,,new ,,latin ,,grammar ,,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,bennett ,goldwin ,smith ,professor of ,latin in ,cornell ,university ,quicquid praecipies1 esto brevis1 ut cito dicta ,percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles3 ,omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat4 --,,horace1 ,ars ,poetica4 ,,copyright1 #ahie2 #aijh2 #aiah ,,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,bennett 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface4 ,the present work is a revision of that published in #aijh4 ,no radical alterations have been introduced1 although a number of minor changes will be noted4 ,i have added an ,introduction on the origin and development of the ,latin language1 which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil4 ,at the end of the book will be found an ,index to the ,sources of the ,illustrative ,examples cited in the ,syntax4 ,c4,e4,b4 ,,ithaca1 ,,new ,,york1 ,may #d1 #aiah 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the present book is a revision of my ,latin ,grammar originally published in #ahie4 ,wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible1 ,i have endeavored to secure this4 ,the rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the ,romans themselves4 ,in the ,perfect ,subjunctive ,active1 the endings -s1 -mus1 -tis are now marked long4 ,the theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus1 -gna1 -gnum1 and also before j1 has been discarded4 ,in the ,syntax ,i have recognized a special category of ,ablative of ,association1 and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the ,prohibitive4 ,apart from the foregoing1 only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced4 ,in its main lines the work remains unchanged4 ,,ithaca1 ,,new ,,york1 ,october #af1 #aijg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,the ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,the object of this book is to present the essential facts of ,latin grammar in a direct and simple manner1 and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards4 ,while intended primarily for the secondary school1 it has not neglected the needs of the college student1 and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses4 ,the experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of ,latin1 and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of #bej pages4 ,within the past decade1 several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands4 ,the publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time1 as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors4 ,this makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar4 ,in the chapter on ,prosody1 ,i have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of ,horace and ,catullus1 as well as of the measures of the comic poets4 ,our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous4 ,,ithaca1 ,,new ,,york1 ,december #ae1 #ahid4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,introduction--,the ,latin language ,,part ,i4 ,,sounds1 ,,accent1 ,,quantity1 ,,etc4 ,the ,alphabet #a ,classification of ,sounds #b ,sounds of the ,letters #c ,syllables #d ,quantity #e ,accent #f ,vowel ,changes #g ,consonant ,changes #h ,peculiarities of ,orthography #i ,,part ,,ii4 ,,inflections4 ,,chapter ,i4--,declension4 ,a4 ,,nouns4 #aj ,gender of ,nouns #ac ,number #af ,cases #ag ,the ,five ,declensions #ah ,first ,declension #bj ,second ,declension #bc ,third ,declension #bh ,fourth ,declension #dh ,fifth ,declension #ea ,defective ,nouns #ed ,b4 ,,adjectives4 #fb ,adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions #fc ,adjectives of the ,third ,declension #fg ,comparison of ,adjectives #ga ,formation and ,comparison of ,adverbs #gf ,numerals #gh ,c4 ,,pronouns4 #hb ,personal ,pronouns #hd ,reflexive ,pronouns #he ,possessive ,pronouns #hf ,demonstrative ,pronouns #hg ,the ,intensive ,pronoun #hh ,the ,relative ,pronoun #hi ,interrogative ,pronouns #ij ,indefinite ,pronouns #ia ,pronominal ,adjectives #ib ,,chapter ,,ii4--,conjugation4 #ic ,verb ,stems #ig ,the ,four ,conjugations #ih ,conjugation of ,sum #ajj ,first ,conjugation #aja ,second ,conjugation #ajc ,third ,conjugation #aje ,fourth ,conjugation #ajg ,verbs in -i of the ,third ,conjugation #aji ,deponent ,verbs #aab ,semi-,deponents #aad ,periphrastic ,conjugation #aae ,peculiarities of ,conjugation #aaf ,formation of the ,verb ,stems #aag ,list of the ,most ,important ,verbs with ,principal ,parts #abj ,irregular ,verbs #abd ,defective ,verbs #acc ,impersonal ,verbs #ach ,,part ,,iii4 ,,particles4 #aci ,adverbs #adj ,prepositions #ada ,interjections #ade ,,part ,,iv4 ,,word ,,formation4 ,i4 ,,derivatives4 #adf ,nouns #adg ,adjectives #aej ,verbs #aee ,adverbs #aeg ,,ii4 ,,compounds4 #aeh ,examples of ,compounds #aei ,,part ,v4 ,,syntax4 ,,chapter ,i4--,sentences4 ,classification of ,sentences #afa ,form of ,interrogative ,sentences #afb ,subject and ,predicate #afc ,simple and ,compound ,sentences #afd ,,chapter ,,ii4--,syntax of ,nouns4 ,subject #aff ,predicate ,nouns #afg ,appositives #afi ,the ,nominative #agj ,the ,accusative #agb ,the ,dative #ahf ,the ,genitive #aid ,the ,ablative #bac ,the ,locative #bcb ,,chapter ,,iii4--,syntax of ,adjectives4 ,agreement of ,adjectives #bcd ,adjectives used ,substantively #bcf ,adjectives with the ,force of ,adverbs #bci ,comparatives and ,superlatives #bdj ,other ,peculiarities #bda ,,chapter ,,iv4--,syntax of ,pronouns4 ,personal ,pronouns #bdb ,possessive ,pronouns #bdc ,reflexive ,pronouns #bdd ,reciprocal ,pronouns #bde ,demonstrative ,pronouns #bdf ,relative ,pronouns #bej ,indefinite ,pronouns #beb ,pronominal ,adjectives #bec ,,chapter ,v4--,syntax of ,verbs4 ,agreement of ,verbs #bed ,voices #bef ,tenses -- ,of the ,indicative #beg -- ,of the ,subjunctive #bff -- ,of the ,infinitive #bgj ,moods -- ,in ,independent ,sentences #bga -- -- ,volitive ,subjunctive #bgc -- -- ,optative ,subjunctive #bgi -- -- ,potential ,subjunctive #bhj -- -- ,imperative #bha -- ,in ,dependent ,clauses -- -- ,clauses of ,purpose #bhb -- -- ,clauses of ,characteristic #bhc -- -- ,clauses of ,result #bhd -- -- ,causal ,clauses #bhe -- -- ,temporal ,clauses -- -- -- ,introduced by ,postquam1 ,ut1 ,ubi1 etc4 #bhg -- -- -- ,cum-,clauses #bhh -- -- -- ,introduced by ,antequam and ,priusquam #bia -- -- -- ,introduced by ,dum1 ,dnec1 ,quoad #bic -- -- ,substantive ,clauses #bid -- -- -- ,developed from the ,volitive #bie -- -- -- ,developed from the ,optative #bif -- -- -- ,of ,result #big -- -- -- ,after nn dubito1 etc4 #bih -- -- -- ,introduced by ,quod #bii -- -- -- ,indirect ,questions #cjj -- -- ,conditional ,sentences #cja -- -- ,use of ,s1 ,nisi1 ,sn #cjf -- -- ,conditional ,clauses of ,comparison #cjg -- -- ,concessive ,clauses #cjh -- -- ,adversative ,clauses with ,quamvs1 ,quamquam1 etc4 #cji -- -- ,clauses of ,wish and ,proviso #caj -- -- ,relative ,clauses #caa -- -- ,indirect ,discourse #cac -- -- -- ,moods in ,indirect ,discourse #cad -- -- -- ,tenses in ,indirect ,discourse #cag -- -- -- ,conditional ,sentences in ,indirect ,discourse #cai -- -- ,implied ,indirect ,discourse #cbc -- -- ,subjunctive by ,attraction #cbd ,noun and ,adjective ,forms of the ,verb #cbe -- ,infinitive #cbf -- ,participles #ccf -- ,gerund #cch -- ,supine #cdj ,,chapter ,,vi4--,particles4 ,cordinate ,conjunctions #cda ,adverbs #cdg ,,chapter ,,vii4--,word-,order and ,sentence-,structure4 ,word-,order #cdh ,sentence-,structure #cea ,,chapter ,,viii4--,hints on ,latin ,style4 #ceb ,nouns #cec ,adjectives #ced ,pronouns #cee ,verbs #cef ,the ,cases #ceg ,,part ,,vi4 ,,prosody4 #cfj ,quantity of ,vowels and ,syllables #cfb ,verse-,structure #cff ,the ,dactylic ,hexameter #cfh ,the ,dactylic ,pentameter #cfi ,iambic ,measures #cgj ,,supplements ,,to ,,the ,,grammar4 ,i4 ,roman ,calendar #cga ,,ii4 ,roman ,names #cgc ,,iii4 ,figures of ,syntax and ,rhetoric #cgd 99 99 99 99 99 ,index to the ,illustrative ,examples ,cited in the ,syntax ,index to the ,principal ,parts of ,latin ,verbs ,general ,index ,footnotes 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction4 ,,the ,,latin ,,language4 #a4 ,the ,indo-,european ,family of ,languages4--,latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages1 known as ,indo-,european4#a ,this ,indo-,european family of languages embraces the following groups3 ,,asiatic ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,indo-,,european ,,family4 a4 ,the ,sanskrit1 spoken in ancient ,india4 ,of this there were several stages1 the oldest of which is the ,vedic1 or language of the ,vedic ,hymns4 ,these ,hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the ,indo-,european family4 ,a conservative estimate places them as far back as #aejj ,b4,c4 ,some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this1 i4e4 anterior to #bejj ,b4,c4 ,the ,sanskrit1 in modified form1 has always continued to be spoken in ,india1 and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient ,sanskrit1 and spoken by millions of people4 b4 ,the ,iranian1 spoken in ancient ,persia1 and closely related to the ,sanskrit4 ,there were two main branches of the ,iranian group1 viz4 the ,old ,persian and the ,avestan4 ,the ,old ,persian was the official language of the court1 and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform#b inscriptions1 the earliest of which date from the time of ,darius ,i 7sixth century ,b4,c474 ,the other branch of the ,iranian1 the ,avestan1#c is the language of the ,avesta or sacred books of the ,parsees1 the followers of ,zoroaster1 founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers4 ,portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,modern ,persian is a living representative of the old ,iranian speech4 ,it has naturally been much modified by time1 particularly through the introduction of many words from the ,arabic4 c4 ,the ,armenian1 spoken in ,armenia1 the district near the ,black ,sea and ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,this is closely related to the ,iranian1 and was formerly classified under that group4 ,it is now recognized as entitled to independent rank4 ,the earliest literary productions of the ,armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the ,christian era4 ,to this period belong the translation of the ,scriptures and the old ,armenian ,chronicle4 ,the ,armenian is still a living language1 though spoken in widely separated districts1 owing to the scattered locations in which the ,armenians are found to-day4 d4 ,the ,tokharian4 ,this language1 only recently discovered and identified as ,indo-,european1 was spoken in the districts east of the ,caspian ,sea 7modern ,turkestan74 ,while in some respects closely related to the three ,asiatic branches of the ,indo-,european family already considered1 in others it shows close relationship to the ,european members of the family4 ,the literature of the ,tokharian1 so far as it has been brought to light1 consists mainly of translations from the ,sanskrit sacred writings1 and dates from the seventh century of our era4 ,,european ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,indo-,,european ,,family4 e4 ,the ,greek4 ,the ,greeks had apparently long been settled in ,greece and ,asia ,minor as far back as #aejj ,b4,c4 ,probably they arrived in these districts much earlier4 ,the earliest literary productions are the ,iliad and the ,odyssey of ,homer1 which very likely go back to the ninth century ,b4,c4 ,from the sixth century ,b4,c4 on1 ,greek literature is continuous4 ,modern ,greek1 when we consider its distance in time from antiquity1 is remarkably similar to the classical ,greek of the fourth and fifth centuries ,b4,c4 f4 ,the ,italic ,group4 ,the ,italic ,group embraces the ,umbrian1 spoken in the northern part of the ,italian peninsula 7in ancient ,umbria72 the ,latin1 spoken in the central part 7in ,latium72 the ,oscan1 spoken in the southern part 7in ,samnium1 ,campania1 ,lucania1 etc474 ,besides these1 there were a number of minor dialects1 such as the ,marsian1 ,volscian1 etc4 ,of all these 7barring the ,latin71 there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions4 ,latin literature begins shortly after #bej ,b4,c4 in the works of ,livius ,andronicus1 ,naevius1 and ,plautus1 although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period4 g4 ,the ,celtic4 ,in the earliest historical times of which we have any record1 the ,celts occupied extensive portions of northern ,italy1 as well as certain areas in central ,europe2 but after the second century ,b4,c41 they are found only in ,gaul and the ,british ,isles4 ,among the chief languages belonging to the ,celtic group are the ,gallic1 spoken in ancient ,gaul2 the ,breton1 still spoken in the modern ,french province of ,brittany2 the ,irish1 which is still extensively spoken in ,ireland among the common people1 the ,welsh2 and the ,gaelic of the ,scotch ,highlanders4 h4 ,the ,teutonic4 ,the ,teutonic group is very extensive4 ,its earliest representative is the ,gothic1 preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the ,gothic ,bishop ,ulfilas 7about #cge ,a4,d474 ,other languages belonging to this group are the ,old ,norse1 once spoken in ,scandinavia1 and from which are descended the modern ,icelandic1 ,norwegian1 ,swedish1 ,danish2 ,german2 ,dutch2 ,anglo-,saxon1 from which is descended the modern ,english4 i4 ,the ,balto-,slavic4 ,the languages of this group belong to eastern ,europe4 ,the ,baltic division of the group embraces the ,lithuanian and ,lettic1 spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century4 ,the ,slavic division comprises a large number of languages1 the most important of which are the ,russian1 the ,bulgarian1 the ,serbian1 the ,bohemian1 the ,polish4 ,all of these were late in developing a literature1 the earliest to do so being the ,old ,bulgarian1 in which we find a translation of the ,bible dating from the ninth century4 j4 ,the ,albanian1 spoken in ,albania and parts of ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,sicily4 ,this is most nearly related to the ,balto-,slavic group1 and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from ,latin1 ,turkish1 ,greek1 and ,slavic4 ,its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century4 #b4 ,home of the ,indo-,european ,family4--,despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups1 a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent4 ,we must believe1 therefore1 that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended4 ,the precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined4 ,for a long time it was assumed that it was in central ,asia north of the ,himalaya ,mountains1 but this view has long been rejected as untenable4 ,it arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to ,sanskrit4 ,the great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the ,sanskrit 7the ,vedic ,hymns7 suggested that the inhabitants of ,india were geographically close to the original seat of the ,indo-,european ,family4 ,hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north4 ,to-day it is thought that central or southeastern ,europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the ,indo-,european parent-speech1 though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected4 ,as to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the ,indo-,european languages have sprung1 we can only speculate4 ,it probably was not large1 and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries1 possibly for thousands of years4 ,the time at which ,indo-,european unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence1 is likewise shrouded in obscurity4 ,when we consider that the separate existence of the ,sanskrit may antedate #bejj ,b4,c41 it may well be believed that people speaking the ,indo-,european parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as #ejjj ,b4,c41 or possibly earlier4 #c4 ,stages in the ,development of the ,latin ,language4--,the earliest remains of the ,latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions4 ,the oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries ,b4,c4 ,roman literature does not begin till several centuries later1 viz4 shortly after the middle of the third century ,b4,c4 ,we may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature3 a4 ,the ,preliterary ,period1 from the earliest times down to #bdj ,b4,c41 when ,livius ,andronicus brought out his first play4 ,for this period our knowledge of ,latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time4 ,few of these are of any length4 b4 ,the ,archaic ,period1 from ,livius ,andronicus 7#bdj ,b4,c47 to ,cicero 7#ha ,b4,c474 ,even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression4 ,in the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty4 ,in its simplicity1 however1 it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days4 ,to this period belong3 ,livius ,andronicus1 about #bge-bjd ,b4,c4 7,translation of ,homer's ,odyssey2 ,tragedies74 ,plautus1 about #bej-ahd ,b4,c4 7,comedies74 ,naevius1 about #bgj-aii ,b4,c4 7,punic ,war2 ,comedies74 ,ennius1 #bci-afi ,b4,c4 7,annals2 ,tragedies74 ,terence1 about #aij-aei ,b4,c4 7,comedies74 ,lucilius1 #ahj-ajc ,b4,c4 7,satires74 ,pacuvius1 #bbj-;about #acj ,b4,c4 7,tragedies74 ,accius1 #agj-;about #he ,b4,c4 7,tragedies74 c4 ,the ,golden ,age1 from ,cicero 7#ha ,b4,c47 to the death of ,augustus 7#ad ,a4,d474 ,in this period the language1 especially in the hands of ,cicero1 reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection4 ,its vocabulary1 however1 has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range4 ,traces of the diction of the ,archaic ,period are often noticed1 especially in the poets1 who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times4 ,literature reached its culmination in this epoch1 especially in the great poets of the ,augustan ,age4 ,the following writers belong here3 ,lucretius1 about #ie-ee ,b4,c4 7,poem on ,epicurean ,philosophy74 ,catullus1 #hg-;about #ed ,b4,c4 7,poet74 ,cicero1 #ajf-dc ,b4,c4 7,orations2 ,rhetorical ,works2 ,philosophical ,works2 ,letters74 ,caesar1 #ajb-dd ,b4,c4 7,commentaries on ,gallic and ,civil ,wars71 ,sallust1 #hf-cf ,b4,c4 7,historian74 ,nepos1 about #ajj-;about #cj ,b4,c4 7,historian74 ,virgil1 #gj-ai ,b4,c4 7,aeneid2 ,georgics2 ,bucolics74 ,horace1 #fe-h ,b4,c4 7,odes2 ,satires1 ,epistles74 ,tibullus1 about #ed-ai ,b4,c4 7,poet74 ,propertius1 about #ej-;about #ae ,b4,c4 7,poet74 ,ovid1 #dc ,b4,c4-#ag ,a4,d4 7,metamorphoses and other poems74 ,livy4 #ei ,b4,c4-#ag ,a4,d4 7,historian74 d4 ,the ,silver ,latinity1 from the death of ,augustus 7#ad ,a4,d47 to the death of ,marcus ,aurelius 7#ahj ,a4,d471 ,this period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age4 ,it had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression1 and to leave too little play to the individual writer4 ,in the healthy reaction against this formalism1 greater freedom of expression now manifests itself4 ,we note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language1 along with many poetical words and usages4 ,the following authors deserve mention3 ,phaedrus1 flourished about #dj ,a4,d4 7,fables in ,verse7 ,velleius ,paterculus1 flourished about #cj ,a4,d4 7,historian74 ,lucan1 #ci-fe ,a4,d4 7,poem on the ,civil ,war74 ,seneca1 about #a-fe ,a4,d4 7,tragedies2 ,philosophical ,works74 ,pliny the ,elder1 #bc-gi ,a4,d4 7,natural ,history74 ,pliny the ,younger1 #fb-;about #aae ,a4,d4 7,letters74 ,martial1 about #de-;about #ajd ,a4,d4 7,epigrams74 ,quintilian1 about #ce-;about #ajj ,a4,d4 7,treatise on ,oratory and ,education74 ,tacitus1 about #ee-;about #aah ,a4,d4 7,historian74 ,juvenal1 about #ee-;about #ace ,a4,d4 7,satirist74 ,suetonius1 about #gc-;about #aah ,a4,d4 7,lives of the ,twelve ,caesars74 ,minucius ,felix1 flourished about #afj ,a4,d4 7,first ,christian ,apologist74 ,apuleius1 #abe-;about #bjj ,a4,d4 7,metamorphoses1 or ,golden ,ass74 e4 ,the ,archaizing ,period4 ,this period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the ,archaic ,period of the second and first centuries ,b4,c42 it overlaps the preceding period1 and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view4 ,of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned ,fronto1 from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the ,emperors ,antoninus ,pius and ,marcus ,aurelius2 also ,aulus ,gellius1 author of the ,attic ,nights4 ,both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century ,a4,d4 f4 ,the ,period of the ,decline1 from #ahj to the close of literary activity in the sixth century ,a4,d4 ,this period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language4 ,the features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature1 while in the remote provinces1 such as ,gaul1 ,spain1 ,africa1 the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities4 ,representative writers of this period are3 ,tertullian1 about #afj-;about #bdj ,a4,d4 7,christian ,writer74 ,cyprian1 about #bjj-beh ,a4,d4 7,christian ,writer74 ,lactantius1 flourished about #cjj ,a4,d4 7,defense of ,christianity74 ,ausonius1 about #caj-;about #cie ,a4,d4 7,poet74 ,jerome1 #cdj-dbj ,a4,d4 7,translator of the ,scriptures74 ,ambrose1 about #cdj-cig 7,christian ,father74 ,augustine1 #ced-dcj 7,christian ,father--,city of ,god74 ,prudentius1 flourished #djj ,a4,d4 7,christian ,poet74 ,claudian1 flourished #djj ,a4,d4 7,poet74 ,bothius1 about #dhj-ebd ,a4,d4 7,consolation of ,philosophy 74 #d4 ,subsequent ,history of the ,latin ,language4--,after the sixth century ,a4,d4 ,latin divides into two entirely different streams4 ,one of these is the literary language maintained in courts1 in the ,church1 and among scholars4 ,this was no longer the language of people in general1 and as time went on1 became more and more artificial4 ,the other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people1 which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called ,romance idioms4 ,these are the ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 ,french1 ,provenal 7spoken in ,provence1 i4e4 southeastern ,france71 the ,rhaeto-,romance 7spoken in the ,canton of the ,grisons in ,switzerland71 and the ,roumanian1 spoken in modern ,roumania and adjacent districts4 ,all these ,romance languages bear the same relation to the ,latin as the different groups of the ,indo-,european family of languages bear to the parent speech4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,i4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sounds1 ,,accent1 ,,quantity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,alphabet4 #a4 ,the ,latin ,alphabet is the same as the ,english1 except that the ,latin has no w4 #a4 ,k occurs only in ,kalendae and a few other words2 y and z were introduced from the ,greek about #ej ,b4,c41 and occur only in foreign words--chiefly ,greek4 #b4 ,with the ,romans1 who regularly employed only capitals1 ,i served both as vowel and consonant2 so also ,v4 ,for us1 however1 it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds1 and to write i and u for the former1 j and v for the latter4 ,yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels4 ,,classification ,,of ,,sounds4 #b4 #a4 ,the ,vowels are a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 y4 ,the other letters are ,consonants4 ,the ,diphthongs are ae1 oe1 ei1 au1 eu1 ui4 #b4 ,consonants are further subdivided into ,mutes1 ,liquids1 ,nasals1 and ,spirants4 #c4 ,the ,mutes are p1 t1 c1 k1 q2 b1 d1 g2 ph1 th1 ch4 ,of these1-- a7 p1 t1 c1 k1 q are voiceless1#d i4e4 sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal cords4 b7 b1 d1 g are voiced1#e i4e4 sounded with vibration of the vocal cords4 c7 ph1 th1 ch are aspirates4 ,these are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the ,greek1 and were equivalent to p h1 t h1 c h1 i4e4 to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath1 as in ,eng4 loop-hole1 hot-house1 block-house4 #d4 ,the ,mutes admit of classification also as ,labials1 p1 b1 ph4 ,dentals 7or ,linguals71 t1 d1 th4 ,gutturals 7or ,palatals71 c1 k1 q1 g1 ch4 #e4 ,the ,liquids are l1 r4 ,these sounds were voiced4 #f4 ,the ,nasals are m1 n4 ,these were voiced4 ,besides its ordinary sound1 n1 when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound1--that of ng in sing1--the so-called n adulternum2 as1-- anceps1 double1 pronounced angceps4 #g4 ,the ,spirants 7sometimes called ,fricatives7 are f1 s1 h4 ,these were voiceless4 #h4 ,the ,semivowels are j and v4 ,these were voiced4 #i4 ,double ,consonants are x and z4 ,of these1 x was equivalent to cs1 while the equivalence of z is uncertain4 ,see #c1 #c4 #aj4 ,the following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds3-- ,,voiceless4 ,,voiced4 ,,aspirates4 p1 b1 ph1 7,labials74 ,mutes1 t1 d1 th1 7,dentals74 c1 k1 q1 g1 ch1 7,gutturals74 ,liquids1 l1 r1 ,nasals1 m1 n1 f1 7,labial74 ,spirants1 s1 7,dental74 h1 7,guttural74 ,semivowels1 j1 v4 a4 ,the ,double ,consonants1 x and z1 being compound sounds1 do not admit of classification in the above table4 ,,sounds ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 #c4 ,the following pronunciation 7often called ,roman7 is substantially that employed by the ,romans at the height of their civilization2 i4e41 roughly1 from #ej ,b4,c4 to #ej ,a4,d4 #a4 ,vowels4 as in father2 as in the first syllable ah2 as in they2 as in met2 as in machine2 as in pin2 as in note2 as in obey1 melody2 as in rude2 as in put2 y like ,french u1 ,german 4 #b4 ,diphthongs4 ae like ai in eu with its two elements1 and 1 aisle2 pronounced in rapid succession2 oe like oi in oil2 ui occurs almost exclusively in ei as in rein2 cui and huic4 ,these words may au like ow in how2 be pronounced as though written kwee and wheek4 #c4 ,consonants4 b1 d1 f1 h1 k1 l1 m1 n1 p1 qu are pronounced as in ,english1 except that bs1 bt are pronounced ps1 pt4 c is always pronounced as k4 t is always a plain t1 never with the sound of sh as in ,eng4 oration4 g always as in get2 when ngu precedes a vowel1 gu has the sound of gw1 as in anguis1 languidus4 j has the sound of y as in yet4 r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue4 s always voiceless as in sin2 in sude1 suvis1 susc1 and in compounds and derivatives of these words1 su has the sound of sw4 v like w4 x always like ks2 never like ,eng4 gz or z4 z uncertain in sound2 possibly like ,eng4 zd1 possibly like z4 ,the latter sound is recommended4 ,the aspirates ph1 ch1 th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed ,eng4 p1 c1 t--so nearly so1 that1 for practical purposes1 the latter sounds suffice4 ,doubled letters1 like ll1 mm1 tt1 etc41 should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated4 ,,syllables4 #d4 ,there are as many syllables in a ,latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs4 ,in the division of words into syllables1-- #a4 ,a single consonant is joined to the following vowel2 as1 vo-lat1 ge-rit1 pe-rit1 a-dest4 #b4 ,doubled consonants1 like tt1 ss1 etc41 are always separated2 as1 vit-ta1 mis-sus4 #c4 ,other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated1 and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel2 as1 ma-gis-tr1 dig-nus1 mn-strum1 sis-te-re4 #d4 ,an exception to ,rule #c occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r 7pl1 cl1 tl2 pr1 cr1 tr1 etc474 ,in such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel2 as1 a-gr1 vo-lu-cris1 pa-tris1 m-tris4 ,yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound1 the two consonants are separated2 as1 ab-rump1 ad-ltus4 #e4 ,the double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel2 as1 ax-is1 tx-4 ,,quantity4 #e4 ,a4 ,quantity of ,vowels4 ,a vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation4 ,no absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of ,latin vowels4 ,this knowledge must be gained1 in large measure1 by experience2 but the following principles are of aid3-- #a4 ,a vowel is long1#f-- a7 before nf or ns2 as1 nfns1 nferior1 cnsm1 cnse1 nsum4 b7 when the result of contraction2 as1 nlum for nihilum4 #b4 ,a vowel is short1-- a7 before nt1 nd2 as1 amant1 amandus4 ,a few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel2 as1 nndum 7nn dum74 b7 before another vowel1 or h2 as1 meus1 trah4 ,some exceptions occur1 chiefly in proper names derived from the ,greek2 as1 ,aens4 ,b4 ,quantity of ,syllables4 ,syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation4 #a4 ,a syllable is long1#g-- a7 if it contains a long vowel2 as1 mter1 rgnum1 dus4 b7 if it contains a diphthong2 as1 causae1 foedus4 c7 if it contains a short vowel followed by x1 z1 or any two consonants 7except a mute with l or r72 as1 axis1 gaza1 rest4 #b4 ,a syllable is short1 if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant2 as1 mea1 amat4 #c4 ,sometimes a syllable varies in quantity1 viz4 when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r1 i4e4 by pl1 cl1 tl2 pr1 cr1 tr1 etc42 as1 gr1 volcris4#h ,such syllables are called common4 ,in prose they were regularly short1 but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet4 ,,note4--,these distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial1 but are purely natural4 ,thus1 a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants1 as ng1 is long1 because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation2 while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short1 because it takes less time to pronounce it4 ,in case of the common syllables1 the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant4 ,yet by separating the two elements 7as ag-r7 the poets were able to use such syllables as long4 ,,accent4 #f4 #a4 ,words of two syllables are accented upon the first2 as1 tgit1 mrem4 #b4 ,words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult 7next to the last7 if that is a long syllable1 otherwise upon the antepenult 7second from the last72 as1 amv1 amntis1 mserum4 #c4 ,when the enclitics -que1 -ne1 -ve1 -ce1 -met1 -dum are appended to words1 if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long 7either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic7 it is accented2 as1 miserque1 hominsque4 ,but if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added1 it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult4 ,thus1 prtaque2 but mserque4 #d4 ,sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears1 but without affecting the accent2 as1 tantn1 istc1 illc4 #e4 ,in utrque1 each1 and plrque1 most1 -que is not properly an enclitic2 yet these words accent the penult1 owing to the influence of their other cases1--utrque1 utrmque1 plrmque4 ,,vowel ,,changes4#i #g44 #a4 ,in ,compounds1 a7 before a single consonant becomes 2 as1-- collig for con-leg4 b7 before a single consonant becomes 3 as1-- adig for ad-ag4 c7 before two consonants becomes 2 as1-- expers for ex-pars4 d7 ae becomes 2 as1-- conqur for con-quaer4 e7 au becomes 1 sometimes 2 as1-- concld for con-claud2 expld for ex-plaud4 #b4 ,contraction4 ,concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel4 ,the first of the two vowels regularly prevailed2 as1-- trs for tre-es2 cpia for co-opia2 ml for ma7v7el2 cg for co-ag2 amst for am7v7ist2 cm for co-em2 dbe for d7h7abe2 jnior for ju7v7enior4 nl for nihil2 #c4 ,parasitic ,vowels4 ,in the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops2 as1-- vinculum for earlier vinclum4 ,so perculum1 saeculum4 #d4 ,syncope4 ,sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope2 as1-- rdor for ridor 7compare ridus72 vald for valid 7compare validus74 ,,consonant ,,changes#aj #h4 #a4 ,rhotacism4 ,an original s between vowels became r2 as1-- arbs1 ,gen4 arboris 7for arbosis72 genus1 ,gen4 generis 7for genesis72 dirim 7for dis-em74 #b4 dt1 tt1 ts each give s or ss2 as1-- pnsum for pend-tum2 versum for vert-tum2 mles for mlet-s2 sessus for sedtus2 passus for pattus4 #c4 ,final consonants were often omitted2 as1-- cor for cord2 lac for lact4 #d4 ,assimilation of ,consonants4 ,consonants are often assimilated to a following sound4 ,thus3 accurr 7adc-72 agger 7adg-72 asser 7ads-72 alltus 7adl-72 apport 7adp-72 attul 7adt-72 arrde 7adr-72 affer 7adf-72 occurr 7obc-72 suppn 7subp-72 offer 7obf-72 corru 7comr-72 colltus 7coml-72 etc4 #e4 ,partial ,assimilation4 ,sometimes the assimilation is only partial4 ,thus3-- a7 b before s or t becomes p2 as1-- scrps 7scrb-s71 scrptum 7scrb-tum74 b7 g before s or t becomes c2 as1-- ctus 7g-tus74 c7 m before a dental or guttural becomes n2 as1-- eundem 7eum-dem72 prnceps 7prm-ceps74 ,,peculiarities ,,of ,,orthography4 #i4 ,many words have variable orthography4 #a4 ,sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language4 ,thus1 quom1 voltus1 volnus1 volt1 etc41 were the prevailing forms almost down to the ,augustan age2 after that1 cum1 vultus1 vulnus1 vult1 etc4 ,so optumus1 maxumus1 lubet1 lubd1 etc4 down to about the same era2 later1 optimus1 maximus1 libet1 libd1 etc4 #b4 ,in some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language4 ,examples are exspect1 expect2 exsist1 exist2 epistula1 epistola2 adulscns1 adolscns2 paulus1 paullus2 cottdi1 cotdi2 and1 particularly1 prepositional compounds1 which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling2 as1-- ad-ger or agger2 ad-ser or asser2 ad-lici or allici2 in-ltus or illtus2 ad-rogns or arrogns2 sub-move or summove2 and many others4 #c4 ,compounds of jaci were usually written ici1 dici1 adici1 obici1 etc41 but were probably pronounced as though written adjici1 objici1 etc4 #d4 ,adjectives and nouns in -quus1 -quum2 -vus1 -vum2 -uus1 -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos1 -quom2 -vos1 -vom2 -uos1 -uom1 down through the ,ciceronian age2 as1 antquos1 antquom2 saevos2 perpetuos2 equos2 servos4 ,similarly verbs in the #c;d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont1 -quontur2 -vont1 -vontur2 -uont1 -uontur1 for the same period2 as1 relinquont1 loquontur2 vvont1 metuont4 ,the older spelling1 while generally followed in editions of ,plautus and ,terence1 has not yet been adopted in our prose texts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,inflections4 99 99 99 99 99 #aj4 ,the ,parts of ,speech in ,latin are the same as in ,english1 viz4 ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 ,pronouns1 ,verbs1 ,adverbs1 ,prepositions1 ,conjunctions1 and ,interjections2 but the ,latin has no article4 #aa4 ,of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of ,inflection1 i4e4 of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning4 ,in case of ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 and ,pronouns1 this process is called ,declension2 in case of verbs1 ,conjugation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4--,declension4 ,a4 ,,nouns4 #ab4 ,a ,noun is the name of a person1 place1 thing1 or quality2 as1 ,caesar1 ,caesar2 ,rma1 ,rome2 penna1 feather2 virts1 courage4 #a4 ,nouns are either ,proper or ,common4 ,proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places2 as1 ,caesar1 ,rma4 ,other nouns are ,common3 as1 penna1 virts4 #b4 ,nouns are also distinguished as ,concrete or ,abstract4 a7 ,concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects2 as1 mns1 mountain2 ps1 foot2 dis1 day2 mns1 mind4 ,under concrete nouns are included1 also1 collective nouns2 as1 legi1 legion2 comittus1 retinue4 b7 ,abstract nouns designate qualities2 as1 cnstantia1 steadfastness2 pauperts1 poverty4 ,,gender ,,of ,,nouns4 #ac4 ,there are three ,genders1--,masculine1 ,feminine1 and ,neuter4 ,gender in ,latin is either natural or grammatical4 ,natural ,gender4 #ad4 ,the gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex4 ,natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons2 and these are-- #a4 ,masculine1 if they denote males2 as1-- nauta1 sailor2 agricola1 farmer4 #b4 ,feminine1 if they denote females2 as1-- mter1 mother2 rgna1 queen4 ,grammatical ,gender4 #ae4 ,grammatical gender is determined not by sex1 but by the general signification of the word1 or the ending of its ,nominative ,singular4 ,by grammatical gender1 nouns denoting things or qualities are often ,masculine or ,feminine1 simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the ,nominative ,singular4 ,the following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender3-- ,a4 ,gender determined by ,signification4 #a4 ,names of ,rivers1 ,winds1 and ,months are ,masculine2 as1-- ,squana1 ,seine2 ,eurus1 east wind2 ,aprlis1 ,april4 #b4 ,names of ,trees1 and such names of ,towns and ,islands as end in -us1 are ,feminine2 as1-- quercus1 oak2 ,corinthus1 ,corinth2 ,rhodus1 ,rhodes4 ,other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings 7see ,b1 below72 as1-- ,delph1 n42 ,leuctra1 n42 ,tbur1 n42 ,carthg1 f4 #c4 ,indeclinable nouns1 also infinitives and phrases1 are ,neuter2 as1-- nihil1 nothing2 nefs1 wrong2 amre1 to love4 ,,note4--,exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur2 as1 ,allia 7the river71 f4 ,b4 ,gender determined by ,ending of ,nominative ,singular4 ,the gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the ,nominative ,singular4#aa ,,note #a4--;,common ,gender4 ,certain nouns are sometimes ,masculine1 sometimes ,feminine4 ,thus1 sacerds may mean either priest or priestess1 and is ,masculine or ,feminine accordingly4 ,so also cvis1 citizen2 parns1 parent2 etc4 ,the gender of such nouns is said to be common4 ,,note #b4--,names of animals usually have grammatical gender1 according to the ending of the ,nominative ,singular1 but the one form may designate either the male or female2 as1 nser1 m41 goose or gander4 ,so vulps1 f41 fox2 aqula1 f41 eagle4 ,,number4 #af4 ,the ,latin has two ,numbers1--the ,singular and ,plural4 ,the ,singular denotes one object1 the ,plural1 more than one4 ,,cases4 #ag4 ,there are six ,cases in ,latin3-- ,nominative1 ,case of ,subject2 ,genitive1 ,objective with of1 or ,possessive2 ,dative1 ,objective with to or for2 ,accusative1 ,case of ,direct ,object2 ,vocative1 ,case of ,address2 ,ablative1 ,objective with by1 from1 in1 with4 #a4 ,,locative4 ,vestiges of another case1 the ,locative 7denoting place where71 occur in names of towns and in a few other words4 #b4 ,,oblique ,,cases4 ,the ,genitive1 ,dative1 ,accusative1 and ,ablative are called ,oblique ,cases4 #c4 ,,stem ,,and ,,case-,,endings4 ,the different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the ,stem4#ab ,thus1 portam 7,accusative ,singular7 is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-4 ,but in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured4 ,the apparent case-ending thus resulting is called a termination4 ,,the ,,five ,,declensions4 #ah4 ,there are five ,declensions in ,latin1 distinguished from each other by the final letter of the ,stem1 and also by the ,termination of the ,genitive ,singular1 as follows3-- ,,declension4 ,,final ,,letter ,,of ,,stem4 ,,gen4 ,,termination4 ,first -ae ,second - ,third _/ ,some consonant -s ,fourth -s ,fifth - _/ - ,cases alike in ,form4 #ai4 #a4 ,the ,vocative is regularly like the ,nominative1 except in the singular of nouns in -us of the ,second ,declension4 #b4 ,the ,dative and ,ablative ,plural are always alike4 #c4 ,in ,neuters the ,accusative and ,nominative are always alike1 and in the ,plural end in -4 #d4 ,in the ,third1 ,fourth1 and ,fifth ,declensions1 the ,accusative ,plural is regularly like the ,nominative4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,first ,,declension4 -,stems4 #bj4 ,pure ,latin nouns of the ,first ,declension regularly end1 in the ,nominative ,singular1 in -1 weakened from -1 and are of the ,feminine ,gender4 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,porta1 gate2 stem1 port-4 ,,singular4 ,,cases4 ,,meanings4 ,,terminations4 ,nom4 porta a gate 7as subject7 - ,gen4 portae of a gate -ae ,dat4 portae to or for a gate -ae ,acc4 portam a gate 7as object7 -am ,voc4 porta ,o gate6 - ,abl4 port with1 by1 from1 in a gate - ,,plural4 ,nom4 portae gates 7as subject7 -ae ,gen4 portrum of gates -rum ,dat4 ports to or for gates -s ,acc4 ports gates 7as object7 -s ,voc4 portae ,o gates6 -ae ,abl4 ports with1 by1 from1 in gates -s #a4 ,the ,latin has no article1 and porta may mean either a gate or the gate2 and in the ,plural1 gates or the gates4 ,peculiarities of ,nouns of the ,first ,declension4 #ba4 #a4 ,,exceptions ,,in ,,gender4 ,nouns denoting males are ,masculine2 as1 nauta1 sailor2 agricola1 farmer2 also1 ,hadria1 ,adriatic ,sea4 #b4 ,rare ,case-,endings1-- a7 ,an old form of the ,genitive ,singular in -s is preserved in the combination pater familis1 father of a family2 also in mter familis1 flius familis1 flia familis4 ,but the regular form of the ,genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions2 as1 pater familiae4 b7 ,in poetry a ,genitive in - also occurs2 as1 aul4 c7 ,the ,locative ,singular ends in -ae2 as1 ,rmae1 at ,rome4 d7 ,a ,genitive ,plural in -um instead of -rum sometimes occurs2 as1 ,dardanidum instead of ,dardanidrum4 ,this termination -um is not a contraction of -rum1 but represents an entirely different case-ending4 e7 ,instead of the regular ending -s1 we usually find -bus in the ,dative and ,ablative ,plural of dea1 goddess1 and flia1 daughter1 especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus1 god1 and flius1 son4 ,a few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity2 as1 lbertbus 7from lberta1 freedwoman71 equbus 7mares71 to avoid confusion with lberts 7from lbertus1 freedman7 and equs 7from equus1 horse74 ,greek ,nouns4 #bb4 ,these end in - 7,feminine72 -s and -s 7,masculine74 ,in the ,plural they are declined like regular ,latin nouns of the ,first ,declension4 ,in the ,singular they are declined as follows3-- ,archis1 ,epitom1 ,comts1 comet4 ,archias4 epitome4 ,nom4 ,archis epitom comts ,gen4 ,archiae epitoms comtae ,dat4 ,archiae epitomae comtae ,acc4 ,archiam 7or -n7 epitomn comtn ,voc4 ,archi epitom comt 7or -7 ,abl4 ,archi epitom comt 7or -7 #a4 ,but most ,greek nouns in - become regular ,latin nouns in -a1 and are declined like porta2 as1 grammatica1 grammar2 msica1 music2 rhtorica1 rhetoric4 #b4 ,some other peculiarities occur1 especially in poetry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,second ,,declension4 -,stems4 #bc4 ,pure ,latin nouns of the ,second ,declension end in -us1 -er1 -ir1 ,masculine2 -um1 ,neuter4 ,originally -us in the ,nominative of the ,masculine was -os2 and -um of the ,neuters -om4 ,so also in the ,accusative4 ,nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows3-- ,hortus1 garden2 ,bellum1 war2 stem1 hort-4 stem1 bell-4 ,,singular4 ,,termination4 ,,termination4 ,nom4 hortus -us bellum -um ,gen4 hort - bell - ,dat4 hort - bell - ,acc4 hortum -um bellum -um ,voc4 horte -e bellum -um ,abl4 hort - bell - ,,plural4 ,nom4 hort - bella -a ,gen4 hortrum -rum bellrum -rum ,dat4 horts -s bells -s ,acc4 horts -s bella -a ,voc4 hort - bella -a ,abl4 horts -s bells -s ,nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows3-- ,puer1 boy2 ,ager1 field2 ,vir1 man2 stem1 puer- stem1 agr- stem1 vir- ,,singular4 ,,termination4 ,nom4 puer ager vir ,wanting ,gen4 puer agr vir - ,dat4 puer agr vir - ,acc4 puerum agrum virum -um ,voc4 puer ager vir ,wanting ,abl4 puer agr vir - ,,plural4 ,nom4 puer agr vir - ,gen4 puerrum agrrum virrum -rum ,dat4 puers agrs virs -s ,acc4 puers agrs virs -s ,voc4 puer agr vir - ,abl4 puers agrs virs -s #a4 ,note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the ,nominative and ,vocative ,singular4 ,in the ,nominative and ,vocative ,singular of ager1 the stem is further modified by the development of e before r4 #b4 ,the following nouns in -er are declined like puer3 adulter1 adulterer2 gener1 son-in-law2 ,lber1 ,bacchus2 socer1 father-in-law2 vesper1 evening2 and compounds in -fer and -ger1 as signifer1 armiger4 ,nouns in -vus1 -vum1 -quus4 #bd4 ,nouns ending in the ,nominative ,singular in -vus1 -vum1 -quus1 exhibited two types of inflection in the classical ,latin1--an earlier and a later1--as follows3-- ,earlier ,inflection 7including ,caesar and ,cicero74 ,servos1 m41 ,aevom1 n41 ,equos1 m41 slave4 age4 horse4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 servos aevom equos ,gen4 serv aev equ ,dat4 serv aev equ ,acc4 servom aevom equom ,voc4 serve aevom eque ,abl4 serv aev equ ,later inflection 7after ,cicero74 ,,singular4 ,nom4 servus aevum equus ,gen4 serv aev equ ,dat4 serv aev equ ,act4 servum aevum equum ,voc4 serve aevum eque ,abl4 serv aev equ #a4 ,the ,plural of these nouns is regular1 and always uniform4 ,peculiarities of ,inflection in the ,second ,declension4 #be4 #a4 ,proper names in -ius regularly form the ,genitive ,singular in - 7instead of -i71 and the ,vocative ,singular in - 7for -ie72 as ,vergl1 of ,virgil1 or ,o ,virgil 7instead of ,vergili1 ,vergilie74 ,in such words the accent stands upon the penult1 even though that be short4 ,nouns in -ajus1 -ejus form the ,gen4 in -a1 -e1 as ,pompejus1 ,pompe4 #b4 ,nouns in -ius and -ium1 until after the beginning of the reign of ,augustus 7#ca ,b4,c471 regularly formed the ,genitive ,singular in -i 7instead of -i72 as1-- ,nom4 ingenium flius ,gen4 ingn fl ,these ,genitives accent the penult1 even when it is short4 #c4 ,flius forms the ,vocative ,singular in - 7for -ie72 viz4 fl1 ,o son6 #d4 ,deus1 god1 lacks the ,vocative ,singular4 ,the ,plural is inflected as follows3-- ,nom4 d 7de7 ,gen4 derum 7deum7 ,dat4 ds 7des7 ,acc4 des ,voc4 d 7de7 ,abl4 ds 7des7 #e4 ,the ,locative ,singular ends in -2 as1 ,corinth1 at ,corinth4 #f4 ,the ,genitive ,plural has -um1 instead of -rum1-- a7 in words denoting money and measure2 as1 talentum1 of talents2 modium1 of pecks2 sstertium1 of sesterces4 b7 in duumvir1 triumvir1 decemvir2 as1 duumvirum4 c7 sometimes in other words2 as1 lberum1 of the children2 socium1 of the allies4 ,exceptions to ,gender in the ,second ,declension4 #bf4 #a4 ,the following nouns in -us are ,feminine by exception3-- a7 ,names of towns1 islands1 trees--according to the general rule laid down in #ae1 #b2 also some names of countries2 as ,aegyptus1 ,egypt4 b7 ,five special words1-- alvus1 belly2 carbasus1 flax2 colus1 distaff2 humus1 ground2 vannus1 winnowing-fan4 c7 ,a few ,greek ,feminines2 as1-- atomus1 atom2 diphthongus1 diphthong4 #b4 ,the following nouns in -us are ,neuter3-- pelagus1 sea2 vrus1 poison2 vulgus1 crowd4 ,greek ,nouns of the ,second ,declension4 #bg4 ,these end in -os1 -s1 ,masculine or ,feminine2 and -on1 ,neuter4 ,they are mainly proper names1 and are declined as follows3-- ,barbitos1 m4 ,androges1 m41 lion1 n41 and f41 ,androgeos4 ,troy4 lyre4 ,nom4 barbitos ,androges lion ,gen4 barbit ,androge1 - li ,dat4 barbit ,androge li ,acc4 barbiton ,androge1 -n lion ,voc4 barbite ,androges lion ,abl4 barbit ,androge li #a4 ,nouns in -os sometimes form the ,accusative ,singular in -um instead of -on2 as1 ,dlum1 ,delos4 #b4 ,the ,plural of ,greek nouns1 when it occurs1 is usually regular4 #c4 ,for other rare forms of ,greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,third ,,declension4 #bh4 ,nouns of the ,third ,declension end in -a1 -e1 -1 -1 -y1 -c1 -l1 -n1 -r1 -s1 -t1 -x4 ,the ,third ,declension includes several distinct classes of ,stems1-- ,i4 ,pure ,consonant-,stems4 ,,ii4 -,stems4 ,,iii4 ,consonant-,stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of -,stems4 ,,iv4 ,a very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong4 ,v4 ,irregular ,nouns4 ,i4 ,consonant-,stems4 #bi4 #a4 ,in these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases1 so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized4 #b4 ,consonant-,stems fall into several natural subdivisions1 according as the stem ends in a ,mute1 ,liquid1 ,nasal1 or ,spirant4 ,a4 ,mute-,stems4 #cj4 ,mute-,stems may end1-- #a4 ,in a ,labial 7p72 as1 prncep-s4 #b4 ,in a ,guttural 7g or c72 as1 rmex 7rmeg-s72 dux 7duc-s74 #c4 ,in a ,dental 7d or t72 as1 lapis 7lapid-s72 mles 7mlet-s74 #a4 ,,stems ,,in ,a ,,labial ,,mute 7p74 #ca4 ,prnceps1 m41 chief4 ,,singular4 ,,termination4 ,nom4 prnceps -s ,gen4 prncipis -is ,dat4 prncip - ,acc4 prncipem -em ,voc4 prnceps -s ,abl4 prncipe -e ,,plural4 ,nom4 prncips -s ,gen4 prncipum -um ,dat4 prncipibus -ibus ,acc4 prncips -s ,voc4 prncips -s ,abl4 prncipibus -ibus #b4 ,,stems ,,in ,a ,,guttural ,,mute 7g1 c74 #cb4 ,in these the termination -s of the ,nominative ,singular unites with the guttural1 thus producing -x4 ,rmex1 m41 rower4 ,dux1 c41 leader4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,nom4 rmex rmigs dux ducs ,gen4 rmigis rmigum ducis ducum ,dat4 rmig rmigibus duc ducibus ,acc4 rmigem rmigs ducem ducs ,voc4 rmex rmigs dux ducs ,abl4 rmige rmigibus duce ducibus #c4 ,,stems ,,in ,a ,,dental ,,mute 7d1 t74 #cc4 ,in these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the ,nominative ,singular before the ending -s4 ,lapis1 m41 stone4 ,mles1 m41 soldier4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,nom4 lapis lapids mles mlits ,gen4 lapidis lapidum mlitis mlitum ,dat4 lapid lapidibus mlit mlitibus ,acc4 lapidem lapids mlitem mlits ,voc4 lapis lapids mles mlits ,abl4 lapide lapidibus mlite mlitibus ,b4 ,liquid ,stems4 #cd4 ,these end in -l or -r4 ,vigil1 m41 ,victor1 m41 ,aequor1 n41 watchman4 conqueror4 sea4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 vigil victor aequor ,gen4 vigilis victris aequoris ,dat4 vigil victr aequor ,acc4 vigilem victrem aequor ,voc4 vigil victor aequor ,abl4 vigile victre aequore ,,plural4 ,nom4 vigils victrs aequora ,gen4 vigilum victrum aequorum ,dat4 vigilibus victribus aequoribus ,acc4 vigils victrs aequora ,voc4 vigils victrs aequora ,abl4 vigilibus victribus aequoribus #a4 ,masculine and ,feminine stems ending in a liquid form the ,nominative and ,vocative ,singular without termination4 #b4 ,the termination is also lacking in the ,nominative1 ,accusative and ,vocative ,singular of all neuters of the ,third ,declension4 ,c4 ,nasal ,stems4 #ce4 ,these end in -n1#ac which often disappears in the ,nom4 ,sing4 ,le1 m41 lion4 ,nmen1 n41 name ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,nom4 le lens nmen nmina ,gen4 lenis lenum nminis nminum ,dat4 len lenibus nmin nminibus ,acc4 lenem lens nmen nmina ,voc4 le lens nmen nmina ,abl4 lene lenibus nmine nminibus ,d4 s-,stems4 #cf4 ,ms1 m4 ,genus1 n41 ,honor1 m41 custom4 race4 honor4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 ms genus honor ,gen4 mris generis honris ,dat4 mr gener honr ,acc4 mrem genus honrem ,voc4 ms genus honor ,abl4 mre genere honre ,,plural4 ,nom4 mrs genera honrs ,gen4 mrum generum honrum ,dat4 mribus generibus honribus ,acc4 mrs genera honrs ,voc4 mrs genera honrs ,abl4 mribus generibus honribus #a4 ,note that the final s of the stem becomes r 7between vowels7 in the oblique cases4 ,in many words 7honor1 color1 and the like7 the r of the oblique cases has1 by analogy1 crept into the ,nominative1 displacing the earlier s1 though the forms hons1 cols1 etc41 also occur1 particularly in early ,latin and in poetry4 ,,ii4 -,stems4 ,a4 ,masculine and ,feminine -,stems4 #cg4 ,these regularly end in -is in the ,nominative ,singular1 and always have -ium in the ,genitive ,plural4 ,originally the ,accusative ,singular ended in -im1 the ,ablative ,singular in -1 and the ,accusative ,plural in -s2 but these endings have been largely displaced by -em1 -e1 and -s1 the endings of ,consonant-,stems4 #ch4 ,tussis1 f41 gnis1 m41 ,hostis1 c41 cough2 stem1 fire2 stem1 enemy2 stem1 tussi-4 gni-4 hosti-4 ,,singular4 ,,termination4 ,nom4 tussis gnis hostis -is ,gen4 tussis gnis hostis -is ,dat4 tuss gn host - ,acc4 tussim gnem hostem -im1 -em ,voc4 tussis gnis hostis -is ,abl4 tuss gn or e hoste -1 -e ,,plural4 ,nom4 tusss gns hosts -s ,gen4 tussium gnium hostium -ium ,dat4 tussibus gnibus hostibus -ibus ,acc4 tusss or -s gns or -s hosts or -s -s1 -s ,voc4 tusss gns hosts -s ,abl4 tussibus gnibus hostibus -ibus #a4 ,to the same class belong-- apis1 bee4 crtis1 hurdle4 99secris1 axe4 auris1 ear4 99febris1 fever4 smentis1 sowing4 avis1 bird4 orbis1 circle4 99sitis1 thirst4 axis1 axle4 ovis1 sheep4 torris1 brand4 99bris1 plough-beam4 pelvis1 basin4 99turris1 tower4 clvis1 key4 puppis1 stern4 trudis1 pole4 collis1 hill4 restis1 rope4 vectis1 lever4 and many others4 ,words marked with a star regularly have ,acc4 -im2 those marked with a regularly have ,abl4 -4 ,of the others1 many at times show -im and -4 ,town and river names in -is regularly have -im1 -4 #b4 ,not all nouns in -is are -,stems4 ,some are genuine consonant-stems1 and have the regular consonant terminations throughout1 notably1 canis1 dog2 juvenis1 youth4#ad #c4 ,some genuine -,stems have become disguised in the ,nominative ,singular2 as1 pars1 part1 for par7ti7s2 anas1 duck1 for ana7ti7s2 so also mors1 death2 ds1 dowry2 nox1 night2 sors1 lot2 mns1 mind2 ars1 art2 gns1 tribe2 and some others4 ,b4 ,neuter -,stems4 #ci4 ,these end in the ,nominative ,singular in -e1 -al1 and -ar4 ,they always have - in the ,ablative ,singular1 -ia in the ,nominative1 ,accusative1 and ,vocative ,plural1 and -ium in the ,genitive ,plural1 thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do ,masculine and ,feminine -,stems4 ,sedile1 ,animal1 ,calcar1 seat2 animal2 spur2 stem1 sedli-4 stem1 stem1 animli-4 calcri-4 ,,singular4 ,,termination4 ,nom4 sedle animal calcar -e or wanting ,gen4 sedlis animlis calcris -is ,dat4 sedl animl calcr - ,acc4 sedle animal calcar -e or wanting ,voc4 sedle animal calcar -e or wanting ,abl4 sedl animl calcr - ,,plural4 ,nom4 sedlia animlia calcria -ia ,gen4 sedlium animlium calcrium -ium ,dat4 sedlibus animlibus calcribus -ibus ,acc4 sedlia animlia calcria -ia ,voc4 sedlia animlia calcria -ia ,abl4 sedlibus animlibus calcribus -ibus #a4 ,in most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the ,nominative ,singular2 in others it appears as -e4 #b4 ,proper names in -e form the ,ablative ,singular in -e2 as1 ,sracte1 ,mt4 ,soracte2 so also sometimes mare1 sea4 ,,iii4 ,consonant-,stems that have partially adapted themselves to the ,inflection of -,stems4 #dj4 ,many ,consonant-,stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of -stems as to take -ium in the ,genitive ,plural1 and -s in the ,accusative ,plural4 ,their true character as ,consonant-,stems1 however1 is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the ,accusative ,singular1 or - in the ,ablative ,singular4 ,the following words are examples of this class3-- ,caeds1 f41 ,arx1 f41 ,linter1 f41 slaughter2 citadel2 skiff2 stem1 caed-4 stem1 arc-4 stem1 lintr-4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 caeds arx linter ,gen4 caedis arcis lintris ,dat4 caed arc lintr ,acc4 caedem arcem lintrem ,voc4 caeds arx linter ,abl4 caede arce lintre ,,plural4 ,nom4 caeds arcs lintrs ,gen4 caedium arcium lintrium ,dat4 caedibus arcibus lintribus ,acc4 caeds1 -s arcs1 -s lintrs1 -s ,voc4 caeds arcs lintrs ,abl4 caedibus arcibus lintribus #a4 ,the following classes of nouns belong here3-- a7 ,nouns in -s1 with ,genitive in -is2 as1 nbs1 aeds1 clds1 etc4 b7 ,many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants2 as1 urbs1 mns1 stirps1 lanx4 c7 ,most nouns in -ns and -rs as1 clins1 cohors4 d7 ter1 venter2 fr1 ls1 ms1 ms1 nix2 and the ,plurals faucs1 pents1 ,optimts1 ,samnits1 ,quirts4 e7 ,sometimes nouns in -ts with ,genitive -ttis2 as1 cvits1 aets4 ,cvits usually has cvittium4 ,,iv4 ,stems in -1 -1 and ,diphthongs4 #da4 ,vis1 f41 ,ss1 c41 ,bs1 c41 ox1 ,juppiter1 m41 force2 swine2 cow2 ,jupiter2 stem1 v-4 stem1 s-4 stem1 bou-4 stem1 ,jou-4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 vs ss bs ,juppiter ,gen4 ---- suis bovis ,jovis ,dat4 ---- su bov ,jov ,acc4 vim suem bovem ,jovem ,voc4 vs ss bs ,juppiter ,abl4 v sue bove ,jove ,,plural4 ,nom4 vrs sus bovs ,gen4 vrium suum bovum1 boum ,dat4 vribus suibus1 subus bbus1 bbus ,acc4 vrs sus bovs ,voc4 vrs sus bovs ,abl4 vribus suibus1 subus bbus1 bbus #a4 ,notice that the oblique cases of ss have in the root syllable4 #b4 ,grs is declined like ss1 except that the ,dative and ,ablative ,plural are always gruibus4 #c4 ,juppiter is for ,jou-pater1 and therefore contains the same stem as in ,jov-is1 ,jov-1 etc4 ,nvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-1 but it has passed over to the -stems 7 #cg74 ,its ablative often ends in -4 ,v4 ,irregular ,nouns4 #db4 ,senex1 m41 ,car1 f41 ,os1 n41 old man4 flesh4 bone4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 senex car os ,gen4 senis carnis ossis ,dat4 sen carn oss ,acc4 senem carnem os ,voc4 senex car os ,abl4 sene carne osse ,,plural4 ,nom4 sens carns ossa ,gen4 senum carnium ossium ,dat4 senibus carnibus ossibus ,acc4 sens carns ossa ,voc4 sens carns ossa ,abl4 senibus carnibus ossibus #a4 ,iter1 itineris1 n41 way1 is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-4 #b4 ,supellex1 supellectilis1 f41 furniture1 is confined to the ,singular4 ,the oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-4 ,the ablative has both - and -e4 #c4 ,jecur1 n41 liver1 forms its oblique cases from two stems1--jecor- and jecinor-4 ,thus1 ,gen4 jecoris or jecinoris4 #d4 ,femur1 n41 thigh1 usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-1 but sometimes from the stem femin-4 ,thus1 ,gen4 femoris or feminis4 ,general ,principles of ,gender in the ,third ,declension4 #dc4 #a4 ,nouns in -1 -or1 -s1 -er1 -s are ,masculine4 #b4 ,nouns in -s1 -s1 -is1 -ys1 -x1 -s 7preceded by a consonant72 -d1 -g 7,genitive -inis72 -i 7abstract and collective71 -s 7,genitive -tis or -dis7 are ,feminine4 #c4 ,nouns ending in -a1 -e1 -i1 -y1 -o1 -l1 -n1 -t1 -ar1 -ur1 -s are ,neuter4 ,chief ,exceptions to ,gender in the ,third ,declension4 #dd4 ,exceptions to the ,rule for ,masculines4 #a4 ,nouns in -4 a4 ,feminine3 car1 flesh4 #b4 ,nouns in -or4 a4 ,feminine3 arbor1 tree4 b4 ,neuter3 aequor1 sea2 cor1 heart2 marmor1 marble4 #c4 ,nouns in -s4 a4 ,feminine3 ds1 dowry4 b4 ,neuter3 s 7ris71 mouth4 #d4 ,nouns in -er4 a4 ,feminine3 linter1 skiff4 b4 ,neuter3 cadver1 corpse2 iter1 way2 tber1 tumor2 ber1 udder4 ,also botanical names in -er2 as1 acer1 maple4 #e4 ,nouns in -s4 a4 ,feminine3 seges1 crop4 #de4 ,exceptions to the ,rule for ,feminines4 #a4 ,nouns in -s4 a4 ,masculine3 vs1 bondsman4 b4 ,neuter3 vs1 vessel4 #b4 ,nouns in -s4 a4 ,masculine3 aris1 ram2 paris1 wall2 ps1 foot4 #c4 ,nouns in -is4 a4 ,masculine3 all nouns in -nis and -guis2 as1 amnis1 river2 gnis1 fire2 pnis1 bread2 sanguis1 blood2 unguis1 nail4 ,also-- axis1 axle4 piscis1 fish4 collis1 hill4 postis1 post4 fascis1 bundle4 pulvis1 dust4 lapis1 stone4 orbis1 circle4 mnsis1 month4 sentis1 brier4 #d4 ,nouns in -x4 a4 ,masculine3 apex1 peak2 cdex1 tree-trunk2 grex1 flock2 imbrex1 tile2 pollex1 thumb2 vertex1 summit2 calix1 cup4 #e4 ,nouns in -s preceded by a consonant4 a4 ,masculine3 dns1 tooth2 fns1 fountain2 mns1 mountain2 pns1 bridge4 #f4 ,nouns in -d4 a4 ,masculine3 card1 hinge2 rd1 order4 #df4 ,exceptions to the ,rule for ,neuters4 #a4 ,nouns in -l4 a4 ,masculine3 sl1 sun2 sl1 salt4 #b4 ,nouns in -n4 a4 ,masculine3 pecten1 comb4 #c4 ,nouns in -ur4 a4 ,masculine3 vultur1 vulture4 #d4 ,nouns in -s4 a4 ,masculine3 lepus1 hare4 ,greek ,nouns of the ,third ,declension4 #dg4 ,the following are the chief peculiarities of these3-- #a4 ,the ending - in the ,accusative ,singular2 as1 aether1 aether2 ,salamn1 ,salamis4 #b4 ,the ending -s in the ,nominative ,plural2 as1 ,phrygs1 ,phrygians4 #c4 ,the ending -s in the ,accusative ,plural2 as1 ,phrygs1 ,phrygians4 #d4 ,proper names in -s 7,genitive -antis7 have - in the ,vocative ,singular2 as1 ,atls 7,atlantis71 ,vocative ,atl1 ,atlas4 #e4 ,neuters in -ma 7,genitive -matis7 have -s instead of -ibus in the ,dative and ,ablative ,plural2 as1 pomats1 poems4 #f4 ,orpheus1 and other proper names ending in -eus1 form the ,vocative ,singular in -eu 7,orpheu1 etc474 ,but in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension2 as1 ,orphe1 ,orphe1 etc4 #g4 ,proper names in -s1 like ,pericls1 form the ,genitive ,singular sometimes in -is1 sometimes in -1 as1 ,periclis or ,pericl4 #h4 ,feminine proper names in - have -s in the ,genitive1 but - in the other oblique cases2 as1-- ,nom4 ,did ,acc4 ,did ,gen4 ,dids ,voc4 ,did ,dat4 ,did ,abl4 ,did #i4 ,the regular ,latin endings often occur in ,greek nouns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fourth ,,declension4 -,stems4 #dh4 ,nouns of the ,fourth ,declension end in -us ,masculine1 and - ,neuter4 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,frctus1 m41 fruit4 ,corn1 n41 horn4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,nom4 frctus frcts corn cornua ,gen4 frcts frctuum corns cornuum ,dat4 frctu frctibus corn cornibus ,acc4 frctum frcts corn cornua ,voc4 frctus frcts corn cornua ,abl4 frct frctibus corn cornibus ,peculiarities of ,nouns of the ,fourth ,declension4 #di4 #a4 ,nouns in -us1 particularly in early ,latin1 often form the ,genitive ,singular in -1 following the analogy of nouns in -us of the ,second ,declension2 as1 sent1 rnt4 ,this is usually the case in ,plautus and ,terence4 #b4 ,nouns in -us sometimes have - in the ,dative ,singular1 instead of -u2 as1 frct 7for frctu74 #c4 ,the ending -ubus1 instead of -ibus1 occurs in the ,dative and ,ablative ,plural of arts 7,plural71 limbs2 tribus1 tribe2 and in dis-syllables in -cus2 as1 artubus1 tribubus1 arcubus1 lacubus4 ,but with the exception of tribus1 all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus4 #d4 ,domus1 house1 is declined according to the ,fourth ,declension1 but has also the following forms of the ,second3-- dom 7locative71 at home2 dom1 from home2 domum1 homewards1 to one's home2 doms1 homewards1 to their 7etc47 homes #e4 ,the only ,neuters of this declension in common use are3 corn1 horn2 gen1 knee2 and ver1 spit4 ,exceptions to ,gender in the ,fourth ,declension4 #ej4 ,the following nouns in -us are ,feminine3 acus1 needle2 domus1 house2 manus1 hand2 porticus1 colonnade2 tribus1 tribe2 ds 7,plural71 ,ides2 also names of trees 7 #ae1 #b74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fifth ,,declension4 -,stems4 #ea4 ,nouns of the ,fifth ,declension end in -s1 and are declined as follows3-- ,dis1 m41 day4 ,rs1 f41 thing4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,nom4 dis dis rs rs ,gen4 di dirum r rrum ,dat4 di dibus r rbus ,acc4 diem dis rem rs ,voc4 dis dis rs rs ,abl4 di dibus r rbus ,peculiarities of ,nouns of the ,fifth ,declension4 #eb4 #a4 ,the ending of the ,genitive and ,dative ,singular is -1 instead of -1 when a consonant precedes2 as1 sp1 r1 fid4 #b4 ,a ,genitive ending - 7for -7 is found in plb 7from plbs plbs7 in the expressions tribnus plb1 tribune of the people1 and plb sctum1 decree of the people2 sometimes also in other words4 #c4 ,a ,genitive and ,dative form in - sometimes occurs2 as1 aci4 #d4 ,with the exception of dis and rs1 most nouns of the ,fifth ,declension are not declined in the ,plural4 ,but acis1 seris1 specis1 sps1 and a few others are used in the ,nominative and ,accusative ,plural4 ,gender in the ,fifth ,declension4 #ec4 ,nouns of the ,fifth ,declension are regularly ,feminine1 except dis1 day1 and merdis1 mid-day4 ,but dis is sometimes ,feminine in the ,singular1 particularly when it means an appointed day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,defective ,,nouns4 #ed4 ,here belong-- #a4 ,nouns used in the ,singular only4 #b4 ,nouns used in the ,plural only4 #c4 ,nouns used only in certain cases4 #d4 ,indeclinable ,nouns4 ,nouns used in the ,singular only4 #ee4 ,many nouns1 from the nature of their signification1 are regularly used in the ,singular only4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,proper names2 as1 ,cicer1 ,cicero2 ,italia1 ,italy4 #b4 ,nouns denoting material2 as1 aes1 copper2 lac1 milk4 #c4 ,abstract nouns2 as1 ignrantia1 ignorance2 bonits1 goodness4 #d4 ,but the above classes of words are sometimes used in the ,plural4 ,thus3-- a7 ,proper names1--to denote different members of a family1 or specimens of a type2 as1 ,cicerns1 the ,ciceros2 ,catns1 men like ,cato4 b7 ,names of materials1--to denote objects made of the material1 or different kinds of the substance2 as1 aera1 bronzes 7i4e4 bronze figures72 ligna1 woods4 c7 ,abstract nouns1--to denote instances of the quality2 as1 ignrantiae1 cases of ignorance4 ,nouns used in the ,plural only4 #ef4 ,here belong-- #a4 ,many geographical names2 as1 ,thbae1 ,thebes2 ,leuctra1 ,leuctra2 ,pompej1 ,pompeii4 #b4 ,many names of festivals2 as1 ,megalsia1 the ,megalesian festival4 #c4 ,many special words1 of which the following are the most important3-- angustiae1 narrow pass4 mns1 spirits of the arma1 weapons4 dead4 dliciae1 delight4 moenia1 city walls4 dvitiae1 riches4 minae1 threats4 ds1 ,ides4 nptiae1 marriage4 indtiae1 truce4 poster1 descendants4 nsidiae1 ambush4 reliquiae1 remainder4 majrs1 ancestors4 tenebrae1 darkness4 verbera1 blows4 ,also in classical prose regularly-- cervcs1 neck4 nrs1 nose4 fids1 lyre4 vscer1 viscera4 ,nouns used only in ,certain ,cases4 #eg4 #a4 ,used in only ,one ,case4 ,many nouns of the ,fourth ,declension are found only in the ,ablative ,singular as1 juss1 by the order2 injuss1 without the order2 nt1 by birth4 #b4 ,used in ,two ,cases4 a4 ,fors 7chance71 ,nom4 ,sing42 forte1 ,abl4 ,sing4 b4 ,spontis 7free-will71 ,gen4 ,sing42 sponte1 ,abl4 ,sing4 #c4 ,used in ,three ,cases4 ,nm1 no one 7,nom471 has also the ,dat4 nmin and the ,acc4 nminem4 ,the ,gen4 and ,abl4 are supplied by the corresponding cases of nllus2 viz4 nllus and nll4 #d4 ,impetus has the ,nom41 ,acc41 and ,abl4 ,sing41 and the ,nom4 and ,acc4 ,plu42 viz4 impetus1 impetum1 impet1 impets4 #e4 a4 ,prec1 precem1 prece1 lacks the ,nom4 and ,gen4 ,sing4 b4 ,vicis1 vicem1 vice1 lacks the ,nom4 and ,dat4 ,sing4 #f4 ,opis1 dapis1 and frgis1--all lack the ,nom4 ,sing4 #g4 ,many monosyllables of the ,third ,declension lack the ,gen4 ,plu43 as1 cor1 lx1 sl1 aes1 s 7ris71 rs1 sl1 ts4 ,indeclinable ,nouns4 #eh4 ,here belong-- fs1 n41 right4 nefs1 n41 impiety4 nstar1 n41 likeness4 nihil1 n41 nothing4 mne1 n41 morning4 secus1 n41 sex4 #a4 ,with the exception of mne 7which may serve also as ,ablative1 in the morning71 the nouns in this list are simply ,neuters confined in use to the ,nominative and ,accusative ,singular4 ,heteroclites4 #ei4 ,these are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension1 and partly of another4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,several nouns have the entire ,singular of one declension1 while the ,plural is of another2 as1-- vs1 vsis 7vessel72 ,plu41 vsa1 vsorum1 vss1 etc4 jgerum1 jger 7acre72 ,plu41 jgera1 jgerum1 jgeribus1 etc4 #b4 ,several nouns1 while belonging in the main to one declension1 have certain special forms belonging to another4 ,thus3-- a7 ,many nouns of the ,first ,declension ending in -ia take also a ,nom4 and ,acc4 of the ,fifth2 as1 mteris1 mteriem1 material1 as well as mteria1 mteriam4 b7 ,fams1 hunger1 regularly of the ,third ,declension1 has the ,abl4 fam of the ,fifth4 c7 ,requis1 requitis1 rest1 regularly of the ,third ,declension1 takes an ,acc4 of the ,fifth1 requiem1 in addition to requitem4 d7 ,besides plbs1 plbis1 common people1 of the ,third ,declension1 we find plbs1 plb 7also plb1 see #eb1 #b71 of the ,fifth4 ,heterogeneous ,nouns4 #fj4 ,heterogeneous nouns vary in ,gender4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,several nouns of the ,second ,declension have two forms1--one ,masc4 in -us1 and one ,neuter in -um2 as1 clipeus1 clipeum1 shield2 carrus1 carrum1 cart4 #b4 ,other nouns have one gender in the ,singular1 another in the ,plural2 as1-- ,,singular4 ,,plural4 balneum1 n41 bath2 balneae1 f41 bath-house4 epulum1 n41 feast2 epulae1 f41 feast4 frnum1 n41 bridle2 frn1 m47rarely frna1 n471 bridle4 jocus1 m41 jest2 joca1 n4 7also joc1 m471 jests4 locus1 m41 place2 loca1 n41 places2 loc1 m41 passages or topics in an author4 rstrum1 n41 rake2 rstr1 m42 rstra1 n41 rakes4 a4 ,heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites1 as in case of the first two examples above4 ,plurals with ,change of ,meaning4 #fa4 ,the following nouns have one meaning in the ,singular1 and another in the ,plural3-- ,,singular4 ,,plural4 aeds1 temple2 aeds1 house4 auxilium1 help2 auxilia1 auxiliary troops4 carcer1 prison2 carcers1 stalls for racing-chariot4 castrum1 fort2 castra1 camp4 cpia1 abundance2 cpiae1 troops1 resources4 fnis1 end2 fns1 borders1 territory4 fortna1 fortune2 fortnae1 possessions1 wealth4 grtia1 favor1 grtiae1 thanks4 gratitude2 impedmentum1 impedmenta1 baggage4 hindrance2 littera1 letter 7of the litterae1 epistle2 literature4 alphabet72 ms1 habit1 custom2 mrs1 character4 opera1 help1 service2 operae1 laborers4 7ops7 opis1 help2 ops1 resources4 pars1 part2 parts1 party2 rle4 sl1 salt2 sls1 wit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,b4 ,,adjectives4 #fb4 ,adjectives denote quality4 ,they are declined like nouns1 and fall into two classes1-- #a4 ,adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions4 #b4 ,adjectives of the ,third ,declension4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,adjectives ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,and ,,second ,,declensions4 #fc4 ,in these the ,masculine is declined like hortus1 puer1 or ager1 the ,feminine like porta1 and the ,neuter like bellum4 ,thus1 ,masculine like hortus3-- ,bonus1 good4 ,,singular4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 bonus bona bonum ,gen4 bon bonae bon ,dat4 bon bonae bon ,acc4 bonum bonam bonum ,voc4 bone bona bonum ,abl4 bon bon bon ,,plural4 ,nom4 bon bonae bona ,gen4 bonrum bonrum bonrum ,dat4 bons bons bons ,acc4 bons bons bona ,voc4 bon bonae bona ,abl4 bons bons bons #a4 ,the ,gen4 ,sing4 ,masc4 and ,neut4 of ,adjectives in -ius ends in -i 7not in - as in case of ,nouns2 see #be1 #a2 #b74 ,so also the ,voc4 ,sing4 of such ,adjectives ends in -ie1 not in 4 ,thus eximius forms ,gen4 eximi2 ,voc4 eximie4 #b4 ,distributives 7see #gh1 #a1 c7 regularly form the ,gen4 ,plu4 ,masc4 and ,neut4 in -um instead of -rum 7compare #be1 #f72 as1 dnum centnum2 but always singulrum4 #fd4 ,masculine like puer3-- ,tener1 tender4 ,,singular4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine ,,neuter4 ,nom4 tener tenera tenerum ,gen4 tener tenerae tener ,dat4 tener tenerae tener ,acc4 tenerum teneram tenerum ,voc4 tener tenera tenerum ,abl4 tener tener tener ,,plural4 ,nom4 tener tenerae tenera ,gen4 tenerrum tenerrum tenerrum ,dat4 teners teners teners ,acc4 teners teners tenera ,voc4 tener tenerae tenera ,abl4 teners teners teners #fe4 ,masculine like ager3-- ,sacer1 sacred4 ,,singular4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 sacer sacra sacrum ,gen4 sacr sacrae sacr ,dat4 sacr sacrae sacr ,acc4 sacrum sacram sacrum ,voc4 sacer sacra sacrum ,abl4 sacr sacr sacr ,,plural4 ,nom4 sacr sacrae sacra ,gen4 sacrrum sacrrum sacrrum ,dat4 sacrs sacrs sacrs ,acc4 sacrs sacrs sacra ,voc4 sacr sacrae sacra ,abl4 sacrs sacrs sacrs #a4 ,most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer4 ,the following however1 are declined like tener3 asper1 rough2 lacer1 torn2 lber1 free2 miser1 wretched2 prsper1 prosperous2 compounds in -fer and -ger2 sometimes dexter1 right4 #b4 ,satur1 full1 is declined3 satur1 satura1 saturum4 ,nine ,irregular ,adjectives4 #ff4 ,here belong-- alius1 another2 alter1 the other2 llus1 any2 nllus1 none2 uter1 which8 7of two72 neuter1 neither2 slus1 alone2 ttus1 whole2 nus1 one1 alone4 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,,singular4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 alius alia aliud ,gen4 alterus alterus alterus#ae ,dat4 ali ali ali ,acc4 alium aliam aliud ,voc4 ---- ---- ---- ,abl4 ali ali ali ,nom4 alter altera alterum ,gen4 alterus alterus alterus ,dat4 alter alter#af alter ,acc4 alterum alteram alterum ,voc4 ---- ---- ---- ,abl4 alter alter alter ,nom4 uter utra utrum ,gen4 utrus utrus utrus ,dat4 utr utr utr ,acc4 utrum utram utrum ,voc4 ---- ---- ---- ,abl4 utr utr utr ,nom4 ttus tta ttum ,gen4 ttus ttus ttus ,dat4 tt tt tt ,acc4 ttum ttam ttum ,voc4 ---- ---- ---- ,abl4 tt tt tt #a4 ,all these words lack the ,vocative4 ,the ,plural is regular4 #b4 ,neuter is declined like uter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,adjectives ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,declension4 #fg4 ,these fall into three classes1-- #a4 ,adjectives of three terminations in the ,nominative ,singular1--one for each gender4 #b4 ,adjectives of two terminations4 #c4 ,adjectives of one termination4 a4 ,with the exception of ,comparatives1 and a few other words mentioned below in #gj1 #a1 all ,adjectives of the ,third ,declension follow the inflection of -stems2 i4e4 they have the ,ablative ,singular in -1 the ,genitive ,plural in -ium1 the ,accusative ,plural in -s 7as well as -s7 in the ,masculine and ,feminine1 and the ,nominative and ,accusative ,plural in -ia in ,neuters4 ,adjectives of ,three ,terminations4 #fh4 ,these are declined as follows3-- cer1 sharp4 ,,singular4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 cer cris cre ,gen4 cris cris cris ,dat4 cr cr cr ,acc4 crem crem cre ,voc4 cer cris cre ,abl4 cr cr cr ,,plural4 ,nom4 crs crs cria ,gen4 crium crium crium ,dat1 cribus cribus cribus ,acc4 crs1 -s crs1 -s cria ,voc4 crs crs cria ,abl4 cribus cribus cribus #a4 ,like cer are declined alacer1 lively2 campester1 level2 celeber1 famous2 equester1 equestrian2 palster1 marshy2 pedester1 pedestrian2 puter1 rotten2 salber1 wholesome2 silvester1 woody2 terrester1 terrestrial2 volucer1 winged2 also names of months in -ber1 as ,september4 #b4 ,celer1 celeris1 celere1 swift1 retains the e before r1 but lacks the ,genitive ,plural4 #c4 ,in the ,nominative ,singular of ,adjectives of this class the ,feminine form is sometimes used for the ,masculine4 ,this is regularly true of salbris1 silvestris1 and terrestris4 ,in case of the other words in the list1 the use of the ,feminine for the ,masculine is confined chiefly to early and late ,latin1 and to poetry4 ,adjectives of ,two ,terminations4 #fi4 ,these are declined as follows3-- ,fortis1 strong4 ,fortior1 stronger4 ,,singular4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,nom4 fortis forte fortior fortius ,gen4 fortis fortis fortiris fortiris ,dat4 fort fort fortir fortir ,acc4 fortem forte fortirem fortius ,voc4 fortis forte fortior fortius ,abl4 fort fort fortire fortire ,,plural4 ,nom4 forts fortia fortirs fortira ,gen4 fortium fortium fortirum fortirum ,dat4 fortibus fortibus fortiribus fortiribus ,acc4 forts1 -s fortia fortirs1 -s fortira ,voc4 forts fortia fortirs fortira ,abl4 fortibus fortibus fortiribus fortiribus #a4 ,fortior is the ,comparative of fortis4 ,all ,comparatives are regularly declined in the same way4 ,the ,acc4 ,plu4 in -s is rare4 ,adjectives of ,one ,termination4 #gj4 ,flx1 happy44 ,prdns1 prudent4 ,,singular4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,nom4 flx flx prdns prdns ,gen4 flcs flcis prdentis prdentis ,dat4 flc flc prdent prdent ,acc4 flcem flx prdentem prdns ,voc4 flx flx prdns prdns ,abl4 flc flc prdent prdent ,,plural4 ,nom4 flcs flcia prdents prdentia ,gen4 flcium flcium prdentium prdentium ,dat4 flcibus flcibus prdentibus prdentibus ,acc4 flcs1 -s flcia prdents1 -s prdentia ,voc4 flcs flcia prdents prdentia ,abl4 flcibus flcibus prdentibus prdentibus ,vetus1 old4 ,pls1 more4 ,,singular4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,nom4 vetus vetus ---- pls ,gen4 veteris veteris ---- plris ,dat4 veter veter ---- ---- ,acc4 veterem vetus ---- pls ,voc4 vetus vetus ---- ---- ,abl4 vetere vetere ---- plre ,,plural4 ,nom4 veters vetera plrs plra ,gen4 veterum veterum plrium plrium ,dat4 veteribus veteribus plribus plribus ,acc4 veters vetera plrs1 -s plra ,voc4 veters vetera ---- ---- ,abl4 veteribus veteribus plribus plribus #a4 ,it will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure ,consonant-,stem2 i4e4 ,ablative ,singular in -e1 ,genitive ,plural in -um1 ,nominative ,plural ,neuter in -a1 and ,accusative ,plural ,masculine and ,feminine in -s only4 ,in the same way are declined compos1 controlling2 dves1 rich2 particeps1 sharing2 pauper1 poor2 prnceps1 chief2 sspes1 safe2 superstes1 surviving4 ,yet dves always has ,neut4 ,plu4 dtia4 #b4 ,inops1 needy1 and memor1 mindful1 have ,ablative ,singular inop1 memor1 but ,genitive ,plural inopum1 memorum4 #c4 ,participles in -ns and -ns follow the declension of -stems4 ,but they do not have - the ,ablative1 except when employed as adjectives2 when used as participles or as substantives1 they have -e2 as1-- sapient vir1 by a wise man2 but sapiente1 by a philosopher4 ,tarquini rgnante1 under the reign of ,tarquin4 #d4 ,pls1 in the ,singular1 is always a noun4 #e4 ,in the ,ablative ,singular1 adjectives1 when used as substantives1-- a7 usually retain the adjective declension2 as1-- aequlis1 contemporary1 ,abl4 aequl4 cnsulris1 ex-consul1 ,abl4 cnsulr ,so names of ,months2 as1 ,aprl1 ,april2 ,decembr1 ,december4 b7 ,but adjectives used as proper names have -e in the ,ablative ,singular2 as1 ,celere1 ,celer2 ,juvenle1 ,juvenal4 c7 ,patrials in -s1 -tis and -s1 -tis1 when designating places regularly have -2 as1 in ,arpnt1 on the estate at ,arpinum1 yet -e1 when used of persons2 as1 ab ,arpnte1 by an ,arpinatian4 #f4 ,a very few indeclinable adjectives occur1 the chief of which are frg1 frugal2 nquam1 worthless4 #g4 ,in poetry1 adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the ,gen4 ,plu4 in -um instead of -ium2 as1 venientum1 of those coming4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives4 #ga4 #a4 ,there are three degrees of ,comparison1--the ,positive1 the ,comparative1 and the ,superlative4 #b4 ,the ,comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 7,neut4 -ius71 and the ,superlative by adding -issimus 7-a1 -um71 to the ,stem of the ,positive deprived of its final vowel2 as1-- altus1 high1 altior1 higher1 altissimus1 highest1 very high4 fortis1 brave1 fortior1 fortissimus4 flx1 fortunate1 flcior1 flcissimus4 ,so also ,participles1 when used as ,adjectives2 as1-- doctus1 learned1 doctior1 doctissimus4 egns1 needy1 egentior1 egentissimus4 #c4 ,adjectives in -er form the ,superlative by appending -rimus to the ,nominative of the ,positive4 ,the ,comparative is regular4 ,thus3-- asper1 rough1 asperior1 asperrimus4 pulcher1 beautiful1 pulchrior1 pulcherrimus4 cer1 sharp1 crior1 cerrimus4 celer1 swift1 celerior1 celerrimus4 a4 ,notice mtrus1 mtrior1 mtrissimus or mtrrimus4 #d4 ,five ,adjectives in -ilis form the ,superlative by adding -limus to the ,stem of the ,positive deprived of its final vowel4 ,the ,comparative is regular4 ,thus3-- facilis1 easy1 facilior1 facillimus4 difficilis1 diffcult1 difficilior1 difficillimus4 similis1 like1 similior1 simillimus4 dissimilis1 unlike1 dissimilior1 dissimillimus4 humilis1 low1 humilior1 humillimus4 #e4 ,adjectives in -dicus1 -ficus1 and -volus form the ,comparative and ,superlative as though from forms in -dcns1 -ficns1 -volns4 ,thus3-- maledicus1 slanderous1 maledcentior1 maledcentissimus4 magnificus1 magnificent1 magnificentior1 magnificentissimus4 benevolus1 kindly1 benevolentior1 benevolentissimus4 a4 ,positives in -dcns and -volns occur in early ,latin2 as maledcns1 benevolns4 #f4 ,dves has the ,comparative dvitior or dtior2 ,superlative dvitissimus or dtissimus4 ,irregular ,comparison4 #gb4 ,several ,adjectives vary the ,stem in ,comparison2 viz4-- bonus1 good1 melior1 optimus4 malus1 bad1 pejor1 pessimus4 parvus1 small1 minor1 minimus4 magnus1 large1 major1 maximus4 multus1 much1 pls1 plrimus1 frg1 thrifty1 frglior1 frglissimus1 nquam1 worthless1 nquior1 nquissimus4 ,defective ,comparison4 #gc4 #a4 ,positive lacking entirely1-- 7,cf4 prae1 in front prior1 former1 prmus1 first of47 7,cf4 citr1 this side citerior1 on this citimus1 near4 of47 side1 7,cf4 ultr1 beyond47 ulterior1 farther1 ultimus1 farthest4 7,cf4 intr1 within47 interior1 inner1 intimus1 inmost 7,cf4 prope1 near47 propior1 nearer1 proximus1 nearest4 7,cf4 d1 down47 dterior1 inferior1 dterrimus1 worst4 7,cf4 archaic potis1 potior1 preferable1 potissimus1 chiefest possible47 #b4 ,positive occurring only in special cases1-- poster di1 ann1 posterior1 later1 postrmus1 latest1 etc4 the following last4 day1 etc41 postumus1 late-born1 poster1 posthumous4 descendants1 exteri1 exterior1 outer extrmus1 extimus1 foreigners1 outermost4 ntins exterae1 foreign nations1 infer1 gods of the nferior1 lower1 nfimus1 mus1 lower world1 lowest4 ,mare ,inferum1 ,mediterranean ,sea1 super1 gods superior1 higher1 suprmus1 last4 above1 summus1 highest4 ,mare ,superum1 ,adriatic ,sea1 #c4 ,comparative lacking4 vetus1 old1 ----#ag veterrimus4 fdus1 faithful1 ---- fdissimus4 novus1 new1 ----#ah novissimus1#ai last4 sacer1 sacred1 ---- sacerrimus4 falsus1 false1 ---- falsissimus4 ,also in some other words less frequently used4 #d4 ,superlative lacking4 alacer1 lively1 alacrior1 ---- ingns1 great1 ingentior1 ---- saltris1 wholesome1 saltrior1 ---- juvenis1 young1 jnior1 ----#bj senex1 old1 senior4 ----#ba a4 ,the ,superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -lis1 -lis1 -lis1 -bilis1 and in a few others4 ,comparison by ,magis and ,maxim4 #gd4 ,many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison1 but form the ,comparative and ,superlative degrees by prefixing magis 7more7 and maxim 7most74 ,here belong-- #a4 ,many adjectives ending in -lis1 -ris1 -idus1 -lis1 -icus1 imus1 nus1 -rus4 #b4 ,adjectives in -us1 preceded by a vowel2 as1 idneus1 adapted2 arduus1 steep2 necessrius1 necessary4 a4 ,adjectives in -quus1 of course1 do not come under this rule4 ,the first u in such cases is not a vowel1 but a consonant4 ,adjectives not admitting ,comparison4 #ge4 ,here belong-- #a4 ,many adjectives1 which1 from the nature of their signification1 do not admit of comparison2 as1 hodiernus1 of to-day2 annuus1 annual2 mortlis1 mortal4 #b4 ,some special words2 as1 mrus1 gnrus1 merus2 and a few others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,formation ,,and ,,comparison ,,of ,,adverbs4 #gf4 ,adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives1 and depend upon them for their comparison4 #a4 ,adverbs derived from adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions form the ,positive by changing - of the ,genitive ,singular to -2 those derived from adjectives of the ,third ,declension1 by changing -is of the ,genitive ,singular to -iter2 as1-- crus1 cr1 dearly2 pulcher1 pulchr1 beautifully2 cer1 criter1 fiercely2 levis1 leviter1 lightly4 a4 ,but ,adjectives in -ns1 and a few others1 add -er 7instead of -iter71 to form the ,adverb2 as1-- sapins1 sapienter1 wisely2 sollers1 sollerter1 skillfully4 ,note audx1 audcter1 boldly4 #b4 ,the ,comparative of all ,adverbs regularly consists of the ,accusative ,singular ,neuter of the ,comparative of the ,adjective2 while the ,superlative of the ,adverb is formed by changing the - of the ,genitive ,singular of the ,superlative of the ,adjective to -4 ,thus-- 7crus7 cr1 dearly1 crius1 crissim4 7pulcher7 pulchr1 beautifully1 pulchrius1 pulcherrim4 7cer7 criter1 fiercely1 crius1 cerrim4 7levis7 leviter1 lightly1 levius1 levissim4 7sapins7 sapienter1 wisely1 sapientius1 sapientissim4 7audx7 audcter1 boldly1 audcius1 audcissim4 ,adverbs ,peculiar in ,comparison and ,formation4 #gg4 #a41 well1 melius1 optim4 mal1 ill1 pejus1 pessim4 magnopere1 greatly1 magis1 maxim4 multum1 much1 pls1 plrimum4 nn multum1 little1 minus1 minim4 parum1 di1 long1 ditius1 ditissim4 nquiter1 worthlessly1 nquius1 nquissim4 saepe1 often1 saepius1 saepissim4 mtr1 betimes1 mtrius1 mtrrim4 mtrissim4 prope1 near1 propius1 proxim4 nper1 recently1 ---- nperrim4 ---- potius1 rather1 potissimum1 especially4 ---- prius1 previously1 prmum1 first4 before1 secus1 otherwise1 stius1 less4 #b4 ,a number of adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions form an ,adverb in -1 instead of -2 as1-- crbr1 frequently2 fals1 falsely2 continu1 subit1 suddenly2 immediately2 rr1 rarely1 and a few others4 a4 cito1 quickly1 has -4 #c4 ,a few adjectives employ the ,accusative ,singular ,neuter as the ,positive of the ,adverb2 as1-- multum1 much2 paulum1 facile1 little2 easily4 #d4 ,a few adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions form the ,positive in -iter2 as1-- frmus1 frmiter1 firmly2 hmnus1 hmniter1 humanly2 largus1 largiter1 copiously2 alius1 aliter1 otherwise4 a4 violentus has violenter4 #e4 ,various other adverbial suffixes occur1 the most important of which are -tus and -tim2 as1 antquitus1 anciently2 paultim1 gradually4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,numerals4 #gh4 ,numerals may be divided into-- ,i4 ,numeral ,adjectives1 comprising-- a4 ,cardinals2 as1 nus1 one2 duo1 two2 etc4 b4 ,ordinals2 as1 prmus1 first2 secundus1 second2 etc4 c4 ,distributives2 as1 singul1 one by one2 bn1 two by two2 etc4 ,,ii4 ,numeral ,adverbs2 as1 semel1 once2 bis1 twice2 etc4 #gi4 ,,table ,,of ,,numeral ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs4 ,,cardinals4 ,,ordinals4 #a4 nus1 na1 num prmus1 first #b4 duo1 duae1 duo secundus1 second #c4 trs1 tria tertius1 third #d4 quattuor qurtus1 fourth #e4 qunque quntus1 fifth #f4 sex sextus #g4 septem septimus #h4 octo octvus #i4 novem nnus #aj4 decem decimus #aa4 ndecim ndecimus #ab4 duodecim duodecimus #ac4 tredecim tertius decimus #ad4 quattuordecim qurtus decimus #ae4 qundecim quntus decimus #af4 sdecim1 sextus decimus sexdecim #ag4 septendecim septimus decimus #ah4 duodvgint duodvcsimus #ai4 ndvgint ndvcsimus #bj4 vgint vcsimus #ba4 vgint nus1 vcsimus prmus1 nus et vgint nus et vcsimus #bb4 vgint duo1 vcsimus secundus1 duo et vgint alter et vcsimus #cj4 trgint trcsimus #dj4 quadrgint quadrgsimus #ej4 qunqugint qunqugsimus #fj4 sexgint sexgsimus #gj4 septugint septugsimus #hj4 octgint octgsimus #ij4 nngint nngsimus #ajj4 centum centsimus #aja4 centum nus1 centsimus prmus1 centum et nus centsimus et prmus #bjj4 ducent1 -ae1 -a ducentsimus #cjj4 trecent trecentsimus #djj4 quadringent quadringentsimus #ejj4 qungent qungentsimus #fjj4 sescent sescentsimus #gjj4 septingent septingentsimus #hjj4 octingent octingentsimus #ijj4 nngent nngentsimus #a1jjj4 mlle mllsimus #b1jjj4 duo mlia bis mllsimus #ajj1jjj4 centum mlia centis mllsimus #a1jjj1jjj4 decis centna mlia decis centis mllsimus ,,distributives4 ,,adverbs4 #a4 singuli1 one by one semel1 once #b4 bn1 two by two bis #c4 tern 7trn7 ter #d4 quatern quater #e4 qun qunquis #f4 sn sexis #g4 septn septis #h4 octn octis #i4 novn novis #aj4 dn decis #aa4 ndn ndecis #ab4 duodn duodecis #ac4 tern den terdecis #ad4 quatern den quaterdecis #ae4 qun dn qunquis decis #af4 sn dn sexis decis #ag4 septn dn septis decis #ah4 duodvicn octis decis #ai4 ndvcn novis decis #bj4 vcn vcis #ba4 vcn singul1 vcis semel singul et vcn #bb4 vcni bn1 vcis bis bn et vcn #cj4 trcn trcis #dj4 quadrgn quadrgis #ej4 qunqugn qunqugis #fj4 sexgn sexgis #gj4 septugn septugis #hj4 octgn octgis #ij4 nngn nngis #ajj4 centn centis #aja4 centn singul1 centis semel centn et singul #bjj4 ducn ducentis #cjj4 trecn trecentis #djj4 quadringn quadringentis #ejj4 qungn qungentis #fjj4 sescn sescentis #gjj4 septingn septingentis #hjj4 octingn octingentis #ijj4 nngn nngentis #a1jjj4 singula mlia mlis #b1jjj4 bna mlia bis mlis #ajj1jjj4 centna mlia centis mlis #a1jjj1jjj4 decis centna mlia decis centis mlis ,,note4-- -nsimus and -ins are often written in the numerals instead of -simus and -is4 ,declension of the ,cardinals4 #hj4 #a4 ,the declension of nus has already been given under #ff4 #b4 ,duo is declined as follows3-- ,nom4 duo duae duo ,gen4 durum durum durum ,dat4 dubus dubus dubus ,acc4 dus1 duo dus duo ,abl4 dubus dubus dubus a4 ,so amb1 both1 except that its final o is long4 #c4 ,trs is declined1-- ,nom4 trs tria ,gen4 trium trium ,dat4 tribus tribus ,acc4 trs 7trs7 tria ,abl4 tribus tribus #d4 ,the hundreds 7except centum7 are declined like the ,plural of bonus4 #e4 ,mlle is regularly an adjective in the ,singular1 and indeclinable4 ,in the ,plural it is a substantive 7followed by the ,genitive of the objects enumerated2 #bja1 #a71 and is declined1-- ,nom4 mlia ,acc4 mlia ,gen4 mlium ,voc4 mlia ,dat4 mlibus ,abl4 mlibus ,thus mlle homins1 a thousand men2 but duo mlia hominum1 two thousand men1 literally two thousands of men4 a4 ,occasionally the ,singular admits the ,genitive construction2 as1 mlle hominum4 #f4 ,other ,cardinals are indeclinable4 ,ordinals and ,distributives are declined like ,adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions4 ,peculiarities in the ,use of ,numerals4 #ha4 #a4 ,the compounds from #ba to #ii may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first4 ,in the latter case1 et is used4 ,thus3-- trgint sex or sex et trgint1 thirty-six4 #b4 ,the numerals under #ij1 ending in #h and #i1 are often expressed by subtraction2 as1-- duodvgint1 eighteen 7but also octdecim72 ndquadrgint1 thirty-nine 7but also trgint novem or novem et trgint74 #c4 ,compounds over #ajj regularly have the largest number first2 the others follow without et2 as1-- centum vgint septem1 one hundred and twenty-seven4 ann octingentsim octgsim secund1 in the year #hhb4 ,yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens2 as1-- centum et septem1 one hundred and seven2 centum et quadrgint1 one hundred and forty4 #d4 ,the ,distributives are used-- a7 ,to denote so much each1 so many apiece2 as1-- bna talenta es dedit1 he gave them two talents each4 b7 ,when those nouns that are ordinarily ,plural in form1 but ,singular in meaning1 are employed in a ,plural sense2 as1-- bnae litterae1 two epistles4 ,but in such cases1 n 7not singul7 is regularly employed for one1 and trn 7not tern7 for three2 as1-- nae litterae1 one epistle2 trnae litterae1 three epistles4 c7 ,in multiplication2 as1-- bis bna sunt quattuor1 twice two are four4 d7 ,often in poetry1 instead of the cardinals2 as1-- bna hastlia1 two spears4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c4 ,,pronouns4 #hb4 ,a ,pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it4 #hc4 ,there are the following classes of pronouns3-- ,i4 ,personal4 ,v4 ,intensive4 ,,ii4 ,reflexive4 ,,vi4 ,relative4 ,,iii4 ,possessive4 ,,vii4 ,interrogative4 ,,iv4 ,demonstrative4 ,,viii4 ,indefinite4 ,i4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 #hd4 ,these correspond to the ,english ,i1 you1 he1 she1 it1 etc41 and are declined as follows3-- ,first ,person4 ,second ,person4 ,third ,person4 ,,singular4 ,nom4 ego1 ,i t1 thou is1 he2 ea1 she2 id1 it ,gen4 me tu 7,for declension see #hg47 ,dat4 mihi#bb tibi#bb ,acc4 m t ,voc4 ---- t ,abl4 m t ,,plural4 ,nom4 ns1 we vs1 you ,gen4 nostrum1 nostr vestrum1 vestr ,dat4 nbs vbs ,acc4 ns vs ,voc4 ---- vs ,abl4 nbs vbs #a4 ,a ,dative ,singular m occurs in poetry4 #b4 ,emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found2 as1 egomet1 ,i myself2 tibimet1 to you yourself2 t has tte and ttemet 7written also ttimet74 #c4 ,in early ,latin1 md and td occur as ,accusative and ,ablative forms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,reflexive ,,pronouns4 #he4 ,these refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand2 like myself1 yourself1 in ',i see myself1' etc4 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,first ,person4 ,second ,person4 ,third ,person4 ,supplied by oblique ,supplied by oblique cases of ego4 cases of t4 ,gen4 me1 of myself tu1 of thyself su ,dat4 mihi1 to myself tibi1 to thyself sibi#bb ,acc4 m1 myself t1 thyself s or ss ,voc4 ---- ---- ---- ,abl4 m1 with myself1 t1 with thyself1 s or ss etc4 etc4 #a4 ,the ,reflexive of the ,third ,person serves for all genders and for both numbers4 ,thus sui may mean1 of himself1 herself1 itself1 or of themselves2 and so with the other forms4 #b4 ,all of the ,reflexive ,pronouns have at times a reciprocal force2 as1-- inter s pugnant1 they fight with each other4 #c4 ,in early ,latin1 sd occurs as ,accusative and ,ablative4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,possessive ,,pronouns4 #hf4 ,these are strictly adjectives of the ,first and ,second ,declensions1 and are inflected as such4 ,they are-- ,first ,person4 ,second ,person4 meus1 -a1 -um1 my2 tuus1 -a1 -um1 thy2 noster1 nostra1 nostrum1 vester1 vestra1 vestrum1 our2 your2 ,third ,person4 suus1 -a1 -um1 his1 her1 its1 their4 #a4 ,suus is exclusively ,reflexive2 as1-- pater lbers sus amat1 the father loves his children4 ,otherwise1 his1 her1 its are regularly expressed by the ,genitive ,singular of is1 viz4 ejus2 and their by the ,genitive ,plural1 erum1 erum4 #b4 ,the ,vocative ,singular ,masculine of meus is m4 #c4 ,the enclitic -pte may be joined to the ,ablative ,singular of the ,possessive ,pronouns for the purpose of emphasis4 ,this is particularly common in case of su1 su2 as1 supte1 supte4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iv4 ,,demonstrative ,,pronouns4 #hg4 ,these point out an object as here or there1 or as previously mentioned4 ,they are-- hc1 this 7where ,i am72 iste1 that 7where you are72 ille1 that 7something distinct from the speaker72 is1 that 7weaker than ille72 dem1 the same4 ,hc1 iste1 and ille are accordingly the ,demonstratives of the ,first1 ,second1 and ,third ,persons respectively4 ,hc1 this4 ,,singular ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 hc haec hc h hae haec ,gen4 hjus#bc hjus hjus hrum hrum hrum ,dat4 huic huic huic hs hs hs ,acc4 hunc hanc hc hs hs haec ,abl4 hc hc hc hs hs hs ,iste1 that1 that of yours4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 iste ista istud#bd ist istae ista#bd ,gen4 istus istus istus istrum istrum istrum ,dat4 ist ist ist ists ists ists ,acc4 istum istam istud ists ists ista#bd ,abl4 ist ist ist ists ists ists ,ille 7archaic olle71 that1 that one1 he1 is declined like iste4#be ,is1 he1 this1 that4 ,,singular ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 is ea id e1 i1 eae ea 77 ,gen4 ejus ejus ejus erum erum erum ,dat4 e e e es1 is es1 is es1 is ,acc4 eum eam id es es ea ,abl4 e e e es1 is es1 is es1 is dem1 the same4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 dem eadem idem edem1 eaedem eadem idem ,gen4 ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem erundem erundem erundem ,dat4 edem edem edem esdem esdem esdem ,acc4 eundem eandem idem esdem esdem eadem ,abl4 edem edem edem esdem esdem esdem ,the ,nom4 ,plu4 ,masc4 also has dem1 and the ,dat4 ,abl4 ,plu4 sdem or isdem 99 99 99 99 99 ,v4 ,,the ,,intensive ,,pronoun4 #hh4 ,the ,intensive ,pronoun in ,latin is ipse4 ,it corresponds to the ,english myself1 etc41 in ',i myself1 he himself4' ,,singular ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 ipse ipsa ipsum ips ipsae ipsa ,gen4 ipsus ipsus ipsus ipsrum ipsrum ipsrum ,dat4 ips ips ips ipss ipss ipss ,acc4 ipsum ipsam ipsum ipss ipss ipsa ,abl4 ips ips ips ipss ipss ipss 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,relative ,,pronoun4 #hi4 ,the ,relative ,pronoun is qu1 who4 ,it is declined3-- ,,singular ,,plural4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,,masculine4 ,,feminine4 ,,neuter4 ,nom4 qu quae quod qu quae quae ,gen4 cjus cjus cjus qurum qurum qurum ,dat4 cui cui cui quibus#bf quibus quibus ,acc4 quem quam quod qus qus quae ,abl4 qu#bg qu#bg qu quibus#bf quibus quibus 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vii4 ,,interrogative ,,pronouns4 #ij4 ,the ,interrogative ,pronouns are quis1 who8 7substantive7 and qu1 what8 what kind of8 7adjective74 #a4 ,quis1 who8 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,,masc4 ,,and ,,fem4 ,,neuter ,nom4 quis quid ,the rare ,plural ,gen4 cjus cjus follows the declension ,dat4 cui cui of the ,relative ,pronoun4 ,acc4 quem quid ,abl4 qu qu #b4 ,qu1 what8 what kind of8 is declined precisely like the ,relative ,pronoun2 viz4 qu1 quae1 quod1 etc4 a4 ,an old ,ablative qu occurs1 in the sense of how8 why8 b4 ,qu is sometimes used for quis in ,indirect ,questions4 c4 ,quis1 when limiting words denoting persons1 is sometimes an adjective4 ,but in such cases quis hom what man8 whereas qu hom what sort of man8 d4 ,quis and qu may be strengthened by adding -nam4 ,thus3-- ,substantive3 quisnam1 who1 pray8 quidnam1 what1 pray8 ,adjective3 qunam1 quaenam1 quodnam1 of what kind1 pray8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,viii4 ,,indefinite ,,pronouns4 #ia4 ,these have the general force of some one1 any one4 ,,substantives4 ,,adjectives4 ,m4 ,,and ,f4 ,,neut4 ,,masc4 ,,fem4 ,,neut4 quis1 quid1 qu1 quae1 qua1 quod1 any one1 anything4 any4 aliquis1 aliquid1 aliqu1 aliqua1 aliquod1 some one1 any4 something4 quisquam1 quidquam1 quisquam1 quidquam1 any one1 anything4 any 7rare7 quispiam1 quidpiam1 quispiam1 quaepiam1 quodpiam1 any one1 anything4 any4 quisque1 quidque1 quisque1 quaeque1 quodque1 each4 each4 quvs1 quaevs1 quidvs1 quvis1 quaevs1 quodvis1 qulibet1 quaelibet1 quidlibet quilibet1 quaelibet1 quodlibet1 any one 7anything7 any you wish you wish qudam1 quaedam1 quiddam1 qudam1 quaedam1 quoddam1 a certain person1 or a certain thing4 #a4 ,in the ,indefinite ,pronouns1 only the pronominal part is declined4 ,thus3 ,genitive ,singular alicjus1 cjuslibet1 etc4 #b4 ,note that aliqu has aliqua in the ,nominative ,singular ,feminine1 also in the ,nominative and ,accusative ,plural ,neuter4 ,qu has both qua and quae in these same cases4 #c4 ,qudam forms ,accusative ,singular quendam1 quandam2 ,genitive ,plural qurundam1 qurundam2 the m being assimilated to n before d4 #d4 ,aliquis may be used adjectively1 and 7occasionally7 aliqu substantively4 #e4 ,in combination with n1 s1 nisi1 num1 either quis or qu may stand as a ,substantive4 ,thus3 s quis or s qu4 #f4 ,ecquis1 any one1 though strictly an ,indefinite1 generally has interrogative force4 ,it has both substantive and adjective forms1--substantive1 ecquis1 ecquid2 adjective1 ecqu1 ecquae and ecqua1 ecquod4 #g4 ,quisquam is not used in the ,plural4 #h4 ,there are two ,indefinite ,relatives1--qucumque and quisquis1 whoever4 ,qucumque declines only the first part2 quisquis declines both but has only quisquis1 quidquid1 ququ1 in common use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pronominal ,,adjectives4 #ib4 ,the following adjectives1 also1 frequently have pronominal force3-- #a4 alius1 another2 alter1 the other2 uter1 which of two8 7interr472 neuter1 neither2 whichever of two 7rel472 nus1 one2 nllus1 no one 7in oblique cases7 #b4 ,the compounds1-- uterque1 utraque1 utrumque1 each of two2 utercumque1 utracumque1 utrumcumque1 whoever of two2 uterlibet1 utralibet1 utrumlibet1 either one you please2 utervs1 utravs1 utrumvs1 either one you please2 alteruter1 alterutra1 alterutrum1 the one or the other4 ,in these1 uter alone is declined4 ,the rest of the word remains unchanged1 except in case of alteruter1 which may decline both parts2 as1-- ,nom4 alteruter altera utra alterum utrum ,gen4 alterius utrus1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,conjugation4 #ic4 ,a ,verb is a word which asserts something2 as1 est1 he is2 amat1 he loves4 ,the ,inflection of ,verbs is called ,conjugation4 #id4 ,verbs have ,voice1 ,mood1 ,tense1 ,number1 and ,person3-- #a4 ,two ,voices1--,active and ,passive4 #b4 ,three ,moods1--,indicative1 ,subjunctive1 ,imperative4 #c4 ,six ,tenses1-- ,present1 ,perfect1 ,imperfect1 ,pluperfect1 ,future1 ,future ,perfect4 ,but the ,subjunctive lacks the ,future and ,future ,perfect2 while the ,imperative employs only the ,present and ,future4 #d4 ,two ,numbers1--,singular and ,plural4 #e4 ,three ,persons1--,first1 ,second1 and ,third4 #ie4 ,these make up the so-called ,finite ,verb4 ,besides this1 we have the following ,noun and ,adjective ,forms3-- #a4 ,noun ,forms1--,infinitive1 ,gerund1 and ,supine4 #b4 ,adjective ,forms1--,participles 7including the ,gerundive74 #if4 ,the ,personal ,endings of the ,verb are1-- ,active4 ,passive4 ,sing4 #a4 -2 -m2 - 7,perf4 ,ind472 -r4 #b4 -s2 -st 7,perf ,ind472 -rs1 -re2 -t or wanting 7,impv472 -re1 -tor 7,impv474 #c4 -t2 -t 7,impv472 -tur2 -tor 7,impv474 ,plu4 #a4 -mus2 -mur4 #b4 -tis2 -stis 7,perf4 ,ind472 -min4 -te1 -tte 7,impv472 #c4 -nt2 -runt 7,perf ,ind472 -ntur2 -ntor 7,impv474 -nt 7,impv472 ,,verb ,,stems4 #ig4 ,conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the ,stem4 ,we distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb1-- ,i4 ,present ,stem1 from which are formed-- #a4 ,present1 ,imperfect1 and ,future ,indicative1 #b4 ,present and ,imperfect ,subjunctive1 #c4 ,the ,imperative1 #d4 ,the ,present ,infinitive1 - 7,active and ,passive47 #e4 ,the ,present ,active ,participle1 the ,gerund1 and ,gerundive4 ,,ii4 ,perfect ,stem1 from which are formed-- #a4 ,perfect1 ,pluperfect1 and ,future ,perfect ,indicative1 #b4 ,perfect and ,pluperfect ,subjunctive1 #c4 ,perfect ,infinitive1 - 7,active47 ,,iii4 ,participial ,stem1 from which are formed-- #a4 ,perfect ,participle1 #b4 ,perfect1 ,pluperfect1 and ,future ,perfect ,indicative1 #c4 ,perfect and ,pluperfect ,subjunctive1 #d4 ,perfect ,infinitive1 - 7,passive47 ,apparently from the same stem1 though really of different origin1 are the ,supine1 the ,future ,active ,participle1 the ,future ,infinitive ,active and ,passive4 ,,the ,,four ,,conjugations4 #ih4 ,there are in ,latin four regular ,conjugations1 distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the ,present ,infinitive ,active1 as follows3-- ,,infinitive ,,distinguishing ,,conjugation4 ,,termination4 ,,vowel4 ,i4 -re ,,ii4 -re ,,iii4 -re ,,iv4 -re #ii4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,the ,present ,indicative1 ,present ,infinitive1 ,perfect ,indicative1 and the ,perfect ,participle#bh constitute the ,principal ,parts of a ,latin verb1--so called because they contain the different stems1 from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,sum4 #ajj4 ,the irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,fut4 ,,partic4#bi sum esse fu futrus ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 sum1 ,i am1 sumus1 we are1 es1 thou art1 estis1 you are1 est1 he is2 sunt1 they are4 ,,imperfect4 eram1 ,i was1 ermus1 we were1 ers1 thou wast1 ertis1 you were1 erat1 he was2 erant1 they were4 ,,future4 er1 ,i shall be1 erimus1 we shall be1 eris1 thou wilt be1 eritis1 you will be1 erit1 he will be2 erunt1 they will be4 ,,perfect4 fu1 ,i have been1 ,i was1 fuimus1 we have been1 we were1 fuist1 thou hast been1 thou fuistis1 you have been1 you wast1 were1 fuit1 he has been1 he was2 furunt1 fure1 they have been1 they were4 ,,pluperfect4 fueram1 ,i had been1 fuermus1 we had been1 fuers1 thou hadst been1 fuertis1 you had been1 fuerat1 he had been2 fuerant1 they had been4 ,,future ,,perfect4 fuer1 ,i shall have been1 fuerimus1 we shall have been1 fueris1 thou wilt have been1 fueritis1 you will have been1 fuerit1 he will have been2 fuerint1 they will have been4 ,,subjunctive4#cj ,,present4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 sim1 may ,i be1 smus1 let us be1 ss1 mayst thou be1 stis1 be ye1 may you be1 sit1 let him be1 may he be2 sint1 let them be4 ,,imperfect4 essem1#ca ,i should be1 essmus1 we should be1 esss1#ca thou wouldst be1 esstis1 you would be1 esset1#ca he would be2 essent1#ca they would be4 ,,perfect4 fuerim1 ,i may have been1 fuermus1 we may have been1 fuers1 thou mayst have been1 fuertis1 you may have been1 fuerit1 he may have been2 fuerint1 they may have been4 ,,pluperfect4 fuissem1 ,i should have been1 fuissmus1 we should have been4 fuisss1 thou wouldst have been1 fuisstis1 you would have been1 fuisset1 he would have been2 fuissent1 they would have been4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 es1 be thou2 este1 be ye1 ,fut4 est1 thou shalt be1 estte1 ye shall be1 est1 he shall be2 sunt1 they shall be4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 esse1 to be4 ,perf4 fuisse1 to have been4 ,fut4 futrus esse1#cb to be ,fut4 futrus1#cc about to be4 about to be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,first 7,,or -7 ,,conjugation4 #aja4 ,active ,voice4--,am1 ,i love4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,perf4 ,,pass4 ,,partic4 am amre amv amtus ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 am1 ,i love1 ammus1 we love1 ams1 you love1 amtis1 you love1 amat1 he loves2 amant1 they love4 ,,imperfect4 ambam1 ,i was loving1#cd ambmus1 we were loving1 ambs1 you were loving1 ambtis1 you were loving1 ambat1 he was loving2 ambant1 they were loving ,,future4 amb1 ,i shall love1 ambimus1 we shall love1 ambis1 you will love1 ambitis1 you will love1 ambit1 he will love2 ambunt1 they will love4 ,,perfect4 amv1 ,i have loved1 ,i loved1 amvimus1 we have loved1 we loved1 amvist1 you have loved1 you amvistis1 you have loved1 you loved loved1 amvit1 he has loved1 he loved2 amvrunt1 -re1 they have loved1 they loved4 ,,pluperfect4 amveram1 ,i had loved1 amvermus1 we had loved1 amvers1 you had loved1 amvertis1 you had loved1 amverat1 he had loved2 amverant1 they had loved4 ,,future ,,perfect4 amver1 ,i shall have loved1 amverimus1 we shall have loved1 amveris1 you will have loved1 amveritis1 you will have loved1 amverit1 he will have loved2 amverint1 they will have loved4 ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 amem1 may ,i love1 ammus1 let us love1 ams1 may you love1 amtis1 may you love1 amet1 let him love2 ament1 let them love4 ,,imperfect4 amrem1 ,i should love1 amrmus1 we should love1 amrs1 you would love1 amrtis1 you would love1 amret1 he would love2 amrent1 they would love4 ,,perfect4 amverim1 ,i may have loved1 amvermus1 we may have loved1 amvers1 you may have loved1 amvertis1 you may have loved1 amverit1 he may have loved2 amverint1 they may have loved4 ,,pluperfect4 amvissem1 ,i should have loved1 amvssmus1 we should have loved1 amvisss1 you would have loved1 amvisstis1 you would have loved1 amvisset1 he would have loved2 amvissent1 they would have loved4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 am1 love thou2 amte1 love ye4 ,fut4 amt1 thou shalt love1 amtte1 ye shall love1 amt1 he shall love2 amant1 they shall love4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 amre1 to love4 ,pres4 amns1#ce loving4 ,perf4 amvisse1 to have loved4 7,gen4 amantis47 ,fut4 amtrus esse1 to be ,fut4 amtrus1 about to love4 about to love ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 ,gen4 amand1 of loving1 ,dat4 amand1 for loving1 ,acc4 amandum1 loving1 ,acc4 amtum1 to love1 ,abl4 amand1 by loving4 ,abl4 amt1 to love1 be loved4 #ajb4 ,passive ,voice4--,amor1 ,i am loved4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 amr amr amtus sum ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i am loved4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 amor ammur amris ammin amtur amantur ,,imperfect ,i was loved4 ambar ambmur ambris1 or -re ambmini ambtur ambantur ,,future4 ,i shall be loved4 ambor ambimur amberis1 or -re ambimin ambitur ambuntur ,,perfect ,i have been loved1 or ,i was loved4 amtus 7-a1 -um7 sum#cf amt 7-ae1 -a7 sumus amtus es amt estis amtus est amt sunt ,,pluperfect4 ,i had been loved4 amtus eram#cf amt ermus amtus ers amt ertis amtus erat amt erant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have been loved4 amtus er#cf amt erimus amtus eris amt eritis amtus erit amt erunt ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i be loved1 let him be loved4 amer ammur amris1 or -re ammini amtur amentur ,,imperfect4 ,i should be loved1 he would be loved4 amrer amrmur amrris1 or -re amrmin amrtur amrentur ,,perfect4 ,i may have been loved4 amtus sim#cg amt smus amtus ss amti stis amtus sit amti sint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have been loved1 he would have been loved4 amtus essem#cg amt essmus amtus esss amt esstis amtus esset amti essent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 amre1#ch be thou ammin1 be ye loved4 loved2 ,fut4 amtor1 thou shalt be loved1 amtor1 he shall be amantor1 they shall be loved4 loved2 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 amr1 to be loved4 ,perf4 amtus esse1 to have been ,perfect4 amtus1 loved1 loved4 having been loved4 ,fut4 amtum r1 to be about ,gerundive4 amandus1 to be to be loved4 loved1 deserving to be loved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,second 7,,or -7 ,,conjugation4 #ajc4 ,active voice4--,mone1 ,i advise4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,perf4 ,,pass4 ,,partic4 mone monre monu monitus ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i advise4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 mone monmus mons montis monet monent ,,imperfect4 ,i was advising1 or ,i advised4 monbam monbmus monbs monbtis monbat monbant ,,future4 ,i shall advise4 monb monbimus monbis monbitis monbit monbunt ,,perfect4 ,i have advised1 or ,i advised4 monu monuimus monuist monuistis monuit monurunt1 or -re ,,pluperfect4 ,i had advised4 monueram monuermus monuers monuertis monuerat monuerant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have advised4 monuer monuerimus monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i advise1 let him advise4 moneam monemus mones monetis moneat moneant ,,imperfect4 ,i should advise1 he would advise4 monrem monrmus monrs monrtis monret monrent ,,perfect4 ,i may have advised4 monuerim monuermus monuers monuertis monuerit monuerint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have advised1 he would have advised4 monuissem monuissmus monuisss monuisstis monuisset monuissent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 mon1 advise thou2 monte1 advise ye4 ,fut4 mont1 thou shall montte1 ye shall advise1 advise1 mont1 he shall advise2 monent1 they shall advise4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 monre1 to advise4 ,pres4 monns1 advising4 ,perf4 monuisse1 to have 7,gen4 monentis47 advised4 ,fut4 monitrus esse1 to be ,fut4 monitrus1 about to about to advise4 advise4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 ,gen4 monend1 of advising1 ,dat4 monend1 for advising1 ,acc4 monendum1 advising1 ,acc4 monitum1 to advise1 ,abl4 monend1 by advising4 ,abl4 monit1 to advise1 be advised4 #ajd4 ,passive voice4--,moneor1 ,i am advised4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 moneor monr monitus sum ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i am advised4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 moneor monmur monris monmin montur monentur ,,imperfect4 ,i was advised4 monbar monbmur monbris1 or -re monbmin monbtur monbantur ,,future4 ,i shall be advised4 monbor monbimur monberis1 or -re monbimin monbitur monbuntur ,,perfect4 ,i have been advised1 ,i was advised4 monitus sum monit sumus monitus es monit estis monitus est monit sunt ,,pluperfect4 ,i had been advised4 monitus eram monit ermus monitus ers monit ertis monitus erat monit erant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have been advised4 monitus er monit erimus monitus eris monit eritis monitus erit monit erunt ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i be advised1 let him be advised4 monear monemur moneris1 or -re monemin monetur moneantur ,,imperfect4 ,i should be advised1 he would be advised4 monrer monrmur monrris1 or -re monrmin monrtur monrentur ,,perfect4 ,i may have been advised4 monitus sim monit smus monitus ss monit stis monitus sit monit sint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have been advised1 he would have been advised4 monitus essem monit essmus monitus esss monit esstis monitus esset monit essent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 monre1 be thou advised2 monmin1 be ye advised4 ,fut4 montor1 thou shalt be advised1 montor1 he shall be monentor1 they shall be advised4 advised4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 monr1 to be advised4 ,perfect4 monitus1 advised1 having been advised4 ,perf4 monitus esse1 to have been advised ,fut4 monitum r1 to be about ,gerundive4 monendus1 to be to be advised4 advised1 deserving to be advised4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,third 7,,or ,,consonant-7 ,,conjugation4 #aje4 ,active ,voice4--,reg1 ,i rule4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,perf4 ,,pass4 ,,partic4 reg regere rx rctus ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i rule ,,singular4 ,,plural4 reg regimus regis regitis regit regunt ,,imperfect4 ,i was ruling1 or ,i ruled4 regbam regbmus regbs regbtis regbat regbant ,,future4 ,i shall rule4 regam regmus regs regtis reget regent ,,perfect4 ,i have ruled1 or ,i ruled rx rximus rxist rxistis rxit rxrunt1 or -re ,,pluperfect4 ,i had ruled4 rxeram rxermus rxers rxertis rxerat rxerant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have ruled4 rxer rxerimus rxeris rxeritis rxerit rxerint ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i rule1 let him rule4 regam regmus regs regtis regat regant ,,imperfect4 ,i should rule1 he would rule4 regerem regermus regers regertis regeret regerent ,,perfect4 ,i may have ruled4 rxerim rxermus rxers rxertis rxerit rxerint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have ruled1 he would have ruled4 rxissem rxissmus rxisss rxisstis rxisset rxissent ,,imperative4 rege1 rule thou2 regite1 rule ye4 regit1 thou shall rule1 regitte1 ye shall rule1 regit1 he shall rule2 regunt1 they shall rule4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 regere1 to rule4 ,pres4 regns1 ruling4 rxisse1 to have ruled4 7,gen4 regentis47 rctrus esse1 to be about to ,fut4 rctrus1 about to rule rule4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 regend1 of ruling1 regend1 for ruling1 regendum1 ruling1 ,acc4 rctum1 to rule1 regend1 by ruling4 ,abl4 rct1 to rule1 be ruled4 #ajf4 ,passive ,voice4--,regor1 ,i am ruled4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 regor reg rctus sum ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i am ruled4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 regor regimur regeris regimin regitur reguntur ,,imperfect4 ,i was ruled4 regbar regbmur regbris1 or -re regbmin regbtur regbantur ,,future4 ,i shall be ruled4 regar regmur regris1 or -re regmin regtur regentur ,,perfect4 ,i have been ruled1 or ,i was ruled4 rctus sum rct sumus rctus es rct estis rctus est rct sunt ,,pluperfect4 ,i had been ruled4 rctus eram rct ermus rctus ers rct ertis rctus erat rct erant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have been ruled rctus er rct erimus rctus eris rct eritis rctus erit rct erunt ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i be ruled1 let him be ruled4 regar regmur regris1 or -re regmin regtur regantur ,,imperfect4 ,i should be ruled1 he would be ruled4 regerer regermur regerris1 or -re regermin regertur regerentur ,,perfect4 ,i may have been ruled4 rctus sim rct smus rctus ss rct stis rctus sit rct sint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have been ruled1 he would have been ruled4 rctus essem rct essmus rctus esss rect esstis rctus esset rect essent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 regere1 be thou ruled2 regimin1 be ye ruled4 ,fut4 regitor1 thou shalt be ruled1 regitor1 he shall be reguntor1 they shall be ruled4 ruled2 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 reg1 to be ruled4 ,perfect4 rctus1 ruled1 having been ruled4 ,perf4 rctus esse1 to have been ,gerundive4 regendus1 to be ruled4 ruled1 deserving to be ruled4 ,fut4 rctum r1 to be about to be ruled4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fourth 7,,or -7 ,,conjugation4 #ajg4 ,active voice4--,audi1 ,i hear4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,perf4 ,,pass4 ,,partic4 audi audre audv audtus ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i hear4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 audi audmus auds audtis audit audiunt ,,imperfect4 ,i was hearing1 or ,i heard4 audibam audibmus audibs audibtis audibat audibant ,,future4 ,i shall hear4 audiam audimus audis auditis audiet audient ,,perfect4 ,i have heard1 or ,i heard4 audv audvimus audvist audvistis audvit audvrunt1 or -re ,,pluperfect4 ,i had heard4 audveram audvermus audvers audvertis audverat audverant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have heard4 audver audverimus audveris audveritis audverit audverint ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i hear1 let him hear4 audiam audimus audis auditis audiat audiant ,,imperfect4 ,i should hear1 he would hear4 audrem audrmus audrs audrtis audret audrent ,,perfect4 ,i may have heard4 audverim audvermus audvers audvertis audverit audverint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have heard1 he would have heard4 audvissem audvissmus audvisss audvisstis audvisset audvissent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 aud1 hear thou2 audte1 hear ye4 ,fut4 audt1 thou shalt hear1 audtte1 ye shall hear1 audt1 he shall hear2 audiunt1 they shall hear4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 audre1 to hear4 ,pres4 audins1 hearing4 ,perf4 audvisse1 to have 7,gen4 audientis47 heard4 ,fut4 audtrus esse1 to be ,fut4 audtrus1 about to about to hear4 hear4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine ,gen4 audiend1 of hearing1 ,dat4 audiend1 for hearing1 ,acc4 audiendum1 hearing1 ,acc4 audtum1 to hear1 ,abl4 audiend1 by hearing4 ,abl4 audt1 to hear1 be heard4 #ajh4 ,passive ,voice4--,audior1 ,i am heard4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 audior audr audtus sum ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,i am heard4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 audior audmur audris audmin audtur audiuntur ,,imperfect4 ,i was heard4 audibar audibmur audibris1 or -re audibmin audibtur audibantur ,,future4 ,i shall be heard4 audiar audimur audiris1 or -re audimin auditur audientur ,,perfect4 ,i have been heard1 or ,i was heard4 audtus sum audt sumus audtus es audt estis audtus est audt sunt ,,pluperfect4 ,i had been heard4 audtus eram audt ermus audtus ers audt ertis audtus erat audt erant ,,future ,,perfect4 ,i shall have been heard4 audtus er audt erimus audtus eris audt eritis audtus erit audt erunt ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,may ,i be heard1 let him be heard4 audiar audimur audiris1 or -re audimin auditur audiantur ,,imperfect4 ,i should be heard1 he would be heard4 audrer audrmur audrris1 or -re audirmin audrtur audrentur ,,perfect4 ,i may have been heard4 audtus sim audt smus audtus ss audt stis audtus sit audt sint ,,pluperfect4 ,i should have been heard1 he would have been heard4 audtus essem audt essmus audtus esss audt esstis audtus esset audt essent ,,imperative4 ,pres4 audre1 be thou heard2 audmin1 be ye heard4 ,fut4 audtor1 thou shalt be heard1 audtor1 he shall be audiuntor1 they shall be heard4 heard2 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 audr1 to be heard4 ,perfect4 audtus1 heard1 having been heard ,perf4 audtus esse1 to have ,gerundive4 audiendus1 to be been heard4 heard1 deserving to be heard ,fut4 audtum r1 to be about to be heard4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,verbs ,,in -,i ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,conjugation4 #aji4 #a4 ,verbs in -i of the ,third ,conjugation take the endings of the ,fourth ,conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels4 ,this occurs only in the ,present ,system4 #b4 ,here belong-- a7 capi1 to take2 cupi1 to desire2 faci1 to make2 fodi1 to dig2 fugi1 to flee2 jaci1 to throw2 pari1 to bear2 quati1 to shake2 rapi1 to seize2 sapi1 to taste4 b7 ,compounds of laci and speci 7both ante-classical72 as1 allici1 entice2 cnspici1 behold4 c7 ,the deponents gradior1 to go2 morior1 to die1 patior1 to suffer4 #aaj4 ,active voice4--,capi1 ,i take4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 ,,perf4 ,,pass4 ,,partic4 capi1 capere1 cp1 captus4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 capi1 capis1 capit2 capimus1 capitis1 capiunt4 ,,imperfect4 capibam1 -ibs1 -ibat2 capibmus1 -ibtis1 -ibant4 ,,future4 capiam1 -is1 -iet2 capimus1 -itis1 -ient4 ,,perfect4 cp1 -ist1 -it2 cpimus1 -istis1 -runt or -re4 ,,pluperfect4 cperam1 -ers1 -erat2 cpermus1 -ertis1 -erant4 ,,future ,,perfect4 cper1 -eris1 -erit2 cperimus1 -eritis1 -erint4 ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 capiam1 -is1 -iat2 capimus1 -itis1 -iant4 ,,imperfect4 caperem1 -ers1 -eret2 capermus1 -ertis1 -erent4 ,,perfect4 cperim1 -eris1 -erit2 cpermus1 -ertis1 -erint4 ,,pluperfect4 cpissem1 -isss1 -isset2 cpissmus1 -isstis1 -issent4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 cape2 capite4 ,fut4 capit1 capitte1 capit2 capiunt4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 capere ,pres4 capins4 ,perf4 cpisse4 ,fut4 captrus esse4 ,fut4 captrus4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 ,gen4 capiend1 ,dat4 capiend1 ,acc4 capiendum1 ,acc4 captum1 ,abl4 capiend4 ,abl4 capt4 #aaa4 ,passive ,voice4--,capior1 ,i am taken4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,,pres4 ,,ind4 ,,pres4 ,,inf4 ,,perf4 ,,ind4 capior1 cap1 captus sum4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 capior1 caperis1 capitur2 capimur1 capimin1 capiuntur4 ,,imperfect4 capibar1 -ibris1 -ibtur2 capibmur1 -ibmin1 -ibantur4 ,,future4 capiar1 -iris1 -itur2 capimur1 -imin1 -ientur4 ,,perfect4 captus sum1 es1 est2 capt sumus1 estis1 sunt4 ,,pluperfect4 captus eram1 ers1 erat2 capt ermus1 ertis1 erant4 ,,future ,,perfect4 captus er1 eris1 erit2 capt erimus1 eritis1 erunt4 ,,subjunctive4 ,,present4 capiar1 -iris1 -itur2 capimur1 -imin1 -iantur4 ,,imperfect4 caperer1 -erris1 -ertur2 capermur1 -ermin1 -erentur4 ,,perfect4 captus sim1 ss1 sit2 capt smus1 stis1 sint4 ,,pluperfect4 captus essem1 esss1 esset2 capt essmus1 esstis1 essent4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 capere2 capimin4 ,fut4 capitor1 capitor2 capiuntor4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 cap4 ,perf4 captus esse4 ,perfect4 captus4 ,fut4 captum r4 ,gerundive4 capiendus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,deponent ,,verbs4 #aab4 ,deponent ,verbs have in the main ,passive forms with ,active or ,neuter meaning4 ,but-- a4 ,they have the following ,active forms3 ,future ,infinitive1 ,present and ,future ,participles1 ,gerund1 and ,supine4 b4 ,they have the following ,passive meanings3 always in the ,gerundive1 and sometimes in the ,perfect ,passive ,participle2 as-- sequendus1 to be followed2 adeptus1 attained4 #aac4 ,paradigms of ,deponent ,verbs are-- ,i4 ,conj4 mror1 mrr1 mrtus sum1 admire4 ,,ii4 ,conj4 vereor1 verer1 veritus sum1 fear4 ,,iii4 ,conj4 sequor1 sequ1 sectus sum1 follow4 ,,iv4 ,conj4 largior1 largr1 largtus sum1 give4 ,,iii4 7in -ior7 patior1 pat1 passus sum1 suffer4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,,iii 7in -ior7 ,pres4 mror vereor sequor largior patior mrris verris sequeris largiris pateris mrtur vertur sequitur largtur patitur mramur vermur sequimur largmur patimur mrmin vermin sequimin largmin patimin mrantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur patiuntur ,impf4 mrbar verbar sequbar largibar patibar ,fut4 mrbor verbor sequar largiar patiar ,perf4 mirtus sum veritus sum sectus sum largtus sum passus sum ,plup4 mrtus veritus sectus largtus passus eram eram eram eram eram ,f4,p4 mrtus er veritus er sectus er largtus er passus er ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 mrer verear sequar largiar patiar ,impf4 mrrer verrer sequerer largrer paterer ,perf4 mrtus sim veritus sim sectus sim largtus sim passus sim ,plup4 mrtus veritus secttus largtus passus essem essem essem essem essem ,,imperative4 ,pres4 mrre1 verre1 sequere1 largre1 patere1 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 ,fut4 mrtor1 vertor1 sequitor1 largtor1 patitor1 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 mrri verr sequ largr pat ,perf4 mrtus veritus sectus largtus passus esse esse esse esse esse ,fut4 mrtrus veritrus sectrus largtrus passrus esse esse esse esse esse ,,participles4 ,pres4 mrns verns sequns largins patins ,fut4 mrtrus veritrus sectrus largitrus passrus ,perf4 mrtus veritus sectus largitus passus ,ger4 mrandus verendus sequendus largiendus patiendus ,,gerund4 mrand verend sequend largiend patiend mirand1 verend1 sequend1 largiend1 patiend1 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 etc4 ,,supine4 mrtum1 veritum1 sectum1 largtum1 passum1 -t -t -t -t -s 99 99 99 99 99 ,,semi-,,deponents4 #aad4 #a4 ,semi-,deponents are verbs which have the ,present ,system in the ,active ,voice1 but the ,perfect ,system in the ,passive without change of meaning4 ,here belong-- aude1 audre1 ausus sum1 to dare4 gaude1 gaudre1 gvsus sum1 to rejoice4 sole1 solre1 solitus sum1 to be wont4 fd1 fdere1 fsus sum1 to trust4 #b4 ,the following verbs have a ,perfect ,passive ,participle with ,active meaning3-- adolsc1 grow up2 adultus1 having grown up1 cnre1 dine2 cntus1 having dined4 placre1 please2 placitus1 having pleased1 agreeable4 prandre1 lunch2 prnsus1 having lunched4 ptre1 drink2 ptus1 having drunk4 jrre1 swear2 jrtus1 having sworn4 a4 ,jrtus is used in a passive sense also4 #c4 ,revertor and dvertor both regularly form their ,perfect in the ,active ,voice2 viz4-- revertor1 revert 7,inf471 revert 7,perf471 to return4 dvertor1 dvert 7,inf471 dvert 7,perf471 to turn aside4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,periphrastic ,,conjugation4 #aae4 ,there are two ,periphrastic ,conjugations1--the ,active and the ,passive4 ,the ,active is formed by combining the ,future ,active ,participle with the auxiliary sum1 the ,passive by combining the ,gerundive with the same auxiliary4 ,active ,periphrastic ,conjugation4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 amtrus 7-a1 -um7 sum1 ,i am about to love4 ,inf4 amtrus eram1 ,i was about to love4 ,fut4 amtrus er1 ,i shall be about to love4 ,perf4 amtrus fu1 ,i have been 7was7 about to love4 ,plup4 amtrus fueram1 ,i had been about to love4 ,fut4 ,p4 amtrus fuer1 ,i shall have been about to love4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 amtrus sim1 may ,i be about to love4 ,imp4 amtrus essem1 ,i should be about to love4 ,perf4 amtrus fuerim1 ,i may have been about to love4 ,plup4 amtrus fuissem1 ,i should have been about to love4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 amtrus esse1 to be about to love4 ,perf4 amtrus fuisse1 to have been about to love4 ,passive ,periphrastic ,conjugation4 ,,indicative4 ,pres4 amandus 7-a1 -um7 sum1 ,i am to be loved1 must be loved4 ,imp4 amandus eram1 ,i was to be loved4 ,fut4 amandus er1 ,i shall deserve to be loved4 ,perf4 amandus fu1 ,i was to be loved4 ,plup4 amandus fueram1 ,i had deserved to be loved4 ,fut4 ,p4 amandus fuer1 ,i shall have deserved to be loved4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 amandus sim1 may ,i deserve to be loved4 ,imp4 amandus essem1 ,i should deserve to be loved4 ,perf4 amandus fuerim1 ,i may have deserved to be loved4 ,plup4 amendus fuissem1 ,i should have deserved to be loved4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 amandus esse1 to deserve to be loved4 ,perf4 amantus fuisse1 to have deserved to be loved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,peculiarities ,,of ,,conjugation4 #aaf4 #a4 ,perfects in -v1 -v1 and -v1 with the forms derived from them1 often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s4 ,so also nv 7from nsc7 and the compounds of mv 7from move74 ,thus3-- amvist amst dlvist dlst amvisse amsse dlvisse dlsse amvrunt amrunt dlvrunt dlrunt amverim amrim dlverim dlrim amveram amram dlveram dlram amver amr dlver dlr nvist nst nverim nrim nvisse nsse nveram nram audvist audst audvisse audsse #b4 ,in the ,gerund and ,gerundive of the ,third and ,fourth ,conjugations1 the endings -undus1 -und1 often occur instead of -endus and -end1 as faciundus1 faciund4 #c4 ,dc1 dc1 faci1 form the ,imperatives1 dc1 dc1 fac4 ,but compounds of faci form the ,imperative in -fice1 as cnfice4 ,compounds of dc1 dc1 accent the ultima2 as1 dc1 dc4 #d4 ,archaic and ,poetic forms3-- a4 ,the ending -ier in the ,present ,infinitive ,passive2 as1 amrier1 monrier1 dcier1 for amr1 monr1 dc4 b4 ,the ending -bam for -ibam in ,imperfects of the ,fourth ,conjugation1 and -b for -iam in ,futures2 as1 scbam1 scb1 for scibam1 sciam4 c4 ,instead of the fuller forms1 in such words as dxist1 scrpsistis1 surrxisse1 we sometimes find dxt1 scrpstis1 surrxe1 etc4 d4 ,the endings -im1 -s1 etc4 7for -am1 -s1 etc47 occur in a few ,subjunctive forms2 as1 edim 7eat71 duint1 perduint4 #e4 ,in the ,future ,active and ,perfect ,passive ,infinitive1 the auxiliary esse is often omitted2 as1 ctrum for cturum esse2 jectus for jectus esse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,stems4 ,formation of the ,present ,stem4 #aag4 ,many verbs employ the simple ,verb ,stem for the ,present ,stem2#ci as1 dcere1 amre1 monre1 audre4 ,others modify the ,verb ,stem to form the ,present1 as follows3-- #a4 ,by appending the vowels1 1 1 2 as1-- ,present ,stem ,verb ,stem juvre1 juv- juv-4 augre1 aug- aug-4 vincre1 vinc- vinc-4 #b4 ,by adding i1 as capi1 ,present ,stem capi- 7,verb ,stem cap-74 #c4 ,by the insertion of n 7m before labial-mutes7 before the final consonant of the ,verb ,stem2 as1 fund 7,stem fud-71 rump 7,stem rup-74 #d4 ,by appending -n to the ,verb ,stem2 as1-- cern- pell- 7for pel-n74 #e4 ,by appending t to the ,verb ,stem2 as1-- flect-4 #f4 ,by appending sc to the ,verb ,stem2 as1-- crsc-4 scsc-4 #g4 ,by ,reduplication1 that is1 by prefixing the initial consonant of the ,verb ,stem with i2 as1-- gi-gn- 7root gen-71 si-st- 7root sta-74 ,formation of the ,perfect ,stem4 #aah4 ,the ,perfect ,stem is formed from the ,verb ,stem-- #a4 ,by adding v 7in case of ,vowel ,stems72 as1-- amv-1 dlv-1 audv-4 #b4 ,by adding u 7in case of some ,consonant ,stems72 as1-- strepu-1 genu-1 alu-4 #c4 ,by adding s 7in case of most ,consonant ,stems72 as1-- carp-1 ,perfect carps-4 scrb-1 scrps- 7for scrb-s74 rd-e1 rs- 7for rd-s74 sent-i1 sns- 7for sent-s74 dc-1 dx- 7i4e4 dc-s74 a4 ,note that before the ending -s a ,dental ,mute 7t1 d7 is lost2 a ,guttural ,mute 7c1 g7 unites with s to form x2 while the ,labial b is changed to p4 #d4 ,without addition4 ,of this formation there are three types3-- a7 ,the ,verb ,stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with the following vowel or e2 as1-- curr1 ,perfect cu-curr4 posc1 po-posc4 pell1 pe-pul4 ,,note #a4--;,compounds1 with the exception of d1 st1 sist1 disc1 posc1 omit the reduplication4 ,thus3 com-pul1 but re-poposc4 ,,note #b4--,verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication1 but drop s from the stem2 as1 sponde1 spo-pond2 st1 stet4 b7 ,the short vowel of the ,verb ,stem is lengthened2 as1 leg1 lg2 ag1 g4 ,note that by this process becomes 4 c7 ,the vowel of the ,verb ,stem is unchanged2 as1 vert1 vert2 minu1 minu4 ,formation of the ,participial ,stem4 #aai4 ,the ,perfect ,passive ,participle1 from which the ,participial ,stem is derived by dropping -us1 is formed3-- #a4 ,by adding -tus 7sometimes to the ,present ,stem1 sometimes to the ,verb ,stem72 as1-- am-re1 ,participle am-tus4 dl-re1 dl-tus1 aud-re1 aud-tus1 leg-ere1 lc-tus1 scrb-ere1 scrp-tus1 sent-re1 sn-sus 7for sent-tus74 caed-ere1 cae-sus 7for caed-tus74 a4 ,note that g1 before t1 becomes c 7see #h1 #e72 b becomes p2 while dt or tt becomes ss1 which is then often simplified to s 7 #h1 #b74 #b4 ,after the analogy of ,participles like snsus and caesus1 where -sus arises by phonetic change1 -sus for -tus is added to other ,verb ,stems2 as1-- lb-1 ,participle lp-sus4 fg-ere1 f-xus4 a4 ,the same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the stem as in the case of the ,perfect ending -si 7see #aah1 #c1 a74 #c4 ,a few ,verbs form the ,participle in -tus2 as1-- dom-re1 dom-tus4 mon-re1 mon-tus4 #d4 ,the ,future ,active ,participle is usually identical in its stem with the ,perfect ,passive ,participle2 as1 am-tus1 amtrus2 moni-tus1 monitrus4 ,but-- juv-re1 ,perf4 ,partic4 jtus1 has ,fut4 ,act4 ,partic4 juvtrus4#dj lav-re1 lautus1 lavtrus4 par-ere1 partus1 paritrus4 ru-ere1 rutus1 ruitrus4 sec-re1 sectus1 sectrus4 fru-1 frctus1 fruitrus4 mor-1 mortuus1 moritrus4 or-r1 ortus1 oritrus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,verbs1 ,,with ,,principal ,,parts4 ,first 7-7 ,conjugation4 #abj4 ,i4 ,,perfect ,,in -,v4 am amre amv amtus love ,all regular verbs of the ,first ,conjugation follow this model4 pt ptre ptv ptus 7 #aad1 drink #b7 ,,ii4 ,,perfect ,,in -,u4 crep crepre crepu crepitrus rattle cub cubre cubu cubitrus lie down dom domre domu domitus tame fric fricre fricu frictus and rub frictus mic micre micu ---- glitter dmic dmicre dmicv dmictum fight 7est7#da ex-plic explicre explicv explictus unfold 7-u7 7-itus7 im-plic implicre implicv implictus entwine 7-u7 7-itus7 sec secre secu sectus cut son sonre sonu sontrus sound ton tonre tonu ---- thunder vet vetre vetu vetitus forbid ,,iii4 ,,perfect ,,in - ,,with ,,lengthening ,,of ,,the ,,stem ,,vowel4 juv juvre jv jtus help lav lavre lv lautus wash ,,iv4 ,,perfect ,,reduplicated4 st stre stet sttrus ,v4 ,,deponents4 ,these are all regular1 and follow mror1 mrr1 mrtus sum4 ,second 7-7 ,conjugation4 #aba4 ,i4 ,,perfect ,,in -,v4 dle dlre dlv dltus destroy fle flre flv fltus weep1 lament com-ple#db complre complv compltus fill up abole abolre abolv abolitus destroy cie#dc cire cv citus set in motion ,,ii4 ,,perfect ,,in -,u4 a4 ,type -e1 -re1 -u1 -itus4 arce arcre arcu keep off coerce coercre coercu coercitus hold in check exerce exercre exercu exercitus practise cale calre calu calitrus be warm care carre caru caritrus be without dole dolre dolu dolitrus grieve habe habre habu habitus have dbe dbre dbu dbitus owe praebe praebre praebu praebitus offer jace jacre jacu jacitrus lie mere merre meru meritus earn1 deserve mone monre monu monitus advise noce nocre nocu nocitum 7est7 injure pre prre pru pritrus obey place placre placu placitrus please tace tacre tacu tacitrus be silent terre terrre terru territus frighten vale valre valu valitrus be strong ,,note #a4--,the following lack the ,participial ,stem3-- ege egre egu ---- want mine minre minu ---- stand forth flre flrre flru ---- bloom horre horrre horru ---- bristle late latre latu ---- lurk nite nitre nitu ---- gleam ole olre olu ---- smell palle pallre pallu ---- be pale pate patre patu ---- lie open rube rubre rubu ---- be red sile silre silu ---- be silent splende splendre splendu ---- gleam stude studre studu ---- study stupe stupre stupu ---- be amazed time timre timu ---- fear torpe torpre torpu ---- be dull vige vigre vigu ---- flourish vire virre viru ---- be green and others4 ,,note #b4--,the following are used only in the ,present ,system3-- ave avre ---- ---- wish frge frgre ---- ---- be cold immine imminre ---- ---- overhang maere maerre ---- ---- mourn polle pollre ---- ---- be strong and others4 b4 ,type -e1 -re1 -u1 -tus 7-sus74 cnse cnsre cnsu cnsus estimate doce docre docu doctus teach misce miscre miscu mixtus mix tene tenre tenu ---- hold ,so contine and sustine2 but-- retine retinre retinu retentus retain obtine obtinre obtinu obtentus maintain torre torrre torru tostus bake ,,iii4 ,,perfect ,,in -,s4 auge augre aux auctus increase torque torqure tors tortus twist indulge indulgre induls ---- indulge lce lcre lx ---- be light lge lgre lx ---- mourn jube jubre juss jussus order per-mulce permulcre permuls permulsus soothe rde rdre rs rsum 7est7 laugh sude sudre sus susum 7est7 advise abs-terge abstergre absters abstersus wipe off rde rdre rs rsrus burn haere haerre haes haesrus stick mane manre mns mnsrus stay alge algre als ---- be cold fulge fulgre fuls ---- gleam urge urgre urs ---- press ,,iv4 ,,perfect ,,in - ,,with ,,reduplication4 morde mordre momord morsus bite sponde spondre spopond spnsus promise tonde tondre totond tnsus shear pende pendre pepend ---- hang ,v4 ,,perfect ,,in - ,,with ,,lengthening ,,of ,,stem ,,vowel4 cave cavre cv cautrus take care fave favre fv fautrus favor fove fovre fv ftus cherish move movre mv mtus move pave pavre pv ---- fear sede sedre sd sessrus sit vide vidre vd vsus see vove vovre vv vtus vow ,,vi4 ,,perfect ,,in - ,,without ,,either ,,reduplication ,,or ,,lengthening ,,of ,,stem ,,vowel4 ferve fervre 7ferv1 ---- boil ferbu7 prande prandre prand prnsus 7 #aad1 lunch #b7 strde strdre strd ---- creak ,,vii4 ,,deponents4 liceor licr licitus sum bid polliceor pollicr pollicitus sum promise mereor merr meritus sum earn misereor miserr miseritus sum pity vereor verr veritus sum fear fateor fatr fassus sum confess cnfiteor cnfitr cnfessus sum confess reor rr ratus sum think medeor medr ---- heal tueor tur ---- protect ,third 7,consonant7 ,conjugation4 #abb4 ,i4 ,,verbs ,,with ,,present ,,stem ,,ending ,,in ,a ,,consonant4 #a4 ,perfect in -s4 a4 ,type -1 -re1 -s1 -tus4 carp carpere carps carptus pluck sculp sculpere sculps sculptus chisel rp rpere rps ---- creep serp serpere serps ---- crawl scrib scribere scrps scrptus write nb nbere nps npta 7woman marry only7 reg regere rx rctus govern teg tegere tx tctus cover af-flg afflgere afflx afflctus shatter dc dcere dx dictus say dc dcere dx ductus lead coqu coquere cox coctus cook trah trahere trx trctus draw veh vehere vex vectus carry cing cingere cnx cnctus gird ting tingere tnx tnctus dip jung jungere jnx jnctus join fing fingere fnx fctus would ping pingere pnx pctus paint string stringere strnx strictus bind -stingu#dd -stinguere -stnx -stnctus blot out ungu unguere nx nctus anoint vv vvere vx vctum 7est7 live ger gerere gess gestus carry ur rere uss stus burn temn temnere con-temps con-temptus despise b4 ,type -1 -re1 -s1 -sus4 fg fgere fx fxus fasten merg mergere mers mersus sink sparg spargere spars sparsus scatter flect flectere flex flexus bend nect nectere nexu nexus twine 7nex7 mitt mittere ms missus send rd rdere rs rsus shave rd rdere rs rsus gnaw vd vdere -vs#de -vsum march1 walk 7est7#de ld ldere ls lsum 7est7 play trd trdere trs trsus push laed laedere laes laesus injure1 hurt claud claudere claus clausus close plaud plaudere plaus plausum 7est7 clap expld expldere expls explsus hoot off cd cdere cess cessum 7est7 withdraw dvid dvidere dvs dvsus divide prem premere press pressus press #b4 ,perfect in - with ,reduplication4 ab-d abdere abdid abditus conceal red-d red-dere reddid redditus return ,so add1 cond1 dd1 perd1 prd1 trd1 etc4 cn-sist cnsistere cnstit ---- take one's stand resist resistere restit ---- resist circumsist circumsistere circumstet ---- surround cad cadere cecid csrus fall caed caedere cecd caesus kill pend pendere pepend pnsus weigh1 pay tend tendere tetend tentus stretch tund tundere tutud tsus1 tnsus beat fall fallere fefell 7falsus1 as deceive ,adj47 pell pellere pepul pulsus drive out curr currere cucurr cursum 7est7 run parc parcere peperc parsrus spare can canere cecin ---- sing tang tangere tetig tctus touch pung pungere pupug pnctus prick ,,note4--,in the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated1 but have lost the reduplicating syllable3-- per-cell percellere percul perculsus strike down find findere fid fissus split scind scindere scid scissus tear apart toll tollere sus-tul subltus remove #c4 ,perfect in - with ,lengthening of ,stem ,vowel4 ag agere g ctus drive1 do perag peragere perg perctus finish subig subigere subg subctus subdue cg cgere cog coctus force1 gather frang frangere frg frctus break perfring perfringere perfrg perfrctus break down leg legere lg lctus gather1 read perleg perlegere perlg perlctus read through collig colligere collg collctus collect dlig dligere dlg dlctus choose dlig dligere dlx dlctus love intelleg intellegere intellx intellctus understand negleg neglegere neglx neglctus neglect em emere m mptus buy com comere com comptus buy up redim redimere redm redmptus buy back dirim dirimere dirm dirmptus destroy dm dmere dmps dmptus take away sm smere smps smptus take prm prmere prmps 7prmptus1 as take out ,adj47 vinc vincere vc victus conquer re-linqu relinquere relqu relctus leave rump rumpere rp ruptus break ed sse 7 d sus eat #abh7 fund fundere fd fsus four #d4 ,perfect in - without either ,reduplication or ,lengthening of ,stem ,vowel4 excd excdere excd excsus hammer cnsd cnsdere cnsd ---- take one's seat possd possdere possd possessus take possession accend accendere accend accnsus kindle a-scend ascendere ascend ascnsum 7est7 climb d-fend dfendere dfend dfnsus defend pre-hend prehendere prehend prehnsus seize c cere c ictus strike vell vellere vell vulsus pluck vert vertere vert versus turn pand pandere pand passus spread solv solvere solv soltus loose vs vsere vs vsus visit volv volvere volv voltus roll verr verrere verr versus sweep #e4 ,perfect in -u4 in-cumb incumbere incubu incubitrus lean on gign gignere genu genitus bring forth mol molere molu molitus grind vom vomere vomu vomitus vomit frem fremere fremu ---- snort gem gemere gemu ---- sigh met metere messu messus reap trem tremere tremu ---- tremble strep strepere strepu ---- rattle al alete alu altus 7alitus7 nourish col colere colu cultus cultivate incol incolere incolu ---- inhabit excol excolere excolu excultus perfect cnsul cnsulere cnsulu cnsultus consult cnser cnserere cnseru cnsertus join dser dserere dseru dsertus desert disser disserere disseru ---- discourse tex texere texu textus weave #f4 ,perfect in -v4 sin sinere sv situs allow desin dsinere dsi dsitus cease pon pnere posu positus place ob-lin oblinere oblv oblitus smear ser serere sv satus sow cnser cnserere cnsv cnsitus plant cern cernere ---- ---- separate discern discernere discrv discrtus distinguish dcern dcernere dcrv dcrtus decide spern spernere sprv sprtus scorn stern sternere strv strtus spread pr-stern prsternere prstrv prstrtus overthrow pet petere petv pettus seek 7peti7 appet appetere appetv appettus long for ter terere trv trtus rub quaer quaerere quaesv quaestus seek acqur acqurere acqusv acqustus acquire arcess arcessere arcessv arcesstus summon capess capessere capessv capesstus seize lacess lacessere lacessv lacesstus provoke #g4 ,used only in ,present ,system4 ang angere ---- ---- choke lamb lambere ---- ---- lick claud claudere ---- ---- be lame fur furere ---- ---- rave verg vergere ---- ---- bend and a few others4 ,,ii4 ,,verbs ,,with ,,present ,,stem ,,ending ,,in -,u4 indu induere indu indtus put on imbu imbuere imbu imbtus moisten lu luere lu ---- wash pollu polluere pollu polltus defile minu minuere minu mintus lessen statu statuere statu stattus set up cnstitu cnstituere cnstitu cnstittus determine su suere su stus sew tribu tribuere tribu tribtus allot ru ruere ru ruitrus fall dru druere dru drutus destroy obru obruere obru obrutus overwhelm acu acuere acu ---- sharpen argu arguere argu ---- accuse congru congruere congru ---- agree metu metuere metu ---- fear ab-nu abnuere abnu ---- decline re-spu respuere respu ---- reject stru struere strx strctus build flu fluere flxi 7flxus1 as flow ,adj47 ,,iii4 ,,verbs ,,with ,,present ,,stem ,,ending ,,in -,i4 capi cupere cupv cuptus wish sapi sapere sapv ---- taste rapi rapere rapu raptus snatch dripi dripere dripu dreptus plunder cnspici cnspicere cnspex cnspectus gaze at aspici aspicere aspex aspectus behold illici illicere illex illectus allure pellici pellicere pellex pellectus allure lici licere licu licitus elicit quati quatere ---- quassus shake concuti concutere concuss concussus shake pari parere peper partus bring forth capi capere cp captus take accipi accipere accp acceptus accept incipi incipere incp inceptus begin faci facere fc factus make affici afficere affc affectus affect ,passive1 afficior1 affic1 affectus sum4 ,so other prepositional compounds1 perfici1 perficior2 interfici1 interficior2 etc4 ,but-- assufaci assufacere assufc assufactus accustom ,passive1 assufi1 assufieri1 assufactus sum4 ,so also patefaci1 patef2 calefaci1 calef2 and all non-prepositional compounds4 jaci jacere jc jactus hurl abici abicere abjc abjectus throw away fodi fodere fd fossus dig fugi fugere fg fugitrus flee effugi effugere effg ---- escape ,,iv4 ,,verbs ,,in -,,sc4 #a4 ,verbs in -sc from ,simple ,roots4 posc poscere poposc ---- demand disc discere didic ---- learn psc pscere pv pstus feed pscor psc pstus sum graze crsc crscere crv crtus grow cnsusc cnsuscere cnsuv cnsutus accustom one's self quisc quiscere quiv quitrus be still adolsc adolscere adolvi adultus grow up obsolsc obsolscer obsolv ---- grow old nsc nscere nv ---- become acquainted with ignsc ignscere ignv igntrus pardon agnsc agnscere agnv agnitus recognize cognsc cognscere cognv cognitus get acquainted with #b4 ,verbs in -sc formed from other ,verbs4 ,these usually have ,inchoative or ,inceptive meaning 7see #aee1 #a74 ,when they have the ,perfect1 it is the same as that of the ,verbs from which they are derived4 flrsc flrscere flru begin to 7flre7 bloom scsc scscere scv enact 7sco7 rsc rscere ru become dry 7re7 calsc calscere calu become hot 7cale7 cnsensc cnsenscere cnsenu grow old 7sene7 extimsc extimscere extimu fear greatly 7time7 ingemsc ingemscere ingemu sigh 7gem7 adhaersc adhaerscere adhaes stick 7haere7 #c4 ,verbs in -sc derived from ,adjectives1 usually with ,inchoative meaning4 obdrsc obdrscere obdru grow hard 7drus7 vansc vanscere vinu disappear 7vnus7 percrbrsco percrbrscere percrbru grow fresh 7crber7 mtresc mtrscere mtru grow ripe 7mtrus7 obmtsc obmtscere obmtu grow dumb 7mtus7 ,v4 ,,deponents4 fungor fungi fnctus sum perform queror quer questus sum complain loquor loqu loctus sum speak sequor sequ sectus sum follow fruor fru fruitrus enjoy perfruor perfru perfrctus sum thoroughly enjoy lbor lbi lpsus sum glide amplector amplect amplexus sum embrace ntor nt nsus sum1 strive nxus sum gradior grad gressus sum walk patior pat passus sum suffer perpetior perpet perpessus sum endure tor t sus sum use morior mor mortuus sum die adipscor adipsc adeptus sum acquire comminscor comminsc commentus sum invent reminscor reminsc ---- remember nancscor nancsc nanctus acquire 7nactus7 sum nscor nsc ntus sum be born oblvscor oblvsc obltus sum forget pacscor pacsc pactus sum covenant proficscor proficsc profectus sum set out ulcscor ulcsc ultus sum avenge rscor rsc 7rtus1 as be angry ,adj47 vescor vesc ---- eat ,fourth ,conjugation4 #abc4 ,i4 ,,perfect ,,ends ,,in -,v4 audi audre audv audtus hear ,so all regular ,verbs of the ,fourth ,conjugation4 sepeli sepelre sepelv sepultus bury ,,ii4 ,,perfect ,,ends ,,in -,u4 aperi aperre aperu apertus open operi operre operu opertus cover sali salre salu ---- leap ,,iii4 ,,perfect ,,ends ,,in -,s4 saepi saepre saeps saeptus hedge in sanci sancre snx snctus ratify vinci vincre vinx vinctus bind amici amicre ---- amictus envelop fulci fulcre fuls fultus prop up referci refercre refers refertus fill sarci sarcre sars sartus patch hauri haurre haus haustus draw senti sentre sns snsus feel ,,iv4 ,,perfect ,,in - ,,with ,,lengthening ,,of ,,stem ,,vowel4 veni venre vn ventum 7est7 come adveni advenre advn adventum 7est7 arrive inveni invenre invn inventus find ,v4 ,,perfect ,,with ,,loss ,,of ,,reduplication4 reperi reperre repper repertus find comperi comperre comper compertus learn ,,vi4 ,,used ,,only ,,in ,,the ,,present4 feri ferre ---- ---- strike suri surre ---- ---- be hungry ,,vii4 ,,deponents4 largior largr largtus sum bestow ,so many others4 experior experr expertus sum try opperior opperr oppertus sum await rdior rdr rsus sum begin orior orr ortus sum arise ,orior usually follows the ,third ,conjugation in its inflection2 as oreris1 ortur1 ormur2 orerer 7,imp4 ,subj472 orere 7,imper474 mtior mtr mnsus sum measure assentior assentr assnsus sum assent 99 99 99 99 99 ,,irregular ,,verbs4 #abd4 ,a number of ,verbs are called ,irregular4 ,the most important are sum1 d1 ed1 fer1 vol1 nl1 ml1 e1 f4 ,the peculiarity of these ,verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem1 instead of employing a connecting vowel1 as fer-s 7#b;d ,sing4 of fer-71 instead of fer-i-s4 ,they are but the relics of what was once in ,latin a large class of ,verbs4 #abe4 ,the ,inflection of sum has already been given4 ,its various compounds are inflected in the same way4 ,they are-- absum abesse fu am absent ,pres4 ,partic4 absns 7absentis71 absent4 adsum adesse adfu am present dsum deesse dfu am lacking insum inesse nfu am in intersum interesse interfu am among praesum praeesse praefu am in charge of ,pres4 ,partic4 praesns 7praesentis71 present obsum obesse obfu hinder prsum prdesse prfu am of advantage subsum subesse subfu am underneath supersum superesse superfu am left ,,note4--,prsum is compounded of prd 7earlier form of pr7 and sum2 the d disappears before consonants1 as prsumus2 but prdestis4 #abf4 ,possum4 ,in its ,present ,system possum is a compound of pot- 7for pote1 able7 and sum2 potu is from an obsolete potre4 ,,principal ,,parts4 possum1 posse1 potu1 to be able4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 possum1 potes1 potest2 possumus1 potestis1 possunt4 ,imp4 poteram2 potermus4 ,fut4 poter2 poterimus4 ,perf4 potu2 potuimus4 ,plup4 potueram2 potuermus4 ,fut4 ,p4 potuer2 potuerimus4 ,,subjunctive4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 possim1 posss1 possit2 possmus1 posstis1 possint4 ,imp4 possem2 possmus4 ,perf4 potuerim2 potuermus4 ,plup4 potuissem2 potuissmus4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 posse4 ,pres4 potns 7as an adjective74 ,perf4 potuisse4 #abg4 ,d1 ,i give4 ,,principal ,,parts4 d1 dre1 ded1 dtus4 ,active ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 d1 ds1 dat2 dmus1 dtis1 dant4 ,imp4 dbam1 etc42 dbmus4 ,fut4 db1 etc42 dbimus4 ,perf4 ded2 dedimus4 ,plup4 dederam2 dedermus4 ,fut4 ,p4 deder2 dederimus4 ,,subjunctive ,pres4 dem2 dmus4 ,imp4 drem2 drmus4 ,perf4 dederim2 dedermus4 ,plup4 dedissem2 dedissmus4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 d2 dte4 ,fut4 dt2 dtte4 dt4 dant4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 dre4 dns4 ,perf4 dedisse4 ,fut4 dtrus esse4 dtrus4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 dand1 etc4 dtum1 dt4 #a4 ,the passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel4 ,thus3 dr1 dtur1 drtur1 etc4 #b4 ,the archaic and poetic ,present ,subjunctive forms duim1 duint1 perduit1 perduint1 etc41 are not from the root da-1 but from du-1 a collateral root of similar meaning4 #abh4 ,ed1 ,i eat4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ed1 sse1 d1 sus4 ,active ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 ed1 edimus1 s1 stis1 st2 edunt4 ,,subjunctive4 ,imp4 ssem1 ssmus1 sss1 sstis1 sset2 ssent4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 s2 ste4 ,fut4 st2 stte4 st2 edunt4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 sse4 ,passive ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 #c;d ,sing4 stur4 ,,subjunctive4 ,imp4 #c;d ,sing4 sstur4 #a4 ,observe the long vowel of the forms in s-1 which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse1 to be4 #b4 ,note comed1 comsse1 comd1 comsus or comstus1 consume4 #c4 ,the ,present ,subjunctive has edim1 -s1 -it1 etc41 less often edam1 -s1 etc4 #abi4 ,fer1 ,i bear4 ,,principal ,,parts4 fer1 ferre1 tul1 ltus4 ,active ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,pres4 fer1 fers1 fert2 ferimus1 fertis1 ferunt4#df ,imp4 ferbam2 ferbmus4 ,fut4 feram2 fermus4 ,perf4 tul2 tulimus4 ,plup4 tuleram2 tulermus4 ,fut4 ,p4 tuler2 tulerimus4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 feram2 fermus4 ,imp4 ferrem2 ferrmus4 ,perf4 tulerim2 tulermus4 ,plup4 tulissem2 tulissmus4 ,,imperative ,pres4 fer2 ferte4 ,fut4 fert2 fertte4 fert2 ferunt4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 ferre4 ,pres4 ferns4 ,perf4 tulisse4 ,fut4 ltrus esse4 ,fut4 ltrus4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 ,gen4 ferend4 ,dat4 ferend4 ,acc4 ferendum4 ,acc4 ltum4 ,abl4 ferend4 ,abl4 lt4 ,passive ,voice4 feror1 ferr1 ltus sum1 to be borne4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,plural4 ,,singular4 ,pres4 feror1 ferris1 fertur2 ferimur1 ferimin1 feruntur4 ,imp4 ferbar2 ferbmur4 ,fut4 ferar2 fermur4 ,perf4 ltus sum2 lt sumus4 ,plup4 ltus eram2 lt ermus4 ,fut4 ,p4 ltus er2 lt erimus4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 ferar2 fermur4 ,imp4 ferrer2 ferrmur4 ,perf4 ltus sim2 lt smus4 ,plup4 ltus essem2 lt essmus4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 ferre2 ferimim4 ,fut4 fertor2 ---- fertor2 feruntor4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 ferr4 ,perf4 ltus esse4 ,perf4 ltus4 ,fut4 ltum r4 ,fut4 ferendus4 ,so also the ,compounds-- affer afferre attul alltus bring toward aufer auferre abstul abltus take away cnfer cnferre contul colltus compare differ differre distul dltus put off effer efferre extul ltus carry out nfer nferre intul illtus bring against offer offerre obtul obltus present refer referre rettul reltus bring back ,,note4--,the forms sustul and subltus belong to toll4 #acj4 vol1 nl1 ml4 ,,principal ,,parts4 vol1 velle1 volu1 to wish4 nl1 nlle1 nlu1 to be unwilling4 ml1 mlle1 mlu1 to prefer4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 vol1 nl1 ml1 vs1 nn vs1 mvs1 vult2 nn vult2 mvult2 volumus1 nlumus1 mlumus1 vultis1 nn vultis1 mvultis1 volunt4 nlunt4 mlunt4 ,imp4 volbam4 nlbam4 mlbam4 ,fut4 volam4 nlam4 mlam4 ,perf4 volu4 nlu4 mlu4 ,plup4 volueram4 nlueram4 mlueram4 ,fut4 ,p4 voluer4 nluer4 mluer4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 velim1 -s1 -it1 nlim4 mlm4 etc4 ,inf4 vellem1 -s1 -et1 nllem4 mllem4 etc4 ,perf4 voluerim4 nluerim4 mluerim4 ,pluf4 voluissem4 nluissem4 mluissem4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 nl2 nlte4 ,fut4 nlt2 nltte4 nlt2 nlunt4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 velle4 nlle4 mlle4 ,perf4 voluisse4 nluisse4 mluisse ,,participle4 ,pres4 volns nlns4 ---- #aca4 ,f4 ,,principal ,,parts4 f1 fer1 factus sum1 to become1 be made4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular1 ,,plural4 ,pres4 f1 fs1 fit2 fmus1 ftis1 funt4 ,inf4 fbam2 fbmus4 ,fut4 fam2 fmus4 ,perf4 factus sum2 fact sumus4 ,pluf4 factus eram2 fact ermus4 ,fut4 ,p4 factus er2 fact erimus4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres4 fam2 fmus4 ,imp4 fierem2 fiermus4 ,perf4 factus sim2 fact smus4 ,plup4 factus essem2 fact essmus4 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 f2 fte4 ,,participle4 ,,infinitive4 ,pres4 fier4 ,perf4 factus esse4 ,perf4 factus4 ,fut4 factum r4 ,ger4 faciendus4 ,,note4--,a few isolated forms of compounds of f occur2 as1 dfit lacks2 nfit1 begins4 #acb4 ,e4 ,,principal ,,parts4 e1 re1 v1 itum 7est71 to go4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 e1 s1 it2 mus1 tis1 eunt4 ,imp4 bam2 bmus4 ,fut4 b2 bimus4 ,perf4 v 7i72 vimus 7iimus74 ,plup4 veram 7ieram72 vermus 7iermus7 ,fut4 ,p4 ver 7ier72 verimus 7ierimus74 ,,subjunctive4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 eam2 emus4 ,inf4 rem2 rmus4 ,perf4 verim 7ierim72 vermus 7iermus74 ,pluf4 vissem 7iissem1 ssem72 vissmus 7iissmus1 ssmus74 ,,imperative4 ,pres4 2 te4 ,fut4 t2 tte1 t2 eunt4 ,,infinitive4 ,,participle4 ,pres4 re4 ,pres4 ins4 ,perf4 visse 7sse74 7,gen4 euntis47 ,fut4 itrus esse4 ,fut4 itrus4 ,gerundive1 eundum4 ,,gerund4 ,,supine4 eund1 etc4 itum1 it4 #a4 ,transitive compounds of e admit the full ,passive inflection2 as adeor1 adris1 adtur1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,defective ,,verbs4 ,defective ,verbs lack certain forms4 ,the following are the most important3-- #acc4 ,,used ,,mainly ,,in ,,the ,,perfect ,,system4 ,coep1 ,memin1 d1 ,i have ,i remember4 ,i hate4 begun4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,perf4 coep4 memin4 d4 ,plup4 coeperam4 memineram4 deram4 ,fut4 ,p4 coeper4 meminer4 der4 ,,subjunctive4 ,perf4 coeperim4 meminerim4 derim4 ,pluf4 coepissem4 meminissem4 dissem4 ,,imperative4 ,sing4 mement2 ,plur4 mementte4 ,,infinitive4 ,perf4 coepisse4 meminisse4 disse4 ,fut4 coeptrus esse4 srus esse4 ,,participle4 ,perf4 coeptus1 begun4 sus4 ,fut4 coeptrus4 srus4 #a4 ,when coep governs a ,passive ,infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est2 as1 amr coeptus est1 he began to be loved4 #b4 ,note that memin and d1 though ,perfect in form1 are ,present in sense4 ,similarly the ,pluperfect and ,future ,perfect have the force of the ,imperfect and ,future2 as1 memineram1 ,i remembered2 der1 ,i shall hate4 #acd4 ,inquam1 ,i say 7inserted between words of a direct quotation7 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 inquam1 ---- inquis1 ---- inquit2 inquiunt4 ,fut4 ---- ---- inquis1 ---- inquiet4 ---- ,perf4 #c;d ,sing4 inquit4 #ace4 ,aj1 ,i say4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural ,pres4 aj1 ---- as1 ---- ait2 ajunt4 ,imp4 ajbam1 ajbmus1 ajbs1 ajbtis1 ajbat2 ajbant4 ,perf #c;d ,sing4 at4 ,,subjunctive4 ,pres #c;d ,sing4 ajat4 ,,note4--,for asne1 do you mean8 an is common4 #acf4 ,fr1 to speak4 ,this is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses4 ,in the ,present ,system it has-- ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,pres4 ---- ---- ---- ---- ftur4 ---- ,fut4 fbor1 ---- ---- ---- fbitur4 ---- ,impv4 fre4 ,inf4 fr4 ,pres4 fantis1 fant1 etc4 ,partic4 ,gerund1 fand2 ,d4 and ,abl41 fand4 ,g41 ,gerundive1 fandus4 ,,note4--,forms of fr are rare4 ,more frequent are its compounds2 as1-- afftur1 he addresses2 praefmur1 we say in advance4 #acg4 ,,other ,,defective ,,forms4 #a4 ,que1 qure1 quv1 to be able1 and neque1 nequre1 nequv1 to be unable1 are inflected like e1 but occur chiefly in the ,present ,tense1 and there only in special forms4 #b4 ,quaes1 ,i entreat2 quaesumus1 we entreat4 #c4 ,cedo 7#b;d sing4 ,impv471 cette 7#b;d plu472 give me1 tell me4 #d4 ,salv1 salvte1 hail4 ,also ,infinitive1 salvre4 #e4 ,hav 7av71 havte1 hail4 ,also ,infinitive1 havre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,impersonal ,,verbs4 #ach4 ,impersonal ,verbs correspond to the ,english1 it snows1 it seems1 etc4 ,they have no personal subject1 but may take an ,infinitive1 a ,clause1 or a ,neuter ,pronoun2 as1 m pudet hc fcisse1 lit4 it shames me to have done this2 hc decet1 this is fitting4 ,here belong-- ,i4 ,verbs denoting operations of the weather2 as1-- fulget fulsit it lightens tonat tonuit it thunders grandinat ---- it hails ningit ninxit it snows pluit pluit it rains ,,ii4 ,special ,verbs4 paenitet paenitre paenituit it repents piget pigre piguit it grieves pudet pudre puduit it causes shame taedet taedre taeduit it disgusts miseret miserre miseruit it causes pity libet libre libuit it pleases licet licre licuit it is lawful oportet oportre oportuit it is fitting decet decre decuit it is becoming ddecet ddecre ddecuit it is unbecoming rfert rferre rtulit it concerns ,,iii4 ,verbs ,impersonal only in ,special ,senses4 cnstat cnstre cnstitit it is evident praestat praestre praestitit it is better juvat juvre jvit it delights appret apprre appruit it appears placet placre placuit it pleases 7placitum est7 accdit accdere accessit it is added accidit accidere accidit it happens contingit contingere contigit it happens venit venre vnit it turns out interest interesse interfuit it concerns ,,iv4 ,the ,passive of ,intransitive ,verbs2 as1-- tur lit4 it is gone i4e4 some one goes curritur lit4 it is run i4e4 some one runs ventum est lit4 it has been come i4e4 some one has come veniendum est lit4 it must be come i4e4 somebody must come pugnr potest lit4 it can be fought i4e4 somebody can fight 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,iii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,particles4 99 99 99 99 99 #aci4 ,particles are the four ,parts of ,speech that do not admit of inflection2 viz4 ,adverbs1 ,prepositions1 ,conjunctions1 ,interjections4 ,,adverbs4 #adj4 ,adverbs denote manner1 place1 time1 or degree ,most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage4 ,the common adverbial terminations have already been given above 7 #gf74 ,the following ,,table ,,of ,,correlatives is important3-- ,,relative ,,and ,,demonstrative4 ,,indefinite4 ,,interrogative4 ubi1 where2 where8 hc1 here4 alicub1 squam1 ibi1 illc1 istc1 spiam1 somewhere4 there4 qu1 whither2 hc1 hither4 aliqu1 to some whither8 e1 istc1 illc1 place4 thither4 unde1 whence2 hinc1 hence4 alicunde1 from whence8 inde1 istinc1 illinc1 somewhere4 thence4 qu1 where2 where8 hc1 by this way4 aliqu1 by some way4 e1 istc1 illc1 by that way4 cum1 when4 nunc1 now4 aliquand1 umquam1 quand1 when8 tum1 tunc1 then4 sometime1 ever4 quotins1 as often totins1 so often4 aliquotins1 some as2 how often8 number of times4 quam1 as much as2 tam1 so much4 aliquantum1 how much8 somewhat4 ,,prepositions4 #ada4 ,prepositions show relations of words4 ,the following ,prepositions govern the ,accusative3-- ad1 to4 contr1 against4 post1 after4 adversus1 erg1 toward4 praeter1 past4 against4 extr1 outside4 prope1 near4 adversum1 toward1 nfr1 below4 propter1 on account against4 inter1 between4 of4 ante1 before4 intr1 within4 secundum1 after4 apud1 with1 jxt1 near4 subter1 beneath4 near4 ob1 on account super1 over4 circ1 around4 of4 supr1 above4 circiter1 about4 penes1 in the hands trns1 across4 circum1 around4 of4 ultr1 beyond4 cis1 this side per1 through4 versus1 toward4 of4 pne1 behind4 citr1 this side of4 #a4 sque is often prefixed to ad1 in the sense of even2 as1-- sque ad urbem1 even to the city4 #b4 ,versus always follows its case2 as1-- ,rmam versus1 toward ,rome4 ,it may be combined with a preceding ,preposition2 as1-- ad urbem versus1 toward the city4 #c4 ,like prope1 the ,comparatives propior1 propius1 and the ,superlatives proximus1 proxim1 sometimes govern the ,accusative2 as1-- ,ubi proxim ,rhnum incolunt1 the ,ubii dwell next to the ,rhine2 propius castra hostium1 nearer the camp of the enemy4 #adb4 ,the following ,prepositions govern the ,ablative3-- 1 ab1 abs1 from1 cum1 with4 pr1 in front of1 by4 d1 from1 for4 absque1 without4 concerning4 sine1 without4 cram1 in the 1 ex1 from out tenus1 up to4 presence of4 of4 prae1 before4 #a4 1 ab1 abs4 ,before vowels or h1 ab must be used2 before consonants we find sometimes 1 sometimes ab 7the latter usually not before the labials b1 p1 f1 v1 m2 nor before c1 g1 q1 or t72 abs occurs only before t1 and is admissible even there4 #b4 1 ex4 ,before vowels or h1 ex must be used2 before consonants we find sometimes 1 sometimes ex4 #c4 ,tenus regularly follows its case1 as1 pectoribus tenus1 up to the breast4 ,it sometimes governs the ,genitive1 as1 labrrum tenus1 as far as the lips4 #d4 ,cum is appended to the ,pronouns of the ,first and ,second ,persons1 and to the ,reflexive ,pronoun2 usually also to the ,relative and ,interrogative4 ,thus3-- mcum nbscum qucum or cum qu tcum vbscum qucum or cum qu scum quibuscum or cum quibus ,on qucum1 see #hi1 ,footnote #bg4 #adc4 ,two ,prepositions1 in1 in1 into1 and sub1 under1 govern both the ,accusative and the ,ablative4 ,with the ,accusative they denote motion2 with the ,ablative1 rest2 as1-- in urbem1 into the city2 in urbe1 in the city4 #a4 ,subter and super are also occasionally construed with the ,ablative4 #add4 ,,relation ,,of ,,adverbs ,,and ,,prepositions4 #a4 ,prepositions were originally ,adverbs1 and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning2 as1 post1 afterwards2 ante1 previously2 contr1 on the other hand1 etc4 #b4 ,conversely several words1 usually adverbs1 are occasionally employed as prepositions2 as1-- clam1 prdi1 with the ,accusative4 procul1 simul1 palam1 with the ,ablative4 #c4 ,anstrophe4 ,a ,preposition sometimes follows its case4 ,this is called ,anstrophe2 as1-- e1 qus inter erat1 those among whom he was4 ,anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions4 ,,conjunctions ,,and ,,interjections4 #ade4 #a4 ,conjunctions are used to connect ideas4 ,for ,cordinate ,conjunctions1 see #cda ff4 ,subordinate ,conjunctions are treated in connection with ,subordinate ,clauses4 #b4 ,interjections express emotion4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,surprise2 as1 n1 ecce1 4 #b4 ,joy2 as1 i1 euoe4 #c4 ,sorrow and ,pain2 as1 heu1 heu1 vae1 pr4 #d4 ,calling2 as1 heus1 eho4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,iv4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,word-,,formation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,,derivatives4 #adf4 ,derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called ,suffixes to stems of verbs1 nouns1 or adjectives4 ,a4 ,,nouns4 #a4 ,nouns derived from ,verbs4 #adg4 #a4 ,the suffix -tor 7-sor71 ,fem4 -trx1 denotes the agent2 as1-- victor1 victrx1 victor2 dfnsor1 defender4 ,,note4--,the suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems2 as1-- gladitor1 gladiator 7from gladius74 #b4 ,the suffix -or 7originally -s7 denotes an activity or a condition2 as1-- amor1 love2 timor1 fear2 dolor1 pain4 #c4 ,the suffixes -ti 7-si71 ,gen4 -nis1 and -tus 7-sus71 ,gen4 -s1 denote an action as in process2 as1-- vnti1 hunting2 obsessi1 blockade2 gemitus1 sighing2 cursus1 running4 ,,note4--,rarer endings with the same force are3-- a7 -tra1 -sra2 as1-- sepultra1 burial2 mnsra1 measuring4 b7 -ium2 as1-- gaudium1 rejoicing4 c7 -d2 as1-- cupd1 desire4 #d4 ,the suffixes -men1 -mentum1 -crum1 -trum1 -bulum1 -culum1 denote the means or place of an action2 as1-- lmen 7lc-s-men71 light2 vocbulum1 word2 rnmentum1 ornament2 documentum1 proof2 sepulcrum1 grave2 artrum1 plough2 vehiculum1 carriage4 #b4 ,nouns derived from ,nouns4 #adh4 #a4 ,diminutives end in-- -ulus1 7-ula1 -ulum7 -olus1 7-ola1 -olum71 after a vowel -culus1 7-cula1 -culum7 -ellus1 7-ella1 -ellum7 -illus1 7-illa1 -illum7 as1-- ndulus1 little nest 7ndus72 virgula1 wand 7virga72 oppidulum1 little town 7oppidum72 fliolus1 little son 7flius72 opusculum1 little work 7opus72 tabella1 tablet 7tabula72 lapillus1 pebble 7lapis74 ,,note #a4--;,it will be observed that in gender the ,diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived4 ,,note #b4--,the endings -ellus1 -illus contain the primitive form of the diminutive suffix1 viz41 -lo-4 ,thus3-- agellus1 field1 for ager-lus2 lapillus1 pebble1 for lapid-lus4 #b4 ,the suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection of such persons or their function2 as1-- collgium1 a corporation1 body of colleagues 7collga72 sacerdtium1 priestly function 7sacerds74 #c4 ,the suffixes -rium1 -tum1 -le designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abundance2 as1-- columbrium1 dove-cote 7columba72 olvtum1 olive-orchard 7olva72 ovle1 sheep-fold 7ovis74 #d4 ,the suffix -tus denotes official position or honor2 as1-- cnsultus1 consulship 7cnsul74 #e4 ,the suffix -na appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried on2 as1-- doctrna1 teaching 7doctor1 teacher72 medicna1 the art of healing 7medicus1 physician72 strna1 cobbler's shop 7stor1 cobbler74 #f4 ,patronymics are ,greek proper names denoting son of 4441 daughter of 4444 ,they have the following suffixes3-- a7 ,masculines3 -ids1 -ads1 -ds2 as1 ,priamids1 son of ,priam2 ,aeneads1 son of ,aeneas2 ,plds1 son of ,peleus4 b7 ,feminines3 -is1 -is1 -ias2 as1 ,nris1 daughter of ,nereus2 ,atlantis1 daughter of ,atlas2 ,thaumantias1 daughter of ,thaumas4 #c4 ,nouns derived from ,adjectives4 #adi4 ,the suffixes -ts 7-its71 -td 7-itd71 -ia1 -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities2 as1-- bonits1 goodness2 celerits1 swiftness2 magnitd1 greatness2 audcia1 boldness2 amcitia1 friendship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,b4 ,,adjectives4 #a4 ,adjectives derived from ,verbs4 #aej4 #a4 ,the suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle2 as1-- tremebundus1 trembling2 jcundus 7juv71 pleasing4 #b4 ,the suffixes -x and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency1 mostly a faulty one2 as1-- loqux1 loquacious2 crdulus1 credulous4 #c4 ,the suffix -idus denotes a state2 as1-- calidus1 hot2 timidus1 timid2 cupidus1 eager4 #d4 ,the suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability1 usually in a passive sense2 as1-- fragilis1 fragile 7i4e4 capable of being broken72 docilis1 docile4 #b4 ,adjectives derived from ,nouns4 a7 ,from ,common ,nouns4 #aea4 #a4 ,the suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or materials2 as1-- aureus1 of gold2 ferreus1 of iron2 fginus1 of beech4 #b4 ,the suffixes -ius1 -icus1 -lis1 -lis1 -ris1 -rius1 -nus1 -nus1 -nus1 -vus1 -nsis signify belonging to1 connected with2 as1-- rtrius1 oratorical2 leginrius1 legionary2 bellicus1 pertaining to war2 paternus1 paternal2 cvlis1 civil2 urbnus1 of the city2 rglis1 regal2 marnus1 marine2 cnsulris1 consular2 aestvus1 pertaining to summer2 circnsis1 belonging to the circus4 #c4 ,the suffixes -sus and -lentus denote fullness2 as1-- perculsus1 full of danger1 glrisus1 glorious2 dangerous2 opulentus1 wealthy4 #d4 ,the suffix -tus has the force of provided with2 as1-- barbtus1 bearded2 stelltus1 set with stars4 b7 ,from ,proper ,names4 #aeb4 #a4 ,names of persons take the suffixes3 -nus1 -inus1 -nus2 as1-- ,catninus1 belonging to ,plautnus1 belonging to ,cato2 ,plautus4 #b4 ,names of nations take the suffixes -icus1 -ius2 as1-- ,germnicus1 ,german2 ,thrcius1 ,thracian4 #c4 ,names of places take the suffixes -nus1 -nus1 -nsis1 -aeus1 -ius2 as1-- ,rmnus1 ,roman2 ,athninsis1 ,athenian2 ,amernus1 of ,ameria2 ,smyrnaeus1 of ,smyrna2 ,corinthius1 ,corinthian4 ,,note4-- -nus and -nsis1 appended to names of countries1 designate something stationed in the country or connected with it1 but not indigenous2 as1-- bellum fricnum1 a war 7of ,romans with ,romans7 in ,africa4 bellum ,hispninse1 a war carried on in ,spain4 legines ,gallicnae1 7,roman7 legions stationed in ,gaul4 #c4 ,adjectives derived from ,adjectives4 #aec4 ,diminutives in -lus sometimes occur2 as1-- parvolus1 little2 misellus 7passer71 poor little 7sparrow72 pauperculus1 needy4 #d4 ,adjectives derived from ,adverbs4 #aed4 ,these end in -ernus1 -ternus1 -tnus1 -tnus2 as1-- hodiernus1 of to-day 7hodi72 hesternus1 of yesterday 7her72 intestnus1 internal 7intus72 ditinus1 long-lasting 7di74 99 99 99 99 99 ,c4 ,,verbs4 #a4 ,verbs derived from ,verbs4 #aee4 #a4 ,,inceptives ,,or ,,inchoatives4 ,these end in -sc1 and are formed from ,present ,stems4 ,they denote the beginning of an action2 as1-- labsc1 begin to totter 7from lab72 horrsc1 grow rough 7from horre72 tremsc1 begin to tremble 7from trem72 obdormsc1 fall asleep 7from dormi74 #b4 ,,frequentatives ,,or ,,intensives4 ,these denote a repeated or energetic action4 ,they are formed from the ,participial ,stem1 and end in -t or -s4 ,those derived from verbs of the ,first ,conjugation end in -it 7not -t1 as we should expect74 ,examples of ,frequentatives are-- jact1 toss about1 brandish 7from jaci1 hurl72 curs1 run hither and thither 7from curr1 run72 volit1 flit about 7from vol1 fly74 a4 ,some double ,frequentatives occur2 as1-- cantit1 sing over and over 7cant72 cursit1 keep running about 7curs72 ventit1 keep coming4 b4 agit1 set in motion1 is formed from the ,present ,stem4 #c4 ,,desideratives4 ,these denote a desire to do something4 ,they are formed from the ,participial ,stem1 and end in -uri2 as1-- suri1 desire to eat1 am hungry 7ed72 parturi1 want to bring forth1 am in 7pari74 labor #b4 ,verbs derived from ,nouns and ,adjectives 7,denominatives74 #aef4 ,denominatives of the ,first ,conjugation are mostly transitive2 those of the ,second exclusively intransitive4 ,those of the ,third and ,fourth ,conjugations are partly transitive1 partly intransitive4 ,examples are-- a7 ,from ,nouns3-- fraud1 defraud 7fraus72 vesti1 clothe 7vestis72 flre1 bloom 7fls74 b7 ,from ,adjectives3-- lber1 free 7lber72 saevi1 be fierce 7saevus74 99 99 99 99 99 ,d4 ,,adverbs4 #aeg4 #a4 ,adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the ,participial ,stem by means of the suffix -im2 as1-- certtim1 emulously 7cert72 cursim1 in haste 7curr72 statim1 immediately 7st74 #b4 ,adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed3-- a7 ,with the suffixes -tim 7-sim71 -tim2 as1-- gradtim1 step by step2 paultim1 gradually2 virtim1 man by man4 b7 ,with the suffix -tus2 as1-- antquitus1 of old2 rdcitus1 from the roots4 c7 ,with the suffix -ter2 as1-- breviter1 briefly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,compounds4 #aeh4 #a4 ,compounds are formed by the union of simple words4 ,the second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound2 the first member expresses some modification of this4 #b4 ,vowel changes often occur in the process of composition4 ,thus3-- a4 ,in the second member of compounds4 7,see #g1 #a47 b4 ,the final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often appears as where we should expect or 2 sometimes it is dropped altogether1 and in case of consonant stems is often inserted2 as1-- signifer1 standard-bearer2 tubicen1 trumpeter2 magnanimus1 high-minded2 mtricda1 matricide4 #aei4 ,,examples ,,of ,,compounds4 #a4 ,nouns3-- a7 ,preposition ,noun2 as1-- d-decus1 disgrace2 pro-avus1 great-grandfather4 b7 ,noun ,verb ,stem2 as1-- agri-cola1 farmer2 frtri-cda1 fratricide4 #b4 ,adjectives3-- a7 ,preposition ,adjective 7or ,noun72 as1-- per-magnus1 very great2 sub-obscrus1 rather obscure2 -mns1 frantic4 b7 ,adjective ,noun2 as1-- magn-animus1 great-hearted2 celeri-ps1 swift-footed4 c7 ,noun ,verb ,stem2 as1-- parti-ceps1 sharing2 morti-fer1 death-dealing4 #c4 ,verbs3-- ,the second member is always a verb4 ,the first may be-- a7 ,a ,noun2 as1-- aedi-fic1 build4 b7 ,an ,adjective2 as1-- ampli-fic1 enlarge4 c7 ,an ,adverb2 as1-- male-dc1 rail at4 d7 ,another ,verb2 as1-- cale-faci1 make warm4 e7 ,a ,preposition2 as1-- ab-jung1 detach2 re-fer1 bring back2 dis-cern1 distinguish2 ex-spect1 await4 ,,note4--,here belong the so-called ,,inseparable ,,prepositions3 ambi- 7amb-71 around2 dis- 7dir-1 di-71 apart1 asunder2 por-1 forward2 red- 7re-71 back2 sd- 7s-71 apart from2 v-1 without4 #d4 ,adverbs3-- ,these are of various types2 as1-- ante1 before2 lc 7in loc71 on the spot2 imprms1 especially2 obviam1 in the way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,syntax4 99 99 99 99 99 #afj4 ,syntax treats of the use of words in sentences ,,chapter ,i4--,sentences4 ,,classification ,,of ,,sentences4 #afa4 ,sentences may be classified as follows3-- #a4 ,,declarative1 which state something2 as1-- puer scrbit1 the boy is writing4 #b4 ,,interrogative1 ,which ask a question2 as1-- quid puer scrbit1 what is the boy writing8 #c4 ,,exclamatory1 which are in the form of an exclamation2 as1-- quot librs scrbit1 how many books he writes6 #d4 ,,imperative1 which express a command or an admonition2 as1-- scrbe1 write6 ,,form ,,of ,,interrogative ,,sentences4 #afb4 ,questions may be either ,word-,questions or ,sentence-,questions4 #a4 ,word-,questions4 ,these are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs1 such as--quis1 qu1 qulis1 quantus1 quot1 quotins1 qu1 qu1 etc4 ,thus3-- quis venit1 who comes8 quam d manbit1 how long will he stay8 #b4 ,sentence-,questions4 ,these are introduced-- a7 ,by nnne implying the answer 'yes'2 as1-- nnne vidtis1 do you not see8 b7 ,by num implying the answer 'no'2 as1-- num exspects1 do you expect8 7i4e4 you don't expect1 do you87 c7 by the enclitic -ne1 appended to the emphatic word 7which usually stands first71 and simply asking for information2 as1-- vidsne1 do you see8 ,a question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the context2 as1-- snsistne1 did you not perceive8 d7 ,sometimes by no special word1 particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation2 as1-- t in jdicum cnspectum venre auds1 do you dare to come into the presence of the judges8 #c4 ,rhetorical ,questions4 ,these are questions merely in form1 being employed to express an emphatic assertion2 as1 quis dubitat1 who doubts8 7 no one doubts74 #d4 ,double ,questions4 ,double ,questions are introduced by the following particles3-- utrum 444 an2 -ne 444 an2 ---- 444 an4 ,if the second member is negative1 annn 7less often necne7 is used4 ,examples3-- utrum honestum est an turpe1 honestumne est an turpe1 is it honorable or base8 honestum est an turpe1 suntne d annn1 are there gods or not8 a4 ,an was not originally confined to double questions1 but introduced single questions1 having the force of -ne1 nnne1 or num4 ,traces of this use survive in classical ,latin2 as1-- rbus gerends abstrahit senects4 ,quibus8 ,an es quae juventte geruntur et vrbus8 ,old age 7it is alleged7 withdraws men from active pursuits4 ,from what pursuits8 ,is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth8 #e4 ,answers4 a4 ,the answer ,,yes is expressed by ita1 etiam1 vr1 sn1 or by repetition of the verb2 as1-- 'vsne locum mtmus8' 'sn'4 ',shall we change the place8' ',certainly4' 'estsne vs lgat8' 'sumus4' ',are you envoys8' ',yes4' b4 ,the answer ,,no is expressed by nn1 minim1 minim vr1 or by repeating the verb with a negative2 as1-- 'jam ea praeteriit8' 'nn4' ',has it passed8' ',no4' 'estne frter intus8' 'nn est4' ',is your brother within8' ',no4' ,,subject ,,and ,,predicate4 #afc4 ,the two essential parts of a sentence are the ,,subject and ,,predicate4 ,the ,,subject is that concerning which something is said1 asked1 etc4 ,the ,,predicate is that which is said1 asked1 etc41 concerning the ,,subject4 ,,simple ,,and ,,compound ,,sentences4 #afd4 ,sentences containing but one ,subject and one ,predicate are called ,,simple ,,sentences1 those containing more are called ,,compound ,,sentences4 ,thus puer librs legit1 the boy reads books1 is a ,simple ,sentence2 but puer librs legit et epistuls scrbit1 the boy reads books and writes letters1 is a ,compound ,sentence4 ,the different members of a ,compound ,sentence are called ,clauses4 #afe4 ,,co,,rdinate ,,and ,,subordinate ,,clauses4 ,clauses which stand upon an equality are called ,,co,,rdinate2 a ,clause dependent on another is called ,,subordinate4 ,thus in puer librs legit et epistuls scrbit the two clauses are ,cordinate2 but in puer librs legit qus pater scrbit1 the boy reads the books which his father writes1 the second clause is ,subordinate to the first4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,syntax of ,nouns4 ,,subject4 #aff4 ,the ,subject of a ,finite ,verb 7i4e4 any form of the ,indicative1 ,subjunctive1 or ,imperative7 is in the ,nominative ,case4 #a4 ,the ,subject may be-- a7 ,a ,noun or ,pronoun2 as1-- puer scrbit1 the boy writes2 hc scrbit1 this man writes4 b7 ,an ,infinitive2 as1-- decrum est pr patri mor1 to die for one's county is a noble thing4 c7 ,a ,clause2 as1-- opportn accdit quod vdist1 it happened opportunely that you saw4 #b4 ,a ,personal ,pronoun as ,subject is usually implied in the ,verb and is not separately expressed2 as1-- scrb1 ,i write2 videt1 he sees4 a4 ,but for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the ,pronoun is expressed2 as1-- ego scrb et t legis1 ,i write1 and you read4 #c4 ,the verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context1 especially the auxiliary sum2 as1-- rct ille 7sc4 facit71 he does rightly2 consul profectus 7sc4 est71 the consul set out4 ,,predicate ,,nouns4 #afg4 ,a ,,predicate ,,noun is one connected with the ,subject by some form of the verb ,sum or a similar verb4 #afh4 ,a ,predicate ,noun agrees with its ,subject in ,case2#dg as1-- ,cicer rtor fuit1 ,cicero was an orator2 ,numa cretus est rx1 ,numa was elected king4 #a4 when possible1 the ,predicate ,noun usually agrees with its ,subect in ,gender also2 as1-- philosophia est vtae magistra1 philosophy is the guide of life4 #b4 ,besides sum1 the verbs most frequently accompanied by a ,predicate ,noun are-- a7 fi1 vd1 exsist2 mane2 videor2 as1-- ,croesus nn semper mnsit rx1 ,croesus did not always remain king4 b7 ,passive verbs of making1 calling1 regarding1 etc42 as1 creor1 appellor1 habeor2 as1-- ,rmulus rx appellatus est1 ,romulus was called king2 habitus est deus1 he was regarded as a god4 ,,appositives4 #afi4 #a4 ,an ,appositive is a ,noun explaining or defining another ,noun denoting the same person or thing2 as1-- ,cicer cnsul1 ,cicero1 the ,consul2 urbs ,rma1 the city ,rome4 #b4 ,an ,appositive agrees with its ,subject in ,case2 as1-- opera ,cicerns rtris1 the works of ,cicero1 the orator2 apud ,hrodotum1 patrem historiae1 in the works of ,herodotus1 the father of history4 #c4 ,when possible1 the ,appositive agrees with its ,subject in ,gender also2 as1-- assentti adjtrx vitirum1 flattery1 the promoter of evils4 #d4 ,a ,locative may take in ,apposition the ,ablative of urbs or oppidum1 with or without a preposition2 as1-- ,corinth1 ,achiae urbe1 or in ,achiae urbe1 at ,corinth1 a city of ,greece4 #e4 ,,partitive ,,apposition4 ,a ,noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an ,appositive denoting a part2 as1-- mlits1 fortissimus quisque1 hostibus restitrunt1 the soldiers1 all the bravest of them1 resisted the enemy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cases4 ,,the ,,nominative4 #agj4 ,the ,nominative is confined to its use as ,subject1 ,appositive1 or ,predicate ,noun1 as already explained4 ,see #aff-afi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,vocative4 #aga4 ,the ,vocative is the ,case of direct address2 as1-- crdite mihi1 jdics1 believe me1 judges4 #a4 ,by a species of attraction1 the ,nominative is occasionally used for the ,vocative1 especially in poetry and formal prose2 as1 aud t1 populus ,albnus1 hear ye1 ,alban people6 #b4 ,similarly the ,appositive of a ,vocative may1 in poetry1 stand in the ,nominative2 as1 nte1 mea magna potentia slus1 ,o son1 alone the source of my great power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,accusative4 #agb4 ,the ,accusative is the ,case of the ,direct ,object4 #agc4 ,the ,direct ,object may express either of the two following relations3-- ,a4 ,the ,,person ,,or ,,thing ,,affected by the action2 as1-- cnsulem interfcit1 he slew the consul2 leg librum1 ,i read the book4 ,b4 ,the ,,result ,,produced by the action2 as1-- librum scrps1 ,i wrote a book 7i4e4 produced one72 templum struit1 he constructs a temple4 #agd4 ,verbs that admit a ,direct ,object of either of these two types are ,,transitive ,,verbs4 a4 ,verbs that regularly take a ,direct ,object are sometimes used without it4 ,they are then said to be employed absolutely2 as1-- rmor est meum gntum amre1 it is rumored that my son is in love4 ,accusative of the ,person or ,thing ,affected4 #age4 #a4 ,this is the most frequent use of the ,accusative2 as in-- parents ammus1 we love our parents2 mare aspicit1 he gazes at the sea4 #b4 ,the following classes of ,verbs taking an ,accusative of this kind are worthy of note3-- a7 ,many ,intransitive ,verbs1 when compounded with a ,preposition1 become ,transitive4 ,thus3-- #a7 ,compounds of circum1 praeter1 trns2 as1-- hosts circumstre1 to surround the enemy2 urbem praeterre1 to pass by the city2 mrs trnscendere1 to climb over the walls4 #b7 ,less frequently1 compounds of ad1 per1 in1 sub2 as1-- adre urbem1 to visit the city2 peragrre ,italiam1 to travel through ,italy2 inre magistrtum1 to take office2 subre perculum1 to undergo danger4 b7 ,many ,verbs expressing emotions1 regularly ,intransitive1 have also a ,transitive use2 as1-- queror ftum1 ,i lament my fate2 dole ejus mortem1 ,i grieve at his death2 rde tuam stultitiam1 ,i laugh at your folly4 ,so also lge1 maere1 mourn2 gem1 bemoan2 horre1 shudder1 and others4 c7 ,the impersonals decet1 it becomes2 ddecet1 it is unbecoming2 juvat1 it pleases1 take the ,accusative of the ,person ,affected2 as1-- m decet haec dcere1 it becomes me to say this4 d7 ,in poetry many ,passive ,verbs1 in imitation of ,greek usage1 are employed as ,middles 7 #bef1 #a2 #b71 and take the ,accusative as ,object2 as1-- galeam induitur1 he puts on his helmet2 cnctus tempora heder1 having bound his temples with ivy2 nd sinus collcta1 having gathered her dress in a knot4 ,accusative of the ,result ,produced4 #agf4 #a4 ,the ordinary type of this ,accusative is seen in such expressions as-- librum scrb1 ,i write a book2 domum aedific1 ,i build a house4 #b4 ,many ,verbs usually ,intransitive take a ,neuter ,pronoun1 or ,adjective1 as an ,accusative of ,result4 ,thus3-- a7 ,a ,neuter ,pronoun2 as1-- haec gembat1 he made these moans2 idem glrir1 to make the same boast2 eadem peccat1 he makes the same mistakes4 b7 ,a ,neuter ,adjective1--particularly ,adjectives of number or amount1--multum1 multa1 pauca1 etc42 also nihil2 as1-- multa ege1 ,i have many needs2 pauca studet1 he has few interests2 multum valet1 he has great strength2 nihil peccat1 he makes no mistake4 ,,note4--,in poetry other ,adjectives are freely used in this construction2 as-- minitantem vna1 making vain threats2 acerba tuns1 giving a fierce look2 dulce loquentem1 sweetly talking4 #c4 ,the adverbial use of several ,neuter ,pronouns and ,adjectives grows out of this ,accusative2 as1-- multum sunt in vntine1 they are much engaged in hunting4 a4 ,so also plrimum1 very greatly2 plrumque1 generally2 aliquid1 somewhat2 quid1 why8 nihil1 not at all2 etc4 #d4 ,sometimes an ,intransitive ,verb takes an ,accusative of ,result which is of kindred etymology with the ,verb4 ,this is called a ,,cognate ,,accusative1 and is usually modified by an ,adjective2 as1-- sempiternam servittem serviat1 let him serve an everlasting slavery2 vtam dram vx1 ,i have lived a hard life4 a4 ,sometimes the ,cognate ,accusative is not of kindred etymology1 but merely of kindred meaning2 as1-- stadium currit1 he runs a race2 ,olympia vincit1 he wins an ,olympic victory4 #e4 ,the ,accusative of ,result occurs also after ,verbs of tasting and smelling2 as1-- piscis mare sapit1 the fish tastes of the sea2 rtins antquittem redolent1 the speeches smack of the past4 ,two ,accusatives--,direct ,object and ,predicate ,accusative4 #agg4 ,many ,verbs of ,making1 ,choosing1 ,calling1 ,showing1 and the like1 take two ,accusatives1 one of the ,person or ,thing ,affected1 the other a ,predicate ,accusative2 as1-- m hrdem fcit1 he made me heir4 ,here m is ,direct ,object1 hrdm ,predicate ,accusative4 ,so also-- eum jdicem cpre1 they took him as judge2 urbem ,rmam vocvit1 he called the city ,rome2 s virum praestitit1 he showed himself a man4 #b4 ,the ,predicate ,accusative may be an ,adjective as well as a ,noun2 as1-- homins caecs reddit cupidits1 covetousness renders men blind2 ,apoll ,scratem sapientissimum jdicvit1 ,apollo adjudged ,socrates the wisest man4 a4 ,some ,verbs1 as redd1 usually admit only an ,adjective as the ,predicate ,accusative4 #c4 ,in the ,passive the ,direct ,object becomes the ,subject1 and the ,predicate ,accusative becomes ,predicate ,nominative 7 #afh1 #b1 b73 as1-- urbs ,rma vocta est1 the city was called ,rome4 a4 ,not all ,verbs admit the ,passive construction2 redd and effici1 for example1 never take it4 ,two ,accusatives--,person and ,thing4 #agh4 #a4 ,some ,verbs take two ,accusatives1 one of the ,person ,affected1 the other of the ,result ,produced4 ,thus3-- a7 ,verbs of requesting and demanding2 as1-- tium dvs rogat1 he asks the gods for rest2 m dus rtins postuls1 you demand two speeches of me4 ,so also r1 posc1 reposc1 exposc1 flgit1 though some of these prefer the ,ablative with ab to the ,accusative of the ,person2 as1-- opem t posc1 ,i demand aid of you4 b7 ,verbs of teaching 7doce and its compounds72 as1-- t litters doce1 ,i teach you your letters4 c7 ,verbs of inquiring2 as1-- t haec rog1 ,i ask you this2 t sententiam rog1 ,i ask you your opinion4 d7 ,several ,special ,verbs2 viz4 mone1 admone1 commone1 cg1 accs1 argu1 and a few others4 ,these admit only a ,neuter ,pronoun or ,adjective as ,accusative of the ,thing2 as1-- hc t mone1 ,i give you this advice2 m id accss1 you bring this accusation against me2 id cgit ns ntra1 nature compels us 7to7 this4 e7 ,one ,verb of concealing1 cl2 as1-- nn t clv sermnem1 ,i have not concealed the conversation from you4 #b4 ,in the ,passive construction the ,accusative of the ,person becomes the ,subject1 and the ,accusative of the ,thing is retained2 as1-- omns arts doctus est1 he was taught all accomplishments2 rogtus sum sententiam1 ,i was asked my opinion2 multa dmonmur1 we are given many admonitions4 a4 ,only a few ,verbs admit the ,passive construction4 ,two ,accusatives with ,compounds4 #agi4 #a4 ,transitive compounds of trns may take two ,accusatives1 one dependent upon the ,verb1 the other upon the ,preposition1 as1-- mlits flmen trnsportat1 he leads his soldiers across the river4 #b4 ,with other compounds this construction is rare4 #c4 ,in the ,passive the ,accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained2 as1-- mlits flmen trdcbantur1 the soldiers were led across the river4 ,synecdochical 7or ,greek7 ,accusative4 #ahj4 #a4 ,the ,synecdochical 7or ,greek7 ,accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers2 as1-- tremit arts1 literally1 he trembles as to his limbs1 i4e4 his limbs tremble2 nda gen1 lit4 bare as to the knee1 i4e4 with knee bare2 mans revinctus1 lit4 tied as to the hands1 i4e4 with hands tied4 #b4 ,note that this construction-- a7 ,is borrowed from the ,greek4 b7 ,is chiefly confined to poetry4 c7 ,usually refers to a part of the body4 d7 ,is used with ,adjectives as well as ,verbs4 ,accusative of ,time and ,space4 #aha4 #a4 ,duration of ,time and ,extent of ,space are denoted by the ,accusative2 as1-- quadrgint anns vxit1 he lived forty years2 hc locus passs sescents aberat1 this place was six hundred paces away2 arbors qunqugint peds altae1 trees fifty feet high2 abhinc septem anns1 seven years ago4 #b4 ,emphasis is sometimes added by using the ,preposition per2 as1 per biennium labrv1 ,i toiled throughout two years4 ,accusative of ,limit of ,motion4 #ahb4 #a4 ,the ,accusative of ,limit of ,motion is used-- a7 ,with names of ,towns1 ,small ,islands1 and ,peninsulas2 as1-- ,rmam vn1 ,i came to ,rome2 ,athns proficscitur1 he sets out for ,athens2 ,dlum pervn1 ,i arrived at ,delos4 b7 ,with domum1 doms1 rs2 as1-- domum revertitur1 he returns home2 rs b1 ,i shall go to the country4 ,,note4--,when domus means house 7i4e4 building71 it takes a preposition2 as1-- in domum veterem remigrre1 to move back to an old house4 #b4 ,other designations of place than those above mentioned require a ,preposition to denote ,limit of ,motion2 as1-- ad ,italiam vnit1 he came to ,italy4 a4 ,the ,preposition is also customary with the ,accusatives urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town2 as1-- ,thalam1 in oppidum magnum1 to ,thala1 a large town2 ,genavam ad oppidum1 to the town ,geneva4 b4 ,the name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition2 as1-- ,thris in ,italiam pervectus1 carried to ,thurii in ,italy2 cum ,acn ad exercitum vnisset1 when he had come to the army at ,ace4 #c4 ,to denote toward1 to the vicinity of1 in the vicinity of1 ad is used2 as1-- ad ,tarentum vn1 ,i came to the vicinity of ,tarentum2 ad ,canns pugna facta est1 a battle was fought near ,cannae4 #d4 ,in poetry the ,accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion2 as1-- ,italiam vnit1 he came to ,italy4 #e4 ,the goal notion seems to represent the original function of the ,accusative ,case4 ,traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase nfitis re1 to deny 7lit4 to go to a denial71 and a few other similar expressions4 ,accusative in ,exclamations4 #ahc4 ,the ,accusative1 generally modified by an ,adjective1 is used in ,exclamations2 as1-- m miserum1 ah1 wretched me6 fallcem spem1 oh1 deceptive hope6 ,accusative as ,subject of the ,infinitive4 #ahd4 ,the ,subject of the ,infinitive is put in the ,accusative2 as1-- vide hominem abre1 ,i see that the man is going away4 ,other ,uses of the ,accusative4 #ahe4 ,here belong-- #a4 ,some ,accusatives which were originally ,appositives2 viz4-- id genus1 of that kind2 as1 homins id genus1 men of that kind 7originally homins1 id genus hominum1 men1 that kind of men72 virle secus1 muliebre secus1 of the male sex1 of the female sex2 meam vicem1 tuam vicem1 etc41 for my part1 etc42 bonam partem1 magnam partem1 in large part2 maximam partem1 for the most part4 #b4 ,some phrases of doubtful origin2 as1-- id temporis1 at that time2 quod si1 but if2 id aettis1 at that time2 ctera1 in other respects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,dative4 #ahf4 ,the ,dative case1 in general1 expresses relations which are designated in ,english by the prepositions to and for4 ,dative of ,indirect ,object4 #ahg4 ,the commonest use of the ,dative is to denote the person to whom something is given1 said1 or done4 ,thus3-- ,i4 ,with transitive verbs in connection with the ,accusative2 as1-- hanc pecniam mihi dat1 he gives me this money2 haec nbs dxit1 he said this to us4 a4 ,some verbs which take this construction 7particularly dn and circumd7 admit also the ,accusative of the person along with the ,ablative of the thing4 ,thus3-- ,either ,themistocl mnera dnvit1 he presented gifts to ,themistocles1 or ,themistoclem mneribus dnvit1 he presented ,themistocles with gifts2 urb mrs circumdat1 he builds walls around the city1 or urbem mrs circumdat1 he surrounds the city with walls ,,ii4 ,with many intransitive verbs2 as1-- nll labr cdit1 he yields to no labor4 a4 ,here belong many verbs signifying favor1#dh help1 injure1 please1 displease1 trust1 distrust1 command1 obey1 serve1 resist1 indulge1 spare1 pardon1 envy1 threaten1 be angry1 believe1 persuade1 and the like2 as1-- ,caesar populribus favet1 ,caesar favors 7i4e4 is favorable to7 the popular party2 amcs cnfd1 ,i trust 7to7 my friends2 ,orgetorx ,helvtis persusit1 ,orgetorix persuaded 7made it acceptable to7 the ,helvetians2 bons nocet qu mals parcit1 he injures 7does harm to7 the good1 who spares the bad4 ,,note4--,it is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the ,dative by virtue of their apparent ,english equivalence1 but simply because they are intransitive1 and adapted to an indirect object4 ,some verbs of the same apparent ,english equivalence are transitive and govern the ,accusative2 as1 juv1 laed1 dlect4 ,thus3 audents deus juvat1 ,god helps the bold2 nminem laesit he injured no one4 b4 ,verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally2 as1-- tibi parcitur1 you are spared2 mihi persudtur1 ,i am being persuaded2 e invidtur1 he is envied4 c4 ,some of the foregoing verbs admit also a ,direct ,object in connection with the ,dative2 as1-- mihi mortem minittur1 he threatens me with death 7threatens death to me74 ,,iii4 ,with many verbs compounded with the prepositions3 ad1 ante1 circum1 com1#di in1 inter1 ob1 post1 prae1 pr1 sub1 super4 ,these verbs fall into two main classes1-- #a4 ,many simple verbs which cannot take a ,dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition2 as1-- afflcts succurrit1 he helps the aflicted2 exercitu praefuit1 he was in command of the army2 intersum cnsilis1 ,i share in the deliberations4 #b4 ,many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable1 when compounded1 of taking a dative also as indirect object2 as1-- pecniae pudrem antepnit1 he puts honor before money2 inicere spem amcs1 to inspire hope in one's friends2 mntini ,labinum praefcit1 he put ,labienus in charge of the fortifications4 ,dative of ,reference4 #ahh4 #a4 ,the ,dative of ,reference denotes the person to whom a statement refers1 of whom it is true1 or to whom it is of interest2 as1-- mihi ante oculs versris1 you hover before my eyes 7lit4 hover before the eyes to me72 ill sevrits amrem nn dminuit1 in his case severity did not diminish love 7lit4 to him severity did not diminish72 intercldere inimcs commetum1 to cut of the supplies of the enemy4 a4 ,note the phrase alicui interdcere aqu et gn1 to interdict one from fire and water4 ,,note4--,the ,dative of ,reference1 unlike the ,dative of ,indirect ,object1 does not modify the verb1 but rather the sentence as a whole4 ,it is often used where1 according to the ,english idiom1 we should expect a ,genitive2 so in the first and third of the above examples4 #b4 ,special varieties of the ,dative of ,reference are-- a7 ,dative of the ,local ,standpoint4 ,this is regularly a participle2 as1-- oppidum prmum ,thessaliae venientibus ab pr1 the first town of ,thessaly as you come from ,epirus 7lit4 to those coming from ,epirus74 b7 ,ethical ,dative4 ,this name is given to those ,dative constructions of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the ,dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort2 as1-- t mihi istus audciam dfendis8 tell me1 do you defend that man's audacity8 quid mihi ,celsus agit8 what is my ,celsus doing8 c7 ,dative of ,person ,judging2 as1-- erit ille mihi semper deus1 he will always be a god to me 7i4e4 in my opinion72 quae ista servits tam clro homin1 how can that be slavery to so illustrious a man 7i4e4 to his mind76 d7 ,dative of ,separation4 ,some verbs of taking away1 especially compounds of ab1 d1 ex1 ad1 govern a ,dative of the person1 less often of the thing2 as1-- honrem dtrxrunt homin1 they took away the honor from the man2 ,caesar rg tetrarchiam ripuit1 ,caesar took the tetrarchy away from the king2 silic scintillam excdit1 he struck a spark from the flint4 ,dative of ,agency4 #ahi4 ,the ,dative is used to denote agency-- #a4 ,regularly with the ,gerundive2 as1-- haec nbs agenda sunt1 these things must be done by us2 mihi eundum est1 ,i must go 7lit4 it must be gone by me74 a4 ,to avoid ambiguity1 with the ,ablative is sometimes used with the ,gerundive2 as1-- hostibus nbs parcendum est1 the enemy must be spared by us4 #b4 ,much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the perfect passive participle2 as1-- disputti quae mihi nper habita est1 the discussion which was recently conducted by me4 #c4 ,rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive2 as1-- honesta bons virs quaeruntur1 noble ends are sought by good men4 ,dative of ,possession4 #aij4 ,the ,dative of ,possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as3-- mihi est liber1 ,i have a book2 mihi nmen est ,mrcus1 ,i have the name ,marcus4 #a4 ,but with nmen est the name is more commonly attracted into the ,dative2 as1 mihi ,mrc nmen est4 ,dative of ,purpose or ,tendency4 #aia4 ,the ,dative of ,purpose or ,tendency designates the end toward which an action is directed or the direction in which it tends4 ,it is used-- #a4 ,unaccompanied by another ,dative2 as1-- castrs locum dligere1 to choose a place for a camp2 legins praesidi relinquere1 to leave the legions as a guard 7lit4 for a guard72 receptu canere1 to sound the signal for a retreat4 #b4 ,much more frequently in connection with another ,dative of the person3-- a7 ,especially with some form of esse2 as1-- fortnae tuae mihi crae sunt1 your fortunes are a care to me 7lit4 for a care72 quibus sunt odi1 to whom they are an object of hatred2 cui bon8 to whom is it of advantage8 b7 ,with other verbs2 as1-- hs tibi mner msit1 he has sent these to you for a present2 ,pausanis ,attics vnit auxili1 ,pausanias came to the aid of the ,athenians 7lit4 to the ,athenians for aid74 #c4 ,in connection with the ,gerundive2 as1-- decemvir lgibus scrbunds1 decemvirs for codifying the laws2 m gerend bell ducem crevre1 me they have made leader for carrying on the war4 ,,note4--,this construction with the gerundive is not common till ,livy4 ,dative with ,adjectives4 #aib4 ,the use of the ,dative with ,adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,corresponding to the ,dative of ,indirect ,object it occurs with adjectives signifying3 friendly1 unfriendly1 similar1 dissimilar1 equal1 near1 related to1 etc42 as1-- mihi inimcus1 hostile to me2 sunt proxim ,germnis1 they are next to the ,germans2 noxiae poena pr est1 let the penalty be equal to the damage4 a4 ,for propior and proximus with the ,accusative1 see #ada1 #c4 #b4 ,corresponding to the ,dative of ,purpose1 the ,dative occurs with adjectives signifying3 suitable1 adapted1 fit2 as1-- castrs idneus locus1 a place fit for a camp2 apta dis sacrifici1 a day suitable for a sacrifice4 ,,note4--,adjectives of this last class often take the ,accusative with ad4 ,dative of ,direction4 #aic4 ,in the poets the ,dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of motion2 as1-- it clmor cael1 the shout goes heavenward2 ciners rv fluent jace1 cast the ashes toward a flowing stream4 #a4 ,by an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the ,dative to denote the limit of motion2 as1-- dum ,lati des nferret1 till he should bring his gods to ,latium4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,genitive4 #aid4 ,the ,genitive is used with ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 and ,verbs4 ,,genitive ,,with ,,nouns4 #aie4 ,with ,nouns the ,genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely4 ,this relation is generally indicated in ,english by the preposition of4 ,there are the following varieties of the ,genitive with ,nouns3-- ,genitive of ,origin1 ,objective ,genitive1 ,genitive of ,material1 ,genitive of the ,whole1 ,genitive of ,possession1 ,appositional ,genitive1 ,subjective ,genitive1 ,genitive of ,quality4 #aif4 ,genitive of ,origin2 as1-- ,mrc flius1 the son of ,marcus4 #aig4 ,genitive of ,material2 as1-- talentum aur1 a talent of gold2 acervus frment1 a pile of grain4 #aih4 ,genitive of ,possession or ,ownership2 as1-- domus ,cicernis1 ,cicero's house4 #a4 ,here belongs the ,genitive with caus and grti4 ,the ,genitive always precedes2 as1-- hominum caus1 for the sake of men2 merum amcrum grti1 for the sake of my friends4 #b4 ,the ,possessive ,genitive is often used predicatively1 especially with esse and fier2 as1-- domus est rgis1 the house is the king's2 stult est in errre manre1 it is 7the part7 of a fool to remain in error2 d bell jdicium impertris est1 nn mlitum1 the decision concerning war belongs to the general1 not to the soldiers4 a4 ,for the difference in force between the ,possessive ,genitive and the ,dative of ,possession1 see #cei1 #a4 #aii4 ,subjective ,genitive4 ,this denotes the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling2 as1-- dicta ,platnis1 the utterances of ,plato2 timrs lberrum1 the fears of the children4 #bjj4 ,objective ,genitive4 ,this denotes the object of an action or feeling2 as1-- metus derum1 the fear of the gods2 amor lberttis1 love of liberty2 cnsutd bonrum hominum1 intercourse with good men4 #a4 ,this relation is often expressed by means of prepositions2 as1-- amor erg parents1 love toward one's parents4 #bja4 ,genitive of the ,whole4 ,this designates the whole of which a part is taken4 ,it is used-- #a4 ,with ,nouns1 ,pronouns1 ,comparatives1 ,superlatives1 and ,ordinal ,numerals2 as1-- magna pars hominum1 a great part of mankind2 duo mlia peditum1 two thousand foot-soldiers2 quis mortlium1 who of mortals8 major frtrum1 the elder of the brothers2 gns maxima ,germnrum1 the largest tribe of the ,germans2 prmus omnium1 the first of all4 a4 ,yet instead of the ,genitive of the ,whole we often find ex or d with the ,ablative1 regularly so with ,cardinal numbers and qudam2 as1-- fidlissimus d servs1 the most trusty of the slaves2 qudam ex amcs1 certain of his friends2 nus ex mlitibus1 one of the soldiers4 b4 ,in ,english we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part4 ,in such cases the ,latin is more exact1 and does not use the ,genitive2 as1-- quot vs estis1 how many of you are there8 trecent conjrvimus1 three hundred of us have conspired 7i4e4 we1 three hundred in number74 #b4 ,the ,genitive of the ,whole is used also with the ,nominative or ,accusative ,singular ,neuter of ,pronouns1 or of ,adjectives used substantively2 also with the ,adverbs parum1 satis1 and partim when used substantively2 as1-- quid cnsil1 what purpose8 tantum cib1 so much food2 pls auctrittis1 more authority2 minus labris1 less labor2 satis pecniae1 enough money2 parum industriae1 too little industry4 a4 ,an ,adjective of the second declension used substantively may be employed as a ,genitive of the ,whole2 as1 nihil bon1 nothing good4 b4 ,but ,adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they limit2 as1 nihil dulcius1 nothing sweeter4 #c4 ,occasionally we find the ,genitive of the ,whole dependent upon ,adverbs of place2 as1-- ubi terrrum8 ubi gentium8 where in the world8 a4 ,by an extension of this usage the ,genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon prdi and postrdi1 but only in the phrases prdi ejus di1 on the day before that2 postrdi ejus di1 on the day after that4 #bjb4 ,appositional ,genitive4 ,the ,genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive2 as1-- nmen rgis1 the name of king2 poena mortis1 the penalty of death2 ars scrbend1 the art of writing4 #bjc4 ,genitive of ,quality4 ,the ,genitive modified by an ,adjective is used to denote quality4 ,this construction presents several varieties4 ,thus it is used-- #a4 ,to denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing2 as1-- vir magnae virttis1 a man of great virtue2 ratins ejus mod1 considerations of that sort4 a4 ,only a limited number of ,adjectives occur in this construction1 chiefly magnus1 maximus1 summus1 tantus1 along with ejus4 #b4 ,to denote measure 7breadth1 length1 etc472 as1-- fossa qundecim pedum1 a trench fifteen feet wide 7or deep72 exsilium decem annrum1 an exile of ten years4 #c4 ,equivalent to the ,genitive of ,quality 7though probably of different origin7 are the ,genitives tant1 quant1 parv1 magn1 minris1 plris1 minim1 plrim1 maxim4 ,these are used predicatively to denote indefinite value2 as1-- nlla studia tant sunt1 no studies are of so much value2 magn opera ejus exstimta est1 his assistance was highly esteemed4 #d4 ,by an extension of the notion of value1 quant1 tant1 plris1 and minris are also used with verbs of buying and selling1 to denote indefinite price2 as1-- quant aeds mist1 at how high a price did you purchase the house8 #e4 ,any of the above varieties of the ,genitive of ,quality may be used predicatively2 as1-- tantae mlis erat ,rmnam condere gentem1 of so great difficulty was it to found the ,roman race4 ,,genitive ,,with ,,adjectives4 #bjd4 ,the ,genitive is used with many ,adjectives to limit the extent of their application4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,with adjectives signifying desire1 knowledge1 familiarity1 memory1 participation1 power1 fullness1 and their opposites2 as1-- studisus discend1 desirous of learning2 pertus bell1 skilled in war2 nsutus labris1 unused to toil2 immemor mandt tu1 unmindful of your commission2 plna perculrum est vta1 life is full of dangers4 a4 ,some participles used adjectively also take the ,genitive2 as1-- diligns vrittis1 fond of truth2 amns patriae1 devoted to one's country4 #b4 ,sometimes with proprius and commnis2 as1-- vir propria est fortitd1 bravery is characteristic of a man4 memoria est commnis omnium artium1 memory is common to all professions4 a4 proprius and commnis are also construed with the ,dative4 #c4 ,with similis the ,genitive is the commoner construction in ,cicero1 when the reference is to living objects2 as1-- flius patris simillimus est1 the son is exactly like his father2 me similis1 like me2 vestr similis1 like you4 ,when the reference is to things1 both ,genitive and ,dative occur2 as1-- mors somn 7or somn7 similis est1 death is like sleep4 #d4 ,in the poets and later prose writers the use of the ,genitive with ,adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits2 as1 atrx anim1 fierce of temper2 incertus cnsil1 undecided in purpose4 ,,genitive ,,with ,,verbs4 #bje4 ,the ,genitive is used with the following classes of ,verbs3-- ,memini1 ,reminscor1 ,oblvscor4 #bjf4 #a4 ,,when ,,referring ,,to ,,persons-- a4 memin always takes the ,genitive of personal or reflexive pronouns2 as1-- me meminers1 remember me6 nostr meminit1 he remembers us4 ,with other words denoting persons memin takes the ,accusative1 rarely the ,genitive2 as1-- ,sullam memin1 ,i recall ,sulla2 vvrum memin1 ,i remember the living4 b4 oblvscor regularly takes the ,genitive2 as1-- ,epicr nn licet oblvsc1 we mustn't forget ,epicurus4 #b4 ,,when ,,referring ,,to ,,things1 memin1 reminscor1 oblvscor take sometimes the ,genitive1 sometimes the ,accusative1 without difference of meaning2 as1-- animus praeteritrum meminit1 the mind remembers the past2 meministne nmina1 do you remember the names8 reminscere veteris incommod1 remember the former disaster2 reminscns acerbittem1 remembering the bitterness4 a4 ,but neuter pronouns1 and adjectives used substantively1 regularly stand in the ,accusative2 as1-- haec memin1 ,i remember this2 multa reminscor1 ,i remember many things4 #c4 ,the phrase mihi 7tibi1 etc47 in mentem venit1 following the analogy of memin1 takes the ,genitive2 as1-- mihi patriae venibat in mentem1 ,i remembered my country4 ,admone1 ,commone1 ,commonefaci4 #bjg4 ,these verbs1 in addition to an ,accusative of the person1 occasionally take a ,genitive of the thing2 as1-- t veteris amcitiae commonefaci1 ,i remind you of our old friendship4 a4 ,but more frequently 7in ,cicero almost invariably7 these verbs take d with the ,ablative2 as1-- m admons d sorre1 you remind me of your sister4 b4 ,a neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in the ,accusative 7 #agh1 #a1 d72 as1-- t hc admone1 ,i give you this warning4 ,verbs of ,judicial ,action4 #bjh4 #a4 ,verbs of ,accusing1 ,convicting1 ,acquitting take the ,genitive of the charge2 as1-- m frt accsat1 he accuses me of theft2 ,verrem avritiae coarguit1 he convicts ,verres of avarice2 impiettis absoltus est1 he was acquitted of blasphemy4 #b4 ,verbs of ,condemning take-- a4 ,the ,genitive of the charge2 as1-- pecniae pblicae condemntus1 condemned 7on the charge7 of embezzlement 7lit4 public money72 capitis damntus1 condemned on a capital charge 7lit4 on a charge involving his head74 b4 ,the ,ablative of the penalty2 as1-- capite damntus est1 he was condemned to death2 mlle numms damntus est1 he was condemned 7to pay7 a thousand sesterces 7lit4 by a thousand sesterces1 ,abl4 of ,means74 #c4 ,note the phrases3-- vt damntus1 vt reus1 having attained one's prayer 7lit4 condemned on the score of one's vow72 d v1 7accused1 convicted1 etc47 of assault2 inter scris1 7accused1 convicted1 etc47 of murder4 ,genitive with ,impersonal ,verbs4 #bji4 #a4 ,the ,impersonals pudet1 paenitet1 miseret1 taedet1 piget take the ,accusative of the person affected1 along with the ,genitive of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed2 as1-- pudet m tu1 ,i am ashamed of you 7lit4 it shames me of you72 paenitet m hjus fact1 ,i repent of this act2 eum taedet vtae1 he is weary of life2 pauperum t miseret1 you pity the poor4 a4 ,instead of the ,genitive of the thing we often find an ,infinitive or ,neuter ,pronoun used as subject of the verb4 ,thus2-- m paenitet hc fcisse1 ,i repent of having done this2 m hc pudet1 ,i am ashamed of this4 #b4 ,misereor and misersc also govern the ,genitive2 as1-- misermin socirum1 pity the allies4 ,interest1 ,rfert4 #baj4 ,with interest1 it concerns1 three points enter into consideration2 viz4-- a7 the person concerned2 b7 the thing about which he is concerned2 c7 the extent of his concern4 #baa4 #a4 ,the person concerned is regularly denoted by the ,genitive2 as1-- patris interest1 it concerns the father4 a4 ,but instead of the ,genitive of the personal pronouns1 me1 tu1 nostr1 vestr1 the ,latin uses the ,ablative ,singular ,feminine of the ,possessive1 viz43 me1 tu1 etc42 as1-- me interest1 it concerns me4 #b4 ,the thing about which a person is concerned is denoted-- a7 by a ,neuter ,pronoun as subject2 as1-- hc re pblicae interest1 this concerns the state4 b7 by an ,infinitive2 as1-- omnium interest valre1 it concerns all to keep well4 c7 by an ,indirect ,question2 as1-- me interest quand venis1 ,i am concerned as to when you are coming4 #c4 ,the degree of concern is denoted-- a7 by the ,genitive 7cf4 #bjc1 #c73 magn1 parv1 etc42 as1-- me magn interest1 it concerns me greatly4 b7 by the ,adverbs1 magnopere1 magis1 maxim1 etc42 as1-- cvium minim interest1 it concerns the citizens very little4 c7 by the ,neuters1 multum1 pls1 minus1 etc42 as1-- multum vestr interest1 it concerns you much4 #d4 ,rfert follows interest in its construction1 except that it rarely takes the ,genitive of the person4 ,thus3-- me rfert1 it concerns me2 but rarely illus rfert1 it concerns him4 ,genitive with ,other ,verbs4 #bab4 #a4 ,verbs of ,plenty and ,want sometimes govern the ,genitive2 as1-- pecniae indigs1 you need money4 a4 ,these verbs more commonly take the ,ablative 7 #bad1 #a72 indige is the only verb which has a preference for the ,genitive4 #b4 ,potior1 though usually followed by the ,ablative1 sometimes takes the ,genitive1 almost always so in ,sallust2 and regularly in the phrase potr rrum1 to get control of affairs4 #c4 ,in poetry some verbs take the ,genitive in imitation of the ,greek2 as1-- dsine querellrum1 cease your complaints2 operum solt1 freed from their tasks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ablative4 #bac4 ,the ,latin ,ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning2 viz4-- ,the ,ablative or from-case4 ,the ,instrumental or with-case4 ,the ,locative or where-case4 ,the uses of the ,latin ,ablative accordingly fall into ,genuine ,ablative uses1 ,instrumental uses1 and ,locative uses4 ,,genuine ,,ablative ,,uses4 ,ablative of ,separation4 #bad4 ,the ,ablative of ,separation is construed sometimes with1 sometimes without1 a preposition4 #a4 ,the following words regularly take the ,ablative without a preposition3-- a7 ,the ,verbs of freeing3 lber1 solv1 lev2 b7 ,the ,verbs of depriving3 prv1 spoli1 exu1 fraud1 nd2 c7 ,the ,verbs of lacking3 ege1 care1 vac2 d7 ,the corresponding ,adjectives1 lber1 innis1 vacuus1 ndus1 and some others of similar meaning4 ,thus3-- crs lbertus1 freed from cares2 ,caesar hosts arms exuit1 ,caesar stripped the enemy of their arms2 caret sns commn1 he lacks common sense2 auxili eget1 he needs help2 bonrum vta vacua est met1 the life of the good is free from fear4 ,,note #a4--,yet ,adjectives and lber may take the preposition ab1--regularly so with the ,ablative of persons2 as1-- urbem tyrann lberrunt1 they freed the city from the tyrant4 ,,note #b4--;,indige usually takes the ,genitive4 ,see #bab1 #a1 a4 #b4 ,of ,verbs signifying to keep from1 to remove1 to withdraw1 some take the preposition1 others omit it4 ,the same ,verb often admits both constructions4 ,examples3-- abstinre cib1 to abstain from food2 hosts fnibus prohiburunt1 they kept the enemy from their borders2 praedns ab nsul prohibuit1 he kept the pirates from the island4 #c4 ,other ,verbs of separation usually take the ,ablative with a ,prepositon1 particularly compounds of dis- and s-2 as1-- dissenti t1 ,i dissent from you2 scernantur nbs1 let them be separated from us4 #d4 ,the ,preposition is freely omitted in poetry4 ,ablative of ,source4 #bae4 ,the ,ablative of ,source is used with the participles ntus and ortus 7in poetry also with ditus1 satus1 and some others71 to designate parentage or station2 as1-- ,jove ntus1 son of ,jupiter2 summ loc ntus1 high-born 7lit4 born from a very high place72 nbil genere ortus1 born of a noble family4 #a4 ,pronouns regularly 7nouns rarely7 take ex2 as1 ex m ntus1 sprung from me4 #b4 ,to denote remoter descent1 ortus ab1 or oriundus 7with or without ab71 is used2 as1-- ab ,ulixe oriundus1 descended from ,ulysses4 ,ablative of ,agent4 #baf4 ,the ,ablative accompanied by 7ab7 is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent2 as1-- ,caesare accstus est1 he was arraigned by ,caesar4 #a4 ,collective nouns referring to persons1 and abstract nouns when personified1 may be construed as the personal agent4 ,thus3-- hosts fortn dserbantur1 the enemy were deserted by ,fortune2 multitdine hostium mnts tenbantur1 the mountains were held by a multitude of the enemy4 #b4 ,names of animals sometimes admit the same construction4 ,thus3-- canibus lanitus est1 he was torn to pieces by dogs4 ,ablative of ,comparison4 #bag4 #a4 ,the ,ablative is often used with ,comparatives in the sense of than2 as1-- melle dulcior1 sweeter than honey2 patria mihi vt crior est1 my country is dearer to me than life4 #b4 ,this construction1 as a rule1 occurs only as a substitute for quam 7than7 with the ,nominative or ,accusative4 ,in other cases quam must be used2 as1-- tu studisior sum quam illus1 ,i am fonder of you than of him4 --,studisior ill would have meant1 ,i am fonder of you than he is4 ,pls1 minus1 amplius1 longius are often employed as the equivalents of pls quam1 minus quam1 etc4 ,thus3-- amplius vgint urbs incenduntur1 more than twenty cities are fired2 minus qunque mlia prcessit1 he advanced less than five miles4 #c4 ,note the use of opnine with ,comparatives2 as1-- opnine celerius venit1 he comes more quickly than expected 7lit4 than opinion74 ,,instrumental ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,ablative4 ,ablative of ,means4 #bah4 ,the ,ablative is used to denote means or instrument2 as1-- ,alexander sagitt vulnertus est1 ,alexander was wounded by an arrow4 ,there are the following special varieties of this ,ablative3-- #a4 tor1 fruor1 fungor1 potior1 vescor1 and their compounds take the ,ablative2 as1-- dvitis titur1 he uses his wealth 7lit4 he benefits himself by his wealth72 vt fruitur1 he enjoys life 7lit4 he enjoys himself by life72 mnere fungor1 ,i perform my duty 7lit4 ,i busy myself with duty72 carne vescuntur1 they eat flesh 7lit4 feed themselves by means of72 castrs pottus est1 he got possession of the camp 7lit4 made himself powerful by the camp74 a44 ,potior sometimes governs the ,genitive4 ,see #bab1 #b4 #b4 ,with opus est 7rarely sus est71 there is need2 as1-- duce nbs opus est1 we need a leader4 a4 ,a ,neuter ,pronoun or ,adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate4 ,thus3-- hc mihi opus est1 this is necessary for me4 b4 ,an ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject4 ,thus dux nbs opus est is a rare form of expression4 c4 ,note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est2 as1-- opus est propert1 there is need of haste4 #c4 ,with ntor1 innxus1 and frtus2 as1-- ntitur hast1 he rests on a spear 7lit4 supports himself by a spear72 frtus virtte1 relying on virtue 7lit4 supported by virtue74 #d4 ,with continr1 cnsistere1 cnstre1 consist of2 as1-- nervs et ossibus continentur1 they consist of sinews and bones 7lit4 they are held together by sinews and bones72 mortl cnsistit corpore mundus1 the world consists of mortal substance 7lit4 holds together by means of1 etc474 #f4 ,in expressions of the following type3-- quid hc homine facis1 what can you do with this man8 quid me ,tulliol fet1 what will become of my dear ,tullia8 7lit4 what will be done with my dear ,tullia87 #g4 ,in the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary ,english idiom3-- proeli contendere1 vincere1 to contend1 conquer in battle2 proeli lacessere1 to provoke to battle2 curr veh1 to ride in a chariot2 pedibus re1 to go on foot2 castrs s tenre1 to keep in camp4 #h4 ,with ,verbs of filling and ,adjectives of plenty2 as1-- fosss virgults complrunt1 they filled the trenches with brush4 a4 ,but plnus more commonly takes the ,genitive4 ,see #bjd1 #a4 #i4 ,under ',means' belongs also the ,ablative of the ,way by ,which2 as1-- vnum ,tiber dvectum1 wine brought down 7by7 the ,tiber4 #aj4 ,the means may be a person as well as a thing4 ,thus3-- mlitibus lac ,lemann ad montem ,jram mrum perdcit1 with 7i4e4 by means of7 his troops he runs a wall from ,lake ,geneva to ,mt4 ,jura4 ,ablative of ,cause4 #bai4 ,the ,ablative is used to denote cause2 as1-- multa glriae cupiditte fcit1 he did many things on account of his love of glory4 #a4 ,so especially with verbs denoting mental states2 as1 dlector1 gude1 laetor1 glrior1 fd1 cnfd4 ,also with contentus2 as1-- fortn amc gaude1 ,i rejoice at the fortune of my friend 7i4e4 on account of it72 victri su glriantur1 they exult over their victory2 ntr loc cnfdbant1 they trusted in the character of their country 7lit4 were confident on account of the character74 a4 fd and cnfd always take the ,dative of the person 7 #ahg1 ,,ii1 a72 sometimes the ,dative of the thing4 #b4 ,as ,ablatives of ,cause are to be reckoned also such ,ablatives as juss1 by order of1 injuss1 without the order1 rogt1 etc4 ,ablative of ,manner4 #bbj4 ,the ,ablative with cum is used to denote manner2 as1-- cum gravitte loquitur1 he speaks with dignity4 #a4 ,the preposition may be absent when the ,ablative is modified by an adjective2 as1-- magn gravitte loquitur1 he speaks with great dignity4 #b4 ,the preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jre1 injri1 joc1 v1 fraude1 voluntte1 frt1 silenti4 #c4 ,a special variety of the ,ablative of ,manner denotes that in accordance with which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done4 ,it is generally used without a preposition4 ,thus3-- me sententi1 according to my opinion2 sus mribus1 in accordance with their custom2 su sponte1 voluntarily1 of his 7their7 own accord2 e condicine1 on these terms4 ,ablative of ,attendant ,circumstance4 #bba4 ,the ,ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event2 as1-- bons auspicis1 under good auspices2 nlla est altercti clmribus umquam habita majribus1 no debate was ever held under circumstances of greater applause2 exstinguitur ingent lct prvinciae1 he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province2 long intervll sequitur1 he follows at a great distance4 ,ablative of ,accompaniment4 #bbb4 ,the ,ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote accompaniment2 as1-- cum comitibus profectus est1 he set out with his attendants2 cum febr domum rediit1 he returned home with a fever4 #a4 ,in military expressions the ,ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral2 as1-- omnibus cpis1 ingent exercit1 magn man2 but usually cum exercit1 cum dubus leginibus4 ,ablative of ,association4 #bbb;,a4 ,the ,ablative is often used with verbs of joining1 mixing1 clinging1 exchanging2 also with assusc1 cnsusc1 assufaci1 and some others to denote association2 as1-- improbits scelere jncta1 badness joined with crime2 r calre admixtus1 air mixed with heat2 assutus labre1 accustomed to 7lit4 familiarized with7 toil2 pcem bell permtant1 they change peace for 7lit4 with7 war4 ,ablative of ,degree of ,difference4 #bbc4 ,the ,ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison 7as post1 ante1 nfr1 supr7 to denote the degree of difference2 as1-- dimidi minor1 smaller by a half2 tribus pedibus altior1 three feet higher2 paul post1 a little afterwards2 qu plur habmus1 e cupimus amplira1 the more we have1 the more we want4 ,ablative of ,quality4 #bbd4 ,the ,ablative1 modified by an adjective1 is used to denote quality2 as1-- puella eximi frm1 a girl of exceptional beauty2 vir singulr industri1 a man of singular industry4 #a4 ,the ,ablative of ,quality may also be used predicatively2 as1-- est magn prdenti1 he is 7a man7 of great wisdom2 bon anim sunt1 they are of good courage4 #b4 ,in place of the ,adjective we sometimes find a limiting ,genitive2 as1-- sunt speci et colre taur1 they are of the appearance and color of a bull1 #c4 ,in poetry the ,ablative of ,quality sometimes denotes material2 as1-- scopuls pendentbus antrum1 a cave of arching rocks4 ,ablative of ,price4 #bbe4 ,with verbs of buying and selling1 price is designated by the ,ablative2 as-- servum qunque mins mit1 he bought the slave for five minae4 #a4 ,the ,ablatives magn1 plrim1 parv1 minim 7by omission of preti7 are used to denote indefinite price2 as1-- aeds magn vndidt1 he sold the house for a high price4 #b4 ,for the ,genitive of ,indefinite ,price1 see #bjc1 #d4 ,ablative of ,specification4 #bbf4 ,the ,ablative of ,specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done2 as1-- ,helvti omnibus ,galls virtte praestbant1 the ,helvetians surpassed all the ,gauls in valor2 pede claudus1 lame in his foot4 #a4 ,note the phrases3-- major nt1 older 7lit4 greater as to age72 minor nt1 younger4 #b4 ,here belongs the use of the ,ablative with dignus1 worthy1 indignus1 unworthy1 and dignor1 deem worthy of2 as1-- dign honre1 worthy of honor 7i4e4 in point of honor72 fid indign1 unworthy of confidence2 m dignor honre1 ,i deem myself worthy of honor4 ,ablative ,absolute4 #bbg4 ,the ,ablative ,absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence4 ,in its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle2 as1-- urbe capt1 ,aens fgit1 when the city had been captured1 ,aeneas fled 7lit4 the city having been captured74 #a4 ,instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun2 as1-- vv ,caesare rs pblica salva erat1 while ,caesar was alive the state was safe 7lit4 ,caesar being alive72 ,tarquini rge1 ,pythagors in ,italiam vnit1 in the reign of ,tarquin ,pythagoras came into ,italy 7lit4 ,tarquin being king72 ,cn4 ,pompej1 ,m4 ,crass cnsulibus1 in the consulship of ,gnaeus ,pompey and ,marcus ,crassus 7lit4 ,p4 and ,c4 being consuls74 #b4 ,the ,ablative ,absolute is generally used in ,latin where in ,english we employ subordinate clauses4 ,thus the ,ablative ,absolute may correspond to a clause denoting-- a7 ,time1 as in the foregoing examples4 b7 ,condition2 as1-- omns virtts jacent1 voluptte dominante1 all virtues lie prostrate1 if pleasure is master4 c7 ,opposition2 as1-- perdits omnibus rbus1 virts s sustentre potest1 though everything else is lost1 yet ,virtue can maintain herself4 d7 ,cause2 as1-- nll adversante rgnum obtinuit1 since no one opposed him1 he secured the throne4 e7 ,attendant circumstance2 as1-- passs palms pcem petvrunt1 with hands outstretched1 they sued for peace4 #c4 ,an ,infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the ,ablative ,absolute construction1 especially in ,livy and later writers2 as1-- audt eum fgisse1 when it was heard that he had fled4 #d4 ,a noun or pronoun stands in the ,ablative ,absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands4 ,exceptions to this principle are extremely rare4 ,,locative ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,ablative4 ,ablative of ,place4 ,a4 ,place where4 #bbh4 ,the place where is regularly denoted by the ,ablative with a preposition2 as1-- in urbe habitat1 he dwells in the city4 #a4 ,but certain words stand in the ,ablative without a preposition2 viz4-- a7 ,names of towns1--except ,singulars of the ,first and ,second ,declensions 7see #bcb1 #a72 as1-- ,carthgin1 at ,carthage2 ,athnis1 at ,athens2 ,vejs1 at ,veii4 b7 ,the general words loc1 locs1 parte2 also many words modified by ttus or even by other ,adjectives2 as1-- hc loc1 at this place2 tts castrs1 in the whole camp4 c7 ,the special words3 fors1 out of doors2 rr1 in the country1 terr marque1 on land and sea4 d7 ,the poets freely omit the preposition with any word denoting place2 as1-- stant ltore pupps1 the sterns rest on the beach4 ,b4 ,place from which4#ej #bbi4 ,place from which is regularly denoted by the ,ablative with a preposition2 as1-- ab ,itali profectus est1 he set out from ,italy2 ex urbe rediit1 he returned from the city4 #a4 ,but certain words stand in the ,ablative without a preposition2 viz4-- a7 ,names of towns and small islands2 as1-- ,rma profectus est1 he set out from ,rome2 ,rhod revertit1 he returned from ,rhodes4 b7 dom1 from home2 rre1 from the country4 c7 ,freely in poetry2 as1-- ,itali dcessit1 he withdrew from ,italy4 #b4 ,with names of towns1 ab is used to mean from the vicinity of1 or to denote the point whence distance is measured2 as1-- ,gergovi discessit1 he withdrew from the vicinity of ,gergovia2 ,rm ,x mlia aberat1 he was ten miles distant from ,rome4 ,urbe and oppid1 when standing in apposition with a town name1 are accompanied by a preposition2 as1-- ,curibus ex oppid ,sabnrum1 from ,cures1 a town of the ,sabines ,ablative of ,time4 ,a4 ,time at which4 #bcj4 ,the ,ablative is used to denote the time at which2 as1-- qurt hr mortuus est1 he died at the fourth hour2 ann septugsim cnsul cretus1 elected consul in his seventieth year4 #a4 ,any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction1 particularly annus1 vr1 aests1 hiems1 dis1 nox1 hra1 comitia 7,election ,day71 ld 7the ,games71 etc4 #b4 ,words not denoting time require the preposition in1 unless accompanied by a modifier4 ,thus3-- in pce1 in peace2 in bell1 in war2 but secund bell ,pnic1 in the second ,punic ,war4 #c4 ,expressions like in e tempore1 in summa senectte1 take the preposition because they denote situation rather than time4 ,b4 ,time within which4 #bca4 ,time within which is denoted by the ,ablative either with or without a preposition2 as1-- stella ,sturn trgint anns cursum cnficit1 the planet ,saturn completes its orbit within thirty years2 ter in ann1 thrice in the course of the year4 #a4 ,occasionally the ,ablative denotes duration of time2 as1-- bienni prspers rs habuit1 for two years he had a prosperous administration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,locative4 #bcb4 ,the ,locative case occurs chiefly in the following words3-- #a4 ,regularly in the ,singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions1 to denote the place in which2 as1-- ,rmae1 at ,rome2 ,corinth1 at ,corinth2 ,rhod1 at ,rhodes4 #b4 ,in the following special forms3-- dom1 at home2 hum1 on the ground2 bell1 in war2 mlitiae1 in war2 vesper1 at evening2 her1 yesterday4 #c4 ,note the phrase pendre anim1 lit4 to be in suspense in one's mind4 #d4 ,for urbs and oppidum in apposition with a ,locative1 see #afi1 #d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,syntax of ,adjectives4 #bcc4 #a4 ,the word with which an ,adjective agrees is called its ,subject4 #b4 ,attributive and ,predicate ,adjectives4 ,an ,attributive ,adjective is one that limits its subject directly2 as1-- vir sapins1 a wise man4 ,a ,predicate ,adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a verb 7usually esse72 as1-- vir est sapins1 the man is wise2 vir vidbtur sapins1 the man seemed wise2 vir jdictus est sapins1 the man was judged wise2 hunc virum sapientem jdicvimus1 we adjudged this man wise4 #c4 ,participles and ,adjective ,pronouns have the construction of ,adjectives4 ,,agreement ,,of ,,adjectives4 #bcd4 ,agreement with ,one ,noun4 ,when an ,adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in ,gender1 ,number1 and ,case4 #a4 ,two ,adjectives in the ,singular may limit a noun in the ,plural1 as2 prma et vcsima legins1 the first and twentieth legions4 #b4 ,a ,predicate ,adjective may stand in the ,neuter when its ,subject is ,masculine or ,feminine and denotes a thing2 as1-- omnium rrum mors est extrmum1 death is the end of all things4 #bce4 ,agreement with ,two or ,more ,nouns4 ,a4 ,,agreement ,,as ,,to ,,number4 #a4 ,when the ,adjective is ,attributive1 it regularly agrees in number with the nearest noun2 as1-- pater tuus et mter1 your father and mother2 eadem alacrits et studium1 the same eagerness and zeal4 #b4 ,when the ,adjective is ,predicative1 it is regularly ,plural2 as1-- px et concordia sunt pulchrae1 peace and concord are glorious4 ,b4 ,,agreement ,,as ,,to ,,gender4 #a4 ,when the ,adjective is ,attributive1 it regularly agrees in gender with the nearest noun2 as1-- rs operae multae ac labris1 a matter of much effort and labor4 #b4 ,when the ,adjective is ,predicative-- a7 ,if the nouns are of the same gender1 the ,adjective agrees with them in gender2 as1-- pater et flius capt sunt1 father and son were captured4 ,yet with feminine abstract nouns1 the ,adjective is more frequently ,neuter2 as1-- stultitia et timidits fugienda sunt1 folly and cowardice must be shunned4 b7 ,if the nouns are of different gender2 then1-- 7 ,in case they denote persons1 the ,adjective is ,masculine2 as1-- pater et mter mortu sunt1 the father and mother have died4 7 ,in case they denote things1 the ,adjective is ,neuter2 as1-- honrs et victriae fortuta sunt1 honors and victories are accidental4 7 ,in case they include both persons and things1 the ,adjective is1-- 7 ,sometimes ,masculine2 as1-- domus1 uxor1 lber invent sunt1 home1 wife1 and children are secured4 7 ,sometimes ,neuter2 as1-- parents1 lbers1 doms vlia habre1 to hold parents1 children1 houses cheap4 7 ,sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun2 as1-- popul prvinciaeque lbertae sunt1 nations and provinces were liberated4 c7 ,construction according to ,sense4 ,sometimes an ,adjective does not agree with a noun according to strict grammatical form1 but according to sense2 as1-- pars bstis object sunt1 part 7of the men7 were thrown to beasts4 ,,adjectives ,,used ,,substantively4 #bcf4 #a4 ,,plural ,,adjectives ,,used ,,substantively4 ,adjectives are quite freely used as ,substantives in the ,plural4 ,the ,masculine denotes persons2 the ,neuter denotes things2 as1-- doct1 scholars2 parva1 small things2 mal1 the wicked2 magna1 great things2 ,graec1 the ,greeks2 tilia1 useful things2 nostr1 our men4 #b4 ,neuter ,plural ,adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the ,nominative and ,accusative cases4 ,such forms as magnrum1 omnium2 magns1 omnibus1 would ordinarily lead to ambiguity2 yet where there is no ambiguity1 they sometimes occur2 as1-- parvs compnere magna1 to compare great things with small ,otherwise the ,latin says3 magnrum rrum1 magns rbus1 etc4 #bcg4 ,,singular ,,adjectives ,,used ,,substantively4 ,adjectives are less freely used as ,substantives in the ,singular than in the ,plural4 #a4 ,masculine ,adjectives occur only occasionally in this use2 as1-- probus invidet nmin1 the honest man envies nobody4 a4 ,usually vir1 hom1 or some similar word is employed2 as1-- hom doctus1 a scholar2 vir ,rmnus1 a ,roman4 b4 ,but when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used2 as1-- hc doctus1 this scholar2 doctus qudam1 a certain scholar4 #b4 ,neuters are likewise infrequent2 as1-- vrum1 truth2 jstum1 justice2 honestum1 virtue4 a4 ,this substantive use of ,neuter ,singulars is commonest in the construction of the ,genitive of the ,whole1 and after ,prepositions2 as1-- aliquid vr1 something true2 nihil nov1 nothing new2 in medi1 in the midst4 #bch4 ,from ,adjectives which1 like the above1 occasionally admit the substantive use1 must be carefully distinguished certain others which have become nouns2 as1-- adversrius1 opponent2 hberna1 winter quarters2 aequlis1 contemporary2 propinquus1 relative2 amcus1 friend2 socius1 partner2 cogntus1 kinsman2 sodlis1 comrade2 vcnus1 neighbor2 etc4 ,,adjectives ,,with ,,the ,,force ,,of ,,adverbs4 #bci4 ,the ,latin often uses an ,adjective where the ,english idiom employs an ,adverb or an adverbial phrase2 as1-- sentus frequns convnit1 the senate assembled in great numbers2 fuit assiduus mcum1 he was constantly with me4 ,,comparatives ,,and ,,superlatives4 #bdj4 #a4 ,the ,comparative often corresponds to the ,english ,positive with 'rather1' 'somewhat1' 'too'2 as1-- senects est loqucior1 old age is rather talkative4 #b4 ,so the ,superlative often corresponds to the ,positive with 'very'2 as1-- vir fortissimus1 a very brave man4 #c4 ,strengthening ,words4 ,vel and quam are often used with the ,superlative as strengthening particles1 vel with the force of 'very1' and quam with the force of 'as possible'2 as1-- vel maximus1 the very greatest2 quam maximae cpiae1 as great forces as possible4 #d4 ,phrases of the type 'more rich than brave' regularly take the ,comparative in both members2 as1-- exercitus erat dtior quam fortior1 the army was more rich than brave4 ,,other ,,peculiarities4 #bda4 #a4 ,certain ,adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object1 chiefly prmus1 extrmus1 summus1 medius1 nfimus1 mus2 as1-- summus mns1 the top of the mountain2 extrm hieme1 in the last part of the winter4 #b4 ,prior1 prmus1 ultimus1 and postrmus are frequently equivalent to a relative clause2 as1-- prmus eam vd1 ,i was the first who saw her2 ultimus dcessit1 he was the last who withdrew4 #c4 ,when multus and another adjective both limit the same noun et is generally used2 as1-- multae et magnae cgittins1 many 7and7 great thoughts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,syntax of ,pronouns4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 #bdb4 #a4 ,the ,personal ,pronouns as subjects of verbs are1 as a rule1 not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis1 contrast1 or clearness4 ,thus ordinarily3-- vide1 ,i see2 amat1 he loves4 ,but ego t vide1 et t m vids1 ,i see you1 and you see me4 #b4 ,the ,genitives me1 tu1 nostr1 vestr are used only as ,objective ,genitives2 nostrum and vestrum as ,genitives of the ,whole4 ,thus3-- memor tu1 mindful of you2 dsderium vestr1 longing for you2 nm vestrum1 no one of you4 a4 ,but nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the ,possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum1 omnium vestrum4 #c4 ,the ,first ,plural is often used for the ,first ,singular of ,pronouns and ,verbs4 ,compare the ,eng4 editorial 'we4' #d4 ,when two ,verbs govern the same object1 the ,latin does not use a pronoun with the second1 as is the rule in ,english4 ,thus3-- virts amcitis conciliat et cnservat1 virtue establishes friendships and maintains them 7not es cnservat74 ,,possessive ,,pronouns4 #bdc4 #a4 ,the ,possessive ,pronouns1 as a rule1 are not employed except for the purpose of clearness4 ,thus3-- patrem am1 ,i love my father2 d fli morte flbs1 you wept for the death of your son4 ,but-- d morte fli me flbs1 you wept for the death of my son4 a4 ,when expressed merely for the sake of clearness1 the possessive usually stands after its noun2 but in order to indicate emphasis or contrast1 it precedes2 as1-- su man lbers occdit1 with his own hand he slew his children2 me quidem sententi1 in my opinion at least4 #b4 ,sometimes the ,possessive ,pronouns are used with the force of an ,objective ,genitive2 as1-- metus vester1 fear of you2 dsderium tuum1 longing for you4 #c4 ,for special emphasis1 the ,latin employs ipsus or ipsrum1 in apposition with the ,genitive idea implied in the ,possessive2 as1-- me ipsus oper1 by my own help2 nostr ipsrum oper1 by our own help4 a4 ,so sometimes other ,genitives2 as1-- me nus oper1 by the assistance of me alone4 ,,reflexive ,,pronouns4 #bdd4 #a4 ,the ,reflexive ,pronoun s and the ,possessive ,reflexive suus have a double use3-- ,i4 ,they may refer to the subject of the clause 7either principal or subordinate7 in which they stand1--',direct ,reflexives'2 as1-- s amant1 they love themselves2 sus amcs adjuvt1 he helps his own friends2 eum rv1 ut s servret1 ,i besought him to save himself4 ,,ii4 ,they may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause1--',indirect ,reflexives'2 as1-- m rvit ut s dfenderem1 he besought me to defend him 7lit4 that ,i defend himself72 m rvrunt1 ut fortnrum surum dfnsinem susciperem1 they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes4 a4 ,the ,indirect ,reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought1 not of the author1 but of the subject of the principal clause4 #b4 ,the ,genitive su is regularly employed1 like me and tu1 as an ,objective ,genitive1 e4g4 obltus su1 forgetful of himself2 but it occasionally occurs--particularly in post-,augustan writers--in place of the ,possessive suus2 as1 fruitur fm su1 he enjoys his own fame4 #c4 ,s and suus are sometimes used in the sense1 one's self1 one's own1 where the reference is not to any particular person2 as1-- s amre1 to love one's self2 suum genium propitire1 to propitiate one's own genius4 #d4 ,suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own1 their own1 etc41 referring not to the subject but to an oblique case2 as1-- ,hannibalem su cvs cvitte jcrunt1 his own fellow-citizens drove out ,hannibal4 a4 ,this usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque2 as1-- suus quemque error vexat1 his own error troubles each4 #e4 ,the ,reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and t 7 #he72 as1-- vs dfenditis1 you defend yourselves4 ,,reciprocal ,,pronouns4 #bde4 #a4 ,the ,latin has no special reciprocal pronoun 7'each other'71 but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases3 inter ns1 inter vs1 inter s2 as1-- ,belgae obsids inter s dedrunt1 the ,belgae gave each other hostages 7lit4 among themselves72 ammus inter ns1 we love each other2 ,gall inter s cohortt sunt1 the ,gauls exhorted each other4 a4 ,note that the ,object is not expressed in sentences of this type4 ,,demonstrative ,,pronouns4 ,hc1 ,ille1 ,iste4 #bdf4 #a4 ,where hc and ille are used in contrast1 hc usually refers to the latter of two objects1 and ille to the former4 #b4 ,hc and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'2 as1-- ,themistocls hs verbs epistulam msit1 ,themistocles sent a letter 7couched7 in the following words2 illud intelleg1 omnium ra in m conversa esse1 ,i understand this1 that the faces of all are turned toward me4 #c4 ,ille often means the famous2 as1 ,soln ille1 the famous ,solon4 #d4 ,iste frequently involves contempt2 as1 iste hom1 that fellow6 #e4 ,the above pronouns1 along with is1 are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun2 as1 hc est honor1 meminisse officium suum1 this is an honor1 to be mindful of one's duty4 ,is4 #bdg4 #a4 ,is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qu4 ,thus3-- ,maximum1 eum qu ,tarentum recpit1 dlx1 ,i loved ,maximus1 the man who retook ,tarentum4 a4 ,closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such 7 tlis72 as1-- nn sum is qu terrear1 ,i am not such a person as to be frightened4 b4 ,note the phrase id quod1 where id stands in apposition with an entire clause2 as1-- nn suspicbtur 7id quod nunc sentiet7 satis mults tests nbs reliqus esse1 he did not suspect 7a thing which he will now perceive7 that we had witnesses enough left4 ,yet quod alone1 without preceding id1 sometimes occurs in this use4 #b4 ,is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person1 'he1' 'she1' 'it1' 'they1' 'them4' #c4 ,when the ,english uses 'that of1' 'those of1' to avoid repetition of the noun1 the ,latin omits the pronoun3 as1-- in exercit ,sullae et poste in ,crass fuerat1 he had been in the army of ,sulla and afterward in that of ,crassus2 nllae m fbulae dlectant nisi ,plaut1 no plays delight me except those of ,plautus4 #d4 ,note the phrases et is1 et ea1 etc41 in the sense3 and that too2 as1-- vincula1 et ea sempiterna1 imprisonment1 and that too permanently4 dem4 #bdh4 #a4 dem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also1 likewise2 as1-- quod idem mihi contigit1 which likewise happened to me 7lit4 which1 the same thing72 bonus vir1 quem eundem sapientem appellmus1 a good man1 whom we call also wise4 ,for dem atque 7ac71 the same as1 see #cda1 #a4 c4 ,ipse4 #bdi4 #a4 ,ipse1 literally self1 acquires its special force from the context2 as1-- e ips di1 on that very day2 ad ipsam rpam1 close to the bank2 ips terrre1 by mere fright2 valvae s ipsae aperurunt1 the doors opened of their own accord2 ipse aderat1 he was present in person4 #b4 ,the reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse1 but ipse in such cases1 instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive1 more commonly agrees with the subject2 as1-- scum ips loquuntur1 they talk with themselves2 s ipse continre nn potest1 he cannot contain himself #c4 ,ipse is also used as an ,indirect ,reflexive for the purpose of marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity2 as1-- ,persae pertimurunt n ,alcibiads ab ipss dscsceret et cum sus in grtiam redret1 the ,persians feared that ,alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen2 ea molestissim ferre dbent homins quae ipsrum culp contrcta sunt1 men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault 7as opposed to the fault of others74 ,,relative ,,pronouns4 #bej4 ,agreement4 #a4 ,the ,relative ,pronoun agrees with its antecedent in ,gender1 ,number1 and ,person1 but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands2 as1-- mulier quam vidbmus1 the woman whom we saw2 bona quibus fruimur1 the blessings which we enjoy4 #b4 ,where the antecedent is compound1 the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions 7see #bce1 ,b1 #b74 ,thus3-- pater et flius1 qui capt sunt1 the father and son who were captured2 stultitia et timidits quae fugienda sunt1 folly and cowardice which must be shunned2 honrs et victriae quae sunt fortuta1 honors and victories1 which are accidental4 #c4 ,the ,relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun 7either ,nominative or ,accusative7 instead of its antecedent2 as1-- carcer1 quae lautumiae vocantur1 the prison1 which is called ,lautumiae2 ,belgae1 quae est tertia pars1 the ,belgians1 who are the third part4 #d4 ,sometimes the ,relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent2 as1-- pars qu bstis object sunt1 a part 7of the men7 who were thrown to beasts4 #e4 ,occasionally the ,relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent2 as1-- ntus e patre qu dx1 born of the father that ,i said4 #bea4 ,antecedent4 #a4 ,the antecedent of the ,relative is sometimes omitted2 as1-- qu ntram sequitur sapins est1 he who follows ,nature is wise4 #b4 ,the antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun 7or rarely an adjective72 as1-- nostra qu remnsimus caeds1 the slaughter of us who remained2 servl tumult1 qus sus ac disciplna sublevrunt1 at the uprising of the slaves1 whom experience and discipline assisted 7servl servrum74 #c4 ,sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the ,relative2 as1-- erant itinera duo1 quibus itineribus1 there were two routes1 by which 7routes74 #d4 ,incorporation of ,antecedent in ,relative ,clause4 ,the antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause4 ,thus3-- a7 ,when the relative clause stands first2 as1-- quam quisque nvit artem1 in hc s exerceat1 let each one practice the branch which he knows4 b7 ,when the antecedent is an appositive2 as1-- nn long ,tolstium fnibus absunt1 quae cvits est in prvinci1 they are not far from the borders of the ,tolosates1 a state which is in our province4 c7 ,when the logical antecedent is a superlative2 as1-- ,themistocls d servs sus1 quem habuit fidlissimum1 msit1 ,themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had4 d7 ,in expressions of the following type-- qu es prdenti2 quae tua est prdentia1 such is your prudence 7lit4 of which prudence you are2 which is your prudence74 #e4 ,the ,relative is never omitted in ,latin as it is in ,english4 ,thus the boy ,i saw must be puer quem vd4 #f4 ,the ,relative is used freely in ,latin1 particularly at the beginning of a sentence1 where in ,english we employ a demonstrative2 as1-- qu factum est1 by this it happened2 quae cum ita sint1 since this is so2 quibus rbus cognits1 when these things became known4 #g4 ,the ,relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces2 as1-- numquam dign satis laudr philosophia poterit1 cui qu preat1 omne tempus aettis sine molesti possit dgere1 philosophy can never be praised enough1 since he who obeys her can pass every period of life without annoyance 7lit4 he who obeys which1 etc474 ,here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia2 but cui is governed by preat1 which is subordinate to possit4 ,,indefinite ,,pronouns4 #beb4 #a4 ,quis1 any one1 is the weakest of the ,indefinites1 and stands usually in combination with s1 nisi1 n1 num2 as1-- s quis putat1 if any one thinks4 #b4 ,aliquis 7adj4 aliqu7 is more definite than quis1 and corresponds usually to the ,english some one1 somebody1 some2 as1-- nunc aliquis dcat mih1 now let somebody tell me2 utinam modo agtur aliquid1 oh that something may be done4 #c4 ,qudam1 a certain one1 is still more definite than aliquis2 as1-- hom qudam1 a certain man 7i4e41 one whom ,i have in mind74 a4 ,qudam 7with or without quasi1 as if7 is sometimes used in the sense3 a sort of1 kind of2 as1-- cognti quaedam1 a sort of relationship2 mors est quasi quaedam migrti1 death is a kind of transfer as it were4 #d4 ,quisquam1 any one1 any one whoever 7more general than quis71 and its corresponding adjective llus1 any1 occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences1 in interrogative sentences implying a negative1 and in clauses of comparison2 as1-- jstitia numquam nocet cuiquam1 justice never harms anybody2 s quisquam1 ,cat sapins fuit1 if anybody was ever wise1 ,cato was2 potestne quisquam sine perturbtine anim rsc1 can anybody be angry without excitement8 s ll mod poterit1 if it can be done in any way2 taetrior hc tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superirum1 he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors4 #e4 ,quisque1 each one1 is used especially under the following circumstances3-- a7 ,in connection with suus4 ,see #bdd1 #d1 a4 b7 ,in connection with a ,relative or ,interrogative ,pronoun2 as1-- quod cuique obtigit1 id teneat1 what falls to each1 that let him hold4 c7 ,in connection with superlatives2 as1-- optimus quisque1 all the best 7lit4 each best one74 d7 ,with ordinal numerals2 as1-- qunt quque ann1 every four years 7lit4 each fifth year74 #f4 ,nm1 no one1 in addition to its other uses1 stands regularly with adjectives used substantively2 as1-- nm mortlis1 no mortal2 nm ,rmnus1 no ,roman4 ,,pronominal ,,adjectives4 #bec4 #a4 ,alius1 another1 and alter1 the other1 are often used correlatively2 as1-- aliud loquitur1 aliud sentit1 he says one thing1 he thinks another2 ali resistunt1 ali fugiunt1 some resist1 others flee2 alter exercitum perdidit1 alter vndidit1 one ruined the army1 the other sold it2 alter s in montem recprunt1 alter ad impedmenta s contulrunt1 the one party retreated to the mountain1 the others betook themselves to the baggage4 #b4 ,where the ,english says one does one thing1 another another1 the ,latin uses a more condensed form of statement2 as1-- alius aliud amat1 one likes one thing1 another another2 aliud alis placet1 one thing pleases some1 another others4 a4 ,so sometimes with adverbs2 as1-- ali ali fugiunt1 some flee in one direction1 others in another4 #c4 ,the ,latin also expresses the notion 'each other' by means of alius repeated2 as1-- ,gall alius alium cohortt sunt1 the ,gauls encouraged each other4 #d4 ,cter means the rest1 all the others2 as1-- cters praestre1 to be superior to all the others4 #e4 ,reliqu means the others in the sense of the rest1 those remaining1--hence is the regular word with numerals2 as1-- reliqu sex1 the six others4 #f4 ,nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some one or other2 as1-- causidicus nescio quis1 some pettifogger or other2 msit nescio quem1 he sent some one or other2 nescio qu pact1 somehow or other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v4--,syntax of ,verbs4 ,,agreement4 ,with ,one ,subject4 #bed4 #a4 ,agreement in ,number and ,person4 ,a ,finite ,verb agrees with its subject in ,number and ,person2 as1-- vs vidtis1 you see2 pater flis nstituit1 the father trains his sons4 #b4 ,agreement in ,gender4 ,in the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender2 as1-- sditi repressa est1 the mutiny was checked4 #c4 ,but when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject1 the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive2 as1-- ,tarquini mterna patria erat1 ,tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side2 nn omnis error stultitia est dcenda1 not every error is to be called folly4 a4 ,less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive2 as1-- ,coriol1 oppidum ,volscrum1 captum est1 ,corioli1 a town of the ,volsci1 was captured4 #d4 ,construction according to ,sense4 ,sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form4 ,thus3-- a7 ,in ,number2 as1-- multitd hominum convnerant1 a crowd of men had gathered4 b7 ,in ,gender2 as1-- duo mlia crucibus adfx sunt1 two thousand 7men7 were crucified4 ,with ,two or ,more ,subjects4 #bee4 #a4 ,agreement in ,number4 ,with two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural2 as1-- pater et flius mortu sunt1 the father and son died4 #b4 ,but sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject2 viz41-- a7 ,when the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them2 as1-- mortuus est pater et flius2 pater mortuus est et flius4 b7 ,when the subjects are connected by aut2 aut 444 aut2 vel 444 vel2 neque 444 neque2 as1-- neque pater neque flius mortuus est1 neither father nor son died4 #c4 ,when the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole1 the singular is used2 as1-- temerits ignrtique vitisa est1 rashness and ignorance are bad4 a4 ,this is regularly the case in sentus populusque ,rmnus4 #d4 ,agreement in ,person4 ,with compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second1 and the second rather than the third2 as1-- s t et ,tullia valtis1 ego et ,cicer valmus1 if you and ,tullia are well1 ,cicero and ,i are well4 #e4 ,agreement in ,gender4 ,with subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives4 ,see #bce1 ,b1 #b4 ,,voices4 #bef4 #a4 ,the ,passive ,voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning2 as1-- ego nn patiar eum dfend1 ,i shall not allow him to defend himself4 #b4 ,in imitation of ,greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles1 i4e4 the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself1 but as doing something in his own interest2 as1-- vltus tempora1 having veiled his temples4 a4 ,occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used2 as1-- tunic indcitur arts1 he covers his limbs with a tunic4 #c4 ,intransitive ,verbs may be used impersonally in the passive2 as1-- curritur1 people run 7lit4 it is run72 ventum est1 he 7they1 etc47 came 7lit4 it was come74 ,,tenses4 ,,tenses ,,of ,,the ,,indicative4 #beg4 #a4 ,the ,latin tenses express two distinct notions3-- a7 ,the period of time to which the action belongs3 ,present1 ,past1 or ,future4 b7 ,the kind of action3 ,undefined1 ,going on1 or ,completed4 ,the ,latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time 7making practically nine tenses74 ,it does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way1 as may be seen by the following table3-- ,,kind ,,of ,,period ,,of ,,time4 ,,action4 ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,future4 ,,undefined ,present3 ,historical ,future3 scrb1 ,i write4 ,perfect3 scrbam1 ,i shall scrps1 ,i write4 wrote4 ,,going ,,on4 ,present3 ,imperfect3 ,future3 scrb1 ,i am scrbbam1 ,i was scrbam1 ,i shall writing4 writing4 be writing4 ,,completed4 ,present ,pluperfect3 ,future ,perfect3 ,perfect3 scrpseram1 ,i had scrpser1 ,i scrps1 ,i have written4 shall have written4 written4 #b4 ,it will be seen that the ,present may express ,undefined action or action ,going on2 so also the ,future4 ,the ,perfect likewise has a double use1 according as it denotes action ,completed in present time 7,present ,perfect7 or ,undefined action belonging to past time 7,historical ,perfect74 ,principal and ,historical ,tenses4 #beh4 ,tenses which denote ,present or ,future time are called ,principal 7or ,primary7 ,tenses1 those which denote ,past time are called ,historical 7or ,secondary74 ,the ,principal ,tenses of the ,indicative are3 ,present1 ,future1 ,present ,perfect1 ,future ,perfect4 ,the ,historical ,tenses are3 ,imperfect1 ,historical ,perfect1 ,pluperfect4 ,present ,indicative4 #bei4 ,besides the two uses indicated in the table1 the ,present ,indicative presents the following peculiarities3-- #a4 ,it is used to denote a general truth1 i4e4 something true not merely in the present but at all times 7',gnomic ,present'72 as1-- virts conciliat amcitis et cnservat1 virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them 7i4e4 always does so74 #b4 ,it is used of an attempted action 7',conative ,present'72 as1-- dum vtant vitia1 in contrria currunt1 while they try to avoid 7vtant7 vices1 they rush into opposite ones4 #c4 ,in lively narration the ,present is often used of a past action 7',historical ,present'72 as1-- ,caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum1 ,caesar demanded a large number of hostages 7lit4 demands74 #d4 ,in combination with jam1 jam di1 jam prdem1 and similar words1 the ,present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present2 as1-- jam prdem cupi t vsere1 ,i have long been desiring to visit you 7i4e4 ,i desire and have long desired74 ,imperfect ,indicative4 #bfj4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time2 as1-- librum legbam1 ,i was reading a book4 a4 ,this force makes the ,imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of description 7as opposed to mere narration74 #b4 ,from the notion of action going on1 there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action2 as1-- lgts interrogbat1 he kept asking the envoys2 ,c4 ,dulium vidbam puer1 as a boy ,i often used to see ,gaius ,duilius4 #c4 ,the ,imperfect often denotes an attempted action 7',conative ,imperfect'7 or an action as beginning 7',inceptive ,imperfect'72 as1-- hosts nostrs intr mntins prgred prohibbant1 the enemy tried to prevent 7prohibbant7 our men from advancing within the fortifications 7',conative'72 ad proelium s expedibant1 they were beginning to get ready for battle 7',inceptive'74 #d4 ,the ,imperfect1 with jam1 jam di1 jam ddum1 etc41 is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time2 as1-- domicilium ,rmae mults jam anns habbat1 he had had his residence at ,rome for many years 7i4e4 he had it at this time and had long had it74 ,future ,indicative4 #bfa4 #a4 ,the ,latin is much more exact in the use of the ,future than is the ,english4 ,we say3 ',if he comes1 ,i shall be glad1' where we really mean3 ',if he shall come1' etc4 ,in such cases the ,latin rarely admits the ,present1 but generally employs the ,future4 #b4 ,sometimes the ,future has ,imperative force2 as1 dcs1 say6 ,perfect ,indicative4 #bfb4 ,a4 ,,present ,,perfect4 ,several ,present ,perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act1 and so seem equivalent to the ,present2 as1-- nv1 cognv1 ,i know 7lit4 ,i have become acquainted with72 cnsuv1 ,i am wont 7lit4 ,i have become accustomed74 ,b4 ,,historical ,,perfect4 ,the ,historical ,perfect is the tense of narration 7as opposed to the ,imperfect1 the tense of description72 as1-- ,rgulus in sentum vnit1 mandta exposuit1 redd captivs negvit esse tile1 ,regulus came into the ,senate1 set forth his commission1 said it was useless for captives to be returned4 #a4 ,occasionally the ,historical ,perfect is used of a general truth 7',gnomic ,perfect'74 ,pluperfect ,indicative4 #bfc4 ,the ,latin ,pluperfect1 like the ,english ,past ,perfect1 denotes an act completed in the past2 as1-- ,caesar ,rhnum trnsre dcrverat1 sed nvs deerant1 ,caesar had decided to cross the ,rhine1 but had no boats4 a4 ,in those verbs whose ,perfect has ,present force 7 #bfb1 ,a71 the ,pluperfect has the force of an ,imperfect2 as1-- nveram1 ,i knew4 ,future ,perfect ,indicative4 #bfd4 ,the ,future ,perfect denotes an action completed in future time4 ,thus3-- scrbam epistulam1 cum redieris1 ,i will write the letter when you have returned 7lit4 when you shall have returned74 a4 ,the ,latin is much more exact in the use of the ,future ,perfect than the ,english1 which commonly employs the ,present ,perfect instead of the ,future ,perfect4 b4 ,in those verbs whose ,perfect has ,present force 7 #bfb1 ,a7 the ,future ,perfect has the force of a ,future2 as1-- nver1 ,i shall know4 ,epistolary ,tenses4 #bfe4 ,in letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing1 but which will be so at the time when his letter is received2 he thus employs the ,imperfect and the ,perfect for the ,present1 and the ,pluperfect for the ,present ,perfect2 as1-- nihil habbam quod scrberem1 neque enim nov quidquam audieram et ad tus omns epistuls jam rescrpseram1 ,i have nothing to write1 for ,i have heard no news and have already answered all your letters4 ,,tenses ,,of ,,the ,,subjunctive4 #bff4 ,a4 ,in ,independent sentences4 ,see #bgb-bhj4 ,b4 ,in ,dependent ,sentences4 ,in dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called ,sequence of ,tenses4 #bfg4 #a4 ,in the ,subjunctive the ,present and ,perfect are ,principal tenses1 the ,imperfect and ,pluperfect1 ,historical4 #b4 ,by the ,sequence of ,tenses ,principal tenses are followed by ,principal1 ,historical by ,historical4 ,thus3-- ,,principal ,,sequence1-- vide quid facis1 ,i see what you are doing4 vidb quid facis1 ,i shall see what you are doing4 vder quid facis1 ,i shall have seen what you are doing4 vide quid fcers1 ,i see what you have done4 vidb quid fcers1 ,i shall see what you have done4 vder quid fcers1 ,i shall have seen what you have done4 ,,historical ,,sequence1-- vidbam quid facers1 ,i saw what you were doing4 vd quid facers1 ,i saw what you were doing4 vderam quid facers1 ,i had seen what you were doing4 vidbam quid fcisss1 ,i saw what you had done4 vd quid fcisss1 ,i saw what you had done4 vderam quid fcisss1 ,i had seen what you had done4 #c4 ,the ,present and ,imperfect ,subjunctive denote incomplete action1 the ,perfect and ,pluperfect completed action1 exactly as in the ,indicative4 ,peculiarities of ,sequence4 #bfh4 #a4 ,the ,perfect ,indicative is usually an historical tense 7even when translated in ,english as a ,present ,perfect71 and so is followed by the ,imperfect and ,pluperfect ,subjunctive2 as1-- dmnstrv qur ad causam accderem1 ,i have shown why ,i took the case 7lit4 ,i showed why1 etc474 #b4 ,a dependent ,perfect ,infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever1 if resolved into an equivalent ,indicative1 it would be historical2 as1-- videor ostendisse quls de essent1 ,i seem to have shown of what nature the gods are 7ostendisse here corresponds to an ,indicative1 ostend1 ,i showed74 #c4 ,the ,historical ,present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense1 sometimes as historical4 ,thus3-- ,sulla sus horttur ut fort anim sint1 ,sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted2 ,galls horttur ut arma caperent1 he exhorted the ,gauls to take arms4 #d4 ,conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the ,sequence of ,tenses2 as1-- honestum tle est ut1 vel s ignrrent id homins1 su tamen pulchritdine laudable esset1 virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it1 it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness4 #e4 ,in conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the ,imperfect ,subjunctive is usually treated as an ,historical tense2 as1-- s sls es dcers misers1 quibus moriendum esset1 nminem t quidem erum qu vverent excipers1 if you called only those wretched who must die1 you would except no one of those who live4 #f4 ,in clauses of ,result and some others1 the ,perfect ,subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense4 ,thus3-- rx tantum mtus est1 ut ,tissaphernem hostem jdicrit1 the king was so much moved that he adjudged ,tissaphernes an enemy4 ,this construction is rare in ,cicero1 but frequent in ,nepos and subsequent historians4 ,the ,perfect ,subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act1 and therefore corresponds to an ,historical ,perfect ,indicative of direct statement4 ,thus1 jdicrit in the above example corresponds to adjdicvit1 he adjudged4 ,to denote a result as something continuous1 all writers use the ,imperfect ,subjunctive after historical tenses4 #g4 ,sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of ,sequence be abandoned altogether4 ,thus3 a7 ,we may have the ,present or ,perfect ,subjunctive after an historical tense2 as1-- ,verrs ,siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitu nn possit1 ,verres so ruined ,sicily that it cannot be restored 7,direct statement3 nn potest restitui72 rdbat ,hortnsius dcend cupiditte sc1 ut in nll flagrantius studium vderim1 ,hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that ,i have seen in no one a greater desire 7,direct statement3 in nll vd1 ,i have seen in no one74 ,,note4--,this usage is different from that cited under #f4 ,here1 by neglect of ,sequence1 the ,perfect is used1 though a principal tense2 there the ,perfect was used as an historical tense4 b7 ,we may have a principal tense followed by the ,perfect ,subjunctive used historically2 as1-- nesci quid causae fuerit cr nlls ad m litters dars1 ,i do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter4 ,here fuerit is historical1 as is shown by the following ,imperfect ,subjunctive4 ,method of ,expressing ,future ,time in the ,subjunctive4 #bfi4 ,the ,future and ,future ,perfect1 which are lacking to the ,latin ,subjunctive1 are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows3-- #a4 a7 ,the ,future is supplied by the ,present after principal tenses1 by the ,imperfect after historical tenses4 b7 ,the ,future ,perfect is supplied by the ,perfect after principal tenses1 by the ,pluperfect after historical tenses4 ,this is especially frequent when the context clearly shows1 by the presence of a future tense in the main clause1 that the reference is to future time4 ,thus3-- ,gall pollicentur s factrs1 quae ,caesar imperet1 the ,gauls promise they will do what ,caesar shall order2 ,gall pollicbantur s factrs1 quae ,caesar imperret1 the ,gauls promised they would do what ,caesar should order2 ,gall pollicentur s factrs quae ,caesar imperverit1 the ,gauls promise they will do what ,caesar shall have ordered2 ,gall pollicbantur s factrs quae ,caesar impervisset1 the ,gauls promised they would do what ,caesar should have ordered4 #b4 ,even where the context does not contain a ,future tense in the main clause1 ,future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the ,present and ,imperfect ,subjunctive4 ,thus3-- time n veniat1 ,i am afraid he will come2 ,caesar exspectbat quid cnsil hosts caperent1 ,caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt4 #c4 ,where greater definiteness is necessary1 the periphrastic forms in -rus sim and -rus essem are employed1 especially in clauses of ,result1 ,indirect ,questions1 and after nn dubit qun2 as1-- nn dubit qun pater ventrus sit1 ,i do not doubt that my father will come2 nn dubitbam qun pater ventrus esset1 ,i did not doubt that my father would come4 #d4 ,where the verb has no ,future ,active ,participle1 or where it stands in the passive voice1 its ,future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox1 brev1 statim1 etc41 in connection with the ,present and ,imperfect ,subjunctive2 as1-- nn dubit qun t mox hjus re paeniteat1 ,i do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing2 nn dubitbam qun haec rs brev cnficertur1 ,i did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished4 ,,tenses ,,of ,,the ,,infinitive4 #bgj4 #a4 ,the tenses of the ,infinitive denote time not absolutely1 but with reference to the verb on which they depend4 ,thus3-- a7 ,the ,present ,infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends2 as1-- vidtur honrs adsequ1 he seems to be gaining honors2 vidbtur honrs adsequ1 he seemed to be gaining honors4 b7 ,the ,perfect ,infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends2 as1-- vidtur honrs adsectus esse1 he seems to have gained honors2 vsus est honrs adsectus esse1 he seemed to have gained honors4 c7 ,the ,future ,infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends2 as1-- vidtur honrs adsectrus esse1 he seems to be about to gain honors2 vsus est honrs adsectrus esse1 he seemed to be about to gain honors4 #b4 ,where the ,english says 'ought to have done1' 'might have done1' etc41 the ,latin uses dbu1 oportuit1 potu 7dbbam1 oportbat1 poteram71 with the ,present ,infinitive2 as1-- dbuit dcere1 he ought to have said 7lit4 owed it to say72 oprtuit venre1 he ought to have come2 potuit vidre1 he might have seen4 a4 ,oportuit1 vol1 nl 7and in poetry some other verbs71 may take a ,perfect ,infinitive instead of the ,present2 as1-- hc jam prdem factum esse oportuit1 this ought long ago to have been done4 #c4 ,,periphrastic ,,future ,,infinitive4 ,verbs that have no ,participial ,stem1 express the ,future ,infinitive ,active and ,passive by fore ut or futrum esse ut1 with the ,subjunctive2 as1-- spr fore ut t paeniteat levittis1 ,i hope you will repent of your fickleness 7lit4 hope it will happen that you repent72 spr futrum esse ut hosts arceantur1 ,i hope that the enemy will be kept off4 a4 ,the ,periphrastic ,future ,infinitive is often used1 especially in the ,passive1 even in case of verbs which have the ,participial ,stem2 as1-- spr fore ut hosts vincantur1 ,i hope the enemy will be conquered4 #d4 ,passives and ,deponents sometimes form a ,future ,perfect ,infinitive with fore2 as1-- spr epistulam scrptam fore1 ,i hope the letter will have been written2 dc m satis adeptum fore1 ,i say that ,i shall have gained enough4 ,,the ,,moods4 ,,moods ,,in ,,independent ,,sentences4 ,the ,indicative in ,independent ,sentences4 #bga4 ,the ,indicative is used for the statement of facts1 the supposition of facts1 or inquiry after facts4 #a4 ,note the following idiomatic uses3-- a7 ,with possum2 as1-- possum multa dcere1 ,i might say much2 poteram multa dcere1 ,i might have said much 7 #bgj1 #b74 b7 ,in such expressions as longum est1 aequum est1 melius est1 difficile est1 tilius est1 and some others2 as1-- longum est ea dcere1 it would be tedious to tell that2 difficile est omnia persequ1 it would be difficult to enumerate everything4 ,the ,subjunctive in ,independent ,sentences4 #bgb4 ,the ,subjunctive is used in ,independent ,sentences to express something-- #a4 ,as willed--,volitive ,subjunctive2 #b4 ,as desired--,optative ,subjunctive2 #c4 ,conceived of as possible--,potential ,subjunctive4 ,,volitive ,,subjunctive4 #bgc4 ,the ,volitive ,subjunctive represents the action as willed4 ,it always implies authority on the part of the speaker1 and has the following varieties3-- ,a4 ,,hortatory ,,subjunctive4 #bgd4 ,the ,hortatory ,subjunctive expresses an exhortation4 ,this use is confined to the first person plural of the ,present4 ,the negative is n4 ,thus3-- emus1 let us go2 ammus patriam1 let us love our country2 n dsprmus1 let us not despair4 ,b4 ,,jussive ,,subjunctive4 #bge4 ,the ,jussive ,subjunctive expresses a command4 ,the ,jussive stands regularly in the ,present ,tense1 and is used-- #a4 ,most frequently in the third singular and the third plural2 as1-- dcat1 let him tell2 dcant1 let them tell2 qur scdant improb1 wherefore let the wicked depart6 #b4 ,less frequently in the second person1 often with indefinite force2 as1-- ist bon tre1 use that advantage2 modest vvs1 live temperately4 ,c4 ,,prohibitive ,,subjunctive4 #bgf4 ,the ,subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural1 with n1 to express a prohibition4 ,both ,present and ,perfect occur1 and without appreciable difference of meaning2 as1-- n repugntis1 do not resist6 t vr istam n relquers1 don't leave her6 impi n plcre audeant des1 let not the impious dare to appease the gods6 a4 ,neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose4 b4 ,a commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of nl 7nlte7 with a following infinitive1 or by cav or cav n with the ,subjunctive2 as1-- nl hc facere1 don't do this 7lit4 be unwilling to do76 nlte mentr1 do not lie6 cav ignscs1 cav t misereat1 do not forgive1 do not pity6 cav n haec facis1 do not do this 7lit4 take care lest you do76 ,d4 ,,deliberative ,,subjunctive4 #bgg4 ,the ,deliberative ,subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt1 indignation1 the impossibility of an act1 obligation1 or propriety4 ,the ,present is used referring to present time1 the ,imperfect referring to past4 ,the negative is nn4 ,thus3-- quid faciam1 what shall ,i do8 ego redeam1 ,i go back6 huic cdmus6 hjus condicins audimus6 are we to bow to him6 are we to listen to his terms6 quid facerem1 what was ,i to do8 hunc ego nn dligam1 should ,i not cherish this man8 a4 ,these ,deliberative ,questions are usually purely ,rhetorical in character1 and do not expect an answer4 ,e4 ,,concessive ,,subjunctive4 #bgh4 ,the ,subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument4 ,the ,present is used for present time1 the ,perfect regularly for past4 ,the negative is n4 ,thus3-- sit hc vrum1 ,i grant that this is true 7lit4 let this be true72 n sint in senectte vrs1 ,i grant there is not strength in old age2 fuerit malus cvis alis2 tibi quand esse coepit1 ,i grant that he was a bad citizen to others2 when did he begin to be so toward you8 ,,optative ,,subjunctive4 #bgi4 ,the ,optative ,subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing4 ,the negative is regularly n4 #a4 ,the ,present ,tense1 often accompanied by utinam1 is used where the wish is conceived of as possible4 d istaec prohibeant1 may the gods prevent that6 falsus utinam vts sim1 oh that ,i may be a false prophet6 n veniant1 may they not come6 #b4 ,the ,imperfect expresses1 in the form of a wish1 the regret that something is not so now2 the ,pluperfect that something was not so in the past4 ,the ,imperfect and ,pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam2 as1-- utinam istud ex anim dcers1 would that you were saying that in earnest 7i4e4 ,i regret that you are not saying it in earnest72 ,plds utinam vtsset ,apollinis arcs1 would that ,achilles had escaped the bow of ,apollo2 utinam n ntus essem1 would that ,i had not been born4 ,,potential ,,subjunctive4 #bhj4 ,the ,potential ,subjunctive expresses a possibility4 ,the negative is nn4 ,the following uses are to be noted3-- #a4 ,the ',may' ,potential4--,the ,potential ,subjunctive may designate a mere possibility 7,english auxiliary may74 ,both ,present and ,perfect occur1 and without appreciable difference of meaning4 ,thus3-- dcat aliquis1 some one may say2 dxerit aliquis1 some one may say4 a4 ,this construction is by no means frequent1 and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples4 #b4 ',should'-',would' ,potential4--,the ,potential ,subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood 7,english auxiliary should1 would74 ,both ,present and ,perfect occur1 and without appreciable difference of meaning4 ,thus3-- fortnam citius reperis quam retines1 one would more quickly find ,fortune than keep it 7i4e4 if one should make the trial72 crdiderim1 ,i should believe4 a4 ,here belongs the use of velim1 mlim1 nlim1 as softened forms of statement for vol1 ml1 nl4 ,thus3-- velim mihi ignscs1 ,i wish you would forgive me2 nlim puts m jocr1 ,i don't want you to think ,i'm joking4 b4 ,when the condition is expressed1 we get one of the regular types of ,conditional ,sentences 7see #cjc72 as1-- dis dficiat1 s cner numerre causs1 time would fail if ,i should attempt to enumerate the reasons4 #c4 ',can'-',could' ,potential4--,in the ,present and ,imperfect the ,potential occurs in the second person singular 7with indefinite force2 #cef1 #c7 of a few verbs of perceiving1 seeing1 thinking1 and the like2 as1-- vides1 cerns1 one can see1 one can perceive2 crders1 one could believe2 vidrs1 cerners1 one could see1 perceive2 putrs1 one could imagine4 #d4 ,the ,imperfect and ,pluperfect in the ,apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type 7see #cjd7 are also ,potential in character4 ,by omission of the ,protasis1 such an ,apodosis sometimes stands alone1 particularly vellem1 nllem1 mllem2 as1-- vellem id quidem1 ,i should wish that 7i4e4 were ,i bold enough74 ,the ,imperative4 #bha4 ,the ,imperative is used in commands1 admonitions and entreaties 7negative n71 as1-- gredere ex urbe1 depart from the city2 mihi ignsce1 pardon me2 val1 farewell4 #a4 ,the ,present is the tense of the ,imperative most commonly used1 but the ,future is employed-- a7 ,where there is a distinct reference to future time1 especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences2 as1-- rem vbs prpnam2 vs eam penditte1 ,i will lay the matter before you2 do you 7then7 consider it2 s bene disputbit1 tribuit litters ,graecis1 if he shall speak well1 attribute it to ,greek literature4 b7 ,in laws1 treaties1 wills1 maxims1 etc42 as1-- cnsuls summum js habent1 the consuls shall have supreme power2 hominem mortuom in urbe n sepelt1 no one shall bury a dead body in the city2 amcitia rg ,antioch cum popul ,rmn hs legibus et condicinibus est1 let there be friendship between ,antiochus and the ,roman people on the following terms and conditions2 qurtae est partis ,mrcus hrs1 let ,marcus be heir to a fourth 7of the property72 ignscit saepe alter1 numquam tibi1 forgive your neighbor often1 yourself never4 #b4 ,except with the ,future ,imperative the negative is not used in classical prose4 ,prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways4 ,see #bgf1 b4 #c4 ,questions in the ,indicative introduced by qun 7why not87 are often equivalent to an ,imperative or to the ,hortatory ,subjunctive2 as1-- qun abs1 go away6 7lit4 why don't you go away872 qun vcem contintis1 keep still6 7lit4 why don't you stop your voices872 qun equs cnscendimus1 let us mount our horses 7lit4 why do we not mount our horses87 ,,moods ,,in ,,dependent ,,clauses4 ,clauses of ,purpose4 #bhb4 #a4 ,clauses of ,purpose are introduced most commonly by ut 7ut71 qu 7that1 in order that71 n 7in order that not1 lest71 and stand in the ,subjunctive1 as1-- edimus ut vvmus1 we eat that we may live2 adjt m qu hc fat facilius1 help me1 in order that this may be done more easily2 ports clausit1 n quam oppidn injriam acciperent1 he closed the gates1 lest the townspeople should receive any injury4 a4 ,qu1 as a rule1 is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea4 ,occasional exceptions occur2 as1-- haec faciunt qu ,chremtem absterreant1 they are doing this in order to frighten ,chremes4 b4 ,ut n is sometimes found instead of n4 ,thus3-- ut n quid neglegenter agmus1 in order that we may not do anything carelessly4 c4 ,ut nn 7not n7 is used where the negation belongs to some single word1 instead of to the purpose clause as a whole4 ,thus3-- ut nn jectus ad alins1 sed invttus ad tus videre1 that you may seem not driven out among strangers1 but invited to your own friends4 d4 ,to say 'and that not' or 'or that not1' the ,latin regularly uses nve 7neu72 as1-- ut erum rrum vs minuertur1 neu pont nocrent1 that the violence of these things might be lessened1 and that they might not harm the bridge2 profgit1 n capertur nve interficertur1 he fled1 that he might not be captured or killed4 e4 ,but neque 7for nve7 is sometimes used in a second ,purpose ,clause when ut stands in the first1 and1 after the ,augustan era1 even when the first clause is introduced by n4 f4 ,purpose ,clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun3 as1-- hc caus1 ut pcem habrent1 on this account1 that they might have peace4 #b4 ,a ,relative ,pronoun 7qu7 or ,adverb 7ubi1 unde1 qu7 is frequently used to introduce a ,purpose ,clause2 as1-- ,helvti lgts mittunt1 qu dcerent1 the ,helvetii sent envoys to say 7lit4 who should say72 haec habu1 d senectte quae dcerem1 ,i had these things to say about old age2 nn habbant qu s reciperent1 they had no place to which to flee 7lit4 whither they might flee74 a4 ,qu in such clauses is equivalent to ut is1 ut ego1 etc42 ubi to ut ibi2 unde to ut inde2 qu to ut e4 #c4 ,relative ,clauses of purpose follow dignus1 indignus1 and idneus2 as1-- idneus fuit nm quem imitrre1 there was no one suitable for you to imitate 7cf4 nm fuit quem imitrre1 there was no one for you to imitate72 dignus est qu aliquand imperet1 he is worthy to rule sometime4 #d4 ,purpose ,clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences2 as1-- ut haec omnia omittam1 abiimus1 to pass over all this1 7,i will say that7 we departed4 ,clauses of ,characteristic4 #bhc4 #a4 ,a relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a ,clause of ,characteristic1 and usually stands in the ,subjunctive2 as1-- multa sunt1 quae mentem acuant1 there are many things which sharpen the wits4 ,clauses of ,characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent1 and which therefore take the ,indicative2 as1-- ,cat1 senex jcundus1 qu ,sapins appelltus est1 ,cato1 a delightful old man1 who was called ',the ,wise4' ,the ,clause of ,characteristic implies 'a person of the sort that does something'2 the ,indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something4' #b4 ,clauses of ,characteristic are used especially after such expressions as1 est qu2 sunt qu2 nm est qu2 nllus est qu2 nus est qu2 slus est qu2 quis est qu2 is qu2 etc4 ,thus3-- sunt qu dcant1 there are 7some7 who say2 nm est qu nesciat1 there is nobody who is ignorant2 sapientia est na quae maestitiam pellat1 philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow2 quae cvits est quae nn vert possit1 what state is there that cannot be overthrown8 nn is sum qu improbs laudem1 ,i am not the sort of man that praises the wicked4 a4 ,sometimes 7very rarely in ,cicero and ,caesar7 the clause of characteristic is used after comparatives2 as1-- nn longius hosts aberant quam qu tlum adig posset1 the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them 7lit4 further off than a point to which a dart could be cast74 #c4 ,the ,clause of ,characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause 7since7 or opposition 7although74 ,thus3-- a7 ,cause4 ,the relative is then frequently accompanied by ut1 quppe1 utpote2 as1-- fortnte adulscns1 qu tuae virttis ,homrum praecnem invners1 ,o fortunate man1 since you have found a ,homer as the herald of your valor2 ut qu optim jre eam prvinciam obtinuerit1 since he held that province by excellent right4 b7 ,opposition3-- egomet qu sr ,graecs litters attigissem1 tamen complrs dis ,athns commortus sum1 ,i1 although ,i had taken up ,greek literature late in life1 nevertheless tarried several days at ,athens4 #d4 ,clauses of ,characteristic may also be introduced by qun qu 7quae1 quod7 nn2 as1-- nm est qun saepe audierit1 there is no one who has not often heard2 nm fuit mlitum qun vulnerrtur1 there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded4 #e4 ,related to ,clauses of ,characteristic are also phrases of the type3 quod sciam1 so far as ,i know2 quem 7quam1 quod71 audierim1 so far as ,i have heard4 ,clauses of ,result4 #bhd4 #a4 ,clauses of ,result are usually introduced by ut 7that1 so that71 negative ut nn 7so that not71 and take the ,subjunctive4 ,the main clause often contains tantus1 tlis1 tot1 is 7 tlis71 tam1 ita1 sc1 ade1 or some similar word4 ,thus3-- quis tam dmns est ut su voluntte maereat1 who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition8 ,siciliam ita vstvit ut restitu in antquum statum nn possit1 he so ravaged ,sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition2 mns altissimus impendbat1 ut facile perpauc prohibre possent1 a very high mountain overhung1 so that a very few could easily stop them2 nn is es ut t pudor umquam turpitdine vocrit1 you are not so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness4 #b4 ,a ,result ,clause is often introduced by a ,relative ,pronoun or ,adverb1 qu 7 ut is71 qu 7 ut e71 etc42 as1-- nm est tam senex qu s annum nn putet posse vvere1 nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year2 habtis eum cnsulem qu prre vestrs dcrts nn dubitet1 you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees4 a4 ,these ,relative ,clauses of ,result are closely related to the ,clause of ,characteristic1 and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions4 ,it is best to class the relative clause as one of ,characteristic1 unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable4 #c4 ,result clauses may also be introduced by qun ut nn2 as1-- nihil tam difficile est qun quaerend invstgr possit1 nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching2 nm est tam fortis qun re novitte perturbtur1 no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence4 #d4 ,note the use of quam ut 7sometimes quam alone7 to denote ,result after comparatives2 as1-- urbs erat mntior quam ut prm impet cap posset1 the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack 7lit4 more strongly fortified than so that it could be taken1 etc474 ,causal ,clauses4 #bhe4 ,causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles3-- #a4 ,quod1 quia1 quoniam4 #b4 ,cum4 #c4 ,quand4 #bhf4 ,the use of moods is as follows3-- #a4 ,quod1 quia1 quoniam take the ,indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker2 they take the ,subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that of another4 ,thus3-- ,parths time quod diffd cpis nostrs1 ,i fear the ,parthians1 because ,i distrust our troops4 ,themistocls1 quia nn ttus erat1 ,corcyram dmigrvit1 ,themistocles1 since he was not safe1 moved to ,corcyra4 neque m vxisse paenitet1 quoniam bene vx1 ,i do not regret having lived1 since ,i have lived well4 ,scrats accstus est quod corrumperet juventtem1 ,socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young4 7,here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser4 ,hence the ,subjunctive47 ,haedu ,caesar grtis grunt quod s percul lbervisset1 the ,haedui thanked ,caesar because he had delivered them from danger4 7,the reason of the ,haedui47 quoniam ,miltiads dcere nn posset1 verba pr e fcit ,tsagors1 since ,miltiades could not speak1 ,tisagoras spoke for him4 7,the reason of ,tisagoras47 noct ambulbat ,themistocls1 quod somnum capere nn posset1 ,themistocles used to walk at night because 7as he said7 he couldn't sleep4 a4 ,verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the ,subjunctive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying1 and not the contents of the thought or language1 constituted the reason4 ,thus3-- ,bellovac suum numerum nn complvrunt quod s su nmine cum ,rmns bellum gestrs dcerent1 the ,bellovaci did not furnish their complement1 because they said they were going to wage war with the ,romans on their own account4 b4 ,nn quod1 nn qu 7by attraction for nn e quod71 nn quia1 not that1 not because2 and nn quod nn1 nn qu nn1 nn qun1 not that 444 not2 not because 444 not2 not but that1 are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason1 and hence take the ,subjunctive2 as1-- id fc1 nn quod vs hanc dfnsinem dsderre arbitrrer1 sed ut omns intellegerent1 this ,i did1 not because ,i thought you needed this defense1 but that all might perceive2 ,crass commendtinem nn sum pollicitus1 nn qun eam valitram apud t arbitrrer1 sed egre mihi commendtine nn vidbtur1 ,i did not promise a recommendation to ,crassus1 not that ,i did not think it would have weight with you1 but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation4 c4 ,but clauses introduced by nn quod1 nn qua take the ,indicative if they state a fact1 even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something2 as1-- hc ita senti1 nn quia sum ipse augur1 sed quia sc exstimre ns est necesse1 this ,i think1 not because ,i am myself an augur 7which ,i really am71 but because it is necessary for us to think so4 #b4 ,cum causal regularly takes the ,subjunctive2 as1-- quae cum ta sint1 since this is so2 cum ss mortlis1 quae mortlia sunt1 cr1 since you are mortal1 care for what is mortal4 a4 ,note the phrase cum praesertim 7praesertim cum71 especially since2 as1-- ,haedus accsat1 praesertim cum erum precibus adductus bellum suscperit1 he blamed the ,haedui1 especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties4 #c4 ,quand 7less frequent than the other causal particles7 governs the ,indicative2 as1-- id omitt1 quand vbs ita placet1 ,i pass over that1 since you so wish4 ,temporal ,clauses introduced by ,postquam1 ,ut1 ,ubi1 ,simul ac1 etc4 #bhg4 #a4 ,postquam 7postequam71 after2 ut1 ubi1 when2 cum prmum1 simul1 simul ac 7simul atque71 as soon as1 when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the ,perfect ,indicative2 as1-- ,epamnnds postquam audvit vcisse ,boetis1 ',satis' inquit 'vx1' ,epaminondas1 after he heard that the ,boeotians had conquered1 said1 ',i have lived enough2' id ut audvit1 ,corcyram dmigrvit1 when he heard this1 he moved to ,corcyra2 ,caesar cum prmum potuit1 ad exercitum contendit1 ,caesar1 as soon as he could1 hurried to the army2 ubi d ,caesaris advent certirs fact sunt1 lgts ad eum mittunt1 when they were informed of ,caesar's arrival1 they sent envoys to him4 a4 ,the ,historical ,present may take the place of the ,perfect in this construction4 #b4 ,to denote the repeated occurrence of an act1 ut1 ubi1 simul atque1 as often as1 when following an historical tense1 take the ,pluperfect ,indicative 7compare #bhh1 #c2 #cjb1 #c72 as1-- ut quisque ,verris animum offenderat1 in lautumis statim conicibtur1 whenever anybody had offended ,verres's feelings1 he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry2 hosts1 ubi aliqus gredients cnspexerant1 adoribantur1 whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking1 they attacked them4 a4 ,in ,livy and succeeding historians the ,imperfect and ,pluperfect ,subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act 7',indefinite ,frequency'72 as1-- id ubi dxisset hastam mittbat1 whenever he had said that1 he hurled a spear4 #c4 ,occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the ,pluperfect ,indicative of a single occurrence4 ,this is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time 7days1 months1 years1 etc471 such as post tertium annum quam1 trienni postquam4 ,thus3-- qunque post dibus quam ,lc discesserat1 ad ,sardiniam vnit five days after he had departed from ,luca he came to ,sardinia2 postquam occuptae ,syrcsae erant1 profectus est ,carthginem1 after ,syracuse had been seized1 he set out for ,carthage4 #d4 ,the ,imperfect ,indicative also sometimes occurs1 to denote a continued state2 as1-- postquam ,rmam adventbant1 sentus cnsultus est1 after they were on the march toward ,rome1 the ,senate was consulted2 postquam strct utrimque stbant1 after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position4 #e4 ,rarely postquam1 postequam1 following the analogy of cum1 take the ,subjunctive1 but only in the historical tenses2 as1-- postequam smptusa fieri fnera coepissent1 lge sublta sunt1 after funerals had begun to be elaborate1 they were done away with by law4 ,temporal ,clauses introduced by ,cum4 ,a4 ,cum ,,referring ,,to ,,the ,,past4 #bhh4 #a4 ,cum1 when referring to the past1 takes1-- ,a4 ,the ,indicative 7,imperfect1 ,historical ,perfect1 or ,pluperfect7 to denote the point of time at which something occurs4 ,b4 ,the ,subjunctive 7,imperfect or ,pluperfect7 to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs4 ,examples3-- ,,indicative4 an tum ers cnsul1 cum in ,palti mea domus rdbat1 or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the ,palatine8 crd tum cum ,sicilia flrbat opibus et cpis magna artificia fuisse in e nsul1 ,i believe that at the time when ,sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island2 e tempore pruit cum prre necesse erat1 he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey2 ill di1 cum est lta lx d m1 on that day when the law concerning me was passed4 ,,subjunctive4 ,lysander cum vellet ,lycrg lgs commtre1 prohibitus est1 when ,lysander desired to change the laws of ,lycurgus1 he was prevented2 ,pythagors cum in gemetri quiddam nov invnisset1 ,mss bovem immolsse dcitur1 when ,pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry1 he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the ,muses4 a4 ,note that the ,indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the ,subjunctive1 and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum1 e di1 e ann1 e tempore or some similar correlative of the cum4 ,sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the ,indicative or ,subjunctive4 #b4 ,cum ,inversum4 ,when the logical order of the clauses is inverted1 we find cum with the ,perfect ,indicative or ,historical ,present1 in the sense of when1 when suddenly4 ,the main clause in such cases often has jam1 vix1 aegr1 nndum2 as1-- jam ,gall ex oppid fugere apparbant1 cum mtrs familiae repente prcurrrunt1 the ,gauls were already preparing to flee1 when suddenly the matrons rushed forth 7logically1 the matrons rushed forth as the ,gauls were preparing to flee72 ,trvir ,labinum adorr parbant1 cum dus legins vnisse cognscunt1 the ,treviri were preparing to attack1 when 7suddenly7 they learned that two legions had arrived4 #c4 ,to denote a recurring action in the past1 cum is followed by the ,indicative1 particularly of the ,pluperfect 7compare #bhg1 #b2 #cjb1 #c72 as1-- cum d aliquod oppidum vnerat1 edem lectc ad cubiculum dferbtur1 whenever he had arrived at some town1 he was 7always7 carried in the same litter to his room2 cum equittus noster s in agrs jcerat1 essedris ex silvs mittbat1 whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields1 he would send his charioteers out from the woods4 a4 ,sometimes the ,imperfect or ,pluperfect ,subjunctive is thus used2 as1-- saepe cum aliquem vidret minus bene vesttum1 suum amiculum dedit1 often1 wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed1 he gave him his own mantle2 cum prcucurrissent1 ,numidae effugibant1 as often as they had advanced1 the ,numidians ran away4 ,this construction is frequent in ,livy and subsequent historians4 ,b4 ,cum ,,referring ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,or ,,future4 #bhi4 ,when cum refers to the ,present or ,future it regularly takes the ,indicative2 as1-- tum tua rs agitur1 paris cum proximus rdet1 your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning2 cum vidbis1 tum scis1 when you see1 then you will know4 a4 ,the ,indicative of the ,present or ,future may denote also a recurring action2 as1-- stabilits amcitiae cnfirmr potest1 cum homins cupdinibus imperbunt1 firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires4 ,c4 ,,other ,,uses ,,of ,cum4 #bij4 #a4 ,cum ,explicative4 ,cum1 with the ,indicative1 is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another2 as1-- cum tacent clmant1 their silence is a shout 7lit4 when they are silent1 they shout74 #b4 ,cum 444 tum4 ,when cum 444 tum mean both 444 and1 the cum-clause is in the ,indicative2 but when cum has the force of while1 though1 it may take the ,subjunctive2 as1-- cum t semper dlxerim1 tum tus facts incnsus sum1 while ,i have always loved you1 at the same time ,i am stirred by your conduct4 ,clauses introduced by ,antequam and ,priusquam4 ,a4 ,,with ,,the ,,indicative4 #bia4 ,antequam and priusquam 7often written ante 444 quam1 prius 444 quam7 take the ,indicative to denote an actual fact4 #a4 ,sometimes the ,present or ,future ,perfect2 as1-- prius responds quam rog1 you answer before ,i ask2 nihil contr disputb priusquam dxerit1 ,i will say nothing in opposition1 before he speaks4 #b4 ,sometimes the ,perfect1 especially after negative clauses2 as1-- nn prius juguland fnis fuit1 quam ,sulla omns sus dvitis explvit1 there was no end of murder until ,sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth4 ,b4 ,,with ,,the ,,subjunctive4 #bib4 ,antequam and priusquam take the ,subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated4 #a4 ,thus the ,subjunctive may denote-- a7 ,an act in preparation for which the main act takes place2 as1-- priusquam dmicrent1 foedus ctum est1 i4e4 in anticipation of the fight1 a treaty was struck4 ,by an extension of this usage1 the ,subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths1 where the anticipatory notion has faded out2 as1-- tempests mintur antequam surgat1 the tempest threatens before it rises4 b7 ,an act anticipated and forestalled2 as1-- priusquam tlum adic posset1 omnis acis terga vertit1 before a spear could be hurled1 the whole army fled4 c7 ,an act anticipated and deprecated2 as1-- animum omittunt priusquam loc dmigrent1 they die rather than quit their post4 #b4 ,after historical tenses the ,imperfect ,subjunctive is used1 especially by some writers1 where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished2 as1-- sl antequam s abderet fugientem vdit ,antnium1 the sun before it set saw ,antony fleeing4 ,clauses introduced by ,dum1 ,dnec1 ,quoad4 #bic4 #a4 ,dum1 while1 regularly takes the ,indicative of the ,historical ,present2 as1-- ,alexander1 dum inter prmrs pugnat1 sagitt ictus est1 ,alexander1 while he was fighting in the van1 was struck by an arrow2 dum haec geruntur1 in fns ,venellrum pervnit1 while these things were being done1 he arrived in the territory of the ,venelli4 ,,ii4 ,dum1 dnec1 and quoad1 as long as1 take the ,indicative2 as1-- dum anima est1 sps est1 as long as there is life1 there is hope2 ,lacedaemonirum gns fortis fuit1 dum ,lycrg lgs vigbant1 the race of the ,lacedaemonians was powerful1 as long as the laws of ,lycurgus were in force2 ,cat1 quoad vxit1 virttum laude crvit1 ,cato1 at long as he lived1 increased in the fame of his virtues4 ,,iii4 ,dum1 dnec1 and quoad1 until1 take3-- #a4 ,the ,indicative1 to denote an actual event2 as1-- dnec rediit1 fuit silentium1 there was silence till he came2 ferrum in corpore retinuit1 quoad renntitum est ,boetis vcisse1 he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the ,boeotians had conquered4 a4 ,in ,livy and subsequent historians dum and dnec in this sense often take the ,subjunctive instead of the ,indicative2 as1-- trepidtinis aliquantum dbant dnec timor quitem fcisset1 they showed some trepidation1 until fear produced quiet4 #b4 ,the ,subjunctive1 to denote anticipation or expectancy2 as1-- exspectvit ,caesar dum nvs convenrent1 ,caesar waited for the ships to assemble2 dum litterae veniant1 morbor1 ,i shall wait for the letter to come4 ,substantive ,clauses4 #bid4 ,a ,substantive ,clause is one which as a whole serves as the ,subject or ,object of a verb1 or stands in some other case relation4 ,a4 ,substantive ,clauses developed from the ,volitive4 #bie4 ,substantive ,clauses ,developed from the ,volitive are used with the following classes of verbs3-- #a4 ,with verbs signifying to admonish1 request1 command1 urge1 persuade1 induce1#ea etc4 7conjunctions ut1 n1 or ut n72 as1-- postul ut fat1 ,i demand that it be done 7dependent form of the ,jussive fat1 let it be done672 rat1 n abes1 he begs that you will not go away2 mlits cohorttus est ut hostium impetum sustinrent1 he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy2 ,helvtis persusit ut exrent1 he persuaded the ,helvetii to march forth4 a4 ,jube1 command1 order1 regularly takes the ,infinitive4 #b4 ,with verbs signifying to grant1 concede1 permit1 allow1#eb etc4 7conjunction ut72 as1-- huic concd ut ea praetereat1 ,i allow him to pass that by 7dependent form of the ,jussive ea praetereat1 let him pass that by672 cnsul permissum est ut dus legins scrberet1 the consul was permitted to enroll two legions4 #c4 ,with verbs of hindering1 preventing1#ec etc4 7conjunctions n1 quminus1 qun72 as1-- n lstrum perficeret1 mors prohibuit1 death prevented him from finishing the lustrum 7dependent form after past tense of n lstrum perficiat1 let him not finish1 etc472 prohibuit quminus in num corent1 he prevented them from coming together2 nec qun rumperet1 prohibr poterat1 nor could he be prevented from rushing forth4 a4 ,qun is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative1 or stands in a question implying a negative2 it is not necessarily used even then4 #d4 ,with verbs of deciding1 resolving1#ed etc4 7conjunctions ut1 n1 or ut n72 as1-- cnstitueram ut prdi ds ,aqun manrem1 ,i had decided to remain at ,aquinum on the #abth2 dcrvit sentus ut ,opmius vidret1 the ,senate decreed that ,opimius should see to it2 convnit ut ns castrs miscrentur1 it was agreed that they should be united in one camp4 #e4 ,with verbs of striving1#ee etc4 7conjunctions ut1 n1 or ut n72 as1-- fac ut eum exrs1 see to it that you prevail upon him6 cr ut vir ss1 see to it that you are a man6 labrbat ut reliqus cvitts adjungeret1 he was striving to join the remaining states to him4 a4 ,cnor1 try1 always takes the ,infinitive4 ,,note4--,verbs of all the above classes also admit the ,infinitive1 especially in poetry4 #f4 ,with a few other expressions1 such as necesse est1 reliquus est1 sequitur1 licet1 oportet2 as1-- sequitur ut doceam1 it remains for me to show2 licet redes1 you may return2 oportet loqumur1 we must speak4 ,on the absence of ut with licet and oportet1 see paragraph #h4 #g4 ,here also belong phrases of the type3 nlla causa est cr1 qun2 nn est cr1 etc42 nihil est cr1 etc42 as1-- nlla causa est cr timeam1 there is no reason why ,i should fear 7originally ,deliberative3 why should ,i fear8 ,there's no reason72 nihil est qun dcam1 there is no reason why ,i should not say4 #h4 ,many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple ,subjunctive without ut4 ,in such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut1 but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose4 ,this is regularly the case with necesse est1 licet1 and oportet2 see #f4 ,other examples are3-- es mone dsinant1 ,i warn them to stop2 huic imperat adeat cvitts1 he orders him to visit the states4 ,b4 ,substantive ,clauses developed from the ,optative4 #bif4 ,substantive ,clauses ,developed from the ,optative occur3-- #a4 ,with verbs of wishing1 desiring1 especially cupi1 opt1 vol1 ml 7conjunctions ut1 n1 ut n72 as1-- opt ut in hc jdici nm improbus reperitur1 ,i hope that in this court no bad man may be found 7here ut reperitur represents a simple optative of direct statement1 viz4 reperitur1 may no bad man be found672 cupi n veniat1 ,i desire that he may not come4 a4 ,the simple ,subjunctive 7without ut7 sometimes occurs with verbs of this class4 7,see #bie1 #h47 ,examples are3 velim scrbs1 ,i wish you would write2 vellem scrpsisset1 ,i wish he had written4 #b4 ,with expressions of fearing 7time1 metu1 vereor1 etc474 ,here n means that1 lest1 and ut means that not2 as1-- time n veniat1 ,i fear that he will come 7originally3 may he not come6 ,i'm afraid he will72 time ut veniat1 ,i fear that he will not come 7originally3 may he come6 ,i'm afraid he won't74 a4 ,n nn sometimes occurs instead of ut1 especially where the verb of fearing has a negative1 or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause2 as1-- nn vereor ne hc nn fat1 ,i am not afraid that this will not happen2 vereor n exercitum frmum habre nn possit1 ,i fear that he is unable 7nn possit7 to have a strong army4 ,c4 ,substantive ,clauses of ,result4 #big4 ,substantive ,clauses of ,result 7introduced by ut1 ut nn7 are a development of pure ,result clauses1 and occur with the following classes of words3-- #a4 ,as object clauses after verbs of doing1 accomplishing 7especially faci1 effici1 cnfici74 ,thus3-- gravits morb facit ut medicn egemus1 the severity of disease makes us need medicine4 #b4 ,as the subject of several impersonal verbs1 particularly fit1 efficitur1 accidit1 venit1 contingit1 accdit1 fier potest1 fore1 sequitur1 relinquitur4 ,thus3-- ex qu efficitur1 ut volupts nn sit summum bonum1 from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good2 ita fit1 ut nm esse possit betus1 thus it happens that no one can be happy2 accdbat ut nvs deessent1 another thing was the lack of ships 7lit4 it was added that ships were lacking74 #c4 ,as predicate or appositive after expressions like js est1 ms est1 cnsutd est2 also after neuter pronouns1 hc1 illud1 etc4 ,thus3-- est ms hominum ut nlint eundem plribus rbus excellere1 it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things4 ,d4 ,substantive ,clauses introduced by ,qun4 #bih4 ,substantive ,clauses introduced by qun 7used sometimes as subject1 sometimes as object7 occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt1 omission1 and the like1 particularly after nn dubit1 ,i do not doubt2 quis dubitat1 who doubts82 nn 7haud7 dubium est1 there is no doubt4 ,the mood is the ,subjunctive4 ,examples3-- quis dubitat qun in virtte dvitiae sint1 who doubts that in virtue there are riches8 nn dubium erat qun ventrus esset1 there was no doubt that he was about to come4 a4 ,in ,nepos1 ,livy1 and post-,augustan writers an ,infinitive sometimes takes the place of the qun-clause after nn dubit2 as1-- nn dubitmus invents esse1 we do not doubt that men were found b4 ,nn dubit1 ,i do not hesitate1 is regularly followed by the ,infinitive1 though sometimes by a qun-clause4 ,e4 ,substantive ,clauses ,introduced by ,quod4 #bii4 #a4 ,quod1 the fact that1 that1 introduces ,substantive ,clauses in the ,indicative4 ,this construction occurs especially-- a7 ,in apposition with a preceding demonstrative1 as hc1 id1 illud1 illa1 ex e1 inde1 etc4 ,thus3-- illud est admrtine dignum1 quod captvs retinends cnsuit1 this is especially worthy of admiration1 that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept2 hc n praestmus vel maxim fers1 quod colloquimur inter ns1 in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts1 that we talk with each other4 b7 ,after bene fit1 bene accidit1 male fit1 bene facere1 mror1 etc42 as1-- bene mihi venit1 quod mittor ad mortem1 it is well for me that ,i am sent to death2 bene fcist quod mnsist1 you did well in remaining4 #b4 ,quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that4 ,thus3-- quod multitdinem ,germnrum in ,galliam trdc1 id me mniend caus faci1 as regards the fact that ,i am transporting a multitude of ,germans into ,gaul1 ,i am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself2 quod m ,agamemnona aemulr puts1 falleris1 as regards your thinking that ,i emulate ,agamemnon1 you are mistaken4 ,f4 ,indirect ,questions4 #cjj4 #a4 ,indirect ,questions are ,substantive ,clauses used after verbs of asking1 inquiring1 telling1 and the like4 ,they take their verb in the ,subjunctive#ef4 ,like ,direct ,questions 7see #afb7 they may be introduced-- a7 ,by ,interrogative ,pronouns or ,adverbs2 as1-- dc mihi ubi fuers1 quid fcers1 tell me where you were1 what you did2 oculs jdicr nn potest in utram partem fluat ,arar1 it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the ,arar flows2 bis bna quot essent1 nescibat1 he did not know how many two times two were4 ,,note4--,care should be taken to distinguish ,indirect ,questions from ,relative ,clauses4 ,the difference between the two appears clearly in the following3-- effugere nm id potest quod futrum est1 no one can escape what is destined to come to pass2 but saepe autem ne tile quidem est scre quid futrum sit1 but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass4 b7 ,by num or -ne1 without distinction of meaning2 as1-- ,epamnnds quaesvit num salvus esset clipeus1 or salvusne esset clipeus1 ,epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe2 disputtur num interre virts in homine possit1 the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man2 ex ,scrate quaestum est nnne ,archelum betum putret1 the question was asked of ,socrates whether he did not think ,archelaus happy4 ,,note4--,nnne in ,indirect ,questions occurs only after quaer1 as in the last example above4 #b4 ,often the ,indirect ,question represents a ,deliberative ,subjunctive of the direct discourse2 as1-- nesci quid faciam1 ,i do not know what to do4 7,direct3 quid faciam1 what shall ,i do67 #c4 ,after verbs of expectation and endeavor 7exspect1 cnor1 experior1 tempt7 we sometimes find an ,indirect ,question introduced by s2 as1-- cnantur s perrumpere possint1 they try whether they can break through4 a4 ,sometimes the governing verb is omitted2 as1-- pergit ad proximam spluncam s forte e vstgia ferrent1 he proceeded to the nearest cave 7to see7 if the tracks led thither4 #d4 ,indirect ,double ,questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions 7 #afb1 #d72 viz42-- utrum 444 an2 -ne 444 an2 ---- 444 an2 ---- 444 ne4 ,examples3-- quaer utrum vrum an falsum sit1 quaer vrumne an falsum sit1 ,i ask whether it quaer vrum an falsum sit1 is true or false8 quaer vrum falsumne sit1 a4 ',or not' in the second member of the double question is ordinarily expressed by necne1 less frequently by an nn2 as1-- d utrum sint necne1 quaeritur1 it is asked whether there are gods or not4 #e4 ,haud sci an1 nesci an1 by omission of the first member of the double question1 occur with the ,subjunctive in the sense3 ,i am inclined to think1 probably1 perhaps2 as1-- haud sci an ita sit1 ,i am inclined to think this is so4 #f4 ,in early ,latin and in poetry the ,indicative is sometimes used in indirect ,questions4 ,,conditional ,,sentences4 #cja4 ,conditional ,sentences are compound sentences 7 #afd7 consisting of two parts1 the ,protasis 7or condition71 usually introduced by s1 nisi1 or sn1 and the ,apodosis 7or conclusion74 ,there are the following types of ,conditional ,sentences3-- ,first ,type4--,nothing ,implied as to the ,reality of the ,supposed ,case4 #cjb4 #a4 ,here we regularly have the ,indicative in both ,protasis and ,apodosis4 ,any tense may be used2 as1-- s hc crdis1 errs1 if you believe this1 you are mistaken2 ntram s sequmur1 numquam aberrbimus1 if we follow ,nature1 we shall never go astray2 s hc dxist1 errst1 if you said this1 you were in error4 #b4 ,sometimes the ,protasis takes the ,indefinite ,second ,person ,singular 7 #cef1 #c7 of the ,present or ,perfect ,subjunctive1 with the force of the ,indicative2 as1-- memoria minuitur1 nisi eam exerces1 memory is impaired unless you exercise it4 #c4 ,here belong also those conditional sentences in which the ,protasis denotes a repeated action 7compare #bhg1 #b2 #bhh1 #c72 as1-- s quis equitum dciderat1 pedits circumsistbant1 if any one of the horsemen fell1 the foot-soldiers gathered about him4 a4 ,instead of the ,indicative1 ,livy and subsequent writers employ the ,subjunctive of the ,historical tenses in the ,protasis to denote repeated action2 as1-- s dcend quis diem eximeret1 if 7ever7 anybody consumed a day in pleading2 s quand adsidret1 if ever he sat by4 #d4 ,where the sense demands it1 the ,apodosis in conditional sentences of the ,first ,type may be an ,imperative or one of the ,independent ,subjunctives 7,hortatory1 ,deliberative1 etc472 as1-- s hc crditis1 tacte1 if you believe this1 be silent2 s hc crdimus1 tacemus1 if we believe this1 let us keep silent4 ,second ,type4--',should'-',would' ,conditions4 #cjc4 ,here we regularly have the ,subjunctive 7of the ,present or ,perfect tense7 in both ,protasis and ,apodosis2 as1-- s hc dcs1 errs1 or s hc dxers1 errvers1 if you should say this1 you would be mistaken2 s velim ,hannibalis proelia omnia dscrbere1 dis m dficiat1 if ,i should wish to describe all the battles of ,hannibal1 time would fail me2 mentiar1 s negem1 ,i should lie1 if ,i should deny it2 haec s tcum patria loqutur1 nnne impetrre dbeat1 if your country should plead thus with you1 would she not deserve to obtain her request8 a4 ,the ,subjunctive in the ,apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the ,potential variety4 b4 ,sometimes we find the ,indicative in the ,apodosis of sentences of the ,second ,type1 where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a result more positively2 as1-- aliter s faciat1 nllam habet auctrittem1 if he should do otherwise1 he has no authority4 ,third ,type4--,supposed ,case ,represented as ,contrary to ,fact4 #cjd4 #a4 ,here we regularly have the ,subjunctive in both ,protasis and ,apodosis1 the ,imperfect referring to present time1 and the ,pluperfect referring to past2 as1-- s amc me adessent1 opis nn indigrem1 if my friends were here1 ,i should not lack assistance2 s hc dxisss1 errsss1 if you had said this1 you would have erred2 sapientia nn expetertur1 s nihil efficeret1 philosophy would not be desired1 if it accomplished nothing2 cnsilium1 rati1 sententia nisi essent in senibus1 nn summum cnsilium majrs nostr appellssent sentum1 unless deliberation1 reason1 and wisdom existed in old men1 our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate4 #b4 ,sometimes the ,imperfect ,subjunctive is found referring to the past1 especially to denote a continued act1 or a state of things still existing2 as1-- ,laelius1 ,frius1 ,cat s nihil litters adjuvrentur1 numquam s ad erum studium contulissent1 ,laelius1 ,furius1 and ,cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters1 unless they had been 7constantly7 helped by them2 num igitur s ad centsimum annum vxisset1 senecttis eum suae paenitret1 if he had lived to his hundredth year1 would he have regretted 7and now be regretting7 his old age8 #c4 ,the ,apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the ,indicative 7,imperfect1 ,perfect1 or ,pluperfect71 viz4-- a7 ,frequently in expressions of ability1 obligation1 or necessity2 as1-- nisi flcits in scordiam vertisset1 exuere jugum poturunt1 unless their prosperity had turned to folly1 they could have thrown off the yoke2 ,,note4--,in sentences of this type1 however1 it is not the possibility that is represented as-contrary-to-fact1 but something to be supplied in thought from the context4 ,thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood 7and they would have shaken it off74 ,when the possibility itself is conditioned1 the ,subjunctive is used4 eum patris loc colere dbbs1 s lla in t piets esset1 you ought to revere him as a father1 if you had any sense of devotion4 b7 ,with both the ,periphrastic ,conjugations2 as1-- s ,sstius occsus esset1 fuistisne ad arma itr1 if ,sestius had been slain1 would you have proceeded to arms8 s num diem mort esstis1 moriendum omnibus fuit1 if you had delayed one day1 you would all have had to die4 ,protasis expressed without ,s4 #cje4 #a4 ,the ,protasis is not always expressed by a clause with s1 but may be implied in a word1 a phrase1 or merely by the context2 as1-- aliqu haec nn scrberentur1 otherwise 7i4e4 if matters were otherwise7 these things would not be written2 nn potestis1 voluptte omnia drigents1 retinre virttem1 you cannot retain virtue1 if you direct everything with reference to pleasure4 #b4 ,sometimes an ,imperative1 or a ,jussive ,subjunctive1 serves as ,protasis4 ,thus3-- crs petit1 dabitur1 if you ask to-morrow1 it shall be given you 7lit4 ask to-morrow1 etc472 haec reputent1 vidbunt1 if they consider this1 they will see 7lit4 let them consider1 etc472 rogs ,znnem1 respondeat1 if you should ask ,zeno1 he would answer4 ,use of ,nisi1 ,s ,nn1 ,sn4 #cjf4 #a4 ,nisi1 unless1 negatives the entire protasis2 s nn negatives a single word2 as1-- ferreus essem1 nisi t amrem1 ,i should be hard-hearted unless ,i loved you2 but-- ferreus essem1 s t nn amrem1 ,i should be hard-hearted if ,i did ,,not love you4 ,in the first example1 it is the notion of loving you that is negatived1 in the second1 the notion of loving4 #b4 ,s nn 7s minus7 is regularly employed3-- a7 ,when an apodosis with at1 tamen1 cert follows2 as1-- dolrem s nn potuer frangere1 tamen occultb1 if ,i cannot crush my sorrow1 yet ,i will hide it4 b7 ,when an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form2 as1-- s fceris1 magnam habb grtiam2 s nn fceris1 ignscam1 if you do it1 ,i shall be deeply grateful2 if you do not do it1 ,i shall pardon you4 a4 ,but if the verb is omitted in the repetition1 only si minus or sin minus is admissible2 as1-- hc s assectus sum1 gaude2 s minus1 m cnslor1 if ,i have attained this1 ,i am glad2 if not1 ,i console myself4 #c4 ,sn4 ,where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning1 but affirmative in form1 the second is introduced by sn2 as1-- hunc mihi timrem ripe2 s vrus est1 n opprimar1 sn falsus1 ut timre dsinam1 relieve me of this fear2 if it is well founded1 that ,i may not be destroyed2 but if it is groundless1 that ,i may cease to fear4 #d4 ,nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives 7nn1 nm1 nihil72 as1-- nihil cgitvit nisi caedem1 he had no thought but murder4 a4 ,nn and nisi are always separated in the best ,latinity4 #e4 ,nisi forte1 nisi vr1 nisi s1 unless perchance1 unless indeed 7often with ironical force71 take the ,indicative2 as1-- nisi vr1 quia perfecta rs nn est1 nn vidtur pnienda1 unless indeed1 because an act is not consummated1 it does not seem to merit punishment4 ,conditional ,clauses of ,comparison4 #cjg4 #a4 ,conditional ,clauses of ,comparison are introduced by the particles1 ac s1 ut s1 quasi1 quam s1 tamquam s1 velut s1 or simply by velut or tamquam4 ,they stand in the ,subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis 7see #cgd1 #a71 as indicated in the following examples3-- tantus patrs metus cpit1 velut s jam ad ports hostis esset1 as great fear seized the senators as 7would have seized them7 if the enemy were already at the gates2 sed quid ego hs testibus tor quasi rs dubia aut obscra sit1 but why do ,i use these witnesses1 as 7,i should do7 if the matter were doubtful or obscure2 serviam tibi tam quasi mers m argent1 ,i will serve you as though you had bought me for money4 #b4 ,note that in sentences of this kind the ,latin observes the regular principles for the ,sequence of ,tenses4 ,thus after principal tenses the ,latin uses the ,present and ,perfect 7as in the second and third examples71 where the ,english uses the ,past and ,past ,perfect4 ,concessive ,clauses4 #cjh4 ,the term ',concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the ,jussive ,subjunctive which have the force of granted that1 etc42 7see #bgh7 as1-- sit fr1 sit sacrilegus1 at est bonus impertor1 granted that he is a thief and a robber1 yet he is a good commander2 haec sint falsa1 granted that this is false2 n sit summum malum dolor1 malum cert est1 granted that pain is not the greatest evil1 yet it is certainly an evil4 ,adversative ,clauses with ,quamvs1 ,quamquam1 etc4 #cji4 ,clauses introduced by quamvs1 quamquam1 ets1 tamets1 cum1 although1 while often classed as ',concessive1' are yet essentially different from genuine ,concessive clauses4 ,as a rule1 they do not grant or concede anything1 but rather state that something is true in spite of something else4 ,they accordingly emphasize the adversative idea1 and are properly ,subordinate ,adversative ,clauses4 ,the different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions1 as follows3-- #a4 ,quamvs1 however much1 although1 does not introduce a statement of fact1 but represents an act merely as conceived4 ,it is followed by the ,subjunctive1 usually of the present tense2 as1-- homins quamvs in turbids rbus sint1 tamen interdum anims relaxantur1 in however stirring events men may engage1 yet at times they relax their energies2 nn est potests opituland re pblicae quamvs ea premtur perculs1 there is no opportunity to succor the state1 though it be beset by dangers4 #b4 ,quamquam1 ets1 tamets1 although1 introduce a statement of fact1 and are followed by the ,indicative 7of any tense72 as1-- quamquam omnis virts ns allicit1 tamen jstitia id maxim efficit1 although all virtue attracts us1 yet justice does so especially2 ,caesar1 ets nndum cnsilium hostium cognverat1 tamen id quod accidit suspicbtur1 ,caesar1 though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy1 yet was suspecting what actually occurred4 a4 ,ets1 although1 must be distinguished from ets1 even if4 ,the latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for s4 7,see #cjb-cjd47 #c4 ,cum1 although1 is followed by the ,subjunctive2 as1-- ,atticus honrs nn petiit1 cum e patrent1 ,atticus did not seek honors1 though they were open to him4 #d4 ,licet sometimes loses its verbal force 7see #bie1 #f7 and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although4 ,it takes the ,subjunctive1 ,present or ,perfect2 as1-- licet omns terrrs impendeant1 succurram1 though all terrors hang over me1 7yet7 ,i will lend aid4 #e4 ,quamquam1 with the force and yet1 is often used to introduce principal clauses2 as1-- quamquam quid loquor1 and yet why do ,i speak8 #f4 ,in post-,augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the ,subjunctive1 while quamvs is often used to introduce statements of fact1 and takes either the ,indicative or the ,subjunctive4 ,thus3-- quamquam movrtur hs vcibus1 although he was moved by these words2 quamvs mult opnrentur1 though many thought2 quamvs nfst anim pervners1 though you had come with hostile intent4 ,clauses with ,dum1 ,modo1 ,dummodo1 denoting a ,wish or a ,proviso4 #caj4 ,these particles are followed by the ,subjunctive 7negative n7 and have two distinct uses3-- ,i4 ,they are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb2 as1-- mult honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cnsequantur1 many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power 7if only they may attain72 omnia postposu1 dum praecepts patris prrem1 ,i made everything else secondary1 in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father2 nl obstat tibi1 dum n sit dtior alter1 nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you4 ,,ii4 ,they are used to express a proviso 7'provided that'72 as1-- derint1 dum metuant1 let them hate1 provided they fear2 manent ingenia senibus1 modo permaneat studium et industria1 old men retain their faculties1 provided only they retain their interest and vigor2 nbant1 dum n ds fiat comes1 let them marry1 provided no dowry goes with it4 ,relative ,clauses4 #caa4 ,relative ,clauses are introduced by ,relative ,pronouns1 ,adjectives1 or ,adverbs4 #cab4 #a4 ,relative clauses usually stand in the ,indicative ,mood1 especially clauses introduced by those ,general ,relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque2 as1-- quidquid id est1 time ,danas et dna ferents1 whatever it is1 ,i fear the ,greeks even when they offer gifts2 quidquid oritur1 qulecumque est1 causam ntr habet1 whatever comes into being1 of whatever sort it is1 has its primal cause in ,nature4 #b4 ,any simple ,relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in #cjb-cjd2 as1-- qu hc dcit1 errat1 he who says this is mistaken 7,first ,type72 qu hc dcat1 erret1 he would be mistaken who should say this 7,second ,type72 qu hc dxisset1 errsset1 the man who had said this would have been mistaken4 ,,indirect ,,discourse 7,r,,ti ,,obl,,qua74 #cac4 ,when the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change1 that is called ,direct ,discourse 7rti ,recta72 as1 ,caesar said1 ',the die is cast4' ,when1 on the other hand1 one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying1 thinking1 etc41 that is called ,indirect ,discourse 7rti ,oblqua72 as1 ,caesar said that the die was cast2 ,caesar thought that his troops were victorious4 a4 ,for the verbs most frequently employed to introduce ,indirect ,discourse1 see #cca4 ,,moods ,,in ,,indirect ,,discourse4 ,declarative ,sentences4 #cad4 #a4 ,declarative ,sentences upon becoming ,indirect change their main clause to the ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative1 while all subordinate clauses take the ,subjunctive2 as1-- ,rgulus dxit quam di jre jrand hostium tenrtur nn esse s sentrem1 ,regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator4 7,direct3 quam di teneor nn sum sentor47 #b4 ,the verb of saying1 thinking1 etc41 is sometimes to be inferred from the context2 as1-- tum ,rmulus lgts circ vcns gents msit qu societtem cnbiumque peterent3 urbs quoque1 ut ctera1 ex nfim nsc1 then ,romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes1 to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage1 7saying that7 cities1 like everything else1 start from a modest beginning4 #c4 ,subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the ,indirect ,discourse1 or which emphasize the fact stated1 take the ,indicative2 as1-- nntitum est ,ariovistum ad occupandum ,vesontinem1 quod est oppidum maximum ,squanrum contendere1 it was reported that ,ariovistus was hastening to seize ,vesontio1 which is the largest town of the ,sequani4 #d4 ,sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form1 and in sense is principal4 ,it then takes the ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative4 ,this occurs especially in case of relative clauses1 where qu is equivalent to et hc1 nam hc1 etc42 as1-- dxit urbem ,athninsium prpugnculum oppositum esse barbars1 apud quam jam bis classs rgis fcisse naufragium1 he said the city of the ,athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark1 near which 7 and near it7 the fleets of the ,king had twice met disaster4 #e4 ,the ,subject ,accusative of the ,infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb1 or can easily be supplied from the context2 as1-- cum id nescre ,mg dceret1 when ,mago said he did not know this 7for s nescre74 ,interrogative ,sentences4 #cae4 #a4 ,real questions of the ,direct ,discourse1 upon becoming indirect1 are regularly put in the ,subjunctive2 as1-- ,ariovistus ,caesar respondit3 s prius in ,galliam vnisse quam populum ,rmnum4 ,quid sibi vellet8 ,cr in sus possessins venret1 ,ariovistus replied to ,caesar that he had come into ,gaul before the ,roman people4 ,what did he 7,caesar7 mean8 ,why did he come into his domain8 7,direct3 quid tibi vs8 cr in mes possessins vens87 #b4 ,rhetorical questions1 on the other hand1 being asked merely for effect1 and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements1 regularly stand in the ,infinitive in ,indirect ,discourse4 ,thus 3-- quid est levius 7lit4 what is more trivial1 nothing is more trivial7 of the ,direct ,discourse becomes quid esse levius in the ,indirect4 #c4 ,deliberative ,subjunctives of the ,direct ,discourse remain unchanged in mood in the ,indirect3 as1-- quid faceret1 what was he to do8 7,direct3 quid faciat87 ,imperative ,sentences4 #caf4 ,all ,imperatives or ,jussive ,subjunctives of the ,direct ,discourse appear as ,subjunctives in the ,indirect2 as1-- mlits certirs fcit paulisper intermitterent proelium1 he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little4 7,direct3 intermittite47 a4 ,the negative in such sentences is n2 as1-- n suae virtt tribueret1 let him not attribute it to his own valor6 ,,tenses ,,in ,,indirect ,,discourse4 ,a4 ,tenses of the ,infinitive4 #cag4 ,these are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the ,infinitive as given in #bgj4 a4 ,the ,perfect ,infinitive may represent any past tense of the ,indicative of ,direct ,discourse4 ,thus3-- sci t haec gisse may mean-- ,i know you were doing this47,direct3 haec agbs47 ,i know you did this4 7,direct3 haec gist47 ,i know you had done this4 7,direct3 haec gers47 ,b4 ,tenses of the ,subjunctive4 #cah4 ,these follow the regular principle for the ,sequence of ,tenses1 being ,principal if the verb of saying is ,principal2 ,historical if it is ,historical4 ,yet for the sake of vividness1 we often find the ,present ,subjunctive used after an historical tense 7,repraesentti72 as1-- ,caesar respondit1 s obsids dentur1 ss pcem esse factrum1 ,caesar replied that1 if hostages be given1 he would make peace4 a4 ,for the sequence after the ,perfect ,infinitive1 see #bfh1 #b4 ,,conditional ,,sentences ,,in ,,indirect ,,discourse4 ,conditional ,sentences of the ,first ,type4 #cai4 ,a4 ,,the ,,apodosis4 ,any tense of the ,indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the ,infinitive 7 #bgj2 #cag1 a74 ,b4 ,,the ,,protasis4 ,the protasis takes those tenses of the ,subjunctive which are required by the ,sequence of ,tenses4 ,examples3-- ,,direct4 ,,indirect4 s hc crdis1 errs1 dc1 s hc crds1 t errre2 dx1 s hc crders1 t errre4 s hc crds1 errbis1 dc1 s hc crds1 t errtrum esse2 dx1 s hc crders1 t errtrum esse4 s hc crdideris1 errbis1 dc1 s hc crders1 t errtrum esse2 dx1 s hc crdidisss1 t errtrum esse4 s hc crdbs1 errvist1 dc1 s hc crders1 t errvisse2 dx1 s hc crders1 t errvisse4 a4 ,note that a ,future ,perfect ,indicative of the ,direct ,discourse regularly appears in the ,indirect as a ,perfect ,subjunctive after a principal tense1 and as a ,pluperfect ,subjunctive after an historical tense4 ,conditional ,sentences of the ,second ,type4 #cbj4 ,a4 ,,the ,,apodosis4 ,the ,present ,subjunctive of the ,direct ,discourse regularly becomes the ,future ,infinitive of the ,indirect4 ,b4 ,,the ,,protasis4 ,the ,protasis takes those tenses of the ,subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses4 ,examples3-- s hc crds1 errs1 dc1 s hc crds1 t errtrum esse2 dx1 s hc crders1 t errtrum esse2 ,conditional ,sentences of the ,third ,type4 #cba4 ,a4 ,,the ,,apodosis4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect ,subjunctive of the ,direct ,discourse becomes the ,future ,infinitive4 a4 ,but this construction is rare1 being represented in the classical ,latinity by a single example 7,caesar1 ,v4 #bi4 #b74 ,some scholars question the correctness of this passage4 #b4 ,the ,pluperfect ,subjunctive of the ,direct ,discourse becomes3-- a7 ,in the ,active ,voice the ,infinitive in -rus fuisse4 b7 ,in the ,passive ,voice it takes the form futrum fuisse ut with the ,imperfect ,subjunctive4 ,b4 ,,the ,,protasis4 ,the protasis in ,conditional ,sentences of this type always remains unchanged4 ,examples3-- s hc crders1 errrs1 dc 7dx71 s hc crders1 t errtrum esse2 s hc crdidisss1 dc 7dx71 s hc crdidisss1 t errvisss1 errtrum fuisse2 s hc dxisss1 pntus dc 7dx71 s hc dxisss1 futrum esss4 fuisse ut pnrris4 #cbb4 ,when an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the ,third ,type referring to the past is at the same time a ,result clause or a qun-clause 7after nn dubit1 etc471 it stands in the ,perfect ,subjunctive in the form -rus fuerim2 as1-- ita territ sunt1 ut arma trditr fuerint1#eg nisi ,caesar subit advnisset1 they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms1 had not ,caesar suddenly arrived2 nn dubit qun1 s hc dxisss1 errtrus fuers1#eg ,i do not doubt that1 if you had said this1 you would have made a mistake4 a4 ,this peculiarity is confined to the ,active ,voice4 ,in the ,passive1 such sentences1 when they become dependent1 remain unchanged2 as1-- nn dubit qun1 s hc dxisss1 vitupertus esss1 ,i do not doubt that1 if you had said this1 you would have been blamed4 b4 ,when an ,indirect ,question becomes an apodosis in a conditional sentence of the ,third ,type1 -rus fuerim 7rarely -rus fuissem7 is used2 as1-- quaer1 num1 s hc dxisss1 errtrus fuers 7or fuisss74 c4 ,potu1 when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this ,type1 usually changes to the ,perfect ,subjunctive2 as1-- concurs ttus civittis dfns sunt1 ut frgidissims quoque rtrs popul studia excitre potuerint1 they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens1 so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators4 ,,implied ,,indirect ,,discourse4 #cbc4 ,the ,subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is merely implied by the context2 as1-- dmnstrbantur mihi praetere1 quae ,scrats d immortlitte animrum disseruisset1 there were explained to me besides1 the arguments which ,socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul 7i4e4 the arguments which1 it was said1 ,socrates had set forth72 ,paetus omns librs qus pater suus relquisset mihi dnvit1 ,paetus gave me all the books which 7as he said7 his father had left4 ,,subjunctive ,,by ,,attraction4 #cbd4 #a4 ,subordinate clauses dependent upon the ,subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact1 but constitute an essential part of one complex idea2 as1-- nm avrus adhc inventus est1 cui1 quod habret1 esset satis1 no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had2 cum dverss causs afferrent1 dum frmam su quisque et anim et ingeni redderent1 as they brought forward different arguments1 while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent2 quod ego fatear1 pudeat8 should ,i be ashamed of a thing which ,i admit8 #b4 ,similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an ,infinitive is put in the ,subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole2 as1-- ms est ,athns quotanns in cntine laudr es qu sint in proelis interfect1 it is the custom at ,athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle4 7,here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole47 ,,noun ,,and ,,adjective ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 #cbe4 ,these are the ,infinitive1 ,participle1 ,gerund1 and ,supine4 ,all of these partake of the nature of the ,verb1 on the one hand1 and of the ,noun or ,adjective1 on the other4 ,thus3-- ,as ,verbs1-- a7 ,they may be limited by adverbs2 b7 ,they admit an object2 c7 ,they have the properties of voice and tense4 ,as ,nouns or ,adjectives1-- a7 ,they are declined2 b7 ,they take ,noun or ,adjective constructions4 ,,the ,,infinitive4 ,infinitive without ,subject ,accusative4 #cbf4 ,this is used chiefly as ,subject or ,object but also as ,predicate or ,appositive4 ,,note4--,the ,infinitive was originally a ,dative1 and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the ,infinitive to express purpose2 as1 nec dulcs occurrent scula nt praeripere1 and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses4 ,a4 ,as ,subject4 #cbg4 #a4 ,the ,infinitive without ,subject ,accusative is used as the ,subject of esse and various impersonal verbs1 particularly opus est1 necesse est1 oportet1 juvat1 dlectat1 placet1 libet1 licet1 praestat1 decet1 pudet1 interest1 etc42 as1-- dulce et decrum est pr patri mor1 it is sweet and noble to die for one's country2 virrum est fortium toleranter dolrem pat1 it is the part of brave men to endure pain with patience2 sentu placuit lgts mittere1 the ,senate decided 7lit4 it pleased the ,senate7 to send envoys4 #b4 ,even though the ,infinitive itself appears without ,subject1 it may take a ,predicate ,noun or ,adjective in the ,accusative2 as1-- aliud est rcundum esse1 aliud rtum1 it is one thing to be irascible1 another to be angry2 impne quaelibet facere1 id est rgem esse1 to do whatever you please with impunity1 that is to be a king4 a4 ,but when licet is followed by a ,dative of the person1 a ,predicate ,noun or ,adjective with esse is attracted into the same case2 as1 licuit esse tis ,themistocl1 lit4 it was permitted to ,themistocles to be at leisure4 ,so sometimes with other ,impersonals4 ,b4 ,as ,object4 #cbh4 #a4 ,the ,infinitive without ,subject ,accusative is used as the ,object of many verbs1 to denote another action of the same subject1 particularly after-- vol1 cupi1 ml1 nl1 dbeo1 cgit1 meditor1 purpose1 ought2 intend2 statu1 cnstitu1 decide2 negleg1 neglect2 aude1 dare2 vereor1 time1 fear2 stude1 contend1 strive2 mtr1 festn1 proper1 contend1 par1 prepare 7so partus72 hasten2 incipi1 coep1 nstitu1 assusc1 cnsusc1 accustom begin2 myself 7so assutus1 nsutus1 perg1 continue2 assufactus72 dsin1 dsist1 cease2 disc1 learn2 possum1 can2 sci1 know how2 cnor1 try2 sole1 am wont2 as1-- t hs intur auds1 do you dare to look on these men8 ,dmosthens ad flcts maris dclmre solbat1 ,demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea4 #b4 ,a ,predicate ,noun or ,adjective with these ,infinitives is attracted into the ,nominative2 as1-- betus esse sine virtte nm potest1 no one can be happy without virtue2 ,cat esse quam vidr bonus mlbat1 ,cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so4 ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative4 #cbi4 ,this is used chiefly as ,subject or ,object but also as ,predicate or ,appositive4 ,a4 ,as ,subject4 #ccj4 ,the ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative 7like the simple ,infinitive7 is used as ,subject with esse and ,impersonal verbs1 particularly with aequum est1 tile est1 turpe est1 fma est1 sps est1 fs est1 nefs est1 opus est1 necesse est1 oportet1 cnstat1 praestat1 licet1 etc42 as1-- nihil in bell oportet contemn1 nothing ought to be despised in war2 apertum est sibi quemque ntr esse crum1 it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself4 ,b4 ,as ,object4 #cca4 ,the ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative is used as ,object after the following classes of verbs3 #a4 ,most frequently after verbs of saying1 thinking1 knowing1 perceiving1 and the like 7,verba ,sentiendi et ,dclrand74 ,this is the regular construction of ,principal ,clauses of ,indirect ,discourse4 ,verbs that take this construction are1 among others1 the following3 senti1 audi1 vide1 cognsc2 put1 jdic1 spr1 cnfd2 sci1 memin2 dic1 affrm1 neg 7say that 444 not71 trd1 nrr1 fateor1 responde1 scrb1 prmitt1 glrior4 ,also the phrases3 certirem faci 7inform71 memori tene 7remember71 etc4 ,examples3-- ,epicr putant cum corporibus simul anims interre1 the ,epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body2 ,thals dxit aquam esse initium rrum1 ,thales said that water was the first principle of the universe2 ,dmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum1 ,democritus says nothing is everlasting2 spr eum ventrum esse1 ,i hope that he will come4 ,,ii4 ,with jube1 order1 and vet1 forbid2 as1-- ,caesar mlits pontem facere jussit1 ,caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge4 a4 ,when the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted1 the ,infinitive with jube and vet is put in the ,passive2 as1 ,caesar pontem fier jussit4 ,,iii4 ,with patior and sin1 permit1 allow2 as1-- nll s implicr negti passus est1 he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty4 ,,iv4 ,with vol1 nl1 ml1 cupi1 when the ,subject of the ,infinitive is different from that of the governing verb2 as1-- nec mihi hunc errrem extorqur vol1 nor do ,i wish this error to be wrested from me2 es rs jactr nlbat1 he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed2 t tu fru virtte cupimus1 we desire that you enjoy your worth4 a4 ,when the ,subject of both verbs is the same1 the simple ,infinitive is regularly used in accordance with #cbh1 #a4 ,but exceptions occur1 especially in case of esse and ,passive ,infinitives as1-- cupi m esse clmentem1 ,i desire to be lenient2 ,tmolen mluit s dilig quam metu1 ,timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared4 b4 ,vol also admits the ,subjunctive1 with or without ut2 nl the ,subjunctive alone4 7,see #bif1 #a1 a47 ,v4 ,with ,verbs of emotion 7joy1 sorrow1 regret1 etc471 especially gaude1 laetor1 dole2 aegr fer1 molest fer1 graviter fer1 am annoyed1 distressed2 mror1 queror1 indignor2 as1-- gaude t salvum advenre1 ,i rejoice that you arrive safely2 nn molest ferunt s libdinum vinculs laxts sse1 they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion2 mror t ad m nihil scrbere1 ,i wonder that you write me nothing4 a4 ,instead of an ,infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod- clause as ,object4 7,see #bii47 ,thus3-- mror quod nn loqueris1 ,i wonder that you do not speak4 ,,vi4 ,some verbs which take two ,accusatives1 one of the ,person and the other of the ,thing 7 #agh1 #a71 may substitute an ,infinitive for the second ,accusative2 as1-- cg t hc facere1 ,i compel you to do this 7cf4 t hc cg72 docu t contentum esse1 ,i taught you to be content 7cf4 t modestiam docu1 ,i taught you temperance74 ,passive ,construction of the ,foregoing ,verbs4 #ccb4 ,those verbs which in the ,active are followed by the ,infinitive with ,subject ,accusative1 usually admit the personal construction of the ,passive4 ,this is true of the following and of some others3-- a7 jubeor1 vetor1 sinor2 as1-- mlits pontem facere juss sunt1 the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge2 pns fier jussus est1 a bridge was ordered built2 mlits castrs exre vetit sunt1 the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp2 ,sstius ,cldium accsre nn est situs1 ,sestius was not allowed to accuse ,clodius4 b7 videor1 ,i am seen1 ,i seem2 as1-- vidtur comperisse1 he seems to have discovered4 c7 dcor1 putor1 exstimor1 jdicor 7in all persons72 as1-- dcitur in ,italiam vnisse1 he is said to have come into ,italy2 ,rmulus prmus rx ,rmnrum fuisse puttur1 ,romulus is thought to have been the first king of the ,romans4 d7 fertur1 feruntur1 trditur1 trduntur 7only in the third person72 as1-- fertur ,homrus caecus fuisse1 ,homer is said to have been blind2 carmina ,archiloch contumlis referta esse trduntur1 ,archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of abuse4 ,,note4--,in compound tenses and periphrastic forms1 the last two classes of verbs1 c71 d71 more commonly take the impersonal construction2 as-- trditum est ,homrum caecum fuisse1 the story goes that ,homer was blind4 ,infinitive with ,adjectives4 #ccc4 ,the ,infinitive with ,adjectives 7except partus1 assutus1 etc42 see #cbh1 #a7 occurs only in poetry and post-,augustan prose writers2 as1-- contentus dmnstrsse1 contented to have proved2 audx omnia perpet1 bold for enduring everything4 ,infinitive in ,exclamations4 #ccd4 ,the ,infinitive is used in ,exclamations implying scorn1 indignation1 or regret4 ,an intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause4 ,examples3-- huncine slem tam nigrum surrxe mihi1 to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me6 sedre tts dis in vll1 to stay whole days at the villa4 ,historical ,infinitive4 #cce4 ,the ,infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the ,imperfect ,indicative4 ,the ,subject stands in the ,nominative2 as1-- interim cottdi ,caesar ,haedus frmentum flgitre1 meanwhile ,caesar was daily demanding grain of the ,haedui4 ,,participles4 ,tenses of the ,participle4 #ccf4 #a4 ,the tenses of the ,participle1 like those of the infinitive 7see #bgj71 express time not absolutely1 but with reference to the verb upon which the ,participle depends4 #b4 ,the ,present ,participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb4 ,thus3-- audi t loquentem you ,,are speaking and ,i hear you2 audibam t loquentem you ,,were speaking and ,i heard you2 audiam t loquentem you ,,will ,,be speaking and ,i shall hear you4 a4 ,the ,present ,participle is sometimes employed with ,conative force2 as1-- assurgentem rgem resupnat1 as the king was trying to rise1 he threw him down4 #c4 ,the ,perfect ,passive ,participle denotes action prior to that of the verb4 ,thus3-- loctus tace ,i ,,have spoken and am silent2 loctus tacui ,i ,,had spoken and then was silent2 loctus tacb ,i ,,shall speak and then shall be silent4 #d4 ,the absolute time of the action of a participle1 therefore1 is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected4 #e4 ,certain ,perfect ,passive ,participles of ,deponent and ,semi-,deponent ,verbs are used as ,presents2 viz4 arbitrtus1 ausus1 ratus1 gvsus1 solitus1 sus1 cnfsus1 diffsus1 sectus1 veritus4 ,use of ,participles4 #ccg4 ,as an ,adjective the ,participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a ,substantive4 #a4 ,attributive ,use4 ,this presents no special peculiarities4 ,examples are3-- glria est cnsentins laus bonrum1 glory is the unanimous praise of the good2 ,conn mrs ,lysandr druts reficit1 ,conon restored the walls destroyed by ,lysander4 #b4 ,predicate ,use4 ,here the ,participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause4 ,thus the ,participle may denote3-- a7 ,time2 as1-- omne malum nscns facile opprimitur1 every evil is easily crushed at birth4 b7 ,a ,condition2 as1-- mente t nn possumus cib et ptine complt1 if gorged with food and drink1 we cannot use our intellects4 c7 ,manner2 as1-- ,soln senscere s dcbat multa in dis addiscentem1 ,solon said he grew old learning many new things daily4 d7 ,means2 as1-- sl orins diem cnficit1 the sun1 by its rising1 makes the day4 e7 ,opposition 7'though'72 as1-- mendc homin n vrum quidem dcent crdimus1 we do not believe a liar1 though he speaks the truth4 f7 ,cause2 as1-- perfidiam veritus ad sus recessit1 since he feared treachery1 he returned to his own troops4 #c4 ,vide and audi1 besides the ,infinitive1 take the ,present ,participle in the ,predicate use2 as1-- vide t fugientem1 ,i see you fleeing4 a4 ,so frequently faci1 fing1 indc1 etc42 as1-- es ,catnem respondentem facimus1 we represent ,cato replying to them2 ,homrus ,lartem colentem agrum facit1 ,homer represents ,lartes tilling the field4 #d4 ,the ,future ,active ,participle 7except futrus7 is regularly confined to its use in the ,periphrastic ,conjugation1 but in poets and later writers it is used independently1 especially to denote purpose2 as1-- vnrunt castra oppugntr1 they came to assault the camp4 #e4 ,the ,perfect ,passive ,participle is often equivalent to a cordinate clause2 as1-- urbem captam druit1 he captured and destroyed the city 7lit4 he destroyed the city captured74 #f4 ,the ,perfect ,passive ,participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent ,genitive2 as1-- post urbem conditam1 after the founding of the city2 ,qunctius dfnsus1 the defense of ,quinctius2 quibus animus occuptus1 the preoccupation of the mind with which4 #g4 ,habe sometimes takes a ,perfect ,passive ,participle in the ,predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the ,perfect or ,pluperfect ,indicative2 as1-- equittus quem coctum habbat1 the cavalry which he had collected4 #h4 ,the ,gerundive denotes obligation1 necessity1 etc4 ,like other ,participles it may be used either as ,attributive or ,predicate4 a7 ,less frequently as ,attributive4 ,thus3-- liber legendus1 a book worth reading2 lgs observandae1 laws deserving of observance4 b7 ,more frequently as ,predicate4 #a7 ,in the ,passive ,periphrastic ,conjugation 7amandus est1 etc474 ,in this use ,intransitive ,verbs can be used only impersonally1 but admit their ordinary case-construction 7,gen41 ,dat41 ,abl472 as1-- veniendum est1 it is necessary to come2 oblvscendum est offnsrum1 one must forget injuries2 numquam prditr crdendum est1 you must never trust a traitor2 su cuique tendum est jdici1 every man must use his own judgment4 #b7 ,after cr1 provide for2 d1 trd1 give over2 relinqu1 leave2 concd1 hand over1 and some other verbs1 instead of an object clause1 or to denote purpose2 as1-- ,caesar pontem in ,arar faciendum crvit1 ,caesar provided for the construction of a bridge over the ,arar2 impertor urbem mlitibus dripiendam concessit1 the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder4 #i4 ,for the ,gerundive as the equivalent of the ,gerund1 see #cci1 #a4 ,,the ,,gerund4 #cch4 ,as a verbal noun the ,gerund admits noun constructions as follows3-- #a4 ,genitive4 ,the ,genitive of the ,gerund is used-- a7 ,with ,nouns1 as objective or ,appositional ,genitive 7see #bjj1 #bjb72 as1-- cupidits dominand1 desire of ruling2 ars scrbend1 the art of writing4 b7 ,with ,adjectives2 as1-- cupidus audiend1 desirous of hearing4 c7 ,with caus1 grti2 as1-- discend caus1 for the sake of learning4 #b4 ,dative4 ,the ,dative of the ,gerund is used-- a7 ,with ,adjectives2 as1-- aqua tilis est bibend1 water is useful for drinking4 b7 ,with ,verbs 7rarely72 as1-- adfu scrbend1 ,i was present at the writing4 #c4 ,accusative4 ,the ,accusative of the ,gerund is used only with ,prepositions1 chiefly ad and in to denote purpose2 as1-- hom ad agendum ntus est1 man is born for action4 #d4 ,ablative4 ,the ,ablative of the ,gerund is used-- a7 ,without a ,preposition1 as an ,ablative of ,means1 ,cause1 etc4 7see #bah1 #bai72 as1-- mns discend alitur et cgitand1 the mind is nourished by learning and reflection4 ,themistocls maritims praedns cnsectand mare ttum reddidit1 ,themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates4 b7 ,after the prepositions 1 d1 ex1 in2 as1-- summa volupts ex discend capitur1 the keenest pleasure is derived from learning2 multa d bene betque vvend ,platne disputta sunt1 there was much discussion by ,plato on the subject of living well and happily4 #e4 ,as a rule1 only the ,genitive of the ,gerund and the ,ablative 7without a preposition7 admit a ,direct ,object4 ,gerundive ,construction instead of the ,gerund4 #cci4 #a4 ,instead of the ,genitive or ,ablative of the ,gerund with a ,direct ,object1 another construction may be1 and very often is1 used4 ,this consists in putting the ,direct ,object in the case of the ,gerund 7,gen4 or ,abl47 and using the ,gerundive in agreement with it4 ,this is called the ,gerundive ,construction4 ,thus3-- ,,gerund ,,construction4 ,,gerundive ,,construction4 cupidus urbem vidend1 desirous of cupidus urbis videndae2 seeing the city4 dlector rtrs legend1 ,i am dlector rtribus legends charmed with reading the orators4 #b4 ,the ,gerundive ,construction must be used to avoid a ,direct ,object with the ,dative of the ,gerund1 or with a case dependent upon a ,preposition2 as1-- locus castrs mniends aptus1 a place adapted to fortifying a camp2 ad pcem petendam vnrunt1 they came to ask peace2 multum temporis cnsm in legends pots1 ,i spend much time in reading the poets4 #c4 ,in order to avoid ambiguity 7see #bcf1 #b71 the ,gerundive ,construction must not be employed in case of ,neuter ,adjectives used substantively4 ,thus regularly-- philosoph cupid sunt vrum invstgand1 philosophers are eager for discovering truth 7rarely vr invstgand72 studium plra cognscend1 a desire of knowing more 7not plrium cognscendrum74 #d4 ,from the nature of the case only ,transitive ,verbs can be used in the ,gerundive construction2 but tor1 fruor1 fungor1 potior 7originally transitive7 regularly admit it2 as1-- hosts in spem potiundrum castrrum vnerant1 the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp4 #e4 ,the ,genitives me1 tu1 su1 nostr1 vestr1 when used in the ,gerundive ,construction1 are regularly employed without reference to ,gender or ,number1 since they were originally ,neuter ,singular ,adjectives used substantively4 ,thus3-- mulier su servand caus aufgit1 the woman fled for the sake of saving herself2 lgt in castra vnrunt su prgand caus1 the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves4 ,so nostr servand caus1 for the sake of saving ourselves4 #f4 ,occasionally the ,genitive of the ,gerundive ,construction is used to denote purpose2 as1-- quae ille cpit lgum ac lberttis subvertundae1 which he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty4 #g4 ,the ,dative of the ,gerundive ,construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas2 as1-- decemvir lgibus scrbunds1 decemvirs for codifying the laws2 qundecimvir sacrs faciunds1 quindecimvirs for performing the sacrifices4 ,,the ,,supine4 #cdj4 #a4 ,the ,supine in -um is used after ,verbs of motion to express purpose2 as1-- lgt ad ,caesarem grtultum convnrunt1 envoys came to ,caesar to congratulate him4 a4 ,the ,supine in -um may take an ,object2 as1-- pcem pettum rtrs ,rmam mittunt1 they send envoys to ,rome to ask for peace4 b4 ,note the phrase3-- d 7colloc7 fliam nptum1 ,i give my daughter in marriage4 #b4 ,the ,supine in - is used as an ,ablative of ,specification with facilis1 difficilis1 incrdibilis1 jcundus1 optimus1 etc42 also with fs est1 nefs est1 opus est2 as1-- haec rs est facilis cognit1 this thing is easy to learn2 hc est optimum fact1 this is best to do4 a4 ,only a few ,supines in - are in common use1 chiefly audt1 cognit1 dict1 fact1 vs4 b4 ,the ,supine in - never takes an ,object4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,particles4 ,,co,,rdinate ,,conjunctions4 #cda4 ,copulative ,conjunctions4 ,these join one word1 phrase1 or clause to another4 #a4 a7 et simply connects4 b7 -que joins more closely than et1 and is used especially where the two members have an internal connection with each other2 as1-- parents lberque1 parents and children2 cum homins aest febrque jactantur1 when people are tossed about with heat and fever4 c7 atque 7ac7 usually emphasizes the second of the two things connected1--and also1 and indeed1 and in fact4 ,after words of likeness and difference1 atque 7ac7 has the force of as1 than4 ,thus3-- ego idem senti ac t1 ,i think the same as you2 haud aliter ac1 not otherwise than4 d7 neque 7nec7 means and not1 neither1 nor4 #b4 a7 -que is an enclitic1 and is appended always to the second of two words connected4 ,where it connects phrases or clauses1 it is appended to the first word of the second clause2 but when the first word of the second clause is a ,preposition1 -que is regularly appended to the next following word2 as1-- ob eamque rem1 and on account of that thing4 b7 atque is used before vowels and consonants2 ac never before vowels1 and seldom before c1 g1 qu4 c7 et nn is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon a special word2 as1-- vetus et nn ignbilis rtor1 an old and not ignoble orator4 d7 ,for and nowhere1 and never1 and none1 the ,latin regularly said nec squam1 nec umquam1 nec llus1 etc4 #c4 ,correlatives4 ,copulative ,conjunctions are frequently used correlatively2 as1-- et 444 et1 both 444 and2 neque 7nec7 444 neque 7nec71 neither 444 nor2 cum 444 tum1 while 444 at the same time2 tum 444 tum1 not only 444 but also4 ,less frequently3-- et 444 neque2 neque 444 et4 a4 ,note that the ,latin1 with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations1 often uses correlatives1 especially et 444 et1 et 444 neque1 neque 444 et1 where the ,english employs but a single connective4 #d4 ,in enumerations-- a7 ,the different members of a series may follow one another without connectives 7,asyndeton2 see #cdf74 ,thus3-- ex cupidittibus odia1 discidia1 discordiae1 sditins1 bella nscuntur1 from covetous desires spring up hatred1 dissension1 discord1 sedition1 wars4 b7 ,the different members may severally be connected by et 7,polysyndeton74 ,thus3-- hrae cdunt et dis et mnss et ann1 hours and days and months and years pass away4 c7 ,the connective may be omitted between the former members1 while the last two are connected by -que 7rarely et72 as1-- ,caesar in ,carnuts1 ,ands ,turonsque legins ddcit1 ,caesar leads his legions into the territory of the ,carnutes1 ,andes1 and ,turones4 #cdb4 ,disjunctive ,conjunctions indicate an alternative4 #a4 a7 aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive2 as1-- cita mors venit aut victria laeta1 7either7 swift death or glad victory comes4 b7 vel1 -ve 7enclitic7 imply a choice between the alternatives2 as1-- qu aethr vel caelum nmintur1 which is called aether or heaven4 #b4 ,correlatives4 ,disjunctive ,conjunctions are often used correlatively2 as1-- aut 444 aut1 either 444 or2 vel 444 vel1 either 444 or2 sve 444 sve1 if 444 or if4 #cdc4 ,adversative ,conjunctions4 ,these denote opposition4 #a4 a7 sed1 but1 merely denotes opposition4 b7 vrum1 but1 is stronger than sed1 but is less frequently used4 c7 autem1 but on the other hand1 however1 marks a transition4 ,it is always post-positive4 ,,definition4 ,a post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence1 but is placed after one or more words4 d7 at1 but1 is used especially in disputation1 to introduce an opposing argument4 e7 atqu means but yet4 f7 tamen1 yet1 usually stands after the emphatic word1 but not always4 g7 vr1 however1 indeed1 in truth1 is always post-positive4 #b4 ,note the correlative expressions3-- nn slum 7nn modo7 444 sed etiam1 not only 444 but also2 nn modo nn 444 sed n 444 quidem1 not only not1 but not even2 as1-- nn modo tibi nn rscor1 sed n reprehend quidem factum tuum1 ,i not only am not angry with you1 but ,i do not even blame your action4 a4 ,but when the sentence has but one verb1 and this stands with the second member1 nn modo may be used for nn modo nn2 as1-- adsentti nn modo amc1 sed n lber quidem digne est1 flattery is not only not worthy of a friend1 but not even of a free man4 #cdd4 ,illative ,conjunctions4 ,these represent the statement which they introduce as following from or as in conformity with what has preceded4 #a4 a7 itaque and so1 accordingly4 b7 erg therefore1 accordingly4 c7 igitur 7regularly post-positive#eh7 therefore1 accordingly4 #b4 ,igitur is never combined with et1 atque1 -que1 or neque4 #cde4 ,causal ,conjunctions4 ,these denote cause1 or give an explanation4 ,they are nam1 namque1 enim 7post-positive71 etenim1 for4 #cdf4 ,asyndeton4 ,the conjunction is sometimes omitted between cordinate members1 particularly in lively or impassioned narration4 ,thus3-- a7 ,a copulative ,conjunction is omitted2 as1-- avritia nfnta1 nsatibilis est1 avarice is boundless 7and7 insatiable2 ,cn4 ,pompej1 ,m4 ,crass cnsulibus1 in the consulship of ,gnaeus ,pompey 7and7 ,marcus ,crassus4 ,the conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when the praenomen 7,mrcus1 ,gaius1 etc47 is expressed4 b7 ,an ,adversative ,conjunction may be omitted2 as1-- ratins dfurunt1 berts rtinis nn dfuit1 arguments were lacking1 7but7 abundance of words was not4 ,,adverbs4 #cdg4 #a4 ,the following particles1 sometimes classed as ,conjunctions1 are more properly ,adverbs3-- etiam1 also1 even4 quoque 7always post-positive71 also4 quidem 7always post-positive7 lays stress upon the preceding word4 ,it is sometimes equivalent to the ,english indeed1 in fact1 but more frequently cannot be rendered1 except by vocal emphasis4 n 444 quidem means not even2 the emphatic word or phrase always stands between2 as1 n ille quidem1 not even he4 tamen and vr1 in addition to their use as ,conjunctions1 are often employed as ,adverbs4 #b4 ,negatives4 ,two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in ,english1 as nn nll1 some2 but when nn1 nm1 nihil1 numquam1 etc41 are accompanied by neque 444 neque1 nn 444 nn1 nn modo1 or n 444 quidem1 the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it2 as1-- habe hc nminem neque amcum neque cogntum1 ,i have here no one1 neither friend nor relative4 nn enim praetereundum est n id quidem1 for not even that must be passed by4 a4 ,haud in ,cicero and ,caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of ,adjectives and ,adverbs1 and in the phrase haud sci an4 ,later writers use it freely with verbs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,word-order and ,sentence-,structure4 ,a4 ,,word-,,order4 #cdh4 ,in the normal arrangement of the ,latin sentence the ,subject stands at the beginning of the sentence1 the ,predicate at the end2 as1-- ,drus classem qungentrum nvium comparvit1 ,darius got ready a fleet of five hundred ships4 #cdi4 ,but for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned1 and the emphatic word is put at the beginning1 less frequently at the end of the sentence2 as1-- magnus in hc bell ,themistocls fuit1 ,,great was ,themistocles in this war2 aliud iter habmus nllum1 other course we have ,,none4 ,,special ,,principles4 #cej4 #a4 ,nouns4 ,a ,genitive or other oblique case regularly follows the word upon which it depends4 ,thus3-- a7 ,depending upon a ,noun3-- tribnus plbis1 tribune of the plebs2 flius rgis1 son of the king2 vir magn anim1 a man of noble spirit4 ,yet always sents cnsultum1 plbis sctum4 b7 ,depending upon an ,adjective3-- ignrus rrum1 ignorant of affairs2 dign amciti1 worthy of friendship2 pls aequ1 more than 7what is7 fair4 #b4 ,appositives4 ,an ,appositive regularly follows its ,subject2 as1-- ,philippus1 rx ,macedonum1 ,philip1 king of the ,macedonians2 adsentti1 vitirum adjtrx1 flattery1 promoter of evils4 ,yet flmen ,rhnus1 the ,river ,rhine2 and always in good prose urbs ,rma1 the city ,rome4 #c4 ,the ,vocative usually follows one or more words2 as1-- aud1 ,caesar1 hear1 ,caesar6 #d4 ,adjectives4 ,no general law can be laid down for the position of ,adjectives4 ,on the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it4 a4 ,adjectives of quantity 7including numerals7 regularly precede their noun2 as1-- omns homins1 all men2 septingentae nvs1 seven hundred vessels4 b4 ,note the force of position in the following3-- media urbs1 the middle of the city2 urbs media1 the middle city1 extrmum bellum1 the end of the war2 bellum extrmum1 the last war4 c4 ,rmnus and ,latnus regularly follow2 as1-- sentus populusque ,rmnus1 the ,roman ,senate and ,people2 ld ,rmn1 the ,roman games2 friae ,latnae1 the ,latin holidays4 d4 ,when a ,noun is modified both by an ,adjective and by a ,genitive1 a favorite order is3 ,adjective1 ,genitive1 ,noun2 as1-- summa omnium rrum abundantia1 the greatest abundance of all things4 #e4 ,pronouns4 a4 ,the ,demonstrative1 ,relative1 and ,interrogative ,pronouns regularly precede the ,noun2 as1-- hc hom1 this man2 ille hom1 that man2 erant duo itinera1 quibus itineribus1 etc41 there were two routes1 by which1 etc4 qu hom8 what sort of man8 b4 ,but ille in the sense of 'that well known1' 'that famous1' usually stands after its ,noun2 as1-- testula illa1 that well-known custom of ostracism2 ,mda illa1 that famous ,medea4 c4 ,possessive and ,indefinite ,pronouns usually follow their ,noun2 as1-- pater meus1 my father2 hom qudam1 a certain man2 mulier aliqua1 some woman4 ,but for purposes of contrast the ,possessive often precedes its ,noun2 as1-- meus pater1 ,,my father 7i4e4 as opposed to yours1 his1 etc474 d4 ,where two or more ,pronouns occur in the same sentence1 the ,latin is fond of putting them in close proximity2 as1-- nisi forte ego vbs cessre videor1 unless perchance ,i seem to you to be doing nothing4 #f4 ,adverbs and ,adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify2 as1-- vald dligns1 extremely diligent2 saepe dx1 ,i have often said2 t jam di hortmur1 we have long been urging you2 paul post1 a little after4 #g4 ,prepositions regularly precede the words they govern4 a4 ,but limiting words often intervene between the ,preposition and its case2 as1-- d commn hominum memori1 concerning the common memory of men2 ad bet vvendum1 for living happily4 b4 ,when a noun is modified by an ,adjective1 the ,adjective is often placed before the preposition2 as1-- magn in dolre1 in great grief2 summ cum laude1 with the highest credit2 qu d caus1 for which cause2 hanc ob rem1 on account of this thing4 c4 ,for ,anastrophe1 by which a ,preposition is put after its case1 see #add1 #c4 #h4 ,conjunctions4 ,autem1 enim1 and igitur regularly stand in the second place in the sentence1 but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third2 as1-- ita est enim1 for so it is4 #i4 ,words or ,phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it1 regularly stand first2 as1-- id ut audvit1 ,corcyram dmigrvit1 when he heard that 7referring to the contents of the preceding sentence71 he moved to ,corcyra2 e cum ,caesar vnisset1 timents cnfirmat1 when ,caesar had come thither 7i4e4 to the place just mentioned71 he encouraged the timid4 #aj4 ,the ,latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are etymologically related2 as1-- ut ad senem senex d senectte1 sc hc libr ad amcum amcissimus d amciti scrps1 as ,i1 an old man1 wrote to an old man1 on old age1 so in this book1 as a fond friend1 ,i have written to a friend1 concerning friendship4 #aa4 ,special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following3-- a7 ,hyprbaton1 which consists in the separation of words that regularly stand together2 as1-- septimus mihi ,orginum liber est in manibus1 the seventh book of my ',origines' is under way2 recept ,caesar ric proficscitur1 having recovered ,oricus1 ,caesar set out4 b7 ,anphora1 which consists in the repetition of the same word or the same word-order in successive phrases2 as1-- sed pln omns sunt libr1 plnae sapientium vcs1 plna exemplrum vetusts1 but all books are full of it1 the voices of sages are full of it1 antiquity is full of examples of it4 c7 ,chismus1#ei which consists in changing the relative order of words in two antithetical phrases2 as1-- mults dfend1 laes nminem1 many have ,i defended1 ,i have injured no one2 horribilem illum diem alis1 nbs faustum1 that day dreadful to others1 for us fortunate4 d7 ,snchysis1 or the interlocked arrangement4 ,this is mostly confined to poetry1 yet occurs in rhetorical prose1 especially that of the ,imperial ,period2 as1-- simultam ,pompejnrum grtiam partium1 pretended interest in the ,pompeian party4 #ab4 ,metrical ,close4 ,at the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided2 others were much employed4 ,thus3-- a7 ,cadences avoided4 v v v or 2 as1 esse vidtur 7close of hexameter74 v v v or 2 as1 esse potest 7close of pentameter74 b7 ,cadences frequently employed4 v 2 as1 auxerant4 v v 2 as1 comprobvit4 v v v v 2 as1 esse videtur4 v v 2 as1 rogt tu4 ,b4 ,,sentence-,,structure4 #cea4 #a4 ,unity of ,subject4--,in complex sentences the ,latin regularly holds to unity of ,subject in the different members2 as1-- ,caesar prmum su1 deinde omnium ex cnspect remts equs1 ut aequt percul spem fugae tolleret1 cohorttus sus proelium commsit1 ,caesar having first removed his own horse from sight1 then the horses of all1 in order1 by making the danger equal1 to take away hope of flight1 encouraged his men and joined battle4 #b4 ,a word serving as the common ,subject or ,object of the main clause and a subordinate one1 stands before both2 as1-- ,haedu cum s dfendere nn possent1 lgts ad ,caesarem mittunt1 since the ,haedui could not defend themselves1 they sent envoys to ,caesar2 ille ets flagrbat belland cupiditte1 tamen pc serviendum putvit1 although he was burning with a desire to fight1 yet he thought he ought to aim at peace4 a4 ,the same is true also #a7 ,when the ,subject of the main clause is ,object 7,direct or ,indirect7 of a subordinate clause2 as1-- ,caesar1 cum hc e nntiatum esset1 mtrat ab urbe proficsc1 when this had been reported to ,caesar he hastened to set out from the city4 #b7 ,when the ,subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the ,object 7,direct or ,indirect7 of the main clause2 as1-- ,l4 ,mnli1 cum dicttor fuisset1 ,m4 ,pompnius tribnus plbis diem dxit1 ,m4 ,pomponius1 tribune of the people1 instituted proceedings against ,lucius ,manlius1 though he had been dictator4 #c4 ,of subordinate clauses1 temporal1 conditional1 and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause2 indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow2 as1-- postquam haec dxit1 profectus est1 after he said this1 he set out2 s quis ita agat1 imprdns sit1 if any one should act so1 he would be devoid of foresight2 accidit ut n nocte omns ,hermae dicerentur1 it happened that in a single night all the ,hermae were thrown down4 #d4 ,sometimes in ,latin the main verb is placed within the subordinate clause2 as1-- s quid est in m ingen1 quod senti quam sit exiguum1 if there is any talent in me1 and ,i know how little it is4 #e4 ,the ,latin ,period4 ,the term ,period1 when strictly used1 designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause2 as1-- ,caesar ets intellegbat qu d caus ea dcerentur1 tamen1 n aesttem in ,trvers cnsmere cgertur1 ,indutiomrum ad s venre jussit1 though ,caesar perceived why this was said1 yet1 lest he should be forced to spend the summer among the ,treveri1 he ordered ,indutiomarus to come to him4 ,in the ,periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached4 ,many ,roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure1 and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language2 in ,english we generally avoid it4 #f4 ,when there are several subordinate clauses in one ,period1 the ,latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs4 ,thus3-- ,at hosts cum msissent1 qu1 quae in castrs gererentur1 cognscerent1 ubi s dcepts intellxrunt1 omnibus cpis subsect ad flmen contendunt1 but the enemy when they had sent men to learn what was going on in camp1 after discovering that they had been outwitted1 followed with all their forces and hurried to the river4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii4-,hints on ,latin ,style4 #ceb4 ,in this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of ,latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar4 ,,nouns4 #cec4 #a4 ,where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved1 the ,latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the ,plural than is the ,english2 as1-- doms eunt1 they go home 7i4e4 to their homes72 ,germn corpora crant1 the ,germans care for the body2 anims mlitum recreat1 he renews the courage of the soldiers2 dis noctsque timre1 to be in a state of fear day and night4 #b4 ,in case of ,neuter ,pronouns and ,adjectives used substantively1 the ,latin often employs the ,plural where the ,english uses the ,singular2 as1-- omnia sunt perdta1 everything is lost2 quae cum ita sint1 since this is so2 haec omnibus pervulgta sunt1 this is very well known to all4 #c4 ,the ,latin is usually more concrete than the ,english1 and especially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities4 ,thus3-- puer1 puers1 from boyhood2 ,sull dicttre1 in ,sulla's dictatorship2 m duce1 under my leadership2 ,rmn cum ,carthgininsibus pcem fcrunt ,rome made peace with ,carthage2 liber doctrnae plnus a learned book2 prdenti ,themistocls ,graecia servta est ,themistocles's foresight saved ,greece4 #d4 ,the ,nouns of ,agency in -tor and -sor 7see #adg1 #a7 denote a permanent or characteristic activity2 as1-- accstrs1 7professional7 accusers2 rtrs1 pleaders2 cantrs1 singers2 ,arminius1 ,germniae lbertor1 ,arminius1 liberator of ,germany4 a4 ,to denote single instances of an action1 other expressions are commonly employed2 as1-- ,numa1 qu ,rmul successit1 ,numa1 successor of ,romulus2 qu mea legunt1 my readers2 qu m audiunt1 my auditors4 #e4 ,the ,latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a ,noun4 ,in ,english we say3 ',the war against ,carthage'2 'a journey through ,gaul'2 'cities on the sea'2 'the book in my hands'2 'the fight at ,salamis'2 etc4 ,the ,latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression4 ,thus3-- a7 ,a ,genitive2 as1-- dolor injrirum1 resentment at injuries4 b7 ,an ,adjective2 as1-- urbs maritimae1 cities on the sea2 pugna ,salamnia1 the fight at ,salamis4 c7 ,a ,participle2 as1-- pugna ad ,canns facta1 the battle at ,cannae4 d7 ,a ,relative clause2 as1-- liber qu in mes manibus est1 the book in my hands4 ,,note4--,yet within certain limits the ,latin does employ ,prepositional phrases as ,noun modifiers4 ,this is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb4 ,the following are typical examples3-- trnsitus in ,britanniam1 the passage to ,britain2 excessus vt1 departure from life2 odium erg ,rmns1 hatred of the ,romans2 liber d senectte1 the book on old age2 amor in patriam1 love for one's country4 ,,adjectives4 #ced4 #a4 ,special ,latin ,equivalents for ,english ,adjectives are-- a7 ,a ,genitive2 as1-- virtts anim moral virtues2 dolrs corporis bodily ills4 b7 ,an ,abstract ,noun2 as1-- novits re the strange circumstance2 asperits virum rough roads4 c7 ,hendiadys 7see #cgd1 #d72 as1-- rati et rd systematic order2 rdor et impetus eager onset4 d7 ,sometimes an ,adverb2 as1-- omns circ popul1 all the surrounding tribes2 sus semper hosts1 their perpetual foes4 #b4 ,often a ,latin ,noun is equivalent to an ,english ,noun modified by an ,adjective2 as1-- doctrna1 theoretical knowledge2 prdentia1 practical knowledge2 oppidum1 walled town2 libellus1 little book4 #c4 ,adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names2 but an ,adjective may limit vir1 hom1 ille1 or some other word used as an ,appositive of a proper name2 as1-- ,scrats1 hom sapins the wise ,socrates2 ,scpi1 vir fortissimus the doughty ,scipio2 ,syrcsae1 urbs praeclrissima famous ,syracuse4 #d4 ,an ,adjective may be equivalent to a ,possessive or ,subjective ,genitive2 as1-- pstor rgius1 the shepherd of the king2 tumultus servlis1 the uprising of the slaves4 ,,pronouns4 #cee4 #a4 ,in ,compound ,sentences the ,relative ,pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one2 as1-- qu cum quaerertur1 quid maxim expedret1 respondit1 when it was asked of him what was best1 he replied4 7,less commonly1 qu1 cum ab e quaerertur1 respondit47 #b4 ,uterque1 amb4 ,uterque means each of two2 amb means both2 as1-- uterque frter abiit1 each of the two brothers departed 7i4e4 separately72 amb frtrs abirunt1 i4e4 the two brothers departed together4 a4 ,the ,plural of uterque occurs-- #a7 ,with ,nouns used only in the ,plural 7see #ef72 as1-- in utrsque castrs1 in each camp4 #b7 ,where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things2 as1-- utrque ducs clr furunt1 the generals on each side 7several in number7 were famous4 ,,verbs4 #cef4 #a4 ,in case of ,defective and ,deponent ,verbs1 a ,passive is supplied3-- a7 ,by the corresponding verbal ,nouns in combination with esse1 etc42 as1-- in odi sumus1 we are hated2 in invidi sum1 ,i am envied2 admrtin est1 he is admired2 oblvine obruitur1 he is forgotten 7lit4 is overwhelmed by oblivion72 in s esse1 to be used4 b7 ,by the ,passive of ,verbs of related meaning4 ,thus3-- agitr as ,passive of persequ2 temptr as ,passive of adorr4 #b4 ,the lack of the ,perfect ,active ,participle in ,latin is supplied-- a7 ,sometimes by the ,perfect ,passive ,participle of the ,deponent2 as1-- adhorttus1 having exhorted2 veritus1 having feared4 b7 ,by the ,ablative ,absolute2 as1-- hostium agrs vstts ,caesar exercitum redxit1 having ravaged the country of the enemy1 ,caesar led back his army4 c7 ,by subordinate clauses2 as1-- e cum advnisset1 castra posuit1 having arrived there1 he pitched a camp2 hostes qu in urbem irrperant1 the enemy having burst into the city4 #c4 ,the ,latin agrees with ,english in the stylistic employment of the ,second ,person ,singular in an indefinite sense 7 'one'74 ,cf4 the ,english ',you can drive a horse to water1 but you can't make him drink4' ,but in ,latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the ,subjunctive1 especially the ,potential 7 #bhj71 ,jussive 7 #bge71 ,deliberative 7 #bgg71 and the ,subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under #cjb1 #b1 and #cjc4 ,examples3-- vidrs1 you could see2 tre vribus1 use your strength1 quid hc homine facis1 what are you to do with this man8 mns quoque et animus1 nisi tamquam lmin oleum nstlls1 exstinguuntur senectte1 the intellect and mind too are extinguished by old age1 unless1 so to speak1 you keep pouring oil into the lamp2 tant amre possessins sus amplex tenbant1 ut ab es membra dvell citius posse dcers1 they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace1 that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies4 ,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,accusative4 #ceg4 #a4 ,to denote 'so many years1 etc41 afterwards or before' the ,latin employs not merely the ,ablative of ,degree of ,difference with post and ante 7see #bbc71 but has other forms of expression4 ,thus3-- post qunque anns1 five years afterward2 paucs ante dis1 a few days before2 ante quadriennium1 four years before2 post diem qurtum quam ab urbe discessermus1 four days after we had left the city2 ante tertium annum quam dcesserat1 three years before he had died4 #b4 ,the ,latin seldom combines both ,subject and ,object with the same ,infinitive2 as1-- ,rmns ,hannibalem vcisse cnstat4 ,such a sentence would be ambiguous1 and might mean either that the ,romans had conquered ,hannibal1 or that ,hannibal had conquered the ,romans4 ,perspicuity was gained by the use of the ,passive ,infinitive2 as1-- ,rmns ab ,hannibale victs esse cnstat1 it is well established that the ,romans were defeated by ,hannibal4 ,,peculiarities ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,dative4 #ceh4 #a4 ,the ,english for does not always correspond to a ,dative notion in ,latin1 but is often the equivalent of pr with the ,ablative1 viz4 in the senses-- a7 ,in defense of2 as1-- pr patri mor1 to die for one's country4 b7 ,instead of1 in behalf of2 as1-- nus pr omnibus dxit1 one spoke for all2 haec pr lge dicta sunt1 these things were said for the law4 c7 ,in proportion to2 as1-- pr multitdine hominum erum fns erant angust1 for the population1 their territory was small4 #b4 ,similarly1 ,english to when it indicates motion is rendered in ,latin by ad4 a4 ,note1 however1 that the ,latin may say either scrbere ad aliquem1 or scrbere alicui1 according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant4 ,so in several similar expressions4 #c4 ,in the poets1 verbs of mingling with1 contending with1 joining1 clinging to1 etc41 sometimes take the ,dative4 ,this construction is a ,grecism4 ,thus3-- s miscet virs1 he mingles with the men2 contendis ,homr1 you contend with ,homer2 dextrae dextram jungere1 to clasp hand with hand4 ,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,genitive4 #cei4 #a4 ,the ,possessive ,genitive gives emphasis to the possessor1 the ,dative of ,possessor emphasizes the fact of possession2 as1-- hortus patris est1 the garden is my father's2 mihi hortus est1 ,i possess a garden4 #b4 ,the ,latin can say either stult or stultum est dcere1 it is foolish to say2 but ,adjectives of one ending permit only the ,genitive2 as1-- sapientis est haec scum reputre1 it is the part of a wise man to consider this4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,prosody4 #cfj4 ,prosody treats of metres and versification4 #cfa4 ,latin ,verse4 ,latin ,poetry was essentially different in character from ,english4 ,in our own language1 poetry is based upon accent1 and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables4 ,latin poetry1 on the other hand1 was based not upon accent1 but upon quantity1 so that with the ,romans poetical form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables1 i4e4 of long and short intervals of time4 ,this fundamental difference in the character of ,english and ,latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages4 ,english is a strongly accented language1 in which quantity is relatively subordinate4 ,latin1 on the other hand1 was a quantitative language1 in which accent was relatively subordinate4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,vowels ,,and ,,syllables ,,general ,,principles4 #cfb4 ,the general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in #e4 ,the following peculiarities are to be noted here3-- #a4 ,a vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel 7 #e1 ,a1 #b71 but the following exceptions occur3-- a7 ,in the ,genitive termination -us 7except alterus72 as1 illus1 ttus4 ,yet the i may be short in poetry2 as1 illus1 ttus4 b7 ,in the ,genitive and ,dative ,singular of the ,fifth ,declension2 as1 di1 aci4 ,but fid1 r1 sp 7 #eb1 #a74 c7 ,in f1 excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er4 ,thus3 fbam1 fat1 funt2 but fer1 ferem4 d7 ,in a few other words1 especially words derived from the ,greek2 as1 dus1 ,aens1 ,drus1 hres1 etc4 #b4 ,a diphthong is usually long 7 #e1 ,b1 #b71 but the preposition prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel2 as1 practus4 #c4 ,a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants 7 #e1 ,b1 #b7 is long1 even when one of the consonants is in the following word2 as1 terret populum4 ,occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants are in the following word2 as1 pr segete spcs4 #d4 ,compounds of jaci1 though written inicit1 adicit1 etc41 have the first syllable long1 as though written inj-1 adj-4 #e4 ,before j1 and made a long syllable1 e4g4 in major1 pejor1 ejus1 ejusdem1 ,pompejus1 rejcit1 etc4 ,these were pronounced1 mai-jor1 pei-jor1 ei-jus1 ,pompei-jus1 rei-jcit1 etc4 ,so also sometimes before i1 e4g4 ,pompe-1 pronounced ,pompei-2 re-ici1 pronounced rei-ici4 ,quantity of ,final ,syllables4 ,a4 ,final ,syllables ending in a ,vowel4 #cfc4 #a4 ,final a is mostly short1 but is long3-- a7 ,in the ,ablative ,singular of the ,first ,declension2 as1 port4 b7 ,in the ,imperative2 as1 laud4 c7 ,in indeclinable words 7except it1 qui72 as1 trgint1 contr1 poste1 intere1 etc4 #b4 ,final e is usually short1 but is long3-- a7 ,in the ,ablative ,singular of the ,fifth ,declension2 as1 di1 r2 hence hodi1 qur4 ,here belongs also fam 7 #ei1 #b1 b74 b7 ,in the ,imperative of the ,second ,conjugation2 as1 mon1 hab1 etc42 yet occasionally cav1 val4 c7 ,in ,adverbs derived from ,adjectives of the ,second ,declension1 along with fer and ferm4 ,ben1 mal1 temer1 saep have 4 d7 ,in 1 d1 m1 t1 s1 n 7not1 lest71 n 7verily74 #c4 ,final i is usually long1 but is short in nis and quas4 ,mihi1 tibi1 sibi1 ibi1 ubi1 have regularly 1 but sometimes 2 yet always ibdem1 ibque1 ubque4 #d4 ,final o is regularly long1 but is short3-- a7 ,in eg1 du1 mod 7only71 cit4 b7 ,rarely in the ,first ,person ,singular of the ,verb1 and in ,nominatives of the ,third ,declension2 as1 am1 le4 c7 ,in a few compounds beginning with the ,preposition pro1 especially before f2 as prfundere1 prficsc1 prfugere4 #e4 ,final u is always long4 ,b4 ,final ,syllables ending in a ,consonant4 #cfd4 #a4 ,final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short4 ,the following words1 however1 have a long vowel3 sl1 sl1 ,lr1 pr1 vr1 fr1 dc1 dc1 n1 nn1 qun1 sn1 sc1 cr4 ,also the adverbs hc1 illc1 istc4#fj #b4 ,final syllables in -as are long2 as1 terrs1 ams4 #c4 ,final syllables in -es are regularly long1 but are short3-- a7 ,in the ,nominative and ,vocative ,singular of dental stems 7 #cc7 of the ,third ,declension which have a short penult in the ,genitive2 as1 segs 7segetis71 obss 7obsidis71 mls1 dvs4 ,but a few have -s2 viz4 ps1 aris1 abis1 paris4 b7 ,in s 7thou art71 pens4 #d4 ,final -os is usually long1 but short in s 7ossis71 comps1 imps4 #e4 ,final -is is usually short1 but is long3-- a7 ,in ,plurals2 as1 ports1 horts1 nbs1 vbs1 nbs 7,acc474 b7 ,in the ,second ,person ,singular ,perfect ,subjunctive ,active2 as1 amvers1 monuers1 audvers1 etc4 ,yet occasional exceptions occur4 c7 ,in the ,second ,person ,singular ,present ,indicative ,active of the ,fourth ,conjugation2 as1 auds4 d7 ,in vs1 force2 s1 thou goest2 fs2 ss2 vels2 nls2 vs1 thou wilt 7mvs1 quamvs1 quvs1 etc474 #f4 ,final -us is usually short1 but is long3-- a7 ,in the ,genitive ,singular and in the ,nominative1 ,accusative1 and ,vocative ,plural of the ,fourth ,declension2 as1 frcts4 b7 ,in the ,nominative and ,vocative ,singular of those nouns of the ,third ,declension in which the u belongs to the stem2 as1 pals 7-dis71 servits 7-tis71 tells 7-ris74 #cfe4 ,greek ,nouns retain in ,latin their original quantity2 as1 ,aen1 epitom1 ,dlos1 ,pallas1 ,simos1 ,salams1 ,dds1 ,parid1 r1 aethr1 crtr1 hrs4 ,yet ,greek nouns in - 7-r7 regularly shorten the vowel of the final syllable2 as1 rhtr1 ,hectr4 ,,verse-,,structure4 ,,general ,,principles4 #cff4 #a4 ,the metrical unit in versification is a short syllable1 technically called a mora 7 v 74 ,a long syllable 7 7 is regarded as equivalent to two morae4 #b4 ,a ,foot is a group of syllables4 ,the following are the most important kinds of fundamental feet3-- ,,feet ,,of ,,three ,,morae4 ,,feet ,,of ,,four ,,morae4 v ,trochee4 v v ,dactyl4 v ,iambus4 v v ,anapaest4 #c4 ,a ,verse is a succession of feet4 #d4 ,the different kinds of verses are named ,trochaic1 ,iambic1 ,dactylic1 ,anapaestic1 according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure4 #e4 ,ictus4 ,in every fundamental foot the long syllable naturally receives the greater prominence4 ,this prominence is called ictus4#fa ,it is denoted thus3 _/ v v 2 _/ v 4 #f4 ,thesis and ,arsis4 ,the syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis2 the rest of the foot is called the arsis4 #g4 ,elision4 ,final syllables ending in a vowel1 a diphthong1 or -m are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h4 ,in reading1 we omit the elided syllable entirely4 ,this may be indicated as follows3 corpore in n2 multum ille et2 mnstrum horrendum2 causae rrum4 a4 ,omission of elision is called ,hitus4 ,it occurs especially before and after monosyllabic interjections2 as1 et praesidium4 #h4 ,the ending of a word within a foot is called a ,caesra 7cutting7 ,every verse usually has one prominent caesura4 ,the ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis4 #i4 ,verses are distinguished as ,catalectic or ,acatalectic4 ,a ,catalectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete1 but lacks one or more syllables2 an ,acatalectic verse has its last foot complete4 #aj4 ,at the end of a verse a slight pause occurred4 ,hence the final syllable may be either long or short 7syllaba anceps71 and may terminate in a vowel or m1 even though the next verse begins with a vowel4 #aa4 ,iambic1 ,trochaic1 and ,anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter1 trimeter1 tetrameter1 according to the number of dipodies 7pairs of feet7 which they contain4 ,dactylic verses are measured by single feet1 and are designated as tetrameter1 pentameter1 hexameter1 accordingly4 ,,special ,,peculiarities4 #cfg4 #a4 ,synizsis 7synaresis74 ,two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable2 as1-- aures1 deinde1 antere1 deesse4 #b4 ,distole4 ,a syllable usually short is sometimes long2 as1-- vidt1 audt4 #c4 ,sstole4 ,a syllable usually long is sometimes short2 as1-- stetrunt4 a4 ,diastole and ,systole are not mere arbitrary processes4 ,they usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the ordinary speech4 #d4 ,after a consonant1 i and u sometimes become j and v4 ,the preceding syllable then becomes long2 as1-- abjete for abiete2 genva for genua4 #e4 ,sometimes v becomes u2 as1-- silua for silva2 dissolu for dissolv4 #f4 ,sometimes a verse has an extra syllable4 ,such a verse is called an ,hyprmeter4 ,the extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m1 and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by ,synaphia4 ,thus3-- 444 ignr hominumque locrumque errmus4 #g4 ,tmesis 7cutting74 ,compound words are occasionally separated into their elements2 as1-- qu m cumque rapit tempests1 for qucumque1 etc4 #h4 ,sncope4 ,a short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants2 as1-- repostus for repositus ,,the ,,dactylic ,,hexameter4 #cfh4 #a4 ,the ,dactylic ,hexameter1 or ,heroic ,verse1 consists theoretically of six dactyls4 ,but in all the feet except the fifth1 a spondee 7 7 may take the place of the dactyl4 ,the sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee1 since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short 7syllaba anceps74 ,the following represents the scheme of the verse3-- _/ vv 7or 7 2 _/ vv 7or 7 2 _/ vv 7or 7 2 _/ vv 7or 7 2 _/ vv 2 _/ v 7or 74 #b4 ,sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot4 ,such verses are called ,spondaic4 ,a dactyl usually stands in the fourth place1 and the fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable2 as1-- armtumque aur circumspicit rna4 cra deum subols1 magnum ,jovis incrmentum4 #c4 ,caesura4 a7 ,the favorite position of the caesura in the ,dactylic ,hexameter is after the thesis of the third foot2 as1-- arma virumque can ,trjae qu prmus ab rs4 b7 ,less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot1 usually accompanied by another in the second foot2 as1-- inde tor pater ,aens sc rsus ab alt est4 c7 ,sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syllables of the third foot2 as1-- pass gravira dabit deus hs quoque fnem4 ,this caesura is called ,feminine1 as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable1 which is called ,masculine 7as under a and b7 d7 ,a pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot4 ,this is called the ,bucolic ,diaeresis1 as it was borrowed by the ,romans from the ,bucolic poetry of the ,greeks4 ,thus3-- slstitium pecor dfendite2 jam venit aests4 ,,dactylic ,,pentameter4 #cfi4 #a4 ,the ,dactylic ,pentameter consists of two parts1 each of which contains two dactyls1 followed by a long syllable4 ,spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part1 but not in the second4 ,the long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word4 ,the scheme is the following3-- _/ vv 7or 7 _/ vv 7or 7 _/ _/ vv _/ vv v 7or 74 #b4 ,the ,pentameter is never used alone1 but only in connection with the ,hexameter4 ,the two arranged alternately form the so-called ,elegiac ,distich4 ,thus3-- ,vergilium vd tantum1 neo amra ,tibull ,tempus amcitiae fta dedre meae4 ,,iambic ,,measures4 #cgj4 #a4 ,the most important ,iambic verse is the ,iambic ,trimeter 7 #cff1 #aa71 called also ,senarius4 ,this is an acatalectic verse4 ,it consists of six ,iambi4 ,its pure form is3-- v v v v v v ,betus ille qu procul negtis4 ,the ,caesura usually occurs in the third foot2 less frequently in the fourth4 #b4 ,in place of the ,iambus1 a ,tribrach 7 v v v 7 may stand in any foot but the last4 ,in the odd feet 7first1 third1 and fifth7 may stand a ,spondee1 ,dactyl1 or ,anapaest1 though the last two are less frequent4 ,sometimes a ,proceleusmatic 7 v v v v 7 occurs4 #c4 ,in the ,latin comic writers1 ,plautus and ,terence1 great freedom is permitted1 and the various equivalents of the ,iambus1 viz4 the ,dactyl1 ,anapaest1 ,spondee1 ,tribrach1 ,proceleusmatic1 are freely admitted in any foot except the last4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,supplements ,,to ,,the ,,grammar4 ,i4 ,,julian ,,calendar4 #cga4 #a4 ,the names of the ,roman months are3 ,jnurius1 ,februrius1 ,mrtius1 ,aprlis1 ,majus1 ,jnius1 ,jlius 7,quntlis#fb prior to #df ,b4,c471 ,augustus 7,sextlis#fb before the ,empire71 ,september1 ,octber1 ,november1 ,december4 ,these words are properly ,adjectives in agreement with mnsis understood4 #b4 ,dates were reckoned from three points in the month3-- a7 ,the ,calends1 the first of the month4 b7 ,the ,nones1 usually the fifth of the month1 but the seventh in ,march1 ,may1 ,july1 and ,october4 c7 ,the ,ides1 usually the thirteenth of the month1 but the fifteenth in ,march1 ,may1 ,july1 and ,october4 #c4 ,from these points dates were reckoned backward2 consequently all days after the ,ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the ,calends of the month next following4 #d4 ,the day before the ,calends1 ,nones1 or ,ides of any month is designated as prdi ,kalends1 ,nns1 ds4 ,the second day before was designated as di terti ante ,kalends1 ,nns1 etc4 ,similarly the third day before was designated as di qurt1 and so on4 ,these designations are arithmetically inaccurate1 but the ,romans reckoned both ends of the series4 ,the ,roman numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days before ,nones1 ,ides1 or ,calends4 #e4 ,in indicating dates1 the name of the month is added in the form of an ,adjective agreeing with ,kalends1 ,nns1 ds4 ,various forms of expression occur1 of which that given under d7 is most common3-- ,days ,march1,may1,july,january1 ,august ,april1,june1 of the ,october4 ,december ,september1 ,february month4 ,november ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a ,,kalend,s ,,kalend,s ,,kalend,s ,,kalend,s #b ,,vi ,nns ,,iv ,nns ,,iv ,nns ,,iv ,nns #c ,v ,,iii ,,iii ,,iii #d ,,iv ,prdi ,nns ,prdi ,nns ,prdi ,nns #e ,,iii ,n,n,s ,n,n,s ,n,n,s #f ,prdi ,nns ,,viii ds ,,viii ds ,,viii ds #g ,n,n,s ,,vii ,,vii ,,vii #h ,,viii ds ,,vi ,,vi ,,vi #i ,,vii ,v ,v ,v #aj ,,vi ,,iv ,,iv ,,iv #aa ,v ,,iii ,,iii ,,iii #ab ,,iv ,pr4 ds ,pr4 ds ,pr4 ds #ac ,,iii ,,dibus ,,dibus ,,dibus #ad ,pr4 ds ,,xix ,kalend4 ,,xviii ,kalend4,,xvi ,kalend4 #ae ,,dibus ,,xviii ,,xvii ,,xv #af ,,xvii ,kalend4 ,,xvii ,,xvi ,,xiv #ag ,,xvi ,,xvi ,,xv ,,xiii #ah ,,xv ,,xv ,,xiv ,,xii #ai ,,xiv ,,xiv ,,xiii ,,xi #bj ,,xiii ,,xiii ,,xii ,x #ba ,,xii ,,xii ,,xi ,,ix #bb ,,xi ,,xi ,x ,,viii #bc ,x ,x ,,ix ,,vii #bd ,,ix ,,ix ,,viii ,,vi #be ,,viii ,,viii ,,vii ,v 7bis ,,vi7 #bf ,,vii ,,vii ,,vi ,,iv 7,v7 #bg ,,vi ,,vi ,v ,,iii 7,,iv7 #bh ,v ,v ,,iv ,pr4,kal47,,iii ,k47 #bi ,,iv ,,iv ,,iii 7,prd4 ,kal47 #cj ,,iii ,,iii ,pr4 ,kalend4 7,enclosed forms are #ca ,pr4 ,kalend4 ,pr4 ,kalend4 for leap-year47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,proper ,,names4 #cgc4 #a4 ,the name of a ,roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts3 the praenmen 7or given name71 the nmen 7name of the gens or clan71 and the cognmen 7family name74 ,such a typical name is exemplied by ,mrcus ,tullius ,cicer1 in which ,mrcus is the praenmen1 ,tullius the nmen1 and ,cicer the cognmen4 ,sometimes a second cognmen 7in later ,latin called an agnmen7 is added--expecially in honor of military achievements2 as1-- ,gius ,cornlius ,scpi fricnus4 #b4 ,,abbreviations ,,of ,,proper ,,names4 ,a4 ,aulus4 ,mam4 ,mmercus4 ,app4 ,appius4 ,n4 ,numerius4 ,c4 ,gius4 ,p4 ,pblius4 ,cn4 ,gnaeus4 ,q4 ,quntus4 ,d4 ,decimus4 ,sex4 ,sextus4 ,k4 ,kaes4 ,ser4 ,servius4 ,l4 ,lcius4 ,sp4 ,spurius4 ,m4 ,mrcus4 ,t4 ,titus4 ,m'4 ,mnius4 ,ti4 ,tiberius4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,figures ,,of ,,syntax ,,and ,,rhetoric4 ,a4 ,figures of ,syntax4 #cgd4 #a4 ,ellpsis is the omission of one or more words2 as1-- quid multa1 why 7should ,i say7 much8 #b4 ,brachlogy is a brief or condensed form of expression2 as1-- ut ager sine cultr frctusus esse nn potest1 sc sine doctrn animus1 as a field cannot be productive without cultivation1 so the mind 7cannot be productive7 without learning4 ,special varieties of ,brachylogy are-- a7 ,zeugma1 in which one verb is made to stand for two2 as1-- mins aut blandments corrupta 7terrifed7 by threats or corrupted by flattery4 b7 ,compendiary ,comparison1 by which a modifier of an object is mentioned instead of the object itself2 as1-- dissimilis erat ,chars erum et facts et mribus1 lit4 ,chares was different from their conduct and character i4e4 ,chares's conduct and character were different1 etc4 #c4 ,plonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression2 as1-- prius praedcam1 lit4 ,i will first say in advance4 #d4 ,hendadys 7 1 one through two7 is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction1 in the sense of a noun modified by a ,genitive or an ,adjective2 as1-- febris et aestus1 the heat of fever2 celeritte cursque1 by swift running4 #e4 ,prolpsis1 or ,anticipation1 is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate2 as1-- submerss obrue pupps1 lit4 overwhelm their submerged ships1 i4e4 overwhelm and sink their ships4 a4 ,the name ,prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause4 ,thus3-- nst ,mrcellum quam tardus sit1 you know how slow ,marcellus is 7lit4 you know ,marcellus1 how slow he is74 ,both varieties of ,prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry4 #f4 ,anacolthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the construction of the sentence2 as1-- tum ,anc fli 444 impnsius es indignits crscere1 then the sons of ,ancus 444 their indignation increased all the more4 #g4 ,hsteron ,prteron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two words or phrases2 as1-- morimur et in media arma rumus let us rush into the midst of arms and die4 ,b4 ,figures of ,rhetoric4 #cge4 #a4 ,ltotes 7literally softening7 is the expression of an idea by the denial of its opposite2 as1-- haud parum labris1 no little toil 7i4e4 much toil72 nn ignr1 ,i am not ignorant 7i4e4 ,i am well aware74 #b4 ,oxymron is the combination of contradictory conceptions2 as1-- sapins nsnia1 wise folly4 #c4 ,alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter 7mostly initial72 as1-- snsim sine sns aets senscit4 #d4 ,onomatopia is the suiting of sound to sense2 as1-- quadrupedante putrem sonit quatit ungula campum1 ',and shake with horny hoofs the solid ground4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,illustrative ,,examples ,,cited ,,in ,,the ,,syntax4#fc #afb4 nonne videtis1 ,sest4 #dg4 num exspectas1 ,phil4 ii1 #hf4 videsne1 ,vatin4 #cj4 sensistine1 ,cat4 #a1 #h4 a rebus1 de ,sen4 #ae4 visne locum1 ,leg4 ii1 #a4 estisne1 ,liv4 i1 #ch1 #b4 jam ea1 ,ter4 ,phor4 #ebe4 estne frater1 ,ter4 ,ad4 #efi4 #aff4 decorum est1 ,hor4 ,od4 iii1 #b1 #ac4 opportune accidit ,att4 i1 #ag1 #b4 #afh4 ,numa1 ,eut4 i1 #c4 philosophia1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #af4 #afi4 assentatio1 ,lael4 #hi4 ,corinthi1 ,tac4 ,h4 ii1 #a4 #aga4 audi tu1 ,livy1 i1 #bd4 nate1 mea1 ,aen4 i1 #ffd4 #agd4 rumor est1 ,ter4 ,and4 #ahe4 #age4 galeam1 ,aen4 ii1 #cib4 cinctus1 ,ov4 ,am4 iii1 #i1 #fa nodo sinus1 ,aen4 i1 #cbj4 #agf4 idem gloriari1 de ,sen4 #cb4 eadem peccat1 ,n4,d4 i1 #ca4 multa egeo1 ,gell4 xiii1 #bd4 multum valet1 ,hor4 ,epp4 i1 #f1 #eb4 nihil peccat1 ,stat4 #afa4 minitantem vana1 ,sil4 i1 #cjf acerba tuens1 ,lucr4 v1 #cc4 dulce loquentem1 ,hor4 ,od4 i1 #bb1 #bd4 multum sunt1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #a1 #h4 servitutem1 ,pl4 ,pers4 #cd a4 vitam1 ,ter4 ,ad4 #hei4 stadium ,off4 iii1 #aj1 #db4 ,olympia1 de ,sen4 #ad4 piscis1 ,sen4 ,n4,q4 iii1 #ah1 #b4 orationes1 ,brut4 #hb4 #agg4 homines1 ,rosc4 ,am4 #aja4 #agh4 otium1 ,hor4 ,od4 ii1 #af1 #a4 me duas1 ,att4 ii1 #g1 #a4 te litteras1 ,pis4 #gc4 hoc te1 ,ter4 ,hec4 #gff4 me id1 ,pl4 ,tr4 #if4 non te1 ,fam4 ii1 #af1 #c4 omnes artes1 ,liv4 #be1 #cg4 rogatus1 de ,dom4 #af4 multa1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #aff4 #agi4 milites1 ,b4,c4 i1 #ed4 #ahj4 tremit1 ,lucr4 iii1 #dhi4 nuda1 ,aen4 i1 #cbj4 manus1 ,aen4 ii1 #eg4 #aha4 hic locus1 ,b4,g4 i1 #di4 #ahb4 ,thalam1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #ge1 #a4 ,thurios in1 ,nep4 ,alc4 #d4 cum ,acen1 ,nep4 ,dat4 #e4 ,italiam venit1 ,aen4 i1 #b4 #ahg4 amicis1 ,sall4 ,c4 #af1 #d4 ,orgetorix1 ,b4,g4 i1 #b4 munitioni1 ,b4,g4 i1 #aj4 #ahh4 mihi ante1 ,verr4 v1 #abc4 illi1 ,tac4 ,ag4 #i4 intercludere1 ,pl4 ,m4,g4 #bbc4 oppidum1 ,b4,c4 iii1 #hj tu mihi1 ,verr4 #c1 #bac4 quid mihi1 ,hor4 ,epp4 i1 #c1 #ae4 erit ille1 ,ecl4 i1 #g4 quae ista1 ,par4 #da4 honorem1 ,verr4 iv1 #be4 ,caesar1 ,div4 ii1 #gi4 scintillam1 ,aen4 i1 #agd4 #ahi4 disputatio1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #b4 honesta1 ,off4 iii1 #ch4 #aia4 castris1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #af4 legiones1 ,b4,c4 ii1 #bb4 receptui1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #dg4 fortunae1 ,fam4 vi1 #e1 #a4 quibus1 ,flac4 #ai4 hos tibi1 ,nep4 ,paus4 #b4 me gerendo1 ,liv4 i1 #bc4 noxiae1 ,leg4 iii1 #aa4 #aib4 it clamor1 ,aen4 v1 #dea4 #aic4 dum ,latio1 ,aen4 i1 #f4 #bjc4 magni1 ,nep4 ,cat4 #a1 #b4 tantae molis1 ,aen4 i1 #cc4 #bjd4 viri1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #dc4 memoria1 ,or4 #ed4 #bjf4 ,epicuri1 ,f4 v1 #c4 praeteritorum1 ,div4 i1 #fc4 nomina1 ,pl4 ,poen4 #ajfb4 reminiscere1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ac4 reminiscens1 ,nep4 ,alc4 #f4 mihi patriae1 ,sull4 #ai4 #bjg4 te veteris1 ad ,her4 iv1 #bd1 #cc4 me admones1 ad ,att4 v1 #a1 #c4 #bjh4 pecuniae1 ,flacc4 #dc4 #bji4 miseremini1 ,verr4 #a1 #gb4 #bab4 desine1 ,hor4 ,od4 ii1 #i1 #ag4 operum1 ,hor4 ,od4 iii1 #ag1 #af4 #bad4 p4 #adb1 curis1 ,marc4 #cd4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 #e1 #ea4 caret1 ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #c1 #ff4 urbem1 ,nep4 ,thras4 #a4 abstinere1 ,plin4 ,epp4 i1 #ab1 #i4 hostes1 ,b4,g4 i1 #a1 #d4 praedones1 ,verr4 iv1 #add4 dissentio1 ,planc4 #i4 secernantur1 ,cat4 i1 #cb4 #bae4 ab ,ulixe1 ,liv4 i1 #di1 #i4 #baf4 a fortuna1 ,b4,g4 v1 #cd1 #b4 a multitudine1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #b1 #a4 #bag4 melle dulcior1 de ,sen4 #ca4 patria1 ,cat4 i1 #bg4 amplius1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #ae1 #a4 opinione1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #c1 #a4 #bah4 munere1 ,aen4 vi1 #hhe4 carne1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #hi4 castris1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #bf1 #d4 opus est properato1 ,mil4 #di4 nititur1 ,aen4 vi1 #gfj nervis1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ei mortali1 ,lucr4 v1 #fe4 quid hoc1 ,sest4 #bi4 quid mea1 ,fam4 xiv1 #d1 #c4 fossas1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #ah4 vinum1 ,juv4 vii1 #aba4 militibus1 ,b4,g4 i1 #h1 #a4 #bai4 victoria1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ad1 #d4 natura loci1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #i1 #c4 #bba4 nulla est1 ,brut4 #afd4 exstinguitur1 ,tac4 ,a4 ii1 #gb4 longo1 ,aen4 v1 #cbj4 #bbb;,a4 cum febri1 de4 ,or4 iii1 #f4 improbitas1 de ,or4 ii1 #bcg4 aer calore1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #bg4 assuetus1 de ,or4 iii1 #eh4 #bbd4 puella1 ,pl4 ,merc4 #ac4 vir singulari1 ,pl4 ,vid4 #da4 sunt specie1 ,b4,g4 vi1 #bh1 #a4 scopulis1 ,aen4 i1 #aff4 #bbf4 ,helvetii1 ,b4,g4 i1 #b1 #b4 me dignor1 ,aen4 i1 #cce4 #bbg4 ,cn4 ,pompeio1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #a4 omnes virtutes1 ,fin4 ii1 #aag4 perditis1 ,fam4 vi1 #a1 #d4 nullo adversante1 ,tac4 ,a4 i1 #b4 passis palmis1 ,b4,c4 iii1 #ih4 audito eum1 ,liv4 xxviii1 #g4 #bbh4 stant litore1 ,aen4 vi1 #ija4 #bbi4 a ,gergovia1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #ei1 #a4 #bca4 stella1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #eb4 biennio1 ,tac4 ,agr4 #ad4 #bcd4 prima et1 ,tac4 ,a4 i1 #cg4 omnium rerum1 ,fam4 vi1 #ba1 #a4 #bce4 eadem alacritas1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #bd1 #d4 res operae1 ,b4,g4 v1 #aa1 #e4 stultitia1 ,f4 iii1 #ci4 domus1 uxor1 ,ter4 ,and4 #hia4 pars1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #ad1 #ae4 #bdj4 senectus1 de ,sen4 #ee4 exercitus1 ,livy1 xxxix1 #a4 #bdb4 virtus1 ,lael4 #ajj4 #bdd4 me oravit1 ,phil4 ii1 #de4 me oraverunt1 ,div4 ,caec4 #b4 suum genium1 ,tac4 ,dial4 #i4 ,hannibalem1 ,sest4 #adb4 suus quemque1 ,rosc4 ,am4 #fg4 #bde4 ,belgae1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #a1 #a4 ,galli1 ,b4,g4 vi1 #h1 #a4 #bdf4 ,themistocles1 ,nep4 ,them4 #i4 illud intellego1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #he1 #e4 hic est1 ,pl4 ,tr4 #fig4 #bdg4 ,maximum1 de ,sen4 #aj4 non is sum1 ,b4,g4 v1 #cj1 #b4 non suspicabatur1 ,verr4 i1 #cf4 vincula1 ,cat4 iv1 #g4 #bdh4 quod idem1 ,ac4 ii1 #eb4 bonus vir1 ,lael4 #fe4 #bdi4 ipso terrore1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #cc1 #a4 valvae se1 ,div4 i1 #gd4 ,persae1 ,nep4 ,alc4 #e4 ea molestissime1 ,q4 ,fr4 i1 #a1 #b4 #bej4 carcer quae1 ,verr4 v1 #adc4 ,belgae1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #a1 #a4 nostra qui1 ,cat4 i1 #g4 servili1 ,b4,g4 i1 #dj4 erant1 ,b4,g4 i1 #f4 quam quisque1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #da4 non longe1 ,b4,g4 i1 #aj1 #a4 ,themistocles1 ,nep4 ,them4 #d4 #c4 numquam digne1 de ,sen4 #b4 #beb4 cognatio1 ,arch4 #b4 mors est1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #bg4 justitia1 ,f4 i1 #ej4 si quisquam1 ,lael4 #i4 potestne1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 iv1 #ed4 si ullo1 ,att4 xii1 #bc1 #a4 taetrior1 ,verr4 iv1 #abc4 quod cuique1 ,off4 i1 #ba4 quinto quoque1 ,verr4 ii1 #aci4 nemo ,romanus1 ,liv4 viii1 #cj1 #c4 #bec4 alter exercitum1 ,planc4 #hf4 alteri se1 ,b4,g4 i1 #bf1 #a4 causidicus1 de ,or4 i1 #bjb4 #bed4 ,tarquinii1 ,liv4 i1 #cd1 #g4 non omnis1 ,div4 ii1 #ij4 ,corioli1 ,liv4 ii1 #cc1 #h4 duo milia1 ,curt4 iii1 #b1 #e4 #bee4 temeritas1 ,f4 iii1 #gb4 si tu1 ,fam4 xiv1 #e1 #a4 #bef4 velatus1 ,ov4 ,met4 v1 #aaj4 tunica1 ,aen4 viii1 #deg4 #bei4 virtus1 ,lael4 #ajj4 dum vitant1 ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #b1 #bd4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #ij1 #b4 jam pridem1 ,att4 ii1 #e1 #a4 #bfj4 ,duilium1 de ,sen4 #dd4 hostes1 ,b4,g4 v4 #i1 #f4 domicilium1 ,arch4 #g4 #bfb4 ,regulus1 ,off4 iii1 #ajj4 #bfc4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ag1 #a4 #bfe4 nihil habebam1 ,att4 ix1 #aj1 #a4 #bfh4 videor1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #gb4 ,gallos1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #d1 #d4 honestum1 ,f4 ii1 #di4 si solos1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #i4 rex tantum1 ,nep4 ,con4 #d4 ,verres1 ,verr4 ,act4 ,pr4 #ab4 ardebat1 ,brut4 #cjb4 #bfi4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #bd1 #a4 #bgj4 hoc jam1 ,cat4 i1 #e4 dico me1 ,sull4 #bg4 #bge4 quare1 ,cat4 #a1 #cb4 isto bono1 de ,sen4 #cc4 #bgf4 ne repugnetis1 ,cluent4 #f tu vero1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #aab4 impii ne1 ,leg4 ii1 #da4 cave ignoscas1 ,lig4 #ad4 #bgg4 quid faciam1 ,pl4 ,curc4 #ehi4 ego redeam1 ,ter4 ,eun4 #di4 huic cedamus6 ,phil4 xiii1 #af4 quid facerem1 ,ter4 ,eun4 #hca4 hunc ego1 ,arch4 #ah4 #bgh4 ne sint1 de ,sen4 #cd4 fuerit1 ,verr4 i1 #cg4 #bgi4 di istaec1 ,ter4 ,h4,t4 #ajch4 falsus utinam1 ,liv4 xxi1 #aj1 #aj4 #bhj4 dicat aliquis1 ,ter4 ,and4 #fdj4 fortunam1 ,pub4 ,syr4 #aic4 velim mihi1 ,fam4 xiii1 #ge1 #a4 nolim putes1 ,fam4 ix1 #ae1 #d4 dies deficat1 ,n4,d4 iii1 #ha4 #bha4 egredere1 ,cat4 i1 #bj4 rem vobis1 ,verr4 iv1 #a4 si bene1 de ,sen4 #c4 consules1 ,leg4 iii1 #h4 hominem1 ,twelve ,tables4 amicitia1 ,liv4 #ch1 #ch1 #a4 quin equos1 ,liv4 i1 #eg1 #g4 #bhb4 adjuta1 ,ter4 ,eun4 #aej4 portas1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #cc haec1 ,and4 #dgb4 ut ne1 ,off4 i1 #ajc4 ut non1 ,cat4 i1 #bc4 ut earum1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ag1 #aj4 ,helvetii1 ,b4,g4 i1 #g1 #c4 haec habui1 de ,sen4 #he4 non habebant1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ch1 #b4 idoneus1 ,verr4 iii1 #da4 dignus1 ,leg4 iii1 #e4 #bhc4 multa1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #hj4 sunt qui1 ,inv4 ii1 #add4 nemo1 ,fam4 i1 #d1 #b4 sapientia1 ,fin4 i1 #dc4 quae1 ,lael4 #bc4 non is sum1 ,b4,g4 v1 #cj1 #b4 non longius1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #ba1 #c4 o fortunate1 ,arch4 #bd4 ut qui1 ,phil4 xi1 #cj4 egomet1 de ,or4 i1 #hb4 nemo est1 ,verr4 iv1 #aae4 nemo fuit1 ,b4,c4 iii1 #ec1 #c4 quem audierim1 ,nep4 ,ar4 #a1 #b4 #bhd4 quis tam1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 iii1 #ga4 ,siciliam1 ,verr4 ,act4 ,pr4 #ab4 mons1 ,b4,g4 i1 #f1 #a4 non is1 ,cat4 i1 #bb4 nemo est1 de ,sen4 #bd4 habetis1 ,cat4 iv1 #bd4 nihil1 ,ter4 ,h4,t4 #fge4 nemo est1 ,b4,g4 vi1 #ci1 #c4 #bhf4 ,themistocles1 ,nep4 ,them4 #h1 #c4 neque1 de ,sen4 #hd4 quoniam1 ,nep4 ,milt4 #g1 #e4 noctu1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 iv1 #dd4 ,bellovaci1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #ge4 id feci1 ,caec4 #aja4 ,crasso1 ,fam4 xiii1 #af1 #c4 hoc ita1 ,leg4 iii1 #ca4 ,haeduos1 ,b4,g4 i1 #af1 #f4 id omitto1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #aaj1 #g4 #bhg4 ,epaminondas1 ,nep4 ,ep4 #i1 #d4 id ut1 ,nep4 ,them4 #h1 #c4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #i1 #b4 ubi de1 ,b4,g4 i1 #g1 #c4 ut quisque1 ,verr4 v1 #adc4 hostes1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #bf1 #b4 id ubi1 ,liv4 i1 #cb1 #ac4 postquam occupatae1 ,liv4 xxiv1 #ce1 #d4 postquam ,romam1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #bh1 #b4 postquam structi1 ,liv4 i1 #bc1 #f4 posteaquam1 ,leg4 ii1 #fd4 #bhh4 an tum1 ,pis4 #bf4 credo tum1 ,verr4 iv1 #df4 eo tempore1 ,lig4 #bj4 illo die1 ,mil4 #ch4 ,lysander1 ,div4 i1 #if4 ,pythagoras1 ,n4,d4 iii1 #hh4 jam ,galli1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #bf1 #c4 ,treveri1 ,b4,g4 vi1 #g1 #a4 cum ad1 ,verr4 v1 #bg4 cum equitatus1 ,b4,g4 v1 #ai1 #b4 saepe cum1 ,nep4 ,cim4 #d1 #b4 cum procucurrissent1 ,b4,c4 ii1 #da1 #f4 #bhi4 tum tua1 ,hor4 ,epp4 i1 #ah1 #hd4 cum videbis1 ,pl4 ,bacch4 #ade4 stabilitas1 ,lael4 #hb4 #bij4 cum tacent1 ,cat4 i1 #ba4 cum te1 ,att4 xiv1 #ag ,a1 #d4 #bia4 prius1 ,pl4 ,merc4 #def4 nihil contra1 ,flacc4 #ea4 non prius1 ,sall4 ,c4 #ea4 #bia4 priusquam1 ,liv4 i1 #bd1 #c4 tempestas1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajc1 #b4 priusquam telum1 ,b4,c4 ii1 #cd1 #f4 animum1 ,pl4 ,amph4 #bdj4 sol antequam1 ,phil4 xiv1 #bg4 #bic4 ,alexander1 ,quint4 ,curt4 iv1 #f1 #ag4 dum haec1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #ag1 #a4 dum anima1 ,att4 ix1 #aj1 #c4 ,lacedaemoniorum1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #aja4 ,cato1 ,nep4 ,cat4 #b1 #d4 donec1 ,liv4 xxiii1 #ca1 #i4 ferrum1 ,nep4 ,ep4 #i1 #c4 trepidationis1 ,liv4 xxi1 #bh1 #aa4 exspectavit1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #bc1 #d4 dum litterae1 ,fam4 xi1 #bc1 #b4 #bie4 postulo1 ,ter4 ,and4 #eej4 orat1 ,ter4 ,ad4 #hhb4 milites1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #ba1 #b4 ,helvetiis1 ,b4,g4 i1 #b1 #a4 huic1 ,rosc4 ,am4 #ed4 consuli1 ,liv4 xxxv1 #bj1 #d4 ne lustrum1 ,liv4 xxiv1 #dc1 #d4 prohibuit1 ,liv4 xxv1 #ce1 #f4 nec quin1 ,liv4 xxvi1 #dj1 #d4 constitueram1 ,att4 xvi1 #aj1 #a4 decrevit1 ,cat4 i1 #d4 convenit1 ,liv4 x1 #bg1 #b4 fac ut1 ,pl4 ,rud4 #abah4 cura ut1 ,cat4 iii1 #ab4 laborabat1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #ca1 #a4 sequitur1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ha4 eos moneo1 ,cat4 ii1 #bj4 huic imperat1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ba1 #h4 #bif4 opto1 ,verr4 ,act4 ,pr4 #ej4 vereor ne1 ,att4 vii1 #ab1 #b4 #big4 ex quo1 ,f4 ii1 #bd4 ita fit1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #af4 est mos1 ,brut4 #hd4 #bih4 quis1 ,par4 #dh4 #bii4 illud1 ,off4 iii1 #aaa4 hoc uno1 de ,or4 i1 #cb4 bene mihi1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #ig4 quod1 ,b4,g4 i1 #dd1 #f4 quod me1 ,nep4 ,ep4 #e1 #f4 #cjj4 oculis1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ab1 #a4 bis bina1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #di4 effugere1 ,n4,d4 iii1 #ad4 saepe autem1 ,n4,d4 iii1 #ad4 ,epaminondas1 ,f4 ii1 #ig4 ex ,socrate1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 v1 #cd4 nescio1 ,pl4 ,amph4 #ajef4 conantur1 ,b4,g4 i1 #h1 #d4 pergit1 ,liv4 i1 #g1 #f1 quaeritur1 ,n4,d4 i1 #fa4 haud scio1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #da4 #cjb4 naturam1 ,off4 i1 #ajj4 memoria1 de ,sen4 #ba4 si quis1 ,b4,g4 i1 #dh1 #f4 si dicendo1 ,tac4 ,dial4 #ai4 #cjc4 mentiar1 ,lael4 #aj4 haec si1 ,cat4 i1 #ai4 #cjd4 sapientia1 ,f4 i1 #db4 consilium1 de ,sen4 #ai4 ,laelius1 ,arch4 #af4 num igitur1 de ,sen4 #ai4 nisi felicitas1 ,tac4 ,agr4 #ca4 eum patris1 ,phil4 ii1 #ii4 si ,sestius1 ,sest4 #ha4 si unum1 ,liv4 ii1 #ch1 #e4 #cje4 non potestis1 ,f4 ii1 #ga4 cras1 ,pl4 ,merc4 #ggj4 haec reputent1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #ea4 roges1 ,f4 iv1 #fi4 #cjf4 ferreus1 ,fam4 xv1 #ba1 #c4 dolorem1 ,phil4 #ab1 #ba4 si feceris1 ,fam4 v1 #ai1 #b4 hoc si1 ,fam4 vii1 #a1 #f4 hunc mihi1 ,cat4 i1 #ah4 nihil1 ,cat4 ii1 #aj4 nisi1 ,mil4 #ai4 #cjg4 sed quid1 ,div4 ,caec4 #ad4 serviam1 ,pl4 ,men4 #aaja4 #cjh4 sit fur1 ,verr4 v1 #d4 haec sint1 ,ac4 ii1 #aje4 ne sit1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #ad4 #cji4 homines1 ,phil4 ii1 #ci4 non est1 ,rep4 i1 #aj4 quamquam1 ,off4 i1 #ef4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ca1 #a4 ,atticus1 ,nep4 ,att4 #f1 #b4 licet1 ,rosc4 ,am4 #ca4 quamquam quid1 ,cat4 i1 #bb4 quamquam1 ,liv4 xxxvi1 #cd1 #f4 quamvis1 multi1 ,tac4 ,dial4 #b4 quamvis infesto1 ,liv4 ii1 #dj1 #g4 #caj4 multi1 ,off4 iii1 #hb4 omnia postposui1 ,fam4 xvi1 #ba1 #f4 nil obstat1 ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #a1 #dj4 oderint1 ,acc4 #bjd4 manent1 de ,sen4 #bb4 nubant1 ,pl4 ,aul4 #dia4 #cab4 quidquid1 ,aen4 ii1 #di4 quidquid oritur1 ,div4 ii1 #fj4 #cad4 ,regulus1 ,off4 iii1 #ajj4 tum ,romulus1 ,liv4 i1 #i1 #b4 nuntiatum1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ch1 #a4 dixit1 ,nep4 ,them4 #g1 #e4 #cae4 ,ariovistus1 ,b4,g4 i1 #dd1 #g4 #caf4 milites1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #e1 #c4 #cah4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ad1 #f4 #cbb4 concursu1 ,tac4 ,dial4 #ci4 #cbc4 demonstrabantur1 de ,sen4 #gh4 ,paetus1 ,att4 ii1 #a1 #ab4 #cbd4 nemo1 ,par4 #eb4 cum diversas1 ,tac4 ,dial4 #a1 #d4 mos est1 ,orat4 #aea4 quod ego1 ,pl4 ,capt4 #ifa4 #cbg4 dulce1 ,hor4 ,od4 iii1 #b1 #ac4 virorum1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #dc4 aliud est1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 iv1 #bg4 impune1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #ca1 #bf4 licuit1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #cc4 #cbh4 ,demosthenes1 ,f4 v1 #e4 beatus1 ,n4,d4 i1 #dh4 ,cato1 ,sall4 ,cat4 #ed1 #e4 #ccj4 apertum est1 ,f4 v1 #cd4 #cca4 ,epicurei1 ,lael4 #ac4 ,thales1 ,n4,d4 i1 #be4 ,democritus1 ,n4,d4 i1 #bj4 nullo se1 ,lig4 #c4 nec mihi1 de ,sen4 #he4 eas res1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ah4 te tua1 ,brut4 #cca4 cupio1 ,cat4 i1 #d4 ,timoleon1 ,nep4 ,tim4 #c1 #d4 gaudeo1 ,pl4 ,bacch4 #def4 non moleste1 de ,sen4 #g4 #ccb4 ,sestius1 ,sest4 #ie4 traditum1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 v1 #aad4 #ccc4 audax1 ,hor4 ,od4 i1 #c1 #be4 #ccd4 huncine1 ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #i1 #gb4 #cce4 interim1 ,b4,g4 i1 #af1 #a4 #ccf4 assurgentem1 ,liv4 iv1 #ai4 #ccg4 gloria1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 iii1 #c4 ,conon1 ,nep4 ,con4 #d1 #e4 omne1 ,phil4 v1 #ca4 mente1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 v1 #ajj4 ,solon1 de ,sen4 #bf4 sol1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ajb4 mendaci1 ,div4 ii1 #adf4 perfidiam1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #e1 #e4 eis ,catonem1 de ,sen4 #c4 ,homerus1 de ,sen4 #ed4 urbem1 ,liv4 xxii1 #bj4 equitatum1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ae1 #a4 obliviscendum1 ,tac4 ,hist4 ii1 #a4 numquam1 ,verr4 i1 #ch4 suo cuique1 ,n4,d4 iii1 #a4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 i1 #ac1 #a4 #cch4 scribendo1 ,fam4 xv1 #f1 #b4 mens1 ,off4 i1 #aje4 ,themistocles1 ,nep4 ,them4 #b1 #c4 multa1 ,f4 i1 #e4 #cci4 ad pacem1 ,liv4 xxi1 #ac4 hostes1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #f1 #b4 legati1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #ac1 #e4 quae ille1 ,sall4 ,fr4 i1 #gg1 #aa4 #cdj4 legati1 ,b4,g4 i1 #cj1 #a4 do 7colloco71 ,pl4 ,tr4 #gce4 hoc est1 ,att4 vii1 #bb1 #b4 #cda4 cum homines1 ,cat4 i1 #ca4 discidia1 ,f4 i1 #dd4 horae1 de ,sen4 #fi4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 ii1 #ce1 #c4 #cdb4 cita1 ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #a1 #h4 qui aether1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #da4 #cdc4 adsentatio1 ,lael4 #hi4 #cdf4 ,cn4 ,pompeio1 ,b4,g4 iv1 #a1 #a4 #cdh4 ,darius1 ,nep4 ,milt4 #d1 #a4 #cdi4 magnus1 ,nep4 ,them4 #f1 #a4 #cej4 erant duo1 ,b4,g4 i1 #f1 #a4 nisi forte1 de ,sen4 #ah4 id ut1 ,nep4 ,them4 #h1 #c4 eo cum1 ,b4,g4 vii1 #g1 #d4 ut ad1 ,lael4 #e4 septimus1 de ,sen4 #ch4 recepto1 ,b4,c4 iii1 #ab1 #a4 sed pleni1 ,arch4 #ad4 horribilem1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 i1 #aah4 simulatam1 ,tac4 ,a4 i1 #aj4 #cea4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 i1 #be1 #a4 ,haedui1 ,b4,g4 i1 #aa1 #b4 ,caesar cum1 ,b4,g4 i1 #g1 #a4 accidit1 ,nep4 ,alc4 #c1 #b4 si quid1 ,arch4 #a4 ,caesar1 ,b4,g4 v1 #d1 #a4 #cef4 hostium1 ,b4,g4 iii1 #bi1 #c4 mens quoque1 de ,sen4 #cf4 tanto1 ,sull4 #ei4 #ceh4 pro multitudine1 ,b4,g4 i1 #b1 #e4 #cgd4 ut ager1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ii1 #ac4 minis1 ,tusc4 ,disp4 v1 #hg4 dissimilis1 ,nep4 ,chab4 #c1 #d4 febris1 ,cat4 i1 #ca4 submersas1 ,aen4 i1 #fi4 nosti1 ,fam4 viii1 #aj1 #c4 tum ,anci1 ,liv4 i1 #dj1 #b4 moriamur1 ,aen4 ii1 #cec4 #cge4 quadrupedante1 ,aen4 viii1 #ejf4 ,,abbreviations ,,used ,,in ,,index ,,to ,,the ,,illustrative ,,examples ,ac41 ,cicero1 ,academica4 ,acc41 ,accius4 ad ,her41 ad ,herennium4 ,aen41 ,virgil1 ,aeneid4 ,arch41 ,cicero1 pro ,archia4 ,att41 ,cicero1 ,epistulae ad ,atticus4 ,b4,c41 ,caesar1 de ,bello ,civili4 ,b4,g41 ,caesar1 de ,bello ,gallico4 ,brut41 ,cicero1 ,brutus4 ,caec41 ,cicero1 pro ,caecina4 ,cat41 ,cicero1 in ,catilinam4 ,cluent41 ,cicero1 pro ,cluentio4 ,curt41 ,quintus ,curtius de ,dom41 ,cicero1 de ,domo ,sua4 de ,or41 ,cicero1 de ,oratore4 de ,sen41 ,cicero1 de ,senectute4 ,d41 ,cicero1 de ,divinatione4 ,div4 ,caec41 ,cicero1 ,divinatio in ,caecilium4 ,ecl41 ,virgil1 ,eclogues4 ,eut41 ,eutropius4 ,f41 ,cicero1 de ,finibus4 ,fam41 ,cicero1 ,epistulae ad ,familiares4 ,flac41 ,cicero1 pro ,flacco4 ,gell1 ,aulus ,gellius4 ,hor41 ,horace4 ---- ,epp41 ,epistles4 ---- ,od41 ,odes4 ---- ,sat41 ,satires4 ,inv41 ,cicero1 de ,inventione4 ,juv41 ,juvenal4 ,lael41 ,cicero1 ,laelius1 de ,amicitia4 ,leg41 ,cicero1 de ,legibus4 ,lig41 ,cicero1 pro ,ligario4 ,liv41 ,livy4 ,lucr41 ,lucretius4 ,marc41 ,cicero1 pro ,marcello4 ,mil41 ,cicero1 pro ,milone4 ,n4,d41 ,cicero1 de ,natura ,deorum4 ,nep41 ,nepos4 ---- ,alc41 ,alcibiades4 ---- ,ar41 ,aristides4 ---- ,att41 ,atticus4 ---- ,cat41 ,cato4 ---- ,chab4 ,chabrias4 ---- ,cim41 ,cimon4 ---- ,con41 ,conon4 ---- ,dat41 ,datames4 ---- ,ep41 ,epaminondas4 ---- ,milt41 ,miltiades4 ---- ,paus41 ,pausanias4 ---- ,them41 ,themistocles4 ---- ,thras41 ,thrasybulus4 ---- ,tim41 ,timoleon4 ,off41 ,cicero1 de ,officiis4 ,or41 ,cicero1 ,orator4 ,ov41 ,ovid4 ---- ,am41 ,amores1 ---- ,met41 ,metamorphoses4 ,par41 ,cicero1 ,paradoxa4 ,phil41 ,cicero1 ,philippics4 ,pis41 ,cicero1 in ,pisonem4 ,planc41 ,cicero1 pro ,plancio4 ,pl41 ,plautus4 ---- ,amph41 ,amphitruo4 ---- ,aul41 ,aulularia4 ---- ,bacch41 ,bacchides4 ---- ,capt41 ,captivi4 ---- ,curc41 ,curculio4 ---- ,men41 ,menaechmi4 ---- ,merc41 ,mercator4 ---- ,m4,g41 ,miles ,gloriosus4 ---- ,pers41 ,persa4 ---- ,poen41 ,poenulus4 ---- ,rud41 ,rudens4 ---- ,tr41 ,trinummus4 ---- ,vid41 ,vidularia4 ,plin4 ,epp41 ,pliny the ,younger1 ,letters4 ,pub4 ,syr41 ,publilius ,syrus4 ,q4,f41 ,cicero1 ad ,quintum ,fratrem4 ,rosc4 ,am41 ,cicero1 pro ,roscio ,amerino4 ,sall41 ,sallust4 ---- ,c41 ,catiline4 ---- ,fr41 ,fragments4 ---- ,jug41 ,jugurtha4 ,sen41 ,seneca4 ---- ,ep41 ,epistles4 ---- ,n4,q41 ,naturales ,quaestiones4 ,sest41 ,cicero1 pro ,sestio4 ,sex4 ,rosc41 ,cicero1 pro ,sexto ,roscio4 ,sil41 ,silius ,italicus4 ,stat41 ,caecilius ,statius4 ,sull41 ,cicero1 pro ,sulla4 ,tac41 ,tacitus4 ---- ,a41 ,annals4 ---- ,agr41 ,agricola4 ---- ,dial41 ,dialogus de ,oratoribus4 ---- ,ger41 ,germania4 ---- ,h41 ,histories4 ,ter41 ,terence4 ---- ,ad41 ,adelphoi4 ---- ,and41 ,andria4 ---- ,eun41 ,eunuchus4 ---- ,hec41 ,hecyra4 ---- ,h4,t41 ,hautontimoroumenos4 ---- ,phor41 ,phormio4 ,tusc4 ,disp41 ,cicero1 ,tusculan ,disputations4 ,twelve ,tables1 ,laws of the ,twelve ,tables4 ,vatin41 ,cicero1 in ,vatinium4 ,verr41 ,cicero1 in ,verrem4 ,verr4 ,act4 ,pr41 ,cicero1 ,actio ,prima in ,c4 ,verrem4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,to ,,the ,,principal ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,verbs ,,note4--,compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity4 ,the references are to sections4 ,a4 abd1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 abici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 abnu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 abole1 #aba1 ,i4 absterge1 #aba1 ,,iii absum1 #abe4 accend1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 accidit1 #ach1 ,,iii4 acci1 #aba1 ,i1 ,n4 accipi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 acqur1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 acu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 add1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 adhaersc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 adipscor1 #abb1 ,v4 adolsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 adsum1 #abe4 adveni1 #abc1 ,,iv4 affer1 #abi4 affici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 afflg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 agnsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 ag1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 alge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 al1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 amici1 #abc1 ,,iii4 am1 #abj1 ,i4 amplector1 #abb1 ,v4 ang1 #abb1 ,i1 #g4 aperi1 #abc1 ,,ii4 appet1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 arce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 arcess1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 rde1 #aba1 ,,iii4 rsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 argu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 ascend1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 aspici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 assentior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 assufaci1 #abb1 ,,iii4 assuf1 #abb1 ,,iii4 audi1 #abc1 ,i4 aufer1 #abi4 auge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 ave1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #b4 ,c4 cad1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 caed1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 calefaci1 #abb1 ,,iii4 calefi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 cale1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 calsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 can1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 capess1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 capi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 care1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 carp1 #aba1 ,i1 #a1 a4 cave1 #aba1 ,v4 cd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 cnse1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 cern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 cie1 #aba1 ,i4 cing1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 circumsist1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 claud1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 claud1 #abb1 ,i1 #g4 com1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 coep1 #acc4 corce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 cognsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 cg1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 collig1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 col1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 comminscor1 #abb1 ,v4 comperi1 #abc1 ,v4 comple1 #aba1 ,i4 concuti1 #abb1 ,,iii4 cond1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 cnfer1 #abi4 cnfiteor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 congru1 #abb1 ,,ii4 cnsensc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 cnser1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 cnser1 #abb1 ,i1 #f 7plant74 cnsid1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 cnsist1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 cnspici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 cnstat1 #ach1 ,,iii4 cnstitu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 cnsusc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 cnsul1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 contine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 contingit1 #ach1 ,,iii4 coqu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 crep1 #abj1 ,,ii4 crsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 cub1 #abj1 ,,ii4 cupi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 curr1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 ,d4 dbe1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 dcern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 decet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 ddecet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 dd1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 dfend1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 dlo1 #aba1 ,i dlig1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 dm1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 dsr1 #abb1 ,i1 #e dsin1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 dsum1 #abe4 dc1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 differ1 #abi4 dlig1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 dmic1 #abj1 ,,ii4 dirim1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 dripi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 dru1 #abb1 ,,ii4 discern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 disc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 disser1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 distingu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a41 footnote #dd4 dvid1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 d1 #abg4 doce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 dole1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 dom1 #abj1 ,,ii4 dc1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 ,e4 d1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 ed1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 effer1 #abi4 effugi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 ege1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 lici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 mine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 em1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 e1 #acb4 suri1 #abc1 ,,vi4 vd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b41 footnote #de4 vnsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #c4 excol1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 excd1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 exerce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 experior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 exple1 #aba1 ,i1 ,n4 explic1 #abj1 ,,ii4 exstingu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a41 footnote #dd4 extimsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 ,f4 faci1 #abb1 ,,iii4 fall1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 fateor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 fave1 #aba1 ,v4 feri1 #abc1 ,,vi4 fer1 #abi4 ferve1 #aba1 ,,vi fg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 find1#abb1 ,i1 #b1 ,n4 fing1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 fi1 #aca4 flect1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 fle1 #aba1 ,i4 flre1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 flrsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 flu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 fodi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 fove1 #aba1 ,v4 frang1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 frem1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 fric1 #abj1 ,,ii4 frge1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #b4 fruor1 #abb1 ,v4 fugi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 fulci1 #abc1 ,,iii4 fulge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 fulget1 #ach1 ,i4 fund1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 fungor1 #abb1 ,v4 fur1 #abb1 ,i1 #g4 ,g4 gem1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 ger1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 gign1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 gradior1 #abb1 ,v4 ,h4 habe1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 haere1 #aba1 ,,iii4 hauri1 #abc1 ,,iii4 horre1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 ,i4 ignsc1 #aba1 ,,iv1 #b4 illici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 imbu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 immine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #b4 imple1 #aba1 ,i1 ,n4 implic1 #abj1 ,,ii4 incipi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 incol1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 incumb1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 indulge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 indu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 nfer1 #abi4 ingemsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 nsum1 #abe4 intelleg1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 interfici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 intersum1 #abe4 invd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b41 footnote #de4 inveni1 #abc1 ,,iv4 rscor1 #abb1 ,v4 ,j4 jace1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 jaci1 #abb1 ,,iii4 jube1 #aba1 ,,iii4 jung1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 juv1 #abj1 ,,iii4 ,l4 lbor1 #abb1 ,v4 lacess1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 laed1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 lamb1 #abb1 ,i1 #g4 largior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 late1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 lav1 #abj1 ,,iii4 leg1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 libet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 liceor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 licet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 loquor1 #abb1 ,v4 lceo1 #aba1 ,,iii4 ld1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 lge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 lu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 ,m4 maere1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #b4 ml1 #acj4 mane1 #aba1 ,,iii4 mtrsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #c4 medeor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 memin1 #acc4 mere1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 mereor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 merg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 mtior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 metu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 mic1 #abj1 ,,ii4 minu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 misce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 miseret1 #ach1 ,,ii4 misereor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 mitt1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 mol1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 mone1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 morde1 #aba1 ,,iv4 morior1 #abb1 ,v4 move1 #aba1 ,v4 ,n4 nancscor1 #abb1 ,v4 nscor1 #abb1 ,v4 nect1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 negleg1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 ningit1 #ach1 4 nite1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 ntor1 #abb1 ,v4 noce1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 nl1 #acj4 nsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 nb1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 ,o4 obdrsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #c4 oblin1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 oblvscor1 #abb1 ,v4 obmtsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #c4 obru1 #abb1 ,,ii4 obsolsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 obsum1 #abe4 obtine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 d1 #acc4 offer1 #abi4 ole1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 operi1 #abc1 ,,ii4 oportet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 opperior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 rdior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 orior1 #abc1 ,,vii4 ,p4 paenitet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 palle1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 pand1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 parc1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 pre1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 pari1 #abb1 ,,iii4 psc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 pscor1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 patefaci1 #abb1 ,,iii4 patef1 #abb1 ,,iii4 pate1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 patior1 #abb1 ,v4 pave1 #aba1 ,v4 pellici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 pell1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 pende1 #aba1 ,,iv4 pend1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 perag1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 percell1 #abb1 ,i1 #b1 ,n4 percrbrsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #c4 perd1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 perfici1 #abb1 ,,iii4 perfring1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 perfruor1 #abb1 ,v4 perleg1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 permulce1 #aba1 ,,iii4 perpetior1 #abb1 ,v4 pervd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b41 footnote #de4 pet1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 piget1 #ach1 ,,ii4 ping1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 place1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 plaud1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 pluit1 #ach1 ,i4 polle1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #b4 polliceor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 pollu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 pn1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 posc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 possd1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 possum1 #abf4 pt1 #abj1 ,i4 praebe1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 praestat1 #ach1 ,,iii4 praesum1 #abe4 prande1 #aba1 ,,vi4 prehend1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 prem1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 prd1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 prm1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 prsum1 #abe4 prstern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 pudet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 pung1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 ,q4 quaer1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 quati1 #abb1 ,,iii4 queror1 #abb1 ,v4 quisc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #a4 ,r4 rd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 rapi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 redd1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 redim1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 referci1 #abc1 ,,iii4 refer1 #abi4 rfert1 #ach1 ,,ii4 reg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 relinqu1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 reminscor1 #abb1 ,v4 reor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 reperi1 #abc1 ,v4 rp1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 resist1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 respu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 restingu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a41 footnote #dd4 retine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 rde1 #aba1 ,,iii4 rd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 rube1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 rump1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 ru1 #abb1 ,,ii4 ,s4 saepi1 #abc1 ,,iii4 sali1 #abc1 ,,ii4 sanci1 #abc1 ,,iii4 sapi1 #abb1 ,,iii4 sarci1 #abc1 ,,iii4 scind1 #abb1 ,i1 #b1 ,n4 scsc1 #abb1 ,,iv1 #b4 scrib1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 sculp1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 sec1 #abj1 ,,ii4 sede1 #aba1 ,v4 senti1 #abc1 ,,iii4 sepeli1 #abc1 ,i4 sequor1 #abb1 ,v4 ser1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 serp1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 sile1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 sin1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 solv1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 son1 #abj1 ,,ii4 sparg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 spern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 splende1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 sponde1 #aba1 ,,iv4 statu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 stern1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 -stingu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 st1 #abj1 ,,iv4 strep1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 strde1 #aba1 ,,vi4 string1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 stru1 #abb1 ,,ii4 stude1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 sude1 #aba1 ,,iii4 subig1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 subsum1 #abe4 sum1 #ajj4 sm1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 su1 #abb1 ,,ii4 supersum1 #abe4 sustine1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 ,t4 tace1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 taedet1 #ach1 ,,ii4 tang1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 teg1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 temn1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 tend1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 tene1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 ter1 #abb1 ,i1 #f4 terre1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 tex1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 time1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 ting1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 toll1 #abb1 ,i1 #b1 ,n4 tonat1 #ach1 ,i4 tonde1 #aba1 ,,iv4 ton1 #abj1 ,,ii4 torpe1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 torque1 #aba1 ,,iii4 torre1 #aba1 ,,ii1 b4 trd1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 trah1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 trem1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 tribu1 #abb1 ,,ii4 trd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 tueor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 tund1 #abb1 ,i1 #b4 ,u4 ulcscor1 #abb1 ,v4 ungu1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 urge1 #aba1 ,,iii4 r1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 tor1 #abb1 ,v4 ,v4 vd1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 b4 vale1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a4 veh1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 vell1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 veni1 #abc1 ,,iv4 vereor1 #aba1 ,,vii4 verg1 #abb1 ,i1 #g4 verr1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 vert1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 vescor1 #abb1 ,v4 vet1 #abj1 ,,ii4 vide1 #aba1 ,v4 vige1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 vinci1 #abc1 ,,iii4 vinc1 #abb1 ,i1 #c4 vire1 #aba1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 #a4 vs1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 vv1 #abb1 ,i1 #a1 a4 vol1 #acj4 volv1 #abb1 ,i1 #d4 vom1 #abb1 ,i1 #e4 vove1 #aba1 ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,general ,,index4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the references are to sections and paragraphs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,abbreviations4--,abl41 ablative2 acc41 accusative2 adj41 adjective2 adv41 adverb1 adverbial1 or adverbially2 cf41 compare2 comp41 comparison or comparative2 conj41 conjunction or conjugation2 const41 constr41 construction2 dat41 dative2 decl41 declension2 gen41 genitive2 ind41 indicative2 indir4 disc41 indirect discourse2 loc41 locative2 ,n41 note2 nom41 nominative2 plu41 plural2 prep41 preposition2 pron41 pronoun or pronunciation2 sing41 singular2 subj41 subject2 subjv41 subjunctive2 voc41 vocative2 w41 with4 ,a4 1 vowel1 #b1 #a2 ---- pronunciation1 #c1 #a2 ---- development of 1 before a single consonant1 #g1 #a1 a2 ---- before two consonants1 #g1 #a1 b2 ---- as ending of nom4 sing4 of #ast decl41 #bj2 ---- in voc4 sing4 of ,greek nouns in -s of #ast decl41 #bb2 ---- in nom4 sing4 of ,greek nouns in - of #ast decl41 #bb1 #c2 ---- termination of nom4 and acc4 plu4 of neuters1 #bc2 #ce2 #dh2 ---- termination of nom4 sing4 of nouns of #c;d decl41 #bh2 ---- gender of nouns in - of #c;d decl41 #dc1 #c2 ---- ending of acc4 sing4 of ,greek nouns of #c;d decl41 #dg1 #a2 ---- regular quantity of final a1 #cfc1 #a2 ---- exceptions to quantity of final a1 #cfc1 #a1 a-c4 1 pronunciation1 #c1 #a2 ---- arising by contraction1 #g1 #b2 ---- as ending of stem in #ast decl41 #ah2 ---- -stems inflected1 #bj2 ---- in voc4 sing4 of ,greek nouns of #ast decl41 #bb2 ---- in voc4 sing4 of ,greek nouns in -s of #c;d decl41 #dg1 #d2 ---- distinguishing vowel of #ast conjugation1 #ih2 ---- ending of imperative act4 of #ast conj41 #aja2 ---- final a long by exception1 #cfc1 #a1 a-c4 1 ab1 abs1 use1 #adb1 #a2 ---- with town names1 #bbi1 #b4 to denote agency1 #baf4 ---- to denote separation1 #bad4 ---- place from which1 #bbi4 ---- with town names1 #bbi1 #b4 ---- with abl4 of gerund1 #cch1 #d1 b4 -stems1 #bj2 #ih2 #aja4 ,abbreviations of proper names1 #cgc4 ,ablative case1 #ag2 #bac f4 ---- in -bus1 #ba1 #b1 e4 ---- in -d in prons41 #hd1 #c2 #he1 #c4 ---- formation of sing4 of adjs4 of #c;d decl41 #fg1 a2 #gj1 #a-e4 ---- of -stems1 #cg2 #ch4 ---- genuine abl4 uses1 #bad f4 ---- absolute1 #bbg4 ---- of agent1 #baf4 ---- of accompaniment1 #bbb4 ---- of accordance1 #bbj1 #c4 ---- of association1 #bbb;,a4 ---- of attendant circumstance1 #bba2 #bbg1 #b1 e74 ---- of cause1 #bai4 ---- of comparison1 #bag4 ---- of degree of difference1 #bbc4 ---- of fine or penalty1 #bjh1 #b1 b4 ---- of manner1 #bbj4 ---- of material1 #bbd1 #c4 ---- of means1 #bah4 ---- of penalty1 #bjh1 #b1 b4 ---- of place where1 #bbh4 ---- of place whence1 #bbi4 ---- of price1 #bbe4 ---- of quality1 #bbd4 ---- of separation1 #bad2 ---- ---- with compounds of dis- and s-1 #bad1 #c4 ---- of source1 #bae4 ---- of specification1 #bbf4 ---- of time at which1 #bcj4 ---- of time during which1 #bca1 #a4 ---- of time within which1 #bca4 ---- of way by which1 #bac1 #i4 ---- with continri1 cnsistere1 cnstre1 #bah1 #d4 ---- with special phrases1 #bah1 #g4 ---- with jungere1 mscre1 mtre1 etc41 #bbb;,a4 ---- with faci1 fi1 #bah1 #f ---- with prepositions1 #adb2 #bac f4 ---- with verbs of filling1 #bah1 #h4 ---- with verbs and adjs4 of freeing1 #bad1 ,i1 a1 and ,n4 #a4 ---- with adjs4 of plenty1 #bah1 #h4 ---- with tor1 fruor1 fungor1 potior1 vescor1 #bah1 #a4 ---- with opus and sus1 #bah1 #b ---- with ntor1 innxus1 and frtus1 #bah1 #c4 abs1 #adb1 #a4 absns1 #abe4 ,absolute1 ablative1 #bbg4 ---- time1 of participles1 #ccf1 #d4 ---- use of verbs1 #agd1 a4 ,abstract nouns1 #ab1 #b1 b72 ---- plural of1 #ee1 #d1 c74 -bus1 #ba1 #b1 e74 ac1 #cda1 #b1 b72 ---- as1 than1 #cda1 #a1 c74 ,acatalectic verses1 #cff1 #i4 accdit ut1 #big1 #b4 ,accent1 #f2 ---- in gen4 of nouns in -ius and -ium1 #be1 #a and #b4 accidit ut1 #big1 #b4 accidit quod1 #bii1 #a1 b4 ,accompaniment1 abl4 of1 #bbb4 ,accordance1 abl4 of1 #bbj1 #c4 ,accusative case1 #ag2 ---- in -n and -n of ,greek nouns1 #bb2 ---- in -om in #b;d decl41 #bd2 ---- in -on and -n in ,greek nouns1 #bg2 ---- in - in sing4 of ,greek nouns1 #dg1 #a2 ---- in -s in plu41 #dg1 #c2 ---- in -im and -is in i-stems1 #cg2 #ch2 ---- acc4 sing4 neut4 as adv41 #gg1 #c2 #agf1 #c2 #agb f4 ---- of duration of time1 #aha4 ---- of result produced1 #agc1 ,b2 #agf4 ---- of extent of space1 #aha4 ---- of limit of motion1 #ahb f4 ---- of neut4 prons4 or adjs41 #agf1 #b4 ---- of person or thing affected1 #agc1 ,a2 #age4 ---- in exclamations1 #ahc4 ---- as subj4 of inf41 #ahd4 ---- with admone1 commone1 etc41 #bjg4 ---- with adv4 force1 #agf1 #c4 ---- with compounds1 #age1 #b4 ---- with impersonal verbs1 #age1 #b1 c4 ---- with intransitive verbs1 #age1 #b1 a4 ---- with passive used as middle1 #age1 #b1 d74 ---- with verbs of remembering and forgetting 7memin1 oblvscor1 reminscor71 #bjf1 #a2 #b4 ---- with verbs expressing emotion1 #age1 #b1 b4 ---- with verbs of tasting and smelling1 #agf1 #e4 ---- with verbs of making1 choosing1 calling1 regarding1 etc41 #agg4 ---- with verbs of asking1 requesting1 demanding1 teaching1 concealing1 #agh1 #a-e4 ---- with adjs4 7propior1 proximus71 #ada1 #c4 ---- with adverbs 7propius1 proxim71 #ada1 #c2 ---- ---- clam1 prdi1 #add1 #b4 ---- ,genavam ad oppidum1 #ahb1 #b1 a4 ---- cognate acc41 #agf1 #d4 ---- ,greek acc41 #ahj4 ---- synecdochical acc41 #ahj4 ---- two accs41 direct obj4 and pred4 acc41 #agg2 ---- ---- person affected and result produced1 #agh2 ---- ---- with compounds of trns1 #agi2 ---- ---- with other compounds1 #agi1 #b4 ---- with prepositions1 #ada2 #agi f4 ---- retained in pass41 #agh1 #b4 ,accusing1 verbs of1 constr41 #bjh f4 accs1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 d74 cer1 decl41 #fh2 ---- compared1 #ga1 #c4 ,acquitting1 verbs of1 constr41 #bjh f4 ac s with subjv41 #cjg1 #a4 ad1 'toward1' 'in vicinity of1' #ahb1 #c2 ---- with acc4 alternating with dat41 #ceh1 #b4 ---- compounds of ad governing dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii2 #ahh1 #b1 d4 ---- with gerund denoting purpose1 #cch1 #c4 -ads1 patronymic ending1 #adh1 #f1 a4 adg- agg-1 #i1 #b4 ,adjectives1 #fb f2 #ced2 ---- derivation of1 #aej f4 ---- of #ast and #b;d decl41 #fc ff4 ---- in -ius1 gen4 sing41 #fc1 a4 ---- of #c;d decl41 #fg1 ff2 ---- ---- in abl41 #gj1 #e4 ---- comparison of adjs41 #ga f42 ---- ---- in -er1 #ga1 #c2 ---- ---- in -ilis1 #ga1 #d2 ---- ---- comparative lacking1 #gc1 #c2 ---- ---- defective comparison1 #gc2 ---- ---- not admitting comparison1 #ge2 ---- ---- comparison by magis and maxim1 #gd4 ---- numerals1 #gh f4 ---- syntax1 #bcc ff42 ---- ---- attributive and predicate adjs41 #bcc1 #b4 ---- agreement1 #bcd1 f4 ---- used substantively1 #bcf f4 ---- denoting part of an object1 #bda1 #a4 ---- with force of adverbs1 #bci4 ---- force of comp4 and superl41 #bdj1 #a4 ---- not followed by infinitive1 #ccc4 ---- not used with proper names1 #ced1 #c4 ---- equivalent to a poss4 gen41 #ced1 #d4 ---- special ,latin equivalents of ,eng4 adjs41 #ced1 #a4 ---- equiv4 to rel4 clause1 #bda1 #b4 ---- as pred4 acc41 #agg1 #b4 ---- position of adj41 #cej1 #d4 ---- pronominal adjs41 #ib4 ---- governing gen41 #bjd4 ---- governing dat41 #aib4 ---- governing acc41 #ada1 #c4 ---- construed with abl41 #bad1 #a1 d2 #bag1 #a2 #bah1 #h2 #bbc2 #bbf1 #b2 #bbg1 #a4 ---- with supine in -1 #cdj1 #b4 adl- all-1 #i1 #b4 admone1 constr41 #bjg4 ,admonishing1 const4 of verbs of1 #bjg4 adr- arr-1 #i1 #b4 ads- ass-1 #i1 #b4 ad sensum1 constr41 #bce1 ,b1 #b1 c2 #bed1 #d4 adulscns1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 adulter1 decl41 #bc1 #b4 adultus1 force1 #aad1 #b4 ,adverbs1 defined1 #adj2 ---- formation and comparison1 #gf f42 #adj2 #aeg4 ---- in -iter from adjs4 in -us1 #gg1 #d4 ---- in -tus and -tim1 #gg1 #e4 ---- in and -o1 #gg1 #b4 ---- numeral1 #gi4 ---- as preps41 #add1 #b4 ---- derivation of1 #aeg4 ---- with gen41 #bja1 #b2 #c2 and a4 ---- special meanings1 #cdg4 ---- position1 #cej1 #f4 ,adversative clauses1 #cji4 ---- conjunctions1 #cdc4 adversus1 prep4 with acc41 #ada4 ae1 how pronounced1 #c1 #b2 ---- phonetic changes1 #g1 #a1 d4 aeds1 plu41 #fa4 aequlis1 abl4 sing4 of1 #gj1 #e1 a2 ---- as subst41 #bch4 aequor1 decl41 #cd4 aequum est aequum sit1 #bga1 #a1 b74 aes1 in plu41 #ee1 #d1 b2 ---- lacks gen4 plu41 #eg1 #g4 aets1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 e72 ---- id aettis1 #ahe1 #b4 -aeus1 suffix1 #aeb1 #c4 aevom1 decl41 #bd4 ,affected1 acc4 of person or thing1 #age4 ,agency1 dat4 of1 #ahi2 ---- abl41 #baf4 ,agent1 abl41 #baf2 ---- with names of animals1 #baf1 #b4 ager1 decl41 #bc4 ,agreement1 nouns1 #aff2 #afh2 #afi1 #b2 #c2 #d4 ---- adjs41 #bcd2 ---- ---- in gender1 #bce1 ,b2 ---- ---- in number1 #bce1 ,a2 ---- prons41 #bej2 ---- verbs1 with one subj41 #bed1 #a2 ---- ---- with two or more subjs41 #bee1 #a4 -1 case-ending1 gen4 sing41 #ast decl41 poet41 #ba1 #b1 b74 an1 #ace1 ,n4 aj1 #ace2 ---- quantity of first syllable1 #cfb1 #e4 -al1 declension of nouns in1 #ci4 alacer1 decl41 #fh1 #a2 ---- comp41 #gc1 #d4 aliqua1 #ia1 #b4 aliqu1 #ia2 #ia1 #b4 aliquis1 #ia2 #beb1 #b2 ---- aliquis dcat1 dxerit1 #bhj1 #a4 -lis1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 aliter ac1 #cda1 #a1 c4 alius1 #ff2 #ib1 #a2 ---- used correlatively1 #bec1 #a4 alius ac1 'other than1' #cda1 #a1 c74 ,allia1 gender of1 #ae1 #c1 ,n4 allici1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 b74 ,alliteration1 #cge1 #c4 ,alphabet1 #a4 alter1 decl41 #ff2 #ib1 #a2 ---- used correlatively1 #bec1 #a4 ,alternative questions1 #afb1 #d2 ---- indirect1 #cjj1 #d4 alteruter1 decl41 #ib1 #b4 alvus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 b4 amandus sum1 conj41 #aae4 amtrus sum1 conj41 #aae4 amb- 7ambi-71 #aei1 #c1 ,n4 amb1 #hj1 #b1 a2 ---- usage1 #cee1 #b4 am1 conj41 #aja4 amplius amplius quam1 #bag1 #c4 amussis1 -im1 #ch1 #a4 an1 #afb1 #d1 and a72 #cjj1 #d2 ---- haud sci an1 nesci an1 #cjj1 #e4 ,anacoluthon1 #cgd1 #f4 ,anapaest1 #cff1 #b4 ,anaphora1 #cej1 #aa1 b74 ,anastrophe of prep41 #ada1 #b2 #adb1 #c2 #add1 #c4 anceps 7syllaba anceps71 defined1 #cff1 #aj4 ,androges1 decl41 #bg4 animal1 decl41 #ci4 ,animals1 as agents1 #baf1 #b4 anim1 locative1 #bcb1 #c4 annn1 in double questions1 #afb1 #d4 ,answers1 #afb1 #e4 ante1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- as adv41 #add1 #a2 ---- dat4 w4 verbs compounded w4 ante1 #ahg1 ,,iii2 ---- in expressions of time1 #ceg1 #a2 #cga1 #e2 ---- ante diem1 #cga1 #e2 #f4 ,antecedent of rel41 #bea4 ---- attraction of1 #bea1 #d4 ---- incorporated with rel41 #bea1 #d4 ,antecedent omitted1 #bea1 #a4 ---- repeated with rel41 #bea1 #c4 ,antepenult1 #f1 #b4 antepn1 with dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii1 #b4 antequam1 with ind41 #bia2 ---- with subjv41 #bib4 ,anticipation1 denoted by subjv41 w4 antequam and priusquam1 #bib2 ---- by subjv4 with dum1 dnec1 quoad1 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b2 #cgd1 #e4 -nus1 suffix1 #aea1 #b2 #aeb1 #a2 #c4 ,aorist tense1 see ,historical perfect4 ,apodosis1 #cja ff4 ---- in conditional sent4 of #ast type1 #cjb1 #d2 ---- result clauses as apodoses1 #cbb2 ---- qun- clauses as apodoses1 #cbb2 ---- ind4 questions as apodoses1 #cbb1 b2 ---- potuerim in apodosis1 #cbb1 c2 ---- apodosis in indir4 disc41 #cai-cba2 ---- in expressions of obligation1 ability1 etc41 #cjd1 #c1 a2 ---- with periphrastic conjugations1 #cjd1 #c1 b4 ,apposition1 #afi2 ---- agreement1 #afi1 #b2 ---- partitive1 #afi1 #e2 ---- with voc4 in nom41 #aga1 #b2 ---- genitive w4 force of appositive1 #bjb2 ---- id as appositive of clause1 #bdg1 #a1 b2 ---- inf4 as appositive1 #cbf2 #cbi2 ---- subst4 clauses as appositives1 #bhb1 #a1 f2 #bid2 #big1 #c4 ,appositive of locative1 #afi1 #d2 ---- with acc4 of limit of motion1 #ahb1 #b1 a2 ---- with town names1 in abl4 of place whence1 #bbi1 #b4 ---- position of1 #cej1 #b4 aptus1 w4 dat41 #aib1 #b4 apud1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ,archis1 declension of1 #bb4 -ar1 declension of nouns in1 #ci4 argu1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 d74 -ris1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 -rium1 suffix1 #adh1 #c4 -rius1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 armiger1 decl41 #bc1 #b4 ,arrangement of words1 #cdh-cej2 ---- of clauses1 #cea4 ,arsis1 defined1 #cff1 #f4 arts1 dat4 and abl4 plu4 of1 #di1 #c4 arx1 decl41 #dj4 -s1 acc4 plu4 in ,greek nouns1 #dg1 #c4 -s1 old gen4 sing41 #ast decl41 case-ending1 #ba1 #b1 a74 ---- ending of ,greek nouns1 nom4 sing4 in1 #bb4 ---- gender of nouns in -s1 #dc1 #b2 #de1 #a4 ---- voc4 of ,greek nouns in -s1 antis1 #dg1 #d4 ---- -tis1 abl4 of patrials in1 #gj1 #e1 c74 ,asking1 case const1 with verbs of1 #agh1 #a1 c2 ---- subst4 clauses w41 #bie1 #a2 ---- ind4 questions1 #cjj1 #a4 ,aspirates1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,assimilation of consonants1 #h1 #d f42 #i1 #b4 ,association1 abl4 of1 #bbb;,a4 ,asyndeton1 #cda1 #d1 a72 #cdf4 at1 #cdc1 #a1 d74 -tim1 suffix1 #aeg1 #b4 ,atls1 decl41 #dg1 #d4 atomus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 c74 atque1 #cda1 #b1 b72 ---- as1 #cda1 #a1 c74 atqu1 #cdc1 #a1 e74 ,attendant circumstance1 abl4 of1 #bba3 #bbg1 #b1 e74 ,attraction of demonstratives1 #bdf1 #e2 ---- of relatives1 #bej1 #e2 ---- subjunctive by attraction1 #cbd2 ---- of adjectives1 #cbg1 #b1 a2 #cbh1 #b4 ,attributive adjs41 #bcc1 #b4 -tus1 its force as suffix1 #aea1 #d4 audcter1 formation and comparison1 #gf1 #b4 aude1 conj41 #aad1 #a4 audi1 conj41 #ajg2 ---- with pres4 partic41 #ccg1 #c4 aul1 archaic gen41 #ba1 #b1 b4 ausus1 force as participle1 #ccf1 #e4 aut1 #cdb1 #a1 a74 autem1 #cdc1 #a1 c72 #cej1 #h4 ,auxiliary omitted in infin41 #aaf1 #e3 ---- ---- in finite forms1 #aff1 #c4 auxilium1 auxilia1 #fa4 -x1 suffix1 #aej1 #b4 ,b4 balneum1 balneae1 #fj1 #b4 barbitos1 decl41 #bg4 ,believing1 verbs of1 with dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 bell1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 bellum1 decl41 #bc4 bene1 comparison1 #gg1 #a4 ,benefiting1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 benevolus1 comparison1 #ga1 #e1 a74 -ber1 declension of month names in1 #fh1 #a4 -bilis1 suffix1 #aej1 #d4 bonus1 decl41 #fc2 comparison1 #gb4 bs1 decl41 #da4 ,brachylogy1 #cgd1 #b4 ,bucolic diaeresis1 #cfh1 #c1 d -bulum1 suffix1 #adg1 #d4 -bundus1 suffix1 #aej1 #a4 bris1 decl41 #ch1 #a ,c4 ,c41 for ,g4 as abbreviation of ,gius1 #cgc4 caeds1 decl41 #dj4 ,caesura1 #cff1 #h3 ---- in dactylic hexameter #cfh1 #c4 calcar1 decl41 #ci4 ,calendar1 #cga2 #cgb4 ,calends1 #cga1 #b1 a74 campester1 decl41 #fh1 #a canis1 decl41 #ch1 #b4 capi1 conj41 #aaj carbasus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a b74 carcer1 carcers1 #fa4 ,cardinals1 defined4 #gh1 #a2 ---- list of1 #gi2 ---- decl41 #hj2 ---- with and without et1 #ha1 #a2 #c2 ---- expressed by subtraction1 #ha1 #b2 ---- replaced by attributives in poetry1 #ha1 #d1 d4 cr1 comparison1 #gf1 #b4 car1 decl41 #db4 carrus1 carrum1 #fj1 #a4 ,cases1 #ag2 ---- alike in form1 #ai2 #agj ff4 ,case-endings1 #ag1 #c4 castrum1 castra1 #fa4 ,catalectic verses1 #cff1 #i4 caus1 with gen41 #aih1 #a2 ---- nlla causa est cr1 with subjv41 #bie1 #g4 ,causal clauses1 #bhe2 #bhf2 ---- clause of characteristic with accessory notion of cause1 #bhc1 #c4 ---- conjunctions1 #cde4 ,cause1 abl4 of1 #bai2 #bbg1 #b1 d7 cav1 cav n in prohibitions1 #bgf1 b4 -ce1 #f1 #c f42 #hg1 footnote #bc4 cedo1 cette1 #acg1 #c4 cd1 with dat4 #ahg1 ,,ii4 celeber1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 celer1 decl41 #fh1 #b4 cl1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 e74 cntus1 force1 #aad1 #b4 ctera1 adverbial acc41 #ahe1 #b4 ceter1 use1 #bec1 #d4 ,characterstic1 clauses of1 #bhc2 ---- denoting cause or opposition 7'although'71 #bhc1 #c2 ---- gen4 of1 #bjh1 #a2 ---- abl41 #bbd4 ,charge1 gen4 of1 #bjh1 #a2 #b4 ,chiasmus1 #cej1 #aa1 c74 ,choosing1 const4 w4 verbs of1 #agg1 #a-c4 circ1 circiter1 circum1 preps4 w4 acc41 #ada4 circum1 compounds of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 circumd1 const41 #ahg1 #a1 a4 ,circumstance1 abl4 of attendant1 #bba4 cis1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 citerior1 comparison1 #gc1 #a4 cito1 #gg1 #b1 a4 citr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 cvits decl41 #dj1 #a1 e4 clam1 with acc41 #add1 #b4 ,clauses1 cord4 and subord41 #afd1 #afe4 ,clauses of characteristic1 #bhc2 ---- purpose1 #bhb2 ---- result1 #bhd2 ---- causal1 #bhe2 ---- temporal with postquam1 ut1 ubi1 simul ac1 etc41 #bhg2 ---- with cum1 #bhh2 ---- substantive clauses1 #bid f42 ---- condition1 #cja f42 ---- conditional comparison1 #cjg2 ---- concessive1 #cjh2 ---- adversative1 #cji2 ---- wish or proviso1 #caj2 ---- relative1 #caa f42 #bhc f4 clvis1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 ,clinging1 construction of verbs of1 #beh1 #c4 clipeus1 clipeum1 #fj1 #a4 ,close of sentences1 cadences used1 #cej1 #ab4 coep1 conj41 #acc2 ---- coeptus est1 #acc1 #a4 ,cognate acc41 #agf1 #d4 cognmen1 #cgc4 cg1 w4 acc41 #agh1 #a1 d72 ---- w4 infin41 #cca1 ,,vi4 ,collective nouns1 #ab1 #b1 a72 ---- w4 plu4 verb1 #bed1 #d4 colus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 b74 com-1 compounds of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 comed1 conj41 #abh1 #b4 comts1 decl41 #bb4 comitia1 as time expression1 #bcj1 #a4 ,commanding1 dat4 w4 verbs of1 #ahg1 ,,ii2 ---- subst4 clause w4 verbs of1 #bie1 #a2 ---- commands expressed by jussive subjv41 #bge2 ---- ---- by imperative1 #bha4 ,common gender1 #ae1 ,b1 ,n4 #a4 ---- nouns1 #ab1 #a4 ---- syllables1 #e1 ,b1 #c4 commonefaci1 w4 gen1 and acc41 #bjg4 commone1 w4 gen4 and acc41 #bjg4 commnis1 w4 gen41 #bjd1 #b2 ---- with dat41 #bjd1 #b1 a4 commt1 w4 abl41 #bbb;,a4 ,comparatives1 decl41 #fi2 ---- w4 abl41 #bag2 ---- w4 quam1 #bag1 #b2 ---- occasional meaning1 #bdj4 ---- two required in ,latin1 #bdj1 #d4 ,comparison of adjs41 #ga f42 ---- of adverbs1 #gf2 #gg4 ---- participles as adjs41 #ga1 #b4 ---- adjs4 in -dicus1 -ficus1 -volus1 #ga1 #e4 ---- defective1 #gc4 ---- abl4 of1 #bag4 ,comparison1 conditional1 #cjg4 ,compendiary comparison1 #cgd1 #b1 b72 ---- w4 result clauses1 #bhd1 #d2 ---- w4 clauses of characteristic1 #bhc1 #b1 a4 ,completed action1 tenses expressing1 #bfb-d2 #bfg1 #c4 ,compounds1 #aeh f42 ---- spelling of1 #i1 #b4 ,compound sentences1 #afd4 ---- verbs governing acc41 #age1 #b1 a2 ---- governing dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii2 #ahh1 #b1 d4 ,conative uses of pres41 #bei1 #b2 ---- of imperf41 #bfj1 #c2 ---- of pres4 partic41 #ccf1 #b1 a4 ,concessive clauses1 #cjh2 ---- 'although' as accessory idea to clause of characteristic1 #bhc1 #c4 ---- subjunctive1 #bgh4 ,conclusion1 see ,apodosis4 ,concrete nouns1 #ab1 #b1 a74 ,condemning1 verbs of1 constr41 #bjh1 f4 ,conditional clauses of comparison1 #cjg4 ---- sentences1 #ast type 7nothing implied71 #cjb2 ---- ---- in indir4 disc41 #cai2 ---- ---- #b;d type 7'should'-'would'71 #cjc2 ---- ---- in indir4 disc41 #cbj2 ---- ---- #c;d type 7contrary to fact71 #cjd2 ---- ---- in indir4 disc41 #cba2 ---- ---- abl4 abs4 equivalent to1 #bbg1 #b1 b72 ---- ---- introduced by relative pronouns1 #cab2 ---- ---- general conditions1 #cjb1 #b2 #c2 ---- ---- indicative in contrary-to-fact apodoses1 #cjd1 #c2 ---- ---- protasis omitted or implied1 #cje1 #a2 ---- ---- protasis contained in imperative1 or jussive subjv41 #cje1 #b2 ---- ---- employment of nisi1 s nn1 sn1 s minus1 #cjf2 ---- ---- conditional relative sentences1 #cab1 #b4 cnfd1 w4 abl41 #bai1 #a1 a4 ,conjugation1 #aa2 #ic f42 ---- the four conjugations1 #ih2 ---- periphrastic1 #aae2 ---- peculiarities of conj41 #aaf4 ,conjunctions1 #ade1 #a2 #cda f4 cnor1 with inf41 #bie1 #e1 a4 ,consecutive clauses1 see ,result clauses4 cnsistere1 with abl41 #bah1 #d4 ,consonant stems1 nouns1 #bi f42 ---- adjs41 #gj1 #a4 ---- partially adapted to -stems1 #dj4 ,consonants1 #b1 #b f42 ---- pronunciation1 #c1 #c4 ---- double1 #b1 #i4 ---- combinations of1 in division into syllables1 #d1 #b f4 ,consonant changes1 #h2 ---- omission of finals #h1 #c2 ---- assimilation of1 #h1 #d f4 ---- stems1 #bi2 ---- ---- following analogy of -stems1 #dj4 cnspici1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 b74 cnstre1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #d4 ,construction acc4 to sense1 #bed1 #d2 #bce1 ,b1 #b1 c74 cnsutd est1 with subjv4 substantive clause1 #big1 #c4 cnsuv pres41 #bfb1 ,a4 cnsulris1 abl4 sing4 of1 #gj1 #e1 a4 ,contending1 verbs of1 with dat41 #ceh1 #c4 contentus1 w4 abl41 #bai1 #a4 continer1 with abl41 #bah1 #d4 contingit ut1 #big1 #b4 ,continued action1 tenses for1 #beg1 #a1 b4 contr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- as adv41 #add1 #a4 ,contraction1 #g1 #b4 ---- length of vowel as result of1 #e1 ,a1 #a1 b74 ,contrary-to-fact conditions1 #cjd4 ,convicting1 verbs of1 constr41 #bjh f4 ,cordinate clauses1 #afe4 ---- conjunctions1 #cda f4 cpia1 cpiae1 #fa4 ,copulative conjunctions1 #cda4 cor1 lacks gen4 plu41 #eg1 #g4 corn1 decl41 #dh4 ,correlative conjunctions1 #cda1 #c2 #cdb1 #b4 ---- adverbs1 #adj4 cottdi1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 ,countries1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 a4 ,crime1 gen4 of1 #bjh1 #a2 #b4 -crum1 suffix1 #adg1 #d4 -culum1 suffix1 #adg1 #d4 -culus 7a1 um71 suffix1 #adh1 #a4 cum1 appended1 #adb1 #d4 cum 7conj471 'when1' #bhh-bij2 ---- 'whenever1' #bhh1 #c4 ---- adversative1 #cji1 #c4 ---- causal1 #bhf1 #b4 ---- explicative1 #bij4 ---- to denote a recurring action1 #bhh1 #c2 #bhi1 a4 ---- inversum1 #bhh1 #b4 com 444 tum1 #bij1 #b4 cum prmum1 #bhg1 #a4 cum1 spelling of1 #i1 #a4 cum 7prep471 with abl4 of manner1 #bbj2 ---- with abl4 of accompaniment1 #bbb2 ---- appended to prons41 #adb1 #d4 -cundus1 suffix1 #aej1 #a4 cupi1 conj1 #aji1 #b1 a72 ---- with subst4 clause developed from optative1 #bif2 ---- w4 inf41 #cca1 ,,iv1 and a4 cr1 nlla causa est cr1 w4 subjv41 #bie1 #g4 cr1 with gerundive const as obj41 #ccg1 #h1 b1 #b4 ,customary action1 #bei1 #a2 #bfj1 #b4 ,d4 ,d1 changed to s1 #h1 #b2 ---- d final omitted1 #h1 #c2 ---- assimilated1 #h1 #d4 ,dactyl1 #cff1 #b4 ,dactylic hexameter1 #cfh4 ---- pentameter1 #cfi4 dapis1 defective1 #eg1 #f4 ,daring1 verbs of1 with obj4 inf41 #cbh1 #a4 ,dates #cga1 #b-e2 ---- as indeclinable nouns1 #cga1 #f2 ---- in leap year1 #cga1 #g4 ,dative #ag2 ---- irregular1 #ast decl41 #ba1 #b1 c72 ---- #c;d decl41 #dg1 #e2 ---- #dth decl41 #di1 #b2 #c2 ---- #eth decl41 #eb1 #a and #c2 #ahf ff4 ---- in the gerundive const41 #cci1 #g4 ---- of agency1 #ahi4 ---- of direction and limit of motion1 #aic4 ---- of indir4 obj41 #ahg4 ---- of advantage or disadvantage1 so called1 #ahh1 #a4 ---- of local standpoint1 #ahh1 #b1 a74 ---- of person judging1 #ahh1 #b1 c74 ---- of possession1 #aij2 #cei1 #a4 ---- of purpose or tendency1 #aia2 #cci1 #g4 ---- of reference1 #ahh4 ---- of separation1 #ahh1 #b1 d74 ---- of the gerund1 #cch1 #b4 ---- with adjs41 #aib2 ---- with proprius1 commnis1 #bjd1 #b2 ---- with similis1 #bjd1 #c4 ---- with compound verbs1 #ahg1 ,,iii4 ---- with intrans4 verbs1 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ---- with nmen est1 #aij1 #a4 ---- with impersonal pass4 verbs1 #ahg1 ,,ii1 b4 ---- with trans4 verbs1 #ahg1 ,i4 ---- with verbs of mingling1 #ceh1 #c4 ---- ethical dat41 #ahh1 #b1 b74 d1 prep4 w4 abl41 #adb2 ---- with abl4 instead of gen4 of whole1 #bja1 #a1 a2 ---- with verbs of reminding1 #bjg1 a2 ---- compounds of d governing dat41 #ahh1 #b1 d2 ---- d v1 with verbs of accusing and convicting1 #bjh1 #c2 ---- with gerund and gerundive1 #cch1 #d1 b4 dea1 debus1 #ba1 #b1 e74 dbbam1 dbu in apodosis1 #cjd1 #c1 a74 dbe1 governing obj4 inf41 #cbh1 #a4 dbu1 with pres inf41 #bgj1 #b4 decemvir1 gen4 plu4 of1 #be1 #f1 b74 dcern1 w4 subst4 clause developed from volitive1 #bie1 #d4 decet1 w4 acc41 #age1 #b1 c74 ,declarative sentences1 defined1 #afa1 #a2 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cad4 ,declension1 #aa2 ---- heteroclites1 #ei4 ---- stems and gen4 terminations1 #ah4 ---- #ast decl41 #bj-bb2 ---- #b;d decl41 #bc-bg2 ---- #c;d decl41 #bh-dg2 ---- #dth decl41 #dh-ej2 ---- #eth decl41 #ea-ec2 ---- of ,greek nouns1 #bb2 #bg2 #dg2 ---- of adjs41 #fb-fi2 ---- of prons41 #hd-ij4 ,decreeing1 verbs of1 w4 subjv41 #bie1 #d4 ddecet1 #age1 #b1 c74 ,defective verbs1 #acc f42 ---- nouns1 #ed f42 #eb1 #d2 #eg2 ---- comparison1 #gc4 ,definite perfect1 see ,present perfect4 ,degree of difference1 abl4 of1 #bbc4 ,degrees of comparison1 #ga ff4 dlectat1 w4 inf4 as subj41 #cbg1 #a4 dlector1 w4 abl4 of cause1 #bai4 ,deliberative subjv41 #bgg2 ---- in indir4 questions1 #cjj1 #b2 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cae1 #c4 ,demanding1 verbs of1 w4 two accs41 #agh1 #a2 ---- w4 subst4 clause1 #bie1 #a4 ,demonstrative pronouns1 #hg2 #bdf2 ---- of #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d persons1 #hg2 ---- position of demonstratives1 #cej1 #e1 a4 ,denominative verbs1 #aef4 ,dental mutes1 #b1 #d2 ---- stems1 #cc4 ,dependent clauses1 #bhb ff4 ,deponent verbs1 #aab2 ---- forms with passive meanings1 #aab1 b72 ---- semi-deponents1 #aad4 ,depriving1 verbs of1 w4 abl1 #bad1 #a1 b4 ,derivatives1 #adg f4 -ds1 patronymics in1 #adh1 #f4 ,description1 imperf4 as tense of1 #bfj1 #a1 a4 ,desideratives1 #aee1 #c4 ,desire1 adjs4 of1 w4 gen41 #bjd1 #a2 ---- verbs of1 w4 subst4 clauses1 #bif1 #a4 dterior1 #gc1 #a4 deus1 decl41 #be1 #d4 dvertor1 #aad1 #c4 dexter1 decl1 #fe1 #a4 d-1 #aei1 #c1 ,n4 ,diaeresis1 #cff1 #h2 ---- bucolic d41 #cfh1 #c1 d74 ,diastole1 #cfg1 #b4 dc1 #aaf1 #c4 dcitur1 dictum est1 w4 inf41 #ccb1 note4 dc1 accent of compounds of1 in imperative1 #aaf1 #c4 -dicus1 comparison of adjs4 in1 #ga1 #e4 ,dd1 decl1 #dg1 #h4 dis1 decl41 #ea2 ---- gender1 #ec4 ,difference1 abl of degree of1 #bbc4 difficile est ,eng4 potential1 #bga1 #a1 b74 difficilis1 comp41 #ga1 #d4 dignor1 with abl41 #bbf1 #b4 dignus1 #bbf1 #b2 ---- in rel4 clauses of purpose1 #bhb1 #c4 ,dimeter1 verses1 #cff1 #aa4 ,diminutives1 #adh1 #a4 ,diphthongs1 #b1 #a2 #c1 #b2 ---- diphthong stems1 #da2 ---- diphthongs shortened1 #cfb1 #b4 diphthongus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a4 c74 ,dipodies1 #cff1 #aa4 ,direct reflexives1 #bdd1 #a4 ---- object1 #agb4 ---- quotation1 #cac4 ---- discourse1 #cac4 ---- questions1 #afb4 dis-1 in compounds1 #aei1 #c1 ,n4 ,disjunctive conjunctions1 #cdb4 dissimilis1 comp41 #ga1 #d4 ,distributives1 #fc1 #b2 #gh1 #a2 #gi2 #ha1 #d4 di1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 dves1 decl41 #gj1 #a2 ---- compared1 #ga1 #f4 dxt1 #aaf1 #d1 c4 d1 conj41 #abg4 doce1 with acc41 #agh1 #a1 b72 ---- with inf41 #cca1 ,,vi4 dom1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 dom1 #bbi1 #a1 b74 doms1 #ahb1 #a1 b4 domum1 #ahb1 #a1 b72 ---- 'house1' in acc41 #ahb1 ,n4 domus1 decl41 #di1 #d2 ---- gender1 #ej4 dnec1 with ind41 #bic2 ---- with subjv41 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b4 dn1 constr41 #ahg1 #a1 a4 ds1 gender1 #dd1 #c4 ,double consonants1 #b1 #i4 ---- questions1 #afb1 #d2 ---- ---- indirect1 #cjj1 #d4 ,doubting1 verbs of1 w4 qun1 #bih4 ,dubitative subjunctive1 see ,deliberative4 dubit1 dubium est1 nn dubit1 nn dubium est1 with quin1 #bih2 ---- nn dubit w4 inf41 #bih1 a4 dc1 #aaf1 #c4 dc1 accent of compounds of1 in imper41 #aaf1 #c4 duim1 duint1 #abg1 #b4 -dum1 #f1 #c4 dum1 temporal with ind41 #bic2 ---- with subjv41 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b2 ---- in wishes and provisos1 #caj4 dummodo1 #caj4 duo1 decl1 #hj1 #b4 ,duration of time1 #aha1 #b4 ,duty1 expressed by gerundive1 #ahi1 #ccg1 #h2 ---- verbs of duty in conclusion of cond4 sentences contrary-to-fact1 #cjd1 #c1 a2 ---- subst4 clauses dependent on verbs of1 #bie1 #f2 ---- inf4 w4 verbs of duty1 #cbg1 #a2 #cbh1 #a2 #ccj2 ---- 'it is the duty of1' #aih1 #c2 ---- ',i perform a duty1 #bah1 #a4 duumvir1 gen4 plu4 of1 #be1 #f1 b74 dux1 decl1 #cb4 ,e4 1 as vowel1 #b1 #a2 ---- as second member of diphthongs1 #b1 #a2 ---- sound of1 #c1 #a2 ---- change1 to 1 #g1 #a1 a2 ---- for 1 #g1 #a1 c2 ---- in voc4 sing1 of #b;d decl41 #bc2 ---- in abl4 sing1 of #c;d decl41 #ca2 ---- dropped in nom4 of neuters of #c;d decl41 #ci2 ---- - for - in abl4 of mare1 #ci2 ---- alternating w4 in abl4 sing4 of -stems1 #cg1 #ch2 ---- for in gen4 sing4 of #eth decl41 #eb1 #a2 ---- in abl4 sing4 of adjs4 of #c;d decl41 #gj1 #a2 ---- in ben and mal1 #gg1 #a2 ---- distinguishing vowel of #c;d conj41 #ih2 ---- before j1 #cfb1 #e2 ---- for - in imperatives1 #cfc1 #b1 b2 ---- in temer and saep1 #cfc1 #b1 c4 1 pronunciation1 #c1 #a2 ---- by contraction1 #g1 #b2 ---- as ending of ,greek nouns1 #bb2 ---- -stems1 #ea2 ---- ending of dat4 of #eth decl41 #eb1 #c2 ---- distinguishing vowel of #b;d conj41 #ih2 ---- - in fam #cfc1 #b1 a2 ---- ---- in adverbs1 #cfc1 #b1 c 1 ex1 use1 #adb2 see ex4 ecquis1 #ia1 #f4 dc1 #aaf1 #c4 ,editorial 'we1' #bdb1 #c4 ed1 #abh4 dc1 #aaf1 #c4 effici ut1 #big1 #a4 efficitur ut1 #big1 #b4 ,effort1 subjv4 w4 verbs of1 #bie1 #e4 ege1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #a1 c4 ego1 #hd4 egomet1 #hd1 #b4 ei1 diphthong1 #b1 #a2 #c1 #b4 -i1 gen4 of #eth decl41 #eb1 #a4 -is1 #adh1 #f1 b74 ejus1 as poss41 #hf1 #a2 ---- quantity1 #cfb1 #e4 ,elegiac distich1 #cfi1 #b4 ,elision1 #bff1 #g4 ,ellipsis1 #cgd1 #a4 -ellus 7a1 um71 #adh1 #a4 ,emphasis1 #cdi4 ,enclitics1 accent of preceding syllable1 #f1 #c4 ---- -met1 #hd1 #b2 ---- -pte1 #hf1 #c2 ---- cum as enclitic1 #adb1 #d ,end of motion1 see ,limit4 ,endings1 case endings1 #ag1 #c2 ---- personal1 of verb1 #if2 ---- in formation of words1 #adg f4 enim1 #cde4 -nsimus 7-nsumus71 #gi1 ,n4 -nsis1 #aea1 #b2 #aeb1 #c4 ,envy1 verbs of1 with dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii e1 #acb2 ---- cpds41 #acb1 #a4 ,epexegetical genitive1 #bjb4 ,epistolary tenses1 #bfe4 epistula1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 epitom1 decl41 #bb4 epulum1 epulae1 #fj1 #b4 equbus1 #ba1 #b1 e74 equester1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 equos1 decl41 #bd4 -er1 decl41 of nouns in1 #bc2 ---- adjs41 #fc2 #fd2 #fe2 ---- adjs4 in -er compared1 #ga1 #c4 erg1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 erg1 #cdd1 #a1 b74 -ernus1 suffix1 #aed4 -s1 gender of nouns in1 #dc1 #a2 ---- ---- exception1 #dd1 #e2 ---- in nom4 plu4 of ,greek nouns of #c;d decl41 #dg1 #b4 -s1 ending of ,greek nouns1 nom4 sing4 in1 #bb4 ---- gen4 -is1 decl4 of nouns in1 #dj1 #a1 a74 esse1 conjugation of1 #ajj2 ---- compounds of1 #abe2 #abf2 ---- esse omitted1 #aaf1 #e4 est qu1 with subj41 #bhc1 #b4 et1 #cda1 #a1 a2 ---- in enumerations1 #cda1 #d1 c74 et is1 #bdg1 #d4 et 444 neque1 #cda1 #c4 ,ethical dative1 #ahh1 #b1 b74 etiam1 in answers1 #afb1 #e4 et nn1 #cda1 #b1 c74 ets1 'although1' #cji1 #b2 ---- ets1 'even if1' #cji1 #b1 a4 -tum1 suffix1 #adh1 #c4 -eus1 inflection of ,greek nouns in1 #dg1 #f2 ---- adj4 suffix1 #aea1 #a4 venit ut1 #big1 #b4 ex1 #adb1 #b2 ---- with abl41 instead of gen4 of whole1 #bja1 #a1 a2 ---- compounds of1 with dat41 #ahh1 #b1 d2 ---- with abl4 of source1 #bae1 #a4 ,exchanging1 verbs of1 with abl4 of association1 #bbb;,a4 ,exclamation1 acc4 of1 #ahc4 ,exclamatory sentences1 #afa1 #c4 ,expectancy1 clauses denoting1 in subjv41 #bib1 #a2 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b4 exposc1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 a74 exsist1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 exspect1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 exter1 xterior1 #gc1 #b4 extrmus1 use1 #bda1 #a4 exu1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #a1 b4 ,f4 f1 pronunciation1 #c1 #c2 ---- nf1 quantity of vowel before1 #e1 #a1 a4 fac1 #aaf1 #c2 ---- with subjv41 #bie1 #e4 facile1 #gg1 #c4 facilis1 comp41 #ga1 #d4 faci1 #aji1 #b1 a72 ---- pass4 of1 #aca4 ---- in imper41 #aaf1 #c4 falsus1 comparison1 #gc1 #c4 fam1 #ei1 #b1 b74 ,familiarity1 adjs4 of1 w4 gen41 #bjd4 #a4 familis1 #ba1 #b1 a4 fr1 #acf4 fs1 indeclinable1 #eh4 faucs1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d4 ,favor1 verbs signifying1 with dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ,fearing1 verbs of1 constr4 #bif1 #b4 febris1 decl4 #ch1 #a4 flx1 #gj4 ,feminine1 see ,gender4 ,feminine caesura1 #cfh1 #c1 c4 femur1 decl4 #db1 #d4 -fer1 decl4 of nouns in2 adjs41 #bc1 #b2 ---- adjs4 #fe1 #a4 fer1 and its compounds1 #abi4 -ficus1 comparison of adjs4 in1 #ga1 #e4 fide1 #eb1 #a4 fd1 #aad1 #a2 ---- with abl41 #bai1 #a1 a4 fdus1 compared1 #gc1 #c4 ferem1 fer #cfb1 #a1 c2 ---- fier potest ut1 #bih1 #b4 ,fifth decl41 #ea f4 ,figures of rhetoric1 #cge4 ---- of syntax1 #cgd4 fl1 #be1 #c4 flia1 flibus1 #ba1 #b1 e ,filling1 verbs of1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #h4 ,final clauses1 see ,purpose clauses4 ,final consonant omitted1 #h1 #c4 ,final syllables1 quantity1 #cfc1 #cfd4 fnis1 fns1 #fa4 ,finite verb1 #ie4 f1 conj41 #aca4 f1 with abl41 #bah1 #f4 ,first conj41 #aja2 ---- principal parts of verbs of1 #abj2 ---- deponents of #ast conj41 #aac4 ,first decl41 #bj f42 ---- peculiarities1 #ba2 ---- ,greek nouns of #ast decl41 #bb4 fit ut1 #big1 #b4 flgit1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 a4 fodi1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 a4 ,foot1 in verse1 #cff1 #b4 ',for1' its ,latin equivalents1 #ceh1 #a4 fore1 #ajj1 footnote #cb4 fore ut1 #bgj1 #c2 ---- #big1 #b4 forem1 fors1 etc41 #ajj1 footnote #ca4 fors1 #bbh1 #a1 c4 ,formation of words1 #adf f4 fors1 forte1 #eg1 #b1 a4 fortior1 decl41 #fi4 fortis1 #fi4 fortna1 fortnae1 #fa4 ,fourth conj41 #ajg4 ,fourth decl41 #dh2 ---- dat4 in -1 #di1 #b2 ---- gen4 in -1 #di1 #a2 ---- dat4 abl4 plu4 in -ubus1 #di1 #c4 fraude1 abl4 of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 ,free1 abl4 w4 adjs4 signifying1 #bad1 #a1 d4 ,freeing1 abl4 w4 verbs of1 #bad1 #a1 a4 frnum1 plu4 of1 #fj1 #b4 ,frequentatives1 #aee1 #b4 frtus w4 abl41 #bah1 #c4 ,fricatives1 #b1 #g4 ,friendly1 dat4 w4 adjs4 signifying1 #aib1 #a4 frctus1 decl41 #dh4 frgi1 compared1 #gb2 #gj1 #f4 frgis1 #eg1 #f4 fruor1 with abl41 #bah1 #a2 ---- in gerundive constr41 #cci1 #d4 fugi1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 a74 fu1 fuist1 etc41 for sum1 es1 etc41 in compound tenses1 #ajb1 footnotes #cf1 #cg4 ,fullness1 adjs4 of1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #h2 ---- w4 gen41 #bjd1 #a4 fungor1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #a2 ---- in gerundive constr41 #cci1 #d4 fr1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d4 frt1 abl4 of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 ,future tense1 #afa2 ---- w4 imperative force1 #bfa1 #c4 ---- time in the subjv41 #bfi4 ---- perfect1 #bfd2 ---- ---- with future meaning1 #acc1 #b2 ---- ---- inf41 #bgj1 #d4 ---- imperative1 #bha1 #a4 ---- infinitive1 #bgj2 ---- ---- periphrastic fut4 inf41 #bgj1 #c1 and a4 ---- participle1 #ccg1 #d4 futrum esse ut1 with subjv41 #bgj1 #c4 ,g4 gaude1 semi-deponent1 #aad1 #a4 gem1 w4 acc41 #age1 #b1 b4 ,gender #ac-ae2 ---- in #ast decl41 #bj2 #ba2 ---- in #b;d decl41 #bc2 ---- exceptions1 #bf2 ---- in #c;d decl41 #dc f42 ---- in #dth decl41 #ej2 ---- in #eth decl41 #ec2 ---- determined by endings1 #ad2 ---- ---- by signification1 #ae1 ,a2 ---- heterogeneous nouns1 #fj4 gener1 decl1 #bc1 #b4 ,general relatives1 #cab1 #a2 ---- general truths1 #bei1 #a2 #bfb1 ,b1 #a2 ---- 'general' conditions1 #cjb1 #b2 #c4 ,genitive1 #ag2 ---- in - for -i1 #be1 #a and #b2 ---- of #dth decl41 in -1 #di1 #a2 ---- of #eth decl4 in -1 #eb1 #b2 ---- of #eth decl4 in -1 #eb1 #a2 ---- ---- in -1 #eb1 #c2 ---- of #ast decl4 in -1 #ba1 #b1 b2 ---- of #ast decl4 in -s1 #ba1 #b1 a2 ---- gen4 plu4 -um for -rum1 #ba1 #b d72 ---- ---- -um for rum1 #be1 #f2 #fc1 #b2 ---- ---- -um for -ium1 #gj1 #g2 ---- gen4 plu4 lacking1 #eg1 #g2 ---- syntax of1 #aid f4 ---- of characteristic1 #bjc1 #a4 ---- of charge with judicial verbs1 #bjh4 ---- of indefinite price1 #bjc1 #d4 ---- of indefinite value1 #bjc1 #c4 ---- of material1 #aig4 ---- of measure1 #bjc1 #b4 ---- of origin1 #aif4 ---- of possession1 #aih4 ---- of quality1 #bjc4 ---- of the whole1 #bja4 ---- appositional1 #bjb4 ---- objective1 #bjj4 ---- of separation1 #bab1 #c4 ---- subjective1 #aii4 ---- with adjs41 #bjd2 ---- ---- with participles1 #bjd1 #a1 a4 ---- with caus1 grti1 #aih1 #a4 ---- with verbs1 #bje f42 ---- ---- of plenty and want1 #bab2 ---- ---- with impers4 verbs1 #bji4 ---- position of gen41 #cej1 #a4 genus1 decl4 #cf2 ---- id genus1 #ahe1 #a4 -ger1 decl4 of nouns in1 #bc1 #b2 ---- adjs41 #fe1 #a4 ,gerund1 #ie1 #a2 ---- #ast conj41 #aja2 ---- #b;d conj41 #ajc2 ---- #c;d conj41 #aje2 ---- #dth conj41 #ajg2 ---- syntax1 #cch2 ---- with object1 #cch1 #e4 ,gerundive1 #ie1 #a2 ---- #ast conj41 #ajb2 ---- #b;d conj41 #ajd2 ---- #c;d conj41 #ajf2 ---- #dth conj41 #ajh2 ---- in periphrastic conj41 #aae2 #ccg1 #h4 ,gerundive1 const41 #cci1 #a-f2 ---- in passive periphrastic conj41 #ccg1 #h f42 ---- gen4 denoting purpose1 #cci1 #f2 ---- with dat4 of purpose1 #aia1 #c2 #cci1 #g4 gnrus1 not compared1 #ge1 #b4 ,gnomic present1 #bei1 #a2 ---- perfect1 #bfb1 #a4 gradior1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 c4 ,grammatical gender1 #ae4 grti1 with gen41 #aih1 #a2 ---- grtia1 grtiae1 #fa4 ,greek nouns1 #ast decl41 #bb2 ---- #b;d decl41 #bg2 ---- ---- exceptions in gender1 #bf1 #a1 c72 ---- #c;d decl41 #dg2 ---- ,greek acc41 #ahj2 ---- ,greek nouns in verse1 #cfe4 grs1 decl41 #da1 #b4 gu gv1 #c1 #c4 ,guttural mutes1 #b1 #d4 ---- stems1 #cb4 ,h4 h1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- ph1 ch1 th1 #b1 #d2 #c1 #c4 habe1 with perf4 pass4 partic41 #ccg1 #f4 ,hadria1 gender1 #ba1 #a4 ,happening1 verbs of1 w4 ind41 #bii1 #a1 #b2 ---- w4 subjv41 #big1 #b4 ,hard consonants1 #b1 #c1 a71 footnote #d4 ,hardening1 #cfg1 #d4 haud1 use1 #cdg1 #b1 a2 ---- haud sci an1 #cjj1 #e4 hav1 #acg1 #e4 ,help1 verbs signifying1 w4 dat4 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ,hendiadys1 #cgd1 #d4 her1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 ,heteroclites1 #ei4 ,heterogeneous nouns1 #fj4 ,hexameter1 dactylic1 #cfh4 ,hiatus1 #cff1 #g1 a4 hc1 #hg2 #bdf1 #a2 #bdf1 #b2 ---- hc1 #cfd1 footnote #fj4 hiems1 #ce1 footnote #ac4 ,hindering1 verbs of1 with subjv41 #bie1 #c4 ,historical tenses1 #beh2 ---- historical present1 #bei1 #c2 #bfh1 #c2 ---- historical perfect1 #bfb1 ,b2 ---- historical infinitive1 #cce4 honor1 decl41 #cf4 ,hoping1 verbs of1 w4 inf41 #cca1 ,i4 ,hortatory subjv41 #bgd4 hortus1 decl41 #bc4 hscine1 #hg1 footnote #bc hostis1 decl41 #ch4 hjusce1 #hg1 footnote #bc hum1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 humilis1 comp41 #ga1 #d4 humus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 b4 huncine1 #hg1 footnote #bc ,hyperbaton1 #cej1 #aa1 a4 ,hypermeter1 #cfg1 #f4 ,hysteron proteron1 #cgd1 #g4 ,i4 1 #a1 #a2 ---- in diphthongs1 #b1 #a2 ---- pron41 #c1 #a2 ---- from 1 #g1 #a1 a2 ---- from 1 #g1 #a1 b2 ---- dropped by syncope1 #g1 #d2 ---- for in some words1 #i1 #a2 ---- changes to 1 #ci2 ---- dropped1 #ci2 ---- final i short1 #cfc1 #c2 ---- becomes j1 #cfg1 #d4 -stems1 #cg2 #ci2 ---- not always ending in -is1 #ch1 #c4 -1 gen4 and voc4 of #b;d decl4 nouns in -ius and -ium in1 #be1 #a and #b4 ---- gen4 of #dth decl4 nouns in -us1 #di1 #a4 ---- gen4 of #eth decl4 nouns1 #eb1 #b4 -stem1 vs1 #da4 1 in abl41 #c;d decl41 #ch1 #a2 #ci2 ---- in adjs41 #fg1 #c1 a2 #gj1 #e2 ---- participles1 #gj1 #c2 ---- patrials1 #gj1 #e1 c72 ---- nom4 plu41 of is1 #hg2 ---- as characteristic of #dth conj41 #ih4 -ia1 #adi4 ,iambus1 #cff1 #b4 ,iambic measures1 #cgj4 ---- trimeter1 #cgj4 -inus1 suffix1 #aeb1 #a4 -ias1 suffix1 #adh1 #f1 b74 -bam1 in imperf41 #aaf1 #d1 b74 -b1 in future1 #aaf1 #d1 b74 ,ictus1 #cff1 #e4 -icus1 suffix1 #aea1 #b2 #aeb1 #b4 id aettis1 #ahe1 #b4 id genus1 #ahe1 #a4 id quod #bdg1 #a1 b4 id temporis1 #ahe1 #b4 ,ideal 'you'2 see ,indefinite second person4 dem1 #hg2 #bdh4 dem ac1 #bdh1 #b4 ,ides1 #cga1 #b1 c74 -ds1 suffix1 #adh1 #f1 a74 -ds1 suffix1 #adh1 #f1 a74 -d1 suffix1 #adg1 #c1 c74 idneus1 not compared1 #gd1 #b2 ---- w4 dat41 #aib1 #b42 ---- w4 ad and acc41 #aib1 #b and ,n42 ---- with rel4 clause of purpose1 #bhb1 #c4 -dus1 suffix1 #aej1 #c4 ds1 fem4 by exception1 #ej4 -ie1 in voc4 sing4 of adjs4 in -ius1 #fc1 #a4 ins1 pres4 partic4 from e1 #acb4 -ins1 as ending of numeral adverbs1 #ig and ,n4 -ier1 inf4 ending1 #aaf1 #d1 a4 -is1 nouns in1 #ea4 igitur1 #cdd1 #a1 c74 gnis1 decl41 #ch4 -i1 in gen1 sing4 of i-stems1 #be1 #b4 is1 in dat4 and abl4 plu4 of is1 #hg4 -le1 suffix1 #adh1 #c4 lion1 decl41 #bg4 -lis1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 -ilis1 suffix1 #aej1 #d4 ,illative conjunctions1 #cdd4 ille1 #hg2 ---- 'the following1' #bdf1 #b2 ---- 'the former1' #bdf1 #a2 ---- 'the well-known1' #bdf1 #c2 ---- position1 #cej1 #e1 b4 illc1 #hg1 footnote #be4 -illus 7a1 um71 diminutive suffix1 #adh1 #a4 -im1 in acc41 #c;d decl41 #ch1 #a4 -im1 -s in subjv41 #aaf1 #d1 d4 impedmentum1 impedmenta1 #fa4 ,imperative1 #bha2 ---- tenses in1 #id1 #c2 #bha1 #a2 ---- future indic4 with force of1 #bfa1 #c4 ---- as protasis of a conditional sent41 #cje1 #b2 ---- ---- as apodosis1 #cjb1 #d4 ---- sent4 in indir disc41 #caf4 ,imperfect tense1 #bfj2 ---- conative1 #bfj1 #c2 ---- inceptive1 #bfj1 #c2 ---- with jam1 etc41 #bfj1 #d2 ---- epistolary imp41 #bfe4 ,imperfect subjv4 in conditional sent4 referring to the past1 #cjd1 #b4 ,impersonal verbs1 #ach2 ---- gen4 with1 #bji2 ---- dat4 with1 #ahg1 ,,ii1 b2 ---- in passive1 #bef1 #c2 ---- with substantive clauses developed from volitive1 #bie1 #f2 ---- of result1 #big1 #b2 ---- with infin41 #cbg1 #a2 #ccj4 impetus1 defective1 #eg1 #d4 ,implied indir4 disc41 #cbc4 mus1 'bottom of1' #bda1 #a4 in1 prep41 #adc2 ---- verbs compounded w4 in governing acc41 #age1 #b1 a1 #b2 ---- verbs compounded w4 in governing dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 in with abl4 of place1 #bbh2 ---- with abl4 of time1 #bcj1 #b2 #bca4 -na1 suffix1 #adh1 #e4 ,inceptives1 #aee1 #a4 ,inchoatives1 #aee1 #a4 ,incomplete action1 #beg1 #a1 b2 #bfg1 #c4 ,indeclinable adjs41 #gj1 #f2 #hj1 #f4 ---- nouns1 #eh2 ---- ---- gender of1 #ae1 #c4 ,indefinite price1 #bbe1 #a2 #bjc1 #d4 ,indefinite pronouns1 #ia1 #beb2 ---- in conditions1 #cjb1 #c4 ,indefinite second person1 #bhj1 #c2 #cef1 #c2 #cjb1 #b4 ,indefinite value1 #bjc1 #c4 ,indicative1 equivalent to ,eng4 subjv41 #bga4 ---- in apodosis of conditional sent4 of #c;d type1 #cjd1 #c1 a7 and b74 indige1 constr41 #bad1 #a1 ,n4 #b4 indignus1 with abl41 #bbf1 #b2 ---- with rel4 clause of purpose1 #bhb1 #c4 ,indirect discourse1 defined1 #cac f42 ---- ---- mood in1 #cac ff42 ---- ---- tenses in #cag-ah2 ---- ---- declarative sentences in1 #cad2 ---- ---- interrog4 sentences in1 #cae2 ---- ---- imperative sentences in1 #caf2 ---- ---- conditional sentences in1 #cai-bb2 ---- ---- verbs introducing1 #cca1 #a2 ---- ---- verb of saying1 etc41 implied1 #cad1 #b2 ---- ---- ind4 in subord4 clauses of indir4 disc41 #cad1 #c2 ---- ---- inf4 for subjv4 in indir4 disc41 #cad1 #d2 ---- ---- subj4 acc4 omitted1 #cad1 #e2 ---- ---- implied indir4 disc41 #cbc4 ---- questions1 #cjj2 ---- ---- particles introducing1 #cjj1 #a1 a2 ---- ---- deliberative subjv4 in indir4 quest41 #cjj1 #b2 ---- ---- indir4 quest4 w4 s1 #cjj1 #c2 ---- ---- double indir4 questions1 #cjj1 #d2 ---- ---- in indir4 quest41 #cjj1 #f2 ---- ---- in conditional sents4 of #c;d type1 #cbb1 b4 ---- reflexives1 #bdd1 #b4 ---- object1 #ahg4 nferum1 nferior1 #gc1 #b4 nfimus1 #bda1 #a4 ,infinitive1 gender of1 #ae1 ,a #c2 ---- in -ier1 #aaf1 #d1 a2 ---- force of tenses in1 #bgj2 #cbf ff4 ---- fut4 perf4 inf41 #bgj1 #d2 ---- ---- periphrastic future1 #bgj1 #c4 ---- without subj4 acc41 #cbf-cbh2 #cad1 #e4 ---- with subj4 acc41 #cbi-cca4 ---- as obj41 #cbh2 #cca1 ---- as subj41 #cbg2 #ccj4 ---- with adjs41 #ccc4 ---- denoting purpose1 #cbf1 ,n4 ---- in abl4 abs41 #bbg1 #c4 ---- in exclamations1 #ccd4 ---- historical inf41 #cce4 nfitis1 constr41 #ahb1 #e4 ,inflection1 #aa4 ,inflections1 #aa ff4 nfr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ingns1 comp41 #gc1 #d4 injri1 abl4 of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 injuss1 defective1 #eg1 #a2 ---- the abl41 #bai1 #b4 inl- ill-1 #i1 #b4 innxus1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #c4 inops1 decl41 #gj1 #b4 inquam1 conj41 #acd4 ,inseparable prepositions1 #aei1 #c1 ,n4 nsidiae1 plu4 only1 #ef1 #c4 nstar1 #eh4 ,instrumental uses of abl41 #bac2 #bah ff4 ,intensive pron41 #hh4 ,intensives 7verbs71 #aee1 #b4 inter1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- compounded w4 verbs1 governing dat4 #ahg1 ,,iii2 ---- to express reciprocal relation1 #bde4 interdc1 const41 #ahh1 #a1 a4 interest1 constr41 #baj2 #baa4 interior1 comp41 #gc1 #a4 ,interjections1 #ade4 ,interlocked order1 #cej1 #aa1 d4 ,interrogative pronouns1 #ij4 ---- sentences1 #afb2 ---- particles1 #afb1 #b2 ---- ---- omitted1 #afb1 #b1 d72 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cae4 intr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ,intransitive verbs1 with cognate acc41 #agf1 #d2 ---- in passive1 #bef1 #c2 #ahg1 ,,ii1 b2 ---- impersonal intransitives1 #ach1 ,,iv4 -nus1 suffix1 #aea1 #b2 #aeb1 #a2 #aeb1 #c4 -i1 verbs of #c;d conj41 #aji4 -ior1 ius1 comparative ending1 #ga4 ipse1 #hh2 #bdi2 ---- as indir4 reflexive1 #bdi1 #c4 ipsus and ipsrum1 with possessive pronouns1 #bdc1 #c4 -ir1 decl4 of nouns in1 #bc4 ,irregular comparison1 #gb ff42 ---- nouns1 #db2 ---- verbs1 #abd f4 is1 #hg2 #bdg2 ---- as personal pron41 #bdg1 #b4 -is1 as patronymic ending1 #adh1 #f1 b72 ---- nouns in -is of #c;d decl41 #cg f42 ---- adjs4 in -is1 #fi4 -s1 acc4 plu41 #c;d decl41 #cg2 #dj4 ---- -tis1 abl4 of patrials in1 #gj1 #e1 c74 istaec1 #hg1 footnote #bd4 iste1 #hg2 #bdf1 #d4 istc1 #f1 #d4 istc1 #f1 #d2 #hg1 footnote #bd4 ita1 in answers1 #afb1 #e4 itaque1 #cdd1 #a1 a74 iter1 #db1 #a4 -itia1 #adi4 -it1 frequentatives in1 #aee1 #b1 a4 -ium1 gen4 of nouns in1 #be1 #b2 ---- ending of gen4 plu41 #c;d decl41 #cg f42 #ci2 #dj2 #adg1 #c1 b72 #adh1 #b4 -ius1 gen4 and voc4 sing4 of nouns in1 #be1 #a and #b2 ---- of adjs41 #fc1 a2 #aea1 #b2 #aeb1 #b2 #aeb1 #c2 ---- -us for -us1 #cfb1 #a1 a74 -vus1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 ,j4 j1 #a1 #b4 jaci1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 a72 ---- compounds of1 #i1 #c2 #cfb1 #e4 jam1 etc41 with present tense1 #bei1 #d2 ---- with imperfect1 #bfj1 #d4 jecur1 decl41 #db1 #c4 joc1 abl4 of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 jocus1 plu4 of1 #fj1 #b4 ,joining1 verbs of1 construction1 #ceh1 #c4 jube1 constr41 #bie1 #a1 a3 #cca1 ,,ii4 jdicor1 w4 inf41 #ccb1 c4 jgerum1 #ei1 #a4 ,julian calendar1 #cga4 jung1 w4 abl41 #bbb;,a4 ,juppiter1 decl41 #da4 jrtus1 #aad1 #b4 jre1 abl4 of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 js est1 with substantive clause1 #big1 #c4 juss1 #eg1 #a2 ---- the abl41 #bai1 #b4 ,jussive subjv41 #bge2 ---- equiv4 to a protasis1 #cje1 #b4 juvat1 w4 acc41 #agb1 #b1 c72 ---- with inf41 #cbg1 #a4 ,juvenle1 abl41 #gj1 #e1 b4 juvenis1 a cons4 stem1 #ch1 #b2 ---- comparison1 #gc1 #d4 juv1 with acc41 #ahg1 ,,ii1 ,n4 jxt1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ,k4 k1 #a1 #a4 ,knowing1 verbs of1 w4 inf41 #cca1 ,i4 ,knowledge1 adjs4 of1 w4 gen41 #bjd4 ,l4 l1 pron41 #c1 #c4 ,labial mutes1 #b1 #d4 ---- stems1 #ca2 ---- ---- gender of1 #dc1 #c2 #df1 #a4 lacer1 decl41 #fe1 #a4 lacus1 decl41 #di1 #c4 laed1 w4 acc41 #ahg1 ,,ii1 ,n4 laetus1 w4 adverbial force1 #bci4 lapis1 decl41 #cc4 largior1 #aac4 ,latin period1 #cea1 #e4 ,length of syllables1 #e1 ,b4 ,length of vowels1 #e1 ,a4 -lentus1 suffix1 #aea1 #c4 le1 decl41 #ce4 ,lber1 decl1 #bc1 #b4 lber1 adj41 decl41 #fe1 #a4 lber1 constr41 #bad1 #a1 ,n4 #a4 lberta1 lbertbus1 #ba1 #b1 e74 liberum1 gen4 plu41 #be1 #f1 c74 licet1 with subjv41 #bie1 #f and #h2 #cjh1 a2 ---- with inf41 #cbg1 #a2 #ccj4 licet1 adversative1 #cji1 #d4 ,likeness1 adjs4 of1 w4 dat41 #aib1 #a4 ,limit of motion1 acc4 of41 #ahb4 ,lingual mutes1 #b1 #d4 linter1 decl41 #dj4 ,liquids1 #b1 #e4 ---- stems1 #cd4 ls1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 ,litotes1 #cge1 #a4 littera1 litterae1 #fa4 ,locative1 #ag1 #a2 ---- in -ae1 #ba1 #b1 c72 ---- in -i1 #be1 #e2 ---- syntax1 #bcb2 ---- apposition with1 #afi1 #d2 ---- loc4 uses of abl41 #bac2 #bbh f4 loc1 locs1 the abl41 #bbh1 #a1 b4 locus1 plurals of1 #fj1 #b4 ,long syllables1 #e1 ,b1 #a4 ---- vowels1 #e1 ,a1 #a4 longius longius quam1 #bga1 #c4 longum est ,eng4 potential1 #bag1 #a1 b4 lubet1 lubd1 spelling1 #i1 #a4 lds1 the abl41 #bcj1 #a4 -lus1 -la1 -lum1 diminutives in1 #adh1 #a4 lx1 #eg1 #g4 ,m4 m1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- changed to n before d1 c1 #h1 #e1 c2 ---- m-stem1 #ce1 footnote #ac2 ---- m-final in poetry1 #cff1 #aj4 maere1 w4 acc41 #age1 #b1 b4 magis1 comparison1 #gg1 #a2 ---- comparison with1 #gd4 magn1 gen4 of value1 #bjc1 #c4 magnopere1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 magnus1 compared1 #gb4 ,making1 verbs of1 w4 two accusatives1 #agg4 male1 comparison1 #gg1 #a4 maledcns1 comparison1 #ga1 #e1 a74 mlim1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #b1 a4 mllem1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #d4 ml1 #acj2 ---- with inf41 #cca1 ,,iv1 and a2 ---- with subjv41 #bif1 #a1 a4 malus1 comparison1 #gb4 mne1 indeclinable1 #eh4 ,manner1 abl4 of1 #bjj4 mare1 decl41 #ci1 #b2 ---- mar1 #bbh1 #a1 c74 ms1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 ,masculine1 see ,gender4 ,masculine caesura1 #cfh1 #c1 c4 ,material1 abl4 of1 #bbd1 #c4 mteris1 mteria1 #ei1 #b1 a74 mtr1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 mtrus1 compared1 #ga1 #c4 maxim1 adjs4 compared with1 #gd4 maxim1 as gen4 of value1 #bjc1 #c4 maxumus1 #i1 #a4 ,means1 abl4 of1 #bah2 ---- abl4 abs4 denoting1 #bbg1 #b2 ---- denoted by partic41 #ccg1 #b1 d4 md1 for m1 #hd1 #c4 ,mediae 7consonants71 #b1 #c1 b71 footnote #e4 medius1 'middle of'1 #bda1 #a4 me1 as objective gen41 #bdb1 #b4 melior1 comparison1 #gb4 melius est ,eng4 potential1 #bga1 #a1 b74 memini1 #acc2 ---- constr41 #bjf1 #a1 a2 #b1 a4 memor1 decl41 #gj1 #b4 -men1 -mentum1 suffixes1 #adg1 #d4 mnsis1 #ch1 #b1 footnote #ad4 mentem 7in mentem venre71 #bjf1 #c4 -met1 enclitic1 #f1 #c2 #hd1 #b4 ,metrical close of sent41 #cej1 #ab4 metu1 w4 subjv41 #bif1 #b4 m1 dat41 #hd1 #a4 m1 voc4 of meus1 #hf1 #b4 ,middle voice1 verbs in1 #age1 #b1 d74 mles1 decl41 #cc4 mlitiae1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 mlle1 mlia1 decl41 #hj1 #e4 minim1 comparison1 #gg1 #a2 ---- in answers1 #afb1 #e1 b74 minimus1 comparison1 #gb4 minor1 comparison1 #gb4 minris1 gen4 of value1 #bjc1 #c2 ---- of price1 #bjc1 #d4 minus1 comparison #gg1 #a2 ---- minus quam1 #bag1 #c2 ---- qu minus1 #bie1 #c2 ---- s minus1 #cjf1 #b and a4 mror1 conj41 #aac4 mrus1 comparison1 #ge1 #b4 miscre1 with abl41 #bbb;,a2 ---- with dat41 #ceh1 #c4 misereor1 with gen41 #bji1 #b4 misersc1 with gen41 #bji1 #b4 miseret1 constr41 #bji4 ,mixed stems1 #dj4 modium1 gen4 plu41 #be1 #f1 a74 modo1 in wishes and provisos1 #caj4 mone1 #ajc2 ---- constr41 #agh1 #a1 d74 months1 gender of names of1 #ae1 #a2 ---- decl4 #fh1 #a2 ---- abl41 of month names1 #gj1 #e1 a72 ---- names1 #cga1 #a4 ,moods1 #id1 #b4 ---- in independent sentences1 #bga f4 ---- in dependent clauses1 #bhb f4 ,mora1 #cff1 #a4 morior1 conj4 #aji1 #b1 c72 ms1 decl41 #cf2 ---- mrs1 #fa4 ms est1 with subjv4 clause1 #big1 #c4 muliebre secus1 constr41 #ahe1 #a4 ,multiplication1 distributives used to indicate1 #ha1 #d1 c4 multum1 #gg1 #c2 ---- compared1 #gg1 #a4 multus1 compared1 #gb2 ---- with another adj41 #bda1 #c4 ms decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 mtre1 with abl41 #bbb;,a4 ,mutes1 #b1 #c4 ,mute stems1 #cj4 ,n4 n1 pronunciation1 #c1 #c2 ---- n-stems1 #ce4 n adulternum1 #b1 #f4 -nam1 appended to quis1 #ij1 #b1 d4 ,names1 ,roman1 #cgc4 ,naming1 verbs of1 w4 two accusatives1 #aag1 #a4 ,nasals1 #b1 #f4 ,nasal stems1 #ce4 nt1 #eg1 #a2 ---- maximus nt1 minimus nt1 #gc1 #d1 footnotes #bj1 #ba2 #bbf1 #a4 ,natural gender1 #ad4 ntus1 constr41 #bae4 nvis1 decl41 #da1 #d4 nd1 vowel short before1 #e1 #b1 a4 -ne1 #f1 #c f2 #afb1 #b1 c72 #cjj1 #a1 b72 ---- -ne 444 an1 #afb1 #d2 ---- ---- in indir4 double questions1 #cjj1 #d4 n1 in prohibitions1 #bgf2 ---- with hortatory subjv41 #bgd2 ---- with concessive1 #bgh2 ---- with optative1 #bgi2 ---- in purpose clauses1 #bhb2 ---- in substantive clauses1 #bie f41 #bif2 ---- in provisos1 #caj4 n1 'lest1' #bhb1 #a2 #bif1 #b4 n nn for ut after verbs of fearing1 #bif1 #b1 a4 n 444 quidem1 #cdg1 #a2 #b4 ,nearness1 adjs4 of1 w4 dat41 #aib1 #a4 nec1 #cda1 #a1 d72 ---- nec squam1 #cda1 #b1 d74 necesse est1 w4 subjv41 #bie1 #h4 necne1 in double questions1 #afb1 #d4 nefs1 indeclinable1 #eh4 ,negatives1 #cdg1 #b2 ---- two negatives strengthening the negation1 #cdg1 #b4 nm1 defective1 #eg1 #c2 ---- use1 #beb1 #f4 nquam1 indeclinable1 #gj1 #f2 ---- compared1 #gb4 neque1 #cda1 #a1 d72 ---- neque in purpose clauses1 #bhb1 #a1 e4 neque1 conj41 #acg1 #a4 ne quis1 use1 #ia1 #e4 nquiter1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 nesci an1 #cjj1 #e4 nesci quis1 as indef4 pron41 #bec1 #f4 ,neuter1 see ,gender4 neuter1 decl41 #ff2 ---- use1 #ib1 #a4 nve 7neu71 in purpose clauses1 #bhb1 #a1 d4 nf1 quantity of vowel before1 #e1 #a1 a4 nihil1 indeclinable1 #eh4 nihil est cr1 qun1 #bie1 #g4 ningit1 'it snows1' #ach1 #a4 nisi1 #cjf1 #a and #d4 nisi forte1 #cjf1 #e4 nisi s1 #cjf1 #e4 nisi vr1 #cjf1 #e4 ntor1 constr41 #bah1 #c4 nix1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 ,no1 in answers1 #afb1 #e1 b4 -n1 class of verbs1 #aag1 #d4 nl1 with inf41 in prohibitions1 #bgf1 b4 nlim1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #b1 a4 nllem1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #d4 nl1 #acj2 ---- with inf41 #cca1 ,,iv and a2 #bgf1 #b1 a2 ---- with subjv41 #bif1 #a1 a4 nmen1 decl41 #ce2 ---- nmen est1 constr41 #aij1 #a2 ---- nmen1 as part of ,roman name1 #cgc4 ,nominative1 #ag2 #agj2 ---- used for voc41 #aga1 #a2 ---- nom4 sing4 lacking1 #eg1 #f2 ---- pred4 nom41 #afh4 ,nones1 #cga1 #b1 b74 nn1 in answers1 #afb1 #e1 b72 ---- with poten4 subjv41 #bhj2 ---- with deliberative1 #bgg4 nn dubit qun1 with subjv41 #bih2 ---- nn dubit1 w4 inf41 #bih1 a2 b4 nn modo for nn modo nn1 #cdc1 #b1 a4 nnne1 #afb1 #b1 a72 #cjj1 #a1 b71 ,n4 nn quia1 with ind41 #bhf1 #a1 c2 ---- with subjv41 #bhf1 #a1 b4 nn qun1 with sujbv41 #bhf1 #a1 b4 nn quod1 with ind41 #bhf1 #a1 c2 ---- with subjv41 #bhf1 #a1 b4 ns ego1 #bdb1 #c4 nostri1 as objective gen41 #bdb1 #b4 nostrum1 as gen4 of whole1 #bdb1 #b2 ---- as possessive gen41 #bdb1 #b1 a4 ,nouns1 #ab ff42 #cec2 ---- derivation of1 #adg f4 ---- in -is not always -stems1 #ch1 #a4 ---- of agency1 force1 #cec1 #d4 ---- used in plu4 only1 #ef4 ---- used in sing4 only1 #ee4 ---- used only in certain cases1 #eg4 ---- indeclinable1 #eh4 ---- with change of meaning in plural1 #fa4 ---- syntax1 #aff f4 ---- predicate1 agreement of1 etc41 #afg f4 ---- appositives1 agreement of1 etc41 #afi f4 ,noun and adj4 forms of the verb1 #ie1 #b4 nv1 as pres41 #bfb1 ,a4 novus1 compared1 #gc1 #c4 ns1 quantity of vowel before1 #e1 #a1 a4 -ns1 decl4 of nouns in1 #dj1 #a1 c74 nt1 quantity of vowel before1 #e1 #b1 a4 nbs1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 a nlla causa est cr1 qun1 #bie1 #g4 nllus1 decl41 #ff2 #eg1 #c2 ---- use1 #ib1 #a4 num1 #afb1 #b1 b72 #cjj1 #a1 b74 ,number1 #af2 #id1 #d4 ,numerals1 #gh f42 ---- peculiarities in use of1 #ha4 numquis1 decl41 #ia1 #e4 nper1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 -nus1 suffix1 #aea1 #b4 ,o4 1 vowel1 #b1 #a2 ---- as element in dipthong 1 #b1 #a2 ---- pron41 #c1 #a2 ---- alternating w4 in certain classes of words1 #i1 #a2 #b2 #d2 ---- -stems1 #bc2 #bd2 ---- in cit1 #gg1 #b1 a2 ---- in du1 #hj1 #b2 ---- in eg1 #hd2 #cfc1 #d1 a2 ---- in mod1 #cfc1 #d1 a2 ---- in compounds of pro-1 #cfc1 #d1 c2 ---- in am1 le1 etc41 #cfc1 #d1 b4 1 pron4 #c1 #a2 ---- for au1 #g1 #a1 e2 ---- by contraction1 #g1 #b2 ---- in abl4 sing4 of #b;d decl41 #bc2 ---- in nom4 sing4 of #c;d decl41 #ce2 ---- in ,greek nouns1 #dg1 #h2 ---- in adverbs1 #gg1 #b2 ---- in amb1 #hj1 #b1 a2 ---- in personal endings1 #if4 ob1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- verbs compounded w4 governing dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 ,obeying1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ,object1 direct1 #agb f42 ---- two objects w4 same verb1 #agg2 #agh2 ---- indirect1 #ahg f42 ---- inf4 as obj41 #cbf2 #cbh2 #cbi2 #cca4 ,objective gen41 #bjj4 ,obligation1 verb in expression of1 #cjd1 #c1 a2 ---- see also ,duty4 ,oblique cases1 #ga1 #b4 oblvscor1 constr41 #bjf1 #a1 b2 #b4 octdecim 7for duodvgint71 #ha1 #b4 d1 #acc4 oe1 #b1 #a2 ---- pron41 #c1 #b4 ,old forms1 familis1 #ba1 #b1 a2 ---- aul1 #ba1 #b1 b2 ---- servos1 aevom1 equos1 etc41 #bd2 ---- md1 td1 #hd1 #c2 ---- sd1 #he1 #c4 olle1 archaic for ille1 #hg4 -olus 7a1 um71 #adh1 #a4 -om1 later -um in #b;d decl41 #bc4 -on1 ,greek nouns1 #b;d decl4 in1 #bg4 ,onomatopia1 #cge1 #d4 opera1 operae1 #fa4 ,operations of nature1 impersonal verbs expressing1 #ach1 #a4 opnine with comparatives1 #bag1 #d4 opis1 #eg1 #f2 ---- ops1 #fa4 oportet1 #ach2 ---- w4 subjv41 #bie1 #f2 #h2 ---- w4 inf41 #cbg1 #ccj4 oportuit1 with pres4 inf4 'ought to have'1 #bgj1 #b2 ---- with perf4 inf41 #bgj1 #b1 a4 oppidum 7,genavam ad oppidum71 #ahb1 #b1 a4 ,optative subjv41 #bgb2 #bgi2 ---- substantive clauses developed from1 #bif4 optimts1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d4 optimus1 comp41 #gb4 opt1 w4 subst4 cl4 developed from optative1 #bif1 #a4 optumus1 spelling1 #i1 #a4 opus est1 w4 abl41 #bah1 #b2 ---- w4 partic41 #bah1 #b1 c4 -or1 nouns in1 #cd2 ---- -or for -os1 #cf2 ---- gender of nouns in1 #dc1 #a2 ---- exceptions in gender1 #dd1 #b2 ---- as suffix1 #adg1 #b4 ,oratio ,obliqua1 #cac f4 ,order of words1 #cdh f4 ,ordinals1 #gh1 #a2 #gi4 orior1 conjugation1 #abc1 ,,vii4 oriundus1 constr41 #bae1 #b4 r1 with acc41 #agh1 #a1 a ,orpheus1 decl41 #dg1 #f4 ,orthography1 peculiarities1 #i4 ortus1 constr41 #bae4 s1 decl41 #eg1 #g4 os1 decl41 #db4 -os1 later -us in #b;d decl41 #bc4 -s1 later -or in #c;d decl41 #cf1 #a4 ---- -s1 ,greek nouns1 #b;d decl4 in1 #bg4 -sus1 form of suffix1 #aea1 #c4 ovis1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 ,oxymoron1 #cge1 #b4 ,p4 p1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- by assimilation1 #h1 #d2 ---- by partial assimilation1 #h1 #e4 paenitet1 #ach1 ,,ii2 ---- with gen41 #bji palam1 as prep4 w4 abl41 #add1 #b4 ,palatal mutes1 #b1 #d4 palster1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 ,parasitic vowels1 #g1 #c4 partus1 with infin41 #ccc4 ,pardon1 verbs signifying1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 pari1 #aji1 #b1 a74 pars1 parts1 #fa4 parte1 abl4 of place1 #bbh1 #a1 b4 partem1 adverbially used1 #ahe1 #a4 ,participation1 adjs4 of1 w4 gen41 #bjd1 #a4 ,participial stem1 #ig1 ,,iii2 ---- formation1 #aai4 ,participles1 in -ns and -ns1 #gj1 #c2 ---- gen4 plu4 of in -um1 #gj1 #g2 ---- pres4 act4 partic41 #ig1 ,i1 #e2 #aja2 #ajc2 #aje2 #ajg2 #aaj2 #aac2 ---- fut4 act4 partic41 #ig1 ,,iii2 ---- as one of the principal parts of the verb1 #ii1 footnote #bh2 #ajj2 #aja2 #ajc2 #aje2 #ajg2 #aaj2 #aac2 ---- perf4 pass4 partic41 #ig1 ,,iii2 #ajb2 #ajd2 #ajf2 #ajh2 #aaa2 #aac22 ---- gerundive1 see ,gerundive2 ---- fut4 act41 peculiar formation of1 #aai1 #d2 ---- perf4 pass41 w4 act4 or neuter meaning1 #aad1 #b2 ---- of deponents1 #aab1 b2 ---- syntax1 #ccf ff4 ,participles1 fut4 act41 #aai1 #d2 ---- ---- denoting purpose1 #ccg1 #d4 ---- perf4 act41 how supplied1 #cef1 #b4 ---- perf4 pass4 #ccf1 #c2 ---- ---- as pres41 #ccf1 #e4 ---- pres4 partic41 #ccf1 #b2 ---- ---- with conative force1 #ccf1 #b1 a4 ---- perf4 pass41 with active meaning1 #aad1 #b2 ---- pred4 use of partic41 #ccg1 #b2 ---- participles equivalent to subordinate clauses1 #ccg1 #b2 ---- ---- to cordinate clauses1 #ccg1 #e2 ---- w4 opus est1 #bah1 #b1 c2 ---- with noun1 equivalent to abstract noun1 #ccg1 #f2 ---- with habe1 #ccg1 #g4 ---- with vide1 audi1 faci1 etc41 #ccg1 #c4 ,particles1 #aci f42 #cda f4 ,partitive apposition1 #afi1 #e4 ,partitive gen41 so called1 #bja4 ,parts of speech1 #aj4 parum1 comparison1 #gg1 #a4 parv1 gen4 of value1 #bjc1 #c4 parvus1 comparison1 #gb4 ,passive1 verbs in1 with middle meaning1 #age1 #b1 d2 #bef2 ---- verbs governing dat4 used in pass4 only impersonally1 #ahg1 ,,ii1 b2 ---- constr4 of passive verbs of saying1 etc41 #ccb and note2 ---- how supplied when missing1 #cef1 #a4 patior1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 c2 #aac2 ---- with inf41 #cca1 ,,iii4 ,patrial adjs41 #gj1 #e1 c4 ,patronymics1 #adh1 #f4 paulum1 formation1 #gg1 #c4 paulus1 spelling1 #i1 #b4 pauper1 decl411 #gj1 #a4 pedester1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 pejor1 quantity of first syllable1 #cfb1 #e4 pelagus1 gender of1 #bf1 #b4 ,penalty1 abl4 of1 #bjh1 #b1 b4 pents1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 penes1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ,pentameter1 dactylic1 #cfi4 ,penult1 #f1 #b4 per1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- with acc4 of time and space1 #aha1 #b4 ,perceiving1 verbs of1 w4 inf41 #cca1 ,i4 ,perfect active ptc41 how supplied in ,latin1 #cef1 #b4 ,perfect pass4 partic41 force of w4 deponent verbs1 #aab1 b2 ---- dat4 of agency sometimes used w41 #ahi1 #b2 ---- opus1 #bah1 #b1 c4 ,perfect stem1 #ig1 ,,ii2 ---- ---- formation1 #aah4 ---- in -v1 -v1 -v contracted1 #aaf1 #a4 ---- historical perf41 #bfb4 ---- with force of pres4 #bfb2 #acc1 #b2 ---- pres4 perf4 and hist4 perf4 distinguished1 #bcg1 #a and #b2 ---- gnomic perf41 #bfb1 #a2 ---- perf4 subjv4 as historical tense1 #bfh1 #f and #g1 b2 ---- perf4 inf4 w4 oportuit1 #bgj1 #b2 ---- perf4 prohibitive1 #bgi1 a2 ---- perf4 potential1 #bhj1 #a and #b2 ---- perf4 concessive1 #bgh2 ---- sequence of tenses after perf4 inf41 #bfh1 #b4 ,periodic structure1 #cea1 #e4 ,periphrastic conj41 #aae2 #bfi1 #c2 ---- in conditional sentences of the #c;d type1 #cjd1 #c1 b72 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cbb2 ---- in passive1 #ccg1 #h1 b1 #a4 ---- fut4 inf41 #bgj1 #c4 ,persons1 #ie1 #d2 ---- #b;d sing1 of indefinite subject1 #cef1 #c4 ,personal pronouns #hd2 #bdb2 ---- ---- as subject1 omission of1 #aff1 #b2 ---- ---- as objective genitives1 #bdb1 #b4 ---- endings1 #if4 persude1 with dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii1 a2 ---- with subjv41 #bie1 #a4 ,persuading1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ph1 #b1 #c1 c2 #b1 #d2 #c1 #c4 piget1 with gen41 #bji4 ,pity1 verbs of1 w4 gen41 #bji1 #a and #b4 ,place to which1 #ahb2 ---- whence1 #bbi2 ---- place where1 #bbh4 placitus1 force1 #aad1 #b4 ,pleasing1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii1 a2 ---- w4 acc41 #ahg1 ,,ii1 a1 ,n4 plbs1 heteroclite1 #ei1 #b1 d74 plbi1 gen41 #eb1 #b4 ,plenty and ,want1 verbs of1 constr41 #bab2 cf4 #bah1 #h4 plnus1 w4 gen41 #bah1 #h1 a4 ,pleonasm1 #cgd1 #c4 plrque1 #f1 #e4 pluit1 #ach1 ,i4 ,pluperfect tense1 formation1 #ajj2 ---- syntax1 #bfc2 #bfe2 #bhg1 #b2 #bhh1 #c2 ---- with imperfect meaning1 #acc1 #b4 ,plural1 #af2 ---- in #eth decl41 #eb1 #d2 ---- of proper names1 #ee1 #d1 a72 ---- of abstract nouns1 #e1 #d1 c72 ---- nouns used in1 only1 #ef2 ---- with change of meaning1 #fa2 ---- stylistic use1 #cec1 #a1 #b4 ,pluralia tantum1 #ef2 #ha1 #d1 b74 plris1 gen4 of value1 #bjc1 #c2 ---- of price1 #bjc1 #d4 pls1 decl41 #gj2 #gj1 #d2 ---- pls quam1 #bag1 #c4 poma1 decl41 #dg1 #e4 ,polysyndeton1 #cda1 #d1 b74 por-1 inseparable prep41 #aei1 #c1 e4 porticus1 gender1 #ej4 portus1 decl41 #di1 #c4 posc1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 a74 ,position of clauses1 #cea1 #c4 ---- of words1 #cdh2 #cej2 #cea4 ,possessive dat41 #aij2 ---- gen41 #aih2 ---- ---- contrasted with dat4 of poss41 #cei1 #a4 ,possessive pronouns1 #hf1 #bdc2 ---- objective gen41 #bdc1 #b2 ---- position of1 #bdc1 #a1 a4 ,possibility1 verbs of1 put in indic4 in cond4 sentences1 #cjd1 #c1 a4 possum1 #abf2 ---- with present infin41 ',i might1' #bga1 #a1 a2 ---- in cond4 sentences1 #cjd1 #c1 a4 post1 prep4 w4 acc41 #add1 #a2 ---- in expressions of time1 #ceg1 #a4 ,post-positive words1 #cdc1 #a1 c74 postequam1 #bhg2 ---- separated1 #bhg1 #c2 ---- with imperf4 ind41 #bhg1 #d2 ---- w4 pluperf4 ind41 #bhg1 #c2 ---- with subjv41 #bhg1 #e4 posterus1 posterior1 comp41 #gc1 #b4 postrmus1 use1 #bda1 #b4 postrdi1 with gen41 #bja1 #c1 a4 postul1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 a4 ,potential subjv41 #bgb2 #bhj4 potior1 with gen41 #bab1 #b2 ---- with abl41 #bah1 #a2 ---- in gerundive constr41 #cci1 #d4 ---- adj41 #gc1 #a4 potius1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 potu1 poteram1 in apodosis of conditional sent4 of #c;d type1 #cjd1 #c1 a72 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cbb1 c4 potu1 with pres4 inf4 'could have1' #bgj1 #b4 potuerim1 in dependent apodosis1 #cbb1 c4 ptus1 force1 #aad1 #b4 prae1 prep1 w4 abl41 #adb2 ---- verbs compounded with governing dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii2 ---- short in praeactus1 etc41 #cfb1 #b4 ,praenmen1 #cgc4 praesns1 #abe4 praesum1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 prnsus1 force1 #aad1 #b4 prec1 -em1 -e1 #eg1 #e1 a4 ,predicate1 #afc4 ---- gen41 #aih1 #c2 #bjc1 #e4 ,predicate nouns1 #afg2 #afh2 ---- in acc41 #agg2 ---- predicate nouns or adjs4 attracted to dat41 #cbg1 #b1 a2 ---- ---- to nom41 #cbh1 #b4 ---- adjectives1 #bcb1 #b2 #agg1 #b4 ,prepositions1 assimilation of1 in compounds1 #h1 #d2 #i1 #b2 ---- with acc41 #ada2 ---- with abl41 #adb2 ---- as adverbs1 #add2 ---- inseparable prepositions1 #aei1 #c1 ,n42 ---- position1 #cej1 #g2 ---- prepositional phrases as attributive modifiers1 #cec1 #e2 ---- anastrophe of1 #add1 #c2 #ada1 #b2 #adb1 #c2 ---- usage with abl4 of sep41 #bad f2 ---- with abl4 of source1 #bae4 ,present tense1 #bei2 ---- gnomic1 #bei1 #a2 ---- conative1 #bei1 #b2 ---- historical1 #bei1 #c2 ---- with jam prdem1 jam di1 etc41 #bei1 #d2 ---- with dum1 'while1' #bic1 ,i2 ---- in ,repraesentti1 #cah2 ---- pres4 subjv41 in -im1 #abg1 #b2 ---- pres4 partic41 see ,participle4 ---- stem1 #ig1 ,i2 ---- ---- formation1 #aag4 ---- perf41 #beg1 #a and #b4 ,preventing1 verbs of1 w4 subjv4 clause1 #bie1 #c4 ,price1 indefinite1 special words in gen4 #bjc1 #d2 also #bbe1 #a4 ---- abl4 of1 #bbe4 prdi1 with gen41 #bja1 #c1 a2 ---- with acc41 #add1 #b4 ,primary tenses1 see ,principal tenses4 prmus1 'first who1' #bda1 #b4 prnceps1 decl41 #ca4 ,principal parts1 #ii2 ---- list1 p4 #bea4 ---- tenses1 #beh f4 prior1 compared1 #gc1 #a4 prius1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 priusquam1 with ind41 #bia2 ---- with subjv41 #bib2 ---- separated1 #bib4 ,privation1 verbs of1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #a1 b and c4 pr1 prep4 w4 abl41 #adb4 procul1 as prep4 w4 abl41 #add1 #b4 prohibe1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #b2 ---- w4 subjv4 clause1 #bie1 #c4 ,prohibitions1 method of expressing1 #bgf4 ,prohibitive subjv41 #bgf4 ,prolepsis1 #cgd1 #e4 ,pronominal adjs41 #bec4 ,pronouns1 defined1 #hb2 ---- classes1 #hc2 ---- personal1 #hd2 ---- reflexive1 #he2 ---- possessive1 #hf2 ---- demonstrative1 #hg2 ---- intensive1 #hh2 ---- relative1 #hi2 ---- interrogative1 #ij2 ---- indefinite1 #ia2 ---- pronominal adjs41 #ib2 ---- personal1 omission of1 as subject1 #aff1 #b2 ---- syntax1 #bdb f42 ---- ---- personal1 #bdb f42 ---- ---- possess41 #bdc f42 ---- ---- reflex41 #bdd f42 ---- ---- reciprocal1 #bde f42 ---- ---- demonstrative1 #bdf f42 ---- ---- relative1 #bej f42 ---- ---- indef41 #beb f42 ---- position1 #cej1 #e2 #cee4 ,pronunciation1 ,roman1 #c4 prope1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 ,proper names1 abbreviated1 #cgc4 ---- nouns1 #ab1 #a4 propior1 compared1 #gc1 #a2 ---- with acc41 #ada1 #c4 proprius1 with dat41 #bjd1 #b1 a2 ---- with gen41 #bjd1 #b4 propter1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 ,prosody1 #cfj f4 prsper1 decl41 #fe1 #a4 prsum1 conj41 #abe1 ,n4 ,protasis1 #cja2 ---- denoting repeated action1 #cjb1 #c2 ---- without s1 #cje2 ---- of indef4 #b;d sing41 #cjb1 #b2 ---- see ,conditions4 ,provisos1 #caj4 proxim1 -us1 comp41 #gc1 #a2 #gg1 #a2 ---- with acc41 #ada1 #c4 prdns1 decl41 #gj4 -pte1 #hf1 #c4 pudet1 with gen1 #bji2 ---- w4 inf41 #cbg1 #a4 puer1 decl41 #bc4 pulcher1 comp41 #ga1 #c4 puppis1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 ,purpose1 dat4 of purpose1 #aia2 ---- with dat4 and gerundive1 #aia1 #c2 ---- w4 ad and acc41 #aib1 #b2 ---- subjv4 of purp41 #bhb1 #a2 ---- ---- w4 qu1 #bhb1 #a1 a2 ---- ---- w4 ut n1 #bhb1 #a1 b2 ---- ---- with nn in purpose clause1 #bhb1 #a1 c2 ---- ---- nve 7neu7 in purpose clauses1 #bib1 #a1 d2 ---- ---- neque1 #bhb1 #a1 e2 ---- rel4 clauses of purpose1 #bhb1 #b2 ---- ---- w4 dignus1 indignus1 idneus1 #bhb1 #c2 ---- independent of principal verb1 #bhb1 #d2 ---- inf41 denoting purpose1 #cbf1 ,n42 ---- fut4 partic41 denoting purpose1 #ccg1 #d2 ---- gerund1 w4 ad1 #cch1 #c2 ---- gerundive1 #cci1 #b2 ---- supine1 #cdj4 ,q4 qu1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- both letters consonants1 #gd1 a4 quaer1 w4 indir4 questions1 #cjj1 #a1 b71 ,n4 quaes1 #acg1 #b4 ,quality1 gen41 #bjc2 ---- abl41 #bbd4 quam1 in comparisons1 #bag1 #b2 ---- with superl41 #bdj1 #c2 ---- ante 444 quam1 post 444 quam1 prius 444 quam1 see antequam1 postquam1 priusquam2 quam qu1 #bhc1 #b1 a4 quam s1 #cjg1 #a4 quam ut1 with subjv41 #bhd1 #d4 quamquam1 with ind41 #cji1 #b2 ---- with subjv41 #cji1 #f2 ---- 'and yet1' #cji1 #e4 quamvs1 with subjv41 #cji1 #a2 #f2 ---- denoting a fact1 #cji1 #f4 quand1 #bhf1 #c1 b4 quant1 as gen4 of price1 #bjc1 #d2 ---- of value1 #bjc1 #c4 ,quantity1 #e4 ---- of syllables1 #e1 ,b2 #cfc f4 ---- of vowels1 #e1 ,a2 #cfb2 ---- ---- in ,greek words1 #cfe4 quasi1 #cjg1 #a4 quati1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 a74 -que1 accent of word preceding1 #f1 #c2 #f1 #e2 #cda1 #a1 b72 #b1 a72 #d1 c74 que1 #acg1 #a4 ,questions1 word1 sentence1 #afb f42 ---- rhetorical1 #afb1 #c2 ---- double 7alternative71 #afb1 #d2 ---- indirect1 #cjj2 ---- questions in indir4 disc41 #cae4 qu1 rel41 #hi2 ---- interr41 #ij2 ---- indef41 #ia2 ---- for quis in indir4 questions1 #ij1 #b1 b2 ---- with n1 s1 nisi1 num1 #ia1 #e2 ---- in purpose clauses1 #bhb1 #b2 ---- abl41 #ij1 #b1 a4 quia1 in causal clauses1 #bhf1 #a4 qucum1 #hi4 qucumque1 decl41 #ia1 #h4 qudam1 decl1 #ia2 syntax1 #beb1 #c4 quidem1 post-positive1 #cdg1 #a4 qulibet1 decl41 #ia1 qun1 in result clauses1 #bhd1 #c2 ---- in substantive clauses1 #bie1 #c2 #bih2 ---- qu nn in clauses of characteristic1 #bhc1 #d2 ---- with ind41 #bha1 #c2 ---- in indir4 disc1 #cbb and a2 ---- nlla causa est qun1 #bie1 #g4 qunam1 #ij1 #b1 d4 ,quntlis 7 ,jlius71 #cga4 quppe qu1 in clauses of characteristic1 #bhc1 #c4 ,quirts1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d4 quis1 indef41 #ia2 ---- interr41 #ij2 #ij1 #b1 c42 #beb1 #a2 ---- nesci quis1 #bec1 #f2 ---- with n1 s1 nisi1 num1 #ia1 #e4 quis est qu1 #bhc1 #b4 qus quibus1 #hi4 quisnam1 inflection1 #ij1 #b1 d4 quispiam1 inflection1 #ia4 quisquam1 inflection1 #ia2 ---- usage1 #beb1 #d4 quisque1 inflection1 #ia2 ---- usage1 #beb1 #e4 quisquis1 inflection1 #ia1 #h4 quvs1 inflection1 #ia qu1 in purpose clauses1 #bhb1 #a1 a44 quoad1 with ind41 #bic2 ---- with subjv4 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b4 quod1 in causal clauses1 #bhf1 #a2 ---- in substantive clauses1 #bii2 #cca1 ,v1 a2 ---- 'as regards the fact1' #bii1 #b4 quod audierim1 #bhc1 #e2 ---- quod sciam1 #bhc1 #e4 quod 7s71 adverbial acc41 #ahe1 #b4 quom1 early form of cum1 #i1 #a4 qu minus1 after verbs of hindering1 #bie1 #c4 quoniam1 in causal clauses1 #bhf1 #a4 quoque1 post-positive1 #cdg4 -quus1 decl4 of nouns in1 #bd4 ,r4 r1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- for s between vowels 7',rhotacism'71 #h1 #a4 rapi1 conj41 #ajj1 #b a74 rstrum1 plurals of1 #fj1 #b4 ratus1 'thinking1' #ccf1 #e4 ,reciprocal pronouns1 #he1 #b2 #bde2 cf4 #bec1 #c4 ,reduplication in perf41 #aah1 #d1 a72 ---- in pres41 #aag1 #g4 ,reference1 dat4 of1 #ahh4 rfert1 constr41 #baj2 #baa1 #d4 ,reflexive pronouns1 #he2 #bdd2 #bdi1 #c4 reg1 conj41 #aje4 ,regular verbs1 #aja-aac4 ri1 #cfb1 #a1 b74 reici1 quantity1 #cfb1 #e4 ,relative adverbs1 in rel4 clauses of purp41 #bhb1 #b4 ---- clauses1 of purp41 #bhb1 #b2 ---- ---- w4 dignus1 indignus1 idneus1 #bhb1 #c2 ---- ---- of characteristic1 #bhc2 ---- ---- denoting cause or opposition1 #bhc1 #c2 ---- ---- restrictive1 #bhc1 #e2 ---- ---- introduced by qun1 #bhc1 #d2 #bhd1 #c2 ---- ---- conditional rel4 clauses1 #caa2 #cab1 #a and #b2 ---- ---- relative as subj4 of inf41 #cad1 #d2 ---- ---- rel4 clause standing first1 #bea1 #d1 a4 ---- pronouns1 inflection1 #hi2 ---- ---- use1 #bej1 ff42 ---- ---- ,eng4 demonstrative1 #bea1 #f2 ---- ---- agreement1 #bej2 ---- ---- not omitted as in ,eng41 #bea1 #e2 ---- ---- fondness for subordinate clauses1 #cee4 relinquitur ut1 #big1 #b4 reliqu1 use1 #bec1 #e4 reliquum est1 with subjv41 #bie1 #f4 rmex1 decl41 #cb4 ,remembering1 verbs of1 cases used w41 #bjf4 ,reminding1 verbs of1 const41 #bjg4 reminscor1 constr41 #bjf1 #b4 ,removing1 verbs of1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #b4 reposc1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 a74 ,repraesentti1 #cah4 requis1 requiem1 requitem1 #ei1 #b1 c74 rs1 decl41 #ea4 ,resisting1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ,restrictive clauses1 #bhc1 #e4 ,result1 acc4 of1 #agc1 ,b2 #agf2 ---- clauses of1 #bhd2 #big2 ---- ---- in dependent apodosis1 #cbb1 and a2 ---- ---- sequence of tense in1 #bfh1 #f4 revertor1 semi-deponent1 #aad1 #c4 ,rhetorical questions1 #afb1 #c2 #bgg1 a2 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cae1 #b4 ,rhotacism1 #h1 #a2 #cf1 #a4 ,rivers1 gender of names of1 #ae1 ,a1 #a4 rogt1 abl4 of cause1 #bai1 #b4 rog1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 c72 #agh1 #a1 a74 ,roman pronunciation1 #c4 ,root1 #ag1 #c1 footnote #ab4 -rs1 decl4 of nouns in1 #dj1 #a1 c74 rre1 abl41 place from which1 #bbi1 #a1 b4 rr1 abl41 place in which1 #bbh1 #a1 c4 rs1 #eg1 #g2 ---- acc41 limit of motion1 #ahb1 #a1 b4 ,s4 s1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- changed to r between vowels1 #h1 #a3 ---- s1 ss from dt1 tt1 ts1 #h1 #b4 -s1 decl4 of monosyllables in1 preceded by one or more consonants1 #dj1 #a1 b74 s-stems1 #cf4 sacer1 decl41 #fe2 ---- comparison1 #gc1 #c4 saepe1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 sl1 #eg1 #g2 ---- sls1 #fa4 salbris1 decl41 #fh1 #c4 saltris1 comp41 #gc1 #d4 salv1 salvte1 #acg1 #d4 ,samnts1 #dj1 #a1 d74 sn1 in answers1 #afb1 #e4 sapi1 conj41 #aji1 #b1 a74 satur1 decl41 #fe1 #b4 ,saying1 verbs of1 w4 inf4 of ind4 disc41 #cca1 ,i4 sci1 quod sciam1 #bhc1 #e4 -sc-class of verbs1 #aag1 #f2 #aee4 scrbere ad alquem1 #ceh1 #b4 s1 use1 #bdd4 s-1 compounds of1 #aei1 #c1 e4 ,second conj41 #ajc2 ---- decl41 #bc2 ---- peculiarities1 #be2 ---- second person indefinite1 #bhj1 #c2 #cef1 #c2 #cjb1 #b4 ,secondary tenses1 see ,historical tenses4 secundum1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 secris1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 secus1 compared1 #gg1 #a4 secus 7virle secus71 #ahe1 #a2 #eh4 sectus1 'following'1 #ccf1 #e4 sed1 s1 #he1 #c4 sd-1 compounds of1 #aei1 #c1 e4 sd1 #cdc1 #a1 a74 sedle1 decl41 #ci4 smentis1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 ,semi-deponent verbs1 #aad4 ,semivowels1 #b1 #h4 senex1 decl41 #db2 ---- compared1 #gc1 #d4 ,sentences1 classification1 #afj1 f42 ---- simple and compound1 #afd2 ---- sentence-structure1 #cea2 ---- sentence questions1 #afb1 #b4 sententi1 abl4 of accordance1 #bbj1 #c4 ,separation1 dat4 of1 #ahh1 #b1 d72 ---- gen41 #bab1 #c2 ---- abl41 #bad4 ,sequence of tenses1 #bfg2 #bfh4 sequester1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 sequitur ut1 #big1 #b4 sequor1 conj41 #aac4 ,serving1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 servos1 decl41 #bd4 ss1 decl41 #he4 ,sextlis 7 ,augustus71 #cga4 ,sharing1 adjs4 of1 w4 gen41 #bjd1 #a4 ,short syllables1 #e1 ,b1 #b2 ---- vowels1 #e1 ,a1 #b4 ,showing1 verbs of1 w4 two accs41 #agg4 s1 with indir4 questions1 #cjj1 #c2 ---- in protasis1 #cja2 ---- omitted1 #cje4 signifer1 decl41 #bc1 #b4 silenti1 abl of manner1 #bbj1 #b4 silvester1 decl41 #fh1 #c4 similis1 with dat41 #bjd1 #c2 ---- with gen41 #bjd1 #c2 ---- comp41 #ga1 #d4 s minus1 use1 #cjf1 #b4 ,simple sentences1 #afd4 simul1 as prep41 w4 abl41 #add1 #b4 simul ac1 w4 ind41 #bhg1 #a2 #b4 s nn1 usage1 #cjf1 #a and #b4 sn1 usage1 #cjf1 #c4 sn minus1 #cjf1 #b1 a4 ,singular1 second person indefinite1 #bhj1 #c2 #cef1 #c2 #cjb1 #b4 sin with inf41 #cca1 ,,iii4 sitis1 decl41 #ch1 #a4 ,smelling1 verbs of1 constr41 #agf1 #e4 ,soft consonants1 #b1 #c1 b71 footnote #e4 -s1 verbs in1 #aee1 #b4 socer1 decl41 #bc1 #b4 socium1 gen1 plu41 #be1 #f1 c74 sl1 decl41 #eg1 #g4 sole1 semi-dep41 #aad1 #a4 solitus1 used as present partic41 #ccf1 #e4 slus1 #ff2 ---- slus est qui with subjv41 #bhc1 #b4 ,sonant consonants1 #b1 #c1 b71 footnote #e4 ,sracte1 decl41 #ci1 #b4 ,sounds1 classification1 #b4 ---- of the letters1 #c4 ,source1 abl41 #bae4 ,space1 extent of1 #aha4 ,sparing1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 ,specification1 abl4 of1 #bbf4 sp1 quantity1 #cfb1 #a1 b4 ,spelling1 see ,orthography4 ,spirants1 #b1 #g4 ,spondaic verses1 #cfh1 #b4 ,spondee1 #cfh1 #a4 sponte su1 abl4 accordance1 #bbj1 #c4 spontis1 -e1 defective1 #eg1 #b1 b4 ,statutes1 fut4 imperative used in1 #bha1 #a1 b4 ,stem1 #ag1 #c4 ---- verb1 #ig2 #aag4 ,structure of sentences1 see ,sentences4 ,style1 hints on1 #ceb f4 su sv1 #c1 #c4 sub1 prep4 with acc4 and abl41 #adc2 ---- compounds of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,iii4 ,subject1 #afc2 ---- nom41 #aff2 ---- acc41 #ahd2 ---- subject acc4 of inf41 #ahd2 ---- omitted1 #cad1 #e2 ---- clauses as subject1 #bid2 #bie1 #f2 ---- inf4 as subj41 #cbg2 #ccj4 ,subjective gen41 #aii4 ,subjunctive1 tenses in1 #ie1 #c4 ---- in independent sentences1 #bgb2 ---- by attraction1 #cbd2 ---- tenses of1 #bff f42 ---- method of expressing future time in1 #bfi2 ---- volitive 7hortatory1 jussive1 probibitive1 deliberative1 concessive71 #bgc f42 ---- optative 7wishes71 #bgi2 ---- potential1 #bhj2 ---- in clauses of purpose1 #bhb2 ---- of characteristic1 #bhc2 ---- of result1 #bhd2 ---- of cause1 #bhf2 ---- temporal clauses with postquam1 postequam1 #bhg1 #e2 ---- temporal clauses with cum1 #bhh-bij2 ---- with antequam and priusquam1 #bib2 ---- with dum1 dnec1 quoad1 #bic1 ,,iii1 #b2 ---- substantive clauses1 #bid f42 ---- indir4 questions1 #cjj2 ---- in apodosis of first type conditions1 #cjb1 #d2 ---- jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition1 #cje1 #b2 ---- with velut1 tamquam1 etc41 #cjg2 ---- with necesse est1 opportet1 etc41 #bie1 #f and #h2 ---- with licet1 #cji1 #d2 ---- with quamvs1 quamquam1 ets1 cum 'although1' #cji f4 subltus1 #abi1 ,n4 subm- summ-1 #i1 #b4 ,subordinate clauses1 #afe4 ,substantive clauses1 #bid f42 ---- ---- developed from the volitive1 #bie1 #a-h2 ---- ---- developed from the optative1 #bif2 ---- ---- with nn dubit1 #bih2 ---- ---- indir4 questions1 #cjj2 ---- ---- without ut1 #bie1 #h2 ---- ---- of result1 #big2 ---- ---- introduced by quod1 #bii4 ---- use of adjs41 #bcf-bch4 subter1 prep1 w4 acc41 #adc1 #a4 ,suffixes1 #ag1 #c1 footnote #ab2 #adg f4 su1 #he2 ---- as objective gen41 #bdd1 #b2 ---- possessive gen41 #bdd1 #b4 sum1 conj41 #ajj2 ---- omitted when auxiliary1 #aff1 #c4 summus1 'top of1' #bda1 #a4 sunt qu1 with subjv41 #bhc1 #b4 supte1 supte1 #hf1 #c4 supellex1 decl41 #db1 #b4 super1 prep4 w4 acc41 #adc1 #a4 ,superlative degree2 ---- of adjs41 #ga1 #a2 ---- ---- in -rimus1 #ia1 #c2 ---- ---- in -limus1 #ga1 #d2 ---- ---- irregular superl41 #gb2 #gc2 ---- ---- lacking1 #gc1 #d2 ---- ---- formed w4 maxim1 #gd2 ---- of adverbs1 #gf1 #b2 ---- ---- irregular1 #gg1 #a2 ---- force of1 #bdj1 #b4 superus1 compared1 #gc1 #b4 ,supine1 #cdj4 supr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 -sra1 suffix1 #adg1 #c1 a4 ,surd consonants1 #b1 #c1 a71 footnote #d4 ss1 decl41 #da4 sustul1 #abi1 ,n4 suus1 decl41 #hf1 #a2 #bdd2 ---- suus quisque1 #bdd1 #d1 a4 ,syllaba anceps1 #cff1 #aj4 ,syllables1 division1 #d2 ---- quantity of1 #e1 ,b4 ,synapheia1 #cfg1 #f4 ,synaeresis1 #cfg1 #a4 ,synchysis1 #cej1 #aa1 d4 ,syncope1 #g1 #d2 #cfg1 #h4 ,synecdochical acc41 #ahj4 ,synizesis1 #cfg1 #a4 ,syntax1 #afj f4 ,systole1 #cfg1 #c4 ,t4 t1 pron41 #c1 #c2 ---- th1 #b1 #c1 c2 #c1 #c2 ---- changes1 #h1 #b2 ---- dropped1 #h1 #c4 taedet1 #ach1 ,,ii2 ---- w4 gen41 #bji4 ,taking away1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahh1 #b1 d4 talentum1 gen4 plu41 #be1 #e1 a4 tamen1 #cdc1 #a1 f4 tamets1 #cji1 #b4 tamquam1 tamquam s1 w4 subjv41 #cjg4 tantn1 #f1 #d4 -tas1 #adi2 ---- gen4 -ttis1 decl4 of nouns in1 #dj1 #a1 e74 ,tasting1 verbs of1 constr41 #agf1 #e4 ,teaching1 verbs of1 constr41 #agh1 #a1 b4 td t1 #hd1 #c4 ,temporal clauses1 w4 postquam1 ut1 ubi1 simul ac1 #bhg2 ---- w4 cum1 #bhh2 #bhi2 ---- w4 antequam and priusquam1 #bia2 #bib2 ---- with dum1 dnec1 quoad1 #bic4 temporis 7id temporis71 #ahe1 #b4 ,tendency1 dat4 of1 #aia4 tener1 decl41 #fd4 ,tenses1 #id1 #c2 #beg ff42 ---- of inf41 #bgj2 ---- of inf4 in indir4 disc41 #cag2 ---- of participles1 #ccf2 ---- of subjv41 #bff2 ---- sequence of1 #bff-bfh2 ---- in indir4 disc41 #cag2 #cah4 ,tenues 7consonants71 #b1 #c1 a71 footnote #d4 tenus1 position1 #adb1 #c4 ,terminations1 #ag1 #c4 tern1 how used1 #ha1 #d1 b4 -ternus1 #aed4 terr marque1 #bbh1 #a1 c4 terrester1 #fh1 #c4 ,tetrameter verses1 #cff1 #aa4 ,thematic verbs1 #aja-aac4 ---- vowels1 #aag1 footnote #ci4 ,thesis1 #cff1 #f4 ,third conj41 #aje2 #aji f42 ---- decl41 #bh f42 ---- gender in1 #dc f4 ,threatening1 verbs of1 #ahg1 ,,ii4 -tim1 adverbs in1 #aeg1 #b4 ,time1 at which1 #bcj2 ---- during which1 #aha2 #bca1 #a2 ---- within which1 #bca4 time n and ut1 #bif1 #b4 -tinus1 suffix1 #aed4 -ti1 suffix1 #adg1 #c4 ,tmesis1 #cfg1 #g4 -to as suffix of verbs1 #aee1 #b4 -tor1 use of nouns in1 #cec1 #d4 ttus1 #ff2 ---- preposition absent w41 in expression of place relations1 #bbh1 #a1 b74 ,towns1 gender of names of1 #ae1 #b2 ---- names of1 denoting limit of motion1 #ahb1 #a1 a2 ---- denoting place where1 #bbh1 #a1 a2 ---- place from which1 #bbi1 #a1 a2 ---- appositives of town names1 #afi1 #d2 #bbi1 #b4 trditur1 trditum est1 w4 inf41 #ccb1 ,n4 trns1 prep1 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- constr4 of verbs compounded with1 #agi4 ,transitive verbs1 #agd4 ,trees1 gender of names of1 #ae1 #b4 trs1 decl41 #hj1 #c4 ,tribrach1 #cgj1 #b4 tribus1 decl41 #di1 #c2 ---- gender1 #ej4 ,trimeter verses1 #cff1 #aa4 trn1 use1 #ha1 #d1 b74 triumvir1 gen4 plu4 of1 #be1 #f1 b74 -trx1 suffix1 #adg1 #a4 ,trochee1 #cff1 #b4 -trum1 suffix1 #adg1 #d4 ,trusting1 verbs of1 w4 dat41 #ahg1 ,,ii4 t1 decl41 #hd4 -td1 suffix1 #hd4 tu1 as objective gen41 #bdb1 #b4 -tra1 suffix1 #adg1 #c1 a74 ts1 decl41 #eg1 #g4 -tus1 suffix1 #adg1 #c2 #aea1 #d4 tussis1 decl41 #ch4 tte1 ttemet1 ttimet1 #hd1 #b4 ,two accusatives1 #agg2 #agh4 ,two datives1 #aia1 #b4 ,u4 u1 instead of i in some words1 #i1 #a2 ---- instead of a1 #i1 #a2 #i1 #d4 u1 becomes v #cfg1 #d4 -stems1 #dh4 -stems1 #da4 -1 dat4 sing41 #dth decl1 #di1 #b4 ber1 decl41 #gj1 #a4 ubi1 with ind41 #bhg1 #a2 #b2 ---- with gen41 #bja1 #c4 -ubus1 dat41 plu41 #dth decl41 #di1 #c4 llus1 decl41 #ff4 ulterior1 compared1 #gc1 #a4 ultimus1 use1 #bda1 #b4 ultr1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada4 -ulus1 diminutive ending1 #aej1 #b2 ---- 7a1 um71 #adh1 #a4 -um1 #ast decl41 gen4 plu4 in1 #ba1 #b1 d72 ---- #b;d decl41 #be1 #f2 ---- for -ium1 #gj1 #g4 -undus1 -und1 in gerund and gerundive1 #aaf1 #b4 nus1 decl41 #ff2 #ib1 #a2 ---- nus est qui1 with subjv41 #bhc1 #b4 -uri1 ending of desiderative verbs1 #aee1 #c4 -rus1 ending of fut4 act4 partic41 #aja2 #ajc ff42 ---- -rus fuisse in apodosis of conditional sentences contrary-to-fact1 in indir4 disc41 #cba1 #b2 ---- -rus fuerim in indir4 questions serving as apodoses1 #cbb1 b4 -us1 neuter nouns of #b;d decl4 in1 #bf1 #b2 ---- nom4 in #c;d decl41 in -us1 #cf2 ---- gender of nouns in -us of #c;d decl41 #dc1 #c2 ---- exceptions in gender1 #df1 #d4 -s1 nouns of #c;d decl4 in1 #dc1 #b4 sque ad1 w4 acc41 #ada1 #a4 sus est1 with abl41 #bah1 #b4 ut1 temporal1 #bhg1 #a2 #b2 ---- ut1 ut1 in purpose clauses1 #bhb2 ---- in result clauses1 #bhd2 ---- in substantive clauses1 #bie f42 ---- substantive clauses without1 #bie1 #h2 ---- with verbs of fearing1 #bif1 #b4 ut n n1 #bhb1 #a1 b2 #bie1 #a1 #d1 #e4 ut non instead of n1 #bhb1 #a1 c2 ---- in clauses of result1 #bhd1 #big4 ut qu1 introducing clauses of characteristic1 #bhc1 #c4 ut s1 w4 subjv41 #cjg1 #a4 uter1 decl41 #ff2 #ib1 #a4 ter1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 utercumque1 decl41 #ib1 #b4 uterlibet1 decl41 #ib1 #b4 uterque1 decl41 #ib1 #b2 ---- use1 #cee1 #b4 utervs1 decl41 #ib1 #b4 tilius est ,eng4 potential1 #bga1 #a1 b74 utinam1 with optative subjv41 #bgi1 #a and #b4 tor1 with abl41 #bah1 #a2 ---- in gerundive constr41 #cci1 #d utpote qui1 introducing clauses of characteristic1 #bhc1 #c4 utrque1 #f1 #e4 utrum 444 an1 #afb1 #d2 #cjj1 #d4 ,v4 v1 #a1 #a2 ---- pron41 #c1 #c3 ---- developing from u1 #cfg1 #d4 v1 becomes u1 #cfg1 #e4 vald1 by syncope1 for valid1 #g1 #d4 val1 #cfc1 #b1 b74 ,value1 indefinite1 in gen41 #bjc1 #c4 vannus1 gender of1 #bf1 #a1 b74 ,variations in spelling1 #i4 vs1 decl41 #ei1 #a4 -ve1 #f1 #c2 #cdb1 #a1 b74 vel1 #cdb1 #a1 b72 ---- with superl41 #bdj1 #c4 velim1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #b1 a4 vellem1 potential subjv41 #bhj1 #d4 velut1 velut s1 w4 subjv41 #cjg1 #a4 venter1 decl41 #dj1 #a1 d74 ,verba sentiend et dclrand1 w4 inf4 of indir4 disc41 #cca1 ,i2 ---- passive use of these1 #ccb4 ,verbal adjs41 #aej1 #a-d4 ,verbs1 #id f42 ---- personal endings1 #if2 ---- deponent1 #aab2 ---- archaic and poetic forms1 #aaf1 #d2 ---- irregular1 #abd2 ---- defective1 #acc2 ---- impersonal1 #ach2 ---- with substantive clauses of result1 #big1 #b2 ---- omission of1 #aff1 #c2 ---- transitive1 #agd2 ---- ---- used absolutely1 #agd1 a2 ---- passives used as middles1 #age1 #b1 d72 ---- of smelling and tasting1 constr41 #agf1 #e2 ---- not used in passive1 #agg1 #c1 a2 ---- intransitives impersonal in passive1 #ahg1 ,,ii1 b2 #bef1 #c2 ---- compounded with preps41 constr41 #ahg1 ,,iii2 ---- of judicial action1 constr41 #bjh2 ---- derivation of1 #aee f42 ---- inceptive or inchoative1 #aee1 #a2 ---- frequentative or intensive1 #aee1 #b2 ---- desiderative1 #aee1 #c2 ---- denominative1 #aef2 ---- agreement of1 #bed f4 ,verb stems1 #ig2 ---- formation of1 #aag f4 vereor1 conj41 #aac2 ---- with subst4 clause in subjv41 #bif1 #b4 ,vergilius1 gen4 of1 #be1 #a4 veritus1 with present force2 #ccf1 #e4 vr1 #cdc1 #a1 g72 ---- in answers1 #afb1 #e4 ,verse1 #cff1 #c4 ,verse-structure1 #cff f4 ,versification1 #cfa4 versus1 prep4 w4 acc41 #ada2 ---- follows its case1 #ada1 #b4 vrum1 #cdc1 #a1 b74 vescor1 with abl41 #bah1 #a4 vesper1 decl41 #bc1 #b4 vesper1 locative1 #bcb1 #b4 vestr1 as obj4 gen41 #bdb1 #b4 vestrum1 as gen4 of whole1 #bdb1 #b2 ---- as possessive gen41 #bdb1 #b1 a4 vet1 with inf4 #cca1 ,,ii4 vetus1 decl41 #gj2 ---- compared1 #gc1 #c4 v1 #bbj1 #b4 vicem1 used adverbially1 #ahe1 #a2 ---- vicis1 vice1 #eg1 #e1 b4 victor1 decl41 #cd4 vide1 with pres4 partic41 #ccg1 #c4 vigil1 decl41 #cd4 violenter1 formation1 #gg1 #d1 a4 vir1 decl41 #bc4 ---- gen4 plu4 of nouns compounded with1 #be1 #f1 b74 virle seces1 constr41 #ahe1 #a4 vrus1 gender of1 #bf1 #b4 vs1 decl41 #da4 vscera1 used in plu4 only1 #ef1 #c4 ,vocative case1 #ag2 #ai1 #a2 ---- of ,greek proper names in -s1 #dg1 #d2 ---- of adjs4 in -ius1 #fc1 #a2 #aga2 ---- in - for -ie1 #be1 #a2 ---- position of1 #cej1 #c4 ,voiced sounds1 #b1 #c1 a74 ,voiced consonants1 #b1 #c1 b74 ,voiceless consonants1 #b1 #c1 a74 ,voices1 #id2 #bef2 ---- middle voice1 #bef1 #a4 ,volitive subjunctive1 #bgb f4 volnus1 spelling1 #i1 #a4 vol1 #acj2 ---- with inf41 #cca1 ,,iv and a2 #bgj1 #b1 a2 ---- with subjv41 #bif1 #a1 a4 volt1 spelling1 #i1 #a4 voltus1 spelling1 #h1 #a4 volucer1 decl41 #fh1 #a4 voluntte1 #bbj1 #b4 -volus1 comparison of adjs4 in1 #ga1 #e ,vowels1 #b1 #a2 ---- sounds of the1 #c1 #a2 ---- quantity of1 #e1 ,a2 ---- contraction of1 #g1 #b2 ---- parasitic1 #g1 #c4 ,vowel changes1 #g4 vulgus1 gender of1 #bf1 #b4 -vum1 -vus1 decl4 of nouns in1 #bd4 ,w4 ,want1 verbs and adjs4 of1 w4 abl41 #bad1 #a1 c2 d4 ,way by which1 abl4 of1 #bah1 #i4 ,we1 editorial1 #bdb1 #c4 ,whole1 gen4 of1 #bja4 ,wills1 use of fut4 imperative in1 #bha1 #a1 b4 ,winds1 gender of names of1 #ae1 #a4 ,wish1 clauses with dum1 etc41 expressing a1 #caj4 ,wishes1 subjunctive in1 #bgi2 ---- see ,optative subjunctive4 ,wishing1 verbs of1 with subst4 clause #bif1 #a2 ---- with obj4 inf41 #cca1 ,,iv4 ,word-formation1 #adf f4 ,word-order1 #cdh f4 ,word questions1 #afb1 #a4 ,x4 x1 #b1 #i2 ---- cs and gs1 #cb4 -x1 decl4 of monosyllables in1 preceded by one or more cons41 #dj1 #a1 b72 ---- gender of nouns in -x of #c;d decl41 #dc1 #b2 ---- exceptions1 #de1 #d4 ,y4 y1 #a1 #a4 ,yes1 how expressed1 #afb1 #e4 ',you1' indefinite1 #cef1 #c2 #bhj1 #c2 #cjb1 #b4 ,z4 z1 #a1 #a2 #b1 #i4 ,zeugma1 #cgd1 #b1 a74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes #a ,sometimes also called ,aryan or ,indo-,germanic4 #b ,cuneiform means wedge-shaped4 ,the name applies to the form of the strokes of which the characters consist4 #c ,the name ,zend is often given to this4 #d ,for 'voiceless1' 'surd1' 'hard1' or 'tenuis' are sometimes used4 #e ,for 'voiced1' 'sonant1' 'soft1' or 'media' are sometimes used4 #f ,in this book1 long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them2 as1 1 1 1 etc4 ,vowels not thus marked are short4 ,occasionally a curve is set above short vowels2 as1 1 4 #g ,to avoid confusion1 the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign4 #h ,but if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound1 the preceding syllable is always long2 as1 abrump4 #i ,only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated4 #aj ,only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated4 #aa ,the great majority of all ,latin nouns come under this category4 ,the principles for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions4 #ab ,the ,stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the ,root4 ,thus1 the stem porta- goes back to the root per-1 por-4 ,roots are usually monosyllabic4 ,the addition made to a root to form a stem is called a ,suffix4 ,thus in porta- the suffix is -ta4 #ac ,there is only one stem ending in -m3--hiems1 hiems1 winter4 #ad ,mnsis1 month1 originally a consonant stem 7mns-71 has in the ,genitive ,plural both mnsium and mnsum4 ,the ,accusative ,plural is mnss4 #ae ,this is practically always used instead of alus in the ,genitive4 #af ,a ,dative ,singular ,feminine alterae also occurs4 #ag ,supplied by vetustior1 from vetustus4 #ah ,supplied by recentior4 #ai ,for newest1 recentissimus is used4 #bj ,supplied by minimus nt4 #ba ,supplied by maximus nt4 #bb ,the final i is sometimes long in poetry4 #bc ,forms of hc ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis2 as1 hjusce1 this 444 here2 hsce1 hsce4 ,when -ne is added1 -c and -ce become -ci2 as huncine1 hscine4 #bd ,for istud1 istc sometimes occurs2 for ista1 istaec4 #be ,for illud1 illc sometimes occurs4 #bf ,sometimes qus4 #bg ,an ablative qu occurs in qucum1 with whom4 #bh ,where the ,perfect ,participle is not in use1 the ,future ,active ,participle1 if it occurs1 is given as one of the ,principal ,parts4 #bi ,the ,perfect ,participle is wanting in sum4 #cj ,the meanings of the different tenses of the ,subjunctive are so many and so varied1 particularly in subordinate clauses1 that no attempt can be made to give them here4 ,for fuller information the pupil is referred to the ,syntax4 #ca ,for essem1 esss1 esset1 essent1 the forms forem1 fors1 foret1 forent are sometimes used4 #cb ,for futrus esse1 the form fore is often used4 #cc ,declined like bonus1 -a1 -um4 #cd ,the ,imperfect also means ,i loved4 #ce ,for declension of amns1 see #gj1 #c4 #cf ,fu1 fuist1 etc41 are sometimes used for sum1 es1 etc4 ,so fueram1 fuers1 etc41 for eram1 etc42 fuer1 etc41 for er1 etc4 #cg ,fuerim1 etc41 are sometimes used for sim2 so fuissem1 etc41 for essem4 #ch ,in actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents 7 #aab74 #ci ,strictly speaking1 the ,present ,stem always ends in a ,thematic ,vowel 7 or 72 as1 dc--1 dc--2 am--1 am--4 ,but the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here4 ,see the author's ,latin ,language4 #dj ,but the compounds of juv sometimes have -jtrus2 as1 adjtrus4 #da ,used only impersonally4 #db ,so imple1 exple4 #dc ,compounds follow the ,fourth ,conjugation3 acci1 accre1 etc4 #dd ,fully conjugated only in the compounds3 exstingu1 restingu1 distingu4 #de ,only in the compounds3 vd1 invd1 pervd4 #df ,it will be observed that not all the forms of fer lack the connecting vowel4 ,some of them1 as ferimus1 ferunt1 follow the regular inflection of verbs of the ,third ,conjugation4 #dg ,for the ,predicate ,genitive1 see #aih1 #c2 #bjc1 #e4 #dh ,many such verbs were originally intransitive in ,english also1 and once governed the ,dative4 #di ,this was the original form of the preposition cum4 #ej ,place from which1 though strictly a ,genuine ,ablative use1 is treated here for sake of convenience4 #ea ,especially3 mone1 admone2 rog1 r1 pet1 postul1 precor1 flgit2 mand1 imper1 praecipi2 sude1 hortor1 cohortor2 persude1 impell4 #eb ,especially3 permitt1 concd1 nn patior4 #ec ,especially3 prohibe1 impedi1 dterre4 #ed ,especially3 cnstitu1 dcern1 cnse1 placuit1 convenit1 pacscor4 #ee ,especially3 labr1 d operam1 id ag1 contend1 impetr4 #ef ,exclamations1 also1 upon becoming indirect1 take the ,subjunctive1 as cnsider quam variae sint hominum cupdins1 consider how varied are the desires of men4 7,direct3 quam variae sunt hominum cupdins67 #eg ,trditri fuerint and errtrus fuers are to be regarded as representing trditri furunt and errtrus fuist of ,direct ,discourse4 7,see #cjd1 #c1 b47 #eh ,except in ,sallust and ,silver ,latin4 #ei ,so named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the ,greek letter 7chi74 ,thus3-- mults laes dfend nminem #fj ,the pronouns hic1 hoc1 and the adverb huc1 probably had a short vowel4 ,the syllable was made long by pronouncing hicc1 hocc1 etc4 #fa ,ictus was not accent1--neither stress accent not musical accent1--but was simply the quantitative prominence inherent in the long syllables of fundamental feet4 #fb ,for explanation of the abbreviations1 see p4 #beg4