file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #aegac-;h4htm or #aegac-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/g_/a_/aegac_/aegac-;h_/#aegac-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/g_/a_/aegac_/aegac-;h4zip7 ,,what ,,philately ,,teaches ,a ,lecture ,delivered before the ,section on ,philately of the ,brooklyn ,institute of ,arts and ,sciences1 ,february #bd1 #ahii by ,,john ,n4 ,,luff ,new ,york ,third ,edition #aiae ,by way of preface1 ,i wish to say1 that ,i have prepared this paper with the hope of interesting those who are not stamp collectors and my endeavor will be to indicate some of the interesting and instructive things that may be learned by those who follow this fascinating pursuit4 ,much that ,i have to say will be ancient history to philatelists1 but ,i trust they will remember that this is not especially intended for them and pardon any dryness in it1 in view of its intent4 ,stamp collecting1 as pursued to-day1 has become something more than an amusement for children4 ,it affords instruction and mental relaxation to those who are older and more serious4 ,on the title page of every stamp album and catalogue should be inscribed the old latin motto3 ,te doces thou teachest1 for it is certainly an instructor and affords much intellectual entertainment4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,hankow ,local ,post1 #b cents ,in connection with this motto we have a little philatelic joke from the orient4 ,in one of the ,chinese treaty ports a stamp has been issued which bears the motto4 ,we find them on the tea chests1 written in excellent ,chinese1 and1 even if we do not read the language1 we cannot doubt that they refer to the tea doses which the chests contain4 ,by some1 philately has been called a science4 ,perhaps it hardly merits so exalted a title but it opens for us a wide field for research1 in which we may find many curious1 interesting and instructive things4 ,it trains our powers of observation1 enlarges our perceptions1 broadens our views1 and adds to our knowledge of history1 art1 languages1 geography1 botany1 mythology and many kindred branches of learning4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,canada ,postage1 ,christmas #ahih1 #b cents ,philately embraces the whole earth and likewise the whole earth is sometimes embraced within the limits of a postage stamp4 ,as an example of this1 witness the recent effort of our ,canadian cousins in celebration of the achievement of the long-desired ocean penny postage1 at present an inter-colonial rate of the ,british ,empire1 but some day to be an international rate4 ,the motto is a trifle bombastic and suggests the ,teutonic superlative2 ,so bigger as never vas1 and the ,xmas #ahih reads like the advertisement of a department store3 ,gents pants for ,xmas gifts4 ,but we must admit that the stamp is a pretty conceit1 in spite of these defects and of the ambition of the artist1 which has spread the thin red line over territory that has not otherwise been acquired4 ,in addition to the things to be learned from the pictorial part of stamps1 there are other things which attract the attention of the thoughtful and bring with them knowledge that is both interesting and valuable4 ,the mechanical part of stamp making may be studied with much profit and entertainment4 ,considered in all its aspects1 philately is even more instructive than matrimony4 ,you will remember the elder ,weller's views on the latter subject3 ,ven you're a married man1 ,samivel1 you'll understand a good many things as you don't understand now2 but vether its worth while going through so much to learn so little1 as the charity boy said ven he got to the end of the alphabet1 is a matter o' taste4 ,i rather think it isn't4 ,this reproach cannot be applied to philately4 ,it teaches even the unwilling and careless4 ,in the effort to fill the spaces in their albums they must learn what varieties they are lacking and in what these differ from other and similar varieties4 ,thus some knowledge must be gained1 even if unsought4 ,to the studious and the careful1 in this as in other things in life1 the greatest benefits naturally accrue4 ,in my remarks this evening ,i shall endeavor to touch upon a few subjects which are quite certain to attract the attention of any one who takes up stamp collecting with any degree of earnestness and thoroughness4 ,that these subjects open up other fields for interesting and profitable study will be readily apparent4 ,let us take a postage stamp and consider it4 ,aside from the name of the country whence it emanates and the expression of value1 what do we find in it to study8 ,first the design1 next the means by which the design was prepared and placed upon the paper1 thirdly the paper upon which the stamp is printed1 and lastly the finishing touches of gum1 perforation1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,zealand1 #i pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,toga1 #e s4 ,in the early days of stamps most countries made their own and they were1 in some degree1 an indication of the artistic progress1 or want of it1 in a country4 ,but we have changed all that and to-day all effort seems to be directed toward producing artistic and attractive stamps4 ,sometimes this is due to national pride and occasionally it is intended to draw attention to the resources and natural wonders of a country4 ,as an example of the latter1 here are the marvelous pink terraces of ,new ,zealand1 which were1 unfortunately1 destroyed by volcanic disturbances a few years ago4 ,but too often1 we fear1 these picture stamps are produced merely with a view to their ready salability to collectors4 ,more frequently than not1 these brilliant labels are the product of a distant country and are no longer indicative of the artistic status of the country by which they are issued4 ,for example1 a late issue from the ,tonga islands but made in ,london4 ,indeed1 the wilds of ,africa1 the distant islands of the ,pacific and the tumultuous republics of ,central ,america far outshine the cultured countries of the old world in their postal stationery4 ,the designs of stamps may suggest many things3 the power of nations1 the march of history1 the glory of victory1 the advance of civilization1 art1 industry1 natural resources1 scenic grandure1 the dead and storied past1 the living breathing present4 ,the majority of stamps bear a portrait1 usually that of a sovereign4 ,the stamps of our own country present a portrait gallery of our great and heroic dead1 for by law the faces of the living may not appear on our stamps or money4 ,this is the reverse of the rule in monarchical countries1 where the portrait of the reigning sovereign usually adorns the postal issues4 ,the likeness most frequently seen on postage stamps is that of her most gracious ,majesty the ,queen of ,england4 ,for more than half a century her portrait has adorned the numerous stamps of ,great ,britain and the ,british ,colonies1 beginning in #ahdj with a beautiful portrait--painted by an ,american1 we may be proud to say--the portrait of the girl queen1 wearing her coronation crown1 and continuing1 until to-day she wears a widow's veil beneath the crown of the ,empress of ,india4 ,in the issue by which ,canada commemorated the sixtieth year of ,her ,majesty's reign the two portraits are happily combined4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,canada ,postage1 #ahcg-ahig1 #a_/b cent ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,haiti1 #a cent ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,tonga1 #b d4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,samoa ,postage1 #ba_/b pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,siam ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,republic ,liberia ,postage1 #ahhd-ahib1 #h cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,holkar ,state ,postage1 #a_/b ,anna ,following the lead of ,europe and ,america1 other countries have placed the portraits of their rulers on their stamps and from this custom we may gain some slight information on the subject of ethnography4 ,hayti1 ,tonga1 ,samoa1 ,siam1 ,liberia1 ,holkar1 etc41 have shown us types of other races than the ,caucassian4 ,one of the stamps of ,congo is adorned by a couple of natives in local full dress which appears to be much on the order of that of the lady in the ballad who wore a wreath and a smile4 ,japan has placed on her stamps the portraits of two heroes of her late war with ,china4 ,guatemala has the head of an ,indian woman4 ,the stamps of ,british ,north ,borneo have the arms of the company with two stalwart natives as supporters and a similar device is used by the ,british ,central ,africa ,co4 ,the stamps of ,obock show a group of natives4 ,the picture is entitled the missionary at dinner with the native chiefs4 ,for further particulars of the missionary enquire within4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,congo1 #e francs ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,emperial ,japanese ,post1 #e sen ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,emperial ,japanese ,post1 #e sen ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,guatemala1 #a_/b real ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,british ,north ,borneo1 #ej cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,brit4 ,central ,africa1 #b s4 #f p4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,republique ,francaise ,obock1 #a ct4 ,another large group of stamps have numerals of value as their distinguishing feature4 ,as examples of this we find1 the early issues of ,brazil and ,hawaii1 many stamps of ,sweden1 ,netherlands1 ,denmark1 etc41 as well as the postage due stamps of many countries1 including our own4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,brazil1 #cj ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,hawaiian ,postage1 #b cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,loesen1 #a ore ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,nederland1 #ba_/b cent ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,danmark1 #e ore ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,arabic ,in other countries only inscriptions are used4 ,this is especially the case with the ,native ,states of ,india1 in some of which as many as four languages are said to be employed on one stamp4 ,these are interesting for their crude and curious designs but are not popular with collectors1 probably because of our inability to read them4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,arabic ,afghanistan has varied the idea by placing on her stamps a tiger's head surrounded by a broad circle of inscriptions4 ,owing to the short comings of native art the tiger is more often droll than ferocious4 ,the method of cancellation used in that country is crude but effective4 ,it consists in cutting or tearing a piece out of the stamp4 ,needless to say1 it is not popular with stamp collectors4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,arabic1 ,hindi ,jhalawar1 one of the ,native ,states of ,india1 has also varied the monotony of inscriptions by the addition of a sort of jumping-jack figure4 ,by some writers this is claimed to be a dancing dervish and by others a ,nautch girl4 ,as pictured on the stamp the figure does not present the sensuous outlines which have always been attributed to those delectable damsels4 ,bossakiewicz1 in his ,manuel du ,collectionneur de ,timbres ,poste says3 ,a dancing nymph1 belonging to the secondary order of ,hindu divinities and known as an apsara4 ,here is a problem which the next convert to philately may undertake to solve4 ,you see there are still worlds to conquer1 in spite of all the inky battles that have been waged by philatelic writers4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,diligencia1 #fj centavos ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,escuelas1 #a centesimo ,the first stamps of ,uruguay bear the inscription diligencia 7stagecoach71 thus plainly indicating the method then employed for transporting the mails4 ,on some of the ,venzuelan stamps is the word escuelas 7schools71 a portion of the revenue from this source being devoted to the maintenance of the state schools4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,north ,borneo1 #ab cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,obock1 #ahic1 #e c4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,sudan ,postage1 #a millieme ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,correo ,lima1 #b centavos ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,guatemala1 #bj centavos ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,south ,wales1 #h pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,south ,wales1 #a shilling ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,newfoundloand1 #e cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,newfoundloand1 #b cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,postage ,w4 ,australia1 #a shilling ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,republic ,liberia1 #d cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,republic ,liberia1 #a dollar ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,zealand1 #f pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,stamp ,duty ,tasmania1 #f pence ,the animal world has been thoroughly exploited by designers of stamps and many curious products have they shown us4 ,this creature with the fine open countenance hails from ,north ,borneo but it is said that similar creatures have been seen by earnest philatelists after an evening of study in the billiard room of the ,collectors ,club1 followed by a light supper of broiled lobster and welsh rarebit4 ,very familiar to collectors are the camel of ,obock and the ,soudan1 the ,llama of ,peru1 the sacred quetzal of ,guatemala--the transmigrated form of the god-king of the ,aztecs--the lyrebird and ,kangaroo of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,new ,foundland has pictured the seal and cod fish1 ,western ,australia the black swan1 ,liberia the elephant and rhinocerous1 and ,new ,zealand the curious bird called the apterix1 which is wingless and clothed in hair instead of feathers4 ,tasmania shows us her animal freak1 the platypus paradoxus1 the beast with a bill1 first cousin to our tailors and butchers1 all of whom are beasts with bills4 ,our own country has added to the philatelic zoo by placing a herd of cattle on one of the ,trans-,mississippi issue4 ,that it is a pretty picture cannot be denied but the connection between cows and postage stamps is not obvious4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,brunswick ,postage1 #c pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,japanese1 #a sen ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,imperio do ,brazil1 #cjj reis ,new ,foundland1 ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick have adorned their stamps with the heraldic rose1 thistle and shamrock of the ,british ,empire4 ,japan1 ever artistic and ever a lover of the beautiful1 has placed on her stamps the chrysanthemum1 both as a flower and in its conventionalized form as the crest of the ,imperial family4 ,and ,nepal has the lotus1 sacred to ,buddha4 ,brazil has shown us the brilliant constellation of the ,southern ,cross which sparkles in the tropic sky4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,malta1 #e shillings ,many nations have used their coats of arms as appropriate decorations for their postal issues4 ,on the five shilling stamps of ,malta we find the ,maltese cross1 emblem of the ,knights of ,st4 ,john and reminiscent of the crusades4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,postes ,egyptiennes1 #e piastres ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,greek3 ,hellas1 #b ,greek3 drachmai ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,greek3 ,hellas1 #ahif1 #e ,greek3 drachmai ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,greek3 ,hellas1 #ahif1 #aj ,greek3 drachmai ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,fiji1 #a penny ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,labuan1 #h cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,congo1 #dj centimes ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,congo1 #aj francs ,egypt has her sphynx and pyramids2 ,greece an artistic series of pictures of her famous statues and ruins4 ,fiji shows a pirogue1 the native canoe1 rudely shaped from a tree trunk and hollowed out by fire4 ,labuan has a piratical looking native dhow4 ,the stamps of ,rhodesia and the ,congo ,free ,state depict the advance of civilization on the dark continent4 ,history is sumptuously illustrated in the series of stamps issued by our ,government to commemorate the #djjth anniversary of the discovery of the new world by ,columbus and to celebrate the settlement and growth of the great west4 ,portugal also has celebrated1 in an elaborate issue of stamps1 the voyage of ,vasco da ,gama to ,india4 ,other countries have been quite too ready to do likewise until we have feared we were in danger of being drowned in the flood of commemorative and celebration stamps1 many of which we felt were designed to replenish an empty treasury rather than to honor the glorious deeds of the past4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,st4 ,vincent1 #e shilling ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,republique ,francaise1 #a ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #a penny ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,trinidad ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,british ,east ,africa1 #a_/b ,anna ,quite a number of stamps have allegorical designs4 ,one of the most beautiful examples comes from ,st4 ,vincent4 ,familiar figures to philatelists are those of ,peace and ,commerce on the stamps of ,france1 ,hope with her anchor on the issues of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,britannia on several of the ,british ,colonies4 ,the stamps of ,british ,east ,africa bear a flaming sun and the legend light and liberty1 typical of the light of civilization and progress now dawning upon that part of the world4 ,and on one of the late issues of ,portugal is a beautiful allegory of the muse of history watching ,da ,gama's voyage to the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,portugal1 #adih-ahih1 #bc reis ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,greece ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,uruguay1 #ej centesimos ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,barbados1 #a_/b penny ,from allegory to mythology is but a step4 ,greece has long displayed on her stamps the winged head of ,mercury and ,uruguay has given us a dainty picture of the messenger of the gods4 ,the late issues of ,barbados have a picture of ,amphitrite1 the spouse of ,neptune1 in her chariot drawn by sea-horses4 ,the handsome stamps of the ,united ,states1 intended for the payment of postage on newspapers and periodicals bear the pictures of nine of the goddesses of ,grecian mythology4 ,the stamps of ,china1 ,shanghai and ,japan introduce subjects from oriental myths4 ,this is not a pussy cat in a fit or trying to dance a pas seul on the end of its tail4 ,it is one of the most venerated of the ,chinese dragons4 ,one of its provinces is to guard the sacred crystal of life4 ,it has a human head1 the wings of a bird1 the claws of a tiger and the tail of a serpent4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,shanghai ,,lpo1 #hj cash ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,nicaragua1 #a centavo ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,estados ,unidos de ,colombia1 #ej cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,venezuela1 #e c's ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,state of ,north ,borneo1 #ah cents ,one of the stock arguments advanced in favor of philately1 by those who think it needs other excuse than the entertainment it affords1 is that it teaches geography4 ,this is undoubtedly true1 and1 as if in support of the argument1 several countries have given us what might be called map stamps4 ,of late years1 it has become customary for countries to exploit their attractions by issues of picture stamps1 many of which show views of local scenery4 ,one of the first in this line came from ,north ,borneo1 showing a view of ,mt4 ,kimbal1 a celebrated volcano of the island4 ,congo has given us two pictures which are microscopic gems of art4 ,the first is a view of the railroad crossing the ,mopoxo river and the second the ,falls of ,inkissi4 ,british ,guiana has recently shown us two of her natural wonders1 ,mount ,roraima1 a great table-topped mountain1 and the ,kaiteur ,falls4 ,new ,zealand has an extensive series of views1 one of the most striking of which is ,mount ,cook4 ,among the latest of these attractive issues is one from ,tonga1 which includes a picture of a wonderful work of the pre-historic inhabitants of those islands1 a tri-lithon1 believed to have been erected as a burial place and monument of a chieftain4 ,in its arrangement and massive simplicity it is suggestive of the ,druidic ruins of other lands4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,congo1 #ej centimes ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,congo1 #be centimes ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,british ,guayana1 #ahig1 #a cent ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,british ,guayana1 #ahig1 #b cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,new ,zealand1 #e pence ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,toga1 #c d4 ,illustration3 ,stamp ,crowns and post-horns figure on many stamps and both are significant of the authority and purpose of these seemingly trifling bits of paper4 ,an interesting combination of these two emblems is found on one of the newspaper stamps of ,hungary4 ,in this case the crown is not merely a creation of the artist's fancy but the historic crown of ,saint ,stephen1 the iron crown of ,hungary1 so called because it has within its rim an iron band said to be made from one of the nails of the cross4 ,in all these subjects of thought ,i have mentioned only a few examples under each head4 ,the number might be multiplied many times1 did ,i not fear to weary you4 ,but1 turning from the purely pictorial side1 let us consider the material side of stamps and the various methods employed in producing them4 ,the design having been selected1 it becomes necessary to reproduce it in some form suitable for making stamps in large quantities4 ,in a general way we may divide stamp printing into two classes3 printing from metal plates and printing from stone1 or lithography4 ,the first class contains two grand sub-divisions4 ,in the first of these sub-divisions the lines to be reproduced are sunken below the surface of the plate4 ,this is known as taille douce or line engraving4 ,it is also called copper plate and steel engraving4 ,the copper plates for our visiting cards are familiar examples of this style of work and our national paper currency presents very beautiful and elaborate results of the process4 ,the second sub-division is known as typography or surface printing4 ,as its name indicates1 the lines to be reproduced are at the surface of the plate1 the other parts being cut away4 ,a newspaper is an example of typographical printing1 the term being applied to designs made up from type1 as well as to specially prepared plates4 ,i need not suggest to you how wide a field for thought and exploration this subject of engraving opens to us1 leading as it does directly into the world of books1 pictures and art4 ,but at present we must confine ourselves to the subject as applied to postage stamps1 save for a brief consideration of its origin and history4 ,the art of engraving owes its origin to the ,florentine goldsmiths of the fifteenth century4 ,they were accustomed to ornament their work with incised lines which were filled with black enamel4 ,a design thus filled with enamel was called a niello1 a derivative of the word nigellum 7the most black74 ,the brass and nickel signs with black letters1 which we find at the doors of business houses1 are modern forms of nielli4 ,while making a niello1 the artist naturally wished to see how the work was progressing and if any alterations were required4 ,it was not desirable to put the enamel in the design because it was difficult to remove4 ,to avoid this an impression of the work was taken in clay1 from which a sulphur cast was made4 ,the lines of the cast were filled with lamp black4 ,thus a copy of the work was obtained which reproduced its coloring and showed the condition of the engraving4 ,a more simple process was discovered later4 ,this consisted in filling the lines of the engraving with a thick ink and pressing a sheet of damp paper against them4 ,sufficient pressure was used to force the paper into the lines and take up the ink on its surface4 ,this was the beginning of line engraving and plate printing4 ,the process was at first employed for the preservation and duplicating of designs for goldsmith's engraving and afterwards for the sake of the work itself4 ,it was not until the next century that the process assumed a leading place in the world of art4 ,if it were not going too far away from our subject we might study the early engravers and their work with much profit and entertainment4 ,but it is our purpose to consider the subject only so far as it applies to postage stamps4 ,until the early part of the present century copper was practically the only metal used for engraving4 ,only a limited number of impressions can be taken from a copper plate because it wears rapidly1 and it is not suited to such work as the production of postage stamps4 ,about #ahcj the way was found to make steel of sufficient softness and fineness of grain to be available for engraving4 ,to-day annealed steel is almost exclusively used for this purpose4 ,annealed steel is steel which has been softened without being decarbonized4 ,the surface is carefully ground and polished to a mirror-like brightness4 ,any work which is to be reproduced many times1 such as postage stamps and parts of bank-notes1 is made on small pies of steel called dies4 ,if the design to be used is in the shape of a drawing or engraving1 a sheet of gelatin may be laid over it and the outlines traced with a sharp-pointed instrument4 ,more often a photograph is taken on a ferrotype plate and the outlines scratched into the plate4 ,these outlines are filled with vermilion4 ,a piece of paper is then laid on the plate and the two passed through a hand-press4 ,this is called pulling an impression4 ,while the ink of the impression is still moist it is sprinkled with powdered vermilion to strengthen the lines4 ,the block of steel is then covered with an etching ground 7a composition of asphaltum1 wax1 resin and ether7 and the impression is transferred to this4 ,the outlines are cut through the etching ground and bitten into the steel with acid4 ,the coating is then removed from the block and the artist proceeds with the engraving4 ,the mechanical details and various methods of engraving are highly interesting but time will not permit their discussion4 ,an engraver is seldom expert in more than one style of work4 ,each makes a specialty of some branch1 portraiture1 lettering1 scroll-work1 etc4 ,for this reason several engravers are usually employed on each die for a postage stamp4 ,and in this inability of one individual to do all styles of work equally well lies one of the great securities against counterfeiting4 ,in the course of making a die1 proofs are usually taken and these are much prized by collectors4 ,the die being finished1 it is placed in a bath of cyanide of potassium and heated until the vessel containing it is red hot4 ,this process occupies from fifteen minutes to half an hour for dies but may take as much as an hour for a large plate4 ,the die is then transferred to a bath of oil1 to cool and temper it4 ,by this process it is thoroughly hardened4 ,illustration3 ,from ,the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,xlvi1 ,no4 #e4 ,copyright1 #ahie1 by ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,in the case of postage stamps1 where it is desired to exactly duplicate the design many times on a plate1 recourse is had to transfer rolls4 ,a transfer roll is a piece of soft steel1 in shape a cross section of a cylinder4 ,the edge is sufficiently wide to receive an impression from the die4 ,we show you here a picture of a transfer press4 ,from each side of the roll projects a small pin or trunion4 ,these pins form an axle for the roll and by them it is held in the carrier of the press4 ,a is the roll in the carrier4 ,the die is placed on the table or bed ,b4 ,the roll is held against the die with a pressure of many tons1 obtained by compound leverage4 ,by means of the wheel1 ,e1 and the connecting pinion and rack1 the bed1 carrying with it the die1 is moved back and forth under the roll4 ,this is called rocking and by it the soft steel of the roll is forced into the die and a reverse impression of the design is obtained4 ,the roll is then hardened and1 by a reversal of the process1 impressions from it are transferred to the steel plate from which the stamps are to be printed4 ,the plate is1 of course1 soft at first and is hardened after the required number of designs have been transferred to it4 ,this process is so perfect that the most delicate lines of the die are repeated with absolute fidelity on the plate4 ,when many plates of a stamp are likely to be needed1 it is customary1 in order to avoid risk of wear or damage to the original die1 to make duplicate dies1 called transfer dies1 and from them the necessary rolls to make the plates4 ,the plates are made with great care4 ,they are touched up by hand and subjected to close scrutiny and the work is often gone over a number of times before the result is pronounced satisfactory4 ,incidentally any guide lines and marks used by the transferrer are removed by burnishing4 ,in the older issues of ,united ,states stamps1 such lines and dots are frequently found on the stamps but the later issues are very free from them4 ,plates that have become worn are re-entered1 that is to say1 the transfer roll is applied to the plate in the original position and the lines thus sharpened and deepened4 ,if1 by any mistake in making or re-entering a plate1 the roll is incorrectly placed and then changed to the correct spot1 a double impression of some of the stronger lines will result4 ,this is called a double transfer and sometimes1 though wrongly1 a shifted die4 ,these double transfers are quite common in the ,united ,states stamps made before #ahfa but are scarce in the late issues1 either because the work is now more carefully done or because any mistakes have been corrected4 ,such a correction is effected by turning the plate on its face on a hard substance1 hammering on the back until the surface is driven up smooth and then entering the design anew4 ,a number of very delicate machines are used as aids to the engraver1 though much more for bank-notes and large pieces of work than for postage stamps4 ,these are called ruling machines1 medallion rulers1 cycloidal and geometric lathes4 ,ruling machines are used to make the backgrounds of portraits1 the shadings of letters and similar work4 ,illustration3 ,coin ,stamp1 ,new ,south ,wales1 #e shillings ,here is a very pretty example of ruling1 in the so-called coin stamp of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,these machines rule either straight or curved lines4 ,they can be adjusted to rule several thousand lines to an inch1 but that is only done for microscopical work1 not for engraving4 ,the general principle of a medallion ruling machine is a rod1 fixed on a pivot1 at one end of which is a pin which is drawn across a medallion1 while at the other end a graving point traces a corresponding line on the steel4 ,the large stamps issued in the ,united ,states in #ahfe1 for the payment of postage on newspapers and periodicals1 are examples of this work4 ,cycloidal ruling in its simplest form resembles a series of loops4 ,it is produced by a fixed point which is held against a plate while the latter is moved in a circle and1 at the same time1 forward4 ,by altering the size of the circle and the speed of the forward movement a great variety of results are obtained4 ,by cutting one series of loops over another1 lace-like effects are produced4 ,the process is still further varied by the use of eccentrics4 ,illustration3 ,ruling ,patterns ,the geometric lathe is a most delicate and complicated machine4 ,by means of elaborate attachments very involved and eccentric motions are given to the plate under the graving point and extremely complicated and beautiful designs are produced4 ,i think we are all familiar with these from the examples on our national currency4 ,geometric lathework was used on a number of the ,united ,states stamps of the issue of #ahfa and also on the #e1jjj revenue stamp4 ,the work of this machine is regarded as a great safeguard against counterfeiting4 ,the most skillful engraver would have difficulty in imitating the simplest designs produced by it4 ,the machines are too expensive to be obtained by anyone but a government or a great banknote company and there are very few men who thoroughly understand operating them4 ,a turn of a screw or a variation of a single cog will change the result entirely4 ,finally the work of the lathe is often reversed1 so that the line which is cut by the graver and should print in color prints white1 and vice versa4 ,it would not be possible to imitate this by hand engraving4 ,printing from line-engraved plates is largely done by hand presses4 ,the ink used is very thick4 ,when black it is made of finely pulverized carbon1 mixed with oil4 ,colored inks are composed of zinc white and dry colors1 ground in oil4 ,the colors are animal1 vegetable or mineral4 ,the latter cause the plates to wear out rapidly4 ,green is an especially destructive color4 ,in recent years aniline colors have been largely employed4 ,they afford an elaborate range of shades and color combinations which are most puzzling to describe4 ,soluble inks are much used by the leading ,english firm of stamp printers4 ,they are very sensitive to water and are regarded as one of the best preventatives of the cleaning of used stamps4 ,beautiful results are obtained by printing stamps in two colors4 ,of course1 this necessitates the use of two plates for each design4 ,this also gives rise to some interesting varieties1 caused by one part of the design being printed upside down4 ,such oddities are scarce and are highly valued by philatelists4 ,when a plate is to be printed from1 it is first warmed1 then the ink is applied and rubbed into the lines with a pad4 ,the surface of the plate is wiped off with a cloth1 then with the hand and lastly1 polished with whiting4 ,a sheet of dampened paper is next laid on the plate and the whole is passed under the roller of a press1 which forces the paper into the lines of the plate1 where it takes up the ink4 ,when the plate is deeply engraved the ink seems to stand up from the surface of the paper in ridges and some times we find corresponding depressions on the backs of the stamps4 ,the sheets are then dried1 gummed and dried again4 ,they are now so much curled and wrinkled that they are placed between sheets of bristol board and subjected to hydraulic pressure of several hundred tons which effectively straightens them out4 ,the second process of printing from metallic plates is called typography4 ,the plates for this process are the exact reverse of those engraved in taille douce4 ,instead of the design being cut into the plate1 it is on the surface and everything else is cut away4 ,hence1 the term surface printing4 ,this form of engraving is also called epargne engraving1 because the parts of the plate which bear the design are epargne 7preserved47 ,the dies for typographical plates are cut in wood or steel1 usually the former4 ,they are reproduced by two methods1 stereotyping and electrotyping4 ,in the former process casts of the die are taken in papier mache or plaster of ,paris4 ,from these casts other casts are taken in type-metal4 ,a sufficient number of these casts are clamped together or fastened to a backing of wood and thus form a plate4 ,this process is not much used for stamps4 ,it may interest you to know that most of our large newspapers employ this process4 ,the type-set forms are1 of course1 flat4 ,from them papier mache impressions are taken and bent into a curve1 so that the casts made from them will fit the cylinders of the printing presses4 ,in electrotyping1 an impression is taken from the die in wax or gutta percha4 ,the surface of this impression is coated with powdered plumbago4 ,it is placed in a solution of sulphate of copper and1 by the action of a galvanic battery1 a thin shell of copper is deposited on it4 ,this shell is backed with type-metal and is then ready for use4 ,a number of these elecrotypes may be fastened together and electrotyped in one piece4 ,there is also a photographic process for making typographical dies4 ,this is said to be used in making the stamps of ,france and her colonies4 ,illustration3 ,cliche with two stamps1 ,colombia1 #e cents ,illustration3 ,cliche with two stamps1 ,colonies de l',empire ,francais1 #aj c4 ,stereotypes or electrotypes of single stamps are called cliches4 ,in making up a plate it sometimes happens that a cliche is placed upside down4 ,the result1 after printing1 is a stamp in that position4 ,this is called a tete beche4 ,we illustrate here such a stamp and another which is semi tete beche1 i4e41 turned half around instead of being entirely inverted4 ,like all oddities these are prized by stamp collectors4 ,illustration3 ,stamp ,arrangement1 ,newfoundland1 #c pence ,the triangular stamps of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,new ,foundland are so arranged in the plate that half of them are tete beche to the other half4 ,the same is true of the stamps of ,grenada of the issue of #ahhc4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,hawaiian ,postage1 #e cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,petersburg1 ,virgina1 #e cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,eranco en ,guadalajara1 #b reales ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,ile de la ,reunion1 #ae centimes ,another form of typography is found in stamps which are composed of printer's type and ornaments4 ,these are usually called type-set1 to distinguish them from stamps produced by the normal process of typography4 ,stamps made in this manner are often of a high degree of rarity1 having been produced in remote parts of the world1 where facilities were limited and the use of stamps restricted4 ,to this class belong the stamps of the first issues of ,british ,guiana1 ,hawaii and ,reunion1 which rank among the greatest philatelic rarities4 ,we show you here a number of type-set stamps4 ,the first was used in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 in payment of postage on letters between the different islands4 ,there are a number of plates of these stamps1 of different values1 and each containing ten varieties4 ,the second stamp was issued by the postmaster of ,petersburg1 ,va41 in the early days of the war of the rebellion and before the postal service of the ,confederate government was in working order4 ,the third was used in the city of ,guadalajara1 ,mexico1 in #ahfi1 during the war between ,france and that country4 ,it was made from the cancellation stamp in use in the post office1 the usual date being replaced by the value4 ,the stamps were struck by hand on sheets of paper which had been previously ruled into squares with a lead pencil4 ,the fourth stamp is one of the ,reunion stamps previously mentioned4 ,there were eight stamps in the setting1 four having a central device like the stamp shown1 and the other four being of a different design4 ,it is interesting to remark that most of these type-set stamps show an evidence of their provisional nature and the stress under which they were made1 in the paper on which they were printed4 ,it was usually writing paper1 such as would be found at a stationers at that period4 ,some of the rare type-set stamps of ,british ,guiana were printed on the paper used for lining sugar barrels4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,shanghai ,,lpo1 #b candareens ,the stamps of the first issue of ,shanghai supply an unique variety in typographed stamps4 ,in these stamps the central design is cut upon a block of ivory and the surroundings are set up from printer's type and rules4 ,the stamps were printed one at a time upon a hand press4 ,the value1 in both ,english and ,chinese1 was changed as required1 and it is recorded that on occasions the different values were produced literally while you wait4 ,under such circumstances it is not surprising to learn that minor varieties are very numerous4 ,in printing from typographical plates the ink is applied to the surface by means of a roller4 ,impressions from these plates1 before they have been pressed1 show the design forced into the paper1 instead of raised above it1 as in taille douce printing4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,confederate ,states1 #e cents ,there is often a noticeable difference in the impressions made from the same plate by different workmen1 owing to the varying degree of skill and care employed4 ,we frequently find in stamp catalogues such terms as ,london print contrasted with local print4 ,these terms indicate a fine impression and an inferior one4 ,we find a good example in two five cent stamps of the ,confederate ,states4 ,they are both from the same plate but the first was printed in ,london by the skilled workmen of ,messrs4 ,de ,la ,rue ,co41 and the last was locally made with poor facilities4 ,embossing is a variety of printing connected with both line engraving and typography4 ,embossing dies are produced by sinking lines in the plate but1 as a rule1 they are intended for such productions as stamped envelopes and the sunken portions are a series of hollows rather than sharply cut lines4 ,an envelope1 viewed from the reverse1 will give an excellent idea of the appearance of such a die4 ,in printing from these dies very heavy pressure is used and the paper usually is backed by a piece of leather or something of similar nature4 ,in its simplest form embossing is a stamping in relief without color4 ,the stamp of ,natal shown here was produced in this manner4 ,the stamps of ,scinde1 issued in #ahej1 were embossed and for the red one large wafers1 at that date in common use for sealing letters1 were used4 ,the brittle nature of this material is probably responsible for the scarcity of this stamp1 especially of copies in fine condition4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 embossed1 ,natal ,illustration3 ,stamp1 embossed1 ,scinde ,district ,dawk1 #a_/b anna ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,halfpenny ,postage ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,heligoland1 #b ,pfennig ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,bayern1 #a ,kreuzer ,embossing is usually combined with typography4 ,the surface of the die being inked1 that part of the design is printed in color at the same time that the rest is embossed4 ,these three stamps show this class of work1 one being an envelope stamp with the head deeply embossed4 ,the ,heligoland stamp like all the stamps of that island is in the local colors1 red1 white and green1 of which the inhabitants are so proud4 ,in the case of the ,heligoland and ,bavaria stamps the entire sheets are embossed at one time and not each stamp singly1 as is usual4 ,illustration ,some curious varieties of this sort of printing are found among the early issues of ,peru4 ,the machine in use there printed the stamps one at a time on long strips of paper4 ,when the end of a strip was reached another was attached to it with gum1 in order that the process might be continuous4 ,it frequently happened that an impression was printed upon or partly upon the overlapping ends of the strips4 ,in the course of time these ends became separated and thus we find stamps embossed partly with and partly without color and occasionally entirely without it4 ,philatelists call these varieties semi-albinos and albinos4 ,the latter term is also applied to envelope stamps which have been embossed without the die being inked4 ,lithography1 while a simpler and less expensive mode of making stamps than those previously described1 is not often employed for the purpose4 ,the work is inferior in quality and too easily counterfeited to commend itself4 ,in lithography the lines of the design are neither sunken nor1 to any appreciable extent1 raised above the surface4 ,the design is practically a drawing1 in a certain greasy ink1 upon stone of a particular quality4 ,when several colors are used1 as in chromo-lithography1 a separate stone is prepared for each4 ,the design is sometimes drawn directly on the stone and at others transferred to it4 ,for stamps a die is made in wood1 metal or stone4 ,impressions from this are made in transfer ink 7a very fat ink1 made of soap1 resin1 tallow1 etc47 upon transfer paper4 ,these impressions are placed1 face downward1 on the stone and the paper is moistened4 ,on being passed through a press the ink adheres to the stone and the paper is easily removed4 ,a wet sponge is passed over the stone1 the water adhering to the exposed surface but not to the greasy ink4 ,while it is moist a roller1 covered with transfer ink1 is rolled over the designs to which it adheres4 ,the wetting and rolling are alternated until the designs have sufficient body4 ,lastly1 a very weak solution of nitric acid1 gum arabic and water is passed over the stone4 ,this is at once washed off4 ,it bites the stone to a very trifling extent and serves to clean the surface and add sharpness to the design4 ,impressions taken from a lithographic stone are perfectly flat and smooth1 the surface of the paper being neither raised nor depressed4 ,they have usually a slightly greasy feel4 ,illustration1 ,stamp1 ,n4 ,caledonie1 #aj c4 ,an interesting specimen of lithography is supplied by the first issue of ,new ,caledonia4 ,the design 7fifty stamps in five rows of ten7 was drawn upon the stone by a sergeant of ,marines1 named ,triquera4 ,it is said the work was done with a pointed nail4 ,as might be expected1 it was very crude4 ,another interesting stamp was issued in the island of ,trinidad in #ahee4 ,in this case1 the stone1 after the designs had been placed upon it1 was very deeply bitten with acid1 so that it might properly be called etched and the impressions from it be said to be typographed from stone4 ,this stone was used in #ahee1 #aheh and #ahfj4 ,owing to its friable nature and want of care the stone deteriorated1 so that the last impressions from it are little better than blurs4 ,having considered the design and the methods of preparing plates and printing stamps the next thing to attract our attention is the paper4 ,we here show you some photographs of paper4 ,these were not taken by reflected light but by transmitting light through the paper1 so that we have the fibre and structure of it4 ,illustration3 ,paper ,the two varieties of paper most used for stamps are termed wove and laid4 ,wove paper has an even texture suggestive of cloth4 ,like cloth it may show no grain when held to the light or it may have the appearance of interwoven threads4 ,the paper ordinarily used for books and newspapers is wove4 ,there is a very thin1 tough wove paper1 much like that familiarly known as onion-skin1 which is called pelure by philatelists4 ,on a few occasions a wove paper1 which is nearly as thick as card board1 has been used for stamps4 ,illustration3 ,paper ,laid paper shows alternate light and dark lines1 parallel and close together4 ,these lines are called vergures4 ,there are usually other lines1 an inch or more apart1 crossing the vergures at right angles4 ,ribbed paper has much the appearance of a fine closely laid paper4 ,it is1 however1 a wove paper with a corrugated surface4 ,in oriental countries1 especially ,japan1 a peculiar1 tough1 cottony paper is produced4 ,it is sometimes wove and sometimes laid1 usually thin and hard to tear4 ,i believe this is made from rice straw4 ,paper which has thin lines about the distance apart of the ruled lines in writing paper is called batonne1 from the ,french baton1 a stick or rule4 ,if the paper between the batons is wove1 it is called wove batonne4 ,if the space is filled with fine laid lines1 it is called laid batonne4 ,quadrille paper has laid lines which form small squares4 ,when these lines form rectangles1 it is called oblong quadrille4 ,illustration3 ,paper ,illustration3 ,paper ,illustration3 ,paper ,some of the stamps of ,mexico were printed on paper ruled with blue lines4 ,this was merely ordinary foolscap paper4 ,many of the early stamps of ,russia were on a paper having the surface coated with a soluble enamel4 ,this not only gave a very fine impression but1 on an attempt to clean a cancelled stamp1 the enamel would wash off1 carrying the design with it4 ,two stamps of ,prussia1 issued in #ahff1 are usually said to be on gold-beater's skin4 ,but they are really on a very thin tough paper which has been treated with shellac1 parrafine1 or something which makes it transparent1 and afterwards coated with a gelatine preparation4 ,on this the design was printed reversed1 i4e4 only to be seen correctly when viewed through the paper4 ,the stamps were gummed on the printed side4 ,when they were affixed to an envelope any attempt to soak them off resulted in the paper coming away while the design adhered to the envelope1 like a decalcomanie4 ,essays of this nature were made in a number of countries1 including our own1 but ,prussia was the only one to make and use the stamps4 ,there are several varieties of paper which have threads of silk or other fibre4 ,the first of these is known as ,dickinson paper1 from the name of its inventor4 ,it has one or two threads of silk incorporated in the paper in the course of manufacture4 ,for stamped envelopes two threads were generally used4 ,they were placed about half an inch apart and the envelope was usually so printed that the threads would cross the stamp4 ,for adhesive stamps only one thread was used4 ,great ,britain and several of the ,german ,states made extensive use of this paper4 ,it has never been successfully counterfeited4 ,the best imitation was made by gumming together two thin pieces of paper with a silk thread between them but the fraud was not difficult to detect4 ,some of the ,united ,states revenue stamps were printed on a paper which had a few bits of silk fibre scattered through it4 ,the paper called granite or silurian has a quantity of colored threads mixed with the pulp4 ,in ,switzerland blue and red threads were used1 giving the paper a slightly grayish tone4 ,in ,servia only red threads were used but in sufficient quantity to make the paper appear a faint rose color4 ,manila is a coarse buff paper made from manila fibre4 ,it is generally used for newspaper wrappers4 ,it will scarcely be necessary to say that paper is found in a great variety of colors and that such colored paper has frequently been used for stamps4 ,we cannot consider paper without treating of watermarks1 since they are made in the process of paper making and constitute an important feature of stamp paper4 ,watermarks are designs impressed in the paper pulp4 ,the paper is slightly thinner in the lines of these designs and appears lighter when held to the light4 ,of course you are all familiar with this appearance from having noticed the watermarks in note paper4 ,on rare occasions the watermark is a thickening of the paper instead of a thinning4 ,in such a case the watermark appears more opaque than the paper4 ,watermarks in paper used for stamps are1 of course1 intended as a security against counterfeiting4 ,illustration3 ,watermark ,u4,s4,p4 7mirrored letters7 ,there are a great variety of watermarks2 words1 letters1 figures1 heraldic devices1 etc41 etc4 ,sometimes the design covers the whole sheet and at other times several stamps1 but usually there is a separate watermark for each stamp4 ,the current stamps of the ,united ,states are watermarked with the letters ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 ,s41 ,united ,states ,postal ,service4 ,this is so set up that the letters read in sequence from any point and in any direction4 ,at one time several of the ,british colonies in ,australia employed paper watermarked with a figure or word of the value of the stamp intended to be printed on it4 ,it can readily be understood that these would sometimes get mixed and result in more of those oddities in which philatelists delight4 ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,crown with letters ,,cc ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,crown with letters ,,ca ,illustration3 ,watermarks1 ,cross and ,orb1 ,anchor1 ,elephant ,head1 ,pine-,apple1 ,castle ,illustration3 ,water ,marks1 ,post ,horn1 ,turtle1 ,geneva ,cross ,here are some well-known watermarks4 ,the letters ,,cc under the ,crown stand for ,crown ,colonies4 ,this was extensively used on stamps of the ,british ,colonies4 ,it has been replaced by a similar design1 lettered ,,ca1 ,crown ,agents for the ,colonies1 which is still in use4 ,a great variety of crowns have been used1 as also of stars4 ,the cross and orb are found on stamps of ,great ,britain4 ,the anchor belongs to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the elephant to ,india1 the pine-apple to ,jamaica1 the castle to ,spain 7where else would we have castles if not in ,spain87 the post horn to ,denmark1 the turtle to ,tonga4 ,the ,geneva cross belongs to ,switzerland but is not really a watermark1 as it is impressed in the paper after the stamps are printed4 ,the pyramid and sun and the star and crescent both belong to ,egypt4 ,the lion comes from ,norway1 the sun from the ,argentine ,republic1 the wreath of oak leaves from ,hanover1 the lotus flower from ,siam4 ,illustration3 ,,us4 ,,pod '#ii ,illustration3 ,double eagle ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,pyramid1 ,moon and ,star ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,lion with ,axe1 ,sun1 ,wreath1 ,flower ,here is one from ,travancore1 it represents a shell sacred to the god ,vishnu4 ,on the stamps of ,shanghai we find these ,chinese characters4 ,they read ,kung ,pu1 literally labor board1 otherwise ,municipal ,council1 by whose authority the stamps were issued4 ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,shell ,illustration3 ,watermark1 ,chinese ,characters ,the watermarks on the preceding page are from envelopes of the ,united ,states and ,russia4 ,of course there are many more watermarks than those we show4 ,on many sheets there are watermarked borders with the name of the country1 the word postage1 or other inscriptions4 ,there is much that is interesting in paper making4 ,the best paper is made from linen rags but many other substances are used1 cotton rags1 esparto grass1 straw1 etc4 ,very common paper1 such as that used for the daily newspapers1 is made from wood pulp4 ,paper is made in two ways1 by hand and by machinery4 ,hand made paper is made by means of a mould and a deckle4 ,a mould is a piece of fine wire gauze1 tightly stretched on a wooden frame4 ,if the paper is to be laid1 coarser lines are woven in the gauze4 ,if it is to be watermarked1 the designs1 made of wire bent in the desired shape or of bits of metal1 are fastened to the surface4 ,a deckle is a narrow wooden frame which fits on and around the sides of the mould4 ,the deckle is movable1 in order that it may be used with more than one mould4 ,the mould is dipped in paper pulp and a quantity taken upon it4 ,it is then shaken1 to make the pulp cover the whole surface evenly and rid it of water4 ,the edges of the resulting sheet are1 naturally1 rough and irregular and are called deckle edges4 ,to make the paper pulp the rags are first boiled with soda and lime1 to rid them of dirt and grease4 ,they are then macerated in a vat1 through which fresh water continually flows4 ,when thoroughly ground the pulp is treated with a bleaching fluid which removes all color4 ,it is then pressed and is ready for use4 ,when about to be used the pulp is mixed with water and color is added if desired4 ,when the paper is to be made by machinery the pulp is allowed to flow slowly from the vat upon a wide1 endless band1 usually made of fine wire gauze but occasionally of canvas or other form of cloth4 ,this band is stretched upon rollers and travels slowly forward while1 at the same time1 it is shaken from side to side to distribute the pulp4 ,two narrow bands of ,india rubber are stretched lengthwise of the gauze band and resting upon it4 ,they serve to confine the pulp and regulate the width of the paper4 ,these bands are also called deckles and produce the same edge as the frame used in making hand-made paper4 ,as the pulp moves along with the gauze band it passes under a roller called the dandy roll4 ,the covering of this roll determines the character of the paper4 ,when the paper is to be wove1 it is covered with wire gauze4 ,if it is to be watermarked the designs are attached to the surface of the roll and duly pressed into the paper4 ,to make laid paper the surface of the roll is covered with longitudinal wires1 with spaces the width of a wire between them4 ,rings of wire pass around the roll at regular intervals and hold the longitudinal wires in place4 ,for batonne paper1 there are thick longitudinal wires at intervals and between them either smaller wires or gauze1 as the paper is to be laid batonne or wove batonne4 ,after passing the dandy roll the paper goes over a number of rollers covered with felt and cylinders heated by steam1 until it is dry4 ,it is then sized1 dried again1 pressed between heavy rollers1 to give it a surface1 and the edges trimmed by revolving cutters4 ,it is then wound up in a roll or cut into sheets1 as may be required4 ,having duly considered the design1 printing and paper of stamps1 the next thing to attract our attention is the gum4 ,most gums are prepared from potato starch1 dextrin or gum arabic4 ,gelatin is sometimes added to supply body and glycerine to give smoothness4 ,gum varies much in thickness and color4 ,the first three cent stamp of the ,danish ,west ,indies furnishes an instance of this4 ,the stamps were sent from ,denmark without gum1 as is frequently done with stamps for tropical countries4 ,when they reached the islands the stamps were given to two druggists to be gummed4 ,one used gum of good quality and1 light color1 while the other used poor material and of so dark color as to stain the paper and even darken the ink of the stamps4 ,in ,hanover rose-colored gum was used for a number of issues4 ,some of the earliest local prints of the ,south ,african ,republic were made upon paper sent out ready gummed from ,germany4 ,the paper was much wrinkled by the gum and the effect may be seen in the wavy and broken lines of the ink4 ,the stamps of the first issue of ,reunion were sold ungummed and were affixed to letters in any way that pleased the writers4 ,some were fastened by wafers and some even were pinned on4 ,formerly1 sheets of stamps to be gummed were fastened in a frame and the gum applied by hand with a large brush4 ,they were then sent to the drying room and hung up to dry4 ,now the process is entirely mechanical4 ,the sheets are fed into a machine in which they first pass under a gummed roller4 ,then they are carried on an endless chain through a long box filled with steam pipes and emerge at the further end dry and ready to be pressed and perforated4 ,the subject of perforations is also worthy of some brief attention4 ,the first stamps were imperforate1 necessitating the use of scissors or other instrument in separating them4 ,this was a manifest inconvenience4 ,in #ahdg1 ,henry ,archer1 an ,irishman1 began experimenting with machines for perforating stamps4 ,after a number of attempts he succeeded in making a machine which was accepted by the ,english government and for which1 in #aheb1 he was allowed a compensation of ,l#d1jjj4 ,james ,m4 ,napier greatly improved on this machine and adapted it for steam power4 ,the general principle of all perforating machines is a series of hollow needles1 which remove rows of small disks of the paper from between the stamps1 and thus fit them to be readily torn apart4 ,for convenience of reference and description philatelists have adopted1 as a standard of measurement1 the space of two centimetres4 ,the gauge of a perforation is determined by the number of holes in this distance4 ,scales have been prepared for measuring perforations but it would be superfluous to attempt to describe them here4 ,one of the largest perforations that has been used for stamps has seven holes in two centimetres4 ,this was used on the stamps of ,france by ,susse ,freres1 a firm of stationers4 ,it was done for the convenience of themselves and their customers4 ,some of the stamps of ,mexico have a still larger perforation gauging #ea_/b4 ,the finest gauge is about #ai4 ,this is an unofficial perforation and was applied to some of the early stamps of ,tasmania4 ,illustration3 ,perforation ,illustration3 ,perforation ,illustration3 ,perforation ,illustration3 ,perforation ,we show you here a variety of perforations4 ,the first two are ordinary perforations of different gauges1 #ia_/b and #ad4 ,the third shows a perforation in square holes instead of round4 ,the next is an example of pin perforation1 the holes being far apart and small4 ,two sides of the stamp show the holes before the stamps have been torn apart and a third side shows the ragged effect produced by separating them4 ,another form of pin perforation is made by needles which are not hollow and merely prick holes in the paper without removing any of it4 ,this sort of perforation has sometimes been made by a sewing machine with an unthreaded needle4 ,illustration3 ,perforation ,the last form of perforation shown is called lozenge4 ,in this the machine removes small diamond shaped pieces from the paper4 ,the effect before the separation is shown between the pair of stamps1 while the outer edges show the appearance of single copies4 ,illustration3 ,perforation ,a variety of machines are used in perforating stamps4 ,one perforates only a single row of holes at a time4 ,this is known as the guillotine machine because its action suggests that unpleasant instrument4 ,another machine is called the comb machine because the needles are arranged to perforate across the top of a row of stamps and at the same time between the stamps of that row4 ,this arrangement somewhat resembles a comb4 ,it will be seen that the first application perforates the stamps of one row on three sides4 ,the application of the machine to the next row below completes the fourth side4 ,in the best perforating machines the needles are arranged in circles around a spindle4 ,the sheets pass under this roller and are perforated in one direction4 ,a similar machine makes the perforations in the other direction4 ,there is another form of separation called rouletting1 from the ,french roulette1 a little wheel1 its simplest form being produced by a small wheel with an edge of sharp points4 ,by this process a series of small cuts is made between the stamps but none of the paper is removed4 ,illustration3 ,rouletting1 ,large ,gauge ,illustration3 ,rouletting1 ,small ,gauge ,in these two illustrations are shown roulettes of large and small gauge4 ,the same result is also obtained by setting printers rules which have a notched edge between the cliches which compose the plate4 ,these rules are set a trifle higher than the cliches so that1 when the sheet of paper is pressed against the plate in printing1 the points of the rules are forced through it4 ,these points receive ink the same as other parts of the surface of the plate and the effect thus produced is called rouletting in colored lines4 ,illustration3 ,rouletting ,forms ,illustration3 ,rouletting ,forms ,there are a number of systems which produce the effect of rouletting in a variety of fancy forms4 ,one is called perce en arc4 ,this produces a series of arches on one stamp and a series of scallops on the adjacent one4 ,here is an example of this rouletting1 in a small gauge4 ,a similar form is called serpentine perforation4 ,it is here shown4 ,illustration3 ,rouletting ,forms ,illustration3 ,rouletting ,forms ,still another form leaves the edges of the stamps in sharp points4 ,this is called perce en scie or saw-tooth perforation4 ,when this perforation is very fine it is called serrate4 ,there is still another form of rouletting1 which we also show you4 ,it is called rouletting in oblique parallel cuts and consists of a row of short cuts placed obliquely and parallel to each other4 ,stamps thus rouletted have a very ragged edge when torn apart4 ,this roulette was only used in ,tasmania and was a private production4 ,illustration3 ,burelage ,illustration3 ,control ,number1 #gj ,illustration3 ,moiree ,pattern ,one of the nightmares of every government is the fear that its securities will be counterfeited or tampered with4 ,i have several times mentioned precautions against such abuses in the shape of fine engraving1 watermarks1 enameled paper1 sensitive inks1 etc4 ,there are numerous other devices which have been used with the same end in view4 ,the patterns here shown were printed on the backs of the stamps in blue ink4 ,the first is a band of interlaced lines1 called a burelage4 ,the second is a sort of control number4 ,the number differs for each stamp on the sheet4 ,the third resembles the lines in watered silk and is called moiree4 ,it covers the entire back of the sheet4 ,sometimes the stamps are covered with a network which only becomes visible on the application of certain chemicals4 ,in this country the experiment has been tried of breaking the fibre of the paper by pressing into the stamps a group of tiny pyramids1 called a grill4 ,the idea was that the cancelling ink would penetrate the broken paper and could not be removed4 ,we cannot finish our study of the material side of stamps without reference to another feature1 i4e41 surcharges4 ,correctly speaking1 a surcharge is an added charge1 but in philately the term is applied to a variety of overprints1 the majority of which indicate a reduction rather than an increase in value4 ,years ago the word surcharge usually suggested a makeshift1 something of a temporary nature prepared to meet an emergency and1 therefore1 interesting and likely to become valuable4 ,but our little weaknesses are now well understood by those who are exploiting the commercial side of postage stamps and we have reason to fear that many recent surcharges were made for revenue only and not from any real necessity4 ,the majority of surcharges are made to supply a value which has been temporarily exhausted4 ,for example1 many of the ,british ,colonies obtained their supplies of stamps in ,london4 ,it may happen that an order is not placed early enough or there is delay in filling it and delivering the stamps4 ,owing to this1 the values most in use may be exhausted4 ,under such circumstances1 it is customary to provide a temporary supply by printing the needed value on some other stamp1 usually one of higher value4 ,to use a lower value would tempt the counterfeiting of the surcharge1 for the profit to be made through the increased value4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,mauritius1 surcharged #d cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,gibraltar1 surcharged #e centimos ,there are1 however1 a variety of other surcharges1 a few of which may interest you4 ,the first two stamps indicate a change in the form of the currency of the country1 from pence to cents in ,mauritius and from the ,english half penny to its ,spanish equivalent in ,gibraltar4 ,the ,seychelles stamp was prepared to meet a change in the rate for letters to countries in the ,international ,postal ,union4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,seychelles1 surcharged #h cents ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,st4 ,helena1 surcharged #a penny ,the first stamp made in ,st4 ,helena was a six pence4 ,for a long time no other value was engraved but the six pence stamps were printed in a variety of colors and surcharged with the desired values4 ,the ,ceylon stamp has been made available for revenue purposes1 as well as postal4 ,the last stamp shown is from ,shanghai4 ,its original value was #ajj cash4 ,this was overprinted #bj cash and the equivalent ,chinese characters in a double-lined frame1 and again surcharged #ajj cash4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,ceylon1 #ae cents1 surcharged #e cents1 ,postage1 ,revenue ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,shanghai ,,lpo1 #ajj cash1 surcharged #bj cash1 surcharged again #ajj cash ,there is an interesting bit of history connected with these surcharges4 ,the supply of #bj cash stamps was exhausted and the postmaster surcharged that value on eight hundred of the #ajj cash stamps4 ,a tourist1 learning this and knowing that the regular #bj cash stamps were expected to arrive at any moment1 bought the entire lot4 ,but the expected stamps failed to arrive and the postmaster made a second lot of surcharges but on the #hj cash this time4 ,when the tourist learned this he wished to return the stamps he had bought4 ,the postmaster refused to take them back but1 pressure being brought through the ,municipal ,council1 finally consented4 ,in the mean time the #bj cash stamps had arrived and1 not needing provisionals of that value1 he restored them to their original value by the second surcharge1 #ajj cash4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 #a penny1 surcharged ,cyprus1 #cj paras ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,antigua1 surcharged ,montserrat ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,bermuda1 surcharged ,gilbraltar ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,straits ,settlement1 surcharged ,perak ,this group illustrates stamps of one country or state surcharged for use in another4 ,for a long time ,cyprus was supplied by overprinting the stamps of ,great ,britain4 ,in like manner ,montserrat was surcharged on ,antigua stamps1 ,gibraltar on ,bermuda and ,perak on the ,straits ,settlements4 ,in the case of ,gibraltar some of the stamps were printed in other colors than were used in ,bermuda4 ,the colony of ,eritrea has always been supplied by overprinting the ,italian stamps4 ,illustration3 ,fives ,in #ahhc a large quantity of stamps were stolen in ,cuba and to prevent their being used the remaining stock were overprinted with the devices shown here4 ,these were the cliches used to print the control numbers on the tickets of the ,havana lottery4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,z4 ,afr4 ,republiek1 #a penny1 surcharged ,transvaal ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,transvaal ,postage1 #f pence1 surcharged ,z4,a4,r1 #b pence ,sometimes surcharges are the outcome of historic events or are at least suggestive of such4 ,the first stamp in this group is one of the crude products of the ,south ,african ,republic1 which was surcharged during the ,british occupation of the country4 ,the second is a stamp issued during the same occupation and surcharged after the ,boers again came into power4 ,the ,chilian coat of arms on the stamps of ,peru tells its own story of war and invasion4 ,lastly we have a stamp of ,fiji on which the initials ,c4,r41 ,cakambau ,rex1 are overprinted with the ,v4,r4 of the ,queen of ,england4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,correos del ,peru1 #a centavo ,illustration ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,fiji1 surcharched ,v4,r4 ,during the ,carlist insurrection in ,spain1 the stamps of ,france1 surcharged with a fleur de lys surrounded by a five-rayed star1 were used by ,don ,carlos to frank his correspondence across the frontier into ,france4 ,these stamps were in use for only a brief period1 pending the preparation and issue of the ,carlist stamps4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,poland ,it may be remarked that there are many suggestions of history in stamps that are not surcharged4 ,the succession of portraits and other devices in the issues of a country is often eloquent of the march of great events1 and there is a touch of pathos in ,poland's solitary stamp4 ,finally1 ,i wish to call your attention to a few stamps which tell most interesting stones1 and which have a touch of mysticism and symbolism1 which is not of to-day4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,correos ,mexico1 #a_/b real ,the coat of arms of ,mexico has its origin in the distant past4 ,general ,lew ,wallace says in his historical romance the ,fair ,god3 ,the site of the city of ,tenochtitlan was chosen by the gods4 ,in the south-western border of ,lake ,tezcuco1 one morning in #acjj1 a wandering tribe of ,aztecs saw an eagle perched1 with outspread wings1 upon a cactus1 and holding a serpent in its talons4 ,at a word from their priests1 they took possession of the marsh and there stayed their migration and founded the city2 such is the tradition4 ,as men love to trace their descent back to some stoned greatness1 nations delight to associate the gods with their origin4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,persia ,many stamps of ,persia bear the lion and the sun1 the arms of the country and the insignia of its highest order of nobility4 ,it is the lion of ,iran1 holding in its paw the sceptre of the ,khorassan while behind it shines the sun of ,darius4 ,there is a legend concerning the latter symbol to the effect that ,darius1 hunting in the desert1 threw his spear at a lion and missed4 ,the beast crouched to spring1 when the sun1 shining on a talisman on ,darius' breast1 so overpowered it that it came fawning to his feet and followed him back to the city4 ,and for this reason the sun became part of the arms of the kingdom4 ,but ,i think we may look further than this and find in it a relic of the ancient fire worship and of oriental pretentions to power over heaven and earth4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,egypt1 #e para ,how much of ,egypt's myths and splendors are here depicted2 the temple column called ,pompey's pillar1 the obelisk of ,luxor1 the mighty pyramids1 last of all the sphynx1 that fabled creature with the face of a woman1 the body of a tigress and the heart of both4 ,in fancy we can see her1 crouched on a rock beside the great highway to ,thebes1 propounding her fatal riddle to the bewildered passers by1 till ,oedipus shall come4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,turkey ,on the stamps and coins of ,turkey we miss the portrait of the reigning sovereign1 which we find on such issues of most monarchies4 ,this is due to a law of ,mohammed1 which forbids the reproduction of the human figure4 ,on the stamps we find the crescent1 said to have been the emblem of the ,byzantine empire and adopted by the ,turks after the fall of ,constantinople4 ,we also find an elaborate device called the ,toughra or signature of the ,sultan4 ,it owes its origin to the ,sultan ,murad ,i1 a liberal sovereign and founder of many schools and institutions of learning but unable to write his own name4 ,he signed imperial decrees by dipping his fingers in ink and placing them on the documents with three fingers close together and the little finger and thumb extended4 ,in course of time this was adopted and1 so to speak1 consecrated as the signature of the ,sultan4 ,it was also elaborated and arranged to form a written phrase1 while preserving1 in a general way1 its original form4 ,the toughra contains certain characters which are permanent and minor ones which change4 ,the latter are the names of the sovereign and his father4 ,thus the toughra which we illustrate reads3 ,his ,majesty ,abdul ,hamid1 son of ,mejid1 may he be always victorious4 ,the small inscription at the side reads el ghazi1 the victorious1 one of the titles of the ,sultan4 ,the toughra is often referred to as the hand4 ,in an article published in #ahfg ,i find the following on this subject3 ,illustration3 ,arabic3 ,el ,ghazi ,the hand has to ,mussulmen three mystic significations2 it denotes providence2 it is the expression of law2 and thirdly1 of power2 it restores the courage of the faithful and strikes terror to the hearts of their enemies4 ,as an emblem of law1 the ,mussulman thus explains the meaning of the hand4 ,it has five fingers1 each1 with the exception of the thumb1 having three joints1 all the fingers are subordinate to the unity of the hand1 their common foundation4 ,the five fundamental precepts of the law are3 #ast--,belief in ,god and his prophet4 #bnd--,prayer4 #crd--,giving alms4 #dth--,fasting during the sacred months and at the appointed times4 #eth--,visiting the temples of ,mecca and ,medina4 ,each of these precepts admits of three divisions1 except the first1 symbolized by the thumb1 which has only two1 heart and work4 ,these dogmas and their modifications have for their source the central doctrine of the unity of ,god2 and all the creed of ,mohametanism is contained in the hand1--the five fingers and their forty joints4 ,the hand placed above the gates of the ,alhambra1 upon the ,sultan's seal1 and upon the stamps1 symbolises the spiritual and temporal power which protects the good and the faithful and punishes their adversaries4 ,illustration3 ,stamp1 ,korea1 #e ,poon ,this stamp is from ,corea1 the ,land of the ,morning ,calm4 ,in the corners are the plum blossom1 the royal flower of the present dynasty which has existed over #ejj years4 ,in the four corners of the central square are letters taken from the original alphabet of all languages and representing the four spirits that stand at the four corners of the earth and support it on their shoulders4 ,the central device is an ancient ,chinese symbol which represents the dual principle in nature1 the male and the female1 the beginning and the end1 the union of all opposite forces1 of which the highest product is man4 ,this symbol pervades all oriental art and thought4 ,those of you who have seen ,vedder's illustrations of the ,rubaiyat of ,omar ,khayyam will remember the ever recurring swirl which represents the gradual concentration of the elements that combine to form life2 the sudden pause through the reverse of the movement that marks the instant of life1 and then the gradual1 ever-widening dispersion again of these elements into space4 ,the swirl is only another form of the ,chinese symbol4 ,a postage stamp is a tiny thing but it holds in its pictured space thoughts that embrace the beginning and the end of things1 life1 death and--we know not what4 ,illustration