,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,japan  ,,from  
,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,history ,,to ,,the  
,,era ,,of ,,meiji  ,,by  ,,william     
,,elliot ,,griffis1 ,d4,d4  ,,formerly  
,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,university ,,of 
,,tokio2 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,mikado',s
 ,,empire ,,and ,,corea1 ,,the ,,hermit 
,,nation2 ,,late ,,lecturer ,,on ,,the  
,,morse ,,foundation ,,in ,,union       
,,theological ,,seminary ,,in ,,new     
,,york  ,i came not to destroy1 but to  
fulfil4--,,the ,,son ,,of ,,man  ,,new  
,,york  ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons  
#ahie  ,,copyright1 #ahie1 ,,by         
,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons  ,,trow  
,,directory ,,printing ,,and            
,,bookbinding ,,company ,,new ,,york    
,,in ,,glad ,,recognition ,,of ,,their  
,,services ,,to ,,the ,,world ,,and ,,in
 ,,grateful ,,acknowledgment ,,of ,,my  
,,own ,,great ,,debt ,,to ,,both ,i     
,,dedicate ,,this ,,book ,,so ,,unworthy
 ,,of ,,its ,,great ,,subject ,,to      
,,those ,,two ,,noble ,,bands ,,of      
,,seekers ,,after ,,truth ,,the         

,,faculty ,,of ,,union ,,theological    
,,seminary ,,of ,,whom ,,charles ,a4    
,,briggs ,,and ,,george ,l4 ,,prentiss  
,,are ,,the ,,honored ,,survivors ,,and 
,,to ,,that ,,trio ,,of ,,english       
,,students ,,ernest ,m4 ,,satow1        
,,william ,g4 ,,aston ,,and ,,basil ,h4 
,,chamberlain ,,who ,,laid ,,the        
,,foundations ,,of ,,critical           
,,scholarship ,,in ,,japan  ,,in        
,,unconscious ,,brotherhood1 ,,binding  
,,the ,,self-,,same ,,sheaf             
,,preface   ,this book makes no pretence
 of furnishing a mirror of contemporary 
,japanese religion4 ,since #ahfh1 ,japan
 has been breaking the chains of her    
intellectual bondage to ,china and      
,india1 and the end is not yet4 ,my     
purpose has been1 not to take a         
snap-shot photograph1 but to paint a    
picture of the past4 ,seen in a         
lightning-flash1 even a tempest-shaken  
tree appears motionless4 ,a study of the
 same organism from acorn to            
seed-bearing oak1 reveals not a phase   

but a life4 ,it is something like       
this--to the era of ,meiji 7,a4,d4      
#ahfh-ahid7 which ,i have essayed4      
,hence ,i am perfectly willing to       
accept1 in advance1 the verdict of smart
 inventors who are all ready to patent a
 brand-new religion for ,japan1 that my 
presentation is antiquated4  ,the       
subject has always been fascinating1    
despite its inherent difficulties and   
the author's personal limitations4 ,when
 in #ahjg1 the polite lads from ,satsuma
 and ,kito came to ,new ,brunswick1     
,n4,j41 they found at least one eager   
questioner1 a sophomore1 who1 while     
valuing books1 enjoyed at first hand    
contemporaneous human testimony4  ,when 
in #ahfi1 to ,rutgers ,college1 came an 
application through ,rev4 ,dr4 ,guido   
,f4 ,verbeck1 of ,tki1 from ,fukui for a
 young man to organize schools upon the 
,american principle in the province of  
,echizen 7ultra-,buddhistic1 yet already
 so liberally leavened by the ethical   
teachings of ,yokoi ,hishiro71 the      

,faculty made choice of the author4     
,accepting the honor and privilege of   
being one of the beginners of a better  
time1 ,i caught sight of peerless ,fuji 
and set foot on ,japanese soil ,december
 #bi1 #ahgj4 ,amid a cannonade of new   
sensations and fresh surprises1 my first
 walk was taken in company with the     
,american missionary 7once a marine in  
,perry's squadron1 who later invented   
the jin-riki-sha71 to see a hill-temple 
and to study the wayside shrines around 
,yokohama4 ,seven weeks' stay in the    
city of ,yedo--then rising out of the   
dbris of feudalism to become the        
,imperial capital1 ,tki1 enabled me to  
see some things now so utterly vanished1
 that by some persons their previous    
existence is questioned4 ,one of the    
most interesting characters ,i met      
personally was ,fukuzawa1 the reformer1 
and now the intellectual father of half 
of the young men of 444 ,japan4 ,on the 
day of the battle of ,uyno1 ,july #aa1  
#ahfh1 this far-seeing patriot and      

inquiring spirit deliberately decided to
 keep out of the strife1 and with four  
companions of like mind1 began the study
 of ,wayland's ,moral ,science4 ,thus   
were laid the foundations of his great  
school1 now a university4  ,journeying  
through the interior1 ,i saw many       
interesting phenomena of popular        
religions which are no longer visible4  
,at ,fukui in ,echizen1 one of the      
strongholds of ,buddhism1 ,i lived      
nearly a year1 engaged in educational   
work1 having many opportunities of      
learning both the scholastic and the    
popular forms of ,shint and of          
,buddhism4 ,i was surrounded by         
monasteries1 temples1 shrines1 and a    
landscape richly embroidered with myth  
and legend4 ,during my four years'      
residence and travel in the ,empire1 ,i 
perceived that in all things the people 
of ,japan were too religious4  ,in      
seeking light upon the meaning of what  
,i saw before me and in penetrating to  
the reasons behind the phenomena1 ,i    

fear ,i often made myself troublesome to
 both priests and lay folk4 ,while at   
work in ,tki1 though under obligation to
 teach only physical science1 ,i        
voluntarily gave instruction in ethics  
to classes in the ,university4 ,i richly
 enjoyed this work1 which1 by           
questioning and discussion1 gave me much
 insight into the minds of young men    
whose homes were in every province of   
the ,empire4 ,in my own house ,i felt   
free to teach to all comers the religion
 of ,jesus1 his revelation of the       
fatherhood of ,god and the ethics based 
on his life and words4 ,while1          
therefore1 in studying the subject1 ,i  
have great indebtedness to acknowledge  
to foreigners1 ,i feel that first of all
 ,i must thank the natives who taught me
 so much both by precept and practice4  
,among the influences that have helped  
to shape my own creed and inspire my own
 life1 have been the beautiful lives and
 noble characters of ,japanese officers1
 students and common people who were    

around and before me4 ,though freely    
confessing obligation to books1         
writings1 and artistic and scholastic   
influences1 ,i hasten first to thank the
 people of ,japan1 whether servants1    
superior officers1 neighbors or friends4
 ,he who seeks to learn what religion is
 from books only1 will learn but half4  
,gladly thanking those1 who1 directly or
 indirectly1 have helped me with light  
from the written or printed page1 ,i    
must first of all gratefully express my 
especial obligations to those native    
scholars who have read to me1 read for  
me1 or read with me their native        
literature4  ,the first foreign students
 of ,japanese religions were the ,dutch1
 and the ,german physicians who lived   
with them1 at ,dshima4 ,kaempfer makes  
frequent references1 with test and      
picture1 in his ,beschryving van ,japan4
 ,von ,siebold1 who was an indefatigable
 collector rather than a critical       
student1 in ,vol4 ,v4 of his invaluable 
,archiv 7,pantheon von ,nippon71 devoted

 over forty pages to the religions of   
,japan4 ,dr4 ,j4,j4 ,hoffman translated 
into ,dutch1 with notes and             
explanations1 the ,butsu-z-dzu-i1 which1
 besides its #afc figures of ,buddhist  
holy men1 gives a bibliography of the   
works mentioned by the native author4   
,in visiting the ,japanese museum on the
 ,rapenburg1 ,leyden1 one of the oldest1
 best and most intelligently arranged in
 ,europe1 ,i have been interested with  
the great work done by the ,dutchmen1   
during two centuries1 in leavening the  
old lump for that transformation which  
in our day as ,new ,japan1 surprises the
 world4 ,it requires the shock of battle
 to awaken the western nations to that  
appreciation of the racial and other    
differences between the ,japanese and   
,chinese1 which the student has already 
learned4  ,the first praises1 however1  
are to be awarded to the ,english       
scholars1 ,messrs4 ,satow1 ,aston1      
,chamberlain1 and others1 whose profound
 researches in ,japanese history1       

language and literature have cleared the
 path for others to tread in4 ,i have   
tried to acknowledge my debt to them in 
both text and appendix4  ,to several    
,american missionaries1 who despite     
their trying labors have had the time   
and the taste to study critically the   
religions of ,japan1 ,i owe thanks and  
appreciation4 ,with rare acuteness and  
learning1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,george ,wm4 ,knox 
has opened on its philosophical1 and    
,rev4 ,dr4 ,j4,h4 ,de,forest on its     
practical side1 the subject of ,japanese
 ,confucianism4 ,by his lexicographical 
work1 ,dr4 ,j4,c4 ,hepburn has made     
debtors to him both the native and the  
alien4 ,to our knowledge of ,buddhism in
 ,japan1 ,dr4 ,j4,c4 ,berry and ,rev4   
,j4,l4 ,atkinson have made noteworthy   
contributions4 ,i have been content to  
quote as authorities and illustrations1 
the names of those who have thus wrought
 on the soil1 rather than of those1 who1
 even though world-famous1 have been but
 slightly familiar with the ethnic and  

the imported faith of ,japan4 ,the      
profound misunderstandings of ,buddhism1
 which some very eminent men of ,europe 
have shown in their writings1 form one  
of the literary curiosities of the      
world4  ,in setting forth these ,morse  
lectures1 ,i have purposely robbed my   
pages of all appearance of erudition1 by
 using as few uncouth words as possible1
 by breaking up the matter into         
paragraphs of moderate length1 by       
liberally introducing subject-headings  
in italics1 and by relegating all notes 
to the appendix4 ,since writing the     
lectures1 and even while reading the    
final proofs1 ,i have ransacked my      
library to find as many references1     
notes1 illustrations and authorities as 
possible1 for the benefit of the general
 student4 ,i have purposely avoided     
recondite and inaccessible books and    
have named those easily obtainable from 
,american or ,european publishers1 or   
from ,messrs4 ,kelly  ,walsh1 of        
,yokohama1 ,japan4 ,in using oriental   

words ,i have followed1 in the main1 the
 spelling of the ,century ,dictionary4  
,the ,japanese names are expressed      
according to that uniform system of     
transliteration used by ,hepburn1 ,satow
 and other standard writers1 wherein    
consonants have the same general value  
as in ,english 7except that initial g is
 always hard71 while the vowels are     
pronounced as in ,italian4 ,double      
vowels must be pronounced double1 as in 
,miji 7m--j72 those which are long are  
marked1 as in  or 2 i before o or u is  
short4 ,most of the important ,japanese1
 as well as ,sanskrit and ,chinese1     
terms used1 are duly expressed and      
defined in the ,century ,dictionary4  ,i
 wish also to thank especially my       
friends1 ,riu ,watanabe1 ,ph4,d41 of    
,cornell ,university1 and ,william      
,nelson ,noble1 ,esq41 of ,ithaca4 ,the 
former kindly assisted me with          
criticisms and suggestions1 while to the
 latter1 who has taken time to read all 
the proofs1 ,i am grateful for          

considerable improvement in the ,english
 form of the sentences4  ,in closing1 ,i
 trust that whatever charges may be     
brought against me by competent critics1
 lack of sympathy will not be one4 ,i   
write in sight of beautiful ,lake       
,cayuga1 on the fertile and sloping     
shores of which in old time the         
,iroquois ,indian confessed the         
mysteries of life4 ,having planted his  
corn1 he made his pregnant squaw walk   
round the seed-bed in hope of receiving 
from the ,source of life increased      
blessing and sustenance for body and    
mind4 ,between such a truly religious   
act of the savage1 and that of the      
,christian sage1 ,joseph ,henry1 who    
uncovered his head while investigating  
electro-magnetism to ask ,god a         
question1 or that of ,samuel ,f4,b4     
,morse1 who sent as his first           
telegraphic message ,what hath ,god     
wrought1 ,i see no essential difference4
 ,all three were acts of faith and      
acknowledgment of a power greater than  

man4 ,religion is one1 though religions 
are many4 ,as ,principal ,fairbairn1 my 
honored predecessor in the ,morse       
lectureship1 says3 ,what we call        
superstition of the savage is not       
superstition in him4 ,superstition is   
the perpetuation of a low form of belief
 along with a higher knowledge4444      
,between fetichism and ,christian faith 
there is a great distance1 but a great  
affinity--the recognition of a          
supra-sensible life4  ,for the earnest  
expectation of the creation waiteth for 
the revealing of the sons of ,god4444   
,the creation itself shall be delivered 
from the bondage of corruption into the 
liberty of the glory of the children of 
,god4  ,w4,e4,g4  ,,ithaca1 ,n4,y41     
,october #bg1 #ahid4     ,,table ,,of   
,,contents   ,,chapter ,i  ,,primitive  
,,faith3 ,,religion ,,before ,,books1   
,,page #a  ,salutatory4--,the ,morse    
,lectureship and its provisions4--,the  
,science of ,comparative ,religion is   
,christianity's own child4--,the        

,parliament of ,religions4--,the ,study 
of ,religion most appropriate in a      
,theological ,seminary4--,shortening    
weapons and lengthening                 
boundaries4--,the right missionary      
spirit that of the ,master1 who came not
 to destroy but to                      
fulfil4--,characteristics of            
,japan4--,bird's-eye view of ,japanese  
history and religion4--,popularly1 not  
three religions but one                 
religion4--,superstitions which are not 
organically parts of the                
book-religions4--,the boundary line     
between the ,creator and his creation   
not visible to the pagan4--,shamanism3  
,fetichism4--,mythical monsters1 ,kirin1
 ,phoenix1 ,tortoise1                   
,dragon4--,japanese mythical            
zology4--,the erection of the stone     
fetich4--,insurance by amulets upon     
house and                               
person4--,phallicism4--,tree-worship4--,
serpent-worship4--,these unwritten      
superstitions condition the             

book-religions4--,removable by science  
and a higher religion4   ,,chapter ,,ii 
,,shinto3 ,,myths ,,and ,,ritual1 ,,page
 #ce  ,japan is young beside ,china and 
,korea4--,japanese history is           
comparatively modern4--,the oldest      
documents date from ,a4,d4 #gab4--,the  
,japanese archipelago inhabited before  
the ,christian era4--,faith1 worship and
 ritual are previous to written         
espression4--,the ,kojiki1 ,manyshu and 
,norito4--,tendency of the pupil nations
 surrounding ,china to antedate their   
civilization4--,origin of the ,japanese 
people and their religion4--,three      
distinct lines of tradition from        
,tsukushi1 ,idzumo and ,yamato4--,war of
 the invaders against the               
aborigines--,mikadoism is the heart of  
,shint4--,illustrations from the        
liturgies4--,phallicism among the       
aborigines and common people4--,the mind
 or mental climate of the primval       
man4--,representation of male gods by   
emblems4--,objects of worship and       

ex-voto4--,ideas of creation4--,the     
fire-myth1 ,prometheus4--,comparison of 
,greek and ,japanese mythology4--,ritual
 for the quieting of the fire-god4--,the
 fire-drill4   ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the   
,,kojiki ,,and ,,its ,,teachings1 ,,page
 #ei  ,origin of the ,kojiki4 ,analysis 
of its opening                          
lines--,norito4--,indecency of the myths
 of the ,kojiki4--,modern rationalistic 
interpretations--,life in prehistoric   
,japan4--,character and temperament of  
the people then and now4--,character of 
the kami or                             
gods4--,hades4--,ethics4--,the ,land of 
the ,gods4--,the barbarism of the       
,yamato conquerors an improvement upon  
the savagery of the                     
aborigines4--,cannibalism and human     
sacrifices4--,the makers of the ,god-way
 captured and absorbed the religion of  
the aborigines4--,a case of             
syncretism4--,origin of evil in bad     
gods4--,pollution was sin4--,class of   
offences enumerated in the              

norito4--,professor ,kumi's contention  
that ,mikadoism usurped a simple worship
 of ,heaven4--,difference between the   
ancient ,chinese and ancient ,japanese  
cultus4--,development of ,shint arrested
 by ,buddhism4--,temples and            
offerings4--,the tori-i4--,pollution and
 purification4--,prayer4--,hirata's     
ordinal and specimen prayers4--,to the  
common people the sun is a              
god4--,prayers to myriads of            
gods4--,summary of ,shint4--,swallowed  
up in the ,riybu system4--,its modern   
revival4--,kichin4--,kada               
,adzumar4--,mabuchi1                    
,motori4--,hirata4--,in #ahgj1 ,shint is
 again made the state                   
religion4--,purification of ,riybu      
temples4--,politico-religious           
lectures4--,imperial                    
rescript4--,reverence to the ,emperor's 
photograph4--,judgment upon             
,shint4--,the ,christian's ideal of     
,yamato-damashii4   ,,chapter ,,iv      
,,the ,,chinese ,,ethical ,,system ,,in 

,,japan1 ,,page #ii  ,in what respects  
,confucius was unique as a              
teacher4--,outline of his life4--,the   
canon4--,primitive ,chinese faith a sort
 of monotheism4--,how the sage modified 
it4--,history of ,confucianism until its
 entrance into ,japan4--,outline of the 
intellectual and political history of   
the ,japanese4--,rise of the ,samurai   
class4--,shifting of emphasis from      
filial piety to loyalty4--,prevalence of
 suicide in ,japan4--,confucianism has  
deeply tinged the ideas of the          
,japanese4--,great care necessary in    
seeking equivalents in ,english for the 
terms used in the ,chino-,japanese      
ethics2 e4g41 the emperor1 the father of
 the people4--,impersonality of         
,japanese speech4--,christ and          
,confucius4--,love and                  
reverence4--,exemplars of loyalty4--,the
 ,forty-seven ,rnins4--,the second      
relation4--,the family in ,chinese ,asia
 and in ,christendom4--,the law of      
filial piety and the daughter4--,the    

third relation4--,theory of courtship   
and                                     
marriage4--,chastity4--,jealousy4--,divo
rce4--,instability of the marriage      
bond4--,the fourth relation4--,the elder
 and the younger brother4--,the house or
 family everything1 the individual      
nothing4--,the fifth relation4--,the    
ideas of ,christ and those of           
,confucius4--,the ,golden and the       
,gilded rule4--,lao ,tsze and           
,kung4--,old ,japan and the             
alien4--,commodore ,perry and ,professor
 ,hayashi4   ,,chapter ,v               
,,confucianism ,,in ,,its               
,,philosophical ,,form1 ,,page #aca     
,harmony of the systems of ,confucius   
and ,buddha in ,japan during a thousand 
years4--,revival of learning in the     
seventeenth century4--,exodus of the    
,chinese scholars on the fall of the    
,ming dynasty4--,their dispersion and   
work in ,japan4--,founding of schools of
 the new ,chinese learning4--,for two   
and a half centuries the ,japanese mind 

has been moulded by the new             
,confucianism4--,survey of its rise and 
developments4--,four stages in the      
intellectual history of ,china4--,the   
populist movement in the eleventh       
century4--,the literary                 
controversy4--,the philosophy of the    
,cheng brothers and of ,chu ,hi1 called 
in ,japan ,tei-,shu system4--,in        
,buddhism the ,japanese were startling  
innovators1 in philosophy they were     
docile pupils4--,paucity of ,confucian  
or speculative literature in ,japan4--,a
 ,chinese wall built around the         
,japanese intellect4--,yelo             
orthodoxy4--,features of the ,ti-,shu   
system4--,not agnostic but              
pantheistic4--,its influence upon       
historiography4--,ki 7spirit7 ,ri 7way7 
and ,ten 7heaven74--,the writings of    
,ohashi ,junzo4--,confucianism          
obsolescent in ,new ,japan4--,a study of
 ,confucianism in the interest of       
comparative religion4--,man's place in  
the universe4--,the ,samurai's ideal1   

obedience4--,his fearlessness in the    
face of death4--,critique of the        
system4--,the ruler and the             
ruled4--,what has ,confucianism done for
 woman8--,improvement and revision of   
the fourth and fifth relations4--,the   
new view of the universe and the new    
mind in ,new ,japan4 ,the ideal of      
,yamato-damashii revised and improved4  
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,the ,,buddhism ,,of   
,,northern ,,asia1 ,,page #aec          
,buddha--sun myth or historic           
personage8--,buddhism one of the        
protestantisms of the                   
world4--,characteristics of new         
religions4--,survey of the history of   
,indian thought4--,the age of the       
,vedas4--,the epic age4--,the           
rationalistic age4--,our fellow-,aryans 
and the story of their                  
conquests4--,their intellectual energy  
and inventions4--,systems of            
philosophy4--,condition of religion at  
the birth of ,gautama4--,outline of his 
life4--,he attains enlightenment or     

buddhahood4--,in what respects ,buddhism
 was an old1 and in what a new          
religion4--,did ,gautama intend to found
 a new religion1 or return to simpler   
and older faith8--,monasticism1 ,kharma 
and ,nirvana1--,enthusiasm of the       
disciples of the new faith4--,the great 
schism4--,the ,northern                 
,buddhists4--,the canon4--,the two ,yana
 or vehicles4--,simplicity of ,southern 
and luxuriance of ,northern             
,buddhism4--,summary of the process of  
thought in ,nepal4--,the old gods of    
,india come back again4--,maitreya1     
,manjusri and ,avalokitesvara4--,the    
,legend of ,manjusri4--,separation of   
attributes and creation of new ,buddhas 
or gods4--,the ,dhyani                  
,buddhas4--,amida4--,adi-,buddhas4--,abs
tractions become gods4--,the ,tantra    
system4--,outbursts of doctrine and     
art4--,prayer-mills4--,the noble        
eight-fold path of self-denial and      
benevolence forgotten4--,entrance of    
,buddhism from ,korea into              

,japan4--,condition of the country at   
that time4--,dates and first            
experiences4--,soga no                  
,inam4--,shtoku4--,japanese pilgrims to 
,china4--,changes wrought by the new    
creed and cult4--,temples1 monasteries  
and images4--,influence upon the        
,mikado's name1 rank and person1 and    
upon ,shint4--,relative influence of    
,buddhism in ,asia and of ,christianity 
in ,europe4--,the three great           
characteristics of ,buddhism4--,how the 
clouds returned after the               
rain4--,buddhism and ,christianity      
confronting the problem of life4        
,,chapter ,,vii  ,,riy,,bu1 ,,or ,,mixed
 ,,buddhism1 ,,page #ahi  ,the          
experience of two centuries and a half  
of ,buddhism in ,japan4--,necessity of  
using more powerful means for the       
conversion of the ,japanese4--,popular  
customs nearly ineradicable4--,analogy  
from ,european history4--,syncretism in 
,christian history4--,in the ,arabian   
,nights4--,how far is the process of    

,syncretism honest8--,examples not to be
 recommended for imitation4--,the       
problem of reconciling the ,kami and the
 ,buddhas4--,northern ,buddhism ready   
for the task4--,the ,tantra or          
,yoga-chara system4--,art and its       
influence on the imagination4--,the     
sketch replaced by the illumination and 
monochrome by colors4--,japanese        
art4--,mixed ,buddhism rather than mixed
 ,shint4--,kb the wonder-worker who made
 all ,japanese history a transfiguration
 of ,buddhism4--,legends about his      
extraordinary abilities and             
industry4--,his life1 and studies in    
,china4--,the kata-kana                 
syllabary4--,kbo's revelation from the  
,shint goddess ,toyo-,uk-,bim4--,the    
gods of ,japan were avatars of          
,buddha4--,kb's plan of                 
propaganda4--,details of the scheme4--,a
 clearing-house of gods and             
,buddhas4--,relative rise and fall of   
the native and the foreign              
deities4--,legend of ,daruma4 ,riybu    

,shint4--,impulse to art and art        
industry4--,the ,kami no ,michi falls   
into shadow4--,which religion suffered  
most8--,phenomenally the victory        
belonged to ,buddhism4--,the leavening  
power was that of ,shint4--,buddhism's  
fresh chapter of decay4--,influence of  
,riybu upon the ,chinese ethical system 
in ,japan4--,influence on the           
,mikado4--,abdication all along the     
lines of ,japanese life4--,ultimate     
paralysis of the national               
intellect4--,comparison with ,chinese   
,buddhism4--,miracle-mongering4--,no    
self-reforming power in ,buddhism4--,the
 ,seven ,happy ,gods of                 
,fortune4--,pantheism's destruction of  
boundaries4--,the author's study of the 
popular processions in ,japan4--,masaka 
,do4--,swamping of history in           
legend4--,the jewel in the lotus4       
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,northern ,,buddhism 
,,in ,,its ,,doctrinal ,,evolutions1    
,,page #bbe  ,four stages of the        
doctrinal development of ,buddhism in   

,japan4--,reasons for the formation of  
sects4--,the ,saddharma                 
,pundarika4--,shastras and              
,sutras4--,the ,ku-sha sect4--,book of  
the ,treasury of ,metaphysics4--,the    
,j-jitsu sect1 its founder and its      
doctrines4--,the ,ris-shu or ,viyana    
sect4--,japanese pilgrims to            
,china4--,the ,hos-s sect and its       
doctrines4--,the three grades of        
disciples4--,the ,san-ron or            
,three-shastra sect and its             
tenets4--,the ,middle ,path4--,the ,kgon
 sect4--,the ,unconditioned1 or         
realistic pantheism4--,the ,chinese or  
,tendai sect4--,its scriptures and      
dogmas4--,buddhahood attainable in the  
present body4--,vagradrodhi4--,the      
,yoga-chara system4--,the old           
sects4--,reaction against excessive     
idol-making4--,the ,zen                 
sect4--,labor-saving devices in         
,buddhism4--,making truth apparent by   
one's own thought4--,transmission of the
 ,zen doctrine4--,history of ,zen ,shu4 

,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the ,,buddhism ,,of   
,,the ,,japanese1 ,,page #beg  ,the ,j-d
 or ,pure ,land sect4--,substitution of 
faith in ,amida for the eight-fold      
,path4--,succession of the propagators  
of true doctrine4--,zend and            
,h-nen4--,the ,japanese path-finder to  
the ,pure ,land4--,doctrine of          
,j-d4--,buddhistic influence on the     
,japanese language4--,incessant         
repetition of prayers4--,the ,pure ,land
 in the ,west4--,the ,buddhist doctrine 
of justification by faith4--,h-nen's    
universalism4--,tendency of doctrinal   
development after ,h-nen4--,reformed    
,buddhism4--,synergism versus salvation 
by faith only4--,life of                
,shinran4--,posthumous honors4--,policy 
and aim of the ,shin sect1 methods and  
scriptures4   ,,chapter ,x  ,,japanese  
,,buddhism ,,in ,,its ,,missionary      
,,development1 ,,page #bhg  ,the        
missionary history of ,japanese         
,buddhism is the history of             
,japan4--,the first organized religion  

of the ,japanese4--,professor ,basil    
,hall ,chamberlain's testimony--,a      
picture of primeval life in the         
archipelago4--,what came in the train of
 the new religion from the ,west4       
,missionary civilizers1 teachers1       
road-makers1 improvers of diet4         
,language of flowers and gardens4--,the 
house and home4--,architecture--,the    
imperial capital--,hiyizan4--,love of   
natural scenery4--,pilgrimages and their
 fruits4--,the ,japanese                
aesthetic4--,art and decoration in the  
temples4--,exterior resemblances between
 the ,roman form of ,christianity and of
 ,buddhism4--,quotation from ,the       
,mikado's ,empire4--,internal vital     
differences4--,enlightenment and        
grace4--,ingwa and love4--,luxuriance of
 the art of ,northern                   
,buddhism4--,variety in individual      
treatment4--,place of the temple in the 
life of ,old ,japan4--,the protecting   
trees4--,the bell and its note4--,the   
graveyard and the priests' hold upon    

it4--,japanese ,buddhism as a political 
power4--,its influence upon military    
history4--,abbots on horseback and monks
 in armor4--,battles between the ,shin  
and ,zen sects4--,nobunaga4--,influence 
of ,buddhism in literature and          
education4--,the temple school4--,the   
kana writing4--,survey and critique of  
,buddhist history in ,japan4--,absence  
of organized charities4--,regard for    
animal and disregard for human          
life4--,the ,eta4--,the                 
,aino4--,attitude to women4--,nuna and  
numerics4--,polygamy and                
concubinage4--,buddhism compared with   
,shint4--,influence upon morals4--,the  
,first ,cause4--,its leadership among   
the sects4--,unreality of ,amida        
,buddha4--,nichiren4--,his life and     
opinions4--,idols and avatars4--,the    
favorite scripture of the sect1 the     
,saddharma ,pundarika4--,its central    
dogma1 everything in the universe       
capable of ,buddha-ship4--,the          
,salvation ,army of ,buddhism4--,kb's   

leaven working4--,buddhism ceases to be 
an intellectual force4--,the ,new       
,buddhism4--,are the ,japanese eager for
 reform8   ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,roman      
,,christianity ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth 
,,century1 ,,page #cbc  ,the many-sided 
story of ,japanese ,christianity4--,one 
hundred years of intercourse between    
,japan and ,europe4--,state of ,japan at
 the introduction of ,portuguese        
,christianity4--,xavier and             
,anjiro4--,xavier at ,kito and in       
,bungo4--,nobunaga and the              
,buddhists4--,high-water mark of        
,christianity4--,hideyoshi and the      
invasion of ,korea4--,kato and          
,konishi4--,persecutions4--,arrival of  
the ,spanish friars4--,their violation  
of good faith4--,spirit of the ,jesuits 
and ,franciscans4--,crucifixion on the  
bamboo cross4--,hidyori4--,kato         
,kiyomasa4--,the ,dutch in the ,eastern 
seas4--,will ,adams4--,iyyas suspects   
designs against the sovereignty of      
,japan4--,the ,christian religion       

outlawed4--,hidtada follows up the      
policy of ,iyyas1 excludes aliens1 and  
shuts up the country4--,the uprising of 
the ,christians at ,shimabara in        
#afcg4--;,christianity buried from      
sight4--,character of the missionaries  
and the form of the faith introduced by 
them4--,noble lives and ideals4--,the   
spirit of the ,inquisition in           
,japan4--,political animus and          
complexion4   ,,chapter ,,xii  ,,two    
,,centuries ,,of ,,silence1 ,,page #cea 
,policy of the ,japanese government     
after the suppression of                
,christianity4--,insulation of          
,japan4--,the ,hollanders at            
,dshima4--,withdrawal of the            
,english4--,relations with              
,korea4--,policy of inclusion4--,a      
society impervious to foreign           
ideas4--,life within stunted            
limits4--,canons of art and             
literature4--,philosophy made an engine 
of government4--,esoteric law4--,social 
waste of humanity4--,attempts to break  

down the wall--,external and            
internal4--,seekers after ,god4--,the   
goal of the pilgrims4--,the ,dshima     
,dutchman as pictured by enemies and    
rivals1 versus reality and              
truth4--,eager spirits groping after    
,god4--,morning stars of the ,japanese  
reformation4--,yokoi ,hishiro4--,the    
anti-,christian edicts4--,the ,buddhist 
,inquisitors4--,the ,shin-gaku or ,new  
,learning movement4--,the story of      
nineteenth century ,christianity1       
subterranean and interior before being  
phenomenal4--,sabbath-day service on the
 ,u4,s4,s4 ,mississippi4--,the first    
missionaries4--,dr4 ,j4,c4              
,hepburn--,healing and the              
,bible4--,yedo becomes ,tki4--,despatch 
of the ,embassy round the world4--,eyes 
opened4--,the ,acts of the ,apostles in 
,japan4   ,,notes1 ,,authorities ,,and  
,,illustrations1 ,,page #cge  ,,index1  
,,page #dea     ,,chapter ,i -          
,,primitive ,,faith3 ,,religion ,,before
 ,,books      ,the investigation of the 

beginnings of a religion is never the   
work of infidels1 but of the most       
reverent and conscientious     minds4   
,we1 the forty million souls of ,japan1 
standing firmly and     persistently    
upon the basis of international justice1
 await     still further manifestations 
as to the morality of                   
,christianity1--,hiraii1 of ,japan4     
,when the ,creator through              
intermediaries that were apparently     
animals had finished treating this world
 of men1 the good and     the bad ,gods 
were all mixed together promiscuously1  
and began     disputing for the         
possession of this world4--,the ,aino   
,story of     the ,creation4      ,if   
the ,japanese have few beast stories1   
the ,ainos have     apparently no       
popular tales of heroes 444 ,the ,aino  
mythologies     444 lack all connection 
with morality4444 ,both lack priests and
     prophets4444 ,both belong to a very
 primitive stage of mental              
development 444 ,excepting stories 444  

and a few almost metreless     songs1   
the ,ainos have no other literature at  
all4--,aino     ,studies4      ,i asked 
the earth1 and it answered1 ',i am not  
,he2' and     whatsoever are therein    
made the same confession4 ,i asked the  
sea     and the deep and the creeping   
things that lived1 and they     replied1
 ',we are not thy ,god2 seek higher than
 we4' 444 ,and ,i     answered unto all 
things which stand about the door of my 
flesh1     ',ye have told me concerning 
my ,god1 that ye are not he2 tell me    
something about him4' ,and with a loud  
voice they explained1 ',it     is ,he   
who hath made us6'--,augustine's        
,confessions4      ,seek ,him that      
maketh the seven stars and ,orion1 and  
turneth the     shadow of death into the
 morning1 and maketh the day dark with  
night2 that calleth for the waters of   
the sea1 and poureth them     out upon  
the face of the earth3 ,the ,,lord is   
his name4--,amos4      ,that which hath 
been made was life in ,him4--,john4     

,,chapter ,i - ,,primitive ,,faith3     
,,religion ,,before ,,books  ,the ,morse
 ,lectureship and the ,study of         
,comparative ,religion4   ,as a graduate
 of the ,union ,theological ,seminary in
 the city of ,new ,york1 in the ,class  
of #ahgg1 your servant received and     
accepted with pleasure the invitation of
 the ,president and ,board of ,trustees 
to deliver a course of lectures upon the
 religions of ,japan4 ,in that country  
and in several parts of it1 ,i lived    
from #ahgj to #ahgd4 ,i was in the      
service first of the feudal daimi of    
,echizen and then of the national       
government of ,japan1 helping to        
introduce that system of public schools 
which is now the glory of the country4  
,those four years gave me opportunities 
for close and constant observation of   
the outward side of the religions of    
,japan1 and facilities for the study of 
the ideas out of which worship springs4 
,since #ahfg1 however1 when first as a  
student in ,rutgers ,college at ,new    

,brunswick1 ,n4,j41 ,i met and          
instructed those students from the far  
,east1 who1 at risk of imprisonment and 
death had come to ,america for the      
culture of ,christendom1 ,i have been   
deeply interested in the study of the   
,japanese people and their thoughts4    
,to attempt a just and impartial survey 
of the religions of ,japan may seem a   
task that might well appall even a      
life-long ,oriental scholar4 ,yet it may
 be that an honest purpose1 a deep      
sympathy and a gladly avowed desire to  
help the ,east and the ,west1 the       
,japanese and the ,english-speaking     
people1 to understand each other1 are   
not wholly useless in a study of        
religion1 but for our purpose of real   
value4 ,these lectures are upon the     
,morse#a foundation which has these     
specifications written out by the       
founder3      ,the general subject of   
the lectures ,i desire to be3 ,the      
,relation of the ,bible to any of the   
,sciences1 as ,geography1     ,geology1 

,history1 and ,ethnology1 444 and the   
relation of the     facts and truths    
contained in the ,word of ,god1 to the  
principles1 methods1 and aims of any of 
the sciences4  ,now1 among the sciences 
which we must call to our aid are those 
of geography and geology1 by which are  
conditioned history and ethnology of    
which we must largely treat2 and1 most  
of all1 the science of ,comparative     
,religion4  ,this last is               
,christianity's own child4 ,other       
sciences1 such as geography and         
astronomy1 may have been born among     
lands and nations outside of and even   
before ,christendom4 ,other sciences1   
such as geology1 may have had their rise
 in ,christian time and in ,christian   
lands1 their foundation lines laid and  
their main processes illustrated by     
,christian men1 which yet cannot be     
claimed by ,christianity as her children
 bearing her own likeness and image2 but
 the science of ,comparative ,religion  
is the direct offspring of the religion 

of ,jesus4 ,it is a distinctively       
,christian science4 ,it is so because it
 is a product of ,christian             
civilization1 and because it finds its  
impulse in that freedom of inquiry which
 ,christianity fosters4#b ,christian    
scholars began the investigations1      
formulated the principles1 collected the
 materials and reared the already       
splendid fabric of the science of       
,comparative ,religion1 because the     
spirit of ,christ which was in them did 
signify this4 ,jesus bade his disciples 
search1 inquire1 discern and compare4   
,paul1 the greatest of the apostolic    
,christian college1 taught3 ,prove all  
things2 hold fast that which is good4   
,in our day one of ,christ's loving     
followers#c expressed the spirit of her 
,master in her favorite motto1 ,truth   
for authority1 not authority for truth4 
,well says ,dr4 ,james ,legge1 a prince 
among scholars1 and translator of the   
,chinese classics1 who has added several
 portly volumes to ,professor ,max      

,mller's series of the ,sacred ,books of
 the ,east1 whose face to-day is bronzed
 and whose hair is whitened by fifty    
years of service in southern ,china     
where with his own hands he baptized six
 hundred ,chinamen3#d      ,the more    
that a man possesses the ,christian     
spirit1 and is     governed by          
,christian principle1 the more anxious  
will he be to     do justice to every   
other system of religion1 and to hold   
his     own without taint or fetter of  
bigotry4#e  ,it was ,christianity that1 
in a country where the religion of      
,jesus has fullest liberty1 called the  
,parliament of ,religions1 and this for 
reasons clearly manifest4 ,only         
,christians had and have the requisites 
of success1 viz43 sufficient interest in
 other men and religions2 the necessary 
unity of faith and purpose2 and above   
all1 the brave and bold disregard of the
 consequences4 ,christianity calls the  
,parliament of ,religions1 following out
 the ,divine audacity of ,him who1 so   

often1 confronting worldly wisdom and   
priestly cunning1 said to his disciples1
 ,think not1 be not anxious1 take no    
heed1 be careful for nothing--only for  
love and truth4 ,i am not come to       
destroy1 but to fulfil4  ,of all places 
therefore1 the study of comparative     
religion is most appropriate in a       
,christian theological seminary4 ,we    
must know how our fellow-men think and  
believe1 in order to help them4 ,it is  
our duty to discover the pathways of    
approach to their minds and hearts4 ,we 
must show them1 as our brethren and     
children of the same ,heavenly ,father1 
the common ground on which we all stand4
 ,we must point them to the greater     
truth in the ,bible and in ,christ      
,jesus1 and demonstrate wherein both the
 divinely inspired library and the truth
 written in a divine-human life fulfil  
that which is lacking in their books and
 masters4  ,to know just how to do this 
is knowledge to be coveted as a most    
excellent gift4 ,an understanding of the

 religion of our fellow-men is good1    
both for him who goes as a missionary   
and for him who at home prays1 ,thy     
kingdom come4  ,the theological         
seminary1 which begins the systematic   
and sympathetic study of ,comparative   
,religion and fills the chair with a    
professor who has a vital as well as    
academic interest in the welfare of his 
fellow-men who as yet know not ,jesus as
 ,christ and ,lord1 is sure to lead in  
effective missionary work4 ,the students
 thus equipped will be furnished as none
 others are1 to begin at once the       
campaign of help and warfare of love4   
,it may be that insight into and        
sympathy with the struggles of men who  
are groping after ,god1 if haply they   
may find him1 will shorten the polemic  
sword of the professional converter     
whose only purpose is destructive       
hostility without tactics or strategy1  
or whose chief idea of missionary       
success is in statistics1 in blackening 
the character of the heathen1 in        

sensational letters for home consumption
 and reports properly cooked and served 
for the secretarial and sectarian       
palates4 ,yet1 if true in history1      
,greek1 ,roman1 ,japanese1 it is also   
true in the missionary wars1 that the   
race that shortens its weapons lengthens
 its boundaries4#f  ,apart from the wit 
or the measure of truth in this sentence
 quoted1 it is a matter of truth in the 
generalizations of fact that the figure 
of the sword of the spirit1 which is the
 word of ,god1 used by ,paul1 and also  
the figure of the word of ,god1 living  
and active1 sharper than any two-edged  
sword1 and piercing even to the dividing
 of the soul and spirit1 of both joints 
and marrow1 and quick to discern the    
thoughts and intents of the heart1 of   
the writer to the ,hebrews1 had for     
their original in iron the victorious   
gladium of the ,roman legionary--a      
weapon both short and sharp4 ,we may    
learn from this substance of fact behind
 the shadow of the figure a lesson for  

our instant application4 ,the           
disciplined ,romans scorned the long    
blades of the barbarians1 whose valor so
 often impetuous was also impotent      
against discipline4 ,the ,romans        
measured their blades by inches1 not by 
feet4 ,for ages the ,japanese sword has 
been famed for its temper more than its 
weight4#g ,the ,christian entering upon 
his ,master's campaigns with as little  
impediments of sectarian dogma as       
possible1 should select a weapon that is
 short1 sure and divinely tempered4  ,to
 know exactly the defects of the        
religion we seek to abolish1 modify1    
supplement1 supplant or fulfil1 means   
wise economy of force4 ,to get at the   
secrets of its hold upon the people we  
hope to convert leads to a right use of 
power4 ,in a word1 knowledge of the     
opposing religion1 and especially of    
alien language1 literature and ways of  
feeling and thinking1 lengthens         
missionary life4 ,a man who does not    
know the moulds of thought of his       

hearers is like a swordsman trying to   
fight at long range but only beating the
 air4 ,armed with knowledge and         
sympathy1 the missionary smites with    
effect at close quarters4 ,he knows the 
vital spots4  ,let me fortify my own    
convictions and conclude this           
preliminary part of my lectures by      
quoting again1 not from academic        
authorities1 but from active            
missionaries who are or have been at the
 front and in the field4#h  ,the ,rev4  
,samuel ,beal1 author of ,buddhism in   
,china1 said 7p4 #ai7 that it was plain 
to him that no real work could be done  
among the people of ,china and ,japan by
 missionaries until the system of their 
belief was understood4  ,the ,rev4      
,james ,mac,donald1 a veteran missionary
 in ,africa1 in the concluding chapter  
of his very able work on ,religion and  
,myth1 says3      ,the ,church that     
first adopts for her intending          
missionaries the     study of           
,comparative ,religion as a substitute  

for subjects now     taught will lead   
the van in the path of true progress4   
,the ,people of ,japan4   ,in this faith
 then1 in the spirit of ,him who said1  
,i come not to destroy but to fulfil1   
let us cast our eyes upon that part of  
the world where lies the empire of      
,japan with its forty-one millions of   
souls4 ,here we have not a country like 
,india--a vast conglomeration of        
nations1 languages and religions        
occupying a peninsula itself like a     
continent1 whose history consists of a  
stratification of many civilizations4   
,nor have we here a seemingly inert mass
 of humanity in a political structure   
blending democracy and imperialism1 as  
in ,china1 so great in age1 area and    
numbers as to weary the imagination that
 strives to grasp the details4 ,on the  
contrary1 in ,dai ,nippon1 or ,great    
,land of the ,sun's ,origin1 we have a  
little country easy of study4 ,in       
geology it is one of the youngest of    
lands4 ,its known history is            

comparatively modern4 ,its area roughly 
reckoned as #aej1jjj square miles1 is   
about that of our ,dakotas or of ,great 
,britain and ,ireland4 ,the census      
completed ,december #ca1 #ahib1         
illustrates here1 as all over the world1
 nature's argument against polygamy4 ,it
 tells us that the relation between the 
sexes is1 numerically at least1 normal4 
,there were #bj1geb1cff males and       
#bj1ccg1egd females1 making a population
 of #da1jhi1idj souls4 ,all these people
 are subjects of the one emperor1 and   
excepting fewer than twenty thousand    
savages in the northern islands called  
,ainos1 speak one language and form     
substantially one race4 ,even the ,riu  
,kiu islanders are ,japanese in         
language1 customs and religion4 ,in a   
word1 except in minor differences       
appreciable or at least important only  
to the special student1 the modern      
,japanese are a homogeneous people4  ,in
 origin and formation1 this people is a 
composite of many tribes4 ,roughly      

outlining the ethnology of ,japan1 we   
should say that the aborigines were     
immigrants from the continent with      
,malay reinforcement in the south1      
,koreans in the centre1 and ,ainos in   
the east and north1 with occasional     
strains of blood at different periods   
from various parts of the ,asian        
mainland4 ,in brief1 the ,japanese are a
 very mixed race4 ,authentic history    
before the ,christian era is unknown4   
,at some point of time1 probably later  
than ,a4,d4 #bjj1 a conquering tribe1   
one of many from the ,asian mainland1   
began to be paramount on the main       
island4 ,about the fourth century       
something like historic events and      
personages begin to be visible1 but no  
,japanese writings are older than the   
early part of the eighth century1 though
 almanacs and means of measuring time   
are found in the sixth century4         
,whatever ,japan may be in legend and   
mythology1 she is in fact and in history
 younger than ,christianity4 ,her line  

of rulers1 as alleged in old official   
documents and ostentatiously reaffirmed 
in the first article of the constitution
 of #ahhi1 to be unbroken for ages      
eternal1 is no older than that of the   
popes4 ,let us not think of ,aryan or   
,chinese antiquity when we talk of      
,japan4 ,her history as a state began   
when the ,roman empire fell4 ,the       
,germanic nations emerged into history  
long before the ,japanese4  ,roughly    
outlining the political and religious   
life of the ancient ,japanese1 we note  
that their first system of government   
was a rude sort of feudalism imposed by 
the conquerors and was synchronous with 
aboriginal fetichism1 nature worship1   
ancestral sacrifices1 sun-worship and   
possibly but not probably1 a very rude  
sort of monotheism akin to the primitive
 ,chinese cultus4#i ,almost contemporary
 with ,buddhism1 its introduction and   
missionary development1 was the struggle
 for centralized imperialism borrowed   
from the ,chinese and consolidated in   

the period from the seventh to the      
twelfth century4 ,during most of this   
time ,shint1 or the primitive religion1 
was overshadowed while the ,confucian   
ethics were taught4 ,from the twelfth to
 this nineteenth century feudalism in   
politics and ,buddhism in religion      
prevailed1 though ,confucianism         
furnished the social laws or rules of   
daily conduct4 ,since the epochal year  
of #ahfh1 with imperialism reestablished
 and the feudal system abolished1 ,shint
 has had a visible revival1 being kept  
alive by government patronage4          
,buddhism1 though politically           
disestablished1 is still the popular    
religion with recent increase of        
life1#aj while ,confucianism is         
decidedly losing force4 ,christianity   
has begun its promising career4   ,the  
,amalgam of ,religions4   ,yet in the   
imperial and constitutional ,japan of   
our day it is still true of probably at 
least thirty-eight millions of ,japanese
 that their religion is not one1 ,shint1

 ,confucianism or ,buddhism1 but an     
amalgam of all three4 ,there is not in  
every-day life that sharp distinction   
between these religions which the native
 or foreign scholar makes1 and which    
both history and philosophy demand shall
 be made for the student at least4      
,using the technical language of        
,christian theologians1 ,shint furnishes
 theology1 ,confucianism anthropology   
and ,buddhism soteriology4 ,the average 
,japanese learns about the gods and     
draws inspiration for his patriotism    
from ,shint1 maxims for his ethical and 
social life from ,confucius1 and his    
hope of what he regards as salvation    
from ,buddhism4 ,or1 as a native        
scholar1 ,nobuta ,kishimoto1#aa         
expresses it1      ,in ,japan these     
three different systems of religion and 
morality     are not only living        
together on friendly terms with one     
another1     but1 in fact1 they are     
blended together in the minds of the    
people1 who draw necessary nourishment  

from all of these     sources4 ,one and 
the same ,japanese is both a ,shintist1 
a     ,confucianist1 and a ,buddhist4   
,he plays a triple part1 so to     speak
 444 ,our religion may be likened to a  
triangle4444     ,shintism furnishes the
 object1 ,confucianism offers the rules 
of life1 while ,buddhism supplies the   
way of salvation2 so you     see we     
,japanese are eclectic in everything1   
even in religion4  ,these three         
religious systems as at present         
constituted1 are book religions4 ,they  
rest1 respectively1 upon the ,kojiki and
 other ancient ,japanese literature and 
the modern commentators2 upon the       
,chinese classics edited and commented  
on by ,confucius and upon ,chu ,hi and  
other mediaeval scholastics who         
commented upon ,confucius2 and upon the 
shastras and sutras with which ,gautama1
 the ,buddha1 had something to do4 ,yet 
in primeval and prehistoric ,nippon     
neither these books nor the religions   
growing out of the books were extant4   

,furthermore1 strictly speaking1 it is  
not with any or all of these three      
religions that the ,christian missionary
 comes first1 oftenest or longest in    
contact4 ,in ancient1 in mediaeval1 and 
in modern times the student notices a   
great undergrowth of superstition       
clinging parasitically to all religions1
 though formally recognized by none4    
,whether we call it fetichism1          
shamanism1 nature worship or heathenism 
in its myriad forms1 it is there in     
awful reality4 ,it is as omnipresent1 as
 persistent1 as hard to kill as the     
scrub bamboo which both efficiently and 
sufficiently takes the place of thorns  
and thistles as the curse of ,japanese  
ground4  ,the book-religions can be more
 or less apprehended by those alien to  
them1 but to fully appreciate the depth1
 extent1 influence and tenacity of these
 archaic1 unwritten and unformulated    
beliefs requires residence upon the soil
 and life among the devotees4 ,disowned 
it may be by the priests and sages1     

indignantly disclaimed or secretly      
approved in part by the organized       
religions1 this great undergrowth of    
superstition is as apparent as the      
silicious bamboo grass which everywhere 
conditions and modifies ,japanese       
agriculture4 ,such prevalence of mental 
and spiritual disease is the sad fact   
that confronts every lover of his       
fellow-men4 ,this paganism is more      
ancient and universal than any one of   
the religions founded on writing or     
teachers of name and fame4 ,even the    
applied science and the wonderful       
inventions imported from the ,west1 so  
far from eradicating it1 only serve as  
the iron-clad man-of-war in warm salt   
water serves the barnacles1 furnishing  
them food and hold4  ,we propose to give
 in this our first lecture1 a general or
 bird's-eye view of this dead level of  
paganism above which the systems of     
,shint1 ,confucianism and ,buddhism     
tower like mountains4 ,it in by this    
omnipresent superstition that the       

respectable religious have been         
conditioned in their history and are    
modified at present1 even as            
,christianity has been influenced in its
 progress by ethnic or local ideas and  
temperaments1 and will be yet in its    
course of victory in the ,mikado's      
empire4  ,just as the terms heathen     
7happily no longer1 in the ,revised     
,version of the ,english ,bible7 and    
pagan suggest the heath-man of ,northern
 ,europe and the isolated hamlet of the 
,roman empire1 while the cities were    
illuminated with ,christian truth1 so1  
in the main1 the matted superstitious of
 ,chinese ,asia are more suggestive of  
distances from books and centres of     
knowledge1 though still sufficiently    
rooted in the crowded cities4  ,one to  
whom the boundary line between the      
,creator and his world is perfectly     
clear1 one who knows the eternal        
difference between mind and matter1 one 
born amid the triumphs of science can   
but faintly realize the mental condition

 of the millions of ,japan to whom there
 is no unifying thought of the          
,creator-,father4 ,faith in the unity of
 law is the foundation of all science1  
but the average ,asiatic has not this   
thought or faith4 ,appalled at his own  
insignificance amid the sublime         
mysteries and awful immensities of      
nature1 the shadows of his own mind     
become to him real existences4 ,as it is
 affirmed that the human skin1 sensitive
 to the effects of light1 takes the     
photograph of the tree riven by         
lightning1 so1 on the pagan mind lie in 
ineffaceable and exaggerated            
grotesqueness the scars of impressions  
left by hereditary teaching1 by natural 
phenomena and by the memory of events   
and of landmarks4 ,out of the soil of   
diseased imagination has sprung up a    
growth as terrible as the drunkard's    
phantasies4 ,the earthquake1 flood1     
tidal wave1 famine1 withering or        
devastating wind and poisonous gases1   
the geological monsters and ravening    

bird1 beast and fish1 have their        
representatives or supposed incarnations
 in mythical phantasms4  ,frightful as  
these shadows of the mind appear1 they  
are both very real and1 in a sense1 very
 necessary to the ignorant man4 ,he must
 have some theory by which to explain   
the phenomena of nature and soothe his  
own terrors4 ,hence he peoples the earth
 and water1 not only with invisible     
spirits more or less malevolent1 but    
also with bodily presences usually in   
terrific bestial form4 ,to those who    
believe in one ,spirit pervading1       
ordering1 governing all things1 there is
 unity amid all phenomena1 and the      
universe is all order and beauty4 ,to   
the mind which has not reached this     
height of simplicity1 instead of one    
cause there are many4 ,the diverse      
phenomena of nature are brought about by
 spirits innumerable1 warring and       
discordant4 ,instead of a unity to the  
mind1 as of sun and solar system1 there 
is nothing but planets1 asteroids and a 

constant rain of shooting-stars4        
,shamanism4   ,glancing at some phases  
of the actual unwritten religions of    
,japan we name ,shamanism1 ,mythical    
,zology1 ,fetichism1 ,phallicism1 and   
,tree and ,serpent ,worship4  ,in actual
 ,shamanism or ,animism there may or    
there may not be a belief in or         
conception of a single all-powerful     
,creator above and beyond all4#ab       
,usually there is not such a belief1    
though1 even if there be1 the actual    
government of the physical world and its
 surroundings is believed to lie in the 
hands of many spirits or gods benevolent
 and malevolent4 ,earth1 air1 water1 all
 things teem with beings that are       
malevolent and constantly active4 ,in   
time of disaster1 famine1 epidemic the  
universe seems as overcrowded with them 
as stagnant water seems to be when the  
solar microscope throw its contents into
 apparition upon the screen4 ,it is     
absolutely necessary to propitiate these
 spirits by magic rites and             

incantations4  ,among the tribes of the 
northern part of the ,chinese ,empire   
and the ,ainos of ,japan this ,shamanism
 exists as something like an organized  
cultus4 ,indeed1 it would be hard to    
find any part of ,chinese ,asia from    
,korea to ,annam or from ,tibet to      
,formosa1 not dominated by this belief  
in the power and presence of minor      
spirits4 ,the ,ainos of ,yezo may be    
called ,shamanists or ,animists2 that   
is1 their minds are cramped and confused
 by their belief in a multitude of      
inferior spirits whom they worship and  
propitiate by rites and incantations    
through their medicine-man or sorcerer4 
,how they whittle sticks1 keeping on the
 fringe of curled shavings1 and set up  
these1 called inao in places whence evil
 is suspected to lurk1 and how the      
shaman conducts his exorcisms and works 
his healings1 are told in the works of  
the traveller and the missionary4#ac ,in
 the wand of shavings thus reared we see
 the same motive as that which induced  

the ,mikado in the eighth century to    
build the great monasteries on ,hiyizan1
 northeast of ,kito1 this being the     
quarter in which ,buddhist superstition 
locates the path of advancing evil1 to  
ward off malevolence by litanies and    
incense4 ,or1 the inao is a sort of     
lightning-rod conductor by which        
impending mischief may be led harmlessly
 away4  ,yet1 besides the ,ainos1#ad    
there are millions of ,japanese who are 
,shamanists1 even though they know not  
the name or organized cult4 ,and if we  
make use of the term ,shamanism instead 
of the more exact one of ,animism1 it is
 for the very purpose of illustrating   
our contention that the underlying      
paganisms of the ,japanese archipelago1 
unwritten and unformulated1 are older   
than the religions founded on books2 and
 that these paganisms1 still vital and  
persistent1 constantly modify and       
corrupt the recognized religious4 ,the  
term ,shaman1 a ,pali word1 was         
originally a pure ,buddhist term meaning

 one who has separated from his family  
and his passions4 ,one of the           
designations of the ,buddha was         
,shamana-,gautama4 ,the same word1      
,shamon1 in ,japanese still means a     
bonze1 or ,buddhist priest4 ,its        
appropriation by the sorcerers1         
medicine-men1 and lords of the misrule  
of superstition in ,mongolia and        
,manchuria shows decisively how         
indigenous paganism has corrupted the   
,buddhism of northern ,asia even as it  
has caused its decay in ,japan4  ,as out
 of ,animism or ,shamanism grows        
,fetichism in which a visible object is 
found for the abode or medium of the    
spirit1 so also1 out of the same soil   
arises what we may call ,imaginary      
,zology4 ,in this mental growth1 the    
nightmare of the diseased imagination or
 of the mind unable to draw the line    
between the real and the unreal1        
,chinese ,asia differs notably from the 
,aryan world4 ,with the mythical        
monsters of ,india and ,iran we are     

acquainted1 and with those of the       
,semitic and ancient ,european cycle of 
ideas which furnished us with our       
ancients and classics we are familiar4  
,the lovely presences in human form1 the
 semi-human and bestial creations1      
sphinxes1 naiads1 satyrs1 fauns1        
harpies1 griffins1 with which the fancy 
of the ,mediterranean nations populated 
glen1 grotto1 mountain and stream1 are  
probably outnumbered by the less        
beautiful and even hideous mind-shadows 
of the ,turanian world4 ,chief among    
these are what in ,chinese literature1  
so slavishly borrowed by the ,japanese1 
are called the four supernatural or     
spiritually endowed creatures--the      
,kirin or ,unicorn1 the ,phoenix1 the   
,tortoise and the ,dragon4#ae           
,mythical ,zology4   ,of the first      
species the ki is the male1 the lin is  
the female1 hence the name ,kilin4 ,the 
,japanese having no l1 pronounce this   
,kirin4 ,its appearance on the earth is 
regarded as a happy portent of the      

advent of good government or the birth  
of men who are to prove virtuous rulers4
 ,it has the body of a deer1 the tail of
 an ox1 and a single1 soft horn4 ,as    
messenger of mercy and benevolence1 the 
,kirin never treads on a live insect or 
eats growing grass4 ,later philosophy   
made this imaginary beast the           
incarnation of those five primordial    
elements--earth1 air1 water1 fire and   
ether of which all things1 including    
man's body1 are made and which are      
symbolized in the shapes of the cube1   
globe1 pyramid1 saucer and tuft of rays 
in the ,japanese gravestones4 ,it is    
said to attain the age of a thousand    
years1 to be the noblest form of the    
animal creation and the emblem of       
perfect good4 ,in ,chinese and ,japanese
 art this creature holds a prominent    
place1 and in literature even more so4  
,it is not only part of the repertoire  
of the artist's symbols in the ,chinese 
world of ideas1 but is almost a         
necessity to the moulds of thought in   

eastern ,asia4 ,yet it is older than    
,confucius or the book-religions1 and   
its conception shows one of the nobler  
sides of ,animism4  ,the ,feng-hwang or 
,phoenix1 ,japanese ,h-w1 the second of 
the incarnations of the spirits1 is of  
wondrous form and mystic nature4 ,the   
rare advent of this bird upon the earth 
is1 like that of the kirin or unicorn1 a
 presage of the advent of virtuous      
rulers and good government4 ,it has the 
head of a pheasant1 the beak of a       
swallow1 the neck of a tortoise1 and the
 features of the dragon and fish4 ,its  
colors and streaming feathers are       
gorgeous with iridian sheen1 combining  
the splendors of the pheasant and the   
peacock4 ,its five colors symbolize the 
cardinal virtues of uprightness of mind1
 obedience1 justice1 fidelity and       
benevolence4 ,the male bird ,h1 and     
female w1 by their inseparable          
fellowship furnish the artist1 poet and 
literary writer with the originals of   
the ten thousand references which are   

found in ,chinese and its derived       
literatures4 ,of this mystic ,phoenix a 
,chinese dictionary thus gives          
description3      ,the ,phoenix is of   
the essence of water2 it was born in the
     vermilion cave2 it perches not but 
on the most beautiful of all     trees2 
it eats not but of the seed of the      
bamboo2 its body is     adorned with the
 five colors2 its song contains the five
 notes2     as it walks it looks around2
 as it flies hosts of birds follow      
it4  ,older than the elaborate          
descriptions of it and its              
representations in art1 the ,h-w is one 
of the creations of primitive ,chinese  
,animism4  ,the ,kwei or ,tortoise is   
not the actual horny reptile known to   
naturalists and to common experience1   
but a spirit1 an animated creature that 
ages ago rose up out of the ,yellow     
,river1 having on its carapace the      
mystic writing out of which the         
legendary founder of ,chinese           
civilization deciphered the basis of    

moral teachings and the secrets of the  
unseen4 ,from this divine tortoise which
 conceived by thought alone1 all other  
tortoises sprang4 ,in the elaboration of
 the myths and legends concerning the   
tortoise we find many varieties of this 
scaly incarnation4 ,it lives a thousand 
years1 hence it is emblem of longevity  
in art and literature4 ,it is the       
attendant of the god of the waters4 ,it 
has some of the qualities and energies  
of the dragon1 it has the power of      
transformation4 ,in pictures and        
sculptures we are familiar with its     
figure1 often of colossal size1 as      
forming the curb of a well1 the base of 
a monument or tablet4 ,yet1 whatever its
 form in literature or art1 it is the   
later elaborated representation of      
ancient ,animism which selected the     
tortoise as one of the manifold         
incarnations or media of the myriad     
spirits that populate the air4  ,chief  
and leader of the four divinely         
constituted beasts is the ,lung1        

,japanese ,ri1 or ,dragon1 which has the
 power of transformation and of making  
itself visible or invisible4 ,at will it
 reduces itself to the size of a        
silk-worm1 or is swollen until it fills 
the space of heaven and earth4 ,this is 
the creature especially preeminent in   
art1 literature and rhetoric4 ,there are
 nine kinds of dragons1 all with various
 features and functions1 and artists and
 authors revel in their representation4 
,the celestial dragon guards the        
mansions of the gods and supports them  
lest they fall2 the spiritual dragon    
causes the winds to blow and rain to    
descend for the service of mankind2 the 
earth dragon marks out the courses of   
rivers and streams2 the dragon of the   
hidden treasures watches over the wealth
 concealed from mortals1 etc4           
,outwardly1 the dragon of superstition  
resembles the geological monsters       
brought to resurrection by our          
paleontologists4 ,he seems to incarnate 
all the attributes and forces of animal 

life--vigor1 rapidity of motion1        
endurance1 power of offence in horn1    
hoof1 claw1 tooth1 nail1 scale and fiery
 breath4 ,being the embodiment of all   
force the dragon is especially          
symbolical of the emperor4 ,usually     
associated with malevolence1 one sees1  
besides the conventional art and        
literature of civilization1 the         
primitive animistic idea of men to whose
 mind this mysterious universe had no   
unity1 who believed in myriad discordant
 spirits but knew not of one ,law-giver1
 who is able both to save and to        
destroy4 ,an enlargement1 possibly1 of  
prehistoric man's reminiscence of now   
extinct monsters1 the dragon is1 in its 
artistic development1 a mythical        
embodiment of all the powers of moisture
 to bless and to harm4 ,we shall see    
how1 when ,buddhism entered ,china1 the 
cobra-de-capello1 so often figured in   
the ,buddhistic representations of      
,india1 is replaced by the dragon4  ,yet
 besides these four incarnations of the 

spirits that misrule the world there is 
a host1 a menagerie of mythical         
monsters4 ,in ,korea1 one of the ,asian 
countries richest in demonology1 beast  
worship is very prevalent4 ,mythical    
winged tigers and flying serpents with  
attributes of fire1 lightning and       
combinations of forces not found in any 
one creature1 are common to the popular 
fancy4 ,in ,japan1 the kappa1 half      
monkey half tortoise1 which seizes      
children bathing in the rivers1 as real 
to millions of the native common folk as
 is the shark or porpoise2 the          
flying-weasel1 that moves in the        
whirlwind with sickle-like blades on his
 claws1 which cut the face of the       
unfortunate2 the wind-god or imp that   
lets loose the gale or storm2 the       
thunder-imp or hairy1 cat-like creature 
that on the cloud-edges beats his drums 
in crash1 roll1 or rattle2 the          
earthquake-fish or subterranean         
bull-head or cat-fish that wriggles and 
writhes1 causing the earth to shiver1   

shudder and open2 the ja or dragon      
centipede2 the tengu or long-nosed and  
winged mountain sprite1 which acts as   
the messenger of the gods1 pulling out  
the tongues of fibbing1 lying children2 
besides the colossal spiders and        
mythical creatures of the old           
story-books2 the foxes1 badgers1 cats   
and other creatures which transform     
themselves and possess human beings1    
still influence the popular mind4       
,these1 once the old kami of the        
primitive ,japanese1 or kamui of the    
aboriginal ,aino1 show the mental soil  
and climate#af which were to condition  
the growth of the seed imported from    
other lands1 whether of ,buddhism or    
,christianity4 ,it is very hard to kill 
a god while the old mind that grew and  
nourished him still remains the same4   
,banish or brand a phantom or           
mind-shadow once worshipped as divine1  
and it will appear as a fairy1 a demon1 
a mythical animal1 or an oni2 but to    
annihilate it requires many centuries of

 higher culture4  ,as with the          
superstitions and survival of ,animism  
and ,fetichism from our pagan ancestors 
among ourselves1 many of the lingering  
beliefs may be harmless1 but over the   
mass of men in ,japan and in ,chinese   
,asia they still exert a baleful        
influence4 ,they make life full of      
distress2 they curtail human joy2 they  
are a hindrance1 to spiritual progress  
and to civilization4   ,fetichism4      
,the animistic tendency in that part of 
,asia dominated by the ,chinese world of
 ideas shows itself not only in a belief
 in messengers or embodiments of divine 
malevolence or benevolence1 but also in 
the location of the spiritual influence 
in or upon an inanimate object or       
fetich4 ,among men in ,chinese ,asia1   
from the clodhopper to the gentleman1   
the inheritance of ,fetichism from the  
primeval ages is constantly noticeable4 
,let us glance at the term itself4  ,as 
the ,chinaman's ,joss is only his own   
pronunciation of the ,portuguese word   

,deos1 or the ,latin ,deus1 so the word 
fetich is but the ,portuguese           
modification of the ,latin word         
facticius1 that is feitio4 ,portugal1   
beginning nearly five hundred years ago1
 had the honor of sending the first     
ships and crews to explore the coasts of
 ,africa and ,asia1 and her sailors by  
this word1 now ,englished as fetich1    
described the native charms or          
talismans4 ,the word fetichism came into
 the ,european languages through the    
work of ,charles de ,brosses1 who1 in   
#agfj1 wrote on ,du ,culte des ,dieux   
,ftiches4 ,in ,fetichism1 the object is 
treated as having personal consciousness
 and power1 is talked with1 worshipped1 
prayed to1 sacrificed to1 petted or     
ill-treated with reference to its past  
or future behavior to its votaries4     
,let me draw a picture from actual      
observation4 ,i look out of the windows 
of my house in ,fukui4 ,here is a       
peasant who comes back after the winter 
to prepare his field for cultivation4   

,the man's horizon of ideas1 like his   
vocabulary1 is very limited4 ,his view  
of actual life is bounded by a few      
rice-fields1 a range of hills1 and the  
village near by4 ,possibly one visit to 
a city or large town has enriched his   
experience4 ,more probably1 however1 the
 wind and clouds1 the weather1 the soil1
 crops and taxes1 his family and food   
and how to provide for them1 are the    
main thoughts that occupy his mind4     
,before he will strike mattock or spade 
in the soil1 lay axe to a tree1 collect 
or burn underbrush1 he will select a    
stone1 a slab of rock or a stick of     
wood1 set it upon hill side or mud      
field-boundary1 and to this he will bow1
 prostrate himself or pray4 ,to him1    
this stone or stick is consecrated4 ,it 
has power to placate the spirits and    
ward off their evil4 ,it is the medium  
of communication between him and them4  
,now1 having attended1 as he thinks1 to 
the proprieties in the case1 he proceeds
 to dig1 plough1 drain1 put in order and

 treat soil or water1 tree or other     
growth as is most convenient for his    
purpose4 ,his fetich is erected to the  
honorable spirits4 ,were this not       
attended to1 some known or unknown bad  
luck1 sinister fortune1 or calamity     
would befall him4 ,here1 then1 is a     
fetich-worshipper4 ,the stick or stone  
is the medium of communication between  
the man and the spirits who can bless or
 harm him1 and which to his mind are as 
countlessly numerous as the swarms of   
mosquitoes which he drives out of and   
away from his summer cottage by smudge  
fires in ,august4  ,one need not travel 
in ,yezo or ,saghalin to see practical  
,fetichism4 ,go where you will in       
,japan1 there are fetich worshippers4   
,among the country folk1 the inaka of   
,japanese parlance1 ,fetichism is seen  
in its grossest forms4 ,yet among       
probably millions of ,buddhists1        
especially of certain sects1 the        
,nichiren for example1 and even among   
the rationalistic ,confucians1 there are

 fetich-worshippers4 ,rare is the       
,japanese farmer1 laborer1 mechanic1    
ward-man1 or hei-min of any trade who   
does not wear amulet1 charm or other    
object which he regards with more or    
less of reverence as having relation to 
the powers that help or harm4#ag ,in    
most of the ,buddhist temples these     
amulets are sold for the benefit of the 
priests or of the shrine or monastery4  
,not a few even of the gentry consider  
it best to be on the safe side and wear 
in pouch or purse these protectors      
against evil4  ,of the #g1hag1egj houses
 in the empire1 enumerated in the census
 of #ahib1 it is probable that seven    
millions of them are subjects of        
insurance by fetich4#ah ,they are       
guaranteed against fire1 thieves1       
lightning1 plague and pestilence4 ,it is
 because of money paid to the priests   
that the wooden policies are duly nailed
 on the walls1 and not on account of the
 wise application of mathematical1      
financial or medical science4 ,examine  

also the paper packages carefully tied  
and affixed above the transom1 decipher 
the writing in ink or the brand left by 
the hot iron on the little slabs of     
pine-wood--there may be one or a score  
of them--and what will you read8 ,names 
of the temples with date of issue and   
seal of certificate from the priests1   
mottoes or titles from sacred books1    
often only a ,sanskrit letter or        
monogram1 of which the priest-pedler may
 long since have forgotten the meaning4 
,to build a house1 select a cemetery or 
proceed to any of the ordinary events of
 life without making use of some sort of
 material fetich1 is unusual1           
extraordinary and is voted heterodox4   
,long after the brutish stage of thought
 is past the fetichistic instinct       
remains in the sacredness attached to   
the mere letter or paper or parchment of
 the sacred book or writing1 when used  
as amulet1 plaster or medicine4 ,the    
survivals1 even in ,buddhism1 of ancient
 and prehistoric ,fetichism are many and

 often with undenied approval of the    
religious authorities1 especially in    
those sects which are themselves        
reversions to primitive and lower types 
of religion4  ,among the ,ainos of ,yezo
 and ,saghalin the medicine-man or      
shaman is decorated with fetichistic    
bric--brac of all sorts1 and these bits 
of shells1 metals1 and other clinking   
substances are believed to be media of  
communication with mysterious influences
 and forces4 ,in ,korea thousands of    
trees bedecked with fluttering rags1    
clinking scraps of tin1 metal or stone  
signify the same thing4 ,in ,japan these
 primitive tinkling scraps and clinking 
bunches of glass have long since become 
the suzu or wind-bells seen on the      
pagoda which tintinabulate with every   
passing breeze4 ,the whittled sticks of 
the ,aino1 non-conductors of evil and   
protectors of those who make and rear   
them1 stuck up in every place of awe or 
supposed danger1 have in the slow       
evolution of centuries become the       

innumerable flag-poles1 banners and     
streamers which one sees at their       
matsuris or temple festivals4 ,millions 
of towels and handkerchiefs still       
flutter over wells and on sacred trees4 
,in old ,japan the banners of an army   
almost outnumbered the men who fought   
beneath them4 ,today1 at times they     
nearly conceal the temples from view4   
,the civilized ,japanese1 having passed 
far beyond the ,aino's stage of         
religion1 still show their fetichistic  
instincts in the veneration accorded to 
priestly inventions for raising         
revenue4#ai ,this instinct lingers in   
the faith accorded to medicine in the   
form of decoction1 pill1 bolus or       
poultice made from the sacred writing   
and piously swallowed2 in the reverence 
paid to the idol for its own sake1 and  
in the charm or amulet worn by the      
soldier in his cap or by the gentleman  
in his pill-box1 tobacco-pouch or purse4
  ,as the will of the worshipper who    
selects the fetich makes it what it is1 

so also1 by the exercise of that will he
 imagines he can in a certain measure be
 the equal or superior of his god4 ,like
 the ,italian peasant who beats or      
scolds his bambino when his prayers are 
not answered or his wishes gratified1 so
 the fetich is punished or not allowed  
to know what is going on1 by being      
covered up or hidden away4 ,instances of
 such rough handling of their fetiches  
by the people are far from unknown in   
the ,land of ,great ,peace4 ,at such    
childishness we may wonder and imagine  
that fetich-worship is the very         
antipodes of religion2 and yet it       
requires but little study of the lower  
orders of mind and conduct in           
,christendom to see how fetich-worship  
still lingers among people called       
,christians1 whether the fetich be the  
image of a saint or the ,virgin1 or a   
verse of the ,bible found at random and 
used much as is a penny-toss to decide  
minor actions4 ,or1 to look farther     
south1 what means the rabbit's foot     

carried in the pocket or the various    
articles of faith now hanging in the    
limbo between religion and folk-lore in 
various parts of our own country8       
,phallicism4   ,further illustrations of
 far ,eastern ,animism and ,fetichism   
are seen in forms once vastly more      
prevalent in ,japan than now4 ,indeed1  
so far improved off the face of the     
earth are they1 that some are already   
matters of memory or archology1 and     
their very existence even in former days
 is nearly or wholly incredible to the  
generation born since #ahfh--when ,old  
,japan began to vanish in dissolving    
views and ,new ,japan to emerge4 ,what  
the author has seen with his own eyes1  
would amaze many ,japanese born since   
#ahfh and the readers of the rhapsodies 
of tourists who study ,japan from the   
jin-riki-sha4 ,phases of tree and       
serpent worship are still quite common1 
and will be probably for generations to 
come2 but the phallic shrines and       
emblems abolished by the government in  

#ahgb have been so far invisible to most
 living travellers and natives1 that    
their once general existence and use are
 now scarcely suspected4 ,even profound 
scholars of the ,japanese language and  
literature whose work dates from after  
the year #ahgb have scarcely suspected  
the universality of phallic worship4    
,yet what we could say of this cult and 
its emblems1 especially in treating of  
,shint1 the special ethnic faith of     
,japan1 would be from sight of our own  
eyes besides the testimony of many      
witnesses4#bj  ,the cultus has been     
known in the ,japanese archipelago from 
,riu ,kin to ,yezo4 ,despite official   
edicts of abolition it is still secretly
 practised by the heathen1 the inaka of 
,japan4 ,government law lasts three     
days1 is an ancient proverb in ,nippon4 
,sharp eyes have1 within three months of
 the writing of this line1 unearthed a  
phallic shrine within a stone's-throw of
 ,shint's most sacred temples at ,is4   
,formerly1 however1 these implements of 

worship were seen numerously--in the    
cornucopia distributed in the temples1  
in the matsuris or religious processions
 and in representation by various       
plastic material--and all this until    
#ahgb1 to an extent that is absolutely  
incredible to all except the            
eye-witnesses1 some of whose written    
testimonies we possess4 ,what seems to  
our mind shocking and revolting was once
 a part of our own ancestors' faith1 and
 until very recently was the perfectly  
natural and innocent creed of many      
millions of ,japanese and is yet the    
same for tens of thousands of them4  ,we
 may easily see why and how that which  
to us is a degrading cult was not only  
closely allied to ,shint1 but directly  
fostered by and properly a part of it1  
as soon as we read the account of the   
creation of the world1 an contained in  
the national ,book of ,ancient          
,traditions1 the ,kojiki4 ,several of   
the opening paragraphs of this sacred   
book of ,shint are phallic myths        

explaining cosmogony4 ,yet the myths and
 the cult are older than the writing and
 are phases of primitive ,japanese      
faith4 ,the mystery of fatherhood is to 
the primitive man the mystery of        
creation also4 ,to him neither the      
thought nor the word was at hand to put 
difference and transcendental separation
 between him and what he worshipped as a
 god4  ,into the details of the former  
display and carriage of these now       
obscene symbols in the popular          
celebrations2 of the behavior of even   
respectable citizens during the         
excitement and frenzy of the festivals2 
of their presence in the wayside        
shrines2 of the philosophy1 hideousness 
or pathos of the subject1 we cannot here
 enter4 ,we simply call attention to    
their existence1 and to a form of       
thought1 if not of religion1 properly   
so-called1 which has survived all       
imported systems of faith and which     
shows what the native or indigenous idea
 of divinity really is--an idea that    

profoundly affects the organization of  
society4 ,to the enlightened ,buddhist1 
,confucian1 and even the modern         
,shintoist the phallus-worshipper is a  
heathen1 a pagan1 and yet he still      
practises his faith and rites4 ,it is   
for us to hint at the powerful influence
 such persistent ideas have upon        
,japanese morals and civilization4      
,still further1 we illustrate the basic 
fact which all foreign religions and all
 missionaries1 ,confucian1 ,buddhist1   
,mahometan or ,christian must deal with1
 viz43 ,that the ,eastern ,asiatic mind 
runs to pantheism as surely as the body 
of flesh and blood seeks food4   ,tree  
and ,serpent ,worship4   ,in prehistoric
 and medieval ,japan1 as among the      
,ainos to-day1 trees and serpents as    
well as rocks1 rivers and other         
inanimate objects were worshipped1      
because such of them as were supposed   
for reasons known and felt to be        
awe-inspiring or wonderful were kami1   
that is1 above the common1 wonderful4#ba

 ,this word kami is usually translated  
god or deity1 but the term does not     
conform to our ideas1 by a great gulf of
 difference4 ,it is more than probable  
that the ,japanese term kami is the same
 as the ,aino word kamui1 and that the  
despised and conquered aboriginal savage
 has furnished the mould of the ordinary
 ,japanese idea of god--which even      
to-day with them means anything         
wonderful or extraordinary4#bb ,from the
 days before history the people have    
worshipped trees1 and do so yet1        
considering them as the abodes of and as
 means of communication with            
supernatural powers4 ,on them the people
 hang their votive offerings1 twist on  
the branches their prayers written on   
paper1 avoid cutting down1 breaking or  
in any way injuring certain trees4 ,the 
sakaki tree is especially sacred1 even  
to this day1 in funeral or ,shint       
services4 ,to wound or defile a tree    
sacred to a particular god was to call  
forth the vengeance of the insulted     

deity upon the insulter1 or as the      
hearer of prayer upon another to whom   
guilt was imputed and punishment was    
due4  ,thus1 in the days older than this
 present generation1 but still within   
this century1 as the writer has         
witnessed1 it was the custom of women   
betrayed by their lovers to perform the 
religious act of vengeance called ,ushi 
toki mairi1 or going to the temple at   
the hour of the ox1 that is at #b ,a4,m4
 ,first making an image or manikin of   
straw1 she set out on her errand of     
revenge1 with nails held in her mouth   
and with hammer in one hand and straw   
figure in the other1 sometimes also     
having on her head a reversed tripod in 
which were stuck three lighted candles4 
,arriving at the shrine she selected a  
tree dedicated to a god1 and then nailed
 the straw simulacrum of her betrayer to
 the trunk1 invoking the kami to curse  
and annihilate the destroyer of her     
peace4 ,she adjures the god to save his 
tree1 impute the guilt of desecration to

 the traitor and visit him with deadly  
vengeance4 ,the visit is repeated and   
nails are driven until the object of the
 incantation sickens and dies1 or is at 
least supposed to do so4 ,i have more   
than once seen such trees and straw     
images upon them1 and have observed     
others in which the large number of     
rusted nails and fragments of straw     
showed how tenaciously the superstition 
lingered4#bc  ,in instances more        
pleasant to witness1 may be seen trees  
festooned with the symbolical rice-straw
 in cords and fringes4 ,with these the  
people honor the trees as the abode of  
the kami1 or as evidence of their faith 
in the renown accredited in the past4   
,in common with most human beings the   
,japanese consider the serpent an object
 of mystery and awe1 but most of them go
 further and pay the ophidian a         
reverence and awe which is worship4     
,their oldest literature shows how large
 a part the serpent played in the       
so-called divine age1 how it acted as   

progenitress of the ,mikado's ancestry1 
and how it afforded means of incarnation
 for the kami or gods4 ,ten species of  
ophidia are known in the ,japanese      
islands1 but in the larger number of    
more or less imaginary varieties which  
figure in the ancient books we shall    
find plenty of material for             
fetich-worship4 ,in perusing the ,kojiki
 one scarcely knows1 when he begins a   
story1 whether the character which to   
all appearance is a man or woman is to  
end as a snake1 or whether the mother   
after delivering her child will or will 
not glide into the marsh or slide away  
into the sea1 leaving behind a trail of 
slime4 ,a dragon is three-fourths       
serpent1 and both the dragon and the    
serpent are prominent figures1 perhaps  
the most prominent of the kami or gods  
in human or animal form in the ,kojiki  
and other early legends of the gods1    
though the crocodile1 crow1 deer1 dog1  
and other animals are kami4#bd ,it is   
therefore no wonder that serpents have  

been and are still worshipped by the    
people1 that some of their gods and     
goddesses are liable at any time to slip
 away in scaly form1 that famous temples
 are built on sites noted as being the  
abode or visible place of the actual    
water or land snake of natural history1 
and that the spot where a serpent is    
seen to-day is usually marked with a    
sacred emblem or a shrine4#be ,we shall 
see how this snake-worship became not   
only a part of ,shint but even a notable
 feature in corrupt ,buddhism4          
,pantheism's ,destruction of            
,boundaries4#bf   ,in its rudest forms1 
this pantheism branches out into animism
 or shamanism1 fetichism and phallicism4
 ,in its higher forms1 it becomes       
polytheism1 idolatry and defective      
philosophy4 ,having centuries ago       
corrupted ,buddhism it is the malaria   
which1 unseen and unfelt1 is ready to   
poison and corrupt ,christianity4       
,indeed1 it has already given over to   
disease and spiritual death more than   

one once hopeful ,christian believer1   
teacher and preacher in the ,japan of   
our decade4  ,to assault and remove the 
incubus1 to replace and refill the mind1
 to lift up and enlighten the ,japanese 
peasant1 science as already known and   
faith in one ,god1 ,creator and ,father 
of all things1 must go hand in hand4    
,education and civilization will do much
 for the ignorant inaka or boors1 but   
for the cultured whose minds waver and  
whose feet flounder1 as well as for the 
unlearned and priest-ridden1 there is no
 surer help and healing than that faith 
in the ,heavenly ,father which gives the
 unifying thought to him who looks into 
creation4  ,keep the boundary line clear
 between ,god and his world and all is  
order and discrimination4 ,obliterate   
that boundary and all is pathless       
morass1 black chaos and on the mind the 
phantasms which belong to the victim of 
delirium tremens4  ,there is one        
,lawgiver4 ,in the beginning1 ,god4 ,in 
the end1 ,god1 all in all4     ,,chapter

 ,,ii - ,,shint3 ,,myths ,,and ,,ritual 
,in the great days of old1      ,when   
o'er the land the gods held sov'reign   
sway1      ,our fathers lov'd to say    
,that the bright gods with tender care  
enfold      ,the fortunes of ,japan1    
,blessing the land with many an holy    
spell3      ,and what they loved to     
tell1      ,we of this later age        
ourselves do prove2      ,for every     
living man      ,may feast his eyes on  
tokens of their love4       --,poem of  
,yamagami-no ,okura1        ,a4,d4 #gcc4
      ,baal3 ,while ,i on towers and    
banging terraces1     ,in shaft and     
obelisk1 behold my sign4     ,creative1 
shape of first imperious law4           
--,bayard ,taylor's ,masque of the      
,gods4      ,thou hast also taken thy   
fair jewels of my gold and of my        
silver1 which ,i had given thee1 and    
madest to thyself images of     men1 and
 didst commit whoredom with them1 and   
tookest thy     broidered garments1 and 
coveredst them3 and thou hast set mine  

oil and mine incense before them4 ,my   
meat also which ,i gave     thee1 fine  
flour1 and oil1 and honey1 wherewith ,i 
fed thee1 thou     hast even set it     
before them for a sweet savor3 and thus 
it was1     saith the ,lord             
,,god4--,ezekiel4      ,if it be said   
7as has been the case71 ',shintoism has 
nothing in     it1' we should be        
inclined to answer1 ',so much the       
better1 there     is less error to      
counteract4' ,but there is something in 
it1     and that 444 of a kind of which 
we may well avail ourselves when        
making known the second commandment1 and
 the 'fountain of     cleansing from all
 sin4'--,e4,w4 ,syle4      ,if ,shint   
has a dogma1 it is purity4--,kaburagi4  
,i will wash my hands in innocency1 ,o  
,lord3 and so will ,i go to     thine   
altar4--,ps4 xxvi4 #f4   ,,chapter ,,ii 
- ,,shint3 ,,myths ,,and ,,ritual  ,the 
,japanese a ,young ,nation4   ,what     
impresses us in the study of the history
 of ,japan is that1 compared with ,china

 and ,korea1 she is young4 ,her history 
is as the story of yesterday4 ,the      
nation is modern4 ,the ,japanese are as 
younger children in the great family of 
,asia's historic people4 ,broadly       
speaking1 ,japan is no older than       
,england1 and authentic ,japanese       
history no more ancient than ,british   
history4 ,in ,albion1 as in the         
,honorable ,country1 there are          
traditions and mythologies that project 
their shadows aeons back of genuine     
records2 but if we consider that        
,english history begins in the fifth1   
and ,english literature in the eighth   
century1 then there are other reasons   
besides those commonly given for calling
 ,japan the ,england of the ,east4  ,no 
trustworthy traditions exist which carry
 the known history of ,japan farther    
back than the fifth century4 ,the means 
for measuring and recording time were   
probably not in use until the sixth     
century4 ,the oldest documents in the   
,japanese language1 excepting a few     

fragments of the seventh century1 do not
 antedate the year #gab1 and even in    
these the ,chinese characters are in    
many instances used phonetically1       
because the meaning of the words thus   
transliterated had already been         
forgotten4 ,hence their interpretation  
in detail is still largely a matter of  
conjecture4  ,yet the ,japanese         
,archipelago was inhabited long before  
the dawn of history4 ,the concurrent    
testimony of the earliest literary      
monuments1 of the indigenous mythology1 
of folk-lore1 of shell-heaps and of     
kitchen-middens shows that the          
occupation by human beings of the main  
islands must be ascribed to times long  
before the ,christian era4 ,before      
written records or ritual of worship1   
religion existed on its active or       
devotional side1 and there were mature  
growths of thought preserved and        
expressed orally4 ,poems1 songs1 chants 
and norito or liturgies were kept alive 
in the human memory1 and there was a    

system of worship1 the name of which was
 given long after the introduction of   
,buddhism4 ,this descriptive term1 ,kami
 no ,michi in ,japanese1 and ,shin-t in 
the ,chinese as pronounced by ,japanese1
 means the ,way of the ,gods1 the t or  
final syllable being the same as tao in 
,taoism4 ,we may say that ,shint means1 
literally1 theoslogos1 theology4 ,the   
customs and practices existed centuries 
before contact with ,chinese letters1   
and long previous to the ,shint         
literature which is now extant4         
,whether ,kami no ,michi is wholly the  
product of ,japanese soil1 or whether   
its rudimentary ideas were imported from
 the neighboring ,asian continent and   
more or less allied to the primitive    
,chinese religion1 is still an open     
question4 ,the preponderance of argument
 tends1 however1 to show that it was an 
importation as to its origin1 for not a 
few events outlined in the ,japanese    
mythology cast shadows of reminiscence  
upon ,korea or the ,asian mainland4 ,in 

its development1 however1 the cultus is 
almost wholly ,japanese4 ,the modern    
forms of ,shint1 as moulded by the      
revivalists of the eighteenth century1  
are at many points notably different    
from the ancient faith4 ,at the ,world's
 ,parliament of ,religions at ,chicago1 
,shint seemed to be the only one1 and   
probably the last1 of the purely        
provincial religions4  ,in order to gain
 a picture of life in ,japan before the 
introduction of ,chinese civilization1  
we must consult those photographs of the
 minds of the ancient islanders which   
still exist in their earliest           
literature4 ,the fruits of the study of 
ethnology1 anthropology and archaeology 
greatly assist us in picturing the      
day-break of human life in the ,morning 
,land4 ,in preparing materials for the  
student of the religions of ,japan many 
laborers have wrought in various fields1
 but the chief literary honors have been
 taken by the ,english scholars1        
,messrs4 ,satow1#a ,aston1#b and        

,chamberlain4#c ,these untiring workers 
have opened the treasures of ancient    
thought in the ,altaic world4#d         
,although even these archaic ,japanese  
compositions1 readable to-day only by   
special scholars1 are more or less      
affected by ,chinese influences1 ideas  
and modes of expression1 yet they are in
 the main faithful reflections of the   
ancient life before the primitive faith 
of the ,japanese people was either      
disturbed or reduced to system in       
presence of an imported religion4 ,these
 monuments of history1 poetry and       
liturgies are the ,kojiki1 or ,notices  
of ,ancient ,things2 the ,manyshu or    
,myriad ,leaves or ,poems1 and the      
,norito1 or ,liturgies4   ,the ,ancient 
,documents4   ,the first book1 the      
,kojiki1 gives us the theology1         
cosmogony1 mythology1 and very probably1
 in its later portions1 some outlines of
 history of the ancient ,japanese4 ,the 
,kojiki is the real1 the dogmatic       
exponent1 or1 if we may so say1 the     

,bible1 of ,shint4 ,the ,manyshu1 or    
,book of ,myriad ,poems1 expresses the  
thoughts and feelings2 reflects the     
manners and customs of the primitive    
generations1 and1 in the same sense as  
do the ,sagas of the ,scandinavians1    
furnishes us unchronological but        
interesting and more or less real       
narratives of events which have been    
glorified by the poets and artists4 ,the
 ancient codes of law and of ceremonial 
procedure are of great value1 while the 
,norito are excellent mirrors in which  
to see reflected the religion called    
,shint on the more active side of       
worship4  ,in a critical study1 either  
of the general body of national         
tradition or of the ancient documents1  
we must continually be on our guard     
against the usual assumption that       
,chinese civilization came in earlier   
than it really did4 ,this assumption    
colors all modern ,japanese popular     
ideas1 art and literature4 ,the vice of 
the pupil nations surrounding the       

,middle ,kingdom is their desire to have
 it believed that ,chinese letters and  
culture among them is an nearly coeval  
with those of ,china as can be made     
truly or falsely to appear4 ,the        
,koreans1 for example1 would have us    
believe that their civilization1 based  
on letters and introduced by ,kishi1 is 
four thousand years old and             
contemporaneous with ,china's own1 and  
that the ,koreans are among the oldest  
people of the world4#e ,the average     
modern ,japanese wishes the date of     
authentic or official history projected 
as far back as possible4 ,yet he is a   
modest man compared with his medival    
ancestor1 who constructed chronology out
 of ink-stones4 ,over a thousand years  
ago a deliberate forgery was officially 
put on paper4 ,a whole line of emperors 
who never lived was canonized1 and      
clever penmen set down in ink long      
chapters which describe what never      
happened4#f ,furthermore1 even after1   
and only eight years after the fairly   

honest ,kojiki had been compiled1 the   
book called ,nihongi1 or ,chronicles of 
,japan1 was written4 ,all the internal  
and not a little external evidence shows
 that the object of this book is to give
 the impression that ,chinese ideas1    
culture and learning had long been      
domesticated in ,japan4 ,the ,nihongi   
gives dates of events supposed to have  
happened fifteen hundred years before1  
with an accuracy which may be called    
villainous2 while the ,kojiki states    
that ,wani1 a ,korean teacher1 brought  
the ,thousand ,character ,classic to    
,japan in ,a4,d4 #bhe1 though that      
famous ,chinese book was not composed   
until the sixth century1 or ,a4,d4      
#eej4g  ,even to this day it is nearly  
impossible for an ,american to get a    
,korean frog in the well#h to understand
 why the genuine native life and        
history1 language and learning of his   
own peninsular country is of greater    
value to the student than the pedantry  
borrowed from ,china4 ,why these possess

 any interest to a scholar is a mystery 
to the head in the horsehair net4       
,anything of value1 he thinks1 must be  
on the ,chinese model4 ,what is not     
,chinese is foolish and fit for women   
and children only4 ,furthermore1 ,korea 
always had ,chinese learning4 ,this is  
the sum of the arguments of the ,korean 
literati1 even as it used to be of the  
old-time hatless ,yedo scholar of shaven
 skull and topknot4  ,despite ,japanese 
independence and even arrogance in      
certain other lines1 the thought of the 
demolition of cherished notions of vast 
antiquity is very painful4 ,critical    
study of ancient traditions is still    
dangerous1 even in parliamentary        
,nippon4 ,hence the unbiassed student   
must depend on his own reading of and   
judgment upon the ancient records1      
assisted by the thorough work done by   
the ,english scholars ,aston1 ,satow1   
,chamberlain1 ,bramsen and others4  ,it 
was the coming of ,buddhism in the sixth
 century1 and the implanting on the soil

 of ,japan of a system of religion in   
which were temples with all that was    
attractive to the eye1 gorgeous ritual1 
scriptures1 priesthood1 codes of morals1
 rigid discipline1 a system of dogmatics
 in which all was made positive and     
clear1 that made the variant myths and  
legends somewhat uniform4 ,the faith of 
,shaka1 by winning adherents both at the
 court and among the leading men of     
intelligence1 reacted upon the national 
traditions so as to compel their        
collection and arrangemeut into definite
 formulas4 ,in due time the mythology1  
poetry and ritual was1 as we have seen1 
committed to writing and the whole      
system called ,shint1 in distinction    
from ,butsud1 the ,way of the ,gods from
 the ,way of the ,buddhas4 ,thus we can 
see more clearly the outward and visible
 manifestations of ,shint4 ,in forming  
our judgment1 however1 we must put aside
 those descriptions which are found in  
the works of ,european writers1 from    
,marco ,polo and ,mendez ,pinto down to 

the year #ahgj4 ,though these were good 
observers1 they were often necessarily  
mistaken in their deductions4 ,for1 as  
we shall see in our lecture on ,riybu or
 ,mixed ,buddhism1 ,shint was1 from the 
ninth century until late into the       
nineteenth century1 absorbed in         
,buddhism so as to be next to invisible4
   ,origins of the ,japanese ,people4   
,without detailing processes1 but giving
 only results1 our view of the origin of
 the ,japanese people and of their      
religion is in the main as follows3     
,the oldest seats of human habitation in
 the ,japanese ,archipelago lie between 
the thirtieth and thirty-eighth         
parallels of north latitude4 ,south of  
the thirty-fourth parallel1 it seems1   
though without proof of writing or from 
tradition1 that the ,malay type and     
blood from the far south probably       
predominated1 with1 however1 much       
infusion from the northern ,asian       
mainland4  ,between the thirty-fourth   
and thirty-sixth parallels1 and west of 

the one hundred and thirty-eighth       
meridian of longitude1 may be found what
 is still the choicest1 richest and most
 populous part of ,the ,country ,between
 ,heaven and ,earth4 ,here the          
prevailing element was ,korean and      
,tartar4  ,to the north and east of this
 fair country lay the ,emishi savages1  
or ,ainos4  ,in the world within the ken
 of the prehistoric dwellers in what is 
now the three islands1 ,hondo1 ,kiushiu 
and ,shikoku1 there was no island of    
,yezu and no ,china2 while ,korea was   
but slightly known1 and the lands       
farther westward were unheard of except 
as the home of distant tribes4  ,three  
distinct lines of tradition point to the
 near peninsula or the west coast of    
,japan as the ,heaven whence descended  
the tribe which finally grew to be      
dominant4 ,the islands of ,tsushima and 
,iki were the stepping-stones of the    
migration out of which rose what may be 
called the southern or ,tsukushi cycle  
of legend1 ,tsukushi being the ancient  

name of ,kiushiu4  ,idzumo is the holy  
land whence issued the second stream of 
tradition4  ,the third course of myth   
and legend leads us into ,yamato1 whence
 we behold the conquest of the ,mikado's
 home-land and the extension of his name
 and influence into the regions east of 
the ,hakon ,mountains1 including the    
great plain of ,yedo1 where modern ,tki 
now stands4  ,we shall take the term    
,yamato as the synonym of the           
prehistoric but discernible beginnings  
of national life4 ,it represents the    
seat of the tribe whose valor and genius
 ultimately produced the ,mikado system4
 ,it was through this house or tribe    
that ,japanese history took form4 ,the  
reverence for the ruler long afterward  
entitled ,son of ,heaven is the         
strongest force in the national history4
 ,the spirit and prowess of these early 
conquerors have left an indelible       
impress upon the language and the mind  
of the nation in the phrase ,yamato     
,damashi--the spirit of 7,divine and    

unconquerable7 ,japan4  ,the story of   
the conquest of the land1 in its many   
phases1 recalls that of the ,aryans in  
,india1 of the ,hebrews in ,canaan1 of  
the ,romans in ,europe and of the       
,germanic races in ,north ,america4 ,the
 ,yamato men gradually advanced to      
conquest under the impulse1 as they     
believed1 of a divine command4#i ,they  
were sent from ,takama-no-hara1 the     
,high ,plain of ,heaven4 ,theirs was the
 war1 of men with a nobler creed1 having
 agriculture and a feudal system of     
organization which furnished resources  
for long campaigns1 against hunters and 
fishermen4 ,they had improved artillery 
and used iron against stone4 ,yet they  
conquered and pacified not only by      
superior strategy1 tactics1 weapons and 
valor1 but also by advanced fetiches and
 dogma4 ,they captured the religion of  
their enemies as well as their bodies1  
lands and resources4 ,they claimed that 
their ancestors were from ,heaven1 that 
the ,sun was their kinswoman and that   

their chief1 or ,mikado1 was vicegerent 
of the ,heavenly gods1 but that those   
whom they conquered were earth-born or  
sprung from the terrestrial divinities4 
,mikadoism the ,heart of ,shint4   ,as  
success came to their arms and their    
chief's power was made more sure1 they  
developed further the dogma of the      
,mikado's divinity and made worship     
centre in him as the earthly            
representative of the ,sun and ,heaven4 
,his fellow-conquerors and ministers1 as
 fast as they were put in lordship over 
conquered provinces1 or indigenous      
chieftains who submitted obediently to  
his sway or yielded graciously to his   
prowess1 were named as founders of      
temples and in later generations        
worshipped and became gods4#aj ,one of  
the motives for1 and one of the guiding 
principles in the selections of the     
floating myths1 was that the ancestry of
 the chieftains loyal to the ,mikado    
might be shown to be from the heavenly  
gods4 ,both the narratives of the       

,kojiki and the liturgies show this     
clearly4  ,the nature-worship1 which was
 probably practised throughout the whole
 archipelago1 became part of the system 
as government and society were made     
uniform on the ,yamato model4 ,it seems 
at least possible1 if ,buddhism had not 
come in so soon1 that the ordinary      
features of a religion1 dogmatic and    
ethical codes1 would have been          
developed4 ,in a word1 the ,kami no     
,michi1 or religion of the islanders in 
prehistoric times before the rise of    
,mikadoism1 must be carefully           
distinguished from the                  
politico-ecclesiasticism which the      
system called ,shint reveals and        
demands4 ,the early religion1 first in  
the hands of politicians and later under
 the pens and voices of writers and     
teachers at the ,imperial ,court1 became
 something very different from its      
original form4 ,as surely as ,kb later  
captured ,shint1 making material for    
,buddhism out of it and overlaying it in

 ,riybu1 so the ,yamato men made        
political capital out of their own      
religion and that of the subject tribes4
 ,the divine sovereign of ,japan and his
 political church did exactly what the  
state churches of ,europe1 both pagan   
and ,christian1 have done before and    
since the ,christian era4  ,further1 in 
studying the ,kojiki1 we must remember  
that the sacred writings sprang out of  
the religion1 and that the system was   
not an evolution from the book4         
,customs1 ritual1 faith and prayer      
existed long before they were written   
about or recorded in ink4 ,moreover1 the
 philosophy came later than the         
practice1 the deeds before the myths1   
and the joy and terror of the visible   
universe before the cosmogony or        
theogony1 while the book-preface was    
probably written last of all4  ,the sun 
was first1 and then came the wonder1    
admiration and worship of men4 ,the     
personification and pedigree of the sun 
were late figments4 ,to connect their   

ancestors with the sun-goddess and the  
heavenly gods1 was a still later        
enterprise of the ,mikado reverencers of
 this earlier time4 ,both the god-way in
 its early forms and ,shint in its later
 development1 were to them political as 
well as ecclesiastical institutes of    
dogma4 ,both the religion which they    
themselves brought and cultivated and   
the aboriginal religion which the       
,yamato men found1 were used as engines 
in the making of ,mikadoism1 which is   
the heart of ,shint4  ,not until two    
centuries after the coming of ,buddhism 
and of ,asiatic civilization did it     
occur to the ,japanese to reduce to     
writing the floating legends and various
 cycles of tradition which had grown up 
luxuriantly in different parts of the   
empire1 or to express in the ,chinese   
character the prayers and thanksgivings 
which had been handed down orally       
through many generations4 ,these norito 
had already assumed elegant literary    
form1 rich in poetic merit1 long before 

,chinese writing was known4 ,they1 far  
more than the less certain philosophy of
 the ,kojiki1 are of undoubted native   
origin4 ,it is nearly certain that the  
prehistoric ,japanese did not borrow the
 literary forms of the god-way from     
,china1 as any one familiar with the    
short1 evenly balanced and antithetical 
sentences of ,chinese style can see at  
once4 ,the norito are expressions1 in   
the rhythmical and rhetorical form of   
worship1 of the articles of faith set   
forth in the historic summary which we  
have given4 ,we propose to illustrate   
the dogmas by quoting from the rituals  
in ,mr4 ,satow's masterly translation4  
,the following was addressed to the     
sun-goddess 7,amatras no ,mikami1 or the
 ,from-,heaven-,shining-,great-,deity7  
by the priest-envoy of the priestly     
,nakatomi family sent annually to the   
temples at ,is1 the ,mecca of ,shint4   
,the sevran referred to in the ritual is
 the ,mikado4 ,this word and all the    
others printed in capitals are so       

rendered in order to express in ,english
 the force of an untranslatable         
honorific syllable1 supposed to be      
originally identical with a root meaning
 'true1' but no longer possessing that  
signification4 ,instead of the word     
earth1 that of country 7,japan7 is used 
as the correlative of ,heaven4   ,ritual
 in ,praise of the ,sun-goddess4        
,he 7the priest-envoy7 says3 ,hear all  
of you1 ministers of the     gods and   
sanctifiers of offerings1 the great     
ritual1 the     heavenly ritual1        
declared in the great presence of the   
,from-,heaven-,shining-,great-,,deity1  
whose praises are fulfilled by          
setting up the stout pillars of the     
great ,,house1 and exalting     the     
cross-beams to the plain of high heaven 
at the sources of     the ,isuzu ,river 
at ,uji in ,watarai4      ,he says3 ,it 
is the sovran's great ,,word4 ,hear all 
of you1     ministers of the gods and   
sanctifiers of offerings1 the           
fulfilling of praises on this           

seventeenth day of the sixth moon     of
 this year1 as the morning sun goes up  
in glory1 of the     ,oho-,nakatomi1    
who--having abundantly piled up like a  
range of     hills the ,,tribute thread 
and sanctified ,,liquor and ,,food      
presented as of usage by the people of  
the deity's houses     attributed to her
 in the three departments and in various
     countries and places1 so that she  
deign to bless his the     ,mikado's    
,,life as a long ,,life1 and his ,,age  
as a luxuriant ,,age     eternally and  
unchangingly as multitudinous piles of  
rock2 may     deign to bless the        
,,children who are born to him1 and     
deigning to     cause to flourish the   
five kinds of grain which the men of a  
hundred functions and the peasants of   
the countries in the four     quarters  
of the region under heaven long and     
peacefully     cultivate and eat1 and   
guarding and benefiting them to deign to
     bless them--is hidden by the great 
offering-wands4  ,in the ,imperial ,city

 the ritual services were very imposing4
 ,those in expectation of the harvest   
were held in the great hall of the      
,jin-,gi-,kuan1 or ,council of the ,gods
 of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,the description
 of the ceremonial is given by ,mr4     
,satow4#aa ,in the prayers offered to   
the sun-goddess for harvest1 and in     
thanksgiving to her for bestowing       
dominion over land and sea upon her     
descendant the ,mikado1 occurs the      
following passage3      ,i declare in   
the great presence of the               
,from-,heaven-,shining-,great-,,deity   
who sits in ,is4 ,because the     sovran
 great ,,goddess bestows on him the     
countries of the four     quarters over 
which her glance extends1 as far as the 
limit     where heaven stands up like a 
wall1 as far as the bounds where     the
 country stands up distant1 as far as   
the limit where the     blue clouds     
spread flat1 as far as the bounds where 
the white     clouds lie away           
fallen--the blue sea plain as far as the

 limit     whither come the prows of the
 ships without drying poles or          
paddles1 the ships which continuously   
crowd on the great sea     plain1 and   
the road which men travel by land1 as   
far as the     limit whither come the   
horses' hoofs1 with the baggage-cords   
tied tightly1 treading the uneven rocks 
and tree-roots and     standing up      
continuously in a long path without a   
break--making     the narrow countries  
wide and the hilly countries plain1 and 
as     it were drawing together the     
distant countries by throwing many      
tons of ropes over them--he will pile up
 the first-fruits like a     range of   
hills in the great presence of the      
sovran great     ,,goddess1 and will    
peacefully enjoy the remainder4         
,phallic ,symbols4   ,to form one's     
impression of the ,kami no ,michi wholly
 from the poetic liturgies1 the austere 
simplicity of the miyas or shrines1 or  
the worship at the palace or capital1   
would be as misleading as to gather our 

ideas of the status of popular education
 from knowing only of the scholars at   
court4 ,among the common people the real
 basis of the god-way was               
ancestor-worship4 ,from the very first  
this trait and habit of the ,japanese   
can be discerned4 ,their tenacity in    
holding to it made the ,confucian ethics
 more welcome when they came4           
,furthermore1 this reverence for the    
dead profoundly influenced and modified 
,buddhism1 so that today the altars of  
both religions exist in the same house1 
the dead ancestors becoming both kami   
and buddhas4  ,modern taste has removed 
from sight what were once the common    
people's symbols of the god-way1 that is
 of ancestor worship4 ,the extent of the
 phallus cult and its close and even    
vital connection with the god-way1 and  
the general and innocent use of the now 
prohibited emblems1 tax severely the    
credulity of the ,occidental reader4    
,the processes of the ancient mind can  
hardly be understood except by vigorous 

power of the imagination and by sympathy
 with the primeval man4 ,to the critical
 student1 however1 who has lived among  
the people and the temples devoted to   
this worship1 who knows how innocent and
 how truly sincere and even reverent and
 devout in the use of these symbols the 
worshippers are1 the matter is          
measurably clear4 ,he can understand the
 soil1 root and flower even while the   
most strange specimen is abhorrent to   
his taste1 and while he is most active  
in destroying that mental climate in    
which such worship1 whether native or   
exotic1 can exist and flourish4  ,in    
none of the instances in which ,i have  
been eyewitness of the cult1 of the     
person officiating or of the emblem1    
have ,i had any reason to doubt the     
sincerity of the worshipper4 ,i have    
never had reason to look upon the       
implements or the system as anything    
else than the endeavor of man to solve  
the mystery of ,being and ,power4 ,in   
making use of these emblems1 the        

,japanese worshipper simply professes   
his faith in such solution as has seemed
 to him attainable4  ,that this cultus  
was quite general in pre-,buddhistic    
,japan1 as in many other ancient        
countries1 is certain from the proofs of
 language1 literature1 external         
monuments and relics which are          
sufficiently numerous4 ,its organic     
connection with the god-way may be      
clearly shown4  ,to go farther back in  
point of time than the ,kojiki1 we find 
that even before the development of art 
in very ancient ,japan1 the male gods   
were represented by a symbol which thus 
became an image of the deity himself4   
,this token was usually made of stone1  
though often of wood1 and in later times
 of terra-cotta1 of cast and wrought    
iron and even of gold4#ab  ,under the   
direct influence of such a cult1 other  
objects appealed to the imagination or  
served the temporary purpose of the     
worshipper as ex-voto to hang up in the 
shrines1 such as the mushroom1 awabi1   

various other shells and possibly the   
fire-drill4 ,it is only in the decay of 
the cultus1 in the change of view and   
centre of thought compelled by another  
religion1 that representations of the   
old emblems ally themselves with        
sensualism or immorality4 ,it is that   
natural degradation of one man's god    
into another man's devil1 which         
conversion must almost of necessity     
bring1 that makes the once revered      
symbol obscene1 and talk about it       
become1 in a descending scale1 dirty1   
foul1 filthy1 nasty4 ,that the ,japanese
 suffer from the moral effluvia of a    
decayed cult which was once as the very 
vertebral column of the national body of
 religion1 is evident to every one who  
acquaints himself with their popular    
speech and literature4  ,how closely and
 directly phallicism is connected with  
the god-way1 and why there were so many 
,shint temples devoted to this latter   
cult and furnished with symbols1 is     
shown by study of the ,kojiki4 ,the two 

opening sections of this book treat of  
kami that were in the minds even of the 
makers of the myths little more than mud
 and water#ac--the mere bioplasm of     
deity4 ,the seven divine generations are
 born1 but do nothing except that they  
give ,izanagi and ,izanami a jewelled   
spear4 ,with this pair come             
differentiation of sex4 ,it is          
immediately on the apparition of the    
consciousness of sex that motion1 action
 and creation begin1 and the progress of
 things visible ensues4 ,the details    
cannot be put into ,english1 but it is  
enough1 besides noting the conversation 
and union of the pair1 to say that the  
term meaning giving birth to1 refers to 
inanimate as well as animate things4 ,it
 is used in reference to the islands    
which compose the archipelago as well as
 to the various kami which seem1 in many
 cases1 to be nothing more than the     
names of things or places4   ,fire-myths
 and ,ritual4   ,fire is1 in a sense1   
the foundation and first necessity of   

civilization1 and it is interesting to  
study the myths as to the origin of     
fire1 and possibly even more interesting
 to compare the ,greek and ,japanese    
stories4 ,as we know1 old-time popular  
etymology makes ,prometheus the         
fore-thinker and brother of ,epimetheus 
the after-thinker4 ,he is the stealer of
 the fire from heaven1 in order to make 
men share the secret of the gods4       
,comparative philology tells us1        
however1 that the ,sanskrit ,pramantha  
is a stick that produces fire4 ,the     
,kojiki does indeed contain what is     
probably the later form of the fire-myth
 about two brothers1 ,prince            
,fire-,shine and ,fire-,fade1 which     
suggests both the later ,greek myth of  
the fore- and after-thinker and a       
tradition of a flood4 ,the first1 and   
most probably older1 myth in giving the 
origin of fire does it in true ,japanese
 style1 with details of parturition4    
,after numerous other deities had been  
born of ,izanagi and ,izanami1 it is    

said that they gave birth to the        
,fire-,burning-,swift-,male-,deity1     
another name for whom is the            
,deity-,fire-,shining-,prince1 and      
another name is the                     
,deity-,fire-,shining-,elder4 ,in the   
other ancient literature this fire-god  
is called ,ho-musubi1 the               
,fire-,producer4  ,izanami yielded up   
her life upon the birth of her son1 the 
fire-god2 or1 as the sacred text        
declares1 she divinely retired#ad into  
,hades4 ,from her corpse sprang up the  
pairs of gods of clay1 of metal1 and    
other kami that possessed the potency of
 calming or subduing fire1 for clay     
resists and water extinguishes4 ,between
 the mythical and the liturgical forms  
of the original narrative there is      
considerable variation4  ,the ,norito   
entitled the ,quieting of ,fire gives   
the ritual form of the myth4 ,it        
contains1 like so many ,norito1 less the
 form of prayer to the ,fire-,producer  
than a promise of offerings4 ,not so    

much by petitions as by the inducements 
of gifts did the ancient worshippers    
hope to save the palace of the ,mikado  
from the fire-god's wrath4 ,we omit from
 the text those details which are       
offensive to modern and western taste4  
,i declare with the great ritual1 the   
heavenly ritual1 which was     bestowed 
on him at the time when1 by the ,,word  
of the ,sovran's     dear progenitor and
 progenitrix1 who divinely remain in the
     plain of high heaven1 they bestowed
 on him the region under     heaven1    
saying3      ,let the ,sovran           
,,grandchild',s augustness tranquilly   
rule over the     country of fresh      
spikes which flourishes in the midst of 
the     reed-moor as a peaceful region4 
,when 444 ,izanami 444 had deigned to   
bear the many hundred     myriads of    
gods1 she also deigned to bear her dear 
youngest     child of all1 the          
,fire-producer god1 444 and said3       
,my dear elder brother's augustness     
shall rule the upper     country2 ,i    

will rule the lower country1 she deigned
 to hide in     the rocks2 and having   
come to the flat hills of darkness1 she 
thought and said3 ,i have come hither1  
having borne and left a     bad-hearted 
child in the upper country1 ruled over  
by my     illustrious elder brother's   
augustness1 and going back she bore     
other children4 ,having borne the       
water-goddess1 the gourd1 the           
river-weed1 and the clay-hill maiden1   
four sorts of things1 she     taught    
them with words1 and made them to know1 
saying3 ,if the     heart of this       
bad-hearted child becomes violent1 let  
the     water-goddess take the gourd1   
and the clay-hill maiden take the       
river-weed1 and pacify him4      ,in    
consequence of this ,i fulfil his       
praises1 and say that for     the things
 set up1 so that he may deign not to be 
awfully quick     of heart in the great 
place of the ,sovran ,,grandchild',s    
augustness1 there are provided bright   
cloth1 glittering cloth1     soft cloth1

 and coarse cloth1 and the five kinds of
 things2 as     to things which dwell in
 the blue-sea plain1 there are things   
wide of fin and narrow of fin1 down to  
the weeds of the shore2     as to       
,,liquor1 raising high the beer-jars1   
filling and ranging in     rows the     
bellies of the beer-jars1 piling the    
offerings up1 even     to rice in grain 
and rice in ear1 like a range of hills1 
,i     fulfil his praises with the great
 ritual1 the heavenly ritual4  ,izanagi1
 after shedding tears over his consort1 
whose death was caused by the birth of  
the fire-god1 slays the fire-god1 and   
follows her into the ,root-land1 or     
,hades1 whereupon begins another round  
of wonderful stories of the birth of    
many gods4 ,among these1 though         
evidently out of another cycle of       
legends1 is the story of the birth of   
the three gods--,fire-,shine1           
,fire-,climax and ,fire-,fade1 to which 
we have already referred4  ,the         
fire-drill mentioned in the ,kojiki     

suggests easily the same line of thought
 with the myths of cosmogony and        
theogony1 and it is interesting to note 
that this archaic implement is still    
used at the sacred temples of ,is to    
produce fire4 ,after the virgin         
priestesses perform the sacred dances in
 honor of local deities the water for   
their bath is heated by fires kindled by
 heaps of old harai or amulets made from
 temple-wood bought at the ,mecca of    
,japan4 ,it is even probable that the   
retention of the fire-drill in the      
service of ,shint is but a survival of  
phallicism4  ,the liturgy for the       
pacification of the gods of fire is     
worth noticing4 ,the full form of the   
ritual1 when compared with a legend in  
the ,nihongi1 shows that a myth was     
partly devised to explain the connection
 of an hereditary family of priests with
 the god whose shrine they served2 it is
 possible that the claim to be directly 
descended from the god had been         
disputed4 ,the ,norito first recites    

poetically the descent of ,ninigi1 the  
grandchild of the sun-goddess from      
heaven1 and the quieting of the         
turbulent kami4      ,i 7the diviner71  
declare3 ,when by the ,,word of the     
progenitor and     progenitrix1 who     
divinely remaining in the plain of high 
heaven1     deigned to make the         
beginning of things1 they divinely      
deigned     to assemble the many hundred
 myriads of gods in the high city of    
heaven1 and deigned divinely to take    
counsel in council1 saying3     ,when we
 cause our ,sovran ,,grandchild',s      
augustness to leave     heaven's eternal
 seat1 to cleave a path with might      
through     heaven's manifold clouds1   
and to descend from heaven1 with        
orders tranquilly to rule the country of
 fresh spikes1 which     flourishes in  
the midst of the reed-moor as a peaceful
 country1     what god shall we send    
first to divinely sweep away1 sweep away
     and subdue the gods who are        
turbulent in the country of fresh       

spikes2 all the gods pondered and       
declared3 ,you shall send               
,amnohohi's augustness1 and subdue them1
 declared     they4 ,wherefore they sent
 him down from heaven1 but he did not   
declare an answer2 and having next sent 
,takmikuma's augustness1     he also1   
obeying his father's words1 did not     
declare an     answer4 ,am-no-waka-hiko 
also1 whom they sent1 did not declare   
an answer1 but immediately perished by  
the calamity of a bird on     high4     
,wherefore they pondered afresh by the  
,,word of the heavenly     gods1 and    
having deigned to send down from heaven 
the two     pillars of gods1 ,futsunushi
 and ,takmika-dzuchi's augustness1      
who having deigned divinely to sweep    
away1 and sweep away1 and     deigned   
divinely to soften1 and soften the gods 
who were     turbulent1 and silenced the
 rocks1 trees1 and the least leaf of    
herbs likewise that had spoken1 they    
caused the ,sovran     ,,grandchild',s  
augustness to descend from heaven4      

,i fulfil your praises1 saying3 ,as to  
the ,,offerings set up1 so     that the 
sovran gods who come into the heavenly  
,,house of the     ,sovran              
,,grandchild',s augustness1 which1 after
 he had fixed upon     as a peaceful    
country--the country of great ,yamato   
where the sun     is high1 as the centre
 of the countries of the four quarters  
bestowed upon him when he was thus sent 
down from     heaven--stoutly planting  
the ,,house-pillars on the bottom-most  
rocks1 and exalting the cross-beams to  
the plain of high heaven1     the       
builders had made for his ,,shade from  
the heavens and ,,shade     from the    
sun1 and wherein he will tranquilly rule
 the country as     a peaceful          
country--may1 without deigning to be    
turbulent1     deigning to be fierce1   
and deigning to hurt1 knowing1 by virtue
     of their divinity1 the things which
 were begun in the plain of     high    
heaven1 deigning to correct with        
,divine-correcting and                  

,great-correcting1 remove hence out to  
the clean places of the                 
mountain-streams which look far away    
over the four quarters1 and     rule    
them as their own place4 ,let the       
,sovran gods tranquilly     take with   
clear ,,hearts1 as peaceful ,,offerings 
and sufficient     ,,offerings the great
 ,,offerings which ,i set up1 piling    
them upon     the tables like a range of
 hills1 providing bright cloth1         
glittering cloth1 soft cloth1 and coarse
 cloth2 as a thing to     see plain     
in--a mirror3 as things to play         
with--beads3 as things     to shoot off 
with--a bow and arrows3 as a thing to   
strike and     cut with--a sword3 as a  
thing which gallops out--a horse2 as to 
,,liquor--raising high the beer-jars1   
filling and ranging in rows     the     
bellies of the beer-jars1 with grains of
 rice and ears2 as     to the things    
which dwell in the hills--things soft of
 hair1 and     things rough of hair2 as 
to the things which grow in the great   

field plain--sweet herbs and bitter     
herbs2 as to the things     which dwell 
in the blue sea plain--things broad of  
fin and     things narrow of fin1 down  
to weeds of the offing and weeds of     
the shore1 and without deigning to be   
turbulent1 deigning to be     fierce1   
and deigning to hurt1 remove out to the 
wide and clean     places of the        
mountain-streams1 and by virtue of their
 divinity     be tranquil4  ,in this    
ritual we find the origin of evil       
attributed to wicked kami1 or gods4 ,to 
get rid of them is to be free from the  
troubles of life4 ,the object of the    
ritual worship was to compel the        
turbulent and malevolent kami to go out 
from human habitations to the mountain  
solitudes and rest there4 ,the dogmas of
 both god-possession and of the power of
 exorcism were not1 however1 held       
exclusively by the high functionaries of
 the official religion1 but were part of
 the faith of all the people4 ,to this  
day both the tenets and the practices   

are popular under various forms4        
,besides the twenty-seven ,norito which 
are found in the ,yengishiki1 published 
at the opening of the tenth century1    
there are many others composed for      
single occasions4 ,examples of these are
 found in the ,government ,gazettes4    
,one celebrates the ,mikado's removal   
from ,kito to ,tki1 another was written 
and recited to add greater solemnity to 
the oath which he took to govern        
according to modern liberal principles  
and to form a national parliament4 ,to  
those ,japanese whose first idea of duty
 is loyalty to the emperor1 ,shint thus 
becomes a system of patriotism exalted  
to the rank of a religion4 ,even        
,christian natives of ,japan can use    
much of the phraseology of the ,norito  
while addressing their petitions on     
behalf of their chief magistrate to the 
,king of kings4  ,the primitive worship 
of the sun1 of light1 of fire1 has left 
its impress upon the language and in    
vernacular art and customs4 ,among      

scores of derivations of ,japanese words
 7often more pleasing than scientific71 
in which the general term hi enters1 is 
that which finds in the word for man1   
hito1 the meaning of light-bearer4 ,on  
the face of the broad terminal tiles of 
the house-roofs1 we still see moulded   
the river-weed1 with which the          
,clay-,hill ,maiden pacified the        
,fire-,god4 ,on the frontlet of the     
warrior's helmet1 in the old days of    
arrow and armor1 glittered in brass on  
either side of his crest the same symbol
 of power and victory4  ,having glanced 
at the ritual of ,shint1 let us now     
examine the teachings of its oldest     
book4     ,,chapter ,,iii - ,,the       
,,kojiki ,,and ,,its ,,teachings        
,japan is not a land where men need     
pray1       ,for 'tis itself divine3    
,yet do ,i lift my voice in prayer444   
,hitomaro1  ,a4,d4 #gcg4      ,now when 
chaos had begun to condense1 but force  
and form were     not yet manifest1 and 
there was naught named1 naught done1 who

     could know its shape8 ,nevertheless
 ,heaven and ,earth first     parted1   
and the three ,deities performed the    
commencement of     creation2 the       
,passive and ,active ,essences then     
developed1 and     the ,two ,spirits    
became the ancestors of all             
things4--,preface of     ,yasumar       
7,a4,d4 #gab7 to the ,kojiki4           
,these1 the ',kojiki' and ',nihongi' are
 their the ,shintists     canonical     
books1 444 and almost their every word  
is considered     undeniable truth4     
,the ,shint faith teaches that ,god     
inspired the foundation of     the      
,mikadoate1 and that it is therefore    
sacred4--,kaburagi4      ,we now        
reverently make our prayer to ,them ,our
 ,imperial     ,ancestors and to our    
,illustrious ,father ,komei1  #ahfg1 and
     implore the help of ,their ,sacred 
,spirits1 and make to ,them     solemn  
oath never at this time nor in the      
future to fail to be     an example to  
,our subjects in the observance of the  

,law     ,constitution hereby           
established4--,imperial oath of the     
,emperor ,mutsuhito in the sanctuary in 
the ,imperial ,palace1     ,tki1        
,february #aa1 #ahhi4      ,shint is not
 our national religion4 ,a faith existed
 before     it1 which was its source4   
,it grew out of superstitious teaching  
and mistaken tradition4 ,the history of 
the rise of ,shint     proves this4--,t4
 ,matsugami4      ,makoto wo mot ,,kami 
,,no ,,michi wo oshiyurba nari4 7,thou  
teachest the way of ,god in             
truth47--,mark xii4 #ad4      ,ware wa  
,micni nuri1 ,mukoto nari1 ,inochi      
nari4--,john     xiv4 #f4--,the ,new    
,testament in ,japanese4   ,,chapter    
,,iii - ,,the ,,kojiki ,,and ,,its      
,,teachings  ,the ,kojiki mid its ,myths
 of ,cosmogony4   ,as to the origin of  
the ,kojiki1 we have in the closing     
sentences of the author's preface the   
sole documentary authority explaining   
its scope and certifying to its         
authenticity4 ,briefly the statement is 

this3 ,the ,heavenly ,sovereign or      
,mikado1 ,temmu 7,a4,d4 #fgc-fhf71      
lamenting that the records possessed by 
the chief families were mostly amplified
 by empty falsehoods1 and fearing that  
the grand foundation of the monarchy    
would be destroyed1 resolved to preserve
 the truth4 ,he therefore had the       
records carefully examined1 compared1   
and their errors eliminated4 ,there     
happened to be in his household a man of
 marvellous memory1 named ,hiyda ,ar1   
who could repeat1 without mistake1 the  
contents of any document he had ever    
seen1 and never forgot anything which he
 had heard4 ,this person was duly       
instructed in the genuine traditions and
 old language of former ages1 and made  
to repeat them until he had the whole by
 heart4 ,before the undertaking was     
completed1 which probably means before  
it could be committed to writing1 the   
emperor died1 and for twenty-five years 
,ar's memory was the sole depository of 
what afterwards received the title of   

',kojiki4' 444 ,at the end of this      
interval the ,empress ,gemmi ordered    
,yasumar to write it down from the mouth
 of ,ar1 which accounts for the         
completion of the manuscript in so short
 a time as four months and a half1#a in 
,a4,d4 #gab4  ,it is from the ,kojiki   
that we obtain most of our ideas of     
ancient life and thought4 ,the ,nihongi1
 or ,chronicles of ,japan1 expressed    
very largely in ,chinese phrases and    
with ,chinese technical and             
philosophical terms1 further assists us 
to get a measurably correct idea of what
 is called ,the ,divine ,age4 ,of the   
two books1 however1 the ,kojiki is much 
more valuable as a true record1 because1
 though rude in style and exceedingly   
nave in expression1 and by no means free
 from ,chinese thoughts and phrases1 it 
is marked by a genuinely ,japanese cast 
of thought and method of composition4   
,instead of the terse1 carefully        
measured1 balanced1 and antithetical    
sentences of correct ,chinese1 those of 

the ,kojiki are long and involved1 and  
without much logical connection4 ,the   
,kojiki contains the real notions1      
feelings1 and beliefs of ,japanese who  
lived before the eighth century4        
,remembering that prefaces are1 like    
porticos1 usually added last of all1 we 
find that in the beginning all things   
were in chaos4 ,heaven and earth were   
not separated4 ,the world substance     
floated in the cosmic mass1 like oil on 
water or a fish in the sea4 ,motion in  
some way began4 ,the ethereal portions  
sublimed and formed the heavens2 the    
heavier residuum became the present     
earth4 ,in the plain of high heaven1    
when the heaven and earth began1 were   
born three kami who hid their bodies1   
that is1 passed away or died4 ,out of   
the warm mould of the earth a germ      
sprouted1 and from this were born two   
kami1 who also were born alone1 and     
died4 ,after these heavenly kami came   
forth what are called the seven divine  
generations1 or line of seven kami4#b   

,to express the opening lines of the    
,kojiki in terms of our own speech and  
in the moulds of ,western thought1 we   
may say that matter existed before mind 
and the gods came forth1 as it were1 by 
spontaneous evolution4 ,the first thing 
that appeared out of the warm earth-muck
 was like a rush-sprout1 and this became
 a kami1 or god4 ,from this being came  
forth others1 which also produced       
beings1 until there were perfect bodies1
 sex and differentiation of powers4 ,the
 ,nihongi1 however1 not only gives a    
different view of this evolution basing 
it upon the dualism of ,chinese         
philosophy--that is1 of the active and  
passive principles--and uses ,chinese   
technical terminology1 but gives lists  
of kami that differ notably from those  
in the ,kojiki4 ,this latter fact seems 
to have escaped the attention of those  
who write freely about what they imagine
 to be the early religion of the        
,japanese4#c  ,after this introduction1 
in which ,dualities1 ,trinities1 and    

,supreme ,deities have been discovered  
by writers unfamiliar with the genius of
 the ,japanese language1 there follows  
an account of the creation of the       
habitable earth by ,izanami and         
,izanagi1 whose names mean the          
,male-,who-,invites and the             
,female-,who-,invites4 ,the heavenly    
kami commanded these two gods to        
consolidate and give birth to the       
drifting land4 ,standing on the floating
 bridge of heaven1 the male plunged his 
jewel-spear into the unstable waters    
beneath1 stirring them until they       
gurgled and congealed4 ,when he drew    
forth the spear1 the drops trickling    
from its point formed an island1 ever   
afterward called ,onokoro-jima1 or the  
,island of the ,congealed ,drop4 ,upon  
this island they descended4 ,the        
creative pair1 or divine man and woman1 
now separated to make a journey round   
the island1 the male to the left1 the   
female to the right4 ,at their meeting  
the female spoke first3 ,how joyful to  

meet a lovely man6 ,the male1 offended  
that the woman had spoken first1        
required the circuit to be repeated4 ,on
 their second meeting1 the man cried    
out3 ,how joyful to meet a lovely woman6
 ,this island on which they had         
descended was the first of several which
 they brought into being4 ,in poetry it 
is the ,island of the ,congealed ,drop4 
,in common geography it is identified as
 ,awaji1 at the entrance of the ,inland 
,sea4 ,thence followed the creation of  
the other visible objects in nature4    
,izanagi's ,visit to ,hades and         
,results4   ,after the birth of the god 
of fire1 which nearly destroyed the     
mother's life1 ,izanami fled to the land
 of roots or of darkness1 that is into  
,hades4 ,izanagi1 like a true ,orpheus1 
followed his ,eurydice and beseeched her
 to come back to earth to complete with 
him the work of creation4 ,she parleyed 
so long with the gods of the underworld 
that her consort1 breaking off a tooth  
of his comb1 lighted it as a torch and  

rushed in4 ,he found her putrefied body1
 out of which had been born the eight   
gods of thunder4 ,horrified at the awful
 foulness which he found in the         
underworld1 he rushed up and out1       
pursued by the ,ugly-,female-of-,hades4 
,by artifices that bear a wonderful     
resemblance to those in ,teutonic fairy 
tales1 he blocked up the way4 ,his      
head-dress1 thrown at his pursuer1      
turned into grapes which she stopped to 
eat4 ,the teeth of his comb sprouted    
into a bamboo forest1 which detained    
her4 ,the three peaches were used as    
projectiles2 his staff which stuck up in
 the ground became a gate1 and a mighty 
rock was used to block up the narrow    
pass through the mountains4 ,each of    
these objects has its relation to       
place-names in ,idzumo or to            
superstitions that are still extant4    
,the peaches and the rocks became gods1 
and on this incident1 by which the      
beings in ,hades were prevented from    
advance and successful mischief on      

earth1 is founded one of the norito     
which ,mr4 ,satow gives in condensed    
form4 ,the names of the three gods1#d   
,youth and ,maiden of the ,many         
,road-forkings1 and ,come-no-further    
,gate1 are expressed and invoked in the 
praises bestowed on them in connection  
with the offerings4      ,he 7the       
priest7 says3 ,i declare in the presence
 of the sovran     gods1 who like       
innumerable piles of rocks sit closing  
up the way     in the multitudinous     
road-forkings4444 ,i fulfil your praises
 by     declaring your ,,names1 ,youth  
and ,maiden of the ,many ,road-forkings 
and ,come-no-further ,gate1 and say3 for
 the ,,offerings set up that     you may
 prevent the servants of the monarch    
from being     poisoned by and agreeing 
with the things which shall come        
roughly-acting and hating from the      
,root-country1 the     ,bottom-country1 
that you may guard the bottom 7of the   
gate7 when     they come from the       
bottom1 guard the top when they come    

from the     top1 guarding with nightly 
guard and with daily guard1 and may     
praise them--peacefully take the great  
,,offerings which are set     up by     
piling them up like a range of hills1   
that is to say1     providing bright    
cloth1 etc41 444 and sitting closing-up 
the way     like innumerable piles of   
rock in the multitudinous               
road-forkings1 deign to praise the      
sovran ,,grandchild',s     augustness   
eternally and unchangingly1 and to bless
 his age as a     luxuriant ,,age4      
,retreating to another part of the      
world--that is1 into southwestern       
,japan--,izanami purified himself by    
bathing in a stream4 ,while washing     
himself1#e many kami were borne from the
 rinsings of his person1 one of them1   
from the left eye 7the left in ,japanese
 is always the honorable side71 being   
the far-shining or heaven-illuminating  
kami1 whose name1 ,amatras1 or          
,heaven-shiner1 is usually translated   
,the ,sun-goddess4 ,this personage is   

the centre of the system of ,shint4 ,the
 creation of gods by a process of       
cleansing has had a powerful effect on  
the ,japanese1 who usually associate    
cleanliness of the body 7less moral1    
than physical7 with godliness4  ,it is  
not necessary to detail further the     
various stories which make up the       
,japanese mythology4 ,some of these are 
lovely and beautiful1 but others are    
horrible and disgusting1 while the      
dominant note throughout is abundant    
filthiness4  ,professor ,basil ,hall    
,chamberlain1 who has done the world    
such good service in translating into   
,english the whole of the ,kojiki1 and  
furnishing it with learned commentary   
and notes1 has well said3      ,the     
shocking obscenity of word and act to   
which the ',records'     bear witness is
 another ugly feature which must not    
quite be     passed over in silence4 ,it
 is true that decency1 as we            
understand it1 is a very modern product1
 and it is not to be     looked for in  

any society in the barbarous stage4 ,at 
the same     time1 the whole range of   
literature might perhaps be ransacked   
for a parallel to the nave filthiness of
 the passage forming     ,sec4 ,,iv4 of 
the following translation1 or to the    
extraordinary     topic which the hero  
,yamato-,tak and his mistress ,miyadz   
are     made to select as the theme of  
poetical repartee4 ,one passage         
likewise would lead us to suppose that  
the most beastly crimes     were        
commonly committed4#f  ,indeed1 it      
happens in several instances that the   
thread by which the marvellous patchwork
 of unrelated and varying local myths is
 joined together1 is an indecent love   
story4  ,a thousand years after the     
traditions of the ,kojiki had been      
committed to writing1 and orthodox      
,shint commentators had learned science 
from the ,dutch at ,nagasaki1 the       
stirring of the world mud by ,izanagi's 
spear#g was gravely asserted to be the  
cause of the diurnal revolution of the  

earth upon its axis1 the point of the   
axis being still the jewel spear4#h     
,onogoro-jima1 or the ,island of the    
,congealed ,drop1 was formerly at the   
north pole1#i but subsequently removed  
to its present position4 ,how this      
happened is not told4   ,life in ,japan 
,during the ,divine ,age4   ,now that   
the ,kojiki is in ,english and all may  
read it1 we can clearly see who and what
 were the ,japanese in the ages before  
letters and ,chinese civilization2 for  
these stories of the kami are but       
legendary and mythical accounts of men  
and women4 ,one could scarcely recognize
 in the islanders of eleven or twelve   
hundred years ago1 the polished1        
brilliant1 and interesting people of    
to-day4 ,yet truth compels us to say    
that social morals in ,dai ,nippon1 even
 with telegraphs and railways1 are still
 more like those of ancient days than   
readers of rhapsodies by summer tourists
 might suppose4 ,these early ,japanese1 
indeed1 were possibly in a stage of     

civilization somewhat above that of the 
most advanced of the ,american ,indians 
when first met by ,europeans1 for they  
had a rude system of agriculture and    
knew the art of fashioning iron into    
tools and weapons4 ,still1 they were    
very barbarous1 certainly as much so as 
our ,germanic forbears4 ,they lived in  
huts4 ,they were without writing or     
commerce1 and were able to count only to
 ten4#aj ,their cruelty was as revolting
 as that of the savage tribes of        
,america4 ,the family was in its most   
rudimentary stage1 with little or no    
restraint upon the passions of men4     
,children of the same father1 but not of
 the same mother1 could intermarry4 ,the
 instances of men marrying their sisters
 or aunts were very common4 ,there was  
no art1 unless the making of clay       
images1 to take the place of the living 
human victims buried up to their necks  
in earth and left to starve on the death
 of their masters1#aa may be designated 
as such4  ,the ,magatama1 or curved     

jewels1 being made of ground and        
polished stone may be called jewelry2   
but since some of these prehistoric     
ornaments dug up from the ground are    
found to be of jade1 a mineral which    
does not occur in ,japan1 it is evident 
that some of these tokens of culture    
came from the continent4 ,many other    
things produced by more or less skilled 
mechanics1 the origin of which is       
poetically recounted in the story of the
 dancing of ,uzum before the cave in    
which the ,sun-goddess had hid          
herself1#ab were of continental origin4 
,evidently these men of the god-way had 
passed the stone age1 and1 probably     
without going through the intermediate  
bronze age1 were artificers of iron and 
skilled in its use4 ,most of the names  
of metals and of many other substances1 
and the terms used in the arts and      
sciences1 betray by their tell-tale     
etymology their ,chinese origin4        
,indeed1 it is evident that some of the 
leading kami were born in ,korea or     

,tartary4  ,then as now the people in   
,japan loved nature1 and were quickly   
sensitive to her beauty and profoundly  
in sympathy with her varied phenomena4  
,in the medival ages1 ,japanese         
,wordsworths are not unknown4#ac        
,sincerely they loved nature1 and in    
some respects they seemed to understand 
the character of their country far      
better than the alien does or can4      
,though a land of wonderful beauty1 the 
,country of ,peaceful ,shores is        
enfolded in powers of awful             
destructiveness4 ,with the earthquake   
and volcano1 the typhoon and the tidal  
wave1 beauty and horror alternate with a
 swiftness that is amazing4  ,probably  
in no portion of the earth are the      
people and the land more like each other
 or apparently better acquainted with   
each other4 ,nowhere are thought and    
speech more reflective of the features  
of the landscape4 ,even after ten       
centuries1 the ,japanese are1 in        
temperament1 what the ,kojiki reveals   

them to have been in their early        
simplicity4 ,indeed1 just as the modern 
,frenchman1 down beneath his outward    
environments and his habiliments cut and
 fitted yesterday1 is intrinsically the 
same ,gaul whom ,julius ,csar described 
eighteen hundred years ago1 so the      
gentleman of ,tki or ,kito is1 in his   
mental make-up1 wonderfully like his    
ancestors described by the first        
,japanese ,stanley1 who shed the light  
of letters upon the night of unlettered 
,japan and darkest ,dai ,nippon4  ,the  
,kojiki reveals to us1 likewise1 the    
childlike religious ideas of the        
islanders4 ,heaven lay1 not about but   
above them in their infancy1 yet not far
 away4 ,although in the ,notices1 it is 
the high plain of heaven1 yet it is just
 over their heads1 and once a single    
pillar joined it and the earth4 ,later1 
the idea was1 that it was held up by the
 pillar-gods of the wind1 and to them   
norito were recited4 ,the great plain of
 the blue sea and the land of luxuriant 

reeds form the world--which means       
,japan4 ,the gods are only men of       
prowess or renown4 ,a kami is anything  
wonderful--god or man1 rock or stream1  
bird or snake1 whatever is surprising1  
sensational1 or phenomenal1 as in the   
little child's world of to-day4 ,there  
is no sharp line dividing gods from men1
 the natural from the supernatural1 even
 as with the normal uneducated ,japanese
 of to-day4 ,as for the kami or gods1   
they have all sorts of characters2 some 
of them being rude and ill-mannered1    
many of them beastly and filthy1 while  
others are noble and benevolent4 ,the   
attributes of moral purity1 wisdom and  
holiness1 cannot be1 and in the original
 writings are not1 ascribed to them2 but
 they were strong and had power4 ,in so 
far as they had power they were called  
kami or gods1 whether celestial or      
terrestrial4 ,among the kami--the one   
term under which they are all           
included--there were heavenly bodies1   
mountains1 rivers1 trees1 rocks and     

animals1 because those also were        
supposed to possess force1 or at least  
some kind of influence for good or evil4
 ,even peaches1 as we have seen1 when   
transformed into rocks1 became gods4#ad 
,that there was worship with awe1       
reverence1 and fear1 and that the       
festivals and sacrifices had two        
purposes1 one of propitiating the       
offended ,kami and the other of         
purifying the worshipper1 may be seen in
 the norito or liturgies1 some of which 
are exceedingly beautiful4#ae ,in them  
the feelings of the gods are often      
referred to4 ,sometimes their characters
 are described4 ,yet one looks in vain  
in either the ,notices1 poems1 or       
liturgies for anything definite in      
regard to these deities1 or concerning  
morals or doctrines to be held as       
dogmas4 ,the first gods come into       
existence after evolution of the matter 
of which they are composed has taken    
place4 ,the later gods are sometimes    
able to tell who are their progenitors1 

sometimes not4 ,they live and fight1 eat
 and drink1 and give vent to their      
appetites and passions1 and then they   
die2 but exactly what becomes of them   
after they die1 the record does not     
state4 ,some are in heaven1 some on the 
earth1 some in ,hades4 ,the underworld  
of the first cycle of tradition is by no
 means that of the second4#af ,some of  
the kami are in the water1 or on the    
water1 or in the air4 ,as for man1 there
 is no clear statement as to whether he 
is to have any future life or what is to
 become of him1 though the custom or    
jun-shi1 or dying with the master1      
points to a sort of immortality such as 
the early ,greeks and the ,iroquois     
believed in4  ,it would task the keenest
 and ablest ,shintist to deduce or      
construct a system of theology1 or of   
ethics1 or of anthropology from the mass
 of tradition so full of gaps and       
discord as that found in the ,kojiki1   
and none has done it4 ,nor do the       
inaccurate1 distorted1 and often almost 

wholly factitious translations1         
so-called1 of ,french and other writers1
 who make versions which hit the taste  
of their occidental readers far better  
than they express the truth1 yield the  
desired information4 ,like the end      
strands of a new spider's web1 the lines
 of information on most vital points are
 still in the air4   ,the ,ethics of the
 ,god-way4   ,there are no codes of     
morals inculcated in the god-way1 for   
even its modern revivalists and         
exponents consider that morals are the  
invention of wicked people like the     
,chinese2 while the ancient ,japanese   
were pure in thought and act4 ,they     
revered the gods and obeyed the ,mikado1
 and that was the chief end of man1 in  
those ancient times when ,japan was the 
world and ,heaven was just above the    
earth4 ,not exactly on ,paul's principle
 of where there is no law there is no   
transgression1 but utterly scouting the 
idea that formulated ethics were        
necessary for these pure-minded people1 

the modern revivalists of ,shint teach  
that all that is of faith now is to     
revere the gods1 keep the heart pure1   
and follow its dictates4#ag ,the navet  
of the representatives of ,shint at     
,chicago in ,a4,d4 #ahic1 was almost as 
great as that of the revivalists who    
wrote when ,japan was a hermit nation4  
,the very fact that there was no moral  
commandments1 not even of loyalty or    
obedience such as ,confucianism         
afterward promulgated and formulated1 is
 proof to the modern ,shintist that the 
primeval ,japanese were pure and holy2  
they did right1 naturally1 and hence he 
does not hesitate to call ,japan1 the   
,land of the ,gods1 the ,country of the 
,holy ,spirits1 the ,region ,between    
,heaven and ,earth1 the ,island of the  
,congealed ,drop1 the ,sun's ,nest1 the 
,princess ,country1 the ,land of ,great 
,peace1 the ,land of ,great ,gentleness1
 the ,mikado's ,empire1 the ,country    
ruled by a ,theocratic ,dynasty4 ,he    
considers that only with the vice       

brought over from the ,continent of     
,asia were ethics both imported and made
 necessary4#ah  ,all this has been      
solemnly taught by famous ,shint        
scholars of the eighteenth and          
nineteenth centuries1 and is still      
practically promulgated in the polemic  
,shint literature of to-day1 even after 
the ,kojiki has been studied and        
translated into ,european languages4    
,the ,kojiki shows that whatever the men
 may have been or done1 the gods were   
abominably obscene1 and both in word and
 deed were foul and revolting1 utterly  
opposed in act to those reserves of     
modesty or standards of shame that exist
 even among the cultivated ,japanese    
to-day4#ai ,even among the ,ainos1 whom 
the ,japanese look upon as savages1     
there is still much of the obscenity of 
speech which belongs to all society#bj  
in a state of barbarism2 but it has been
 proved that genuine modesty is a       
characteristic of the ,aino women4#ba ,a
 literal ,english translation of the    

,kojiki1 however1 requires an abundant  
use of ,latin in order to protect it    
from the grasp of the law in            
,english-speaking ,christendom4 ,in     
,chamberlain's version1 the numerous    
cesspools are thus filled up with a dead
 language1 and the road is constructed  
for the reader1 who likes the language  
of ,edmund ,spencer1 of ,william        
,tyndale and of ,john ,ruskin kept      
unsoiled4  ,the cruelty which marks this
 early stage shows that though moral    
codes did not exist1 the ,buddhist and  
,confucian missionary were for ,japan   
necessities of the first order4         
,comparing the result to-day with the   
state of things in the early times1 one 
must award high praise to ,buddhism that
 it has made the ,japanese gentle1 and  
to ,confucianism that it has taught the 
proprieties of life1 so that the        
polished ,japanese gentleman1 as to     
courtesy1 is in many respects the peer  
and at some external points the         
superior1 of his ,european confrre4     

,another fact1 made repulsively clear1  
about life in ancient ,japan1 is that   
the high ideals of truth and honor1     
characteristic at least of the ,samurai 
of modern times1 were utterly unknown in
 the days of the kami4 ,treachery was   
common4 ,instances multiply on the pages
 of the ,kojiki where friend betrayed   
friend4 ,the most sacred relations of   
life were violated4 ,altogether these   
were the darkest ages of ,japan1 though1
 as among the red men of ,america1 there
 were not wanting many noble examples of
 stoical endurance1 of courage1 and of  
power nobly exerted for the benefit of  
others4   ,the ,rise of ,mikadoism4     
,nevertheless we must not forget that   
the men of the early age of the ,kami no
 ,michi conquered the aborigines by     
superior dogmas and fetiches1 as well as
 by superior weapons4 ,the entrance of  
these heroes1 invaders from the         
highlands of the ,asian continent1 by   
way of ,korea1 was relatively a very    
influential factor of progress1 though  

not so important as was the ,aryan      
descent upon ,india1 or the ,norman     
invasion of ,england1 for the aboriginal
 tribes were vastly lower in the scale  
of humanity than their subduers4 ,where 
they found savagery they introduced     
barbarism1 which1 though unlettered and 
based on the sword1 was a vast          
improvement over what may be called the 
geological state of man1 in which he is 
but slightly raised above the brutes4   
,for the proofs from the shell heaps1   
combined with the reflected evidences of
 folk-lore1 show1 that cannibalism#bb   
was common in the early ages1 and that  
among the aboriginal hill tribes it     
lingered after the inhabitants of the   
plain and shore had been subdued4 ,the  
conquerors1 who made themselves         
paramount over the other tribes and who 
developed the ,kami religion1 abolished 
this relic of savagery1 and gave order  
where there had been chronic war4       
,another thing that impresses us because
 of its abundant illustrations1 is the  

prevalence of human sacrifices4 ,the    
very ancient folk-lore shows that       
beautiful maidens were demanded by the  
sea-gods in propitiation1 or were       
devoured by the dragons4 ,these human   
victims were either chosen or           
voluntarily offered1 and in some        
instances were rescued from their fate  
by chivalrous heroes#bc from among the  
invaders4  ,these gods of the sea1 who  
anciently were propitiated by the       
sacrifice of human beings1 are the same 
to whom ,japanese sailors still pray1   
despite their ,buddhism4 ,the title of  
the efficient victims was hitoga-shira1 
or human pillars4 ,instances of this    
ceremony1 where men were lowered into   
the water and drowned in order to make  
the sure foundation for bridges1 piers  
or sea-walls1 or where they were buried 
alive in the earth in order to lay the  
right bases for walls or castles1 are   
quite numerous1 and most of the local   
histories contain specific              
traditions4#bd ,these traditions1 now   

transfigured1 still survive in customs  
that are as beautiful as they are       
harmless4 ,to reformers of              
pre-,buddhistic days1 belongs the credit
 of the abolition of jun-shi1 or dying  
with the master by burial alive1 as well
 as of the sacrifice to dragons and     
sea-gods4  ,strange as it may seem1     
before ,buddhism captured and made use  
of ,shint for its own purposes 7just as 
it stands ready to-day to absorb        
,christianity by making ,jesus one of   
the ,palestinian avatars of the         
,buddha71 the house or tribe of ,yamato1
 with its claim to descent from the     
heavenly gods1 and with its ,mikado or  
god-ruler1 had given to the ,buddhists a
 precedent and potent example4 ,shint1  
as a state religion or union of politics
 and piety1 with its system of shrines  
and festivals1 and in short the whole   
,kami no ,michi1 or ,shint as we know   
it1 from the sixth to the eighth        
century1 was in itself 7in part at      
least71 a case of the absorption of one 

religion by another4  ,in short1 the    
,mikado tribe or ,yamato clan did1 in   
reality1 capture the aboriginal         
religion1 and turn it into a great      
political machine4 ,they attempted      
syncretism and succeeded in their       
scheme4 ,they added to their own stock  
of dogma and fetich that of the natives4
 ,only1 while recognizing the 7earth7   
gods of the aborigines they proclaimed  
the superiority of the ,mikado as       
representative and vicegerent of        
,heaven1 and demanded that even the gods
 of the earth1 mountain1 river1 wind1   
and thunder and lightning should obey   
him4 ,not content1 however1 with        
absorbing and corrupting for political  
purposes the primitive faith of the     
aborigines1 the invaders corrupted their
 own religion by carrying the dogma of  
the divinity and infallibility of the   
,mikado too far4 ,stopping short of no  
absurdity1 they declared their chief    
greater even than the heavenly gods1 and
 made their religion centre in him      

rather than in his alleged heavenly     
ancestors1 or heaven4 ,in the interest  
of politics and conquest1 and for the   
sake of maintaining the prestige of     
their tribe and clan1 these             
,mikado-reverencers of early ages       
advanced from dogma to dogma1 until     
their leader was virtually chief god in 
a great pantheon4  ,a critical native   
,japanese1 student of the ,kojiki and of
 the early writings1 ,professor ,kumi1  
formerly of the ,imperial ,university in
 ,tki1 has brought to light abundant    
evidence to show that the aboriginal    
religion found by the ,yamato conquerors
 was markedly different at many vital   
points1 from that which was long        
afterward called ,shint4  ,if the view  
of recent students of anthropology be   
correct1 that the elements dominating   
the population in ancient ,japan were in
 the south1 ,malay2 in the north1 ,aino2
 and in the central region1 or that     
occupied by the ,yamato men1 ,korean2   
then1 these continental invaders may    

have been worshippers of ,heaven and    
have possessed a religion closely akin  
to that of ancient ,china with its      
monotheism4 ,it is very probable also   
that they came into contact with tribes 
or colonies of their fellow-continentals
 from ,asia4 ,these tribes1 hunters1    
fishermen1 or rude agriculturists--who  
had previously reached ,japan--practised
 many rites and ceremonies which were   
much like those of the new invaders4 ,it
 is certain also1 as we have seen1 that 
the ,yamato men made ultimate conquest  
and unification of all the islanders1   
not merely by the superiority of their  
valor and of their weapons of iron1 but 
also by their dogmas4 ,after success in 
battle1 and the first beginnings of rude
 government1 they taught their conquered
 subjects or over-awed vassals1 that    
they were the descendants of the        
heavenly gods2 that their ancestors had 
come down from heaven2 find that their  
chief or ,mikado was a god4 ,according  
to the same dogmatics1 the aborigines   

were descendants of the earth-born gods1
 and as such must obey the descendants  
of the heavenly gods1 and their         
vicegerent upon the earth1 the ,mikado4 
,purification of ,offences4   ,these    
heaven-descended ,yamato people were in 
the main agriculturists1 though of a    
rude order1 while the outlying tribes   
were mostly hunters and fishermen2 and  
many of the rituals show the class of   
crimes which nomads1 or men of unsettled
 life1 would naturally commit against   
their neighbors living in comparatively 
settled order4 ,it is to be noted that  
in the god-way the origin of evil is to 
be ascribed to evil gods4 ,these kami   
pollute1 and pollution is iniquity4     
,from this iniquity the people are to be
 purged by the gods of purification1 to 
whom offerings are duly made4  ,he who  
would understand the passion for        
cleanliness which characterizes the     
,japanese must look for its source in   
their ancient religion4 ,the root idea  
of the word tsumi1 which ,mr4 ,satow    

translated as offence1 is that of       
pollution4 ,on this basis1 of things    
pure and things defiling1 the ancient   
teachers of ,shint made their           
classification of what was good and what
 was bad4 ,from the impression of what  
was repulsive arose the idea of guilt4  
,in rituals translated by ,mr4 ,satow1  
the list of offences is given and the   
defilements are to be removed to the    
nether world1 or1 in common fact1 the   
polluted objects and the expiatory      
sacrifices are to be thrown into the    
rivers and thence carried to the sea1   
where they fall to the bottom of the    
earth4 ,the following norito clearly    
shows this4 ,furthermore1 as ,mr4       
,satow1 the translator1 points out1 this
 ritual contains the germ of criminal   
law1 a whole code of which might have   
been evolved and formulated under       
,shint1 had not ,buddhism arrested its  
growth4      ,amongst the various sorts 
of offences which may be committed in   
ignorance or out of negligence by       

heaven's increasing people1     who     
shall come into being in the country1   
which the ,sovran     ,,grandchild',s   
augustness1 hiding in the fresh         
,,residence1 built by     stoutly       
planting the ,,house-pillars on the     
bottom-most rocks1 and     exalting the 
cross-beams to the plain of high heaven1
 as his     ,,shade from the heavens and
 ,,shade from the sun1 shall tranquilly 
ruin as a peaceful country1 namely1 the 
country of great ,yamato1     where the 
sun is soon on high1 which he fixed upon
 as a peaceful     country1 as the      
centre of the countries of the four     
quarters     thus bestowed upon         
him--breaking the ridges1 filling up    
water-courses1 opening sluices1         
double-sowing1 planting stakes1         
flaying alive1 flaying backwards1 and   
dunging2 many of such     offences are  
distinguished as heavenly offences1 and 
as earthly     offences2 cutting living 
flesh1 cutting dead flesh1 leprosy1     
proud-flesh1 444 calamities of crawling 

worms1 calamities of a     god on high1 
calamities of birds on high1 the        
offences of     killing beasts and using
 incantations2 many of such offences may
     be disclosed4      ,when he has    
thus repeated it1 the heavenly gods will
 push open     heaven's eternal gates1  
and cleaving a path with might through  
the manifold clouds of heaven1 will     
hear2 and the country gods1             
ascending to the tops of the high       
mountains1 and to the tops of     the   
low hills1 and tearing asunder the mists
 of the high     mountains and the mists
 of the low hills1 will hear4      ,and 
when they have thus heard1 the          
,maiden-of-,descent-into-the-,current1  
who dwells in the current of     the    
swift stream which boils down the       
ravines from the tops of     the high   
mountains1 and the tops of the low      
hills1 shall carry     out to the great 
sea plain the offences which are cleared
 away     and purified1 so that there be
 no remaining offence2 like as          

,shinato's wind blows apart the manifold
 clouds of heaven1 as the     morning   
wind and the evening wind blow away the 
morning mist and     the evening mist1  
as the great ships which lie on the     
shore of a     great port loosen their  
prows1 and loosen their sterns to push  
out into the great sea-plain2 as the    
trunks of the forest trees1     far and 
near1 are cleared away by the sharp     
sickle1 the sickle     forged with fire3
 so that there ceased to be any offence 
called     an offence in the court of   
the ,sovran ,,grandchild',s augustness  
to     begin with1 and in the countries 
of the four quarters of the     region  
under heaven4      ,and when she thus   
carries them out and away1 the deity    
called     the                          
,maiden-of-the-,swift-cleansing1 who    
dwells in the     multitudinous meetings
 of the sea waters1 the multitudinous   
currents of rough sea-waters shall gulp 
them down4      ,and when she has thus  
gulped them down1 the lord of the       

,breath-blowing-place1 who dwells in the
 ,breath-blowing-place1     shall       
utterly blow them away with his breath  
to the     ,root-country1 the           
,bottom-country4      ,and when he has  
thus blown them away1 the deity called  
the     ,maiden-of-,swift-,banishment1  
who dwells in the ,root-country1 the    
,bottom-country1 shall completely banish
 them1 and get rid of     them4         
,and when they have thus been got rid   
of1 there shall from this     day       
onwards be no offence which is called   
offence1 with regard     to the men of  
the offices who serve in the court of   
the ,sovran1     nor in the four        
quarters of the region under heaven4    
,then the high priest says3      ,hear  
all of you how he leads forth the horse1
 as a thing that     erects its ears    
towards the plain of high heaven1 and   
deigns to     sweep away and purify with
 the general purification1 as the       
evening sun goes down on the last day of
 the watery moon of this     year4      

,o diviners of the four countries1 take 
7the sacrifices7 away out     to the    
river highway1 and sweep them away4     
,mikadoism ,usurps the ,primitive       
,god-way4   ,a further proof of the     
transformation of the primitive god-way 
in the interest of practical politics1  
is shown by ,professor ,kumi in the fact
 that some of the festivals now directly
 connected with the ,mikado's house1 and
 even in his honor1 were originally     
festivals with which he had nothing to  
do1 except as leader of the worship1 for
 the honor was paid to ,heaven1 and not 
to his ancestors4 ,professor ,kumi      
maintains that the thanksgivings of the 
court were originally to ,heaven itself1
 and not in honor of ,amatras1 the      
sun-goddess1 as is now popularly        
believed4 ,it is related in the ,kojiki 
that ,amatras herself celebrated the    
feast of ,niinam4 ,so also1 the temple  
of ,is1 the ,mecca of ,shint1 and the   
,holy shrine in the imperial palace were
 originally temples for the worship of  

,heaven4 ,the inferior gods of earthly  
origin form no part of primitive ,shint4
  ,not one of the first ,mikados was    
deified after death1 the deification of 
emperors dating from the corruption     
which ,shint underwent after the        
introduction of ,buddhism4 ,only by     
degrees was the ruler of the country    
given a place in the worship1 and this  
connection was made by attributing to   
him descent from ,heaven4 ,in a word1   
the contention of ,professor ,kumi is1  
that the ancient religion of at least a 
portion of the ,japanese and especially 
of those in central ,japan1 was a rude  
sort of monotheism1 coupled1 as in      
ancient ,china1 with the worship of     
subordinate spirits4  ,it is needless to
 say that such applications of the      
higher criticism to the ancient sacred  
documents proved to be no safer for the 
applier than if he had lived in the     
,united ,states of ,america4 ,the       
orthodox ,shintists were roused to wrath
 and charged the learned critic with    

degrading ,shint to a mere branch of    
,christianity4 ,the government1 which1  
despite its ,constitution and ,diet1 is 
in the eyes of the people really based  
on the myths of the ,kojiki1 quickly put
 the professor on the retired list4#be  
,it is probably correct to say that the 
arguments adduced by ,professor ,kumi1  
confirm our theory of the substitution  
in the simple god-way1 of ,mikadoism1   
the centre of the primitive worship     
being the sun and nature rather than    
,heaven4  ,between the ancient ,chinese 
religion with its abstract idea of      
,heaven and its personal term for ,god1 
and the more poetic and childlike system
 of the god-way1 there seems to be as   
much difference as there is racially    
between the people of the ,middle       
,kingdom and those of the ,land ,where  
the ,day ,begins4 ,indeed1 the entrance 
of ,chinese philosophical and abstract  
ideas seemed to paralyze the ,japanese  
imagination4 ,not only did myth-making1 
on its purely sthetic and               

non-utilitarian side cease almost at    
once1 but such myths as were formed were
 for direct business purposes and with a
 transparent tendency4 ,henceforth1 in  
the domain of imagination the ,japanese 
intellect busied itself with            
assimilating or re-working the abundant 
material imported by ,buddhism4         
,ancient ,customs and ,usages4   ,in the
 ancient god-way the temple or shrine   
was called a miya4 ,after the advent of 
,buddhism the keepers of the shrine were
 called kannushi1 that is1 shrine       
keepers or wardens of the god4 ,these   
men were usually descendants of the god 
in whose honor the temples were built4  
,the gods being nothing more than human 
founders of families1 reverence was paid
 to them as ancestors1 and so the basis 
of ,shint is ancestor worship4 ,the     
model of the miya1 in modern as in      
ancient times1 is the primitive hut as  
it was before ,buddhism introduced      
,indian and ,chinese architecture4 ,the 
posts1 stuck in the ground1 and not laid

 upon stones as in after times1         
supported the walls and roof1 the latter
 being of thatch4 ,the rafters1 crossed 
at the top1 were tied along the         
ridge-pole with the fibres of creepers  
or wistaria vines4 ,no paint1 lacquer1  
gilding1 or ornaments of any sort       
existed in the ancient shrine1 and even 
to-day the modern ,shint temple must be 
of pure hinoki or sun-wood1 and         
thatched1 while the use of metal is as  
far as possible avoided4 ,to the gods1  
as the norito show1 offerings of various
 kinds were made1 consisting of the     
fruits of the soil1 the products of the 
sea1 and the fabrics of the loom4       
,inside modern temples one often sees a 
mirror1 in which foreigners with lively 
imaginations read a great deal that is  
only the shadow of their own mind1 but  
which probably was never known in ,shint
 temples until after ,buddhist times4   
,they also see in front of the unpainted
 wooden closets or casements1 wands or  
sticks of wood from which depend masses 

or strips of white paper1 cut and       
notched in a particular way4            
,foreigners1 whose fancy is nimble1 have
 read in these the symbols of lightning1
 the abode of the spirits and various   
forthshadowings unknown either to the   
,japanese or the ancient writings4 ,in  
reality these gohei1 or honorable       
offerings1 are nothing more than the    
paper representatives of the ancient    
offerings of cloth which were woven1 as 
the arts progressed1 of bark1 of hemp   
and of silk4  ,the chief ,shint         
ministers of religion and shrine-keepers
 belonged to particular families1 which 
were often honored with titles and      
offices by the emperor4 ,in ordinary    
life they dressed like others of their  
own rank or station1 but when engaged in
 their sacred office were robed in white
 or in a special official costume1      
wearing upon their heads the boshi or   
peculiar cap which we associate with    
,japanese archology4 ,they knew nothing 
of celibacy2 but married1 reared        

families and kept their scalps free from
 the razor1 though some of the lower    
order of shrine-keepers dressed their   
hair in ordinary style1 that is1 with   
shaven poll and topknot4 ,at some of the
 more important shrines1 like those at  
,is1 there were virgin priestesses who  
acted as custodians both of the shrines 
and of the relics4#bf  ,in front of the 
miyas stood what we should suppose on   
first seeing was a gateway4 ,this was   
the torii or bird-perch1 and anciently  
was made only of unpainted wood4 ,two   
upright tree-trunks held crosswise on a 
smooth tree-trunk the ends of which     
projected somewhat over the supports1   
while under this was a smaller beam     
inserted between the two uprights4 ,on  
the torii1 the birds1 generally         
barn-yard fowls which were sacred to the
 gods1 roosted4 ,these creatures were   
not offered up as sacrifices1 but were  
chanticleers to give notice of day-break
 and the rising of the sun4 ,the cock   
holds a prominent place in ,japanese    

myth1 legend1 art and symbolism4 ,how   
this feature of pure ,japanese          
architecture1 the torii1 afterward lost 
its meaning1 we shall show in our       
lecture on ,riybu or mixed ,buddhism4   
,shint's ,emphasis on ,cleanliness4     
,one of the most remarkable features of 
,shint was the emphasis laid on         
cleanliness4 ,pollution was calamity1   
defilement was sin1 and physical purity 
at least1 was holiness4 ,everything that
 could in any way soil the body or the  
clothing was looked upon with abhorrence
 and detestation4 ,disease1 wounds and  
death were defiling1 and the feeling of 
disgust prevailed over that of either   
sympathy or pity4 ,birth and death were 
especially polluting4 ,anciently there  
were huts built both for the mother     
about to give birth to a child1 or for  
the man who was dying or sure to die of 
disease or wounds4 ,after the birth of  
the infant or the death of the patient  
these houses were burned4 ,cruel as this
 system was to the woman at a time when 

she needed most care and comfort1 and   
brutal as it seems in regard to the sick
 and dying1 yet this ancient custom was 
continued in a few remote places in     
,japan as late as the year #ahgh4bg ,in 
modern days with equal knowledge of     
danger and defilement1 tenderness and   
compassion temper the feeling of        
disgust1 and prevail over it4 ,horror of
 uncleanliness was so great that the    
priests bathed and put on clean garments
 before making the sacred offerings or  
chanting the liturgies1 and were        
accustomed to bind a slip of paper over 
their mouths lest their breath should   
pollute the offering4 ,numerous were the
 special festivals1 observed simply for 
purification4 ,salt also was commonly   
used to sprinkle over the ground1 and   
those who attended a funeral must free  
themselves from contamination by the use
 of salt4#bh ,purification by water was 
habitual and in varied forms4 ,the      
ancient emperors and priests actually   
performed the ablution of the people or 

made public lustration in their behalf4 
,afterwards1 and probably because       
population increased and towns sprang   
up1 we find it was customary at the     
festivals of purification to perform    
public ablution1 vicariously1 as it     
were1 by means of paper mannikins       
instead of making applications of water 
to the human cuticle4 ,twice a year     
paper figures representing the people   
were thrown into the river1 the typical 
meaning of which was that the nation was
 thereby cleansed from the sins1 that   
is1 the defilements1 of the previous    
half-year4 ,still later1 the ,mikado    
made the chief minister of religion at  
,kito his deputy to perform the         
symbolical act for the people of the    
whole country4   ,prayers to ,myriads of
 ,gods4   ,in prayer1 the worshipper1   
approaching the temple but not entering 
it1 pulls a rope usually made of white  
material and attached to a              
peculiar-shaped bell hung over the      
shrine1 calling the attention of the    

deity to his devotions4 ,having washed  
his hands and rinsed out his mouth1 he  
places his hands reverently together and
 offers his petition4  ,concerning the  
method and words of prayer1 ,hirata1 a  
famous exponent of ,shint1 thus writes3 
,as the number of the gods who possess  
different functions is so     great1 it 
will be convenient to worship by name   
only the most     important and to      
include the rest in a general petition4 
,those     whose daily affairs are so   
multitudinous that they have not time   
to go through the whole of the following
 morning prayers1 may     content       
themselves with adoring the residence of
 the emperor1     the domestic          
kami-dana1 the spirits of their         
ancestors1 their     local patron god   
and the deity of their particular       
calling in     life4      ,in praying to
 the gods the blessings which each has  
it in his     power to bestow are to be 
mentioned in a few words1 and they are  
not to be annoyed with greedy petitions1

 for the ,mikado in his     palace      
offers up petitions daily on behalf of  
his people1 which     are far more      
effectual than those of his subjects4   
,rising early in the morning1 wash your 
face and hands1 rinse out     the mouth 
and cleanse the body4 ,then turn toward 
the province of     ,yamato1 strike the 
palms of the hands together twice1 and  
worship1 bowing the head to the ground4 
,the proper posture is     that of      
kneeling on the heels1 which is         
ordinarily assumed in     saluting a    
superior4      ,,prayer4      ,from a   
distance ,i reverently worship with awe 
before ,am no     ,mi-hashira           
7,heaven-pillar7 and ,kuni no           
,mi-hashira     7,country-pillar71 also 
called ,shinatsu-hiko no kami and       
,shinatsu-him no kami1 to whom is       
consecrated the ,palace built     with  
stout pillars at ,tatsuta no ,tachinu in
 the department of     ,hguri in the    
province of ,yamato4      ,i say with   
awe1 deign to bless me by correcting the

 unwitting     faults which1 seen and   
heard by you1 ,i have committed1 by     
blowing off and clearing away the       
calamities which evil gods     might    
inflict1 by causing me to live long like
 the hard and     lasting rock1 and by  
repeating to the gods of heavenly origin
     and to the gods of earthly origin  
the petitions which ,i present     every
 day1 along with your breath1 that they 
may hear with the     sharp-earedness of
 the forth-galloping colt4  ,to the     
common people the sun is actually a god1
 as none can doubt who sees them        
worshipping it morning and evening4 ,the
 writer can never forget one of many    
similar scenes in ,tki1 when late one   
afternoon after ,o ,tent ,sama 7the     
sun-,lord of ,heaven71 which had been   
hidden behind clouds for a fortnight1   
shone out on the muddy streets4 ,in a   
moment1 as with the promptness of a     
military drill1 scores of people rushed 
out of their houses and with faces      
westward1 kneeling1 squatting1 began    

prayer and worship before the great     
luminary4 ,besides all the gods1        
supreme1 subordinate and local1 there is
 in nearly every house the ,kami-dana or
 god-shelf4 ,this is usually over the   
door inside4 ,it contains images with   
little paper-covered wooden tablets     
having the god's name on them4          
,offerings are made by day and a little 
lamp is lighted at night4 ,the following
 is one of several prayers which are    
addressed to this kami-dana4            
,reverently adoring the great god of the
 two palaces of ,is1 in     the first   
place1 the eight hundred myriads of     
celestial gods1     the eight hundred   
myriads of terrestrial gods1 all the    
fifteen     hundred myriads of gods to  
whom are consecrated the great and      
small temples in all provinces1 all     
islands and all places of     the ,great
 ,land of ,eight ,islands1 the fifteen  
hundreds of myriads     of gods whom    
they cause to serve them1 and the gods  
of branch     palaces and branch        

temples1 and ,sohodo no kami1 whom ,i   
have     invited to the shrine set up on
 this divine shelf1 and to whom ,i      
offer praises day by day1 ,i pray with  
awe that they will deign     to correct 
the unwitting faults1 which1 heard and  
seen by them1     ,i have committed1 and
 blessing and favoring me according to  
the     powers which they severally     
wield1 cause me to follow the divine    
example1 and to perform good works in   
the ,way4   ,shint ,left in a ,state of 
,arrested ,development4   ,thus from the
 emperor to the humblest believer1 the  
god-way is founded on ancestor worship1 
and has had grafted upon its ritual     
system nature worship1 even to          
phallicism4#bi ,in one sense it is a    
self-made religion of the ,japanese4    
,its leading characteristics are seen in
 the traits of the normal ,japanese     
character of to-day4 ,its power for good
 and evil may be traced in the education
 of the ,japanese through many          
centuries4 ,knowing ,shint1 we to a     

large degree know the ,japanese1 their  
virtues and their failings4  ,what      
,shint might have become in its full    
evolution had it been left alone1 we    
cannot tell4 ,whether in the growth of  
the nation and without the pressure of  
,buddhism1 ,confucianism or other       
powerful influences from outside1 the   
scattered and fragmentary mythology     
might have become organized into a      
harmonious system1 or codes of ethics   
have been formulated1 or the doctrines  
of a future life and the idea of a      
,supreme ,being with personal attributes
 have been conceived and perfected1 are 
questions the discussion of which may   
seem to be vain4 ,history1 however1     
gives no uncertain answer as to what    
actually did take place4 ,we do but     
state what is unchallenged fact1 when we
 say1 that after commitment to writing  
of the myths1 poems and liturgies which 
may be called the basis of ,shint1 there
 came a great flood of ,chinese and     
,buddhistic literature and a tremendous 

expansion of ,buddhist missionary       
activity1 which checked further literary
 growth of the kami system4 ,these      
prepared the way for the absorption of  
the indigenous into the foreign cultus  
under the form called by an enthusiastic
 emperor1 ,riybu ,shint1 or the two-fold
 divine doctrine4 ,of this1 we shall    
speak in another lecture4  ,suffice it  
here to say that by the scheme of       
syncretism propounded by ,kb in the     
ninth century1 ,shint was practically   
overlaid by the new faith from ,india1  
and largely forgotten as a distinct     
religion by the ,japanese people4 ,as   
late as ,a4,d4 #ibg1 there were three   
thousand one hundred and thirty-two     
enumerated metropolitan and provincial  
temples1 besides many more unenumerated 
village and hamlet shrines of ,shint4   
,these are referred to in the revised   
codes of ceremonial law set forth by    
imperial authority early in the tenth   
century4 ,probably by the twelfth       
century the pure rites of the god-way   

were celebrated1 and the unmixed        
traditions maintained1 in families and  
temples1 so few as to be counted on the 
fingers4 ,the ancient language in which 
the archaic forms had been preserved was
 so nearly lost and buried1 that out of 
the ooze of centuries of oblivion1 it   
had to be rescued by the skilled divers 
of the seventeenth century4 ,mabuchi1   
,motri and the other revivalists of pure
 ,shint1 like the plungers after orient 
pearls1 persevered until they had first 
recovered much that had been supposed   
irretrievably lost4 ,these scholars     
deciphered and interpreted the ancient  
scriptures1 poetry1 prose1 history1 law 
and ritual1 and once more set forth the 
ancient faith1 as they believed1 in its 
purity4  ,whether1 however1 men can     
exactly reproduce and think for         
themselves the thoughts of others who   
have been dead for a millennium1 is an  
open question4 ,the new system is apt to
 be transparent4 ,just as it is nearly  
impossible for us to restore the        

religious life1 thoughts and orthodoxy  
of the men who lived before the flood1  
so in the writings of the revivalists of
 pure ,shint we detect the thoughts of  
,dutchmen1 of ,chinese1 and of very     
modern ,japanese4 ,unconsciously1 those 
who would breathe into the dry bones of 
dead ,shint the breath of the nineteenth
 century1 find themselves compelled to  
use an oxygen and nitrogen generator    
made in ,holland and mounted with       
,chinese apparatus2 withal1 lacquered   
and decorated with the art of to-day4   
,to change from metaphor to matter of   
fact1 modern pure ,shint is mainly a    
mass of speculation and philosophy1 with
 a tendency of which the ancient god-way
 knew nothing4   ,the ,modern           
,revivalists of ,kami no ,michi4        
,passing by further mention of the      
fifteen or more corrupt sects of        
,shintists1 we name with honor the      
native scholars of the seventeenth      
century1 who followed the illustrious   
example of ,iyyas1 the political unifier

 of ,japan4 ,they ransacked the country 
and purchased from temples1 mansions and
 farmhouses1 old manuscripts and books1 
and forming libraries began anew the    
study of ancient language and history4  
,kichu 7#afdj-agja71 a ,buddhist priest1
 explored and illumined the poems of the
 ,manyshu4 ,kada ,adzumar1 born in #affi
 near ,kito1 the son of a shrine-keeper 
at ,inari1 attempted the mastery of the 
whole archaic native language and       
literature4 ,he made a grand beginning4 
,he is unquestionably the founder of the
 school of ,pure ,shint4 ,he died in    
#agcf4 ,his successor and pupil was     
,mabuchi 7#afig-agfi71 who claimed      
direct descent from that god which in   
the form of a colossal crow had guided  
the first chief of the ,yamato tribe as 
he led his invaders through the country 
to found the line of ,mikados4 ,after   
,mabuchi came ,motori 7#agcj-ahja7 a    
remarkable scholar and critic1 who1 with
 erudition and acuteness1 analyzed the  
ancient literature and showed what were 

,chinese or imported elements and what  
was of native origin4 ,he summarized the
 principles of the ancient religion1    
reasserted and illuminated with amazing 
learning and voluminous commentary the  
archaic documents1 expounded and        
defended the ancient cosmogony1 and in  
the usual style of ,japanese polemics   
preached anew the doctrines of ,shint4  
,with wonderful navet and enthusiasm1   
,motori taught that ,japan was the first
 part of the earth created1 and that it 
is therefore ,the ,land of the ,gods1   
the ,country of the ,holy ,spirits4 ,the
 stars were created from the muck which 
fell from the spear of ,izanagi as he   
thrust it into the warm earth1 while the
 other countries were formed by the     
spontaneous consolidation of the foam of
 the sea4 ,morals were invented by the  
,chinese because they were an immoral   
people1 but in ,japan there is no       
necessity for any system of morals1 as  
every ,japanese acts aright if he only  
consults his own heart4 ,the duty of a  

good ,japanese consists in obeying the  
,mikado1 without questioning whether his
 commands are right or wrong4 ,the      
,mikado is god and vicar of all the     
gods1 hence government and religion are 
the same1 the ,mikado being the centre  
of ,church and ,state1 which are one4   
,did the foreign nations know their duty
 they would at once hasten to pay       
tribute to the ,son of ,heaven in ,kito4
  ,it is needless here to dwell upon the
 tremendous power of ,shint as a        
political system1 especially when wedded
 with the forces1 generated in the minds
 of the educated ,japanese by modern    
,confucianism4 ,the ,chinese ethical    
system1 expanded into a philosophy as   
fascinating as the ,english             
materialistic school of to-day1 entered 
,japan contemporaneously with the       
revival of the ,way of the ,gods and of 
native learning4 ,in full rampancy of   
their vigor1 in the seventeenth century 
these two systems began that generation 
of national energy1 which in the        

eighteenth century was consolidated and 
which in the nineteenth century1 though 
unknown and unsuspected by ,europeans or
 ,americans1 was all ready for          
phenomenal manifestation and tremendous 
eruption1 even while ,perry's fleet was 
bearing the olive branch to ,japan4 ,as 
we all know1 this consolidation of      
forces from the inside1 on meeting1 not 
with collision but with union1 the      
exterior forces of western civilization1
 formed a resultant in the energies     
which have made ,new ,japan4   ,the     
,great ,purification of #ahgj4   ,in    
#ahgj1 with the ,shgun of ,yedo deposed1
 the dual system abolished1 feudalism in
 its last gasp and ,shint in full       
political power1 with the ancient       
council of the gods 7,jin ,gi ,kuan7    
once more established1 and purified     
,shint again the religion of state1     
thousands of ,riybu ,shint temples were 
at once purged of all their ,buddhist   
ornaments1 furniture1 ritual1 and       
everything that might remind the        

,japanese of foreign elements4 ,then    
began1 logically and actually1 the      
persecution of those ,christians1 who   
through all the centuries of repression 
and prohibition had continued their     
existence1 and kept their faith however 
mixed and clouded4 ,theoretically1      
ancient belief was re-established1 yet  
it was both physically and morally      
impossible to return wholly to the      
baldness and austere simplicity of those
 early ages1 in which art and literature
 were unknown4 ,for a while it seemed as
 though the miracle would be performed1 
of turning back the dial of the ages and
 of plunging ,japan into the fountain of
 her own youth4 ,propaganda was         
instituted1 and the attempts made to    
convert all the ,japanese to ,shint     
tenets and practice were for a while    
more lively than edifying2 but the      
scheme was on the whole a splendid      
failure1 and bitter disappointment      
succeeded the first exultation of       
victory4 ,confronted by modern problems 

of society and government1 the ,mikado's
 ministers found themselves unable1 if  
indeed willing1 to entomb politics in   
religion1 as in the ancient ages4 ,for a
 little while1 in #ahfh1 the ,jin ,gi   
,kuan1 or ,council of the ,gods of      
,heaven and ,earth1 held equal authority
 with the ,dai ,j ,kuan1 or ,great      
,council of the ,government4 ,pretty    
soon the first step downward was taken1 
and from a supreme council it was made  
one of the ten departments of the       
government4 ,in less than a year        
followed another retrograde movement and
 the department was called a board4     
,finally1 in #ahgg1 the board became a  
bureau4 ,now1 it is hard to tell what   
rank the ,shint cultus occupies in the  
government1 except as a system of       
guardianship over the imperial tombs1 a 
mode of official etiquette1 and as one  
of the acknowledged religions of the    
country4  ,nevertheless1 as an element  
in that amalgam of religions which forms
 the creed of most ,japanese1 ,shint is 

a living force1 and shares with         
,buddhism the arena against advancing   
,christianity1 still supplying much of  
the spring and motive to patriotism4    
,the ,shint lecturers with unblushing   
plagiarism rifled the storehouses of    
,chinese ethics4 ,they enforced their   
lessons from the ,confucian classics4   
,indeed1 most of their homiletical and  
illustrative material is still derived  
directly therefrom4 ,their three main   
official theses and commandments were3  
#a4 ,thou shalt honor the ,gods and love
 thy country4      #b4 ,thou shalt      
clearly understand the principles of    
,heaven1 and     the duty of man4       
#c4 ,thou shalt revere the ,emperor as  
thy sovereign and obey the     will of  
his ,court4  ,for nearly twenty years   
this deliverance of the ,japanese       
,government1 which still finds its      
strongest support in the national       
traditions and the reverence of the     
people for the throne1 sufficed for the 
necessities of the case4 ,then the      

copious infusion of foreign ideas1 the  
disintegration of the old framework of  
society1 and the weakening of the old   
ties of obedience and loyalty1 with the 
flood of shallow knowledge and education
 which gave especially children and     
young people just enough of foreign     
ideas to make them dangerous1 brought   
about a condition of affairs which      
alarmed the conservative and patriotic4 
,like fungus upon a dead tree strange   
growths had appeared1 among others that 
of a class of violently patriotic and   
half-educated young men and boys1 called
 ,sosh4 ,these hot-headed youths took it
 upon themselves to dictate national    
policy to cabinet ministers1 and to     
reconstruct society1 religion and       
politics4 ,something like a mania broke 
out all over the country which1 in      
certain respects1 reminds us of the     
,children's ,crusade1 that once         
afflicted ,europe and the children      
themselves4 ,even ,christianity did not 
escape the craze for reconstruction4    

,some of the young believers and pupils 
of the missionaries seemed determined to
 make ,christianity all over so as to   
suit themselves4 ,this phase of         
brain-swelling is not yet wholly over4  
,one could not tell but that something  
like the ,tai ,ping rebellion1 which    
disturbed and devastated ,china1 might  
break out4  ,these portentous signs on  
the social horizon called forth1 in     
#ahib1 from the government an ,imperial 
,rescript1 which required that the      
emperor's photograph be exhibited in    
every school1 and saluted by all        
teachers and scholars whatever their    
religious tenets and scruples might be4 
,most ,christians as well as ,buddhists1
 saw nothing in this at which to        
scruple4 ,a few1 however1 finding in it 
an offence to conscience1 resigned their
 positions4 ,they considered the mandate
 an unwarrantable interference with     
their rights as conferred by the        
constitution of #ahhi1 which in theory  
is the gift of the emperor to his       

people4  ,the radical ,shintist1 to this
 day1 believes that all political rights
 which ,japanese enjoy or can enjoy are 
by virtue of the ,mikado's grace and    
benevolence4 ,it is certain that all    
,japanese1 whatever may be their        
religious convictions1 consider that the
 constitution depends for its safeguards
 and its validity largely upon the oath 
which the ,mikado swore at the shrine of
 his heavenly ancestors1 that he would  
himself be obedient to it and preserve  
its provisions inviolate4 ,for this     
solemn ceremony a special norito or     
liturgy was composed and recited4       
,summary of ,shint4   ,of ,shint as a   
system we have long ago given our       
opinion4 ,in its higher forms1 ,shint is
 simply a cultured and intellectual     
atheism2 in its lower forms it is blind 
obedience to governmental and priestly  
dictates4 ,shint1 says ,mr4 ,ernest     
,satow1 as expounded by ,motori is      
nothing more than an engine for reducing
 the people to a condition of mental    

slavery4 ,japan being a country of very 
striking natural phenomena1 the very    
soil and air lend themselves to support 
in the native mind this system of       
worship of heroes and of the forces of  
nature4 ,in spite1 however1 of the      
conservative power of the ancestral     
influences1 the patriotic incentives and
 the easy morals of ,shint under which  
lying and licentiousness shelter        
themselves1 it is doubtful whether with 
the pressure of ,buddhism1 and the      
spread of popular education and         
,christianity1 ,shint can retain its    
hold upon the ,japanese people4 ,yet    
although this is our opinion1 it is but 
fair1 and it is our duty1 to judge every
 religion by its ideals and not by its  
failings4 ,the ideal of ,shint is to    
make people pure and clean in all their 
personal and household arrangements2 it 
is to help them to live simply1 honestly
 and with mutual good will2 it is to    
make the ,japanese love their country1  
honor their imperial house and obey     

their emperor4 ,narrow and local as this
 religion is1 it has had grand exemplars
 in noble lives and winning characters4 
,so far as ,shint is a religion1        
,christianity meets it not as destroyer 
but fulfiller1 for it too believes that 
cleanliness is not only next to         
godliness but a part of it4 ,jesus as   
perfect man and patriot1 ,captain of our
 salvation and ,prince of peace1 would  
not destroy the ,yamato damashii--the   
spirit of unconquerable ,japan--but     
rather enlarge1 broaden1 and deepen it1 
making it love for all humanity4        
,reverence for ancestral virtue and     
example1 so far from being weakened1 is 
strengthened1 and as for devotion to    
king and ruler1 law and society1        
,christianity lends nobler motives and  
grander sanctions1 while showing        
clearly1 not indeed the way of the eight
 million or more gods1 but the way to   
,god--the one living1 only and true1    
even through ,him who said ,i am the    
,way4     ,,chapter ,,iv - ,,the        

,,chinese ,,ethical ,,system ,,in       
,,japan       ,things being             
investigated1 knowledge became complete2
 knowledge     being complete1 thoughts 
were sincere2 thoughts being sincere1   
hearts were rectified2 hearts being     
rectified1 persons were     cultivated2 
persons being cultivated1 families were 
regulated2     families being regulated1
 states were rightly governed2 states   
being rightly governed1 the whole nation
 was made tranquil and     happy4       
,when you know a thing to hold that you 
know it2 and when you do     not know a 
thing to allow that you do not know it2 
this is     knowledge4      ,old age    
sometimes becomes second childhood2 why 
should not     filial piety become      
parental love8      ,the superior man   
accords with the course of the mean4    
,though he     may be all unknown1      
unregarded by the world1 he feels no    
regret4     ,he is only the sage who is 
able for this4--,sayings of             
,confucius4      ,there is1 in a word1  

no bringing down of ,god to men in      
,confucianism in order to lift them up  
to ,him4 ,their moral     shortcomings1 
when brought home to them1 may produce a
 feeling     of shame1 but hardly a     
conviction of guilt4--,james ,legge4    
,do not to others what you would not    
have them do to you4--,the     ,silver  
,rule4      ,all things whatsoever ye   
would that men should do to you1 do ye  
even so to them4--,the ,golden ,rule4   
,in respect to revenging injury done to 
master or father1 it is     granted by  
the wise and virtuous 7,confucius7 that 
you and the     injurer cannot live     
together under the canopy of            
heaven4--,legacy of ,iyyas1 ,cap4 iii1  
,lowder's translation4      ,but ,i say 
unto you forgive your enemies4--,jesus4 
,thou1 ,o ,lord1 art our father1 our    
redeemer1 thy name is from              
everlasting4--,isaiah4   ,,chapter ,,iv 
- ,,the ,,chinese ,,ethical ,,system    
,,in ,,japan  ,confucius a ,historical  
,character4   ,if the greatness of a    

teacher is to be determined by the      
number of his disciples1 or to be       
measured by the extent and diversity of 
his influence1 then the foremost place  
among all the teachers of mankind must  
be awarded to ,the ,master ,kung 7or    
,confucius1 as the ,jesuit scholars of  
the seventeenth century ,latinized the  
name74 ,certainly1 he of all truly      
historic personages is to-day1 and for  
twenty-three centuries has been1 honored
 by the largest number of followers4    
,of the many systems of religion in the 
world1 but few are based upon the       
teachings of one person4 ,the reputed   
founders of some of them are not known  
in history with any certainty1 and of   
others--as in the case of               
,buddhism--have become almost as shadows
 among a great throng of imaginary      
,buddhas or other beings which have     
sprung from the fancies of the brain and
 become incorporated into the systems1  
although the original teachers may      
indeed have been historical4  ,confucius

 is a clear and distinct historic       
person4 ,his parentage1 place of birth1 
public life1 offices1 work and teaching1
 are well known and properly            
authenticated4 ,he used the pen freely1 
and not only compiled1 edited and       
transmitted the writings of his         
predecessors1 but composed an historical
 and interpretative book4 ,he originated
 nothing1 however1 but on the contrary  
disowned any purpose of introducing new 
ideas1 or of expressing thoughts of his 
own not based upon or in perfect harmony
 with the teaching of the ancients4 ,he 
was not an original thinker4 ,he was a  
compiler1 an editor1 a defender and     
reproclaimer of the ancient religion1   
and an exemplar of the wisdom and       
writings of the ,chinese fathers4 ,he   
felt that his duty was exactly that     
which some ,christian theologians of    
to-day conscientiously feel to be       
theirs--to receive intact a certain     
deposit or system and1 adding nothing to
 it1 simply to teach1 illuminate1       

defend1 enforce and strongly maintain it
 as the truth4 ,he gloried in absolute  
freedom from all novelty1 anticipating  
in this respect a certain illustrious   
,american who made it a matter for      
boasting1 that his school had never     
originated a new idea4#a ,whether or not
 the ,master ,kung did nevertheless1    
either consciously or unconsciously1    
modify the ancient system by            
abbreviating or enlarging it1 we cannot 
now inquire4  ,confucius wan born into  
the world in the year #eea ,b4,c41      
during that wonderful century of        
religious revival which saw the birth of
 ,ezra1 ,gautama1 and ,lao ,tsze1 and in
 boyhood he displayed an unusually      
sedate temperament which made him seem  
to be what we would now call an         
old-fashioned child4 ,the period during 
which he lived was that of feudal       
,china4 ,from the ago of twenty-two1    
while holding an office in the state of 
,lu within the modern province of       
,shan-,tung1 he gathered around him     

young men as pupils with whom1 like     
,socrates1 he conversed in question and 
answer4 ,he made the teachings of the   
ancients the subjects of his research1  
and he was at all times a diligent      
student of the primeval records4 ,these 
sacred books are called ,king1 or ,ki in
 ,japanese1 and are3 ,shu ,king1 a      
collection of historic documents2 ,shih 
,king1 or ,book of ,odes2 ,hsiao ,king1 
or ,classic of ,filial ,piety1 and ,yi  
,king1 or ,book of ,changes4#b ,this    
division of the old sacred canon1       
resembles the ,christian or non-,jewish 
arrangement of the ,old ,testament      
scriptures in the four parts of ,law1   
,history1 ,poetry and ,prophesy1 though 
in the ,chinese we have ,history1       
,poetry1 ,ethics and ,divination4#c     
,his own table-talk1 conversations1     
discussions and notes were compiled by  
his pupils1 and are preserved in the    
work entitled in ,english1 ,the         
,confucian ,analects1 which is one of   
the four books constituting the most    

sacred portion of ,chinese philosophy   
and instruction4 ,he also wrote a work  
named ,spring and ,autumn1 or           
,chronicles of his ,native ,state of ,lu
 from #gbb ,b4,c41 to #dhad ,b4,c4 ,he  
changed his world1 as the ,buddhists    
say1 in the year #dgh ,b4,c41 having    
lived seventy-three years4   ,primitive 
,chinese ,faith4   ,the pre-,confucian  
or primitive faith was monotheistic1 the
 forefathers of the ,chinese nation     
having been believers in one ,supreme   
,spiritual ,being4 ,there is an almost  
universal agreement among scholars in   
translating the term ,shang ,ti as ,god1
 and in reading from these classics that
 the forefathers in the ceremonies at   
the altars of ,heaven and earth 444     
served ,god4 ,concurrently with the     
worship of one ,supreme ,god there was  
also a belief in subordinate spirits and
 in the idea of revelation or the       
communication of ,god with men4 ,this   
restricted worship of ,god was          
accompanied by reverence for ancestors  

and the honoring of spirits by prayers  
and sacrifices1 which resulted1 however1
 neither in deification nor polytheism4 
,but1 as the ,european medival schoolmen
 have done with the ,bible1 so1 after   
the death of ,confucius the ,chinese    
scholastics by metaphysical reasoning   
and commentary1 created systems of      
interpretation which greatly altered the
 apparent form and contents of his own  
and of the ancient texts4 ,thus1 the    
original monotheism of the              
pre-,confucian documents has been       
completely obscured by the later webs of
 sophistry which have been woven about  
the original scriptures4 ,the ancient   
simplicity of doctrine has been lost in 
the mountains of commentary which were  
piled upon the primitive texts4         
,throughout the centuries1 the          
,confucian system has been conditioned  
and greatly modified by ,taoism1        
,buddhism and the speculations of the   
,chinese wise men4  ,confucius1 however1
 did not change or seriously modify the 

ancient religion except that1 as is more
 than probable1 he may have laid        
unnecessary emphasis upon social and    
political duties1 and may not have been 
sufficiently interested in the honor to 
be paid to ,shang ,ti or ,god4 ,he      
practically ignored the ,god-ward side  
of man's duties4 ,his teachings relate  
chiefly to duties between man and man1  
to propriety and etiquette1 and to      
ceremony and usage4 ,he said that ,to   
give one's self to the duties due to men
 and while respecting spiritual beings  
to keep aloof from them1 may be called  
wisdom4#e  ,we think that ,confucius cut
 the tap-root of all true progress1 and 
therefore is largely responsible for the
 arrested development of ,china4 ,he    
avoided the personal term1 ,god 7,ti71  
and instead1 made use of the abstract   
term1 ,heaven 7,tien74 ,his teaching1   
which is so often quoted by ,japanese   
gentlemen1 was1 ,honor the ,gods and    
keep them far from you4 ,his image      
stands in thousands of temples and in   

every school1 in ,china1 but he is only 
revered and never deified4  ,china has  
for ages suffered from agnosticism2 for 
no normal ,confucianist can love ,god1  
though he may learn to reverence him4   
,the ,emperor periodically worships for 
his people1 at the great marble altar to
 ,heaven in ,peking1 with vast          
holocausts1 and the prayers which are   
offered may possibly amount to this3    
,our ,father who art in ,heaven1        
,hallowed be thy name4 ,but there1 as it
 seems to a ,christian1 ,chinese        
imperial worship stops4 ,the people at  
large1 cut off by this restricted       
worship from direct access to ,god1 have
 wandered away into every sort of       
polytheism and idolatry1 while the      
religion of the educated ,chinese is a  
medival philosophy based upon           
,confucianism1 of which we shall speak  
hereafter4  ,the ,confucian system as a 
religion1 like a giant with a child's   
head1 is exaggerated on its moral and   
ceremonial side as compared with its    

spiritual development4 ,some deny that  
it is a religion at all1 and call it    
only a code4 ,however1 let us examine   
the ,confucian ethics which formed the  
basis and norm of all government in the 
family and nation1 and are summed up in 
the doctrine of the ,five ,relations4   
,these are3 ,sovereign and ,minister2   
,father and ,son2 ,husband and ,wife2   
,elder ,brother and ,younger ,brother2  
and ,friends4 ,the relation being       
stated1 the correlative duty arises at  
once4 ,it may perhaps be truly said by  
,christians that ,confucius might have  
made a religion of his system of ethics1
 by adding a sixth and supreme          
relation--that between ,god and man4    
,this he declined to do1 and so left his
 people without any aspiration toward   
the ,infinite4 ,by setting before them  
only a finite goal he sapped the        
principles of progress4#f               
,vicissitudes of ,confucianism4   ,after
 the death of ,confucius 7#dgh ,b4,c47  
the teachings of the great master were  

neglected1 but still later they were    
re-enforced and expounded in the time   
7#cgb-bhi ,b4,c47 of ,meng ,ko1 or      
,mencius 7as the name has been          
,latinized7 who was likewise a native of
 the ,state of ,lu4 ,at one time a      
,chinese ,emperor attempted in vain to  
destroy not only the writings of        
,confucius but also the ancient         
classics4 ,taoism increased as a power  
in the religion of ,china1 especially   
after the fall of its feudal system4    
,the doctrine of ancestral worship as   
commended by the sage had in it much of 
good1 both for kings and nobles4 ,the   
common people1 however1 found that      
,taoism was more satisfying4 ,about the 
beginning of the ,christian era         
,buddhism entered the ,middle ,kingdom1 
and1 rapidly becoming popular1 supplied 
needs for which simple ,confucianism was
 not adequate4 ,it may be said that in  
the sixth century--which concerns us    
especially--although ,confucianism      
continued to be highly esteemed1        

,buddhism had become supreme in         
,china--that venerable ,state which is  
the mother of civilization in all ,asia 
cast of the ,ganges1 and the ,middle    
,kingdom among pupil nations4           
,confucianism overflowed from ,china    
into ,korea1 where to this day it is    
predominant even over ,buddhism4        
,thence1 it was carried beyond sea to   
the ,japanese ,archipelago1 where for   
possibly fifteen hundred years it has   
shaped and moulded the character of a   
brave and chivalrous people4 ,let us now
 turn from ,china and trace its         
influence and modifications in the ,land
 of the ,rising ,sun4  ,it must be      
remembered that in the sixth century of 
the ,christian ,era1 ,confucianism was  
by no means the fully developed         
philosophy that it is now and has been  
for five hundred years4 ,in former      
times1 the system of ,confucius had been
 received in ,china not only as a       
praiseworthy compendium of ceremonial   
observances1 but also as an inheritance 

from the ancients1 illumined by the     
discourses of the great sage and        
illustrated by his life and example4 ,it
 was1 however1 very far from being what 
it is at present--the religion of the   
educated men of the nation1 and1 by     
excellence1 the religion of ,chinese    
,asia4 ,but in those early centuries it 
did not fully satisfy the ,chinese mind1
 which turned to the philosophy of      
,taoism and to the teachings of the     
,buddhist for intellectual food1 for    
comfort and for inspiration4  ,the time 
when ,chinese learning entered ,japan1  
by the way of ,korea1 has not been      
precisely ascertained4#g ,it is possible
 that letters#h and writings were known 
in some parts of the country as early as
 the fourth century1 but it is nearly   
certain1 that1 outside the ,court of the
 ,emperor1 there was scarcely even a    
sporadic knowledge of the literature of 
,china until the ,korean missionaries of
 ,buddhism had obtained a lodgement in  
the ,mikado's capital4 ,buddhism was the

 real purveyor of the foreign learning  
and became the vehicle by means of which
 ,confucianism1 or the ,chinese ethical 
principles1 reached the common people of
 ,japan4 ,the first missionaries in     
,japan were heartily in sympathy with   
the ,confucian ethics1 from which no    
effort was made to alienate them4 ,they 
were close allies1 and for a thousand   
years wrought as one force in the       
national life4 ,they were not estranged 
until the introduction1 in the          
seventeenth century1 of the metaphysical
 and scholastic forms given to the      
ancient system by the ,chinese schoolmen
 of the ,sung dynasty 7,a4,d4           
#ifj-accc74   ,japanese ,confucianism   
and ,feudalism ,contemporary4   ,the    
intellectual history of the ,japanese   
prior to their recent contact with      
,christendom1 may be divided into three 
eras3  #a4 ,the period of early insular 
or purely native thought1 from before   
the ,christian era until the eighth     
century2 by which time1 ,shint1 or the  

indigenous system of worship--its       
ritual1 poetry and legend having been   
committed to writing and its life       
absorbed in ,buddhism--had been1 as a   
system1 relegated from the nation and   
the people to a small circle of scholars
 and archologists4  #b4 ,the period from
 #hjj ,a4,d4 to the beginning of the    
seventeenth century2 during which time  
,buddhism furnished to the nation its   
religion1 philosophy and culture4  #c4  
,from about #afcj ,a4,d4 until the      
present time2 during which period the   
developed ,confucian philosophy1 as set 
forth by ,chu ,hi in the twelfth        
century1 has been the creed of a        
majority of the educated men of ,japan4 
,the political history of the ,japanese 
may also be divided into three eras3    
#a4 ,the first extends from the dawn of 
history until the seventh century4      
,during this period the system of       
government was that of rude feudalism4  
,the conquering tribe of ,yamato1 having
 gradually obtained a rather imperfect  

supremacy over the other tribes in the  
middle and southern portions of the     
country now called the ,empire of       
,japan1 ruled them in the name of the   
,mikado4  #b4 ,the second period begins 
in the seventh century1 when the        
,japanese1 copying the ,chinese model1  
adopted a system of centralization4 ,the
 country was divided into provinces and 
was ruled through boards or ministries  
at the capital1 with governors sent out 
from ,kito for stated periods1 directly 
from the emperor4 ,during this time     
literature was chiefly the work of the  
,buddhist priests and of the women of   
the imperial court4  ,while armies in   
the field brought into subjection the   
outlying tribes and certain noble       
families rose to prominence at the      
court1 there was being formed that      
remarkable class of men called the      
,samurai1 or servants of the ,mikado1   
which for more than ten centuries has   
exercised a profound influence upon the 
development of ,japan4  ,in ,china1 the 

pen and the sword have been kept apart2 
the civilian and the soldier1 the man of
 letters and the man of arms1 have been 
distinct and separate4 ,this was also   
true in old ,loo ,choo 7now ,riu ,kiu71 
that part of ,japan most like ,china4   
,in ,japan1 however1 the pen and the    
sword1 letters and arms1 the civilian   
and the soldier1 have intermingled4 ,the
 unique product of this union is seen in
 the ,samurai1 or servant of the        
,mikado4 ,military-literati1 are unknown
 in ,china1 but in ,japan they carried  
the sword and the pen in the same       
girdle4  #c4 ,this class of men had     
become fully formed by the end of the   
twelfth century1 and then began the new 
feudal system1 which lasted until the   
epochal year #ahfh ,a4,d4--a year of    
several revolutions1 rather than of     
restoration pure and simple4 ,after     
nearly seven hundred years of feudalism1
 supreme magistracy1 with power vastly  
increased beyond that possessed in      
ancient times1 was restored to the      

emperor4 ,then also was abolished the   
duarchy of ,throne and ,camp1 of ,mikado
 and ,shgun1 and of the two capitals    
,kito and ,yedo1 with the fountain of   
honor and authority in one and the      
fountain of power and execution in the  
other4 ,thereupon1 ,japan once more     
presented to the world1 unity4          
,practically1 therefore1 the period of  
the prevalence of the ,confucian ethics 
and their universal acceptance by the   
people of ,japan nearly coincides with  
the period of ,japanese feudalism or the
 dominance of the military classes4     
,although the same ideograph1 or rather 
logogram1 was used to designate the     
,chinese scholar and the ,japanese      
warrior as well1 yet the former was man 
of the pen only1 while the latter was   
man of the pen and of two swords4 ,this 
historical fact1 more than any other1   
accounts for the striking differences   
between ,chinese and ,japanese          
,confucianism4 ,under this state of     
things the ethical system of the sage of

 ,china suffered a change1 as does      
almost everything that is imported into 
,japan and borrowed by the islanders1   
but whether for the better or for the   
worse we shall not inquire too          
carefully4 ,the point upon which we now 
lay emphasis is this3 that1 although the
 ,chinese teacher had made filial piety 
the basis of his system1 the ,japanese  
gradually but surely made loyalty       
7,kun-,shin71 that is1 the allied       
relations of sovereign and minister1 of 
lord and retainer1 and of master and    
servant1 not only first in order but the
 chief of all4 ,they also infused into  
this term ideas and associations which  
are foreign to the ,chinese mind4 ,in   
the place of filial piety was ,kun-shin1
 that new growth in the garden of       
,japanese ethics1 out of which arose the
 white flower of loyalty that blooms    
perennial in history4   ,in ,japan1     
,loyalty ,displaces ,filial ,piety4     
,this slow but sure adaptation of the   
exotic to its new environment1 took     

place during the centuries previous to  
the seventeenth of the ,christian era4  
,the completed product presented a      
growth so strikingly different from the 
original as to compel the wonder of     
those ,chinese refugee scholars1 who1 at
 ,mito#i and ,yedo1 taught the later    
dogmas which are orthodox but not       
historically ,confucian4  ,herein lies  
the difference between ,chinese and     
,japanese ethical philosophy4 ,in old   
,japan1 loyalty was above filial        
obedience1 and the man who deserted     
parents1 wife and children for the      
feudal lord1 received unstinted praise4 
,the corner-stone of the ,japanese      
edifice of personal righteousness and   
public weal1 is loyalty4 ,on the other  
hand1 filial piety is the basis of      
,chinese order and the secret of the    
amazing national longevity1 which is one
 of the moral wonders of the world1 and 
sure proof of the fulfilment of that    
promise which was made on ,sinai and    
wrapped up in the fourth commandment4   

,this master passion of the typical     
,samurai of old ,japan made him regard  
life as infinitely less than nothing1   
whenever duty demanded a display of the 
virtue of loyalty4 ,the doctrines of    
,koshi and ,moshi 7,confucius and       
,mencius7 formed1 and possibly even yet 
form1 the gospel and the quintessence of
 all wordly wisdom to the ,japanese     
gentleman2 they became the basis of his 
education and the ideal which inspired  
his conceptions of duty and honor2 but1 
crowning all his doctrines and          
aspirations was his desire to be loyal4 
,there might abide loyal1 marital1      
filial1 fraternal and various other     
relations1 but the greatest of all these
 was loyalty4 ,hence the ,japanese      
calendar of saints is not filled with   
reformers1 alms-givers and founders of  
hospitals or orphanages1 but is         
over-crowded with canonized suicides and
 committers of hara-kiri4 ,even today1  
no man more quickly wins the popular    
regard during his life or more surely   

draws homage to his tomb1 securing even 
apotheosis1 than the suicide1 though he 
may have committed a crime4 ,in this era
 of ,meiji or enlightened peace1 most   
appalling is the list of assassinations 
beginning with the murder in ,kito of   
,yokoi ,hishiro1 who was slain for      
recommending the toleration of          
,christianity1 down to the last cabinet 
minister who has been knifed or         
dynamited4 ,yet in every case the       
murderers considered themselves         
consecrated men and ministers of        
,heaven's righteous vengeance4#aj ,for  
centuries1 and until constitutional     
times1 the government of ,japan was     
despotism tempered by assassination4    
,the old-fashioned way of moving a vote 
of censure upon the king's ministers was
 to take off their heads4 ,now1 however1
 election by ballot has been substituted
 for this1 and two million swords have  
become bric--brac4  ,a thousand years of
 training in the ethics of              
,confucius--which always admirably lends

 itself to the possessors of absolute   
power1 whether emperors1 feudal lords1  
masters1 fathers1 or older              
brothers--have so tinged and colored    
every conception of the ,japanese mind1 
so dominated their avenues of           
understanding and shaped their modes of 
thought1 that to-day1 notwithstanding   
the recent marvellous development of    
their language1 which within the last   
two decades has made it almost a new    
tongue1#aa it is impossible with perfect
 accuracy to translate into ,english the
 ordinary ,japanese terms which are     
congregated under the general idea of   
,kun-shin4  ,herein may be seen the     
great benefit of carefully studying the 
minds of those whom we seek to convert4 
,the ,christian preacher in ,japan who  
uses our terms heaven1 home1 mother1    
father1 family1 wife1 people1 love1     
reverence1 virtue1 chastity1 etc41 will 
find that his hearers may indeed receive
 them1 but not at all with the same     
mental images and associations1 nor with

 the same proportion and depth1 that    
these words command in western thought  
and hearing4 ,one must be exceedingly   
careful1 not only in translating terms  
which have been used by ,confucius in   
the ,chinese texts1 but also in         
selecting and rendering the current     
expressions of the ,japanese teachers   
and philosophers4 ,in order to          
understand each other1 ,orientals and   
,occidentals need a great deal of mutual
 intellectual drilling1 without which   
there will be waste of money1 of time1  
of brains and of life4   ,the ,five     
,relations4   ,let us now glance at the 
fundamentals of the ,confucian          
ethics--the ,five ,relations--as they   
were taught in the comparatively simple 
system which prevailed before the new   
orthodoxy was proclaimed by ,sung       
schoolmen4  ,first4 ,although each of   
the ,chinese and ,japanese emperors is  
supposed to be1 and is called1 father of
 the people1 yet it would be entirely   
wrong to imagine that the phrase implies

 any such relation1 as that of ,william 
the ,silent to the ,dutch1 or of        
,washington to the ,american nation4 ,in
 order to see how far the emperor was   
removed from the people during a        
thousand years1 one needs but to look   
upon a brilliant painting of the        
,yamato-,tosa school1 in which the      
,mikado is represented as sitting behind
 a cloud of gold or a thick curtain of  
fine bamboo1 with no one before the     
matting-throne but his prime ministers  
or the empress and his concubines4 ,for 
centuries1 it was supposed that the     
,mikado did not touch the ground with   
his feet4 ,he went abroad in a curtained
 car2 and he was not only as mysterious 
and invisible to the public eye as a    
dragon1 but he was called such4 ,the    
attributes of that monster with many    
powers and functions1 were applied to   
him1 with an amazing wealth of rhetoric 
and vocabulary4 ,as well might the      
common folks to-day presume to pray unto
 one of the transcendent ,buddhas1      

between whom and the needy suppliant    
there may be hosts upon hosts of        
interlopers or mediators1 as for an     
ordinary subject to petition the emperor
 or even to gaze upon his dragon        
countenance4 ,the change in the         
constitutional ,japan of our day is seen
 in the fact that the term ,mikado is   
now obsolete4 ,this description of the  
relation of sovereign and minister      
7inaccurately characterised by some     
writers on ,confucianism as that of     
,king and subject1 a phrase which might 
almost fit the constitutional monarchy  
of to-day7 shows the relation1 as it did
 exist for nearly a thousand years of   
,japanese history4 ,we find the same    
imitation of procedure1 even when       
imperialism became only a shadow in the 
government and the great ,shgun who     
called himself ,tycoon1 the ruler in    
,yedo1 aping the majesty of ,kito1      
became so powerful as to be also a      
dragon4 ,between the ,yedo ,shgun and   
the people rose a great staircase of    

numberless subordinates1 and should a   
subject attempt to offer a petition in  
person he must pay for it by            
crucifixion4#ab  ,as1 under the emperor 
there were court ministers1 heads of    
departments1 governors and functionaries
 of all kinds before the people were    
reached1 so1 under the ,shgun in the    
feudal days1 there were the ,daimis or  
great lords and the ,shomis or small    
lords with their retainers in graduated 
subordination1 and below these were the 
servants and general humanity4 ,even    
after the status of man was reached1    
there were gradations and degradations  
through fractions down to ciphers and   
indeed to minus quantities1 for there   
existed in the ,country of ,brave       
,warriors some tens of thousands of     
human beings bearing the names of eta   
7pariah7 and h-nin 7non-human71 who were
 far below the pale of humanity4   ,the 
,paramount ,idea of ,loyalty4   ,the one
 idea which dominated all of these      
classes1#ac--;in ,old ,japan there were 

no masses but only many classes--was    
that of loyalty4 ,as the ,japanese      
language shows1 every faculty of man was
 subordinated to this idea4             
,confucianism even conditioned the      
development of ,japanese grammar1 as it 
also did that of the ,koreans1 by       
multiplying honorary prefixes and       
suffixes and building up all sociable   
and polite speech on perpendicular      
lines4 ,personality was next to nothing 
and individuality was in a certain sense
 unknown4 ,in ,european languages1 the  
pronoun shows how clearly the ideas of  
personality and of individuality have   
been developed2 but in the ,japanese    
language there really are no pronouns1  
in the sense of the word as used by the 
,germanic nations1 at least1 although   
there are hundreds of impersonal and    
topographical substitutes for them4#ad  
,the mirror1 of the language itself1    
reflects more truth upon this point of  
inquiry than do patriotic assertions1 or
 the protests of those who in the days  

of this ,meiji era so handsomely employ 
the ,japanese language as the medium of 
thought4 ,strictly speaking1 the ego    
disappears in ordinary conversation and 
action1 and instead1 it is the servant  
speaking reverently to his master2 or it
 is the master condescending to the     
object which is before his hand or to   
the side or below where his inferior    
kneels2 or it is the honorable right    
addressing the esteemed left4  ,all the 
terms which a foreigner might use in    
speaking of the duties of sovereign and 
minister1 of lord and retainer and of   
master and servant1 are comprehended in 
the ,japanese word1 ,kun-shin1 in which 
is crystallized but one thought1 though 
it may relate to three grades of        
society4 ,the testimony of history and  
of the language shows1 that the feelings
 which we call loyalty and reverence are
 always directed upward1 while those    
which we term benevolence and love      
invariably look downward4  ,note herein 
the difference between the teachings of 

,christ and those of the ,chinese sage4 
,according to the latter1 if there be   
love in the relation of the master and  
servant1 it is the master who loves1 and
 not the servant who may only reverence4
 ,it would be inharmonious for the      
,japanese servant to love his master2 he
 never even talks of it4 ,and in family 
life1 while the parent may love the     
child1 the child is not expected to love
 the parent but rather to reverence him4
 ,so also the ,japanese wife1 as in our 
old scriptural versions1 is to see that 
she reverence her husband4 ,love 7not   
agap1 but eros7 is indeed a theme of the
 poets and of that part of life and of  
literature which is1 strictly speaking1 
outside of the marriage relation1 but   
the thought that dominates in marital   
life1 is reverence from the wife and    
benevolence from the husband4 ,the      
,christian conception1 which requires   
that a woman should love her husband1   
does not strictly accord with the       
,confucian idea4  ,christianity has     

taught us that when a man loves a woman 
purely and makes her his wife1 he should
 also have reverence for her1 and that  
this element should be an integral part 
of his love4 ,christianity also teaches 
a reverence for children2 and           
,wordsworth has but followed the spirit 
of his great master1 ,christ1 when      
expressing this beautiful sentiment in  
his melodious numbers4 ,such ideas as   
these1 however1 are discords in         
,japanese social life of the old order4 
,so also the ,christian preaching of    
love to ,god1 sounds outlandish to the  
men of ,chinese mind in the middle or   
the pupil kingdom1 who seem to think    
that it can only come from the lips of  
those who have not been properly        
trained4 ,to love ,god appears to them  
as being an unwarrantable patronage of1 
and familiarity with ,heaven1 or the    
,king of ,kings4 ,the same difficulty1  
which to-day troubles ,christian        
preachers and translators1 existed among
 the ,roman ,catholic missionaries three

 centuries ago4#ae ,the moulds of       
thought were not then1 nor are they even
 now1 entirely ready for the full truth 
of ,christian revelation4   ,suicide    
,made ,honorable4   ,in the long story  
of the ,honorable ,country1 there are to
 be found many shining examples of      
loyalty1 which is the one theme oftenest
 illustrated in popular fiction and     
romance4 ,its well-attested instances on
 the crimson thread of ,japanese history
 are more numerous than the beads on    
many rosaries4 ,the most famous of all1 
perhaps1 is the episode of the          
,forty-,seven ,rnins1 which is a        
constant favorite in the theatres1 and  
has been so graphically narrated or     
pictured by scores of native poets1     
authors1 artists1 sculptors and         
dramatists1 and told in ,english by     
,mitford1 ,dickens and ,grecy4#af       
,these forty-seven men hated wife1      
child1 society1 name1 fame1 food and    
comfort for the sake of avenging the    
death of their master4 ,in a certain    

sense1 they ceased to be persons in     
order to become the impersonal          
instruments of ,heaven's retribution4   
,they gave up every thing--houses1      
lands1 kinsmen--that they might have in 
this life the hundred-fold reward of    
vengeance1 and in the world-life of     
humanity throughout the centuries1 fame 
and honor4 ,feeding the hunger of their 
hearts upon the hope of glutting that   
hunger with the life-blood of their     
victim1 they waited long years4 ,when   
once their swords had drunk the         
consecrated blood1 they laid the severed
 head upon their master's tomb and then 
gladly1 even rapturously1 delivered     
themselves up1 and ripping open their   
bowels they died by that judicially     
ordered seppuku which cleansed their    
memory from every stain1 and gave to    
them the martyr's fame and crown        
forever4 ,the tombs of these men1 on the
 hillside overlooking the ,bay of ,yedo1
 are to this day ever fragrant with     
fresh flowers1 and to the cemetery where

 their ashes lie and their memorials    
stand1 thousands of pilgrims annually   
wend their way4 ,no dramas are more     
permanently popular on the stage than   
those which display the virtues of these
 heroes1 who are commonly spoken of as  
,the righteous ,samurai4 ,their tombs   
have stood for two centuries1 as mighty 
magnets drawing others to               
self-impalement on the sword--as        
multipliers of suicides4  ,yet this     
alphabetic number1 this i-ro-ha of      
self-murder1 is but one of a thousand   
instances in the ,land of ,noble        
,suicides4 ,from the pre-historic days  
when the custom of ,jun-shi1 or dying   
with the master1 required the interment 
of the living retainers with the dead   
lord1 down through all the ages to the  
,revolution of #ahfh1 when at ,sendai   
and ,aidzu scores of men and boys opened
 their bowels1 and mothers slew their   
infant sons and cut their own throats1  
there has been flowing through ,japanese
 history a river of suicides' blood#ag  

having its springs in the devotion of   
retainers to masters1 and of soldiers to
 a lost cause as represented by the     
feudal superior4 ,shigmori1 the son of  
the prime minister ,kiyomori1 who       
protected the emperor even against his  
own father1 is a model of that ,japanese
 kun-shin which placed fidelity to the  
sovereign above filial obedience2 though
 even yet ,shigmori's name is the       
synonym of both virtues4 ,kusunoki      
,masashig1#ah the white flower of       
,japanese chivalry1 is but one1 typical 
not only of a thousand but of thousands 
of thousands of soldiers1 who hated     
parents1 wife1 child1 friend in order to
 be disciple to the supreme loyalty4 ,he
 sealed his creed by emptying his own   
veins4 ,kiyomori1#ai like ,king ,david  
of ,israel1 on his dying bed ordered the
 assassination of his personal enemy4   
,the common ,japanese novels read like  
records of slaughter-houses4 ,no ,moloch
 or ,shiva has won more victims to his  
shrine than has this idea of ,japanese  

loyalty which is so beautiful in theory 
and so hideous in practice4 ,despite the
 military clamps and frightful despotism
 of ,yedo1 which for two hundred and    
fifty years gave to the world a delusive
 idea of profound quiet in the ,country 
of ,peaceful ,shores1 there was in fact 
a chronic unrest which amounted at many 
times and in many places to anarchy4    
,the calm of despotism was1 indeed1     
rudely broken by the aliens in the black
 ships with the flowery flag2 but1      
without regarding influences from the   
,west1 the indications of history as now
 read1 pointed in #ahej toward the      
bloodiest of ,japan's many civil wars4  
,could the statistics of the suicides   
during this long period be collected1   
their publication would excite in       
,christendom the utmost incredulity4    
,nevertheless1 this qualifying statement
 should be made4 ,a study of the origin 
and development of the national method  
of self-destruction shows that suicide  
by seppuku1 or opening of the abdomen1  

was first a custom1 and then a          
privilege4 ,it took1 among men of honor1
 the place of the public executions1 the
 massacres in battle and siege1         
decimation of rebels and similar means  
of killing at the hands of others1 which
 so often mar the historical records of 
western nations4 ,undoubtedly1          
therefore1 in the minds of most         
,japanese1 there are many instances of  
hara-kiri which should not be classed as
 suicide1 but technically as execution  
of judicial sentence4 ,and yet no       
sentence or process of death known in   
western lands had such influence in     
glorifying the victim1 as had seppuku in
 ,japan4   ,the ,family ,idea4   ,the   
,second ,relation is that of father and 
son1 thus preceding what we should      
suppose to be the first of human        
relations--husband and wife--but the    
arrangement entirely accords with the   
,oriental conception that the family1   
the house1 is more important than the   
individual4 ,in ,old ,japan the         

paramount idea in marriage1 was not that
 of love or companionship1 or of mutual 
assistance with children1 but was almost
 wholly that of offspring1 and of       
maintaining the family line4#bj ,the    
individual might perish but the house   
must live on4  ,very different from the 
family of ,christendom1 is the family in
 ,old ,japan1 in which we find elements 
that would not be recognized where      
monogamy prevails and children are born 
in the home and not in the herd4        
,instead of father1 mother and children1
 there are father1 wife1 concubines1 and
 various sorts of children who are born 
of the wife or of the concubine1 or have
 been adopted into the family4 ,with us1
 adoption is the exception1 but in      
,japan it is the invariable rule        
whenever either convenience or necessity
 requires it of the house4 ,indeed it is
 rare to find a set of brothers bearing 
the same family name4 ,adoption and     
concubinage keep the house unbroken4#ba 
,it is the house1 the name1 which must  

continue1 although not necessarily by a 
blood line4 ,the name1 a social         
trade-mark1 lives on for ages4 ,the line
 of ,japanese emperors1 which1 in the   
,constitution of #ahhi1 by adding       
mythology to history is said to rule    
unbroken from ages eternal1 is not one  
of fathers and sons1 but has been made  
continuous by concubinage and adoption4 
,in this view1 it is possibly as old as 
the line of the popes4  ,it is very     
evident that our terms and usages do not
 have in such a home the place or       
meaning which one not familiar with the 
real life of ,old ,japan would suppose4 
,the father is an absolute ruler4 ,there
 is in ,old ,japan hardly any such thing
 as parents1 for practically there is   
only one parent1 as the woman counts for
 little4 ,the wife is honored if she    
becomes a mother1 but if childless she  
is very probably neglected4 ,our idea of
 fatherhood implies that the child has  
rights and that he should love as well  
as be loved4 ,our customs excite not    

only the merriment but even the contempt
 of the old-school ,japanese4 ,the kiss 
and the embrace1 the linking of the     
child's arm around its father's neck1   
the address on letters ,my dear ,wife or
 ,my beloved ,mother seem to them like  
caricatures of propriety4 ,on the other 
hand1 it is undoubtedly true that in    
reverence toward parents--or at least   
toward one of the parents--a ,japanese  
child is apt to excel the one born even 
in a ,christian home4  ,this so-called  
filial piety becomes in practice1       
however1 a horrible outrage upon        
humanity and especially upon womanhood4 
,during centuries the despotic power of 
the father enabled him to put an end to 
the life of his child1 whether boy or   
girl4  ,under this abominable despotism 
there is no protection for the daughter1
 who is bound to sell her body1 while   
youth or beauty last or perhaps for     
life1 to help pay her father's debts1 to
 support an aged parent or even to      
gratify his mere caprice4 ,in hundreds  

of ,japanese romances the daughter1 who 
for the sake of her parents has sold    
herself to shame1 is made the theme of  
the story and an object of praise4 ,in  
the minds of the people there may be    
indeed a feeling of pity that the girl  
has been obliged to give up her home    
life for the brothel1 but no one ever   
thinks of questioning the right of the  
parent to make the sale of the girl's   
body1 any more than he would allow the  
daughter to rebel against it4 ,this idea
 still lingers and the institution      
remains1#bb although the system has     
received stunning blows from the        
teaching of ,christian ethics1 the      
preaching of a better gospel and the    
improvements in the law of the land4    
,the ,marital ,relation4   ,the ,third  
,relation is that of husband and wife4  
,the meaning of these words1 however1 is
 not the same with the ,japanese as with
 us4 ,in ,confucius there is not only   
male and female1 but also superior and  
inferior1 master and servant4#bc        

,without any love-making or courtship by
 those most interested1 a marriage      
between two young people is arranged by 
their parents through the medium of what
 is called a go-between4 ,the bride     
leaves her father's house forever--that 
is1 when she is not to be subsequently  
divorced--and entering into that of her 
husband must be subordinate not only to 
him but also to his parents1 and must   
obey them as her own father and mother4 
,having all her life under her father's 
roof reverenced her superiors1 she is   
expected to bring reverence to her new  
domicile1 but not love4 ,she must always
 obey but never be jealous4 ,she must   
not be angry1 no matter whom her husband
 may introduce into his household4 ,she 
must wait upon him at his meals and must
 walk behind him1 but not with him4     
,when she dies her children go to her   
funeral1 but not her husband4  ,a       
foreigner1 hearing the ,japanese        
translate our word chastity by the term 
tiso or misao1 may imagine that the     

latter represents mutual obligation and 
personal purity for man and wife alike1 
but on looking into the dictionary he   
will find that tiso means ,womanly      
duties4 ,a circumlocution is needed to  
express the idea of a chaste man4       
,jealousy is a horrible sin1 but is     
always supposed to be a womanish fault1 
and so an exhibition of folly and       
weakness4 ,therefore1 to apply such a   
term to ,god--to say a jealous          
,god--outrages the good sense of a      
,confucianist1#bd almost as much as the 
statement that ,god cannot lie did that 
of the ,pundit1 who wondered how ,god   
could be ,omnipotent if ,he could not   
lie4  ,how great the need in ,japanese  
social life of some purifying principle 
higher than ,confucianism can afford1 is
 shown in the little book entitled ,the 
,japanese ,bride1#be written by a       
native1 and scarcely less in the storm  
of native criticism it called forth4    
,under the system which has ruled ,japan
 for a millennium and a half1 divorce   

has been almost entirely in the hands of
 the husband1 and the document of       
separation1 entitled in common parlance 
the three lines and a half1 was         
invariably written by the man4 ,a woman 
might indeed nominally obtain a divorce 
from her husband1 but not actually2 for 
the severance of the marital tie would  
be the work of the house or relatives1  
rather than the act of the wife1 who was
 not a person in the case4 ,indeed1 in  
the olden time a woman was not a person 
in the eye of the law1 but rather a     
chattel4 ,the case is somewhat different
 under the new codes1#bf but the        
looseness of the marriage tie is still a
 scandal to thinking ,japanese4 ,since  
the breaking up of the feudal system and
 the disarrangement of the old social   
and moral standards1 the statistics made
 annually from the official census show 
that the ratio of divorce to marriage is
 very nearly as one to three4#bg   ,the 
,elder and the ,younger ,brother4   ,the
 ,fourth ,relation is that of ,elder    

,brother and ,younger ,brother4 ,as we  
have said1 foreigners in translating    
some of the ,chinese and ,japanese terms
 used in the system of ,confucius are   
often led into errors by supposing that 
the ,christian conception of family life
 prevails also in ,chinese ,asia4 ,by   
many writers this relation is translated
 brother to brother2 but really in the  
,japanese language there is no term     
meaning simply brother or sister1#bh and
 a circumlocution is necessary to       
express the ideas which we convey by    
these words4 ,it is always older brother
 or younger brother1 and older sister or
 younger sister--the male or female     
kiyodai as the case may be4 ,with       
us--excepting in lands where the law of 
primogeniture still prevails--all the   
brothers are practically equal1 and it  
would be considered a violation of      
,christian righteousness for a parent to
 show more favor to one child than to   
another4 ,in this respect the wisdom    
that cometh from above is without       

partiality4 ,the ,chinese ethical       
system1 however1 disregards the         
principle of mutual rights and duties1  
and builds up the family on the theory  
of the subordination of the younger     
brother to the elder brother1 the       
predominant idea being not mutual love1 
but1 far more than in the ,christian    
household1 that of rank and order4 ,the 
attitude of the heir of the family      
toward the other children is one of     
condescension1 and they1 as well as the 
widowed mother1 regard the oldest son   
with reverence4 ,it is as though the    
commandment given on ,sinai should read1
 ,honor thy father and thy elder        
brother4  ,the mother is an instrument  
rather than a person in the life of the 
house1 and the older brother is the one 
on whom rests the responsibility of     
continuing the family line4 ,the younger
 brothers serve as subjects for adoption
 into other families1 especially those  
where there are daughters to be married 
and family names to be continued4 ,in a 

word1 the name belongs to the house and 
not to the individual4 ,the habit of    
naming children after relatives or      
friends of the parents1 or illustrious  
men and women1 is unknown in ,old       
,japan1 though an approach to this      
common custom among us is made by       
conferring or making use of part of a   
name1 usually by the transferrence of   
one ideograph forming the name-word4    
,such a practice lays stress upon       
personality1 and so has no place in the 
country without pronouns1 where the idea
 of continuing the personal house or    
semi-personal family1 is predominant4   
,the customs prevalent in life are      
strong even in death1 and the elder     
brother or sister1 in some provinces1   
did not go to the funeral of the        
younger4 ,this state of affairs is      
reflected in ,japanese literature1 and  
produces in romance as well as in       
history many situations and episodes    
which seem almost incredible to the     
,western mind4  ,in the lands ruled by  

,confucius the grown-up children usually
 live under the parental roof1 and there
 are few independent homes as we        
understand them4 ,the so-called family  
is composed both of the living and of   
the dead1 and constitutes the unit of   
society4   ,friendship and ,humanity4   
,the ,fifth ,relation--,friends4 ,here1 
again1 a mistake is often made by those 
who import ideas of ,christendom into   
the terms used in ,chinese ,asia1 and   
who strive to make exact equivalent in  
exchanging the coins of speech4         
,occidental writers are prone to        
translate the term for the fifth        
relation into the ,english phrase man to
 man1 which leads the ,western reader to
 suppose that ,confucius taught that    
universal love for man1 as man1 which   
was instilled and exemplified by ,jesus 
,christ4 ,in translating ,confucius they
 often make the same mistake that some  
have done who read in ,terence's        
,self-,tormentor the line1 ,i am a man1 
and nothing human is foreign to me1#bi  

and imagine that this is the sentiment  
of an enlightened ,christian1 although  
the context shows that it is only the   
boast of a busybody and parasite4 ,what 
,confucius taught under the fifth       
relation is not universality1 and1 as   
compared to the teachings of ,jesus1 is 
moonlight1 not sunlight4 ,the doctrine  
of the sage is clearly expressed in the 
,analects1 and amounts only to courtesy 
and propriety4 ,he taught1 indeed1 that 
the stranger is to be treated as a      
friend2 and although in both ,chinese   
and ,japanese history there are         
illustrious proofs that ,confucius had  
interpreters nobler than himself1 yet it
 is probable that the doctrine of the   
stranger's receiving treatment as a     
friend1 does not extend to the          
foreigner4 ,confucius framed something  
like the ,golden ,rule--though it were  
better called a ,silver ,rule1 or       
possibly a ,gilded ,rule1 since it is in
 the negative instead of being          
definitely placed in the positive and   

indicative form4 ,one may search his    
writings in vain for anything           
approaching the parable of the ,good    
,samaritan1 or the words of ,him who    
commended ,elijah for replenishing the  
cruse and barrel of the widow of        
,sarepta1 and ,elisha for healing       
,naaman the ,syrian leper1 and ,jonah   
for preaching the good news of ,god to  
the ,assyrians who had been aliens and  
oppressors4 ,lao ,tsze1 however1 went so
 far as to teach return good for evil4  
,when one of the pupils of ,confucius   
interrogated his ,master concerning     
this1 the sage answered2 ,what then will
 you return for good8 ,recompense injury
 with justice1 and return good for good4
  ,but if we do good only to those who  
do good to us1 what thanks have we8 ,do 
not the publicans the same8 ,behold how 
the ,heavenly ,father does good alike   
unto all1 sending rain upon the just and
 unjust6  ,how ,old ,japan treated the  
foreigner is seen in the repeated       
repulse1 with powder and ball1 of the   

relief ships which1 under the friendly  
stars and stripes1 attempted to bring   
back to her shores the shipwrecked      
natives of ,nippon4#cj ,granted that    
this action may have been purely        
political and the ,government alone     
responsible for it--just as our         
un-,christian anti-,chinese legislation 
is similarly explained--yet it is       
certain that the sentiment of the only  
men in ,japan who made public           
opinion1--the ,samurai of that day1--was
 in favor of this method of meeting the 
alien4  ,in #aheb the ,american         
expedition was despatched to ,japan for 
the purpose of opening a lucrative trade
 and of extending ,american influence   
and glory1 but also unquestionably with 
the idea of restoring shipwrecked       
,japanese as well as securing kind      
treatment for shipwrecked ,american     
sailors1 thereby promoting the cause of 
humanity and international courtesy2 in 
short1 with motives that were manifestly
 mixed4#ca ,in the treaty pavilion there

 ensued an interesting discussion       
between ,commodore ,perry and ,professor
 ,hayashi upon this very subject4       
,perry truthfully complained that the   
dictates of humanity had not been       
followed by the ,japanese1 that         
unnecessary cruelty had been used       
against shipwrecked men1 and that       
,japan's attitude toward her neighbors  
and the whole world was that of an enemy
 and not of a friend4  ,hayashi1 who was
 then probably the leading ,confucianist
 in ,japan1 warmly defended his         
countrymen and superiors against the    
charge of intentional cruelty1 and      
denounced the lawless character of many 
of the foreign sailors4 ,like most      
,japanese of his school and age1 he     
wound up with panegyrics on the         
pre-eminence in virtue and humanity1    
above all nations1 of the ,country      
,ruled by a ,theocratic ,dynasty1 and on
 the glory and goodness of the great    
,tokugawa family1 which had given peace 
to the land during two centuries or     

more4#cb  ,it is manifest1 however1 that
 so far as this hostility to foreigners1
 and this blind bigotry of patriotism   
were based on ,chinese codes of morals1 
as officially taught in ,yedo1 they     
belonged as much to the old             
,confucianism as to the new4 ,wherever  
the narrow philosophy of the sage has   
dominated1 it has made ,asia ,chinese   
and nations hermits4 ,as a rule1 the    
only way in which foreigners could come 
peacefully into ,china or the countries 
which she intellectually dominated was  
as vassals1 tribute-bearers1 or         
barbarians4 ,the mental attitude of     
,china1 ,korea1 ,annam and ,japan has   
for ages been that of the ,jews in      
,herodian times1 who set up1 between the
 ,court of ,israel and the ,court of the
 ,gentiles1 their graven stones of      
warning which read3#cc      ,no         
foreigner to proceed within the         
partition wall and enclosure     around 
the sanctuary2 whoever is caught in the 
same will on that     account be liable 

to incur death4     ,,chapter ,v -      
,,confucianism ,,in ,,its               
,,philosophical ,,form      ,after a    
thousand years the pine decays2 the     
flower has its     glory in blooming for
 a day4--,hakkyoi1 ,chinese ,poet of the
 ,tang     ,dynasty4      ,the          
morning-glory of an hour differs not in 
heart from the     pine-tree of a       
thousand years4--,matsunaga of ,japan4  
,the pine's heart is not of a thousand  
years1 nor the     morning-glory's of an
 hour1 but only that they may fulfil    
their     destiny4      ,since ,iyyas1  
his hair brushed by the wind1 his body  
anointed     with rain1 with lifelong   
labor caused confusion to cease and     
order to prevail1 for more than a       
hundred years there has been     no war4
 ,the waves of the four seas have been  
unruffled and no     one has failed of  
the blessing of peace4 ,the common folk 
must     speak with reverence1 yet it is
 the duty of scholars to     celebrate  
the virtue of the ,government4--,kyso of

 ,yedo4      ,a ruler must have faithful
 ministers4 ,he who sees the error of   
his lord and remonstrates1 not fearing  
his wrath1 is braver than     he who    
bears the foremost spear in             
battle4--,iyyas4      ,the choice of the
 ,chinese philosophy and the rejection  
of     ,buddhism was not because of any 
inherent quality in the ,japanese       
mind4 ,it was not the rejection of      
supernaturalism or the     miraculous4  
,the ,chinese philosophy is as          
supernaturalistic as     some forms of  
,buddhism4 ,the distinction is not      
between the     natural and the         
supernatural in either system1 but      
between the     seen and the unseen4    
,the ,chinese philosophy is as religious
 as the original teaching     of        
,gautama4 ,neither ,shushi nor ,gautama 
believed in a ,creator1     but both    
believed in gods and demons4444 ,it has 
little place for     prayer1 but has a  
vivid sense of the ,infinite and the    
,unseen1     and fervently believes that

 right conduct is in accord with the    
'eternal verities4'--,george ,william   
,knox4      ,in him is the yea4--,paul4 
,,chapter ,v - ,,confucianism ,,in ,,its
 ,,philosophical ,,form  ,japan's       
,millennium of ,simple ,confucianism4   
,having seen the practical working of   
the ethics of ,confucianism1 especially 
in the old and simple system1 let us now
 glance at the developed and            
philosophical forms1 which1 by giving   
the educated man of ,japan a creed1 made
 him break away from ,buddhism and      
despise it1 while becoming often        
fanatically ,confucian4  ,for a thousand
 years 7from #fjj to #afjj ,a4,d47 the  
,buddhist religious teachers assisted in
 promulgating the ethics of ,confucius2 
for during all this time there was      
harmony between the various ,buddhisms  
imported from ,india1 ,tibet1 ,china and
 ,korea1 and the simple undeveloped     
system of ,chinese ,confucianism4       
,slight modifications were made by      
individual teachers1 and emphasis was   

laid upon this or that feature1 while   
out of the soil of ,japanese feudalism  
were growths of certain virtues as      
phases of loyalty1 phenomenal beyond    
those in ,china4 ,nevertheless1 during  
all this time1 the ,japanese teachers of
 the ,chinese ethic were as students who
 did but recite what they learned4 ,they
 simply transmitted1 without attempting 
to expand or improve4  ,though the      
apparatus of distribution was early     
known1 block printing having been       
borrowed from the ,chinese after the    
ninth century1 and movable types learned
 from the ,koreans and made use of in   
the sixteenth century1#a the ,chinese   
classics were not printed as a body     
until after the great peace of ,genna   
7#afae74 ,nor during this period were   
translations made of the classics or    
commentaries1 into the ,japanese        
vernacular4 ,indeed1 between the tenth  
and sixteenth centuries there was little
 direct intercourse1 commercial1        
diplomatic or intellectual1 between     

,japan and ,china1 as compared with the 
previous eras1 or the decades since     
#ahgj4  ,suddenly in the seventeenth    
century the intellect of ,japan1 all    
ready for new surprises in the profound 
peace inaugurated by ,iyyas1 received1  
as it were1 an electric thrill4 ,the    
great warrior1 becoming first a unifier 
by arms and statecraft1 determined also 
to become the architect of the national 
culture4 ,gathering up1 from all parts  
of the country1 books1 manuscripts1 and 
the appliances of intellectual          
discipline1 he encouraged scholars and  
stimulated education4 ,under his        
supervision the ,chinese classics were  
printed1 and were soon widely           
circulated4 ,a college was established  
in ,yedo1 and immediately there began a 
critical study of the texts and         
principal commentaries4 ,the fall of the
 ,ming dynasty in ,china1 and the       
accession of the ,manchiu ,tartars1     
became the signal for a great exodus of 
learned ,chinese1 who fled to ,japan4   

,these received a warm welcome1 both at 
the capital and in ,yedo1 as well as in 
some of the castle towns of the ,daimis1
 among whom stand illustrious those of  
the province of ,mito4#b  ,these men    
from the west brought not only ethics   
but philosophy2 and the fertilizing     
influences of these scholars of the     
,dispersion1 may be likened to those of 
the exodus of the ,greek learned men    
after the capture of ,constantinople by 
the ,turks4 ,confucian schools were     
established in most of the chief        
provincial cities4 ,for over two hundred
 years this discipline in the ,chinese  
ethics1 literature and history          
constituted the education of the boys   
and men of ,japan4 ,almost every member 
of the ,samurai classes was thoroughly  
drilled in this curriculum4 ,all        
,japanese social1 official1 intellectual
 and literary life was permeated with   
the new spirit4 ,their world was that of
 the ,chinese1 and all outside of it    
belonged to barbarians4 ,the matrices of

 thought became so fixed and the        
,japanese language has been so moulded1 
that even now1 despite the intense and  
prolonged efforts of thirty years of    
acute and laborious scholarship1 it is  
impossible1 as we have said1 to find    
,english equivalents for terms which    
were used for a century or two past in  
every-day ,japanese speech4 ,those who  
know most about these facts1 are most   
modest in attempting with ,english words
 to do justice to ,japanese thought2    
while those who know the least seem to  
be most glib1 fluent and voluminous in  
showing to their own satisfaction1 that 
there is little difference between the  
ethics of ,chinese ,asia and those of   
,christendom4   ,survey of the          
,intellectual ,history of ,china4   ,the
 ,confucianism of the last              
quarter-millennium in ,japan is not that
 of her early centuries4 ,while the     
,japanese for a thousand years only     
repeated and recited--merely talking    
aloud in their intellectual sleep but   

not reflecting--,china was awake and    
thinking hard4 ,japan's continued civil 
wars1 which caused the almost total     
destruction of books and manuscripts1   
secured also the triumph of ,buddhism   
which meant the atrophy of the national 
intellect4 ,when1 after the long feuds  
and battles of the middle ages1         
,confucianism stepped the second time   
into the ,land of ,brave ,scholars1 it  
was no longer with the simple rules of  
conduct and ceremonial of the ancient   
days1 nor was it as the ally of         
,buddhism4 ,it came like an armed man in
 full panoply of harness and weapons4   
,it entered to drive ,buddhism out1 and 
to defend the intellect of the educated 
against the wiles of priestcraft4 ,it   
was a full-blown system of pantheistic  
rationalism1 with a scheme of philosophy
 that to the far-,oriental mind seemed  
perfect as a rule both of faith and     
practice4 ,it came in a form that was   
received as religion1 for it was not    
only morality touched but infused with  

motion4 ,nor were the emotions kindled1 
those of the partisan only1 but rather  
also those of the devotee and the       
martyr4 ,henceforth ,buddhism1 with its 
inventions1 its fables1 and its endless 
dogmatism1 was for the common people1   
for women and children1 but not for the 
,samurai4 ,the new ,confucianism came to
 ,japan as the system of ,chu ,hi4 ,for 
three centuries this system had already 
held sway over the intellect of ,china4 
,for two centuries and a half it has    
dominated the minds of the ,samurai so  
that the majority of them to-day1 even  
with the new name ,shizoku1 are         
,confucianists so far as they are       
anything4  ,to understand the origin of 
,buddhism we must know something of the 
history and the previous religious and  
philosophical systems of ,india1 and so1
 if we are to appreciate modern orthodox
 ,confucianism1 we must review the      
history of ,china1 and see1 in outline1 
at least1 its literature1 politics and  
philosophy during the middle ages4      

,four great stages of literary and      
national development may be pointed to  
as intervening 7in the fifteen hundred  
years7 between the great sage and the   
age called that of the ,sung-,ju1#c from
 the tenth to the fourteenth century1 in
 which the ,confucian system received   
its modern form4 ,each of them embraced 
the course of three or four centuries4  
,i4 ,from the sixth to the third century
 before ,christ the struggle was for    
,confucian and orthodox doctrine1 led by
 ,mencius against various speculators in
 morals and politics1 with ,taoist      
doctrine continually increasing in      
acceptance4  ,,ii4 ,the ,han age 7from  
,b4,c4 #bjf to ,a4,d4 #aij7 was rich in 
critical expositors and commentators of 
the classics1 but the tone of           
speculation was predominantly ,taoist4  
,,iii4 ,the period of the ,six          
,dynasties 7from ,a4,d4 #bba to ,a4,d4  
#fah7 was the golden age of ,buddhism1  
when the science and philosophy of      
,india enriched the ,chinese mind1 and  

the wealth of the country was lavished  
on ,buddhist temples and monasteries4   
,the faith of ,shaka became nearly      
universal and the ,buddhists led in     
philosophy and literature1 founding a   
native school of ,indian philosophy4    
,,iv4 ,the ,tang period 7from ,a4,d4    
#fah to #ije7 marked by luxury and      
poetry1 was an age of mental inaction   
and enervating prosperity4  ,v4 ,the    
fifth epoch1 beginning with the ,sung   
,dynasty 7from ,a4,d4 #ifj to #accc7 and
 lasting to our own time1 was ushered in
 by a period of intense mental energy4  
,strange to say 7and most interesting is
 the fact to ,americans of this         
generation71 the immediate occasion of  
the recension and expansion of the old  
,confucianism was a ,populist           
movement4#d ,during the ,tang era of    
national prosperity1 ,chinese socialists
 questioned the foundations of society  
and of government1 and there grew up a  
new school of interpreters as well as of
 politicians4 ,in the tenth century the 

contest between the old ,confucianism   
and the new notions1 broke out with a   
violence that threatened anarchy to the 
whole empire4  ,one set of politicians1 
led by ,wang 7#ajba-ajhf71 urged an     
extension of administrative functions1  
including agricultural loans1 while the 
brothers ,cheng 7#ajcb-ajhe1 #ajcc-aajg7
 reaffirmed1 with fresh intellectual    
power1 the old orthodoxy4  ,the school  
of writers and party agitators1 led by  
,szma ,kwaug 7#ajji-ajhf7e the          
historian1 contended that the ancient   
principles of the sages should be put in
 force4 ,others1 the ,populists of that 
age and land1 demanded the entire       
overthrow of existing institutions4  ,in
 the bitter contest which ensued1 the   
,radicals and ,reformers temporarily won
 the day and held power4 ,for a decade  
the experiment of innovation was tried4 
,men turned things social and political 
upside down to see how they looked in   
that position4 ,so these stood or       
oscillated for thirteen years1 when the 

people demanded the old order again4    
,the ,conservatives rose to power4      
,there was no civil war1 but the        
,radicals were banished beyond the      
frontier1 and the country returned to   
normal government4  ,this controversy   
raised a landmark in the intellectual   
history of ,china4#f ,the thoughts of   
men were turned toward deep and acute   
inquiry into the nature and use of      
things in general4 ,this thinking       
resulted in a literature which to-day is
 the basis of the opinions of the       
educated men in all ,chinese ,asia4     
,instead of a sapling we now have a     
mighty tree4 ,the chief of the ,chinese 
writers1 the ,calvin of ,asiatic        
orthodoxy1 who may be said to have      
wrought ,confucianism into a developed  
philosophy1 and who may be called the   
greatest teacher of the mind1 of modern 
,china1 ,korea and ,japan1 is ,chu ,hi1 
who reverently adopted the criticisms on
 the ,chinese classics of the brothers  
,cheng4#g ,it is evident that in ,chu   

,hi's system1 we have a body of thought 
which may be called the result of       
,chinese reflection during a millennium 
and a half4 ,it is the ethics of        
,confucius transfused with the mystical 
elements of ,taoism and the speculations
 of ,buddhism4 ,as the common people of 
,china made an amalgam of the three     
religions and consider them one1 so the 
philosophers have out of these three    
systems made one1 calling that one      
,confucianism4 ,the dominant philosophy 
in ,japan to-day is based upon the      
writings of ,chu ,hi 7in ,japanese1 ,shu
 ,shi7 and called the system of         
,ti-,shu1 which is the ,japanese        
pronunciation of the names of the ,cheng
 brothers and of ,chu 7,hi74 ,it is a   
medley which the ancient sage could no  
more recognize than would ,jesus know   
much of the ,christianity that casts out
 devils in his name4   ,contrast between
 the ,chinese and ,japanese ,intellect4 
,here we must draw a contrast between   
the ,chinese and ,japanese intellect to 

the credit of the former2 ,china made1  
,japan borrowed4 ,while history shows   
that the ,chinese mind1 once at least1  
possessed mental initiative1 and the    
power of thinking out a system of       
philosophy which to-day satisfies       
largely1 if not wholly1 the needs of the
 educated ,chinaman1 there has been in  
the ,japanese mind1 as shown by its     
history1 apparently no such vigor or    
fruitfulness4 ,from the literary and    
philosophical points of view1           
,confucianism1 as it entered ,japan1 in 
the sixth century1 remained practically 
stationary for a thousand years4        
,modifications1 indeed1 were made upon  
the ,chinese system1 and these were     
striking and profound1 but they were    
less developments of the intellect than 
necessities of the case4 ,the           
modifications were made1 as molten metal
 poured into a mould shaped by other    
hands than the artist's own1 rather than
 as clay made plastic under the hand of 
a designer4 ,buddhism1 being the        

dominant force in the thoughts of the   
,japanese for at least eight hundred    
years1 furnished the food for the       
requirements of man on his intellectual 
and religious side4  ,broadly speaking1 
it may be said that the ,japanese1      
receiving passively the ,chinese        
classics1 were content simply to copy   
and to recite what they had learned4 ,as
 compared with their audacity in not    
only going beyond the teachings of      
,buddha1 but in inventing systems of    
,buddhism which neither ,gautama nor his
 first disciples could recognize1 the   
docile and almost slavish adherence to  
ancient ,confucianism is one of the     
astonishing things in the history of    
religions in ,japan4 ,in the field of   
,buddhism we have a luxuriant growth of 
new and strange species of colossal     
weeds that overtower and seem to have   
choked out whatever furze of original   
,buddhism there was in ,japan1 while in 
the domain of ,confucianism there is a  
barren heath4 ,whereas1 in ,china1 the  

voluminous literature created by        
commentators on ,confucius and the      
commentaries on the commentators        
suggests the hyperbole used by the      
author of ,john's ,gospel1#h yet there  
is probably nothing on ,confucianism    
from the ,japanese pen in the thousand  
years under our review which is worth   
the reading or the translation4#i ,in   
this respect the ,japanese genius showed
 its vast capabilities of imitation1    
adoption and assimilation4  ,as of old1 
,confucianism again furnished a ,chinese
 wall1 within which the ,japanese could 
move1 and wherein they might find food  
for the mind in all the relations of    
life and along all the lines of         
achievement permitted them4 ,the        
philosophy imported from ,china1 as     
shown again and again in that land of   
oft-changing dynasties1 harmonizing with
 arbitrary government1 accorded         
perfectly with the despotism of the     
,tokugawas1 the ,tycoons who in ,yedo   
ruled from #afjc to #ahfh4 ,nothing new 

was permitted1 and any attempt at       
modification1 enlargement1 or           
improvement was not only frowned and    
hissed down as impious innovation1 but  
usually brought upon the daring         
innovator the ban of the censor1        
imprisonment1 banishment1 or death by   
enforced suicide4#aj ,in ,yedo1 the     
centre of ,chinese learning1 and in     
other parts of the country1 there were1 
indeed1 thinkers whose philosophy did   
not always tally with what was taught by
 the orthodox1#aa but as a rule even    
when these men escaped the ban of the   
censor1 or the sword of the executioner1
 they were but us voices crying in the  
wilderness4 ,the great mass of the      
gentry was orthodox1 according to the   
standards of the ,sido ,college1 while  
the common people remained faithful to  
,buddhism4 ,in the conduct of daily life
 they followed the precepts which had   
for centuries been taught them by their 
fathers4   ,philosophical ,confucianism 
the ,religion of the ,samurai4   ,what  

were the features of this modern        
,confucian philosophy1 which the        
,japanese ,samurai exalted to a         
religion8#ab ,we say philosophy and     
religion1 because while the teachings of
 the great sage lay at the bottom of the
 system1 yet it is not true since the   
early seventeenth century1 that the     
thinking men of ,japan have been        
satisfied with only the original simple 
ethical rules of the ancient master4    
,though they have craved a richer mental
 pabulum1 yet they have enjoyed less the
 study of the original text1 than       
acquaintance with the commentaries and  
communion with the great philosophical  
exponents1 of the master4 ,what1 then1  
we ask1 are the features of the         
developed philosophy1 which1 imported   
from ,china1 served the ,japanese       
,samurai not only as morals but for such
 religion as he possessed or professed8 
,we answer3 ,the system was not         
agnostic1 as many modern and western    
writers assert that it is1 and as       

,confucius1 transmitting and probably   
modifying the old religion1 had made the
 body of his teachings to be4 ,agnostic1
 indeed1 in regard to many things       
wherein a ,christian has faith1 modern  
,confucianism1 besides being bitterly   
polemic and hostile to ,buddhism1 is    
pantheistic4  ,certain it is that during
 the revival of ,pure ,shint in the     
eighteenth century1 the scholars of the 
,shint school1 and those of its great   
rival1 the ,chinese1 agreed in making   
loyalty#ac take the place of filial duty
 in the ,confucian system4 ,to serve the
 cause of the ,emperor became the most  
essential duty to those with cultivated 
minds4 ,the newer ,chinese philosophy   
mightily influenced the historians1 ,rai
 ,sanyo and those of the ,mito school1  
whose works1 now classic1 really began  
the revolution of #ahfh4 ,by forming and
 setting in motion the public opinion1  
which finally overthrew the ,shgun and  
feudalism1 restored the ,emperor to     
supreme power1 and unified the nation1  

they helped1 with modern ideas1 to make 
the ,new ,japan of our day4 ,the ,shint 
and the ,chinese teachings became       
amalgamated in a common cause1 and thus 
the philosophy of ,chu ,hi1 mingling    
with the nationalism and patriotism     
inculcated by ,shint1 brought about a   
remarkable result4 ,as a native scholar 
and philosopher observes1 ,it certainly 
is strange to see the ,tokugawa rule    
much shaken1 if not actually overthrown1
 by that doctrine which generations of  
able ,shguns and their ministers had    
earnestly encouraged and protected4 ,it 
is perhaps still more remarkable to see 
the ,mito clan1 under many able and     
active chiefs1 become the centre of the 
,kinno#ad movement1 which was to result 
in the overthrow of the ,tokugawa       
family1 of which it was itself a branch4
   ,a ,medley of ,pantheism4   ,the     
philosophy of modern ,confucianism is   
wholly pantheistic4 ,there is in it no  
such thing or being as ,god4 ,the       
orthodox pantheism of ,old ,japan means 

that everything in general is god1 but  
nothing in particular is ,god2 that ,all
 is god1 but not that ,god is all4 ,it  
is a pantheistic medley4#ae  ,chu ,hi   
and his ,japanese successors1 especially
 ,ky-so1 argue finely and discourse     
volubly about ,ki#af or spirit2 but it  
is not ,spirit1 or spiritual in the     
sense of ,him who taught even a woman at
 the well-curb at ,sychar4 ,it is in the
 air4 ,it is in the earth1 the trees1   
the flowers4 ,it comes to consciousness 
in man4 ,his ,ri is the ,tao of ,lao    
,tsze1 the ,way1 ,reason1 ,law4 ,it is  
formless1 invisible4      ,ri is not    
separate from ,ki1 for then it were an  
empty abstract     thing4 ,it is joined 
to ,ki1 and may be called1 by nature1   
one     decreed1 changeless ,norm4 ,it  
is the rule of ,ki1 the very centre1    
the reason why ,ki is ,ki4  ,ten or     
,heaven is not ,god or the abode of     
,god1 but an abstraction1 a sort of     
,unknowable1 or ,primordial ,necessity4 
,the doctrine of the ,sages knows and   

worships ,heaven1 and     without faith 
in it there is no truth4 ,for men and   
things1 the     universe1 are born and  
nourished by ,heaven1 and the ',way1'   
the     'ri1' that is in all1 is the    
',way1' the 'ri' of ,heaven4            
,distinguishing root and branch1 the    
heart is the root of ,heaven     and the
 appearance1 the revolution of the sun  
and moon1 the     order of the stars1 is
 the branch4 ,the books of the sages    
teach     us to conform to the heart of 
,heaven and deal not with               
appearances4      ,the teaching of the  
sages is the original truth and1 given  
to     men1 it forms both their nature  
and their relationships4 ,with it       
complete1 naught else is needed for the 
perfect following of the     ',way4'    
,let then the child make its parents    
,heaven1 the retainer1     his ,lord1   
the wife her husband1 and let each give 
up life for     righteousness4 ,thus    
will each serve for ,heaven4 ,but if we 
exalt     ,heaven above parent or ,lord1

 we shall come to think we can serve    
it though they be disobeyed and like    
tiger or wolf shall rejoice     to kill 
them4 ,to such fearful end does the     
,western learning     lead4444 ,let each
 one die for duty1 there is naught else 
we can     do4  ,thus wrote ,ohashi     
,junzo1 as late as #aheg ,a4,d41 the    
same year in which ,townsend ,harris    
entered ,yedo to teach the practical    
philosophy of ,christendom1 and the     
brotherhood of man as expressed in      
diplomacy4 ,ohashi ,junzo bitterly      
opposed the opening of ,japan to modern 
civilization and the ideas of           
,christendom4 ,his book was the         
swan-song of the dying ,japanese        
,confucianism4 ,slow as is the dying1   
and hard as its death may be1 the mind  
of new ,japan has laid away to dust and 
oblivion the ,ti-shu philosophy4 ,at    
present they 7the ,chinese classics7    
have fallen into almost total neglect1  
though phrases and allusions borrowed   
from them still pass current in         

literature1 and even to some extent in  
the language of every-day life4 ,sido1  
the great temple of ,confucius in       
,tokyo1 is now utilized as an           
educational ,museum4#ag  ,a study of    
this subject and of comparative         
religion1 is of immediate practical     
benefit to the ,christian teacher4 ,the 
preacher1 addressing an audience made up
 of educated ,japanese1 who speaks of   
,god without describing his personality1
 character1 or attributes as illustrated
 in ,revelation1 will find that his     
hearers receive his term as the         
expression for a bundle of abstract     
principles1 or a system of laws1 or some
 kind of regulated force4 ,they do1     
indeed1 make some reference to a creator
 by using a rare word4 ,occasionally1   
their language seems to touch the       
boundary line on the other side of which
 is conscious intelligence1 but nothing 
approaching the clearness and           
definiteness of the early ,chinese      
monotheism of the pre-,confucian        

classics is to be distinguished4#ah ,the
 modern ,japanese long ago heard        
joyfully the words1 ,honor the gods1 but
 keep them far from you1 and he has done
 it4  ,to love ,god would no more occur 
to a ,japanese gentleman than to have   
his child embrace and kiss him4 ,whether
 the source and fountain of life of     
which they speak has any ,divine        
,spirit1 is very uncertain1 but whether 
it has1 or has not1 man need not obey1  
much less worship him4 ,the universe is 
one1 the essence is the same4 ,man must 
seek to know his place in the universe2 
he is but one in an endless chain2 let  
him find his part and fulfil that part2 
all else is vanity4 ,one need not       
inquire into the origins or the         
ultimates4 ,man is moved by a power     
greater than himself2 he has no real    
independence of his own2 everything has 
its rank and place2 indeed1 its rank and
 place is its sole title to a separate  
existence4 ,if a man mistakes his place 
he is a fool1 he deserves punishment4   

,the ,ideals of a ,samurai4   ,out of   
his place1 man is not man4 ,duty is more
 important than being4 ,nearly          
everything in our life is fixed by fate2
 there may seem to be exceptions1       
because some wicked men are prosperous  
and some righteous men are wretched1 but
 these are not real exceptions to the   
general rule that we are made for our   
environment and fitted to it4 ,and then1
 again1 it may be that our judgments are
 not correct4 ,let the heart be right   
and all is well4 ,let man be obedient   
and his outward circumstance is nothing1
 having no relation to his joy or       
happiness4 ,even when as to his earthly 
body man passes away1 he is not         
destroyed2 the drop again becomes part  
of the sea1 the spark re-enters the     
flame1 and his life continues1 though it
 be not a conscious life4 ,in this way  
man is in harmony with the original     
principle of all things4 ,he outlasts   
the universe itself4  ,hence to a       
conscientious ,samurai there is nothing 

in this world better than obedience1 in 
the ideal of a true man4 ,what he fears 
most and hates most is that his memory  
may perish1 that he shall have no seed1 
that he shall be forgotten or die under 
a cloud and be thought treacherous or   
cowardly or base1 when in reality his   
life was pure and his motives high4     
,better1 sang ,yoshida ,shoin1 the dying
 martyr for his principles1 to be a     
crystal and to be broken1 than to be a  
tile upon the housetop and remain4  ,so1
 indeed1 on a hundred curtained         
execution grounds1 with the dirk of the 
suicide firmly grasped and about to shed
 their own life-blood1 have sung the    
martyrs who died willingly for their    
faith in their idea of ,yamato          
,damashii4#ai ,in untold instances in   
the national history1 men have died     
willingly and cheerfully1 and women also
 by thousands1 as brave1 as unflinching 
as the men1 so that the story of        
,japanese chivalry is almost incredible 
in its awful suicides4 ,history reveals 

a state of society in which cool        
determination1 desperate courage and    
fearlessness of death in the face of    
duty were quite unique1 and which must  
have had their base in some powerful    
though abnormal code of ethics4  ,this  
leads us to consider again the things   
emphasized by ,japanese as distinct from
 ,chinese and ,korean#bj ,confucianism1 
and to call attention to its fruits1    
while at the same time we note its      
defects1 and show wherein it failed4 ,we
 shall then show how this old system has
 already waxed old and is passing away4 
,christ has come to ,japan1 and behold a
 new heaven and a new earth6   ,new     
,japan ,makes ,revision4   ,first4 ,for 
sovereign and minister1 there are coming
 into vogue new interpretations4 ,this  
relation1 if it is to remain as the     
first1 will become that of the ruler and
 the ruled4 ,constitutional government  
has begun2 and codes of law have been   
framed which are recognizing the rights 
of the individual and of the people4    

,even a woman has rights before the law1
 in relation to husband1 parents1       
brothers1 sisters and children4 ,it is  
even beginning to be thought that       
children have rights4 ,let us hope that 
as the rights are better understood the 
duties will be equally clear4  ,it is   
coming to pass in ,japan that even in   
government1 the sovereign must consult  
with his people on all questions        
pertaining to their welfare4 ,although1 
thus far the constitutional government  
makes the ministers responsible to the  
,sovereign instead of to the ,diet1 yet 
the contention of the enlightened men   
and the liberal parties is1 that the    
ministers shall be responsible to the   
,diet4 ,the time seems at hand when the 
sovereign's power over his people will  
not rest on traditions more or less     
uncertain1 on history manufactured by   
governmental order1 on mythological     
claims based upon the so-called eternal 
ages1 on prerogatives upheld by the     
sword1 or on the supposed grace of the  

gods1 but will be broad-based upon the  
people's will4 ,the power of the rulers 
will be derived from the consent of the 
governed4 ,the ,emperor will become the 
first and chief servant of the nation4  
,revision and improvement of the ,second
 ,relation will make filial piety       
something more real than that unto which
 ,china has attained1 or ,japan has yet 
seen1 or which is yet universally known 
in ,christendom4 ,the tyranny of the    
father and of the older brother1 and the
 sale of daughters to shame1 will pass  
away2 and there will arise in the       
,japanese house1 the ,christian home4   
,it would be hard to say what           
,confucianism has done for woman4 ,it is
 probable that all civilizations1 and   
systems of philosophy1 ethics and       
religion1 can be well tested by this    
criterion--the position of woman4       
,confucianism virtually admits two      
standards of morality1 one for man1     
another for woman4#ba ,in ,chinese ,asia
 adultery is indeed branded as one of   

the vilest of crimes1 but in common idea
 and parlance it is a woman's crime1 not
 man's4 ,so1 on the other hand1 chastity
 is a female virtue1 it is part of      
womanly duty1 it has little or no       
relation to man personally4 ,right      
revision and improvement of the ,third  
,relation will abolish concubinage4 ,it 
will reform divorce4 ,it will make love 
the basis of marriage4 ,it will change  
the state of things truthfully pictured 
in such books as the ,genji ,monogatari1
 or ,romance of ,prince ,genji1 with its
 examples of horrible lust and incests2 
the ,kojiki or ,ethnic scripture1 with  
its nave accounts of filthiness among   
the gods2 the ,onna ,dai ,gaku1 ,woman's
 ,great ,study1 with its amazing        
subordination and moral slavery of wife 
and daughter2 and ,the ,japanese ,bride1
 of yesterday--all truthful pictures of 
,japanese life1 for the epoch in which  
each was written4 ,these books will     
become the forgotten curiosities of     
literature1 known only to the           

archologist4  ,improvement and revision 
of the ,fourth ,relation1 will bring    
into the ,japanese home more justice1   
righteousness1 love and enjoyment of    
life4 ,it will make possible1 also1 the 
cheerful acceptance and glad practice of
 those codes of law common in           
,christendom1 which are based upon the  
rights of the individual and upon the   
idea of the greatest good to the        
greatest number4 ,it will help to       
abolish the evils which come from       
primogeniture and to release the clutch 
of the dead hand upon the living4 ,it   
will decrease the power of the          
graveyard1 and make thought and care for
 the living the rule of life4 ,it will  
abolish sham and fiction1 and promote   
the cause of truth4 ,it will hasten the 
reign of righteousness and love1 and    
beneath propriety and etiquette lay the 
basis of charity toward all1 malice     
toward none4  ,revision with improvement
 of the ,fifth ,relation hastens the    
reign of universal brotherhood4 ,it     

lifts up the fallen1 the down-trodden   
and the outcast4 ,it says to the slave  
be free1 and after having said be free1 
educates1 trains1 and lifts up the      
brother once in servitude1 and helps him
 to forget his old estate and to know   
his rights as well as his duties1 and   
develops in him the image of ,god4 ,it  
says to the hinin or not-human1 be a    
man1 be a citizen1 accept the protection
 of the law4 ,it says to the eta1 come  
into humanity and society1 receive the  
protection of law1 and the welcome of   
your fellows2 let memory forget the past
 and charity make a new future4 ,it will
 bring ,japan into the fraternity of    
nations1 making her people one with the 
peoples of ,christendom1 not through the
 empty forms of diplomacy1 or by the    
craft of her envoys1 or by the power of 
her armies and navies reconstructed on  
modern principles1 but by patient       
education and unflinching loyalty to    
high ideals4 ,thus will ,japan become   
worthy of all the honors1 which the     

highest humanity on this planet can     
bestow4   ,the ,ideal of ,yamato        
,damashii ,enlarged4   ,in this our time
 it is not only the alien from          
,christendom1 with his hostile eye and  
mordant criticism1 who is helping to    
undermine that system of ethics which   
permitted the sale of the daughter to   
shame1 the introduction of the concubine
 into the family and the reduction of   
woman1 even though wife and mother1 to  
nearly a cipher4 ,it is not only the    
foreigner who assaults that philosophy  
which glorified the vendetta1 kept alive
 private war1 made revenge in murder the
 sweetest joy of the ,samurai and       
suicide the gate to honor and fame1     
subordinated the family to the house1   
and suppressed individuality and        
personality4 ,it is the native          
,japanese1 no longer a hermit1 a frog in
 the well1 that knows not the great     
ocean but a student1 an inquirer1 and a 
critic1 who assaults the old ethical and
 philosophical system1 and calls for a  

new way between heaven and earth1 and a 
new kind of ,heaven in which shall be a 
,creator1 a ,father and a ,saviour4 ,the
 brain and pen of ,new ,japan1 as well  
as its heart1 demand that the family    
shall be more than the house and that   
the living members shall have greater   
rights as well as duties1 than the dead 
ancestors4 ,they claim that the wife    
shall share responsibility with the     
husband1 and that the relation of       
husband and wife shall take precedence  
of that of the father and son2 that the 
mother shall possess equal authority    
with the father2 that the wife1 whether 
she be mother or not1 shall not be      
compelled to share her home with the    
concubine2 and that the child in ,japan 
shall be born in the home and not in the
 herd4 ,the sudden introduction of the  
,christian ideas of personality and     
individuality has undoubtedly wrought   
peril to the framework of a society     
which is built according to the         
,confucian principles2 but faith in     

,god1 love in the home1 and absolute    
equality before the law will bring about
 a reign of righteousness such as ,japan
 has never known1 but toward the        
realization of which ,christian nations 
are ever advancing4  ,even the old ideal
 of the ,samurai embodied in the formula
 ,yamato ,damashii will be enlarged and 
improved from its narrow limits and     
ferocious aspects1 when the tap-root of 
all progress is allowed to strike into  
deeper truth1 and the ,sixth ,relation1 
or rather the first relation of all1 is 
taught1 namely1 that of ,god to ,man1   
and of ,man to ,god4 ,that this relation
 is understood1 and that the ,samurai   
ideal1 purified and enlarged1 is held by
 increasing numbers of ,japan's         
brightest men and noblest women1 is     
shown in that superb ,christian         
literature which pours from the pens of 
the native men and women in the         
,japanese ,christian churches4 ,under   
this flood of truth the old obstacles to
 a nobler society are washed away1 while

 out of the enriched soil rises the new 
,japan which is to be a part of the     
better ,christendom that is to come4    
,christ in ,japan1 as everywhere1 means 
not destruction1 but fulfilment4        
,,chapter ,,vi - ,,the ,,buddhism ,,of  
,,northern ,,asia      ,life is a dream 
is what the pilgrim learns1      ,nor   
asks for more1 but straightway home     
returns4     --,japanese medieval lyric 
drama4      ,the purpose of ,buddha's   
preaching was to bring into light the   
permanent truth1 to reveal the root of  
all suffering and thus to     lead all  
sentient beings into the perfect        
emancipation from all                   
passions4--,outlines of the ,mahayana4  
,buddhism will stand forth as the       
embodiment of the eternal     verity    
that as a man sows he will reap1        
associated with the     duties of       
mastery over self and kindness to all   
men1 and     quickened into a popular   
religion by the example of a noble and  
beautiful life4--,dharmapala of ,ceylon4

      ,buddhism teaches the right path  
of cause and effect1 and     nothing    
which can supersede the idea of cause   
and effect will be     accepted and     
believed4 ,buddha himself cannot        
contradict this law     which is the    
,buddha1 of ,buddhas1 and no omnipotent 
power except     this law is believed to
 be existent in the universe4           
,buddhism does not quarrel with other   
religions about the truth     444       
,buddhism is truth common to every      
religion regardless of the     outside  
garment4--,horin ,toki1 of ,japan4      
,death we can face2 but knowing1 as some
 of us do1 what is human     life1 which
 of us is it that without shuddering    
could 7if we     were summoned7 face the
 hour of birth8 -,de ,quinccy4      ,the
 prayer of ,buddhism1 ,deliver us from  
existence4     ,the prayer of the       
,christian1 ,deliver us from evil4      
,in the beginning1 ,god created the     
heavens and the     earth4--,genesis4   
,i am come that they might have life and

 that they might have it     more       
abundantly4--,jesus4   ,,chapter ,,vi - 
,,the ,,buddhism ,,of ,,northern ,,asia 
,pre-,buddhistic ,india4   ,does the    
name of ,gautama1 the ,buddha1 stand for
 a sun-myth or for a historic personage8
 ,one set of scholars and writers1      
represented by ,professor ,kern1#a of   
,leyden1 thinks the ,buddha a mythical  
personage4 ,another school1 represented 
by ,professor ,t4 ,rhys ,davids1#b      
declares that he lived in human flesh   
and breathed the air of earth4 ,we      
accept the historical view as best      
explaining the facts4  ,in order to     
understand a religion1 in its origin at 
least1 we must know some of the         
conditions out of which it arose4       
,buddhism is one of the protestantisms  
of the world4 ,yet1 is not every        
religion1 in one sense1 protestant8 ,is 
it not a protest against something to   
which it opposes a difference8 ,every   
new religion1 like a growing plant1     
ignores or rejects certain elements in  

the soil out of which it springs4 ,it   
takes up and assimilates1 also1 other   
elements not used before1 in order to   
produce a flower or fruit different from
 other growths out of the same soil4    
,yet whether the new religion be        
considered as a development1 fulfilment1
 or protest1 we must know its historical
 perspective or background4 ,to         
understand the origin of ,buddhism1 one 
of the best preparations is to read the 
history of ,india and especially of the 
thought of her many generations2 for the
 landmarks of the civilizations of      
,india1 as a ,hindu may proudly say1 are
 its mighty literatures4 ,at these let  
us glance4#c  ,the age of the ,vedas    
extends from the year #bjjj to #adjj    
,b4,c41 and the history of this early   
,india is wonderfully like that of      
,america4 ,during this era1 the ,hindus1
 one of the seven ,aryan tribes of which
 the ,persian1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,celtic1 
,sclav and ,teutonic form the other six1
 descending from the mid-,asian plateau1

 settled the ,punjab in ,northwest      
,india4 ,they drove the dark-skinned    
aborigines before them and reclaimed    
forest and swamp to civilization1 making
 the land of the seven rivers bright    
with agriculture and brilliant with     
cities4 ,this was the glorious heroic   
age of joyous life and conquest1 when   
men who believed in a ,heavenly         
,father#d made the first epoch of ,hindu
 history4  ,then followed the epic age1 
#adjj-ajjj ,b4,c41 when the area of     
civilization was extended still farther 
down the ,ganges ,valley1 the splendor  
of wealth1 learning1 military prowess   
and social life excelling that of the   
ancestral seats in the ,punjab4 ,amid   
differences of wars and diplomacy with  
rivalries and jealousies1 a common      
sacred language1 literature and religion
 with similar social and religious      
institutions1 united the various nations
 together4 ,in this time the old ,vedas 
were compiled into bodies or            
collections1 and the ,brahmanas and the 

,upanishads1 besides the great epic     
poems1 the ,mahabharata and the         
,ramayana were composed4  ,the next1 or 
rationalistic epoch1 covers the period  
from #ajjj ,b4,c4 to #cbj ,b4,c41 when  
the ,hindu expansion had covered all    
,india1 that is1 the peninsula from the 
,himalayas to ,cape ,comorin4 ,then1 all
 ,india1 including ,ceylon1 was         
,hinduized1 though in differing degrees2
 the purest ,aryan civilization being in
 the north1 the less pure in the ,ganges
 ,valley and south and east1 while the  
least ,aryan and more ,dravidian was in 
,bengal1 ,orissa1 and ,india south of   
the ,kistna ,river4  ,this story of the 
spread of ,hindu civilization is a      
brilliant one1 and seems as wonderful as
 the later ,european conquest of the    
land1 and of the other ,indians of      
,north ,america from the ,atlantic to   
the ,pacific4 ,beside the conquests in  
material civilization of these our      
fellow-,aryans 7who were the real       
,indians1 and who spoke the language    

which is the common ancestor of our own 
and of most ,european tongues71 what    
impresses us most of all1 in these      
,aryans1 is their intellectual energy4  
,the ,hindus of the rationalistic age   
made original discoveries4 ,they        
invented grammar1 geometry1 arithmetic1 
decimal notation1 and they elaborated   
astronomy1 medicine1 mental philosophy  
and logic 7with syllogism7 before these 
sciences were known or perfected in     
,greece4 ,in the seventh century before 
,christ1 ,kapila taught a system of     
philosophy1 of which that of the        
,europeans1 ,schopenhaur and ,hartmann1 
seems largely a reproduction4           
,following this agnostic scheme of      
thought1 came1 several centuries later1 
the dualistic ,yoga#e system in which   
the chief feature is the conception of  
,deity as a means of final emancipation 
of the human soul from further          
transmigration1 and of union with the   
,universal ,spirit or ,world ,soul4     
,there is1 however1 perhaps no sadder   

chapter in the history of human thought 
than the story of the later degeneration
 of the ,yoga system into one of bloody 
and cruel rites in ,india1 and of       
superstition in ,china4  ,still other   
systems followed3 one by ,gautama1 of   
the same clan or family of the later    
,buddha1 who develops inference by the  
construction of syllogism2 while ,kanada
 follows the atomic philosophy in which 
the atoms are eternal1 but the          
aggregates perishable by disintegration4
  ,against these schools1 which seemed  
to be dangerous new departures1 orthodox
 ,hindus1 anxious for their ancient     
beliefs and practices as laid down in   
the ,vedas1 started fresh systems of    
philosophy1 avowedly more in consonances
 with their ancestral faith4 ,one system
 insisted on the primitive ,vedic       
ritual1 and another laid emphasis on the
 belief in a ,universal ,soul first     
inculcated in the ,upanishads4          
,conditions out of which ,buddhism      
,arose4   ,whatever we may think of     

these schools of philosophy1 or the     
connection with or indebtedness of      
,gautama1 the ,buddha1 to them1 they    
reveal to us the conceptions which his  
contemporaries had of the universe and  
the beings inhabiting it4 ,these were   
honest human attempts to find ,god4 ,in 
them the various beings or six          
conditions of sentient existence are    
devas or gods2 men2 asuras or monsters2 
pretas or demons2 animals2 and beings in
 hell4 ,furthermore1 these schools of   
,hindu philosophy show us the conditions
 out of which ,buddhism arose1 furnish  
us with its terminology and technical   
phrases1 reveal to us what the reformer 
proposed to himself to do1 and1 what is 
perhaps still more important1 show us   
the types to which ,buddhism in its     
degeneration and degradation reverted4  
,the strange far-off oriental words     
which today scholars discuss1           
theosophists manipulate1 and charlatans 
employ as catchpennies were common words
 in the every-day speech of the ,hindu  

people1 two or three thousand years ago4
  ,glancing rapidly at the condition of 
religion in the era ushering in the     
birth of ,buddha1 we note that the old  
joyousness of life manifested in the    
,vedic hymns is past1 their fervor and  
glow are gone4 ,in the morning of ,hindu
 life there was no caste1 no fixed      
priesthood1 and no idols2 but as wealth1
 civilization1 easy and settled life    
succeeded1 the taste for pompous        
sacrifices conducted by an hereditary   
priestly caste increased4 ,greater      
importance was laid upon the detail of  
the ceremonies1 the attention of the    
worshipper being turned from the deities
 to the minuti of rites1 the erection of
 altars1 the fixing of the proper       
astronomical moments for lighting the   
fire1 the correct pronunciation of      
prayers1 and to the various requisite   
acts accompanying a sacrifice4#f ,in the
 chapter of decay which time wrote and  
literature reflects1 we find grotesque  
reasons given for every minute rite1    

dogmatic explanation of texts1 penances 
for every breach of form and rule1 and  
elaborate directions for every act and  
moment of the worshipper4  ,the         
literature shows a degree of credulity  
and submission on the part of the people
 and of absolute power on the part of   
the priests1 which reminds us of the    
,middle ,ages in ,europe4 ,the old      
inspiring wars with the aborigines are  
over4 ,the time of bearing a noble      
creed1 meaning culture and civilization 
as against savagery and idolatry1 is    
past1 and only intestine quarrels and   
local strife have succeeded4 ,the age of
 creative literature is over1 and       
commentators1 critics and grammarians   
have succeeded4 ,still more startling   
are the facts disclosed by literary     
history4 ,the liquid poetry has become  
frozen prose2 the old flaming fuel of   
genius is now slag and ashes4 ,we see   
,hindus doing exactly what ,jewish      
rabbis1 and after them ,christian       
schoolmen and dogma-makers1 did with the

 old ,hebrew poems and prophecies4      
,construing literally the prayers1 songs
 and hopes of an earlier age1 they      
rebuild the letter of the text into     
creeds and systems1 and erect an amazing
 edifice of steel-framed and stone-cased
 tradition1 to challenge which is taught
 to be heresy and impiety4 ,the poetical
 similes used in the ,rig ,vedas have   
been transformed into mythological      
tales4 ,in the change of language the   
,vedas themselves are unreadable1 except
 by the priests1 who fatten on popular  
beliefs in the transmigration of souls  
and in the power of priestcraft to make 
that transmigration blissful--provided  
liberal gifts are duly forthcoming4     
,idolatry and witchcraft are rampant4   
,some saviour1 some light was needed4   
,buddhism a ,logical ,product of ,hindu 
,thought4   ,at such a time1 probably   
#eeg ,b4,c41 was born ,shaka1 of the    
,muni clan1 at ,kapilavastu1 one hundred
 miles northeast of ,benares4 ,we pass  
over the details#g of the life of him   

called ,prince1 ,lord1 ,lion of the     
,tribe of ,shaka1 and ,saviour2 of his  
desertion of wife and child1 called the 
first ,great ,renunciation2 of his      
struggles to obtain peace2 of his       
enlightenment or ,buddhahood2 of his    
second or ,greater ,renunciation2 of    
merit on account of austerities2 and    
give the story told in a mountain of    
books in various tongues1 but condensed 
in a paragraph by ,romesh ,chunder      
,dutt4      ,at an early age1 ,prince   
,gautama left his royal home1 and his   
wife1 and new-born child1 and became a  
wanderer and a mendicant1     to seek a 
way of salvation for man4 ,hindu rites1 
accompanied by     the slaughter of     
innocent victims1 repelled his feelings4
 ,hindu     philosophy afforded him no  
remedy1 and ,hindu penances and         
mortifications proved unavailing after  
he had practised them for     years4 ,at
 last1 by severe contemplation1 he      
discovered the long     coveted truth2 a
 holy and calm life1 and benevolence and

 love     toward all living creatures   
seemed to him the essence of            
religion4 ,self-culture and universal   
love--this was his     discovery--this  
is the essence of ,buddhism4#h  ,from   
one point of view ,buddhism was the     
logical continuance of ,aryan ,hindoo   
philosophy2 from another point of view  
it was a new departure4 ,the leading    
idea in the ,upanishads is that the     
object of the wise man should be to     
know1 inwardly and consciously1 the     
,great ,soul of all2 and by this        
knowledge his individual soul would     
become united to the ,supreme ,being1   
the true and absolute self4 ,this was   
the highest point reached in the old    
,indian philosophy#i before ,buddha was 
born4  ,so1 looking at ,buddhism in the 
perspective of ,hindu history and       
thought1 we may say that it is doubtful 
whether ,gautama intended to found a new
 religion4 ,as1 humanly speaking1 ,saul 
of ,tarsus saved ,christianity from     
being a ,jewish sect and made it        

universal1 so ,gautama extricated the   
new enthusiasm of humanity from the     
priests4 ,he made ,aryan religion the   
property of all ,india4 ,what had been a
 rare monopoly as narrow as ,judaism1 he
 made the inheritance of all ,asia4     
,gautama was a protestant and a         
reformer1 not an agnostic or skeptic4   
,it is more probable that he meant to   
shake off ,brahmanism and to restore the
 pure and original form of the ,aryan   
religion of the ,vedas1 as far as it was
 possible to do so4 ,in one sense1      
,buddhism was a revolt against          
hereditary and sacerdotal privilege--an 
attack of the people against            
priestcraft4 ,the ,buddha and his       
disciples were levellers4 ,in a         
different age and clime1 but along a    
similar path1 they did a work analogous 
to that of the so-called ,anabaptists in
 ,europe and ,independents in ,england1 
centuries later4  ,it is certain1       
however1 that ,buddhism has grown       
logically out of ancient ,hinduism4 ,in 

its monastic feature--one of its most   
striking characteristics--we see only   
the concentration and reduction to      
system1 of the old life of the ascetics 
and religious mendicants recognized and 
respected by ,hinduism4 ,for centuries  
the ,buddhist monks and nuns were       
regarded in ,india as only a new sect of
 ascetics1 among many others which      
flourished in the land4  ,the ,buddhist 
doctrine of karma1 or in ,japanese1     
ingwa1 of cause and effect1 whereby it  
is taught that each effect in this life 
springs from a cause in some previous   
incarnation1 and that each act in this  
life bears its fruit in the next1 has   
grown directly out of the ,hindu idea of
 the transmigration of souls4 ,this idea
 is first inculcated in the ,upanishads1
 and is recognized in ,hindu systems of 
philosophy4  ,so also the ,buddhist     
doctrine of ,nirvana1 or the attainment 
of a sinless state of existence1 has    
grown out of the idea of final union of 
the individual soul with the ,universal 

,soul1 which is also inculcated in the  
,upanishads4 ,yet1 as we shall see1 the 
,buddhists were1 in the eyes of the     
,brahmans1 atheists1 because in the ken 
of these new levellers gods and men were
 put on the same plane4 ,brahmanism has 
never forgiven ,buddhism for ignoring   
the gods1 and the ,hindoos finally drove
 out the followers of ,gautama from     
,india4 ,it eventuated that after a     
millenium or so of ,buddhism in ,india1 
the old gods1 ,brahma1 ,indra1 etc41    
which at first had been shut out from   
the ken of the people1 by ,gautama1     
found their places again in the popular 
faith of the ,buddhists1 who believed   
that the gods as well as men1 were all  
progressing toward the blessed          
,nirvana--that sinless life and holy    
calm1 which is the ,buddhist's heaven   
and salvation4  ,it is certainly very   
curious1 and in a sense amusing1 to find
 flourishing in far-off ,japan the old  
gods of ,india1 that one would suppose  
to have been utterly dead and left      

behind in oblivion4 ,as acknowledged    
devas or kings and bodhisattvas or      
soon-to-be ,buddhas1 not a few once     
defunct ,hindu gods1 utterly unknown to 
early ,buddhism1 have forced their way  
into the company of the elect4 ,though  
most of them have not gained the        
popularity of the indigenous deities of 
,nippon1 they yet attract many          
worshippers4 ,they remind one that amid 
the coming of the sons of ,elohim before
 ,jehovah1 the satan came also4#aj      
,from another point of view ,buddhism   
was a new religion2 for it swept away   
and out of the field of its vision the  
whole of the ,world or ,universal ,soul 
theory4 ,it proclaimed a salvation which
 each man could gain for himself and by 
himself1 in this world during this life1
 without the least reference to ,god1 or
 to gods1 either great or small4 ,it    
placed the first importance on          
knowledge2 but it was no longer a       
knowledge of ,god1 it was a clear       
perception of the real nature as they   

supposed it to be of men and things4 ,in
 a word1 ,gautama never reached the idea
 of a personal self-existent ,god1      
though toward that truth he groped4 ,he 
was satisfied too soon4#aa ,his         
followers were even more easily         
satisfied with abstractions4 ,when      
,gautama saw the power over the human   
heart of inward culture and of love to  
others1 he obtained peace1 he rested on 
certainty1 he became the ,buddha1 that  
is1 the enlightened4 ,perhaps he was not
 the first ,buddhist4 ,it may be that   
the historical ,gautama1 if so he is    
worthy to be called1 merely made the    
sect or the new religion famous4 ,hardly
 a religion in the full sense of the    
word1 ,buddhism did not assume the rle  
of theology1 but sought only to know men
 and things4 ,in one sense ,buddhism is 
atheism1 or rather1 atheistic humanism4 
,in one sense1 also1 the solution of the
 mystery of ,god1 of life1 and of the   
universe1 which ,gautama and his        
followers attained1 was one of          

skepticism rather than of faith4        
,buddhism is1 relatively1 a very modern 
religion2 it is one of the new faiths4  
,is it paradoxical to say that the      
,buddhists are religious atheists8      
,the ,buddhist ,millennium in ,india4   
,let us now look at the life of the     
,founder4 ,day after day1 the           
pure-souled teacher attracted new       
disciples while he with alms-bowl went  
around as mendicant and teacher4        
,salvation merely by self-control1 and  
love without any rites1 ceremonies1     
charms1 priestly powers1 gods or        
miracles1 formed the burden of his      
teachings4 ,thousands of people left    
their homes1 embraced the holy order and
 became monks1 ignoring caste1 and      
relinquishing all worldly goods except  
the bare necessaries of life1 which they
 possessed and enjoyed in common4       
,probably the first monastic system of  
the world1 was that of the ,indian      
,buddhists4  ,the ,buddha preached the  
good news during forty-five years4      

,after his death1 five hundred of his   
followers assembled at ,rajagriha and   
chanted together the teachings of       
,gautama1 to fix them in memory4 ,a     
hundred years later1 in #cgg ,b4,c41    
came the great schism among the         
,buddhists1 out of which grew the       
divisions known as ,northern and        
,southern ,buddhism4 ,there was         
disagreement on ten points4 ,a second   
council was therefore called1 and the   
disputed points determined to the       
satisfaction of one side4 ,thereupon the
 seceders went away in large numbers1   
and the differences were never healed2  
on the contrary1 they have widened in   
the course of ages4  ,the separatists   
began what may be called the ,northern  
,buddhisms of ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,china1   
,korea and ,japan4 ,the orthodox or     
,southern ,buddhists are those of       
,ceylon1 ,burma and ,siam4 ,the original
 canon of ,southern ,buddhism is in     
,pali2 that of ,northern ,buddhism is in
 ,sanskrit4 ,the one is comparatively   

small and simple2 the other amazingly   
varied and voluminous4 ,the canon of    
,southern scripture is called the       
,hinayana1 the ,little or ,smaller      
,vehicle2 the canon of ,northern        
,buddhism is named the ,mahayana or     
,great ,vehicle4 ,possibly1 also1       
besides the ,southern and ,northern     
,buddhisms1 the ,buddhism of ,japan may 
be treated by itself and named ,eastern 
,buddhism4  ,in the great council called
 in #bdb ,b4,c41 by ,king ,asoka1 who   
may be termed the ,constantine of       
,buddhism1 the sacred texts were again  
chanted4 ,it was not until the year #hh 
,b4,c4 in ,ceylon1 six hundred years    
after ,gautama1 that the three ,pitakas1
 ,boxes or ,baskets1 were committed to  
writing in the ,pali language4 ,in a    
word1 ,buddhism knows nothing of sacred 
documents or a canon of scripture       
contemporary with its first disciples4  
,the splendid ,buddhist age of ,india   
lasted nearly a thousand years1 and was 
one of superb triumphs in civilization4 

,it was an age of spiritual             
emancipation1 of freedom from idol      
worship1 of nobler humanity and of      
peace4#ab ,it was followed by the       
,puranic epoch and the dark ages4 ,then 
,buddhism was1 as some say1 driven out  
from the land of its birth1 finding new 
expansion in ,eastern and ,northern     
,asia1 and again1 a still more          
surprising development in the           
ultima-,thule of the ,asiatic continent1
 ,japan4 ,there is now no ,buddhism in  
,india proper1 the faith being          
represented only in ,ceylon and possibly
 also on the main land1 by the sect of  
the ,jains1 and peradventure in ,persia 
by ,babism which contains elements from 
three religions4#ac ,like ,christianity1
 ,buddhism was driven out of its old    
home to bless other nations of the      
world4 ,it is probably far nearer the   
truth to say that ,buddhism was never   
expelled from ,india1 but rather that it
 died by disintegration and relapse4#ad 
,it had become ,brahmanism again4 ,the  

old gods and the old idol-worship came  
back4 ,it is in ,japan that the ends of 
the earth1 eastern and western          
civilization1 and the freest and fullest
 or at least the latest developments of 
,christianity and of ,buddhism1 have    
met4  ,in its transfer to distant lands 
and its developments throughout ,eastern
 ,asia1 the faith which had originated  
in ,india suffered many changes4        
,dividing into two great branches1 it   
became a notably different religion     
according as it moved along the         
southern1 the northern1 or the eastern  
channel4 ,by the vehicle of the ,pali   
language it was carried to ,ceylon1     
,siam1 ,burma1 ,cambodia and the islands
 of the south2 that is1 to southern or  
peninsular and insular ,asia4 ,here     
there is little evidence of any striking
 departure from the doctrines of the    
,pali ,pitakas2 and1 as ,southern       
,buddhism does not greatly concern us in
 speaking of the religions of ,japan1 we
 may pass it by4 ,for although the books

 and writings belonging to ,southern    
,buddhism1 and comprehended under the   
formula of the ,hinayana or ,smaller    
,vehicle1 have been studied in ,china1  
,korea and ,japan1 yet they have had    
comparatively little influence upon     
doctrinal1 ritualistic1 or missionary   
development in ,chinese ,asia4          
,astonishingly different has been the   
case with the ,northern ,buddhisms which
 are those of ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,mongolia1
 ,manchuria1 ,china1 ,korea and ,japan4 
,as luxuriant as the evolutions of      
political and dogmatic ,christianity and
 as radical in their departures from the
 primitive simplicity of the faith1 have
 been these forms of ,buddhist doctrine1
 ritual and organization4 ,we cannot now
 dwell upon the wonderful details of the
 vast and complicated system1 differing 
so much in various countries4 ,we pass  
by1 or only glance at1 the philosophy of
 the ,punjaub2 the metaphysics of       
,nepal--with its developments into what 
some writers consider to be a close     

approach to monotheism1 and others1     
indeed1 monotheism itself2 the system of
 ,lamaism in ,tibet1 which has          
paralleled so closely the development of
 the papal hierarchy2 the possibly two  
thousand years' growth and decay of     
,chinese ,buddhism2 the varieties of the
 ,buddhism of ,mongolia--almost swamped 
in the ,shamanistic superstitions of    
these dwellers on the plains2 the       
astonishing success1 quick ripening1    
decay1 and almost utter annihilation1   
among the learned and governing classes1
 of ,korean ,buddhism2#ae and study in  
detail only ,eastern or ,japanese       
,buddhism4  ,we shall in this lecture   
attempt but two things3  ,i4 ,a summary 
of the process of thought by which the  
chief features of the ,northern         
,buddhisms came into view4  ,,ii4 ,an   
outline of the story of ,japanese       
,buddhism during the first three        
centuries of its existence4   ,the      
,development of ,northern ,buddhism     
,leaving the early ,buddha legends and  

the solid ground of history1 the makers 
of the newer ,buddhist doctrines in     
,nepal occupied themselves with         
developing the theory of ,buddhahood and
 of the ,buddhas2#af for we must ever   
remember that ,buddha#ag is not a proper
 name1 but a common adjective meaning   
enlightened1 from the root to know1     
perceive1 etc4 ,they made constant and  
marvellous additions to the primitive   
doctrine1 giving it a momentum which    
gathered force as the centuries went on2
 and1 as propaganda1 it moved against   
the sun4  ,this development theory ran  
along the line of personification4 ,not 
being satisfied with the wheel of the   
law1 it personified both the hub and the
 spokes4 ,it began with the spirit of   
kindness out of which all human virtues 
rise1 and by the power of which the     
,buddhist organization will conquer all 
sin and unbelief and become victorious  
throughout the world4 ,this             
personification is called the ,maitreya 
,buddha1 the unconquerable one1 or the  

future ,buddha of benevolence1 the      
,buddha who is yet to come4 ,here was a 
tremendous and revolutionary movement in
 the new faith1 the beginning of a long 
process4 ,it was as though the          
,christians had taken the particular    
attributes1 justice1 mercy1 etc41 of    
,god and1 after personifying each one1  
deified it1 thus multiplying gods4      
,what was the soil for the new sowing1  
and what was the harvest to be reaped in
 due time8  ,with many thousands of     
,india ,buddhists whose minds were      
already steeped in ,brahministic        
philosophy and mythology1 who were more 
given to speculation and dreaming than  
to self-control and moral culture1 and  
who mourned for the dead gods of        
,hinduism1 the soil was already prepared
 for a growth wholly abnormal to true   
,buddhism1 but altogether in keeping    
with the older ,brahministic            
philosophies from which these dreamers  
had been but partially converted to     
,buddhism4#ah  ,the seed is found in the

 doctrine which already forms part of   
the system of the ,little ,vehicle1 when
 it tells of the personal ,buddhas and  
the ,buddhas elect1 or future ,buddhas4 
,in the ,jataka stories1 or ,birth      
tales1 the ,buddha elect is the title   
given to each of the beings1 man1 angel1
 or animal1 who is held to be a         
,bodhisattva1 or the future ,buddha in  
one of his former births4 ,the title    
,bodhisattva#ai is the name given to a  
being whose ,karma will produce other   
beings in a continually ascending scale 
of goodness until it becomes vested in a
 ,buddha4 ,or1 in the more common use of
 the word1 a ,bodhisattva 7,japanese    
bosatsu7 is a being whose essence has   
become intelligence1 and who will have  
to pass through human existence once    
more only before entering ,nirvana4  ,in
 ,southern ,buddhist temples1 the pure  
white image of ,maitreya is sometimes   
found beside the idol representing      
,gautama or the historical ,buddha4     
,while in ,southern ,buddhism the idea  

of this possibility of development seems
 to have been little seized upon and    
followed up1 in ,northern ,buddhism as  
early as #djj ,a4,d4 the worship of two 
,buddhas elect named ,manjusri and      
,avalokitesvara1 or personified ,wisdom 
and ,power1 had already become general4 
,manjusri1#bj the ,great ,being or      
,prince ,royal1 is the personification  
of wisdom1 and especially of the mystic 
religious insight which has produced the
 ,great ,vehicle or canon of ,northern  
,buddhism2 or1 as a ,japanese author    
says1 the third collection of the       
,tripitaka was that made by ,manjusri   
and ,maitreya4 ,avalokitesvara1#ba the  
,lord of ,view or ,all-sided ,one1 is   
the personification of power1 the       
merciful protector and preserver of the 
world and of men4 ,both are frequently  
and voluminously mentioned in the       
,saddharma ,pundarika1#bb in which the  
good law is made plain by flowers of    
rhetoric1 and of which we shall have    
occasion frequently to speak4 ,manjusri 

is the mythical author of this          
influential work1#bc the twenty-fourth  
chapter being devoted to a glorification
 of the character1 the power1 and the   
advantages to be derived from the       
worship of ,avalokitesvara4   ,the      
,creation of ,gods4   ,possibly the name
 of ,manjusri may be derived from that  
of the ,indian mendicant1 the           
traditional introducer of ,buddhism and 
its accompanying civilization into      
,nepal4 ,the ,tibetans identify him with
 the minister of a great ,king          
,strongstun1 who lived in the seventh   
century of our era and who was the great
 patron of ,buddhism into ,tibet4 ,he is
 the founder of that school of thought  
which ended in the ,great ,vehicle1--the
 literature of ,northern ,buddhism4#bd  
,from ,nepal to ,japan1 in the books of 
the ,northern ,buddhists there is       
certainly much confusion between the    
metaphysical being and the legendary    
civilizer and teacher of ,nepal4 ,the   
other name1 ,avalokitesvara1 which means

 the ,lord of ,view1 the lord who looks 
down from on high1 instead of being a   
purely metaphysical invention1 may he   
only an adaptation of one epithet of    
,shiva1 which meant ,master of ,view4   
,later and by degrees the attributes    
were separated and each one was         
personified4 ,for example1 the power of 
,avalokitesvara was separated from his  
protecting care and providence4 ,his    
power was personified as the bearer of  
the thunder-bolt1 or the                
lightning-handed one2 and this new      
personification added to the two other  
,buddhas elect1 made a triad1 the first 
in ,northern ,buddhism4 ,in this triad1 
the thunder-bolt holder was ,vagrapani2 
,manjusri was the deified teacher2 and  
,avalokitesvara was the ,spirit of the  
,buddhas present in the church4 ,before 
many centuries had elapsed1 these       
imaginary beings1 with a few others1 had
 become gods to whom men prayed2 and    
thus ,buddhism became a religion with   
some kind of theism1--which ,gautama had

 expressly renounced4  ,if any one wants
 proof of this reversion into the old   
religions of ,india1 he has only to     
notice that the name1 given to the new  
god made by personification of the      
attribute of power1 ,vagrapani1 or      
,vadjradhara1 or the bearer of the      
thunder-bolt1 had formerly been used as 
an epithet of the old fire-god of the   
,vedas1 ,indra4  ,it were tedious to    
recount all the steps in the further    
development of ,northern ,buddhism4#be  
,suffice it to say1 that out of ideas   
and principles set forth in the earlier 
,buddhism1 and under the generating     
force reborn from old ,brahminism1 the  
,dhyani ,buddhas 7that is the ,buddhas  
evolved out of the mind in mystic       
trance7 were given their elect ,buddhas2
 and so three sets of five were         
co-ordinated4#bf ,that is1 first1 five  
pre-penultimate ,buddhas2 then their    
,bodhisattvas or penultimate ,buddhas2  
and then the ultimate or human ,buddhas1
 of which ,gautama was one4 ,or1 first  

abstraction2 then pre-human effluence2  
then emanation4  ,all this              
multiplication of beings is unknown to  
,southern ,buddhism1 unknown to the     
,saddharma ,pundarika1 and very probably
 unknown also to the ,chinese pilgrims  
who visited ,india in the fifth and     
seventh centuries4 ,professor ,rhys     
,davids1 in his compact little manual of
 ,buddhism1 says3#bg      ,among those  
hypothetical beings--the creations of a 
sickly     scholasticism1 hollow        
abstractions without life or            
reality--the     fourth ,amitabha1      
',immeasurable ,light1' whose           
,bodhisatwa is     ,avalokitesvara1 and 
whose emanation is ,gautama1 occupies of
     course the highest and most        
important rank4 ,surrounded by          
innumerable ,bodhisatwas1 he sits       
enthroned under a ,bo-tree in           
,sukhavati1 i4e41 the ,blissful1 a      
paradise of heavenly joys1     whose    
description occupies whole tedious books
 of the so-called     ,great ,vehicle4  

,by this theory1 each of the five       
,buddhas has     become three1 and the  
fourth of these five sets of three is   
the     second ,buddhist ,trinity1 the  
belief in which must have arisen        
after the seventh century of our era4   
,buddhism has been called the light of  
,asia1 and ,gautama its illuminator2 but
 certainly the light has not been pure1 
nor the products of its illumination    
wholesome4 ,pardon an illustration4 ,in 
,christian churches and cathedrals of   
,europe1 there is still a great         
prejudice against the use of pipes1 and 
of gas made from coal1 because of the   
machinery and of the impure emanations4 
,the prejudice is a wholesome one2 for  
we all know that most of the elements   
forming common illuminating gas are     
worthless except to convey the very     
small amount of light-giving material1  
and that these elements in combustion   
vitiate the air and give off deleterious
 products which corrode1 tarnish and    
destroy4 ,now though ,buddhist doctrine 

may have been the light of ,india1 yet  
to reach the ,northern and ,eastern     
nations of ,asia it had1 apparently1 to 
be adulterated for conveyance1 as much  
as is the illuminating gas in our       
cities4 ,from the first1 ,northern      
,buddhism showed a wonderful affinity1  
not only for ,brahministic superstitions
 and speculations1 but for almost       
everything else with which it came in   
contact in countries beyond ,india4     
,instead of combating1 it absorbed4 ,it 
adapted itself to circumstances1 and    
finding certain beliefs prevalent among 
the people1 it imbibed them1 and thus   
gained by accretion until its bulk1 both
 of beliefs and of disciples1 was in the
 inverse ratio of its purity4 ,even     
to-day1 the occult theosophy of ,isis   
,unveiled1 and of the school of writers 
such as ,blavatsky1 ,olcott1 etc41 seems
 to be a perfectly logical product of   
the ,northern ,buddhisms1 and may be    
called one of them2 yet it is simply a  
repetition of what took place centuries 

ago4 ,most of the primitive beliefs and 
superstitions of ,nepal and ,tibet were 
absorbed in the ever hungry and         
devouring system of ,buddhistic         
scholasticism4   ,the ,making of a      
,pantheon4   ,let us glance again at    
this ,nepal ,buddhism4 ,in the tenth    
century we find what at first seems to  
be a growth out of ,polytheism into     
,monotheism1 for a new ,being1 to whom  
the attributes of infinity1             
self-existence and omniscience are      
ascribed1 is invented and named         
,adi-,buddha1 or the primordial ,buddha4
 ,according to the speculations of the  
thinkers1 he had evolved himself out of 
the five ,dhyani-,buddhas by the        
exercise of the five meditations1 while 
each of these had evolved out of itself 
by wisdom and contemplation1 the        
corresponding ,buddhas elect4 ,again1   
each of the latter evolved out of his   
own essence a material world1--our      
present world being the fourth of these1
 that is of ,avaloki4 ,one almost might 

consider that this setting forth of the 
primordial ,buddha was real ,monotheism2
 but on looking more carefully one sees 
that it is as little real ,monotheism as
 was possible in the system of          
,gnosticism4 ,indeed the force of       
evolution could not stop here2 for1     
since even this primordial ,buddha      
rested upon ,ossa of hypothesis piled   
upon ,pelion of hypothesis1 there must  
be other hypotheses yet to come1 and so 
the ,tantra system1 a compound of old   
,brahminism with the magic and          
witchcraft and ,shamanism of ,northern  
,asia burst into view4 ,as this was to  
travel into ,japan and be hailed as     
purest ,buddhism1 let us note how this  
tenth century ,tantra system grew up4   
,to see this clearly1 is to look upon   
the parable of the man with the unclean 
spirit being acted out on a vast scale  
in history4  ,in the sixth century of   
our era1 one ,asanga1 or ,asamga1 wrote 
the ,shastra1 called the ,shastra       
,yoga-chara ,bhumi4#bh ,with great      

dexterity he erected a sort of          
clearing-house for both the corrupt     
,brahminism and corrupt ,buddhism of his
 day1 and exchanging and rearranging the
 gods and devils in both systems1 he    
represented them as worshippers and     
supporters of the ,buddha and           
,avalokitesvara4 ,in such a system1 the 
old primitive ,buddhism of the noble    
eight-fold path of self-conquest and    
pure morals was utterly lost4 ,instead  
of that1 the worshipper gave his whole  
powers to obtaining occult potencies by 
means of magic phrases and magic        
circles4 ,then grew up whole forests of 
monasteries and temples1 with an        
outburst of devilish art representing   
many-headed and many-eyed and           
many-handed idols on the walls1 on      
books1 on the roadside1 with manifold   
charms and phrases the endless          
repetitions of which were supposed to   
have efficacy with the hypothetical     
being who filled the heavens4 ,that was 
the age of idols for ,china as well as  

for ,india2 and the old ,chinese house1 
once empty1 swept and garnished by      
,confucianism1 was now filled with a mob
 of unclean spirits each worse than the 
first4 ,with more courageous logic than 
the more matter-of-fact ,chinese1 the   
,tibetan erected his prayer-mills#bi and
 let the winds of heaven and the flowing
 waters continually multiply his prayers
 and holy syllables4 ,and these         
inventions were duly imported into      
,japan1 and even now are far from being 
absent4#cj  ,passing over for the       
present the history of ,buddhism in     
,china1#ca suffice it to say that the   
,buddhism which entered ,japan from     
,korea in the sixth century1 was not the
 simple atheism touched with morality1  
the bald skepticism or benevolent       
agnosticism of ,gautama1 but a religion 
already over a thousand years old4 ,it  
was the system of the ,northern         
,buddhists4 ,these1 dissatisfied1 or    
unsatisfied1 with absorption into a     
passionless state through self-sacrifice

 and moral discipline1 had evolved a    
philosophy of religion in which were    
gods1 idols and an apparatus of         
conversion utterly unknown to the       
primitive faith4   ,buddhism ,already   
,corrupted when brought to ,japan4      
,this sixth century ,buddhism in ,japan 
was not the army with banners1 which was
 introduced still later with the        
luxuriances of the fully developed      
system1 its paradise wonderfully like   
,mohammed's and its over-populated      
pantheon4 ,it was1 however1 ready with  
the necessary machinery1 both material  
and mental1 to make conquest of a people
 which had not only religious           
aspirations1 but also latent aesthetic  
possibilities of a high order4 ,as in   
its course through ,china this ,northern
 ,buddhism had acted as an all-powerful 
absorbent of local beliefs and          
superstitions1 so in ,japan it was      
destined to make a more remarkable      
record1 and1 not only to absorb local   
ideas but actually to cause the         

indigenous religion to disappear4  ,let 
us inquire who were the people to whom  
,buddhism1 when already possessed of a  
millenium of history1 entered its       
,ultima ,thule in ,eastern ,asia4 ,at   
what stage of mutual growth did         
,buddhism and the ,japanese meet each   
other8  ,instead of the forty millions  
of thoroughly homogeneous people in     
,japan--according to the census of      
,december #ca1 #ahib--;all being loyal  
subjects of one ,emperor1 we must think 
of possibly a million of hunters1       
fishermen and farmers in more or less   
warring clans or tribes4 ,these were    
made up of the various migrations from  
the main land and the drift of humanity 
brought by the ocean currents from the  
south2 ,ainos1 ,koreans1 ,tartars and   
,chinese1 with probably some ,malay and 
,nigrito stock4 ,in the central part of 
,hondo1 the main island1 the ,yamato    
tribe dominated1 its chief being styled 
,sumru-mikoto1 or ,mikado4 ,to the south
 and southwest1 the ,mikado's power was 

only more or less felt1 for the ,yamato 
men had a long struggle in securing     
supremacy4 ,northward and eastward lay  
great stretches of land1 inhabited by   
unsubdued and uncivilized native tribes 
of continental and most probably of     
,korean origin1 and thus more or less   
closely akin to the ,yamato men4 ,still 
northward roamed the ,ainos1 a race     
whose ancestral seats may have been in  
far-off ,dravidian ,india4 ,despite the 
constant conflicts between the ,yamato  
people who had agriculture and the      
beginnings of government1 law and       
literature1 and their less civilized    
neighbors1 the tendency to amalgamation 
was already strong4 ,the problem of the 
statesman1 was to extend the sway of the
 ,mikado over the whole ,archipelago4   
,shint was1 in its formation1 made use  
of as an engine to conquer1 unify and   
civilize all the tribes4 ,in one sense1 
this conquest of men having lower forms 
of faith1 by believers in the ,kami no  
,michi1 or ,way of the ,gods1 was       

analogous to the ,aryan conquest of     
,india and the ,dravidians4 ,however    
this may be1 the energy and valor       
displayed in these early ages formed the
 ideal of ,yamato ,damashii 7,the       
,spirit of unconquerable ,japan71 which 
has so powerfully influenced the modern 
,japanese4 ,we shall see1 also1 how     
grandly ,buddhism also came to be a     
powerful force in the unification of the
 ,japanese people4 ,at first1 the new   
faith would be rejected as an alien     
invader1 stigmatized as a foreign       
religion1 and1 as such1 sure to invoke  
the wrath of the native gods4 ,then     
later1 its superiority to the indigenous
 cult would be seen both by the wise and
 the practically minded1 and it would be
 welcomed and enjoyed4   ,the ,inviting 
,field4   ,never had a new religion a   
more inviting field or one more sure of 
success1 than had ,buddhism on stepping 
from the ,land of ,morning ,dawn to the 
,land of the ,rising ,sun4 ,coming as a 
gorgeous1 dazzling and disciplined array

 of all that could touch the            
imagination1 stimulate the intellect and
 move the heart of the ,japanese1 it was
 irresistible4 ,for the making of a     
nation1 ,shint was as a donkey engine1  
compared to the system of furnaces1     
boilers1 shaft and propeller of a       
ten-thousand-ton steel cruiser1 moved by
 the energies of a million years of     
sunbeam force condensed into coal and   
released again through transmigration by
 fire4  ,all accounts in the vernacular 
,japanese agree1 that their ,butsu-d or 
,buddhism was imported from ,korea4 ,in 
the sixteenth year of ,kitai1 the       
twenty-seventh ,mikado 7of the list made
 centuries after1 and the eleventh after
 the impossible line of the long-lived  
or mythical ,mikados71 ,a4,d4 #ecd1 it  
is said that a man from ,china brought  
with him an image of ,buddha into       
,yamato1 and setting it up in a thatched
 cottage worshipped it4 ,the people     
called it foreign-country god4 ,visitors
 discussed with him the religion of     

,shaka1 as the ,japanese call           
,shakyamuni1 and some little knowledge  
of ,buddhism was gained1 but no notable 
progress was made until ,a4,d4 #eeb1    
which is generally accepted and         
celebrated as the year of the           
introduction of the faith into ,japan4  
,then a king of ,hiaksai in ,korea1 sent
 over to the court and to the ,mikado   
golden images of the ,buddha and of the 
triad of precious ones1 with ,sutras and
 sacred books4 ,these holy relics are   
believed to be still preserved in the   
famous temple of ,zenkji1#cb belonging  
to the temple of the ,tendai ,sect at   
,nagano in ,northern ,japan1 this shrine
 being dedicated to ,amida and his two  
followers ,kwannon 7,avalokitesvara7 and
 ,dai-si-shi 7,mahastanaprapta74 ,this  
group of idols1 as the custodian of the 
shrine will tell you1 was made by ,shaka
 himself out of gold1 found at the base 
of the tree which grows at the centre of
 the universe4 ,after remaining in      
,korea for eleven hundred and twelve    

years1 it was brought to ,japan4 ,mighty
 is the stream of pilgrims which        
continually sets toward the holy place4 
,a common proverb declares that even a  
cow can find her way thither4  ,in      
,a4,d4 #egb and again in #ehd1 new      
images1 sutras and teachers came over   
from another part of ,korea4 ,the       
,mikado called a council to determine   
what should be done with the idols1 to  
the worship of which he was himself     
inclined2 but a majority were against   
the idea of insulting the native gods by
 receiving the presents and thus        
introducing a foreign religion4 ,the    
minister of state1 however1 one ,soga no
 ,inam1 expressed himself in favor of   
,buddhism1 and put the images in his    
country house which he converted into a 
temple4 ,when1 soon after1 the land was 
afflicted with a pestilence1 the        
opponents of the new faith attributed it
 to the wrath of the gods at the        
hospitality given to the new idols4 ,war
 broke out1 fighting took place1 and the

 ,buddhist temple was burned and the    
idols thrown into the river1 near       
,osaka4 ,great portents followed1 and   
the enemies of ,buddhism were1 it is    
said1 burned up by flames descending    
from heaven4  ,the tide then turned in  
favor of the ,indian faith1 and ,soga   
rebuilt his temple4 ,priests and        
missionaries were invited to come over  
from ,korea1 being gladly furnished by  
the allies of ,japan from the state of  
,shinra1 and ,buddhism again flourished 
at the court1 but not yet among the     
people4 ,once more1 fighting broke out2 
and again the temple of the alien gods  
was destroyed1 only to be rebuilt again4
 ,the chief champion of ,buddhism was   
the son of a ,mikado1 best known by his 
posthumous title1 ,shtoku1#cc who all   
his life was a vigorous defender and    
propagator of the new faith4 ,through   
his influence1 or very probably through 
the efforts of the ,korean missionaries1
 the devastating war between the        
,japanese and ,koreans was ended4 ,in   

the peace which followed1 notable       
progress was made through the vigor of  
the missionaries encouraged by the      
regent ,shtoku1 so that at his death in 
the year ,a4,d4 #fba1 there were        
forty-six temples1 and thirteen hundred 
and eighty-five priests1 monks and nuns 
in ,japan4 ,many of the most famous     
temples1 which are now full of wealth   
and renown1 trace their foundations to  
this era of ,shtoku and of his aunt1 the
 ,empress ,suiko 7,a4,d4 #eic-fbh71 who 
were friendly to the new religion4      
,shtoku may be almost called the founder
 of ,japanese ,buddhism4 ,although a    
layman1 he is canonized and stands      
unique in the ,pantheon of ,eastern     
,buddhism1 his image being prominently  
visible in thousands of ,japanese       
temples4  ,legend1 in no country more   
luxurious than in ,japan1 tells us that 
the exotic religion made no progress    
until ,amida1 the boundlessly ,merciful 
,one1 assuming the shape of a concubine 
of the imperial prince who afterward    

became the ,mikado ,yom1 gave birth to  
,shtoku1 who was himself ,kwannon or the
 goddess of mercy in human form2 and    
that when he grew up1 he took to wife an
 incarnation of the ,buddha elect1      
,mahastana-prapta1 or in ,japanese      
,dai-si-shi1 whose idol is honored at   
,zenkji4   ,the ,new ,faith ,becomes    
,popular4   ,then ,buddhism became      
popular1 passing out from the narrow    
circle of the court to be welcomed by   
the people4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fbc1 monks came 
over directly from ,china1 and we find  
mentioned two sects1 the ,sanron and the
 ,jjitsu1 which are no longer extant in 
,japan4 ,in about ,a4,d4 #fej the fame  
of ,yuan ,chang 7,hiouen ,thsang7 the   
,chinese pilgrim to ,india1 or the holy 
land1 reached-,japan2 and his           
illustrious example was enthusiastically
 followed4 ,history now frequently      
repeated itself4 ,the ,japanese monk1   
,dsh1 crossed the seas to ,china to gaze
 upon the face and become the pupil of  
that illustrious ,chinese pilgrim1 who  

had seen ,buddha ,land4 ,later on1 other
 monks crossed to the land of ,sinim1   
until we find that in this and          
succeeding centuries1 hundreds of       
,japanese in their frail junks1 braved  
the dangers of the stormy ocean1 in     
order to study ,sanskrit1 to read the   
old scriptures1 to meet the new lights  
of learning or revelation1 and to become
 versed in the latest fashions of       
religion4 ,we find the pilgrims         
returning and founding new sects or     
sub-sects1 and stimulating by their     
enthusiasm the monks and the home       
missionaries4 ,in the year ,a4,d4 #gjj  
the custom of cremation was introduced4 
,this wrought not only a profound change
 in customs1 but also became the seed of
 a rich crop of superstitions2 since out
 of the cremated bodies of the saints   
came forth the shari or1 in ,sanskrit1  
sarira4 ,these hard substances or       
pellets1 preserved in crystal cabinets1 
are treated as holy gems or relics4     
,thus venerated1 they become the nuclei 

of cycles of fairy lore4  ,in ,a4,d4    
#gaj1 the great monastery at ,nara was  
founded2 and here we must notice or at  
least glance at the great throng of     
civilizing influences that came in with 
,buddhism1 and at the great army of     
artists1 artisans and skilled men and   
women of every sort of trade and craft4 
,we note that with the building of this 
great ,nara monastery came another proof
 of improvement and the added element of
 stability in ,japanese civilization4   
,the ancient dread which the ,japanese  
had1 of living in any place where a     
person had died was passing away4 ,the  
nomad life was being given up4 ,the     
successor of a dead ,mikado was no      
longer compelled to build himself a new 
capital4 ,the traveller in ,japan1      
familiar with the ancient poetry of the 
,many-shu1 finds no fewer than          
fifty-eight sites#cd as the early homes 
of the ,japanese monarchy4 ,once        
occupying the proud position of imperial
 capitals1 they are now for the most    

part mere hamlets1 oftentimes mere      
names1 with no visible indication of    
former human habitation2 while the old  
rivers or streams once gay with barges  
filled with silken-robed lords and      
ladies1 have dried up to mere           
washerwomen's runnels4 ,for the first   
time after the building of this         
,buddhist monastery1 the capital        
remained permanent1 ,nara being the     
imperial residence during seventy-five  
years4 ,then beautiful ,kito was chosen1
 and remained the residence of          
successive generations of emperors until
 #ahfh4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gce1 we read of the 
,kgon sect4 ,two years later a large    
monastery1 with a seven-storied pagoda  
alongside of it1 was ordered to be built
 in every province4 ,these1 with the    
temples and their surroundings1 and with
 the wayside shrines beginning to spring
 up like exotic flowers1 made a striking
 alteration in the landscape of ,japan4 
,the ,buddhist scriptures were          
numerously copied and circulated among  

the learned class1 yet neither now nor  
ever1 except here and there in          
fragments1 were they found among the    
people4 ,for1 although the ,buddhist    
canon has been repeatedly imported1     
copied by the pen and in modern times   
printed1 yet no ,japanese translation   
has ever been made4 ,the methods of     
,buddhism in regard to the circulation  
of the scriptures are those1 not of     
,protestantism but of ,roman            
,catholicism4  ,in the same year1 the   
,mikado called for contributions from   
all the people for the building of a    
colossal image of the ,buddha1 which was
 to be of bronze and gilded4 ,yet1      
fearing that the ,shint gods might be   
offended1 a skilful priest named        
,giyoku1--probably the same man who     
introduced the potter's wheel into      
,japan1--was sent to the shrine of the  
,sun-goddess in ,is to present her with 
a shari or relic of the ,buddha1 and    
find out how she would regard his       
project4 ,after seven days and nights of

 waiting1 the chapel doors flew open and
 the loud-voiced oracle was interpreted 
in a favorable sense4 ,the night        
following the return of the priest1 the 
,mikado dreamed that the sun-goddess    
appeared to him in her own form and said
 ,the sun is ,birushana 7,vairokana74   
,this meant that the chief deity of the 
,japanese proclaimed herself an avatar  
or incarnation of one of the old ,hindu 
gods4#ce ,she also approved the project 
of the image2 and in this same year1    
#gei1 native gold was found in ,japan1  
which sufficed for the gilding of the   
great idol that1 after eleven hundred   
years and many vicissitudes1 still      
stands1 the glory of a multitude of     
pilgrims4  ,in ,a4,d4 #ged a famous     
priest1 who introduced the new ,ritsu   
,sect1 was able to convert the ,mikado  
and obtain four hundred converts in the 
imperial court4 ,thirteen years later1  
another tremendous triumph of ,buddhism 
was scored and a deadly blow at ,shint  
was struck4 ,the ,buddhist priests      

persuaded the ,mikados to abandon their 
ancient title of ,sumeru and adopt that 
of ,tenn 7,heavenly ,king or ,tenshi7   
,son of ,heaven1 after the ,chinese     
fashion4 ,at the same time it was taught
 that the emperor could gain great merit
 and sooner become a ,buddha1 by        
retiring from the active cares of the   
throne and becoming a monk1 with the    
title of ,h-1 or ,cloistered ,emperor4  
,this innovation had far-reaching       
consequences1 profoundly altering the   
status of the ,mikado1 giving sensualism
 on the one hand and priestcraft on the 
other1 their coveted opportunity1       
changing the ruler of the nation from an
 active statesman into a recluse and the
 recluse into a pious monk1 or a        
licentious devotee1 as the case might   
be4 ,it paved the way for the usurpation
 of the government by the unscrupulous  
soldier1 the man on horseback1 who was  
destined to rule ,japan for seven       
hundred years1 while the throne and its 
occupant were in the shadow4 ,one of a  

thousand proofs of the progress of the  
propaganda scheme is seen in the removal
 of the ,shint temple which had stood at
 ,nikk1 and the erection in its place of
 a ,buddhist temple4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hje the
 famous ,tendai1 and in #hjf the        
powerful ,shingon ,sect were introduced4
 ,all was now ready in ,japan for the   
growth not only of one new ,buddhism1   
but of several varieties among the      
,northern ,buddhisms which so arouse the
 astonishment of those who study the    
simple ,pali scriptures that contain the
 story of ,gautama1 and who know only   
the southern phase of the faith1 that is
 to ,asia1 relatively1 what             
,christianity is to ,europe4 ,we say    
relatively1 for while ,buddhism made    
,chinese ,asia gentle in manners and    
kind to animals1 it covered the land    
with temples1 monasteries and images2 on
 the other hand the religion of ,jesus  
filled ,europe not only with churches1  
abbeys1 monasteries and nunneries1 but  
also with hospitals1 orphan asylums1    

lighthouses1 schools and colleges4      
,between the fruits of ,christendom and 
,buddhadom1 let the world judge4        
,survey and ,summary4   ,to sum up3     
,buddhism is the humanitarian's1 and    
also the skeptic's1 solution of the     
problem of the universe4 ,its three     
great distinguishing characteristics are
 atheism1 metempsychosis and absence of 
caste4 ,it was in its origin pure       
democracy4 ,as against despotic         
priesthood and oppressive hierarchy1 it 
was congregational4 ,theoretically it is
 so yet1 though far from being so       
practically4 ,it is certainly sacerdotal
 and aristocratic in organization4 ,as  
in any other system which has so vast a 
hierarchy with so many grades of honor  
and authority1 its theory of democracy  
is now a memory4 ,first preached in a   
land accursed by caste and under        
spiritual and secular oppressions1 it   
acknowledged no caste1 but declared all 
men equally sinful and miserable1 and   
all equally capable of being freed from 

sin and misery through ,buddhahood1 that
 is1 knowledge or enlightenment4#cf     
,the three-fold principle laid down by  
,gautama1 and now in dogma1 literature1 
art and worship1 a triad or formal      
trinity1 is1 ,buddha1 the attainment of 
,buddha-hood1 or perfect enlightenment1 
through meditation and benevolence2     
,karma1 the law of cause and effect2 and
 ,dharma1 discipline or order2 or1 the  
,lord1 the ,law and the ,church4 ,paying
 no attention to questions of cosmogony 
or theogony1 the universe is accepted as
 an ultimate fact4 ,matter is eternal4  
,creation exists but not a ,creator4    
,all is god1 but ,god is left out of    
consideration4 ,the gods are even less  
than ,buddhas4 ,humanity is glorified   
and the stress of all teaching is upon  
this life4 ,in a word3 a sinless life1  
attainable by man1 through his own      
exertions in this world1 above all the  
powers or beings of the universe1 is the
 essence of original ,buddhism4         
,original ,nirvana meant death which    

ends all1 extinction of existence4      
,gautama's immediate purpose was to     
emancipate himself and his followers    
from the fetters of ,brahminism4 ,he    
tried to leave the world of ,hindu      
philosophy behind him and to escape from
 it4  ,did he succeed8 ,partially4      
,buddha hoped also to rise above the    
superstitions of the common people1 but 
in this he was again only partially     
successful4#cg ,the clouds returned     
after the rain4 ,the old dead gods of   
,brahminism came back under new names   
and forms4 ,the malarial exhalations of 
corrupt ,brahmanistic philosophy1       
continually poisoned the atmosphere     
which ,buddha's disciples breathed4     
,still worse1 as his religion           
transmigrated into other lands1 it      
became itself a history of              
transformation1 until to-day no religion
 on earth seems to be such a            
kaleidoscopic phantasmagoria4           
,polytheism is rampant over the greater 
part of the ,buddhist world to-day4 ,in 

the larger portion of ,chinese ,asia1   
pantheism dominates the mind4 ,in modern
 ,babism1--a mixture of ,mohammedanism1 
,christianity and ,buddhism1--there are 
streaks of dualism4 ,if ,monotheism has 
ever dawned on the ,buddhist world1 it  
has been in fitful pulses as in auroral 
flashes1 soon to leave darkness darker4 
,for us is this lesson3 ,buddhism1      
brought face to face with the problem of
 the world's evil and possible          
improvement1 evades it2 begs the whole  
question at the outset2 prays3 ,deliver 
us from existence4 ,save us from life   
and give us as little as possible of it4
 ,christianity faces the problem and    
flinches not2 orders advance all along  
the line of endeavor and prays3 ,deliver
 us from evil2 and is ever of good      
cheer1 because ,captain and leader says3
 ,i have overcome the world4 ,go1 win it
 for me4 ,i have come that they might   
have life1 and that they might have it  
more abundantly4     ,,chapter ,,vii -  
,,riy,,bu1 ,,or ,,mixed ,,buddhism      

,all things are nothing but mind4       
,the doctrines of ,buddhism have no     
fixed forms4      ,there is nothing in  
things themselves that enables us to    
distinguish in them either good or evil1
 right or wrong4 ,it is     but man's   
fancy that weighs their merits and      
causes him to     choose one and reject 
the other4      ,non-individuality is   
the general principle of                
,buddhism4--,outlines of the ,mahyna4   
,it 7,shint7 was smothered before       
reaching maturity1 but     ,buddhism and
 ,confucianism had to disguise and      
change in order to     enter ,japan4    
,life has a limited span and naught may 
avail to extend it4 ,this     is        
manifested by the impermanence of human 
beings4 ,but yet     whenever necessary 
,i will hereafter make my appearance    
from time     to time as a god1 a sage1 
or a ,buddha4--,last words of ,shaka the
     ,buddha1 in ,japanese biography4   
,it is our opinion that ,buddhism cannot
 long hold its ground1     and that     

,christianity must finally prevail      
throughout all     ,japan4444 ,now1 when
 ,buddhism and ,christianity are in     
conflict     for the ascendency1 this   
indifference of the ,japanese people to 
the difference of sects is a great      
disadvantage to ,buddhism4     ,that    
they should worship ,jesus ,christ with 
the same mind as they     do ,inari or  
,mijin is not at all inconsistent in    
their     estimation or contrary to     
their custom4--,fukuzawa1 of     ,tki4  
,how long halt ye between two opinions8 
,if the ,lord be ,god1     follow him2  
but if ,baal1 then follow him4--,elijah4
      ,do men gather grapes of thorns or
 figs of thistles8--,jesus4      ,doth a
 fountain send forth at the same place  
sweet water and     bitter8--,james4    
,what concord hath ,christ with         
,belial8--,paul4   ,,chapter ,,vii -    
,,riy,,bu1 ,,or ,,mixed ,,buddhism      
,syncretism in ,religion4   ,two        
centuries and a half of ,buddhism in    
,japan1 showed the leaders and teachers 

of the ,indian faith that complete      
victory over the whole nation was yet   
very far off4 ,the court had indeed been
 invaded and won4 ,even the ,mikado1 the
 ecclesiastical head of ,shint1 and the 
incarnation and vicar of the heavenly   
gods1 had not only embraced ,buddhism1  
but in many instances had shorn the hair
 and taken the vows of the monk4 ,yet   
the people clung tenaciously to their   
old traditions1 customs and worship2 for
 their gods were like themselves and    
indeed were of themselves1 since ,shint 
is only a transfiguration of ,japanese  
life4 ,in the ,japanese of those days we
 can trace the same traits which we     
behold in the modern son of ,nippon1    
especially his intense patriotism and   
his warlike tendencies4 ,to convert     
these people to the peaceful dogmas of  
,siddartha and to make them good        
,buddhists1 something more than teaching
 and ritual was necessary4 ,it was      
indispensable that there should be      
complete substitution1 all along the    

ruts and paths of national habit1 and   
especially that the names of the gods   
and the festivals should be ,buddhaized4
  ,popular customs are nearly immortal  
and ineradicable4 ,though wars may come1
 dynasties rise and fall1 and           
convulsions in nature take place1 yet   
the people's manners and amusements are 
very slow in changing4 ,if1 in the      
history of ,christianity1 the ,european 
missionaries found it necessary in order
 to make conquest of our pagan          
forefathers1 to baptize and re-name     
without radically changing old notions  
and habits1 so did it seem equally      
indispensable that in ,japan there      
should be some system of reconciliation 
of the old and the new1 some theological
 revolution1 which should either fulfil1
 absorb1 or destroy ,shint4  ,in the    
histories of religions in ,western      
,asia1 ,northern ,africa and ,europe1 we
 are familiar with efforts at           
syncretism4 ,we have seen how ,philo    
attempted to unite ,hebrew righteousness

 and ,greek beauty1 and to harmonize    
,moses and ,plato4 ,we know of          
,euhemerus1 who thought he read in the  
old mythologies not only the outlines of
 real history1 but the hieroglyphics of 
legend and tradition1 truth and         
revelation4#a ,students of ,church      
history are well aware that this        
principle of interpretation was followed
 only too generously by ,tertullian1    
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,lactantius1   
,chrysostom and others of the ,church   
,fathers4 ,indeed1 it would be hard to  
find in any of the great religions of   
the world an utter absence of           
syncretism1 or the union of apparently  
hostile religious ideas4 ,in the        
,thousand and ,one ,nights1 we have an  
example in popular literature4 ,we see  
that the ancient men of ,india1 ,persia 
and pre-,mohammedan ,arabia now act and 
talk as orthodox ,mussulmans4 ,in       
matters pertaining to art and furniture1
 the statue of ,jupiter in ,rome serves 
for ,st4 ,peter1 and in ,japan that of  

the ,virgin and child for the ,buddha   
and his mother4#b  ,what1 however1      
chiefly concerns the critic and student 
of religions is to inquire how far the  
process has been natural1 and the       
efforts of those who have brought about 
the union have been honest1 and their   
motives pure4 ,the ,bible pages bear    
witness1 that ,israelites too often     
tried to make the same fountain give    
forth sweet waters and bitter1 and to   
grow thistles and grapes on the same    
stem1 by uniting the cults of ,jehovah  
and the ,baalim4 ,king ,solomon's       
enterprises in the same direction are   
more creditable to him as a politician  
than as a worshipper4#c ,in the history 
of ,christianity one cannot commend the 
efforts either of the ,gnostics or the  
neo-,platonists1 nor always justify the 
medieval missionaries in their methods4 
,nor can we accurately describe as      
successful the ingenuity of ,vossius1   
the ,dutch theologian1 who1 following   
the scheme of ,euhemerus1 discovered the

 ,old ,testament patriarchs in the      
disguise of the gods of ,paganism4 ,nor1
 even though ,germany be the land of    
learning1 can the clear-headed scholar  
agree with some of her rationalists1 who
 are often busy in the same field of    
industry1 setting forth wild criticism  
as science4   ,the ,kami and the        
,buddhas4   ,in ,japan1 to solve the    
problem of reconciliation between the   
ancient traditions of the divine        
ancestors and the dogmas of the ,indian 
cult1 it was necessary that some master 
spirit1 profoundly learned in the two   
,ways1 of the ,kami and of the ,buddhas1
 should be bold1 and also as it seems1  
crafty and unscrupulous4 ,to convert a  
line of theocratic emperors1 whose      
authority was derived from their alleged
 divine origin and sacerdotal character1
 into patrons and propagandists of      
,buddhism1 and to transform indigenous  
,shint gods into ,buddhas elect1 or     
,buddhas to come1 or ,buddhas in a      
former state of existence1 were tasks   

that might appall the most prodigious   
intellect1 and even strain the          
capacities of what one might imagine to 
be the universal religion for all       
mankind4  ,yet from such a task         
continental ,buddhism had not shrunk    
before and did not shrink then1 nor     
indeed from it do the insular ,japanese 
sects shrink now4 ,indeed1 ,buddhism is 
quite ready to adopt1 absorb and swallow
 up ,japanese ,christianity4 ,with all  
encompassing tentacles1 and with        
colossal powers of digestion and        
assimilation1 ,northern ,buddhism had   
drawn into itself a large part of the   
,brahmanism out of which it originally  
sprang1#d reversing the old myth of     
,chronos by swallowing its parents4 ,it 
had gathered in1 pretty much all that   
was in the heavens above and the earth  
beneath and the waters that were under  
the earth1 in ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,china1   
and ,korea4 ,thoroughly exercised and   
disciplined1 it was ready to devour and 
digest all that the imagination of      

,japan had conceived4  ,we must remember
 that1 at the opening of the ninth      
century1 the ,buddhism rampant in ,china
 and indeed throughout ,chinese ,asia   
was the ,tantra system of ,yoga-chara4#e
 ,this compound of polytheism and       
pantheism1 with its sensuous paradise1  
its goddess of mercy and its pantheon of
 every sort of worshipable beings1 was  
also equipped with a system of          
philosophy by which ,buddhism could be  
adapted to almost every yearning of     
human nature in its lowest or its       
highest form1 and by which things       
apparently contradictory could be       
reconciled4 ,furthermore--and this is   
not the least important thing to        
consider when the work to be done is for
 the ordinary man as an individual and  
for the common people in the mass--it   
had also a tremendous apparatus for     
touching the imagination and captivating
 the fancy of the unthinking and the    
uneducated4  ,for example1 consider the 
equipment of the ,buddhist priests of   

the ninth century in the matter of art  
alone4 ,shint knows next to nothing of  
art1#f and indeed one might almost say  
that it knows little of civilization4   
,it is like ultra-,puritanic            
,protestantism and ,iconoclasm4         
,buddhism1 on the contrary1 is the      
mother of art1 and art is her ever-busy 
child and handmaid4 ,the temples of the 
,kami were bald and bare4 ,the ,kojiki  
told nothing of life hereafter1 and kept
 silence on a hundred points at which   
human curiosity is sure to be active1   
and at which the ,yoga system was       
voluble4 ,buddhism came with a set of   
visible symbols which should attract the
 eye and fire the imagination1 and      
within ethical limits1 the passions     
also4 ,it was a mixed and variegated    
system1--a resultant of many forces4#g  
,it came with the thought of ,india1 the
 art-influence of ,greece1 the          
philosophy of ,persia1 the speculations 
of the ,gnostics and1 in all            
probability1 with ideas borrowed        

indirectly from ,nestorian or other     
forms of ,christianity2 and thus        
furnished1 it entered ,japan4   ,the    
,mission of ,art4   ,thus far the       
insular kingdom had known only the      
monochrome sketches of the ,chinese     
painters1 which could have a meaning for
 the educated few alone4 ,the composite 
,tantra dogmas fed the fancy and        
stimulated the imagination1 filling them
 with pictures of life1 past1 present   
and future4 ,the sketch was replaced by 
the illumination4 ,whole schools of     
artists1 imported from ,china and       
,korea1 multiplied their works and      
attracted the untrained senses of the   
people1 by filling the temples with a   
blaze of glory4 ,this result was sought 
by a gorgeous but studied play of gold  
and color1 and a lavish richness of     
mounting and accessories1 that appear   
strangely at variance with the begging  
bowl and patched garments of primitive  
,buddhism4#h ,the change in the         
,japanese temple was as though the gray 

clouds had been kissed by the sun and   
made to laugh rainbows4 ,the country of 
the ,fertile ,plain of ,sweet ,flags was
 transformed4 ,it suddenly became the   
land wherein gods grew not singly but in
 whole forests4 ,like the ,shulamite1   
when introduced among the jewelled      
ladies of ,solomon's harem1 so stood the
 boor amid the sheen and gold of the new
 temples4      ,gold was the one thing  
essential to the ,buddhist altar-piece1 
and sometimes1 when applied on a black  
ground1 was the only     material used4 
,in all cases it was employed with an   
unsparing     hand4 ,it appeared in     
uniform masses1 as in the body of the   
,buddha or in the golden lakes of the   
,western ,paradise2 in minute           
diapers upon brocades and clothing1 in  
circlets and undulating     rays1 to    
form the glory surrounding the head of  
,amitaba2 in     raised bosses and rings
 upon the armlets or necklets of the    
,bodhisattvas and ,devas1 and in a      
hundred other manners4 ,the     pigments

 chosen to harmonize with this display  
were necessarily     body colors of the 
most pronounced lines1 and were untoned 
by     any trace of chiaroscuro4 ,such  
materials as these would surely     try 
the average artist1 but the ,oriental   
painter knew how to     dispose them    
without risk of crudity or gaudiness1   
and the     precious metal1 however     
lavishly applied1 was distributed over  
the picture with a judgment that would  
make it difficult to     alter or remove
 any part without detriment to the      
beauty of the     work4#i  ,in our day1 
,japanese art has won its own place in  
the world's temple of beauty4 ,even     
those familiar with the master-pieces of
 ,europe do not hesitate to award to the
 artists of ,nippon a meed of praise    
which1 within certain limits1 is justly 
applied to them equally with the masters
 of the ,italian1 the ,dutch1 the       
,flemish1 or the ,french schools4 ,it   
serves our purpose simply to point out  
that art was a powerful factor in the   

religious conquest of the ,japanese for 
the new doctrines of the ,yoga system1  
which in ,japan is called ,riybu1 or    
,mixed ,buddhism4  ,we say ,mixed       
,buddhism rather than ,riybu ,shint1 for
 ,shint was less corrupted than         
swallowed up1 while ,buddhism suffered  
one more degree of mixture and added one
 more chapter of decay4 ,it increased in
 its visible body1 while in its mind it 
became less and less the religion of    
,buddha and more and more a thing with  
the old ,shint heart still in it1 making
 a strange growth in the eyes of the    
continental believers4 ,to the ,northern
 and ,southern was now added an ,eastern
 or ,japanese ,buddhism4  ,who was the  
wonder-worker that annexed the ,land of 
the ,gods to ,buddhadom and re-read the 
,kojiki as a sutra1 and all ,japanese   
history and traditions as only a chapter
 of the incarnations of ,buddha8   ,kb  
the ,wonder ,worker4   ,the ,philo and  
,euhemerus of ,japan was the priest     
,kukai1 who was born in the province of 

,sanuki1 in the year #ggd4 ,he is better
 known by his posthumous title ,kb      
,daishi1 or the ,great ,teacher who     
promulgates the ,law4 ,by this name we  
shall call him4 ,about his birth1 life  
and death1 have multiplied the usual    
swaddling bands of ,japanese legend and 
tradition1#aj and to his tomb at the    
temple on ,mount ,k-ya1 the ,campo      
,santo of ,japanese ,buddhism1 still    
gather innumerable pilgrims4 ,the hall  
of ten thousand lamps1 each flame       
emblematic of the ,wisdom that saves1 is
 not1 indeed1 in these days lighted     
annually as of old2 but the vulgar yet  
believe that the great master still     
lives in his mausoleum1 in a state of   
profoundly silent meditation4 ,into the 
hall of bones near by1 covering a deep  
pit1 the teeth and ,adam's apple of the 
cremated bodies of believers are thrown 
by their relatives1 though the pit is   
cleared out every three years4 ,the     
devotees believe that by thus disposing 
of the teeth and ,adam's apple1 they    

obtain the same spiritual privileges as 
if they were actually entombed there1   
that is1 of being born again into the   
heaven of the ,bodhisattva or the ,pure 
,land of ,absolute ,bliss1 by virtue of 
the mystic formulas repeated by the     
great master in his lifetime4  ,let us  
sketch the life of ,kb1  ,first named   
,toto-mono1 or ,treasure1 by his        
parents1 who sent him to ,kit to be     
educated for the priesthood1 the youth  
spent four years in the study of the    
,chinese classics4 ,dissatisfied with   
the teachings of ,confucius1 he became a
 disciple of a famous ,buddhist priest1 
named ,iwabuchi 7,rock-edge or throne74 
,soon taking upon himself the vows of   
the monk1 he was first named ,kukai1    
meaning space and sea1 or heaven and    
earth4#aa ,he overcame the dragons that 
assaulted him1 by prayers1 by spitting  
at them the rays of the evening star    
which had flown from heaven into his    
mouth and by repeating the mystic       
formulas called ,dharani4#ab ,annoyed by

 hobgoblins with whom he was obliged to 
converse1 he got rid of them by         
surrounding himself with a consecrated  
imaginary enclosure into which they were
 unable to enter against his will4  ,we 
mention these legends only to call the  
attention to the fact that they are but 
copies of those already accepted in     
,china at that time1 and are the logical
 and natural fruit of the ,tantra school
 at which we have glanced4 ,in #hjd1 ,kb
 was appointed to visit the ,middle     
,kingdom as a government student4 ,by   
means of his clever pen and calligraphic
 skill he won his way into the ,chinese 
capital4 ,he became the favored disciple
 of a priest who taught him the mystic  
doctrines of the ,yoga4 ,having acquired
 the whole of the system1 and equipped  
himself with a large library of         
,buddhist doctrinal works and still more
 with every sort of ecclesiastical      
furniture and religious goods1 he       
returned to ,japan4  ,multitudes of     
wonders are reported about ,kb1 all of  

which show the growth of the ,tantra    
school4 ,it is certain that his         
erudition was immense1 and that he was  
probably the most learned man of ,japan 
in that age1 and possibly of any other  
age4 ,besides being a ,japanese ,ezra in
 multiplying writings1 he is credited   
with the invention of the hira-gana1 or 
running script1 and if correctly so1 he 
deserves on this account alone an       
immortal honor equal to that of ,cadmus 
or ,sequoia4 ,the kana#ac is a syllabary
 of forty-seven letters1 which by       
diacritical marks1 may be increased to  
seventy4 ,the kata-kana is the square or
 print form1 the hira-kana is the round 
or grass character for writing4 ,though 
not as valuable as a true phonetic      
alphabet1 such as the ,koreans and the  
,cherokees possess1 the i-ro-ha1 or kana
 script1 even though a syllabary and not
 an alphabet1 was a wonderful aid to    
popular writing and instruction4        
,evidently the idea of the i-ro-ha1 or  
,japanese ,,abc1 was derived from the   

,sanskrit alphabet1 or1 what some modern
 ,anglo-,indian has called the          
,deva-,nagari or the god-alphabet4      
,there is no evidence1 however1 to show 
that ,kb did more than arrange in order 
forty-seven of the easiest ,chinese     
signs then used1 in such a manner that  
they conveyed in a few lines of doggerel
 the sense of a passage from a sutra in 
which the mortality of man and the      
emptiness of all things are taught1 and 
the doctrine of ,nirvana is             
suggested4#ad ,hokusai1 the artist1 in a
 sketch which embodies the popular idea 
of this bonze's immense industry1       
represents him copying the shastras and 
sutras4 ,kb is on a seat before a large 
upright sheet of paper4 ,he holds a     
brush-pen in his mouth1 and one in each 
of his hands and feet1 all moving at    
once4#ae ,favorite portions of the      
,buddhist scriptures were indeed so     
rapidly multiplied in ,japan in the     
ninth century1 as to suggest the idea1  
that1 even in this early age1 block     

printing had been imported from ,china1 
whence also afterward1 in all           
probability1 it was exported into       
,europe before the days of ,gutenberg   
and ,coster4#af ,the popular            
imagination1 however1 was more easily   
moved on seeing five brushes kept at    
work and all at once by the muscles in  
the fingers1 toes and mouth of one man4 
,yet1 had his life lasted six hundred   
years instead of sixty1 he could hardly 
have graven all the images1 scaled all  
the mountain peaks1 confounded all the  
sceptics1 wrought all the miracles and  
performed all the other feats with which
 he is popularly credited4#ag   ,kb     
,irenicon4   ,kb indeed was both the    
,philo and ,euhemerus of ,japan1 plus a 
large amount of priestly cunning and    
what his enemies insist was dishonesty  
and forgery4 ,soon after his return from
 ,china1 he went to the temples of      
,is1#ah the most holy place of          
,shint4#ai ,taking a reverent attitude  
before the chief shrine1 that of ,toko  

,uk ,bim no ,kami or                    
,abundant-,food-,lady-,god1 or the      
deified ,earth as the producer of food  
and the upholder of all things upon its 
surface1 the suppliant waited patiently 
while fasting and praying4  ,in this1   
,kb did but follow out the ordinary     
,shint plan for securing god-possession 
and obtaining revelation2 that is1 by   
starving both the stomach and the       
brain4#bj ,after a week's waiting he    
obtained the vision4 ,the               
,food-possessing ,goddess revealed to   
him the yoke 7or ,yoga7 by which he     
could harness the native and the        
imported gods to the chariot of         
victorious ,buddhism4 ,she manifested   
herself to him and delivered the        
revelation on which his system is       
founded1 and which1 briefly stated1 is  
as follows3  ,all the ,shint deities are
 avatars or incarnations of ,buddha4    
,they were manifestations to the        
,japanese1 before ,gautama had become   
the enlightened one1 or the jewel in the

 lotus1 and before the holy wheel of the
 law or the sacred shastras and sutras  
had reached the island empire4 ,further 
more1 provision was made for the future 
gods and deified holy ones1 who were to 
proceed from the loins of the ,mikado1  
or other ,japanese fathers1 according to
 the saying of ,buddha which is thus    
recorded in a ,japanese popular work3   
,life has a limited span1 and naught may
 avail to extend it4     ,this is       
manifested by the impermanence of human 
beings1 but yet1     whenever necessary1
 ,i will hereafter make my appearance   
from     time to time as a god 7,kami71 
a sage 7,confucian teacher71 or a       
,buddha 7,hotok74#ba  ,in a word1 the   
,shint goddess talked as orthodox       
7,yoga7 ,buddhism as the ancient        
characters of the ,indian1 ,persian and 
pre-,islam-,arabic stories in the       
,arabian ,nights now talk the purest    
,mohammedanism4#bb ,according to the    
words put into ,gautama's mouth at the  
time of his death1 the ,buddha was      

already to reappear in the particular   
form and in all the forms1 acceptable to
 ,shintists1 ,confucianists1 or         
,buddhists of whatever sect4            
,descending from the shrine of vision   
and revelation1 with a complete scheme  
of reconciliation1 with correlated      
catalogues of ,shint and ,buddhist gods1
 with liturgies1 with lists of old      
popular festivals newly named1 with the 
apparatus of art to captivate the       
senses1 ,kb forthwith baptized each     
native ,shint deity with a new          
,chinese-,buddhistic name4 ,for every   
,shint festival he arranged a           
corresponding ,buddhist's saints' day or
 gala time4 ,then1 training up a band of
 disciples1 he sent them forth          
proclaiming the new irenicon4   ,the    
,hindu ,yoga ,becomes ,japanese ,riybu4 
,it was just the time for this brilliant
 and able ecclesiastic to succeed4 ,the 
power and personal influence of the     
,mikado were weakening1 the court       
swarmed with monks1 the rising military 

classes were already safely under the   
control of the shavelings1 and the pen  
of learning had everywhere proved itself
 mightier than the sword and muscle4    
,kb's particular dialectic weapons were 
those of the ,yoga-chara1 or in         
,japanese1 the ,shingon ,shu1 or ,sect  
of the ,true ,word4#bc ,he1 like his    
,chinese master1 taught that we can     
attain the state of the ,enlightened or 
,buddha1 while in the present physical  
body which was born of our parents4     
,this branch of ,buddhism is said to    
have been founded in ,india about ,a4,d4
 #bjj1 by a saint who made the discovery
 of an iron pagoda inhabited by the holy
 one1 ,vagrasattva1 who communicated the
 exact doctrine to those who have handed
 it down through the ,hindoo and        
,chinese patriarchs4 ,the books or      
scriptures of this sect are in three    
sutras2 yet the essential point in them 
is the ,mandala or the circle of the    
,two ,parts1 or in ,japanese ,riybu4    
,introduced into ,china1 ,a4,d4 #gbj1 it

 is known as the ,yoga-chara school4    
,kb finding a ,chinese worm1 made a     
,japanese dragon1 able to swallow a     
national religion4 ,in the act of       
deglutition and the long process of the 
digestion of ,shint1 ,japanese ,buddhism
 became something different from every  
other form of the faith in ,asia4 ,noted
 above all previous developments of     
,buddhism for its pantheistic           
tendencies1 the ,shingon sect could     
recognize in any ,shint god1 demi-god1  
hero1 or being1 the avatar in a previous
 stage of existence of some ,buddhist   
being of corresponding grade4  ,for     
example1#bd ,amatras or                 
,ten-,sh-,dai-,jin1 the sun-goddess1    
becomes ,dai ,nichi ,nirai or ,amida1   
whose colossal effigies stand in the    
bronze images ,dai ,butsu at ,nara1     
,kito and ,kamakura4 ,ojin1 the god of  
war1 became ,hachiman ,dai ,bosatsu1 or 
the great ,bodhisattva of the ,eight    
,banners4 ,adopted as their patron by   
the fighting ,genji or ,minamoto        

warriors of medival times1 the          
,buddhists could not well afford to have
 this popular deity outside their       
pantheon4  ,for each of the thirty days 
of the month1 a ,bodhisattva1 or in     
,japanese pronunciation ,bosatsu1 was   
appointed4 ,each of these ,bodhisattvas 
became a ,dai ,mi ,jin or ,great        
,enlightened ,spirit1 and was           
represented as an avatar in ,japan of   
,buddha in the previous ages1 when the  
,japanese were not yet prepared to      
receive the holy law of ,buddhism4      
,where there were not enough ,dai ,mi   
,jin already existing in native         
traditions to fill out the number       
required by the new scheme1 new titles  
were invented4 ,one of these was        
,ten-jin1 ,heavenly being or spirit4    
,the famous statesman and scholar of the
 tenth century1 ,sugawara ,michizan1 was
 posthumously named ,tenjin1 and is even
 to this day worshipped by many children
 of ,japan as he was formerly for a     
thousand years by nearly all of them1 as

 the divine patron of letters4 ,kompira1
 ,benten and other popular deities1     
often considered as properly belonging  
to ,shint1 are evidently the offspring  
of ,buddhist priestly ingenuity4#be ,out
 of the eight millions or so of native  
gods1 several hundred were catalogued   
under the general term ,gon-gen1 or     
temporary manifestations of ,buddha4 ,in
 this list are to be found not only the 
heroes of local tradition1 but even     
deified forces of nature1 such as wind  
and fire4 ,the custom of making gods of 
great men after their death1 thus begun 
on a large scale by ,kb1 has gone on for
 centuries4 ,iyyas1 the political       
unifier of ,japan1 shines as a star of  
the first magnitude in the heavens of   
the ,riybu system1 under the mime of    
,t-sh-g1 or ,great ,light of the ,east4 
,the common people speak of him as      
,gon-gen ,sama1 the latter word being an
 honorary form of address for all beings
 from a baby to a ,bosatsu4  ,in this   
way1 ,kb arranged a sort of             

clearing-house or joint-stock company in
 which the ,bodhisattvas1 kami and other
 miscellaneous beings1 in either the    
native or foreign religion1 were        
mutually interchangeable4 ,in a large   
sense1 this feat of priestly dexterity  
was but the repetition in history1 of   
that of ,asanga with the ,brahmanism and
 ,buddhism of ,india three centuries    
before4 ,it was this ,asanga who wrote  
the ,yoga-chara ,bhumi4 ,the succession 
of syncretists in ,india1 ,china and    
,japan is ,asanga1 ,hiuki and ,kb4      
,the ,happy ,family of ,riybu4          
,nevertheless this attempt at making a  
happy family and ploughing with an ox   
and ass in the same yoke1 has not been  
an unqualified success4 ,it will        
sometimes happen that one god escapes   
the classification made by the          
,buddhists and slips into the fold of   
,shint1 or vice versa2 while again the  
label-makers and pasters--as numerous in
 scholastic ,buddhism as in sectarian   
,christendom--have hard work to make the

 labels stick4 ,a popular ,gon-gen or   
,dai-,mi-jin1 whose name and renown has 
for centuries attracted crowds of       
pilgrims1 and yielded fat revenues as   
regularly as the autumn harvests1 is not
 readily surrendered by the old         
,buddhist proprietors1 however cleverly 
or craftily the bonzes may yield outward
 conformity to governmental edicts4 ,on 
the other hand1 the efforts1 both       
archaeological and practical1 which have
 been made in recent years by fiercely  
zealous ,shintists1 savor of the        
smartness of ,new ,japan more than they 
suggest either sincerity or edification4
 ,it often requires the finest tact on  
the part of both the strenuous          
,buddhists and the stalwart purists of  
,shint1 to extricate the various gods   
out of the mixture and mess of ,riybu   
,shint1 and to keep them from jostling  
each other4  ,this reclaiming and       
kidnapping of gods and transferring them
 from one camp to another1 has been     
especially active since #ahgj1 when1    

under government auspices1 the ,riybu   
temples were purged of all ,buddhist    
idols1 furniture and influences4 ,the   
term ,dai ,mi ,jin1 or ,great           
,illustrious ,spirit1 is no longer      
officially permitted to be used of the  
old kami or gods of ,shint1 who were    
known to have existed before the days of
 ,kb4 ,in some cases these gods have    
lost much of the esteem in which they   
were held for centuries4 ,especially is 
this true of the infamous rebel of the  
tenth century1 ,masakado4#bf ,on the    
entrance into ,yedo of the ,imperial    
army1 in #ahfh1 his idol was torn from  
its shrine and hacked to pieces by the  
patriots4 ,his place as a deity 7,kanda 
,dai ,mi ,jin1 or ,great ,illustrious   
,spirit of ,kanda7 was taken by another 
deified being1 a brother to the         
aboriginal earth-god who1 in the ages of
 the ,kami1 resigned his throne in favor
 of the ,mikado's ancestors when they   
descended from ,heaven4 ,the apotheosis 
of the rebel ,masakado had been resorted

 to by the ,buddhist canonizers because 
the unquiet spirit of the dead man      
troubled the people4 ,this method of    
laying a ghost by making a god of him1  
was for centuries a favorite one in     
,japanese ,buddhism4 ,indeed1 a large   
part of the practical and parochial     
duties of the bonzes consists in        
quieting the restless spirits of the    
departed4  ,all ,japanese popular       
religion of the past has been intensely 
local and patriotic4 ,the ancient idea  
that ,nippon was the first country      
created and the centre of the world1 has
 persisted through the ages1 modifying  
every imported religion4 ,hence the     
noticeable fact in ,japanese ,buddhism1 
of the comparative degradation of the   
,hindu deities and the exaltation of    
those which were native to the soil4    
,the normal ,japanese1 be he priest or  
lay brother1 theologian or statesman1 is
 nothing if not patriotic4 ,even the    
,chinese gods and goddesses which1      
clothed in ,indian drapery and still    

preserving their ,aryan features1 were  
imported to ,japan1 could not hold their
 own in competition with the popularity 
of the indigenous inhabitants of the    
,japanese pantheon4 ,the normal         
,japanese eye does not see the ideals of
 beauty in the human face and form in   
common with the ,aryan vision4 ,benten  
or ,knanon1 with the features and       
drapery of the homelike beauties of     
,yamato or ,adzuma1 have ever been more 
lovely to the admiring eye of the       
,japanese sailor and farmer1 than the   
,aryan features of the idols imported   
from ,india4 ,so also1 the worshipper to
 whom the lovely scenery of ,japan was  
fresh from the hands of the kami who    
were so much like himself1 turned       
naturally in preference1 to the gods    
many of his own land4  ,succeeding      
centuries only made it worse for the    
imported devas or gods1 while the kami1 
or the gods sprung from the soil created
 by ,izanami and ,izanagi steadily rose 
in honor4   ,degradation of the ,foreign

 ,deities4   ,for example1 the ,indian  
saint ,dharma is reputed to have come to
 the ,dragon-fly ,country long before   
the advent of ,buddhism1 but the people 
were not ready for him or his teachings1
 and therefore he returned to ,india4   
,so at least declares the book entitled 
,san ,kai ,ri#bg 7,mountain1 ,sea and   
,earth71 which is a re-reading and      
explanation of ,japanese mythology and  
tradition as recorded in the ,kojiki1 by
 a ,kit priest of the ,shin ,shu ,sect4 
,of this ,dharma1 it is said1 that he   
outdid the ,roman ,regulus who suffered 
involuntary loss of his eyelids at the  
hands of the ,carthaginians4 ,dharma cut
 off his own eyelids1 because he could  
not keep awake4#bh ,throwing the        
offending flesh upon the ground1 he saw 
the tea-plant arise to help holy men to 
keep vigil4 ,daruma1 as the ,japanese   
spell his name1 has a temple in central 
,japan4 ,it is related that when        
,shtoku1 the first patron of ,buddhism1 
was one day walking abroad he found a   

poor man dying of hunger1 who refused to
 answer any questions or give his name4 
,shtoku ordered food to be given him1   
and wrapped his own mantle round him4   
,next day the beggar died1 and the      
prince charitably had him buried on the 
spot4 ,shortly afterward it was observed
 that the mantle was lying neatly folded
 up1 on the tomb1 which on examination  
proved to be empty4 ,the supposed dying 
beggar was no other than the ,indian    
,saint ,dharma1 and a pagoda was built  
over the grave1 in which images of the  
priest and saint were enshrined4#bi     
,yet1 alas1 to-day ,daruma the ,hindoo  
and foreigner1 despite his avatar1 his  
humility1 his vigils and his            
self-mutilation1 has been degraded to be
 the shop-sign of the tobacconists4     
,besides being ruthlessly caricatured1  
he is usually pictured with a scowl1 his
 lidless eyes as wide open as those upon
 a ,chinese junk-prow or an ,egyptian   
coffin-lid4 ,often even1 he has a pipe  
in his mouth--a comical anachronism1    

suggestive to the smoker of the dark    
ages that knew no tobacco1 before       
nicotine made the whole world of savage 
and of civilized kin4 ,legless dolls and
 snow-men are named after this          
foreigner1 whose name is associated     
almost entirely with what is ludicrous4 
,on ,kb's expounding his scheme to the  
,mikado1 the emperor was so pleased with
 his servant's ingenuity1 that he gave  
it the name of ,riybu#cj ,shint2 that   
is1 the two-fold divine doctrine1 double
 way of the gods1 or amalgamated        
theology4 ,henceforth the ,japanese     
could enter ,nirvana or ,paradise       
through a two-leaved gate4 ,as for the  
people1 they also were pleased1 as they 
usually are when change or reform does  
not mean abolition of the old festivals1
 or of the washings1 sousings1 and fun  
at the tombs of their ancestors in the  
graveyards1 or the merry-makings1 or the
 pilgrimages1#ca which are usually only 
other names for social recreation1 and  
often for sensual debauch4 ,the ,yoga   

had become a kubiki1 for ,shint and     
,buddhism were now harnessed together1  
not indeed as true yoke-fellows1 but yet
 joined as inseparably as two oxen      
making the same furrow4  ,many a miya   
now became a tera4 ,at first in many    
edifices1 the rites of ,shint and       
,buddhism were alternately performed4   
,the ,buddhist symbols might be in the  
front1 and the ,shintist in the rear of 
the sacred hall1 or vice versa1 with a  
bamboo curtain between2 but gradually   
the two blended4 ,instead of austere    
simplicity1 the ,shint interior         
contained a museum of idols4  ,image    
carvers had now plenty to do in making1 
out of camphor or hinoki wood1 effigies 
of such of the eight million or so of   
kamis as were given places in the new   
and enlarged pantheon4 ,the             
multiplication was always on the side of
 ,buddhism4 ,soon1 also1 the            
architecture was altered from the type  
of the primitive hut1 to that of the low
 ,chinese temple with great sweeping    

roof1 re-curved eaves1 many-columned    
auditorium and imposing gateway1 with   
lacquer1 paint1 gilding and ceilings1 on
 which1 in blazing gold and color1 were 
depicted the emblems of the ,buddhist   
paradise4 ,many of these still remain   
even after the national purgation of    
#ahgj1 just as the ,christian           
inscriptions survive in the marble      
palimpsests of ,mahometan mosques1      
converted from basilicas1 at ,damascus  
or ,constantinople4 ,the torii was no   
longer raised in plain hinoki wood1 but 
was now constructed of hewn stone1      
rounded or polished4 ,sometimes it was  
even of bronze with gilded crests and   
,sanskrit monograms1 surmounted1 it may 
be1 with tablets of painted or stained  
wood1 on which were ,chinese letters    
glittering with gold4 ,this departure   
from the primitive idea of using only   
the natural trunks of trees1 somewhat on
 the principle of ,exodus1 #bj3be1cb was
 a radical one in the ninth century4    
,the elongated barrels with iron hoops1 

or the riveted boiler-plate and         
stove-pipe pattern1 in this era of      
,meiji is a still more radical and even 
scandalous innovation4   ,shint ,buried 
in ,buddhism4   ,so complete was the    
victory of ,riybuism1 that for nearly a 
thousand years ,shint as a religion1    
except in a few isolated spots1 ceased  
from sight and sank to a mere mythology 
or to the shadow of a mythology4 ,the   
very knowledge even of the ancient      
traditions was lost in the ,buddhaized  
forms in which the old stories#cc were  
cast1 or in the omnipresent ritual of   
the ,buddhist tera4  ,yet1 after all1 it
 is a question as to which suffered     
most1 ,buddhism or ,shint4 ,who can tell
 which was the base and which was the   
true metal in the alloy that was formed8
 ,the ,san ,kai ,ri shows how           
superstitious manifold became imbedded  
in ,buddhism4 ,it was not alone through 
the ,shingon sect1 which ,kb introduced1
 that this ,yoga or union came4 ,in the 
other great sect called the ,tendai1 and

 in the later sects1 more especially in 
that of ,nichiren1 the same principle of
 absorption was followed4 ,these sects  
also adopted many elements derived from 
the god-way and thus became ,shintized4 
,indeed1 it seems certain that that vast
 development of ,japanese ,buddhism1    
peculiar to ,japan and unknown to the   
rest of the ,buddhist world1 scouted by 
the ,southern ,buddhists as dreadful    
heresy1 and rousing the indignation of  
students of early ,buddhism1 like ,max  
,mller and ,professor ,whitney1 is      
largely owing to this attempted         
digestion of ,japanese mythology4 ,the  
anaconda may indeed be able1 by reason  
of its marvellously flexible jaws and   
its abundant activity of salivary       
glands1 to swallow the calf1 and even   
the ox2 but sometimes the serpent is    
killed by its own voracity1 or at least 
made helpless before the destroying     
hunter4 ,when sweet potatoes and        
pumpkins are planted in the same hill1  
and the cooked product comes on the     

table1 it is hard to tell whether it is 
tuber or hollow fruit1 subterranean or  
superficial growth1 that we are eating4 
,so in ,riybu1 whether it be most imo or
 kabocha is a fair question4 ,if the    
,buddhism in ,japan did but add a       
chapter of decay and degradation to the 
religion of the ,light of ,asia1 is not 
this owing to the act of ,kb--justified 
indeed by those who imitated his        
example1 yet hardly to be called honest8
 ,a stroke of ecclesiastical dexterity1 
it may have been1 but scarcely a lawful 
example or an illustrious and           
commendable specimen of syncretism in   
religion4  ,many students have asked    
what is the peculiar1 the characteristic
 difference between the ,buddhism of    
,japan and the other ,buddhisms of the  
,asian continent4 ,if there be one      
cause1 leading all others1 we incline to
 believe it is because ,japanese        
,buddhism is not the ,buddhism of       
,gautama1 but is so largely ,riybu or   
,mixed4 ,yet in the alloy1 which        

ingredient has preserved most of its    
qualities8 ,is ,japanese ,buddhism      
really ,shintized ,buddhism1 or         
,buddhaized ,shint8 ,which is the       
parasite and which the parasitized8 ,is 
the hermit crab ,shint1 and the shell   
,buddhism1 or vice versa8 ,about as many
 corrupt elements from ,shint entered   
into the various ,buddhist sects as     
,buddhism gave to ,shint4  ,this process
 of ,shintizing ,buddhism or of         
,buddhaizing ,shint--that is1 of        
combining ,shint or purely ,japanese    
ideas and practices with the systems    
imported from ,india1 went on for five  
centuries4 ,the old native habits and   
mental characteristics were not         
eradicated or profoundly modified2 they 
were rather safely preserved in         
so-called ,buddhism1 not indeed as dead 
flies in amber but as live creatures1   
fattening on a body1 which1 every year1 
while keeping outward form and name1 was
 being emptied of its normal and typical
 life4 ,it is no gain to pure water to  

add either microbes or the food which   
nourishes them4   ,buddhism ,writes ,new
 ,chapters of ,decay4   ,phenomenally1  
the victory was that of ,buddhism4 ,the 
mustard-seed has indeed become a great  
tree1 lodging every fowl of heaven1     
clean and unclean2 but potentially and  
in reality1 the leavening power1 as now 
seen1 seems to have been that of ,shint4
 ,or1 to change metaphor1 since the     
hermit crab and the shell were separated
 by law only one generation ago1 in     
#ahgj1 we shall soon1 before many       
generations1 discern clearly which has  
the life and which has only the         
shell4#cd  ,there are but few literary  
monuments#ce of ,riybuism1 and it has   
left few or no marks in the native      
chronicles1 misnamed history1 which     
utterly omit or ignore so many things   
interesting to the student and          
humanist4#cf ,yet to this mixture or    
amalgamation of ,buddhism with ,shint1  
more probably than to any other direct  
influence1 may also be ascribed that    

striking alteration in the system of    
,chinese ethics or ,confucianism which  
differentiates the ,japanese form from  
that prevalent in ,china4 ,that is1     
instead of filial piety1 the relation of
 parent and child1 occupying the first  
place1 loyalty1 the relation of lord and
 retainer1 master and servant1 became   
supreme4 ,although ,buddhism made the   
,mikado first a ,king 7,tenn7 or ,son of
 ,heaven 7,ten-,shi71 and then a monk   
7,h-71 and after his death a ,hotok or  
,buddhist deity1 it caused him early to 
abdicate from actual life4 ,buddhism is 
thus directly responsible for the       
habitual ,japanese resignation from     
active life almost as soon as it is     
entered1 by men in all classes4         
,buddhism started all along and down    
through the lines of ,japanese society  
the idea of early retirement from duty2 
so that men were considered old at      
forty1 and hors concours before         
forty-five4#cg ,life was condemned as   
vanity of vanities before it was mature1

 and old age a friend that nobody wished
 to meet1#ch although ,japanese old age 
is but ,european prime4 ,in a measure1  
,buddhism is thus responsible for the   
paralysis of ,japanese civilization1    
which1 like oft-tapped maple-trees1     
began to die at the top4 ,this was in   
accordance with its theories and its    
literature4 ,in the ,bible there is1    
possibly1 one book which is pessimistic 
in tone1 ,ecclesiastes4 ,in the bulky   
and dropsical canon of ,buddhism there  
is a whole library of despondency and   
despair4  ,nevertheless1 the ethical    
element held its own in the ,japanese   
mind2 and against the pessimism and     
puerility of ,buddhism and the religious
 emptiness of ,shint1 the bond of       
,japanese society was sought in the idea
 of loyalty4 ,while then1 as we repeat1 
everything that comes to the ,japanese  
mind suffers as it were a sea change1   
into something new and strange1 is it   
not fair to say that the change made by 
,kb was at the expense of ,buddhism as a

 system1 and that the thing that        
suffered reversion was the exotic rather
 than the native plant8 ,for1 in the    
emergence of this new idea of loyalty as
 supreme1 ,shint and not ,buddhism was  
the dictator4  ,even more after ,kb's   
death than during his life1 ,japan      
improved upon her imported faith1 and   
rapidly developed new sects of all      
degrees of reputableness and            
disreputableness4 ,had ,kb lived on     
through the centuries1 as the boors     
still believe2#ci he could not have     
stopped1 had he so desired1 the workings
 of the leaven he had brought from      
,china4 ,from the sixth to the twelfth  
century1 was the missionary age of      
,japanese ,buddhism4 ,then followed two 
centuries of amazing development of     
doctrine4 ,novelties in religion        
blossomed1 fruited and became monuments 
as permanent as the age-enduring forests
 ,hakon1 or ,nikk4 ,gautama himself1    
were he to return to red earth again1   
could not recognize his own cult in     

,japan4  ,in ,china to-day ,buddhism is 
in a bad state4 ,one writer calls it1   
,the emasculated descendant that now    
occupies the land with its drone of     
priests and its temples1 in which scarce
 a worthy disciple of the learned       
patriarchs of ancient days is to be     
found4 ,received with open arms1        
persecuted1 patronized1 smiled upon1    
tolerated1 it with the last phase of its
 existence1 has reached1 not the halcyon
 days of peace and rest1 but its final  
stage1 foreshadowing its decay from     
rottenness and corruption4#dj ,so also1 
in a like report1 agree many witnesses4 
,the common people of ,china are to-day 
,taoists rather than ,buddhists4#da  ,if
 this be the position in ,china1        
something not very far from it is found 
in ,japan to-day4 ,whatever may be the  
,buddhism of the few learned scholars1  
who have imbibed the critical and       
scientific spirit of ,christendom1 and  
whatever be the professions and         
representations of its earnest adherents

 and partisans1 it is certain that      
popular ,buddhism is both ethically and 
vitally in a low state4 ,in outward     
array the system is still imposing4     
,there are yet1 it may be1 millions of  
stone statues and whole forests of      
wayside effigies1 outdoors and          
unroofed--irreverently called by the    
,japanese themselves1 wet gods4 ,hosts  
upon hosts of lacquered and gilded      
images in wood1 sheltered under the     
temple tiles or shingles1 still attract 
worshippers4 ,despite shiploads of      
copper ,buddhas exported as old metal to
 ,europe and ,america1 and thousands of 
tons of gods and imps melted into coin  
or cannon1 there are myriads of metal   
reminders of those fruits of a religion 
that once educated and satisfied2 but   
these are1 in the main1 no longer to the
 natives instruments of inspiration or  
compellers to enthusiasm4 ,in this time 
of practical charity1 they are poor     
substitutes for those hospitals and     
orphan asylums which were practically   

unknown in ,japan until the advent of   
,christianity4  ,kb's smart example has 
been followed only too well by the      
people in every part of the country4    
,one has but to read the stacks of books
 of local history to see what an amazing
 proportion of legends1 ideas1          
superstitions and revelations rests on  
dreams2 how incredibly numerous are the 
apparitions2 how often the floating     
images of ,buddha are found on the      
water2 how frequently flowers have      
rained out of the sky2 how many times   
the idols have spoken or shot forth     
their dazzling rays--in a word2 how     
often art and artifices have become     
alleged and accepted reality4           
,unfortunately1 the characteristics of  
this literature and undergrowth of idol 
lore are monotony and lack of           
originality2 for nearly all are copies  
of ,kb's model4 ,his cartoon has been   
constantly before the busy weavers of   
legend4  ,it may indeed be said1 and    
said truly1 that in its multiplication  

of sects and in its growth of legend and
 superstition1 ,buddhism has but        
followed every known religion1 including
 traditional ,christianity itself4 ,yet 
popular ,buddhism has reached a point   
which shows1 that1 instead of having a  
self-purgative and self-reforming power1
 it is apparently still treading in the 
steps of the degradation which ,kbbegan4
   ,the ,seven ,gods of ,good ,fortune4 
,we repeat it1 ,riybu ,buddhism is      
,japanese ,buddhism with vengeance4 ,it 
is to-day suffering from the effect of  
its own sins4 ,its ingwa is manifest4   
,take1 for example1 the little group of 
divinities known as the ,seven ,gods of 
,good ,fortune1 which forms a popular   
appendage to ,japanese ,buddhism and    
which are a direct and logical growth of
 the work done by ,kb1 as shown in his  
,riybu system4 ,not from foreign writers
 and their fancies1 nor even from the   
books which profess to describe these   
divinities1 do we get such an idea of   
their real meaning and of their         

influence with the people1 as we do by  
observation of every-day practice1 and a
 study of the idols themselves and of   
,japanese folk-lore1 popular romance1   
local history and guidebooks4 ,those    
familiar divinities1 indeed1 at the     
present day owe their vitality rather to
 the artists than to priests1 and1 it   
may be1 have received1 together with    
some rather rude handling1 nearly the   
whole of their extended popularity and  
influence from their lay supporters4    
,the ,seven ,happy ,gods of ,fortune    
form nominally a ,buddhist assemblage1  
and their effigies on the kami-dana or  
god-shelf1 found in nearly every        
,japanese house1 are universally        
visible4 ,the child in ,japan is rocked 
to sleep by the soothing sound of the   
lullaby1 which is often a prayer to     
these gods4 ,even though it may be with 
laughing and merriment1 that1 in their  
name the evil gods and imps are         
exorcised annually on ,new ,year's eve1 
with showers of beans which are supposed

 to be as disagreeable to the ,buddhist 
demons as drops of holy water to the    
,devil1 yet few households are complete 
without one or more of the images or the
 pictures of these favorite deities4    
,the separate elements of this          
conglomerate1 so typical of ,japanese   
religion1 are from no fewer than four   
different sources3 ,brahmanism1         
,buddhism1 ,taoism and ,shintism4 ,thus1
 ,bishamon is the ,buddhist             
,vis'ramana#db and the ,brahmanic       
,kuvera2 ,benten is ,sarasvat1 the wife 
of ,brahm2 ,daikoku is an extremely     
popularised form of ,mahakala1 the      
black-faced ,temple ,guardian2 ,hoti has
 ,taoist attributes1 but is regarded as 
an incarnation of ,mitrey1 the ,buddhist
 ,messiah2 ,fuku-roku-jiu is of purely  
,taoist origin1 and is perhaps a        
personification of ,lao-,tsze himself2  
,ju-r-jin is almost certainly a         
duplicate of ,fuku-roku-jiu2 and1       
lastly1 ,ebisu1 as the son of ,izanagi  
and ,izanami1 is a contribution from the

 ,shint hero-worship4#dc ,if ,riybu     
,buddhism be two-fold1 here is a texture
 or amalgam that is shi-bu1 four-fold4  
,let us watch lest go-bu1 with          
,christianity mixed in1 be the next     
result of the process4 ,to play the     
,japanese game of go-ban1 with          
,christianity as the fifth counter1 and 
,jesus as a ,palestinian avatar of some 
,dhyani ,buddha1 crafty priests in      
,japan are even now planning4  ,this    
illustration of the ,seven ,gods of     
,happiness1 whose local characters1     
functions and relations have been       
developed especially within the last    
three or four hundred years1 is but one 
of many that could be adduced1 showing  
what proceeded on a larger scale4 ,the  
,riybu process made it almost impossible
 for the average native to draw the line
 between history and mythology4 ,it     
destroyed the boundary lines1 as        
,pantheism invariably does1 between fact
 and fiction1 truth and falsehood4 ,the 
,japanese mind1 by a natural1 possibly  

by a racial1 tendency1 falls easily into
 ,pantheism1 which may be called the    
destroyer of boundaries and the maker of
 chaos and ooze4 ,pretty much all early 
,japanese history is ooze2 yet there are
 grave and learned men1 even in the     
,constitutional ,japan of the ,miji     
era--masters in their arts and          
professions1 graduates of technical and 
philosophical courses--who solemnly talk
 about their first emperor ascending the
 throne1 ,b4,c4 #ffj1 and to whom the   
dragon-born1 early ,mikados1 and their  
fellow-tribesmen1 seen through the      
exaggerated mists of the ,kojiki1 are   
divine personages4   ,the ,gon-gen in   
the ,processions4   ,while living in    
,japan between #ahgj and #ahgd1 the     
writer used to enjoy watching and       
studying the long processions which     
celebrated the foundation of temples1   
national or local festivals1 or the     
completion of some great public         
enterprise1 such as the railway between 
,tkio and ,yokohama4 ,in rich costume1  

decoration1 and representation most of  
the cultus-objects were marvels of art  
and skill4 ,besides the gala dresses and
 uniforms1 the fantastic decorations and
 personal adornments1 the dances which  
represented the comedies and tragedies  
of the gods and the striking scenes in  
the ,kojiki1 there wore colossal images 
of ,kami1 ,bodhisattvas1 ,gon-gen1 ,dai 
,mi ,jin1 and of imps1 oni1 mythical    
animal forms and imaginary monsters4#dd 
,more interesting than anything else1   
however1 were the male and female       
figures1 set high upon triumphal cars   
having many tiers1 and arrayed in       
characteristic primeval1 ancient1       
medieval1 or early modern dress4 ,some  
were of scowling1 others of benign      
visage4 ,in some years1 everyone of the 
eight hundred and eight streets of ,yedo
 sent its contribution of men1 money1   
decorations1 or vehicles4  ,as seen by  
four kinds of spectators1 the average   
ignorant native1 the ,shintist1 the     
learned ,buddhist1 and the critical     

historical scholar1 these effigies      
represented three different characters  
or creations4 ,especially were those    
divine personages called ,gon-gen worth 
the study of the foreign observer4  7#a7
 ,the common boor or streetman saluted1 
for example1 this or that ,dai ,mi ,jin1
 as the great illustrious spirit or god 
of its particular district4 ,to this    
spirit and image he prayed2 in his honor
 he made offerings2 his wrath he feared2
 and his smile he hoped to win1 for the 
,gon-gen was a divine being4  7#b7 ,to  
the ,shintist1 who hated ,buddhism and  
the ,riybu ,shint which had overlaid his
 ancestral faith1 and who scorned and   
tabooed this ,chinese term ,dai ,mi     
,jin1 this or that image represented a  
divine ancestor whose name had in it    
many ,japanese syllables1 with no       
defiling ,chinese sounds1 and who was   
the ,kami or patron deity of this or    
that neighborhood4  7#c7 ,to the        
,buddhist1 this or that personage1 in   
his lifetime1 in the early ages of      

,japanese history1 had been an avatar of
 ,buddha who had appeared in human flesh
 and brought blessings to the people and
 neighborhood2 yet the people of the    
early ages being unprepared to receive  
his doctrine or revelation1 he had not  
then revealed or preached it2 but now1  
as for a thousand years since the time  
of the illustrious and saintly ,kb1 he  
had his right name and received his just
 honors and worship as an avatar of the 
eternal ,buddha4 ,so1 although ,buddhist
 and ,shintist might quarrel as to his  
title1 and divide1 even to anger1 on    
minor points1 they would both agree in  
letting the common people take their    
pleasure1 enjoy the festivals and       
merriment1 and preserve their reverence 
and worship4  7#d7 ,still another       
spectator studied with critical interest
 the swaying figure high in air4 ,with a
 taste for archaeology1 he admired the  
accuracy of the drapery and             
associations4 ,he was amused1 it may be1
 with occasional anachronisms as to     

garments or equipments4 ,he knew that   
the original of this personage had been 
nothing more than a human being1 who    
might indeed have been conspicuous as a 
brave soldier in war1 or as a skilful   
physician who helped to stop the plague1
 or as a civilizer who imported new food
 or improved agriculture4  ,in a word1  
had this subject of the ancient ,mikado 
lived in modern ,christendom1 he might  
be honored through the government1      
patent office1 privy council1 the       
admiralty1 the university1 or the       
academy1 as the case or worth might be4 
,he might shine in a plastic            
representation by the sculptor or       
artist1 or be known in the popular      
literature2 but he would never receive  
religious worship1 or aught beyond honor
 and praise4 ,in this swamping of       
history in legend and of fact in dogma1 
we behold the fruit of ,kb's work1      
,riybu ,buddhism4   ,kb's ,work ,undone4
   ,buddhism calls itself the jewel in  
the lotus4 ,japanese poetry asks of the 

dewdrop why1 having the heart of the    
lotus for its home1 does it pretend to  
be a gem8 ,for a thousand years ,riybu  
,buddhism was received as a pure        
brilliant of the first water1 and then  
the scholarship of the ,shint           
revivalists of the eighteenth century   
exposed the fraudulent nature of the    
unrelated parts and declared that the   
jewel called ,riybu was but a           
craftsman's doublet and should be split 
apart4 ,only a splinter of diamond1 they
 declared1 crowned a mass of paste4     
,indignation made learning hot1 and in  
#ahgj the cement was liquefied in civil 
war4 ,the doublet was rent asunder by   
imperial decree1 as when a lapidist     
melts the mastic that holds in deception
 adamant and glass1 while real diamond  
stands all fire short of the            
hydro-oxygen flame4 ,the ,riybu temples 
were purged of all ,buddhist symbols1   
furniture1 equipment and personnel1 and 
were made again to assume their august  
and austere simplicity4 ,in the eyes of 

the purely aesthetic critic1 this       
national purgation was ,puritanical     
iconoclasm2 in those of the priests1    
cast out to earn rice elsewise and      
elsewhere1 it was outrage1 which in     
individual instances called for reprisal
 in blood1 fire and assassination2 to   
the ,shintist1 it was an exhibition of  
the righteous judgment of the           
long-insulted gods2 in the ken of the   
critical student1 it seems very much    
like historic and poetic justice4  ,in  
our day and time1 ,riybu ,buddhism      
furnishes us with a warning1 for1 looked
 at from a purely human point of view1  
what happened to ,shint may possibly    
happen to ,japanese ,christianity4 ,the 
successors of those who1 in the ninth   
century1 did not scruple to ,buddhaize  
,shint1 and in later times1 even our    
own1 to ,shintize ,buddhism while       
holding to ,buddha's name and all the   
revenue possible1 will ,buddhaize       
,christianity if they have power and    
opportunity2 and signs are not wanting  

to show that this is upon their         
programme4  ,the water of stagnant      
,buddhism is still a swarming mass1     
which needs cleansing to purity by a    
knowledge of one ,god who is ,light and 
,love4 ,without such knowledge1 the     
manifold changes in ,buddhism will but  
form fresh chapters of degradation and  
decay4 ,holding such knowledge1         
,christianity may pass through endless  
changes1 for this is her capability by  
,divine power and the authorization of  
her ,founder4 ,the now ,buddhism of our 
day is endeavoring to save itself       
through reformation and progress4 ,in   
doing so1 the danger of the destruction 
of the system is great1 for thus far    
change has meant decay4     ,,chapter   
,,viii - ,,northern ,,buddhism ,,in     
,,its ,,doctrinal ,,evolutions       ,to
 the millions of ,china1 ,corea1 and    
,japan1 creator and     creation are new
 and strange terms1--,j4,h4 ,de ,forest4
      ,the ,law of our ,lord1 the       
,buddha1 is not a natural science or a  

religion1 but a doctrine of             
enlightenment2 and the object of it     
is to give rest to the restless1 to     
point out the ,master 7the     ,inmost  
,man7 to those that are blind and do not
 perceive their     ,original ,state4   
,the ,saddharma ,pundarika ,sutra       
teaches us how to obtain that           
desirable knowledge of the mind as it is
 in itself universal     wisdom 444     
,mind is the ,one ,reality1 and all     
,scriptures are the     micrographic    
photographs of its images4 ,he that     
fully grasps the     ,divine ,body of   
,sakyamuni1 holds ever1 even without the
 written     ,sutra1 the inner          
,saddharma ,pundarika in his hand4 ,he  
ever reads     it mentally1 even though 
he would never read it orally4 ,he is   
unified with it though he has no thought
 about it4 ,he is the     true keeper of
 the ,sutra4--,zitsuzen ,ashitsu of the 
,tendai sect4      ,it ,buddhism is     
idealistic4 ,everything is as we think  
it4 ,the     world is my idea4444       

,beyond our faith is naught4 ,hold the  
,buddhist to his creed and insist that  
such logic destroys     itself1 and he  
triumphs smilingly1 ',self-destructive6 
,of course     it is4 ,all logic is4    
,that is the centre of my philosophy4'  
,it ,buddhism denounces all desire and  
offers salvation as the     reward of   
the murder of our affections1 hopes1 and
 aspirations4     ,it is possible where 
conscious existence is believed to be   
the     chief of evils4--,george        
,william ,knox4      ,swallowing the    
device of the priests1 the people well  
satisfied1 dance their                  
prayers4--,japanese ,proverb4      ,the 
wisdom that is from above is 444 without
 variance1 without                      
hypocrisy4--,james4      ,the mystery of
 ,god1 even ,christ in whom are all the 
treasures     of wisdom and             
knowledge4--,paul4   ,,chapter ,,viii - 
,,northern ,,buddhism ,,in ,,its        
,,doctrinal ,,evolutions  ,chronological
 ,outline4   ,in sketching the history  

of the doctrinal developments of        
,buddhism in ,japan1 we note that the   
system1 greatly corrupted from its      
original simplicity1 was in #eeb ,a4,d4 
already a millennium old4 ,several      
distinct phases of the much-altered     
faith of ,gautama1 were introduced into 
the islands at various times between the
 sixth and the ninth century4 ,from     
these and from others of native origin  
have sprung the larger ,japanese sects4 
,even as late as the seventeenth        
century1 novelties in ,buddhism were    
imported from ,china1 and the exotics   
took root in ,japanese soil2 but then1  
with a single exception1 only to grow as
 curiosities in the garden1 rather than 
as the great forests1 which had already 
sprung from imported and native         
specimens4  ,we may divide the period of
 the doctrinal development of ,buddhism 
in ,japan into four epochs3  ,i4 ,the   
first1 from #eeb to #hje ,a4,d41 will   
cover the first six sects1 which had for
 their centre of propagation1 ,nara1 the

 southern capital4  ,,ii4 ,then follows 
,riybu ,buddhism1 from the ninth to the 
twelfth centuries4  ,,iii4 ,this was    
succeeded by another explosion of       
doctrine wholly and peculiarly          
,japanese1 and by a wide missionary     
propagation4  ,,iv4 ,from the sixteenth 
to the nineteenth century1 there is     
little that is doctrinally noticeable1  
until our own time1 when the new        
,buddhism of to-day claims at least a   
passing notice4  ,the ,japanese writers 
of ecclesiastical history classify in   
three groups the twelve great sects as  
the first six1 the two medival1 and the 
four modern sects4  ,in this lecture we 
shall merely summarize the              
characteristics of the first five sects 
which existed before the opening of the 
ninth century but which are not formally
 extant at the present time1 and treat  
more fully the purely ,japanese         
developments4 ,the first three sects may
 be grouped under the head of the       
,hinayana1 or ,smaller ,vehicle1 as     

,southern or primitive orthodox         
,buddhism is usually called4  ,most of  
the early sects1 as will be seen1 were  
founded upon some particular sutra1 or  
upon selections or collections of       
sutras4 ,they correspond to some extent 
with the manifold sects of ,christendom1
 and yet this illustration or reference 
must not be misleading4 ,it is not as   
though a new ,christian sect1 for       
example1 were in ,a4,d4 #ejj to be      
formed wholly on the gospel of ,luke1 or
 the book of the ,revelation2 nor as    
though a new sect should now arise in   
,norway or ,tennessee because of a      
special emphasis laid on a combination  
of the epistle to the ,corinthians and  
the book of ,daniel4 ,it is rather as   
though distinct names and organizations 
should be founded upon the writings of  
,tertullian1 of ,augustine1 of ,luther1 
or of ,calvin1 and that such sects      
should accept the literary work of these
 scholars not only as commentaries but  
as ,holy ,scripture itself4  ,the       

,buddhist body of scriptures has several
 times been imported and printed in     
,japan1 but has never been translated   
into the vernacular4 ,the canon#a is not
 made up simply of writings purporting  
to be the words of ,buddha or of the    
apostles who were his immediate         
companions or followers4 ,on the        
contrary1 the canon1 as received in     
,japan1 is made up of books1 written for
 the most part many centuries after the 
last of the contemporaries of ,gautama  
had passed away4 ,not a few of these    
writings are the products of the        
,chinese intellect4 ,some books held by 
particular sects as holy scripture were 
composed in ,japan itself1 the very     
books themselves being worshipped4      
,nevertheless those who are apparently  
farthest away from primitive ,buddhism1 
claim to understand ,buddha most        
clearly4   ,the ,standard ,doctrinal    
,work4   ,one of the most famous of     
books1 honored especially by several of 
the later and larger sects in ,japan1   

and probably the most widely read and   
most generally studied book of the      
canon1 is the ,saddharma ,pundarika4#b  
,professor ,kern1 who has translated    
this very rhetorical work into ,english1
 thinks it existed at or some time      
before #bej ,a4,d41 and that in its most
 ancient form it dates some centuries   
earlier1 possibly as early as the       
opening of the ,christian era4 ,it has  
now twenty-seven chapters1 and may be   
called the typical scripture of         
,northern ,buddhism4 ,it is             
overflowingly full of those sensuous    
images and descriptions of the          
,paradise1 in which the imagination of  
the ,japanese ,buddhist so revels1 and  
in it both rhetoric and mathematics run 
wild4 ,of this book1 the cream of the   
revealed doctrine1 we shall hear often  
again4 ,it is the standard of orthodoxy 
in ,japanese ,buddhism1 the real genius 
of which is monastic asceticism in      
morals and philosophical scepticism in  
religion4  ,in most of the other sutras 

the burden of thought is ontology4      
,doctrinally1 ,buddhism seems to be less
 a religion than a system of philosophy4
 ,hundreds of volumes in the canon      
concern themselves almost wholly with   
ontological speculations4 ,the ,japanese
 mind1#c as described by those who have 
studied most acutely and profoundly its 
manifestations in language and          
literature1 is essentially averse to    
speculation4 ,yet the first forms of    
,buddhism presented to the ,japanese1   
were highly metaphysical4 ,the history  
of thought in ,japan1 shows that these  
abstractions of dogma were not congenial
 to the islanders4 ,the new faith won   
its way among the people by its outward 
sensuous attractions1 and by appeals to 
the imagination1 the fancy and the      
emotions2 though the men of culture were
 led captive by reasoning which they    
could not answer1 even if they could    
comprehend it4 ,though these early forms
 of dogma and philosophy no longer      
survive in ,japan1 having been eclipsed 

by more concrete and sensuous arguments1
 yet it is necessary to state them in   
order to show3 first1 what ,buddhism    
really is2 second1 doctrinal development
 in the farthest ,east2 and1 third1 the 
peculiarities of the ,japanese mind4    
,in this task1 we are happy to be able  
to rely upon native witness and         
confession4#d ,the foreigner may easily 
misrepresent1 even when sincerely       
inclined to utter only the truth4 ,each 
religion1 in its theory at least1 must  
be judged by its ideals1 and not by its 
failures4 ,its truth must be stated by  
its own professors4 ,in the ,history of 
,the ,twelve ,japanese ,sects1 by       
,bunyiu ,nanjio1 ,m4,a4 ,oxon41 and in  
,le ,bouddhisme ,japonais1 by ,ryauon   
,fujishima1 we have the untrammelled    
utterances1 of nine living lights of the
 religion of ,shaka as it is held and   
taught in ,dai ,nippon4 ,the former     
scholar is a master of texts1 and the   
latter of philosophy1 each editor       
excelling in his own department2 and the

 two books complement each other in     
value4  ,buddhism1 being a logical      
growth out of ,brahmanism1 used the old 
sacred language of ,india and inherited 
its vocabulary4 ,in the ,tripitaka1 that
 is1 the three book-baskets or boxes1 we
 have the term for canon of scripture1  
in the complete collection of which are 
sutra1 vinaya and abidharma4 ,we shall  
see1 also1 that while ,gautama shut out 
the gods1 his speculative followers who 
claimed to be his successors1 opened the
 doors and allowed them to troop in     
again4 ,the democracy of the            
congregation became a hierarchy and the 
empty swept and garnished house1 a      
pantheon4  ,a sutra1 from the root siv1 
to sew1 means a thread or string1 and in
 the old ,veda religion referred to     
household rites or practices and the    
moral conduct of life2 but in ,buddhist 
phraseology it means a body of doctrine4
 ,a shaster or shastra1 from the        
,sanskrit root as1 to govern1 relates to
 discipline4 ,of those shastras and     

sutras we must frequently speak4 ,in    
,india and ,china some of those sutras  
are exponents1 of schools of thought or 
opinion1 or of views or methods of      
looking at things1 rather than of       
organizations4 ,in ,japan these schools 
of philosophy1 in certain instances1    
become sects with a formal history4  ,in
 ,china of the present day1 according to
 a ,japanese traveller and author1 the  
,chinese ,buddhists seem 444 to unite   
all different sects1 so as to make one  
harmonious sect4 ,the chief divisions   
are those of the blue robe1 who are     
allied with the ,lamaism of ,tibet and  
whose doctrine is largely esoteric1 and 
those of the yellow robe1 who accept the
 three fundamentals of principle1       
teaching and discipline4 ,dhyana or     
contemplation is their principle2 the   
,kgon or ,avatamsaka sutra and the ,hokk
 or ,saddharma ,pundarika sutra1 etc41  
form the basis of their teaching2 and   
the ,vinaya of the ,four ,divisions     
7,dharmagupta7 is their discipline4 ,on 

the contrary1 in ,japan there are vastly
 greater diversities of sect1 principle1
 teaching and discipline4   ,buddhism as
 a ,system of ,metaphysics4   ,the date 
of the birth of the ,buddha in ,india1  
accepted by the ,japanese scholars is   
,b4,c4 #ajbg--the day and month being   
also given with suspicious accuracy4    
,about nine centuries after ,gautama had
 attained ,nirvana1 there were eighteen 
schools of the ,hinayana or the doctrine
 of the ,smaller ,vehicle4 ,then a      
shastra or institute of ,buddhist       
ontology in nine chapters1 was composed1
 the title of which in ,english1 is1    
,book of the ,treasury of ,metaphysics4 
,it had such a powerful influence that  
it was called an intelligence-creating1 
or as we say1 an epoch-making book4     
,this ,ku-sha shastra1 from the         
,sanskrit kosa1 a store1 is eclectic1   
and contains nine chapters embodying the
 views of one of the schools1 with      
selections from those of others4 ,it was
 translated in ,a4,d4 #efc1 into        

,chinese by a ,hindu scholar2 but about 
a hundred years later the famous        
pilgrim1 whom the ,japanese call ,gen-j1
 but who is known in ,europe as ,hiouen 
,thsang1#e made a better translation1   
while his disciples added commentaries4 
,in ,a4,d4 #feh1 two ,japanese priests#f
 made the sea-journey westward into     
,china1 as ,gen-j had before made the   
land pilgrimage into ,india1 and became 
pupils of the famous pilgrim4 ,after    
long study they returned1 bringing the  
,chinese translation of this shastra    
into ,japan4 ,they did not form an      
independent sect2 but the doctrines of  
this shastra1 being eclectic1 were      
studied by all ,japanese ,buddhist      
sects4 ,this ,ku-sha scripture is still 
read in ,japan as a general institute of
 ontology1 especially by advanced       
students who wish to get a general idea 
of the doctrines4 ,it is full of        
technical terms1 and is well named ,the 
,store-house of ,metaphysics4  ,the     
,ku-sha teaches control of the passions1

 and the government of thought4 ,the    
burden of its philosophy is materialism2
 that is1 the non-existence of self and 
the existence of the matter which       
composes self1 or1 as the ,japanese     
writer says3 ,the reason why all things 
are so minutely explained in this       
shastra is to drive away the idea of    
self1 and to show the truth in order to 
make living beings reach ,nirvana4      
,among the numerous categories1 to      
express which many technical terms are  
necessary1 are those of forms1 eleven in
 number1 including the five senses and  
the six objects of sense2 the six kinds 
of knowledge2 the forty-six mental      
qualities1 grouped under six heads2 and 
the fourteen conceptions separated from 
the mind2 thus making in all seventy-two
 compounded things and three immaterial 
things4 ,these latter are conscious     
cessation of existence1 unconscious     
cessation of existence1 and space4  ,the
 ,reverend ,shuzan ,emura1 of the       
,shin-shu sect of ,japan1 after         

specifying these seventy-five ,dharmas1 
or things compounded and things         
immaterial1 says3#g ,the former include 
all things that proceed from a cause4   
,this cause is ,karma1 to which         
everything existing is due1 ,space and  
,nirvana alone excepted4 ,again1 of the 
three immaterial things the last two are
 not subjects to be understood by the   
wisdom not free from frailty4 ,therefore
 the 'conscious cessation of existence' 
is considered as being the goal of all  
effort to him who longs for deliverance 
from misery4  ,in a word1 this one of   
the many ,buddhisms of ,asia is vastly  
less a religion1 in any real sense of   
the word1 than a system of metaphysics4 
,however1 the doctrine to be mastered is
 graded in three ,yanas or ,vehicles2   
for there are now1 as in the days of    
,shaka1 three classes of being1 graded  
according to their ability or power to  
understand the truth4 ,these are3  7,i47
 ,the ,sho-mon or lowest of the         
disciples of ,shaka1 or hearers who     

meditate on the cause and effect of     
everything4 ,if acute in understanding1 
they become free from confusion after   
three births2 but if they are dull1 they
 pass sixty kalpas#h or aeons before    
they attain to the state of             
enlightenment4  7,,ii47 ,the ,engaku or 
,pratyeka ,buddhas1 that is1 singly     
enlightened1 or beings in the middle    
state1 who must extract the seeds or    
causes of actions1 and must meditate on 
the twelve chains of causation1 or      
understand the non-eternity of the      
world1 while gazing upon the falling    
flowers or leaves4 ,they attain         
enlightenment after four births or a    
hundred kalpas1 according to their      
ability4  7,,iii47 ,the ,bodhisattvas or
 ,buddhas-elect1 who practise the six   
perfections 7perfect practice of        
alms-giving1 morality1 patience1 energy1
 meditation and wisdom7 as preliminaries
 to ,nirvana1 which they reach only     
after countless kalpas4  ,these three   
grades of pupils in the mysteries of    

,buddha doctrine1 are said to have been 
ordered by ,shaka himself1 because      
understanding human beings so           
thoroughly1 he knew that one person     
could not comprehend two ways or        
vehicles 7,yana7 at once4 ,people were  
taught therefore to practise anyone of  
the three vehicles at pleasure4  ,we    
shall see how the later radical and     
democratic ,japanese ,buddhism swept    
away this gradation1 and declaring but  
the one vehicle 7ka71 opened the kingdom
 to all believers4  ,the second of the  
early ,japanese schools of thought1 is  
the ,j-jitsu1#i or the sect founded     
chiefly upon the shastra which means    
,the ,book of the ,perfection of the    
,truth1 containing selections from and  
explanations of the true meaning of the 
,tripitaka4 ,this shastra was the work  
of a ,hindu whose name means            
,lion-armor1 and who lived about nine   
centuries after ,gautama4 ,not satisfied
 with the narrow views of his teacher1  
who may have been of the ,dharmagupta   

school 7of the four ,disciplines71 he   
made selections of the best and broadest
 interpretations then current in the    
several different schools of the        
,smaller ,vehicle4 ,the book is         
eclectic1 and attempts to unite all that
 was best in each of the ,hinayana      
schools2 but certain ,chinese teachers  
consider that its explanations are      
applicable to the ,great ,vehicle also4 
,translated into ,chinese in #djf       
,a4,d41 the commentaries upon it soon   
numbered hundreds1 and it was widely    
expounded and lectured upon4            
,commentaries upon this shastra were    
also written in ,korean by ,d-z4 ,from  
the peninsula it was introduced into    
,japan4 ,this ,j-jitsu doctrine was     
studied by prince ,shtoku1 and          
promulgated as a division of the school 
called ,san-,ron4 ,the students of the  
,j-jitsu school never formed in ,japan a
 distinct organization4  ,the burden of 
the teachings of this school is pure    
nihilism1 or the non-existence of both  

self and of matter4 ,there is an utter  
absence of substantiality in all things4
 ,life itself is a prolonged dream4 ,the
 objects about us are mere delusive     
shadows or mirage1 the product of the   
imagination alone4 ,the past and the    
future are without reality1 but the     
present state of things only stands as  
if it were real4 ,that is to say3 the   
true state of things is constantly      
changing1 yet it seems as if the state  
of things were existing1 even as does a 
circle of fire seen when a rope watch is
 turned round very quickly4   ,japanese 
,pilgrims to ,china4   ,the ,ris-shu or 
,vinaya sect is one of purely ,chinese  
origin1 and was founded1 or rather      
re-founded1 by the ,chinese priest      
,dsen1 who lived on ,mount ,shunan early
 in the seventh century1 and claimed to 
be only re-proclaiming the rules given  
by ,gautama himself4 ,he was well       
acquainted with the ,tripitaka and      
especially versed in the ,vinaya or     
rules of discipline4 ,his purpose was to

 unite the teachings of both the        
,greater and the ,lesser ,vehicle in a  
sutra whose burden should be one of     
ethics and not of dogma4  ,the founder  
of this sect was greatly honored by the 
,chinese ,emperor4 ,furthermore1 he was 
honored in vision by the holy ,pindola  
or ,binzura1#aj who praised the founder 
as the best man that had promulgated the
 discipline since ,buddha himself4 ,in  
later centuries1 successors of the      
founder compiled commentaries and       
reproclaimed the teachings of this sect4
  ,in ,a4,d4 #gbd two ,japanese priests 
went over to ,china1 and having mastered
 the ,ris-shu doctrine1 received        
permission to propagate it in ,japan4   
,with eighty-two ,chinese priests they  
returned a few years later1 having      
attempted1 it is said1 the journey five 
times and spent twelve years on the sea4
 ,on their return1 they received an     
imperial invitation to live in the great
 monastery at ,nara1 and soon their     
teachings exerted a powerful influence  

on the court4 ,the emperor1 empress and 
four hundred persons of note were       
received into the ,buddhist communion by
 a ,chinese priest of the ,ris-shu      
school in the middle of the eighth      
century4 ,the ,mikado ,sh-mu resigned   
his throne and took the vow and robes of
 a monk1 becoming ,h- or cloistered     
emperor4 ,under imperial direction a    
great bronze image of the ,vairokana    
,buddha1 or ,perfection of ,morality1   
was erected1 and terraces1 towers1      
images and all the paraphernalia of the 
new kind of ,buddhism were prepared4    
,even the earth was embroidered1 as it  
were1 with sutras and shastras4         
,symbolical landscape gardening1 which1 
in its mounds and paths1 variously      
shaped stones and lanterns1 artificial  
cascades and streamlets1 teaches the    
holy geography as well as the allegories
 and hidden truths of ,buddhism1 made   
the city of ,nara beautiful to the eyes 
of faith as well as of sight4  ,this    
sect1 with its excellence in morality   

and benevolence1 proved itself a        
beautifier of human life1 of society and
 of the earth itself4 ,its work was an  
irenicon4 ,it occupied itself           
exclusively with the higher ethics1 the 
higher meditations and the higher       
knowledge4 ,interdicting what was evil  
and prescribing what was good1 its      
precepts varied in number and rigor     
according to the status of the disciple1
 lay or clerical4 ,it is by the         
observance of the sila1 or grades of    
moral perfection1 that one becomes a    
,buddha4 ,besides making so powerful a  
conquest at the southern capital1 this  
sect was the one which centuries        
afterward built the first ,buddhist     
temple in ,yedo4 ,being ordinary human  
mortals1 however1 both monk and layman  
occasionally illustrated the difference 
between profession and practice4  ,these
 three schools or sects1 ,ku-sha1       
,j-jitsu1 and ,ris-shu1 may be grouped  
under the ,hinayana or ,smaller         
,vehicle1 with more or less affiliation 

with ,southern ,buddhism2 the others now
 to be described were wholly of the     
,northern division4  ,the ,hoss-shu1 or 
the ,dharma-lakshana sect1 as described 
by the ,rev4 ,dai-ryo ,takashi of the   
,shin-gon sect1 is the school which     
studies the nature of ,dharmas or       
things4 ,the three worlds of desire1    
form and formlessness1 consist in       
thought only2 and there is nothing      
outside thought4 ,nine centuries after  
,gautama1 ,maitreya1#aa or the ,buddha  
of kindness1 came down from the heaven  
of the ,bodhisattva to the lecture-hall 
in the kingdom in central ,india at the 
request of the ,buddhas elect1 and      
discounted five shastras4 ,after that   
two ,buddhist fathers who were brothers1
 composed many more shastras and cleared
 up the meaning of the ,mahyan4 ,in #fbi
 ,a4,d41 in his twenty-ninth year1 the  
famous ,chinese pilgrim1 ,gen-j         
7,hiouen-thsang71 studied these shastras
 and sciences1 and returning to ,china  
in #fde ,a4,d41 began his great work of 

translation1 at which he continued for  
nineteen years4 ,one of his disciples   
was the author of a hundred commentaries
 on sutras and shastras4 ,the doctrines 
of ,gen-j and his disciples were at four
 different times1 from #fec to #gab     
,a4,d41 imported into ,japan1 and named1
 after the monasteries in which they    
were promulgated1 the ,northern and     
,southern ,transmission4   ,the ,middle 
,path4   ,the burden of the teachings of
 this sect is subjective idealism4 ,they
 embrace principles enjoining complete  
indifference to mundane affairs1 and1 in
 fact1 thorough personal nullification  
and the ignoring of all actions by its  
disciples4 ,in these teachings1 thought 
only1 is real4 ,as we have already seen 
with the ,ku-sha teaching1 human beings 
are of three classes1 divided according 
to intellect1 into higher1 middle and   
lower1 for whom the systems of teachings
 are necessarily of as many kinds4 ,the 
order of progress with those who give   
themselves to the study of the ,hoss    

tenets1 is1#ab first1 they know only the
 existence of things1 then the emptiness
 of them1 and finally they enter the    
middle path of true emptiness and       
wonderful existence4  ,from the first1  
such discipline is long and painful1 and
 ultimate victory scarcely comes to the 
ordinary being4 ,the disciple1 by       
training in thought1 by destroying      
passions and practices1 by meditating on
 the only knowledge1 must pass through  
three kalpas or aeons4 ,constantly      
meditating1 and destroying the two      
obstacles of passion and cognizable     
things1 the disciple then obtains four  
kinds of wisdom and truly attains       
perfect enlightenment or ,pari-,nirvana4
  ,the ,san-ron ,shu1 as the            
,three-,shastra sect calls itself1 is   
the sect of the ,teachings of ,buddha's 
whole life4#ac ,other sects are founded 
upon single sutras1 a fact which makes  
the student liable to narrowness of     
opinion4 ,the ,san-ron gives greater    
breadth of view and catholicity of      

opinion4 ,the doctrines of the ,greater 
,vehicle are the principal teachings of 
,gautama1 and these are thoroughly      
explained in the three shastras used by 
this sect1 which1 it is claimed1 contain
 ,buddha's own words4 ,the meanings of  
the titles of the three favorite sutras1
 are1 ,the ,middle ,book1 ,the ,hundred1
 and ,the ,book of ,twelve ,gates4      
,other books of the canon are also      
studied and valued by this sect1 but all
 of them are apt to be perused from a   
particular point of view2 i4e41 that of 
,pyrronism or infinite negation4  ,there
 are two lines of the transmission of   
this doctrine1 both of them through     
,china1 though1 the introduction to     
,japan was made from ,korea1 in #fbe    
,a4,d4 ,not to dwell upon the detail of 
history1 the burden of this sect's      
teaching1 is1 infinite negation or      
absolute nihilism4 ,truth is the        
inconceivable state1 or1 in the words of
 the ,japanese writer3 ,the truth is    
nothing but the state where thoughts    

come to an end2 the right meditation is 
to perceive this truth4 ,he who has     
obtained this meditation is called      
,buddha4 ,this is this doctrine of the  
,san-ron sect4  ,this sect1 by its      
teachings of the ,middle ,path1 seems to
 furnish a bridge from the ,hinayana or 
,southern school1 to the ,mahyan or     
,northern school of ,buddhism4 ,part of 
its work1 as set forth by the ,rev4     
,k-ch ,ogurasu1 of the ,shin sect1 is to
 defend the authenticity1 genuineness   
and canonicity of the books which form  
the ,northern body of scriptures4  ,in  
these two sects ,hos-s and ,san-ron1    
called those of ,middle ,path1 and much 
alike in principle and teaching1 the    
whole end and aim of mental discipline1 
is nihilism--in the one case subjective1
 and in the other absolute1 the end and 
goal being nothing--this view into the  
nature of things being considered the   
right one4  ,is it any wonder that such 
teachings could in the long run satisfy 
neither the trained intellects nor the  

unthinking common people of ,japan8 ,is 
it far from the truth to suspect that1  
even when accepted by the ,japanese     
courtiers and nobles1 they were         
received1 only too often1 in a          
,platonic1 not to say a ,pickwickian1   
sense8 ,the ,japanese is too polite to  
say no if he can possibly say yes1 even 
when he does not mean it2 while the     
common people all over the world1 as    
between metaphysics and polytheism1     
choose the latter4 ,is it any wonder    
that1 along with this propagation of    
,nihilism as taught in the cloisters and
 the court1 history informs us of many  
scandals and much immorality between the
 women of the court and the ,buddhist   
monks8  ,such dogmas were not able to   
live in organized forms1 after the next 
importations of ,buddhism which came in1
 not partly but wholly1 under the name  
of the ,mahyan or ,great ,vehicle1 or   
,northern ,buddhism4 ,by the new        
philosophy1 more concrete and able to   
appeal more closely to the average man1 

these five schools1 which1 in their     
discussions1 dealt almost wholly with   
noumena1 were absorbed4 ,as matter of   
fact1 none of them is now in existence1 
nor can we trace them1 speaking broadly1
 beyond the tenth century4 ,here and    
there1 indeed1 may be a temple bearing  
the name of one of the sects1 or grades 
of doctrine1 and occasionally an        
eccentric individual who witnesses to   
the old metaphysics2 but these are but  
fossils or historical relics1 and are   
generally regarded as such4  ,against   
such baldness of philosophy not only    
might the cultivated ,japanese intellect
 revolt and react1 but as yet the common
 people of ,japan1 despite the modern   
priestly boast of the care of the       
imperial rulers for what the bonzes     
still love to call the people's         
religion1 were but slightly touched by  
the ,indian faith4   ,the ,great        
,vehicle4   ,the ,kgon-,shu or          
,avatamsaka-sutra sect1 is founded on a 
certain teaching which ,gautama is said 

to have promulgated in nine assemblies  
held at seven different places during   
the second week of his enlightenment4   
,this sutra exists in no fewer than six 
texts1 around each of which has gathered
 some interesting mythology4 ,the first 
two tests were held in memory and not   
committed to palm leaves2 the second    
pair are secretly preserved in the      
dragon palace of ,riu-gu#ad under the   
sea1 and are not kept by the men of this
 world4 ,the fifth text of #ajj1jjj     
verses1 was obtained by a ,bodhisattva  
from the palace of the dragon king of   
the world under the sea and transmitted 
to men in ,india4 ,the sixth is the     
abridged text4  ,it concerns us to      
notice that the shorter texts were      
translated into ,chinese in the fourth  
century1 and that later1 other          
translations were made--#cf1jjj verses  
of the fifth text1 #de1jjj verses of the
 sixth text1 etc4 ,when the doctrine of 
the sect had been perfected by the fifth
 patriarch and he lectured on the sutra1

 rays of white light came from his      
mouth1 and there rained wonderful       
heavenly flowers4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gcf a     
,chinese ,vinaya teacher or instructor  
in ,buddhist discipline1 named ,d-sen1  
first brought the ,kgon scriptures to   
,japan4 ,four years later a ,korean     
priest gave lectures on them in the     
,golden-,bell ,hall of the ,great       
,eastern ,monastery at ,nara4 ,he       
completed his task of expounding the    
sixty volumes in three years4           
,henceforth1 lecturing on this sutra    
became one of the yearly services of the
 ,eastern ,great ,monastery4  ,the      
,k-gon sutra is the original book of    
,buddha's teachings of his whole life4  
,all his teachings therefore sprang from
 this sutra4 ,if we attribute all the   
branches to the origin1 we may say that 
there is no teaching of ,buddha for his 
whole life except this sutra4#ae ,the   
title of the book1 when literally       
translated1 is                          
,great-square-wide-,buddha-flower-adornm

ent-teaching--a title sufficiently      
indicative of its rhetoric4 ,the age of 
hard or bold thinking was giving way to 
flowery diction1 and the ,law was to be 
made easy through fine writing4  ,the   
burden of doctrine is the unconditioned 
or realistic1 pantheism4 ,nature        
absolute1 or ,buddha-tathata1 is the    
essence of all things4 ,essence and form
 were in their origin combined and      
identical4 ,fire and water1 though      
phenomenally different1 are from the    
point of view of ,buddha-tathata        
absolutely identical4 ,matter and       
thought are one--that is                
,buddha-tathata4 ,in teaching1          
especially the young1 it must be        
remembered that the mind resembles a    
fair page upon which the artist might   
trace a design1 especial care being     
needed to prevent the impression of evil
 thoughts1 in order to accomplish which 
one must completely and always direct   
the mind to ,buddha4#af ,one notable    
sentence in the text is1 when one first 

raises his thoughts toward the perfect  
knowledge1 he at once becomes fully     
enlightened4  ,in some parts of the     
metaphysical discussions of this sect we
 are reminded of ,european mediaeval    
scholasticism1 especially of that       
discussion as to how many angels could  
dance on the point of a cambric needle  
without jostling each other4 ,it says1  
,even at the point of one grain of dust1
 of immeasurable and unlimited worlds1  
there are innumerable ,buddhas1 who are 
constantly preaching the ,k-gon ki      
7sutra7 throughout the three states of  
existence1 past1 present and future1 so 
that the preaching is not at all to be  
collected4#ag   ,a ,new ,chinese ,sect4 
,in its formal organization the ,ten-dai
 sect is of ,chinese origin4 ,it is     
named after ,tien ,tai1#ah a mountain in
 ,china about fifty miles south of      
,ningpo1 on which the book which forms  
the basis of its tenets was composed by 
,chi-sha1 now canonized as a ,dai ,shi  
or ,great teacher4 ,its special doctrine

 of completion and suddenness was1      
however1 transmitted directly from      
,shaka to ,vairokana and thence to      
,maitreya1 so that the apostolical      
succession of its orthodoxy cannot be   
questioned4  ,the metaphysics of this   
sect are thought to be the most profound
 of the ,greater ,vehicle1 combining    
into a system the two opposite ideas of 
being and not being4 ,the teachers      
encourage all men1 whether quick or slow
 in understanding1 to exercise the      
principle of completion and suddenness1 
together with four doctrinal divisions1 
one or all of which are taught to men   
according to their ability4 ,the object 
of the doctrine is to make men get an   
excellent understanding1 practise good  
discipline and attain to the great fruit
 of ,enlightenment or ,buddha-hood4     
,out of compassion1 ,gautama appeared in
 the world and preached the truth in    
several forms1 according to the         
circumstances of time and place4 ,there 
are four doctrinal divisions of         

completion1 secrecy1 meditation1 and    
moral precept1 which are the means of   
knowing the principle of completion4    
,from ,gautama1 ,vairokana and ,maitreya
 the doctrine passed through more than  
twenty ,buddhas elect1 and arrived in   
,china on the twentieth day of the      
twelfth month1 ,a4,d4 #dja4 ,the        
delivery to disciples was secret1 and   
the term used for this esoteric         
transmission means handed over within   
the tower4  ,in ,a4,d4 #hje1 two        
,japanese pilgrims went to ,china1 and  
received orthodox training4 ,with twenty
 others1 they brought the ,ten-dai      
doctrines into ,japan4 ,during this     
century1 other ,japanese disciples of   
the same sect crossed the seas to study 
at ,mount ,tien ,tai4 ,on coming back to
 ,japan they propagated the various     
shades of doctrine1 so that this main   
sect has many branches4 ,it was chiefly 
through these pilgrims from the ,west   
that the ,sanskrit letters1 writing and 
literature were imported4 ,in our day1  

evidences of ,sanskrit learning1 long   
since neglected and forgotten1 are seen 
chiefly in the graveyards and in charms 
and amulets4  ,although the             
philosophical doctrines of ,ten-dai are 
much the same as those of the ,k-gon    
sect1 being based on pantheistic        
realism1 and teaching that the          
,buddha-tathata or ,nature absolute is  
the essence of all things1 yet the      
,ten-dai school has striking and        
peculiar features of its own4 ,instead  
of taking some particular book or books 
in the canon1 shastra1 or sutra1        
selection or collection1 as a basis1 the
 ,chinese monk ,chi-sha first mastered1 
and then digested the whole canon4 ,then
 selecting certain doctrines for        
emphasis he supported them by a wide    
range of quotation1 professing to give  
the gist of the pure teachings of       
,gautama rather than those of his       
disciples4 ,in practice1 however1 the   
,saddharma ,pundarika is the book most  
honored by this sect2 the other sutras  

being employed mainly as commentary4    
,furthermore1 this sect makes as        
strenuous a claim for the true          
apostolical succession from the         
,founder1 as do the other sects4  ,the  
teachers of ,ten-dai doctrine must fully
 estimate character and ability in their
 pupils1 and so apportion instruction4  
,in this respect and in not a few       
others1 they are like the disciples of  
,loyola1 and have properly been called  
the ,jesuits of ,buddhism4 ,they are    
ascetics1 and teach that spiritual      
insight is possible only through        
prolonged thought4 ,their purpose is to 
recognize the ,buddha1 in all the forms 
he has assumed in order to save mankind4
 ,nevertheless1 the highest truths are  
incomprehensible except to those who    
have already attained to                
,buddha-hood4#ai ,in contrast to the    
,nichirenites1 who give an emotional and
 ultra-concrete interpretation and      
expression to the great sutra1 ,hokk    
,ki1 the ,ten-dai teachers are          

excessively philosophical and           
intellectual4  ,in its history the      
,ten-dai sect has followed out its      
logic4 ,being realistic in pantheism1 it
 reverences not only ,gautama the       
historic ,buddha1 but also1 large       
numbers of the ,hindu deities1 the group
 of idols called ,jiz1 the god ,fudo1   
and ,kuannon the god or goddess of      
mercy1 under his or her protean forms4  
,in its early history this sect welcomed
 to its pantheon the ,shint gods1 who1  
according to the scheme of ,riybu       
,shint1 were declared to be avatars or  
manifestations of ,buddha4 ,the three   
sub-sects still differ in their worship 
of the avatars selected as supreme      
deities1 but their philosophy enables   
them to sweep in the ,buddhas of every  
age and clime1 name and nation4 ,many   
other personifications are found honored
 in the ,ten-dai temples4 ,at the       
gateways may usually be seen the        
colossal painted and hideous images of  
the two ,devas or kings 7,ni-,o74 ,these

 worthies are none other than ,indra and
 ,brahma of the old ,vedic mythology4   
,space and time--which seem never to    
fail the ,buddhists in their            
literature--would fail us to describe   
this sect in full1 or to show in detail 
its teachings1 wherein are wonderful    
resemblances to ,european ideas and     
facts--in philosophy1 to ,hegel and     
,spinoza find in history1 to ,jesuitism4
 ,nor can we stay to point out the many 
instances in which1 invading the domain 
of politics1 the ,ten-dai abbots with   
their armies of monks1 having made their
 monasteries military arsenals and      
issuing forth clad in armor as infantry 
and cavalry1 have turned the scale of   
battle or dictated policies to emperors4
 ,like the ,praetorian guard of ,rome or
 the clerical militia in ,spain1 these  
men of keen intellect have left their   
marks deep upon the social and political
 history of the country in which they   
dwelt4 ,they have understood thoroughly 
the art of practising religion for the  

sake of revenue4 ,to secure their ends1 
priests have made partnerships with     
other sects2 in order to hold ,shint    
shrines1 they have married to secure    
heirs and make office hereditary2 and   
finally in the ,purification of #ahgj1  
when the ,riybu system was blown to the 
winds by the ,japanese ,government1 not 
a few priests of this sect became       
laymen1 in order to keep both office and
 emolument in the purified ,shint       
shrines4   ,the ,sect of the ,true      
,word4   ,it is probable that the       
conquest and obliteration of ,shint     
might have been accomplished by some    
priest or priests of the ,ten-dai sect1 
had such a genius as ,kb been found in  
its household2 but this great           
achievement was reserved for the man who
 introduced into ,japan the ,shin-gon   
,shu1 or ,sect of the ,true ,word4 ,the 
term gon is the equivalent of           
,mantra1#bj a ,sanskrit term meaning    
word1 but in later use referring to the 
mystic salutations addressed to the     

,buddhist gods4 ,the doctrine of this   
sect is a great secret law4 ,it teaches 
us that we can attain to the state of   
the ',great ,enlightened1' that is the  
state of ',buddha1' while in the present
 physical body1 which was born of our   
parents 7and which consists of six      
elements1#ba ,earth1 ,water1 ,fire1     
,wind1 ,ether1 and ,knowledge71 if we   
follow the three great secret laws1     
regarding ,body1 ,speech1 and           
,thought4#bb  ,the history of the       
transmission of the doctrine from the   
greatest of the spirit-bodied ,buddhas  
to the historic founder1 ,vagrabodhi1 is
 carefully given4 ,the latter was a man 
very learned in regard to many doctrines
 of ,buddhism and other religious1 and  
was especially well acquainted with the 
deepest meaning of the doctrine of this 
sect1 which he taught in ,india for a   
considerable time4 ,the doctrine is     
recorded in several sutras1 yet the     
essential point is nothing but the      
,mandala1 or circle of the two parts1   

or1 in ,japanese1 ,riybu4  ,the great   
preacher1 ,vagrabodhi1 in #gbj ,a4,d41  
came with his disciples to the capital  
of ,china1 and translated the sacred    
books1 seventy-seven in number4 ,this   
doctrine is the well-known ,yoga-chara1 
which has been well set forth by ,doctor
 ,edkins in his scholarly volume on     
,chinese ,buddhism4 ,as yoga becomes in 
plain ,english yoke1 and as mantra is   
from the same root as man and mind1 we  
have no difficulty in recognizing the   
original meaning of these terms2 the one
 in its nobler significance referring to
 union with ,buddha or ,gnosis1 and the 
other to the thought taking lofty       
expression or being debased to          
hocus-pocus in charm or amulet4 ,like   
the history of so many ,sanskrit words  
as now uttered in every-day ,english    
speech1 the story of the word mantra    
forms a picture of mental processes and 
apparently of the degradation of        
thought1 or1 as some will doubtless say1
 of the decay of religion4 ,the term    

mantra meant first1 a thought2 then     
thought expressed2 then a ,vedic hymn or
 text2 next a spell or charm4 ,such have
 been the later associations1 in ,india1
 ,china and ,japan with the term mantra4
  ,the burden of the philosophy of the  
,shin-gon1 looked at from one point of  
view1 is mysticism1 and from another1   
pantheism4 ,one of the forms of ,buddha 
is the principle of everything4 ,there  
are ten stages of thought1 and there are
 two parts1 lengthwise and crosswise or 
exoteric and esoteric4 ,other doctrines 
of ,buddhism represent the first1 or    
exoteric stage2 and those of the        
,shin-gon or true word1 the second1 or  
esoteric4 ,the primordial principle is  
identical with that of ,maha-,vairokana1
 one of the forms#bc of ,buddha4 ,the   
body1 the word and the thought are the  
three mysteries1 which being found in   
all beings1 animate and inanimate1 are  
to be fully understood only by ,buddhas1
 and not by ordinary men4  ,to show the 
actual method of intellectual procedure 

in order to reach ,buddha-hood1 many    
categories1 tables and diagrams are     
necessary2 but the crowning tenet1 most 
far reaching in its practical influence1
 is the teaching that it is possible to 
reach the state of ,buddha-hood in this 
present body4  ,as discipline for the   
attainment of excellence along the path 
marked out in the ,mantra sect1 there   
are three mystic rites3 7#a7 worshipping
 the ,buddha with the hand in certain   
positions called signs2 7#b7 repeating  
,dharani1 or mystic formulas2 7#c7      
contemplation4  ,kb himself and all     
those who imitated him1 practised       
fasting in order to clear the spiritual 
eyesight4 ,the thinking-chairs1 so      
conspicuous in many old monasteries1    
though warmed at intervals through the  
ages by the living bodies of men        
absorbed in contemplation1 are rarely   
much worn by the sitters1 because almost
 absolute cessation of motion           
characterizes the long and hard thinkers
 of the ,shin-gon philosophers4 ,the    

idols in the ,shin-gon temples represent
 many a saint and disciple1 who1 by     
perseverance in what a critic of        
,buddhism calls mind-murder1 and the use
 of mystic finger twistings and magic   
formulas1 has won either the ,nirvana or
 the penultimate stage of the           
,bodhisattva4  ,in the sermons and      
discourses of ,shin-gon1 the subtle     
points of an argument are seized and    
elaborated4 ,these are mystical on the  
one side1 and pantheistic on the other4 
,it is easily seen how ,buddha1 being in
 ,japanese gods as well as men1 and no  
being without ,buddha1 the way is made  
clear for that kind of a marriage       
between ,buddhism and ,shint1 in which  
the two become one1 and that one1 as to 
revenue and advantage1 ,buddhism4       
,truth ,made ,apparent by ,one's ,own   
,thought4   ,the ,japanese of to-day    
often speak of these seven religious    
bodies which we have enumerated and     
described1 as the old sects1 because    
much of the philosophy1 and many of the 

forms and prayers1 are common to all1   
or1 more accurately speaking1 are       
popularly supposed to be2 while the     
priests1 being celibates1 refrain from  
sak1 flesh and fish1 and from all       
intimate relations with women4 ,yet1    
although these sects are considered to  
be more or less conformable to the canon
 of the ,greater ,vehicle1 and while the
 last three certainly introduce many of 
its characteristic features--one sect   
teaching that ,buddha-hood could be     
obtained even in the present body of    
flesh and blood--yet the idea of        
,paradise had not been exploited or     
emphasized4 ,this new gospel was to be  
introduced into ,japan by the ,j-d ,shu 
or ,sect of the ,pure ,land4  ,before   
detailing the features of ,j-d1 we call 
attention to the fact that in ,japan the
 propagation of the old sects was       
accompanied by an excessive use of      
idols1 images1 pictures1 sutras1        
shastras and all the furniture thought  
necessary in a ,buddhist temple4 ,the   

course of thought and action in the     
,orient is in many respects similar to  
that in the ,occident4 ,in western      
lands1 with the ebb and flow of         
religious sentiment1 the iconolater has 
been followed by the iconoclast1 and the
 overcrowded cathedrals have been purged
 by the hammer and fire of the          
,protestant and ,puritan4 ,so in ,japan 
we find analogous1 though not exactly   
similar1 reactions4 ,the rise and       
prosperity of the believers in the ,zen 
dogmas1 which in their early history    
used sparingly the eikon1 idol and      
sutra1 give some indication of protest  
against too much use of externals in    
religion4 ,may we call them the ,quakers
 of ,japanese ,buddhism8 ,certainly1    
theirs was a movement in the direction  
of simplicity4  ,the introduction of the
 ,zen1 or contemplative sect1 did1 in a 
sense1 both precede and follow that of  
,shingon4 ,the word ,zen is a shortened 
form of the term ,zenna1 which is a     
transliteration into ,chinese of the    

,sanskrit word ,dhyana1 or              
contemplation4 ,it teaches that the     
truth is not in tradition or in books1  
but in one's self4 ,emphasis is laid on 
introspection rather than on language4  
,look carefully within and there you    
will find the ,buddha1 is its chief     
tenet4 ,in the ,zen monasteries1 the    
chair of contemplation is1 or ought to  
be1 always in use4  ,the ,zen ,shu      
movement may be said to have arisen out 
of a reaction against the multiplication
 of idols4 ,it indicated a return to    
simpler forms of worship and conduct4   
,let us inquire how this was4  ,it may  
be said that ,buddhism1 especially      
,northern ,buddhism1 is a vast1         
complicated system4 ,it has a literature
 and a sacred canon which one can think 
of only in connection with long trains  
of camels to carry1 or freight trains to
 transport1 or ships a good deal bigger 
than the ,mayflower to import4 ,its     
multitudinous rules and systems of      
discipline appall the spirit and weary  

the flesh even to enumerate them2 so    
that1 from one point of view1 the making
 of new sects is a necessity4 ,these are
 labor-saving inventions4 ,they are     
attempts to reduce the great bulk of    
scriptures to manageable proportions4   
,they seek to find1 as it were1 the     
mother-liquor of the great ocean1 so as 
to express the truth in a crystal4      
,hence the endeavors to simplify1 to    
condense2 here1 by a selection of       
sutras1 rather than the whole           
collection2 there1 by emphasis on a     
single feature and a determination to   
put the whole thing in a form which can 
be grasped1 either by the elect few or  
by the people at large4  ,the ,zen sect 
did this in a more rational way than    
that set forth as orthodox by later     
priestcraft1 which taught that to the   
believer who simply turned round the    
revolving library containing the canon1 
the merit of having read it all would be
 imputed4 ,the rin-z#bd found near the  
large temples1--the cunning invention of

 a ,chinese priest in the sixth         
century1--soon became popular in ,japan4
 ,the great wooden book-case turning on 
a pivot contains #f1gga volumes1 that   
being the number of canonical volumes   
enumerated in ,china and ,japan4  ,the  
,zen sect teaches that1 besides all the 
doctrines of the ,greater and the       
,lesser ,vehicles1 whether hidden or    
apparent1 there is one distinct line of 
transmission of a secret doctrine which 
is not subject to any utterance at all4 
,according to their tenet of            
contemplation1 one is to see directly   
the key to the thought of ,buddha by his
 own thought1 thus freeing himself from 
the multitude of different              
doctrines--the number of which is said  
to be eighty-four thousand4 ,in fact1   
,zen ,shu or ,dhyana sect teaches the   
short method of making truth apparent by
 one's own thought1 apart from the      
writings4  ,the story of the            
transmission of the true ,zen doctrine  
is this3      ,when the blessed ,shaka  

was at the assembly on ,vulture's ,peak1
     there came the heavenly king1 who  
offered the ,buddha a     golden-colored
 flower and asked him to preach the law4
 ,the     ,blessed ,one simply took the 
flower and held it in his hand1 but     
said no word4 ,no one in the whole      
assembly could tell what he     meant4  
,the venerable ,mahahasyapa alone       
smiled4 ,than the ,blessed     ,one said
 to him1 ',i have the wonderful thought 
of ,nirvana1 the     eye of the ,right  
,law1 which ,i shall now give to        
you4'#be ,thus     was ushered in the   
doctrine of thought transmitted by      
thought4  ,after twenty-eight patriarchs
 had taught the doctrine of             
contemplation1 the last came into ,china
 in ,a4,d4 #ebj1 and tried to teach the 
,emperor the secret key of ,buddha's    
thought4 ,this missionary ,bodhidharma  
was the third son of a king of the      
,kashis1 in ,southern ,india1 and the   
historic original of the tobacconist's  
shop-sign in ,japan1 who is known as    

,daruma4 ,the imperial ,chinaman was not
 yet able to understand the secret key  
of ,buddha's thought4 ,so the ,hindu    
missionary went to the monastery on     
,mount ,su1 where in meditation1 he sat 
down cross-legged with his face to a    
wall1 for nine years1 by which time1    
says the legend1 his legs had rotted off
 and he looked like a snow-image4       
,during that period1 people did not know
 him1 and called him simply the         
,wall-gazing ,brahmana4 ,afterward he   
had a number of disciples1 but they had 
different views that are called the     
transmissions of the skin1 flesh1 or    
bone of the teacher4 ,only one of them  
got the whole body of his teachings4    
,two great sects were formed3 the       
,northern1 which was undivided1 and the 
,southern1 which branched off into five 
houses and seven schools4 ,the ,northern
 ,sect was introduced into ,japan by a  
,chinese priest in #gbi ,a4,d41 while   
the ,southern was not brought over until
 the twelfth century4 ,in both it is    

taught that perfect tranquillity of body
 and mind is essential to salvation4    
,the doctrine is the most sublime one1  
of thought transmitted by thought being 
entirely independent of any letters or  
words4 ,another name for them is1 ,the  
,sect whose ,mind ,assimilates with     
,buddha1 direct from whom it claims to  
have received its articles of faith4    
,too often this idea of ,buddhaship1    
consisting of absolute freedom from     
matter and thought1 means practically   
mind-murder1 and the emptiness of idle  
reverie4  ,contrasting modern reality   
with their ancient ideal1 it must be    
confessed that in practice there is not 
a little letter worship and a good deal 
of pedantry2 for1 in all the teachings  
of abstract principles by the different 
sects1 there are endless puns or plays  
upon words in the renderings of ,chinese
 characters4 ,this arises from that     
antithesis of extreme poverty in sounds 
with amazing luxuriance in written      
expression1 which characterizes both the

 ,chinese and ,japanese languages4  ,in 
the temples we find that the later      
deities introduced into the ,buddhist   
pantheon are here also welcome1 and that
 the triads or groups of three precious 
ones1 the ,buddhist trinity1            
so-called1#bf are surrounded by gods of 
,chinese or ,japanese origin4 ,the ,zen 
sect1 according to its professions and  
early history1 ought to be indifferent  
to worldly honors and emoluments1 and   
indeed many of its devotees are4 ,its   
history1 however1 shows how poorly      
mortals live up to their principles and 
practise what they preach4 ,furthermore1
 these professors of peace and of the   
joys of the inner life in the ,s-t or   
sub-sect have made the twenty-fifth and 
twenty-sixth years of ,meiji1 or ,a4,d4 
#ahic and #ahid1 famous and themselves  
infamous by their long-continued and    
scandalous intestine quarrels4 ,of the  
three sub-sects1 those called ,rin-zai  
and ,s-t1 take their names from ,chinese
 monks of the ninth century2 while the  

third1 ,o-baku1 founded in ,japan in the
 seventeenth century1 is one of the     
latest importations of ,chinese         
,buddhistic thought in the ,land of the 
,rising ,sun4  ,japanese authors usually
 classify the first six denominations at
 which we have glanced1 some of which   
are phases of thought rather than       
organizations1 as the ancient sects4    
,ten-dai and ,shin-gon are the medieval 
sects4 ,the remaining four1 of which we 
shall now treat1 and which are more     
particularly ,japanese in spirit and    
development1 are the modern sects4      
,,chapter ,,ix - ,,the ,,buddhism ,,of  
,,the ,,japanese      ,a drop of spray  
cast by the infinite     ,i hung an     
instant there1 and threw my ray     ,to 
make the rainbow4 ,a microcosm ,i       
,reflecting all4 ,then back ,i fell     
again1     ,and though ,i perished not1 
,i was no more4--     ,the ,pantheist's 
,epitaph4      ,buddhism is essentially 
a religion of compromise4      ,where   
,christianity has ,one ,lord1 ,buddhism 

has a dozen4      ,i think ,i may safely
 challenge the ,buddhist priesthood to  
give     a plain historical account of  
the ,life of ,amida1 ,kwannon1          
,dainichi1 or any other ,mahyna ,buddha1
 without being in     serious danger of 
forfeiting my stakes4      ,christianity
 openly puts this ,absolute             
,unconditioned ,essence in     the      
forefront of its teaching4 ,in ,buddhism
 this absolute     existence is only put
 forward1 when the logic of             
circumstances     compels its teachers  
to have recourse to it4--,a4 ,lloyd1 in 
,the     ,higher ,buddhism in the ,light
 of the ,nicene creed4      ,now these  
six characters1                         
',na-mu-,a-mi-da-,butsu1' ,zend- has    
explained as follows3 ',namn' means our 
following ,his     behest--and also ,his
 uttering the ,prayer and bestowing     
merit     upon us4 ',amida ,butsu' is   
the practice of this1 consequently by   
this means a certainty of salvation is  
attained4      ,by reason of the        

conferring on us sentient creators of   
this     great goodness and great merit 
through the utterance of the            
,prayer1 and the bestowal by ,amida the 
evil ,karma and effect     of the       
passions accumulated through the long   
,kalpas1 since when     there was no    
beginning1 are in a moment annihilated1 
and in     consequence1 those passions  
and evil ,karma of ours all             
disappearing1 we live already in the    
condition of the steadfast1     who do  
not return to revolve in the cycle of   
,birth and     ,death4--,renny of the   
,shin sect1 #adgc4      ,in the         
beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word  
was with ,god1 and     the ,word was    
,god4--,john4      ,the ,father of      
lights1 with whom there is no           
variableness1     neither shadow of     
turning4--,james4   ,,chapter ,,ix -    
,,the ,,buddhism ,,of ,,the ,,japanese  
,the ,western ,paradise4   ,we cannot   
take space to show how1 or how much1 or 
whether at all1 ,buddhism was affected  

by ,christianity1 though it probably    
was4 ,suffice it to say that the ,j-d   
,shu1 or ,sect of the ,pure ,land1 was  
the first of the many denominations in  
,buddhism which definitely and clearly  
set forth that especial peculiarity of  
,northern ,buddhism1 the ,western       
,paradise4 ,the school of thought which 
issued in ,j-d ,shu was founded by the  
,hindoo1 ,memio4 ,in ,a4,d4 #beb an     
,indian scholar1 learned in the         
,tripitaka1 came to ,china1 and         
translated one of the great sutras1     
called ,amitayus4 ,this sutra gives a   
history of ,tathagata ,amitabha1#a from 
the first spiritual impulses which led  
him to the attainment of ,buddha-hood in
 remote ,kalpas down to the present     
time1 when he dwells in the ,western    
,world1 called the ,happy1 where he     
receives all living beings from every   
direction1 helping them to turn away    
from confusion and to become            
enlightened4#b ,the apocalyptic         
twentieth chapter of the ,hokk ,ki is a 

glorification of the transcendent power 
of the ,tathagatas1 expressed in        
flamboyant oriental rhetoric4  ,we have 
before called attention to the fact     
that1 with the multiplication of sutras 
or the ,sacred ,canon and the vast      
increase of the apparatus of ,buddhism  
as well as of the hardships of brain and
 body to be undergone in order to be a  
,buddhist1 it was absolutely necessary  
that some labor-saving system should be 
devised by which the burden could be    
borne4 ,now1 as a matter of fact1 all   
sects claim to found their doctrine on  
,buddha or his work4 ,according to the  
teaching of certain sects1 the means of 
salvation are to be found in the study  
of the whole canon1 and in the practice 
of asceticism and meditation4 ,on the   
contrary1 the new lights of ,buddhism   
who came as missionaries into ,china1   
protested against this expenditure of so
 much mental and physical energy4 ,one  
of the first ,chinese propagators of the
 ,j-d doctrine declared that it was     

impossible1 owing to the decay of       
religion in his own age1 for anyone to  
be saved in this way by his own efforts4
 ,hence1 instead of the noble eight-fold
 path of primitive ,buddhism1 or of the 
complicated system of the later         
,buddhistic ,phariseeism of ,india1 he  
substituted for the difficult road to   
,nirvana1 a simple faith in the         
all-saving power of ,amida4 ,in one of  
the sutras it is taught1 that if a man  
keeps in his memory the name of ,amida  
one day1 or seven days1 the ,buddha     
together with ,buddhas elect1 will meet 
him at the moment of his death1 in order
 to let him be born in the ,pure ,land1 
and that this matter has been equally   
approved by all other ,buddhas of ten   
different directions4  ,one of the      
sutras1 translated in ,china during the 
fifth century1 contains the teaching of 
,buddha1 which he delivered to the wife 
of the ,king of ,magudha1 who on account
 of the wickedness of her son was       
feeling weary of this world4 ,he showed 

her how she might be born into the ,pure
 ,land4 ,three paths of good actions    
were pointed out4 ,toward the end of the
 particular sutra which he advised her  
to read and recite1 ,buddha says3 ,let  
not one's voice cease1 but ten times    
complete the thought1 and repeat the    
formula1 of the adoration of ,amida4    
,this practice1 adds the ,japanese      
exegete and historian1 is the most      
excellent of all4  ,how well this latter
 teaching is practised may be           
demonstrated when one goes into a       
,buddhist temple of the ,j-d sect in    
,japan1 and hears the constant          
refrain1--murmured by the score or more 
of listeners to the sermon1 or swelling 
like the roar of the ocean's waves1 on  
festival days1 when thousands sit on the
 mats beneath the fretted roof to enjoy 
the exposition of doctrine--,namu ,amida
 ,butsu--,glory to the ,eternal         
,buddha6#c  ,the apostolical succession 
or transmission through the patriarchs  
and apostles of ,india and ,china1 is   

well known and clearly stated1 withal   
duly accredited and embellished with    
signs and wonders1 in the historical    
literature of the ,j-d sect4 ,in        
,buddhism1 as in ,christianity1 the     
questions relating to ,true ,churchism1 
,high ,churchism1 the succession of the 
apostles1 teachers and rulers1 and the  
validity of this or that method of      
ordination1 form a large part of the    
literature of controversy4              
,nevertheless1 as in the case of many a 
,christian sect which calls itself the  
only true church1 the date of the       
organization of ,j-d was centuries later
 than that of the ,founder and apostles 
of the original faith4 ,five hundred    
years after ,zen-d 7,a4,d4 #fjj-fej71   
the great propagator of the ,j-d        
philosophy1 ,h-nen1 the founder of the  
,j-d sect1 was born2 and this phase of  
organized ,buddhism1 like that of ,shin 
,shu and ,nichirer ,shu1 may be classed 
under the head of ,eastern or ,japanese 
,buddhism4  ,when only nine years of    

age1 the boy afterward called ,h-nen1   
was converted by his father's dying     
words4 ,he went to school in his native 
province1 but his priest-teacher        
foreseeing his greatness1 sent him to   
the monastery of ,hiyizan1 near ,kito4  
,the boy's letter of introduction       
contained only these words3 ,i send you 
an image of the ,bodhisattva1 7,mon-ju7 
,manjusri4 ,the boy shaved his head and 
received the precepts of the ,ten-dai   
sect1 but in his eighteenth year1       
waiving the prospect of obtaining the   
headship of the great denomination1 he  
built a hut in the ,black ,ravine and   
there five times read through the five  
thousand volumes#d of the ,tripitaka4   
,he did this for the purpose of finding 
out1 for the ordinary and ignorant      
people of the present day1 how to escape
 from misery4 ,he studied ,zen-d's      
commentary1 and repeated his examination
 eight times4 ,at last1 he noticed a    
passage in it beginning with the words1 
,chiefly remember or repeat the name of 

,amida with a whole and undivided heart4
 ,then he at once understood the thought
 of ,zen-d1 who taught in his work that 
whoever at any time practises to        
remember ,buddha1 or calls his name even
 but once1 will gain the right effect of
 going to be born in the ,pure ,land    
after death4 ,this ,japanese student    
then abandoned all sorts of practices   
which he had hitherto followed for      
years1 and began to repeat the name of  
,amida ,buddha sixty thousand times a   
day4 ,this event occurred in ,a4,d4     
#aage4   ,h-nen1 ,founder of the ,pure  
,land ,sect4   ,this path-finder to the 
,pure ,land1 who developed a special    
doctrine of salvation1 is best known by 
his posthumous title of ,h-nen4 ,during 
his lifetime he was very famous and     
became the spiritual preceptor of three 
,mikados4 ,after his death his biography
 was compiled in forty-eight volumes by 
imperial order1 and later1 three other  
emperors copied or republished it4 ,in  
the history of ,japan this sect has been

 one of the most influential1 especially
 with the imperial and shgunal families4
 ,in ,kito the magnificent temples and  
monasteries of ,chin-in1 and in ,tki    
,z-j-ji1 are the chief seats of the two 
principal divisions of this sect4 ,the  
gorgeous mausoleums1--well known to     
every foreign tourist1--at ,shiba and   
,uyno in ,tki1 and the clustered and    
matchless splendors of ,nikk1 belong to 
this sect1 which has been under the     
patronage of the illustrious line of the
 ,tokugawa1#e while its temples and     
shrines are numbered by many thousands4 
,the doctrine of the ,j-d1 or the ,pure 
,land ,sect1 is easily discerned4 ,one  
of ,buddha's disciples said1 that in the
 teachings of the ,master there are two 
divisions or vehicles4 ,in the          
,maha-yana also there are two gates2 the
 ,holy path1 and the ,pure ,land4 ,the  
,smaller ,vehicle is the doctrine by    
which the immediate disciples of ,buddha
 and those for five hundred years       
succeeding1 practised the various       

virtues and discipline4 ,the gateway of 
the ,maha-yana is also the doctrine1 by 
which in addition to the trainings      
mentioned1 there are also understood the
 three virtues of spiritual body1 wisdom
 and deliverance4 ,the man who is able  
successfully to complete this course of 
discipline and practice is no ordinary  
person1 but is supposed to possess merit
 produced from good actions performed in
 a former state of existence4 ,the      
doctrine by which man may do so1 is     
called the gate of the ,holy ,path4     
,during the fifteen hundred years after 
,buddha there were from time to time1   
such personages in the world1 who       
attained the end of the ,holy ,path2 but
 in these latter days people are more   
insincere1 covetous and contentious1 and
 the discipline is too hard for         
degenerate times and men4 ,the three    
trainings already spoken of are the     
correct causes of deliverance2 but if   
people think them as useless as last    
year's almanac1 when can they complete  

their deliverance8 ,h-nen1 deeply       
meditating on this1 shut up the gate of 
the ,holy ,path and opened that of the  
,pure ,land2 for in the former the      
effective deliverance is expected in    
this world by the three trainings of    
morality1 thought and learning1 but in  
the latter the great fruit of going to  
be born in the ,pure ,land after death1 
is expected through the sole practice of
 repeating ,buddha's name4  ,moreover1  
it is not easy to accomplish the cause  
and effect of the ,holy ,path1 but both 
those of the doctrine of the ,pure ,land
 are very easy to be completed4 ,the    
difference is like that between         
travelling by land and travelling by    
water4#f ,the doctrines preached by the 
,buddha are eighty-four thousand in     
number2 that is to say1 he taught one   
kind of people one system1 that of the  
,holy ,path1 and another kind that of   
the ,pure ,land4 ,the ,pure ,land       
doctrine of ,h-nen was derived from the 
sutra preached by the great teacher     

,shaka4  ,this simple doctrine of land  
travel to ,paradise was one which the   
people of ,japan could easily           
understand1 and it became amazingly     
popular4 ,salvation along this route is 
a case of being carried to the skies on 
flowery beds of ease1 while others      
sought to win the prize and sailed      
through bloody seas4  ,largely through  
the influence of ,j-d ,shu and of those 
sects most closely allied to it1 the    
technical terms1 peculiar phraseology   
and vocabulary of ,buddhism became part 
of the daily speech of the ,japanese4   
,when one studies their language he     
finds that it is a complicated organism1
 including within itself several        
distinct systems4 ,just as the human    
body harmonizes within itself such      
vastly differing organized functions as 
the osseous1 digestive1 respiratory1    
etc41 so1 embedded in what is called the
 ,japanese language1 there are1 also1 a 
,chinese vocabulary1 a polite           
vernacular1 one system of expression for

 superiors1 another for inferiors1 etc4 
,last of all1 there is1 besides a       
peculiar system of pronunciation taught 
by the priests1 a ,buddhist language1   
which suggests a firmament of starry and
 a prairie of flowery metaphors1 with   
intermediate deeps of space full of     
figurative expressions4  ,in our own    
mother tongue we have something similar4
 ,the dialect of ,canaan1 the           
importations of ,judaism1 the irruptions
 of ,hebraic idioms1 phrases and names  
into ,puritanism1 and the ejaculations  
of the camp-meeting1 which vein and     
color our ,english speech1 may give some
 idea of the variegated strains which   
make up the ,japanese language4         
,further1 the peculiar nomenclature of  
the ,fifth ,monarchy men1 is fully      
paralleled in the personal names of     
priests and even of laymen in ,japan4   
,characteristics of the ,j-d ,sect4     
,h-nen teaches that the solution of     
abstract questions and doctrinal        
controversies is not needed as means of 

grace to promote the work of salvation4 
,whether the priests and their followers
 were learned and devout1 or the        
contrary1 mattered little as regards the
 final result1 as all that is necessary 
is the continual repetition of the      
prayer to ,amida4  ,it may be added that
 his followers practise the master's    
precepts with emphasis4 ,their incessant
 pounding upon wooden fish-drums and    
bladder-shaped bells during their public
 exercises1 is as noisy as a frontier   
camp-meeting4 ,the rosary is a notable  
feature in the private devotions of the 
,buddhists1 but the ,j-d sect makes     
especial use of the double rosary1 which
 was invented with the idea of being    
manipulated by the left hand only2 this 
gave freedom to the right hand1         
facilitating a happy combination of     
spiritual and secular duty4 ,at funerals
 of believers a particular ceremony was 
exclusively practised by this sect1 at  
which the friends of the deceased sat in
 a circle facing the priest1 making as  

many repetitions as possible4#g  ,in    
,mohammedan countries1 blind men1 who   
cannot look down into the surrounding   
gardens or house tops at the pretty     
women in or on them1 but who have clear 
and penetrating voices1 are often chosen
 us muezzins to utter the call to prayer
 from the minarets4 ,on much the same   
principle1 in ,old ,japan1 ,j-d priests1
 blind to metaphysics1 but handsome1    
elegantly dressed and with fine         
delivery1 went about the streets singing
 and intoning prayers1 rich presents    
being made to them1 especially by the   
ladies4 ,the ,j-d people cultivate art  
and aesthetic ornamentation to a notable
 degree4 ,they also understand the art  
of fictitious and sensational           
miracle-mongering4 ,it is said that     
,zen-d1 the famous ,chinese founder of  
this ,chinese sect1 when writing his    
commentary1 prayed for a wonderful      
exhibition of supernatural power4       
,thereupon1 a being arrayed as a priest 
of dignified presence gave him          

instruction on the division of the text 
in his first volume4 ,hence ,zen-d      
treats his own work as if it were the   
work of ,buddha1 and says that no one is
 allowed either to add or to take away  
even a word or sentence of the book4    
,the ,pure ,land is the western world   
where ,amida lives4 ,it is perfectly    
pure and free from faults4 ,those who   
wish to go thither will certainly be    
re-born there1 but otherwise they will  
not4 ,this world1 on the contrary1 is   
the effect of the action of all beings1 
so that even those who do not wish to be
 born here are nevertheless obliged to  
come4 ,this world is called the ,path of
 ,pain1 because it is full of all sorts 
of pains1 such as birth1 old age1       
disease1 death1 etc4 ,this is therefore 
a world not to be attached to1 but to be
 estranged and separated from4 ,one who 
is disgusted with this world1 and who is
 filled with desire for that world1 will
 after death be born there4 ,not to     
doubt about these words of ,buddha1 even

 in the slightest degree1 is called deep
 faith2 but if one entertains the least 
doubts he will not be born there4 ,hence
 the saying3 ,in the great sea of the   
law of ,buddha1 faith is the only means 
to enter4   ,salvation ,through the     
,merits of ,another4   ,in this absolute
 trust in the all-saving power of ,amida
 as compared with the ways promulgated  
before1 we see the emergence of the     
,buddhist doctrine of justification by  
faith1 the simplification of theology1  
and a revolt against ,buddhist          
scholasticism4 ,the ,japanese technical 
term1 tariki1 or relying upon the       
strength of another1 renouncing all idea
 of ji-riki or self-power1#h is the     
substance of the ,j-d doctrine2 but the 
expanded term ta-riki chin no ji-riki1  
or self-effort depending on another1    
while expressing the whole dogma1 is    
rather scornfully applied to the        
,j-dists by the men of the ,shin sect4  
,the invocation of ,amida is a          
meritorious act of the believer1 much   

repetition being the substance of this  
combination of personal and vicarious   
work4  ,h-nen1 after making his         
discovery1 believing it possible for all
 mankind eventually to attain to perfect
 ,buddhaship1 left1 as we have seen1 the
 ,ten-dai sect1 which represented       
particularism and laid emphasis on the  
idea of the elect4 ,h-nen taught        
,buddhist universalism4 ,belief and     
repetition of prayer secure birth into  
the ,pure ,land after the death of the  
body1 and then the soul moves onward    
toward the perfection of ,buddha-hood4  
,the ,japanese were delighted to have   
among them a genius who could thus      
,japanize ,buddhism1 and ,j-d doctrine  
went forth conquering and to conquer4   
,from the twelfth century1 the tendency 
of ,japanese ,buddhism is in the        
direction of universalism and democracy4
 ,in later developments of ,j-d1 the    
pantheistic tendencies are emphasized   
and the syncretistic powers are         
enlarged4 ,while mysticism is a striking

 feature of the sect and the attainment 
of truth is by the grace of ,amida1 yet 
the native ,kami of ,japan are logically
 accepted as avatars of ,buddha4        
,history had little or no rights in the 
case2 philosophy was dictator1 and that 
philosophy was ,h-nen's4 ,those later   
,chinese deities made by personifying   
attributes or abstract ideas1 which     
sprang up after the introduction of     
,buddhism into ,china1 are also welcomed
 into the temples of this sect4 ,that   
the common people really believe that   
they themselves may attain ,buddha-hood 
at death1 and enter the ,pure ,land1 is 
shown in the fact that their ordinary   
expression for the dead saint is        
,hotok--a general term for all the gods 
that were once human4 ,some popular     
proverbs indicate this in a form that   
easily lends itself to irreverence and  
merriment4  ,the whole tendency of      
,japanese ,buddhism and its full        
momentum were now toward the development
 of doctrine even to startling          

proportions4 ,instead of the ancient    
path of asceticism and virtue with      
agnosticism and atheism1 we see the     
means of salvation put now1 and perhaps 
too easily1 within the control of all4  
,the pathway to ,paradise was made not  
only exceedingly plain1 but also        
extremely easy1 perhaps even            
ridiculously so2 while the door was open
 for an outburst of new and local       
doctrines unknown to ,india1 or even to 
,china4 ,the rampant vigor with which   
,japanese ,buddhism began to absorb     
everything in heaven1 earth and sea1    
which it could make a worshipable object
 or cause to stand as a ,kami or deity  
to the mind1 will be seen as we proceed4
 ,the native proverb1 instead of being  
an irreverent joke1 stands for an actual
 truth--,even a sardine's head may      
become an object of worship4   ,reformed
 ,buddhism4   ,we now look at what      
foreigners call ,reformed ,buddhism1    
which some even imagine has been        
borrowed from ,protestant               

,christianity--notwithstanding that it  
is centuries older than the ,reformation
 in ,europe4  ,the ,shin ,shu or ,true  
,sect1 though really founded on the ,j-d
 doctrines1 is separate from the sect of
 the ,pure ,land4 ,yet1 besides being   
called the ,shin ,shu1 it is also spoken
 of as the ,j-d ,shin ,shu or the ,true 
,sect of the ,pure ,land4 ,it is the    
extreme form of the ,protestantism of   
,buddhism4 ,it lays emphasis on the idea
 of salvation wholly through the merits 
of another1 but it also paints in richer
 tints the sensuous delights of the     
,western ,paradise4 ,as the term ,pure  
,land is antithetical to that of the    
,holy ,path1 so the word ,shin1 or      
,true1 expresses the contrary of what   
are termed the temporary expedients4    
,while some say that we should practise 
good works1 bring our stock of merits to
 maturity1 and be born in the ,pure     
,land1 others say that we need only     
repeat the name of ,amida in order to be
 born in the ,pure ,land1 by the merit  

produced from such repetition4 ,these   
doctrines concerning repetitions1       
however1 are all considered but         
temporary expedients4 ,so also is the   
rigid classification1 so prominent in   
the old sects1 of all beings or pupils  
into three grades4 ,as in ,islam or     
,calvinism1 all believers stand on a    
level4 ,to ,shin-ran the ,radical1 the  
practices even of ,j-d seemed           
complicated and difficult1 and all that 
appeared necessary to him was faith in  
the desire of ,amida to bless and save4 
,to ,shinran1#i faith was the sole      
saving act4  ,to rely upon the power of 
the ,original ,prayer of ,amitabha      
,buddha with the whole heart and give up
 all idea of ji-riki or self-power1 is  
called the truth4 ,this truth is the    
doctrine of this sect of ,shin4#aj ,in a
 word1 not synergism1 not faith and     
works1 but faith only is the teaching of
 ,shin ,shu4  ,shinran1 the founder of  
this sect in ,japan1 was born ,a4,d4    
#aagc and died in the year #abfb4 ,he   

was very naturally one who had been     
first educated in the ,j-d sect1 then   
the ruling one at the imperial court in 
,kito4 ,shall we call him a ,japanese   
,luther1 because of his insistence on   
salvation by faith only8 ,he is         
popularly believed to have been         
descended from one of the ,shint gods1  
being on his father's side the          
twenty-first in the line of generation4 
,on his mother's side he was of the     
lineage of the ,minamoto or ,genji1 a   
clan sprung from ,mikados and famous    
during centuries for its victorious     
warriors4 ,h-nen was his teacher1 and   
like his teacher1 ,shinran studied at   
the great monastery near ,kito1 learning
 first the doctrine of the ,tendai1 and 
then1 at the age of twenty-nine1        
receiving from ,h-nen the tenets of the 
,j-d sect4 ,shortly after1 at thirty    
years of age1 he began to promulgate his
 doctrines4 ,then he took a step as new 
to ,buddhism1 as was ,luther's union    
with ,katharine von ,bora1 to the       

ecclesiasticism of his time4 ,he married
 a lady of the imperial court1 named    
,tamayori1 who was the daughter of the  
,kuambaku or premier4  ,shinran thus    
taught by example1 if not formally and  
by written precept1 that marriage was   
honorable1 and that celibacy was an     
invention of the priests not warranted  
by primitive ,buddhism4 ,penance1       
fasting1 prescribed diet1 pilgrimages1  
isolation from society whether as       
hermits or in the cloister1 and         
generally amulets and charms1 are all   
tabooed by this sect4 ,monasteries      
imposing life-vows are unknown within   
its pale4 ,family life takes the place  
of monkish seclusion4 ,devout prayer1   
purity1 earnestness of life and trust in
 ,buddha himself as the only worker of  
perfect righteousness1 are insisted     
upon4 ,morality is taught to be more    
important than orthodoxy4  ,in practice1
 the ,shin sect even more than the ,j-d1
 teaches that it is faith in ,buddha1   
which accomplishes the salvation of the 

believer4 ,instead of waiting for death 
in order to come under the protection of
 ,amida1 the faithful soul is at once   
received into the care of the           
,boundlessly ,compassionate4 ,in a word1
 the ,shin sect believes in             
instantaneous conversion and            
sanctification4 ,between the ,roman and 
the ,reformed soteriology of            
,christendom1 was ,melancthonism or the 
coperate union of the divine and the    
human will4 ,so1 the old ,buddhism prior
 to ,shinran taught a phase of          
synergism1 or the union of faith and    
works4 ,shinran1 in his ,reformed       
,buddhism1 taught the simplicity of     
faith4  ,so also in regard to the sacred
 writings1 ,shinran opposed the ,san-ron
 school and the three-grade idea4 ,the  
scriptures of other sects are in        
,sanskrit and ,chinese1 which only the  
learned are able to read4 ,the special  
writings of ,shinran are in the         
vernacular4 ,three of the sutras1 also1 
have been translated into ,japanese and 

expressed in the kana script4           
,singleness of purpose characterised    
this sect1 which was often called       
,monto1 or followers of the gate1 in    
reference to its unity of organization1 
and the opening of the way to all by    
,shinran and the doctrine taught by him4
 ,yet1 lest the gate might seem too     
broad1 the ,shin teachers insist that   
morality is as important as faith1 and  
indeed the proof of it4 ,the high       
priests of ,shin ,shu have ever held a  
high position and wielded vast influence
 in the religious development of the    
people4 ,while the temples of other     
sects are built in sequestered places   
among the hills1 those of ,shin ,shu are
 erected in the heart of cities1 on the 
main streets1 and at the centres of     
population1--the priests using every    
means within their power to induce the  
people to come to them4 ,the altars are 
on an imposing scale of magnificence and
 gorgeous detail4 ,no ,roman ,catholic  
church or cathedral can outshine the    

splendor of these temples1 in which the 
way to the ,western ,paradise is made so
 clear and plain4 ,another name for the 
sect is ,ikko4  ,after the death of     
,shinran1 his youngest daughter and one 
of his grandsons erected a monastery    
near his tomb in the eastern suburbs of 
,kito1 to which the ,mikado gave the    
title of ,hon-guanji1 or ,monastery of  
the ,original ,vow4 ,this was in        
allusion to the vow made by ,amida1 that
 he would not accept ,buddhaship except 
under the condition that salvation be   
made attainable for all who should      
sincerely desire to be born into his    
kingdom1 and signify their desire by    
invoking his name ten times4#aa ,it is  
upon the passage in the sutra where this
 vow is recorded1 that the doctrine of  
the sect is based4 ,its central idea is 
that man is to be saved by faith in the 
mercy of the boundlessly compassionate  
,amida1 and not by works or vain        
repetitions4 ,within our own time1 on   
,november #bh1 #ahgf1 the present       

reigning ,mikado bestowed upon ,shinran 
the posthumous title ,ken-shin ,dai-shi1
 or ,great ,teacher of the ,revelation  
of ,truth4   ,the ,protestants of       
,japanese ,buddhism4   ,this is the sect
 which1 being called ,reformed          
,buddhism#ab and resembling             
,protestantism in so many points1 both  
large and minute1 foreigners think has  
been borrowed or imitated from ,european
 ,protestantism4#ac ,as matter of fact1 
the foundation principles of ,shin-,shu 
are at least six hundred years old4     
,they are perfectly clear in the        
writings of the founder1#ad as well as  
in those of his successor ,renni1#ae who
 wrote the ,ofumi or sacred writings1   
now daily read by the disciples of this 
denomination4 ,with the characteristic  
object of reaching the masses1 they are 
written1 as we have shown1 not in the   
mixed ,chinese and ,japanese characters1
 but in the common script1 or kana1     
which all the people of both sexes can  
read4 ,within the last two decades the  

,shin educators have been the first to  
organize their schools of learning on   
the models of those in ,christendom1 so 
that their young men might be trained to
 resist ,shint or ,christianity1 or to  
measure the truth in either4 ,their new 
temples also show ,european influence in
 architecture and furniture4 ,liberty of
 thought and action1 and incoercible    
desire to be free from governmental1    
traditional1 ultra-ecclesiastical1 or   
,shint influence--in a word1            
protestantism in its pure sense1 is     
characteristic of the great sect founded
 by ,shinran4  ,indeed the ,shin sect1  
which sprang out of the ,j-d1 maintains 
that it alone professes the true        
teaching of ,h-nen1 and that the ,j-d   
sect has wandered from the original     
doctrines of its founder4 ,whereas the  
,j-d or ,pure ,land sect believes that  
,amida will come to meet the soul of the
 believer on its separation from the    
body1 in order to conduct it to         
,paradise1 the ,shin or ,true ,sect of  

the ,pure ,land believes in immediate   
salvation and sanctification4 ,it       
preaches that as soon as a man believes 
in ,amida he is taken by him under him  
merciful protection4 ,some might        
denominate these people the ,methodists 
of ,buddhism4  ,one good point in their 
,protestantism is their teaching that   
morality is of equal importance with    
faith4 ,to them ,buddha-hood means the  
perfection and unlimitedness of wisdom  
and compassion4 ,therefore1 writes one1 
knowing the inability of our own power  
we should believe simply in the         
vicarious ,power of the ,original       
,prayer4 ,if we do so1 we are in        
correspondence with the wisdom of the   
,buddha and share his great compassion1 
just as the water of rivers becomes salt
 as soon as it enters the sea4 ,for this
 reason this is called the faith in the 
,other ,power4  ,to their everlasting   
honor1 also1 the ,shin believers have   
probably led all other ,japanese        
,buddhists in caring for the ,eta1 even 

as they probably excel in preaching the 
true spiritual democracy of all         
believers1 yes1 even of women4#af       
,according to the earlier and general   
view of ,buddhism1 women are condemned1 
in virtue of the pollution of their     
nature1 to look forward to rebirth in   
other forms4 ,by no possibility can     
they1 in their existence as women1 reach
 the higher grades of holiness which    
lead to ,nirvana4 ,according to the     
,shin ,shu system1 on the other hand1 a 
believing woman may hope to attain the  
goal of the ,buddhist at the close of   
her present life4#ag ,this doctrine     
seems to be founded on that passage in  
the eleventh chapter of the ,saddharma  
,pundarika1 in which the daughter of    
,sgara1 the ,nga-king1 loses her sex as 
female and reappears as a ,bodhisattva  
of male sex4#ah  ,the ,shin sect is the 
largest in ,japan1 having more than     
twice as many temples as any four of the
 great sects1 and five thousand more    
than the ,so-d or sub-sect of ,j-d1     

which is the next largest2 or1 over     
nineteen thousand in all4 ,it is also   
supposed to be one of the richest and   
most powerful of all the ,japanese      
sects4 ,in reality1 however1 it         
possesses no fixed property1 and is     
dependent entirely upon the voluntary   
contributions of its adherents4 ,to-day1
 it is probably the most active of them 
all in education1 learning and          
missionary operations in ,yezo1 ,china  
and ,korea4  ,interesting as is the     
development of the ,j-d and ,shin sects1
 which became popular largely through   
their promulgation of dogmas founded on 
the ,western ,paradise1 we must not     
forget that both of them preached a new 
,buddha--not the real figure in history1
 but an unhistoric and unreal phantom1  
the creation and dream of the speculator
 and visionary4 ,amida1 the             
personification of boundless light1 is  
one of the luxuriant growths of a sickly
 scholasticism--a hollow abstraction    
without life or reality4 ,amidaism is   

utterly repudiated by many ,japanese    
,buddhists1 who give no place to his    
idol on their altars1 and reject utterly
 the teaching as to ,paradise and       
salvation through the merits of another4
  ,yet these two special developments by
 natives1 though embodying tendencies of
 the ,japanese mind1 did not reach the  
limit to which ,northern ,buddhism was  
to go in those almost incredible        
lengths1 which prompted ,professor      
,whitney#ai to call it the high-faluting
 school1 and which we have seen in our  
own time under the cultivation of       
western admirers4   ,the ,nichiren      
,sect4   ,the ,japanese mind runs to    
pantheism as naturally as an unpruned   
grape-vine runs to fibre and leaves4    
,when ,nichiren1 the ultra-patriotic and
 ultra-democratic bonze1 saw the light  
in ,a4,d4 #abbb1 he was destined to     
bring religion not only down to man1 but
 even down to the beasts and to the mud4
 ,he founded the ,saddharma-,pundarika  
sect1 now called ,nichiren ,shu4  ,born 

at ,kominato1 near the mouth of ,yedo   
,bay1 he became a neophite in the       
,shin-gon sect at the age of twelve1 and
 was admitted into the priesthood when  
but fifteen years old4 ,then he adopted 
his name1 which means ,sun-lotus1       
because1 according to a typical dream   
very common in ,korea and ,japan1 his   
mother thought that she had conceived by
 the sun entering her body4 ,through a  
miracle1 he acquired a thorough         
knowledge of the whole ,buddhist canon1 
in the course of which he met with      
words1 which he converted into that     
formula which is constantly in the mouth
 of the members of the ,nichiren sect1  
,namu-my-ho-ren-g-ky--,o1 the ,sutra of 
the ,lotus of the ,wonderful ,law4#bj   
,his history1 full of amazing activity  
and of romantic adventure1 is surrounded
 by a perfect sunrise splendor1 or1     
shall we say1 sunset gorgeousness1 of   
mythology and fable4 ,the scenes of his 
life are mostly laid in the region of   
the modern ,tki1 and to the cultivated  

traveller1 its story lends fascinating  
charms to the landscape in the region of
 ,yedo ,bay4 ,nichiren was a fiery      
patriot1 and ultra-democratic in his    
sympathies4 ,he was a radical believer  
in ,japan for the ,japanese4 ,he was an 
ecclesiastical ,soshi4 ,he felt that the
 developments of ,buddhism already made1
 were not sufficiently comprehensive1 or
 fully suited to the common people4 ,so1
 in ,a4,d4 #abhb1 he founded a new sect 
which gradually included within its     
pantheon all possible ,buddhas1 and     
canonized pretty nearly all the saints1 
righteous men and favorite heroes known 
to ,dai ,nippon4 ,nichiren first made   
,japan the centre of the universe1 and  
then brought religion down to the       
lowest4 ,he considered that the period  
in which he lived was the latter day of 
the law1 and that all creatures ought to
 share in the merit of ,buddha-hood4    
,only the original ,buddha is the real  
moon in the sky1 but all ,buddhas of the
 subordinate states are like the images 

of the moon1 reflected upon the waters4 
,all these different ,buddhas1 be they  
gods or men1 beasts1 birds or snakes1   
are to be honored4 ,indeed1 they are    
both honored and worshipped in the      
,nichiren pantheon4 ,besides the        
historic ,buddha1 this sect1 which is   
the most idolatrous of all1 admits as   
objects of its reverence such personages
 as ,nichiren1 the founder2 ,kato       
,kiyomasa1 the general who led the army 
of invasion in ,korea and was the       
persecutor of the ,christians2 and      
,shichimen--a word which means seven    
points of the compass or seven faces4   
,this ,shichimen is the being that      
appeared to ,nichiren as a beautiful    
woman1 but disappeared from his sight in
 the form of a snake1 twenty feet long1 
covered with golden scales and armed    
with iron teeth4 ,it is now deified     
under the name meaning the ,great ,god  
of the ,seven ,faces1 and is identified 
with the ,hindoo deity ,siva4  ,another 
idol usually seen in the ,nichiren      

temples is ,mioken4 ,under this name the
 pole star is worshipped1 usually in the
 form of a ,buddha with a wheel of a    
,buddha elect4 ,standing on a tortoise1 
with a sword in his right hand1 and with
 the left hand half open--a gesture     
which symbolizes the male and female    
principles in the physical world1 and   
the intelligence and the law in the     
spiritual world--,mioken is a striking  
figure4 ,indeed1 the list of glorified  
animals reminds us somewhat of the      
ancient beast-worship of ,egypt4 ,in the
 ,nichiren hierology1 it is as though   
the symbolical figures in the ,book of  
,revelation had been deified and        
worshipped4 ,it is evident that all the 
creatures in that ,buddhist chamber of  
imagery1 the ,hokk ,ki1 that could      
possibly be made into gods have received
 apotheosis4 ,the very book itself is   
also worshipped1 for the ,nichirenites  
are extreme believers in verbal         
inspiration1 and pay divine honors to   
each jot and tittle of the sutra1 which 

to them is a god4 ,they adore also the  
triad of the three precious ones1 the   
,buddha1 the ,rule or ,discipline1 and  
the ,organization2 or1 ,being1 ,law1 and
 ,church4 ,the hideous idol1 ,fudo1     
,eleven-faced1 ,horse-headed1           
,thousand-handed1 or girt in a robe of  
fiery flame1 is believed by ,buddhists  
to represent ,avalokitesvara2 but1 in   
recent times he has been recognized1    
detected and recaptured by the          
,shintists as ,kotohira4 ,the goddess   
,kishi1 and that miscellaneous          
assortment or group known as the ,seven 
,patrons of ,happiness1 which form a    
sort of encyclopaedia or museum of      
curiosities derived from the cults of   
,india1 ,china and ,japan1 are also     
components of the amazing menagerie and 
pantheon of this sect1 in which         
scholasticism run mad1 and emotional    
kindness to animals become maudlin1 join
 hands4   ,the ,ultra-realism of        
,northern ,buddhism4   ,like most of the
 other ,japanese sects1 the             

,nichirenites claim that their          
principles are contained in the         
,hok-k-ki1 which is considered the      
consummate white flower of ,buddhist    
doctrine and literature4 ,this is the   
,japanese name for that famous sutra1   
the ,saddharma ,pundarika1 so often     
mentioned in these chapters but a       
thousand-fold more so in ,japanese      
literature4 ,the ,ten-dai and the       
,nichiren sects are allied1 in that both
 lay supreme emphasis upon this sutra2  
but the former interprets it with an    
intellectual1 and the latter with an    
emotional emphasis4 ,philosophically1   
the two bodies have much in common4     
,outwardly they are very far apart4 ,one
 has but to read their favorite         
scripture1 to see the norm upon which   
the gorgeous art of ,japan has been     
developed4 ,probably no single book in  
the voluminous canon of the ,greater    
,vehicle gives one so masterful a key to
 ,japanese ,buddhism4 ,its pages are    
crowded with sensuous descriptions of   

all that is attractive to both the      
reason and the understanding4 ,its      
descriptions of ,paradise are those     
which would suit also the realistic     
,mussulman4 ,its rhetoric and visions   
seem to be those of some oriental ,de   
,quincey1 who1 out of the dreams of an  
opium-eater1 has made the law-book of a 
religion4 ,translated into              
matter-of-fact ,chinese1 none better    
than ,nichiren knew how to present its  
realism to his people4  ,in its ethical 
standards1 which are two1 this sect1    
like most others1 prescribes one course 
of life for the monk1 which is          
difficult1 and another for the laity1   
which is easy4 ,the central dogma is    
that every part of the universe1        
including not only gods and men1 but    
animals1 plants and the very mud itself1
 is capable1 by successive              
transmigrations1 of attaining to        
,buddhaship4 ,in one sense1 ,nichirenism
 is the transfiguration of atheistic    
evolution4 ,in its teachings there are  

also two forms3 the one1 largely in     
symbol1 is intended to attract          
followers2 the other1 the pure truth1 is
 employed to convert the obstinately    
ignorant1 against their wills4 ,as in   
the history of the papal organization in
 ,europe1 a materialistic interpretation
 has been given to the canons of dogma  
and discipline4  ,contrary to the       
doctrine of those sects which teach the 
attainment of salvation solely through  
the aid of ,amida1 or ,another1 the     
,nichirenites insist that it is         
necessary for man to work out his own   
salvation1 by observing the law1 by     
self-examination1 by reflecting on the  
blessings vouchsafed to the members of  
this elect and orthodox sect and by     
constant prayer4 ,they consider         
themselves as in the only true church1  
and their succession to the priesthood1 
the only valid one4 ,the strict         
,nichiren churchmen will not have the   
,shint gods in their household shrines1 
nor will they intermarry among the      

sects4 ,the ,nichirenites are also very 
fond of controversy1 and their language 
in speaking of other creeds and sects is
 not that characteristic of the gentle  
,buddha4 ,the people of this sect are   
much given to the belief in demoniacal  
possession1 and a considerable part of  
the duty and revenue-yielding business  
of the ,nichiren priests consists in    
exorcising the foxes1 badgers and other 
demons1 which have possessed subjects   
who are generally women at certain      
stages of illness or convalescence4 ,the
 phenomena and pathology of these       
disorders seem to be allied to those of 
hysteria and hypnotism4  ,this popular  
sect also makes greatest use of charms1 
spells and amulets1 lays great store on 
pilgrimages1 and is very fond of        
noise-making instruments whether        
prayer-books or the wooden bells or     
drums which are prominent features in   
their temples and revival meetings4 ,in 
one sense it is the ,salvation ,army of 
,buddhism1 being especially powerful in 

what strikes the eye and ear4 ,the      
,nichirenites have been well called the 
,ranters of ,buddhism4 ,their revival   
meetings make ,bedlam seem silent1 and  
reduce to gentle murmurs the            
camp-meeting excesses with which we are 
familiar in our own country4 ,they are  
the most sectarian of all sects4 ,their 
vocabulary of ,billingsgate and the     
ribaldry employed by them even against  
their ,buddhist brethren1 cast into the 
shade those of ,christian sectarians in 
their fiercest controversies4 ,a        
thousand years in the lowest of the     
hells is the atonement prescribed by the
 ,nichirenites for the priests of all   
other sects4 ,when the ,parliament of   
,religions was called in ,chicago1 the  
successors of ,nichiren1 with their     
characteristic high-church modesty1     
promptly sent letters to ,america1      
warning the world against all other     
,japanese ,buddhists1 and denouncing    
especially those coming to speak in the 
,parliament1 as misrepresenting the true

 doctrines of ,buddha4   ,doctrinal     
,culmination4   ,when the work of       
,nichiren had been completed1 and his   
realistic pantheism had been able to    
include within its great receiver and   
processes of ,buddha-making1 everything 
from gods to mud1 the circle of doctrine
 was complete4 ,kb's leaven had now     
every possible lump in which to do its  
work4 ,all grades of men in ,japan1 from
 the most devout and intellectual to the
 most ranting and fanatical1 could      
choose their sect4 ,yet it may be that  
,buddhism in ,nichiren's day was in     
danger of stagnation and formalism1 and 
needed the revival which this fiery     
bonze gave it2 for1 undoubtedly1 along  
with zeal even to bigotry1 came fresh   
life and power to the religion4 ,this   
invigoration was followed by the mighty 
missionary labors of the last half of   
the thirteenth century1 which carried   
,buddhism out to the northern frontier  
and into ,yezo4 ,although1 from time to 
time minor sects were formed either     

limiting or developing further the      
principles of the larger parent sects1  
and although1 even as late as the       
seventeenth century1 a new subsect1 the 
,oba-ku of ,zen ,shu1 was imported from 
,china1 yet no further doctrinal        
developments of importance took place2  
not even in presence of or after        
sixteenth century ,christianity and     
seventeenth century ,confucianism4  ,the
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries form
 the golden age of ,japanese ,buddhism4 
,in the sixteenth century1 the feudal   
system had split into fragments and the 
normal state of the country was that of 
civil war4 ,sect was arrayed against    
sect1 and the ,shin bonzes1 especially1 
formed a great military body in         
fortified monasteries4  ,in the first   
half of the sixteenth century1 came the 
tremendous onslaught of ,portuguese     
,christianity4 ,then followed the       
militarism and bloody persecutions of   
,nobunaga4  ,in clashing with the new   
,confucianism of the seventeenth        

century1 ,buddhism utterly weakened as  
an intellectual power4 ,though through  
the favor of the ,yodo shguns it        
recovered lands and wealth1 girded      
itself anew as the spy1 persecutor and  
professed extirpator of ,christianity1  
and maintained its popularity with the  
common people1 it was1 during the       
eighteenth century1 among the educated  
,japanese1 as good as dead4 ,modern     
,confucianism and the revival of        
,chinese learning1 resulted in          
eighteenth century scepticism and in    
nineteenth century agnosticism4   ,the  
,new ,buddhism4   ,in our day and time1 
,japanese ,buddhism1 in the presence of 
aggressive ,christianity1 is out of     
harmony with the times1 and the needs of
 forty-one millions of awakened and     
inquiring people2 and there are deep    
searchings of heart4 ,politically       
disestablished and its landed           
possessions sequestrated by the         
government1 it has had1 since #ahfh1 a  
history1 first of depression and then of

 temporary revival4 ,now1 amid much     
mechanical and external activity1 the   
employment of the press1 the            
organization of charity1 of summer      
schools of theology1 and of young men's 
and other associations copied from the  
,christians1 it is endeavoring to keep  
,new ,japan within its pale and to      
dictate the future4 ,it seeks to utilize
 the old bottles for the new vintage4   
,there is1 however1 a movement          
discernible which may be called the ,new
 ,buddhism1 and has not only new wine   
but new wineskins4 ,it is democratic1   
optimistic1 empirical or practical2 it  
welcomes women and children2 it is      
hospitable to science and every form of 
truth4 ,it is catholic in spirit and has
 little if any of the venom of the old  
,buddhist controvertists4 ,it is        
represented by earnest writers who look 
to natural and spiritual means1 rather  
than to external and mechanical methods4
 ,as a whole1 we may say that ,japanese 
,buddhism is still strong to-day in its 

grip upon the people4 ,though           
unquestionably moribund1 its death will 
be delayed4 ,despite its apparent       
interest in1 and harmony with1          
contemporaneous statements of science1  
it does not hold the men of thought1 or 
those who long for the spiritual        
purification and moral elevation of     
,japan4  ,are the ,japanese eager for   
reform8 ,do they possess that quality of
 emotion in which a tormenting sense of 
sin1 and a burning desire for           
self-surrender to holiness1 are ever    
manifest8  ,frankly and modestly1 we    
give our opinion4 ,we think not4 ,the   
average ,japanese man has not come to   
that self-consciousness1 that searching 
of heart1 that self-seeing of sin in the
 light of a ,holy ,god's countenance    
which the gospel compels4 ,yet this is  
exactly what the ,japanese need4 ,only  
,christ's gospel can give it4  ,the     
average man of culture in ,dai ,nippon  
has to-day no religion4 ,he is waiting  
for one4 ,what shall be the issue1 in   

the contest between a faith that knows  
no personal ,god1 no ,creator1 no       
atonement1 no gospel of salvation from  
sin1 and the gospel which bids man seek 
and know the great ,first ,cause1 as    
,father and ,friend1 and proclaims that 
this ,infinite ,friend seeks man to     
bless him1 to bestow upon him pardon and
 holiness and to give him earthly       
happiness and endless life8 ,between one
 religion which teaches personality in  
,god and in man1 and another which      
offers only a quagmire of impersonality 
wherein a personal god and an individual
 soul exist only as the jack-lights of  
the marsh1 mere phosphorescent gleams of
 decay1 who can fail to choose8 ,of the 
two faiths1 which shall be victor8      
,,chapter ,x - ,,japanese ,,buddhism    
,,in ,,its ,,missionary ,,development   
,the heart of my country1 the power of  
my country1 the ,light of     my        
country1 is ,buddhism4--,yatsubuchi1 of 
,japan4      ,buddhism was the teacher  
under whose instruction the ,japanese   

nation grew up4--,chamberlain4          
,buddhism was the civilizer4 ,it came   
with the freshness of     religious     
zeal1 and religious zeal was a novelty4 
,it come as the     bearer of           
civilization and enlightenment4         
,buddhism has had a fair field in       
,japan1 and its outcome has not     been
 elevating4 ,its influence has been     
aesthetic and not     ethical4 ,it added
 culture and art to ,japan1 as it       
brought with     itself the civilization
 of continental ,asia4 ,it gave the     
arts1     and more1 it added the        
artistic atmosphere4444 ,reality        
disappears4 ',this fleeting borrowed    
world' is all mysterious1 a     dream2  
moonlight is in place of the clear hot  
sun4444 ,it has so     fitted itself to 
its surroundings that it seems          
indigenous4--,george ,william ,knox4    
,the ,japanese 444 are indebted to      
,buddhism for their present             
civilization and culture1 their great   
susceptibility to the     beauties of   

nature1 and the high perfection of      
several branches     of artistic        
industry4--,rein4      ,we speak of     
,god1 and the ,japanese mind is filled  
with idols4     ,we mention sin1 and he 
thinks of eating flesh or the killing   
of insects4 ,the word holiness reminds  
him of crowds of     pilgrims flocking  
to some famous shrine1 or of some       
anchorite     sitting lost in religions 
abstraction till his legs rot off4 ,he  
has much error to unlearn before he can 
take in the     truth---,r4,e4          
,mc,alpine4      ,there in a life of    
study1 prayer1 and thought1     ,kenshin
 became a saintly priest--not wide      
,in intellect nor broad in sympathies1  
,for such things come not from the      
ascetic life2     ,but narrow1 strong1  
and deep1 and like the stream     ,that 
rushes fervid through the narrow path   
,between the rooks at ,nikk--so he      
grasped1     ,heart1 soul1 and strength1
 the holy ,buddha's ,law     ,with no   
room left for doubt1 or sympathy        

,for other views4--,kenshin's ,vision4  
,for from the rising of the sun even    
unto the going down of the     same1 my 
name is great among the ,gentiles2 and  
in every place     incense is offered   
unto my name1 and a pure offering1 for  
my     name is great among the          
,gentiles1 saith the ,lord of           
hosts4--,malachi4   ,,chapter ,x -      
,,japanese ,,buddhism ,,in ,,its        
,,missionary ,,development  ,missionary 
,buddhism the ,measure of ,japan's      
,civilization4   ,broadly speaking1 the 
history of ,japanese ,buddhism in its   
missionary development is the history of
 ,japan4 ,before ,buddhism came1 ,japan 
was pre-historic4 ,we know the country  
and people through very scanty notices  
in the ,chinese annals1 by pale         
reflections cast by myths1 legends and  
poems1 and from the relics cast up by   
the spade and plough4 ,chinese          
civilization had filtered in1 though how
 much or how little we cannot tell      
definitely2 but since the coming of the 

,buddhist missionaries in the sixth     
century1 the landscape and the drama of 
human life lie before us in clear       
detail4 ,speaking broadly again1 it may 
be said that almost from the time of its
 arrival1 ,buddhism became on its active
 side the real religion of ,japan--at   
least1 if the word religion be used in a
 higher sense than that connoted by     
either ,shint or ,confucianism4 ,though 
as a nation the ,japanese of the ,miji  
era are grossly forgetful of this fact1 
yet1 as ,professor ,chamberlain says1#a 
,all education was for centuries in     
,buddhist hands4 ,buddhism introduced   
art2 introduced medicine2 created the   
folk-lore of the country2 created its   
dramatic poetry2 deeply influenced      
politics1 and every sphere of social and
 intellectual activity2 in a word1      
,buddhism was the teacher under whose   
instruction the ,japanese nation grew   
up4  ,for many centuries all ,japanese1 
except here and there a stern ,shintist1
 or an exceptionally dogmatic           

,confucian1 have acknowledged these     
patent facts1 and from the emperor to   
the eta1 glorified in them4 ,it was not 
until modern ,confucian philosophy      
entered the ,mikado's empire in the     
seventeenth century1 that hostile       
criticism and polemic tenets denounced  
,buddhism1 and declared it only fit for 
savages4 ,this bitter denunciation of   
,buddhism at the lips and hands of      
,japanese who had become ,chinese in    
mind1 was all the more inappropriate1   
because ,buddhism had for over a        
thousand years acted as the real        
purveyor and disperser of the ,confucian
 ethics and culture in ,japan4 ,such    
denunciation came with no better grace  
from the ,yedo ,confucianists than from 
the ,shint revivalists1 like ,motori1   
who1 while execrating everything        
,chinese1 failed to remember or impress 
upon his countrymen the fact1 that      
almost all which constituted ,japanese  
civilization had been imported from the 
,middle ,kingdom4  ,buddhism1 in its    

purely doctrinal development1 seems to  
be rather a system of metaphysics than a
 true religion1 being a conglomeration1 
or rather perhaps an agglomeration1 of  
all sorts of theories relating to the   
universe and its contents4 ,its         
doctrinal and metaphysical side1        
however1 is to be carefully             
distinguished from its popular and      
external features1 for in its missionary
 development ,buddhism may be called a  
system of national improvement4 ,the    
history of its propagation1 in the land 
farthest east from its cradle1 is not   
only the outline of the history of      
,japanese civilization1 but is nearly   
the whole of it4   ,pre-,buddhistic     
,japan4   ,it is not perhaps difficult  
to reconstruct in imagination the       
landscape of ,japan in pre-,buddhistic  
days4 ,certainly we may1 with some      
accuracy1 draw a contrast between the   
appearance of the face of the earth then
 and now4 ,supposing that there were as 
many as a million or two of souls in the

 ,japanese ,archipelago of the sixth    
century--the same area which in the     
nineteenth century contains over        
forty-one millions--we can imagine only 
here and there patches of cultivated    
fields1 or terraced gullies4 ,there were
 no roads except paths or trails4 ,the  
horse was probably yet a curiosity to   
the aborigines1 though well known to the
 sons of the gods4 ,sheep and goats     
then1 as now1 were unknown4 ,the cow and
 the ox were in the land1 but not       
numerous4#b ,in architecture there was  
probably little but the primeval hut4   
,tools were of the rudest description2  
yet it is evident that the primitive    
,japanese were able to work iron and    
apply it to many uses4 ,there were other
 metals1 though the tell-tale etymology 
of their names in ,japanese metallurgy1 
as in so many other lines of industry   
and articles of daily use1 points to a  
,chinese origin4 ,it is the almost      
incredible fact that the ,japanese man  
or woman wore on the person neither gold

 nor silver jewelry4 ,in later times1   
decoration was added to the sword hilt  
and pins were thrust in the hair4       
,possibly a prejudice against metal     
touching the skin1 such as exists in    
,korea1 may account for this absence of 
jewelry1 though silver was not          
discovered until ,a4,d4 #fge1 or gold   
until ,a4,d4 #gdi4 ,the primitive       
,japanese1 however1 did wear ornaments  
of ground and polished stone1 and these 
so numerously as to compel contrast with
 the severer tastes of later ages4 ,some
 of these magatama--curved jewels or    
perforated cylinders--were made of very 
hard stone which requires skill to      
drill1 cut and polish4 ,among the       
substances used was jade1 a mineral     
found only in ,cathay4#c ,indeed1 we    
cannot follow the lines of industry and 
manufactures1 of personal adornment and 
household decoration1 of scientific     
terms and expressions1 of literary1     
intellectual and religious experiment1  
without continually finding that the    

,japanese borrowed from ,chinese        
storehouses4 ,possibly their debt began 
at the time of the alleged conquest of  
,korea#d in the third century4  ,in     
,japanese life1 as it existed before the
 introduction of ,buddhism1 there was1  
with barbaric simplicity1 a measure of  
culture somewhat indeed above the level 
of savagery1 but probably very little   
that could be appraised beyond that of  
the ,iroquois ,indians in the days of   
their ,confederacy4 ,for though granting
 that there were many interesting       
features of art1 industry1 erudition and
 civilization which have been lost to   
the historic memory1 and that the       
research of scholars may hereafter      
discover many things now in oblivion2   
yet1 on the other hand1 it is certain   
that much of what has long been supposed
 to be of primitive ,japanese origin1   
and existent before the eighth century1 
has been more or less infused or        
enriched with ,chinese elements1 or has 
been imported directly from ,india1 or  

,persia1#e or has crystallized into     
shape from the mixture of things        
,buddhistic and primitive ,japanese4    
,apart from all speculation1 we know    
that in the train of the first          
missionaries came artisans1 and         
instructors in every line of human      
industry and achievement1 and that the  
importation of the inventions and       
appliances of the ,west--the ,west then 
being ,korea and ,china1 and the ,far   
,west1 ,india--was proportionately as   
general1 as far-reaching1 as            
sensational1 as electric in its effects 
upon the ,japanese minds1 as1 in our    
day1 has been the introduction of the   
modern civilization of ,europe and the  
,united ,states4#f   ,the ,purveyors of 
,civilization4   ,the ,buddhist         
missionaries1 in their first enthusiasm 
of humanity1 were not satisfied to bring
 in their train1 art1 medicine1 science 
and improvements of all sorts1 but they 
themselves1 being often learned and     
practical men1 became personal leaders  

in the work of civilizing the country4  
,in travelling up and down the empire to
 propagate their tenets1 they found out 
the necessity of better roads1 and      
accordingly1 they were largely          
instrumental in having them made4 ,they 
dug wells1 established ferries and built
 bridges4#g ,they opened lines of       
communication2 they stimulated traffic  
and the exchange of merchandise2 they   
created the commerce between ,japan and 
,china2 and they acted as peacemakers   
and mediators in the wars between the   
,japanese and ,koreans4 ,for centuries  
they had the monopoly of high learning4 
,in the dark middle ages when civil war 
ruled1 they were the only scholars1     
clerks1 diplomatists1 mediators and     
peacemakers4  ,japanese diet became     
something new under the direction of the
 priests4 ,the bonzes taught the        
wickedness of slaughtering domestic     
animals1 and indeed1 the wrong of       
putting any living thing to death1 so   
that kindness to animals has become a   

national trait4 ,to this day it may be  
said that ,japanese boys and men are1 at
 least within the limits of their light1
 more tender and careful with all living
 creatures than are those of            
,christendom4#h ,the bonzes improved the
 daily fare of the people1 by           
introducing from ,korea and ,china      
articles of food hitherto unknown4 ,they
 brought over new seeds and varieties of
 vegetables and trees4 ,furthermore1    
necessity being the mother of invention1
 not a few of the shorn brethren made up
 for the prohibition of fish and flesh1 
by becoming expert cooks4 ,they so      
exercised their talents in the culinary 
art that their results on the table are 
proverbial4 ,especially did they        
cultivate mushrooms1 which in taste and 
nourishment are good substitutes for    
fish4  ,the bonzes were lovers of beauty
 and of symbolism4 ,they planted the    
lotus1 and the monastery ponds became   
seats of splendor1 and delights to the  
eye4 ,their teachings1 metaphysical and 

mystical1 poetical and historical1      
scientific and literary1 created1 it may
 be said1 the ,japanese garden1 which to
 the refined imagination contains far   
more than meets the eye of the alien4#i 
,indeed1 the oriental imitations in     
earth1 stone1 water and verdure1 have a 
language and suggestion far beyond what 
the usual parterres and walks1 borders  
and lines1 fountains and statuary of a  
western garden teach4 ,it may be said   
that our language of flowers is more    
luxuriant and eloquent than theirs2 yet 
theirs is very rich also1 besides being 
more subtle in suggestion4 ,the bonzes  
instilled doctrine1 not only by sermons1
 books and the emblems and furniture of 
the temples1 but they also taught dogma 
and ethics by the flower-ponds and      
plots1 by the artificial landscape1 and 
by outdoor symbolism of all kinds4 ,to  
,buddhism our thanks are due1 for the   
innumerable miniature continents1 ranges
 of mountains1 geographical outlines and
 other horticultural allusions to their 

holy lands and spiritual history1 seen  
beside so many houses1 temples and      
monasteries in ,japan4 ,in their floral 
art1 no people excels the ,japanese in  
making leaf and bloom teach history1    
religion1 philosophy1 aesthetics and    
patriotism4  ,not only around the human 
habitation1#aj but within it1 the new   
religion brought a marvellous change4   
,instead of the hut1 the dwelling-house 
grew to spacious and comfortable        
proportions1 every part of the ,japanese
 house to-day showing to the cultured   
student1 especially to one familiar with
 the ancient poetry1 the lines of its   
origin and development1 and in the      
larger dwellings expressing a wealth of 
suggestion and meaning4 ,the oratory and
 the kami-dana or shelf holding the     
gods1 became features in the humblest   
dwelling4 ,among the well-to-do there   
were of course the gilded ancestral     
tablets and the worship of progenitors1 
in special rooms1 with imposing ritual  
and equipment1 with which ,buddhism did 

not interfere2 but on the shelf over the
 door of nearly every house in the land1
 along with the emblems of the kami1    
stood images representing the avatars of
 ,buddha4#aa ,there1 the light ever     
burned1 and there1 offerings of food and
 drink were thrice daily made4 ,though  
the family worship might vary in its    
length and variety of ceremony1 yet even
 in the home where no regular system was
 followed1 the burning lights and the   
stated offering made1 called the mind up
 to thoughts higher than the mere level 
of providing for daily wants4 ,the      
visitation of the priests in time of    
sorrow1 or of joy1 or for friendly      
converse1 made religion sweetly         
human4#ab  ,outwardly the ,buddhist     
architecture made a profound change in  
the landscape4 ,with a settled religion 
requiring gorgeous ceremonial1 the      
chanting of liturgies by large bodies of
 priests and the formation of           
monasteries as centres of literary and  
religious activity1 there were required 

stability and permanence in the imperial
 court itself4 ,while1 therefore1 the   
humble village temples arose all over   
the country1 there were early erected1  
in the place where the court and emperor
 dwelt1 impressive religious            
edifices4#ac ,the custom of migration   
ceased1 and a fixed spot selected as the
 capital1 remained such for a number of 
generations1 until finally ,hian-j or   
the place of peace1 later called ,kito1 
became the ,blossom ,capital and the    
,sacred ,city for a thousand years4 ,at 
,nara1 where flourished the first six   
sects introduced from ,korea1 were built
 vast monasteries1 temples and images1  
and thence the influence of civilisation
 and art radiated4 ,from the first1     
forgetting its primitive democracy and  
purely moral claims1 ,buddhism lusted   
for power in the ,state4 ,as early as   
,a4,d4 #fbd1 various grades were        
assigned to the priesthood by the       
government4#ad ,the sects eagerly sought
 and laid great stress upon imperial    

favor4 ,to this day they keenly enjoy   
the canonization of their great teachers
 by letters patent from the ,throne4    
,ministers of ,art4   ,on the           
establishment of the imperial capital1  
at ,kito1 toward the end of the eighth  
century1 we find still further          
development and enlargement of those    
latent artistic impulses with which the 
,heavenly ,father endowed his ,japanese 
child4 ,that capacity for beauty1 both  
in appreciation and expression1 which in
 our day makes the land of dainty       
decoration the resort of all those who  
would study oriental art in unique      
fulness and decorative art in its only  
living school--a school founded on the  
harmonious marriage of the people and   
the nature of the country--is           
discernible from quite early ages4 ,the 
people seem to have responded gladly to 
the calls for gifts and labor4 ,the     
direction from which it is supposed all 
evils are likely to come is the         
northeast2 this special point of the    

compass being in pan-,asian spiritual   
geography the focus of all malign       
influences4 ,accordingly1 the ,mikado   
,kwammu1 in ,a4,d4 #ghh1 built on the   
highest mountain called ,hiyi a superb  
temple and monastery1 giving it in      
charge of the ,ten-dai sect1 that there 
should ever be a bulwark against the    
evil that might otherwise swoop upon the
 city4 ,here1 as on castellated walls1  
should stand the watchman1 who1 by the  
recitation of the sacred liturgies1     
would keep watch and ward4 ,in course of
 time this great mountain became a city 
of three thousand edifices and ten      
thousand monks1 from which the droning  
of litanies and the chanting of prayers 
ascended daily1 and where the chief     
industries were1 the counting of beads  
on rosaries and the burning of incense  
before the altars4 ,this was in the long
 bright day of a prosperity which has   
been nourished by vast sums obtained    
from the government and nobles4 ,one    
notes the contrast at the end of our    

century1 when disestablished as a       
religion and its bonzes reduced to      
beggary1 ,hiyi-san is used as the site  
of a ,summer ,school of ,christian      
,theology4  ,along with the blossoming  
of the lotus in every part of the       
empire1 bloomed the grander flowers of  
sculpture1 of painting and of temple    
architecture4 ,it was because of the    
carpenter's craft in building temples   
that he won his name of ,dai-ku1 or the 
great workman4 ,the artificers of the   
sunny islands cultivated an ambition1   
not only to equal but to excel1 their   
continental brethren of the saw and     
hammer4 ,yet the carpenter was only the 
leader of great hosts of artisans that  
were encouraged1 of craftsmen that were 
educated and of industries that were    
called into being by the spread of      
,buddhism4#ae ,it was not enough that   
village temples and town monasteries    
should be built1 under an impulse that  
meant volumes for the development of the
 country4 ,the ambitious leaders chose  

sightly spots on mountains whence were  
lovely vistas of scenery1 on which to   
erect temples and monasteries1 while it 
seemed to be their further ambition to  
allow no mountain peak to be            
inaccessible4 ,with armies of workmen1  
supported by the contributions of the   
faithful who had been aroused to        
enthusiasm by the preaching of the      
bonzes1 great swaths were cut in the    
forest2 abundant timber was felled2     
rocky plateaus were levelled2 and       
elegant monastic edifices were reared1  
soon to be filled with eager students1  
and young men in training for the       
priesthood4  ,whether the pilgrimage#af 
be of ,shint or of ,buddhist origin1 or 
simply a contrivance of human nature to 
break the monotony of life1 we need not 
discuss4 ,it is certain that if the     
custom be indigenous1 the imported faith
 adopted1 absorbed and enlarged it4 ,the
 peregrinations made to the great       
temples and to the mountain tops1 being 
meritorious performances1 soon filled   

the roads with more or less devout      
travellers4 ,in thus finding vent for   
their piety1 the pilgrims mingled       
sanctification with recreation1 enjoying
 healthful holidays1 and creating trade 
with varied business1 commercial and    
commissarial activities1 while enlarging
 also their ideas and learning something
 of geography4 ,thus1 in the course of  
time1 it has come to pass that ,japan is
 a country of which almost every square 
mile is known1 while it is well threaded
 with paths1 banded with roads1 and     
supplied to a remarkable extent with    
handy volumes of description and of     
local history4#ag ,her people being well
 educated in their own lore and local   
traditions1 possessed also a voluminous 
literature of guidebooks and cyclopedias
 of information4 ,the devotees were1    
withal1 well instructed and versed in a 
code of politeness and courtesy1 as     
pilgrimage and travel became settled    
habits of a life4 ,as a further result1 
the national tongue became remarkably   

homogeneous4 ,broadly speaking1 it may  
be said that the ,japanese language1    
unlike the ,chinese in this as it is in 
almost every other point1 has very      
little dialectic variation4#ah ,except  
in some few remote eddies lying outside 
the general currents1 there is a uniform
 national speech4 ,this is largely owing
 to that annual movement of pilgrims in 
the summer months especially1 habitual  
during many centuries4  ,buddhism coming
 to ,japan by means of the ,great       
,vehicle1 or with the features of the   
,northern development1 was the fertile  
mother of art4 ,in the exterior         
equipment of the temple1 instead of the 
,shint thatch1 the tera or ,buddhist    
edifice called for tiles on its sweeping
 roof1 with ornamental terra-cotta at   
the end of its imposing roof-ridge1 or  
for sheets of copper soon to be made    
verdant1 then sombre and then sable by  
age and atmosphere4 ,outwardly the      
edifice required the application of     
paint and lacquer in rich tints1 its    

recurved roof-edges gladly welcoming the
 crest and monogram of the feudal       
prince1 and its railings and stairways  
accepting willingly the bronze caps and 
ornaments4 ,in front of its main edifice
 was the imposing gateway with          
proportions almost as massive as the    
temple itself1 with prodigal wealth of  
curiously fitted and richly carved1     
painted and gilded supports and         
morticings1 with all the fancies and    
adornments of the carpenter's art1 and  
having as its frontlet and blazon the   
splendidly gilt name1 style or title4   
,often these were impressive to eye and 
mind1 to an extent which the terse      
,chinese or curt monosyllables could    
scarcely suggest to an alien4#ai ,the   
number1 forms and positions of the      
various parts of the temple easily lent 
themselves to the expression of the     
elaborate symbolism of the ,india faith4
   ,resemblances between ,buddhism and  
,christianity4   ,within the sacred     
edifice everything to strike the senses 

was lavishly displayed4 ,the passion of 
the ,east1 as opposed to ,greek         
simplicity1 is for decoration2 yet in   
,japan1 decorative art1 though sometimes
 bursting out in wild profusion or      
running to unbridled lengths1 was in the
 main a regulated mass of splendor in   
which harmony ruled4 ,differing though  
the ,buddhist sects do in their temple  
furniture and altar decorations1 they   
are1 most of them1 so elaborately full  
in their equipment as to suggest        
repeatedly the similarity between the   
,roman ,catholic organization1 altars1  
vestments and ritual1 and those of      
,buddhism1 and remarks on this point    
seem almost commonplace4 ,almost        
everything in ,roman ,catholicism is    
found in ,buddhism1#bj and one may even 
say1 vice versa1 at least in things     
exterior4 ,we take the liberty of       
transcribing here a passage from the    
chapter entitled ,christianity and      
,foreigners in ,the ,mikado's ,empire1  
written twenty years ago4               

,furthermore1 the transition from the   
religion of ,india to that     of ,rome 
was extremely easy4 ,the very idols of  
,buddha served1     after a little      
alteration with the chisel1 for images  
of ,christ4     ,the ,buddhist saints   
were easily transformed into the ,twelve
     ,apostles4 ,the ,cross took the    
place of the torii4 ,it was             
emblazoned on the helmets and banners of
 the warriors1 and     embroidered on   
their breasts4 ,the ,japanese soldiers  
went forth     to battle like ,christian
 crusaders4 ,in the roadside shrine     
,kuanon1 the ,goddess of ,mercy1 made   
way for the ,virgin1 the     mother of  
,god4 ,buddhism was beaten with its own 
weapons4 ,its own     artillery was     
turned against it4 ,nearly all the      
,christian     churches were native     
temples1 sprinkled and purified4 ,the   
same     bell1 whose boom had so often  
quivered the air announcing the         
orisons and matins of paganism1 was     
again blessed and sprinkled1     and    

called the same hearers to mass and     
confession2 the same     lavatory that  
fronted the temple served for holy water
 or     baptismal font2 the same censer 
that swung before ,amida could be       
refilled to waft ,christian incense2 the
 new convert could use     unchanged his
 old beads1 bells1 candles1 incense1 and
 all the     paraphernalia of his old   
faith in celebration of the new4        
,almost everything that is distinctive  
in the ,roman form of     ,christianity 
is to be found in ,buddhism3 images1    
pictures1     lights1 altars1 incense1  
vestments1 masses1 beads1 wayside       
shrines1 monasteries1 nunneries1        
celibacy1 fastings1 vigils1             
retreats1 pilgrimages1 mendicant vows1  
shorn heads1 orders1     habits1        
uniforms1 nuns1 convents1 purgatory1    
saintly and     priestly intercession1  
indulgences1 works of supererogation1   
pope1 archbishops1 abbots1 abbesses1    
monks1 neophytes1 relics     and        
relic-worship1 exclusive burial-ground1 

etc41 etc41     etc4#ba  ,nevertheless1 
these resemblances are almost wholly    
superficial1 and have little or nothing 
to do with genuine religion4 ,such      
matters are of aesthetic and of         
commercial1 rather than of spiritual1   
interest4 ,they concern priestcraft and 
vulgar superstition rather than truth   
and righteousness4 ,in point of dogma a 
whole world of thought separates        
,buddhism from every form of            
,christianity4 ,knowledge1              
enlightenment1 is the condition of      
,buddhistic grace1 not faith4           
,self-perfectionment is the means of    
salvation1 not the vicarious sufferings 
of a ,redeemer4 ,not eternal life is the
 end and active participation in        
unceasing prayer and praise1 but        
absorption into ,nirvana 7,jap4 ,nehan71
 practical annihilation4#bb ,at certain 
points1 the metaphysic of ,buddhism is  
so closely like that of ,christian      
theology1 that a connection on          
reciprocal exchange of ideas is not only

 possible but probable4 ,in their       
highest thinking1#bc the sincere        
,christian and ,buddhist approach each  
other in their search after truth4  ,the
 key-word of ,buddhism is ,ingwa1 which 
means law or fate1 the chain of cause   
and effect in which man is found1       
atheistic evolution applied to ethics1  
the grinding machinery of a universe in 
which is no ,creator-,father1 no love1  
pity or heart4 ,if the cry of the human 
spirit has compelled the makers of      
,buddhist theology to furnish a goddess 
of mercy1 it is but one subordinate     
being among many4 ,if a boundlessly     
compassionate ,amida is thought out1 it 
is an imaginary being4 ,the symbol of   
,buddhism is the wheel of the law1 which
 revolves as mercilessly as             
ceaselessly4#bd  ,the key-word of       
,christianity is love1 and its message  
is grace4 ,its symbol is the cross1 and 
its sacrament the supper1 in token of   
the infinite love of the ,father who    
wrote his revelation in a human life4   

,the resemblances between the religions 
of ,gautama and of ,jesus1 are purely   
superficial4 ,they appear to the outward
 man4 ,the inward man cannot1 even from 
,darien peaks of observation or in his  
scrutiny de profundis1 discover any     
vital or historical connection between  
the two faiths1 ,christianity and       
,buddhism4 ,in his theology the         
,christian says ,god is all2 but the    
,buddhist says ,all is god4 ,buddhism   
says destroy the passions3 ,christianity
 says control them4 ,the ,buddhist's    
watchword is ,nirvana4 ,the ,christian's
 is ,eternal ,life in ,christ ,jesus4#be
   ,the ,temples and ,their ,symbolism4 
,in the vast airy halls of a ,buddhist  
temple one will often see columns made  
of whole tree-trunks1 sheeted with gold 
and supporting massive ceilings which   
are empanelled and gorgeous with every  
hue and tint known to the palette4      
,besides the coloring1 carving and      
gilding1 the rich symbolism strikes the 
eye and touches the imagination4 ,it is 

a pleasing study for one familiar with  
the background and world of ,buddhism1  
to note their revelation and expression 
in art1 as well as to discern what the  
varying sects accept or reject4 ,there  
is the lotus1 in leaf1 bud1 flower and  
calyx2#bf the diamond in every form1    
real and imaginary1 with the vagra or   
emblem of conquest2 while on the altars1
 beside the central image1 be it that of
 ,shaka or of ,amida1 are ,bodhisattvas 
or ,buddhas by brevet1 beings in every  
state of existence1 as well as deities  
of many names and forms4 ,abstract ideas
 and attributes are expressed in the art
 language not only of ,japan1 ,korea and
 ,china1 but also in that of ,india and 
even of ,persia and ,greece1#bg until   
one wonders how an ,aryan religion1 like
 ,buddhism1 could have so conquered and 
unified the many nations of ,chinese    
,asia4 ,he wonders1 indeed1 until he    
remembers how it has itself been        
transformed and changed in popular      
substance1 from lofty metaphysics and   

ethics into pantheism for the shorn1 and
 into polytheism for the unshorn4       
,looking at early ,japanese pictures    
with the eye of the historian1 as well  
as of the connoisseur of art1 one will  
see that the first real school of       
,japanese art was ,buddhistic4 ,the     
modern school of pictorial art1 named   
from the monkish phrase1                
,ukioy--pictures of the ,passing        
,world--is indeed very interesting to   
the western student1 because it seems to
 be more in touch with the human nature 
of the whole world1 as distinct from    
what is local1 ,chinese1 or sectarian4  
,yet1 casting a glance back of the      
mediaeval ,kano1 ,chinese and           
,yamato-,tosa styles1 he finds that     
,buddhism gave ,japan her first examples
 of and stimulus to pictorial art4#bh   
,he sees further that instead of the    
monochrome of ,chinese exotic art1 or   
the first rude attempts of the native   
pencil1 ,buddhism began ,japanese       
sculpture1 carving and nearly every     

other form of plastic or pictorial      
representation1 in which are all the    
elements of ,northern ,buddhism1 as so  
lavishly represented1 for example1 in   
that great sutra which is the book1 par 
excellence1 of ,japanese ,buddhism1 the 
,saddharma ,pundarika4  ,turning from   
text to art1 we behold the golden lakes 
of joy1 the mountain of gems1 the       
floating female angels with their       
marvellous drapery and lovely faces1 the
 gentle benignity of the goddesses of   
mercy1 the rays of light and the glory  
streaming from face and head of the holy
 ones1 the splendors of costume1 the    
varied beauties of the lotus1 the hosts 
of ministering intelligences1 the       
luxuriant symbolism1 the purple clouds1 
the wheel of the law1 the swastika#bi or
 double cross1 and the vagra1#cj or     
diamond trefoil4 ,all that color1       
perfume1 sensuous delights1 art and     
luxury can suggest1 are here1 together  
with all the various orders of beings   
that inhabit the ,buddhist universe2 and

 these are set forth in their fulness   
and detail4 ,in the six conditions of   
sentient existence are devas or gods1   
men1 asuras or monsters1 pretas or      
demons1 beasts1 and beings in hell4 ,in 
portraying these1 the artists and       
sculptors do not always slavishly follow
 tradition or uniformity4 ,the critical 
eye notes nearly as much genius1 wit and
 variety as in the mediaeval cathedral  
architecture of ,europe4 ,probably the  
most popular groups of idols are those  
of the seven or the thirty-three        
,kuannon1 of the six ,jizo#ca or        
compassionate helpers1 and of the       
sixteen or the five hundred ,rakan#cb or
 circles of primitive disciples of      
,gautama4 ,the angelic beings and       
sweetly singing birds of ,paradise are  
also favorite subjects of the artists4  
,one who has lived alongside the great  
temples2 who knows the daily routine and
 sees what powerful engines of popular  
instruction they are2 who has been      
present at the great festivals and      

looked upon the mighty kitchens and     
refectories in operation2 and who has   
gone in and out among their monasteries 
and examined their records1 their       
genealogies and their relics1 can see   
how powerfully ,buddhism has moulded the
 whole life of the people through long  
ages4 ,the village temple is often the  
epitome and repository of the social    
life of the people now living1 and of   
the story of their ancestors for        
generations upon generations past4 ,it  
is the historico-genealogical society1  
the museum1 the repository of documents 
and trophies1 the place of national     
thanksgiving and praise1 of public      
sorrow and farewell1 a place of         
rendezvous and separation1 the          
starting-point of procession1 and the   
centre of festival and joy2 and thus it 
is linked with the life of the people4  
,in other respects1 also1 the temple is 
like the old village cathedral of       
mediaeval ,europe4 ,it is in many sects 
the centre of popular pleasure of all   

sorts1 both reputable and disreputable4 
,not only shops and bazaars1 fairs and  
markets1 games and sports1 cluster      
around it1 but also curiosities and     
works of popular art1 the relics of war1
 and the trophies of travel and         
adventure4 ,except that                 
,buddhism--outside of ,india--never had 
the unity of ,european ,christianity1   
the ,buddhist temple is the mirror and  
encyclopaedia both of history and of    
contemporary life4 ,as fame and renown  
are necessary for the glory of the place
 or the structure1 favorite gods1 or    
rather their idols1 are frequently      
carried about on starring tours4 ,at the
 opening to public view of some famous  
image or relic1 a great festival or     
revival called ,kai-ch is held1 which   
becomes a scene of trade and            
merry-making like that of the mediaeval 
fair or kermis in ,europe4 ,the         
far-oriental is able as skilfully as his
 western confrre1 to mix business and   
religion and to suppose that gain is    

godliness4 ,further1 the manufacture of 
legend becomes a thriving industry2     
while the not-infrequent sensation of a 
popular miracle is manipulated by the   
bonzes--for priestcraft in all ages and 
climes is akin throughout the world4 ,it
 is no wonder that some honest          
,japanese1 incensed at the shams        
utilized by the religious1 has struck   
out like coin the proverb that rings    
true--,good doctrine needs no miracle4  
,the ,bell and the ,cemetery4   ,the    
,buddhist missionaries1 and especially  
the founders of temples1 thoroughly     
understood the power of natural beauty  
to humble1 inspire and soothe the soul  
of man4 ,the instinctive love of the    
,japanese people for fine scenery1 was  
made an ally of faith4 ,the sites for   
temples were chosen with reference to   
their imposing surroundings or          
impressive vistas4 ,whether as          
spark-arresters and protectives against 
fire1 or to compel reverent awe1 the    
loftiest evergreen trees are planted    

around the sacred structure4 ,these     
trees of ,jehovah are compellers to     
reverence4 ,the alien's hat comes off   
instinctively--though it may be less    
convenient to shed boots than           
sandals--as he enters the sacred        
structure4  ,the great tongueless bell  
is another striking accessory to the    
temple services4 ,near at hand stands   
the belfry out of which boom forth      
tidings of the hours4 ,in the flow of   
time and years1 the note of the bell    
becomes more significant1 and in old age
 solemn1 making in the lapse of         
centuries an educating power in         
seriousness4 ,as sad as a temple bell is
 the coinage of popular speech4 ,many of
 the inscriptions1 though with less of  
sunny hope and joy than even ,christian 
grave-stones bear1 are yet mournfully   
beautiful4#cc ,they preach ,buddhism in 
its reality4 ,whereas1 the general      
associations of the ,christian spire and
 belfry1 apart from the note of time1   
are those of joy1 invitation and good   

news1 those of the tongueless and       
log-struck bells of ,buddhism are sombre
 and saddening4 ,as merry as a marriage 
bell1 could never be said of the boom   
from a ,buddhist temple1 even though it 
pour waves of sound through sunny       
leagues4 ,there is a vast difference    
between the peal and play of the chimes 
of ,europe and the liquid melody which  
floods the landscape of ,chinese ,asia4 
,the one music1 high in air1 seems ever 
to tell of faith1 triumph and           
aspiration2 the other in minor notes1   
from bells hung low on yokes1           
perpetually echoes the pessimism of     
despair1 the folly of living and the joy
 that anticipates its end4  ,above all1 
the temple holds and governs the        
cemetery#cd as well as the cradle2 while
 from it emanate influences that enwrap 
and surround the villager1 from birth to
 death4 ,since the outlawry of          
,christianity1 and especially since the 
division of the empire into ,buddhist   
parishes1 the bonzes have had the       

oversight of birth1 death1 marriage and 
divorce4 ,particularly tenacious1 in    
common with priestcraft all over the    
world1 is their clutch upon what they   
call consecrated ground4 ,in a large    
sense ,japan is still1 what ,china has  
always been1 a country governed by the  
graveyard4 ,these cities of the dead are
 usually kept in attractive order and   
made beautiful with flowers in memoriam4
 ,the study of epitaphs and mortuary    
architecture1 though not without        
elements bordering on the ludicrous1 is 
enjoyed by the thoughtful student4#ce   
,in every community the inhabitants are 
enrolled at birth at the     local      
temple1 whose priests are the authorized
 religious     teachers1 and are always 
expected to take charge of the funerals 
of those whose names are thus enrolled4 
,so long as an individual     remains in
 the region of the family temple1 the   
tie which binds     him to it is        
exceedingly difficult to break2 but if  
he moves     away he is no longer bound 

by this tie4 ,this explains the fact1   
so often observed by missionaries1 that 
the membership of     ,christian        
churches is made up almost entirely of  
people who have     come from other     
localities4 ,in the city of ,osaka1 for 
instance1     it is a very rare thing to
 find a native ,osakan in any of the    
churches4 ,the same is true in all parts
 of the country4 ,so long     as a      
,japanese remains in the neighborhood of
 his family temple     it is almost     
impossible to get him to break the      
temple tie and     join a ,christian    
church2 but when he moves to another    
place he     is free to do as he        
likes4#cf  ,this statement of a resident
 in modern ,japan will long remain true 
for a large part of the empire4         
,political and ,military ,influences4   
,a volume might be written and devoted  
to ,japanese ,buddhism as a political   
power2 for1 having quickly obtained     
intellectual possession of the court and
 emperor1 it dictated the policies of   

the rulers4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fbd1 it was     
recognized as a state religion1 and the 
hierarchy of priests was officially     
established4 ,at this date there were   
#df temples and monasteries1 with #haf  
monks and #efi nuns4 ,as early as the   
eighth century1 beginning with ,shmu1   
who reigned ,a4,d4 #gbd-gbh1 and who    
with his daughter1 afterward the female 
,mikado1 became a disciple of ,shaka1   
the habit of the emperors becoming      
monks1 shaving their heads and retiring 
from public life1 came in vogue and     
lasted until near the nineteenth        
century4 ,by this means the bonzes were 
soon enabled to call ,buddhism the      
people's religion1 and to secure the    
resources of the national treasury as an
 aid to their temple and monastery      
building1 and for the erection of those 
images and wayside shrines on which so  
many millions of dollars have been      
lavished4 ,in addition to this          
subsidized propaganda1 the ,buddhist    
confessor was too often able1 by means  

of the wife1 concubine1 or other female 
member of the household1 imperial or    
noble1 to dictate the imperial policy in
 accordance with monkish or priestly    
ideas4 ,ugno ,d-ki1 a monk1 is believed 
to have aspired to the throne4 ,being   
made premier by the ,empress ,k-ken1    
whose passion for him is the scandal of 
history1 he made no scruple of extending
 the power as well as the influence of  
the ,buddhist hierarchy4  ,buddhism had 
also a distinct influence on the        
military history of the country1#cg and 
this was greatest during the civil wars 
of the rival ,mikados 7#accf-acib71 when
 the whole country was a camp and two   
lines of nominees claimed to be         
descendants of the sun-goddess4 ,japan's
 only foreign wars have been in the     
neighboring peninsula of ,korea1 and    
thither the bonzes went with the armies 
in the expeditions of the early         
centuries1 and in that great invasion of
 #aeib-aeig1 which has left a scar even 
to this day on the ,korean mind4 ,at    

home1 ,buddhist priests only too gladly 
accompanied the imperial armies of      
conquest and occupation4 ,during        
centuries of activity in the southwest  
and in the far east and extreme north1  
the military brought the outlying       
portions of the empire1 throughout the  
whole archipelago1 under the sway of the
 ,yamato tribe and the ,mikado's        
dominion4 ,the shorn clerks not only    
lived in camp1 ministered to the sick   
and shrived the dying soldier1 but wrote
 texts for the banners1 furnished the   
amulets and war cries1 and were ever    
assistant and valuable in keeping up the
 temper and morals of the armies4#ch ,no
 sooner was the campaign over and peace 
had become the order of the day1 than   
the enthusiastic missionaries began to  
preach and to teach in the pacified     
region4 ,they set up the shrines1 anon  
started the school and built the temple2
 usually1 indeed1 with the aid of the   
law and the government1 acting as agents
 of a politico-ecclesiastical           

establishment1 yet with energy and      
consecration4  ,in later feudal days1   
when the soldier classes obtained the   
upper hand1 overawed the court and      
,mikado and gradually supplanted the    
civil authority1 introducing feudalism  
and martial law1 the bonzes often       
represented the popular and democratic  
side4 ,protesting against arbitrary     
government1 they came into collision    
with the warrior rulers1 so as to be    
exposed to imprisonment and the sword4  
,yet even as refugees and as men to whom
 the old seats of activity no longer    
offered success or comfort1 they went   
off into the distant and outlying       
provinces1 preaching the old tenets and 
the new fashions in theology4 ,thus     
again they won hosts of converts1 built 
monasteries1 opened fresh paths and were
 purveyors of civilization4  ,the feudal
 ages in ,japan bred the same type of   
militant priest known in ,europe--the   
military bishop and the soldier monk4   
,so far from ,japan's being the ,land of

 ,great ,peace1 and ,buddhism's being   
necessarily gentle and non-resistant1 we
 find in the chequered history of the   
island empire many a bloody battle      
between the monks on horseback and in   
armor4#ci ,rival sectarians kept the    
country disquieted for years4 ,between  
themselves and their favored laymen1 and
 the enemy1 consisting of the rival     
forces1 lay and clerical1 in like array1
 many a bloody battle was fought4  ,the 
writer lived for one year in ,echizen1  
which1 in the fifteenth century1 was the
 battle-ground for over fifty years1 of 
warring monks4 ,the abbot of the        
,monastery of the ,original ,vow1 of the
 ,shin sect1 in ,kito1 had built before 
the main edifice a two-storied gate1    
which was expected to throw into the    
shade every other gateway in ,japan1 and
 especially to humble the pride of the  
monks of the ,tendai sect1 in ,hiyizan1 
,the monks of the mountain1 swarming    
down into the capital city1 attacked the
 gate and monastery of the ,shin sect   

and burned the former to ashes4 ,the    
abbot thus driven off by fire1 fled     
northward1 and1 joined by a powerful    
body of adherents1 made himself         
possessor of the rich provinces of ,kaga
 and ,echizen1 holding this region for  
half a century1 until able to rebuild   
the mighty fortress-monasteries near    
,kito and at ,osaka4  ,these strongholds
 of the fighting ,shin priests had      
become so powerful as arsenals and      
military headquarters1 that in #aegj1   
,nobunaga1 skilful general as he was1   
and backed by sixty thousand men1 was   
unsuccessful in his attempt to reduce   
them4 ,for ten years1 the war between   
,nobunaga and the ,shin sectarians kept 
the country in disorder4 ,it finally    
ended in the conflagration of the great 
religious fortress at ,osaka1 and the   
retreat of the monks to another part of 
the country4 ,by their treachery and    
incendiarism1 the shavelings prevented  
the soldiers from enjoying the prizes4  
,to detail the whole history of the     

fighting monks would be tedious4 ,they  
have had a foothold for many centuries  
and even to the present time1 in every  
province except that of ,satsuma4       
,there1 because they treacherously aided
 the great ,hidyoshi to subdue the      
province1 the fiery clansmen1 never     
during ,tokugawa days1 permitted a      
,buddhist priest to come4#dj            
,literature1 and ,education4   ,in its  
literary and scholastic development1    
,japanese ,buddhism on its popular      
educational side deserves great praise4 
,although the ,buddhist canon#da was    
never translated into the vernacular1#db
 and while the library of native        
,buddhism1 in the way of commentary or  
general literature1 reflects no special 
credit upon the priests1 yet the        
historian must award them high honor1   
because of the part taken by them as    
educators and schoolmasters4#dc         
,education in ancient and mediaeval     
times was1 among the laymen1 confined   
almost wholly to the imperial court1 and

 was considered chiefly to be1 either as
 an adjunct to polite accomplishments1  
or as valuable especially in preparing  
young men for political office4#dd ,from
 the first introduction of letters until
 well into the nineteenth century1 there
 was no special provision for education 
made by the government1 except that1 in 
modern and recent times in the castle   
towns of the ,daimis1 there were schools
 of ,chinese learning for the ,samurai4 
,private schools and school-masters#de  
were also creditably numerous4 ,in      
original literature1 poetry1 fiction and
 history1 as well as in the humbler     
works of compilation1 in the making of  
text-books and in descriptive lore1 the 
pens of many priests have been busy4#df 
,the earliest biography written in      
,japan was of ,shtoku1 the great lay    
patron of ,buddhism4 ,in the ages of war
 the monastery was the ark of           
preservation amid a flood of desolation4
  ,the temple schools were early        
established1 and in the course of       

centuries became at times almost        
coextensive with the empire4 ,besides   
the training of the neophytes in the    
,chinese language and the vernacular1   
there were connected with thousands of  
temples1 schools in which the children1 
not only of the well-to-do1 but largely 
of the people1 were taught the rudiments
 of education1 chiefly reading and      
writing4 ,most of the libraries of the  
country were those in monasteries4      
,although it is not probable that ,kb   
invented the ,kana or common script1 yet
 it is reasonably certain that the      
bonzes#dg were the chief instrument in  
the diffusion and popularization of that
 simple system of writing1 which made it
 possible to carry literature down into 
the homes of the merchant and peasant1  
and enabled even women and children to  
beguile the tedium of their lives4 ,thus
 the people expanded their thoughts     
through the medium of the written1 and  
later of the printed1 page4#dh ,until   
modern centuries1 when the school of    

painters1 which culminated in ,hoksai   
and his contemporaries1 brought a love  
of art down to the lowest classes of the
 people1 the only teacher of pictorial  
and sculptural art for the multitude1   
was ,buddhism4 ,so strong is this       
popular delight in things artistic that 
probably1 to this passion as much as to 
the religious instinct1 we owe many of  
the wayside shrines and images1 the     
symbolical and beautifully prepared     
landscapes1 and those stone stairways   
which slope upward toward the shrines on
 the hill-tops4 ,in ,japan1 art is not a
 foreign language2 it is vernacular4    
,thus1 while we gladly point out how    
,buddhism1 along the paths of           
exploration1 commerce1 invention1       
sociology1 military and political       
influence1 education and literature1 not
 only propagated religion1 but civilized
 ,japan1#di it is but in the interest of
 fairness and truth that we point out   
that wherein the great system was       
deficient4 ,if we make comparison with  

,christendom and the religion of ,jesus1
 it is less with the purpose of the     
polemic who must perhaps necessarily    
disparage1 and more with the idea of    
making contrast between what we have    
seen in ,japan and what we have enjoyed 
as commonplace in the ,united ,states   
and ,europe4   ,things ,which ,buddhism 
,left ,undone4   ,in the thirteen       
hundred years of the life of ,buddhism  
in ,japan1 what are the fruits1 and what
 are the failures8 ,despite its         
incessant and multifarious activities1  
one looks in vain for the hospital1 the 
orphan asylum1 the home for elderly men 
or women or aged couples1 or the asylum 
for the insane1 and much less1 for that 
vast and complicated system of organized
 charities1 which1 even amid our        
material greed of gain1 make cities like
 ,new ,york1 or ,london1 or ,chicago1 so
 beautiful from the point of view of    
humanity4 ,buddhism did indeed teach    
kindness to animals1 making even the    
dog1 though ownerless and outcast1 in a 

sense sacred4 ,because of his faith in  
the doctrine of the transmigration of   
souls1 the toiling laborer will keep his
 wheels or his feet from harming the cat
 or dog or chicken in the road1 even    
though it be at risk and trouble and    
with added labor to himself4 ,the pious 
will buy the live birds or eels from the
 old woman who sits on the bridge1 in   
order to give them life and liberty     
again in air or water4 ,the sacred rice 
is for sale at the temples1 not only to 
feed but to fatten the holy pigeons4    
,yet1 while all this care is lavished on
 animals1 the human being suffers4#ej   
,buddhism is kind to the brute1 and     
cruel to man4 ,until the influx of      
western ideas in recent years1 the      
hospital and the orphanage did not exist
 in ,japan1 despite the gentleness and  
tenderness of ,shaka1 who1 with all his 
merits1 deserted his wife and babe in   
order to enlighten mankind4#ea ,if      
,buddhism is not directly responsible   
for the existence of that class of      

,japanese pariahs called hi-nin1 or     
not-human1 the name and the idea are    
borrowed from the sutras2 while the     
execration of all who prepare or sell   
the flesh of animals is persistently    
taught in the sacred books4 ,these      
unfortunate bearers of the human image1 
during twelve hundred years and until   
the fiat of the present illustrious     
emperor made them citizens1 were not    
reckoned in the census1 nor was the land
 on which they dwelt measured4 ,the     
imperial edict which finally elevated   
the ,eta to citizenship1 was suggested  
by one whose life1 though known to men  
as that of a ,confucian1 was probably   
hid with ,christ1 ,yokoi ,hishiro4#eb   
,the emperor ,mutsuhito1 #abc;d of the  
line of ,japan1 born on the day when    
,perry was on the ,mississippi and ready
 to sail1 placed over these outcast     
people in #ahga1 the protecting aegis of
 the law4#ec ,until that time1 the      
people in this unfortunate class1       
numbering probably a million1 or1 as    

some say1 three millions1 were compelled
 to live outside of the limits of human 
habitation1 having no lights which      
society or the law was bound to respect4
 ,they were given food or drink only    
when benevolence might be roused2 but   
the donor would never again touch the   
vessel in which the offering was made4  
,the ,eta1#ed though in individual cases
 becoming measurably rich1 rotted and   
starved1 and were made the filth1 and   
off-scouring of the earth1 because they 
were the butchers1 the skinners1 the    
leather workers1 and thus handled dead  
animals1 being made also the            
executioners and buriers of the dead4   
,after a quarter of a century the       
citizens1 whose ancestry is not         
forgotten1 suffer social ostracism even 
more than do the freed slaves of our    
country1 though between them and the    
other ,japanese there is no color line1 
but only the streak of difference which 
,buddhism created and has maintained4   
,nevertheless1 let it be said to the    

eternal honor of ,shin ,shu and of some 
of the minor sects1 that they were      
always kind and helpful to the ,eta4    
,furthermore it would be hard to        
discover ,buddhist missionary activities
 among the ,ainos1 or benefits conferred
 upon them by the disciples of ,gautama4
 ,one would suppose that the ,buddhists1
 professing to be believers in spiritual
 democracy1 would be equally active     
among all sorts and conditions of men2  
but they have not been so4 ,even in the 
days when the regions of the ,ebisu or  
barbarians 7,yezo7 extended far         
southward upon the main island1 the     
missionary bonze was conspicuous by his 
absence among these people4 ,it would   
seem as though the popular notion that  
the ,ainos are the offspring of dogs1   
had been fed by prejudices inculcated by
 ,buddhism4 ,it has been reserved for   
,christian aliens to reduce the language
 of these simple savages to writing1 and
 to express in it for their spiritual   
benefit the ideas and literature of a   

religion higher than their own1 as well 
as to erect church edifices and build   
hospitals4   ,the ,attitude ,toward     
,woman4   ,in its attitude toward woman1
 which is perhaps one of the crucial    
tests of a religion as well as of a     
civilization1 ,buddhism has somewhat to 
be praised and much to be blamed for4   
,it is probable that the ,japanese woman
 owes more to ,buddhism than to         
,confucianism1 though relatively her    
position was highest under ,shint4 ,in  
,japan the women are the freest in      
,asia1 and probably the best treated    
among any ,asiatic nation1 but this is  
not because of ,gautama's teaching4#ee  
,very early in its history ,japanese    
,buddhism welcomed womanhood to its     
fraternity and order1#ef yet the        
,japanese ama1 bikuni1 or nun1 never    
became a sister of mercy1 or reached1   
even within a measurable distance1 the  
dignity of the ,christian lady in the   
nunnery4 ,in ,european history the      
abbess is a notable figure4 ,she is     

hardly heard of beyond the ,japanese    
nunnery1 even by the native             
scholar--except in fiction4  ,so far as 
we can see1 the religion founded by one 
who deserted his wife and babe did      
nothing to check concubinage or         
polygamy4 ,it simply allowed these      
things1 or ameliorated their ancient    
barbaric conditions through the law of  
kindness4 ,nevertheless1 it brought     
education and culture within the family 
as well as within the court4 ,it would  
be an interesting question to discuss   
how far the age of classic vernacular   
prose or the early mediaeval literature 
of romance1 which is almost wholly the  
creation of woman1#eg is due to         
,buddhism1 or how far the credit        
belongs1 by induction or reaction1 to   
the ,chinese movement in favor of       
learning4 ,certainly1 the faith of      
,india touches and feeds the imagination
 far more than does that of ,china4     
,certainly also1 the animating spirit of
 most of the popular literature is due  

to ,buddhistic culture4 ,the ,shin sect1
 which permits the marriage of the      
priests and preaches the salvation of   
woman1 probably leads all others in     
according honor to her as well as in    
elevating her social position4          
,buddhism1 like ,roman ,catholicism1 and
 as compared to ,confucianism which is  
protestant and masculine1 is feminine in
 its type4 ,in ,japan the place of the  
holy ,virgin ,mary is taken by ,kuannon1
 the goddess of mercy2 and her shrine is
 one of the most popular of all4 ,much  
the same may be said of ,benten1 the    
queen of the heaven and mistress of the 
seas4 ,the angels of ,buddhism are      
always feminine1 and1 as in the         
unscriptural and pagan conception of    
,christian angels1 have wings4#eh ,so   
also in the legends of ,gautama1 in the 
,buddhist lives of the saints1 and in   
legendary lore as well as in glyptic and
 pictorial art1 the female being        
transfigured in loveliness is a striking
 figure4 ,nevertheless1 after all is    

summed up that can possibly be said in  
favor of ,buddhism1 the position it     
accords to woman is not only            
immeasurably beneath that given by      
,christianity1 but is below that        
conceded by ,shint1 which knows not only
 goddesses and heroines1 but also       
priestesses and empresses4#ei           
,according to the popular ethical view  
as photographed in language1 literature 
and art1 jealousy is always represented 
by a female demon4 ,indeed1 most of the 
tempters1 devils1 and transformations of
 humanity into malign beings1 whether   
pretas1 asuras1 oni1 foxes1 badgers1 or 
cats1 are females4 ,as the ,chinese     
ideographs associate all things weak or 
vile with women1 so the tell-tale words 
of ,japanese daily speech are but       
reflections of the dogmas coined in the 
,buddhist mint4 ,in ,japanese1 chastity 
means not moral cleanliness without     
regard to sex1 but only womanly duties4 
,for1 while the man is allowed a loose  
foot1 the woman is expected not only to 

be absolutely spotless1 but also never  
to show any jealousy1 however wide the  
husband may roam1 or however numerous   
may be the concubines in his family4 ,in
 a word1 there is the double standard of
 morals1 not only of priest and laity1  
but of man and woman4 ,the position of  
the ,japanese woman even of to-day1     
despite that eagerness once shown to    
educate her--an eagerness which soon    
cooled in the government schools1 but   
which keeps an even pulse in the        
,christian home and college--is still   
relatively one of degradation as        
compared with that of her sister in     
,christendom4 ,for this1 the mid-,asian 
religion is not wholly responsible1 yet 
it is largely so4   ,influence on the   
,japanese ,character4   ,in regard to   
the influence of ,buddhism upon the     
morals and character of the ,japanese1  
there is much to be said in praise1 and 
much also in criticism4 ,it has aided   
powerfully to educate the people in     
habits of gentleness and courtesy1 but  

instead of aspiration and expectancy of 
improvement1 it has given to them that  
spirit of hopeless resignation which is 
so characteristic of the ,japanese      
masses4 ,buddhism has so dominated      
common popular literature1 daily life   
and speech1 that all their mental       
procedure and their utterance is cast in
 the moulds of ,buddhist doctrine4 ,the 
fatalism of the ,moslem world expressed 
in the idea of ,kismet1 has its analogue
 in the ,japanese ,ingwa1 or cause and  
effect1--the notion of an evolution     
which is atheistic1 but viewed from the 
ethical side4 ,this idea of ,ingwa is   
the key to most ,japanese novels as well
 as dramas of real life4#fj ,while      
,buddhism continually preaches this     
doctrine of ,karma or ,ingwa1#fa the law
 of cause and effect1 as being          
sufficient to explain all things1 it    
shows its insufficiency and emptiness by
 leaving out the great ,first ,cause of 
all4 ,in a word1 ,buddhism is law1 but  
not gospel4 ,it deals much with man1 but

 not with man's relations with his      
,creator1 whom it utterly ignores4      
,christianity comes not to destroy its  
ethics1 beautiful as they are1 nor to   
ignore its metaphysics2 but to fulfil1  
to give a higher truth1 and to reveal a 
larger ,universe and ,one who fills it  
all--not only law1 but a ,law-giver4    
,,chapter ,,xi - ,a ,,century ,,of      
,,roman ,,christianity      ,sicut      
cadaver4      ,et fiet unum ovile et    
unus pastor4--,vulgate1 ,john x4 #af4   
,he 7,xavier7 has been the moon of that 
',society of ,jesus' of     which       
,ignatius ,loyola was the guiding       
sun4--,s4,w4 ,duffield4      ,my ,god ,i
 love ,thee2 not because ,i hope for    
,heaven thereby1     ,nor yet because1  
who love ,thee not1 must1 die eternally4
     ,so would ,i love ,thee1 dearest   
,lord1 and in ,thy praise will sing2    
,solely because thou art my ,god1 and my
 eternal ,king4     --,hymn attributed  
to ,francis ,xavier4      ,half hidden1 
stretching in a lengthened line     ,in 

front of ,china1 which its guide shall  
be1     ,japan abounds in mines of      
,silver fine1     ,and shall enlighten'd
 be by holy faith divine4     --,camoens
      ,the people of this ,iland of     
,japon are good of nature1 curteous     
aboue measure1 and valiant in warre2    
their justice is seuerely     executed  
without any partialitie vpon            
transgressors of the law4     ,they are 
gouerned in great ciuilitie4 ,i meane1  
not a land better     gouerned in the   
world by ciuill policie4 ,the people be 
verie     superstitious in their        
religion1 and are of diuers             
opinions4--,will ,adams1 ,october #bb1  
#afaa4      ,a critical history of      
,japan remains to be written 444 ,we    
should     know next to nothing of what 
may be termed the ,catholic episode     
of the sixteenth and seventeenth        
centuries1 had we access to     none but
 the official ,japanese sources4 ,how   
can we trust those     sources when they
 deal with times yet more               

remote8--,chamberlain4      ,the annals 
of the primitive ,church furnish no     
instances of     sacrifice or heroic    
constancy1 in the ,coliseum or the      
,roman     arenas1 that were not        
paralleled on the dry river-beds or     
execution-grounds of ,japan4      ,they 
444 rest from their labors2 and their   
works do follow     them4 --,revelation4
   ,,chapter ,,xi - ,a ,,century ,,of   
,,roman ,,christianity  ,darkest ,japan4
   ,the story of the first introduction 
and propagation of ,roman ,christianity 
in ,japan1 during the sixteenth and     
seventeenth centuries1 has been told by 
many writers1 both old and new1 and in  
many languages4 ,recent research upon   
the soil1#a both natives and foreigners 
making contributions1 has illustrated   
the subject afresh4 ,relics and         
memorials found in various churches1    
monasteries and palaces1 on both sides  
of the ,pacific and the ,atlantic1 have 
cast new light upon the fascinating     
theme4 ,both ,christian and             

non-,christian ,japanese of to-day1 in  
their travels in the ,philippines1      
,china1 ,formosa1 ,mexico1 ,spain1      
,portugal and ,italy1 being keenly alert
 for memorials of their countrymen1 have
 met with interesting trovers4 ,the     
descendants of the ,japanese martyrs and
 confessors now recognize their own     
ancestors1 in the picture galleries of  
,italian nobles1 and in ,christian      
churches see lettered tombs bearing     
familiar names1 or in western museums   
discern far-eastern works of art brought
 over as presents or curiosities1       
centuries ago4  ,roughly speaking1      
,japanese ,christianity lasted          
phenomenally nearly a century1 or more  
exactly from #aedb to #afcg1 ,during    
this time1 embassies or missions crossed
 the seas not only of ,chinese and      
,peninsular ,asia1 circumnavigating     
,africa and thus reaching ,europe1 but  
also sailed across the ,pacific1 and    
visited papal ,christendom by way of    
,mexico and the ,atlantic ,ocean4  ,this

 century of ,southern ,christianity and 
of commerce with ,europe enabled ,japan1
 which had previously been almost       
unheard of1 except through the vague    
accounts of ,marco ,polo and the        
semi-mythical stories by way of ,china1 
to leave a conspicuous mark1 first upon 
the countries of southern ,europe1 and  
later upon ,holland and ,england4 ,as in
 ,european literature ,cathay became    
,china1 and ,zipango or ,xipangu was    
recognized as ,japan1 so also the       
curiosities1 the artistic fabrics1 the  
strange things from the ends of the     
earth1 soon became familiar in ,europe4 
,besides the traffic in mercantile      
commodities1 there were exchanges of    
words4 ,the languages of ,europe were   
enriched by ,japanese terms1 such as    
soy1 moxa1 goban1 japan 7lacquer or     
varnish71 etc41 while the tongue of     
,nippon received an infusion of new     
terms1#b and a notable list of          
inventions was imported from ,europe4   
,we shall merely outline1 with critical 

commentary1 the facts of history which  
have been so often told1 but which in   
our day have received luminous          
illustration4 ,we shall endeavor to     
treat the general phenomena1 causes and 
results of ,christianity in ,japan in   
the same judicial spirit with which we  
have considered ,buddhism4  ,whatever be
 the theological or political opinions  
of the observer who looks into the      
history of ,japan at about the year     
#aedj1 he will acknowledge that this    
point of time was a very dark moment in 
her known history4 ,columbus1 who was   
familiar with the descriptions of ,marco
 ,polo1 steered his caravels westward   
with the idea of finding ,xipangu1 with 
its abundance of gold and precious gems2
 but the ,genoese did not and could not 
know the real state of affairs existing 
in ,dai ,nippon at this time4 ,let us   
glance at this4  ,the duarchy of ,throne
 and ,camp1 with the ,mikado in ,kito   
and the ,shgun at ,kamakura1 with the   
elaborate feudalism under it1 had fallen

 into decay4 ,the whole country was     
split up into a thousand warring        
fragments4 ,to these convulsions of     
society1 in which only the priest and   
the soldier were in comfort1 while the  
mass of the people were little better   
than serfs1 must be added the frequent  
violent earthquakes1 drought and failure
 of crops1 with famine and pestilence4  
,there was little in religion to uplift 
and cheer4 ,shint had sunk into the     
shadow of a myth4 ,buddhism had become  
outwardly a system of political gambling
 rather than the ordered expression of  
faith4 ,large numbers of the priests    
were like the mercenaries of ,italy1 who
 sold their influence and even their    
swords or those of their followers1 to  
the highest bidder4 ,besides being      
themselves luxurious and dissolute1     
their monasteries were fortresses1 in   
which only the great political gamblers1
 and not the oppressed people1 found    
comfort and help4 ,millions of once     
fertile acres had been abandoned or left

 waste4 ,the destruction of libraries1  
books and records is something awful to 
contemplate2 and the times of ,ashikaga 
make a wilderness for the scapegoat of  
chronology4 ,kito1 the sacred capital1  
had been again and again plundered and  
burnt4 ,those who might be tempted to   
live in the city amid the ruins1 ran the
 risk of fire1 murder1 or starvation4   
,kamakura1 once the ,sh-gun's seat of   
authority1 was1 a level waste of ashes4 
,even ,china1 ,annam and ,korea suffered
 from the practical dissolution of      
society in the island empire2 for       
,japanese pirates ravaged their coasts  
to steal1 burn and kill4 ,even as for   
centuries in ,europe1 ,christian        
churches echoed with that prayer in the 
litanies3 ,from the fury of the         
,norsemen1 good ,lord1 deliver us1 so1  
along large parts of the deserted coasts
 of ,chinese ,asia1 the wretched        
inhabitants besought their gods to      
avenge them against the ,wojen4 ,to this
 day in parts of ,honan in ,china1      

mothers frighten their children and warn
 them to sleep by the fearful words ,the
 ,japanese are coming4   ,first ,coming 
of ,europeans4   ,this time1 then1 was  
that of darkest ,japan4 ,yet the people 
who lived in darkness saw great light1  
and to them that dwelt in the shadow of 
death1 light sprang up4  ,when ,pope    
,alexander ,,vi4 bisected the known     
world1 assigning the western half1      
including ,america to ,spain1 and the   
eastern half1 including ,asia and its   
outlying archipelagos to the            
,portuguese1 the latter sailed and      
fought their way around ,africa to      
,india1 and past the golden ,chersonese4
 ,in #aedb1 exactly fifty years after   
the discovery of ,america1 ,dai ,nippon 
was reached4 ,mendez ,pinto1 on a       
,chinese pirate junk which had been     
driven by a storm away from her         
companions1 set foot upon an island     
called ,tangashima4 ,this name among the
 country folks is still synonymous with 
guns and pistols1 for ,pinto introduced 

fire-arms1 and powder4#c  ,during six   
months spent by the mendacious ,pinto on
 the island1 the imitative people made  
no fewer than six hundred match-locks or
 arquebuses4 ,clearing twelve hundred   
per cent4 on their cargo1 the three     
,portuguese loaded with presents1       
returned to ,china4 ,their countrymen   
quickly flocked to this new market1 and 
soon the beginnings of regular trade    
with ,portugal were inaugurated4 ,on the
 other hand1 ,japanese began to be found
 as far west as ,india4 ,to ,malacca1   
while ,francis ,xavier was laboring     
there1 came a refugee ,japanese1 named  
,anjiro4 ,the disciple of ,loyola1 and  
this child of the ,land of the ,rising  
,sun met4 ,xavier1 ever restless and    
ready for a new field1 was fired with   
the idea of converting ,japan4 ,anjiro1 
after learning ,portuguese and becoming 
a ,christian1 was baptized with the name
 of ,paul4 ,the heroic missionary of the
 cross and keys then sailed with his    
,japanese companion1 and in #aedi landed

 at ,kagoshima1#d the capital of        
,satsuma4 ,as there was no central      
government then existing in ,japan1 the 
entrance of the foreigners1 both lay and
 clerical1 was unnoticed4  ,having no   
skill in the learning of languages1 and 
never able to master one foreign tongue 
completely1 ,xavier began work with the 
aid of an interpreter4 ,the jealousy of 
the daimi1 because his rivals had been  
supplied with fire-arms by the          
,portuguese merchants1 and the plots and
 warnings of those ,buddhist priests    
7who were later crushed by the ,satsuma 
clansmen as traitors71 compelled ,xavier
 to leave this province4 ,he went first 
to ,hirado1#e next to ,nagat1 and then  
to ,bungo1 where he was well received4  
,preaching and teaching through his     
,japanese interpreter1 he formed        
,christian congregations1 especially at 
,yamaguchi4#f ,thus1 within a year1 the 
great apostle to the ,indies had seen   
the quick sprouting of the seed which he
 had planted4 ,his ambition was now to  

go to the imperial capital1 ,kito1 and  
there advocate the claims of ,christ1 of
 ,mary and of the ,pope4  ,thus far1    
however1 ,xavier had seen only a few    
seaports of comparatively successful    
daimis4 ,though he had heard of the     
unsettled state of the country because  
of the long-continued intestine strife1 
he evidently expected to find the       
capital a splendid city4 ,despite the   
armed bands of roving robbers and       
soldiers1 he reached ,kito safely1 only 
to find streets covered with ruins1     
rubbish and unburied corpses1 and a     
general situation of wretchedness4 ,he  
was unable to obtain audience of either 
the ,shgun or the ,mikado4 ,even in     
those parts of the city where he tried  
to preach1 he could obtain no hearers in
 this time of war and confusion4 ,so    
after two weeks he turned his face again
 southward to ,bungo1 where he labored  
for a few months2 but in less than two  
years from his landing in ,japan1 this  
noble but restless missionary left the  

country1 to attempt the spiritual       
conquest of ,china4 ,one year later1    
,december #b1 #aeea1 he died on the     
island of ,shanshan1 or ,sancian1 in the
 ,canton ,river1 a few miles west of    
,macao4   ,christianity ,flourishes4    
,nevertheless1 ,xavier's inspiring      
example was like a shining star that    
attracted scores of missionaries4 ,there
 being in this time of political anarchy
 and religious paralysis none to oppose 
them1 their zeal1 within five years1    
bore surprising fruits4 ,they wrote home
 that there were seven churches in the  
region around ,kito1 while a score or   
more of ,christian congregations had    
been gathered in the southwest4 ,in     
#aeha there were two hundred churches   
and one hundred and fifty thousand      
native ,christians4 ,two daimis had     
confessed their faith1 and in the       
,mikado's minister1 ,nobunaga           
7#aecd-aehb71 the foreign priests found 
a powerful supporter4#g ,this hater and 
scourge of the ,buddhist priesthood     

openly welcomed and patronized the      
,christians1 and gave them eligible     
sites on which to build dwellings and   
churches4 ,in every possible way he     
employed the new force1 which he found  
pliantly political1 as well as          
intellectually and morally a choice     
weapon for humbling the bonzes1 whom he 
hated as serpents4 ,the ,buddhist church
 militant had become an army with       
banners and fortresses4 ,nobunaga made  
it the aim of his life to destroy the   
military power of the hierarchy1 and to 
humble the priests for all time4 ,he    
hoped at least to extract the fangs of  
what he believed to be a                
politico-religious monster1 which       
menaced the life of the nation4         
,unfortunately1 he was assassinated in  
#aehb4 ,to this day the memory of       
,nobunaga is execrated by the           
,buddhists4 ,they have deified ,kato    
,kiyomasa and ,iyyas1 the persecutors of
 the ,christians4 ,to ,nobunaga they    
give the title of ,bakadono1 or ,lord   

,fool4  ,in #aehc1 an embassy of four   
young noblemen was despatched by the    
,christian daimis of ,kiushiu1 the      
second largest island in the empire1 to 
the ,pope to declare themselves         
spiritual--though as some of their      
countrymen suspected1 political--vassals
 of the ,holy ,see4 ,it was in the three
 provinces of ,bungo1 ,omura and ,arima1
 that ,christianity was most firmly     
rooted4 ,after an absence of eight      
years1 in #aeij1 the envoys from the    
oriental to the occidental ends of the  
earth1 returned to ,nagasaki1           
accompanied by seventeen more ,jesuit   
fathers--an important addition to the   
many ,portuguese religious of that order
 already in ,japan4  ,yet1 although     
there was to be still much missionary   
activity1 though printing presses had   
been brought from ,europe for the proper
 diffusion of ,christian literature in  
the ,romanized colloquial1#h though     
there were yet to be built more church  
edifices and monasteries1 and ,christian

 schools to be established1 a sad change
 was nigh4 ,much seed which was yet to  
grow in secret had been planted1--like  
the exotic flowers which even yet       
blossom and shed their perfume in       
certain districts of ,japan1 and which  
the traveller from ,christendom         
instantly recognizes1 though the        
,portuguese ,christian church or        
monastery centuries ago disappeared in  
fire1 or fell to the earth and          
disappeared4 ,though there were to be   
yet wonderful flashes of ,christian     
success1 and the missionaries were to   
travel over ,japan even up to the end of
 the main island and accompany the      
,japanese army to ,korea2 yet it may be 
said that with the death of ,nobunaga at
 the hands of the traitor ,akchi1 we see
 the high-water mark of the flood-tide  
of ,japanese ,christianity4 ,akchi      
reigned three days1 but after him were  
to arise a ruler and central government 
jealous and hostile4 ,after this flood  
was to come slowly but surely the       

ebb-tide1 until it should leave1        
outwardly at least1 all things as       
before4  ,the ,jesuit fathers1 with     
instant sensitiveness1 felt the loss of 
their champion and protector1 ,nobunaga4
 ,the rebel and assassin1 ,akchi1       
ambitious to imitate and excel his      
master1 promised the ,christians to do  
more for them even than ,nobunaga had   
done1 provided they would induce the    
daimi ,takayama to join forces with his4
 ,it is the record of their own friendly
 historian1 and not of an enemy1 that   
they1 led by the ,jesuit father         
,organtin1 attempted this persuasion4   
,to the honor of the ,christian         
,japanese ,takayama1 he refused4#i ,on  
the contrary1 he marched his little army
 of a thousand men to ,kito1 and1 though
 opposed to a force of eight thousand1  
held the capital city until ,hidyoshi1  
the loyal general of the ,mikado1       
reached the court city and dispersed the
 assassin's band4 ,hidyoshi soon made   
himself familiar with the whole story1  

and his keen eye took in the situation4 
,this man on horseback1 master of the   
situation and moulder of the destinies  
of ,japan1 ,hidyoshi 7#aecf-aeih71 was  
afterward known as the ,taik1 or        
,retired ,regent4 ,the rarity of the    
title makes it applicable in common     
speech to this one person4 ,greater than
 his dead master1 ,nobunaga1 and        
ingenious in the arts of war and peace1 
,hidyoshi compelled the warring daimis1 
even the proud lord of ,satsuma1#aj to  
yield to his power1 until the civil     
minister of the emperor1 reverently     
bowing1 could say3 ,all under ,heaven1  
,peace4 ,now1 ,japan had once more a    
central government1 intensely jealous   
and despotic1 and with it the new       
religion must sooner or later reckon4   
,religion apart from politics was       
unknown in the ,land of the ,gods4      
,yet1 in order to employ the vast bodies
 of armed men hitherto accustomed to the
 trade of war1 and withal jealous of    
,china and hostile to ,korea1 ,hidyoshi 

planned the invasion of the little      
peninsular kingdom by these veterans    
whose swords were restless in their     
scabbards4 ,after months of preparation1
 he despatched an army in two great     
divisions1 one under the ,christian     
general ,konishi1 and one under the     
,buddhist general ,kato4 ,after a       
brilliant campaign of eighteen days1 the
 rivals1 taking different routes1 met in
 the ,korean capital4 ,in the masterly  
campaign which followed1 the ,japanese  
armies penetrated almost to the extreme 
northern boundary of the kingdom4 ,then 
,china came to the rescue and the       
,japanese were driven southward4        
,during the six or seven years of war1  
while the invaders crossed swords with  
the natives and their ,chinese allies1  
and devastated ,korea to an extent from 
which she has never recovered1 there    
were ,jesuit missionaries attending the 
,japanese armies4 ,it is not possible or
 even probable1 however1 that any seeds 
of ,christianity were at this time left 

in the peninsula4 ,korean ,christianity 
sprang up nearly two centuries later1   
wind-wafted from ,china4#aa  ,during the
 war there was always more or less of   
jealousy1 mostly military and personal1 
between ,konishi and ,kato1 which       
however was aggravated by the priests on
 either side4 ,kato1 being then and     
afterward a fierce champion of the      
,buddhists1 glorified in his orthodoxy1 
which was that of the ,nichiren sect4   
,he went into battle with a banneret    
full of texts1 stuck in his back and    
flying behind him4 ,his example was     
copied by hundreds of his officers and  
soldiers4 ,on their flags and guidons   
was inscribed the famous apostrophe of  
the ,nichiren sect1 so often heard in   
their services and revivals to-day      
7,namu miy ho ren g ki71 and borrowed   
from the ,saddharma ,pundarika3 ,glory  
be to the salvation-bringing ,lotus of  
the ,true ,law4   ,the ,hostility of    
,hidyoshi4   ,konishi1 on the other     
hand1 was less numerously and perhaps   

less influentially backed by1 and made  
the champion of1 the ,european brethren2
 and as all the negotiations between the
 invaders and the allied ,koreans and   
,chinese had to be conducted in the     
,chinese script1 the alien fathers were1
 as secretaries and interpreters1 less  
useful than the native ,japanese bonzes4
  ,yet this jealousy and hostility in   
the camps of the invaders proved to be  
only correlative to the state of things 
in ,japan4 ,even supposing the          
statistics in round numbers1 reported at
 that time1 to be exaggerated1 and that 
there were not as many as the alleged   
two hundred thousand ,christians1 yet   
there were1 besides scores of thousands 
of confessing believers among the common
 people1 daimis1 military leaders1 court
 officers and many persons of culture   
and influence4 ,nevertheless1 the       
predominating influence at the ,kito    
court was that of ,buddhism2 and as the 
cult that winks at polygamy was less    
opposed to ,hidyoshi's sensualism and   

amazing vanity1 the illustrious upstart 
was easily made hostile to the alien    
faith4 ,according to the accounts of the
 ,jesuits1 he took umbrage because a    
,portuguese captain would not please him
 by risking his ship in coming out of   
deep water and nearer land1 and because 
there were ,christian maidens of ,arima 
who scorned to yield to his degrading   
proposals4 ,some time after these       
episodes1 an edict appeared1 commanding 
every ,jesuit to quit the country within
 twenty days4 ,there were at this time  
sixty-five foreign missionaries in the  
country4  ,then began a series of       
persecutions1 which1 however1 were      
carried on spasmodically and locally1   
but not universally or with system4     
,bitter in some places1 they were       
neutralized or the law became a dead    
letter1 in other parts of the realm4 ,it
 is estimated that ten thousand new     
converts were made in the single year1  
#aehi1 that is1 the second year after   
the issue of the edict1 and again in the

 next year1 #aeij4 ,it might even be    
reasonable to suppose that1 had the work
 been conducted wisely and without the  
too open defiance of the letter of the  
law1 the awful sequel which history     
knows1 might not have been4  ,let us    
remember that the ,duke of ,alva1 the   
tool of ,philip ,,ii41 failing to crush 
the ,dutch ,republic had conquered      
,portugal for his master4 ,the two      
kingdoms of the ,iberian peninsula were 
now united under one crown4 ,spain      
longed for trade with ,japan1 and while 
her merchants hoped to displace their   
,portuguese rivals1 the ,spanish        
,franciscans not scrupling to wear a    
political cloak and thus override the   
,pope's bull of world-partition1        
determined to get a foothold alongside  
of the ,jesuits4 ,so1 in #aeic a        
,spanish envoy of the governor of the   
,philippine ,islands came to ,kito1     
bringing four ,spanish ,franciscan      
priests1 who were allowed to build      
houses in ,kito1 but only on the express

 understanding that this was because of 
their coming as envoys of a friendly    
power1 and with the explicitly specified
 condition that they were not to preach1
 either publicly or privately4 ,almost  
immediately violating their pledge and  
the hospitality granted them1 these     
,spaniards1 wearing the vestments of    
their order1 openly preached in the     
streets4 ,besides exciting discord among
 the ,christian congregations founded by
 the ,jesuits1 they were violent in     
their language4  ,hidyoshi1 to gratify  
his own mood and test his power as the  
actual ruler for a shadowy emperor1     
seized nine preachers while they were   
building churches at ,kito and ,osaka4  
,they were led to the execution-ground  
in exactly the same fashion as felons1  
and executed by crucifixion1 at         
,nagasaki1 ,february #e1 #aeig4 ,three  
,portuguese ,jesuits1 six ,spanish      
,franciscans and seventeen native       
,christians were stretched on bamboo    
crosses1 and their bodies from thigh to 

shoulder were transfixed with spears4   
,they met their doom uncomplainingly4   
,in the eye of the ,japanese law1 these 
men were put to death1 not as           
,christians1 but as law-breakers and as 
dangerous political conspirators4 ,the  
suspicions of ,hidyoshi were further    
confirmed by a ,spanish sea-captain1 who
 showed him a map of the world on which 
were marked the vast dominions of the   
,king of ,spain2 the ,spaniard informing
 the ,japanese1 in answer to his shrewd 
question1 that these great conquests had
 been made by the king's soldiers       
following up the priests1 the work being
 finished by the native and foreign     
allies4   ,the ,political ,character of 
,roman ,christianity4   ,the ,roman     
,catholic ,histoire del' glise          
,chrtienne shows the political character
 of the missionary movement in ,japan1 a
 character almost inextricably          
associated with the papal and other     
political ,christianity of the times1   
when ,state and ,church were united in  

all the countries of ,europe1 both      
,catholic and ,protestant4 ,even        
republican ,holland1 leader of          
toleration and forerunner of the modern 
,christian spirit1 permitted1 indeed1   
the ,roman ,catholics to worship in     
private houses or in sacred edifices not
 outwardly resembling churches1 but     
prohibited all public processions and   
ceremonies1 because religion and        
politics at that time were as ,siamese  
twins4 ,only the ,anabaptists held the  
primitive ,christian and the ,american  
doctrine of the separation of politics  
from ecclesiasticism4 ,except in the    
country ruled by ,william the ,silent1  
all magistrates meddled with men's      
consciences4#ab  ,in #aeig1 ,hidyoshi   
died1 and the missionaries took heart   
again4 ,the ,christian soldiers         
returning by thousands from ,korea1     
declared themselves in favor of         
,hidyori1 son of the dead ,taik4        
,encouraged by those in power1 and by   
the rising star ,iyyas 7#aedb-afaf71 the

 fathers renewed their work and the     
number of converts increased4  ,though  
peace reigned1 the political situation  
was one of the greatest uncertainty1 and
 with two hundred thousand soldiers     
gathered around ,kito1 under scores of  
ambitious leaders1 it was hard to keep  
the sword in the sheath4 ,soon the line 
of cleavage found ,iyyas and his        
northern captains on one side1 and most 
of the ,christian leaders and southern  
daimis on the other4 ,in ,october1      
#afjj1 with seventy-five thousand men1  
the future unifier of ,japan stood on   
the ever-memorable field of ,skigahara4 
,the opposing army1 led largely by      
,christian commanders1 left their       
fortress to meet the one whom they      
considered a usurper1 in the open field4
 ,in the battle which ensued1 probably  
the most decisive ever fought on the    
soil of ,japan1 ten thousand men lost   
their lives4 ,the leading ,christian    
generals1 beaten1 but refusing out of   
principle because they were ,christians1

 to take their own lives by hara-kiri1  
knelt willingly at the common blood-pit 
and had their heads stricken off by the 
executioner4  ,then began a new era in  
the history of the empire1 and then were
 laid by ,iyyas the foundation-lines    
upon which the ,japan best known to     
,europe has existed for nearly three    
centuries4 ,the creation of a central   
executive government strong enough to   
rule the whole empire1 and hold down    
even the southern and southwestern      
daimis1 made it still worse for the     
converts of the ,european teachers1     
because in the ,land of the ,gods       
government is ever intensely pagan4  ,in
 adjusting the feudal relations of his  
vassals in ,kiushiu1 ,iyyas made great  
changes1 and thus the political status  
of the ,christians was profoundly       
altered4 ,the new daimis1 carrying out  
the policy of their predecessors who had
 been taught by the ,jesuits1 but       
reversing its direction1 began to       
persecute their ,christian subjects1 and

 to compel them to renounce their faith4
 ,one of the leading opposers of the    
,christians and their most cruel        
persecutor1 was ,kato1 the zealous      
,nichirenite4 ,like ,brandt1 the famous 
,iroquois ,indian1 who1 in the ,mohawk  
,valley is execrated as a bloodthirsty  
brute1 and on the ,canadian side is     
honored with a marble statue and        
considered not only as the translator of
 the prayer-book but also as a saint2   
even also as ,claverhouse1 who1 in      
,scotland is looked upon as a murderous 
demon1 but in ,england as a             
conscientious and loyal patriot2 so     
,kato1 the vir ter execrandus of the    
,jesuits1 is worshipped in his shrine at
 the ,nichiren temple at ,ikgami1 near  
,tki1#ac and is praised by native       
historians as learned1 brave and true4  
,the ,christians of ,kiushiu1 in a few  
cases1 actually took up arms against    
their new rulers and oppressors1 though 
it was a new thing under the ,japanese  
sun for peasantry to oppose not only    

civil servants of the law1 but veterans 
in armor4 ,iyyas1 now having time to    
give his attention wholly to matters of 
government and to examine the new forces
 that had entered ,japanese life1       
followed ,hidyoshi in the suspicion     
that1 under the cover of the western    
religion1 there lurked political        
designs4 ,he thought he saw confirmation
 of his theories1 because the foreigners
 still secretly or openly paid court to 
,hidyori1 and at the same time freely   
disbursed gifts and gold as well as     
comfort to the persecuted4 ,resolving to
 crush the spirit of independence in the
 converts and to intimidate the foreign 
emissaries1 ,iyyas with steel and blood 
put down every outbreak1 and at last1 in
 #afjf1 issued his edict#ad prohibiting 
,christianity4   ,the ,quarrels of the  
,christians4   ,about the same time1    
,protestant influences began to work    
against the papal emissaries4 ,the new  
forces from the triumphant ,dutch       
republic1 which having successfully     

defied ,spain for a whole generation had
 reached ,japan even before the ,great  
,truce1 were opposed to the ,spaniards  
and to the influence of both ,jesuits   
and ,franciscans4 ,hollanders at        
,lisbon1 obtaining from the ,spanish    
archives charts and geographical        
information1 had boldly sailed out into 
the ,eastern seas1 and carried the      
orange white and blue flag to the ends  
of the earth1 even to ,nippon4 ,between 
,prince ,maurice1 son of ,william the   
,silent1 and the envoys of ,iyyas1 there
 was made a league of commerce as well  
as of peace and friendship4 ,will       
,adams1#ae the ,english pilot of the    
,dutch ships1 by his information given  
to ,iyyas1 also helped much to destroy  
the ,jesuits influence and to hurt their
 cause1 while both the ,dutch and       
,english were ever busy in disseminating
 both correct information and polemic   
exaggeration1 forging letters and       
delivering up to death by fire the      
padres when captured at sea4  ,in       

general1 however1 it may be said that   
while ,christian converts and the       
priests were roughly handled in the     
,south1 yet there was considerable      
missionary activity and success in the  
,north4 ,converts were made and         
,christian congregations were gathered  
in regions remote from ,kito and ,yedo1 
which latter place1 like ,st4           
,petersburg in the ,west1 was being made
 into a large city4 ,even outlying      
islands1 such as ,sado1 had their       
churches and congregations4   ,the      
,anti-,christian ,policy of the         
,tokugawas4   ,the quarrels between the 
,franciscans and ,jesuits1#af however1  
were probably more harmful to           
,christianity than were the whispers of 
the ,protestant ,englishmen or          
,hollanders4 ,in #afaj1 the wrath of the
 government was especially aroused      
against the bateren1 as the people      
called the padres1 by their open and    
persistent violation of ,japanese law4  
,in #afaa1 from ,sado1 to which island  

thousands of ,christian exiles had been 
sent to work the mines1 ,iyyas believed 
he had obtained documentary proof in the
 ,japanese language1 of what he had long
 suspected--the existence of a plot on  
the part of the native converts and the 
foreign emissaries to reduce ,japan to  
the position of a subject state4#ag     
,putting forth strenuous measures to    
root out utterly what he believed to be 
a pestilential breeder of sedition and  
war1 the ,yedo ,shgun advanced step by  
step to that great proclamation of      
,january #bg1 #afad1ah in which the     
foreign priests were branded as triple  
enemies--of the country1 of the ,kami1  
and of the ,buddhas4 ,this proclamation 
wound up with the charge that the       
,christian band had come to ,japan to   
change the government of the country1   
and to usurp possession of it4 ,whether 
or not he really had sufficient written 
proof of conspiracy against the nation's
 sovereignty1 it is certain that in this
 state paper1 ,iyyas shrewdly touched   

the springs of ,japanese patriotism4    
,not desiring1 however1 to shed blood or
 provoke war1 he tried transportation4  
,three hundred persons1 namely1         
twenty-two ,franciscans1 ,dominicans and
 ,augustines1 one hundred and seventeen 
foreign ,jesuits1 and nearly two hundred
 native priests and catechists1 were    
arrested1 sent to ,nagasaki1 and thence 
shipped like bundles of combustibles to 
,macao4  ,yet1 as many of the foreign   
and native ,christian teachers hid      
themselves in the country and as others 
who had been banished returned secretly 
and continued the work of propaganda1   
the crisis had not yet come4 ,some of   
the ,jesuit priests1 even1 were still   
hoping that ,hidyori would mount to     
power2 but in #afae1 ,iyyas1 finding a  
pretext for war1#ai called out a        
powerful army and laid siege to the     
great castle of ,osaka1 the most        
imposing fortress in the country4 ,in   
the brief war which ensued1 it is said  
by the ,jesuit fathers1 that one hundred

 thousand men perished4 ,on ,june #i1   
#afae1 the castle was captured and the  
citadel burned4 ,after thousands of     
,hidyori's followers had committed      
hara-kiri1 and his own body had been    
burned into ashes1 the ,christian cause 
was irretrievably ruined4  ,hidtada1 the
 successor of ,iyyas in ,yedo1 who ruled
 from #afje to #afbb1 seeing that his   
father's peaceful methods had failed in 
extirpating the alien politico-religious
 doctrine1 now pronounced sentence of   
death on every foreigner1 priest1 or    
catechist found in the country4 ,the    
story of the persecutions and horrible  
sufferings that ensued is told in the   
voluminous literature which may be      
gathered from every country in          
,europe2#bj though from the ,japanese   
side ,the ,catholic martyrology of      
,japan is still an untouched field for a
 native historian4#ba ,all the church   
edifices which the last storm had left  
standing were demolished1 and temples   
and pagodas were erected upon their     

ruins4 ,in #afag1 foreign commerce was  
restricted to ,hirado and ,nagasaki4 ,in
 #afba1 ,japanese were forbidden ever to
 leave the country4 ,in #afbd1 all ships
 having a capacity of over twenty-five  
hundred bushels were burned1 and no     
craft1 except those of the size of      
ordinary junks1 were allowed to be      
built4   ,the ,books of the ,inferno    
,opened4   ,for years1 at intervals and 
in places1 the books of the ,inferno    
were opened1 and the tortures devised by
 the native pagans and ,buddhists       
equalled in their horror those which    
,dante imagines1 until finally1 in      
#afcf1 even ,japanese human nature1     
accustomed for ages to subordination and
 submission1 could stand it no longer4  
,then a man named ,nirado ,shiro raised 
the banner of the ,virgin and called on 
all ,christians and others to follow    
him4 ,probably as many as thirty        
thousand men1 women and children1 but   
without a single foreigner1 lay or      
clerical1 among them1 gathered from     

parts of ,kiushiu4 ,after burning ,shint
 and ,buddhist temples1 they fortified  
an old abandoned castle at ,shimabara1  
resolving to die rather than submit4    
,against an army of veterans1 led by    
skilled commanders1 the fortress held   
out during four months4 ,at last1 after 
a bloody assault1 it was taken1 and men1
 women and children were slaughtered4#bb
 ,thousands suffered death at the point 
of the spear and sword2 many were thrown
 into the sea2 and others were cast into
 boiling hot springs1 emblems of the    
eight ,buddhist ,hells4  ,all efforts   
were now put forth to uproot not only   
,christianity but also everything of    
foreign planting4 ,the ,portuguese were 
banished and the death penalty declared 
against all who should return1 ,the ai  
no ko1 or half-breed children1 were     
collected and shipped by hundreds to    
,macao4 ,all persons adopting or        
harboring ,eurasians were to be         
banished1 and their relatives punished4 
,the ,christian cause now became like   

the doomed city of ,babylon or like the 
site of ,nineveh1 which1 buried in the  
sand and covered with the desolation and
 silence of centuries1 became lost to   
the memory of the world1 so that even   
the very record of scripture was the    
jest of the infidel1 until the spade of 
,layard brought them again to           
resurrection4 ,so1 ,japanese            
,christianity1 having vanished in blood1
 was supposed to have no existence1 thus
 furnishing ,mr4 ,lecky with arguments  
to prove the extirpative power of       
persecution4#bc  ,yet in #ahei1 on the  
opening of the country by treaty1 the   
,roman ,catholic fathers at ,nagasaki   
found to their surprise that they were  
re-opening the old mines1 and that their
 work was in historic continuity with   
that of their predecessors4 ,the blood  
of the martyrs had been the seed of the 
church4 ,amid much ignorance and        
darkness1 there were thousands of people
 who1 through the ,virgin1 worshipped   
,god2 who talked of ,jesus1 and of the  

,holy ,spirit2 and who refused to       
worship at the pagan shrines#bd4        
,summary of ,roman ,christianity in     
,japan4   ,let us now strive impartially
 to appraise the ,christianity of this  
era1 and inquire what it found1 what it 
attempted to do1 what it did not strive 
to attain1 what was the character of its
 propagators1 what was the mark it made 
upon the country and upon the mind of   
the people1 and whether it left any     
permanent influence4  ,the gospel net   
which had gathered all sorts of fish in 
,europe brought a varied quality of     
spoil to ,japan4 ,among the ,portuguese 
missionaries1 beginning with ,xavier1   
there are many noble and beautiful      
characters1 who exemplified in their    
motives1 acts1 lives and sufferings some
 of the noblest traits of both natural  
and redeemed humanity4 ,in their praise1
 both the pagan and the ,christian1 as  
well as critics biased by their         
prepossessions in favor either of the   
,reformed or the ,roman phase of the    

faith1 can unite4  ,the character of the
 native converts is1 in many instances1 
to be commended1 and shows the direct   
truth of ,christianity in fields of life
 and endeavor1 in ethics and in         
conceptions1 far superior to those which
 the ,japanese religious systems have   
produced4 ,in the teaching that there   
should be but one standard of morality  
for man and woman1 and that the male as 
well as the female should be pure2 in   
the condemnation of polygamy and        
licentiousness2 in the branding of      
suicide as both wicked and cowardly2 in 
the condemnation of slavery2 and in the 
training of men and women to lofty      
ideals of character1 the ,christian     
teachers far excelled their ,buddhist or
 ,confucian rivals4  ,the benefits which
 ,japan received through the coming of  
the ,christian missionaries1 as distinct
 and separate from those brought by     
commerce and the merchants1 are not to  
be ignored4 ,while many things of value 
and influence for material improvement1 

and many beneficent details and elements
 of civilization were undoubtedly       
imported by traders1 yet it was the     
priests and itinerant missionaries who  
diffused the knowledge of the importance
 of these things and taught their use   
throughout the country4 ,although in the
 reaction of hatred and bitterness1 and 
in the minute1 universal and            
long-continued suppression by the       
government1 most of this advantage was  
destroyed1 yet some things remained to  
influence thought and speech1 and to    
leave a mark not only on the language1  
but also on the procedure of daily life4
 ,one can trace notable modifications of
 ,japanese life from this period1       
lasting through the centuries and even  
until the present time4  ,christianity1 
in the sixteenth century1 came to ,japan
 only in its papal or ,roman ,catholic  
form4 ,while in it was infused much of  
the power and spirit of ,loyola and     
,xavier1 yet the impartial critic must  
confess that this form was military1    

oppressive and political4#be            
,nevertheless1 though it was impure and 
saturated with the false principles1 the
 vices and the embodied superstitions of
 corrupt southern ,europe1 yet1 such as 
it was1 ,portuguese ,christianity       
confronted the worst condition of       
affairs1 morally1 intellectually and    
materially1 which ,japan has known in   
historic times4 ,defective as the critic
 must pronounce the system of religion  
imported from ,europe1 it was           
immeasurably superior to anything that  
the ,japanese had hitherto known4  ,it  
must be said1 also1 that ,portuguese    
,christianity in ,japan tried to do     
something more than the mere obtaining  
of adherents or the nominal conversion  
of the people4#bf ,it attempted to      
purify and exalt their life1 to make    
society better1 to improve the relations
 between rulers and ruled2 but it did   
not attempt to do what it ought to have 
done4 ,it ignored great duties and      
problems1 while it imitated too fully1  

not only the example of the kings of    
this world in ,europe but also of the   
rulers in ,japan4 ,in the presence of   
soldier-like ,buddhist priests1 who had 
made war their calling1 it would have   
been better if the ,christian           
missionaries had avoided their bad      
example1 and followed only in the       
footsteps of the ,prince of ,peace2 but 
they did not4 ,on the contrary1 they    
brought with them the spirit of the     
,inquisition then in full blast in      
,spain and ,portugal1 and the machinery 
with which they had been familiar for   
the reclamation of native and ,dutch    
heretics4 ,xavier1 while at ,goa1 had   
even invoked the secular arm to set up  
the ,inquisition in ,india1 and         
doubtless he and his followers would    
have put up this infernal enginery in   
,japan if they could have done so4 ,they
 had stamped and crushed out heresy in  
their own country1 by a system of       
hellish tortures which in its horrible  
details is almost indescribable4 ,the   

rusty relics now in the museums of      
,europe1 but once used in church        
discipline1 can be fully appreciated    
only by a physician or an anatomist4 ,in
 ,japan1 with the spirit of ,alva and   
,philip ,,ii41 these believers in the   
righteousness of the ,inquisition       
attacked violently the character of     
native bonzes1 and incited their        
converts to insult the gods1 destroy the
 ,buddhist images1 and burn or desecrate
 the old shrines4 ,they persuaded the   
daimis1 when these lords had become     
,christians1 to compel their subjects to
 embrace their religion on pain of exile
 or banishment4 ,whole districts were   
ordered to become ,christian4 ,the      
bonzes were exiled or killed1 and fire  
and sword as well as preaching1 were    
employed as means of conversion4 ,in    
ready imitation of the ,buddhists1      
fictitious miracles were frequently got 
up to utilize the credulity of the      
superstitious in furthering the         
faith--all of which is related not by   

hostile critics1 but by admiring        
historians and by sympathizing          
eye-witnesses4#bg  ,the most prominent  
feature of the ,roman ,catholicism of   
,japan1 was its political animus and    
complexion4 ,in writings of this era1   
,japanese historians treat of the       
,christian missionary movement less as  
something religious1 and more as that   
which influenced government and         
polities1 rather than society on its    
moral side4 ,so also1 the impartial     
historian must consider that1 on the    
whole1 despite the individual instances 
of holy lives and unselfish purposes1   
the work of the ,portuguese and ,spanish
 friars and fathers was1 in the main1 an
 attempt to bring ,japan more or less   
directly within the power of the ,pope  
or of those rulers called ,most         
,catholic ,majesties1 ,christian ,kings1
 etc41 even as they had already brought 
,mexico1 ,south ,america1 and large     
portions of ,india under the same       
control4 ,the words of ,jesus before the

 ,roman procurator had not been         
apprehended3--,my kingdom is not of this
 world4     ,,chapter ,,xii - ,,two     
,,centuries ,,of ,,silence      ,the    
frog in the well knows not the great    
ocean                                   
--,sanskrit and ,japanese ,proverb4     
,when the blind lead the blind1 both    
fall into the ditch4                    
--,japanese ,proverb4      ,the little  
island of ,dshima1 well and             
prophetically signifying                
,fore-,island1 was ,japan's window1     
through which she looked at the         
whole ,occident 444 ,we are under       
obligation to ,holland for the     arts 
of engineering1 mining1 pharmacy1       
astronomy1 and medicine     444         
',rangaku' 7i4e41 ,dutch learning7      
passed almost as a synonym     for      
medicine1 #afae-ahfh4--;,inazo ,nitob4  
,the great peace1 of which we are so    
proud1 was more like the     stillness  
of stagnant pools than the calm surface 
of a clear     lake4--,mitsukuri4       

,the ancestral policy of                
self-contentment must be done away      
with4 ,if it was adopted by your        
forefathers1 because it was wise     in 
their time1 why not adopt a new policy  
if it in sure to prove     wise in your 
time4--,sakuma ,shozan1 wrote in #ahda1 
assassinated     #ahfd4      ,and slowly
 floating onward go     ,those ,black   
,ships1 wave-tossed to and fro4         
--,japanese ,ballad of the ,black ,ship1
 #ahde4      ,the next day was ,sunday  
7,july #ajth71 and1 as usual1 divine    
service was held on board the ships1    
and1 in accordance with     proper      
reverence for the day1 no communication 
was held with the     ,japanese         
authorities4         --,perry's         
,narrative4      ,praise ,god1 from whom
 all blessings flow1     ,praise ,him1  
all creatures here below1     ,praise   
,him above1 ye heavenly host1           
,praise ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost4
         --,sung on ,u4,s4,s4,s4        
,mississippi1 in ,yedo ,bay1 ,july #aj1 

#ahec4      ,i refuse to see anyone on  
,sunday1 ,i am resolved to set an       
example of a proper observance of the   
,sabbath 444 ,i will try to     make it 
what ,i believe it was intended to be--a
 day of     rest4--,townsend ,harris's  
,diary1 ,sunday1 ,august #ca1 #ahef4    
,i have called thee by thy name4 ,i have
 surnamed thee1 though     thou hast not
 known me4 ,i am the ,,lord1 and there  
is none else2     besides me there is no
 ,god4--,isaiah4      ,i saw underneath 
the altar the souls of them that had    
been     slain for the word of ,god1 and
 for the testimony which they           
held4--,john4      ,that they should    
seek ,god1 ,if haply they might feel    
after him1     though he is not far from
 each one of us4--,paul4      ,other    
sheep have ,i which are not of this     
fold3 them also ,i must     bring1 and  
they shall hear my voice2 and they shall
 become one     flock1 one              
shepherd--,jesus4  ,,chapter ,,xii -    
,,two ,,centuries ,,of ,,silence  ,the  

,japanese ,shut ,in4   ,sincerely       
regretting that we cannot pass more     
favorable judgments upon the            
,christianity of the seventeenth century
 in ,japan1 let us look into the two    
centuries of silence1 and see what was  
the story between the paling of the     
,christian record in #afcg1 and the     
glowing of the palimpsest in #ahei1 when
 the new era begins4  ,the policy of the
 ,japanese rulers1 after the supposed   
utter extirpation of ,christianity1 was 
the double one of exclusion and         
inclusion4 ,a deliberate attempt1 long  
persisted in and for centuries          
apparently successful1 was made to      
insulate ,japan from the shock of       
change4 ,the purpose was to draw a whole
 nation and people away from the        
currents and movements of humanity1 and 
to stereotype national thought and      
custom4 ,this was carried out in two    
ways3 first1 by exclusion1 and then by  
inclusion4 ,all foreign influences were 
shut off1 or reduced to a minimum4 ,the 

whole western world1 especially         
,christendom1 was put under ban4  ,even 
the apparent exception made in favor of 
the ,dutch was with the motive of making
 isolation more complete1 and of        
securing the perfect safety which that  
isolation was expected to bring4 ,for1  
having built1 not indeed with brick and 
mortar1 but by means of edict and law1  
both open and secret1 a great wall of   
exclusion more powerful than that of    
,china's1 it was necessary that there   
should be a port-hole1 for both sally   
and exit1 and a slit for vigilant       
scrutiny of any attempt to force        
seclusion or violate the frontier4      
,hence1 the ,hollanders were allowed to 
have a small place of residence in front
 of a large city and at the head of a   
land-locked harbor4 ,there1 the         
foreigners being isolated and under     
strict guard1 the government could have1
 as it were1 a nerve which touched the  
distant nations1 and could also1 as with
 a telescope1 sweep the horizon for     

signs of danger4  ,so1 in #afdj1 the    
,hollanders were ordered to evacuate    
,hirado1 and occupy the little outer    
island called ,dshima1 in front of the  
city of ,nagasaki1 and connected        
therewith by a bridge4 ,any ships       
entering this hill-girdled harbor1 it   
was believed1 could be easily managed by
 the military resources possessed by the
 government4 ,vessels were allowed      
yearly to bring the news from abroad and
 exchange the products of ,japan for    
those of ,europe4 ,the ,english1 who had
 in #afag opened a trade and conducted a
 factory for some years1#a were unable  
to compete with the ,dutch1 and about   
#afbd1 after having lost in the venture 
forty thousand pounds sterling1 withdrew
 entirely from the ,japanese trade4 ,the
 ,dutch were thus left without a rival  
from ,christendom4  ,japan ceased her   
former trade and communications with the
 ,philippine ,islands1 ,annam1 ,siam1   
the ,spice ,islands and ,india1#b and   
begun to restrict trade and             

communication with ,korea and ,china4   
,the ,koreans1 who were considered as   
vassals1 or semi-vassals1 came to ,japan
 to present their congratulations on the
 accession of each new ,shgun2 and some 
small trade was done at ,fusan under the
 superintendence of the daimi of        
,tsushima4 ,even this relation with     
,korea was rather one of watchfulness4  
,it sprang from the pride of a victor   
rather than from any desire to maintain 
relations with the rest of the world4   
,as for ,china1 the communication with  
her was astonishingly little1 only a few
 junks crossing yearly between ,nankin  
and ,nagasaki2 so that1 with the        
exception of one slit in their tower of 
observation1 the ,japanese became well  
isolated from the human family4  ,this  
system of exclusion was accompanied by  
an equally vigorous policy of           
inclusiveness4 ,it was deliberately     
determined to keep the people from going
 abroad1 either in their bodies or      
minds4 ,all seaworthy ships were        

destroyed4 ,under pain of imprisonment  
and death1 all natives were forbidden to
 go to a foreign country1 except in the 
rare cases of urgent government service4
 ,by settled precedents it was soon made
 to be understood that those who were   
blown out to sea or carried away in     
stress of weather1 need not come back2  
if they did1 they must return only on   
,chinese and ,korean vessels1 and even  
then would be grudgingly allowed to     
land4 ,it was given out1 both at home   
and to the world1 that no shipwrecked   
sailors or waifs would be welcomed when 
brought on foreign vessels4  ,this      
inclusive policy directed against       
physical exportation1 was still more    
stringently carried out when applied to 
imports affecting the minds of the      
,japanese4 ,the government deliberately 
attempted to establish a society        
impervious to foreign ideas from        
without1 and fostered within by all     
sorts of artificial legislation4 ,this  
isolation affected every department of  

private and public life4 ,methods of    
education were cast in a definite mould2
 even matters of dress and household    
architecture were strictly regulated by 
the ,state1 and industries were         
restricted or forced into specified     
channels1 thus retarding economic       
developments4#c   ,starving of the      
,mind4   ,in the science of keeping life
 within stunted limits and artificial   
boundaries1 the ,japanese genius excels4
 ,it has been well said that the        
,japanese mind is great in little things
 and little in great things4 ,to cut the
 tap-root of a pine-shoot1 and1 by      
regulating the allowance of earth and   
water1 to raise a pine-tree which when  
fifty years old shall be no higher than 
a silver dollar1 has been the proud     
ambition of many an artist in botany4   
,in like manner1 the ,tokugawa ,shguns  
7#afjd-ahfh7 determined to so limit the 
supply of mental food1 that the mind of 
,japan should be of those correctly     
dwarfed proportions of puniness1 so     

admired by lovers of artificiality and  
unconscious caricature4 ,philosophy was 
selected as a chief tool among the      
engines of oppression1 and as the main  
influence in stunting the intellect4    
,all thought must be orthodox according 
to the standards of ,confucianism1 as   
expounded by ,chu ,hi4 ,anything like   
originality in poetry1 learning or      
philosophy must be hooted down4 ,art    
must follow ,chinese1 ,buddhist and     
,japanese traditions4 ,any violation of 
this order would mean ostracism4 ,all   
learning must be in the ,chinese and    
,japanese languages--the former         
mis-pronounced and in sound bearing as  
much resemblance to ,pekingise speech as
 ,pennsylvania ,dutch does to the       
language of ,berlin4 ,everything like   
thinking and study must be with a view  
of sustaining and maintaining the       
established order of things4 ,the tree  
of education1 instead of being a lofty  
or wide-spreading cryptomeria1 must be  
the measured nursling of the teacup4 ,if

 that trio of emblems1 so admired by the
 natives1 the bamboo1 pine and plum1    
could produce glossy leaves1 ever-green 
needles and fragrant blooms within a    
space of four cubic inches1 so the law1 
the literature and the art of ,japan    
must display their normal limit of fresh
 fragrance1 of youthful vigor and of    
venerable age1 enduring for aye1 within 
the vessel of ,japanese inclusion so    
carefully limited by the ,yedo          
authorities4  ,such a policy1 reminds   
one of the ,amherst agricultural        
experiment in which bands of iron were  
strapped around a much-afflicted squash1
 in order to test vital potency4 ,it    
recalls the pretty little story of      
,picciola1 in which a tender plant must 
grow between the interstices of the     
bricks in a prison yard4 ,besides the   
potent bonds of the only orthodox       
,confucian philosophy which was allowed 
and the legally recognized religions1   
there was gradually formed a marvellous 
system of legislation1 that turned the  

whole nation into a secret society in   
which spies and hypocrites flourished   
like fungus on a dead log4 ,besides the 
unwritten code of private law1#d that   
is1 the local and general customs       
founded on immemorial usage1 there was  
that peculiar legal system framed by    
,iyyas1 bequeathed as a legacy and for  
over two hundred years practically the  
supreme law of the land4  ,what this law
 was1 it was exceedingly difficult1 if  
not utterly impossible1 for the aliens  
dwelling in the country at ,nagasaki    
ever to find out4 ,keenly intellectual1 
as many of the physicians1              
superintendents and elect members of the
 ,dutch trading company were1 they seem 
never to have been able to get hold of  
what has been called ,the ,testament of 
,iyyas4#e ,this consisted of one hundred
 laws or regulations1 based on a        
home-spun sort of ,confucianism1        
intended to be orthodoxy unbroken for   
ages eternal4  ,to a man of western mode
 of thinking1 the most astonishing thing

 is that this law was esoteric4#f ,the  
people knew of it only by its           
irresistible force1 and by the constant 
pressure or the rare easing of its iron 
hand4 ,those who executed the law were  
drilled in its routine from childhood1  
and this routine became second nature4  
,only a few copies of the original      
instrument were known1 and these were   
kept with a secrecy which to the people 
became a sacred mystery guarded by a    
long avenue of awe4   ,the ,dutchmen at 
,dshima4   ,the ,dutchmen who lived at  
,dshima for two centuries and a half1   
and the foreigners who first landed at  
the treaty ports in #ahei1 on inquiring 
about the methods of the ,japanese      
,government1 the laws and their         
administration1 found that everything   
was veiled behind a vague embodiment of 
something which was called the ,law4    
,what that law was1 by whom enacted1 and
 under what sanctions enforced1 no one  
could tell2 though all seemed to stand  
in awe of it as something of superhuman 

efficiency4 ,its mysteriousness was only
 equalled by the abject submission which
 it received4  ,foreign diplomatists1 on
 trying to deal with the seat and source
 of authority1 instead of seeing the    
real head of power1 played1 as it were1 
a game of chess against a mysterious    
hand stretched out from behind a        
curtain4 ,morally1 the whole tendency of
 such a dual system of exclusion and of 
inclusion was to make a nation of liars1
 foster confirmed habits of deceit1 and 
create a code of politeness vitiated by 
insincerity4  ,with such repression of  
the natural powers of humanity1 it was  
but in accordance with the nature of    
things that licentiousness should run   
riot1 that on the fringes of society    
there should be the outcast and the     
pariah1 and that the social waste of    
humanity by prostitution1 by murder1 by 
criminal execution under a code that    
prescribed the death penalty for        
hundreds of offences1 should be         
enormous4 ,it is natural also that in   

such a state of society population#g    
should be kept down within necessary    
limits1 not only by famine1 by the      
restraints of feudalism1 by legalized   
murder in the form of vendetta1 by a    
system of prostitution that made and    
still makes ,japan infamous1 by child   
murder1 by lack of encouragement given  
to feeble or malformed children to live1
 and by various devices known to those  
who were ingenious in keeping up so     
artificial a state of society4  ,that   
there were many who tried to break      
through this wall1 from both the inside 
and the outside1 and to force the       
frontiers of exclusion and inclusion1 is
 not to be wondered at4 ,externally1    
there were bold spirits from            
,christendom who burned to know the     
secrets of the mysterious land4 ,some   
even yearned to wear the ruby crown4    
,the wonderful story of past ,christian 
triumphs deeply stirred the heart of    
more than one fiery spirit1 and so we   
find various attempts made by the       

clerical brethren of southern ,europe to
 enter the country4 ,bound by their     
promises1 the ,dutch captains could not 
introduce these emissaries of a banned  
religion within the borders2 yet there  
are several notable instances of ,roman 
,catholic religious#h getting themselves
 left by shipmasters on the shores of   
,japan4 ,the lion's den of reality was  
,yedo4 ,like the lion's den of fable1   
the footprints all led one way1 and     
where these led the bones of the victims
 soon lay4  ,besides these men with     
religious motives1 the ships of the     
,west came with offers of trade and     
threats of invasion4 ,these were        
,english1 ,french1 ,russian and         
,american1 and the story of the frequent
 episodes has been told by ,hildreth1   
,aston1#i ,nitob1 and others4 ,there is 
also a considerable body of native      
literature which gives the inside view  
of these efforts to force the seclusion 
of the hermit nation1 and coax or compel
 the ,japanese to be more sociable and  

more human4 ,all were in vain until the 
peaceful armada1 under the flag of      
thirty-one stars1 led by ,matthew       
,calbraith ,perry1#aj broke the long    
seclusion of this ,thorn-rose of the    
,pacific1 and the unarmed diplomacy of  
,townsend ,harris1#aa brought ,japan    
into the brotherhood of commercial and  
,christian nations4  ,within the        
isolating walls and the barred gates the
 story of the seekers after ,god is a   
thrilling one4 ,the intellect of choice 
spirits1 beating like caged eagles the  
bars of their prisons1 yearned for more 
light and life4 ,though an eagle be     
starving1 says the ,japanese proverb1 it
 will not eat grain2 and so1 while the  
mass of the people and even the erudite1
 were content with ground food--even the
 chopped straw and husks of             
materialistic ,confucianism and decayed 
,buddhism--there were noble souls who   
soared upward to exercise their         
,god-given powers1 and to seek          
nourishment fitted for that human spirit

 which goeth upward and not downward1   
and which1 ever in restless discontent1 
seeks the ,infinite4   ,protests of     
,inquiring ,spirits4   ,there is no     
stronger proof of the true humanity and 
the innate god-likeness of the          
,japanese1 of their worthiness to hold  
and their inherent power to win a high  
place among the nations of the earth1   
than this longing of a few elect ones   
for the best that earth could give and  
,heaven bestow4 ,we find men in travail 
of spirit1 groping after ,god if haply  
they might find ,him1 following the ways
 of the ,spirit along lines different1  
and in pathways remote1 from those laid 
down by ,confucius and his materialistic
 commentators1 or by ,buddha and his    
parodists or caricaturists4 ,the story  
of the philosophers1 who mutinied       
against the iron clamps and             
governmentally nourished system of the  
,sido ,college expounders1 is yet to be 
fully told4#ab ,it behooves some        
,japanese scholar to tell it4  ,how     

earnest truth-seeking ,japanese         
protested and rebelled against the      
economic fallacies1 against the         
political despotism1 against the        
abominable usurpations1 against the     
false strategies and against the        
inherent immoralities of the ,tokugawa  
system1 has of late years been set forth
 with tantalizing suggestiveness1 but   
only in fragments1 by the native        
historians4 ,heartrending is the        
narrative of these men who studied1 who 
taught1 who examined1 who sifted the    
mountains of chaff in the native        
literature and writings1 who made long  
journeys on foot all over the country1  
who furtively travelled in ,korea and   
,china1 who boarded ,dutch and ,russian 
vessels1 who secretly read forbidden    
books1 who tried to improve their       
country and their people4 ,these men saw
 that their country was falling behind  
not only the nations of the ,west1 but1 
as it seemed to them1 even the nations  
of the ,east4 ,they felt that radical   

changes were necessary in order to      
reform the awful poverty1 disease1      
licentiousness1 national weakness1 decay
 of bodily powers1 and the creeping     
paralysis of the ,samurai intellect and 
spirit4 ,how they were ostracized1      
persecuted1 put under ban1 hounded by   
the spies1 thrown into prison2 how they 
died of starvation or of disease2 how   
they were beheaded1 crucified1 or       
compelled to commit hara-kiri2 how their
 books were purged by the censors1 or   
put under ban or destroyed1#ac and their
 maps1 writings and plates burned1 has  
not yet been told4 ,it is a story that1 
when fully narrated1 will make a volume 
of extraordinary interest4 ,it is a     
story which both ,christian and human   
interests challenge some native author  
to tell4 ,during all this time1 but     
especially during the first half of the 
nineteenth century1 there was one steady
 goal to which the aspiring student ever
 kept his faith1 and to which his feet  
tended4 ,there was one place of         

pilgrimage1 toward which the sons of the
 morning moved1 and which1 despite the  
spy and the informer and the vigilance  
of governors1 fed their spirits1 and    
whence they carried the sacred fire1 or 
bore the seed whose harvest we now see4 
,that goal of the pilgrim band was      
,nagasaki1 and the place where the light
 burned and the sacred flames were      
kindled was ,dshima4 ,the men who helped
 to make true patriots1 daring thinkers1
 inquirers after truth1 bringers in of a
 better time1 yes1 and even ,christians 
and preachers of the good news of ,god1 
were these ,dutchmen of ,dshima4   ,a   
,handful of ,salt in a ,stagnant ,mass4 
,the ,nagasaki ,hollanders were not     
immaculate saints1 neither were they    
sooty devils4 ,they did not profess to  
be ,christian missionaries4 ,on the     
other hand1 they were men not devoid of 
conscience nor of sympathy with aspiring
 and struggling men in a hermit nation1 
eager for light and truth4 ,the         
,dutchman during the time of hermit     

,japan1 as we see him in the literature 
of men who were hostile in faith and    
covetous rivals in trade1 is a repulsive
 figure4 ,he seems to be a brutal       
wretch1 seeking only gain1 and willing  
to sell conscience1 humanity and his    
religion1 for pelf4 ,in reality1 he was 
an ordinary ,european1 probably no      
better1 certainly no worse1 than his age
 or the average man of his country or of
 his continent4 ,further1 among this    
average dozen of exiles in the interest 
of commerce1 science or culture1 there  
were frequently honorable men far above 
the average ,european1 and shining      
examples of ,christianity and humanity4 
,even in his submission to the laws of  
the country1 the ,dutchman did no more1 
no less1 but exactly as the daimis1#ad  
who like himself were subject to the    
humiliations imposed by the rulers in   
,yedo4  ,it was the ,dutch1 who1 for two
 hundred years supplied the culture of  
,europe to ,japan1 introduced ,western  
science1 furnished almost the only      

intellectual stimulant1 and were the    
sole teachers of medicine and           
science4#ae ,they trained up hundreds of
 ,japanese to be physicians who         
practised rational medicine and surgery4
 ,they filled with needed courage the   
hearts of men1 who1 secretly practising 
dissection of the bodies of criminals1  
demonstrated the falsity of ,chinese    
ideas of anatomy4 ,it was ,dutch science
 which exploded and drove out of ,japan 
that ,chinese system of medicine1 by    
means of which so many millions have1   
during the long ages1 been slowly       
tortured to death4  ,the ,dshima        
,dutchman was a kindly adviser1 helper1 
guide and friend1 the one means of      
communication with the world1 a handful 
of salt in the stagnant mass4 ,long     
before the ,united ,states1 or          
,commodore ,perry1 the ,hollanders      
advised the ,yodo government in favor of
 international intercourse4 ,the ,dutch 
language1 nearest in structure and      
vocabulary to the ,english1 even richer 

in the descriptive energy of its terms1 
and saturated withal with ,christian    
truth1 was studied by eager young men4  
,these speakers of an impersonal        
language which in psychological         
development was scarcely above the grade
 of childhood1 were exercised in a      
tongue that stands second to none in    
,europe for purity1 vigor1 personality  
and philosophical power4 ,the ,japanese 
students of ,dutch held a golden key    
which opened the treasures of modern    
thought and of the world's literature4  
,the minds of thinking ,japanese were   
thus made plastic for the reception of  
the ideas of ,christianity4 ,best of    
all1 though forbidden by their contracts
 to import ,bibles into ,japan1 the     
,dutchmen1 by means of works of         
reference1 pointed more than one        
inquiring spirit to the information by  
which the historic ,christ became known4
 ,the books which they imported1 the    
information which they gave1 the        
stimulus which they imparted1 were as   

seeds planted within masonry-covered    
earth1 that were to upheave and         
overthrow the fabric of exclusion and   
inclusion reared by the ,tokugawa       
,shguns4  ,time and space fail us to    
tell how eager spirits not only groped  
after ,god1 but sought the living       
,christ--though often this meant to them
 imprisonment1 suicide enforced by the  
law1 or decapitation4 ,yet over all     
,japan1 long before the broad pennant of
 ,perry was mirrored on the waters of   
,yedo ,bay1 there were here and there   
masses of leavened opinion1 spots of    
kindled light1 and fields upon which the
 tender green sprouts of new ideas could
 be detected4 ,to-day1 as inquiry among 
the oldest of the ,christian leaders and
 scores of volumes of modern biography  
shows1 the most earnest and faithful    
among the preachers1 teachers and       
soldiers in the ,christian army1 were   
led into their new world of ideas       
through ,dutch culture4 ,the fact is    
revealed in repeated instances1 that1   

through father1 grandfather1 uncle1 or  
other relative--some pilgrim to the     
,dutch at ,nagasaki--came their first   
knowledge1 their initial promptings1 the
 environment or atmosphere1 which made  
them all sensitive and ready to receive 
the ,christian truth when it came in its
 full form from the living missionary   
and the vital word of ,god4 ,some one   
has well said that the languages of     
modern ,europe are nothing more than    
,christianity expressed with differing  
pronunciation and vocabulary4 ,to him   
who will receive it1 the mastery of any 
one of the languages of ,christendom1   
is1 in a large sense1 a revelation of   
,god in ,christ ,jesus4   ,seekers after
 ,god4   ,pathetic1 even to the         
compulsion of tears1 is the story of    
these seekers after ,god4 ,we1 who      
to-day are surrounded by every motive   
and inducement to ,christian living and 
by every means and appliance for the    
practice of the ,christian life1 may    
well consider for a moment the struggle 

of earnest souls to find out ,god4      
,think of this one who finds a ,latin   
,bible cast up on the shore from some   
broken ship1 and bearing it secretly in 
his bosom to the ,hollander1 gains light
 as to the meaning of its message4      
,think of the nobleman1 ,watanab        
,oboru1#af who1 by means of the         
,japanese interpreter of ,dutch1 ,takano
 ,choyi1 is thrilled with the story of  
,jesus of ,nazareth who helped and      
healed and spake as no other man spake1 
teaching with an authority above that of
 the masters ,confucius or ,buddha4     
,think of the daimi of ,mito1#ag who1   
proud in lineage1 learned and scholarly1
 and surrounded by a host of educated   
men1 is yet unsatisfied with what the   
wise of his own country could give him1 
and gathers around him the relics       
unearthed from the old persecutions4    
,from a picture of the ,virgin1 a       
fragment of a litany1 or it may be a    
part of a breviary1 he tries to make out
 what ,christianity is4  ,think of      

,yokoi ,hishiro1#ah learned in          
,confucius and his commentators1 who    
seeks better light1 sends to ,china for 
a ,chinese translation of the ,new      
,testament1 and in his lectures on the  
,confucian ethics1 to the delight and   
yet to the surprise of his hearers who  
hear grander truth than they are able to
 find in text or commentary1 really     
preaches ,christ1 and prophesies that   
the time will come when the walls of    
isolation being levelled1 the brightest 
intellects of ,japan will welcome this  
same ,jesus and ,his doctrine4 ,think of
 him again1 when unable to purify the   
,augean stables of ,yedo's moral        
corruption1 because the time was at hand
 for other cleansing agencies1 he       
retires to his home1 content awhile with
 his books and flowers4 ,again1 see him 
summoned to the capital1 to sit at      
,kito--like aged ,franklin among the    
young statesmen of the ,constitution in 
,philadelphia--with the ,mikado's       
youthful advisers in the new government 

of #ahfh4 ,think of him pleading for the
 elevation of the pariah ,eta1 accursed 
and outcast through ,buddhism1 to       
humanity and citizenship4 ,then hear him
 urge eloquently the right of personal  
belief1 and argue for toleration under  
the law1 of opinions1 which the         
,japanese then stigmatized as evil and  
devilish1 but which we1 and many of them
 now1 call sound and ,christian4        
,finally1 behold him at night in the    
public streets1 assaulted by assassins1 
and given quick death by their bullet   
and blades4 ,see his gray head lying    
severed from his body and in its own    
gore1 the wretched murderers thinking   
they have stayed the advancing tide of  
,christianity2 but at home there dwells 
a little son destined in ,god's         
providence to become an earnest         
,christian and one of the brilliant     
leaders of the native ,christianity of  
,japan in our day4   ,the ,buddhist     
,inquisitors4   ,during the nation's    
period of ,thorn-rose-like seclusion1   

the three religions recognized by the   
law were ,buddhism1 ,shint and          
,confucianism4 ,christianity was the    
outlawed sect4 ,all over the country1 on
 the high-roads1 at the bridges1 and in 
the villages1 towns and cities1 the     
fundamental laws of the country were    
written on wooden tablets called kosats4
 ,these1 framed and roofed for          
protection from the weather1 but easily 
before the eyes of every man1 woman and 
child1 and written in a style and       
language understood of all1 denounced   
the ,christian religion as an accursed  
sect1 and offered gold to the spy and   
informer2#ai while once a year every    
,samurai was required to swear on the   
true faith of a gentleman that he had   
nothing to do with ,christianity4 ,from 
the seventeenth century1 the country    
having been divided into parishes1 the  
inquisition was under the charge of the 
,buddhist priests who penetrated into   
the house and family and guarded the    
graveyards1 so that neither earth nor   

fire should embrace the carcass of a    
,christian1 nor his dust or ashes defile
 the ancestral graveyards4 ,twice--in   
#afhf and in #agaa--were the rewards    
increased and the ,buddhist bloodhounds 
of ,japan's ,inquisition set on fresh   
trails4 ,on one occasion1 at ,osaka1 in 
#ahci1bj a rebellion broke out which was
 believed1 though without evidence1 to  
have been instigated in some way by men 
with ,christian ideas1 and was certainly
 led by ,oshio1 the bitter opponent of  
,buddhism1 of ,tokugawa1 and of the     
prevalent ,confucianism4 ,possibly1 the 
uprising was aided by refugees from     
,korea4 ,those implicated were1 after   
speedy trial1 crucified or beheaded4 ,in
 the southern part of the country the   
ceremony of ,ebumi or trampling on the  
cross1#ba was long performed4 ,thousands
 of people were made to pass through a  
wicket1 beneath which and on the ground 
lay a copper plate engraved with the    
image of the ,christ and the cross4 ,in 
this way it was hoped to utterly        

eradicate the very memory of            
,christianity1 which1 to the common     
people1 had become the synonym for      
sorcery4  ,but besides the seeking after
 ,god by earnest souls and the protest  
of philosophers1 there was1 amid the    
prevailing immorality and the           
agnosticism and scepticism bred by      
decayed ,buddhism and the materialistic 
philosophy based on ,confucius1 some    
earnest struggles for the purification  
of morals and the spiritual improvement 
of the people4   ,the ,shingaku         
,movement4   ,one of the most remarkable
 of the movements to this end was that  
of the ,shingaku or ,new ,learning4 ,a  
class of practical moralists1 to offset 
the prevailing tendency of the age to   
much speculation and because ,buddhism  
did so little for the people1 tried to  
make the doctrines of ,confucius a      
living force among the great mass of    
people4 ,this movement1 though          
,confucian in its chief tone and color1 
was eclectic and intended to combine all

 that was best in the ,chinese system   
with what could be utilized from ,shint 
and ,buddhism4 ,with the preaching was  
combined a good deal of active          
benevolence4 ,especially in the time of 
famine1 was care for humanity shown4    
,the effect upon the people was         
noticeable1 followers multiplied        
rapidly1 and it is said that even the   
government in many instances made them1 
the ,shingaku preachers1 the            
distributors of rice and alms for the   
needy4 ,some of the preachers became    
famous and counted among their followers
 many men of influence4 ,the literary   
side of the movement#bb has been brought
 to the attention of ,english readers   
through ,mr4 ,mitford's translation of  
three sermons from the volume entitled  
,shingaku ,dwa4 ,other discourses have  
been from time to time rendered into    
,english1 those by ,shibata1 entitled   
,the ,sermons of the ,dove-like         
,venerable ,master1 being especially    
famous4  ,this movement1 interesting as 

it was1 came to an end when the country 
began to be convulsed by the approaching
 entrance of foreigners1 through the    
,perry treaty2 but it serves to show1   
what we believe to be the truth1 that   
the moral rottenness as well as the     
physical decay of the ,japanese people  
reached their acme just previous to the 
apparition of the ,american fleet in    
#ahec4  ,the story of nineteenth century
 ,reformed ,christianity in ,japan does 
not begin with ,perry1 or with ,harris1 
or with the arrival of ,christian       
missionaries in #ahei2 for it has a     
subterranean and interior history1 as we
 have hinted2 while that of the ,roman  
form and order is a story of unbroken   
continuity1 though the life of the      
tunnel is now that of the sunny road4   
,the parable of the leaven is first     
illustrated and then that of the        
mustard-seed4 ,before ,christianity was 
phenomenal1 it was potent4 ,let us now  
look from the interior to the outside4  
,on ,perry's flag-ship1 the             

,mississippi1 the ,bible lay open1 a    
sermon was preached1 and the hymn       
,before ,jehovah's ,awful ,throne was   
sung1 waking the echoes of the ,japan   
hills4 ,the ,christian day of rest was  
honored on this ,american squadron4 ,in 
the treaty signed in #ahed1 though it   
was made1 indeed1 with use of the name  
of ,god and terms of ,christian         
chronology1 there was nothing upon which
 to base1 either by right or privilege1 
the residence of missionaries in the    
country4 ,townsend ,harris1 the         
,american ,consul-,general1 who hoisted 
his flag and began his hermit life at   
,shimoda1 in ,september1 #ahee1 had as  
his only companion a ,dutch secretary1  
,mr4 ,heusken1 who was later1 in ,yedo1 
to be assassinated by ronins4  ,without 
ship or soldier1 overcoming craft and   
guile1 and winning his way by simple    
honesty and perseverance1 ,mr4 ,harris  
obtained audience#bc of the ,tycoon in  
,yedo1 and later from the ,shgun's      
daring minister ,ii1 the signature to a 

treaty which guaranteed to ,americans   
the rights of residence1 trade and      
commerce4 ,thus ,americans were enabled 
to land as citizens1 and pursue their   
avocation as religious teachers4 ,as the
 government of the ,united ,states of   
,america knows nothing of the religion  
of ,american citizens abroad1 it        
protects all missionaries who are       
law-abiding citizens1 without regard to 
creed4#bd   ,japan ,once ,more          
,missionary ,soil4   ,the first         
missionaries were on the ground as soon 
as the ports were open4 ,though         
surrounded by spies and always in danger
 of assassination and incendiarism1 they
 began their work of mastering the      
language4 ,to do this without trained   
teachers or apparatus of dictionary and 
grammar1 was then an appalling task4    
,the medical missionary began healing   
the swarms of human sufferers1          
syphilitic1 consumptive1 and those      
scourged by small-pox1 cholera and      
hereditary and acute diseases of all    

sorts4 ,the patience1 kindness and      
persistency of these ,christian men     
literally turned the edge of the sword1 
disarmed the assassin1 made the spies'  
occupation useless1 shamed away the     
suspicious1 and conquered the nearly    
invincible prejudices of the government4
 ,despite the awful under-tow in the    
immorality of the sailor1 the adventurer
 and the gain-greedy foreigner1 the tide
 of ,christianity began steadily to     
rise4 ,notwithstanding the outbursts of 
the flames of persecution1 the torture  
and imprisonment of ,christian captives 
and exiles1 and the slow worrying to    
death of the missionary's native        
teachers1 inquirers came and converts   
were made4 ,in #ahfh1 after revolution  
and restoration1 the old order changed1 
and duarchy and feudalism passed away4  
,quick to seize the opportunity1 ,dr4   
,j4,c4 ,hepburn1 healer of bodies and   
souls of men1 presented a ,bible to the 
,emperor1 and the gift was accepted4    
,no sooner had the new government been  

established in safety1 and the name of  
,yedo1 the city of the ,baydoor1 been   
changed into that of ,tki1 the ,eastern 
,capital1 than an embassy#be of seventy 
persons started on its course round the 
world4 ,at its head were three cabinet  
ministers of the new government and the 
court noble1 ,iwakura1 of immemorial    
lineage1 in whose veins ran the blood of
 the men called gods4 ,across the       
,pacific to the ,united ,states they    
went1 having their initial audience of  
the ,president of the ,republic that    
knows no state church1 and whose        
,christianity had compelled both the    
return of the shipwrecked ,japanese and 
the freedom of the slave4  ,this embassy
 had been suggested and its course      
planned by a ,christian missionary1 who 
found that of the seventy persons1      
one-half had been his pupils4#bf   ,the 
,imperial ,embassy ,round the ,world4   
,the purpose of these envoys was1 first 
of all1 to ask of the nations of        
,christendom equal rights1 to get       

removed the odious extra-territoriality 
clause in the treaties1 to have the     
right to govern aliens on their soil1   
and to regulate their own tariff4       
,secondarily1 its members went to study 
the secrets of power and the resources  
of civilization in the ,west1 to        
initiate the liberal education of their 
women by leaving in ,american schools a 
little company of maidens1 to enlarge   
the system of education for their own   
country1 and to send abroad with        
approval others of their young men who1 
for a decade past had1 in spite of every
 ban and obstacle1 been furtively       
leaving the country for study beyond the
 seas4  ,in the lands of ,christendom1  
the eyes of ambassadors1 ministers1     
secretaries and students were opened4   
,they saw themselves as others saw them4
 ,they compared their own land and      
nation1 mediaeval in spirit and backward
 in resources1 and their people         
untrained as children1 with the modern  
power1 the restless ambition1 the stern 

purpose1 the intense life of the western
 nations1 with their mighty fleets and  
armaments1 their inventions and         
machinery1 their economic and social    
theories and forces1 their provision for
 the poor1 the sick1 and the aged1 the  
peerless family life in the ,christian  
home4 ,they found1 further yet1 free    
churches divorced from politics and     
independent of the state2 that the      
leading force of the world was          
,christianity1 that persecution was     
barbarous1 and that toleration was the  
law of the future1 and largely the      
condition of the present4 ,it took but a
 few whispers over the telegraphic wire1
 and the anti-,christian edicts         
disappeared from public view like       
snowflakes melting on the river4 ,the   
right arm of persecution was broken4    
,the story of the ,book of ,acts of the 
modern apostles in ,japan is told1 first
 in the teaching of inquirers1 preaching
 to handfuls1 the gathering of tiny     
companies1 the translation of the       

,gospel1 and then prayer and waiting for
 the descent of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,a   
study of the ,book of the ,acts of the  
,apostles1 followed in order to find out
 how the ,christian ,church began4 ,on  
the #ajth day of ,march1 in the year of 
our ,lord and of the era of ,meiji      
7,enlightened ,peace7 the fifth1 #ahgb1 
at ,yokohama1 in the little stone chapel
 built on part of ,commodore ,perry's   
treaty ground1 was formed the first     
,reformed or ,protestant ,christian     
,church in ,japan4  ,at this point our  
task is ended4 ,we cannot even glance at
 the native ,christian churches of the  
,roman1 ,reformed1 or ,greek order1 or  
attempt to appraise the work of the     
foreign missionaries4 ,he has read these
 pages in vain1 however1 who does not   
see how well1 under ,providence1 the    
,japanese have been trained for higher  
forms of faith4  ,the armies of ,japan  
are upon ,chinese soil1 while we pen our
 closing lines4 ,the last chains of     
purely local and ethnic dogma are being 

snapped asunder4 ,may the sons of ,dai  
,nippon1 as they win new horizons of    
truth1 see more clearly and welcome more
 loyally that ,prince of ,peace whose   
kingdom is not of this world4  ,may the 
age of political conquest end1 and the  
era of the self-reformation of the      
,asian nations1 through the gospel of   
,jesus ,christ1 be ushered in4          
,,notes1 ,,authorities1 ,,and           
,,illustrations   ,the few abbreviations
 used in these pages stand for          
well-known works3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 for     
,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society  
of ,japan2 ,kojiki1 for ,supplement to  
,volume ,x41 ,t4,a4,s4,j41              
,introduction1 ,translation1 ,notes1    
,map1 etc41 by ,professor ,basil ,hall  
,chamberlain2 ,t4,j41 for ,things       
,japanese 7#b;d ed471 by ,professor     
,b4,h4 ,chamberlain2 ,s4 and ,h41 for   
,satow and ,hawes's ,hand-book for      
,japan1 now continued in new editions   
7#dth1 #ahid71 by ,professor ,b4,h4     
,chamberlain2 ,c4,r4,m41 for ,mayers's  

,chinese ,reader's ,manual2 ,m4,e41 ,the
 ,mikado's ,empire 7#gth ed472 ,b4,n41  
for ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio's ,a ,short    
,history of the ,twelve ,japanese       
,buddhist ,sects1 ,tki1 #ahhg4          
,,chapter ,i  ,,primitive ,,faith3      
,,religion ,,before ,,books   ,footnote 
#a3 ,the late ,professor ,samuel ,finley
 ,breese ,morse1 ,,ll4,d41 who applied  
the principles of electro-magnetism to  
telegraphy1 was the son of the ,rev4    
,jedediah ,morse1 ,d4,d41 the celebrated
 theologian1 geographer1 and gazetteer4 
,in memory of his father1 ,professor    
,morse founded this lectureship in      
,union ,theological ,seminary1 ,new     
,york1 on ,the ,relation of the ,bible  
to the ,sciences1 ,may #bj1ahfe1 by the 
gift of ten thousand dollars4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,an ,american ,missionary in       
,japan1 p4 #bji1 by ,rev4 ,m4,l4        
,gordon1 ,m4,d41 ,boston1 #ahib4        
,footnote #c3 ,lucretia ,coftin ,mott4  
,footnote #d3 ,i remember once making a 
calculation in ,hong ,kong1 and making  

out my baptisms to have amounted to     
about six hundred4444 ,i believe with   
you that the study of comparative       
religion is important for all           
missionaries4 ,still more important1 it 
seems to me1 is it that missionaries    
should make themselves thoroughly       
proficient in the languages and         
literature of the people to whom they   
are sent4--,dr4 ,legge's ,letter to the 
,author1 ,november #bg1 #ahic4          
,footnote #e3 ,the ,religions of ,china1
 p4 #bdj1 by ,james ,legge1 ,new ,york1 
#ahha4  ,footnote #f3 ,the ,autocrat of 
the ,breakfast ,table1 p4 #bb1 ,boston  
editions of #ahei and #ahgi4  ,footnote 
#g3 ,one of the many names of ,japan is 
that of the ,country ,ruled by a        
,slender ,sword1 in allusion to the     
clumsy weapons employed by the ,chinese 
and ,koreans4 ,see1 for the shortening  
and lightening of the modern ,japanese  
sword 7katana7 as compared with the long
 and heavy 7ken7 of the ,divine 7kami7  
or uncivilized age1 ,the ,sword of      

,japan2 ,its ,history and ,traditions1  
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eh4      
,footnote #h3 ,the course of lectures on
 ,the ,religions of ,chinese ,asia      
7which included most of the matter in   
this book71 given by the author in      
,bangor ,theological ,seminary1 ,bangor1
 ,me41 in ,april1 #ahid1 was upon the   
,bond foundation1 founded by alumni and 
named after the chief donor1 ,rev4      
,ellas ,bond1 ,d4,d41 of ,kohala1 long  
an active missionary in ,hawaii4        
,footnote #i3 ,this is the contention of
 ,professor ,kumi1 late of the ,imperial
 ,university of ,japan2 see chapter on  
,shint4  ,footnote #aj3 ,in             
illustration1 comical or pitiful1 the   
common people in ,satsuma believe that  
the spirit of the great ,saigo          
,takamori1 leader of the rebellion of   
#ahgg1 has taken up its abode in the    
planet ,mars1 while the spirits of his  
followers entered into a new race of    
frogs that attack man and fight until   
killed--,mounsey's ,the ,satsuma        

,rebellion1 p4 #bag4 ,so1 also1 the     
,heik-gani1 or crabs at ,shimonoski1    
represent the transmigration of the     
souls of the ,heik clan1 nearly         
exterminated in #aahd ,a4,d41 while the 
,hj bugs are the avatars of the         
execrated rulers of ,kamakura           
7#abai-accc ,a4,d474--,japan in         
,history1 ,folk-lore1 and ,art1 ,boston1
 #ahib1 pp4 #aae1 #acc4  ,footnote #aa3 
,the ,future of ,religion in ,japan4 ,a 
paper read at the ,parliament of        
,religions by ,nobuta ,kishimoto4       
,footnote #ab3 ,the ,ainos1 though they 
deify all the chief objects of nature1  
such as the sun1 the sea1 fire1 wild    
beasts1 etc41 often talk of a ,creator1 
,kotan kara kamui1 literally the ,god   
who made the ,world4 ,at the fact of    
creation they stop short4444 ,one       
gathers that the creative act was       
performed not directly1 but through     
intermediaries1 who were apparently     
animals4--,chamberlain's ,aino ,studies1
 p4 #ab4 ,see also on the ,aino term    

,kamui1 by ,professor ,b4,h4            
,chamberlain and ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1  
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvi4  ,footnote   
#ac3 ,see ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1  
by ,isabella ,bird 7,bishop71 ,vol4     
,,ii42 ,the ,ainu of ,japan1 by ,rev4   
,john ,batchelor2 ,b4 ,douglas ,howard's
 ,life ,with ,trans-,siberian ,savages2 
,ripley ,hitchcock's ,report1           
,smithsonian ,institute1 ,washington4   
,professor ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain's       
invaluable ,aino ,studies1 ,tki1 #ahhg1 
makes scholarly comparison of the       
,japanese and ,aino language1 mythology1
 and geographical nomenclature4         
,footnote #ad3 ,m4,e41 ,the ,mythical   
,zology of ,japan1 pp4 #dgg-dhh4        
,c4,r4,m41 passim4  ,footnote #ae3 ,see 
the valuable article entitled           
,demoniacal ,possession1 ,t4,j41 p4     
#ajf1 and the author's ,japanese ,fox   
,myths1 ,lippincott's ,magazine1 #ahgc4 
,footnote #af3 ,see the ,aino animal    
stories and evidences of beast worship  
in ,chamberlain's ,aino ,studies4 ,for  

this element in ,japanese life1 see the 
,kojiki1 and the author's ,japanese     
,fairy ,world4  ,footnote #ag3 ,the     
proprietor of a paper-mill in           
,massachusetts1 who had bought a cargo  
of rags1 consisting mostly of farmers'  
cast off clothes1 brought to the author 
a bundle of scraps of paper which he had
 found in this cheap blue-dyed cotton   
wearing apparel4 ,besides money accounts
 and personal matters1 there were       
numerous temple amulets and priests'    
certificates4 ,see also ,b4,h4          
,chamberlain's ,notes on ,some ,minor   
,japanese ,religious ,practices1        
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 ,may1 #ahic4  ,footnote #ah3
 ,m4,e41 p4 #ddj4  ,footnote #ai3 ,see  
the ,lecture on ,buddhism in its        
,doctrinal ,development4--,the ,nichiren
 ,sect4  ,footnote #bj3 ,the phallus was
 formerly a common emblem in all parts  
of ,japan1 ,hondo1 ,kiushiu1 ,shikoku1  
and the other islands4 ,bayard ,taylor  
noticed it in the ,riu ,kiu 7,loo ,choo7

 ,islands2 ,perry's ,expedition to      
,japan1 p4 #aif2 ,bayard ,taylor's      
,expedition in ,lew ,chew2 ,m4,e41 p4   
#cc1 note2 ,rein's ,japan1 p4 #dcb2     
,diary of ,richard ,cocks1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4
 #bhc4 ,the native guide-books and      
gazetteers do not allude to the subject4
  ,although the author of this volume   
has collected considerable data from    
personal observations and the testimony 
of personal friends concerning the      
vanishing nature-worship of the         
,japanese1 he has1 in the text1 scarcely
 more than glanced at the subject4 ,in a
 work of this sort1 intended both for   
the general reader as well as for the   
scientific student of religion1 it has  
been thought best to be content with a  
few simple references to what was once  
widely prevalent in the ,japanese       
archipelago4  ,probably the most        
thorough study of ,japanese phallicism  
yet made by any foreign scholar is that 
of ,edmund ,buckley1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41 of
 the ,chicago ,university1 ,lecturer on 

,shint1 the ,ethnic ,faith of ,japan1   
and on the ,science of ,religion4 ,dr4  
,buckley spent six years in central and 
southwestern ,japan1 most of the time as
 instructor in the ,doshisha            
,university1 ,kito4 ,he will publish the
 results of his personal observations   
and studios in a monograph on           
phallicism1 which will be on sale at    
,chicago ,university1 in which the      
,buckley collection illustrating        
,shint-worship has been deposited4      
,footnote #ba3 ,mr4 ,takahashi ,gor1 in 
his ,shint ,shin-ron1 or ,new           
,discussion of ,shint1 accepts the      
derivation of the word kami from kab1   
mould1 mildew1 which1 on its appearance1
 excites wonder4 ,for ,hirata's         
discussion1 see ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4     
,,iii41 ,appendix1 p4 #dh4 ,in a        
striking paper on the ,early ,gods of   
,japan1 in a recent number of the       
,philosophical ,magazine1 published in  
,tki1 a ,japanese writer1 ,mr4 ,kenjir  
,hirad1 states also that the term kami  

does not necessarily denote a spiritual 
being1 but is only a relative term      
meaning above or high1 but this respect 
toward something high or above has      
created many imaginary deities as well  
as those having a human history4 ,see   
also ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxii41 ,part 
,i41 p4 #ee1 note4  ,footnote #bb3      
,there remains something of the ,shint  
heart after twelve hundred years of     
foreign creeds and dress4 ,the worship  
of the marvellous continues4444         
,exaggerated force is most              
impressive4444 ,so the ancient gods1    
heroes1 and wonders are worshipped      
still4 ,the simple countryfolk clap     
their hands1 bow their heads1 mumble    
their prayers1 and offer the fraction of
 a cent to the first ,european-built    
house they see4--,philosophy in ,japan1 
,past and ,present1 by ,dr4 ,george ,wm4
 ,knox4  ,footnote #bc3 ,m4,e41 p4 #dgd4
 ,honda the ,samurai1 pp4 #bef-bfg4     
,footnote #bd3 ,kojiki1 pp4 #abg1 #acf1 
#bac1 #bag4  ,footnote #be3 ,see ,s4 and

 ,h41 pp4 #ci1 #gf4  ,the appearance of 
anything unusual at a particular spot is
 hold to be a sure sign of the presence 
of divinity4 ,near the spot where ,i    
live in ,ko-ishi-kawa1 ,tki1 is a small 
,miya1 built at the foot of a very old  
tree1 that stands isolated on the edge  
of a rice-field4 ,the spot looks        
somewhat insignificant1 but upon        
inquiring why a shrine has been placed  
there1 ,i was told that a white snake   
had been found at the foot of the old   
tree4 444  ,as it is1 the religion of   
the ,japanese consists in the belief    
that the productive ethereal spirit1    
being expanded through the whole        
universe1 every part is in some degree  
impregnated with it2 and therefore1     
every part is in some measure the seat  
of the ,deity4--,legendre's ,progressive
 ,japan1 p4 #beh4  ,footnote #bf3 ,de   
,verflauwing der ,grenzen1 by ,dr4      
,abraham ,kuyper1 ,amsterdam1 #ahib2    
translated by ,rev4 ,t4 ,hendrik de     
,vries1 in the ,methodist ,review1 ,new 

,york1 ,july-,sept41 #ahic4   ,,chapter 
,,ii  ,,shint2 ,,myths ,,and ,,ritual   
,footnote #a3 ,the scholar who has made 
profound researches in all departments  
of ,japanese learning1 but especially in
 the literature of ,shint1 is ,mr4      
,ernest ,satow1 now the ,british        
,minister at ,tangier4 ,he received the 
degree of ,b4,a4 from the ,london       
,university4 ,after several years' study
 and experience in ,china1 ,mr4 ,satow  
came to ,japan in #ahfa as              
student-interpreter to the ,british     
,legation1 receiving his first drill    
under ,rev4 ,s4,r4 ,brown1 ,d4,d41      
author of ,a ,grammar of ,colloquial    
,japanese4 ,to ceaseless industry1 this 
scholar1 to whom the world is so much   
indebted for knowledge of ,japan1 has   
added philosophic insight4 ,besides     
unearthing documents whose existence was
 unsuspected1 he has cleared the way for
 investigators and comparative students 
by practically removing the barriers    
reared by archaic speech and writing4   

,his papers in the ,t4,a4,s4,j41 on ,the
 ,shint ,shrines at ,is1 the ,revival of
 ,pure ,shint1 and ,ancient ,japanese   
,rituals1 together with his ,hand-book  
for ,japan1 form the best collection of 
materials for the study of the original 
and later forms of ,shint4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,the scholar who above all others   
has1 with rare acumen united to         
laborious and prolonged toil1           
illuminated the subject of ,japan's     
chronology and early history is ,mr4    
,w4,g4 ,aston of the ,british ,civil    
,service4 ,he studied at the ,queen's   
,university1 ,ireland1 receiving the    
degree of ,m4,a4 ,he was appointed      
student-interpreter in ,japan1 ,august  
#f1 #ahfd4 ,he is the author of a       
,grammar of the ,written ,japanese      
,language1 and has been a student of the
 comparative history and speech and     
writing of ,china1 ,korea1 and ,japan1  
during the past thirty years4 ,see his  
valuable papers in the ,t4,a4,s4,j41 and
 the learned societies in ,great        

,britain4 ,in his paper on ,early       
,japanese ,history1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 
,,xvi41 pp4 #ci-ge1 he recapitulates the
 result of his researches1 in which he  
is1 in the main1 supported by critical  
native scholars1 and by the late        
,william ,bramsen1 in his ,japanese     
,chronological ,tables1 ,tki1 #ahhj4 ,he
 considers ,a4,d4 #dfa as the first     
trustworthy date in the ,japanese       
annals4 ,we quote from his paper1 ,early
 ,japanese ,history1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4
 ,,xvi41 p4 #gc4  #a4 ,the earliest date
 of the accepted ,japanese ,chronology1 
the accuracy of which is confirmed by   
external evidence1 is ,a4,d4 #dfa4  #b4 
,japanese ,history1 properly so called1 
can hardly be said to exist previous to 
,a4,d4 #ejj4 7,a cursory examination    
leads me to think that the annals of the
 sixth century must also be received    
with caution47  #c4 ,korean ,history and
 ,chronology are more trustworthy than  
those of ,japan during the period       
previous to that date4  #d4 ,while there

 was an ,empress of ,japan in the third 
century ,a4,d41 the statement that she  
conquered ,korea is highly improbable4  
#e4 ,chinese learning was introduced    
into ,japan from ,korea #abj years later
 than the date given in ,japanese       
,history4  #f4 ,the main fact of ,japan 
having a predominant influence in some  
parts of ,korea during the fifth century
 is confirmed by the ,korean and        
,chinese chronicles1 which1 however1    
show that the ,japanese accounts are    
very inaccurate in matters of detail4   
,footnote #c3 ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain1
 who has done the world of learning such
 signal service by his works on the     
,japanese language1 and especially by   
his translation1 with critical          
introduction and commentary1 of the     
,kojiki1 is an ,english gentleman1 born 
at ,southsea1 ,hampshire1 ,england1 on  
the #ahth day of ,october1 #ahcj4 ,his  
mother was a daughter of the well-known 
traveller and author1 ,captain ,basil   
,hall1 ,r4,n41 and his father an        

,admiral in the ,british ,navy4 ,he was 
educated for ,oxford1 but instead of    
entering1 for reasons of health1 he     
spent a number of years in western ,mid 
southern ,europe1 acquiring a knowledge 
of various languages and literatures4   
,his coming to ,japan 7in ,may1 #ahgc7  
was rather the result of an accident--a 
long sea voyage and a trial of the      
,japanese climate having been           
recommended4 ,the country and the field 
of study suited the invalid well4 ,after
 teaching for a time in the ,naval      
,college the ,japanese honored          
themselves and this scholar by making   
him1 in ,april1 #ahhf1 ,professor of    
,philology at the ,imperial ,university4
 ,his works1 ,the ,classical ,poetry of 
the ,japanese1 his various grammars and 
hand-books for the acquisition of the   
language1 his ,hand-book for ,japan1 his
 ,aino ,studies1 ,things ,japanese1     
papers in the ,t4,a4,s4,j4 and his      
translation of the ,kojiki are all of a 
high order of value4 ,they are marked by

 candor1 fairness1 insight1 and a       
mastery of difficult themes that makes  
his readers his constant debtors4       
,footnote #d3 ,if the term ',altaic' be 
held to include ,korean and ,japanese1  
then ,japanese assumes prime importance 
as being by far the oldest living       
representative of that great linguistic 
group1 its literature antedating by many
 centuries the most ancient productions 
of the ,manchus1 ,mongols1 ,turks1      
,hungarians1 or ,finns4--,chamberlain1  
,simplified ,grammar1 ,introd41 p4 vi4  
,footnote #e3 ,corea1 the ,hermit       
,nation1 pp4 #ac-ad2 ,mr4 ,pom ,k4      
,soh's paper on ,education in ,korea2   
,report of ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of      
,education1 #ahij-ia4  ,footnote #f3    
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 p4 #gd2     
,bramsen's ,chronological ,tables1      
,introd41 p4 #cd2 ,t4,j41 p4 #cb4       
,footnote #g3 ,the ,middle ,kingdom1    
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #eca4  ,footnote #h3 ,the 
frog in the well knows not the great    
ocean4 ,this proverb1 so freely quoted  

throughout ,chinese ,asia1 and in recent
 years so much applied to themselves by 
the ,japanese1 is of ,hindu origin and  
is found in the ,sanskrit4  ,footnote   
#i3 ,this is shown with literary skill  
and power in a modern popular work1 the 
title of which1 ,dai ,nippon ,kai-biyaku
 ,yurai-iki1 which1 very freely indeed1 
may be translated ,instances of ,divine 
,interposition in ,behalf of ,great     
,japan4 ,a copy of this work was        
presented to the writer by the late     
daimi of ,echizen1 and was read with    
interest as containing the common       
people's ideas about their country and  
history4 ,it was published in ,yedo in  
#ahef1 while ,japan was still excited   
over the visits of the ,american and    
,european fleets4 ,on the basis of the  
information furnished in this work      
,general ,le ,gendre wrote his          
influential book1 ,progressive ,japan1  
in which a number of quotations from the
 ,kai-biyaku may be read4  ,footnote    
#aj3 ,in the ,kojiki1 pp4 #aja-ajd1 we  

have the poetical account of the        
abdication of the lord of ,idzumo in    
favor of the ,yamato conqueror1 on      
condition that the latter should build a
 temple and have him honored among the  
gods4 ,one of the rituals contains the  
congratulatory address of the chieftains
 of ,idzumo1 on their surrender to the  
first ,mikado1 ,jimmu ,tenn4 ,see also  
,t4,j41 p4 #bjf4  ,footnote #aa3 ,the   
praying for ,harvest1 or ,toshigoi no   
,matsuri1 was celebrated on the #dth day
 of the #b;d month of each year1 at the 
capital in the ,jin-,gi-,kuan or office 
for the ,worship of the ,shint gods1 and
 in the provinces by the chiefs of the  
local administrations4 ,at the          
,jin-,gi-,kuan there were assembled the 
ministers of state1 the functionaries of
 that office1 the priests and           
priestesses of #egc temples1 containing 
#gcg shrines1 which were kept up at the 
expense of the ,mikado's treasury1 while
 the governors of the provinces         
superintended in the districts under    

their administration the performance of 
rites in honor of #b1cie other shrines4 
,it would not be easy to state the exact
 number of deities to whom these #c1acb 
shrines were dedicated4 ,a glance over  
the list in the #ith and #ajth books of 
the ,yengishiki shows at once that there
 were many gods who were worshipped in  
more than half-a-dozen different        
localities at the same time2 but exact  
calculation is impossible1 because in   
many cases only the names of the temples
 are given1 and we are left quite in the
 dark as to the individuality of the    
gods to whom they were sacred4 ,besides 
these #c1acb shrines1 which are         
distinguished as ,shikidai1 that is     
contained in the catalogue of the       
,yengishiki1 there were a large number  
of enumerated shrines in temples        
scattered all over the country1 in every
 village or hamlet1 of which it was     
impossible to take any account1 just as 
at the present day there are temples of 
,hachiman1 ,kompira1 ,tenjin sama1      

,san-no sama and ,sengen sama1 as they  
are popularly called1 wherever twenty or
 thirty houses are collected together4  
,the shrines are classed as great and   
small1 the respective numbers being #dib
 and #b1fdj1 the distinction being      
twofold1 firstly in the proportionately 
larger quantity of offerings made at the
 great shrines1 and secondly that the   
offerings in the one case were arranged 
upon tables or altars1 while in the     
other they were placed on mats spread   
upon the earth4 ,in the ,yengishiki the 
amounts and nature of the offerings are 
stated with great minuteness1 but it    
will be sufficient if the kinds of      
articles offered are alone mentioned    
here4 ,it will be seen1 by comparison   
with the text of the norito1 that they  
had varied somewhat since the date when 
the ritual was composed4 ,the offerings 
to a greater shrine consisted of coarse 
woven silk 7ashiginu71 thin silk of five
 different colors1 a kind of stuff      
called shidori or shidzu1 which is      

supposed by some to have been a striped 
silk1 cloth of broussonetia bark or     
hemp1 and a small quantity of the raw   
materials of which the cloth was made1  
models of swords1 a pair of tables or   
altars 7called yo-kura-oki and          
ya-kura-oki71 a shield or mantlet1 a    
spear-head1 a bow1 a quiver1 a pair of  
stag's horns1 a hoe1 a few measures of  
sak or rice-beer1 some haliotis and     
bonito1 two measures of kituli 7supposed
 to be salt roe71 various kinds of      
edible seaweed1 a measure of salt1 a sak
 jar1 and a few feet of matting for     
packing4 ,to each of the temples of     
,watarai in ,is was presented in        
addition a horse2 to the temple of the  
,harvest god ,mitoshi no kami1 a white  
horse1 cock1 and pig1 and a horse to    
each of nineteen others4  ,during the   
fortnight which preceded the celebration
 of the service1 two smiths and their   
journeymen1 and two carpenters1 together
 with eight inbe or hereditary priests  
were employed in preparing the apparatus

 and getting ready the offerings4 ,it   
was usual to employ for the ,praying for
 ,harvest members of this tribe who held
 office in the ,jin-,gi-,kuan1 but if   
the number could not he made up in that 
office1 it was supplied from other      
departments of state4 ,to the tribe of  
quiver-makers was intrusted the special 
duty of weaving the quivers of wistaria 
tendrils4 ,the service began at twenty  
minutes to seven in the morning1 by our 
reckoning of time4 ,after the governor  
of the province of ,yamashiro had       
ascertained that everything was in      
readiness1 the officials of the         
,jin-,gi-,kuan arranged the offerings on
 the tables and below them1 according to
 the rank of the shrines for which they 
were intended4 ,the large court of the  
,jin-,gi-,kuan where the service was    
held1 called the ,sai-in1 measured #bcj 
feet by #cgj4 ,at one end were the      
offices and on the west side were the   
shrines of the eight ,protective        
,deities in a row1 surrounded by a      

fence1 to the interior of which three   
sacred archways 7torii7 gave access4 ,in
 the centre of the court a temporary    
shed was erected for the occasion1 in   
which the tables or altars were placed4 
,the final preparations being now       
complete1 the ministers of state1 the   
virgin priestesses and priests of the   
temples to which offerings were sent by 
the ,mikado1 entered in succession1 and 
took the places severally assigned to   
them4 ,the horses which formed a part of
 the offerings were next brought in from
 the ,mikado's stable1 and all the      
congregation drew near1 while the reader
 recited or read the norito4 ,this      
reader was a member of the priestly     
family or tribe of ,nakatomi1 who traced
 their descent back to ,ameno-koyan1 one
 of the principal advisers attached to  
the sun-goddess's grandchild when he    
first descended on earth4 ,it is a      
remarkable evidence of the persistence  
of certain ideas1 that up to the year   
#ahfh the nominal prime-minister of the 

,mikado1 after he came of age1 and the  
regent during his minority1 if he had   
succeeded young to the throne1 always   
belonged to this tribe1 which changed   
its name from ,nakatomi to ,fujiwara in 
the seventh century1 and was            
subsequently split up into the ,five    
,setsuk or governing families4 ,at the  
end of each section the priests all     
responded ',o6' which was no doubt the  
equivalent of ',yes' in use in those    
days4 ,as soon as he had finished1 the  
,nakatomi retired1 and the offerings    
were distributed to the priests for     
conveyance and presentation to the gods 
to whose service they were attached4    
,but a special messenger was despatched 
with the offerings destined to the      
temples at ,watarai4 ,this formality    
having been completed1 the ,president of
 the ,jin-,gi-,kuan gave the signal for 
breaking up the assembly4 ,ancient      
,japanese ,rituals1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 
,,vii1 pp4 #ajd-ajg4  ,footnote #ab3 ,s4
 and ,h41 p4 #dfa4  ,footnote #ac3      

,consult ,chamberlain's literal         
translations of the name in the ,kojiki1
 and p4 lxv4 of his ,introduction4      
,footnote #ad3 ,the parallel between the
 ,hebrew and ,japanese accounts of light
 and darkness1 day and night1 before the
 sun1 has been noticed by several       
writers4 ,see the comments of ,hirata1 a
 modern ,shint expounder4--,t4,a4,s4,j41
 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,appendix1 p4 #gb4       
,footnote #ae3 ,westminster ,review1    
,july1 #ahgh1 p4 #ai4   ,,chapter ,,iii 
,,the ,,kojiki ,,and ,,its ,,teachings  
,footnote #a3 ,kojiki1 pp4 #i-ah2       
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,appendix1  
p4 #bj4  ,footnote #b3 ,m4,e41 p4 #dc2  
,mc,clintock and ,strong's ,cyclopedia1 
,art4 ,shint2 in ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4    
,,iii41 ,appendix1 is to be found ,mr4  
,satow's digest of the commentaries of  
the modern ,shint revivalists2 in ,mr4  
,chamberlain's translation of the       
,kojiki1 the text with abundant notes4  
,see also ,mr4 ,twan-,lin's ,account of 
,japan up to ,a4,d4 #abjj1 by ,e4,h4    

,parker4 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxii41   
,part ,i4  ,footnote #c3 ,the various   
abstractions which figure at the        
commencement of the ',records' 7,kojiki7
 and of the ',chronicles' 7,nihongi7    
were probably later growths1 and perhaps
 indeed were inventions of individual   
priests4--,kojiki1 ,introd41 p4 lxv4    
,see also ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxii41  
,part ,i1 p4 #ef4 ,thus1 not only is    
this part of the ,kojiki pure twaddle1  
but it is not even consistent twaddle4  
,footnote #d3 ,kojiki1 ,section ,,ix4   
,footnote #e3 ,dr4 ,joseph ,edkins1     
,d4,d41 author of ,chinese ,buddhism1   
who believes that the primeval religious
 history of men is recoverable1 says in 
,early ,spread of ,religious ,ideas1    
,especially in the ,far ,east1 p4 #bi1  
,in ,japan ,amatras1 444 in fact1 as ,i 
suppose1 ,mithras written in ,japanese1 
though the ,japanese themselves are not 
aware of this etymology4 ,compare       
,kojiki1 ,introduction1 pp4 lxv4-lxvii4 
,footnote #f3 ,kojiki1 p4 xlii4         

,footnote #g3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4       
,,iii41 ,appendix1 p4 #fg4  ,footnote   
#h3 ,e4 ,satow1 ,revival of ,pure       
,shint1 pp4 #fg-fh4  ,footnote #i3 ,this
 curious agreement between the ,japanese
 and other ethnic traditions in locating
 ,paradise1 the origin of the human     
family and of civilization1 at the      
,north ,pole1 has not escaped the       
attention of ,dr4 ,w4,f4 ,warren1       
,president of ,boston ,university1 who  
makes extended reference to it in his   
interesting and suggestive book1        
,paradise ,found3 ,the ,cradle of the   
,human ,race at the ,north ,pole2 ,a    
,study of the ,prehistoric ,world1      
,boston1 #ahhe4  ,footnote #aj3 ,the    
pure ,japanese numerals equal in number 
the fingers2 with the borrowed ,chinese 
terms vast amounts can be expressed4    
,footnote #aa3 ,this custom was later   
revived1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 pp4 #bh1 #ca4    
,mitford's ,tales of ,old ,japan1 ,vol4 
,,ii41 p4 #eg2 ,m4,e41 pp4 #aef1 #bch4  
,footnote #ab3 ,see in ,japanese ,fairy 

,world1 ,how the ,sun-,goddess was      
enticed out of her ,cave4 ,for the      
narrative see ,kojiki1 pp4 #ed-ei2      
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #abh-acc4    
,footnote #ac3 ,see ,chomi and          
,wordsworth1 ,a ,literary ,parallel1 by 
,j4,m4 ,dixon1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4      
,,xx41 pp4 #aic-bje2 ,anthologie        
,japonaise1 by ,leon de ,rosny2         
,chamberlain's ,classical ,poetry of the
 ,japanese2 ,suymats's ,genji           
,monogatari1 ,london1 #ahhb4  ,footnote 
#ad3 ,oftentimes in studying the ancient
 rituals1 those who imagine that the    
word ,kami should be in all cases       
translated gods1 will be surprised to   
see what puerility1 bathos1 or          
grandiloquence1 comes out of an attempt 
to express a very simple1 it may be     
humiliating1 experience4  ,footnote #ae3
 ,mythology and ,religious ,worship of  
the ,japanese1 ,westminster ,review1    
,july1 #ahgh2 ,ancient ,japanese        
,rituals1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vols4 ,,vii41  
,,ix42 ,esoteric ,shint1 by ,percival   

,lowell1 ,t4,a4,s4,j1 ,vol4 ,,xxi4      
,footnote #af3 ,compare ,sections ,,ix4 
and ,,xxiii4 of the ,kojiki4  ,footnote 
#ag3 ,this indeed seems to be the       
substance of the modern official        
expositions of ,shint and the recent    
,rescripts of the ,emperor1 as well as  
of much popular literature1 including   
the manifestoes or confessions found on 
the persons of men who have consecrated 
themselves as the instruments of ,heaven
 for punishing the wicked1 i4e41        
assassinating obnoxious statesmen4 ,see 
,the ,ancient ,religion1 ,m4,e41 pp4    
#if-ajj2 ,the ,japan ,mail1 passim4     
,footnote #ah3 ,revival of ,pure ,shint1
 pp4 #be-ch4  ,footnote #ai3 ,japanese  
,homes1 by ,e4,s4 ,morse1 pp4 #bbh-bcc1 
note1 p4 #hcb4  ,footnote #bj3          
,chamberlain's ,aino ,studies1 p4 #ab4  
,footnote #ba3 ,geological ,survey of   
,japan1 by ,benj4 ,s4 ,lyman1 #ahgh-i4  
,footnote #bb3 ,the ,shell ,mounds of   
,omori2 and ,the ,tokio ,times1 ,jan4   
#ah1 #ahgi1 by ,edward ,s4 ,morse2      

,japanese ,fairy ,world1 pp4 ,i#gh1     
#aia1 #aif4  ,footnote #bc3 ,kojiki1 pp4
 #fj-fc4  ,footnote #bd3 ,s4 and ,h41   
pp4 #eh1 #ccg1 etc4  ,footnote #be3     
,this study in comparative religion by a
 ,japanese1 which cost the learned      
author his professorship in the         
,ti-,koku ,dai ,gaku or ,imperial       
,university 7lit4 ,theocratic ,country  
,great ,learning ,place71 has had a     
tendency to chill the ardor of native   
investigators4 ,his paper was first     
published in the ,historical ,magazine  
of the ,university1 but the wide        
publicity and popular excitement        
followed only after republication1 with 
comments by ,mr4 ,taguchi1 in the ,kizai
 ,zasshi 7,economical ,journal74 ,the   
,shintists denounced ,professor ,kumi   
for making our ancient religion a branch
 of ,christianity1 and demanded and     
secured his retirement by the           
,government4 ,see ,japan ,mail1 ,april  
#b1 #ahib1 p4 #ddj4  ,footnote #bf3     
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 p4 #bhb4    

,footnote #bg3 ,kojiki1 p4 xxviii4      
,footnote #bh3 ,for the use of salt in  
modern ,esoteric ,shint1 both in        
purification and for employment as of   
salamandrine1 see ,t4,a4,s4,j41 pp4     
#abe1 #abh4  ,footnote #bi3 ,in the     
official census of #ahic1 nine ,shint   
sects are named1 each of which has its  
own ,kwancho or ,presiding ,head1       
recognized by the government4 ,the      
sectarian peculiarities of ,shint have  
been made the subject of study by very  
few foreigners4 ,mr4 ,satow names the   
following3  ,the ,yui-itsu sect was     
founded by ,toshida ,kan-tomo4 ,his     
signature appears as the end of a       
ten-volume edition1 issued ,a4,d4 #aejc1
 of the liturgies extracted from the    
,yengishiki or ,book of ,ceremonial     
,law1 first published in the era of     
,yengi 7or ,en-gi71 ,a4,d4 #ija-ibb4 ,he
 is supposed to be the one who added the
 kana1 or common vernacular script      
letters1 to the ,chinese text and thus  
made the norito accessible to the       

people4 ,the little pocket prayer-books1
 folded in an accordeon-like manner1 are
 very cheap and popular4 ,the sect is   
regarded as heretical by strict         
,shintists1 as the system ,yuwiitsu     
consists mainly of a ,buddhist          
superstructure on a ,shint foundation4  
,yoshida applied the tenets of the      
,shingon or ,true ,word sect of         
,buddhists to the understanding and     
practice of the ancient god-way4  ,the  
,suiga sect teaches a system which is a 
combination of ,yuwiitsu and of the     
modern philosophical form of            
,confucianism as elaborated by ,chu ,hi1
 and known in ,japan as the ,ti-shu     
philosophy4 ,the founder was ,yamazaki  
,ansai1 who was born in #afah and died  
in #afhb4 ,by combining the forms of the
 ,yoshida sect1 which is based on the   
,buddhism of the ,shingon sect1 with the
 materialistic philosophy of ,chu ,hi1  
he adapted the old god-way to what he   
deemed modern needs4  ,in the ,dguchi   
sect1 the ancient belief is explained by

 the ,chinese ,book of ,changes 7or     
,divination74 ,dguchi ,nobuyoshi1 the   
founder1 was god-warden or kannushi of  
the ,giku or ,outer ,palace ,temple at  
,is4 ,he promulgated his views about the
 year #affj1 basing them upon the book  
called ki by the ,japanese and ,yi-king 
by the ,chinese4 ,this ,yi-king1 which  
,professor ,terrien de ,laeouporie      
declares is only a very ancient book of 
pronunciation of comparative ,accadian  
and ,chinese ,syllabaries1 has been the 
cause of incredible waste of labor1     
time1 and brains in ,china--enough to   
have diked the ,yellow ,river or drained
 the swamps of the ,empire4 ,it is the  
chief basis of ,chinese superstition1   
and the greatest literary barrier to the
 advance of civilization4 ,it has also  
made much mischief in ,japan4 ,dguchi   
explained the myths of the age of the   
gods by divination or ki1 based on the  
,chinese books4 ,as late as #ahic there 
was published in ,tki a work in         
,japanese1 with good translation info   

,english1 on ,scientific ,morality1 or  
the practical guidance of life by means 
of divination--,the ,takashima kidan 7or
 ,monograph on the ki of ,mr4           
,takashima71 by ,s4 ,sugiura4  ,the     
,jikko sect1 according to its           
representative at the ,world's          
,parliament of ,religions at ,chicago1  
is the practical4 ,it lays stress less  
upon speculation and ritual1 and more   
upon the realization of the best        
teachings of ,shint4 ,it was founded by 
,hasgawa ,kakugi1 who was born at       
,nagasaki in #aeda4 ,living in a cave in
 ,fuji-yama1 he received inspiration    
through the miraculous power of the     
mountain4 ,it believes in one absolute  
,deity1 often mentioned in the ,kojiki1 
which1 self-originated1 took the        
embodiment of two deities1 one with the 
male nature and the other female1 though
 these two deities are nothing but forms
 of the one substance and unite again in
 the absolute deity4 ,these gave birth  
to the ,japanese ,archipelago1 the sun  

and moon1 the mountains and streams1 the
 divine ancestors1 etc4 ,according to   
the teachings of this sect1 the peerless
 mountain1 ,fuji1 ought to be reverenced
 as the sacred abode of the divine lord1
 and as the brains of the whole globe4  
,the believer must make ,fuji the       
example and emblem of his thought and   
action4 ,he must be plain and simple1 as
 the form of the mountain1 making his   
body and mind pure and serene1 as ,fuji 
itself4 ,the present world with all its 
practical works must be respected more  
than the future world4 ,we must pray for
 the long life of the country1 lead a   
life of temperance and diligence1       
cooperating with one another in doing   
good4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,statistics of ,shintism4  
,from the official ,rsum ,statistique de
 l',empire du ,japon1 #ahid4 ,in #ahja  
there were nine administrative heads of 
sects2 #ge1hgg preachers1 priests1 and  
shrine-keepers1 with #a1aeh male and    
#bbh female students4 ,there were #afc  

national temples of superior rank and   
#acf1feb shrines or temples in cities   
and prefectures2 a total of #aic1aec1   
served by #ad1gjj persons of the grade  
of priests4 ,most of the expenses1 apart
 from endowments and local              
contributions1 are included in the first
 item of the annual ,treasury ,budget1  
,civil ,list1 ,appanage and ,shint      
,temples4   ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,the       
,,chinese ,,ethical ,,system ,,in       
,,japan   ,footnote #a3 ,he was fond of 
saying that ,princeton had never        
originated a new idea2 but this meant no
 more than that ,princeton was the      
advocate of historical ,calvinism in    
opposition to the modified and          
provincial ,calvinism of a later        
day4--,francis ,l4 ,patton1 in          
,schaff-,herzog ,encyclopdia1 ,article  
on ,charles ,hodge4  ,footnote #b3 ,we  
use ,dr4 ,james ,legge's spelling1 by   
whom these classics have been translated
 into ,english4 ,see ,sacred ,books of  
the ,east1 edited by ,max ,mller4       

,footnote #c3 ,the ,canon or ,four      
,classics has a somewhat varied literary
 history of transmission1 collection1   
and redaction1 as well as of exposition1
 and of criticism1 both lower and       
higher4 ,as arranged under the ,han     
,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #bjf-;,a4,d4 #bc7 it   
consisted of--,i4 ,the ,commentary of   
,tso ,kinming 7a disciple who expounded 
,confucius's book1 ,the ,annals of      
,state of ,lu72 ,,ii4 ,the ,commentary  
of ,kuh-liang upon the same work of     
,confucius2 ,,iii4 ,the ,old ,text of   
the ,book of ,history2 ,,iv4 ,the ,odes1
 collected by ,mao ,chang1 to whom is   
ascribed the test of the ,odes as handed
 down to the present day4 ,the generally
 accepted arrangement is that made by   
the mediaeval schoolmen of the ,sung    
,dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ifj-acda71 ,cheng ,teh
 ,sio and ,chu ,hi1 in the twelfth      
century3 ,i4 ,the ,great ,learning2     
,,ii4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,mean2      
,,iii4 ,conversations of ,confucius2    
,,iv4 ,the ,sayings of                  

,mencius4--,c4,r4,m41 pp4 #cjf-cji4     
,footnote #d3 ,see criticisms of        
,confucius as an author1 in ,legge's    
,religions of ,china1 pp4 #add1 #ade4   
,footnote #e3 ,religions of ,china1 by  
,james ,legge1 p4 #adj4  ,footnote #f3  
,see ,article ,china1 by the author1    
,cyclopaedia of ,political ,science1    
,chicago1 #ahha4  ,footnote #g3 ,this   
subject is critically discussed by      
,messrs4 ,satow1 ,chamberlain1 and      
others in their writings on ,shint and  
,japanese history4 ,on ,japanese        
chronology1 see ,japanese ,chronological
 ,tables1 by ,william ,bramsen1 ,tki1   
#ahhj1 and ,dr4 ,david ,murray's ,japan 
7p4 #ie71 in the series ,story of the   
,nations1 ,new ,york4  ,footnote #h3    
,the absurd claim made by some          
,shintists that the ,japanese possessed 
an original native alphabet called the  
,shingi 7god-letters7 before the        
entrance of the ,chinese or ,buddhist   
learning in ,japan1 is refuted by       
,aston1 ,japanese ,grammar1 p4 #a2      

,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,appendix1  
p4 #gg4 ,mr4 ,satow shows their         
unmistakable identity with the ,corean  
alphabet4  ,footnote #i3 ,for the life1 
work1 and tombs of the ,chinese scholars
 who fled to ,japan on the fall of the  
,ming ,dynasty1 see ,m4,e41 p4 #bih2 and
 ,professor ,e4,w4 ,clement's paper on  
,the ,tokugawa ,princes of ,mito1       
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xviii41 and his   
letters in ,the ,japan ,mail4  ,footnote
 #aj3 ,we have consecrated ourselves as 
the instruments of ,heaven for punishing
 the wicked man1--from the document     
submitted to the ,yedo authorities1 by  
the assassins of ,ii ,kamon no ,kami1 in
 ,yedo1 ,march #bc1 #ahfa1 and signed by
 seventeen men of the band4 ,for        
numerous other instances1 see the       
voluminous literature of the            
,forty-seven ,rnins1 and the ,meiji     
political literature 7#ahfh-ahic71      
political and historical documents1     
assassins' confessions1 etc41 contained 
in that thesarus of valuable documents1 

,the ,japan ,mail2 ,kins ,shiriaku1 or  
,brief ,history of ,japan1 #ahec-ahfi1  
,yokohama1 #ahgc1 and ,nihon ,guaishi1  
translated by ,mr4 ,ernest ,satow2      
,adams's ,history of ,japan2            
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xx41 p4 #ade2     
,life and ,letters of ,yokoi ,hishiro2  
,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 ,london1  
#ahic1 etc41 for proof of this          
assertion4  ,footnote #aa3 ,for proof of
 this1 as to vocabulary1 see ,professor 
,b4,h4 ,chamberlain's ,grammars and     
other philological works2 ,mr4 ,j4,h4   
,gubbins's ,dictionary of               
,chinese-,japanese ,words1 with         
,introduction1 three vols41 ,tki #ahib2 
and for change in structure1 ,rev4 ,c4  
,munzinger1 on ,the ,psychology of the  
,japanese ,language in the ,transactions
 of the ,gorman ,asiatic ,society of    
,japan4 ,see also ,mental               
,characteristics of the ,japanese1      
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xix41 pp4 #ag-cg4 
,footnote #ab3 ,see ,the ,ghost of      
,sakura1 in ,mitfoid's ,tales of ,old   

,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ag4  ,footnote  
#ac3 ,m4,e41 #bgg-bhj4 ,see an able     
analysis of ,japanese feudal society1 by
 ,m4,f4 ,dickins1 ,life of ,sir ,harry  
,parkes1 pp4 #h-ac2 ,m4,e41 pp4         
#bgg-bhc4  ,footnote #ad3 ,this subject 
is discussed in ,professor              
,chamberlain's works2 ,mr4 ,percival    
,lowell's ,the ,soul of the ,far ,east2 
,dr4 ,m4,l4 ,gordon's ,an ,american     
,missionary in ,japan2 ,dr4 ,j4,h4 ,de  
,forest's ,the ,influence of ,pantheism1
 in ,the ,japan ,evangelist1 #ahid4     
,footnote #ae3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4      
,,xvii41 p4 #if4  ,footnote #af3 ,the   
,forty ,seven-,rnins1 ,tales of ,old    
,japan1 ,vol4 ,i42 ,chiushiugura1 by    
,f4,v4 ,dickens2 ,the ,loyal ,rnins1 by 
,edward ,greey2 ,chiushiugura1          
translated by ,enouy4  ,footnote #ag3   
,see ,dr4 ,j4,h4 ,de ,forest's article  
in the ,andover ,review1 ,may1 ,june1   
#ahic1 p4 #cji4 ,for details and        
instances1 see the ,japanese histories1 
novels1 and dramas2 ,m4,e42 ,rein's     

,japan2 ,s4 and ,h42 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 etc4 
,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 p4 #aa et 
passim4  ,footnote #ah3 ,m4,e4 pp4      
#ahj-aib1 #dai4 ,for the origin and     
meaning of hara-kiri1 see ,t4,j41 pp4   
#aii-bja2 ,mitford's ,tales of ,old     
,japan1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,appendix2 ,adams's  
,history of ,japan1 story of ,shimadz4  
,footnote #ai3 ,m4,e41 p4 #acc4         
,footnote #bj3 ,for light upon the      
status of the ,japanese family1 see     
,f4,o4 ,adams's ,history of ,japan1     
,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #chd2 ,kins ,shiriaku1  
p4 #acg2 ,naomi ,tamura1 ,the ,japanese 
,bride1 ,new ,york1 #ahic2 ,e4,h4       
,house1 ,yon ,santo1 ,a ,child of       
,japan1 ,chicago1 #ahhh2 ,japanese      
,girls and ,women1 by ,miss ,a4,m4      
,bacon1 ,boston1 #ahia2 ,t4,j41 ,article
 ,woman1 and in ,index1 ,adoption1      
,children1 etc42 ,m4,e41 #ast ed41 p4   
#ehe2 ,marriage in ,japan1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41
 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 p4 #aad2 and papers in  
the ,german ,asiatic ,society of ,japan4
  ,footnote #ba3 ,see ,mr4 ,f4,w4       

,eastlake's papers in the ,popular      
,science ,monthly4  ,footnote #bb3 ,see 
,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 ,vol4     
,,ii1 pp4 #aha-ahb4 ,it is to be feared1
 however1 that this reform of the       
,yoshiwara system1 like many others in  
,japan1 never got beyond paper1 for ,mr4
 ,norman in his recent book1 ,the ,real 
,japan ,chap4 ,,xii41 describes a       
scarcely modified system in full vigor4 
,see also ,japanese ,girls and ,women1  
pp4 #bhi-bib4  ,footnote #bc3 ,see ,pung
 ,kwang ,yu's paper1 read at the        
,parliament of ,religions in ,chicago1  
and ,the ,chinese as ,painted by        
,themselves1 by ,colonel                
,tcheng-,ki-,tong1 ,new ,york and       
,london1 #ahhe4 ,dr4 ,w4,a4,p4 ,martin's
 scholarly book1 ,the ,chinese1 ,new    
,york1 #ahha1 in the chapter ,remarks on
 the ,ethical ,philosophy of the        
,chinese1 gives in ,english and ,chinese
 a ,chart of ,chinese ,ethics in which  
the whole scheme of philosophy1 ethics1 
and self-culture is set forth4          

,footnote #bd3 ,see an exceedingly      
clear1 able1 and accurate article on    
,the ,ethics of ,confucius as ,seen in  
,japan1 by the veteran scholar1 ,rev4   
,j4,h4 ,de ,forest1 ,the ,andover       
,review1 ,may1 ,june1 #ahic4 ,he is the 
authority for the statements concerning 
non-attendance 7in ,old ,japan7 of the  
husband at the wife's1 and older brother
 at younger brother's funeral4          
,footnote #be3 ,a ,japanese translation 
of ,mrs4 ,caudle's ,curtain ,lectures1  
in a ,tki morning newspaper met with    
instant and universal approval1 showing 
that ,douglas ,jerrold's world-famous   
character has her counterpart in ,japan1
 where1 as a ,japanese proverb declares1
 the tongue three inches long can kill a
 man six feet high4 ,sir ,edwin ,arnold 
and ,mr4 ,e4,h4 ,house1 in various      
writings1 have idealized the admirable  
traits of the ,japanese woman4 ,see also
 ,mr4 ,lafcadio ,hearn's ,glimpses of   
,unfamiliar ,japan1 ,boston1 #ahid2 and 
papers 7,the ,eternal ,feminine1 etc471 

in the ,atlantic ,monthly4  ,footnote   
#bf3 ,summary of the ,japanese ,penal   
,codes1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,v41 ,part  
,,ii42 ,the ,penal ,code of ,japan1 and 
,the ,code of ,criminal ,procedure of   
,japan1 ,yokohama4  ,footnote #bg3 ,see 
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 p4 #aad2   
the ,chapter on ,marriage and ,divorce1 
in ,japanese ,girls and ,women1 pp4     
#eg-hd4 ,the following figures are from 
the ,rsum ,statistique de ,l',empire du 
,japon1 published annually by the       
,imperial ,government3                  
,,marriages4              ,,divorces4   
,number4  ,per #a1jjj    ,number4  ,per 
#a1jjj                  ,persons4       
,persons4  #ahhg4444ccd1adi  #h4ee      
#aaj1hei  #b4hd #ahhh4444ccj1bdf  #h4cd 
#aji1age  #b4gf #ahhi4444cdj1dde  #h4ej 
#ajg1deh  #b4fh #ahij4444cbe1ada  #h4jd 
#aig1jhh  #b4gj #ahia4444ceb1jea  #h4jj 
#aab1daa  #b4gf #ahib4444cdh1dhi  #h4dh 
#aac1dih  #b4gf   ,footnote #bh3 ,this  
was strikingly brought out in the       
hundreds of ,english compositions       

7written by students of the ,imperial   
,university1 #ahgb-gd1 describing the   
home or individual life of students71   
examined and read by the author4        
,footnote #bi3 ,homo sum3 humani nil a  
me alienum puto--,hauton ,tomoroumenos1 
,act--1 ,scene #a1 line #be1 where      
,chremes inquires about his neighbor's  
affairs4 ,for the golden rule of ,jesus 
and the silver rule of ,confucius1 see  
,doolittle's ,social ,life of the       
,chinese4  ,footnote #cj3 ,what you do  
not want done to yourselves1 do not do  
to others4 ,legge1 ,the ,religions of   
,china1 p4 #acg2 ,doolittle's ,social   
,life of the ,chinese2 ,the ,testament  
of ,iyyas21 ,cap4 ,,lxxi41 translated by
 ,j4,c4 ,lowder1 ,yokohama1 #ahgd4      
,footnote #ca3 ,die politische          
,bedeutung der amerikanischer           
,expedition nach ,japan1 #aheb1 by      
,tetsutaro ,yoshida1 ,heidelberg1 #ahic2
 ,the ,united ,states and ,japan 7p4    
#ci71 by ,inazo ,nitob1 ,baltimore1     
#ahia2 ,matthew ,calbraith ,perry1      

,chap4 ,,xxviii42 ,t4,j41 ,article      
,perry2 ,life and ,letters of ,s4 ,wells
 ,williams1 ,new ,york1 #ahhi4          
,footnote #cb3 ,see ,life of ,matthew   
,calbraith ,perry1 pp4 #cfc1 #cfd4      
,footnote #cc3 ,lee's ,jerusalem        
,illustrated1 p4 #hh4   ,,chapter ,v    
,,confucianism ,,in ,,its               
,,philosophical ,,form   ,footnote #a3  
,see ,on the ,early ,history of         
,printing in ,japan1 by ,e4,m4 ,satow1  
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,x41 pp4 #a-hc1     
#beb-bei2 ,the ,jesuit ,mission ,press  
in ,japan1 by ,e4,m4 ,satow 7privately  
printed1 #ahhh71 and ,review of this    
monograph by ,professor ,b4,h4          
,chamberlain1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4       
,,xvii41 pp4 #ia-ajj4  ,footnote #b3    
,the ,tokugawa ,princes of ,mito1 by    
,ernest ,w4 ,clement1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41     
,vol4 ,,xviii41 pp4 #a-bd1 and ,letters 
in ,the ,japan ,mail1 #ahhi4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,effect of ,buddhism on the         
,philosophy of the ,sung ,dynasty1 p4   
#cah1 ,chinese ,buddhism1 by ,rev4 ,j4  

,edkins1 ,boston1 #ahhj4  ,footnote #d3 
,c4,r4,m41 p4 #bjj2 ,the ,middle        
,kingdom1 by ,s4 ,wells ,williams1 ,vol4
 ,,ii41 p4 #agd4  ,footnote #e3         
,c4,r4,m41 p4 #cd4 ,he was the boy-hero1
 who smashed with a stone the precious  
water-vase in order to save from        
drowning a playmate who had tumbled in1 
so often represented in ,chinese popular
 art4  ,footnote #f3 ,c4,r4,m41 pp4     
#be-bf2 ,the ,middle ,kingdom1 ,vol4    
,i41 pp4 #aac1 #edj1 #feb-fed1 #fgg4    
,footnote #g3 ,this decade in ,chinese  
history was astonishingly like that of  
the ,united ,states from #ahhd to #ahid1
 in which the economical theories       
advocated in certain journals1 in the   
books ,progress and ,poverty1 ,looking  
,backward1 and by the ,populists1 have  
been so widely read and discussed1 and  
the attempts made to put them into      
practice4 ,the ,chinese theorist of the 
eleventh century1 ,wang ,ngan-shih was a
 poet and author of rare                
genius4--,c4,r4,m41 p4 #bdd4  ,footnote 

#h3 ,john xxi4 #be4  ,footnote #i3 ,this
 is the opinion of no less capable      
judges than ,dr4 ,george ,wm4 ,knox and 
,professor ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain4   
,footnote #aj3 ,the ,united ,states and 
,japan1 pp4 #be-bg2 ,life of ,takano    
,choyi by ,kato ,sakay1 ,tki1 #ahhh4    
,footnote #aa3 ,note on ,japanese       
,schools of ,philosophy1 by ,t4 ,haga1  
and papers by ,dr4 ,g4,w4 ,knox1 ,dr4   
,t4 ,inou1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xx1    
,part ,i4  ,footnote #ab3 ,a religion1  
surely1 with men like ,yokoi ,hishiro4  
,footnote #ac3 ,see pp4 #aaj-aac4       
,footnote #ad3 ,kinno--loyalty to the   
,emperor2 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xx41 p4 
#adg4  ,footnote #ae3 ,originally       
recognizing the existence of a ,supreme 
personal ,deity1 it ,confucianism has   
degenerated into a pantheistic medley1  
and renders worship to an impersonal    
anima mundi under the leading forms of  
visible nature4--,dr4 ,w4,a4,p4         
,martin's ,the ,chinese1 p4 #ajh4       
,footnote #af3 ,ki1 ,ri1 and ,ten1 ,dr4 

,george ,wm4 ,knox1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 
,,xx41 pp4 #aee-agg4  ,footnote #ag3    
,t4,j41 p4 #id4  ,footnote #ah3         
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xx41 p4 #aef4     
,footnote #ai3 ,matthew ,calbraith      
,perry1 p4 #cgc2 ,japanese ,life of     
,yoshida ,shoin1 by ,tokutomi1 ,tki1    
#ahid2 ,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1    
,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #hc4  ,footnote #bj3    
,the ,chinese accept ,confucius in every
 detail1 both as taught by ,confucius   
and by his disciples4444 ,the ,japanese 
recognize both religions ,buddhism and  
,confucianism equally1 but ,confucianism
 in ,japan has a direct bearing upon    
everything relating to human affairs1   
especially the extreme loyalty of the   
people to the emperor1 while the        
,koreans consider it more useful in     
social matters than in any other        
department of life1 and hardly consider 
its precepts in their business and      
mercantile relations4  ,although        
,confucianism is counted a religion1 it 
is really a system of sociology4444     

,confucius was a moralist and statesman1
 and his disciples are moralists and    
economists4--,education in ,korea1 by   
,mr4 ,pom ,k4 ,soh1 of the ,korean      
,embassy to the ,united ,states2 ,report
 of ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 
#ahij-ia1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #cde-cdf4      
,footnote #ba3 ,in ,bakin1 who is the   
great teacher of the ,japanese by means1
 of fiction1 this is the idea always    
inculcated4   ,,chapter ,,vi  ,,the     
,,buddhism ,,of ,,northern ,,asia       
,footnote #a3 ,see his ,introduction to 
the ,saddharma ,pundarika1 ,sacred      
,books of the ,east1 and his            
,buddhismus4  ,footnote #b3 ,origin and 
,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by 
,buddhism2 ,non-,christian ,religious   
,systems--,buddhism4  ,footnote #c3 ,the
 sketch of ,indian thought here         
following is digested from material     
obtained from various works on ,buddhism
 and from the ,histories of ,india4 ,see
 the excellent monograph of ,romesh     
,chunder ,dutt1 in ,epochs of ,indian   

,history1 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahic2
 and ,outlines of ,the ,mahayana1 as    
,taught by ,buddha 7for circulation     
among the members of the ,parliament of 
,religions1 and distributed in          
,chicago71 ,toki1 #ahic4  ,footnote #d3 
,dyaus-,pitar1 afterward zeus patr4 ,see
 ,century ,dictionary1 ,jupiter4        
,footnote #e3 ,yoga is the root form of 
our word yoke1 which at once suggests   
the union of two in one4 ,see ,yoga1 in 
,the ,century ,dictionary4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,dutt's ,history of ,india4         
,footnote #g3 ,the differences between  
the simple primitive narrative of       
,gautama's experiences in attaining     
,buddhahood1 and the richly embroidered 
story current in later ages1 may be seen
 by reading1 first1 ,atkinson's ,prince 
,sidartha1 the ,japanese ,buddha1 and   
then ,arnold's ,light of ,asia4 ,see    
also ,s4 and ,h41 ,introduction1 pp4    
#gj-hd1 etc4 ,atkinson's book is        
refreshing reading after the expurgation
 and sublimation of the same theme in   

,sir ,edwin ,arnold's ,light of ,asia4  
,footnote #h3 ,romesh ,chunder ,dutt's  
,ancient ,india1 p4 #ajj4  ,footnote #i3
 ,origin and ,growth of ,religion by ,t4
 ,rhys ,davids1 p4 #bh4  ,footnote #aj3 
,job i4 #f1 ,hebrew4  ,footnote #aa3    
,origin and ,growth of ,religion1 p4    
#bi4  ,footnote #ab3 ,buddhism so far   
from tracing 'all things' to 'matter' as
 their original1 denies the reality of  
matter1 but it nowhere denies the       
reality of existence4--,the ,phoenix1   
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aef4  ,footnote #ac3 ,see
 ,a ,year among the ,persians1 by       
,edward ,g4 ,browne1 ,london1 #ahic4    
,footnote #ad3 ,dutt's ,history of      
,india1 pp4 #aec-aef4 ,see also         
,mozoomdar's ,the ,spirit of ,god1 p4   
#cje4 ,buddhism1 though for a long time 
it supplanted the parent system1 was the
 fulfilment of the prophecy of universal
 peace1 which ,hinduism had made2 and   
when1 in its turn1 it was outgrown by   
the instincts of the ,aryans1 it had to 
leave ,india indeed forever1 but it     

contributed quite as much to ,indian    
religion as it had ever borrowed4       
,footnote #ae3 ,korean ,repository1     
,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #aja1 #aca1 #aec2        
,siebold's ,nippon1 ,archiv2 ,report of 
the ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 
#ahij-ia1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cdf2 ,dallet's 
,histoire de l'glise de ,core1 ,vol4    
#a41 ,introd41 p4 cxlv42 ,corea1 the    
,hermit ,nation1 p4 #cca4  ,footnote    
#af3 ,see ,brian ,h4 ,hodgson's ,the    
,literature and ,history of the         
,buddhists1 in ,journal of the ,asiatic 
,society of ,bengal1 which is epitomized
 in ,the ,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,i42 ,beal's   
,buddhism in ,china1 ,chap4 ,,ii42 ,t4  
,rhys ,davids's ,buddhism1 etc4 ,to     
,brian ,houghton ,hodgson1 7of whose    
death at the ripe age of ninety-three   
years we read in ,luzac's ,oriental     
,list7 more than to any one writer1 are 
we indebted for our knowledge of        
,northern or ,mahayana ,buddhism4       
,footnote #ag3 ,see the very accurate1  
clear1 and full definitions and         

explanations in ,the ,century           
,dictionary4  ,footnote #ah3 ,this      
subject is fully discussed by ,professor
 ,t4 ,rhys ,davids in his compact       
,manual of ,buddhism4  ,footnote #ai3   
,see ,century ,dictionary4  ,footnote   
#bj3 ,jap4 ,mon-ju4 ,one of the most    
famous images of this ,bodhisattva is at
 ,zenk-ji1 ,nagano4 ,see ,kern's        
,saddharma ,pundarika1 p4 #h1 and the   
many referents to ,manjusri in the      
,index4 ,that ,manjusri was the         
legendary civilizer of ,nepaul seems    
probable from the following extract from
 ,brian ,hodgson3 ,the ,swayambhu       
,purana relates in substance as follows3
 ,that formerly the valley of ,nepaul   
was of circular form1 and full of very  
deep water1 and that the mountains      
confining it were clothed with the      
densest forests1 giving shelter to      
numberless birds and beasts4 ,countless 
waterfowl rejoiced in the waters4444    
444 ,vipasyi1 having thrice             
circumambulated the lake1 seated himself

 in the ,n4,w4 7,vyubona7 side of it1   
and1 having repeated several mantras    
over the root of a lotos1 he threw it   
into the water1 exclaiming1 ',what time 
this root shall produce a flower1 then1 
from out of the flower1 ,swayambhu1 the 
,lord of ,agnishtha ,bhuvana1 shall be  
revealed in the form of flame2 and then 
shall the lake become a cultivated and  
populous country4' ,having repeated     
these words1 ,vipasyi departed4 ,long   
after the date of this prophecy1 it was 
fulfilled according to the letter4444   
444 ,when the lake was dessicated 7by   
the sword of ,manjusri says the         
myth--probably earthquake7 ,karkotaka   
had a fine tank built for him to dwell  
in2 and there he is still worshipped1   
also in the cave-temple appendant to the
 great ,buddhist shrine of ,swayambhu   
,nath4444  444 ,the ,bodhisatwa above   
alluded to is ,manju ,sri1 whose native 
place is very far off1 towards the      
north1 and is called ,pancha ,sirsha    
,parvata 7which is situated in ,maha    

,china ,des74 ,after the coming of      
,viswabhu ,buddha to ,naga ,vasa1 ,manju
 ,sri1 meditating upon what was passing 
in the world1 discovered by means of his
 divine science that                    
,swayambhu-jyotirupa1 that is1 the      
self-existent1 in the form of flame1 was
 revealed out of a lotos in the lake of 
,naga ,vasa4 ,again1 he reflected within
 himself3 ',let me behold that sacred   
spot1 and my name will long be          
celebrated in the world2' and on the    
instant1 collecting together his        
disciples1 comprising a multitude of the
 peasantry of the land1 and a ,raja     
named ,dharmakar1 he assumed the form of
 ,viswakarma1 and with his two ,devis   
7wives7 and the persons above-mentioned1
 set out upon the long journey from     
,sirsha ,parvata to ,naga ,vasa4 ,there 
having arrived1 and having made puja to 
the self-existent1 he began to          
circumambulate the lake1 beseeching all 
the while the aid of ,swayambhu in      
prayer4 ,in the second circuit1 when he 

had reached the central barrier mountain
 to the south1 he became satisfied that 
that was the best place whereat to draw 
off the waters of the lake4 ,immediately
 he struck the mountain with his        
scimitar1 when the sundered rock gave   
passage to the waters1 and the bottom of
 the lake became dry4 ,he then descended
 from the mountain1 and began to walk   
about the valley in all                 
directions4--,the ,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,,ii41
 pp4 #adg-adh4  ,footnote #ba3 ,jap4    
,kwannon1 god or goddess of mercy1 in   
his or her manifold forms1              
,thousand-handed1 ,eleven-faced1        
,horse-headed1 ,holy1 etc4  ,footnote   
#bb3 ,or1 ,the ,lotus of the ,good ,law1
 a mystical name for the cosmos4 ,the   
good law is made plain by flowers of    
rhetoric4 ,see ,bernouf and ,kern's     
translations1 and ,edkin's ,chinese     
,buddhism1 pp4 #dc1 #bad4 ,translations 
of this work1 so influential in         
,japanese ,buddhism1 exist in ,french1  
,german1 and ,english4 ,see ,sacred     

,books of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 by   
,professor ,h4 ,kern1 of ,leyden        
,university4 ,in the ,introduction1 p4  
xxxix41 the translator discusses age1   
authorship1 editions1 etc4 ,bunyiu      
,nanjio's ,short ,history of the ,twelve
 ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects1 pp4        
#acb-acd4 ,beal in his ,catena of       
,buddhist ,scriptures1 pp4 #chi-cif1 has
 translated ,chapter ,,xxiv4  ,footnote 
#bc3 ,at the great ,zenkji1 a temple of 
the ,tendai sect1 at ,nagano1 ,japan1   
dedicated to three ,buddhist divinities1
 one of whom is ,kwannon                
7,avalokitesvara1 the rafters of the    
vast main hall are said to number       
#fi1chd1 in reference to the number of  
,chinese characters contained in the    
translation of the ,saddharma           
,pundarika4  ,footnote #bd3 ,the third  
7collection of the ,tripitaka7 was 444  
made by ,manjusri and ,maitreya4 ,this  
is the collection of the ,mahayana      
books4 ,though it is as clear or bright 
as the sun at midday yet the men of the 

,hinayana are not ashamed of their      
inability to know them and speak evil of
 them instead1 just as the              
,confucianists call ,buddhism a law of  
barbarians1 without reading the         
,buddhist books at all4--,b4,n41 p4 #ea4
  ,footnote #be3 ,see the writings of   
,brian ,hodgson1 ,j4 ,edkins1 ,e4,j4    
,eitel1 ,s4 ,beal1 ,t4 ,rhys ,davids1   
,bunyiu ,nanjio1 etc4  ,footnote #bf3   
,see ,chapter ,,viii4 in ,t4 ,rhys      
,davids's ,buddhism1 a book of great    
scholarship and marvellous condensation4
  ,footnote #bg3 ,davids's ,buddhism1 p4
 #bjf4 ,other illustrations of the      
growth of the dogmas of this school of  
,buddhism we select from ,brian         
,hodgson's writings4  #a4 ,the line of  
division between ,god and man1 and      
between gods and man1 was removed by    
,buddhism4  ,genuine ,buddhism never    
seems to contemplate any measures of    
acceptance with the deity2 but1         
overleaping the barrier between finite  
and infinite mind1 urges its followers  

to aspire by their own efforts to that  
divine perfectibility of which it       
teaches that man is capable1 and by     
attaining which man becomes ,god--and   
thus is explained both the quiescence of
 the imaginary celestial1 and the       
plenary omnipotence of the real ,manushi
 ,buddhas--thus1 too1 we must account   
for the fact that genuine ,buddhism has 
no priesthood2 the saint despises the   
priest2 the saint scorns the aid of     
mediators1 whether on earth or in       
heaven2 'conquer 7exclaims the adept or 
,buddha to the novice or                
,bodhi,sattwa7--conquer the             
importunities of the body1 urge your    
mind to the meditation of abstraction1  
and you shall1 in time1 discover the    
great secret 7,sunyata7 of nature3 know 
this1 and you become1 on the instant1   
whatever priests have feigned of        
,godhead--you become identified with    
,prajna1 the sum of all the power and   
all the wisdom which sustain and govern 
the world1 and which1 as they are       

manifested out of matter1 must belong   
solely to matter2 not indeed in the     
gross and palpable state of pravritti1  
but in the archetypal and pure state of 
nirvritti4 ,put off1 therefore1 the     
vile1 pravrittika necessities of the    
body1 and the no less vile affections of
 the mind 7,tapas72 urge your thought   
into pure abstraction 7,dhyana71 and    
then1 as assuredly you can1 so assuredly
 you shall1 attain to the wisdom of a   
,buddha 7,bodhijnana71 and become       
associated with the eternal unity and   
rest of nirvritti4'--,the ,phoenix1     
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aid4  #b4 ,a specimen of 
esoteric and exoteric ,buddhism2--the   
,buddha ,tatkagata4  ,and as the wisdom 
of man is1 in its origin1 but an        
effluence of the ,supreme wisdom        
7,prajn7 of nature1 so is it perfected  
by a refluence to its source1 but       
without loss of individuality2 whence   
,prajna is feigned in the exoteric      
system to be both the mother and the    
wife of all the ,buddhas1 'janani sarva 

,buddknm1' and ',jina-sundary2' for the 
efflux is typified by a birth1 and the  
reflux by a marriage4  ,the ,buddha is  
the adept in the wisdom of ,buddhism    
7,bodhijnna7 whose first duty1 so long  
as he remains on earth1 is to           
communicate his wisdom to those who are 
willing to receive it4 ,these willing   
learners are the ',bodhisattwas1' so    
called from their hearts being inclined 
to the wisdom of ,buddhism1 and         
',sanghas1' from their companionship    
with one another1 and with their ,buddha
 or teacher1 in the ,vihras or          
coenobitical establishments4  ,and such 
is the esoteric interpretation of the   
third 7and inferior7 member of the      
,prajniki ,triad4 ,the ,bodhisattwa or  
,sangha continues to be such until he   
has surmounted the very last grade of   
that vast and laborious ascent by which 
he is instructed that he can 'scale the 
heavens1' and pluck immortal wisdom from
 its resplendent source3 which          
achievement performed1 he becomes a     

,buddha1 that is1 an ,omniscient ,being1
 and a ,tathgata--a title implying the  
accomplishment of that gradual increase 
in wisdom by which man becomes immortal 
or ceases to be subject to              
transmigration4--,the ,phoenix1 ,vol4   
,i41 pp4 #aid1 #aie4  #c4 ,is ,god all1 
or is all ,god8  ,what that grand       
secret1 that ultimate truth1 that single
 reality1 is1 whether all is ,god1 or   
,god is all1 seems to be the sole       
proposition of the oriental philosophic 
religionists1 who have all alike sought 
to discover it by taking the high priori
 road4 ,that ,god is all1 appears to be 
the prevalent dogmatic determination of 
the ,brahmanists2 that all is ,god1 the 
preferential but sceptical solution of  
the ,buddhists2 and1 in a large view1 ,i
 believe it would be difficult to       
indicate any further essential          
difference between their theoretic      
systems1 both1 as ,i conceive1 the      
unquestionable growth of the ,indian    
soil1 and both founded upon             

transcendental speculation1 conducted in
 the very same style and manner4--,the  
,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #de4  #d4     
,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,sangha4  ,in a   
philosophical light1 the precedence of  
,buddha or of ,dharma indicates the     
theistic or atheistic school4 ,with the 
former1 ,buddha is intellectual essence1
 the efficient cause of all1 and        
underived4 ,dharma is material essence1 
the plastic cause1 and underived1 a     
co-equal biunity with ,buddha2 or else  
the plastic cause1 as before1 but       
dependent and derived from ,buddha4     
,sangha is derived from1 and compounded 
of1 ,buddha1 and ,dharma1 is their      
collective energy in the state of       
action2 the immediate operative cause of
 creation1 its type or its agent4 ,with 
the latter or atheistic schools1 ,dharma
 is ,diva natura1 matter as the sole    
entity1 invested with intrinsic activity
 and intelligence1 the efficient and    
material cause of all4  ,buddha is      
derivative from ,dharma1 is the active  

and intelligent force of nature1 first  
put off from it and then operating upon 
it4 ,sangha is the result of that       
operation2 is embryotic creation1 the   
type and sum of all specific forms1     
which are spontaneously evolved from the
 union of ,buddha with ,dharma4--,the   
,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ab4  #e4 ,the
 mantra or sacred sentence best known in
 the ,buddhadom and abroad4  ,amitbha is
 the fourth ,dhyani or celestial ,budda3
 ,padma-pani his on and executive       
minister4 ,padma-pani is the praesens   
,divus and creator of the existing      
system of worlds4 ,hence his            
identification with the third member of 
the ,triad4 ,he is figured as a graceful
 youth1 erect1 and bearing in either    
hand a lotos and a jewel4 ,the last     
circumstance explains the meaning of the
 celebrated ,shadakshri ,mantra1 or     
six-lettered invocation of him1 viz41   
,om6 ,manipadme hom6 of which so many   
corrupt versions and more corrupt       
interpretations have appeared from      

,chinese1 ,tibetan1 ,mongolian1 and     
other sources4 ,the mantra in question  
is one of three1 addressed to the       
several members of the ,triad4 #a4 ,om  
sarva vidye hom4 #b4 ,om ,prajnye hom4  
#c4 ,om mani-padme hom4 #a4 ,the mystic 
triform ,deity is in the all-wise       
7,buddha74 #b4 ,the mystic triform      
,deity is in ,prajna 7,dharma74 #c4 ,the
 mystic triform ,deity is in him of the 
jewel and lotos 7,sangha74 ,but the     
praesens ,divus1 whether he be ,augustus
 or ,padma-pani1 is everything with the 
many4 ,hence the notoriety of this      
mantra1 whilst the others are hardly    
ever heard of1 and have thus remained   
unknown to our travellers4--,the        
,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #fd4          
,footnote #bh3 ,nine centuries after    
,buddha1 ,maitreya 7,miroku or ,ji-shi7 
came down from the ,tushita heaven to   
the lecture-hall in the kingdom of      
,ayodhya 7,a-ya-sha7 in ,central ,india1
 at the request of the ,bodhisattva     
,asamga 7,mu-jaku7 and discoursed five  

,sastras1 #a1 ,yoga-karya-bhumi-sastra  
7,yu-ga-shi-ji-ron71 etc4444 ,after     
that1 the two great ,sastra teachers1   
,asanga and ,vasubandhu 7,se-shin71 who 
were brothers1 composed many ,sastras   
7,ron7 and cleared up the meaning of the
 ,mahayana 7or ,greater ,vehicle1 canon 
of ,northern ,buddhism74--,b4,n41 p4    
#cb4  ,footnote #bi3 ,buddhism1 ,t4     
,rhys ,davids1 pp4 #bjf-baa4  ,footnote 
#cj3 ,prayer-wheels in ,japan are used  
by the ,tendai and ,shingon sects1 but  
without written prayers attached1 and   
rather as an illustration of the        
doctrine of cause and effect 7ingwa72   
the prayers being usually offered to    
,jizo the merciful4--,s4 and ,h41 p4    
#bi2 ,t4 ,j41 p4 #cfj4  ,footnote #ca3  
,for this see ,edkins's ,chinese        
,buddhism2 ,eitel's ,three ,lectures1   
and ,hand-book2 ,rev4 ,s4 ,beal's       
,buddhism1 and ,a ,catena of ,buddhist  
,scriptures from the ,chinese2 ,the     
,romantic ,legend of ,sakya ,buddha1    
from the ,chinese2 ,texts from the      

,buddhist canon commonly known as the   
,dhammapeda2 ,notes on ,buddhist ,words 
and ,phrases1 the ,chrysanthemum1 ,vol4 
,i42 ,the ,phoenix1 ,vols4 ,i-,,iii4    
,see1 also1 a spirited sketch of        
,ancient ,japan1 by ,frederick ,victor  
,dickins1 in the ,life of ,sir ,harry   
,parkes1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #d-ad4        
,footnote #cb3 ,s4 and ,h41 pp4 #bhi1   
#bic2 ,chamberlain's ,hand-book for     
,japan1 p4 #bbj2 ,summer's ,notes on    
,osaka1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,vil1 p4   
#chb2 ,buddhism1 and ,traditions        
,concerning its ,introduction into      
,japan1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xiv41 p4  
#gh4  ,footnote #cc3 ,s4 and ,h41 p4    
#cdd4  ,footnote #cd3 ,t4,j41 p4 #gc4   
,footnote #ce3 ,vairokana is the first  
or chief of the five personifications of
 ,wisdom1 and in ,japan the idol is     
especially noticeable in the temples of 
the ,tendai sect4--,the ,action of      
,vairokana1 or the great doctrine of the
 highest vehicle of the secret union1   
etc41 ,b4,n41 p4 #ge4  ,footnote #cf3   

,s4 and ,h41 p4 #cij2 ,b4,n41 p4 #bi4   
,footnote #cg3 ,hinduism stands for     
philosophic spirituality and emotion1   
,buddhism for ethics and humanity1      
,christianity for fulness of ,god's     
incarnation in man1 while ,mohammedanism
 is the champion of uncompromising      
monotheism4--,f4,p4,c4 ,mozoomdar's ,the
 ,spirit of ,god1 ,boston1 #ahid1 p4    
#cje4   ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,riy,,bu1 ,,or
 ,,mixed ,,buddhism   ,footnote #a3 ,is 
not something similar frankly attempted 
in ,rev4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,edkins's ,the    
,early ,spread of ,religious ,ideas in  
the ,far ,east 7,london1 #ahic78        
,footnote #b3 ,m4,e41 p4 #beb2 ,honda   
the ,samurai1 pp4 #aic-aid4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,see ,the ,lily ,among ,thorns1 ,a  
,study of the ,biblical ,drama ,entitled
 the ,song of ,songs 7,boston #ahij71 in
 which this subject is glanced at4      
,footnote #d3 ,see ,the ,religion of    
,nepaul1 ,buddhist ,philosophy1 and the 
writings of ,brian ,hodgson in ,the     
,phoenix1 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4     

,footnote #e3 ,see ,century ,dictionary1
 ,yoga2 ,edkins's ,chinese ,buddhism1   
pp4 #afi-agd2 ,t4 ,rhys ,davids's       
,buddhism1 pp4 #bjf-baa2 ,index of      
,b4,n41 under ,vagrasattwa2 ,s4 and ,h41
 pp4 #he-hg4  ,footnote #f3 ,t4,j41 p4  
#bbf2 ,kojiki1 ,introduction4  ,footnote
 #g3 ,see in the ,journal of the ,royal 
,asiatic ,society1 #ahic1 a very        
valuable paper by ,mr4 ,l4,a4 ,waddell1 
on ,the ,northern ,buddhist ,mythology1 
epitomized in the ,japan ,mail1 ,may #e1
 #ahid4  ,footnote #h3 ,see ,catalogue  
of ,chinese and ,japanese ,paintings in 
the ,british ,museum1 and ,the          
,pictorial ,arts of ,japan1 by ,william 
,anderson1 ,m4,d4  ,footnote #i3        
,anderson's ,catalogue1 p4 #bd4         
,footnote #aj3 ,s4 and ,h41 p4 #dae2    
,chamberlain's ,hand-book for ,japan2   
,t4,j42 ,m4,e41 p4 #afb1 etc4  ,footnote
 #aa3 ,the names of ,buddhist priests   
and monks are usually different from    
those of the laity1 being taken from    
events in the life of ,gautama1 or his  

original disciples1 passages in the     
sacred classics1 etc4 ,among some       
personal acquaintances in the ,japanese 
priesthood were such names as           
,lift-the-,kettle1                      
,take-,hold-of-the-,dipper1             
,drivelling-,drunkard1 etc4 ,in the     
raciness1 oddity1 literalness1 realism1 
and close connection of their names with
 the scriptures of their system1 the    
,buddhists quite equal the ,british     
,puritans4  ,footnote #ab3 ,kern's      
,saddharma-,pundarika1 pp4 #caa1 #cad2  
,davids's ,buddhism p4 #bjh2 ,the       
,phoenix1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #afi2 ,s4 and   
,h41 p4 #ejb2 ,du ,bose's ,dragon1      
,demon1 and ,image1 p4 #djg2 ,fuso ,mimi
 ,bukuro1 p4 #acd2 ,hough's ,corean     
,collections1 ,washington1 #ahic1 p4    
#dhj1 plate xxviii4  ,footnote #ac3     
,japan in ,history1 ,folk-lore and ,art1
 pp4 #hf1 #hj-hh2 ,a ,japanese ,grammar1
 by ,j4,j4 ,hoffman1 p4 #aj2 ,t4,j41 pp4
 #dfe-dgj4  ,footnote #ad3 ,this is the 
essence of ,buddhism1 and was for       

centuries repeated and learned by heart 
throughout the empire3    ,love and     
enjoyment disappear1     ,what in our   
world endureth here8   ,e'en should this
 day it oblivion be rolled1     ',twas  
only a vision that leaves me cold4      
,footnote #ae3 ,this legend suggests the
 mediaeval ,jewish story1 that ,ezra1   
the scribe1 could write with five pens  
at once2 ,hearn's ,glimpses of          
,unfamiliar ,japan1 pp4 #bi-cc4         
,footnote #af3 ,brave ,little ,holland1 
and ,what ,she ,taught ,us1 p4 #abd4    
,footnote #ag3 ,t4,j41 pp4 #ge1 #cdb2   
,chamberlain's ,hand-book for ,japan1 p4
 #da2 ,m4,e41 p4 #afb4  ,footnote #ah3  
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aja2 ,s4 
and ,h41 p4 #agf4  ,footnote #ai3 ,it   
was for lifting with his walking-stick  
the curtain hanging before the shrine of
 this ,kami that ,arinori ,mori1        
formerly ,h4,i4,j4,m4 ,minister at      
,washington and ,london1 was            
assassinated by a ,shint fanatic1       
,february #aa1 #ahhi2 ,t4 ,j41 p4 #bbi2 

see ,percival ,lowell's paper in the    
,atlantic ,monthly4  ,footnote #bj3 ,see
 ,mr4 ,p4 ,lowell's ,esoteric ,shint1   
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #afe-afg1
 and his ,occult ,japan4  ,footnote #ba3
 ,s4 and ,h41 ,japan1 p4 #hc4  ,footnote
 #bb3 ,see the ,author's ,introduction  
to the ,arabian ,nights'                
,entertainments1 ,boston1 #ahia4        
,footnote #bc3 ,b4,n41 ,index and pp4   
#gh-ajc2 ,edkins's ,chinese ,buddhism1  
p4 #afi4  ,footnote #bd3 ,satow's or    
,chamberlain's ,guide-books furnish     
hundreds of other instances1 and        
describe temples in which the renamed   
kami are worshipped4  ,footnote #be3 ,s4
 and ,h41 p4 #gj4  ,footnote #bf3       
,m4,e41 pp4 #ahg1 #ahh2 ,s4 and ,h41 pp4
 #aa1 #ab4  ,footnote #bg3 ,san ,kai ,ri
 7,mountain1 ,sea1 and ,land74 ,this    
work1 recommended to me by a learned    
,buddhist priest in ,fukui1 ,i had      
translated and read to me by a ,buddhist
 of the ,shin ,shu sect4 ,in like       
manner1 even ,christian writers in      

,japan have occasionally endeavored to  
rationalize the legends of ,shint1 see  
,kojiki1 p4 liii41 where ,mr4 ,t4       
,goro's ,shint ,shin-ron is referred to4
 ,i have to thank my friend ,mr4 ,c4    
,watanab1 of ,cornell ,university1 for  
reading to me ,mr4 ,takahashi's         
interesting but unconvincing monographs 
on ,shint and ,buddhism4  ,footnote #bh3
 ,t4,j41 p4 #djb2 ,some ,chinese        
,ghosts1 by ,lafcadio ,hearn1 p4 #abi4  
,footnote #bi3 ,s4 and ,h41 ,japan1 p4  
#cig2 ,classical ,poetry of the         
,japanese1 p4 #bja1 note4  ,footnote    
#cj3 ,the ,japanese word ,ry means both1
 and is applied to the eyes1 ears1 feet1
 things correspondent or in pairs1 etc42
 bu is a term for a set1 kind1 group1   
etc4  ,footnote #ca3 ,rein1 p4 #dcb2    
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 pp4         
#bda-bgj2 ,t4,j41 p4 #cci4  ,footnote   
#cb3 ,the ,chrysanthemum1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 
#dja4  ,footnote #cc3 ,even the ,taktori
 ,monogatari 7,the ,bamboo ,cutter's    
,daughter71 the oldest and the best of  

the ,japanese classic romances is 7at   
least in the text and form now extant7 a
 warp of native ideas with a woof of    
,buddhist notions4  ,footnote #cd3 ,mr4 
,percival ,lowell argues1 in ,esoteric  
,shint1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 that
 besides the habit of pilgrimages1      
fire-walking1 and god-possession1 other 
practices supposed to be ,buddhistic are
 of ,shint origin4  ,footnote #ce3 ,the 
native literature illustrating ,riybuism
 is not extensive4 ,mr4 ,ernest ,satow  
in the ,american ,cyclopdia 7,japan3    
,literature7 mentions several volumes4  
,the ,tenchi ,riki ,noko1 in eighteen   
books contains a mixture of ,buddhism   
and ,shint1 and is ascribed by some to  
,shtoku and by others to ,kb1 but now   
literary critics ascribe these1 as well 
as the books ,jimbetsuki and ,tenshoki1 
to be modern forgeries by ,buddhist     
priests4 ,the ,kogoshiui1 written in    
,a4,d4 #hjg1 professes to preserve      
fragments of ancient tradition not      
recorded in the earlier books1 but the  

main object is that which lies at the   
basis of a vast mass of ,japanese       
literature1 namely1 to prove the        
author's own descent from the gods4 ,the
 ,yuiitsu ,shint ,miyoho ,yoshiu1 in two
 volumes1 is designed to prove that     
,shint and ,buddhism are identical in   
their essence4 ,indeed1 almost all the  
treatises on ,shint before the          
seventeenth century maintained this     
view4 ,certain books like the ,shint    
,shu1 for centuries popular1 and well   
received even by scholars1 are now      
condemned on account of their confusion 
of the two religions4 ,one of the most  
interesting works which we have found is
 the ,san ,kai ,ri1 to which reference  
has been made4  ,footnote #cf3 ,t4,j41  
p4 #bbd4  ,footnote #cg3 ,human life is 
but fifty years1 ,japanese ,proverb2    
,m4,e41 p4 #ajg4  ,footnote #ch3        
,chamberlain's ,classical ,poetry of the
 ,japanese1 p4 #acj4  ,footnote #ci3 ,s4
 and ,h41 p4 #daf4  ,footnote #dj3      
,things ,chinese1 by ,j4 ,dyer ,ball1 p4

 #gj2 see also ,edkins and ,eitel4      
,footnote #da3 ,the ,japan ,weekly ,mail
 of ,april #bh1 #ahic1 translating and  
condensing an article from the ,bukky1 a
 ,buddhist newspaper1 gives the results 
of a ,japanese ,buddhist student's tour 
through ,china--,taoism prevails        
everywhere4444 ,buddhism has decayed and
 is almost dead4  ,footnote #db3        
,vaisramana is a ,deva who guarded1     
praised1 fed with heavenly food1 and    
answered the questions of the ,chinese  
,d-sen 7#fjh-ijg ,a4,d47 who founded the
 ,risshu or ,vinaya sect4--,b4,n41 p4   
#be4  ,footnote #dc3 ,anderson1         
,catalogue1 pp4 #bi-de4  ,footnote #dd3 
,some of those are pictured in ,aim     
,humbert's ,japon ,illustr1 and from the
 same pictures reproduced by            
electro-plates which1 from ,paris1 have 
transmigrated for a whole generation    
through the cheaper books on ,japan1 in 
every ,european language4   ,,chapter   
,,viii  ,,northern ,,buddhism ,,is ,,its
 ,,doctrinal ,,evolutions   ,footnote   

#a3 ,on the ,buddhist canon1 see the    
writings of ,beal1 ,spence ,hardy1 ,t4  
,rhys ,davids1 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 etc4    
,footnote #b3 ,edkins's ,chinese        
,buddhism1 pp4 #dc1 #ajh1 #bad2         
,classical ,poetry of the ,japanese1 p4 
#agc4  ,footnote #c3 ,see ,t4,a4,s4,j41 
,vol4 ,,xix41 ,part ,i41 pp4 #ag-cg2    
,the ,soul of the ,far ,east2 and the   
writings of ,chamberlain1 ,aston1       
,dickins1 ,munzinger1 etc4  ,footnote   
#d3 ,much of the information as to      
history and doctrine contained in this  
chapter has been condensed from ,mr4    
,bunyiu ,nanjio's ,a ,short ,history of 
the ,twelve ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects1 
translated out of the ,japanese into    
,english4 ,this author1 besides visiting
 the old seats of the faith in ,china1  
studied ,sanskrit at ,oxford with       
,professor ,max ,mller1 and catalogued  
in ,english the ,tripitaka or ,buddhist 
canon of ,china and ,japan1 sent to     
,england by the ambassador ,iwakura4    
,the nine reverend gentlemen who wrote  

the chapters and introduction of the    
,short ,history are ,messrs4 ,k-ch      
,ogurusu1 and ,shu-,zan ,emura of the   
,shin sect2 ,rev4 ,messrs4 ,sh-hen ,uda1
 and ,dai-ryo ,takashi1 of the ,shin-gon
 ,sect2 ,rev4 ,messrs4 ,gy-kai ,fukuda1 
,keu-k ,tsuji1 ,renj ,akamatsu1 and     
,z-jun ,kobayashi of the ,j-d1 ,zen1    
,shin1 and ,nichiren sects1             
respectively4 ,though execrably printed1
 and the ,english only tolerable1 the   
work is invaluable to the student of    
,japanese ,buddhism4 ,it has a          
historical introduction and a           
,sanskrit-,chinese ,index1 #a vol41 pp4 
#agb1 ,tki1 #ahhg4 ,substantially the   
same work1 translated into ,french1 is  
,le ,bouddhisme ,japonais1 by ,ryauon   
,fujishima1 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,satow and   
,hawes's ,hand-book for ,japan has brief
 but valuable notes in the              
,introduction1 and1 like ,chamberlain's 
continuation of the same work1 is a     
storehouse of illustrative matter4      
,edkine's and ,eitel's works on ,chinese

 ,buddhism have been very helpful4      
,footnote #e3 ,m4 ,abel ,remusat        
published a translation of a ,chinese   
,pilgrim's travels in #ahcf2 ,m4        
,stanislais ,julien completed his volume
 on ,hiouen ,thsang in #aheh2 and in    
#ahhd ,rev4 ,samuel ,beal issued his    
,travels of ,fah-,hian and ,sung-,yun1  
,buddhist ,pilgrims from ,china to      
,india 7#djj ,a4,d4 and #eah ,a4,d474   
,the latter work contains a map4        
,footnote #f3 ,b4,n41 p4 #c4  ,footnote 
#g3 ,b4,n41 p4 #aa4  ,footnote #h3      
,three hundred and twenty million years4
 ,see ,century ,dictionary4  ,footnote  
#i3 ,see the paper of ,rev4 ,sh-hen ,uda
 of the ,shingon sect1 in ,b4,n41 pp4   
#bj-ca2 and ,r4 ,fujishima's ,le        
,bouddhisme ,japonais1 pp4 xvi41 xvii41 
from which most of the information here 
given has been derived4  ,footnote #aj3 
,m4,e41 p4 #chc2 ,s4 and ,h41 pp4 #bc1  
#cj4 ,the image of ,binzuru is found in 
many ,japanese temples to-day1 a famous 
one being at ,asakusa1 in ,tki4 ,he is  

the supposed healer of all diseases4    
,the image becomes entirely rubbed      
smooth by devotees1 to the              
extinguishment of all features1 lines1  
and outlines4  ,footnote #aa3 ,davids's 
,buddhism1 pp4 #ahj1 #bjj2 ,s4 and ,h41 
pp4 7#hg7 #chi1 #daf4  ,footnote #ab3   
,b4,n41 pp4 #cb-dc4  ,footnote #ac3     
,b4,n41 pp4 #dd-ef4  ,footnote #ad3     
,japanese ,fairy ,world1 p4 #bhb2       
,anderson's ,catalogue1 pp4 l#jc-g4     
,footnote #ae3 ,b4,n41 p4 #fb4          
,footnote #af3 ,pfoundes1 ,fuso ,mimi   
,bukuro1 p4 #ajb4  ,footnote #ag3       
,b4,n41 p4 #eh4 ,see also ,the ,monist  
for ,january1 #ahid1 p4 #afh4  ,footnote
 #ah3 ,tien ,tai1 a spot abounding in   
,buddhist antiquities1 the earliest1 and
 except ,puto the largest and richest   
seat of that religion in eastern ,china4
 ,as a monastic establishment it dates  
from the fourth century4--,edkins's     
,chinese ,buddhism1 pp4 #acg-adb4       
,footnote #ai3 ,s4 and ,h41 p4 #hg4 ,see
 the paper read at the ,parliament of   

,religions by the ,zen bonze ,ashitsu of
 ,hiyisan1 the poem of ,right ,reverend 
,shaku ,soyen1 and the paper on ,the    
,fundamental ,teachings of ,buddhism1 in
 ,the ,monist for ,january1 #ahid2      
,japan ,as ,we ,saw ,it1 p4 #big4       
,footnote #bj3 ,see ,century            
,dictionary1 mantra4  ,footnote #ba3    
,see ,chapter ,,xx4 ,ideas and ,symbols 
in ,japan3 in ,history1 ,folk-lore1 and 
,art4 ,buddhist tombs 7go-rin7 consist  
of a cube 7earth71 sphere 7water71      
pyramid 7fire71 crescent 7wind71 and    
flame-shaped stone 7ether71 forming the 
go-rin or five-blossom tomb1 typifying  
the five elements4  ,footnote #bb3      
,b4,n41 p4 #gh4  ,footnote #bc3 ,to put 
this dogma into intelligible ,english   
is1 as ,mr4 ,satow says1 more difficult 
than to comprehend the whole doctrine1  
hard as that may be4 ,dai ,nichi        
,ni-yorai 7,vairokana7 is explained to  
be the collectivity of all sentient     
beings1 acting through the mediums of   
,kwan-non1 ,ji-z1 ,mon-ju1 ,shaka1 and  

other influences which are popularly    
believed to be self-existent deities4   
,in the diagram called the eight-leaf   
enclosure1 by which the mysteries of    
,shingon are explained1 ,maha-,vairokana
 is in the centre1 and on the eight     
petals are such names as ,amitabha1     
,manjusri1 ,maitreya1 and               
,avalokitesvara2 in a word1 all are     
purely speculative beings1 phantoms of  
the brain1 the mushrooms of decayed     
,brahmanism1 and the mould of primitive 
,buddhism disintegrated by              
scholasticism4  ,footnote #bd3 ,s4 and  
,h41 p4 #ca4  ,footnote #be3 ,b4,n41 p4 
#aae4  ,footnote #bf3 ,here let me add  
that in my studies of oriental and      
ancient religion1 ,i have never found   
one real ,trinity1 though triads1 or    
tri-murti1 are common4 ,none of these   
when carefully analyzed yield the       
,christian idea of the ,trinity4        
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the ,,buddhism ,,of   
,,the ,,japanese   ,footnote #a3        
,tathagata is one of the titles of the  

,buddha1 meaning thus come1 i4e41 ,he   
comes bringing human nature as it truly 
is1 with perfect knowledge and high     
intelligence1 and thus manifests        
himself4 ,amitabha is the ,sanskrit of  
,amida1 or the deification of boundless 
light4  ,footnote #b3 ,b4,n41 p4 #ajd4  
,footnote #c3 ,literally1 ,i yield to1  
or ,i adore the ,boundless or the       
,immeasurable ,buddha4  ,footnote #d3 ,a
 ,chinese or ,japanese volume is much   
smaller than the average printed volume 
in ,europe4  ,footnote #e3 ,legacy of   
,iyyas1 ,section xxviii4 ,doctrinally1  
this famous document1 written probably  
long after ,iyyas's death and           
canonization as a gongen1 is a mixture  
or ,riybu of ,confucianism and          
,buddhism4  ,footnote #f3 ,at first     
glance a forcible illustration1 since   
the ,japanese proverb declares that ,a  
sea-voyage is an inch of hell4 ,and yet 
the original saying of ,ry-ju1 now      
proverbial in ,buddhadom1 referred to   
the ease of sailing over the water1     

compared with the difficulty of         
surmounting the obstacles of land travel
 in countries not yet famous for good   
roads4 ,see ,b4,n41 p4 #aaa4  ,footnote 
#g3 ,fuso ,mimi ,bukuro1 p4 #ajh2       
,descriptive ,notes on the ,rosaries as 
used by the different ,sects of         
,buddhists in ,japan1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41     
,vol4 ,,ix41 pp4 #agc-ahb4  ,footnote   
#h3 ,b4,n41 p4 #abb4  ,footnote #i3 ,s4 
and ,h41 p4 #cfa4  ,footnote #aj3 ,s4   
and ,h41 pp4 #ij-ib2 ,unbeaten ,tracks  
in ,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #bdb-bec4   
,footnote #aa3 ,these three sutras are  
those most in favor with the ,j-d sect  
also1 they are described1 ,b4,n41       
#ajd-ajf1 and their tenets are referred 
to on pp4 #bfj1 #bfa4  ,footnote #ab3   
,for modern statements of ,shin tenets  
and practices1 see ,e4,j4 ,reed's       
,japan1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #hd-hf2 ,the     
,chrysanthemum1 ,april1 #ahha1 pp4      
#aji-aae2 ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1  
,vol4 ,,ii41 #bdb-bdf2 ,b4,n41 #abb-aca4
 ,edkins's ,religion in ,china1 p4 #aec4

 ,the ,chrysanthemum1 ,april1 #ahha1 p4 
#aae4  ,footnote #ac3 ,s4 and ,h41 p4   
#cfa2 ,b4,n41 pp4 #aje1 #ajf4 ,toward   
the end of the ,amitayus-dhyana sutra1  
,buddha says3 ,let not one's voice      
cease1 but ten times complete the       
thought1 and repeat ,namo'mitbhya       
,buddhya 7,namu ,amida ,butsu7 or       
adoration to ,amitbha ,buddha4          
,footnote #ad3 ,m4,e41 pp4 #afd-aff4    
,footnote #ae3 ,schaff's ,encyclopaedia1
 ,article1 ,buddhism4  ,footnote #af3   
,on the ,tenets of the ,shin ,shiu1 or  
,true ,sect of ,buddhists1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41
 ,vol4 ,,xiv41 p4 #a4  ,footnote #ag3   
,the ,gobunsho1 or ,ofumi1 of ,renny    
,shnin1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvii41 pp4
 #aja-adc4  ,footnote #ah3 ,at the      
gorgeous services in honor of the       
founder of the great ,higashi ,hongwanji
 ,western ,temple of the ,original ,vow 
at ,asakusa1 ,tki1 ,november #ba to #bh1
 annually1 the women attend wearing a   
head-dress called horn-hider1 which     
seems to have been named in allusion to 

a ,buddhist text which says3 ,a woman's 
exterior is that of a saint1 but her    
heart is that of a                      
demon4--,chamberlain's ,hand-book for   
,japan1 p4 #hb2 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4     
,,xvii41 pp4 #ajf1 #ada2 ,sacred ,books 
of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 pp4         
#bea-bed4  ,footnote #ai3 ,review of    
,buddhist ,texts from ,japan1 ,the      
,nation1 ,no4 #hge1 ,april #f1 #ahhb4   
,the ,mahyna or ,great ,vehicle 7we     
might fairly render it 'highfalutin'7   
school4444 ,filled as these countries   
7,tibet1 ,china1 ,japan7 are with       
,buddhist monasteries1 and priests1 and 
nominal adherents1 and abounding in     
voluminous translations of the ,sanskrit
 ,buddhistic literature1 little         
understood and wellnigh unintelligible  
7for neither country has had the        
independence and mental force to produce
 a literature of its own1 or to add     
anything but a chapter of decay to the  
history of this religion74444  ,footnote
 #bj3 ,m4,e41 pp4 #afd1 #afe2 ,b4,n41   

pp4 #acb-adg2 ,mitford's ,tales of ,old 
,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #abe-acd4      
,,chapter ,x  ,,japanese ,,buddhism ,,in
 ,,its ,,missionary ,,development       
,footnote #a3 ,t4,j41 p4 #ga4 ,further  
illustrations of this statement may be  
found in his ,classical ,poetry of the  
,japanese1 especially in the ,selection 
and ,appendices of this book2 also in   
,t4,r4,h4 ,mc,clatchie's ,japanese      
,plays 7,versified71 ,london1 #ahij4    
,footnote #b3 ,see ,introduction to the 
,kojiki1 pp4 xxxii4-xxxiv41 and in      
,bakin's novel illustrating popular     
,buddhist beliefs1 translated by ,edward
 ,greey1 ,a ,captive of ,love1 ,boston1 
#ahhf4  ,footnote #c3 ,see jade in      
,century ,dictionary2 ,magatama1 so far 
as ,i am aware1 do not ever appear to   
have been found in shell heaps 7of the  
aboriginal ,ainos71 ,milne's ,notes on  
,stone ,implements1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 
,,viii41 p4 #ga4  ,footnote #d3         
,concerning this legendary1 and possibly
 mythical1 episode1 which has so        

powerfully influenced ,japanese         
imagination and politics1 see           
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,part ,i41  
pp4 #ci-ge2 ,m4,e41 pp4 #ge-he4         
,footnote #e3 ,see ,corea1 the ,hermit  
,nation1 pp4 #a1 #b2 ,persian ,elements 
in ,japanese ,legends1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41    
,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,part ,i1 pp4 #a-aj2      
,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic         
,society1 ,january1 #ahid4 ,rein's book1
 ,the ,industries of ,japan1 points out1
 as far as known1 the material debt to  
,india4 ,some ,japanese words like      
beni-gari 7,bengal7 or rouge show at    
once their origin4 ,the mosaic of       
stories in the ,taktori ,monogatari1 an 
allegory in exquisite literary form1    
illustrating the ,buddhist dogma of     
,ingwa1 or law of cause and effect1 and 
written early in the ninth century1 is  
made up of ,chinese-,indian elements4   
,see ,f4,v4 ,dickins's translation and  
notes in ,journal of the ,royal         
,oriental ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xix41 ,n4,s4
 ,india was the far off land of gems1   

wonders1 infallible drugs1 roots1 etc42 
,japanese ,fairy ,world1 p4 #acg4       
,footnote #f3 ,m4,e41 ,chap4 ,,viii42   
,klaproth's ,annales des ,empereurs du  
,japon 7a translation of ,nippon #j ,dai
 ,ichi ,ran72 ,rein's ,japan1 p4 #bbd4  
,footnote #g3 ,see ,klaproth's ,annales1
 passim4 ,s4 and ,h4 p4 #he4 ,bridges   
are often symbolical of events1 classic 
passages in the shastras and sutras1 or 
are antetypes of ,paradisaical          
structures4 ,the ordinary native hashi  
is not remarkable as a triumph of the   
carpenter's art1 though some of the     
,japanese books mention and describe in 
detail some structures that are believed
 to be astonishing4  ,footnote #h3      
,often amusingly illustrated1 ,m4,e41 p4
 #cij4 ,a translation into ,japanese of 
,goethe's ,reynard the ,fox is among the
 popular works of the day4 ,strange to  
say1 however1 the ,japanese lose much of
 the exquisite humor of this satire in  
their sympathy with the woes of the     
maltreated wolf4--,the ,japan ,mail4    

,this sympathy with animals grows       
directly out of the doctrine of         
metempsychosis4 ,the relationship       
between man and ape is founded upon the 
pantheistic identity of being4 ,we      
mention sin1 says a missionary now in   
,japan1 and he the average auditor      
thinks of eating flesh1 or the killing  
of insects4 ,many of the sutras read    
like tracts and diatribes of            
vegetarians4  ,footnote #i3 ,see ,the   
,art of ,landscape ,gardening in ,japan1
 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xiv42 ,theory of 
,japanese ,flower ,arrangements1 by ,j4 
,conder1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvii42   
,t4,j41 p4 #afh2 ,m4,e41 p4 #dcg2       
,t4,j41 p4 #afc4  ,footnote #aj3 ,the   
book1 by excellence1 on the ,japanese   
house1 is ,japanese ,homes and ,their   
,surroundings1 by ,e4,s4 ,morse4 ,see   
also ,constructive ,art in ,japan1      
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eg1      
,,iii41 p4 #bj2 ,feudal ,mansions of    
,yedo1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #aeg4  ,footnote
 #aa3 ,see ,hearn's ,glimpses of        

,unfamiliar ,japan1 pp4 #che1 #daj1 and 
passim4  ,footnote #ab3 ,for pathetic   
pictures of ,japanese daily life1 see   
,our ,neighborhood1 by the late ,dr4    
,t4,a4 ,purcell1 ,yokohama1 #ahgd2 ,a   
,japanese ,boy1 by ,himself 7,s4        
,shigmi71 ,new ,haven1 #ahhi2 ,lafcadio 
,hearn's ,glimpses of ,unfamiliar       
,japan1 ,boston1 #ahid4  ,footnote #ac3 
,klaproth's ,annales1 and ,s4 and ,h4   
passim4  ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,pfoundes's
 ,fuso ,mimi ,bukuro1 p4 #acj1 for a    
list of grades from ,ho- or cloistered  
emperor1 ,miya or sons of emperors1     
chief priests of sects1 etc41 down to   
priests in charge of inferior temples4  
,this ,budget of ,notes1 pp4 #ii-add1   
contains much valuable information1 and 
was one of the first publications in    
,english which shed light upon the      
peculiarities of ,japanese ,buddhism4   
,footnote #ae3 ,isaiah xl4 #ai1 #bj1 and
 xli4 #f1 #g1 read to the dweller in    
,japan like the notes of a reporter     
taken yesterday4  ,footnote #af3 ,t4,j41

 p4 #cci2 ,notes on ,some ,minor        
,japanese ,religious ,practices1        
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 ,may1 #ahic2 ,lowell's      
,esoteric ,shint1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4   
,,xxi42 ,satow's ,the ,shint ,temples of
 ,is1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4     
#aac4  ,footnote #ag3 ,m4,e41 p4 #de2   
,american ,cyclopaedia1 ,japan1         
,literature--,history1 ,travels1        
,diaries1 etc4  ,footnote #ah3 ,that is1
 no dialects like those which separate  
the people of ,china4 ,the ordinary     
folks of ,satsuma and ,suruga1 for      
example1 however1 would find it         
difficult to understand each other if   
only the local speech were used4 ,men   
from the extremes of the ,empire use the
 ,tki standard language in communicating
 with each other4  ,footnote #ai3 ,for  
some names of ,buddhist temples in      
,shimoda see ,perry's ,narrative1 pp4   
#dgj-dgd1 described by ,dr4 ,s4 ,wells  
,williams2 ,s4 and ,h4 passim4          
,footnote #bj3 ,the ,abb ,huc in his    

,travels in ,tartary was one of the     
first to note this fact4 ,i have not    
noticed in my reading that the ,jesuit  
missionaries in ,japan in the           
seventeenth century call attention to   
the matter4 ,see also the writings of   
,arthur ,lillie1 voluminous but         
unconvincing1 ,buddha and ,early        
,buddhism1 and ,buddhism and            
,christianity1 ,london1 #ahic4          
,footnote #ba3 ,m4,e41 p4 #beb4         
,footnote #bb3 ,t4,j41 p4 #gj4          
,footnote #bc3 ,see ,the ,higher        
,buddhism in the ,light of the ,nicene  
,creed1 ,tki1 #ahid1 by ,rev4 ,a4       
,lloyd4  ,footnote #bd3 ,i preach with  
ever the same voice1 taking             
enlightenment as my text4 ,for this is  
equal for all2 no partiality is in it1  
neither hatred nor affection4444 ,i am  
inexorable1 bear no love or hatred      
towards anyone1 and proclaim the law to 
all creatures without distinction1 to   
the one as well as to the               
other4--,saddharma ,pundarika4          

,footnote #be3 ,unbeaten ,tracks in     
,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bdg4  ,footnote
 #bf3 ,for the symbolism of the lotus   
see ,m4,e41 p4 #dcg2 ,unbeaten ,tracks  
in ,japan1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bii2 ,m4,e4   
index2 and ,saddharma ,pundarika1       
,kern's translation1 p4 #gf1 note3      
,here the ,buddha is represented as a   
wise and benevolent father2 he is the   
heavenly father1 ,brahma4 ,as such ho   
was represented as sitting on a         
'lotus-seat4' ,how common this          
representation was in ,india1 at least  
in the sixth century of our era1 appears
 from ,varhamihira's ,brihat-,sainhita1 
,ch4 #eh1 #dd1 where the following rule 
is laid down for the ,buddha idols3     
',buddha shall be 7represented7 sitting 
on a lotus-seat1 like the father of the 
world4'  ,footnote #bg3 ,see ,the       
,northern ,buddhist ,mythology in       
,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic         
,society1 ,january1 #ahid4  ,footnote   
#bh3 ,see ,the ,pictorial ,arts of      
,japan1 and ,descriptive and ,historical

 ,catalogue1 ,william ,anderson1 pp4    
#ac-id4  ,footnote #bi3 ,see fylfot in  
,century ,dictionary4  ,footnote #cj3   
,the word vagra1 diamond1 is a          
constituent in scores of names of       
sutras1 especially those whose contents 
are metaphysical in their nature4 ,the  
,vajrasan1 ,diamond ,throne or          
,thunderbolt seat1 was the name applied 
to the most sacred part of the great    
temple reared by ,asoka on the site of  
the bodhi tree1 under which ,gautama    
received enlightenment4 ,the adamantine 
truths of ,buddha struck like a         
thunderbolt upon the superstitious of   
his age4 ,the word vagra has the two    
senses of hardness and utility4 ,in the 
former sense it is understood to be     
compared to the secret truth which is   
always in existence and not to be       
broken4 ,in the latter sense it implies 
the power of the enlightened1 that      
destroys the obstacles of               
passions4--,b4,n41 p4 #hh4 ,as held in  
the arms of ,kwannon and other images in

 the temples1 the vagra or diamond club 
7is that7 with which the foes of the    
,buddhist ,church are to be             
crushed4--,s4 and ,h41 p4 #ddd4 ,each of
 the gateway gods ,ni- 7two ,kings1     
,indra and ,brahma7 bears in his hand   
the tokko 7,sanskrit vagra71 an ornament
 originally designed to represent a     
diamond club1 and now used by priests   
and exorcists1 as a religious sceptre   
symbolizing the irresistible power of   
prayer1 meditation1 and                 
incantation4--,chamberlain's ,hand-book 
for ,japan1 p4 #ca4  ,footnote #ca3 ,jiz
 is the compassionate helper of all in  
trouble1 especially of travellers1 of   
mothers1 and of children4 ,his ,sanskrit
 name is ,kshiugarbha4 ,his idol is one 
of the most common in ,japan4 ,it is    
usually neck-laced with baby's bibs1    
often by the score1 while the pedestal  
is heaped with small stones placed there
 by sorrowing mothers4--,s4 and ,h41 p4 
#bi1 #cid2 ,chamberlain's ,handbook of  
,japan1 #bi1 #aja4 ,hearn's ,japan1 p4  

#cd1 and passim4  ,footnote #cb3        
,sanskrit arhat or arhan1 meaning worthy
 or deserving1 i4e41 holy man1 the      
highest rank of ,buddhist saintship4    
,see ,century ,dictionary4  ,footnote   
#cc3 ,m4,e41 p4 #bja4 ,the long         
inscription on the bell in ,wellesley   
,college1 which summons the             
student-maidens to their hourly tasks   
has been translated by the author and   
,dr4 ,k4 ,kurahara and is as follows3   
#a4 ,a prose preface or historical      
statement4  #b4 ,two stanzas of ,chinese
 poetry1 in four-syllable lines1 of four
 verses each1 with an apostrophe in two 
four-syllable lines4  #c4 ,the          
chronology4  #d4 ,the names of the      
composer and calligraphist1 and of the  
bronze-founder4  ,the characters in     
vertical lines are read from top to     
bottom1 the order of the columns being  
from right to left4 ,there are in all   
#aag characters4  ,the first tablet     
reads3  ,lotus-,lily ,temple 7of7       
,law-,grove ,mountain2 ,bell-inscription

 7and7 ,preface4  ,although there had   
been of old a bell hung in the ,temple  
of the ,lotus-,lily1 yet being of small 
dimensions its note was quickly         
exhausted1 and no volume of melody      
followed 7after having been struck74    
,whereupon1 for the purpose of improving
 upon this state of affairs1 we made a  
subscription1 and collected coin to     
obtain a new bell4 ,all believers in the
 doctrine1 gods as well as devils1      
contributed freely4 ,thus the enterprise
 was soon consummated1 and this         
inscription prepared1 to wit3  ',the    
most exalted ,buddha having pitiful     
compassion upon the people1 would1 by   
means of this bell1 instead of words1   
awaken them from earthly illusions1 and 
reveal the darkness of this world4      
',many of the living hearkening to its  
voice1 and making confession1 are freed 
from the bondage of their sins1 and     
forever released from their disquieting 
desires4  ',how great is 7,buddha's7    
merit6 ,who can utter it8 ,without      

measure1 boundless6'  ,eleventh year of 
the ,era of the ,foundation of          
,literature 7and of the male element7   
,wood 7and of the zodiac sign7 ,dog2    
,autumn1 seventh month1 fifteenth day   
7,a4,d4 ,august #cj1ahad74  ,composition
 and penmanship by ,kamda ,koy-sen4     
,cast by the artist ,sugiwara ,kuninobu4
  7,the poem in unrhymed metre47        
,buddha in compassion tender   ,with    
this bell1 instead of words1   ,wakens  
souls from life's illusions1   ,lightens
 this world's darkness drear4    ,many  
souls its sweet tones heeding1   ,from  
their chains of sin are freed2   ,all   
the mind's unrest is soothed1   ,sinful 
yearnings are repressed4    ,oh how     
potent is his merit1   ,without bounds  
in all the worlds6   ,footnote #cd3     
,fuso ,mimi ,bukuro1 p4 #abi4  ,footnote
 #ce3 ,m4,e41 pp4 #bhg-bij1 #eac-ead2   
,perry's ,narrative1 pp4 #dga1 #dgb2    
,our ,neighborhood1 pp4 #aai-abd4 ,the  
following epitaphs are gathered from    
various sources3  ,this stone marks the 

remains of the believer who never grows 
old4  ,the believing woman ,yu-ning1    
,happy was the day of her departure4    
,multitudes fill the graves4  ,only by  
this vehicle--the coffin--can we enter  
,hades4  ,as the floating grass is blown
 by the gentle breeze1 or the glancing  
ripples of autumn disappear when the sun
 goes down1 or as a ship returns to her 
old shore--so is life4 ,it is a vapor1 a
 morning-tide4  ,buddha himself wishes  
to hear the name of the deceased that he
 may enter life4  ,he who has left      
humanity is now perfected by ,buddha's  
name1 as the withered moss by the dew4  
,life is like a candle in the wind4     
,the wise make our halls illustrious1   
and their monuments endure for ages4    
,what permanency is there to the glory  
of the world8 ,it goes from the sight   
like hoar-frost in the sun4  ,if men    
wish to enter the joys of heavenly      
light1 ,let them smell the fragrance of 
the law of ,buddha4  ,whoever wishes to 
have his merit reach even to the abode  

of demons1 let him1 with us1 and all    
living1 become perfect in the doctrine4 
,footnote #cf3 ,rev4 ,c4,b4 ,hawarth in 
the ,new ,york ,independent1 ,january   
#ah1 #ahid4  ,footnote #cg3 ,in #gha the
 ,buddhist monk ,ki-shun dedicated a    
chapel to ,jizo1 on whom he conferred   
the epithet of ,sho-gun or general1 to  
suit the warlike tastes of the ,japanese
 people4--,s4 and ,h41 p4 #chd4 ,so also
 ,hachiman became the god of war because
 adopted as the patron deity of the     
,genji warriors4--,s4 and ,h41 p4 #gj4  
,footnote #ch3 ,corea1 the ,hermit      
,nation1 p4 #ij4  ,footnote #ci3        
,dixon's ,japan1 p4 #da2 ,s4 and ,h41   
,japan1 passim2 ,rein's ,japan2 ,story  
of the ,nations1 ,japan1 by ,david      
,murray1 p4 #bja1 note2 ,dening's life  
of ,toyotomi ,hidyoshi2 ,m4,e41         
,chapters ,,xv41 ,,xvi41 ,,xx41         
,,xxiii41 ,,xxiv42 ,gazetteer of        
,echizen2 ,shiga's ,history of ,nations1
 ,tki1 #ahhh1 pp4 #aae1 #aah2           
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,viii41 pp4 #id1   

#acd1 #adc4  ,footnote #dj3             
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,viii41 ,hidyoshi  
and the ,satsuma ,clan in the ,sixteenth
 ,century1 by ,j4,h4 ,gubbins2 ,the     
,times of ,taik1 by ,r4 ,brinkley1 in   
,the ,japan ,times4  ,footnote #da3 ,the
 ,copy of the ,buddhist ,tripitaka1 or  
,northern ,collection1 made by order of 
the ,emperor1 ,wan-,li1 in the sixteenth
 century1 when the ,chinese capital     
7,king7 was changed from the ,south     
7,nan7 to the ,north 7,pe71 was         
reproduced in ,japan in #afgi and again 
in #afha-hc1 and in over two thousand   
volumes1 making a pile a hundred feet   
high1 was presented by the ,japanese    
,government1 through the ,junior ,prime 
,minister1 ,mr4 ,tomomi ,iwakura1 to the
 ,library of the ,india ,office4 ,see   
,samuel ,beal's ,the ,buddhist          
,tripitaka1 as it is known in ,china and
 ,japan1 ,a ,catalogue and ,compendious 
,report1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,the library   
has been rearranged by ,mr4 ,bunyin     
,nanjio1 who has published the result of

 his labors1 with ,sanskrit equivalents 
of the titles and with notes of the     
highest value4  ,footnote #db3 ,neither 
country 7,china or ,japan7 has had the  
independence and mental force to produce
 a literature of its own1 and to add    
anything but a chapter of decay to the  
history of this religion4--,professor   
,william ,d4 ,whitney1 in review of     
,anecdota ,oxoniensia1 ,buddhist ,texts 
from ,japan1 in ,the ,nation1 ,no4 #hge4
  ,footnote #dc3 ,education in ,japan1  
,a series of papers by the writer1      
printed in ,the ,japan ,mail of         
#ahgc-gd1 and reprinted in the          
educational journals of the ,united     
,status4 ,a digest of these papers is   
given in the appendix of ,f4,o4 ,adams's
 ,history of ,japan2 ,life of ,sir      
,harry ,parkes1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #cje1  
#cjf4  ,footnote #dd3 ,japan3 in        
,literature1 ,folk-,lore1 and ,art1 p4  
#gg4  ,footnote #de3 ,japanese          
,education at the ,philadelphia         
,exposition1 ,new ,york1 #ahgf4         

,footnote #df3 ,see ,japanese           
,literature1 by ,e4,m4 ,satow1 in ,the  
,american ,cyclopdia4  ,footnote #dg3   
,the word bonze 7,japanese bon-so or    
bozu1 ,chinese fan-sung7 means an       
ordinary member of the congregation1    
just as the ,japanese term bon-yo or    
bon-zuko means common people or the     
ordinary folks4 ,the word came into     
,european use from the ,portuguese      
missionaries1 who heard the ,japanese   
thus pronounce the ,chinese term fan1   
which1 as bon1 is applied to anything in
 the mass not out of the common4        
,footnote #dh3 ,see ,on the ,early      
,history of ,printing in ,japan1 by     
,e4,m4 ,satow1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,x41 
,part ,l1 p4 #dh2 ,part ,,ii41 p4 #beb4 
,footnote #di3 ,japanese mediaeval      
monastery life has been ably pictured in
 ,english fiction by a scholar of       
imagination and literary power1 withal a
 military critic and a veteran in       
,japanese lore4 ,the ,times of ,taik1 in
 the defunct ,japanese ,times 7#ahgh71  

deserves reprint as a book1 being       
founded on ,japanese historical and     
descriptive works4 ,in ,mr4 ,edward's   
,greey's ,a ,captive of ,love1 ,boston1 
#ahhj1 the idea of ingwa 7the effects in
 this life of the actions in a former   
state of existence71 is illustrated4    
,see also ,s4 and ,h41 p4 #bi2 ,t4,j41  
p4 #cfj4  ,footnote #ej3 ,it is curious 
that while the anti-,christian polemics 
of the ,japanese ,buddhists have used   
the words of ,jesus1 ,i came to send not
 peace but a sword1 ,matt1 x4 #cd1 and  
,if any man 444 hate not his father and 
mother1 etc41 ,luke xiv4 #bf1 as a      
branding iron with which to stamp the   
religion of ,jesus as gross immorality  
and dangerous to the state1 they justify
 ,gautama in his renunciation of marital
 and paternal duties4  ,footnote #ea3   
,see ,public ,charity in ,japan1 ,japan 
,mail1 #ahic2 and ,the ,annual          
7,appleton's7 ,cyclopaedia for #ahic4   
,footnote #eb3 ,i have some good reasons
 for making this suggestion4 ,yokoi     

,hishiro had dwelt for some time in     
,fukui1 a few rods away from the house  
in which ,i lived1 and the ideas he     
promulgated among the ,echizen clansmen 
in his lectures on ,confucianism1 were  
not only ,christian in spirit but1 by   
their own statement1 these ideas could  
not be found in the texts of the        
,chinese sage or of his commentators4   
,although the volume 7edited by his son1
 ,rev4 ,j4,f4 ,yokoi7 of his ,life and  
,letters shows him to have been an      
intense and at times almost bigoted     
,confucianist1 he1 in one of his later  
letters1 prophesied that when           
,christianity should be taught by the   
missionaries1 it would win the hearts of
 the young men of ,japan4 ,see also     
,satow's ,kins ,shiriaku1 p4 #ahc2      
,adams's ,history of ,japan2 and in     
fiction1 see ,honda ,the ,samurai1 p4   
#bdb1 and succeeding chapters4          
,footnote #ec3 ,in the colorless and    
unsentimental language of government    
publications1 the ,japanese edict of    

emancipation1 issued to the local       
authorities in ,october1 #ahga1 ran as  
follows3 ,the designations of eta and   
hinin are abolished4 ,those who bore    
them are to be added to the general     
registers of the population and their   
social position and methods of gaining a
 livelihood are to be identical with the
 rest of the people4 ,as they have been 
entitled to immunity from the land tax  
and other burdens of immemorial custom1 
you will inquire how this may be        
reformed and report to the ,board of    
,finance4 7,signed7 ,council of ,state4 
,footnote #ed3 ,in ,english fiction1 see
 ,the ,eta ,maiden and the ,hatamoto1 in
 ,mitford's ,tales of ,old ,japan1 ,vol4
 ,i41 pp4 #baj-bde4 ,discussions as to  
the origin of the ,eta are to be found  
in ,adams's ,history of ,japan1 ,vol4   
,i1 p4 #gg2 ,m4,e41 index2 ,t4,j41 p4   
#adg2 ,s4 and ,h41 p4 #cf2 ,honda the   
,samurai1 pp4 #bdf1 #bdg2 ,mitford's    
,tales of ,old ,japan1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4   
#baj-bde4 ,the literature concerning the

 ,ainos is already voluminous4 ,see     
,chamberlain's ,aino ,studies1 with     
bibliography2 and ,rev4 ,john           
,batchelor's ,ainu ,grammar1 published  
by ,the ,imperial ,university of ,tki2  
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vols4 ,x41 ,,xl1 ,,xvi41 
,,xviii41 ,,xx42 ,the ,ainu of ,japan1  
,new ,york1 #ahib1 by ,j4 ,batchelor    
7who has also translated the ,book of   
,common ,prayer1 and portions of the    
,bible into the ,ainu tongue72 ,m4 ,e41 
,chap4 ,,ii42 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,x41  
and following volumes2 ,unbeaten ,tracks
 in ,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii42 ,life with     
,trans-,siberian ,savages1 ,london1     
#ahie4  ,footnote #ee3 ,then the        
venerable ,sriputra said to that        
daughter of ,sagara1 the ,nga-king3     
',thou hast conceived the idea of       
enlightenment1 young lady of good       
family1 without sliding back1 and art   
gifted with immense wisdom1 but supreme1
 perfect enlightenment is not easily    
won4 ,it may happen1 sister1 that a     
woman displays an unflagging energy1    

performs good works for many thousands  
of ,aeons1 and fulfils the six perfect  
virtues 7,pramits71 but as yet there is 
no example of her having reached        
,buddhaship1 and that because a woman   
cannot occupy the five ranks1 viz41 #a1 
the rank of ,brahma2 #b1 the rank of    
,indra2 #c1 the rank of a chief guardian
 of the four quarters2 #d1 the rank of  
,kakravartin2 #e1 the rank of a         
,bodhisattva incapable of sliding back1 
,saddharma ,pundarika1 ,kern's          
,translation1 p4 #beb4  ,footnote #ef3  
,chi-j-him was the first ,japanese nun1 
and the only woman who is commemorated  
by an idol4 ,she extracted the fibres of
 the lotus root1 and wove them with silk
 to make tapestry for altars4 ,fuso     
,mimi ,bukuro1 p4 #abh4 ,her romantic   
and marvellous story is given in ,s4 and
 ,h41 p4 #cig4 ,the practice of giving  
ranks to women was commenced by ,jito   
,tenn 7an empress1 #fij-gje74 ,many     
women shaved their heads and became nuns
 on becoming widows1 as well as on being

 forsaken by1 or after leaving their    
husbands4 ,others were orphans4 ,one of 
the most famous nuns 7on account of her 
rank7 was the ,nii no ,ama1 widow of    
,kiyomori and grandmother of the        
,emperor ,antoku1 who were both drowned 
near ,shimono-ski1 in the great naval   
battle of #aahe ,a4,d4 ,adams's ,history
 of ,japan1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cg2 ,m4,e41  
p4 #acg4  ,footnote #eg3 ,m4,e41 p4     
#bac2 ,japanese ,women1 ,world's        
,columbian ,exhibition1 ,chicago1 #ahic1
 ,chap4 ,,iii4  ,footnote #eh3 ,there is
 no passage in the original ,greek      
texts1 or in the ,revised ,version of   
the ,new ,testament which ascribes wings
 to the aggelos1 or angel4 ,in ,rev4    
xii4 #ad1 a woman is given two wings of 
a great eagle4  ,footnote #ei3 ,japanese
 ,women in ,politics1 ,chap4 ,i41       
,japanese ,women1 ,chicago1 #ahic2      
,japanese ,girls and ,women1 ,chapters  
,,vi4 and ,,vii4  ,footnote #fj3        
,bakin's novels are dominated by this   
idea1 while also preaching in fiction   

strict ,confucianism4 ,see ,a ,captive  
of ,love1 by ,edward ,greey4  ,footnote 
#fa3 ,fate is one of the great words of 
the ,east4 ,japan's language is loaded  
and overloaded with it4 ,parents are    
forever saying before their children1   
',there's no help for it4' ,i once      
remarked to a school-teacher1 ',of      
course you love to teach children4' ,his
 quick reply was1 ',of course ,i don't4 
,i do it merely because there is no help
 for it4' ,moralists here deplore the   
prosperity of the houses of ill-fame and
 then add with a sigh1 ',there's no help
 for it4' ,all society reverberates with
 this phrase with reference to questions
 that need the application of moral     
power1 will power4--,j4,h4 ,de ,forest4 
,i do not say there is no will power in 
the ,east1 for there is4 ,nor do ,i say 
there is no weak yielding to fate in    
lands that have the doctrine of the     
,creator1 for there is4 ,but1 putting   
the ,east and ,west side by side1 one   
need not hesitate to affirm that the    

reason the will power of the ,east is   
weak cannot be fully explained by any   
mere doctrine of environment1 but must  
also have some vital connection with the
 fact that the idea of a personal       
almighty ,creator has for long ages been
 wanting4 ,and one reason why western   
nations have an aggressive character    
that ventures bold things and tends to  
defy difficulties cannot be wholly laid 
to environment but must have something  
to do with the fact that leads millions 
daily reverently to say ',i believe in  
the ,almighty ,father1 ,maker of ,heaven
 and ,earth4'--,j4,h4 ,de ,forest4      
,,statistics ,,of ,,buddhism ,,in       
,,japan4   7,from ,the official ,rsum   
,statistique de l',empire du ,japon1    
,tki1 #ahid47  ,in #ahia there were     
#ga1hei temples within city or town     
limits1 and #ce1iei in the rural        
districts1 or #aag1gah in all1 under the
 charges of #ea1gia principal priests   
and #gbj principal priestesses1 or      
#eb1eaa in all4  ,the number of temples1

 classified by sects1 were as follows3  
,tendai1 with #c sub-sects1 #d1hjh2     
,shingon1 with #b sub-sects1 #ab1hba1 of
 which #de belonged to the ,hoss shu2   
,j-do1 with #b sub-sects1 #h1cbc1 of    
which #ba were of the ,k-gon shu2 ,zen1 
with #c sub-sects1 #bj1hhb1 of which    
#f1adf were of the ,rin-,zai shu2       
#ad1jgb of the ,s-d shu1 and #fjd of the
 ,o-bakushu2 ,shin1 with #aj sub-sects1 
#ai1adf2 ,nichiren1 with #g sub-sects1  
#e1jff2 ,ji shu1 #eae2 ,yu-dz2          
,nembutsu1 #ceh2 total1 #ch sects and   
#ga1hei temples4  ,the official reports 
required by the government from the     
various sects1 show that there are #ch  
administrative heads of sects2 #eb1fch  
priest-preachers and #dd1abc ordinary   
priests or monks2 and #h1ffh male and   
#cbh female1 or a total of #h1iif1      
students for the grade of monk or nun4  
,in comparison with #ahhf1 the number of
 priest-preachers was #ci1bfa1 ordinary 
priests #ch1ahi3 male students1 #ba1iff2
 female students1 #fdb4   ,,chapter     

,,xi  ,,roman ,,christianity ,,in ,,the 
,,seventeenth ,,century4   ,footnote #a3
 ,see for a fine example of this1 ,mr4  
,c4 ,meriwether's ,life of ,dat         
,masamun1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxi41   
pp4 #c-ajf4 ,see also ,the ,christianity
 of ,early ,japan1 by ,koji ,inaba1 in  
,the ,japan ,evangelist1 ,yokohama1     
#ahic-id2 ,mr4 ,e4 ,satow's papers in   
,t4,a4,s4,j4  ,footnote #b3 ,see ,m4,e41
 p4 #bhj2 ,rein's ,japan1 p4 #cab2      
,shigtaka ,shiga's ,history of ,nations1
 p4 #aci1 quoting from ,m4,e4 7p4 #beh74
  ,footnote #c3 ,m4,e41 #aie4  ,footnote
 #d3 ,the ,japan ,mail of ,april and    
,may1 #ahid1 contains a translation from
 the ,japanese1 with but little new     
matter1 however1 of a work entitled     
,paul ,anjiro4  ,footnote #e3 ,the      
,firando of the old books4 ,see ,cock's 
,diary4 ,it is difficult at first to    
recognize the ,japanese originals of    
some of the names which figure in the   
writings of ,charlevoix1 ,lon ,pags1 and
 the ,european missionaries1 owing to   

their use of local pronunciation1 and   
their spelling1 which seems peculiar4   
,one of the brilliant identifications of
 ,mr4 ,ernest ,satow1 now ,h4,b4,m4     
,minister at ,tangier1 is that of       
,kuroda in the ,kondera' of the         
,jesuits4  ,footnote #f3 ,see ,mr4      
,e4,m4 ,matow's ,vicissitudes of the    
,church at ,yamaguchi4 ,t4,a4,s4,j41    
,vol4 ,,vii41 pp4 #aca-aef4  ,footnote  
#g3 ,nobunaga was ,nai ,dai ,jin1 ,inner
 7,junior7 ,prime ,minister1 one in the 
triple premiership1 peculiar to ,korea  
and ,old ,japan1 but was never ,shgun1  
as some foreign writers have supposed4  
,footnote #h3 ,see ,the ,jesuit ,mission
 ,press in ,japan1 by ,e4 ,satow1       
#aeia-afaj 7privately printed1 ,london1 
#ahhh74 ,review of the same by ,b4,h4   
,chamberlain1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4       
,,xvii41 p4 #ia4  ,footnote #i3         
,histoire de l'glise1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dij2
 ,rein1 p4 #bgg4 ,takayama is spoken of 
in the ,jesuit ,records as ,jsto        
,ucondono4 ,a curious book entitled     

,justo ,ucondono1 ,prince of ,japan1 in 
which the writer1 who is less attentive 
to points of style than to matters of   
faith1 labors to show that the ,bible   
alone is found wanting1 and only the    
,teaching ,church is worthy of trust1   
was published in ,baltimore1 in #ahed4  
,footnote #aj3 ,how ,hidyoshi made use  
of the ,shin sect of ,buddhists to      
betray the ,satsuma clansmen is         
graphically told in ,mr4 ,j4,h4         
,gubbin's paper1 ,hidyoshi and the      
,satsuma ,clan1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4     
,,viii1 pp4 #abd-abh1 #adc4  ,footnote  
#aa3 ,corea the ,hermit ,nation1 ,chaps4
 ,,xii4-,,xxi41 pp4 #aba-abc2 ,mr4      
,w4,g4 ,aston's ,hidyoshi's ,invasion of
 ,korea1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,vi41 p4  
#bbg2 ,,ix1 pp4 #hg1 #bac2 ,,xi41 p4    
#aag2 ,rev4 ,g4,h4 ,jones's ,the        
,japanese ,invasion1 ,the ,korean       
,repository1 ,seoul1 #ahib4  ,footnote  
#ab3 ,brave ,little ,holland and ,what  
,she ,taught ,us1 ,boston1 #ahic1 p4    
#bdg4  ,footnote #ac3 ,see picture and  

description of this temple--fairly      
typical of ,japanese ,buddhist          
architecture1 ,chamberlain's ,handbook  
for ,japan1 p4 #bf2 ,g4,a4 ,cobbold's1  
,religion in ,japan1 ,london1 #ahid1 p4 
#gb4  ,footnote #ad3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 see  
,vol4 ,,vi41 pp4 #df1 #ea1 for the text 
of the edicts4  ,footnote #ae3 ,m4,e41  
p4 #bfb1 ,chamberlain's ,handbook for   
,japan1 p4 #ei4  ,footnote #af3 ,the    
,origin of ,spanish and ,portuguese     
,rivalry in ,japan1 by ,e4,m4 ,satow1   
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xviii41 p4 #acc4  
,footnote #ag3 ,see ,chapter ,,viii41   
,w4,g4 ,dixon's ,gleanings from ,japan4 
,footnote #ah3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4      
,,vi41 pp4 #dh-ej4  ,footnote #ai3 ,in  
the inscription upon the great bell1 at 
the temple containing the image of ,dai 
,buts or ,great ,buddha1 reared by      
,hidyori and his mother1 one sentence   
contained the phrase ,kokka anko1 ka and
 ko being ,chinese for ,iy and yas1     
which the ,yedo ruler professed to      
believe mockery4 ,in another sentence1  

,on the ,east it welcomes the bright    
moon1 and on the ,west bids farewell to 
the setting sun1 ,iyyas discovered      
treason4 ,he considered himself the     
rising sun1 and ,hidyori the setting    
moon4--,chamberlain's ,hand-book for    
,japan1 p4 #cjj4  ,footnote #bj3 ,i have
 found the ,astor ,library in ,new ,york
 especially rich in works of this sort4 
,footnote #ba3 ,nitob's ,united ,states 
and ,japan1 p4 #ac1 note4  ,footnote    
#bb3 ,this insurrection has received    
literary treatment at the hands of the  
,japanese in ,shimabara1 translated in  
,the ,far ,east for #ahgb2 ,woolley's   
,historical ,notes on ,nagasaki1        
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ix41 p4 #abe2     
,koeckebakker and the ,arima ,rebellion1
 by ,dr4 ,a4,j4,c4 ,geerts1             
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xi41 #ea2         
,inscriptions on ,shimabara and         
,amakusa1 by ,henry ,stout1             
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #ahe4     
,footnote #bc3 ,persecution extirpated  
,christianity from ,japan4--,history of 

,rationalism1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ae4       
,footnote #bd3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4      
,,vi41 ,part ,i41 p4 #fb2 ,m4,e4 pp4    
#eca1 #egc4  ,footnote #be3 ,political1 
despite the attempt of many earnest     
members of the order to check this      
tendency to intermeddle in politics2 see
 ,dr4 ,murray's ,japan1 p4 #bde1 note1  
#bdf4  ,footnote #bf3 ,see abundant     
illustration in ,lon ,pags' ,histoire de
 la ,religion ,chrtienne en ,japon1 a   
book which the author read while in     
,japan amid the scenes described4       
,footnote #bg3 ,the ,japan ,evangelist1 
,vol4 ,i41 ,no4 #b1 p4 #if4   ,,chapter 
,,xii  ,,two ,,centuries ,,of ,,silence 
,footnote #a3 ,see ,diary of ,richard   
,cocks1 and ,introduction by ,r4,m4     
,thompson1 ,hakluyt ,publications1      
#ahhc4  ,footnote #b3 ,for the extent of
 ,japanese influence abroad1 see ,m4,e41
 p4 #bdf2 ,rein1 ,nitobe1 and ,hildreth2
 ,modern ,japanese ,adventurers1        
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #aia2    
,the ,intercourse between ,japan and    

,siam in the ,seventeenth ,century1 by  
,e4,m4 ,satow1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4      
,,xiii41 p4 #aci2 ,voyage of the ,dutch 
,ship ,grol1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xi41 
p4 #ahj4  ,footnote #c3 ,the ,united    
,states and ,japan1 p4 #af4  ,footnote  
#d3 ,see ,professor ,j4,h4 ,wigmore's   
elaborate work1 ,materials for the      
,study of ,private ,law in ,old ,japan1 
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,tki1 #ahib4  ,footnote   
#e3 ,see the ,legacy of ,iyyas1 by ,john
 ,frederic ,lowder1 ,yokohama1 #ahgd1   
with criticisms and discussions by      
,e4,m4 ,satow and others in the ,japan  
,mail2 ,dixon's ,japan1 ,chapter ,,vii42
 ,professor ,w4,e4 ,grigsby1 in         
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,part ,,ii41
 p4 #aca1 gives another version1 with   
analysis1 notes1 and comments2 ,rein's  
,japan1 pp4 #cad1 #cae4  ,footnote #f3  
,old ,japan in the days of its          
inclusiveness was a secret society on a 
vast scale1 with every variety and      
degree of selfishness1 mystery1 secrecy1
 close-corporationism1 and tomfoolery4  

,see article ,esotericism in ,t4,j41 p4 
#adc4  ,footnote #g3 ,since the         
abolition of feudalism1 with the        
increase of the means of transportation1
 the larger freedom1 and1 at many       
points1 improved morality1 the          
population of ,japan shows an           
unprecedented rate of increase4 ,the    
census taken in #agdd gave1 as the total
 number of souls in the empire1         
#bf1jhj1jjj 7,e4,j4 ,reed's ,japan1     
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bcf72 that of #ahgb1     
#cc1aaj1hbe2 that of #ahib1 #da1jhi1iaj1
 showing a greater increase during the  
past twenty years than in the one       
hundred and thirty-eight years previous4
 ,see ,rsum ,statistique de l',empire du
 ,japon1 ,tki1 #ahid2 ,professor        
,garrett ,droppers' paper on ,the       
,population of ,japan during the        
,tokugawa ,period1 read ,june #bgth1    
#ahid2 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xxii4      
,footnote #h3 ,for the notable instance 
of ,pere ,sidotti1 see ,m4,e1 p4 #fc2   
,si ,y ,ki ,buu1 by ,s4,r4 ,brown1      

,d4,d41 a translation of ,arai          
,hakuski's narrative1 ,yedo1 #agaj1     
,t4,n4,c4,a4,s42 ,capture and ,captivity
 of ,pere ,sidotti1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 
,,ix41 p4 #aef2 ,christian ,valley1     
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 p4 #bjg4    
,footnote #i3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,i41  
p4 #gh1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #cbc4          
,footnote #aj3 ,see ,matthew ,calbraith 
,perry1 ,boston1 #ahhg4  ,footnote #aa3 
,see the author's ,townsend ,harris1    
,first ,american ,minister to ,japan1   
,the ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,august1 #ahia4
  ,footnote #ab3 ,see ,honda the        
,samurai1 ,boston1 #ahij2 ,nitobe's     
,united ,states and ,japan2 ,the ,japan 
,mail passim2 ,dr4 ,g4,f4 ,verbeck's    
,history of ,protestant ,missions in    
,japan1 ,yokohama1 #ahhc2 ,dr4 ,george  
,wm4 ,knox's papers on ,japanese        
,philosophy1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xx41 
p4 l#eh1 etc4 ,recent ,japanese         
literature1 of which the writer has a   
small shelf-full1 biographies1          
biographical dictionaries1 the histories

 of ,new ,japan1 ,life of ,yoshida      
,shoin1 and recent issues of ,the       
,nation's ,friend 7,kokumin no ,tomo71  
are very rich on this fascinating       
subject4  ,footnote #ac3 ,a typical     
instance was that of ,rin ,shihei1 born 
#agcg1 author of ,sun ,koku ,tsu ,ran to
 ,setsu1 translated into ,french by     
,klaproth1 ,paris1 #ahcb4 ,rin learned  
much from the ,dutch and ,prussians1 and
 wrote books which had a great sale4 ,he
 was cast into prison1 whence he never  
emerged4 ,the 7wooden7 plates of his    
publications were confiscated and       
destroyed4 ,in #ahgf1 the ,mikado       
visited his grave in ,sendai1 and       
ordered a monument erected to the honor 
of this far-seeing patriot4  ,footnote  
#ad3 ,rein1 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg  ,footnote   
#ae3 ,rein1 p4 #cci2 ,the ,early ,study 
of ,dutch in ,japan1 by ,k4 ,mitsukuri1 
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,v41 p4 #bji2       
,history of the ,progress of ,medicine  
in ,japan1 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xii41  
p4 #bde2 ,vijf ,jaren in ,japan1        

,j4,l4,c4 ,pompe van ,meerdervoort1 #b;d
 ,ed41 ,leyden1 #ahjh4  ,footnote #af3  
,honda the ,samurai1 pp4 #bdi-bea2      
,nitob1 #be-bg4  ,footnote #ag3 ,the    
,tokugawa ,princes of ,mito1 by         
,professor ,e4 ,w4 ,clement1            
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 p4 #ad2    
,nitob's ,united ,states and ,japan1 p4 
#be1 note4  ,footnote #ah3 ,m4,e4 7#f   
,ed471 p4 #fjh2 ,adams's ,history of    
,japan1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aga4  ,footnote
 #ai3 ,see the text of the              
anti-,christian edicts1 ,m4,e41 p4 #cfi4
  ,footnote #bj3 ,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4    
,,xx41 p4 #ag4  ,footnote #ba3          
,t4,a4,s4,j41 ,vol4 ,,ix41 p4 #acd4     
,footnote #bb3 ,tales of ,old ,japan1   
,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #abe2 ,a ,japanese      
,buddhist ,preacher1 by ,professor      
,m4,k4 ,shimomura1 in the ,new ,york    
,independent2 other sermons have been   
printed in ,the ,japan ,mail2 ,kino     
,dowa1 two sermons and vocabulary1 has  
been edited by ,rev4 ,c4,s4 ,eby1       
,yokohama4  ,footnote #bc3 ,on ,sunday1 

,november #bi1 #aheg1 ,mr4 ,harris1     
resting at ,kawasaki1 over ,sunday1 on  
his way to ,yedo and audience of the    
,shgun1 having ,mr4 ,heusken as his     
audience and fellow-worshipper1 read    
service from the ,book of ,common       
,prayer4  ,footnote #bd3 ,see a paper   
written by the author and read at the   
,world's ,columbian ,exhibition         
,congress of ,missions1 ,chicago1       
,september1 #ahic1 on ,the ,citizen     
,rights of ,missionaries4  ,footnote    
#be3 ,this embassy was planned and first
 proposed to the ,junior premier1       
,tomomi ,iwakura1 and the route arranged
 by the ,rev4 ,guido ,f4 ,verbeck1 then 
,president of the ,imperial ,university4
 ,one half of the members of the embassy
 had been ,dr4 ,verbeck's pupils at     
,nagasaki4  ,footnote #bf3 ,a somewhat  
voluminous native ,japanese literature  
is the result of the various embassies  
and individual pilgrimages abroad1 since
 #ahfj4 ,immeasurably superior to all   
other publications1 in the practical    

influence over his fellow-countrymen1 is
 the ,siyo ,jijo 7,the ,condition of    
,western ,countries7 by ,fukuzawa1      
author1 educator1 editor1 decliner of   
numerously proffered political offices1 
and the intellectual father of one-half 
of the young men who now fill the middle
 and lower posts in the government of   
,japan4 ,for the foreign side1 see ,the 
,japanese in ,america1 by ,charles      
,lanman1 ,new ,york1 #ahgb1 and in ,the 
,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 ,london1  
#ahid1 and for an amusing piece of      
literary ventriloquism1 ,japanese       
,letters1 ,eastern ,impressions of      
,western ,men and ,manners1 ,london and 
,new ,york1 #ahia4  ,see ,history of    
,protestant ,missions in ,japan1 by ,g4 
,f4 ,verbeck1 ,yokohama1 #ahic4         
,,index  ,abbess1 #cah4 ,abbots1 #cab4  
,abdication1 #bad4 ,aborigines1 #i1 #ch1
 #dc1 #gg-gi1 #agg4 ,adams1 ,will1 #ccd1
 #cdj4 ,adi-,buddha1 #agd4 ,adoption1   
#abb1 #abf4 ,adultery1 #adi4 ,aidzu1    
#aai4 ,ainos1 #b1 #i1 #af1 #gc1 #agg1   

#cag1 #cgi4 ,akamatsu1 ,rev4 ,renjo1    
#dbe4 ,akchi1 #ccb4 ,alphabets1 #aii1   
#bjj4 ,altaic1 #ci1 #chi4 ,amalgam of   
religions1 #aa1 #ac4 ,amatras1 see      
,sun-goddess4 ,american relations1 #aa1 
#ab1 #aeg4 ,amidaism1 #bgf1 #cjc4       
,anabaptists1 #afb4 ,analects1 #abh4    
,ancestral worship1 #ajf4 ,anderson1    
,dr4 ,win1 #dce4 ,angels1 #cjd4         
,animism1 #ae-ag4 ,anjiro1 #cbi4        
,apostolical succession1 #bfb4 ,arabian 
,nights1 #aib1 #bja4 ,architecture1 #hb1
 #hd1 #baj1 #bih-cjj4 ,art1 #fh1 #al#d1 
#aie-aig1 #big1 #bih1 #cjc-cje1 #cad1   
#cef4 ,aryan ,conquest of ,india1 #dd1  
#aef1 #aeg1 #agg1 #bjg4 ,asanga1 #age1  
#bje4 ,assassination1 #cfg4 ,asoka1     
#afe4 ,aston1 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,g41 #cfj1 #chf1
 #chg4 ,atheism1 #afc1 #afd4 ,atkinson1 
,rev1 ,j4,l41 #daj4 ,avalokitesvara1    
#agj1 #aga1 #agi4 ,avatars1 #bja1 #bjh1 
#bba1 #bdg1 #bfi1 #bie4  ,babism1 #aff4 
,bakin1 #ddd4 ,bangor ,theological      
,seminary1 #cgh4 ,batchelor1 ,rev4      
,john1 #cag4 ,beal1 ,rev4 ,samuel1 #h4  

,beauty1 #bjg4 ,beggars1 #bjh4 ,bells1  
#cjg1 #cjh4 ,benten1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #bah4  
,bible1 #bg1 #ajd1 #cfd1 #chf4 ,binzuru1
 #bcg4 ,birth1 #hd4 ,bishamon1 #bah4    
,bodhidharma1 see ,daruma4 ,bodhisattva1
 #afi1 #bjd1 #bcd4 ,bonzes1 #caj4       
,bosatsu1 #agj1 #bjd2 see ,bodhsattva4  
,brahma1 #bdg4 ,brahmanism1 #afc1 #ahe1 
#ahf1 #bah4 ,brothers1 #abe1 #abf4      
,buddha4 ,amida1 see ,amidaism4   the   
,buddha1 #aja1 #ajc1 #afa1 #afb4        
,gautama1 #aee1 #afa-afd4   ,shakyamuni1
 #afj4   ,siddartha1 #daj4   ,tathagata1
 #bei4   ,tathata1 #bdc4 ,bunyin        
,nanjio1 ,rev41 #bca1 #dbe4 ,buddhism1  
#db1 #gd1 #gf1 #ajf1 #acc1 #acf1 #acg1  
#adj1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bbg1 #bca4 ,buddhist1
 #afe1 #aff1 #ahc1 #bad1 #bbi1 #beb4    
,cannibalism1 #gd4 ,canon1 ,chinese1    
#ajc2 ,shint1 #ci-da4 ,capitals of      
,japan1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #bif4 ,celibacy1    
#bgb4 ,cemeteries1 #cjh4 ,chair of      
,contemplation1 #beb4 ,chamberlain1     
,prof4 ,b4 ,hall1 #ci1 #cbd1 #chh4      
,chastity1 #fh1 #abd1 #adi1 #cbj4 ,cheng

 ,brothers1 #ach1 #aci4 ,china1 #acd1   
#aii1 #bae1 #cbh1 #cee4 ,chinese1 #hc1  
#acd2 ,buddhism1 #bcb4 ,christianity and
 ,buddhism1 #aff1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahg1     
#aie1 #bag1 #bah1 #bfe1 #bgj1           
#cjj-cjb1 #cjf1 #cae1 #cai4 ,chronology1
 #da1 #cgj1 #chg4 ,chu ,hi1 #aa1 #ajh1  
#aci1 #adc1 #add1 #cef4 ,cleanliness1   
#hd1 #ig4 ,clement1 ,prof4 ,e4,m41 #djg4
 ,cobra-de-capello1 #ba4 ,cocks1 ,mr4   
,richard1 #chj4 ,columbus1 #cbh4        
,comparative religion1 #d-f4 ,confucius1
 #ajj-ajf4 ,confucianism1 #gd1 #ajg1    
#bac4 ,concubinage1 #adi4 ,constitution 
of #ahhi1 #if1 #abb4 ,corea1 see ,korea4
 ,courtship1 #abd4 ,creator1 #ade1 #bhe4
 ,cremation1 #ahb4 ,crucifixion1 #aae1  
#cfh4  ,dai ,butsu1 #bjc4 ,daikoku1     
#bah4 ,dai ,mi ,jin1 #aij1 #bjd1 #bjf1  
#bcj4 ,daruma1 #ahf1 #bjh1 #bed4        
,davids1 ,t4 ,rhys1 #aee1 #agb4 ,death1 
#hd4 ,de ,brosses1 #bc4 ,de ,forest1    
,rev4 ,j4,h41 #bbf4 ,demoniacal         
possession1 #bha4 ,dshima1 #ced1 #ceh1  
#cfb-cfe4 ,dharari1 #aii4 ,dharma1 see  

,daruma1 #ahf4 ,dhyana ,buddhas and     
,sect1 #agb1 #beb1 #bed4 ,diet1 #bic1   
#bid4 ,divorce1 #abe1 #adi4 ,d-sen1     
#bcf4 ,d-sh1 #aha4 ,dragon1 #bj1 #ba1   
#gd1 #aae1 #aih1 #bdb4 ,dutch1 #ij1     
#ccf1 #cdj1 #cec1 #ced1 #ceh1 #cfj1     
#cfb1 #cfc-cfe1 #cff4 ,dutt1 ,mr4       
,romesh ,chunder1 #afa4  ,ebisu1 #bah4  
,ecclesiastes1 #bad4 ,echizen1 #cab4    
,edicts against ,christianity1 #cce1    
#ccf1 #cdb4 ,edkins1 ,dr4 ,j41 #bdi4    
,education1 #cac1 #cbj4 ,embassy round  
the world1 #cgc4 ,emperor1 #adh4 ,emura1
 ,rev4 ,shu-zan1 #bcb4 ,england1 #cg4   
,eta1 #aae1 #aej1 #bge1 #caf1 #cag1     
#cfg4 ,ethics1 #ib1 #id4 ,euhemerus1    
#aib1 #aic1 #aig1 #bja4 ,eurasians1     
#cdd4 ,evil1 #eh1 #gh4 ,evolution1 #fb4 
,ezekiel1 #cf4 ,ezra1 #ajb4  ,family    
,life1 #abb1 #abe-abg4 ,female          
divinities1 #ff1 #cje1 #cai4 ,fetichism1
 #bb-bg4 ,feudalism1 #aj1 #ajh-aaj4     
,filial piety1 #abc1 #adi1 #bac4        
,fire-drill1 #ee1 #ef4 ,fire1 ,god of1  
#ec4 ,fire-myths1 #ec4 ,five ,relations1

 #aje1 #aad1 #adh-aej4 ,flags1 #bf4     
,flood1 #ec4 ,flowers1 #eh4 ,forty-seven
 ,rnins1 #aah1 #aai4 ,franciscans1 #ccf1
 #ccg4 ,friends1 #abg4 ,fudo1 #bgi4     
,fuji ,mountain1 #djj4 ,fujishima1 ,rev4
 ,ryauon1 #bca4 ,fukuda1 ,rev4 ,gyo-kai1
 #dbe4 ,fukui1 #bc4 ,fuku-roku-jin1     
#bah4  ,gardens1 #bcg1 #bid1 #bie4      
,gautama1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afd4 ,genji      
,monogatari1 #adi4 ,genj1 #aha1 #bcb1   
#bcc1 #bch1 #bci4 ,germanic nations1    
#aj1 #dd4 ,ghosts1 #bjf4 ,giyoku1 #ahc4 
,gnostics1 #aic1 #aie4 ,god-possession1 
#bja4 ,gold1 #ahd1 #aif1 #baj1 #bia4    
,golden ,rule1 #abh4 ,gongen1 #bjd1     
#bje1 #bbj4 ,gore1 ,mr4 ,t41 #g1 #chd4  
,graveyards1 #cjh1 #cfh4 ,greater       
,vehicle1 #afe1 #agj1 #bdj1 #bdd4       
,gubbins1 ,mr4 ,j4,h41 #djc1 #ddg4      
,hachiman1 #bjd4 ,hades1 #ec1 #fd4      
,hara-kiri1 #aab1 #aba1 #cci4 ,harris1  
,mr4 ,townsend1 #ade1 #ceb1 #cfj1 #cgj1 
#cga4 ,hayashi1 #abi4 ,heathen1 #ac1    
#cj4 ,heaven1 #fb1 #fc1 #gj1 #ha1 #aje1 
#aab1 #aah1 #add4 ,hepburn1 ,dr4 ,j4,c41

 #cgb4 ,hidyori1 #cdj1 #cdb4 ,hidyoshi1 
#cac1 #ccc1 #cch4 ,hindu history1 #aef4 
,hi-nin1 #aae1 #aej4 ,hinayana1 #afe1   
#afg1 #afi1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bch4 ,hiouen   
,thsang1 see ,genj4 ,hiraii1 #b4        
,hirata1 #hf4 ,history of ,china1       
intellectual1 #acg4   of ,japan1        
intellectual1 #bcj4   of ,japan1        
political1 #aj1 #cg1 #dd1 #bai4   of    
,japan1 religious1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,hitomar1
 #fj4 ,hiyisan1 #af1 #big4 ,hodge1 #ajb4
 ,hodgson1 ,mr4 ,brian ,h41 #daa1 #dad4 
,hokk-,ki1 see ,saddharma ,pundarika4   
,hokusai1 #cad4 ,holland1 #cch4 ,hnen1  
#bfa1 #bfd4 ,h-1 #ahd1 #bcg4 ,hospitals1
 #baf1 #cae4 ,hoss-,shu1 #bch1 #bci4    
,hoti1 #bah4 ,hotok1 #bjb1 #bfi4        
,idols1 #age1 #bjg1 #baf4 ,idzumo1 #dd1 
#fe4 ,ikk1 #bgc4 ,inari1 #aij4 ,indra1  
#afc1 #bdg4 ,ingwa1 #bag1 #cjb1 #cba2   
see ,karma4 ,inquisition1 #cdg1 #cdh1   
#cfh4 ,insurance by fetich1 #bd1 #be4   
,isaiah1 #ajj4 ,is1 #bh1 #ahd1 #bja4    
,iyyas1 #ia1 #ajj1 #acb1 #acd1 #bjd1    
#bje1 #cch1 #cdb1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,izanagi  

and ,izanami1 #eb1 #fc1 #fd1 #bjg1 #bah4
  ,jade1 #bib4 ,jains1 #aff4 ,japan1    
area1 #i4   ,census1 #i4   ,ethnology1  
#dc1 #dd4   ,geography1 #i1 #dc1 #dd4   
,government1 #dj4   ,history1 #aj1 #cg1 
#dd1 #aji4   ,origins1 #dc4             
,population1 #h1 #i4   ,various names   
of1 #gc4 ,japanese ,bride1 ,the1 #abe1  
#adi4 ,japanese characteristics1 #aab1  
#bhe1 #cfa4   ,language1 #aac1 #aaf1    
#ace4   ,writing1 #bjj4 ,jataka tales1  
#afi4 ,jealousy1 #abd4 ,jesuits1 #bdg1  
#cbi1 #ccg1 #cda1 #cdb4 ,jesus1 #gf1    
#ig1 #ajj1 #aag4 ,jimmu ,tenn1 #chi1    
,jin ,gi ,kuan1 #di1 #id1 #cij-cib4     
,jizo1 #bdg1 #cje4 ,j d sect1 #bej1     
#bge4 ,john1 #b1 #fj4 ,j-jitsu sect1    
#aha1 #bce4 ,joss1 #bc4 ,jun-shi1 #fh1  
#gf1 #aai4 ,ju-r-jin1 #bah4  ,kaburagi1 
#cf1 #fj4 ,kada ,adzumar1 #ia4 ,kamui1  
#cj4 ,kami-dana1 #hf1 #hh1 #bie4 ,kamui1
 #cj4 ,kana1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bgd4 ,kanda1  
,dai ,mi-,jin1 #bje4 ,karma1 #afb1 #afi1
 #ahf1 #bcd1 #beh4 ,kato ,kyomasa1 #bgh1
 #ccd1 #cci4 ,k-gon sect1 #bdb-bdd4     

,kichu1 #ia4 ,kern1 ,prof4 ,h41 #aee1   
#bci4 ,kito1 #ahc1 #bif1 #ccj1 #ccf4    
,kirin1 #ai4 ,kishimoto1 ,mr4 ,nobuta41 
#aa4 ,kiushiu1 #cci4 ,kiyomori1 #abj4   
,knos1 ,dr4 ,george ,wm41 #ahb1 #bbh1   
#bhh1 #che4 ,kobayashi1 ,rev4 ,z-jun1   
#dbe4 ,kb1 #hi1 #aig1 #bje1 #bdh1 #bej4 
,kojiki1 #bi1 #cb1 #dj1 #da1 #eb1 #gd1  
#hb-ij1 #adi1 #aie1 #aig4 ,ko-ken1      
,empress1 #caj4 ,kompira1 #bjd4         
,konishi1 #ccd1 #cce4 ,korea1 #i1 #ba1  
#bf1 #dj1 #da1 #gd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #afh1   
#agi1 #ahj1 #bib1 #caj1 #cbh1     #ccb1 
#ccc1 #ccd1 #cee1 #cfh4 ,kosatsu1 #cfh4 
,ku-ya1 #aih4 ,kumi1 ,prof41 #gf-hb4    
,kun-shin1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #bac4
 ,ku-sha sutra1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,kwannon1   
#aha1 #bjg1 #bdg1 #cai4 ,kyso1 #acb1    
#add4  ,lamaism1 #ajg4 ,language of     
,china1 #bcg4   of ,england1 #bie4   of 
,holland1 #cfd1 #cfe4   of ,japan1 #ci1 
#aac1 #aaf1 #acd1 #bfe1 #bie1 #bii1     
#cfd4   of ,korea1 #aaf4 ,lao ,tsze1    
#ajb1 #add1 #bah4 ,laws of ,japan1 #ceh4
 ,lecky1 ,mr41 #cdd4 ,legendre1 ,gen41  

#che1 #chi4 ,legge1 ,dr4 ,j41 #ajj1     
#cgh4 ,libraries1 #bec1 #cbg4 ,lingam1  
see ,phallicism4 ,literature1 #ci1 #ajj1
 #ada1 #aef1 #aei1 #baf1 #beb1 #cac1    
#cah1 #cfi4 ,liturgy1 see ,norito4      
,lloyd1 ,rev4 ,a41 #beh4 ,loo-choo1 see 
,rin ,kin4 ,lotus1 #dcd1 #dce1 #dcg4    
,love1 #aag1 #aah4 ,lowell1 ,mr4        
,percival1 #cig1 #dbc4 ,loyalty1 see    
,kun-shin4 ,luther1 #bga4 ,lyman1 ,prof4
 ,b4,s41 #chc4  ,mabuchi1 #ij1 #ia4     
,mac,donald1 ,rev4 ,james1 #h4          
,magatama1 #fh1 #bib4 ,mahayana1 #aje2  
see ,greater ,vehicle4 ,maitreya1 #afi1 
#agj1 #bah1 #bcf1 #bdd4 ,malays1 #i1    
#dc4 ,mandala1 #bjc4 ,munjusri1 #agj1   
#aga1 #agi1 #bfb4 ,mantra1 #bdh4        
,many-shu1 #ci1 #dj4 ,marco ,polo1 #db4 
,mark1 #fj4 ,marriage1 #abc1 #abf1 #adi4
 ,martyrs1 #ccg1 #cdd1 #cei1 #cfj1 #cfb1
 #cff-cfi4 ,masakado1 #bji4 ,matsugami1 
#bji4 ,matsuri1 #bh4 ,meiji ,era1 #aab1 
#aaf1 #bef4 ,mencius1 #ajf1 #aab1 #acg4 
,mendez1 ,pinto1 #db4 ,mexico1 #cdi4    
,mikado1 #dd1 #de1 #gf1 #ib1 #ie1 #if1  

#aad1 #aag1 #ahd1 #aia1 #bja4           
,mikadoism1 #de-di1 #gd-hb1 #ahd1 #bjb4 
,military monks1 #bdg4 ,minamoto1 #bga4 
,ming dynasty1 #acd4 ,mioken1 #bgi4     
,miracles1 #baf1 #bfg4 ,mirror1 #hc4    
,missionary training1 #f-h4 ,mito1 #aaa1
 #acd1 #adc1 #cff4 ,miya1 #hb-hd1 #bji4 
,monasteries1 #afb1 #afe1 #bih1 #caa1   
#cab4 ,monotheism1 #ae1 #ha1 #ajc1 #ajd1
 #ade1 #agd1 #ahg4 ,morse lectureship1  
#d4 ,morse1 ,prof ,e4,s41 #cgg4 ,motori1
 #hj1 #ia1 #bij4 ,mozoomdar1 #daa1 #dbj4
 ,mller1 ,prof4 ,max1 #baa4 ,munzinger1 
,rev4 ,c41 #djc4 ,murray1 ,dr4 ,david1  
#djb4 ,mutsuhito1 #fj1 #caf4  ,nagasaki1
 #ccb1 #ccg1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #ceh1 #cfb4    
,nakatomi1 #dh4 ,names1 #abg1 #bjb1     
#bfe4 ,names of ,japan1 #gc1 #hb4       
,namu-,amida-,butsu1 #bei1 #bfa4 ,nanjio
 ,bunyin1 #bca4 ,nara1 #ahb1 #bcg1 #bdc1
 #bif4 ,nehan1 see ,nirvana4 ,nepal1    
#afg1 #afh1 #aga4 ,new ,buddhism1 #bhd1 
#bhe4 ,nichiren1 #bgg1 #bgh4    ,sect1  
#bgg-bhj1 #ccd1 #cci4 ,nihilism1 #bcf1  
#bdj1 #bda4 ,nihongi1 #da1 #ef1 #fb4    

,nikk1 #ahe1 #bfc4 ,nirvana1 #afb1 #afc1
 #ahf1 #bjj1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ,nitob1 ,mr4   
,inazo1 #ceb1 #cfj4 ,nobunaga1 #cab1    
#cca1 #ccb4 ,norito1 #ch1 #dg-di1 #ed1  
#ee-eh1 #gi1 #hj1 #if4 ,northern        
,buddhism1 #afe4  ,obaku sect1 #bhc4    
,offerings1 #eg4 ,ogurusu1 ,rev4 ,ku-ch1
 #bad4 ,obashi ,junzo1 #ade4 ,ojin1     
#bjd4 ,onna-ishi1 see ,phallicism4      
,original prayer1 #bga4 ,original vow1  
#bgc1 #cab4 ,orphan asylums1 #baf4      
,osaka1 #acj1 #cab1 #cfh4  ,pags1 ,mr4  
,leon1 #ddi4 ,pagodas1 #bjc4 ,pantheism1
 #ca1 #adb1 #adc1 #ahg1 #bai1 #bdc4     
,paradise1 #baj1 #bbi1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bhj4
 ,parliament of ,religions1 #e1 #ci1    
#gb1 #bhc4 ,peking1 #aje4 ,perry1       
,commodore ,m4,c41 #abi1 #caf1 #ceb1    
#cfj1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,persecutions1 #ic1   
#cdc4 ,persian elements1 #aie1 #bjb1    
#cjd4 ,personality1 #aaf4 ,pessimism1   
#bad4 ,phallicism1 #bi-cj1 #di-ec1 #hh1 
#chj-chd4 ,philo1 #aib1 #aig1 #bja4     
,phoenix1 #ai1 #bj4 ,pilgrimages1 #bih1 
#bij4 ,pindola1 see ,binzuru4 ,poetry1  

#bbc2 see ,manyshu4 ,politeness1 #gd1   
#bda4 ,popular customs1 #aib4           
,population1 #h1 #i1 #agg1 #bia1 #cei4  
,popular movement in ,china1 #ach4      
,portuguese1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cdg4          
,pratyekas1 #bcd4 ,prayers1 #hf-hh4     
,prayer-wheels1 #age4 ,printing1 #acc1  
#acd1 #bjj4 ,prometheus1 #ec4           
,protestantism1 #aee1 #afb1 #beb1 #bgd4 
,pronouns1 #aaf4 ,proverbs1 #bh1 #agi1  
#bbf1 #bgj1 #cjg1 #ccb1 #ceb1 #chi4     
,psychology of the ,japanese1 #bcj1     
#bda4 ,pure ,land of ,bliss1 #aih1      
#bfc-bfe4 ,purification of #ahgj1 #bjf1 
#baj1 #bac1 #bbb1 #bdh1 #cfj4           
,pyrronism1 #bdj4  ,rai ,sanyo1 #adc4   
,rakan1 #cje4 ,reformed ,buddhism1 #bgj1
 #bgd-bgg4 ,renny ,sh-nin1 #beh4        
,revision of ,confucianism1 #adh-aeb4   
,revival of pure ,shint1 #ia-if4        
,revolving libraries1 #bec4 ,ris-shu1   
#bcf-bch4 ,rituals1 see ,norito4 ,riu   
,kiu1 #i1 #aji4 ,riybu1 #hi1 #aia1 #bjc1
 #bji1 #baa1 #bab1 #bbc4 ,rosaries1     
#bff4  ,saddharma ,pundarika1 #agj1     

#bbi1 #bdf1 #bhj1 #cjd4 ,sado1 #cda4    
,salt1 #he4 ,samurai1 #aaj1 #aai1 #adf1 
#aea1 #aeb4 ,san ,kai ,ri1 #baa4 ,sanron
 sect1 #ahb1 #bdj4 ,sanskrit1 #be1 #ahb1
 #bjj1 #baj1 #bde1 #bdi4 ,saratashi1    
#bah4 ,satow1 ,mr4 ,ernest1 #ci1 #dg1   
#chf4 ,satsuma1 #cac4 ,schools of       
,philosophy3   ,chinese1 #acf-aci4      
,indian1 #aei-afd1 #bcb4   ,japanese1   
#cef-ceh1 #cfi4 ,sekigaharu1 #cch4      
,sendai1 #aai4 ,seppuku1 see ,hara-kiri4
 ,serpent-worship1 #cj-cc1 #bgh1 #bgi1  
#che4 ,seven ,gods of ,good ,fortune1   
#bag1 #bah4 ,shaka1 #afj1 #afa1 #agi1   
#bed4 ,shakyamuni1 see ,shaka4          
,shaminism1 #ae-ag4 ,shang-,ti1 #ajc1   
#ajd4 ,shari1 #ahb4 ,shastra and ,sutra1
 #bca4 ,shichimen1 #bgh4 ,shigomori1    
#abj4 ,shimabara1 #cdd4 ,shingaku       
movement1 #cfi1 #cgj4 ,shingon sect1    
#ahe1 #bjc1 #bdh-bea4 ,shinran1         
#bga-bgd4 ,shin sect1 #bgj-bgf1 #cag4   
,shint1 #ch1 #db1 #gf1 #hi1 #if1 #ig1   
#adb1 #ahd1 #aie1 #bad1 #cai4 ,sin1     
#bhe1 #bhh4 ,sh-gun1 #aaj1 #aae1 #adc4  

,shomon1 #bcf4 ,shtoku1 #ahj1 #aha1     
#bjh1 #bcf1 #cac4 ,siddartha1 #daj4     
,soga no ,inam1 #ahj4 ,soshi1 #ie1 #bgh4
 ,southern ,buddhism1 #afe1 #afg4       
,spaniards1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cdj1 #cdg4     
,stars1 #ib4 ,statistics of ,buddhism1  
#cji4   of ,shint1 #djj1 #dja4 ,sugawara
 ,michizan1 #bjd4 ,suicide1 #aab1       
#aah-aba1 #adg1 #aea4 ,suiko1 #ahj4     
,sung dynasty1 #dad1 #dcg4 ,sun-goddess1
 #ff1 #ajd1 #bja1 #bjc4 ,sun-worship1   
#df1 #dg1 #hb1 #hg4 ,swastika1 #cje4    
,swords1 #g1 #cgh4 ,syle1 ,rev4 ,e4,w41 
#cf4 ,syncretism1 #aia-aid1 #bje4       
,synergism1 #bfh1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,szma     
,kwang1 #ach4  ,taik1 see ,hidyoshi4    
,takahashi1 ,mr4 ,gor1 #chd4 ,takashi1  
,rev4 ,dai-,ryo1 #bch4 ,taktori         
,monogatari1 #dbc4 ,tantra system1 #aid4
 ,taism1 #ajf1 #bae1 #bah4 ,tathagata1  
#bei4 ,tathata1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,taylor1    
,bayard1 #chj4 ,tea plant1 #bjh4        
,ti-,shn philosophy1 #aci1 #ade4        
,temples1 #hc1 #ic1 #bji1 #cje-cji4     
,ten1 #add4 ,tendai sect1 #ahe1         

#bdd-bdh1 #bfh4 ,tenjin1 #bjd4 ,tenn1   
#ahd4 ,tenshi1 #ahd4 ,terence1 #abh4    
,theism1 #agb4 ,theological seminaries1 
#f-h4 ,tibet1 #afe1 #afg1 #agj4         
,tobacco1 #bji4 ,tokugawas1 #ada1 #adc1 
#cef1 #cfe4 ,torii1 #hd1 #baj4          
,tortoise1 #ai4 ,transmigration of      
souls1 #cae4 ,tree-worship1 #cj1 #ca4   
,triads1 #aga1 #bee1 #bgi4 ,trinity1    
#dbh4 ,tripitaka1 #afj1 #agj1 #bca4     
,tsuji1 ,rev4 ,ken-ko1 #dbe4 ,tsukushi1 
#dd4 ,tsushima1 #dd4 ,tycoon1 see       
,sh-gun4  ,uda1 ,rev4 ,sho-,hen1 #dbe4  
,upanishads1 #aef1 #afa1 #afb4 ,ushi    
toki mairi1 #ca4 ,uzum1 #fh4  ,vagra1   
#cje4 ,vagrabodhi1 #bdh1 #bdi4          
,vairokana1 #ahd1 #bdd1 #bej4 ,vedas1   
#aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb4 ,vehicles1
 the three1 #bcd1 #bce2 see also        
,hinayana and ,mahayana4 ,victims1 #gd4 
,washington1 #aad4 ,western ,paradise1  
#bgg4 ,wheel of the law1 #cjb4 ,whitney1
 ,prof4 ,w4,d41 #baa1 #bgg4 ,william the
 ,silent1 #aad4 ,woman1 #abc1 #adi1     
#bge1 #cah-cbj4  ,xavier1 #cbd1 #cbi1   

#ccj1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cdg4  ,yamato1 #dd1  
#gf1 #hg1 #ia1 #aji1 #agg1 #agi4        
,damashii1 #dd1 #adg1 #aea1 #aeb1 #agb4 
,yamato-,tosa art1 #aad1 ,yedo1 #aaj1   
#aae1 #aai1 #ada1 #bbj1 #bch1 #cdj1     
#cfj1 #cff4 ,yen ,sect1 #beb-bef4 ,yezo1
 #dc1 #cag4 ,yoga1 #aeg1 #aig1 #aii1    
#bja1 #bji1 #baa4 ,yoga-chara1 #aid1    
#bjc1 #bdi4 ,yokoi ,hishiro1 #aab1 #caf1
 #cff1 #cfg4 ,yori1 see ,phallicism4    
,yoshida ,shoin1 #adg4 ,yoshiwara       
system1 #djd4  ,zend1 #bfa-bfb1 #bfg4   
,zenkji1 #agi1 #aha4