a
        small grain of experience       
mingled in a confused heap of a priori  
notions4 ,and yet1 probably1 their first
 impressions1 the        illusions and  
mirages of their fancy1 created a       
greater        intellectual activity and

 made a nearer approach to the truth    
than any patient investigation of       
isolated facts1 for which the           
time had not yet come1 could have       
accomplished4          ,there was one   
more illusion to which the ancient      
philosophers        were subject1 and   
against which ,plato in his later       
dialogues        seems to be            
struggling--the tendency to mere        
abstractions2 not        perceiving that
 pure abstraction is only negation1 they
 thought        that the greater the    
abstraction the greater the truth4      
,behind        any pair of ideas a new  
idea which comprehended them--the       
7,greek71        as it was technically  
termed--began at once to appear4 ,two   
are        truer than three1 one than   
two4 ,the words #8being1' or #8unity1'  
or        essence1' or #8good1' became  
sacred to them4 ,they did not see that  
they had a word only1 and in one sense  
the most unmeaning of        words4     
,they did not understand that the       

content of notions is in        inverse 
proportion to their universality--the   
element which is the        most widely 
diffused is also the thinnest2 or1 in   
the language of        the common logic1
 the greater the extension the less the 
comprehension4 ,but this vacant idea of 
a whole without parts1 of        a      
subject without predicates1 a rest      
without motion1 has been        also the
 most fruitful of all ideas4 ,it is the 
beginning of a        priori thought1   
and indeed of thinking at all4 ,men were
 led to        conceive it1 not by a    
love of hasty generalization1 but by a  
divine instinct1 a dialectical          
enthusiasm1 in which the human          
faculties seemed to yearn for           
enlargement4 ,we know that #8being'     
is only the verb of existence1 the      
copula1 the most general        symbol  
of relation1 the first and most meagre  
of abstractions2        but to some of  
the ancient philosophers this little    
word appeared        to attain divine   

proportions1 and to comprehend all      
truth4 ,being        or essence1 and    
similar words1 represented to them a    
supreme or        divine being1 in which
 they thought that they found the       
containing and continuing principle of  
the universe4 ,in a few        years the
 human mind was peopled with            
abstractions2 a new world        was    
called into existence to give law and   
order to the old4 ,but        between   
them there was still a gulf1 and no one 
could pass from        the one to the   
other4          ,number and figure were 
the greatest instruments of thought     
which        were possessed by the      
,greek philosopher2 having the same     
power        over the mind which was    
exerted by abstract ideas1 they were    
also        capable of practical        
application4 ,many curious and1 to the  
early        thinker1 mysterious        
properties of them came to light when   
they        were compared with one      
another4 ,they admitted of infinite     

multiplication and construction2 in     
,pythagorean triangles or in            
proportions of #a3b3d3h and #a3c3i3bg1  
or compounds of them1 the        laws of
 the world seemed to be more than half  
revealed4 ,they were        also capable
 of infinite subdivision--a wonder and  
also a puzzle        to the ancient     
thinker 7,rep474 ,they were not1 like   
being or        essence1 mere vacant    
abstractions1 but admitted of progress  
and        growth1 while at the same    
time they confirmed a higher sentiment  
of the mind1 that there was order in the
 universe4 ,and so there        began to
 be a real sympathy between the world   
within and the        world without4    
,the numbers and figures which were     
present to the        mind's eye became 
visible to the eye of sense2 the truth  
of        nature was mathematics2 the   
other properties of objects seemed to   
reappear only in the light of number4   
,law and morality also found        a   
natural expression in number and figure4

 ,instruments of such        power and  
elasticity could not fail to be #8a most
 gracious        assistance' to the     
first efforts of human intelligence4    
,there was another reason why numbers   
had so great an influence        over   
the minds of early thinkers--they were  
verified by        experience4 ,every   
use of them1 even the most trivial1     
assured men        of their truth2 they 
were everywhere to be found1 in the     
least        things and the greatest    
alike4 ,one1 two1 three1 counted on the 
fingers was a #8trivial matter 7,rep471 
a little instrument out of        which 
to create a world2 but from these and by
 the help of these        all our       
knowledge of nature has been developed4 
,they were the        measure of all    
things1 and seemed to give law to all   
things2        nature was rescued from  
chaos and confusion by their power2 the 
notes of music1 the motions of the      
stars1 the forms of atoms1 the          
evolution and recurrence of days1       

months1 years1 the military             
divisions of an army1 the civil         
divisions of a state1 seemed to         
afford a #8present witness' of          
them--what would have become of man     
or of the world if deprived of number   
7,rep478 ,the mystery of        number  
and the mystery of music were akin4     
,there was a music of        rhythm and 
of harmonious motion everywhere2 and to 
the real        connexion which existed 
between music and number1 a fanciful or 
imaginary relation was superadded4      
,there was a music of the        spheres
 as well as of the notes of the lyre4   
,if in all things        seen there was 
number and figure1 why should they not  
also        pervade the unseen world1   
with which by their wonderful and       
unchangeable nature they seemed to hold 
communion8          ,two other points   
strike us in the use which the ancient  
philosophers made of numbers4 ,first1   
they applied to external        nature  
the relations of them which they found  

in their own minds2        and where    
nature seemed to be at variance with    
number1 as for        example in the    
case of fractions1 they protested       
against her        7,rep42 ,arist4      
,metaph474 ,having long meditated on the
 properties        of #a3b3d3h1 or      
#a3c3i3bg1 or of #c1 #d1 #e1 they       
discovered in them        many curious  
correspondences and were disposed to    
find in them        the secret of the   
universe4 ,secondly1 they applied number
 and        figure equally to those     
parts of physics1 such as astronomy or  
mechanics1 in which the modern          
philosopher expects to find them1       
and to those in which he would never    
think of looking for them1        such  
as physiology and psychology4 ,for the  
sciences were not yet        divided1   
and there was nothing really irrational 
in arguing that        the same laws    
which regulated the heavenly bodies were
 partially        applied to the erring 
limbs or brain of man4 ,astrology was   

the        form which the lively fancy  
of ancient thinkers almost              
necessarily gave to astronomy4 ,the     
observation that the lower              
principle1 e4g4 mechanics1 is always    
seen in the higher1 e4g4 in        the  
phenomena of life1 further tended to    
perplex them4 ,plato's        doctrine  
of the same and the other ruling the    
courses of the        heavens and of the
 human body is not a mere vagary1 but is
 a        natural result of the state of
 knowledge and thought at which he      
had arrived4          ,when in modern   
times we contemplate the heavens1 a     
certain amount        of scientific     
truth imperceptibly blends1 even with   
the cursory        glance of an         
unscientific person4 ,he knows that the 
earth is        revolving round the sun1
 and not the sun around the earth4 ,he  
does not imagine the earth to be the    
centre of the universe1 and        he   
has some conception of chemistry and the
 cognate sciences4 ,a        very       

different aspect of nature would have   
been present to the        mind of the  
early ,greek philosopher4 ,he would have
 beheld the        earth a surface only1
 not mirrored1 however faintly1 in the  
glass        of science1 but            
indissolubly connected with some theory 
of one1        two1 or more elements4   
,he would have seen the world pervaded  
by        number and figure1 animated by
 a principle of motion1 immanent in     
a principle of rest4 ,he would have     
tried to construct the        universe  
on a quantitative principle1 seeming to 
find in endless        combinations of  
geometrical figures or in the infinite  
variety of        their sizes a         
sufficient account of the multiplicity  
of        phenomena4 ,to these a priori 
speculations he would add a rude        
conception of matter and his own        
immediate experience of health          
and disease4 ,his cosmos would          
necessarily be imperfect and            
unequal1 being the first attempt to     

impress form and order on the           
primaeval chaos of human knowledge4 ,he 
would see all things as in        a     
dream4          ,the ancient physical   
philosophers have been charged by ,dr4  
,whewell and others with wasting their  
fine intelligences in wrong             
methods of enquiry2 and their progress  
in moral and political        philosophy
 has been sometimes contrasted with     
their supposed        failure in        
physical investigations4 #8,they had    
plenty of ideas1'        says ,dr4      
,whewell1 #8and plenty of facts2 but    
their ideas did not        accurately   
represent the facts with which they were
 acquainted4'        ,this is a very    
crude and misleading way of describing  
ancient        science4 ,it is the      
mistake of an uneducated                
person--uneducated1        that is1 in  
the higher sense of the word--who       
imagines every one        else to be    
like himself and explains every other   
age by his own4        ,no doubt the    

ancients often fell into strange and    
fanciful        errors3 the time had not
 yet arrived for the slower and surer   
path of the modern inductive philosophy4
 ,but it remains to be        shown that
 they could have done more in their age 
and country2 or        that the         
contributions which they made to the    
sciences with which        they were    
acquainted are not as great upon the    
whole as those        made by their     
successors4 ,there is no single step in 
astronomy as        great as that of the
 nameless ,pythagorean who first        
conceived the        world to be a body 
moving round the sun in space3 there is 
no        truer or more comprehensive   
principle than the application of       
mathematics alike to the heavenly       
bodies1 and to the particles of         
matter4 ,the ancients had not the       
instruments which would have            
enabled them to correct or verify their 
anticipations1 and their                
opportunities of observation were       

limited4 ,plato probably did        more
 for physical science by asserting the  
supremacy of        mathematics than    
,aristotle or his disciples by their    
collections        of facts4 ,when the  
thinkers of modern times1 following     
,bacon1        undervalue or disparage  
the speculations of ancient             
philosophers1        they seem wholly to
 forget the conditions of the world and 
of the        human mind1 under which   
they carried on their investigations4   
,when we accuse them of being under the 
influence of words1 do we        suppose
 that we are altogether free from this  
illusion8 ,when we        remark that   
,greek physics soon became stationary or
 extinct1 may        we not observe also
 that there have been and may be again  
periods        in the history of modern 
philosophy which have been barren and   
unproductive8 ,we might as well maintain
 that ,greek art was not        real or 
great1 because it had nihil simile aut  
secundum1 as say        that ,greek     

physics were a failure because they     
admire no        subsequent progress4   
,the charge of premature generalization 
which is often urged        against     
ancient philosophers is really an       
anachronism4 ,for they        can hardly
 be said to have generalized at all4    
,they may be said        more truly to  
have cleared up and defined by the help 
of        experience ideas which they   
already possessed4 ,the beginnings of   
thought about nature must always have   
this character4 ,a true        method is
 the result of many ages of experiment  
and observation1        and is ever     
going on and enlarging with the progress
 of science        and knowledge4 ,at   
first men personify nature1 then they   
form        impressions of nature1 at   
last they conceive #8measure' or laws of
        nature4 ,they pass out of       
mythology into philosophy4 ,early       
science        is not a process of      
discovery in the modern sense2 but      
rather a        process of correcting by

 observation1 and to a certain extent   
only1 the first impressions of nature1  
which mankind1 when they        began to
 think1 had received from poetry or     
language or        unintelligent sense4 
,of all scientific truths the greatest  
and        simplest is the uniformity of
 nature2 this was expressed by the      
ancients in many ways1 as fate1 or      
necessity1 or measure1 or        limit4 
,unexpected events1 of which the cause  
was unknown to them1        they        
attributed to chance 7,thucyd474 ,but   
their conception of        nature was   
never that of law interrupted by        
exceptions1--a        somewhat          
unfortunate metaphysical invention of   
modern times1        which is at        
variance with facts and has failed to   
satisfy the        requirements of      
thought4                ,section #c4    
,plato's account of the soul is partly  
mythical or figurative1 and             
partly literal4 ,not that either he or  
we can draw a line between        them1 

or say1 #8,this is poetry1 this is      
philosophy'2 for the        transition  
from the one to the other is            
imperceptible4 ,neither        must we  
expect to find in him absolute          
consistency4 ,he is apt to        pass  
from one level or stage of thought to   
another without always        making it 
apparent that he is changing his ground4
 ,in such        passages we have to    
interpret his meaning by the general    
spirit        of his writings4 ,to      
reconcile his inconsistencies would be  
contrary to the first principles of     
criticism and fatal to any        true  
understanding of him4          ,there is
 a further difficulty in explaining this
 part of the        ,timaeus--the       
natural order of thought is inverted4   
,we begin with        the most abstract1
 and proceed from the abstract to the   
concrete4        ,we are searching into 
things which are upon the utmost limit  
of        human intelligence1 and then  
of a sudden we fall rather heavily      

to the earth4 ,there are no intermediate
 steps which lead from one        to the
 other4 ,but the abstract is a vacant   
form to us until        brought into    
relation with man and nature4 ,god and  
the world are        mere names1 like   
the ,being of the ,eleatics1 unless some
 human        qualities are added on to 
them4 ,yet the negation has a kind of   
unknown meaning to us4 ,the priority of 
,god and of the world1        which he  
is imagined to have created1 to all     
other existences1        gives a solemn 
awe to them4 ,and as in other systems of
 theology        and philosophy1 that of
 which we know least has the greatest   
interest to us4          ,there is no   
use in attempting to define or explain  
the first ,god        in the ,platonic  
system1 who has sometimes been thought  
to answer        to ,god the ,father2 or
 the world1 in whom the ,fathers of the 
,church seemed to recognize #8the       
firstborn of every creature4' ,nor      
need we discuss at length how far ,plato

 agrees in the later        ,jewish idea
 of creation1 according to which ,god   
made the world        out of nothing4   
,for his original conception of matter  
as        something which has no        
qualities is really a negation4         
,moreover        in the ,hebrew         
,scriptures the creation of the world is
 described1        even more explicitly 
than in the ,timaeus1 not as a single   
act1        but as a work or process    
which occupied six days4 ,there is a    
chaos in both1 and it would be untrue to
 say that the ,greek1 any        more   
than the ,hebrew1 had any definite      
belief in the eternal        existence  
of matter4 ,the beginning of things     
vanished into the        distance4 ,the 
real creation began1 not with matter1   
but with        ideas4 ,according to    
,plato in the ,timaeus1 ,god took of the
 same        and the other1 of the      
divided and undivided1 of the finite and
        infinite1 and made essence1 and 
out of the three combined created       

the soul of the world4 ,to the soul he  
added a body formed out of        the   
four elements4 ,the general meaning of  
these words is that ,god        imparted
 determinations of thought1 or1 as we   
might say1 gave law        and variety  
to the material universe4 ,the elements 
are moving in        a disorderly manner
 before the work of creation begins2 and
 there        is an eternal pattern of  
the world1 which1 like the #8idea of    
good1' is not the ,creator himself1 but 
not separable from him4        ,the     
pattern too1 though eternal1 is a       
creation1 a world of        thought     
prior to the world of sense1 which may  
be compared to the        wisdom of ,god
 in the book of ,ecclesiasticus1 or to  
the #8,god in        the form of a      
globe' of the old ,eleatic philosophers4
 ,the        visible1 which already     
exists1 is fashioned in the likeness of 
this eternal pattern4 ,on the other     
hand1 there is no truth of        which 
,plato is more firmly convinced than of 

the priority of the        soul to the  
body1 both in the universe and in man4  
,so        inconsistent are the forms in
 which he describes the works which     
no tongue can utter--his language1 as he
 himself says1 partaking        of his  
own uncertainty about the things of     
which he is speaking4          ,we may  
remark in passing1 that the ,platonic   
compared with the        ,jewish        
description of the process of creation  
has less of freedom        or           
spontaneity4 ,the ,creator in ,plato is 
still subject to a        remnant of    
necessity which he cannot wholly        
overcome4 ,when his        work is      
accomplished he remains in his own      
nature4 ,plato is more        sensible  
than the ,hebrew prophet of the         
existence of evil1 which        he seeks
 to put as far as possible out of the   
way of ,god4 ,and he        can only    
suppose this to be accomplished by ,god 
retiring into        himself and        
committing the lesser works of creation 

to inferior        powers4 7,compare1   
however1 ,laws for another solution of  
the        difficulty47          ,nor   
can we attach any intelligible meaning  
to his words when he        speaks of   
the visible being in the image of the   
invisible4 ,for        how can that     
which is divided be like that which is  
undivided8 ,or        that which is     
changing be the copy of that which is   
unchanging8        ,all the old         
difficulties about the ideas come back  
upon us in an        altered form4 ,we  
can imagine two worlds1 one of which is 
the mere        double of the other1 or 
one of which is an imperfect copy of the
        other1 or one of which is the   
vanishing ideal of the other2 but       
we cannot imagine an intellectual world 
which has no qualities--#8a        thing
 in itself'--a point which has no parts 
or magnitude1 which        is nowhere1  
and nothing4 ,this cannot be the        
archetype according        to which ,god
 made the world1 and is in reality1     

whether in ,plato        or in ,kant1 a 
mere negative residuum of human thought4
          ,there is another aspect of   
the same difficulty which appears to    
have no satisfactory solution4 ,in what 
relation does the        archetype stand
 to the ,creator himself8 ,for the idea 
or pattern        of the world is not   
the thought of ,god1 but a separate1    
self-existent nature1 of which creation 
is the copy4 ,we can only        reply1 
7#a7 that to the mind of ,plato subject 
and object were not        yet          
distinguished2 7#b7 that he supposes the
 process of creation        to take     
place in accordance with his own theory 
of ideas2 and as        we cannot give a
 consistent account of the one1 neither 
can we of        the other4 ,he means   
7#c7 to say that the creation of the    
world is        not a material process  
of working with legs and arms1 but ideal
        and intellectual2 according to  
his own fine expression1 #8the          
thought of ,god made the ,god that was  

to be4' ,he means 7#d7 to draw        an
 absolute distinction between the       
invisible or unchangeable        which  
is or is the place of mind or being1 and
 the world of sense        or becoming  
which is visible and changing4 ,he means
 7#e7 that the        idea of the world 
is prior to the world1 just as the other
 ideas        are prior to sensible     
objects2 and like them may be regarded  
as        eternal and self-existent1 and
 also1 like the ,,idea of good1 may     
be viewed apart from the divine mind4   
,there are several other questions which
 we might ask and which        can      
receive no answer1 or at least only an  
answer of the same        kind as the   
preceding4 ,how can matter be conceived 
to exist        without form8 ,or1 how  
can the essences or forms of things be  
distinguished from the eternal ideas1 or
 essence itself from the        soul8   
,or1 how could there have been motion in
 the chaos when as        yet time was  
not8 ,or1 how did chaos come into       

existence1 if not        by the will of 
the ,creator8 ,or1 how could there have 
been a time        when the world was   
not1 if time was not8 ,or1 how could the
        ,creator have taken portions of 
an indivisible same8 ,or1 how could     
space or anything else have been eternal
 when time is only        created8 ,or1 
how could the surfaces of geometrical   
figures have        formed solids8 ,we  
must reply again that we cannot follow  
,plato in        all his                
inconsistencies1 but that the gaps of   
thought are        probably more        
apparent to us than to him4 ,he would1  
perhaps1 have        said that #8the    
first things are known only to ,god and 
to him of        men whom ,god loves4'  
,how often have the gaps in ,theology   
been        concealed from the eye of   
faith6 ,and we may say that only by an  
effort of metaphysical imagination can  
we hope to understand        ,plato from
 his own point of view2 we must not ask 
for        consistency4 ,everywhere we  

find traces of the ,platonic theory of  
knowledge expressed in an objective     
form1 which by us has to be             
translated into the subjective1 before  
we can attach any meaning        to it4 
,and this theory is exhibited in so many
 different points        of view1 that  
we cannot with any certainty interpret  
one dialogue        by another2 e4g4 the
 ,timaeus by the ,parmenides or         
,phaedrus or        ,philebus4          
,the soul of the world may also be      
conceived as the        personification 
of the numbers and figures in which the 
heavenly        bodies move4 ,imagine   
these as in a ,pythagorean dream1       
stripped of        qualitative          
difference and reduced to mathematical  
abstractions4        ,they too conform  
to the principle of the same1 and may be
        compared with the modern        
conception of laws of nature4 ,they are 
in space1 but not in time1 and they are 
the makers of time4 ,they        are    
represented as constantly thinking of   

the same2 for thought        in the view
 of ,plato is equivalent to truth or    
law1 and need not        imply a human  
consciousness1 a conception which is    
familiar        enough to us1 but has no
 place1 hardly even a name1 in ancient  
,greek philosophy4 ,to this principle of
 the same is opposed the                
principle of the other--the principle of
 irregularity and        disorder1 of   
necessity and chance1 which is only     
partially        impressed by           
mathematical laws and figures4 7,we may 
observe by        the way1 that the     
principle of the other1 which is the    
principle        of plurality and       
variation in the ,timaeus1 has nothing  
in common        with the #8other' of   
the ,sophist1 which is the principle of 
determination47 ,the element of the same
 dominates to a certain        extent   
over the other--the fixed stars keep the
 #8wanderers' of the        inner circle
 in their courses1 and a similar        
principle of        fixedness or order  

appears to regulate the bodily          
constitution of        man4 ,but there  
still remains a rebellious seed of evil 
derived        from the original chaos1 
which is the source of disorder in the  
world1 and of vice and disease in man4  
,but what did ,plato mean by essence1   
7,greek71 which is the                  
intermediate nature compounded of the   
,same and the ,other1 and out        of 
which1 together with these two1 the soul
 of the world is        created8 ,it is 
difficult to explain a process of       
thought so        strange and           
unaccustomed to us1 in which modern     
distinctions run        into one another
 and are lost sight of4 ,first1 let us  
consider        once more the meaning of
 the ,same and the ,other4 ,the ,same is
 the        unchanging and indivisible1 
the heaven of the fixed stars1          
partaking of the divine nature1 which1  
having law in itself1        gives law  
to all besides and is the element of    
order and        permanence in man and  

on the earth4 ,it is the rational       
principle1        mind regarded as a    
work1 as creation--not as the creator4  
,the old        tradition of ,parmenides
 and of the ,eleatic ,being1 the        
foundation        of so much in the     
philosophy of ,greece and of the world1 
was        lingering in ,plato's mind4  
,the ,other is the variable or changing 
element1 the residuum of disorder or    
chaos1 which cannot be        reduced to
 order1 nor altogether banished1 the    
source of evil1        seen in the      
errors of man and also in the wanderings
 of the        planets1 a necessity     
which protrudes through nature4 ,of this
 too        there was a shadow in the   
,eleatic philosophy in the realm of     
opinion1 which1 like a mist1 seemed to  
darken the purity of truth        in    
itself4--,so far the words of ,plato may
 perhaps find an        intelligible    
meaning4 ,but when he goes on to speak  
of the ,essence        which is         
compounded out of both1 the track       

becomes fainter and we        can only  
follow him with hesitating steps4 ,but  
still we find a        trace reappearing
 of the teaching of ,anaxagoras3 #8,all 
was        confusion1 and then mind came
 and arranged things4' ,we have         
already remarked that ,plato was not    
acquainted with the modern              
distinction of subject and object1 and  
therefore he sometimes        confuses  
mind and the things of mind--7,greek7   
and 7,greek74 ,by        7,greek7 he    
clearly means some conception of the    
intelligible and        the intelligent2
 it belongs to the class of 7,greek74   
,matter1        being1 the ,same1 the   
eternal1--for any of these terms1 being 
almost vacant of meaning1 is equally    
suitable to express        indefinite   
existence1--are compared or united with 
the ,other or        ,diverse1 and out  
of the union or comparison is elicited  
the idea        of intelligence1 the    
#8,one in many1' brighter than any      
,promethean        fire 7,phil471 which 

co-existing with them and so forming a  
new        existence1 is or becomes the 
intelligible world444,so we may         
perhaps venture to paraphrase or        
interpret or put into other        words
 the parable in which ,plato has wrapped
 up his conception of        the        
creation of the world4 ,the explanation 
may help to fill up        with figures 
of speech the void of knowledge4        
,the entire compound was divided by the 
,creator in certain        proportions  
and reunited2 it was then cut into two  
strips1 which        were bent into an  
inner circle and an outer1 both moving  
with an        uniform motion around a  
centre1 the outer circle containing the 
fixed1 the inner the wandering stars4   
,the soul of the world was              
diffused everywhere from the centre to  
the circumference4 ,to this        ,god 
gave a body1 consisting at first of fire
 and earth1 and        afterwards       
receiving an addition of air and water2 
because solid        bodies1 like the   

world1 are always connected by two      
middle terms        and not by one4 ,the
 world was made in the form of a globe1 
and        all the material elements    
were exhausted in the work of creation4 
,the proportions in which the soul of   
the world as well as the        human   
soul is divided answer to a series of   
numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1        #i1 #h1  
#bg1 composed of the two ,pythagorean   
progressions #a1 #b1 #d1 #h        and  
#a1 #c1 #i1 #bg1 of which the number #a 
represents a point1 #b and        #c    
lines1 #d and #h1 #i and #bg the squares
 and cubes respectively of        #b and
 #c4 ,this series1 of which the         
intervals are afterwards        filled  
up1 probably represents 7#a7 the        
diatonic scale according        to the  
,pythagoreans and ,plato2 7#b7 the order
 and distances of the        heavenly   
bodies2 and 7#c7 may possibly contain an
 allusion to the        music of the    
spheres1 which is referred to in the    
myth at the end        of the ,republic4

 ,the meaning of the words that #8solid 
bodies are        always connected by   
two middle terms' or mean proportionals 
has        been much disputed4 ,the most
 received explanation is that of        
,martin1 who supposes that ,plato is    
only speaking of surfaces and           
solids compounded of prime numbers 7i4e4
 of numbers not made up        of two   
factors1 or1 in other words1 only       
measurable by unity74        ,the square
 of any such number represents a        
surface1 the cube a        solid4 ,the  
squares of any two such numbers 7e4g4 #b
 squared1 #c        squared  #d1 #i71   
have always a single mean proportional  
7e4g4 #d        and #i have the single  
mean #f71 whereas the cubes of primes   
7e4g4        #c cubed and #e cubed7 have
 always two mean proportionals 7e4g4    
#bg3de3ge3abe74 ,but to this explanation
 of ,martin's it may be        objected1
 7#a7 that ,plato nowhere says that his 
proportion is to        be limited to   
prime numbers2 7#b7 that the limitation 

of surfaces        to squares is also   
not to be found in his words2 nor 7#c7  
is there        any evidence to show    
that the distinction of prime from other
        numbers was known to him4 ,what 
,plato chiefly intends to express       
is that a solid requires a stronger bond
 than a surface2 and that        the    
double bond which is given by two means 
is stronger than the        single bond 
given by one4 ,having reflected on the  
singular        numerical phenomena of  
the existence of one mean proportional  
between two square numbers are rather   
perhaps only between the        two     
lowest squares2 and of two mean         
proportionals between two        cubes1 
perhaps again confining his attention to
 the two lowest        cubes1 he finds  
in the latter symbol an expression of   
the        relation of the elements1 as 
in the former an image of the           
combination of two surfaces4 ,between   
fire and earth1 the two        extremes1
 he remarks that there are introduced1  

not one1 but two        elements1 air   
and water1 which are compared to the two
 mean        proportionals between two  
cube numbers4 ,the vagueness of his     
language does not allow us to determine 
whether anything more        than this  
was intended by him4          ,leaving  
the further explanation of details1     
which the reader will        find       
discussed at length in ,boeckh and      
,martin1 we may now return        to the
 main argument3 ,why did ,god make the  
world8 ,like man1 he        must have a 
purpose2 and his purpose is the         
diffusion of that        goodness or    
good which he himself is4 ,the term     
#8goodness' is not        to be         
understood in this passage as meaning   
benevolence or love1        in the      
,christian sense of the term1 but rather
 law1 order1        harmony1 like the   
idea of good in the ,republic4 ,the     
ancient        mythologers1 and even the
 ,hebrew prophets1 had spoken of the    
jealousy of ,god2 and the ,greek had    

imagined that there was a               
,nemesis always attending the prosperity
 of mortals4 ,but ,plato        delights
 to think of ,god as the author of order
 in his works1        who1 like a       
father1 lives over again in his         
children1 and can        never have too 
much of good or friendship among his    
creatures4        ,only1 as there is a  
certain remnant of evil inherent in     
matter        which he cannot get rid   
of1 he detaches himself from them and   
leaves them to themselves1 that he may  
be guiltless of their        faults and 
sufferings4          ,between the ideal 
and the sensible ,plato interposes the  
two        natures of time and space4   
,time is conceived by him to be only    
the shadow or image of eternity which   
ever is and never has been        or    
will be1 but is described in a figure   
only as past or future4        ,this is 
one of the great thoughts of early      
philosophy1 which are        still as   
difficult to our minds as they were to  

the early        thinkers2 or perhaps   
more difficult1 because we more         
distinctly        see the consequences  
which are involved in such an           
hypothesis4        ,all the objections  
which may be urged against ,kant's      
doctrine of        the ideality of space
 and time at once press upon us4 ,if    
time is        unreal1 then all which is
 contained in time is unreal--the       
succession of human thoughts as well as 
the flux of sensations2        there is 
no connecting link between 7,greek7 and 
7,greek74 ,yet1 on        the other     
hand1 we are conscious that knowledge is
 independent of        time1 that truth 
is not a thing of yesterday or tomorrow1
 but an        #8eternal now4' ,to the  
#8spectator of all time and all         
existence'        the universe remains  
at rest4 ,the truths of geometry and    
arithmetic in all their combinations are
 always the same4 ,the                  
generations of men1 like the leaves of  
the forest1 come and go1        but the 

mathematical laws by which the world is 
governed remain1        and seem as if  
they could never change4 ,the           
ever-present image of        space is   
transferred to time--succession is      
conceived as        extension4 7,we     
remark that ,plato does away with the   
above and        below in space1 as he  
has done away with the absolute         
existence        of past and future47   
,the course of time1 unless regularly   
marked        by divisions of number1   
partakes of the indefiniteness of the   
,heraclitean flux4 ,by such reflections 
we may conceive the ,greek        to    
have attained the metaphysical          
conception of eternity1 which        to 
the ,hebrew was gained by meditation on 
the ,divine ,being4 ,no        one saw  
that this objective was really a        
subjective1 and involved        the     
subjectivity of all knowledge4 #8,non in
 tempore sed cum        tempore finxit  
,deus mundum1' says ,st4 ,augustine1    
repeating a        thought derived from 

the ,timaeus1 but apparently unconscious
 of        the results to which his     
doctrine would have led4          ,the  
contradictions involved in the          
conception of time or motion1           
like the infinitesimal in space1 were a 
source of perplexity to        the mind 
of the ,greek1 who was driven to find a 
point of view        above or beyond    
them4 ,they had sprung up in the decline
 of the        ,eleatic philosophy and  
were very familiar to ,plato1 as we     
gather        from the ,parmenides4 ,the
 consciousness of them had led the great
        ,eleatic philosopher to describe
 the nature of ,god or ,being under     
negatives4 ,he sings of #8,being        
unbegotten and imperishable1            
unmoved and never-ending1 which never   
was nor will be1 but always        is1  
one and continuous1 which cannot spring 
from any other2 for        it cannot be 
said or imagined not to be4' ,the idea  
of eternity        was for a great part 
a negation4 ,there are regions of       

speculation        in which the negative
 is hardly separable from the positive1 
and        even seems to pass into it4  
,not only ,buddhism1 but ,greek as well 
as ,christian philosophy1 show that it  
is quite possible that the        human 
mind should retain an enthusiasm for    
mere negations4 ,in        different    
ages and countries there have been forms
 of light in        which nothing could 
be discerned and which have nevertheless
        exercised a life-giving and     
illumining power4 ,for the higher       
intelligence of man seems to require1   
not only something above        sense1  
but above knowledge1 which can only be  
described as ,mind        or ,being or  
,truth or ,god or the unchangeable and  
eternal element1        in the          
expression of which all predicates fail 
and fall short4        ,eternity or the 
eternal is not merely the unlimited in  
time but        the truest of all       
,being1 the most real of all realities1 
the most        certain of all          

knowledge1 which we nevertheless only   
see through        a glass darkly4 ,the 
passionate earnestness of ,parmenides   
contrasts with the vacuity of the       
thought which he is revolving        in 
his mind4          ,space is said by    
,plato to be the #8containing vessel or 
nurse of        generation4' ,reflecting
 on the simplest kinds of external      
objects1 which to the ancients were the 
four elements1 he was led        to a   
more general notion of a substance1 more
 or less like        themselves1 out of 
which they were fashioned4 ,he would not
 have        them too precisely         
distinguished4 ,thus seems to have      
arisen the        first dim perception  
of 7,greek7 or matter1 which has played 
so        great a part in the           
metaphysical philosophy of ,aristotle   
and his        followers4 ,but besides  
the material out of which the elements  
are        made1 there is also a space  
in which they are contained4 ,there     
arises thus a second nature which the   

senses are incapable of                 
discerning and which can hardly be      
referred to the intelligible            
class4 ,for it is and it is not1 it is  
nowhere when filled1 it is              
nothing when empty4 ,hence it is said to
 be discerned by a kind of              
spurious or analogous reason1 partaking 
so feebly of existence as        to be  
hardly perceivable1 yet always          
reappearing as the        containing    
mother or nurse of all things4 ,it had  
not that sort of        consistency to  
,plato which has been given to it in    
modern times        by geometry and     
metaphysics4 ,neither of the ,greek     
words by which        it is described   
are so purely abstract as the ,english  
word        #8space' or the ,latin      
#8spatium4' ,neither ,plato nor any     
other ,greek        would have spoken of
 7,greek7 or 7,greek7 in the same manner
 as we        speak of #8time' and      
#8space4'          ,yet space is also of
 a very permanent or even eternal       

nature2 and        ,plato seems more    
willing to admit of the unreality of    
time than        of the unreality of    
space2 because1 as he says1 all things  
must        necessarily exist in space4 
,we1 on the other hand1 are disposed    
to fancy that even if space were        
annihilated time might still            
survive4 ,he admits indeed that our     
knowledge of space is of a        dreamy
 kind1 and is given by a spurious reason
 without the help        of sense4      
7,compare the hypotheses and images of  
,rep47 ,it is true        that it does  
not attain to the clearness of ideas4   
,but like them        it seems to       
remain1 even if all the objects         
contained in it are        supposed to  
have vanished away4 ,hence it was       
natural for ,plato to        conceive of
 it as eternal4 ,we must remember       
further that in his        attempt to   
realize either space or matter the two  
abstract ideas        of weight and     
extension1 which are familiar to us1 had

 never        passed before his mind4   
,thus far ,god1 working according to an 
eternal pattern1 out of his             
goodness has created the same1 the      
other1 and the essence        7compare  
the three principles of the             
,philebus--the finite1 the              
infinite1 and the union of the two71 and
 out of them has formed        the outer
 circle of the fixed stars and the inner
 circle of the        planets1 divided  
according to certain musical intervals2 
he has        also created time1 the    
moving image of eternity1 and space1    
existing by a sort of necessity and     
hardly distinguishable from             
matter4 ,the matter out of which the    
world is formed is not        absolutely
 void1 but retains in the chaos certain 
germs or traces        of the elements4 
,these ,plato1 like ,empedocles1        
supposed to be        four in           
number--fire1 air1 earth1 and water4    
,they were at first        mixed        
together2 but already in the chaos1     

before ,god fashioned        them by    
form and number1 the greater masses of  
the elements had        an appointed    
place4 ,into the confusion 7,greek7     
which preceded        ,plato does not   
attempt further to penetrate4 ,they are 
called        elements1 but they are so 
far from being elements 7,greek7 or     
letters in the higher sense that they   
are not even syllables or        first  
compounds4 ,the real elements are two   
triangles1 the        rectangular       
isosceles which has but one form1 and   
the most        beautiful of the many   
forms of scalene1 which is half of an   
equilateral triangle4 ,by the           
combination of these triangles which    
exist in an infinite variety of sizes1  
the surfaces of the four        elements
 are constructed4          ,that there  
were only five regular solids was       
already known to the        ancients1   
and out of the surfaces which he has    
formed ,plato        proceeds to        
generate the four first of the five4 ,he

 perhaps        forgets that he is only 
putting together surfaces and has not   
provided for their transformation into  
solids4 ,the first solid is        a    
regular pyramid1 of which the base and  
sides are formed by four                
equilateral or twenty-four scalene      
triangles4 ,each of the four            
solid angles in this figure is a little 
larger than the largest        of obtuse
 angles4 ,the second solid is composed  
of the same        triangles1 which     
unite as eight equilateral triangles1   
and make        one solid angle out of  
four plane angles--six of these angles  
form        a regular octahedron4 ,the  
third solid is a regular icosahedron1   
having twenty triangular equilateral    
bases1 and therefore #abj               
rectangular scalene triangles4 ,the     
fourth regular solid1 or cube1        is
 formed by the combination of four      
isosceles triangles into one            
square and of six squares into a cube4  
,the fifth regular solid1        or     

dodecahedron1 cannot be formed by a     
combination of either of        these   
triangles1 but each of its faces may be 
regarded as        composed of thirty   
triangles of another kind4 ,probably    
,plato        notices this as the only  
remaining regular polyhedron1 which from
        its approximation to a globe1   
and possibly because1 as ,plutarch      
remarks1 it is composed of #ab x #cj    
#cfj scalene triangles        7,platon4 
,quaest471 representing thus the signs  
and degrees of the        ,zodiac1 as   
well as the months and days of the year1
 ,god may be        said to have #8used 
in the delineation of the universe4'    
,according        to ,plato earth was   
composed of cubes1 fire of regular      
pyramids1        air of regular         
octahedrons1 water of regular           
icosahedrons4 ,the        stability of  
the last three increases with the number
 of their        sides4          ,the   
elements are supposed to pass into one  
another1 but we must        remember    

that these transformations are not the  
transformations        of real solids1  
but of imaginary geometrical figures2 in
 other        words1 we are composing   
and decomposing the faces of substances 
and not the substances themselves--it is
 a house of cards which we        are   
pulling to pieces and putting together  
again 7compare however        ,laws74   
,yet perhaps ,plato may regard these    
sides or faces as only        the forms 
which are impressed on pre-existent     
matter4 ,it is        remarkable that he
 should speak of each of these solids as
 a        possible world in itself1     
though upon the whole he inclines to    
the opinion that they form one world and
 not five4 ,to suppose        that there
 is an infinite number of worlds1 as    
,democritus        7,hippolyt4 ,ref4    
,haer4 ,i47 had said1 would be1 as he   
satirically        observes1 #8the      
characteristic of a very indefinite and 
ignorant        mind4'          ,the    
twenty triangular faces of an           

icosahedron form the faces or           
sides of two regular octahedrons and of 
a regular pyramid 7#bj  #h        x #b  
#d72 and therefore1 according to ,plato1
 a particle of water        when        
decomposed is supposed to give two      
particles of air and one        of fire4
 ,so because an octahedron gives the    
sides of two pyramids        7#h  #d x  
#b71 a particle of air is resolved into 
two particles of        fire4           
,the transformation is effected by the  
superior power or number of        the  
conquering elements4 ,the manner of the 
change is 7#a7 a        separation of   
portions of the elements from the masses
 in which        they are collected2    
7#b7 a resolution of them into their    
original        triangles2 and 7#c7 a   
reunion of them in new forms4 ,plato    
himself        proposes the question1   
,why does motion continue at all when   
the        elements are settled in their
 places8 ,he answers that although      
the force of attraction is continually  

drawing similar elements        to the  
same spot1 still the revolution of the  
universe exercises        a condensing  
power1 and thrusts them again out of    
their natural        places4 ,thus want 
of uniformity1 the condition of motion1 
is        produced4 ,in all such        
disturbances of matter there is an      
alternative for the weaker element3 it  
may escape to its kindred1        or    
take the form of the stronger--becoming 
denser1 if it be        denser1 or rarer
 if rarer4 ,this is true of fire1 air1  
and water1        which1 being composed 
of similar triangles1 are               
interchangeable2        earth1 however1 
which has triangles peculiar to itself1 
is        capable of dissolution1 but   
not of change4 ,of the interchangeable  
elements1 fire1 the rarest1 can only    
become a denser1 and water1        the  
densest1 only a rarer3 but air may      
become a denser or a        rarer4 ,no  
single particle of the elements is      
visible1 but only        the aggregates 

of them are seen4 ,the subordinate      
species depend1        not upon         
differences of form in the original     
triangles1 but upon        differences  
of size4 ,the obvious physical phenomena
 from which        ,plato has gathered  
his views of the relations of the       
elements        seem to be the effect of
 fire upon air1 water1 and earth1 and   
the        effect of water upon earth4  
,the particles are supposed by him to   
be in a perpetual process of circulation
 caused by inequality4        ,this     
process of circulation does not admit of
 a vacuum1 as he        tells us in his 
strange account of respiration4         
,of the phenomena of light and heavy he 
speaks afterwards1 when        treating 
of sensation1 but they may be more      
conveniently        considered by us in 
this place4 ,they are not1 he says1 to  
be        explained by #8above' and     
#8below1' which in the universal globe  
have no existence1 but by the attraction
 of similars towards the        great   

masses of similar substances2 fire to   
fire1 air to air1        water to water1
 earth to earth4 ,plato's doctrine of   
attraction        implies not only 7#a7 
the attraction of similar elements to   
one        another1 but also 7#b7 of    
smaller bodies to larger ones4 ,had he  
confined himself to the latter he would 
have arrived1 though1        perhaps1   
without any further result or any sense 
of the greatness        of the          
discovery1 at the modern doctrine of    
gravitation4 ,he does        not observe
 that water has an equal tendency       
towards both water        and earth4 ,so
 easily did the most obvious facts which
 were        inconsistent with his      
theories escape him4          ,the      
general physical doctrines of the       
,timaeus may be summed up as            
follows3 7#a7 ,plato supposes the       
greater masses of the elements to       
have been already settled in their      
places at the creation3 7#b7        they
 are four in number1 and are formed of  

rectangular triangles        variously  
combined into regular solid figures3    
7#c7 three of them1        fire1 air1   
and water1 admit of transformation into 
one another2        the fourth1 earth1  
cannot be similarly transformed3 7#d7   
different        sizes of the same      
triangles form the lesser species of    
each        element3 7#e7 there is an   
attraction of like to like--smaller     
masses of the same kind being drawn     
towards greater3 7#f7 there is        no
 void1 but the particles of matter are  
ever pushing one another        round   
and round 7,greek74 ,like the atomists1 
,plato attributes the        differences
 between the elements to differences in 
geometrical        figures4 ,but he does
 not explain the process by which       
surfaces        become solids2 and he   
characteristically ridicules ,democritus
 for        not seeing that the worlds  
are finite and not infinite4            
,section #d4            ,the astronomy  
of ,plato is based on the two principles

 of the same        and the other1 which
 ,god combined in the creation of the   
world4        ,the soul1 which is       
compounded of the same1 the other1 and  
the        essence1 is diffused from the
 centre to the circumference of the     
heavens4 ,we speak of a soul of the     
universe2 but more truly                
regarded1 the universe of the ,timaeus  
is a soul1 governed by        mind1 and 
holding in solution a residuum of matter
 or evil1 which        the author of the
 world is unable to expel1 and of which 
,plato        cannot tell us the origin4
 ,the creation1 in ,plato's sense1 is   
really the creation of order2 and the   
first step in giving order        is the
 division of the heavens into an inner  
and outer circle of        the other and
 the same1 of the divisible and the     
indivisible1        answering to the two
 spheres1 of the planets and of the     
world        beyond them1 all together  
moving around the earth1 which is their 
centre4 ,to us there is a difficulty in 

apprehending how that        which is at
 rest can also be in motion1 or that    
which is        indivisible exist in    
space4 ,but the whole description is so 
ideal        and imaginative1 that we   
can hardly venture to attribute to many 
of ,plato's words in the ,timaeus any   
more meaning than to his        mythical
 account of the heavens in the ,republic
 and in the        ,phaedrus4 7,compare 
his denial of the #8blasphemous opinion'
 that        there are planets or       
wandering stars2 all alike move in      
circles--,laws47 ,the stars are the     
habitations of the souls of men1        
from which they come and to which they  
return4 ,in attributing to        the   
fixed stars only the most perfect       
motion--that which is on the        same
 spot or circulating around the same--he
 might perhaps have        said that to 
#8the spectator of all time and all     
existence1' to        borrow once more  
his own grand expression1 or viewed1 in 
the        language of ,spinoza1 #8sub  

specie aeternitatis1' they were still   
at rest1 but appeared to move in order  
to teach men the periods        of time4
 ,although absolutely in motion1 they   
are relatively at        rest2 or we may
 conceive of them as resting1 while the 
space in        which they are          
contained1 or the whole anima mundi1    
revolves4          ,the universe        
revolves around a centre once in        
twenty-four hours1        but the orbits
 of the fixed stars take a different    
direction from        those of the      
planets4 ,the outer and the inner sphere
 cross one        another and meet again
 at a point opposite to that of their   
first        contact2 the first moving  
in a circle from left to right along    
the side of a parallelogram which is    
supposed to be inscribed in        it1  
the second also moving in a circle along
 the diagonal of the        same        
parallelogram from right to left2 or1 in
 other words1 the        first          
describing the path of the equator1 the 

second1 the path of        the ecliptic4
 ,the motion of the second is controlled
 by the        first1 and hence the     
oblique line in which the planets are   
supposed to move becomes a spiral4 ,the 
motion of the same is said        to be 
undivided1 whereas the inner motion is  
split into seven        unequal         
orbits--the intervals between them being
 in the ratio of        two and three1  
three of either3--the ,sun1 moving in   
the opposite        direction to        
,mercury and ,venus1 but with equal     
swiftness2 the        remaining four1   
,moon1 ,saturn1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 with   
unequal        swiftness to the former  
three and to one another4 ,thus arises  
the        following progression3--,moon
 #a1 ,sun #b1 ,venus #c1 ,mercury #d1   
,mars #h1        ,jupiter #i1 ,saturn   
#bg4 ,this series of numbers is the     
compound of        the two ,pythagorean 
ratios1 having the same intervals1      
though not        in the same order1 as 
the mixture which was originally divided

 in        forming the soul of the      
world4          ,plato was struck by the
 phenomenon of ,mercury1 ,venus1 and the
 ,sun        appearing to overtake and  
be overtaken by one another4 ,the true  
reason of this1 namely1 that they lie   
within the circle of the        earth's 
orbit1 was unknown to him1 and the      
reason which he        gives--that the  
two former move in an opposite direction
 to the        latter--is far from      
explaining the appearance of them in the
        heavens4 ,all the planets1      
including the sun1 are carried round in 
the daily motion of the circle of the   
fixed stars1 and they have        a     
second or oblique motion which gives the
 explanation of the        different    
lengths of the sun's course in different
 parts of the        earth4 ,the fixed  
stars have also two movements--a forward
 movement        in their orbit which is
 common to the whole circle2 and a      
movement on the same spot around an     
axis1 which ,plato calls the            

movement of thought about the same4 ,in 
this latter respect they        are more
 perfect than the wandering stars1 as   
,plato himself terms        them in the 
,timaeus1 although in the ,laws he      
condemns the        appellation as      
blasphemous4          ,the revolution of
 the world around earth1 which is       
accomplished        in a single day and 
night1 is described as being the most   
perfect        or intelligent4 ,yet     
,plato also speaks of an #8annus magnus'
 or        cyclical year1 in which      
periods wonderful for their complexity  
are found to coincide in a perfect      
number1 i4e4 a number which             
equals the sum of its factors1 as #f  #a
  #b  #c4 ,this1 although        not    
literally contradictory1 is in spirit   
irreconcilable with the        perfect  
revolution of twenty-four hours4 ,the   
same remark may be        applied to the
 complexity of the appearances and      
occultations of        the stars1 which1
 if the outer heaven is supposed to be  

moving        around the centre once in 
twenty-four hours1 must be confined to  
the effects produced by the seven       
planets4 ,plato seems to confuse        
the actual observation of the heavens   
with his desire to find in        them  
mathematical perfection4 ,the same      
spirit is carried yet        further by 
him in the passage already quoted from  
the ,laws1 in        which he affirms   
their wanderings to be an appearance    
only1 which        a little knowledge of
 mathematics would enable men to        
correct4          ,we have now to       
consider the much discussed question of 
the        rotation or immobility of the
 earth4 ,plato's doctrine on this       
subject is contained in the following   
words3--#8,the earth1 which is          
our nurse1 compacted 7,,or revolving7   
around the pole which is        extended
 through the universe1 he made to be the
 guardian and        artificer of night 
and day1 first and eldest of gods that  
are in        the interior of heaven'4  

,there is an unfortunate doubt in this  
passage 7#a7 about the meaning of the   
word 7,greek71 which is                 
translated either #8compacted' or       
#8revolving1' and is equally            
capable of both explanations4 ,a doubt  
7#b7 may also be raised as        to    
whether the words #8artificer of day and
 night' are consistent        with the  
mere passive causation of them1 produced
 by the        immobility of the earth  
in the midst of the circling universe4  
,we        must admit1 further1 7#c7    
that ,aristotle attributed to ,plato the
        doctrine of the rotation of the 
earth on its axis4 ,on the other        
hand it has been urged that if the earth
 goes round with the        outer heaven
 and sun in twenty-four hours1 there is 
no way of        accounting for the     
alternation of day and night2 since the 
equal        motion of the earth and sun
 would have the effect of absolute      
immobility4 ,to which it may be replied 
that ,plato never says that        the  

earth goes round with the outer heaven  
and sun2 although the        whole      
question depends on the relation of     
earth and sun1 their        movements   
are nowhere precisely described4 ,but if
 we suppose1        with ,mr4 ,grote1   
that the diurnal rotation of the earth  
on its        axis and the revolution of
 the sun and outer heaven precisely     
coincide1 it would be difficult to      
imagine that ,plato was unaware         
of the consequence4 ,for though he was  
ignorant of many things        which are
 familiar to us1 and often confused in  
his ideas where        we have become   
clear1 we have no right to attribute to 
him a        childish want of reasoning 
about very simple facts1 or an          
inability to understand the necessary   
and obvious deductions from             
geometrical figures or movements4 ,of   
the causes of day and night        the  
pre-,socratic philosophers1 and         
especially the ,pythagoreans1           
gave various accounts1 and therefore the

 question can hardly be        imagined 
to have escaped him4 ,on the other hand 
it may be urged        that the further 
step1 however simple and obvious1 is    
just what        ,plato often seems to  
be ignorant of1 and that as there is no 
limit to his insight1 there is also no  
limit to the blindness        which     
sometimes obscures his intelligence     
7compare the        construction of     
solids out of surfaces in his account of
 the        creation of the world1 or   
the attraction of similars to           
similars74 ,further1 ,mr4 ,grote        
supposes1 not that 7,greek7 means       
#8revolving1' or that this is the sense 
in which ,aristotle        understood   
the word1 but that the rotation of the  
earth is        necessarily implied in  
its adherence to the cosmical axis4 ,but
        7a7 if1 as ,mr ,grote assumes1  
,plato did not see that the rotation    
of the earth on its axis and of the sun 
and outer heavens around        the     
earth in equal times was inconsistent   

with the alternation of        day and  
night1 neither need we suppose that he  
would have seen        the immobility of
 the earth to be inconsistent with the  
rotation        of the axis4 ,and 7b7   
what proof is there that the axis of the
        world revolves at all8 7c7 ,the 
comparison of the two passages          
quoted by ,mr ,grote 7see his pamphlet  
on #8,the ,rotation of the              
,earth'7 from ,aristotle ,de ,coelo1    
,book ,,ii 7,greek7 clearly shows1      
although this is a matter of minor      
importance1 that ,aristotle1 as         
,proclus and ,simplicius supposed1      
understood 7,greek7 in the              
,timaeus to mean #8revolving4' ,for the 
second passage1 in which        motion  
on an axis is expressly mentioned1      
refers to the first1        but this    
would be unmeaning unless 7,greek7 in   
the first passage        meant rotation 
on an axis4 7#d7 ,the immobility of the 
earth is        more in accordance with 
,plato's other writings than the        

opposite        hypothesis4 ,for in the 
,phaedo the earth is described as the   
centre of the world1 and is not said to 
be in motion4 ,in the        ,republic  
the pilgrims appear to be looking out   
from the earth        upon the motions  
of the heavenly bodies2 in the          
,phaedrus1 ,hestia1        who remains  
immovable in the house of ,zeus while   
the other gods        go in procession1 
is called the first and eldest of the   
gods1 and        is probably the symbol 
of the earth4 ,the silence of ,plato in 
these and in some other passages 7,laws7
 in which he might be        expected to
 speak of the rotation of the earth1 is 
more        favourable to the doctrine  
of its immobility than to the           
opposite4 ,if he had meant to say that  
the earth revolves on its        axis1  
he would have said so in distinct words1
 and have explained        the relation 
of its movements to those of the other  
heavenly        bodies4 7#e7 ,the       
meaning of the words #8artificer of day 

and night'        is literally true     
according to ,plato's view4 ,for the    
alternation        of day and night is  
not produced by the motion of the       
heavens        alone1 or by the         
immobility of the earth alone1 but by   
both        together2 and that which has
 the inherent force or energy to        
remain at rest when all other bodies are
 moving1 may be truly        said to    
act1 equally with them4 7#f7 ,we should 
not lay too much        stress on       
,aristotle or the writer ,de ,caelo     
having adopted the        other         
interpretation of the words1 although   
,alexander of        ,aphrodisias thinks
 that he could not have been ignorant   
either of        the doctrine of ,plato 
or of the sense which he intended to    
give        to the word 7,greek74 ,for  
the citations of ,plato in ,aristotle   
are        frequently misinterpreted by 
him2 and he seems hardly ever to        
have had in his mind the connection in  
which they occur4 ,in this              

instance the allusion is very slight1   
and there is no reason to        suppose
 that the diurnal revolution of the     
heavens was present to        his mind4 
,hence we need not attribute to him the 
error from which        we are defending
 ,plato4          ,after weighing one   
against the other all these complicated 
probabilities1 the final conclusion at  
which we arrive is that        there is 
nearly as much to be said on the one    
side of the        question as on the   
other1 and that we are not perfectly    
certain1        whether1 as ,bockh and  
the majority of commentators1 ancient as
        well as modern1 are inclined to 
believe1 ,plato thought that the        
earth was at rest in the centre of the  
universe1 or1 as ,aristotle        and  
,mr4 ,grote suppose1 that it revolved on
 its axis4 ,whether we        assume the
 earth to be stationary in the centre of
 the universe1        or to revolve with
 the heavens1 no explanation is given of
 the        variation in the length of  

days and nights at different times of   
the year4 ,the relations of the earth   
and heavens are so        indistinct in 
the ,timaeus and so figurative in the   
,phaedo1        ,phaedrus and ,republic1
 that we must give up the hope of       
ascertaining how they were imagined by  
,plato1 if he had any fixed        or   
scientific conception of them at all4   
,section #e4            ,the soul of the
 world is framed on the analogy of the  
soul of        man1 and many traces of  
anthropomorphism blend with ,plato's    
highest flights of idealism4 ,the       
heavenly bodies are endowed with        
thought2 the principles of the same and 
other exist in the        universe as   
well as in the human mind4 ,the soul of 
man is made        out of the remains of
 the elements which had been used in    
creating the soul of the world2 these   
remains1 however1 are        diluted to 
the third degree2 by this ,plato        
expresses the measure        of the     
difference between the soul human and   

divine4 ,the human        soul1 like the
 cosmical1 is framed before the body1 as
 the mind        is before the soul of  
either--this is the order of the divine 
work--and the finer parts of the body1  
which are more akin to the        soul1 
such as the spinal marrow1 are prior to 
the bones and        flesh4 ,the brain1 
the containing vessel of the divine part
 of the        soul1 is 7nearly7 in the 
form of a globe1 which is the image of  
the gods1 who are the stars1 and of the 
universe4          ,there is1 however1  
an inconsistency in ,plato's manner of  
conceiving the soul of man2 he cannot   
get rid of the element of               
necessity which is allowed to enter4 ,he
 does not1 like ,kant1        attempt to
 vindicate for men a freedom out of     
space and time2 but        he           
acknowledges him to be subject to the   
influence of external        causes1 and
 leaves hardly any place for freedom of 
the will4 ,the        lusts of men are  
caused by their bodily constitution1    

though they        may be increased by  
bad education and bad laws1 which       
implies        that they may be         
decreased by good education and good    
laws4 ,he        appears to have an     
inkling of the truth that to the higher 
nature        of man evil is            
involuntary4 ,this is mixed up with the 
view which1        while apparently     
agreeing with it1 is in reality the     
opposite of        it1 that vice is due 
to physical causes4 ,in the ,timaeus1 as
 well        as in the ,laws1 he also   
regards vices and crimes as simply      
involuntary2 they are diseases analogous
 to the diseases of the        body1 and
 arising out of the same causes4 ,if we 
draw together the        opposite poles 
of ,plato's system1 we find that1 like  
,spinoza1 he        combines idealism   
with fatalism4          ,the soul of man
 is divided by him into three parts1    
answering        roughly to the         
charioteer and steeds of the ,phaedrus1 
and to the        7,greek7 of the       

,republic and ,nicomachean ,ethics4     
,first1 there is        the immortal    
nature of which the brain is the seat1  
and which is        akin to the soul of 
the universe4 ,this alone thinks and    
knows and        is the ruler of the    
whole4 ,secondly1 there is the higher   
mortal        soul which1 though liable 
to perturbations of her own1 takes the  
side of reason against the lower        
appetites4 ,the seat of this is         
the heart1 in which courage1 anger1 and 
all the nobler affections        are    
supposed to reside4 ,there the veins all
 meet2 it is their        centre or     
house of guard whence they carry the    
orders of the        thinking being to  
the extremities of his kingdom4 ,there  
is also a        third or appetitive    
soul1 which receives the commands of the
        immortal part1 not immediately  
but mediately1 through the liver1       
which reflects on its surface the       
admonitions and threats of the          
reason4          ,the liver is imagined 

by ,plato to be a smooth and bright     
substance1 having a store of sweetness  
and also of bitterness1        which    
reason freely uses in the execution of  
her mandates4 ,in        this region1 as
 ancient superstition told1 were to be  
found        intimations of the future4 
,but ,plato is careful to observe that  
although such knowledge is given to the 
inferior parts of man1 it               
requires to be interpreted by the       
superior4 ,reason1 and not              
enthusiasm1 is the true guide of man2 he
 is only inspired when he        is     
demented by some distemper or           
possession4 ,the ancient saying1        
that #8only a man in his senses can     
judge of his own actions1' is           
approved by modern philosophy too4 ,the 
same irony which appears        in      
,plato's remark1 that #8the men of old  
time must surely have        known the  
gods who were their ancestors1 and we   
should believe        them as custom    
requires1' is also manifest in his      

account of        divination4           
,the appetitive soul is seated in the   
belly1 and there imprisoned        like 
a wild beast1 far away from the council 
chamber1 as ,plato        graphically   
calls the head1 in order that the animal
 passions may        not interfere with 
the deliberations of reason4 ,though the
 soul        is said by him to be prior 
to the body1 yet we cannot help seeing  
that it is constructed on the model of  
the body--the threefold        division 
into the rational1 passionate1 and      
appetitive        corresponding to the  
head1 heart and belly4 ,the human soul  
differs from the soul of the world in   
this respect1 that it is                
enveloped and finds its expression in   
matter1 whereas the soul of        the  
world is not only enveloped or diffused 
in matter1 but is the        element in 
which matter moves4 ,the breath of man  
is within him1        but the air or    
aether of heaven is the element which   
surrounds        him and all things4    

,pleasure and pain are attributed in the
 ,timaeus to the suddenness        of   
our sensations--the first being a sudden
 restoration1 the        second a sudden
 violation1 of nature 7,phileb474 ,the  
sensations        become conscious to us
 when they are exceptional4 ,sight is   
not        attended either by pleasure  
or pain1 but hunger and the appeasing   
of hunger are pleasant and painful      
because they are        extraordinary4  
,section #f4            ,i shall not    
attempt to connect the physiological    
speculations of        ,plato either    
with ancient or modern medicine4 ,what  
light ,i can        throw upon them will
 be derived from the comparison of them 
with        his general system4         
,there is no principle so apparent in   
the physics of the ,timaeus1        or  
in ancient physics generally1 as that of
 continuity4 ,the world        is       
conceived of as a whole1 and the        
elements are formed into and        out 
of one another2 the varieties of        

substances and processes are            
hardly known or noticed4 ,and in a      
similar manner the human body        is 
conceived of as a whole1 and the        
different substances of        which1 to
 a superficial observer1 it appears to  
be composed--the        blood1 flesh1   
sinews--like the elements out of which  
they are        formed1 are supposed to 
pass into one another in regular order1 
while the infinite complexity of the    
human frame remains        unobserved4  
,and diseases arise from the opposite   
process--when the        natural        
proportions of the four elements are    
disturbed1 and the        secondary     
substances which are formed out of them1
 namely1 blood1        flesh1 sinews1   
are generated in an inverse order4      
,plato found heat and air within the    
human frame1 and the blood              
circulating in every part4 ,he assumes  
in language almost        unintelligible
 to us that a network of fire and air   
envelopes the        greater part of the

 body4 ,this outer net contains two     
lesser        nets1 one corresponding to
 the stomach1 the other to the lungs2   
and the entrance to the latter is forked
 or divided into two        passages    
which lead to the nostrils and to the   
mouth4 ,in the        process of        
respiration the external net is said to 
find a way in        and out of the     
pores of the skin3 while the interior of
 it and        the lesser nets move     
alternately into each other4 ,the whole 
description is figurative1 as ,plato    
himself implies when he        speaks of
 a #8fountain of fire which we compare  
to the network of        a creel4' ,he  
really means by this what we should     
describe as a        state of heat or   
temperature in the interior of the body4
 ,the        #8fountain of fire' or heat
 is also in a figure the circulation of 
the blood4 ,the passage is partly       
imagination1 partly fact4          ,he  
has a singular theory of respiration for
 which he accounts        solely by the 

movement of the air in and out of the   
body2 he does        not attribute any  
part of the process to the action of the
 body        itself4 ,the air has a     
double ingress and a double exit1       
through        the mouth or nostrils1   
and through the skin4 ,when exhaled     
through        the mouth or nostrils1 it
 leaves a vacuum which is filled up by  
other air finding a way in through the  
pores1 this air being        thrust out 
of its place by the exhalation from the 
mouth and        nostrils4 ,there is    
also a corresponding process of         
inhalation        through the mouth or  
nostrils1 and of exhalation through the 
pores4 ,the inhalation through the pores
 appears to take place        nearly at 
the same time as the exhalation through 
the mouth2 and        conversely4 ,the  
internal fire is in either case the     
propelling        cause outwards--the   
inhaled air1 when heated by it1 having a
        natural tendency to move out of 
the body to the place of fire2          

while the impossibility of a vacuum is  
the propelling cause        inwards4    
,thus we see that this singular theory  
is dependent on two        principles   
largely employed by ,plato in explaining
 the operations        of nature1 the   
impossibility of a vacuum and the       
attraction of        like to like4 ,to  
these there has to be added a third     
principle1        which is the condition
 of the action of the other two1--the   
interpenetration of particles in        
proportion to their density or          
rarity4 ,it is this which enables fire  
and air to permeate the        flesh4   
,plato's account of digestion and the   
circulation of the blood is             
closely connected with his theory of    
respiration4 ,digestion is              
supposed to be effected by the action of
 the internal fire1 which        in the 
process of respiration moves into the   
stomach and minces        the food4 ,as 
the fire returns to its place1 it takes 
with it the        minced food or blood2

 and in this way the veins are          
replenished4        ,plato does not     
enquire how the blood is separated from 
the        faeces4          ,of the     
anatomy and functions of the body he    
knew very        little1--e4g4 of the   
uses of the nerves in conveying motion  
and        sensation1 which he supposed 
to be communicated by the bones and     
veins2 he was also ignorant of the      
distinction between veins and           
arteries2--the latter term he applies to
 the vessels which conduct        air   
from the mouth to the lungs2--he        
supposes the lung to be        hollow   
and bloodless2 the spinal marrow he     
conceives to be the        seed of      
generation2 he confuses the parts of the
 body with the        states of the     
body--the network of fire and air is    
spoken of as a        bodily organ2 he  
has absolutely no idea of the phenomena 
of        respiration1 which he         
attributes to a law of equalization in  
nature1 the air which is breathed out   

displacing other air which        finds 
a way in2 he is wholly unacquainted with
 the process of        digestion4       
,except the general divisions into the  
spleen1 the        liver1 the belly1 and
 the lungs1 and the obvious distinctions
 of        flesh1 bones1 and the limbs  
of the body1 we find nothing that       
reminds us of anatomical facts4 ,but we 
find much which is derived        from  
his theory of the universe1 and         
transferred to man1 as there        is  
much also in his theory of the universe 
which is suggested by        man4 ,the  
microcosm of the human body is the      
lesser image of the        macrocosm4   
,the courses of the same and the other  
affect both2        they are made of the
 same elements and therefore in the same
        proportions4 ,both are          
intelligent natures endued with the     
power        of self-motion1 and the    
same equipoise is maintained in both4   
,the        animal is a sort of #8world'
 to the particles of the blood which    

circulate in it4 ,all the four elements 
entered into the original               
composition of the human frame2 the bone
 was formed out of smooth        earth2 
liquids of various kinds pass to and    
fro2 the network of        fire and air 
irrigates the veins4 ,infancy and       
childhood is the        chaos or first  
turbid flux of sense prior to the       
establishment of        order2 the      
intervals of time which may be observed 
in some        intermittent fevers      
correspond to the density of the        
elements4        ,the spinal marrow1    
including the brain1 is formed out of   
the        finest sorts of triangles1   
and is the connecting link between      
body and mind4 ,health is only to be    
preserved by imitating the              
motions of the world in space1 which is 
the mother and nurse of                 
generation4 ,the work of digestion is   
carried on by the superior              
sharpness of the triangles forming the  
substances of the human        body to  

those which are introduced into it in   
the shape of food4        ,the freshest 
and acutest forms of triangles are those
 that are        found in children1 but 
they become more obtuse with advancing  
years2 and when they finally wear out   
and fall to pieces1 old age        and  
death supervene4          ,as in the    
,republic1 ,plato is still the enemy of 
the purgative        treatment of       
physicians1 which1 except in extreme    
cases1 no man        of sense will ever 
adopt4 ,for1 as he adds1 with an insight
 into        the truth1 #8every disease 
is akin to the nature of the living     
being and is only irritated by          
stimulants4' ,he is of opinion that     
nature should be left to herself1 and is
 inclined to think that                 
physicians are in vain 7,laws--where he 
says that warm baths would        be    
more beneficial to the limbs of the aged
 rustic than the        prescriptions of
 a not over-wise doctor74 ,if he seems  
to be        extreme in his condemnation

 of medicine and to rely too much on    
diet and exercise1 he might appeal to   
nearly all the best        physicians of
 our own age in support of his opinions1
 who often        speak to their        
patients of the worthlessness of drugs4 
,for we        ourselves are sceptical  
about medicine1 and very unwilling to   
submit to the purgative treatment of    
physicians4 ,may we not claim        for
 ,plato an anticipation of modern ideas 
as about some questions        of       
astronomy and physics1 so also about    
medicine8 ,as in the        ,charmides  
he tells us that the body cannot be     
cured without the        soul1 so in the
 ,timaeus he strongly asserts the       
sympathy of soul        and body2 any   
defect of either is the occasion of the 
greatest        discord and             
disproportion in the other4 ,here too   
may be a        presentiment that in the
 medicine of the future the             
interdependence of mind and body will be
 more fully recognized1        and that 

the influence of the one over the other 
may be exerted        in a manner which 
is not now thought possible4            
,section #g4            ,in ,plato's    
explanation of sensation we are struck  
by the fact        that he has not the  
same distinct conception of organs of   
sense        which is familiar to       
ourselves4 ,the senses are not          
instruments1        but rather passages1
 through which external objects strike  
upon        the mind4 ,the eye is the   
aperture through which the stream of    
vision passes1 the ear is the aperture  
through which the        vibrations of  
sound pass4 ,but that the complex       
structure of the        eye or the ear  
is in any sense the cause of sight and  
hearing he        seems hardly to be    
aware4          ,the process of sight is
 the most complicated 7,rep471 and      
consists        of three elements--the  
light which is supposed to reside within
        the eye1 the light of the sun1  
and the light emitted from              

external objects4 ,when the light of the
 eye meets the light of        the sun1 
and both together meet the light issuing
 from an        external object1 this is
 the simple act of sight4 ,when the     
particles of light which proceed from   
the object are exactly        equal to  
the particles of the visual ray which   
meet them from        within1 then the  
body is transparent4 ,if they are larger
 and        contract the visual ray1 a  
black colour is produced2 if they are   
smaller and dilate it1 a white4 ,other  
phenomena are produced by        the    
variety and motion of light4 ,a sudden  
flash of fire at once        elicits    
light and moisture from the eye1 and    
causes a bright        colour4 ,a more  
subdued light1 on mingling with the     
moisture of        the eye1 produces a  
red colour4 ,out of these elements all  
other        colours are derived4 ,all  
of them are combinations of bright and  
red with white and black4 ,plato himself
 tells us that he does not        know  

in what proportions they combine1 and he
 is of opinion that        such         
knowledge is granted to the gods only4  
,to have seen the        affinity of    
them to each other and their connection 
with light1        is not a bad basis   
for a theory of colours4 ,we must       
remember that        they were not      
distinctly defined to his1 as they are  
to our eyes2        he saw them1 not as 
they are divided in the prism1 or       
artificially manufactured for the       
painter's use1 but as they        exist 
in nature1 blended and confused with one
 another4          ,we can hardly agree 
with him when he tells us that smells do
 not        admit of kinds4 ,he seems to
 think that no definite qualities can   
attach to bodies which are in a state of
 transition or        evaporation2 he   
also makes the subtle observation that  
smells        must be denser than air1  
though thinner than water1 because when 
there is an obstruction to the          
breathing1 air can penetrate1 but       

not smell4          ,the affections     
peculiar to the tongue are of various   
kinds1 and1        like many other      
affections1 are caused by contraction   
and        dilation4 ,some of them are  
produced by rough1 others by            
abstergent1 others by inflammatory      
substances1--these act upon the         
testing instruments of the tongue1 and  
produce a more or less                  
disagreeable sensation1 while other     
particles congenial to the        tongue
 soften and harmonize them4 ,the        
instruments of taste reach        from  
the tongue to the heart4 ,plato has a   
lively sense of the        manner in    
which sensation and motion are          
communicated from one        part of the
 body to the other1 though he confuses  
the affections        with the organs4  
,hearing is a blow which passes through 
the ear        and ends in the region of
 the liver1 being transmitted by means  
of the air1 the brain1 and the blood to 
the soul4 ,the swifter        sound is  

acute1 the sound which moves slowly is  
grave4 ,a great        body of sound is 
loud1 the opposite is low4 ,discord is  
produced        by the swifter and      
slower motions of two sounds1 and is    
converted        into harmony when the  
swifter motions begin to pause and are  
overtaken by the slower4          ,the  
general phenomena of sensation are      
partly internal1 but the        more    
violent are caused by conflict with     
external objects4        ,proceeding by 
a method of superficial observation1    
,plato remarks        that the more     
sensitive parts of the human frame are  
those which        are least covered by 
flesh1 as is the case with the head and 
the        elbows4 ,man1 if his head had
 been covered with a thicker pulp of    
flesh1 might have been a longer-lived   
animal than he is1 but        could not 
have had as quick perceptions4 ,on the  
other hand1 the        tongue is one of 
the most sensitive of organs2 but then  
this is        made1 not to be a        

covering to the bones which contain the 
marrow        or source of life1 but    
with an express purpose1 and in a       
separate        mass4                   
,section #h4            ,we have now to 
consider how far in any of these        
speculations        ,plato approximated 
to the discoveries of modern science4   
,the        modern physical philosopher 
is apt to dwell exclusively on the      
absurdities of ancient ideas about      
science1 on the haphazard        fancies
 and a priori assumptions of ancient    
teachers1 on their        confusion of  
facts and ideas1 on their inconsistency 
and        blindness to the most obvious
 phenomena4 ,he measures them not by    
what preceded them1 but by what has     
followed them4 ,he does not             
consider that ancient physical          
philosophy was not a free enquiry1      
but a growth1 in which the mind was     
passive rather than active1        and  
was incapable of resisting the          
impressions which flowed in        upon 

it4 ,he hardly allows to the notions of 
the ancients the        merit of being  
the stepping-stones by which he has     
himself risen        to a higher        
knowledge4 ,he never reflects1 how great
 a thing it        was to have formed a 
conception1 however imperfect1 either of
 the        human frame as a whole1 or  
of the world as a whole4 ,according to  
the view taken in these volumes the     
errors of ancient physicists        were
 not separable from the intellectual    
conditions under which        they      
lived4 ,their genius was their own2 and 
they were not the        rash and hasty 
generalizers which1 since the days of   
,bacon1 we        have been apt to      
suppose them4 ,the thoughts of men      
widened to        receive experience2 at
 first they seemed to know all things as
 in        a dream3 after a while they  
look at them closely and hold them in   
their hands4 ,they begin to arrange them
 in classes and to connect        causes
 with effects4 ,general notions are     

necessary to the        apprehension of 
particular facts1 the metaphysical to   
the        physical4 ,before men can    
observe the world1 they must be able to 
conceive it4          ,to do justice to 
the subject1 we should consider the     
physical        philosophy of the       
ancients as a whole2 we should remember1
 7#a7        that the nebular theory was
 the received belief of several of the  
early physicists2 7#b7 that the         
development of animals out of           
fishes who came to land1 and of man out 
of the animals1 was held        by      
,anaximander in the sixth century before
 ,christ 7,plut4 ,symp4        ,quaest2 
,plac4 ,phil472 7#c7 that even by       
,philolaus and the early                
,pythagoreans1 the earth was held to be 
a body like the other        stars      
revolving in space around the sun or a  
central fire2 7#d7        that the      
beginnings of chemistry are discernible 
in the #8similar        particles' of   
,anaxagoras4 ,also they knew or thought 

7#e7 that        there was a sex in     
plants as well as in animals2 7#f7 they 
were        aware that musical notes    
depended on the relative length or      
tension of the strings from which they  
were emitted1 and were        measured  
by ratios of number2 7#g7 that          
mathematical laws pervaded        the   
world2 and even qualitative differences 
were supposed to have        their      
origin in number and figure2 7#h7 the   
annihilation of matter        was denied
 by several of them1 and the seeming    
disappearance of        it held to be a 
transformation only4 ,for1 although one 
of these        discoveries might have  
been supposed to be a happy guess1 taken
        together they seem to imply a   
great advance and almost maturity       
of natural knowledge4          ,we      
should also remember1 when we attribute 
to the ancients hasty                   
generalizations and delusions of        
language1 that physical                 
philosophy and metaphysical too have    

been guilty of similar        fallacies 
in quite recent times4 ,we by no means  
distinguish        clearly between mind 
and body1 between ideas and facts4 ,have
 not        many discussions arisen     
about the ,atomic theory in which a     
point        has been confused with a   
material atom8 ,have not the natures of 
things been explained by imaginary      
entities1 such as life or               
phlogiston1 which exist in the mind     
only8 ,has not disease been             
regarded1 like sin1 sometimes as a      
negative and necessary1        sometimes
 as a positive or malignant principle8  
,the #8idols' of        ,bacon are      
nearly as common now as ever2 they are  
inherent in the        human mind1 and  
when they have the most complete        
dominion over        us1 we are least   
able to perceive them4 ,we recognize    
them in the        ancients1 but we fail
 to see them in ourselves4              
,such reflections1 although this is not 
the place in which to        dwell upon 

them at length1 lead us to take a       
favourable view of        the           
speculations of the ,timaeus4 ,we should
 consider not how much        ,plato    
actually knew1 but how far he has       
contributed to the        general ideas 
of physics1 or supplied the notions     
which1 whether        true or false1    
have stimulated the minds of later      
generations in        the path of       
discovery4 ,some of them may seem       
old-fashioned1 but        may           
nevertheless have had a great influence 
in promoting system        and assisting
 enquiry1 while in others we hear the   
latest word of        physical or       
metaphysical philosophy4 ,there is also 
an        intermediate class1 in which  
,plato falls short of the truths of     
modern science1 though he is not wholly 
unacquainted with them4        7#a7 ,to 
the first class belongs the teleological
 theory of        creation4 ,whether all
 things in the world can be explained as
 the        result of natural laws1 or  

whether we must not admit of            
tendencies and marks of design also1 has
 been a question much        disputed of
 late years4 ,even if all phenomena are 
the result of        natural forces1 we 
must admit that there are many things in
        heaven and earth which are as   
well expressed under the image of       
mind or design as under any other4 ,at  
any rate1 the language of        ,plato 
has been the language of natural        
theology down to our own        time1   
nor can any description of the world    
wholly dispense with        it4 ,the    
notion of first and second or           
co-operative causes1 which              
originally appears in the ,timaeus1 has 
likewise survived to our        own day1
 and has been a great peace-maker       
between theology and        science4    
,plato also approaches very near to our 
doctrine of the        primary and      
secondary qualities of matter4 7#b7     
,another popular        notion which is 
found in the ,timaeus1 is the feebleness

 of the        human intellect--#8,god  
knows the original qualities of things2 
man        can only hope to attain to   
probability4' ,we speak in almost the   
same words of human intelligence1 but   
not in the same manner of        the    
uncertainty of our knowledge of nature4 
,the reason is that        the latter is
 assured to us by experiment1 and is not
 contrasted        with the certainty of
 ideal or mathematical knowledge4 ,but  
the        ancient philosopher never    
experimented3 in the ,timaeus ,plato    
seems to have thought that there would  
be impiety in making the        attempt2
 he1 for example1 who tried experiments 
in colours would        #8forget the    
difference of the human and divine      
natures4' ,their        indefiniteness  
is probably the reason why he singles   
them out1 as        especially incapable
 of being tested by experiment4         
7,compare the        saying of          
,anaxagoras--,sext4 ,pyrrh4--that since 
snow is made of        water and water  

is black1 snow ought to be black47      
,the greatest #8divination' of the      
ancients was the supremacy which        
they assigned to mathematics in all the 
realms of nature2 for in        all of  
them there is a foundation of mechanics4
 ,even physiology        partakes of    
figure and number2 and ,plato is not    
wrong in        attributing them to the 
human frame1 but in the omission to     
observe how little could be explained by
 them4 ,thus we may remark        in    
passing that the most fanciful of       
ancient philosophies is also        the 
most nearly verified in fact4 ,the      
fortunate guess that the        world is
 a sum of numbers and figures has been  
the most fruitful        of             
anticipations4 ,the #8diatonic' scale of
 the ,pythagoreans and        ,plato    
suggested to ,kepler that the secret of 
the distances of the        planets from
 one another was to be found in         
mathematical        proportions4 ,the   
doctrine that the heavenly bodies all   

move in a        circle is known by us  
to be erroneous2 but without such an    
error        how could the human mind   
have comprehended the heavens8          
,astronomy1 even in modern times1 has   
made far greater progress by        the 
high a priori road than could have been 
attained by any        other4 ,yet1     
strictly speaking--and the remark       
applies to ancient        physics       
generally--this high a priori road was  
based upon a        posteriori grounds4 
,for there were no facts of which the   
ancients        were so well assured by 
experience as facts of number4 ,having  
observed that they held good in a few   
instances1 they applied        them     
everywhere2 and in the complexity1 of   
which they were        capable1 found   
the explanation of the equally complex  
phenomena        of the universe4 ,they 
seemed to see them in the least things  
as        well as in the greatest2 in   
atoms1 as well as in suns and stars2    
in the human body as well as in external

 nature4 ,and now a        favourite    
speculation of modern chemistry is the  
explanation of        qualitative       
difference by quantitative1 which is at 
present        verified to a certain    
extent and may hereafter be of far more 
universal application4 ,what is this but
 the atoms of ,democritus        and the
 triangles of ,plato8 ,the ancients     
should not be wholly        deprived of 
the credit of their guesses because they
 were unable        to prove them4 ,may 
they not have had1 like the animals1 an 
instinct of something more than they    
knew8          ,besides general notions 
we seem to find in the ,timaeus some    
more        precise approximations to   
the discoveries of modern physical      
science4 ,first1 the doctrine of        
equipoise4 ,plato affirms1 almost       
in so many words1 that nature abhors a  
vacuum4 ,whenever a        particle is  
displaced1 the rest push and thrust one 
another until        equality is        
restored4 ,we must remember that these  

ideas were not        derived from any  
definite experiment1 but were the       
original        reflections of man1     
fresh from the first observation of     
nature4        ,the latest word of      
modern philosophy is continuity and     
development1 but to ,plato this is the  
beginning and foundation of             
science2 there is nothing that he is so 
strongly persuaded of as        that the
 world is one1 and that all the various 
existences which        are contained in
 it are only the transformations of the 
same soul        of the world acting on 
the same matter4 ,he would have readily 
admitted that out of the protoplasm all 
things were formed by the        gradual
 process of creation2 but he would have 
insisted that mind        and           
intelligence--not meaning by this1      
however1 a conscious mind        or     
person--were prior to them1 and could   
alone have created them4        ,into   
the workings of this eternal mind or    
intelligence he does        not enter   

further2 nor would there have been any  
use in        attempting to investigate 
the things which no eye has seen nor    
any human language can express4         
,lastly1 there remain two points in     
which he seems to touch great           
discoveries of modern times--the law of 
gravitation1 and the        circulation 
of the blood4          7#a7 ,the law of 
gravitation1 according to ,plato1 is a  
law1 not        only of the attraction  
of lesser bodies to larger ones1 but of 
similar bodies to similar1 having a     
magnetic power as well as a             
principle of gravitation4 ,he observed  
that earth1 water1 and air        had   
settled down to their places1 and he    
imagined fire or the        exterior    
aether to have a place beyond air4 ,when
 air seemed to go        upwards and    
fire to pierce through air--when water  
and earth fell        downward1 they    
were seeking their native elements4 ,he 
did not        remark that his own      
explanation did not suit all phenomena2 

and        the simpler explanation1     
which assigns to bodies degrees of      
heaviness and lightness proportioned to 
the mass and distance of        the     
bodies which attract them1 never        
occurred to him4 ,yet the               
affinities of similar substances have   
some effect upon the        composition 
of the world1 and of this ,plato may be 
thought to        have had an           
anticipation4 ,he may be described as   
confusing the        attraction of      
gravitation with the attraction of      
cohesion4 ,the        influence of such 
affinities and the chemical action of   
one body        upon another in long    
periods of time have become a recognized
        principle of geology4           
7#b7 ,plato is perfectly aware--and he  
could hardly be ignorant--that          
blood is a fluid in constant motion4 ,he
 also knew that blood is        partly a
 solid substance consisting of several  
elements1 which1        as he might have
 observed in the use of                 

#8cupping-glasses'1        decompose and
 die1 when no longer in motion4 ,but the
 specific        discovery that the     
blood flows out on one side of the heart
        through the arteries and returns
 through the veins on the other1        
which is commonly called the circulation
 of the blood1 was        absolutely    
unknown to him4          ,a further     
study of the ,timaeus suggests some     
after-thoughts which        may be      
conveniently brought together in this   
place4 ,the topics        which ,i      
propose briefly to reconsider are 7a7   
the relation of the        ,timaeus to  
the other dialogues of ,plato and to the
 previous        philosophy2 7b7 the    
nature of ,god and of creation 7c7 the  
morality of the ,timaeus3--          7a7
 ,the ,timaeus is more imaginative and  
less scientific than any        other of
 the ,platonic dialogues4 ,it is        
conjectural astronomy1                  
conjectural natural philosophy1         
conjectural medicine4 ,the writer       

himself is constantly repeating that he 
is speaking what is        probable     
only4 ,the dialogue is put into the     
mouth of ,timaeus1 a        ,pythagorean
 philosopher1 and therefore here1 as in 
the        ,parmenides1 we are in doubt 
how far ,plato is expressing his own    
sentiments4 ,hence the connexion with   
the other dialogues is                  
comparatively slight4 ,we may fill up   
the lacunae of the ,timaeus        by   
the help of the ,republic or ,phaedrus3 
we may identify the same        and     
other with the 7,greek7 of the          
,philebus4 ,we may find in the          
,laws or in the ,statesman parallels    
with the account of creation        and 
of the first origin of man4 ,it would be
 possible to frame a        scheme in   
which all these various elements might  
have a place4        ,but such a mode of
 proceeding would be unsatisfactory1    
because we        have no reason to     
suppose that ,plato intended his        
scattered        thoughts to be         

collected in a system4 ,there is a      
common spirit in        his writings1   
and there are certain general           
principles1 such as        the          
opposition of the sensible and          
intellectual1 and the priority        of
 mind1 which run through all of them2   
but he has no definite        forms of  
words in which he consistently expresses
 himself4 ,while        the             
determinations of human thought are in  
process of creation he        is        
necessarily tentative and uncertain4    
,and there is least of                  
definiteness1 whenever either in        
describing the beginning or the         
end of the world1 he has recourse to    
myths4 ,these are not the        fixed  
modes in which spiritual truths are     
revealed to him1 but        the efforts 
of imagination1 by which at different   
times and in        various manners he  
seeks to embody his conceptions4 ,the   
clouds of        mythology are still    
resting upon him1 and he has not yet    

pierced        #8to the heaven of the   
fixed stars' which is beyond them4 ,it  
is        safer then to admit the       
inconsistencies of the ,timaeus1 or to  
endeavour to fill up what is wanting    
from our own imagination1               
inspired by a study of the dialogue1    
than to refer to other        ,platonic 
writings1--and still less should we     
refer to the        successors of       
,plato1--for the elucidation of it4     
,more light is thrown upon the ,timaeus 
by a comparison of the        previous  
philosophies4 ,for the physical science 
of the ancients        was traditional1 
descending through many generations of  
,ionian        and ,pythagorean         
philosophers4 ,plato does not look out  
upon the        heavens and describe    
what he sees in them1 but he builds upon
 the        foundations of others1      
adding something out of the #8depths of 
his        own self-consciousness4'     
,socrates had already spoken of ,god the
        creator1 who made all things for

 the best4 ,while he ridiculed the      
superficial explanations of phenomena   
which were current in his        age1 he
 recognised the marks both of           
benevolence and of design in        the 
frame of man and in the world4 ,the     
apparatus of winds and        waters is 
contemptuously rejected by him in the   
,phaedo1 but he        thinks that there
 is a power greater than that of any    
,atlas in        the #8,best' 7,phaedo2 
,arist4 ,met474 ,plato1 following his   
master1        affirms this principle of
 the best1 but he acknowledges that the 
best is limited by the conditions of    
matter4 ,in the generation        before
 ,socrates1 ,anaxagoras had brought     
together #8,chaos' and        #8,mind'2 
and these are connected by ,plato in the
 ,timaeus1 but in        accordance with
 his own mode of thinking he has        
interposed        between them the idea 
or pattern according to which mind      
worked4        ,the circular impulse    
7,greek7 of the one philosopher answers 

to        the circular movement 7,greek7
 of the other4 ,but unlike              
,anaxagoras1 ,plato made the sun and    
stars living beings and not             
masses of earth or metal4 ,the          
,pythagoreans again had framed a        
world out of numbers1 which they        
constructed into figures4 ,plato        
adopted their speculations and improved 
upon them by a more exact               
knowledge of geometry4 ,the ,atomists   
too made the world1 if not        out of
 geometrical figures1 at least out of   
different forms of        atoms1 and    
these atoms resembled the triangles of  
,plato in being        too small to be  
visible4 ,but though the physiology of  
the ,timaeus        is partly borrowed  
from them1 they are either ignored by   
,plato or        referred to with a     
secret contempt and dislike4 ,he looks  
with        more favour on the          
,pythagoreans1 whose intervals of number
        applied to the distances of the 
planets reappear in the ,timaeus4       

,it is probable that among the          
,pythagoreans living in the fourth      
century ,b4,c41 there were already some 
who1 like ,plato1 made the        earth 
their centre4 ,whether he obtained his  
circles of the ,same        and ,other  
from any previous thinker is uncertain4 
,the four        elements are taken from
 ,empedocles2 the interstices of the    
,timaeus may also be compared with his  
7,greek74 ,the passage of one           
element into another is common to       
,heracleitus and several of the         
,ionian philosophers4 ,so much of a     
syncretist is ,plato1 though not        
after the manner of the ,neoplatonists4 
,for the elements which he              
borrows from others are fused and       
transformed by his own genius4          
,on the other hand we find fewer traces 
in ,plato of early ,ionic or            
,eleatic speculation4 ,he does not      
imagine the world of sense to be        
made up of opposites or to be in a      
perpetual flux1 but to vary             

within certain limits which are         
controlled by what he calls the         
principle of the same4 ,unlike the      
,eleatics1 who relegated the            
world to the sphere of not-being1 he    
admits creation to have an              
existence which is real and even        
eternal1 although dependent on          
the will of the creator4 ,instead of    
maintaining the doctrine that        the
 void has a necessary place in the      
existence of the world1 he        rather
 affirms the modern thesis that nature  
abhors a vacuum1 as        in the       
,sophist he also denies the reality of  
not-being 7,aristot4        ,metaph474  
,but though in these respects he differs
 from them1 he        is deeply         
penetrated by the spirit of their       
philosophy2 he        differs from them 
with reluctance1 and gladly recognizes  
the        #8generous depth' of         
,parmenides 7,theaet474          ,there 
is a similarity between the ,timaeus and
 the fragments of        ,philolaus1    

which by some has been thought to be so 
great as to        create a suspicion   
that they are derived from it4          
,philolaus is        known to us from   
the ,phaedo of ,plato as a ,pythagorean 
philosopher        residing at ,thebes  
in the latter half of the fifth century 
,b4,c41        after the dispersion of  
the original ,pythagorean society4 ,he  
was        the teacher of ,simmias and  
,cebes1 who became disciples of         
,socrates4 ,we have hardly any other    
information about him4 ,the        story
 that ,plato had purchased three books  
of his writings from a        relation  
is not worth repeating2 it is only a    
fanciful way in        which an ancient 
biographer dresses up the fact that     
there was        supposed to be a       
resemblance between the two writers4    
,similar        gossiping stories are   
told about the sources of the ,republic 
and        the ,phaedo4 ,that there     
really existed in antiquity a work      
passing        under the name of        

,philolaus there can be no doubt4       
,fragments of        this work are      
preserved to us1 chiefly in ,stobaeus1 a
 few in        ,boethius and other      
writers4 ,they remind us of the         
,timaeus1 as        well as of the      
,phaedrus and ,philebus4 ,when the      
writer says 7,stob4        ,eclog47 that
 all things are either finite 7definite7
 or infinite        7indefinite71 or a  
union of the two1 and that this         
antithesis and        synthesis pervades
 all art and nature1 we are reminded of 
the        ,philebus4 ,when he calls the
 centre of the world 7,greek71 we have  
a parallel to the ,phaedrus4 ,his       
distinction between the world of        
order1 to which the sun and moon and the
 stars belong1 and the        world of  
disorder1 which lies in the region      
between the moon and        the earth1  
approximates to ,plato's sphere of the  
,same and of the        ,other4 ,like   
,plato 7,tim471 he denied the above and 
below in space1        and said that all

 things were the same in relation to a  
centre4        ,he speaks also of the   
world as one and indestructible3 #8for  
neither from within nor from without    
does it admit of        destruction'    
7,tim74 ,he mentions ten heavenly       
bodies1 including        the sun and    
moon1 the earth and the counter-earth   
7,greek71 and in        the midst of    
them all he places the central fire1    
around which        they are            
moving--this is hidden from the earth by
 the        counter-earth4 ,of neither  
is there any trace in ,plato1 who makes 
the earth the centre of his system4     
,philolaus magnifies the        virtues 
of particular numbers1 especially of the
 number #aj 7,stob4        ,eclog471 and
 descants upon odd and even numbers1    
after the manner        of the later    
,pythagoreans4 ,it is worthy of remark  
that these        mystical fancies are  
nowhere to be found in the writings of  
,plato1 although the importance of      
number as a form and also an            

instrument of thought is ever present to
 his mind4 ,both ,philolaus        and  
,plato agree in making the world move in
 certain numerical        ratios        
according to a musical scale3 though    
,bockh is of opinion        that the two
 scales1 of ,philolaus and of the       
,timaeus1 do not        correspond444,we
 appear not to be sufficiently          
acquainted with the        early        
,pythagoreans to know how far the       
statements contained in        these    
fragments corresponded with their       
doctrines2 and we        therefore      
cannot pronounce1 either in favour of   
the genuineness        of the fragments1
 with ,bockh and ,zeller1 or1 with      
,valentine ,rose        and             
,schaarschmidt1 against them4 ,but it is
 clear that they throw        but little
 light upon the ,timaeus1 and that their
 resemblance to        it has been      
exaggerated4          ,that there is a  
degree of confusion and indistinctness  
in ,plato's        account both of man  

and of the universe has been already    
acknowledged4 ,we cannot tell 7nor could
 ,plato himself have told7        where 
the figure or myth ends and the         
philosophical truth begins2        we   
cannot explain 7nor could ,plato himself
 have explained to us7        the       
relation of the ideas to appearance1 of 
which one is the copy        of the     
other1 and yet of all things in the     
world they are the        most opposed  
and unlike4 ,this opposition is         
presented to us in        many forms1 as
 the antithesis of the one and many1 of 
the finite        and infinite1 of the  
intelligible and sensible1 of the       
unchangeable and the changing1 of the   
indivisible and the        divisible1 of
 the fixed stars and the planets1 of the
 creative        mind and the primeval  
chaos4 ,these pairs of opposites are so 
many        aspects of the great        
opposition between ideas and            
phenomena--they        easily pass into 
one another2 and sometimes the two      

members of        the relation differ in
 kind1 sometimes only in degree4 ,as in 
,aristotle's matter and form the        
connexion between them is really        
inseparable2 for if we attempt to       
separate them they become        devoid 
of content and therefore                
indistinguishable2 there is no          
difference between the idea of which    
nothing can be predicated1        and   
the chaos or matter which has no        
perceptible        qualities--between   
,being in the abstract and ,nothing4    
,yet we are        frequently told that 
the one class of them is the reality and
 the        other appearance2 and one is
 often spoken of as the double or       
reflection of the other4 ,for ,plato    
never clearly saw that both             
elements had an equal place in mind and 
in nature2 and hence1        especially 
when we argue from isolated passages in 
his writings1        or attempt to draw 
what appear to us to be the natural     
inferences        from them1 we are full

 of perplexity4 ,there is a similar     
confusion about necessity and free-will1
 and about the state of        the soul 
after death4 ,also he sometimes supposes
 that ,god is        immanent in the    
world1 sometimes that he is             
transcendent4 ,and        having no     
distinction of objective and subjective1
 he passes        imperceptibly from one
 to the other2 from intelligence to     
soul1        from eternity to time4     
,these contradictions may be softened or
        concealed by a judicious use of 
language1 but they cannot be            
wholly got rid of4 ,that an age of      
intellectual transition must        also
 be one of inconsistency2 that the      
creative is opposed to the              
critical or defining habit of mind or   
time1 has been often        repeated by 
us4 ,but1 as ,plato would say1 #8there  
is no harm in        repeating twice or 
thrice' 7,laws7 what is important for   
the        understanding of a great     
author4          ,it has not1 however1  

been observed1 that the confusion partly
        arises out of the elements of   
opposing philosophies which are         
preserved in him4 ,he holds these in    
solution1 he brings them into           
relation with one another1 but he does  
not perfectly harmonize        them4    
,they are part of his own mind1 and he  
is incapable of        placing himself  
outside of them and criticizing them4   
,they grow        as he grows2 they are 
a kind of composition with which his own
        philosophy is overlaid4 ,in     
early life he fancies that he has       
mastered them3 but he is also mastered  
by them2 and in language                
7,sophist7 which may be compared with   
the hesitating tone of the              
,timaeus1 he confesses in his later     
years that they are full of             
obscurity to him4 ,he attributes new    
meanings to the words of                
,parmenides and ,heracleitus2 but at    
times the old ,eleatic        philosophy
 appears to go beyond him2 then the     

world of phenomena        disappears1   
but the doctrine of ideas is also       
reduced to        nothingness4 ,all of  
them are nearer to one another than they
        themselves supposed1 and nearer 
to him than he supposed4 ,all of        
them are antagonistic to sense and have 
an affinity to number and        measure
 and a presentiment of ideas4 ,even in  
,plato they still        retain their   
contentious or controversial character1 
which was        developed by the growth
 of dialectic4 ,he is never able to     
reconcile the first causes of the       
pre-,socratic philosophers with         
the final causes of ,socrates himself4  
,there is no intelligible        account
 of the relation of numbers to the      
universal ideas1 or of        universals
 to the idea of good4 ,he found them all
 three1 in the        ,pythagorean      
philosophy and in the teaching of       
,socrates and of the        ,megarians  
respectively2 and1 because they all     
furnished modes of        explaining and

 arranging phenomena1 he is unwilling to
 give up        any of them1 though he  
is unable to unite them in a consistent 
whole4          ,lastly1 ,plato1 though 
an idealist philosopher1 is ,greek and  
not        ,oriental in spirit and      
feeling4 ,he is no mystic or ascetic2 he
 is        not seeking in vain to get   
rid of matter or to find absorption in  
the divine nature1 or in the ,soul of   
the universe4 ,and therefore        we  
are not surprised to find that his      
philosophy in the ,timaeus              
returns at last to a worship of the     
heavens1 and that to him1 as        to  
other ,greeks1 nature1 though containing
 a remnant of evil1 is        still     
glorious and divine4 ,he takes away or  
drops the veil of        mythology1 and 
presents her to us in what appears to   
him to be        the form-fairer and    
truer far--of mathematical figures4 ,it 
is this        element in the ,timaeus1 
no less than its affinity to certain    
,pythagorean speculations1 which gives  

it a character not wholly        in     
accordance with the other dialogues of  
,plato4          7b7 ,the ,timaeus      
contains an assertion perhaps more      
distinct than        is found in any of 
the other dialogues 7,rep42 ,laws7 of   
the        goodness of ,god4 #8,he was  
good himself1 and he fashioned the good 
everywhere4' ,he was not #8a jealous    
,god1' and therefore he desired         
that all other things should be equally 
good4 ,he is the ,,idea of        good  
who has now become a person1 and speaks 
and is spoken of as        ,god4 ,yet   
his personality seems to appear only in 
the act of        creation4 ,in so far  
as he works with his eye fixed upon an  
eternal pattern he is like the human    
artificer in the ,republic4        ,here
 the theory of ,platonic ideas intrudes 
upon us4 ,god1 like        man1 is      
supposed to have an ideal of which      
,plato is unable to        tell us the  
origin4 ,he may be said1 in the language
 of modern        philosophy1 to resolve

 the divine mind into subject and       
object4          ,the first work of     
creation is perfected1 the second begins
 under        the direction of inferior 
ministers4 ,the supreme ,god is         
withdrawn        from the world and     
returns to his own accustomed nature    
7,tim474        ,as in the ,statesman1  
he retires to his place of view4 ,so    
early        did the ,epicurean doctrine
 take possession of the ,greek mind1 and
        so natural is it to the heart of
 man1 when he has once passed out       
of the stage of mythology into that of  
rational religion4 ,for he        sees  
the marks of design in the world2 but he
 no longer sees or        fancies that  
he sees ,god walking in the garden or   
haunting stream        or mountain4 ,he 
feels also that he must put ,god as far 
as        possible out of the way of    
evil1 and therefore he banishes him     
from an evil world4 ,plato is sensible  
of the difficulty2 and he        often  
shows that he is desirous of justifying 

the ways of ,god to        man4 ,yet on 
the other hand1 in the ,tenth ,book of  
the ,laws he        passes a censure on 
those who say that the ,gods have no    
care of        human things4            
,the creation of the world is the       
impression of order on a                
previously existing chaos4 ,the formula 
of ,anaxagoras--#8all things        were
 in chaos or confusion1 and then mind   
came and disposed        them'--is a    
summary of the first part of the        
,timaeus4 ,it is true        that of a  
chaos without differences no idea could 
be formed4 ,all        was not mixed but
 one2 and therefore it was not difficult
 for the        later ,platonists to    
draw inferences by which they were      
enabled to        reconcile the         
narrative of the ,timaeus with the      
,mosaic account of        the creation4 
,neither when we speak of mind or       
intelligence1 do        we seem to get  
much further in our conception than     
circular        motion1 which was deemed

 to be the most perfect4 ,plato1 like   
,anaxagoras1 while commencing his theory
 of the universe with        ideas of   
mind and of the best1 is compelled in   
the execution of        his design to   
condescend to the crudest physics4      
7c7 ,the morality of the ,timaeus is    
singular1 and it is difficult        to 
adjust the balance between the two      
elements of it4 ,the        difficulty  
which ,plato feels1 is that which all of
 us feel1 and        which is increased 
in our own day by the progress of       
physical        science1 how the        
responsibility of man is to be          
reconciled with        his dependence on
 natural causes4 ,and sometimes1 like   
other men1        he is more impressed  
by one aspect of human life1 sometimes  
by        the other4 ,in the ,republic  
he represents man as freely choosing    
his own lot in a state prior to birth--a
 conception which1 if        taken      
literally1 would still leave him subject
 to the dominion of        necessity in 

his after life2 in the ,statesman he    
supposes the        human race to be    
preserved in the world only by a divine 
interposition2 while in the ,timaeus the
 supreme ,god commissions        the    
inferior deities to avert from him all  
but self-inflicted        evils--words  
which imply that all the evils of men   
are really        self-inflicted4 ,and  
here1 like ,plato 7the insertion of a   
note in        the text of an ancient   
writer is a literary curiosity worthy of
        remark71 we may take occasion to
 correct an error4 ,for we too          
hastily said that ,plato in the ,timaeus
 regarded all #8vices and        crimes 
as involuntary4' ,but the fact is that  
he is inconsistent        with himself2 
in one and the same passage vice is     
attributed to        the relaxation of  
the bodily frame1 and yet we are        
exhorted to        avoid it and pursue  
virtue4 ,it is also admitted that good  
and        evil conduct are to be       
attributed respectively to good and evil

        laws and institutions4 ,these   
cannot be given by individuals to       
themselves2 and therefore human actions1
 in so far as they are        dependent 
upon them1 are regarded by ,plato as    
involuntary rather        than          
voluntary4 ,like other writers on this  
subject1 he is unable        to escape  
from some degree of self-contradiction4 
,he had learned        from ,socrates   
that vice is ignorance1 and suddenly the
 doctrine        seems to him to be     
confirmed by observing how much of the  
good        and bad in human character  
depends on the bodily constitution4 ,so 
in modern times the speculative doctrine
 of necessity has often        been     
supported by physical facts4            
,the ,timaeus also contains an          
anticipation of the stoical life        
according to nature4 ,man contemplating 
the heavens is to regulate        his   
erring life according to them4 ,he is to
 partake of the repose        of nature 
and of the order of nature1 to bring the

 variable        principle in himself   
into harmony with the principle of the  
same4        ,the ethics of the ,timaeus
 may be summed up in the single idea of 
#8law4' ,to feel habitually that he is  
part of the order of the                
universe1 is one of the highest ethical 
motives of which man is        capable4 
,something like this is what ,plato     
means when he speaks        of the soul 
#8moving about the same in unchanging   
thought of the        same4' ,he does   
not explain how man is acted upon by the
 lesser        influences of custom or  
of opinion2 or how the commands of the  
soul watching in the citadel are        
conveyed to the bodily organs4          
,but this perhaps1 to use once more     
expressions of his own1 #8is        part
 of another subject' or #8may be more   
suitably discussed on        some other 
occasion4'          ,there is no        
difficulty1 by the help of ,aristotle   
and later        writers1 in criticizing
 the ,timaeus of ,plato1 in pointing out

 the        inconsistencies of the work1
 in dwelling on the ignorance of        
anatomy displayed by the author1 in     
showing the fancifulness or             
unmeaningness of some of his reasons4   
,but the ,timaeus still        remains  
the greatest effort of the human mind to
 conceive the        world as a whole   
which the genius of antiquity has       
bequeathed to        us4            ,one
 more aspect of the ,timaeus remains to 
be considered--the        mythological  
or geographical4 ,is it not a wonderful 
thing that a        few pages of one of 
,plato's dialogues have grown into a    
great        legend1 not confined to    
,greece only1 but spreading far and wide
        over the nations of ,europe and 
reaching even to ,egypt and ,asia8      
,like the tale of ,troy1 or the legend  
of the ,ten ,tribes 7,ewald1            
,hist4 of ,isr471 which perhaps         
originated in a few verses of ,,ii      
,esdras1 it has become famous1 because  
it has coincided with a        great    

historical fact4 ,like the romance of   
,king ,arthur1 which has        had so  
great a charm1 it has found a way over  
the seas from one        country and    
language to another4 ,it inspired the   
navigators of        the fifteenth and  
sixteenth centuries2 it foreshadowed the
        discovery of ,america4 ,it      
realized the fiction so natural to the  
human mind1 because it answered the     
enquiry about the origin of        the  
arts1 that there had somewhere existed  
an ancient primitive                    
civilization4 ,it might find a place    
wherever men chose to look        for   
it2 in ,north1 ,south1 ,east1 or ,west2 
in the ,islands of the        ,blest2   
before the entrance of the ,straits of  
,gibraltar1 in ,sweden        or in     
,palestine4 ,it mattered little whether 
the description in        ,plato agreed 
with the locality assigned to it or not4
 ,it was a        legend so adapted to  
the human mind that it made a habitation
 for        itself in any country4 ,it  

was an island in the clouds1 which      
might be seen anywhere by the eye of    
faith4 ,it was a subject                
especially congenial to the ponderous   
industry of certain ,french        and  
,swedish writers1 who delighted in      
heaping up learning of all        sorts 
but were incapable of using it4         
,m4 ,martin has written a valuable      
dissertation on the opinions            
entertained respecting the ,island of   
,atlantis in ancient and        modern  
times4 ,it is a curious chapter in the  
history of the human        mind4 ,the  
tale of ,atlantis is the fabric of a    
vision1 but it has        never ceased  
to interest mankind4 ,it was variously  
regarded by        the ancients         
themselves4 ,the stronger heads among   
them1 like        ,strabo and ,longinus1
 were as little disposed to believe in  
the        truth of it as the modern    
reader in ,gulliver or ,robinson        
,crusoe4        ,on the other hand there
 is no kind or degree of absurdity or   

fancy in which the more foolish writers1
 both of antiquity and of        modern 
times1 have not indulged respecting it4 
,the        ,neo-,platonists1 loyal to  
their master1 like some commentators on 
the ,christian ,scriptures1 sought to   
give an allegorical meaning        to   
what they also believed to be an        
historical fact4 ,it was as if          
some one in our own day were to convert 
the poems of ,homer into        an      
allegory of the ,christian religion1 at 
the same time        maintaining them to
 be an exact and veritable history4 ,in 
the        ,middle ,ages the legend     
seems to have been half-forgotten until 
revived by the discovery of ,america4   
,it helped to form the ,utopia        of
 ,sir ,thomas ,more and the ,new        
,atlantis of ,bacon1 although           
probably neither of those great men were
 at all imposed upon by        the      
fiction4 ,it was most prolific in the   
seventeenth or in the        early part 
of the eighteenth century1 when the     

human mind1        seeking for ,utopias 
or inventing them1 was glad to escape   
out of        the dulness of the present
 into the romance of the past or some   
ideal of the future4 ,the later forms of
 such narratives contained              
features taken from the ,edda1 as well  
as from the ,old and ,new               
,testament2 also from the tales of      
missionaries and the        experiences 
of travellers and of colonists4         
,the various opinions respecting the    
,island of ,atlantis have no            
interest for us except in so far as they
 illustrate the        extravagances of 
which men are capable4 ,but this is a   
real        interest and a serious      
lesson1 if we remember that now as      
formerly the human mind is liable to be 
imposed upon by the        illusions of 
the past1 which are ever assuming some  
new form4          ,when we have shaken 
off the rubbish of ages1 there remain   
one or        two questions of which the
 investigation has a permanent value3-- 

#a4 ,did ,plato derive the legend of    
,atlantis from an ,egyptian             
source8 ,it may be replied that there is
 no such legend in any        writer    
previous to ,plato2 neither in ,homer1  
nor in ,pindar1 nor in        ,herodotus
 is there any mention of an ,island of  
,atlantis1 nor any        reference to  
it in ,aristotle1 nor any citation of an
 earlier        writer by a later one in
 which it is to be found4 ,nor have any 
traces been discovered hitherto in      
,egyptian monuments of a                
connexion between ,greece and ,egypt    
older than the eighth or ninth          
century ,b4,c4 ,it is true that         
,proclus1 writing in the fifth          
century after ,christ1 tells us of      
stones and columns in ,egypt on         
which the history of the ,island of     
,atlantis was engraved4 ,the            
statement may be false--there are       
similar tales about columns set         
up #8by the ,canaanites whom ,joshua    
drove out' 7,procop472 but even         

if true1 it would only show that the    
legend1 #hjj years after the        time
 of ,plato1 had been transferred to     
,egypt1 and inscribed1 not1        like 
other forgeries1 in books1 but on stone4
 ,probably in the        ,alexandrian   
age1 when ,egypt had ceased to have a   
history and        began to appropriate 
the legends of other nations1 many such 
monuments were to be found of events    
which had become famous in        that  
or other countries4 ,the oldest witness 
to the story is said        to be       
,crantor1 a ,stoic philosopher who lived
 a generation later        than ,plato1 
and therefore may have borrowed it from 
him4 ,the        statement is found in  
,proclus2 but we require better         
assurance        than ,proclus can give 
us before we accept this or any other   
statement which he makes4               
,secondly1 passing from the external to 
the internal evidence1 we        may    
remark that the story is far more likely
 to have been        invented by ,plato 

than to have been brought by ,solon from
 ,egypt4        ,that is another part of
 his legend which ,plato also seeks to  
impose upon us4 ,the verisimilitude     
which he has given to the tale        is
 a further reason for suspecting it2 for
 he could easily        #8invent        
,egyptian or any other tales'           
7,phaedrus74 ,are not the        words1 
#8,the truth of the story is a great    
advantage1' if we read        between   
the lines1 an indication of the fiction8
 ,it is only a        legend that ,solon
 went to ,egypt1 and if he did he could 
not have        conversed with ,egyptian
 priests or have read records in their  
temples4 ,the truth is that the         
introduction is a mosaic work of        
small touches which1 partly by their    
minuteness1 and also by        their    
seeming probability1 win the confidence 
of the reader4 ,who        would desire 
better evidence than that of ,critias1  
who had heard        the narrative in   
youth when the memory is strongest at   

the age of        ten from his          
grandfather ,critias1 an old man of     
ninety1 who in        turn had heard it 
from ,solon himself8 ,is not the famous 
expression--#8,you ,hellenes are ever   
children and there is no                
knowledge among you hoary with age1'    
really a compliment to the              
,athenians who are described in these   
words as #8ever young'8 ,and        is  
the thought expressed in them to be     
attributed to the learning        of the
 ,egyptian priest1 and not rather to the
 genius of ,plato8 ,or        when the  
,egyptian says--#8,hereafter at our     
leisure we will take up        the      
written documents and examine in detail 
the exact truth about        these      
things'--what is this but a literary    
trick by which ,plato        sets off   
his narrative8 ,could any war between   
,athens and the        ,island of       
,atlantis have really coincided with the
 struggle        between the ,greeks and
 ,persians1 as is sufficiently hinted   

though        not expressly stated in   
the narrative of ,plato8 ,and whence    
came        the tradition to ,egypt8 or 
in what does the story consist except   
in the war between the two rival powers 
and the submersion of        both of    
them8 ,and how was the tale transferred 
to the poem of        ,solon8 #8,it is  
not improbable1' says ,mr4 ,grote1      
#8that ,solon did        leave an       
unfinished ,egyptian poem' 7,plato74    
,but are probabilities        for which 
there is not a tittle of evidence1 and  
which are        without any parallel1  
to be deemed worthy of attention by the 
critic8 ,how came the poem of ,solon to 
disappear in antiquity8 or        why   
did ,plato1 if the whole narrative was  
known to him1 break off        almost at
 the beginning of it8          ,while   
therefore admiring the diligence and    
erudition of ,m4        ,martin1 we     
cannot for a moment suppose that the    
tale was told to        ,solon by an    
,egyptian priest1 nor can we believe    

that ,solon wrote        a poem upon the
 theme which was thus suggested to      
him--a poem        which disappeared in 
antiquity2 or that the ,island of       
,atlantis or        the antediluvian    
,athens ever had any existence except in
 the        imagination of ,plato4      
,martin is of opinion that ,plato would 
have        been terrified if he could  
have foreseen the endless fancies to    
which his ,island of ,atlantis has given
 occasion4 ,rather he would        have 
been infinitely amused if he could have 
known that his gift        of invention 
would have deceived ,m4 ,martin himself 
into the        belief that the         
tradition was brought from ,egypt by    
,solon and        made the subject of a 
poem by him4 ,m4 ,martin may also be    
gently        censured for citing       
without sufficient discrimination       
ancient        authors having very      
different degrees of authority and      
value4          #b4 ,it is an           
interesting and not unimportant question

 which is        touched upon by        
,martin1 whether the ,atlantis of ,plato
 in any        degree held out a guiding
 light to the early navigators4 ,he is  
inclined to think that there is no real 
connexion between them4        ,but     
surely the discovery of the ,new ,world 
was preceded by a        prophetic      
anticipation of it1 which1 like the hope
 of a ,messiah1        was entering into
 the hearts of men8 ,and this hope was  
nursed by        ancient tradition1     
which had found expression from time to 
time        in the celebrated lines of  
,seneca and in many other places4 ,this 
tradition was sustained by the great    
authority of ,plato1 and                
therefore the legend of the ,island of  
,atlantis1 though not        closely    
connected with the voyages of the early 
navigators1 may        be truly said to 
have contributed indirectly to the great
        discovery4          ,the        
,timaeus of ,plato1 like the ,protagoras
 and several portions of        the     

,phaedrus and ,republic1 was translated 
by ,cicero into ,latin4        ,about a 
fourth1 comprehending with lacunae the  
first portion of        the dialogue1 is
 preserved in several ,,mss4 ,these     
generally agree1        and therefore   
may be supposed to be derived from a    
single        original4 ,the version is 
very faithful1 and is a remarkable      
monument of ,cicero's skill in managing 
the difficult and        intractable    
,greek4 ,in his treatise ,de ,natura    
,deorum1 he also        refers to the   
,timaeus1 which1 speaking in the person 
of ,velleius        the ,epicurean1 he  
severely criticises4          ,the      
commentary of ,proclus on the ,timaeus  
is a wonderful monument        of the   
silliness and prolixity of the          
,alexandrian ,age4 ,it extends        to
 about thirty pages of the book1 and is 
thirty times the length        of the   
original4 ,it is surprising that this   
voluminous work        should have found
 a translator 7,thomas ,taylor1 a       

kindred spirit1        who was himself a
 ,neo-,platonist1 after the fashion1 not
 of the        fifth or sixteenth1 but  
of the nineteenth century ,a4,d474 ,the 
commentary is of little or no value1    
either in a philosophical or            
philological point of view4 ,the writer 
is unable to explain        particular  
passages in any precise manner1 and he  
is equally        incapable of grasping 
the whole4 ,he does not take words in   
their        simple meaning or sentences
 in their natural connexion4 ,he is     
thinking1 not of the context in ,plato1 
but of the contemporary                 
,pythagorean philosophers and their     
wordy strife4 ,he finds nothing         
in the text which he does not bring to  
it4 ,he is full of        ,porphyry1    
,iamblichus and ,plotinus1 of misapplied
 logic1 of        misunderstood grammar1
 and of the ,orphic theology4           
,although such a work can contribute    
little or nothing to the                
understanding of ,plato1 it throws an   

interesting light on the                
,alexandrian times2 it realizes how a   
philosophy made up of words        only 
may create a deep and widespread        
enthusiasm1 how the forms        of     
logic and rhetoric may usurp the place  
of reason and truth1        how all     
philosophies grow faded and discoloured1
 and are patched        and made up     
again like worn-out garments1 and retain
 only a        second-hand existence4   
,he who would study this degeneracy of  
philosophy and of the ,greek mind in the
 original cannot do better        than  
devote a few of his days and nights to  
the commentary of        ,proclus on the
 ,timaeus4          ,a very different   
account must be given of the short work 
entitled        #8,timaeus ,locrus1'    
which is a brief but clear analysis of  
the        ,timaeus of ,plato1 omitting 
the introduction or dialogue and        
making a few small additions4 ,it does  
not allude to the original        from  
which it is taken2 it is quite free from

 mysticism and        ,neo-,platonism4  
,in length it does not exceed a fifth   
part of the        ,timaeus4 ,it is     
written in the ,doric dialect1 and      
contains several        words which do  
not occur in classical ,greek4 ,no other
 indication        of its date1 except  
this uncertain one of language1 appears 
in        it4 ,in several places the    
writer has simplified the language of   
,plato1 in a few others he has          
embellished and exaggerated it4 ,he     
generally preserves the thought of the  
original1 but does not        copy the  
words4 ,on the whole this little tract  
faithfully        reflects the meaning  
and spirit of the ,timaeus4             
,from the garden of the ,timaeus1 as    
from the other dialogues of             
,plato1 we may still gather a few       
flowers and present them at             
parting to the reader4 ,there is nothing
 in ,plato grander and        simpler   
than the conversation between ,solon and
 the ,egyptian        priest1 in which  

the youthfulness of ,hellas is          
contrasted with        the antiquity of 
,egypt4 ,here are to be found the famous
 words1 #8,o        ,solon1 ,solon1 you 
,hellenes are ever young1 and there is  
not an        old man among you'--which 
may be compared to the lively saying of 
,hegel1 that #8,greek history began with
 the youth ,achilles and left        off
 with the youth ,alexander4' ,the       
numerous arts of        verisimilitude  
by which ,plato insinuates into the mind
 of the        reader the truth of his  
narrative have been already referred to4
        ,here occur a sentence or two   
not wanting in ,platonic irony          
7,greek--a word to the wise74 #8,to know
 or tell the origin of the        other 
divinities is beyond us1 and we must    
accept the traditions        of the men 
of old time who affirm themselves to be 
the offspring        of the ,gods--that 
is what they say--and they must surely  
have known        their own ancestors4  
,how can we doubt the word of the       

children of        the ,gods8 ,although 
they give no probable or certain proofs1
        still1 as they declare that they
 are speaking of what took place        
in their own family1 we must conform to 
custom and believe them4'        #8,our 
creators well knew that women and other 
animals would some        day be framed 
out of men1 and they further knew that  
many animals        would require the   
use of nails for many purposes2         
wherefore they        fashioned in men  
at their first creation the rudiments of
 nails4'        ,or once more1 let us   
reflect on two serious passages in which
 the        order of the world is       
supposed to find a place in the human   
soul        and to infuse harmony into  
it4 #8,the soul1 when touching anything 
that has essence1 whether dispersed in  
parts or undivided1 is        stirred   
through all her powers to declare the   
sameness or        difference of that   
thing and some other2 and to what       
individuals        are related1 and by  

what affected1 and in what way and how  
and        when1 both in the world of   
generation and in the world of          
immutable being4 ,and when reason1 which
 works with equal truth1        whether 
she be in the circle of the diverse or  
of the same1--in        voiceless       
silence holding her onward course in the
 sphere of the        self-moved1--when 
reason1 ,i say1 is hovering around the  
sensible        world1 and when the     
circle of the diverse also moving truly 
imparts the intimations of sense to the 
whole soul1 then arise        opinions  
and beliefs sure and certain4 ,but when 
reason is        concerned with the     
rational1 and the circle of the same    
moving        smoothly declares it1 then
 intelligence and knowledge are         
necessarily perfected2' where1          
proceeding in a similar path of         
contemplation1 he supposes the inward   
and the outer world        mutually to  
imply each other4 #8,god invented and   
gave us sight to        the end that we 

might behold the courses of intelligence
 in the        heaven1 and apply them to
 the courses of our own intelligence    
which are akin to them1 the unperturbed 
to the perturbed2 and        that we1   
learning them and partaking of the      
natural truth of        reason1 might   
imitate the absolutely unerring courses 
of ,god and        regulate our own     
vagaries4' ,or let us weigh carefully   
some other        profound thoughts1    
such as the following4 #8,he who        
neglects        education walks lame to 
the end of his life1 and returns        
imperfect and good for nothing to the   
world below4' #8,the father        and  
maker of all this universe is past      
finding out2 and even if        we found
 him1 to tell of him to all men would be
 impossible4'        #8,let me tell you 
then why the ,creator made this world of
        generation4 ,he was good1 and   
the good can never have jealousy of     
anything4 ,and being free from jealousy1
 he desired that all        things      

should be as like himself as they could 
be4 ,this is in the        truest sense 
the origin of creation and of the world1
 as we shall        do well in believing
 on the testimony of wise men3 ,god     
desired        that all things should be
 good and nothing bad1 so far as this   
was attainable4' ,this is the leading   
thought in the ,timaeus1 just        as 
the ,,idea of ,good is the leading      
thought of the ,republic1 the        one
 expression describing the personal1 the
 other the impersonal        ,good or   
,god1 differing in form rather than in  
substance1 and both        equally      
implying to the mind of ,plato a divine 
reality4 ,the        slight touch1      
perhaps ironical1 contained in the      
words1 #8as we        shall do well in  
believing on the testimony of wise men1'
 is very        characteristic of       
,plato4                ,,timaeus4       
,,persons ,,of ,,the ,,dialogue3        
,socrates1 ,critias1 ,timaeus1          
,hermocrates4          ,,socrates3 ,one1

 two1 three2 but where1 my dear         
,timaeus1 is the        fourth of those 
who were yesterday my guests and are to 
be my        entertainers to-day8       
,,timaeus3 ,he has been taken ill1      
,socrates2 for he would not             
willingly have been absent from this    
gathering4          ,,socrates3 ,then1  
if he is not coming1 you and the two    
others must        supply his place4    
,,timaeus3 ,certainly1 and we will do   
all that we can2 having been            
handsomely entertained by you yesterday1
 those of us who remain        should be
 only too glad to return your           
hospitality4          ,,socrates3 ,do   
you remember what were the points of    
which ,i        required you to speak8  
,,timaeus3 ,we remember some of them1   
and you will be here to remind        us
 of anything which we have forgotten3 or
 rather1 if we are not        troubling 
you1 will you briefly recapitulate the  
whole1 and then        the particulars  
will be more firmly fixed in our        

memories8          ,,socrates3 ,to be   
sure ,i will3 the chief theme of my     
yesterday's        discourse was the    
,state--how constituted and of what     
citizens        composed it would seem  
likely to be most perfect4              
,,timaeus3 ,yes1 ,socrates2 and what you
 said of it was very much to        our 
mind4          ,,socrates3 ,did we not  
begin by separating the husbandmen and  
the        artisans from the class of   
defenders of the ,state8                
,,timaeus3 ,yes4          ,,socrates3   
,and when we had given to each one that 
single        employment and particular 
art which was suited to his nature1 we  
spoke of those who were intended to be  
our warriors1 and said        that they 
were to be guardians of the city against
 attacks from        within as well as  
from without1 and to have no other      
employment2        they were to be      
merciful in judging their subjects1 of  
whom they        were by nature friends1
 but fierce to their enemies1 when they 

came across them in battle4             
,,timaeus3 ,exactly4                    
,,socrates3 ,we said1 if ,i am not      
mistaken1 that the guardians            
should be gifted with a temperament in a
 high degree both        passionate and 
philosophical2 and that then they would 
be as they        ought to be1 gentle to
 their friends and fierce with their    
enemies4          ,,timaeus3 ,certainly4
          ,,socrates3 ,and what did we  
say of their education8 ,were they not  
to be trained in gymnastic1 and music1  
and all other sorts of        knowledge 
which were proper for them8             
,,timaeus3 ,very true4                  
,,socrates3 ,and being thus trained they
 were not to consider gold        or    
silver or anything else to be their own 
private property2 they        were to be
 like hired troops1 receiving pay for   
keeping guard        from those who were
 protected by them--the pay was to be no
 more        than would suffice for men 
of simple life2 and they were to spend  

in common1 and to live together in the  
continual practice of        virtue1    
which was to be their sole pursuit4     
,,timaeus3 ,that was also said4         
,,socrates3 ,neither did we forget the  
women2 of whom we declared1        that 
their natures should be assimilated and 
brought into harmony        with those  
of the men1 and that common pursuits    
should be        assigned to them both  
in time of war and in their ordinary    
life4          ,,timaeus3 ,that1 again1 
was as you say4          ,,socrates3    
,and what about the procreation of      
children8 ,or rather        was not the 
proposal too singular to be forgotten8  
for all wives        and children were  
to be in common1 to the intent that no  
one        should ever know his own     
child1 but they were to imagine that    
they were all one family2 those who were
 within a suitable limit        of age  
were to be brothers and sisters1 those  
who were of an        elder generation  
parents and grandparents1 and those of a

        younger1 children and           
grandchildren4          ,,timaeus3 ,yes1
 and the proposal is easy to remember1  
as you say4          ,,socrates3 ,and do
 you also remember how1 with a view of  
securing        as far as we could the  
best breed1 we said that the chief      
magistrates1 male and female1 should    
contrive secretly1 by the        use of 
certain lots1 so to arrange the nuptial 
meeting1 that the        bad of either  
sex and the good of either sex might    
pair with        their like2 and there  
was to be no quarrelling on this        
account1        for they would imagine  
that the union was a mere accident1 and 
was to be attributed to the lot8        
,,timaeus3 ,i remember4                 
,,socrates3 ,and you remember how we    
said that the children of the           
good parents were to be educated1 and   
the children of the bad        secretly 
dispersed among the inferior citizens2  
and while they        were all growing  
up the rulers were to be on the         

look-out1 and to        bring up from   
below in their turn those who were      
worthy1 and        those among          
themselves who were unworthy were to    
take the places        of those who came
 up8          ,,timaeus3 ,true4         
,,socrates3 ,then have ,i now given you 
all the heads of our        yesterday's 
discussion8 ,or is there anything more1 
my dear        ,timaeus1 which has been 
omitted8          ,,timaeus3 ,nothing1  
,socrates2 it was just as you have said4
          ,,socrates3 ,i should like1   
before proceeding further1 to tell you  
how ,i feel about the ,state which we   
have described4 ,i might        compare 
myself to a person who1 on beholding    
beautiful animals        either created 
by the painter's art1 or1 better still1 
alive but        at rest1 is seized with
 a desire of seeing them in motion or   
engaged in some struggle or conflict to 
which their forms appear        suited2 
this is my feeling about the ,state     
which we have been        describing4   

,there are conflicts which all cities   
undergo1 and ,i        should like to   
hear some one tell of our own city      
carrying on a        struggle against   
her neighbours1 and how she went out to 
war in a        becoming manner1 and    
when at war showed by the greatness of  
her        actions and the magnanimity  
of her words in dealing with other      
cities a result worthy of her training  
and education4 ,now ,i1        ,critias 
and ,hermocrates1 am conscious that ,i  
myself should never        be able to   
celebrate the city and her citizens in a
 befitting        manner1 and ,i am not 
surprised at my own incapacity2 to me   
the        wonder is rather that the    
poets present as well as past are no    
better--not that ,i mean to depreciate  
them2 but every one can see        that 
they are a tribe of imitators1 and will 
imitate best and        most easily the 
life in which they have been brought up2
 while        that which is beyond the  
range of a man's education he finds hard

        to carry out in action1 and     
still harder adequately to represent    
in language4 ,i am aware that the       
,sophists have plenty of brave          
words and fair conceits1 but ,i am      
afraid that being only        wanderers 
from one city to another1 and having    
never had        habitations of their   
own1 they may fail in their conception  
of        philosophers and statesmen1   
and may not know what they do and say   
in time of war1 when they are fighting  
or holding parley with        their     
enemies4 ,and thus people of your class 
are the only ones        remaining who  
are fitted by nature and education to   
take part at        once both in        
politics and philosophy4 ,here is       
,timaeus1 of ,locris        in ,italy1 a
 city which has admirable laws1 and who 
is himself in        wealth and rank the
 equal of any of his fellow-citizens2 he
 has        held the most important and 
honourable offices in his own state1    
and1 as ,i believe1 has scaled the      

heights of all philosophy2 and          
here is ,critias1 whom every ,athenian  
knows to be no novice in the            
matters of which we are speaking2 and as
 to ,hermocrates1 ,i am        assured  
by many witnesses that his genius and   
education qualify        him to take    
part in any speculation of the kind4    
,and therefore        yesterday when ,i 
saw that you wanted me to describe the  
formation        of the ,state1 ,i      
readily assented1 being very well aware1
 that1 if        you only would1 none   
were better qualified to carry the      
discussion further1 and that when you   
had engaged our city in a               
suitable war1 you of all men living     
could best exhibit her        playing a 
fitting part4 ,when ,i had completed my 
task1 ,i in return        imposed this  
other task upon you4 ,you conferred     
together and        agreed to entertain 
me to-day1 as ,i had entertained you1   
with a        feast of discourse4 ,here 
am ,i in festive array1 and no man can  

be        more ready for the promised   
banquet4          ,,hermocrates3 ,and we
 too1 ,socrates1 as ,timaeus says1 will 
not be        wanting in enthusiasm2 and
 there is no excuse for not complying   
with your request4 ,as soon as we       
arrived yesterday at the                
guest-chamber of ,critias1 with whom we 
are staying1 or rather on        our way
 thither1 we talked the matter over1 and
 he told us an        ancient tradition1
 which ,i wish1 ,critias1 that you would
 repeat        to ,socrates1 so that he 
may help us to judge whether it will    
satisfy his requirements or not4        
,,critias3 ,i will1 if ,timaeus1 who is 
our other partner1 approves4            
,,timaeus3 ,i quite approve4            
,,critias3 ,then listen1 ,socrates1 to a
 tale which1 though strange1        is  
certainly true1 having been attested by 
,solon1 who was the        wisest of the
 seven sages4 ,he was a relative and a  
dear friend of        my                
great-grandfather1 ,dropides1 as he     

himself says in many        passages of 
his poems2 and he told the story to     
,critias1 my        grandfather1 who    
remembered and repeated it to us4 ,there
 were of        old1 he said1 great and 
marvellous actions of the ,athenian     
city1        which have passed into     
oblivion through lapse of time and the  
destruction of mankind1 and one in      
particular1 greater than all        the 
rest4 ,this we will now rehearse4 ,it   
will be a fitting        monument of our
 gratitude to you1 and a hymn of praise 
true and        worthy of the goddess1  
on this her day of festival4            
,,socrates3 ,very good4 ,and what is    
this ancient famous action of        the
 ,athenians1 which ,critias declared1 on
 the authority of ,solon1        to be  
not a mere legend1 but an actual fact8  
,,critias3 ,i will tell an old-world    
story which ,i heard from an        aged
 man2 for ,critias1 at the time of      
telling it1 was1 as he        said1     
nearly ninety years of age1 and ,i was  

about ten4 ,now the        day was that 
day of the ,apaturia which is called the
 ,registration        of ,youth1 at     
which1 according to custom1 our parents 
gave prizes        for recitations1 and 
the poems of several poets were recited 
by        us boys1 and many of us sang  
the poems of ,solon1 which at that      
time had not gone out of fashion4 ,one  
of our tribe1 either        because he  
thought so or to please ,critias1 said  
that in his        judgment ,solon was  
not only the wisest of men1 but also the
        noblest of poets4 ,the old man1 
as ,i very well remember1               
brightened up at hearing this and said1 
smiling3 ,yes1 ,amynander1        if    
,solon had only1 like other poets1 made 
poetry the business of        his life1 
and had completed the tale which he     
brought with him        from ,egypt1 and
 had not been compelled1 by reason of   
the factions        and troubles which  
he found stirring in his own country    
when he        came home1 to attend to  

other matters1 in my opinion he would   
have been as famous as ,homer or        
,hesiod1 or any poet4          ,and what
 was the tale about1 ,critias8 said     
,amynander4          ,about the greatest
 action which the ,athenians ever did1  
and which        ought to have been the 
most famous1 but1 through the lapse of  
time and the destruction of the actors1 
it has not come down to        us4      
,tell us1 said the other1 the whole     
story1 and how and from whom            
,solon heard this veritable tradition4  
,he replied3--,in the ,egyptian ,delta1 
at the head of which the river          
,nile divides1 there is a certain       
district which is called the            
district of ,sais1 and the great city of
 the district is also        called     
,sais1 and is the city from which ,king 
,amasis came4 ,the        citizens have 
a deity for their foundress2 she is     
called in the        ,egyptian tongue   
,neith1 and is asserted by them to be   
the same        whom the ,hellenes call 

,athene2 they are great lovers of the   
,athenians1 and say that they are in    
some way related to them4 ,to           
this city came ,solon1 and was received 
there with great honour2        he asked
 the priests who were most skilful in   
such matters1 about        antiquity1   
and made the discovery that neither he  
nor any other        ,hellene knew      
anything worth mentioning about the     
times of old4 ,on        one occasion1  
wishing to draw them on to speak of     
antiquity1 he        began to tell about
 the most ancient things in our part of 
the        world--about ,phoroneus1 who 
is called #8the first man1' and about   
,niobe2 and after the ,deluge1 of the   
survival of ,deucalion and              
,pyrrha2 and he traced the genealogy of 
their descendants1 and        reckoning 
up the dates1 tried to compute how many 
years ago the        events of which he 
was speaking happened4 ,thereupon one of
 the        priests1 who was of a very  
great age1 said3 ,o ,solon1 ,solon1 you 

,hellenes are never anything but        
children1 and there is not an old       
man among you4 ,solon in return asked   
him what he meant4 ,i mean to           
say1 he replied1 that in mind you are   
all young2 there is no old              
opinion handed down among you by ancient
 tradition1 nor any        science which
 is hoary with age4 ,and ,i will tell   
you why4 ,there        have been1 and   
will be again1 many destructions of     
mankind        arising out of many      
causes2 the greatest have been brought  
about        by the agencies of fire and
 water1 and other lesser ones by        
innumerable other causes4 ,there is a   
story1 which even you have              
preserved1 that once upon a time        
,paethon1 the son of ,helios1           
having yoked the steeds in his father's 
chariot1 because he was        not able 
to drive them in the path of his father1
 burnt up all        that was upon the  
earth1 and was himself destroyed by a   
thunderbolt4 ,now this has the form of a

 myth1 but really        signifies a    
declination of the bodies moving in the 
heavens        around the earth1 and a  
great conflagration of things upon the  
earth1 which recurs after long          
intervals2 at such times those who      
live upon the mountains and in dry and  
lofty places are more        liable to  
destruction than those who dwell by     
rivers or on the        seashore4 ,and  
from this calamity the ,nile1 who is our
        never-failing saviour1 delivers 
and preserves us4 ,when1 on the         
other hand1 the gods purge the earth    
with a deluge of water1 the             
survivors in your country are herdsmen  
and shepherds who dwell on        the   
mountains1 but those who1 like you1 live
 in cities are        carried by the    
rivers into the sea4 ,whereas in this   
land1 neither        then nor at any    
other time1 does the water come down    
from above        on the fields1 having 
always a tendency to come up from below2
        for which reason the traditions 

preserved here are the most             
ancient4 ,the fact is1 that wherever the
 extremity of winter frost        or of 
summer sun does not prevent1 mankind    
exist1 sometimes in        greater1     
sometimes in lesser numbers4 ,and       
whatever happened        either in your 
country or in ours1 or in any other     
region of        which we are           
informed--if there were any actions     
noble or great or        in any other   
way remarkable1 they have all been      
written down by        us of old1 and   
are preserved in our temples4 ,whereas  
just when        you and other nations  
are beginning to be provided with       
letters        and the other requisites 
of civilized life1 after the usual      
interval1 the stream from heaven1 like a
 pestilence1 comes        pouring down1 
and leaves only those of you who are    
destitute of        letters and         
education2 and so you have to begin all 
over again        like children1 and    
know nothing of what happened in ancient

        times1 either among us or among 
yourselves4 ,as for those               
genealogies of yours which you just now 
recounted to us1 ,solon1        they are
 no better than the tales of children4  
,in the first place        you remember 
a single deluge only1 but there were    
many previous        ones2 in the next  
place1 you do not know that there       
formerly        dwelt in your land the  
fairest and noblest race of men which   
ever        lived1 and that you and your
 whole city are descended from a        
small seed or remnant of them which     
survived4 ,and this was        unknown  
to you1 because1 for many generations1  
the survivors of        that destruction
 died1 leaving no written word4 ,for    
there was a        time1 ,solon1 before 
the great deluge of all1 when the city  
which        now is ,athens was first in
 war and in every way the best governed 
of all cities1 is said to have performed
 the noblest deeds and to        have   
had the fairest constitution of any of  

which tradition        tells1 under the 
face of heaven4 ,solon marvelled at his 
words1        and earnestly requested   
the priests to inform him exactly and in
        order about these former        
citizens4 ,you are welcome to hear about
        them1 ,solon1 said the priest1  
both for your own sake and for that     
of your city1 and above all1 for the    
sake of the goddess who is        the   
common patron and parent and educator of
 both our cities4 ,she        founded   
your city a thousand years before ours  
7,observe that        ,plato gives the  
same date 7#ijjj years ago7 for the     
foundation of        ,athens and for the
 repulse of the invasion from ,atlantis 
7,crit47471 receiving from the ,earth   
and ,hephaestus the seed of        your 
race1 and afterwards she founded ours1  
of which the        constitution is     
recorded in our sacred registers to be  
#hjjj years        old4 ,as touching    
your citizens of #ijjj years ago1 ,i    
will briefly        inform you of their 

laws and of their most famous action2   
the        exact particulars of the     
whole we will hereafter go through at   
our leisure in the sacred registers     
themselves4 ,if you compare        these
 very laws with ours you will find that 
many of ours are the        counterpart 
of yours as they were in the olden time4
 ,in the first        place1 there is   
the caste of priests1 which is separated
 from all        the others2 next1 there
 are the artificers1 who ply their      
several        crafts by themselves and 
do not intermix2 and also there is the  
class of shepherds and of hunters1 as   
well as that of husbandmen2        and  
you will observe1 too1 that the warriors
 in ,egypt are        distinct from all 
the other classes1 and are commanded by 
the law        to devote themselves     
solely to military pursuits2 moreover1  
the        weapons which they carry are 
shields and spears1 a style of          
equipment which the goddess taught of   
,asiatics first to us1 as in        your

 part of the world first to you4 ,then  
as to wisdom1 do you        observe how 
our law from the very first made a study
 of the whole        order of things1   
extending even to prophecy and medicine 
which        gives health1 out of these 
divine elements deriving what was       
needful for human life1 and adding every
 sort of knowledge which        was akin
 to them4 ,all this order and           
arrangement the goddess        first    
imparted to you when establishing your  
city2 and she chose        the spot of  
earth in which you were born1 because   
she saw that        the happy           
temperament of the seasons in that land 
would produce        the wisest of men4 
,wherefore the goddess1 who was a lover 
both of        war and of wisdom1       
selected and first of all settled that  
spot        which was the most likely to
 produce men likest herself4 ,and       
there you dwelt1 having such laws as    
these and still better ones1        and 
excelled all mankind in all virtue1 as  

became the children        and disciples
 of the gods4          ,many great and  
wonderful deeds are recorded of your    
state in our        histories4 ,but one 
of them exceeds all the rest in         
greatness and        valour4 ,for these 
histories tell of a mighty power which  
unprovoked made an expedition against   
the whole of ,europe and        ,asia1  
and to which your city put an end4 ,this
 power came forth        out of the     
,atlantic ,ocean1 for in those days the 
,atlantic was        navigable2 and     
there was an island situated in front of
 the        straits which are by you    
called the ,pillars of ,heracles2 the   
island was larger than ,libya and ,asia 
put together1 and was the        way to 
other islands1 and from these you might 
pass to the whole        of the opposite
 continent which surrounded the true    
ocean2 for        this sea which is     
within the ,straits of ,heracles is only
 a        harbour1 having a narrow      
entrance1 but that other is a real sea1 

and the surrounding land may be most    
truly called a boundless                
continent4 ,now in this island of       
,atlantis there was a great and         
wonderful empire which had rule over the
 whole island and several        others1
 and over parts of the continent1 and1  
furthermore1 the        men of ,atlantis
 had subjected the parts of ,libya      
within the        columns of ,heracles  
as far as ,egypt1 and of ,europe as far 
as        ,tyrrhenia4 ,this vast power1 
gathered into one1 endeavoured to       
subdue at a blow our country and yours  
and the whole of the        region      
within the straits2 and then1 ,solon1   
your country shone        forth1 in the 
excellence of her virtue and strength1  
among all        mankind4 ,she was      
pre-eminent in courage and military     
skill1 and        was the leader of the 
,hellenes4 ,and when the rest fell off  
from        her1 being compelled to     
stand alone1 after having undergone the 
very extremity of danger1 she defeated  

and triumphed over the        invaders1 
and preserved from slavery those who    
were not yet        subjugated1 and     
generously liberated all the rest of us 
who dwell        within the pillars4    
,but afterwards there occurred violent  
earthquakes and floods2 and in a single 
day and night of        misfortune all  
your warlike men in a body sank into the
 earth1        and the island of        
,atlantis in like manner disappeared in 
the        depths of the sea4 ,for which
 reason the sea in those parts is       
impassable and impenetrable1 because    
there is a shoal of mud in        the   
way2 and this was caused by the         
subsidence of the island4          ,i   
have told you briefly1 ,socrates1 what  
the aged ,critias heard        from     
,solon and related to us4 ,and when you 
were speaking        yesterday about    
your city and citizens1 the tale which  
,i have        just been repeating to   
you came into my mind1 and ,i remarked  
with        astonishment how1 by some   

mysterious coincidence1 you agreed in   
almost every particular with the        
narrative of ,solon2 but ,i did         
not like to speak at the moment4 ,for a 
long time had elapsed1 and        ,i had
 forgotten too much2 ,i thought that ,i 
must first of all run        over the   
narrative in my own mind1 and then ,i   
would speak4 ,and so        ,i readily  
assented to your request yesterday1     
considering that in        all such     
cases the chief difficulty is to find a 
tale suitable to        our purpose1 and
 that with such a tale we should be     
fairly well        provided4            
,and therefore1 as ,hermocrates has told
 you1 on my way home        yesterday ,i
 at once communicated the tale to my    
companions as ,i        remembered it2  
and after ,i left them1 during the night
 by        thinking ,i recovered nearly 
the whole of it4 ,truly1 as is often    
said1 the lessons of our childhood make 
a wonderful impression on        our    
memories2 for ,i am not sure that ,i    

could remember all the        discourse 
of yesterday1 but ,i should be much     
surprised if ,i        forgot any of    
these things which ,i have heard very   
long ago4 ,i        listened at the time
 with childlike interest to the old     
man's        narrative2 he was very     
ready to teach me1 and ,i asked him     
again        and again to repeat his    
words1 so that like an indelible picture
        they were branded into my mind4 
,as soon as the day broke1 ,i           
rehearsed them as he spoke them to my   
companions1 that they1 as        well as
 myself1 might have something to say4   
,and now1 ,socrates1        to make an  
end of my preface1 ,i am ready to tell  
you the whole        tale4 ,i will give 
you not only the general heads1 but the 
particulars1 as they were told to me4   
,the city and citizens1        which you
 yesterday described to us in fiction1  
we will now        transfer to the world
 of reality4 ,it shall be the ancient   
city of        ,athens1 and we will     

suppose that the citizens whom you      
imagined1        were our veritable     
ancestors1 of whom the priest spoke2    
they will        perfectly harmonize1   
and there will be no inconsistency in   
saying        that the citizens of your 
republic are these ancient ,athenians4  
,let us divide the subject among us1 and
 all endeavour according        to our  
ability gracefully to execute the task  
which you have        imposed upon us4  
,consider then1 ,socrates1 if this      
narrative is        suited to the       
purpose1 or whether we should seek for  
some other        instead4              
,,socrates3 ,and what other1 ,critias1  
can we find that will be        better  
than this1 which is natural and suitable
 to the festival        of the goddess1 
and has the very great advantage of     
being a fact        and not a fiction8  
,how or where shall we find another if  
we        abandon this8 ,we cannot1 and 
therefore you must tell the tale1       
and good luck to you2 and ,i in return  

for my yesterday's        discourse will
 now rest and be a listener4            
,,critias3 ,let me proceed to explain to
 you1 ,socrates1 the order in           
which we have arranged our              
entertainment4 ,our intention is1 that  
,timaeus1 who is the most of an         
astronomer amongst us1 and has          
made the nature of the universe his     
special study1 should speak             
first1 beginning with the generation of 
the world and going down        to the  
creation of man2 next1 ,i am to receive 
the men whom he has        created1 and 
of whom some will have profited by the  
excellent        education which you    
have given them2 and then1 in accordance
 with        the tale of ,solon1 and    
equally with his law1 we will bring them
        into court and make them        
citizens1 as if they were those very    
,athenians whom the sacred ,egyptian    
record has recovered from               
oblivion1 and thenceforward we will     
speak of them as ,athenians        and  

fellow-citizens4          ,,socrates3 ,i
 see that ,i shall receive in my turn a 
perfect and        splendid feast of    
reason4 ,and now1 ,timaeus1 you1 ,i     
suppose1        should speak next1 after
 duly calling upon the ,gods4           
,,timaeus3 ,all men1 ,socrates1 who have
 any degree of right feeling1        at 
the beginning of every enterprise1      
whether small or great1        always   
call upon ,god4 ,and we1 too1 who are   
going to discourse of        the nature 
of the universe1 how created or how     
existing without        creation1 if we 
be not altogether out of our wits1 must 
invoke        the aid of ,gods and      
,goddesses and pray that our words may  
be        acceptable to them and        
consistent with themselves4 ,let this1  
then1 be our invocation of the ,gods1 to
 which ,i add an        exhortation of  
myself to speak in such manner as will  
be most        intelligible to you1 and 
will most accord with my own intent4    
,first then1 in my judgment1 we must    

make a distinction and ask1        ,what
 is that which always is and has no     
becoming2 and what is        that which 
is always becoming and never is8 ,that  
which is        apprehended by          
intelligence and reason is always in the
 same        state2 but that which is   
conceived by opinion with the help of   
sensation and without reason1 is always 
in a process of becoming        and     
perishing and never really is4 ,now     
everything that becomes or        is    
created must of necessity be created by 
some cause1 for        without a cause  
nothing can be created4 ,the work of the
 creator1        whenever he looks to   
the unchangeable and fashions the form  
and        nature of his work after an  
unchangeable pattern1 must              
necessarily be made fair and perfect2   
but when he looks to the        created 
only1 and uses a created pattern1 it is 
not fair or        perfect4 ,was the    
heaven then or the world1 whether called
 by this        or by any other more    

appropriate name--assuming the name1 ,i 
am        asking a question which has to
 be asked at the beginning of an        
enquiry about anything--was the world1  
,i say1 always in existence        and  
without beginning8 or created1 and had  
it a beginning8        ,created1 ,i     
reply1 being visible and tangible and   
having a body1        and therefore     
sensible2 and all sensible things are   
apprehended        by opinion and sense 
and are in a process of creation and    
created4 ,now that which is created     
must1 as we affirm1 of        necessity 
be created by a cause4 ,but the father  
and maker of all        this universe is
 past finding out2 and even if we found 
him1 to        tell of him to all men   
would be impossible4 ,and there is still
 a        question to be asked about    
him3 ,which of the patterns had the     
artificer in view when he made the      
world--the pattern of the               
unchangeable1 or of that which is       
created8 ,if the world be indeed        

fair and the artificer good1 it is      
manifest that he must have        looked
 to that which is eternal2 but if what  
cannot be said        without blasphemy 
is true1 then to the created pattern4   
,every one        will see that he must 
have looked to the eternal2 for the     
world        is the fairest of creations
 and he is the best of causes4 ,and     
having been created in this way1 the    
world has been framed in the            
likeness of that which is apprehended by
 reason and mind and is                 
unchangeable1 and must therefore of     
necessity1 if this is        admitted1  
be a copy of something4 ,now it is      
all-important that        the beginning 
of everything should be according to    
nature4 ,and in        speaking of the  
copy and the original we may assume that
 words        are akin to the matter    
which they describe2 when they relate to
        the lasting and permanent and   
intelligible1 they ought to be          
lasting and unalterable1 and1 as far as 

their nature allows1        irrefutable 
and immovable--nothing less4 ,but when  
they express        only the copy or    
likeness and not the eternal things     
themselves1        they need only be    
likely and analogous to the real words4 
,as        being is to becoming1 so is  
truth to belief4 ,if then1 ,socrates1   
amid the many opinions about the gods   
and the generation of the               
universe1 we are not able to give       
notions which are altogether        and 
in every respect exact and consistent   
with one another1 do        not be      
surprised4 ,enough1 if we adduce        
probabilities as likely as        any   
others2 for we must remember that ,i who
 am the speaker1 and        you who are 
the judges1 are only mortal men1 and we 
ought to        accept the tale which is
 probable and enquire no further4       
,,socrates3 ,excellent1 ,timaeus2 and we
 will do precisely as you bid        us4
 ,the prelude is charming1 and is       
already accepted by us--may we          

beg of you to proceed to the strain8    
,,timaeus3 ,let me tell you then why the
 creator made this world of             
generation4 ,he was good1 and the good  
can never have any jealousy        of   
anything4 ,and being free from jealousy1
 he desired that all        things      
should be as like himself as they could 
be4 ,this is in the        truest sense 
the origin of creation and of the world1
 as we shall        do well in believing
 on the testimony of wise men3 ,god     
desired        that all things should be
 good and nothing bad1 so far as this   
was attainable4 ,wherefore also finding 
the whole visible sphere        not at  
rest1 but moving in an irregular and    
disorderly fashion1        out of       
disorder he brought order1 considering  
that this was in        every way better
 than the other4 ,now the deeds of the  
best could        never be or have been 
other than the fairest2 and the creator1
        reflecting on the things which  
are by nature visible1 found that       

no unintelligent creature taken as a    
whole was fairer than the               
intelligent taken as a whole2 and that  
intelligence could not be        present
 in anything which was devoid of soul4  
,for which reason1        when he was   
framing the universe1 he put            
intelligence in soul1        and soul in
 body1 that he might be the creator of a
 work which        was by nature fairest
 and best4 ,wherefore1 using the        
language of        probability1 we may  
say that the world became a living      
creature        truly endowed with soul 
and intelligence by the providence of   
,god4          ,this being supposed1 let
 us proceed to the next stage3 ,in the  
likeness of what animal did the ,creator
 make the world8 ,it would        be an 
unworthy thing to liken it to any nature
 which exists as a        part only2 for
 nothing can be beautiful which is like 
any        imperfect thing2 but let us  
suppose the world to be the very        
image of that whole of which all other  

animals both individually        and in 
their tribes are portions4 ,for the     
original of the        universe contains
 in itself all intelligible beings1 just
 as this        world comprehends us and
 all other visible creatures4 ,for the  
,deity1 intending to make this world    
like the fairest and most        perfect
 of intelligible beings1 framed one     
visible animal        comprehending     
within itself all other animals of a    
kindred        nature4 ,are we right in 
saying that there is one world1 or that 
they are many and infinite8 ,there must 
be one only1 if the        created copy 
is to accord with the original4 ,for    
that which        includes all other    
intelligible creatures cannot have a    
second or        companion2 in that case
 there would be need of another living  
being which would include both1 and of  
which they would be parts1        and   
the likeness would be more truly said to
 resemble not them1        but that     
other which included them4 ,in order    

then that the world        might be     
solitary1 like the perfect animal1 the  
creator made not        two worlds or an
 infinite number of them2 but there is  
and ever        will be one             
only-begotten and created heaven4       
,now that which is created is of        
necessity corporeal1 and also           
visible and tangible4 ,and nothing is   
visible where there is no        fire1  
or tangible which has no solidity1 and  
nothing is solid        without earth4  
,wherefore also ,god in the beginning of
 creation        made the body of the   
universe to consist of fire and earth4  
,but        two things cannot be rightly
 put together without a third2 there    
must be some bond of union between them4
 ,and the fairest bond is        that   
which makes the most complete fusion of 
itself and the        things which it   
combines2 and proportion is best adapted
 to        effect such a union4 ,for    
whenever in any three numbers1 whether  
cube or square1 there is a mean1 which  

is to the last term what        the     
first term is to it2 and again1 when the
 mean is to the first        term as the
 last term is to the mean--then the mean
 becoming first        and last1 and the
 first and last both becoming means1    
they will        all of them of         
necessity come to be the same1 and      
having become        the same with one  
another will be all one4 ,if the        
universal frame        had been created 
a surface only and having no depth1 a   
single        mean would have sufficed  
to bind together itself and the other   
terms2 but now1 as the world must be    
solid1 and solid bodies are             
always compacted not by one mean but by 
two1 ,god placed water and        air in
 the mean between fire and earth1 and   
made them to have the        same       
proportion so far as was possible 7as   
fire is to air so is        air to      
water1 and as air is to water so is     
water to earth72 and        thus he     
bound and put together a visible and    

tangible heaven4 ,and        for these  
reasons1 and out of such elements which 
are in number        four1 the body of  
the world was created1 and it was       
harmonized by        proportion1 and    
therefore has the spirit of friendship2 
and        having been reconciled to    
itself1 it was indissoluble by the hand 
of any other than the framer4           
,now the creation took up the whole of  
each of the four elements2        for   
the ,creator compounded the world out of
 all the fire and all        the water  
and all the air and all the earth1      
leaving no part of        any of them   
nor any power of them outside4 ,his     
intention was1 in        the first      
place1 that the animal should be as far 
as possible a        perfect whole and  
of perfect parts3 secondly1 that it     
should be        one1 leaving no        
remnants out of which another such world
 might be        created3 and also that 
it should be free from old age and      
unaffected by disease4 ,considering that

 if heat and cold and        other      
powerful forces which unite bodies      
surround and attack them        from    
without when they are unprepared1 they  
decompose them1 and        by bringing  
diseases and old age upon them1 make    
them waste        away--for this cause  
and on these grounds he made the world  
one        whole1 having every part     
entire1 and being therefore perfect and 
not liable to old age and disease4 ,and 
he gave to the world the        figure  
which was suitable and also natural4    
,now to the animal        which was to  
comprehend all animals1 that figure was 
suitable        which comprehends within
 itself all other figures4 ,wherefore he
        made the world in the form of a 
globe1 round as from a lathe1           
having its extremes in every direction  
equidistant from the        centre1 the 
most perfect and the most like itself of
 all figures2        for he considered  
that the like is infinitely fairer than 
the        unlike4 ,this he finished    

off1 making the surface smooth all round
        for many reasons2 in the first  
place1 because the living being         
had no need of eyes when there was      
nothing remaining outside him        to 
be seen2 nor of ears when there was     
nothing to be heard2 and        there   
was no surrounding atmosphere to be     
breathed2 nor would        there have   
been any use of organs by the help of   
which he might        receive his food  
or get rid of what he had already       
digested1        since there was nothing
 which went from him or came into him3  
for        there was nothing beside him4
 ,of design he was created thus1 his    
own waste providing his own food1 and   
all that he did or suffered             
taking place in and by himself4 ,for the
 ,creator conceived that a        being 
which was self-sufficient would be far  
more excellent than        one which    
lacked anything2 and1 as he had no need 
to take        anything or defend       
himself against any one1 the ,creator   

did not        think it necessary to    
bestow upon him hands3 nor had he any   
need        of feet1 nor of the whole   
apparatus of walking2 but the movement  
suited to his spherical form was        
assigned to him1 being of all        the
 seven that which is most appropriate to
 mind and        intelligence2 and he   
was made to move in the same manner and 
on        the same spot1 within his own 
limits revolving in a circle4 ,all      
the other six motions were taken away   
from him1 and he was made        not to 
partake of their deviations4 ,and as    
this circular movement        required  
no feet1 the universe was created       
without legs and        without feet4   
,such was the whole plan of the eternal 
,god about the god that was        to   
be1 to whom for this reason he gave a   
body1 smooth and even1        having a  
surface in every direction equidistant  
from the centre1        a body entire   
and perfect1 and formed out of perfect  
bodies4 ,and        in the centre he put

 the soul1 which he diffused throughout 
the        body1 making it also to be   
the exterior environment of it2 and he  
made the universe a circle moving in a  
circle1 one and solitary1        yet by 
reason of its excellence able to        
converse with itself1 and        needing
 no other friendship or acquaintance4   
,having these        purposes in view he
 created the world a blessed god4       
,now ,god did not make the soul after   
the body1 although we are               
speaking of them in this order2 for     
having brought them together        he  
would never have allowed that the elder 
should be ruled by the        younger2  
but this is a random manner of speaking 
which we have1        because somehow we
 ourselves too are very much under the  
dominion        of chance4 ,whereas he  
made the soul in origin and excellence  
prior to and older than the body1 to be 
the ruler and mistress1        of whom  
the body was to be the subject4 ,and he 
made her out of        the following    

elements and on this wise3 ,out of the  
indivisible        and unchangeable1 and
 also out of that which is divisible and
 has        to do with material bodies1 
he compounded a third and               
intermediate kind of essence1 partaking 
of the nature of the same        and of 
the other1 and this compound he placed  
accordingly in a        mean between the
 indivisible1 and the divisible and     
material4 ,he        took the three     
elements of the same1 the other1 and the
 essence1        and mingled them into  
one form1 compressing by force the      
reluctant and unsociable nature of the  
other into the same4 ,when        he had
 mingled them with the essence and out  
of three made one1        he again      
divided this whole into as many portions
 as was fitting1        each portion    
being a compound of the same1 the other1
 and the        essence4 ,and he        
proceeded to divide after this          
manner3--,first of        all1 he took  
away one part of the whole 7#a71 and    

then he        separated a second part  
which was double the first 7#b71 and    
then        he took away a third part   
which was half as much again as the     
second and three times as much as the   
first 7#c71 and then he took        a   
fourth part which was twice as much as  
the second 7#d71 and a        fifth part
 which was three times the third 7#i71  
and a sixth part        which was eight 
times the first 7#h71 and a seventh part
 which was        twenty-seven times the
 first 7#bg74 ,after this he filled up  
the        double intervals 7i4e4       
between #a1 #b1 #d1 #h7 and the triple  
7i4e4        between #a1 #c1 #i1 #bg7   
cutting off yet other portions from the 
mixture and placing them in the         
intervals1 so that in each              
interval there were two kinds of means1 
the one exceeding and        exceeded by
 equal parts of its extremes 7as for    
example #a1 #d_/c1        #b1 in which  
the mean #d_/c is one-third of #a more  
than #a1 and        one-third of #b less

 than #b71 the other being that kind of 
mean        which exceeds and is        
exceeded by an equal number 7e4g4      -
 over #a1 #d_/c1 #c_/b1 - over #b1      
#h_/c1 #c1 - over #d1 #af_/c1 #f1  -    
over #h3 and    - over #a1 #c_/b1 #b1   
- over #c1 #i_/b1 #f1 - over #i1 #bg_/b1
 #ah1 - over #bg4          ,where there 
were intervals of #c_/b and of #d_/c and
 of #i_/h1 made by        the connecting
 terms in the former intervals1 he      
filled up all        the intervals of   
#d_/c with the interval of #i_/h1       
leaving a fraction        over2 and the 
interval which this fraction expressed  
was in the        ratio of #bef to #bdc 
7e4g4                                   
#bdc3bef33ha_/fd3d_/c33bdc_/abh3b33ha_/c
b3h_/c33bdc_/fd3d33ha_/af3af_/c33bdb_/cb
3h4          ,and thus the whole mixture
 out of which he cut these portions was 
all exhausted by him4 ,this entire      
compound he divided lengthways          
into two parts1 which he joined to one  
another at the centre like        the   

letter ,x1 and bent them into a circular
 form1 connecting them        with      
themselves and each other at the point  
opposite to their        original       
meeting-point2 and1 comprehending them  
in a uniform        revolution upon the 
same axis1 he made the one the outer and
 the        other the inner circle4 ,now
 the motion of the outer circle he      
called the motion of the same1 and the  
motion of the inner circle        the   
motion of the other or diverse4 ,the    
motion of the same he        carried    
round by the side 7i4e4 of the          
rectangular figure        supposed to be
 inscribed in the circle of the ,same7  
to the right1        and the motion of  
the diverse diagonally 7i4e4 across the 
rectangular figure from corner to       
corner7 to the left4 ,and he        gave
 dominion to the motion of the same and 
like1 for that he        left single and
 undivided2 but the inner motion he     
divided in six        places and made   
seven unequal circles having their      

intervals in        ratios of two and   
three1 three of each1 and bade the      
orbits        proceed in a direction    
opposite to one another2 and three      
7,sun1        ,mercury1 ,venus7 he made 
to move with equal swiftness1 and the   
remaining four 7,moon1 ,saturn1 ,mars1  
,jupiter7 to move with unequal          
swiftness to the three and to one       
another1 but in due proportion4         
,now when the ,creator had framed the   
soul according to his will1        he   
formed within her the corporeal         
universe1 and brought the two           
together1 and united them centre to     
centre4 ,the soul1 interfused           
everywhere from the centre to the       
circumference of heaven1 of        which
 also she is the external envelopment1  
herself turning in        herself1 began
 a divine beginning of never-ceasing and
 rational        life enduring          
throughout all time4 ,the body of heaven
 is visible1        but the soul is     
invisible1 and partakes of reason and   

harmony1        and being made by the   
best of intellectual and everlasting    
natures1 is the best of things created4 
,and because she is        composed of  
the same and of the other and of the    
essence1 these        three1 and is     
divided and united in due proportion1   
and in her        revolutions returns   
upon herself1 the soul1 when touching   
anything which has essence1 whether     
dispersed in parts or        undivided1 
is stirred through all her powers1 to   
declare the        sameness or          
difference of that thing and some other2
 and to what        individuals are     
related1 and by what affected1 and in   
what way        and how and when1 both  
in the world of generation and in the   
world of immutable being4 ,and when     
reason1 which works with equal          
truth1 whether she be in the circle of  
the diverse or of the        same--in   
voiceless silence holding her onward    
course in the sphere        of the      
self-moved--when reason1 ,i say1 is     

hovering around the        sensible     
world and when the circle of the diverse
 also moving        truly imparts the   
intimations of sense to the whole soul1 
then        arise opinions and beliefs  
sure and certain4 ,but when reason is   
concerned with the rational1 and the    
circle of the same moving               
smoothly declares it1 then intelligence 
and knowledge are        necessarily    
perfected4 ,and if any one affirms that 
in which these        two are found to  
be other than the soul1 he will say the 
very        opposite of the truth4      
,when the father and creator saw the    
creature which he had made        moving
 and living1 the created image of the   
eternal gods1 he        rejoiced1 and in
 his joy determined to make the copy    
still more        like the original2 and
 as this was eternal1 he sought to make 
the        universe eternal1 so far as  
might be4 ,now the nature of the ideal  
being was everlasting1 but to bestow    
this attribute in its        fulness    

upon a creature was impossible4         
,wherefore he resolved to        have a 
moving image of eternity1 and when he   
set in order the        heaven1 he made 
this image eternal but moving according 
to        number1 while eternity itself 
rests in unity2 and this image we       
call time4 ,for there were no days and  
nights and months and years             
before the heaven was created1 but when 
he constructed the heaven        he     
created them also4 ,they are all parts  
of time1 and the past        and future 
are created species of time1 which we   
unconsciously        but wrongly        
transfer to the eternal essence2 for we 
say that he        #8was1' he #8is1' he 
#8will be1' but the truth is that #8is' 
alone is        properly attributed to  
him1 and that #8was' and #8will be' are 
only        to be spoken of becoming in 
time1 for they are motions1 but that    
which is immovably the same cannot      
become older or younger by        time1 
nor ever did or has become1 or hereafter

 will be1 older or        younger1 nor  
is subject at all to any of those states
 which        affect moving and sensible
 things and of which generation is the  
cause4 ,these are the forms of time1    
which imitates eternity and             
revolves according to a law of number4  
,moreover1 when we say that        what 
has become ,,is become and what becomes 
,,is becoming1 and that        what will
 become ,,is about to become and that   
the non-existent ,,is                   
non-existent--all these are inaccurate  
modes of expression        7compare     
,parmen474 ,but perhaps this whole      
subject will be more        suitably    
discussed on some other occasion4       
,time1 then1 and the heaven came into   
being at the same instant in            
order that1 having been created         
together1 if ever there was to be       
a dissolution of them1 they might be    
dissolved together4 ,it was             
framed after the pattern of the eternal 
nature1 that it might        resemble   

this as far as was possible2 for the    
pattern exists from        eternity1 and
 the created heaven has been1 and is1   
and will be1        in all time4 ,such  
was the mind and thought of ,god in the 
creation        of time4 ,the sun and   
moon and five other stars1 which are    
called        the planets1 were created 
by him in order to distinguish and      
preserve the numbers of time2 and when  
he had made their several        bodies1
 he placed them in the orbits in which  
the circle of the        other was      
revolving1--in seven orbits seven stars4
 ,first1 there        was the moon in   
the orbit nearest the earth1 and next   
the sun1 in        the second orbit     
above the earth2 then came the morning  
star and        the star sacred to      
,hermes1 moving in orbits which have an 
equal        swiftness with the sun1 but
 in an opposite direction2 and this is  
the reason why the sun and ,hermes and  
,lucifer overtake and are               
overtaken by each other4 ,to enumerate  

the places which he        assigned to  
the other stars1 and to give all the    
reasons why he        assigned them1    
although a secondary matter1 would give 
more        trouble than the primary4   
,these things at some future time1 when 
we are at leisure1 may have the         
consideration which they deserve1       
but not at present4          ,now1 when 
all the stars which were necessary to   
the creation of        time had attained
 a motion suitable to them1 and had     
become        living creatures having   
bodies fastened by vital chains1 and    
learnt their appointed task1 moving in  
the motion of the diverse1        which 
is diagonal1 and passes through and is  
governed by the        motion of the    
same1 they revolved1 some in a larger   
and some in a        lesser orbit--those
 which had the lesser orbit revolving   
faster1        and those which had the  
larger more slowly4 ,now by reason of   
the        motion of the same1 those    
which revolved fastest appeared to be   

overtaken by those which moved slower   
although they really        overtook    
them2 for the motion of the same made   
them all turn in a        spiral1 and1  
because some went one way and some      
another1 that        which receded most 
slowly from the sphere of the same1     
which was        the swiftest1 appeared 
to follow it most nearly4 ,that there   
might        be some visible measure of 
their relative swiftness and slowness   
as they proceeded in their eight        
courses1 ,god lighted a fire1           
which we now call the sun1 in the second
 from the earth of these        orbits1 
that it might give light to the whole of
 heaven1 and that        the animals1 as
 many as nature intended1 might         
participate in        number1 learning  
arithmetic from the revolution of the   
same and        the like4 ,thus then1   
and for this reason the night and the   
day        were created1 being the      
period of the one most intelligent      
revolution4 ,and the month is           

accomplished when the moon has          
completed her orbit and overtaken the   
sun1 and the year when the        sun   
has completed his own orbit4 ,mankind1  
with hardly an        exception1 have   
not remarked the periods of the other   
stars1 and        they have no name for 
them1 and do not measure them against   
one        another by the help of       
number1 and hence they can scarcely be  
said to know that their wanderings1     
being infinite in number and            
admirable for their variety1 make up    
time4 ,and yet there is no              
difficulty in seeing that the perfect   
number of time fulfils the              
perfect year when all the eight         
revolutions1 having their               
relative degrees of swiftness1 are      
accomplished together and        attain 
their completion at the same time1      
measured by the        rotation of the  
same and equally moving4 ,after this    
manner1 and        for these reasons1   
came into being such of the stars as in 

their        heavenly progress received 
reversals of motion1 to the end that    
the created heaven might imitate the    
eternal nature1 and be as        like as
 possible to the perfect and            
intelligible animal4          ,thus far 
and until the birth of time the created 
universe was        made in the likeness
 of the original1 but inasmuch as all   
animals        were not yet comprehended
 therein1 it was still unlike4 ,what    
remained1 the creator then proceeded to 
fashion after the nature        of the  
pattern4 ,now as in the ideal animal the
 mind perceives        ideas or species 
of a certain nature and number1 he      
thought that        this created animal 
ought to have species of a like nature  
and        number4 ,there are four such2
 one of them is the heavenly race of    
the gods2 another1 the race of birds    
whose way is in the air2 the            
third1 the watery species2 and the      
fourth1 the pedestrian and        land  
creatures4 ,of the heavenly and divine1 

he created the        greater part out  
of fire1 that they might be the         
brightest of all        things and      
fairest to behold1 and he fashioned them
 after the        likeness of the       
universe in the figure of a circle1 and 
made them        follow the intelligent 
motion of the supreme1 distributing them
        over the whole circumference of 
heaven1 which was to be a true          
cosmos or glorious world spangled with  
them all over4 ,and he gave        to   
each of them two movements3 the first1 a
 movement on the same        spot after 
the same manner1 whereby they ever      
continue to think        consistently   
the same thoughts about the same things2
 the second1        a forward movement1 
in which they are controlled by the     
revolution of the same and the like2 but
 by the other five        motions they  
were unaffected1 in order that each of  
them might        attain the highest    
perfection4 ,and for this reason the    
fixed        stars were created1 to be  

divine and eternal animals1             
ever-abiding and revolving after the    
same manner and on the same        spot2
 and the other stars which reverse their
 motion and are        subject to       
deviations of this kind1 were created in
 the manner        already described4   
,the earth1 which is our nurse1 clinging
 7or        #8circling'7 around the pole
 which is extended through the          
universe1 he framed to be the guardian  
and artificer of night and        day1  
first and eldest of gods that are in the
 interior of heaven4        ,vain would 
be the attempt to tell all the figures  
of them        circling as in dance1 and
 their juxtapositions1 and the return of
        them in their revolutions upon  
themselves1 and their                   
approximations1 and to say which of     
these deities in their                  
conjunctions meet1 and which of them are
 in opposition1 and in        what order
 they get behind and before one another1
 and when they        are severally     

eclipsed to our sight and again         
reappear1 sending        terrors and    
intimations of the future to those who  
cannot        calculate their           
movements--to attempt to tell of all    
this without        a visible           
representation of the heavenly system   
would be labour        in vain4 ,enough 
on this head2 and now let what we have  
said about        the nature of the     
created and visible gods have an end4   
,to know or tell the origin of the other
 divinities is beyond us1        and we 
must accept the traditions of the men of
 old time who        affirm themselves  
to be the offspring of the gods--that is
 what        they say--and they must    
surely have known their own ancestors4  
,how        can we doubt the word of the
 children of the gods8 ,although they   
give no probable or certain proofs1     
still1 as they declare that        they 
are speaking of what took place in their
 own family1 we must        conform to  
custom and believe them4 ,in this       

manner1 then1        according to them1 
the genealogy of these gods is to be    
received        and set forth4          
,oceanus and ,tethys were the children  
of ,earth and ,heaven1 and        from  
these sprang ,phorcys and ,cronos and   
,rhea1 and all that        generation2  
and from ,cronos and ,rhea sprang ,zeus 
and ,here1 and        all those who are 
said to be their brethren1 and others   
who were        the children of these4  
,now1 when all of them1 both those who  
visibly appear in their                 
revolutions as well as those other gods 
who are of a more        retiring       
nature1 had come into being1 the creator
 of the universe        addressed them  
in these words3 #8,gods1 children of    
gods1 who are        my works1 and of   
whom ,i am the artificer and father1 my 
creations        are indissoluble1 if so
 ,i will4 ,all that is bound may be     
undone1        but only an evil being   
would wish to undo that which is        
harmonious and happy4 ,wherefore1 since 

ye are but creatures1 ye        are not 
altogether immortal and indissoluble1   
but ye shall        certainly not be    
dissolved1 nor be liable to the fate of 
death1        having in my will a       
greater and mightier bond than those    
with        which ye were bound at the  
time of your birth4 ,and now listen to  
my instructions3--,three tribes of      
mortal beings remain to be              
created--without them the universe will 
be incomplete1 for it will        not   
contain every kind of animal which it   
ought to contain1 if it        is to be 
perfect4 ,on the other hand1 if they    
were created by me        and received  
life at my hands1 they would be on an   
equality with        the gods4 ,in order
 then that they may be mortal1 and that 
this        universe may be truly       
universal1 do ye1 according to your     
natures1 betake yourselves to the       
formation of animals1 imitating         
the power which was shown by me in      
creating you4 ,the part of them         

worthy of the name immortal1 which is   
called divine and is the        guiding 
principle of those who are willing to   
follow justice and        you--of that  
divine part ,i will myself sow the seed1
 and having        made a beginning1 ,i 
will hand the work over to you4 ,and do 
ye        then interweave the mortal    
with the immortal1 and make and beget   
living creatures1 and give them food1   
and make them to grow1 and              
receive them again in death4'           
,thus he spake1 and once more into the  
cup in which he had        previously   
mingled the soul of the universe he     
poured the remains        of the        
elements1 and mingled them in much the  
same manner2 they        were not1      
however1 pure as before1 but diluted to 
the second and        third degree4 ,and
 having made it he divided the whole    
mixture        into souls equal in      
number to the stars1 and assigned each  
soul        to a star2 and having there 
placed them as in a chariot1 he         

showed them the nature of the universe1 
and declared to them the        laws of 
destiny1 according to which their first 
birth would be        one and the same  
for all1--no one should suffer a        
disadvantage at        his hands2 they  
were to be sown in the instruments of   
time        severally adapted to them1  
and to come forth the most religious    
of animals2 and as human nature was of  
two kinds1 the superior        race     
would hereafter be called man4 ,now1    
when they should be        implanted in 
bodies by necessity1 and be always      
gaining or losing        some part of   
their bodily substance1 then in the     
first place it        would be necessary
 that they should all have in them one  
and the        same faculty of          
sensation1 arising out of irresistible  
impressions2 in the second place1 they  
must have love1 in which        pleasure
 and pain mingle2 also fear and anger1  
and the feelings        which are akin  
or opposite to them2 if they conquered  

these they        would live            
righteously1 and if they were conquered 
by them1        unrighteously4 ,he who  
lived well during his appointed time was
 to        return and dwell in his      
native star1 and there he would have a  
blessed and congenial existence4 ,but if
 he failed in attaining        this1 at 
the second birth he would pass into a   
woman1 and if1        when in that state
 of being1 he did not desist from evil1 
he        would continually be changed  
into some brute who resembled him in    
the evil nature which he had acquired1  
and would not cease from        his     
toils and transformations until he      
followed the revolution of        the   
same and the like within him1 and       
overcame by the help of        reason   
the turbulent and irrational mob of     
later accretions1 made        up of fire
 and air and water and earth1 and       
returned to the form        of his first
 and better state4 ,having given all    
these laws to his        creatures1 that

 he might be guiltless of future evil in
 any of        them1 the creator sowed  
some of them in the earth1 and some in  
the moon1 and some in the other         
instruments of time2 and when he        
had sown them he committed to the       
younger gods the fashioning of          
their mortal bodies1 and desired them to
 furnish what was still        lacking  
to the human soul1 and having made all  
the suitable        additions1 to rule  
over them1 and to pilot the mortal      
animal in        the best and wisest    
manner which they could1 and avert from 
him        all but self-inflicted evils4
          ,when the creator had made all
 these ordinances he remained in his    
own accustomed nature1 and his children 
heard and were obedient        to their 
father's word1 and receiving from him   
the immortal        principle of a      
mortal creature1 in imitation of their  
own creator        they borrowed        
portions of fire1 and earth1 and water1 
and air        from the world1 which    

were hereafter to be restored--these    
they        took and welded them        
together1 not with the indissoluble     
chains        by which they were        
themselves bound1 but with little pegs  
too        small to be visible1 making  
up out of all the four elements each    
separate body1 and fastening the courses
 of the immortal soul in        a body  
which was in a state of perpetual influx
 and efflux4 ,now        these courses1 
detained as in a vast river1 neither    
overcame nor        were overcome2 but  
were hurrying and hurried to and fro1 so
 that        the whole animal was moved 
and progressed1 irregularly however     
and irrationally and anyhow1 in all the 
six directions of motion1               
wandering backwards and forwards1 and   
right and left1 and up and        down1 
and in all the six directions4 ,for     
great as was the        advancing and   
retiring flood which provided           
nourishment1 the        affections      
produced by external contact caused     

still greater        tumult--when the   
body of any one met and came into       
collision with        some external     
fire1 or with the solid earth or the    
gliding        waters1 or was caught in 
the tempest borne on the air1 and the   
motions produced by any of these        
impulses were carried through        the
 body to the soul4 ,all such motions    
have consequently received        the   
general name of #8sensations1' which    
they still retain4 ,and        they did 
in fact at that time create a very great
 and mighty        movement2 uniting    
with the ever-flowing stream in stirring
 up and        violently shaking the    
courses of the soul1 they completely    
stopped the revolution of the same by   
their opposing current1 and             
hindered it from predominating and      
advancing2 and they so        disturbed 
the nature of the other or diverse1 that
 the three        double intervals 7i4e4
 between #a1 #b1 #d1 #h71 and the three 
triple        intervals 7i4e4 between   

#a1 #c1 #i1 #bg71 together with the mean
        terms and connecting links which
 are expressed by the ratios of         
#c3b1 and #d3c1 and of #i3h--these1     
although they cannot be wholly          
undone except by him who united them1   
were twisted by them in all        sorts
 of ways1 and the circles were broken   
and disordered in        every possible 
manner1 so that when they moved they    
were tumbling        to pieces1 and     
moved irrationally1 at one time in a    
reverse        direction1 and then again
 obliquely1 and then upside down1 as you
        might imagine a person who is   
upside down and has his head            
leaning upon the ground and his feet up 
against something in the        air2 and
 when he is in such a position1 both he 
and the spectator        fancy that the 
right of either is his left1 and the    
left right4        ,if1 when powerfully 
experiencing these and similar effects1 
the        revolutions of the soul come 
in contact with some external thing1    

either of the class of the same or of   
the other1 they speak of        the same
 or of the other in a manner the very   
opposite of the        truth2 and they  
become false and foolish1 and there is  
no course        or revolution in them  
which has a guiding or directing power2 
and        if again any sensations enter
 in violently from without and drag     
after them the whole vessel of the soul1
 then the courses of the        soul1   
though they seem to conquer1 are really 
conquered4          ,and by reason of   
all these affections1 the soul1 when    
encased in        a mortal body1 now1 as
 in the beginning1 is at first without  
intelligence2 but when the flood of     
growth and nutriment abates1        and 
the courses of the soul1 calming down1  
go their own way and        become      
steadier as time goes on1 then the      
several circles return        to their  
natural form1 and their revolutions are 
corrected1 and        they call the same
 and the other by their right names1 and

 make        the possessor of them to   
become a rational being4 ,and if these  
combine in him with any true nurture or 
education1 he attains the        fulness
 and health of the perfect man1 and     
escapes the worst        disease of all2
 but if he neglects education he walks  
lame to the        end of his life1 and 
returns imperfect and good for nothing  
to        the world below4 ,this1       
however1 is a later stage2 at present we
        must treat more exactly the     
subject before us1 which involves a     
preliminary enquiry into the generation 
of the body and its        members1 and 
as to how the soul was created--for what
 reason and        by what providence of
 the gods2 and holding fast to          
probability1        we must pursue our  
way4          ,first1 then1 the gods1   
imitating the spherical shape of the    
universe1 enclosed the two divine       
courses in a spherical body1            
that1 namely1 which we now term the     
head1 being the most divine        part 

of us and the lord of all that is in us3
 to this the gods1        when they put 
together the body1 gave all the other   
members to be        servants1          
considering that it partook of every    
sort of motion4 ,in        order then   
that it might not tumble about among the
 high and deep        places of the     
earth1 but might be able to get over the
 one and        out of the other1 they  
provided the body to be its vehicle and 
means of locomotion2 which consequently 
had length and was        furnished with
 four limbs extended and flexible2 these
 ,god        contrived to be instruments
 of locomotion with which it might      
take hold and find support1 and so be   
able to pass through all        places1 
carrying on high the dwelling-place of  
the most sacred        and divine part  
of us4 ,such was the origin of legs and 
hands1        which for this reason were
 attached to every man2 and the gods1   
deeming the front part of man to be more
 honourable and more fit        to      

command than the hinder part1 made us to
 move mostly in a        forward        
direction4 ,wherefore man must needs    
have his front part        unlike and   
distinguished from the rest of his body4
          ,and so in the vessel of the  
head1 they first of all put a face in   
which they inserted organs to minister  
in all things to the        providence  
of the soul1 and they appointed this    
part1 which has        authority1 to be 
by nature the part which is in front4   
,and of the        organs they first    
contrived the eyes to give light1 and   
the        principle according to which 
they were inserted was as follows3      
,so much of fire as would not burn1 but 
gave a gentle light1 they        formed 
into a substance akin to the light of   
every-day life2 and        the pure fire
 which is within us and related thereto 
they made to        flow through the    
eyes in a stream smooth and dense1      
compressing        the whole eye1 and   
especially the centre part1 so that it  

kept        out everything of a coarser 
nature1 and allowed to pass only this   
pure element4 ,when the light of day    
surrounds the stream of        vision1  
then like falls upon like1 and they     
coalesce1 and one        body is formed 
by natural affinity in the line of      
vision1        wherever the light that  
falls from within meets with an external
        object4 ,and the whole stream of
 vision1 being similarly affected       
in virtue of similarity1 diffuses the   
motions of what it touches        or    
what touches it over the whole body1    
until they reach the        soul1       
causing that perception which we call   
sight4 ,but when night        comes on  
and the external and kindred fire       
departs1 then the        stream of      
vision is cut off2 for going forth to an
 unlike element        it is changed and
 extinguished1 being no longer of one   
nature        with the surrounding      
atmosphere which is now deprived of     
fire3        and so the eye no longer   

sees1 and we feel disposed to sleep4    
,for        when the eyelids1 which the 
gods invented for the preservation of   
sight1 are closed1 they keep in the     
internal fire2 and the power        of  
the fire diffuses and equalizes the     
inward motions2 when they        are    
equalized1 there is rest1 and when the  
rest is profound1        sleep comes    
over us scarce disturbed by dreams2 but 
where the        greater motions still  
remain1 of whatever nature and in       
whatever        locality1 they engender 
corresponding visions in dreams1 which  
are remembered by us when we are awake  
and in the external world4        ,and  
now there is no longer any difficulty in
 understanding the        creation of   
images in mirrors and all smooth and    
bright surfaces4        ,for from the   
communion of the internal and external  
fires1 and        again from the union  
of them and their numerous              
transformations        when they meet in
 the mirror1 all these appearances of   

necessity        arise1 when the fire   
from the face coalesces with the fire   
from        the eye on the bright and   
smooth surface4 ,and right appears left 
and left right1 because the visual rays 
come into contact with        the rays  
emitted by the object in a manner       
contrary to the usual        mode of    
meeting2 but the right appears right1   
and the left left1        when the      
position of one of the two concurring   
lights is        reversed2 and this     
happens when the mirror is concave and  
its        smooth surface repels the    
right stream of vision to the left      
side1 and the left to the right 7,he is 
speaking of two kinds of        mirrors1
 first the plane1 secondly the concave2 
and the latter is        supposed to be 
placed1 first horizontally1 and then    
vertically474        ,or if the mirror  
be turned vertically1 then the concavity
 makes        the countenance appear to 
be all upside down1 and the lower rays  
are driven upwards and the upper        

downwards4          ,all these are to be
 reckoned among the second and          
co-operative        causes which ,god1  
carrying into execution the idea of the 
best as        far as possible1 uses as 
his ministers4 ,they are thought by most
        men not to be the second1 but   
the prime causes of all things1         
because they freeze and heat1 and       
contract and dilate1 and the            
like4 ,but they are not so1 for they are
 incapable of reason or                 
intellect2 the only being which can     
properly have mind is the               
invisible soul1 whereas fire and water1 
and earth and air1 are        all of    
them visible bodies4 ,the lover of      
intellect and knowledge        ought to 
explore causes of intelligent nature    
first of all1 and1        secondly1 of  
those things which1 being moved by      
others1 are        compelled to move    
others4 ,and this is what we too must   
do4 ,both        kinds of causes should 
be acknowledged by us1 but a distinction

        should be made between those    
which are endowed with mind and are     
the workers of things fair and good1 and
 those which are deprived        of     
intelligence and always produce chance  
effects without order        or design4 
,of the second or co-operative causes of
 sight1 which        help to give to the
 eyes the power which they now possess1 
enough        has been said4 ,i will    
therefore now proceed to speak of the   
higher use and purpose for which ,god   
has given them to us4 ,the        sight 
in my opinion is the source of the      
greatest benefit to us1        for had  
we never seen the stars1 and the sun1   
and the heaven1        none of the words
 which we have spoken about the universe
 would        ever have been uttered4   
,but now the sight of day and night1 and
        the months and the revolutions  
of the years1 have created number1      
and have given us a conception of time1 
and the power of        enquiring about 
the nature of the universe2 and from    

this source        we have derived      
philosophy1 than which no greater good  
ever was        or will be given by the 
gods to mortal man4 ,this is the        
greatest        boon of sight3 and of   
the lesser benefits why should ,i speak8
        even the ordinary man if he were
 deprived of them would bewail          
his loss1 but in vain4 ,thus much let me
 say however3 ,god invented        and  
gave us sight to the end that we might  
behold the courses of                   
intelligence in the heaven1 and apply   
them to the courses of our        own   
intelligence which are akin to them1 the
 unperturbed to the        perturbed2   
and that we1 learning them and partaking
 of the        natural truth of reason1 
might imitate the absolutely unerring   
courses of ,god and regulate our own    
vagaries4 ,the same may be              
affirmed of speech and hearing3 they    
have been given by the gods        to   
the same end and for a like reason4 ,for
 this is the principal        end of    

speech1 whereto it most contributes4    
,moreover1 so much of        music as is
 adapted to the sound of the voice and  
to the sense of        hearing is       
granted to us for the sake of harmony2  
and harmony1        which has motions   
akin to the revolutions of our souls1 is
 not        regarded by the intelligent 
votary of the ,muses as given by them   
with a view to irrational pleasure1     
which is deemed to be the        purpose
 of it in our day1 but as meant to      
correct any discord        which may    
have arisen in the courses of the soul1 
and to be our        ally in bringing   
her into harmony and agreement with     
herself2 and        rhythm too was given
 by them for the same reason1 on account
 of        the irregular and graceless  
ways which prevail among mankind        
generally1 and to help us against them4 
,thus far in what we have been saying1  
with small exception1 the        works  
of intelligence have been set forth2 and
 now we must place        by the side of

 them in our discourse the things which 
come into        being through          
necessity--for the creation is mixed1   
being made up        of necessity and   
mind4 ,mind1 the ruling power1 persuaded
        necessity to bring the greater  
part of created things to               
perfection1 and thus and after this     
manner in the beginning1 when        the
 influence of reason got the better of  
necessity1 the universe        was      
created4 ,but if a person will truly    
tell of the way in which        the work
 was accomplished1 he must include the  
other influence of        the variable  
cause as well4 ,wherefore1 we must      
return again and        find another    
suitable beginning1 as about the former 
matters1 so        also about these4 ,to
 which end we must consider the nature  
of        fire1 and water1 and air1 and 
earth1 such as they were prior to       
the creation of the heaven1 and what was
 happening to them in        this       
previous state2 for no one has as yet   

explained the manner        of their    
generation1 but we speak of fire and the
 rest of them1        whatever they     
mean1 as though men knew their natures1 
and we        maintain them to be the   
first principles and letters or elements
        of the whole1 when they cannot  
reasonably be compared by a man of      
any sense even to syllables or first    
compounds4 ,and let me say        thus  
much3 ,i will not now speak of the first
 principle or        principles of all  
things1 or by whatever name they are to 
be        called1 for this              
reason--because it is difficult to set  
forth my        opinion according to the
 method of discussion which we are at   
present employing4 ,do not imagine1 any 
more than ,i can bring        myself to 
imagine1 that ,i should be right in     
undertaking so great        and         
difficult a task4 ,remembering what ,i  
said at first about        probability1 
,i will do my best to give as probable  
an explanation        as any other--or  

rather1 more probable2 and ,i will first
 go back        to the beginning and try
 to speak of each thing and of all4     
,once        more1 then1 at the         
commencement of my discourse1 ,i call   
upon ,god1        and beg him to be our 
saviour out of a strange and unwonted   
enquiry1 and to bring us to the haven of
 probability4 ,so now let        us     
begin again4          ,this new         
beginning of our discussion of the      
universe requires a        fuller       
division than the former2 for then we   
made two classes1        now a third    
must be revealed4 ,the two sufficed for 
the former        discussion3 one1 which
 we assumed1 was a pattern intelligible 
and        always the same2 and the     
second was only the imitation of the    
pattern1 generated and visible4 ,there  
is also a third kind which        we did
 not distinguish at the time1 conceiving
 that the two would        be enough4   
,but now the argument seems to require  
that we should        set forth in words

 another kind1 which is difficult of    
explanation and dimly seen4 ,what nature
 are we to attribute to        this new 
kind of being8 ,we reply1 that it is the
 receptacle1 and        in a manner the 
nurse1 of all generation4 ,i have spoken
 the        truth2 but ,i must express  
myself in clearer language1 and this    
will be an arduous task for many        
reasons1 and in particular              
because ,i must first raise questions   
concerning fire and the        other    
elements1 and determine what each of    
them is2 for to say1        with any    
probability or certitude1 which of them 
should be called        water rather    
than fire1 and which should be called   
any of them        rather than all or   
some one of them1 is a difficult matter4
 ,how1        then1 shall we settle this
 point1 and what questions about the    
elements may be fairly raised8          
,in the first place1 we see that what we
 just now called water1 by              
condensation1 ,i suppose1 becomes stone 

and earth2 and this same        element1
 when melted and dispersed1 passes into 
vapour and air4        ,air1 again1 when
 inflamed1 becomes fire2 and again fire1
 when        condensed and extinguished1
 passes once more into the form of      
air2 and once more1 air1 when collected 
and condensed1 produces        cloud and
 mist2 and from these1 when still more  
compressed1 comes        flowing water1 
and from water comes earth and stones   
once more2        and thus generation   
appears to be transmitted from one to   
the        other in a circle4 ,thus1    
then1 as the several elements never     
present themselves in the same form1 how
 can any one have the        assurance  
to assert positively that any of them1  
whatever it may        be1 is one thing 
rather than another8 ,no one can4 ,but  
much the        safest plan is to speak 
of them as follows3--,anything which we 
see        to be continually changing1  
as1 for example1 fire1 we must not      
call #8this' or #8that1' but rather say 

that it is #8of such a        nature'2  
nor let us speak of water as #8this'2   
but always as        #8such'2 nor must  
we imply that there is any stability in 
any of        those things which we     
indicate by the use of the words #8this'
 and        #8that1' supposing ourselves
 to signify something thereby2 for      
they are too volatile to be detained in 
any such expressions as        #8this1' 
or #8that1' or #8relative to this1' or  
any other mode of        speaking which 
represents them as permanent4 ,we ought 
not to        apply #8this' to any of   
them1 but rather the word #8such'2 which
        expresses the similar principle 
circulating in each and all of          
them2 for example1 that should be called
 #8fire' which is of such        a      
nature always1 and so of everything that
 has generation4 ,that        in which  
the elements severally grow up1 and     
appear1 and decay1        is alone to be
 called by the name #8this' or #8that'2 
but that        which is of a certain   

nature1 hot or white1 or anything which 
admits of opposite qualities1 and all   
things that are compounded        of    
them1 ought not to be so denominated4   
,let me make another        attempt to  
explain my meaning more clearly4        
,suppose a person to        make all    
kinds of figures of gold and to be      
always transmuting        one form into 
all the rest2--somebody points to one of
 them and        asks what it is4 ,by   
far the safest and truest answer is1    
,that is        gold2 and not to call   
the triangle or any other figures which 
are        formed in the gold #8these1' 
as though they had existence1 since     
they are in process of change while he  
is making the assertion2        but if  
the questioner be willing to take the   
safe and indefinite        expression1  
#8such1' we should be satisfied4 ,and   
the same argument        applies to the 
universal nature which receives all     
bodies--that        must be always      
called the same2 for1 while receiving   

all things1        she never departs at 
all from her own nature1 and never in   
any        way1 or at any time1 assumes 
a form like that of any of the          
things which enter into her2 she is the 
natural recipient of all                
impressions1 and is stirred and informed
 by them1 and appears        different  
from time to time by reason of them4    
,but the forms        which enter into  
and go out of her are the likenesses of 
real        existences modelled after   
their patterns in a wonderful and       
inexplicable manner1 which we will      
hereafter investigate4 ,for the         
present we have only to conceive of     
three natures3 first1 that        which 
is in process of generation2 secondly1  
that in which the        generation     
takes place2 and thirdly1 that of which 
the thing        generated is a         
resemblance4 ,and we may liken the      
receiving        principle to a mother1 
and the source or spring to a father1   
and        the intermediate nature to a 

child2 and may remark further1 that     
if the model is to take every variety of
 form1 then the matter in        which  
the model is fashioned will not be duly 
prepared1 unless it        is formless1 
and free from the impress of any of     
those shapes        which it is         
hereafter to receive from without4 ,for 
if the matter        were like any of   
the supervening forms1 then whenever any
        opposite or entirely different  
nature was stamped upon its             
surface1 it would take the impression   
badly1 because it would        intrude  
its own shape4 ,wherefore1 that which is
 to receive all        forms should have
 no form2 as in making perfumes they    
first        contrive that the liquid   
substance which is to receive the scent 
shall be as inodorous as possible2 or as
 those who wish to        impress       
figures on soft substances do not allow 
any previous        impression to       
remain1 but begin by making the surface 
as even and        smooth as possible4  

,in the same way that which is to       
receive        perpetually and through  
its whole extent the resemblances of all
        eternal beings ought to be      
devoid of any particular form4          
,wherefore1 the mother and receptacle of
 all created and visible        and in  
any way sensible things1 is not to be   
termed earth1 or        air1 or fire1 or
 water1 or any of their compounds or any
 of the        elements from which these
 are derived1 but is an invisible and   
formless being which receives all things
 and in some mysterious        way      
partakes of the intelligible1 and is    
most incomprehensible4        ,in saying
 this we shall not be far wrong2 as far1
 however1 as we        can attain to a  
knowledge of her from the previous      
considerations1 we may truly say that   
fire is that part of her        nature  
which from time to time is inflamed1 and
 water that which        is moistened1  
and that the mother substance becomes   
earth and        air1 in so far as she  

receives the impressions of them4       
,let us consider this question more     
precisely4 ,is there any                
self-existent fire8 and do all those    
things which we call                    
self-existent exist8 or are only those  
things which we see1 or in        some  
way perceive through the bodily organs1 
truly existent1 and        nothing      
whatever besides them8 ,and is all that 
which we call an        intelligible    
essence nothing at all1 and only a name8
 ,here is a        question which we    
must not leave unexamined or            
undetermined1 nor        must we affirm 
too confidently that there can be no    
decision2        neither must we        
interpolate in our present long         
discourse a        digression equally   
long1 but if it is possible to set forth
 a        great principle in a few      
words1 that is just what we want4       
,thus ,i state my view3--,if mind and   
true opinion are two distinct           
classes1 then ,i say that there         

certainly are these self-existent       
ideas unperceived by sense1 and         
apprehended only by the mind2 if1       
however1 as some say1 true opinion      
differs in no respect from        mind1 
then everything that we perceive through
 the body is to be        regarded as   
most real and certain4 ,but we must     
affirm them to be        distinct1 for  
they have a distinct origin and are of a
 different        nature2 the one is    
implanted in us by instruction1 the     
other by        persuasion2 the one is  
always accompanied by true reason1 the  
other is without reason2 the one cannot 
be overcome by        persuasion1 but   
the other can3 and lastly1 every man may
 be said        to share in true        
opinion1 but mind is the attribute of   
the gods        and of very few men4    
,wherefore also we must acknowledge that
        there is one kind of being which
 is always the same1 uncreated          
and indestructible1 never receiving     
anything into itself from               

without1 nor itself going out to any    
other1 but invisible and                
imperceptible by any sense1 and of which
 the contemplation is        granted to 
intelligence only4 ,and there is another
 nature of the        same name with it1
 and like to it1 perceived by sense1    
created1        always in motion1       
becoming in place and again vanishing   
out of        place1 which is           
apprehended by opinion and sense4 ,and  
there is a        third nature1 which is
 space1 and is eternal1 and admits not  
of        destruction and provides a    
home for all created things1 and is     
apprehended without the help of sense1  
by a kind of spurious        reason1 and
 is hardly real2 which we beholding as  
in a dream1 say        of all existence 
that it must of necessity be in some    
place and        occupy a space1 but    
that what is neither in heaven nor in   
earth        has no existence4 ,of these
 and other things of the same kind1     
relating to the true and waking reality 

of nature1 we have only        this     
dreamlike sense1 and we are unable to   
cast off sleep and        determine the 
truth about them4 ,for an image1 since  
the reality1        after which it is   
modelled1 does not belong to it1 and it 
exists        ever as the fleeting      
shadow of some other1 must be inferred  
to be        in another 7i4e4 in space71
 grasping existence in some way or      
other1 or it could not be at all4 ,but  
true and exact reason1                  
vindicating the nature of true being1   
maintains that while two        things  
7i4e4 the image and space7 are different
 they cannot exist        one of them in
 the other and so be one and also two at
 the same        time4          ,thus   
have ,i concisely given the result of my
 thoughts2 and my        verdict is that
 being and space and generation1 these  
three1        existed in their three    
ways before the heaven2 and that the    
nurse        of generation1 moistened by
 water and inflamed by fire1 and        

receiving the forms of earth and air1   
and experiencing all the                
affections which accompany these1       
presented a strange variety of          
appearances2 and being full of powers   
which were neither similar        nor   
equally balanced1 was never in any part 
in a state of        equipoise1 but     
swaying unevenly hither and thither1 was
 shaken by        them1 and by its      
motion again shook them2 and the        
elements when        moved were         
separated and carried continually1 some 
one way1 some        another2 as1 when  
grain is shaken and winnowed by fans and
 other        instruments used in the   
threshing of corn1 the close and heavy  
particles are borne away and settle in  
one direction1 and the        loose and 
light particles in another4 ,in this    
manner1 the four        kinds or        
elements were then shaken by the        
receiving vessel1        which1 moving  
like a winnowing machine1 scattered far 
away from        one another the        

elements most unlike1 and forced the    
most similar        elements into close 
contact4 ,wherefore also the various    
elements        had different places    
before they were arranged so as to form 
the        universe4 ,at first1 they    
were all without reason and measure4    
,but        when the world began to get 
into order1 fire and water and earth    
and air had only certain faint traces of
 themselves1 and were        altogether 
such as everything might be expected to 
be in the        absence of ,god2 this1 
,i say1 was their nature at that time1  
and        ,god fashioned them by form  
and number4 ,let it be consistently     
maintained by us in all that we say that
 ,god made them as far as               
possible the fairest and best1 out of   
things which were not fair        and   
good4 ,and now ,i will endeavour to show
 you the disposition        and         
generation of them by an unaccustomed   
argument1 which ,i am        compelled  
to use2 but ,i believe that you will be 

able to follow        me1 for your      
education has made you familiar with the
 methods of        science4          ,in
 the first place1 then1 as is evident to
 all1 fire and earth        and water   
and air are bodies4 ,and every sort of  
body possesses        solidity1 and     
every solid must necessarily be         
contained in        planes2 and every   
plane rectilinear figure is composed of 
triangles2 and all triangles are        
originally of two kinds1 both of        
which are made up of one right and two  
acute angles2 one of them        has at 
either end of the base the half of a    
divided right angle1        having equal
 sides1 while in the other the right    
angle is divided        into unequal    
parts1 having unequal sides4 ,these1    
then1 proceeding        by a combination
 of probability with demonstration1 we  
assume to        be the original        
elements of fire and the other bodies2  
but the        principles which are     
prior to these ,god only knows1 and he  

of men        who is the friend of ,god4
 ,and next we have to determine what are
        the four most beautiful bodies  
which are unlike one another1 and       
of which some are capable of resolution 
into one another2 for        having     
discovered thus much1 we shall know the 
true origin of        earth and fire and
 of the proportionate and intermediate  
elements4 ,and then we shall not be     
willing to allow that there        are  
any distinct kinds of visible bodies    
fairer than these4        ,wherefore we 
must endeavour to construct the four    
forms of bodies        which excel in   
beauty1 and then we shall be able to say
 that we        have sufficiently       
apprehended their nature4 ,now of the   
two        triangles1 the isosceles has 
one form only2 the scalene or           
unequal-sided has an infinite number4   
,of the infinite forms we        must   
select the most beautiful1 if we are to 
proceed in due        order1 and any one
 who can point out a more beautiful form

 than        ours for the construction  
of these bodies1 shall carry off the    
palm1 not as an enemy1 but as a friend4 
,now1 the one which we        maintain  
to be the most beautiful of all the many
 triangles 7and        we need not speak
 of the others7 is that of which the    
double        forms a third triangle    
which is equilateral2 the reason of this
        would be long to tell2 he who   
disproves what we are saying1 and       
shows that we are mistaken1 may claim a 
friendly victory4 ,then        let us   
choose two triangles1 out of which fire 
and the other        elements have been 
constructed1 one isosceles1 the other   
having        the square of the longer  
side equal to three times the square of 
the lesser side4          ,now is the   
time to explain what was before         
obscurely said3 there        was an     
error in imagining that all the four    
elements might be        generated by   
and into one another2 this1 ,i say1 was 
an erroneous        supposition1 for    

there are generated from the triangles  
which we        have selected four      
kinds--three from the one which has the 
sides        unequal2 the fourth alone  
is framed out of the isosceles          
triangle4 ,hence they cannot all be     
resolved into one another1 a            
great number of small bodies being      
combined into a few large        ones1  
or the converse4 ,but three of them can 
be thus resolved and        compounded1 
for they all spring from one1 and when  
the greater        bodies are broken up1
 many small bodies will spring up out of
        them and take their own proper  
figures2 or1 again1 when many           
small bodies are dissolved into their   
triangles1 if they become        one1   
they will form one large mass of another
 kind4 ,so much for        their passage
 into one another4 ,i have now to speak 
of their        several kinds1 and show 
out of what combinations of numbers each
        of them was formed4 ,the first  
will be the simplest and smallest       

construction1 and its element is that   
triangle which has its        hypotenuse
 twice the lesser side4 ,when two such  
triangles are        joined at the      
diagonal1 and this is repeated three    
times1 and the        triangles rest    
their diagonals and shorter sides on the
 same        point as a centre1 a single
 equilateral triangle is formed out of  
six triangles2 and four equilateral     
triangles1 if put together1        make 
out of every three plane angles one     
solid angle1 being that        which is 
nearest to the most obtuse of plane     
angles2 and out of        the           
combination of these four angles arises 
the first solid form        which       
distributes into equal and similar parts
 the whole circle        in which it is 
inscribed4 ,the second species of solid 
is formed        out of the same        
triangles1 which unite as eight         
equilateral        triangles and form   
one solid angle out of four plane       
angles1 and        out of six such      

angles the second body is completed4    
,and the        third body is made up of
 #abj triangular elements1 forming      
twelve        solid angles1 each of them
 included in five plane equilateral     
triangles1 having altogether twenty     
bases1 each of which is an              
equilateral triangle4 ,the one element  
7that is1 the triangle        which has 
its hypotenuse twice the lesser side7   
having generated        these figures1  
generated no more2 but the isosceles    
triangle        produced the fourth     
elementary figure1 which is compounded  
of        four such triangles1 joining  
their right angles in a centre1 and     
forming one equilateral quadrangle4 ,six
 of these united form        eight solid
 angles1 each of which is made by the   
combination of        three plane right 
angles2 the figure of the body thus     
composed is        a cube1 having six   
plane quadrangular equilateral bases4   
,there        was yet a fifth           
combination which ,god used in the      

delineation of        the universe4     
,now1 he who1 duly reflecting on all    
this1 enquires whether the        worlds
 are to be regarded as indefinite or    
definite in number1        will be of   
opinion that the notion of their        
indefiniteness is        characteristic 
of a sadly indefinite and ignorant mind4
 ,he1        however1 who raises the    
question whether they are to be truly   
regarded as one or five1 takes up a more
 reasonable position4        ,arguing   
from probabilities1 ,i am of opinion    
that they are one2        another1      
regarding the question from another     
point of view1 will        be of another
 mind4 ,but1 leaving this enquiry1 let  
us proceed to        distribute the     
elementary forms1 which have now been   
created in        idea1 among the four  
elements4          ,to earth1 then1 let 
us assign the cubical form2 for earth is
 the        most immoveable of the four 
and the most plastic of all bodies1     
and that which has the most stable bases

 must of necessity be of        such a  
nature4 ,now1 of the triangles which we 
assumed at first1        that which has 
two equal sides is by nature more firmly
 based        than that which has       
unequal sides2 and of the compound      
figures        which are formed out of  
either1 the plane equilateral quadrangle
        has necessarily a more stable   
basis than the equilateral              
triangle1 both in the whole and in the  
parts4 ,wherefore1 in        assigning  
this figure to earth1 we adhere to      
probability2 and to        water we     
assign that one of the remaining forms  
which is the        least moveable2 and 
the most moveable of them to fire2 and  
to air        that which is             
intermediate4 ,also we assign the       
smallest body to        fire1 and the   
greatest to water1 and the intermediate 
in size to        air2 and1 again1 the  
acutest body to fire1 and the next in   
acuteness to air1 and the third to      
water4 ,of all these elements1          

that which has the fewest bases must    
necessarily be the most        moveable1
 for it must be the acutest and most    
penetrating in        every way1 and    
also the lightest as being composed of  
the        smallest number of similar   
particles3 and the second body has      
similar properties in a second degree1  
and the third body in the        third  
degree4 ,let it be agreed1 then1 both   
according to strict        reason and   
according to probability1 that the      
pyramid is the        solid which is the
 original element and seed of fire2 and 
let us        assign the element which  
was next in the order of generation to  
air1 and the third to water4 ,we must   
imagine all these to be so        small 
that no single particle of any of the   
four kinds is seen by        us on      
account of their smallness3 but when    
many of them are        collected       
together their aggregates are seen4 ,and
 the ratios of        their numbers1    
motions1 and other properties1          

everywhere ,god1 as        far as       
necessity allowed or gave consent1 has  
exactly perfected1        and harmonized
 in due proportion4          ,from all  
that we have just been saying about the 
elements or        kinds1 the most      
probable conclusion is as               
follows3--earth1 when        meeting    
with fire and dissolved by its          
sharpness1 whether the                  
dissolution take place in the fire      
itself or perhaps in some mass        of
 air or water1 is borne hither and      
thither1 until its parts1        meeting
 together and mutually harmonising1     
again become earth2        for they can 
never take any other form4 ,but water1  
when divided        by fire or by air1  
on re-forming1 may become one part fire 
and        two parts air2 and a single  
volume of air divided becomes two of    
fire4 ,again1 when a small body of fire 
is contained in a larger        body of 
air or water or earth1 and both are     
moving1 and the fire        struggling  

is overcome and broken up1 then two     
volumes of fire        form one volume  
of air2 and when air is overcome and cut
 up into        small pieces1 two and a 
half parts of air are condensed into one
        part of water4 ,let us consider 
the matter in another way4 ,when        
one of the other elements is fastened   
upon by fire1 and is cut by        the  
sharpness of its angles and sides1 it   
coalesces with the        fire1 and then
 ceases to be cut by them any longer4   
,for no        element which is one and 
the same with itself can be changed by  
or change another of the same kind and  
in the same state4 ,but so        long  
as in the process of transition the     
weaker is fighting        against the   
stronger1 the dissolution continues4    
,again1 when a        few small         
particles1 enclosed in many larger ones1
 are in process        of decomposition 
and extinction1 they only cease from    
their        tendency to extinction when
 they consent to pass into the          

conquering nature1 and fire becomes air 
and air water4 ,but if        bodies of 
another kind go and attack them 7i4e4   
the small        particles71 the latter 
continue to be dissolved until1 being   
completely forced back and dispersed1   
they make their escape to        their  
own kindred1 or else1 being overcome and
 assimilated to the        conquering   
power1 they remain where they are and   
dwell with their        victors1 and    
from being many become one4 ,and owing  
to these        affections1 all things  
are changing their place1 for by the    
motion of the receiving vessel the bulk 
of each class is        distributed into
 its proper place2 but those things     
which become        unlike themselves   
and like other things1 are hurried by   
the        shaking into the place of the
 things to which they grow like4        
,now all unmixed and primary bodies are 
produced by such causes as        these4
 ,as to the subordinate species which   
are included in the        greater      

kinds1 they are to be attributed to the 
varieties in the        structure of the
 two original triangles4 ,for either    
structure did        not originally     
produce the triangle of one size only1  
but some        larger and some smaller1
 and there are as many sizes as there   
are        species of the four elements4
 ,hence when they are mingled with      
themselves and with one another there is
 an endless variety of        them1     
which those who would arrive at the     
probable truth of        nature ought   
duly to consider4          ,unless a    
person comes to an understanding about  
the nature and        conditions of rest
 and motion1 he will meet with many     
difficulties in the discussion which    
follows4 ,something has been        said
 of this matter already1 and something  
more remains to be        said1 which   
is1 that motion never exists in what is 
uniform4 ,for        to conceive that   
anything can be moved without a mover is
 hard or        indeed impossible1 and  

equally impossible to conceive that     
there        can be a mover unless there
 be something which can be              
moved--motion cannot exist where either 
of these are wanting1 and        for    
these to be uniform is impossible2      
wherefore we must assign        rest to 
uniformity and motion to the want of    
uniformity4 ,now        inequality is   
the cause of the nature which is wanting
 in        uniformity2 and of this we   
have already described the origin4 ,but 
there still remains the further         
point--why things when divided          
after their kinds do not cease to pass  
through one another and to        change
 their place--which we will now proceed 
to explain4 ,in the        revolution of
 the universe are comprehended all the  
four        elements1 and this being    
circular and having a tendency to come  
together1 compresses everything and will
 not allow any place to        be left  
void4 ,wherefore1 also1 fire above all  
things penetrates        everywhere1 and

 air next1 as being next in rarity of   
the        elements2 and the two other  
elements in like manner penetrate       
according to their degrees of rarity4   
,for those things which are             
composed of the largest particles have  
the largest void left in        their   
compositions1 and those which are       
composed of the smallest                
particles have the least4 ,and the      
contraction caused by the               
compression thrusts the smaller         
particles into the interstices of       
the larger4 ,and thus1 when the small   
parts are placed side by        side    
with the larger1 and the lesser divide  
the greater and the        greater unite
 the lesser1 all the elements are borne 
up and down        and hither and       
thither towards their own places2 for   
the change        in the size of each   
changes its position in space4 ,and     
these        causes generate an         
inequality which is always maintained1  
and is        continually creating a    

perpetual motion of the elements in all 
time4          ,in the next place we    
have to consider that there are divers  
kinds        of fire4 ,there are1 for   
example1 first1 flame2 and secondly1    
those emanations of flame which do not  
burn but only give light        to the  
eyes2 thirdly1 the remains of fire1     
which are seen in        red-hot embers 
after the flame has been extinguished4  
,there are        similar differences in
 the air2 of which the brightest part is
        called the aether1 and the most 
turbid sort mist and darkness2          
and there are various other nameless    
kinds which arise from the              
inequality of the triangles4 ,water1    
again1 admits in the first        place 
of a division into two kinds2 the one   
liquid and the other        fusile4 ,the
 liquid kind is composed of the small   
and unequal        particles of water2  
and moves itself and is moved by other  
bodies        owing to the want of      
uniformity and the shape of its         

particles2        whereas the fusile    
kind1 being formed of large and uniform 
particles1 is more stable than the      
other1 and is heavy and        compact  
by reason of its uniformity4 ,but when  
fire gets in and        dissolves the   
particles and destroys the uniformity1  
it has        greater mobility1 and     
becoming fluid is thrust forth by the   
neighbouring air and spreads upon the   
earth2 and this dissolution        of   
the solid masses is called melting1 and 
their spreading out        upon the     
earth flowing4 ,again1 when the fire    
goes out of the        fusile substance1
 it does not pass into a vacuum1 but    
into the        neighbouring air2 and   
the air which is displaced forces       
together        the liquid and still    
moveable mass into the place which was  
occupied by the fire1 and unites it with
 itself4 ,thus compressed        the    
mass resumes its equability1 and is     
again at unity with        itself1      
because the fire which was the author of

 the inequality        has retreated2   
and this departure of the fire is called
 cooling1        and the coming together
 which follows upon it is termed        
congealment4 ,of all the kinds termed   
fusile1 that which is the        densest
 and is formed out of the finest and    
most uniform parts is        that most  
precious possession called gold1 which  
is hardened by        filtration through
 rock2 this is unique in kind1 and has  
both a        glittering and a yellow   
colour4 ,a shoot of gold1 which is so   
dense as to be very hard1 and takes a   
black colour1 is termed        adamant4 
,there is also another kind which has   
parts nearly like        gold1 and of   
which there are several species2 it is  
denser than        gold1 and it contains
 a small and fine portion of earth1 and 
is        therefore harder1 yet also    
lighter because of the great            
interstices which it has within itself2 
and this substance1 which        is one 
of the bright and denser kinds of water1

 when solidified        is called       
copper4 ,there is an alloy of earth     
mingled with it1        which1 when the 
two parts grow old and are disunited1   
shows        itself separately and is   
called rust4 ,the remaining phenomena of
        the same kind there will be no  
difficulty in reasoning out by the      
method of probabilities4 ,a man may     
sometimes set aside        meditations  
about eternal things1 and for recreation
 turn to        consider the truths of  
generation which are probable only2 he  
will thus gain a pleasure not to be     
repented of1 and secure for             
himself while he lives a wise and       
moderate pastime4 ,let us grant         
ourselves this indulgence1 and go       
through the probabilities               
relating to the same subjects which     
follow next in order4          ,water   
which is mingled with fire1 so much as  
is fine and liquid        7being so     
called by reason of its motion and the  
way in which it        rolls along the  

ground71 and soft1 because its bases    
give way and        are less stable than
 those of earth1 when separated from    
fire and        air and isolated1       
becomes more uniform1 and by their      
retirement        is compressed into    
itself2 and if the condensation be very 
great1        the water above the earth 
becomes hail1 but on the earth1 ice2    
and that which is congealed in a less   
degree and is only half        solid1   
when above the earth is called snow1 and
 when upon the        earth1 and        
condensed from dew1 hoar-frost4 ,then1  
again1 there are        the numerous    
kinds of water which have been mingled  
with one        another1 and are        
distilled through plants which grow in  
the        earth2 and this whole class  
is called by the name of juices or      
saps4 ,the unequal admixture of these   
fluids creates a variety of             
species2 most of them are nameless1 but 
four which are of a fiery        nature 
are clearly distinguished and have      

names4 ,first1 there is        wine1    
which warms the soul as well as the     
body3 secondly1 there        is the oily
 nature1 which is smooth and divides the
 visual ray1        and for this reason 
is bright and shining and of a          
glistening        appearance1 including 
pitch1 the juice of the castor berry1   
oil        itself1 and other things of a
 like kind3 thirdly1 there is the       
class of substances which expand the    
contracted parts of the        mouth1   
until they return to their natural      
state1 and by reason of        this     
property create sweetness2--these are   
included under the        general name  
of honey3 and1 lastly1 there is a frothy
 nature1        which differs from all  
juices1 having a burning quality which  
dissolves the flesh2 it is called opos  
7a vegetable acid74          ,as to the 
kinds of earth1 that which is filtered  
through water        passes into stone  
in the following manner3--,the water    
which mixes        with the earth and is

 broken up in the process changes into  
air1        and taking this form mounts 
into its own place4 ,but as there is    
no surrounding vacuum it thrusts away   
the neighbouring air1 and        this   
being rendered heavy1 and1 when it is   
displaced1 having been        poured    
around the mass of earth1 forcibly      
compresses it and        drives it into 
the vacant space whence the new air had 
come up2        and the earth when      
compressed by the air into an           
indissoluble        union with water    
becomes rock4 ,the fairer sort is that  
which is        made up of equal and    
similar parts and is transparent2 that  
which        has the opposite qualities 
is inferior4 ,but when all the watery   
part is suddenly drawn out by fire1 a   
more brittle substance is        formed1
 to which we give the name of pottery4  
,sometimes also        moisture may     
remain1 and the earth which has been    
fused by fire        becomes1 when cool1
 a certain stone of a black colour4 ,a  

like        separation of the water     
which had been copiously mingled with   
them may occur in two substances        
composed of finer particles of          
earth and of a briny nature2 out of     
either of them a        half-solid-body 
is then formed1 soluble in water--the   
one1 soda1        which is used for     
purging away oil and earth1 the other1  
salt1        which harmonizes so well in
 combinations pleasing to the palate1   
and is1 as the law testifies1 a         
substance dear to the gods4 ,the        
compounds of earth and water are not    
soluble by water1 but by        fire    
only1 and for this reason3--,neither    
fire nor air melt masses        of      
earth2 for their particles1 being       
smaller than the interstices        in  
its structure1 have plenty of room to   
move without forcing        their way1  
and so they leave the earth unmelted and
 undissolved2        but particles of   
water1 which are larger1 force a        
passage1 and        dissolve and melt   

the earth4 ,wherefore earth when not    
consolidated by force is dissolved by   
water only2 when        consolidated1 by
 nothing but fire2 for this is the only 
body        which can find an entrance4 
,the cohesion of water again1 when      
very strong1 is dissolved by fire       
only--when weaker1 then either        by
 air or fire--the former entering the   
interstices1 and the        latter      
penetrating even the triangles4 ,but    
nothing can dissolve        air1 when   
strongly condensed1 which does not reach
 the elements        or triangles2 or if
 not strongly condensed1 then only fire 
can        dissolve it4 ,as to bodies   
composed of earth and water1 while the  
water occupies the vacant interstices of
 the earth in them which        are     
compressed by force1 the particles of   
water which approach        them from   
without1 finding no entrance1 flow      
around the entire        mass and leave 
it undissolved2 but the particles of    
fire1        entering into the          

interstices of the water1 do to the     
water what        water does to earth   
and fire to air 7,the text seems to be  
corrupt471 and are the sole causes of   
the compound body of earth        and   
water liquefying and becoming fluid4    
,now these bodies are of        two     
kinds2 some of them1 such as glass and  
the fusible sort of        stones1 have 
less water than they have earth2 on the 
other hand1        substances of the    
nature of wax and incense have more of  
water        entering into their        
composition4          ,i have thus shown
 the various classes of bodies as they  
are        diversified by their forms   
and combinations and changes into one   
another1 and now ,i must endeavour to   
set forth their affections        and   
the causes of them4 ,in the first place1
 the bodies which ,i        have been   
describing are necessarily objects of   
sense4 ,but we        have not yet      
considered the origin of flesh1 or what 
belongs to        flesh1 or of that part

 of the soul which is mortal4 ,and these
        things cannot be adequately     
explained without also explaining the   
affections which are concerned with     
sensation1 nor the latter        without
 the former3 and yet to explain them    
together is hardly        possible2 for 
which reason we must assume first one or
 the other        and afterwards examine
 the nature of our hypothesis4 ,in      
order1        then1 that the affections 
may follow regularly after the          
elements1 let us presuppose the         
existence of body and soul4             
,first1 let us enquire what we mean by  
saying that fire is hot2        and     
about this we may reason from the       
dividing or cutting power        which  
it exercises on our bodies4 ,we all of  
us feel that fire is        sharp2 and  
we may further consider the fineness of 
the sides1 and        the sharpness of  
the angles1 and the smallness of the    
particles1        and the swiftness of  
the motion--all this makes the action of

 fire        violent and sharp1 so that 
it cuts whatever it meets4 ,and we must 
not forget that the original figure of  
fire 7i4e4 the pyramid71        more    
than any other form1 has a dividing     
power which cuts our        bodies into 
small pieces 7,kepmatizei71 and thus    
naturally        produces that affection
 which we call heat2 and hence the      
origin        of the name 7thepmos1     
,kepma74 ,now1 the opposite of this is  
sufficiently manifest2 nevertheless we  
will not fail to describe        it4    
,for the larger particles of moisture   
which surround the body1        entering
 in and driving out the lesser1 but not 
being able to        take their places1 
compress the moist principle in us2 and 
this        from being unequal and      
disturbed1 is forced by them into a     
state        of rest1 which is due to   
equability and compression4 ,but things 
which are contracted contrary to nature 
are by nature at war1 and        force  
themselves apart2 and to this war and   

convulsion the name        of shivering 
and trembling is given2 and the whole   
affection and        the cause of the   
affection are both termed cold4 ,that is
 called        hard to which our flesh  
yields1 and soft which yields to our    
flesh2 and things are also termed hard  
and soft relatively to one              
another4 ,that which yields has a small 
base2 but that which rests        on    
quadrangular bases is firmly posed and  
belongs to the class        which offers
 the greatest resistance2 so too does   
that which is        the most compact   
and therefore most repellent4 ,the      
nature of the        light and the heavy
 will be best understood when examined  
in        connexion with our notions of 
above and below2 for it is quite a      
mistake to suppose that the universe is 
parted into two regions1        separate
 from and opposite to each other1 the   
one a lower to        which all things  
tend which have any bulk1 and an upper  
to which        things only ascend      

against their will4 ,for as the universe
 is in        the form of a sphere1 all 
the extremities1 being equidistant from 
the centre1 are equally extremities1 and
 the centre1 which is        equidistant
 from them1 is equally to be regarded as
 the opposite        of them all4 ,such 
being the nature of the world1 when a   
person        says that any of these    
points is above or below1 may he not be 
justly charged with using an improper   
expression8 ,for the centre        of   
the world cannot be rightly called      
either above or below1 but        is the
 centre and nothing else2 and the       
circumference is not the        centre1 
and has in no one part of itself a      
different relation to        the centre 
from what it has in any of the opposite 
parts4 ,indeed1        when it is in    
every direction similar1 how can one    
rightly give        to it names which   
imply opposition8 ,for if there were any
 solid        body in equipoise at the  
centre of the universe1 there would be  

nothing to draw it to this extreme      
rather than to that1 for they        are
 all perfectly similar2 and if a person 
were to go round the        world in a  
circle1 he would often1 when standing at
 the antipodes        of his former     
position1 speak of the same point as    
above and        below2 for1 as ,i was  
saying just now1 to speak of the whole  
which        is in the form of a globe  
as having one part above and another    
below is not like a sensible man4 ,the  
reason why these names are        used1 
and the circumstances under which they  
are ordinarily        applied by us to  
the division of the heavens1 may be     
elucidated        by the following      
supposition3--if a person were to stand 
in that        part of the universe     
which is the appointed place of fire1   
and        where there is the great mass
 of fire to which fiery bodies          
gather--if1 ,i say1 he were to ascend   
thither1 and1 having the        power to
 do this1 were to abstract particles of 

fire and put them        in scales and  
weigh them1 and then1 raising the       
balance1 were to        draw the fire by
 force towards the uncongenial element  
of the        air1 it would be very     
evident that he could compel the smaller
        mass more readily than the      
larger2 for when two things are         
simultaneously raised by one and the    
same power1 the smaller body        must
 necessarily yield to the superior power
 with less reluctance        than the   
larger2 and the larger body is called   
heavy and said to        tend downwards1
 and the smaller body is called light   
and said to        tend upwards4 ,and we
 may detect ourselves who are upon the  
earth        doing precisely the same   
thing4 ,for we often separate earthy    
natures1 and sometimes earth itself1 and
 draw them into the        uncongenial  
element of air by force and contrary to 
nature1 both        clinging to their   
kindred elements4 ,but that which is    
smaller        yields to the impulse    

given by us towards the dissimilar      
element        more easily than the     
larger2 and so we call the former light1
 and        the place towards which it  
is impelled we call above1 and the      
contrary state and place we call heavy  
and below respectively4        ,now the 
relations of these must necessarily     
vary1 because the        principal      
masses of the different elements hold   
opposite        positions2 for that     
which is light1 heavy1 below or above in
 one        place will be found to be   
and become contrary and transverse and  
every way diverse in relation to that   
which is light1 heavy1        below or  
above in an opposite place4 ,and about  
all of them this        has to be       
considered3--that the tendency of each  
towards its        kindred element makes
 the body which is moved heavy1 and the 
place towards which the motion tends    
below1 but things which have        an  
opposite tendency we call by an opposite
 name4 ,such are the        causes which

 we assign to these phenomena4 ,as to   
the smooth and        the rough1 any one
 who sees them can explain the reason of
 them        to another4 ,for roughness 
is hardness mingled with irregularity1  
and smoothness is produced by the joint 
effect of uniformity and        density4
          ,the most important of the    
affections which concern the whole body 
remains to be considered--that is1 the  
cause of pleasure and pain        in the
 perceptions of which ,i have been      
speaking1 and in all        other things
 which are perceived by sense through   
the parts of        the body1 and have  
both pains and pleasures attendant on   
them4        ,let us imagine the causes 
of every affection1 whether of sense or 
not1 to be of the following nature1     
remembering that we have        already 
distinguished between the nature which  
is easy and which        is hard to     
move2 for this is the direction in which
 we must hunt        the prey which we  
mean to take4 ,a body which is of a     

nature to be        easily moved1 on    
receiving an impression however slight1 
spreads        abroad the motion in a   
circle1 the parts communicating with    
each        other1 until at last1       
reaching the principle of mind1 they    
announce the quality of the agent4 ,but 
a body of the opposite        kind1     
being immobile1 and not extending to the
 surrounding        region1 merely      
receives the impression1 and does not   
stir any of        the neighbouring     
parts2 and since the parts do not       
distribute the        original          
impression to other parts1 it has no    
effect of motion on        the whole    
animal1 and therefore produces no effect
 on the        patient4 ,this is true of
 the bones and hair and other more      
earthy        parts of the human body2  
whereas what was said above relates     
mainly to sight and hearing1 because    
they have in them the        greatest   
amount of fire and air4 ,now we must    
conceive of pleasure        and pain in 

this way4 ,an impression produced in us 
contrary to        nature and violent1  
if sudden1 is painful2 and1 again1 the  
sudden        return to nature is       
pleasant2 but a gentle and gradual      
return is        imperceptible and vice 
versa4 ,on the other hand the impression
 of        sense which is most easily   
produced is most readily felt1 but is   
not accompanied by pleasure or pain2    
such1 for example1 are the              
affections of the sight1 which1 as we   
said above1 is a body        naturally  
uniting with our body in the day-time2  
for cuttings and        burnings and    
other affections which happen to the    
sight do not        give pain1 nor is   
there pleasure when the sight returns to
 its        natural state2 but the      
sensations are clearest and strongest   
according to the manner in which the eye
 is affected by the        object1 and  
itself strikes and touches it2 there is 
no violence        either in the        
contraction or dilation of the eye4 ,but

 bodies        formed of larger         
particles yield to the agent only with a
        struggle2 and then they impart  
their motions to the whole and          
cause pleasure and pain--pain when      
alienated from their natural            
conditions1 and pleasure when restored  
to them4 ,things which        experience
 gradual withdrawings and emptyings of  
their nature1        and great and      
sudden replenishments1 fail to perceive 
the        emptying1 but are sensible of
 the replenishment2 and so they         
occasion no pain1 but the greatest      
pleasure1 to the mortal part        of  
the soul1 as is manifest in the case of 
perfumes4 ,but things        which are  
changed all of a sudden1 and only       
gradually and with        difficulty    
return to their own nature1 have effects
 in every way        opposite to the    
former1 as is evident in the case of    
burnings and        cuttings of the     
body4          ,thus have we discussed  
the general affections of the whole     

body1        and the names of the agents
 which produce them4 ,and now ,i will   
endeavour to speak of the affections of 
particular parts1 and the        causes 
and agents of them1 as far as ,i am     
able4 ,in the first        place let us 
set forth what was omitted when we were 
speaking of        juices1 concerning   
the affections peculiar to the tongue4  
,these        too1 like most of the     
other affections1 appear to be caused by
        certain contractions and        
dilations1 but they have besides more of
        roughness and smoothness than is
 found in other affections2 for         
whenever earthy particles enter into the
 small veins which are        the       
testing instruments of the tongue1      
reaching to the heart1 and        fall  
upon the moist1 delicate portions of    
flesh--when1 as they are                
dissolved1 they contract and dry up the 
little veins1 they are        astringent
 if they are rougher1 but if not so     
rough1 then only        harsh4 ,those of

 them which are of an abstergent nature1
 and purge        the whole surface of  
the tongue1 if they do it in excess1 and
 so        encroach as to consume some  
part of the flesh itself1 like potash   
and soda1 are all termed bitter4 ,but   
the particles which are        deficient
 in the alkaline quality1 and which     
cleanse only        moderately1 are     
called salt1 and having no bitterness or
        roughness1 are regarded as      
rather agreeable than otherwise4        
,bodies which share in and are made     
smooth by the heat of the        mouth1 
and which are inflamed1 and again in    
turn inflame that        which heats    
them1 and which are so light that they  
are carried        upwards to the       
sensations of the head1 and cut all that
 comes in        their way1 by reason of
 these qualities in them1 are all termed
        pungent4 ,but when these same   
particles1 refined by putrefaction1     
enter into the narrow veins1 and are    
duly proportioned to the                

particles of earth and air which are    
there1 they set them        whirling    
about one another1 and while they are in
 a whirl cause        them to dash      
against and enter into one another1 and 
so form        hollows surrounding the  
particles that enter--which watery      
vessels        of air 7for a film of    
moisture1 sometimes earthy1 sometimes   
pure1        is spread around the air7  
are hollow spheres of water2 and those  
of them which are pure1 are transparent1
 and are called bubbles1        while   
those composed of the earthy liquid1    
which is in a state of        general   
agitation and effervescence1 are said to
 boil or        ferment--of all these   
affections the cause is termed acid4    
,and        there is the opposite       
affection arising from an opposite      
cause1        when the mass of entering 
particles1 immersed in the moisture of  
the mouth1 is congenial to the tongue1  
and smooths and oils over        the    
roughness1 and relaxes the parts which  

are unnaturally        contracted1 and  
contracts the parts which are relaxed1  
and        disposes them all according  
to their nature2--that sort of remedy   
of violent affections is pleasant and   
agreeable to every man1 and        has  
the name sweet4 ,but enough of this4    
,the faculty of smell does not admit of 
differences of kind2 for        all     
smells are of a half-formed nature1 and 
no element is so        proportioned as 
to have any smell4 ,the veins about the 
nose are        too narrow to admit     
earth and water1 and too wide to detain 
fire        and air2 and for this reason
 no one ever perceives the smell of     
any of them2 but smells always proceed  
from bodies that are damp1        or    
putrefying1 or liquefying1 or           
evaporating1 and are perceptible        
only in the intermediate state1 when    
water is changing into air        and   
air into water2 and all of them are     
either vapour or mist4        ,that     
which is passing out of air into water  

is mist1 and that        which is       
passing from water into air is vapour2  
and hence all        smells are thinner 
than water and thicker than air4 ,the   
proof of        this is1 that when there
 is any obstruction to the respiration1 
and a man draws in his breath by force1 
then no smell filters        through1   
but the air without the smell alone     
penetrates4        ,wherefore the       
varieties of smell have no name1 and    
they have not        many1 or definite  
and simple kinds2 but they are          
distinguished        only as painful and
 pleasant1 the one sort irritating and  
disturbing the whole cavity which is    
situated between the head        and the
 navel1 the other having a soothing     
influence1 and        restoring this    
same region to an agreeable and natural 
condition4          ,in considering the 
third kind of sense1 hearing1 we must   
speak of        the causes in which it  
originates4 ,we may in general assume   
sound        to be a blow which passes  

through the ears1 and is transmitted by 
means of the air1 the brain1 and the    
blood1 to the soul1 and that            
hearing is the vibration of this blow1  
which begins in the head        and ends
 in the region of the liver4 ,the sound 
which moves        swiftly is acute1 and
 the sound which moves slowly is grave1 
and        that which is regular is     
equable and smooth1 and the reverse is  
harsh4 ,a great body of sound is loud1  
and a small body of sound        the    
reverse4 ,respecting the harmonies of   
sound ,i must hereafter        speak4   
,there is a fourth class of sensible    
things1 having many intricate           
varieties1 which must now be            
distinguished4 ,they are called by      
the general name of colours1 and are a  
flame which emanates from        every  
sort of body1 and has particles         
corresponding to the sense        of    
sight4 ,i have spoken already1 in what  
has preceded1 of the        causes which
 generate sight1 and in this place it   

will be natural        and suitable to  
give a rational theory of colours4      
,of the particles coming from other     
bodies which fall upon the        sight1
 some are smaller and some are larger1  
and some are equal        to the parts  
of the sight itself4 ,those which are   
equal are        imperceptible1 and we  
call them transparent4 ,the larger      
produce        contraction1 the smaller 
dilation1 in the sight1 exercising a    
power akin to that of hot and cold      
bodies on the flesh1 or of              
astringent bodies on the tongue1 or of  
those heating bodies which        we    
termed pungent4 ,white and black are    
similar effects of        contraction   
and dilation in another sphere1 and for 
this reason        have a different     
appearance4 ,wherefore1 we ought to term
 white        that which dilates the    
visual ray1 and the opposite of this is 
black4 ,there is also a swifter motion  
of a different sort of fire        which
 strikes and dilates the ray of sight   

until it reaches the        eyes1       
forcing a way through their passages and
 melting them1 and        eliciting from
 them a union of fire and water which we
 call        tears1 being itself an     
opposite fire which comes to them from  
an        opposite direction--the inner 
fire flashes forth like lightning1      
and the outer finds a way in and is     
extinguished in the moisture1        and
 all sorts of colours are generated by  
the mixture4 ,this        affection is  
termed dazzling1 and the object which   
produces it is        called bright and 
flashing4 ,there is another sort of fire
 which        is intermediate1 and which
 reaches and mingles with the moisture  
of the eye without flashing2 and in     
this1 the fire mingling with        the 
ray of the moisture1 produces a colour  
like blood1 to which        we give the 
name of red4 ,a bright hue mingled with 
red and white        gives the colour   
called auburn 7,greek74 ,the law of     
proportion1        however1 according to

 which the several colours are formed1  
even        if a man knew he would be   
foolish in telling1 for he could not    
give any necessary reason1 nor indeed   
any tolerable or probable               
explanation of them4 ,again1 red1 when  
mingled with black and        white1    
becomes purple1 but it becomes umber    
7,greek7 when the        colours are    
burnt as well as mingled and the black  
is more        thoroughly mixed with    
them4 ,flame-colour 7,greek7 is produced
 by a        union of auburn and dun    
7,greek71 and dun by an admixture of    
black        and white2 pale yellow     
7,greek71 by an admixture of white and  
auburn4 ,white and bright meeting1 and  
falling upon a full black1        become
 dark blue 7,greek71 and when dark blue 
mingles with white1        a light blue 
7,greek7 colour is formed1 as           
flame-colour with black        makes    
leek green 7,greek74 ,there will be no  
difficulty in seeing        how and by  
what mixtures the colours derived from  

these are made        according to the  
rules of probability4 ,he1 however1 who 
should        attempt to verify all this
 by experiment1 would forget the        
difference of the human and divine      
nature4 ,for ,god only has the          
knowledge and also the power which are  
able to combine many        things into 
one and again resolve the one into many4
 ,but no man        either is or ever   
will be able to accomplish either the   
one or        the other operation4      
,these are the elements1 thus of        
necessity then subsisting1 which        
the creator of the fairest and best of  
created things associated        with   
himself1 when he made the self-sufficing
 and most perfect        ,god1 using the
 necessary causes as his ministers in   
the        accomplishment of his work1  
but himself contriving the good in      
all his creations4 ,wherefore we may    
distinguish two sorts of        causes1 
the one divine and the other necessary1 
and may seek for        the divine in   

all things1 as far as our nature admits1
 with a        view to the blessed life2
 but the necessary kind only for the    
sake of the divine1 considering that    
without them and when        isolated   
from them1 these higher things for which
 we look cannot        be apprehended or
 received or in any way shared by us4   
,seeing1 then1 that we have now prepared
 for our use the various        classes 
of causes which are the material out of 
which the        remainder of our       
discourse must be woven1 just as wood is
 the        material of the carpenter1  
let us revert in a few words to the     
point at which we began1 and then       
endeavour to add on a suitable          
ending to the beginning of our tale4    
,as ,i said at first1 when all things   
were in disorder ,god created        in 
each thing in relation to itself1 and in
 all things in        relation to each  
other1 all the measures and harmonies   
which they        could possibly        
receive4 ,for in those days nothing had 

any        proportion except by         
accident2 nor did any of the things     
which        now have names deserve to  
be named at all--as1 for example1 fire1 
water1 and the rest of the elements4    
,all these the creator first        set 
in order1 and out of them he constructed
 the universe1 which        was a single
 animal comprehending in itself all     
other animals1        mortal and        
immortal4 ,now of the divine1 he himself
 was the        creator1 but the        
creation of the mortal he committed to  
his        offspring4 ,and they1        
imitating him1 received from him the    
immortal principle of the soul2 and     
around this they proceeded to           
fashion a mortal body1 and made it to be
 the vehicle of the soul1        and    
constructed within the body a soul of   
another nature which        was mortal1 
subject to terrible and irresistible    
affections1--first of all1 pleasure1 the
 greatest incitement to        evil2    
then1 pain1 which deters from good2 also

 rashness and fear1        two foolish  
counsellors1 anger hard to be appeased1 
and hope        easily led              
astray2--these they mingled with        
irrational sense and        with        
all-daring love according to necessary  
laws1 and so framed        man4         
,wherefore1 fearing to pollute the      
divine any more than was                
absolutely unavoidable1 they gave to the
 mortal nature a separate               
habitation in another part of the body1 
placing the neck between        them to 
be the isthmus and boundary1 which they 
constructed        between the head and 
breast1 to keep them apart4 ,and in the 
breast1 and in what is termed the       
thorax1 they encased the mortal         
soul2 and as the one part of this was   
superior and the other        inferior  
they divided the cavity of the thorax   
into two parts1 as        the women's   
and men's apartments are divided in     
houses1 and        placed the midriff to
 be a wall of partition between them4   

,that        part of the inferior soul  
which is endowed with courage and       
passion and loves contention they       
settled nearer the head1 midway         
between the midriff and the neck1 in    
order that it might be under        the 
rule of reason and might join with it in
 controlling and        restraining the 
desires when they are no longer willing 
of their        own accord to obey the  
word of command issuing from the        
citadel4          ,the heart1 the knot  
of the veins and the fountain of the    
blood        which races through all the
 limbs1 was set in the place of guard1  
that when the might of passion was      
roused by reason making                 
proclamation of any wrong assailing them
 from without or being                  
perpetrated by the desires within1      
quickly the whole power of              
feeling in the body1 perceiving these   
commands and threats1 might        obey 
and follow through every turn and alley1
 and thus allow the        principle of 

the best to have the command in all of  
them4 ,but the        gods1 foreknowing 
that the palpitation of the heart in the
        expectation of danger and the   
swelling and excitement of passion      
was caused by fire1 formed and implanted
 as a supporter to the        heart the 
lung1 which was1 in the first place1    
soft and        bloodless1 and also had 
within hollows like the pores of a      
sponge1 in order that by receiving the  
breath and the drink1 it        might   
give coolness and the power of          
respiration and alleviate        the    
heat4 ,wherefore they cut the           
air-channels leading to the        lung1
 and placed the lung about the heart as 
a soft spring1 that1        when passion
 was rife within1 the heart1 beating    
against a        yielding body1 might be
 cooled and suffer less1 and might thus 
become more ready to join with passion  
in the service of reason4          ,the 
part of the soul which desires meats and
 drinks and the other        things of  

which it has need by reason of the      
bodily nature1 they        placed       
between the midriff and the boundary of 
the navel1        contriving in all this
 region a sort of manger for the food of
        the body2 and there they bound  
it down like a wild animal which        
was chained up with man1 and must be    
nourished if man was to        exist4   
,they appointed this lower creation his 
place here in order        that he might
 be always feeding at the manger1 and   
have his        dwelling as far as might
 be from the council-chamber1 making as 
little noise and disturbance as         
possible1 and permitting the best       
part to advise quietly for the good of  
the whole4 ,and knowing        that this
 lower principle in man would not       
comprehend reason1 and        even if   
attaining to some degree of perception  
would never        naturally care for   
rational notions1 but that it would be  
led        away by phantoms and visions 
night and day1--to be a remedy for      

this1 ,god combined with it the liver1  
and placed it in the house        of the
 lower nature1 contriving that it should
 be solid and        smooth1 and bright 
and sweet1 and should also have a bitter
        quality1 in order that the power
 of thought1 which proceeds from        
the mind1 might be reflected as in a    
mirror which receives        likenesses 
of objects and gives back images of them
 to the sight2        and so might      
strike terror into the desires1 when1   
making use of        the bitter part of 
the liver1 to which it is akin1 it comes
        threatening and invading1 and   
diffusing this bitter element           
swiftly through the whole liver produces
 colours like bile1 and                 
contracting every part makes it wrinkled
 and rough2 and twisting        out of  
its right place and contorting the lobe 
and closing and        shutting up the  
vessels and gates1 causes pain and      
loathing4 ,and        the converse      
happens when some gentle inspiration of 

the        understanding pictures images
 of an opposite character1 and          
allays the bile and bitterness by       
refusing to stir or touch the           
nature opposed to itself1 but by making 
use of the natural        sweetness of  
the liver1 corrects all things and makes
 them to be        right and smooth and 
free1 and renders the portion of the    
soul        which resides about the     
liver happy and joyful1 enabling it to  
pass the night in peace1 and to practise
 divination in sleep1        inasmuch as
 it has no share in mind and reason4    
,for the authors        of our being1   
remembering the command of their father 
when he        bade them create the     
human race as good as they could1 that  
they        might correct our inferior  
parts and make them to attain a         
measure of truth1 placed in the liver   
the seat of divination4 ,and            
herein is a proof that ,god has given   
the art of divination not to        the 
wisdom1 but to the foolishness of man4  

,no man1 when in his        wits1       
attains prophetic truth and inspiration2
 but when he        receives the        
inspired word1 either his intelligence  
is enthralled        in sleep1 or he is 
demented by some distemper or           
possession4 ,and        he who would    
understand what he remembers to have    
been said1        whether in a dream or 
when he was awake1 by the prophetic and 
inspired nature1 or would determine by  
reason the meaning of the               
apparitions which he has seen1 and what 
indications they afford        to this  
man or that1 of past1 present or future 
good and evil1        must first recover
 his wits4 ,but1 while he continues     
demented1 he        cannot judge of the 
visions which he sees or the words which
 he        utters2 the ancient saying is
 very true1 that #8only a man who has   
his wits can act or judge about himself 
and his own affairs4' ,and        for   
this reason it is customary to appoint  
interpreters to be        judges of the 

true inspiration4 ,some persons call    
them prophets2        they are quite    
unaware that they are only the          
expositors of dark        sayings and   
visions1 and are not to be called       
prophets at all1        but only        
interpreters of prophecy4          ,such
 is the nature of the liver1 which is   
placed as we have        described in   
order that it may give prophetic        
intimations4 ,during        the life of 
each individual these intimations are   
plainer1 but        after his death the 
liver becomes blind1 and delivers       
oracles too        obscure to be        
intelligible4 ,the neighbouring organ   
7the spleen7        is situated on the  
left-hand side1 and is constructed with 
a view        of keeping the liver      
bright and pure1--like a napkin1 always 
ready        prepared and at hand to    
clean the mirror4 ,and hence1 when any  
impurities arise in the region of the   
liver by reason of        disorders of  
the body1 the loose nature of the       

spleen1 which is        composed of a   
hollow and bloodless tissue1 receives   
them all and        clears them away1   
and when filled with the unclean matter1
 swells        and festers1 but1 again1 
when the body is purged1 settles down   
into the same place as before1 and is   
humbled4          ,concerning the soul1 
as to which part is mortal and which    
divine1        and how and why they are 
separated1 and where located1 if ,god   
acknowledges that we have spoken the    
truth1 then1 and then only1        can  
we be confident2 still1 we may venture  
to assert that what        has been said
 by us is probable1 and will be rendered
 more        probable by investigation4 
,let us assume thus much4          ,the 
creation of the rest of the body follows
 next in order1 and        this we may  
investigate in a similar manner4 ,and it
 appears to be        very meet that the
 body should be framed on the following 
principles3--          ,the authors of  
our race were aware that we should be   

intemperate        in eating and        
drinking1 and take a good deal more than
 was        necessary or proper1 by     
reason of gluttony4 ,in order then that 
disease might not quickly destroy us1   
and lest our mortal race        should  
perish without fulfilling its           
end--intending to provide        against
 this1 the gods made what is called the 
lower belly1 to be        a receptacle  
for the superfluous meat and drink1 and 
formed the        convolution of the    
bowels1 so that the food might be       
prevented        from passing quickly   
through and compelling the body to      
require        more food1 thus producing
 insatiable gluttony1 and making the    
whole race an enemy to philosophy and   
music1 and rebellious        against the
 divinest element within us4            
,the bones and flesh1 and other similar 
parts of us1 were made as               
follows4 ,the first principle of all of 
them was the generation of        the   
marrow4 ,for the bonds of life which    

unite the soul with the        body are 
made fast there1 and they are the root  
and foundation of        the human race4
 ,the marrow itself is created out of   
other        materials3 ,god took such  
of the primary triangles as were        
straight and smooth1 and were adapted by
 their perfection to        produce fire
 and water1 and air and earth--these1 ,i
 say1 he        separated from their    
kinds1 and mingling them in due         
proportions        with one another1    
made the marrow out of them to be a     
universal        seed of the whole race 
of mankind2 and in this seed he then    
planted and enclosed the souls1 and in  
the original distribution        gave to
 the marrow as many and various forms as
 the different        kinds of souls    
were hereafter to receive4 ,that which1 
like a        field1 was to receive the 
divine seed1 he made round every way1   
and called that portion of the marrow1  
brain1 intending that1        when an   
animal was perfected1 the vessel        

containing this        substance should 
be the head2 but that which was intended
 to        contain the remaining and    
mortal part of the soul he distributed  
into figures at once round and          
elongated1 and he called them all       
by the name #8marrow'2 and to these1 as 
to anchors1 fastening the        bonds  
of the whole soul1 he proceeded to      
fashion around them the        entire   
framework of our body1 constructing for 
the marrow1 first        of all a       
complete covering of bone4              
,bone was composed by him in the        
following manner4 ,having sifted        
pure and smooth earth he kneaded it and 
wetted it with marrow1        and after 
that he put it into fire and then into  
water1 and once        more into fire   
and again into water--in this way by    
frequent        transfers from one to   
the other he made it insoluble by       
either4        ,out of this he          
fashioned1 as in a lathe1 a globe made  
of bone1        which he placed around  

the brain1 and in this he left a narrow 
opening2 and around the marrow of the   
neck and back he formed        vertebrae
 which he placed under one another like 
pivots1        beginning at the head and
 extending through the whole of the     
trunk4 ,thus wishing to preserve the    
entire seed1 he enclosed it        in a 
stone-like casing1 inserting joints1 and
 using in the        formation of them  
the power of the other or diverse as an 
intermediate nature1 that they might    
have motion and flexure4        ,then   
again1 considering that the bone would  
be too brittle and        inflexible1   
and when heated and again cooled would  
soon mortify        and destroy the seed
 within--having this in view1 he        
contrived the        sinews and the     
flesh1 that so binding all the members  
together by        the sinews1 which    
admitted of being stretched and relaxed 
about        the vertebrae1 he might    
thus make the body capable of flexion   
and        extension1 while the flesh   

would serve as a protection against     
the summer heat and against the winter  
cold1 and also against        falls1    
softly and easily yielding to external  
bodies1 like        articles made of    
felt2 and containing in itself a warm   
moisture        which in summer exudes  
and makes the surface damp1 would impart
 a        natural coolness to the whole 
body2 and again in winter by the        
help of this internal warmth would form 
a very tolerable defence        against 
the frost which surrounds it and attacks
 it from without4        ,he who        
modelled us1 considering these things1  
mixed earth with        fire and water  
and blended them2 and making a ferment  
of acid and        salt1 he mingled it  
with them and formed soft and succulent 
flesh4 ,as for the sinews1 he made them 
of a mixture of bone and                
unfermented flesh1 attempered so as to  
be in a mean1 and gave        them a    
yellow colour2 wherefore the sinews have
 a firmer and more        glutinous     

nature than flesh1 but a softer and     
moister nature than        the bones4   
,with these ,god covered the bones and  
marrow1 binding        them together by 
sinews1 and then enshrouded them all in 
an upper        covering of flesh4 ,the 
more living and sensitive of the bones  
he        enclosed in the thinnest film 
of flesh1 and those which had the       
least life within them in the thickest  
and most solid flesh4 ,so        again  
on the joints of the bones1 where reason
 indicated that no        more was      
required1 he placed only a thin covering
 of flesh1 that        it might not     
interfere with the flexion of our bodies
 and make        them unwieldy because  
difficult to move2 and also that it     
might        not1 by being crowded and  
pressed and matted together1 destroy    
sensation by reason of its hardness1 and
 impair the memory and        dull the  
edge of intelligence4 ,wherefore also   
the thighs and the        shanks and the
 hips1 and the bones of the arms and the

 forearms1        and other parts which 
have no joints1 and the inner bones1    
which        on account of the rarity of
 the soul in the marrow are destitute   
of reason--all these are abundantly     
provided with flesh2 but such        as 
have mind in them are in general less   
fleshy1 except where the        creator 
has made some part solely of flesh in   
order to give        sensation1--as1 for
 example1 the tongue4 ,but commonly this
 is not        the case4 ,for the nature
 which comes into being and grows up in 
us by a law of necessity1 does not admit
 of the combination of        solid bone
 and much flesh with acute perceptions4 
,more than any        other part the    
framework of the head would have had    
them1 if they        could have         
co-existed1 and the human race1 having a
 strong and        fleshy and sinewy    
head1 would have had a life twice or    
many times        as long as it now has1
 and also more healthy and free from    
pain4        ,but our creators1         

considering whether they should make a  
longer-lived race which was worse1 or a 
shorter-lived race which        was     
better1 came to the conclusion that     
every one ought to prefer        a      
shorter span of life1 which was better1 
to a longer one1 which        was worse2
 and therefore they covered the head    
with thin bone1        but not with     
flesh and sinews1 since it had no       
joints2 and thus        the head was    
added1 having more wisdom and sensation 
than the        rest of the body1 but   
also being in every man far weaker4 ,for
        these reasons and after this    
manner ,god placed the sinews at the    
extremity of the head1 in a circle round
 the neck1 and glued them               
together by the principle of likeness   
and fastened the        extremities of  
the jawbones to them below the face1 and
 the other        sinews he dispersed   
throughout the body1 fastening limb to  
limb4        ,the framers of us framed  
the mouth1 as now arranged1 having teeth

        and tongue and lips1 with a view
 to the necessary and the good          
contriving the way in for necessary     
purposes1 the way out for the           
best purposes2 for that is necessary    
which enters in and gives        food to
 the body2 but the river of speech1     
which flows out of a        man and     
ministers to the intelligence1 is the   
fairest and noblest        of all       
streams4 ,still the head could neither  
be left a bare frame        of bones1 on
 account of the extremes of heat and    
cold in the        different seasons1   
nor yet be allowed to be wholly covered1
 and        so become dull and senseless
 by reason of an overgrowth of flesh4   
,the fleshy nature was not therefore    
wholly dried up1 but a large        sort
 of peel was parted off and remained    
over1 which is now        called the    
skin4 ,this met and grew by the help of 
the cerebral        moisture1 and became
 the circular envelopment of the head4  
,and        the moisture1 rising up     

under the sutures1 watered and closed in
        the skin upon the crown1 forming
 a sort of knot4 ,the diversity of      
the sutures was caused by the power of  
the courses of the soul        and of   
the food1 and the more these struggled  
against one another        the more     
numerous they became1 and fewer if the  
struggle were        less violent4 ,this
 skin the divine power pierced all round
 with        fire1 and out of the       
punctures which were thus made the      
moisture        issued forth1 and the   
liquid and heat which was pure came     
away1        and a mixed part which was 
composed of the same material as the    
skin1 and had a fineness equal to the   
punctures1 was borne up by        its   
own impulse and extended far outside the
 head1 but being too        slow to     
escape1 was thrust back by the external 
air1 and rolled        up underneath the
 skin1 where it took root4 ,thus the    
hair sprang        up in the skin1 being
 akin to it because it is like threads  

of        leather1 but rendered harder  
and closer through the pressure of      
the cold1 by which each hair1 while in  
process of separation from        the   
skin1 is compressed and cooled4         
,wherefore the creator formed        the
 head hairy1 making use of the causes   
which ,i have mentioned1        and     
reflecting also that instead of flesh   
the brain needed the        hair to be a
 light covering or guard1 which would   
give shade in        summer and shelter 
in winter1 and at the same time would   
not        impede our quickness of      
perception4 ,from the combination of    
sinew1 skin1 and bone1 in the structure 
of the finger1 there        arises a    
triple compound1 which1 when dried up1  
takes the form of        one hard skin  
partaking of all three natures1 and was 
fabricated        by these second       
causes1 but designed by mind which is   
the        principal cause with an eye  
to the future4 ,for our creators well   
knew that women and other animals would 

some day be framed out of        men1   
and they further knew that many animals 
would require the        use of nails   
for many purposes2 wherefore they       
fashioned in men        at their first  
creation the rudiments of nails4 ,for   
this purpose        and for these       
reasons they caused skin1 hair1 and     
nails to grow        at the extremities 
of the limbs4          ,and now that all
 the parts and members of the mortal    
animal had        come together1 since  
its life of necessity consisted of fire 
and        breath1 and it therefore     
wasted away by dissolution and          
depletion1 the gods contrived the       
following remedy3 ,they mingled        a
 nature akin to that of man with other  
forms and perceptions1        and thus  
created another kind of animal4 ,these  
are the trees and        plants and     
seeds which have been improved by       
cultivation and are        now          
domesticated among us2 anciently there  
were only the wild        kinds1 which  

are older than the cultivated4 ,for     
everything that        partakes of life 
may be truly called a living being1 and 
the        animal of which we are now   
speaking partakes of the third kind of  
soul1 which is said to be seated between
 the midriff and the        navel1      
having no part in opinion or reason or  
mind1 but only in        feelings of    
pleasure and pain and the desires which 
accompany        them4 ,for this nature 
is always in a passive state1 revolving 
in        and about itself1 repelling   
the motion from without and using its   
own1 and accordingly is not endowed by  
nature with the power of                
observing or reflecting on its own      
concerns4 ,wherefore it lives        and
 does not differ from a living being1   
but is fixed and rooted        in the   
same spot1 having no power of           
self-motion4          ,now after the    
superior powers had created all these   
natures to be        food for us who are
 of the inferior nature1 they cut       

various        channels through the body
 as through a garden1 that it might be  
watered as from a running stream4 ,in   
the first place1 they cut        two    
hidden channels or veins down the back  
where the skin and the        flesh     
join1 which answered severally to the   
right and left side        of the body4 
,these they let down along the backbone1
 so as to        have the marrow of     
generation between them1 where it was   
most        likely to flourish1 and in  
order that the stream coming down from  
above might flow freely to the other    
parts1 and equalize the                 
irrigation4 ,in the next place1 they    
divided the veins about the        head1
 and interlacing them1 they sent them in
 opposite        directions2 those      
coming from the right side they sent to 
the        left of the body1 and those  
from the left they diverted towards     
the right1 so that they and the skin    
might together form a bond        which 
should fasten the head to the body1     

since the crown of the        head was  
not encircled by sinews2 and also in    
order that the        sensations from   
both sides might be distributed over the
 whole        body4 ,and next1 they     
ordered the water-courses of the body in
 a        manner which ,i will describe1
 and which will be more easily          
understood if we begin by admitting that
 all things which have        lesser    
parts retain the greater1 but the       
greater cannot retain        the lesser4
 ,now of all natures fire has the       
smallest parts1 and        therefore    
penetrates through earth and water and  
air and their        compounds1 nor can 
anything hold it4 ,and a similar        
principle        applies to the human   
belly2 for when meats and drinks enter  
it1        it holds them1 but it cannot 
hold air and fire1 because the          
particles of which they consist are     
smaller than its own        structure4  
,these elements1 therefore1 ,god        
employed for the sake of                

distributing moisture from the belly    
into the veins1 weaving        together 
a network of fire and air like a weel1  
having at the        entrance two lesser
 weels2 further he constructed one of   
these        with two openings1 and from
 the lesser weels he extended cords     
reaching all round to the extremities of
 the network4 ,all the        interior  
of the net he made of fire1 but the     
lesser weels and        their cavity1 of
 air4 ,the network he took and spread   
over the        newly-formed animal in  
the following manner3--,he let the      
lesser        weels pass into the mouth2
 there were two of them1 and one he let 
down by the air-pipes into the lungs1   
the other by the side of        the     
air-pipes into the belly4 ,the former he
 divided into two        branches1 both 
of which he made to meet at the channels
 of the        nose1 so that when the   
way through the mouth did not act1 the  
streams of the mouth as well were       
replenished through the nose4           

,with the other cavity 7i4e4 of the     
greater weel7 he enveloped the          
hollow parts of the body1 and at one    
time he made all this to        flow    
into the lesser weels1 quite gently1 for
 they are composed        of air1 and at
 another time he caused the lesser weels
 to flow        back again2 and the net 
he made to find a way in and out through
        the pores of the body1 and the  
rays of fire which are bound fast       
within followed the passage of the air  
either way1 never at any        time    
ceasing so long as the mortal being     
holds together4 ,this        process1 as
 we affirm1 the name-giver named        
inspiration and        expiration4 ,and 
all this movement1 active as well as    
passive1        takes place in order    
that the body1 being watered and cooled1
 may        receive nourishment and     
life2 for when the respiration is going 
in and out1 and the fire1 which is fast 
bound within1 follows it1        and    
ever and anon moving to and fro1 enters 

through the belly and        reaches the
 meat and drink1 it dissolves them1 and 
dividing them        into small portions
 and guiding them through the passages  
where        it goes1 pumps them as from
 a fountain into the channels of the    
veins1 and makes the stream of the veins
 flow through the body as        through
 a conduit4          ,let us once more  
consider the phenomena of respiration1  
and        enquire into the causes which
 have made it what it is4 ,they are     
as follows3--,seeing that there is no   
such thing as a vacuum into        which
 any of those things which are moved can
 enter1 and the        breath is carried
 from us into the external air1 the next
 point        is1 as will be clear to   
every one1 that it does not go into a   
vacant space1 but pushes its neighbour  
out of its place1 and that        which 
is thrust out in turn drives out its    
neighbour2 and in this        way       
everything of necessity at last comes   
round to that place        from whence  

the breath came forth1 and enters in    
there1 and        following the breath1 
fills up the vacant space2 and this goes
 on        like the rotation of a wheel1
 because there can be no such thing     
as a vacuum4 ,wherefore also the breast 
and the lungs1 when they        emit the
 breath1 are replenished by the air     
which surrounds the        body and     
which enters in through the pores of the
 flesh and is        driven round in a  
circle2 and again1 the air which is sent
 away        and passes out through the 
body forces the breath inwards through  
the passage of the mouth and the        
nostrils4 ,now the origin of this       
movement may be supposed to be as       
follows4 ,in the interior of            
every animal the hottest part is that   
which is around the blood        and    
veins2 it is in a manner an internal    
fountain of fire1 which        we       
compare to the network of a creel1 being
 woven all of fire and        extended  
through the centre of the body1 while   

the outer parts        are composed of  
air4 ,now we must admit that heat       
naturally        proceeds outward to its
 own place and to its kindred element2  
and        as there are two exits for   
the heat1 the one out through the       
body1 and the other through the mouth   
and nostrils1 when it moves             
towards the one1 it drives round the air
 at the other1 and that        which is 
driven round falls into the fire and    
becomes warm1 and        that which goes
 forth is cooled4 ,but when the heat    
changes its        place1 and the       
particles at the other exit grow warmer1
 the        hotter air inclining in that
 direction and carried towards its      
native element1 fire1 pushes round the  
air at the other2 and this        being 
affected in the same way and            
communicating the same        impulse1 a
 circular motion swaying to and fro is  
produced by the        double process1  
which we call inspiration and           
expiration4          ,the phenomena of  

medical cupping-glasses and of the      
swallowing of        drink and of the   
projection of bodies1 whether discharged
 in the        air or bowled along the  
ground1 are to be investigated on a     
similar principle2 and swift and slow   
sounds1 which appear to be        high  
and low1 and are sometimes discordant on
 account of their        inequality1 and
 then again harmonical on account of the
 equality        of the motion which    
they excite in us4 ,for when the motions
 of        the antecedent swifter sounds
 begin to pause and the two are         
equalized1 the slower sounds overtake   
the swifter and then propel        them4
 ,when they overtake them they do not   
intrude a new and        discordant     
motion1 but introduce the beginnings of 
a slower1        which answers to the   
swifter as it dies away1 thus producing 
a        single mixed expression out of 
high and low1 whence arises a           
pleasure which even the unwise feel1 and
 which to the wise        becomes a     

higher sort of delight1 being an        
imitation of divine        harmony in   
mortal motions4 ,moreover1 as to the    
flowing of water1        the fall of the
 thunderbolt1 and the marvels that are  
observed        about the attraction of 
amber and the ,heraclean stones1--in    
none        of these cases is there any 
attraction2 but he who investigates     
rightly1 will find that such wonderful  
phenomena are attributable        to the
 combination of certain conditions--the 
non-existence of a        vacuum1 the   
fact that objects push one another      
round1 and that        they change      
places1 passing severally into their    
proper positions        as they are     
divided or combined4          ,such as  
we have seen1 is the nature and such are
 the causes of        respiration1--the 
subject in which this discussion        
originated4 ,for        the fire cuts   
the food and following the breath surges
 up within1        fire and breath      
rising together and filling the veins by

 drawing        up out of the belly and 
pouring into them the cut portions of   
the        food2 and so the streams of  
food are kept flowing through the       
whole body in all animals4 ,and fresh   
cuttings from kindred        substances1
 whether the fruits of the earth or herb
 of the field1        which ,god planted
 to be our daily food1 acquire all sorts
 of        colours by their             
inter-mixture2 but red is the most      
pervading of        them1 being created 
by the cutting action of fire and by the
        impression which it makes on a  
moist substance2 and hence the          
liquid which circulates in the body has 
a colour such as we have                
described4 ,the liquid itself we call   
blood1 which nourishes the        flesh 
and the whole body1 whence all parts are
 watered and empty        places filled4
          ,now the process of repletion 
and evacuation is effected after the    
manner of the universal motion by which 
all kindred substances        are drawn 

towards one another4 ,for the external  
elements which        surround us are   
always causing us to consume away1 and  
distributing and sending off like to    
like2 the particles of        blood1    
too1 which are divided and contained    
within the frame of        the animal as
 in a sort of heaven1 are compelled to  
imitate the        motion of the        
universe4 ,each1 therefore1 of the      
divided parts        within us1 being   
carried to its kindred nature1          
replenishes the        void4 ,when more 
is taken away than flows in1 then we    
decay1 and        when less1 we grow and
 increase4          ,the frame of the   
entire creature when young has the      
triangles of        each kind new1 and  
may be compared to the keel of a vessel 
which        is just off the stocks2    
they are locked firmly together and yet 
the whole mass is soft and delicate1    
being freshly formed of        marrow   
and nurtured on milk4 ,now when the     
triangles out of which        meats and 

drinks are composed come in from        
without1 and are        comprehended in 
the body1 being older and weaker than   
the        triangles already there1 the 
frame of the body gets the better of    
them and its newer triangles cut them   
up1 and so the animal grows             
great1 being nourished by a multitude of
 similar particles4 ,but        when the
 roots of the triangles are loosened by 
having undergone        many conflicts  
with many things in the course of time1 
they are        no longer able to cut or
 assimilate the food which enters1 but  
are themselves easily divided by the    
bodies which come in from               
without4 ,in this way every animal is   
overcome and decays1 and        this    
affection is called old age4 ,and at    
last1 when the bonds by        which the
 triangles of the marrow are united no  
longer hold1 and        are parted by   
the strain of existence1 they in turn   
loosen the        bonds of the soul1 and
 she1 obtaining a natural release1 flies

        away with joy4 ,for that which  
takes place according to nature is      
pleasant1 but that which is contrary to 
nature is painful4 ,and        thus     
death1 if caused by disease or produced 
by wounds1 is        painful and        
violent2 but that sort of death which   
comes with old        age and fulfils   
the debt of nature is the easiest of    
deaths1 and        is accompanied with  
pleasure rather than with pain4         
,now every one can see whence diseases  
arise4 ,there are four        natures   
out of which the body is compacted1     
earth and fire and        water and air1
 and the unnatural excess or defect of  
these1 or        the change of any of   
them from its own natural place into    
another1 or--since there are more kinds 
than one of fire and of        the other
 elements--the assumption by any of     
these of a wrong        kind1 or any    
similar irregularity1 produces disorders
 and        diseases2 for when any of   
them is produced or changed in a manner 

contrary to nature1 the parts which were
 previously cool grow        warm1 and  
those which were dry become moist1 and  
the light become        heavy1 and the  
heavy light2 all sorts of changes occur4
 ,for1 as        we affirm1 a thing can 
only remain the same with itself1 whole 
and sound1 when the same is added to it1
 or subtracted from it1        in the   
same respect and in the same manner and 
in due proportion2        and whatever  
comes or goes away in violation of these
 laws causes        all manner of       
changes and infinite diseases and       
corruptions4 ,now        there is a     
second class of structures which are    
also natural1 and        this affords a 
second opportunity of observing diseases
 to him        who would understand     
them4 ,for whereas marrow and bone and  
flesh        and sinews are composed of 
the four elements1 and the blood1       
though after another manner1 is likewise
 formed out of them1 most               
diseases originate in the way which ,i  

have described2 but the        worst of 
all owe their severity to the fact that 
the generation        of these          
substances proceeds in a wrong order2   
they are then        destroyed4 ,for the
 natural order is that the flesh and    
sinews        should be made of blood1  
the sinews out of the fibres to which   
they are akin1 and the flesh out of the 
clots which are formed        when the  
fibres are separated4 ,and the glutinous
 and rich matter        which comes away
 from the sinews and the flesh1 not only
 glues        the flesh to the bones1   
but nourishes and imparts growth to the 
bone which surrounds the marrow2 and by 
reason of the solidity of        the    
bones1 that which filters through       
consists of the purest and              
smoothest and oiliest sort of triangles1
 dropping like dew from        the bones
 and watering the marrow4 ,now when each
 process takes        place in this     
order1 health commonly results2 when in 
the        opposite order1 disease4 ,for

 when the flesh becomes decomposed      
and sends back the wasting substance    
into the veins1 then an                 
over-supply of blood of diverse kinds1  
mingling with air in the        veins1  
having variegated colours and bitter    
properties1 as well        as acid and  
saline qualities1 contains all sorts of 
bile and        serum and phlegm4 ,for  
all things go the wrong way1 and having 
become corrupted1 first they taint the  
blood itself1 and then        ceasing to
 give nourishment to the body they are  
carried along        the veins in all   
directions1 no longer preserving the    
order of        their natural courses1  
but at war with themselves1 because they
        receive no good from one        
another1 and are hostile to the abiding 
constitution of the body1 which they    
corrupt and dissolve4 ,the        oldest
 part of the flesh which is corrupted1  
being hard to        decompose1 from    
long burning grows black1 and from being
        everywhere corroded becomes     

bitter1 and is injurious to every       
part of the body which is still         
uncorrupted4 ,sometimes1 when the       
bitter element is refined away1 the     
black part assumes an acidity           
which takes the place of the bitterness2
 at other times the        bitterness   
being tinged with blood has a redder    
colour2 and this1        when mixed with
 black1 takes the hue of grass2 and     
again1 an        auburn colour mingles  
with the bitter matter when new flesh is
        decomposed by the fire which    
surrounds the internal flame2--to all   
which symptoms some physician perhaps1  
or rather some        philosopher1 who  
had the power of seeing in many         
dissimilar        things one nature     
deserving of a name1 has assigned the   
common        name of bile4 ,but the    
other kinds of bile are variously       
distinguished by their colours4 ,as for 
serum1 that sort which is        the    
watery part of blood is innocent1 but   
that which is a        secretion of     

black and acid bile is malignant when   
mingled by the        power of heat with
 any salt substance1 and is then called 
acid        phlegm4 ,again1 the         
substance which is formed by the        
liquefaction        of new and tender   
flesh when air is present1 if inflated  
and        encased in liquid so as to   
form bubbles1 which separately are      
invisible owing to their small size1 but
 when collected are of a        bulk    
which is visible1 and have a white      
colour arising out of the               
generation of foam--all this            
decomposition of tender flesh when      
intermingled with air is termed by us   
white phlegm4 ,and the whey        or   
sediment of newly-formed phlegm is sweat
 and tears1 and        includes the     
various daily discharges by which the   
body is        purified4 ,now all these 
become causes of disease when the blood 
is not replenished in a natural manner  
by food and drink but        gains bulk 
from opposite sources in violation of   

the laws of        nature4 ,when the    
several parts of the flesh are separated
 by        disease1 if the foundation   
remains1 the power of the disorder is   
only half as great1 and there is still a
 prospect of an easy        recovery2   
but when that which binds the flesh to  
the bones is        diseased1 and no    
longer being separated from the muscles 
and        sinews1 ceases to give       
nourishment to the bone and to unite    
flesh        and bone1 and from being   
oily and smooth and glutinous becomes   
rough and salt and dry1 owing to bad    
regimen1 then all the        substance  
thus corrupted crumbles away under the  
flesh and the        sinews1 and        
separates from the bone1 and the fleshy 
parts fall        away from their       
foundation and leave the sinews bare and
 full of        brine1 and the flesh    
again gets into the circulation of the  
blood        and makes the              
previously-mentioned disorders still    
greater4 ,and        if these bodily    

affections be severe1 still worse are   
the prior        disorders2 as when the 
bone itself1 by reason of the density of
        the flesh1 does not obtain      
sufficient air1 but becomes mouldy and  
hot and gangrened and receives no       
nutriment1 and the natural              
process is inverted1 and the bone       
crumbling passes into the food1         
and the food into the flesh1 and the    
flesh again falling into the            
blood makes all maladies that may occur 
more virulent than those        already 
mentioned4 ,but the worst case of all is
 when the marrow        is diseased1    
either from excess or defect2 and this  
is the cause        of the very greatest
 and most fatal disorders1 in which the 
whole        course of the body is      
reversed4          ,there is a third    
class of diseases which may be conceived
 of as        arising in three ways2 for
 they are produced sometimes by wind1   
and sometimes by phlegm1 and sometimes  
by bile4 ,when the lung1        which is

 the dispenser of the air to the body1  
is obstructed by        rheums and its  
passages are not free1 some of them not 
acting1        while through others too 
much air enters1 then the parts which   
are unrefreshed by air corrode1 while in
 other parts the excess        of air   
forcing its way through the veins       
distorts them and        decomposing the
 body is enclosed in the midst of it and
 occupies        the midriff2 thus      
numberless painful diseases are         
produced1        accompanied by copious 
sweats4 ,and oftentimes when the flesh  
is        dissolved in the body1 wind1  
generated within and unable to          
escape1 is the source of quite as much  
pain as the air coming in        from   
without2 but the greatest pain is felt  
when the wind gets        about the     
sinews and the veins of the shoulders1  
and swells them        up1 and so twists
 back the great tendons and the sinews  
which are        connected with them4   
,these disorders are called tetanus and 

opisthotonus1 by reason of the tension  
which accompanies them4        ,the cure
 of them is difficult2 relief is in most
 cases given by        fever            
supervening4 ,the white phlegm1 though  
dangerous when        detained within by
 reason of the air-bubbles1 yet if it   
can        communicate with the outside 
air1 is less severe1 and only           
discolours the body1 generating leprous 
eruptions and similar        diseases4  
,when it is mingled with black bile and 
dispersed about        the courses of   
the head1 which are the divinest part of
 us1 the        attack if coming on in  
sleep1 is not so severe2 but when       
assailing those who are awake it is hard
 to be got rid of1 and        being an  
affection of a sacred part1 is most     
justly called        sacred4 ,an acid   
and salt phlegm1 again1 is the source of
 all        those diseases which take   
the form of catarrh1 but they have many 
names because the places into which they
 flow are manifold4                     

,inflammations of the body come from    
burnings and inflamings1 and        all 
of them originate in bile4 ,when bile   
finds a means of        discharge1 it   
boils up and sends forth all sorts of   
tumours2 but        when imprisoned     
within1 it generates many inflammatory  
diseases1        above all when mingled 
with pure blood2 since it then displaces
        the fibres which are scattered  
about in the blood and are              
designed to maintain the balance of rare
 and dense1 in order that        the    
blood may not be so liquefied by heat as
 to exude from the        pores of the  
body1 nor again become too dense and    
thus find a        difficulty in        
circulating through the veins4 ,the     
fibres are so        constituted as to  
maintain this balance2 and if any one   
brings        them all together when the
 blood is dead and in process of        
cooling1 then the blood which remains   
becomes fluid1 but if they        are   
left alone1 they soon congeal by reason 

of the surrounding        cold4 ,the    
fibres having this power over the blood1
 bile1 which is        only stale blood1
 and which from being flesh is dissolved
 again        into blood1 at the first  
influx coming in little by little1 hot  
and liquid1 is congealed by the power of
 the fibres2 and so        congealing   
and made to cool1 it produces internal  
cold and        shuddering4 ,when it    
enters with more of a flood and         
overcomes the        fibres by its heat1
 and boiling up throws them into        
disorder1 if        it have power enough
 to maintain its supremacy1 it          
penetrates the        marrow and burns  
up what may be termed the cables of the 
soul1        and sets her free2 but when
 there is not so much of it1 and the    
body though wasted still holds out1 the 
bile is itself mastered1        and is  
either utterly banished1 or is thrust   
through the veins        into the lower 
or upper belly1 and is driven out of the
 body like        an exile from a state 

in which there has been civil war2      
whence        arise diarrhoeas and      
dysenteries1 and all such disorders4    
,when        the constitution is        
disordered by excess of fire1 continuous
 heat        and fever are the result2  
when excess of air is the cause1 then   
the fever is quotidian2 when of water1  
which is a more sluggish        element 
than either fire or air1 then the fever 
is a tertian2        when of earth1     
which is the most sluggish of the four1 
and is        only purged away in a     
four-fold period1 the result is a       
quartan        fever1 which can with    
difficulty be shaken off4          ,such
 is the manner in which diseases of the 
body arise2 the        disorders of the 
soul1 which depend upon the body1       
originate as        follows4 ,we must   
acknowledge disease of the mind to be a 
want of        intelligence2 and of this
 there are two kinds2 to wit1 madness   
and ignorance4 ,in whatever state a man 
experiences either of        them1 that 

state may be called disease2 and        
excessive pains and        pleasures are
 justly to be regarded as the greatest  
diseases to        which the soul is    
liable4 ,for a man who is in great joy  
or in        great pain1 in his         
unreasonable eagerness to attain the one
 and        to avoid the other1 is not  
able to see or to hear anything         
rightly2 but he is mad1 and is at the   
time utterly incapable of        any    
participation in reason4 ,he who has the
 seed about the spinal        marrow too
 plentiful and overflowing1 like a tree 
overladen with        fruit1 has many   
throes1 and also obtains many pleasures 
in his        desires and their         
offspring1 and is for the most part of  
his life        deranged1 because his   
pleasures and pains are so very great2  
his        soul is rendered foolish and 
disordered by his body2 yet he is       
regarded not as one diseased1 but as one
 who is voluntarily bad1        which is
 a mistake4 ,the truth is that the      

intemperance of love is        a disease
 of the soul due chiefly to the moisture
 and fluidity        which is produced  
in one of the elements by the loose     
consistency        of the bones4 ,and in
 general1 all that which is termed the  
incontinence of pleasure and is deemed a
 reproach under the idea        that the
 wicked voluntarily do wrong is not     
justly a matter for        reproach4    
,for no man is voluntarily bad2 but the 
bad become bad        by reason of an   
ill disposition of the body and bad     
education1        things which are      
hateful to every man and happen to him  
against        his will4 ,and in the    
case of pain too in like manner the soul
        suffers much evil from the body4
 ,for where the acid and briny          
phlegm and other bitter and bilious     
humours wander about in the        body1
 and find no exit or escape1 but are    
pent up within and        mingle their  
own vapours with the motions of the     
soul1 and are        blended with them1 

they produce all sorts of diseases1 more
 or        fewer1 and in every degree of
 intensity2 and being carried to the    
three places of the soul1 whichever they
 may severally assail1        they      
create infinite varieties of ill-temper 
and melancholy1 of        rashness and  
cowardice1 and also of forgetfulness and
 stupidity4        ,further1 when to    
this evil constitution of body evil     
forms of        government are added and
 evil discourses are uttered in private 
as well as in public1 and no sort of    
instruction is given in        youth to 
cure these evils1 then all of us who are
 bad become bad        from two causes  
which are entirely beyond our control4  
,in such        cases the planters are  
to blame rather than the plants1 the    
educators rather than the educated4 ,but
 however that may be1 we        should  
endeavour as far as we can by education1
 and studies1 and        learning1 to   
avoid vice and attain virtue2 this1     
however1 is part        of another      

subject4          ,there is a           
corresponding enquiry concerning the    
mode of treatment        by which the   
mind and the body are to be preserved1  
about which        it is meet and right 
that ,i should say a word in turn2 for  
it is        more our duty to speak of  
the good than of the evil4 ,everything  
that is good is fair1 and the fair is   
not without proportion1 and        the  
animal which is to be fair must have due
 proportion4 ,now we        perceive    
lesser symmetries or proportions and    
reason about them1        but of the    
highest and greatest we take no heed2   
for there is no        proportion or    
disproportion more productive of health 
and        disease1 and virtue and vice1
 than that between soul and body4       
,this however we do not perceive1 nor do
 we reflect that when a        weak or  
small frame is the vehicle of a great   
and mighty soul1 or        conversely1  
when a little soul is encased in a large
 body1 then        the whole animal is  

not fair1 for it lacks the most         
important of        all symmetries2 but 
the due proportion of mind and body is  
the        fairest and loveliest of all 
sights to him who has the seeing        
eye4 ,just as a body which has a leg too
 long1 or which is        unsymmetrical 
in some other respect1 is an unpleasant 
sight1 and        also1 when doing its  
share of work1 is much distressed and   
makes        convulsive efforts1 and    
often stumbles through awkwardness1 and 
is the cause of infinite evil to its own
 self--in like manner we        should  
conceive of the double nature which we  
call the living        being2 and when  
in this compound there is an impassioned
 soul        more powerful than the     
body1 that soul1 ,i say1 convulses and  
fills with disorders the whole inner    
nature of man2 and when        eager in 
the pursuit of some sort of learning or 
study1 causes        wasting2 or again1 
when teaching or disputing in private or
 in        public1 and strifes and      

controversies arise1 inflames and       
dissolves the composite frame of man and
 introduces rheums2 and        the      
nature of this phenomenon is not        
understood by most        professors of 
medicine1 who ascribe it to the opposite
 of the        real cause4 ,and once    
more1 when a body large and too strong  
for        the soul is united to a small
 and weak intelligence1 then            
inasmuch as there are two desires       
natural to man1--one of food for        
the sake of the body1 and one of wisdom 
for the sake of the        diviner part 
of us--then1 ,i say1 the motions of the 
stronger1        getting the better and 
increasing their own power1 but making  
the        soul dull1 and stupid1 and   
forgetful1 engender ignorance1 which    
is the greatest of diseases4 ,there is  
one protection against both        kinds
 of disproportion3--that we should not  
move the body without        the soul or
 the soul without the body1 and thus    
they will be on        their guard      

against each other1 and be healthy and  
well balanced4        ,and therefore the
 mathematician or any one else whose    
thoughts        are much absorbed in    
some intellectual pursuit1 must allow   
his        body also to have due        
exercise1 and practise gymnastic2 and he
        who is careful to fashion the   
body1 should in turn impart to the      
soul its proper motions1 and should     
cultivate music and all                 
philosophy1 if he would deserve to be   
called truly fair and truly        good4
 ,and the separate parts should be      
treated in the same        manner1 in   
imitation of the pattern of the         
universe2 for as the        body is     
heated and also cooled within by the    
elements which enter        into it1 and
 is again dried up and moistened by     
external things1        and experiences 
these and the like affections from both 
kinds of        motions1 the result is  
that the body if given up to motion when
        in a state of quiescence is     

overmastered and perishes2 but if any   
one1 in imitation of that which we call 
the foster-mother and        nurse of   
the universe1 will not allow the body   
ever to be        inactive1 but is      
always producing motions and agitations 
through        its whole extent1 which  
form the natural defence against other  
motions both internal and external1 and 
by moderate exercise        reduces to  
order according to their affinities the 
particles and        affections which   
are wandering about the body1 as we have
 already        said when speaking of   
the universe1 he will not allow enemy   
placed by the side of enemy to stir up  
wars and disorders in the        body1  
but he will place friend by the side of 
friend1 so as to        create health4  
,now of all motions that is the best    
which is        produced in a thing by  
itself1 for it is most akin to the      
motion        of thought and of the     
universe2 but that motion which is      
caused        by others is not so good1 

and worst of all is that which moves    
the body1 when at rest1 in parts only   
and by some external        agency4     
,wherefore of all modes of purifying and
 re-uniting the        body the best is 
gymnastic2 the next best is a surging   
motion1 as        in sailing or any     
other mode of conveyance which is not   
fatiguing2 the third sort of motion may 
be of use in a case of        extreme   
necessity1 but in any other will be     
adopted by no man of        sense3 ,i   
mean the purgative treatment of         
physicians2 for diseases        unless  
they are very dangerous should not be   
irritated by        medicines1 since    
every form of disease is in a manner    
akin to the        living being1 whose  
complex frame has an appointed term of  
life4        ,for not the whole race    
only1 but each individual--barring      
inevitable accidents--comes into the    
world having a fixed span1        and   
the triangles in us are originally      
framed with power to last        for a  

certain time1 beyond which no man can   
prolong his life4 ,and        this holds
 also of the constitution of diseases2  
if any one        regardless of the     
appointed time tries to subdue them by  
medicine1 he only aggravates and        
multiplies them4 ,wherefore we          
ought always to manage them by regimen1 
as far as a man can spare        the    
time1 and not provoke a disagreeable    
enemy by medicines4          ,enough of 
the composite animal1 and of the body   
which is a part        of him1 and of   
the manner in which a man may train and 
be trained        by himself so as to   
live most according to reason3 and we   
must        above and before all provide
 that the element which is to train     
him shall be the fairest and best       
adapted to that purpose4 ,a             
minute discussion of this subject would 
be a serious task2 but        if1 as    
before1 ,i am to give only an outline1  
the subject may not        unfitly be   
summed up as follows4          ,i have  

often remarked that there are three     
kinds of soul located        within us1 
having each of them motions1 and ,i must
 now repeat in        the fewest words  
possible1 that one part1 if remaining   
inactive        and ceasing from its    
natural motion1 must necessarily become 
very        weak1 but that which is     
trained and exercised1 very strong4     
,wherefore we should take care that the 
movements of the different        parts 
of the soul should be in due proportion4
          ,and we should consider that  
,god gave the sovereign part of the     
human soul to be the divinity of each   
one1 being that part which1        as we
 say1 dwells at the top of the body1 and
 inasmuch as we are        a plant not  
of an earthly but of a heavenly growth1 
raises us        from earth to our      
kindred who are in heaven4 ,and in this 
we say        truly2 for the divine     
power suspended the head and root of us 
from that place where the generation of 
the soul first began1 and        thus   

made the whole body upright4 ,when a man
 is always occupied        with the     
cravings of desire and ambition1 and is 
eagerly striving        to satisfy them1
 all his thoughts must be mortal1 and1  
as far as        it is possible         
altogether to become such1 he must be   
mortal every        whit1 because he has
 cherished his mortal part4 ,but he who 
has        been earnest in the love of  
knowledge and of true wisdom1 and has   
exercised his intellect more than any   
other part of him1 must        have     
thoughts immortal and divine1 if he     
attain truth1 and in so        far as   
human nature is capable of sharing in   
immortality1 he must        altogether  
be immortal2 and since he is ever       
cherishing the        divine power1 and 
has the divinity within him in perfect  
order1        he will be perfectly      
happy4 ,now there is only one way of    
taking        care of things1 and this  
is to give to each the food and motion  
which are natural to it4 ,and the       

motions which are naturally akin        
to the divine principle within us are   
the thoughts and        revolutions of  
the universe4 ,these each man should    
follow1 and        correct the courses  
of the head which were corrupted at our 
birth1 and by learning the harmonies and
 revolutions of the        universe1    
should assimilate the thinking being to 
the thought1        renewing his        
original nature1 and having assimilated 
them should        attain to that       
perfect life which the gods have set    
before        mankind1 both for the     
present and the future4          ,thus  
our original design of discoursing about
 the universe down        to the        
creation of man is nearly completed4 ,a 
brief mention may        be made of the 
generation of other animals1 so far as  
the subject        admits of brevity2 in
 this manner our argument will best     
attain a        due proportion4 ,on the 
subject of animals1 then1 the following 
remarks may be offered4 ,of the men who 

came into the world1 those        who   
were cowards or led unrighteous lives   
may with reason be        supposed to   
have changed into the nature of women in
 the second        generation4 ,and this
 was the reason why at that time the    
gods        created in us the desire of 
sexual intercourse1 contriving in man   
one animated substance1 and in woman    
another1 which they formed              
respectively in the following manner4   
,the outlet for drink by        which   
liquids pass through the lung under the 
kidneys and into        the bladder1    
which receives and then by the pressure 
of the air        emits them1 was so    
fashioned by them as to penetrate also  
into        the body of the marrow1     
which passes from the head along the    
neck        and through the back1 and   
which in the preceding discourse we     
have named the seed4 ,and the seed      
having life1 and becoming        endowed
 with respiration1 produces in that part
 in which it        respires a lively   

desire of emission1 and thus creates in 
us the        love of procreation4      
,wherefore also in men the organ of     
generation becoming rebellious and      
masterful1 like an animal               
disobedient to reason1 and maddened with
 the sting of lust1 seeks        to gain
 absolute sway2 and the same is the case
 with the        so-called womb or      
matrix of women2 the animal within them 
is        desirous of procreating       
children1 and when remaining unfruitful 
long beyond its proper time1 gets       
discontented and angry1 and             
wandering in every direction through the
 body1 closes up the        passages of 
the breath1 and1 by obstructing         
respiration1 drives        them to      
extremity1 causing all varieties of     
disease1 until at        length the     
desire and love of the man and the      
woman1 bringing        them together and
 as it were plucking the fruit from the 
tree1        sow in the womb1 as in a   
field1 animals unseen by reason of their

        smallness and without form2     
these again are separated and matured   
within2 they are then finally brought   
out into the light1 and        thus the 
generation of animals is completed4     
,thus were created women and the female 
sex in general4 ,but the        race of 
birds was created out of innocent       
light-minded men1 who1        although  
their minds were directed toward heaven1
 imagined1 in        their simplicity1  
that the clearest demonstration of the  
things        above was to be obtained  
by sight2 these were remodelled and     
transformed into birds1 and they grew   
feathers instead of hair4        ,the   
race of wild pedestrian animals1 again1 
came from those who        had no       
philosophy in any of their thoughts1 and
 never considered        at all about   
the nature of the heavens1 because they 
had ceased        to use the courses of 
the head1 but followed the guidance of  
those parts of the soul which are in the
 breast4 ,in consequence        of these

 habits of theirs they had their        
front-legs and their        heads       
resting upon the earth to which they    
were drawn by natural        affinity2  
and the crowns of their heads were      
elongated and of all        sorts of    
shapes1 into which the courses of the   
soul were crushed        by reason of   
disuse4 ,and this was the reason why    
they were        created quadrupeds and 
polypods3 ,god gave the more senseless  
of        them the more support that    
they might be more attracted to the     
earth4 ,and the most foolish of them1   
who trail their bodies        entirely  
upon the ground and have no longer any  
need of feet1 he        made without    
feet to crawl upon the earth4 ,the      
fourth class were        the inhabitants
 of the water3 these were made out of   
the most        entirely senseless and  
ignorant of all1 whom the transformers  
did        not think any longer worthy  
of pure respiration1 because they       
possessed a soul which was made impure  

by all sorts of        transgression2   
and instead of the subtle and pure      
medium of air1        they gave them the
 deep and muddy sea to be their element 
of        respiration2 and hence arose  
the race of fishes and oysters1 and     
other aquatic animals1 which have       
received the most remote                
habitations as a punishment of their    
outlandish ignorance4 ,these        are 
the laws by which animals pass into one 
another1 now1 as        ever1 changing  
as they lose or gain wisdom and folly4  
,we may now say that our discourse about
 the nature of the        universe has  
an end4 ,the world has received animals1
 mortal and        immortal1 and is     
fulfilled with them1 and has become a   
visible        animal containing the    
visible--the sensible ,god who is the   
image        of the intellectual1 the   
greatest1 best1 fairest1 most           
perfect--the one only-begotten heaven4