file which includes the original remarkable illustrations4 ,see #aedia-;h4htm or #aedia-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/d_/i_/aedia_/aedia-;h_/#aedia-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/d_/i_/aedia_/aedia-;h_/#aedia-;h4zip7 ,the reader of this text file should understand that words or phrases between underscores should be imagined to be set in italics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the ,council of the ,,royal ,,society of ,london for ,improving of ,natural ,knowledge4 ,ordered1 ,that the ,book written by ,robert ,hooke1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow of this ,society1 ,entituled1 ,micrographia1 or some ,physiological ,descriptions of ,minute ,bodies1 made by ,magnifying ,glasses1 with ,observations and ,inquiries thereupon1 ,be printed by ,john ,martyn1 and ,james ,allestry1 ,printers to the said ,society4 ,novem4 #bc4 #affd4 ,,brouncker4 ,p4,r4,s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,micrographia3 ,,or ,,some ,physiological ,descriptions ,,of ,,minute ,,bodies ,,made ,,by ,,magnifying ,,glasses ,,with ,,observations and ,,inquiries thereupon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by ,r4 ,,hooke1 ,fellow of the ,,royal ,,society4 99 99 99 99 99 ,non possis oculo quantum contendere ,linceus1 ,non tamen idcirco contemnas ,lippus inungi4 ,horat4 ,ep4 lib4 #a4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,london1 ,printed by ,jo4 ,martyn1 and ,ja4 ,allestry1 ,printers to the ,,royal ,,society1 and are to be sold at their ,shop at the ,bell in ,s4 ,paul's ,church-yard4 ,m ,,dc ,,lx ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,to ,,the ,,king4 ,,sir1 ,i ,do here most humbly lay this small ,present at ,your ,majesties ,royal feet4 ,and though it comes accompany'd with two disadvantages1 the meanness of the ,author1 and of the ,subject2 yet in both ,i am incouraged by the greatness of your ,mercy and your ,knowledge4 ,by the one ,i am taught1 that you can forgive the most presumptuous ,offendors3 ,and by the other1 that you will not esteem the least work of ,nature1 or ,art1 unworthy your ,observation4 ,amidst the many felicities that have accompani'd your ,majesties happy ,restauration and ,government1 it is none of the least considerable that ,philosophy and ,experimental ,learning have prosper'd under your ,royal ,patronage4 ,and as the calm prosperity of your ,reign has given us the leisure to follow these ,studies of quiet and retirement1 so it is just1 that the ,fruits of them should1 by way of acknowledgement1 be return'd to your ,majesty4 ,there are1 ,sir1 several other of your ,subjects1 of your ,royal ,society1 now busie about ,nobler matters3 ,the ,improvement of ,manufactures and ,agriculture1 the ,increase of ,commerce1 the ,advantage of ,navigation3 ,in all which they are assisted by your ,majesties ,incouragement and ,example4 ,amidst all those greater ,designs1 ,i here presume to bring in that which is more proportionable to the smalness of my ,abilities1 and to offer some of the least of all visible things1 to that ,mighty ,king1 that has establisht an ,empire over the best of all ,invisible things of this ,world1 the ,minds of ,men4 ,your ,majesties most humble and most obedient ,subject and ,servant1 ,,robert ,,hooke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,to ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,after my ,address to our ,great ,founder and ,patron1 ,i could not but think my self oblig'd1 in consideration of those many ,ingagements you have laid upon me1 to offer these my poor ,labours to this ,,most ,,illustrious ,,assembly4 ,,you have been pleas'd formerly to accept of these rude ,draughts4 ,i have since added to them some ,descriptions1 and some ,conjectures of my own4 ,and therefore1 together with ,,your ,acceptance1 ,i must also beg ,,your pardon4 ,the ,rules ,,you have prescrib'd ,,your selves in ,,your ,philosophical ,progress do seem the best that have ever yet been practis'd4 ,and particularly that of avoiding ,dogmatizing1 and the espousal of any ,hypothesis not sufficiently grounded and confirm'd by ,experiments4 ,this way seems the most excellent1 and may preserve both ,philosophy and ,natural ,history from its former ,corruptions4 ,in saying which1 ,i may seem to condemn my own ,course in this ,treatise2 in which there may perhaps be some ,expressions1 which may seem more positive then ,,your ,prescriptions will permit3 ,and though ,i desire to have them understood only as ,conjectures and ,quries 7which ,,your ,method does not altogether disallow7 yet if even in those ,i have exceeded1 'tis fit that ,i should declare1 that it was not done by ,,your ,directions4 ,for it is most unreasonable1 that ,,you should undergo the imputation of the faults of my ,conjectures1 seeing ,,you can receive so small advantage of reputation by the sleight ,observations of ,,your most humble and most faithful ,servant ,,robert ,,hooke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,preface4 ,it is the great prerogative of ,mankind above other ,creatures1 that we are not only able to behold the works of ,nature1 or barely to sustein our lives by them1 but we have also the power of considering1 comparing1 altering1 assisting1 and improving them to various uses4 ,and as this is the peculiar priviledge of humane ,nature in general1 so is it capable of being so far advanced by the helps of ,art1 and ,experience1 as to make some ,men excel others in their ,observations1 and ,deductions1 almost as much as they do ,beasts4 ,by the addition of such artificial ,instruments and methods1 there may be1 in some manner1 a reparation made for the mischiefs1 and imperfection1 mankind has drawn upon it self1 by negligence1 and intemperance1 and a wilful and superstitious deserting the ,prescripts and ,rules of ,nature1 whereby every man1 both from a deriv'd corruption1 innate and born with him1 and from his breeding and converse with men1 is very subject to slip into all sorts of errors4 ,the only way which now remains for us to recover some degree of those former perfections1 seems to be1 by rectifying the operations of the ,sense1 the ,memory1 and ,reason1 since upon the evidence1 the strength1 the integrity1 and the right correspondence of all these1 all the light1 by which our actions are to be guided is to be renewed1 and all our command over things is to be establisht4 ,it is therefore most worthy of our consideration1 to recollect their several defects1 that so we may the better understand how to supply them1 and by what assistances we may inlarge their power1 and secure them in performing their particular duties4 ,as for the actions of our ,senses1 we cannot but observe them to be in many particulars much outdone by those of other ,creatures1 and when at best1 to be far short of the perfection they seem capable of3 ,and these infirmities of the ,senses arise from a double cause1 either from the disproportion of the ,object to the ,organ1 whereby an infinite number of things can never enter into them1 or else from error in the ,perception1 that many things1 which come within their reach1 are not received in a right manner4 ,the like frailties are to be found in the ,memory2 we often let many things slip away from us1 which deserve to be retain'd1 and of those which we treasure up1 a great part is either frivolous or false2 and if good1 and substantial1 either in tract of time obliterated1 or at best so overwhelmed and buried under more frothy notions1 that when there is need of them1 they are in vain sought for4 ,the two main foundations being so deceivable1 it is no wonder1 that all the succeeding works which we build upon them1 of arguing1 concluding1 defining1 judging1 and all the other degrees of ,reason1 are lyable to the same imperfection1 being1 at best1 either vain1 or uncertain3 ,so that the errors of the understanding are answerable to the two other1 being defective both in the quantity and goodness of its knowledge2 for the limits1 to which our thoughts are confin'd1 are small in respect of the vast extent of ,nature it self2 some parts of it are too large to be comprehended1 and some too little to be perceived4 ,and from thence it must follow1 that not having a full sensation of the ,object1 we must be very lame and imperfect in our conceptions about it1 and in all the proportions which we build upon it2 hence1 we often take the shadow of things for the substance1 small appearances for good similitudes1 similitudes for definitions2 and even many of those1 which we think1 to be the most solid definitions1 are rather expressions of our own misguided apprehensions then of the true nature of the things themselves4 ,the effects of these imperfections are manifested in different ways1 according to the temper and disposition of the several minds of men1 some they incline to gross ignorance and stupidity1 and others to a presumptuous imposing on other mens ,opinions1 and a confident dogmatizing on matters1 whereof there is no assurance to be given4 ,thus all the uncertainty1 and mistakes of humane actions1 proceed either from the narrowness and wandring of our ,senses1 from the slipperiness or delusion of our ,memory1 from the confinement or rashness of our ,understanding1 so that 'tis no wonder1 that our power over natural causes and effects is so slowly improv'd1 seeing we are not only to contend with the obscurity and difficulty of the things whereon we work and think1 but even the forces of our own minds conspire to betray us4 ,these being the dangers in the process of humane ,reason1 the remedies of them all can only proceed from the real1 the mechanical1 the experimental ,philosophy1 which has this advantage over the ,philosophy of discourse and disputation1 that whereas that chiefly aims at the subtilty of its ,deductions and ,conclusions1 without much regard to the first ground-work1 which ought to be well laid on the ,sense and ,memory2 so this intends the right ordering of them all1 and the making them serviceable to each other4 ,the first thing to be undertaken in this weighty work1 is a watchfulness over the failings and an inlargement of the dominion1 of the ,senses4 ,to which end it is requisite1 first1 ,that there should be a scrupulous choice1 and a strict examination1 of the reality1 constancy1 and certainty of the ,particulars that we admit3 ,this is the first rise whereon truth is to begin1 and here the most severe1 and most impartial diligence1 must be imployed2 the storing up of all1 without any regard to evidence or use1 will only tend to darkness and confusion4 ,we must not therefore esteem the riches of our ,philosophical treasure by the number only1 but chiefly by the weight2 the most vulgar ,instances are not to be neglected1 but above all1 the most instructive are to be entertain'd2 the footsteps of ,nature are to be trac'd1 not only in her ordinary course1 but when she seems to be put to her shifts1 to make many doublings and turnings1 and to use some kind of art in indeavouring to avoid our discovery4 ,the next care to be taken1 in respect of the ,senses1 is a supplying of their infirmities with ,instruments1 and1 as it were1 the adding of artificial ,organs to the natural2 this in one of them has been of late years accomplisht with prodigious benefit to all sorts of useful knowledge1 by the invention of ,optical ,glasses4 ,by the means of ,telescopes1 there is nothing so far distant but may be represented to our view2 and by the help of ,microscopes1 there is nothing so small1 as to escape our inquiry2 hence there is a new visible ,world discovered to the understanding4 ,by this means the ,heavens are open'd1 and a vast number of new ,stars1 and new ,motions1 and new ,productions appear in them1 to which all the antient ,astronomers were utterly ,strangers4 ,by this the ,earth it self1 which lyes so neer us1 under our feet1 shews quite a new thing to us1 and in every little particle of its matter2 we now behold almost as great a variety of ,creatures1 as we were able before to reckon up in the whole ,universe it self4 ,it seems not improbable1 but that by these helps the subtilty of the composition of ,bodies1 the structure of their parts1 the various texture of their matter1 the instruments and manner of their inward motions1 and all the other possible appearances of things1 may come to be more fully discovered2 all which the antient ,peripateticks were content to comprehend in two general and 7unless further explain'd7 useless words of ,matter and ,form4 ,from whence there may arise many admirable advantages1 towards the increase of the ,operative1 and the ,mechanick ,knowledge1 to which this ,age seems so much inclined1 because we may perhaps be inabled to discern all the secret workings of ,nature1 almost in the same manner as we do those that are the productions of ,art1 and are manag'd by ,wheels1 and ,engines1 and ,springs1 that were devised by humane ,wit4 ,in this kind ,i here present to the ,world my imperfect ,indeavours2 which though they shall prove no other way considerable1 yet1 ,i hope1 they may be in some measure useful to the main ,design of a reformation in ,philosophy1 if it be only by shewing1 that there it not so much requir'd towards it1 any strength of ,imagination1 or exactness of ,method1 or depth of ,contemplation 7though the addition of these1 where they can be had1 must needs produce a much more perfect composure7 as a sincere ,hand1 and a faithful ,eye1 to examine1 and to record1 the things themselves as they appear4 ,and ,i beg my ,reader1 to let me take the boldness to assure him1 that in this present condition of knowledge1 a man so qualified1 as ,i have indeavoured to be1 only with resolution1 and integrity1 and plain intentions of imploying his ,senses aright1 may venture to compare the reality and the usefulness of his services1 towards the true ,philosophy1 with those of other men1 that are of much stronger1 and more acute speculations1 that shall not make use of the same method by the ,senses4 ,the truth is1 the ,science of ,nature has been already too long made only a work of the ,brain and the ,fancy3 ,it is now high time that it should return to the plainness and soundness of ,observations on material and obvious things4 ,it is said of great ,empires1 ,that the best way to preserve them from decay1 is to bring them back to the first ,principles1 and ,arts1 on which they did begin4 ,the same is undoubtedly true in ,philosophy1 that by wandring far away into invisible ,notions1 has almost quite destroy'd it self1 and it can never be recovered1 or continued1 but by returning into the same sensible paths1 in which it did at first proceed4 ,if therefore the ,reader expects from me any infallible ,deductions1 or certainty of ,axioms1 ,i am to say for my self1 that those stronger ,works of ,wit and ,imagination are above my weak ,abilities2 or if they had not been so1 ,i would not have made use of them in this present ,subject before me3 ,whenever he finds that ,i have ventur'd at any small ,conjectures1 at the causes of the things that ,i have observed1 ,i beseech him to look upon them only as doubtful ,problems1 and uncertain ghesses1 and not as unquestionable ,conclusions1 or matters of unconfutable ,science2 ,i have produced nothing here1 with intent to bind his understanding to an implicit consent2 ,i am so far from that1 that ,i desire him1 not absolutely to rely upon these ,observations of my eyes1 if he finds them contradicted by the future ,ocular ,experiments of sober and impartial ,discoverers4 ,as for my part1 ,i have obtained my end1 if these my small ,labours shall be thought fit to take up some place in the large stock of natural ,observations1 which so many hands are busie in providing4 ,if ,i have contributed the meanest foundations whereon others may raise nobler ,superstructures1 ,i am abundantly satisfied2 and all my ambition is1 that ,i may serve to the great ,philosophers of this ,age1 as the makers and the grinders of my ,glasses did to me2 that ,i may prepare and furnish them with some ,materials1 which they may afterwards order and manage with better skill1 and to far greater advantage4 ,the next remedies in this universal cure of the ,mind are to be applied to the ,memory1 and they are to consist of such ,directions as may inform us1 what things are best to be stor'd up for our purpose1 and which is the best way of so disposing them1 that they may not only be kept in safety1 but ready and convenient1 to be at any time produc'd for use1 as occasion shall require4 ,but ,i will not here prevent my self in what ,i may say in another ,discourse1 wherein ,i shall make an attempt to propose some ,considerations of the manner of compiling a ,natural and ,artificial ,history1 and of so ranging and registring its ,particulars into ,philosophical ,tables1 as may make them most useful for the raising of ,axioms and ,theories4 ,the last indeed is the most hazardous ,enterprize1 and yet the most necessary2 and that is1 to take such care that the ,judgment and the ,reason of ,man 7which is the third ,faculty to be repair'd and improv'd7 should receive such assistance1 as to avoid the dangers to which it is by nature most subject4 ,the ,imperfections1 which ,i have already mention'd1 to which it is lyable1 do either belong to the extent1 or the goodness of its knowledge2 and here the difficulty is the greater1 least that which may be thought a remedy for the one should prove destructive to the other1 least by seeking to inlarge our ,knowledge1 we should render it weak and uncertain2 and least by being too scrupulous and exact about every ,circumstance of it1 we should confine and streighten it too much4 ,in both these the middle wayes are to be taken1 nothing is to be omitted1 and yet every thing to pass a mature deliberation3 ,no ,intelligence from ,men of all ,professions1 and quarters of the ,world1 to be slighted1 and yet all to be so severely examin'd1 that there remain no room for doubt or instability2 much rigour in admitting1 much strictness in comparing1 and above all1 much slowness in debating1 and shyness in determining1 is to be practised4 ,the ,understanding is to order all the inferiour services of the lower ,faculties2 but yet it is to do this only as a lawful ,master1 and not as a ,tyrant4 ,it must not incroach upon their ,offices1 nor take upon it self the employments which belong to either of them4 ,it must watch the irregularities of the ,senses1 but it must not go before them1 or prevent their information4 ,it must examine1 range1 and dispose of the bank which is laid up in the ,memory3 but it must be sure to make distinction between the sober and well collected heap1 and the extravagant ,ideas1 and mistaken ,images1 which there it may sometimes light upon4 ,so many are the links1 upon which the true ,philosophy depends1 of which1 if any one be loose1 or weak1 the whole chain is in danger of being dissolv'd2 it is to begin with the ,hands and ,eyes1 and to proceed on through the ,memory1 to be continued by the ,reason2 nor is it to stop there1 but to come about to the ,hands and ,eyes again1 and so1 by a continual passage round from one ,faculty to another1 it is to be maintained in life and strength1 as much as the body of man is by the circulation of the blood through the several parts of the body1 the ,arms1 the ,feet1 the ,lungs1 the ,heart1 and the ,head4 ,if once this method were followed with diligence and attention1 there is nothing that lyes within the power of human ,wit 7or which is far more effectual7 of human ,industry1 which we might not compass2 we might not only hope for ,inventions to equalize those of ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 ,gilbert1 ,harvy1 and of others1 whose ,names are almost lost1 that were the ,inventors of ,gun-powder1 the ,seamans ,compass1 ,printing1 ,etching1 ,graving1 ,microscopes1 c4 but multitudes that may far exceed them3 for even those discoveries seem to have been the products of some such method1 though but imperfect2 ,what may not be therefore expected from it if thoroughly prosecuted8 ,talking and contention of ,arguments would soon be turn'd into labours2 all the fine dreams of ,opinions1 and universal metaphysical natures1 which the luxury of subtil ,brains has devis'd1 would quickly vanish1 and give place to solid ,histories1 ,experiments and ,works4 ,and as at first1 mankind fell by tasting of the forbidden ,tree of ,knowledge1 so we1 their ,posterity1 may be in part restor'd by the same way1 not only by beholding and contemplating1 but by tasting too those fruits of ,natural knowledge1 that were never yet forbidden4 ,from hence the ,world may be assisted with variety of ,inventions1 new matter for ,sciences may be collected1 the old improv'd1 and their rust rubb'd away2 and as it is by the benefit of ,senses that we receive all our ,skill in the works of ,nature1 so they also may be wonderfully benefited by it1 and may be guided to an easier and more exact performance of their ,offices2 'tis not unlikely1 but that we may find out wherein our ,senses are deficient1 and as easily find wayes of repairing them4 ,the ,indeavours of ,skilful men have been most conversant about the assistance of the ,eye1 and many noble ,productions have followed upon it2 and from hence we may conclude1 that there is a way open'd for advancing the operations1 not only of all the other ,senses1 but even of the ,eye it self2 that which has been already done ought not to content us1 but rather to incourage us to proceed further1 and to attempt greater things in the same and different wayes4 ',tis not unlikely1 but that there may be yet invented several other helps for the eye1 at much exceeding those already found1 as those do the bare eye1 such as by which we may perhaps be able to discover living ,creatures in the ,moon1 or other ,planets1 the figures of the compounding ,particles of matter1 and the particular ,schematisms and ,textures of ,bodies4 ,and as ,glasses have highly promoted our seeing1 so 'tis not improbable1 but that there may be found many ,mechanical ,inventions to improve our other ,senses1 of hearing1 smelling1 tasting1 touching4 ',tis not impossible to hear a whisper a furlongs distance1 it having been already done2 and perhaps the nature of the thing would not make it more impossible1 though that furlong should be ten times multiply'd4 ,and though some famous ,authors have affirm'd it impossible to hear through the thinnest plate of ,muscovy-glass2 yet ,i know a way1 by which 'tis easie enough to hear one speak through a wall a yard thick4 ,it has not been yet thoroughly examin'd1 how far ,otocousticons may be improv'd1 nor what other wayes there may be of quickning our hearing1 or conveying sound through other bodies then the ,air3 for that that is not the only medium1 ,i can assure the ,reader1 that ,i have1 by the help of a distended wire1 propagated the sound to a very considerable distance in an instant1 or with as seemingly quick a motion as that of light1 at least1 incomparably swifter then that1 which at the same time was propagated through the ,air2 and this not only in a straight line1 or direct1 but in one bended in many angles4 ,nor are the other three so perfect1 but that diligence1 attention1 and many mechanical contrivances1 may also highly improve them4 ,for since the sense of smelling seems to be made by the swift passage of the ,air 7impregnated with the steams and effluvia of several odorous ,bodies7 through the grisly meanders of the ,nose whose surfaces are cover'd with a very sensible nerve1 and moistned by a transudation from the processus mamillares of the ,brain1 and some adjoyning glandules1 and by the moist steam of the ,lungs1 with a ,liquor convenient for the reception of those effluvia and by the adhesion and mixing of those steams with that liquor1 and thereby affecting the nerve1 or perhaps by insinuating themselves into the juices of the brain1 after the same manner1 as ,i have in the following ,observations intimated1 the parts of ,salt to pass through the skins of ,effs1 and ,frogs4 ,since1 ,i say1 smelling seems to be made by some such way1 'tis not improbable1 but that some contrivance1 for making a great quantity of ,air pass quick through the ,nose1 might as much promote the sense of smelling1 as the any wayes hindring that passage does dull and destroy it4 ,several tryals ,i have made1 both of hindring and promoting this sense1 and have succeeded in some according to expectation2 and indeed to me it seems capable of being improv'd1 for the judging of the constitutions of many ,bodies4 ,perhaps we may thereby also judge 7as other ,creatures seem to do7 what is wholsome1 what poyson2 and in a word1 what are the specifick properties of ,bodies4 ,there may be also some other mechanical wayes found out1 of sensibly perceiving the effluvia of ,bodies2 several ,instances of which1 were it here proper1 ,i could give of ,mineral steams and exhalations2 and it seems not impossible1 but that by some such wayes improved1 may be discovered1 what ,minerals lye buried under the ,earth1 without the trouble to dig for them2 some things to confirm this ,conjecture may be found in ,agricola1 and other ,writers of ,minerals1 speaking of the ,vegetables that are apt to thrive1 or pine1 in those steams4 ,whether also those steams1 which seem to issue out of the ,earth1 and mix with the ,air 7and so to precipitate some aqueous ,exhalations1 wherewith 'tis impregnated7 may not be by some way detected before they produce the effect1 seems hard to determine2 yet something of this kind ,i am able to discover1 by an ,instrument ,i contriv'd to shew all the minute variations in the pressure of the ,air2 by which ,i constantly find1 that before1 and during the time of rainy weather1 the pressure of the ,air is less1 and in dry weather1 but especially when an ,eastern ,wind 7which having past over vast tracts of ,land is heavy with ,earthy ,particles7 blows1 it is much more1 though these changes are varied according to very odd ,laws4 ,the ,instrument is this4 ,i prepare a pretty capacious ,bolt-head ,,ab1 with a small stem about two foot and a half long ,,dc2 upon the end of this ,d ,i put on a small bended ,glass1 or brazen syphon ,,def 7open at ,d1 ,e and ,f1 but to be closed with cement at ,f and ,e1 as occasion serves7 whose stem ,f should be about six or eight inches long1 but the bore of it not above half an inch diameter1 and very even2 these ,i fix very strongly together by the help of very hard ,cement1 and then fit the whole ,glass ,,abcdef into a long ,board1 or ,frame1 in such manner1 that almost half the head ,,ab may lye buried in a concave ,hemisphere cut into the ,board ,,rs2 then ,i place it so on the ,board ,,rs1 as is exprest in the first figure of the first ,scheme2 and fix it very firm and steady in that posture1 so as that the weight of the ,mercury that is afterwards to be put into it1 may not in the least shake or stir it2 then drawing a line ,,xy on the ,frame ,,rt1 so that it may divide the ball into two equal parts1 or that it may pass1 as 'twere1 through the center of the ball4 ,i begin from that1 and divide all the rest of the ,board towards ,,ut into inches1 and the inches between the #be and the end ,e 7which need not be above two or three and thirty inches distant from the line ,,xy7 ,i subdivide into ,decimals2 then stopping the end ,f with soft ,cement1 or soft ,wax1 ,i invert the ,frame1 placing the head downwards1 and the ,orifice ,e upwards2 and by it1 with a small ,funnel1 ,i fill the whole ,glass with ,quicksilver2 then by stopping the small ,orifice ,e with my finger1 ,i oftentimes erect and invert the whole ,glass and ,frame1 and thereby free the ,quicksilver and ,glass from all the bubbles or parcels of lurking ,air2 then inverting it as before1 ,i fill it top full with clear and well strain'd ,quicksilver1 and having made ready a small ball of pretty hard ,cement1 by heat made very soft1 ,i press it into the hole ,e1 and thereby stop it very fast2 and to secure this ,cement from flying out afterward1 ,i bind over it a piece of ,leather1 that is spread over in the inside with ,cement1 and wound about it while the ,cement is hot3 ,having thus fastned it1 ,i gently erect again the ,glass after this manner3 ,i first let the ,frame down edge-wayes1 till the edge ,,rv touch the ,floor1 or ly horizontal2 and then in that edging posture raise the end ,,rs2 this ,i do1 that if there chance to be any ,air hidden in the small ,pipe ,e1 it may ascend into the ,pipe ,f1 and not into the ,pipe ,,dc3 ,having thus erected it1 and hung it by the hole ,q1 or fixt it perpendicularly by any other means1 ,i open the end ,f1 and by a small ,syphon ,i draw out the ,mercury so long1 till ,i find the surface of it ,,ab in the head to touch exactly the line ,,xy2 at which time ,i immediately take away the ,syphon1 and if by chance it be run somewhat below the line ,,xy1 by pouring in gently a little ,mercury at ,f1 ,i raise it again to its desired height1 by this contrivance ,i make all the sensible rising and falling of the ,mercury to be visible in the surface of the ,mercury in the ,pipe ,f1 and scarce any in the head ,,ab4 ,but because there really is some small change of the upper surface also1 ,i find by several ,observations how much it rises in the ,ball1 and falls in the ,pipe ,f1 to make the distance between the two surfaces an inch greater then it was before2 and the measure that it falls in the ,pipe is the length of the inch by which ,i am to mark the parts of the ,tube ,f1 or the ,board on which it lyes1 into inches and ,decimals3 ,having thus justned and divided it1 ,i have a large ,wheel ,,mnop1 whose outmost limb is divided into two hundred equal parts2 this by certain small ,pillars is fixt on the ,frame ,,rt1 in the manner exprest in the ,figure4 ,in the middle of this1 on the back side1 in a convenient frame1 is placed a small ,cylinder1 whose circumference is equal to twice the length of one of those divisions1 which ,i find answer to an inch of ascent1 or descent1 of ,mercury3 ,this ,cylinder ,i1 is movable on a very small ,needle1 on the end of which is fixt a very light ,index ,,kl1 all which are so pois'd on the ,axis1 or ,needle1 that no part is heavier then another3 ,then about this ,cylinder is wound a small ,clew of ,silk1 with two small steel ,bullets at each end of it ,,gh2 one of these1 which is somewhat the heavier1 ought to be so big1 as freely to move to and fro in the ,pipe ,f2 by means of which contrivance1 every the least variation of the height of the ,mercury will be made exceeding visible by the motion to and fro of the small ,index ,,kl4 ,but this is but one way of discovering the effluvia of the ,earth mixt with the ,air2 there may be perhaps many others1 witness the ,hygroscope1 an ,instrument whereby the watery steams volatile in the ,air are discerned1 which the ,nose it self is not able to find4 ,this ,i have describ'd in the following ,tract in the ,description of the ,beard of a wild ,oat4 ,others there are1 may be discovered both by the ,nose1 and by other wayes also4 ,thus the smoak of burning ,wood is smelt1 seen1 and sufficiently felt by the eyes3 ,the fumes of burning ,brimstone are smelt and discovered also by the destroying the ,colours of ,bodies1 as by the whitening of a red ,rose3 ,and who knows1 but that the ,industry of man1 following this method1 may find out wayes of improving this sense to as great a degree of perfection at it is in any ,animal1 and perhaps yet higher4 ',tis not improbable also1 but that our taste may be very much improv'd1 either by preparing our taste for the ,body1 as1 after eating bitter things1 ,wine1 or other ,vinous liquors1 are more sensibly tasted2 or else by preparing ,bodies for our tast2 as the dissolving of ,metals with acid ,liquors1 make them tastable1 which were before altogether insipid2 thus ,lead becomes sweeter then ,sugar1 and ,silver more bitter then ,gall1 ,copper and ,iron of most loathsome tasts4 ,and indeed the business of this sense being to discover the presence of dissolved ,bodies in ,liquors put on the ,tongue1 or in general to discover that a fluid body has some solid body dissolv'd in it1 and what they are2 whatever contrivance makes this discovery improves this sense4 ,in this kind the mixtures of ,chymical ,liquors afford many ,instances2 as the sweet ,vinegar that is impregnated with ,lead may be discovered to be so by the affusion of a little of an ,alcalizate solution3 ,the bitter liquor of ,aqua fortis and ,silver may be discover'd to be charg'd with that ,metal1 by laying in it some plates of ,copper3 ',tis not improbable also1 but there may be multitudes of other wayes of discovering the parts dissolv'd1 or dissoluble in liquors2 and what is this discovery but a kind of secundary tasting4 ',tis not improbable also1 but that the sense of feeling may be highly improv'd1 for that being a sense that judges of the more gross and robust motions of the ,particles of ,bodies1 seems capable of being improv'd and assisted very many wayes4 ,thus for the distinguishing of ,heat and ,cold1 the ,weather-glass and ,thermometer1 which ,i have describ'd in this following ,treatise1 do exceedingly perfect it2 by each of which the least variations of heat or cold1 which the most ,acute sense is not able to distinguish1 are manifested4 ,this is oftentimes further promoted also by the help of ,burning-glasses1 and the like1 which collect and unite the radiating heat4 ,thus the roughness and smoothness of a ,body is made much more sensible by the help of a ,microscope1 then by the most tender and delicate ,hand4 ,perhaps1 a ,physitian might1 by several other tangible proprieties1 discover the constitution of a ,body as well as by the ,pulse4 ,i do but instance in these1 to shew what possibility there may be of many others1 and what probability and hopes there were of finding them1 if this method were followed2 for the ,offices of the five ,senses being to detect either the subtil and curious ,motions propagated through all pellucid or perfectly homogeneous ,bodies2 ,or the more gross and vibrative ,pulse communicated through the ,air and all other convenient mediums1 whether fluid or solid3 ,or the effluvia of ,bodies dissolv'd in the ,air2 ,or the particles of bodies dissolv'd or dissoluble in ,liquors1 or the more quick and violent shaking motion of heat in all or any of these3 whatsoever does any wayes promote any of these kinds of criteria1 does afford a way of improving some one sense4 ,and what a multitude of these would a diligent ,man meet with in his inquiries8 ,and this for the helping and promoting the sensitive faculty only4 ,next1 as for the ,memory1 or retentive faculty1 we may be sufficiently instructed from the written ,histories of civil actions1 what great assistance may be afforded the ,memory1 in the committing to writing things observable in natural operations4 ,if a ,physitian be therefore accounted the more able in his ,faculty1 because he has had long experience and practice1 the remembrance of which1 though perhaps very imperfect1 does regulate all his after actions3 ,what ought to be thought of that man1 that has not only a perfect register of his own experience1 but is grown old with the experience of many hundreds of years1 and many thousands of men4 ,and though of late1 men1 beginning to be sensible of this convenience1 have here and there registred and printed some few ,centuries1 yet for the most part they are set down very lamely and imperfectly1 and1 ,i fear1 many times not so truly1 they seeming1 several of them1 to be design'd more for ,ostentation then publique use3 ,for1 not to instance1 that they do1 for the most part1 omit those ,experiences they have made1 wherein their ,patients have miscarried1 it is very easie to be perceiv'd1 that they do all along hyperbolically extol their own ,prescriptions1 and vilifie those of others4 ,notwithstanding all which1 these kinds of ,histories are generally esteem'd useful1 even to the ablest ,physitian4 ,what may not be expected from the rational or deductive ,faculty that is furnisht with such ,materials1 and those so readily adapted1 and rang'd for use1 that in a moment1 as 'twere1 thousands of ,instances1 serving for the illustration1 determination1 or invention1 of almost any inquiry1 may be represented even to the sight8 ,how neer the nature of ,axioms must all those ,propositions be which are examin'd before so many ,witnesses8 ,and how difficult will it be for any1 though never so subtil an error in ,philosophy1 to scape from being discover'd1 after it has indur'd the touch1 and so many other tryals8 ,what kind of mechanical way1 and physical invention also is there requir'd that might not this way be found out8 ,the ,invention of a way to find the ,longitude of places is easily perform'd1 and that to as great perfection as is desir'd1 or to at great an accurateness as the ,latitude of places can be found at ,sea2 and perhaps yet also to a greater certainty then that has been hitherto found1 as ,i shall very speedily freely manifest to the world4 ,the way of flying in the ,air seems principally unpracticable1 by reason of the want of strength in humane muscles2 if therefore that could be suppli'd1 it were1 ,i think1 easie to make twenty contrivances to perform the office of ,wings3 ,what ,attempts also ,i have made for the supplying that ,defect1 and my successes therein1 which1 ,i think1 are wholly new1 and not inconsiderable1 ,i shall in another place relate4 ',tis not unlikely also1 but that ,chymists1 if they followed this method1 might find out their so much sought for ,alkahest4 ,what an universal ,menstruum1 which dissolves all sorts of ,sulphureous ,bodies1 ,i have discover'd 7which has not been before taken notice of as such7 ,i have shewn in the sixteenth ,observation4 ,what a prodigious variety of ,inventions in ,anatomy has this latter ,age afforded1 even in our own ,bodies in the very ,heart1 by which we live1 and the ,brain1 which is the seat of our knowledge of other things8 witness all the excellent ,works of ,pecquet1 ,bartholinus1 ,billius1 and many others2 and at home1 of ,doctor ,harvy1 ,doctor ,ent1 ,doctor ,willis1 ,doctor ,glisson4 ,in ,celestial ,observations we have far exceeded all the ,antients1 even the ,chaldeans and ,egyptians themselves1 whose vast ,plains1 high ,towers1 and clear ,air1 did not give them so great advantages over us1 as have over them by our ,glasses4 ,by the help of which1 they have been very much outdone by the famous ,galileo1 ,hevelius1 ,zulichem2 and our own ,countrymen1 ,mr4 ,rook1 ,doctor ,wren1 and the great ,ornament of our ,church and ,nation1 the ,lord ,bishop of ,exeter4 ,and to say no more in ,aerial ,discoveries1 there has been a wonderful progress made by the ,noble ,engine of the most ,illustrious ,mr4 ,boyle1 whom it becomes me to mention with all honour1 not only as my particular ,patron1 but as the ,patron of ,philosophy it self2 which he every day increases by his ,labours1 and adorns by his ,example4 ,the good success of all these great ,men1 and many others1 and the now seemingly great obviousness of most of their and divers other ,inventions1 which from the beginning of the world have been1 as 'twere1 trod on1 and yet not minded till these last inquisitive ,ages 7an ,argument that there may be yet behind multitudes of the like7 puts me in mind to recommend such ,studies1 and the prosecution of them by such methods1 to the ,gentlemen of our ,nation1 whose leisure makes them fit to undertake1 and the plenty of their fortunes to accomplish1 extraordinary things in this way4 ,and ,i do not only propose this kind of ,experimental ,philosophy as a matter of high rapture and delight of the mind1 but even as a material and sensible ,pleasure4 ,so vast it the variety of ,objects which will come under their ,inspections1 so many different wayes there are of handling them1 so great is the satisfaction of finding out new things1 that ,i dare compare the contentment which they will injoy1 not only to that of contemplation1 but even to that which most men prefer of the very ,senses themselves4 ,and if they will please to take any incouragement from so mean and so imperfect endeavours as mine1 upon my own experience1 ,i can assure them1 without arrogance1 ,that there has not been any inquiry or ,problem in ,mechanicks1 that ,i have hitherto propounded to my self1 but by a certain method 7which ,i may on some other opportunity explain7 ,i have been able presently to examine the possibility of it2 and if so1 as easily to excogitate divers wayes of performing it3 ,and indeed it is possible to do as much by this method in ,mechanicks1 as by ,algebra can be perform'd in ,geometry4 ,nor can ,i at all doubt1 but that the same method is as applicable to ,physical ,enquiries1 and as likely to find and reap thence as plentiful a crop of ,inventions2 and indeed there seems to be no subject so barren1 but may with this good husbandry be highly improv'd4 ,toward the prosecution of this method in ,physical ,inquiries1 ,i have here and there gleaned up an handful of ,observations1 in the collection of most of which ,i made use of ,microscopes1 and some other ,glasses and ,instruments that improve the sense2 which way ,i have herein taken1 not that there are not multitudes of useful and pleasant ,observables1 yet uncollected1 obvious enough without the helps of ,art1 but only to promote the use of ,mechanical helps for the ,senses1 both in the surveying the already visible ,world1 and for the discovery of many others hitherto unknown1 and to make us1 with the great ,conqueror1 to be affected that we have not yet overcome one ,world when there are so many others to be discovered1 every considerable improvement of ,telescopes or ,microscopes producing new ,worlds and ,terra-,incognita's to our view4 ,the ,glasses ,i used were of our ,english make1 but though very good of the kind1 yet far short of what might be expected1 could we once find a way of making ,glasses ,elliptical1 or of some more true shape2 for though both ,microscopes1 and ,telescopes1 as they now are1 will magnifie an ,object about a thousand thousand times bigger then it appears to the naked eye2 yet the ,apertures of the ,object glasses are so very small1 that very few ,rays are admitted1 and even of those few there are so many false1 that the ,object appears dark and indistinct3 ,and indeed these inconveniences are such1 as seem inseparable from ,spherical ,glasses1 even when most exactly made2 but the way we have hitherto made use of for that purpose is so imperfect1 that there may be perhaps ten wrought before one be made tolerably good1 and most of those ten perhaps every one differing in goodness one from another1 which is an ,argument1 that the way hitherto used is1 at least1 very uncertain4 ,so that these ,glasses have a double defect2 the one1 that very few of them are exactly true wrought2 the other1 that even of those that are best among them1 none will admit a sufficient number of ,rayes to magnifie the ,object beyond a determinate bigness4 ,against which ,inconveniences the only ,remedies ,i have hitherto met with are these4 ,first1 for ,microscopes 7where the ,object we view is near and within our power7 the best way of making it appear bright in the ,glass1 is to cast a great quantity of light on it by means of convex glasses1 for thereby1 though the aperture be very small1 yet there will throng in through it such multitudes1 that an ,object will by this means indure to be magnifi'd as much again as it would be without it4 ,the way for doing which is this4 ,i make choice of some ,room that has only one window open to the ,south1 and at about three or four foot distance from this ,window1 on a ,table1 ,i place my ,microscope1 and then so place either a round ,globe of ,water1 or a very deep clear plano convex ,glass 7whose convex side is turn'd towards the ,window7 that there is a great quantity of ,rayes collected and thrown upon the ,object3 ,or if the ,sun shine1 ,i place a small piece of oyly ,paper very near the ,object1 between that and the light2 then with a good large ,burning-,glass ,i so collect and throw the ,rayes on the ,paper1 that there may be a very great quantity of light pass through it to the ,object2 yet ,i so proportion that light1 that it may not singe or burn the ,paper4 ,instead of which ,paper there may be made use of a small piece of ,looking-glass plate1 one of whose sides is made rough by being rubb'd on a flat ,tool with very fine sand1 this will1 if the heat be leisurely cast on it1 indure a much greater degree of heat1 and consequently very much augment a convenient light4 ,by all which means the light of the ,sun1 or of a ,window1 may be so cast on an ,object1 as to make it twice as light as it would otherwise be without it1 and that without any inconvenience of glaring1 which the immediate light of the ,sun is very apt to create in most ,objects2 for by this means the light is so equally diffused1 that all parts are alike inlightned2 but when the immediate light of the ,sun falls on it1 the reflexions from some few parts are so vivid1 that they drown the appearance of all the other1 and are themselves also1 by reason of the inequality of light1 indistinct1 and appear only radiant spots4 ,but because the light of the ,sun1 and also that of a ,window1 is in a continual variation1 and so many ,objects cannot be view'd long enough by them to be throughly examin'd2 besides that1 oftentimes the ,weather is so dark and cloudy1 that for many dayes together nothing can be view'd3 ,and because also there are many ,objects to be met with in the night1 which cannot so conveniently be kept perhaps till the day1 therefore to procure and cast a sufficient quantity of light on an ,object in the night1 ,i thought of1 and often used this1 ,expedient4 ,i procur'd me a small ,pedestal1 such as is describ'd in the fifth ,figure of the first ,scheme on the small ,pillar ,,ab1 of which were two movable ,armes ,,cd1 which by means of the ,screws ,,ef1 ,i could fix in any part of the ,pillar2 on the undermost of these ,i plac'd a pretty large ,globe of ,glass ,g1 fill'd with exceeding clear ,brine1 stopt1 inverted1 and fixt in the manner visible in the ,figure2 out of the side of which ,arm proceeded another ,arm ,h1 with many joynts2 to the end of which was fastned a deep plain ,convex glass ,i1 which by means of this ,arm could be moved to and fro1 and fixt in any posture4 ,on the upper ,arm was placed a small ,lamp ,k1 which could be so mov'd upon the end of the ,arm1 as to be set in a fit posture to give light through the ,ball3 ,by means of this ,instrument duly plac'd1 as is exprest in the ,figure1 with the small flame of a ,lamp may be cast as great and convenient a light on the ,object as it will well indure2 and being always constant1 and to be had at any time1 ,i found most proper for drawing the representations of those small ,objects ,i had occasion to observe4 ,none of all which ways 7though much beyond any other hitherto made use of by any ,i know7 do afford a sufficient help1 but after a certain degree of magnifying1 they leave us again in the lurch4 ,hence it were very desirable1 that some way were thought of for making the ,object-glass of such a ,figure as would conveniently bear a large ,aperture4 ,as for ,telescopes1 the only improvement they seem capable of1 is the increasing of their length2 for the ,object being remote1 there is no thought of giving it a greater light then it has2 and therefore to augment the ,aperture1 the ,glass must be ground of a very large sphere2 for1 by that means1 the longer the ,glass be1 the bigger aperture will it bear1 if the ,glasses be of an equal goodness in their kind4 ,therefore a six will indure a much larger ,aperture then a three foot ,glass1 and a sixty foot ,glass will proportionably bear a greater ,aperture then a thirty1 and will as much excel it also as a six foot does a three foot1 as ,i have experimentally observ'd in one of that length made by ,mr4 ,richard ,reives here at ,london1 which will bear an ,aperture above three inches over1 and yet make the ,object proportionably big and distinct2 whereas there are very few thirty foot ,glasses that will indure an ,aperture of more then two inches over4 ,so that for ,telescopes1 supposing we had a very ready way of making their ,object ,glasses of exactly spherical ,surfaces1 we might1 by increasing the length of the ,glass1 magnifie the ,object to any assignable bigness4 ,and for performing both these1 ,i cannot imagine any way more easie1 and more exact1 then by this following ,engine1 by means of which1 any ,glasses1 of what length soever1 may be speedily made4 ,it seems the most easie1 because with one and the same ,tool may be with care ground an ,object ,glass1 of any length or breadth requisite1 and that with very little or no trouble in fitting the ,engine1 and without much skill in the ,grinder4 ,it seems to be the most exact1 for to the very last stroke the ,glass does regulate and rectifie the ,tool to its exact ,figure2 and the longer or more the ,tool and ,glass are wrought together1 the more exact will both of them be of the desir'd ,figure4 ,further1 the motions of the ,glass and ,tool do so cross each other1 that there is not one point of eithers ,surface1 but has thousands of cross motions thwarting it1 so that there can be no kind of ,rings or ,gutters made either in the ,tool or ,glass4 ,the contrivance of the ,engine is1 only to make the ends of two large ,mandrils so to move1 that the ,centers of them may be at any convenient distance asunder1 and that the ,axis of the ,mandrils lying both in the same plain produc'd1 may meet each other in any assignable ,angle2 both which requisites may be very well perform'd by the ,engine describ'd in the third ,figure of the first ,scheme3 where ,,ab signifies the ,beam of a ,lath fixt perpendicularly or ,horizontally1 ,,cd the two ,poppet heads1 fixt at about two foot distance1 ,,ef an ,iron ,mandril1 whose tapering neck ,f runs in an adapted tapering brass ,collar2 the other end ,e runs on the point of a ,screw ,g2 in a convenient place of this is fastned ,h a pully ,wheel1 and into the end of it1 that comes through the ,poppet head ,c1 is screwed a ,ring of a hollow ,cylinder ,k1 or some other conveniently shap'd ,tool1 of what wideness shall be thought most proper for the cize of ,glasses1 about which it is to be imploy'd3 ,as1 for ,object glasses1 between twelve foot and an hundred foot long1 the ,ring may be about six inches over1 or indeed somewhat more for those longer ,glasses4 ,it would be convenient also1 and not very chargeable1 to have four or five several ,tools2 as one for all ,glasses between an inch and a foot1 one for all ,glasses between a foot and ten foot long1 another for all between ten and an hundred1 a fourth for all between a hundred and a thousand foot long2 and if ,curiosity shall ever proceed so far1 one for all lengths between a thousand and ten thousand foot long2 for indeed the principle is such1 that supposing the ,mandrils well made1 and of a good length1 and supposing great care be used in working and polishing them1 ,i see no reason1 but that a ,glass of a thousand1 nay of ten thousand foot long1 may be as well made as one of ten2 for the reason is the same1 supposing the ,mandrils and ,tools be made sufficiently strong1 so that they cannot bend2 and supposing the ,glass1 out of which they are wrought1 be capable of so great a regularity in its parts as to refraction3 this hollow ,cylinder ,k is to contain the ,sand1 and by being drove round very quick to and fro by means of a small ,wheel1 which may be mov'd with ones foot1 serves to grind the ,glass3 ,the other ,mandril is shap'd like this1 but it has an even neck instead of a taper one1 and runs in a ,collar1 that by the help of a ,screw and a joynt made like ,m in the ,figure1 it can be still adjustned to the wearing or wasting neck3 into the end of this ,mandril is screwed a ,chock ,n on which with ,cement or ,glew is fastned the piece of ,glass ,q that is to be form'd2 the middle of which ,glass is to be plac'd just on the edge of the ,ring1 and the ,lath ,,op is to be set and fixt 7by means of certain pieces and screws1 the manner whereof will be sufficiently evidenc'd by the ,figure7 in such an ,angle as is requisite to the forming of such a ,sphere as the ,glass is design'd to be of2 the geometrical ground of which being sufficiently plain1 though not heeded before1 ,i shall1 for brevities sake1 pass over4 ,this last ,mandril to be made 7by means of the former1 or some other ,wheel7 to run round very swift also1 by which two cross motions the ,glass cannot chuse 7if care be us'd7 but be wrought into a most exactly spherical ,surface4 ,but because we are certain1 from the ,laws of refraction 7which ,i ,i have experimentally found to be so1 by an ,instrument ,i shall presently describe7 that the lines of the angles of ,incidence are proportionate to the lines of the angles of ,refraction1 therefore if ,glasses could be made of those kind of ,figures1 or some other1 such as the most incomparable ,des ,cartes has invented1 and demonstrated in his ,philosophical and ,mathematical ,works1 we might hope for a much greater perfection of ,opticks then can be rationally expected from spherical ones2 for though1 cteris paribus1 we find1 that the larger the ,telescope ,object ,glasses are1 and the shorter those of the ,microscope1 the better they magnifie1 yet both of them1 beside such determinate dimensions1 are by certain inconveniences rendred unuseful2 for it will be exceeding difficult to make and manage a ,tube above an hundred foot long1 and it will be as difficult to inlighten an ,object less then an hundred part of an inch distant from the ,object ,glass4 ,i have not as yet made any attempts of that kind1 though ,i know two or three wayes1 which1 as far as ,i have yet considered1 seem very probable1 and may invite me to make a tryal as soon as ,i have an opportunity1 of which ,i may hereafter perhaps acquaint the world4 ,in the ,interim1 ,i shall describe the ,instrument ,i even now mention'd1 by which the refraction of all kinds of ,liquors may be most exactly measur'd1 thereby to give the curious an opportunity of making what further tryals of that kind they shall think requisite to any of their intended tryals2 and to let them see that the laws of ,refraction are not only notional4 ,the ,instrument consisted of five ,rulers1 or long pieces placed together1 after the manner exprest in the second ,figure of the first ,scheme1 where ,,ab denotes a straight piece of wood about six foot and two inches long1 about three inches over1 and an inch and half thick1 on the back side of which was hung a small plummet by a line stretcht from top to bottom1 by which this piece was set exactly upright1 and so very firmly fixt2 in the middle of this was made a hole or center1 into which one end of a hollow cylindrical brass ,box ,,cc1 fashion'd as ,i shall by and by describe1 was plac'd1 and could very easily and truly be mov'd to and fro2 the other end of this ,box being put into1 and moving in1 a hole made in a small arm ,,dd2 into this box was fastned the long ,ruler ,,ef1 about three foot and three or four inches long1 and at three foot from the above mention'd ,centers ,,pp was a hole ,e1 cut through1 and cross'd with two small threads1 and at the end of it was fixt a small sight ,g1 and on the back side of it was fixt a small ,arm ,h1 with a ,screw to fix it in any place on the ,ruler ,,lm2 this ,ruler ,,lm was mov'd on the ,center ,b 7which was exactly three foot distance from the middle ,center ,p7 and a line drawn through the middle of it ,,lm1 was divided by a ,line of cords into some sixty degrees1 and each degree was subdivided into minutes1 so that putting the cross of the threads in ,e upon any part of this divided line1 ,i presently knew what ,angle the two ,rules ,,ab and ,,ef made with each other1 and by turning the ,screw in ,h1 ,i could fix them in any position4 ,the other ,ruler also ,,rs was made much after the same manner1 only it was not fixt to the hollow cylindrical ,box1 but1 by means of two small brass ,armes or ,ears1 it mov'd on the ,centers of it2 this also1 by means of the cross threads in the hole ,s1 and by a ,screw in ,k1 could be fastned on any division of another line of cords of the same radius drawn on ,,no4 ,and so by that means1 the ,angle made by the two ,rulers1 ,,ab and ,,rs1 was also known4 ,the ,brass box ,,cc in the middle was shap'd very much like the ,figure ,x1 that is1 it was a cylindrical ,box stopp'd close at either end1 off of which a part both of the sides and bottomes was cut out1 so that the ,box1 when the ,pipe and that was joyned to it1 would contain the ,water when fill'd half full1 and would likewise1 without running over1 indure to be inclin'd to an ,angle1 equal to that of the greatest refraction of ,water1 and no more1 without running over4 ,the ,ruler ,,ef was fixt very fast to the ,pipe ,v1 so that the ,pipe ,v directed the length of the ,ruler ,,ef1 and the ,box and ,ruler were mov'd on the ,pin ,,tt1 so as to make any desirable ,angle with the ,ruler ,,ab4 ,the bottom of this ,pipe ,v was stop'd with a small piece of exactly plain ,glass1 which was plac'd exactly perpendicular to the ,line of direction1 or ,axis of the ,ruler ,,ef4 ,the ,pins also ,,tt were drill'd with small holes through the ,axis1 and through those holes was stretcht and fastned a small ,wire4 ,there was likewise a small ,pipe of ,tin loosly put on upon the end of ,v1 and reaching down to the sight ,g2 the use of which was only to keep any false ,rayes of light from passing through the bottom of ,v1 and only admitting such to pass as pierced through the sight ,g3 ,all things being placed together in the manner describ'd in the ,figure2 that is1 the ,ruler ,,ab being fixt perpendicular1 ,i fill'd the ,box ,,cc with ,water1 or any other ,liquor1 whose refraction ,i intended to try1 till the ,wire passing through the middle of it were just covered3 then ,i moved and fixt the ,ruler ,,fe at any assignable ,angle1 and placed the flame of a ,candle just against the sight ,g2 and looking through the sight ,i1 ,i moved the ,ruler ,,rs to and fro1 till ,i perceived the light passing through ,g to be covered1 as 'twere1 or divided by the dark ,wire passing through ,,pp3 then turning the ,screw in ,k1 ,i fixt it in that posture3 ,and through the hole ,s1 ,i observed what degree and part of it was cut by the cross threads in ,s4 ,and this gave me the ,angle of ,inclination1 ,,aps answering to the ,angle of ,refraction ,,bpe3 for the surface of the ,liquor in the ,box will be alwayes horizontal1 and consequently ,,ab will be a perpendicular to it2 the ,angle therefore ,,aps will measure1 or be the ,angle of ,inclination in the ,liquor2 next ,,epb must be the ,angle of ,refraction1 for the ,ray that passes through the sight ,g1 passes also perpendicularly through the ,glass ,diaphragme at ,f1 and consequently also perpendicularly through the lower surface of the ,liquor contiguous to the ,glass1 and therefore suffers no refraction till it meet with the horizontal surface of the ,liquor in ,,cc1 which is determined by the two ,angles4 ,by means of this ,instrument ,i can with little trouble1 and a very small quantity of any ,liquor1 examine1 most accurately1 the refraction of it not only for one inclination1 but for all2 and thereby am inabled to make very accurate ,tables2 several of which ,i have also experimentally made1 and find1 that ,oyl of ,turpentine has a much greater ,refraction then ,spirit of ,wine1 though it be lighter2 and that ,spirit of ,wine has a greater ,refraction then ,water1 though it be lighter also2 but that salt ,water also has a greater ,refraction then fresh1 though it be heavier3 but ,alum water has a less refraction then common ,water1 though heavier also4 ,so that it seems1 as to the refraction made in a ,liquor1 the specifick gravity is of no efficacy4 ,by this ,i have also found that look what proportion the ,sine of the ,angle of one ,inclination has to the ,sine of the ,angle of ,refraction1 correspondent to it1 the same proportion have all the ,sines of other ,inclinations to the ,sines of their appropriate ,refractions4 ,my way for measuring how much a ,glass magnifies an ,object1 plac'd at a convenient distance from my eye1 is this4 ,having rectifi'd the ,microscope1 to see the desir'd ,object through it very distinctly1 at the same time that ,i look upon the ,object through the ,glass with one eye1 ,i look upon other ,objects at the same distance with my other bare eye2 by which means ,i am able1 by the help of a ,ruler divided into inches and small parts1 and laid on the ,pedestal of the ,microscope1 to cast1 as it were1 the magnifi'd appearance of the ,object upon the ,ruler1 and thereby exactly to measure the ,diameter it appears of through the ,glass1 which being compar'd with the ,diameter it appears of to the naked eye1 will easily afford the quantity of its magnifying4 ,the ,microscope1 which for the most part ,i made use of1 was shap'd much like that in the sixth ,figure of the first ,scheme1 the ,tube being for the most part not above six or seven inches long1 though1 by reason it had four ,drawers1 it could very much be lengthened1 as occasion required2 this was contriv'd with three ,glasses2 a small ,object ,glass at ,a1 a thinner ,eye ,glass about ,b1 and a very deep one about ,c3 this ,i made use of only when ,i had occasion to see much of an ,object at once2 the middle ,glass conveying a very great company of radiating ,pencils1 which would go another way1 and throwing them upon the deep ,eye ,glass4 ,but when ever ,i had occasion to examine the small parts of a ,body more accurately1 ,i took out the middle ,glass1 and only made use of one ,eye ,glass with the ,object ,glass1 for always the fewer the ,refractions are1 the more bright and clear the ,object appears4 ,and therefore 'tis not to be doubted1 but could we make a ,microscope to have one only refraction1 it would1 cteris paribus1 far excel any other that had a greater number4 ,and hence it is1 that if you take a very clear piece of a broken ,venice ,glass1 and in a ,lamp draw it out into very small hairs or threads1 then holding the ends of these threads in the flame1 till they melt and run into a small round ,globul1 or drop1 which will hang at the end of the thread2 and if further you stick several of these upon the end of a stick with a little sealing ,wax1 so as that the threads stand upwards1 and then on a ,whetstone first grind off a good part of them1 and afterward on a smooth ,metal plate1 with a little ,tripoly1 rub them till they come to be very smooth2 if one of these be fixt with a little soft ,wax against a small needle hole1 prick'd through a thin ,plate of ,brass1 ,lead1 ,pewter1 or any other ,metal1 and an ,object1 plac'd very near1 be look'd at through it1 it will both magnifie and make some ,objects more distinct then any of the great ,microscopes4 ,but because these1 though exceeding easily made1 are yet very troublesome to be us'd1 because of their smalness1 and the nearness of the ,object2 therefore to prevent both these1 and yet have only two ,refractions1 ,i provided me a ,tube of ,brass1 shap'd much like that in the fourth ,figure of the first ,scheme2 into the smaller end of this ,i fixt with ,wax a good plano convex ,object ,glass1 with the convex side towards the ,object1 and into the bigger end ,i fixt also with wax a pretty large plano ,convex ,glass1 with the convex side towards my eye1 then by means of the small hole by the side1 ,i fill'd the intermediate space between these two ,glasses with very clear ,water1 and with a ,screw stopp'd it in2 then putting on a ,cell for the ,eye1 ,i could perceive an ,object more bright then ,i could when the intermediate space was only fill'd with ,air1 but this1 for other inconveniences1 ,i made but little use of4 ,my way for fixing both the ,glass and ,object to the ,pedestal most conveniently was thus3 ,upon one side of a round ,pedestal ,,ab1 in the sixth ,figure of the first ,scheme1 was fixt a small ,pillar ,,cc1 on this was fitted a small ,iron ,arm ,d1 which could be mov'd up and down1 and fixt in any part of the ,pillar1 by means of a small ,screw ,e2 on the end of this ,arm was a small ,ball fitted into a kind of socket ,f1 made in the side of the ,brass ,ring ,g1 through which the small end of the ,tube was screw'd2 by means of which contrivance ,i could place and fix the ,tube in what posture ,i desir'd 7which for many ,observations was exceeding necessary7 and adjusten it most exactly to any ,object4 ,for placing the ,object1 ,i made this contrivance2 upon the end of a small brass ,link or ,staple ,,hh1 ,i so fastned a round ,plate ,,ii1 that it might be turn'd round upon its ,center ,k1 and going pretty stiff1 would stand fixt in any posture it was set2 on the side of this was fixt a small ,pillar ,p1 about three quarters of an inch high1 and through the top of this was thrust a small ,iron pin ,m1 whose top just stood over the ,center of the ,plate2 on this top ,i fixt a small ,object1 and by means of these contrivances ,i was able to turn it into all kind of positions1 both to my ,eye and the ,light2 for by moving round the small ,plate on its center1 could move it one way1 and by turning the ,pin ,m1 ,i could move it another way1 and this without stirring the ,glass at all1 or at least but very little2 the ,plate likewise ,i could move to and fro to any part of the ,pedestal 7which in many cases was very convenient7 and fix it also in any ,position1 by means of a ,nut ,n1 which was screw'd on upon the lower part of the ,pillar ,,cc4 ,all the other ,contrivances are obvious enough from the draught1 and will need no description4 ,now though this were the ,instrument ,i made most use of1 yet ,i have made several other ,tryals with other kinds of ,microscopes1 which both for matter and form were very different from common spherical ,glasses4 ,i have made a ,microscope with one piece of ,glass1 both whose surfaces were plains4 ,i have made another only with a plano concave1 without any kind of reflection1 divers also by means of reflection4 ,i have made others of ,waters1 ,gums1 ,resins1 ,salts1 ,arsenick1 ,oyls1 and with divers other mixtures of watery and oyly ,liquors4 ,and indeed the subject is capable of a great variety2 but ,i find generally none more useful then that which is made with two ,glasses1 such as ,i have already describ'd4 ,what the things are ,i observ'd1 the following descriptions will manifest2 in brief1 they were either exceeding small ,bodies1 or exceeding small ,pores1 or exceeding small ,motions1 some of each of which the ,reader will find in the following ,notes1 and such1 as ,i presume1 7many of them at least7 will be new1 and perhaps not less strange3 ,some specimen of each of which ,heads the ,reader will find in the subsequent delineations1 and indeed of some more then ,i was willing there should be2 which was occasioned by my first ,intentions to print a much greater number then ,i have since found time to compleat4 ,of such therefore as ,i had1 ,i selected only some few of every ,head1 which for some particulars seem'd most observable1 rejecting the rest as superfluous to the present ,design4 ,what each of the delineated ,subjects are1 the following descriptions annext to each will inform1 of which ,i shall here1 only once for all1 add1 ,that in divers of them the ,gravers have pretty well follow'd my directions and draughts2 and that in making of them1 ,i indeavoured 7as far as ,i was able7 first to discover the true appearance1 and next to make a plain representation of it4 ,this ,i mention the rather1 because of these kind of ,objects there is much more difficulty to discover the true shape1 then of those visible to the naked eye1 the same ,object seeming quite differing1 in one position to the ,light1 from what it really is1 and may be discover'd in another4 ,and therefore ,i never began to make any draught before by many examinations in several lights1 and in several positions to those lights1 ,i had discover'd the true form4 ,for it is exceeding difficult in some ,objects1 to distinguish between a prominency and a depression1 between a shadow and a black stain1 or a reflection and a whiteness in the colour4 ,besides1 the transparency of most ,objects renders them yet much more difficult then if they were opacous4 ,the ,eyes of a ,fly in one kind of light appear almost like a ,lattice1 drill'd through with abundance of small holes2 which probably may be the ,reason1 why the ,ingenious ,dr4 ,power seems to suppose them such4 ,in the ,sunshine they look like a ,surface cover'd with golden ,nails2 in another posture1 like a ,surface cover'd with ,pyramids2 in another with ,cones2 and in other postures of quite other shapes2 but that which exhibits the best1 is the ,light collected on the ,object1 by those means ,i have already describ'd4 ,and this was undertaken in prosecution of the ,design which the ,,royal ,,society has propos'd to it self4 ,for the ,members of the ,assembly having before their eys so many fatal ,instances of the errors and falshoods1 in which the greatest part of mankind has so long wandred1 because they rely'd upon the strength of humane ,reason alone1 have begun anew to correct all ,hypotheses by sense1 as ,seamen do their dead ,reckonings by ,clestial ,observations2 and to this purpose it has been their principal indeavour to enlarge strengthen the ,senses by ,medicine1 and by such outward ,instruments as are proper for their particular works4 ,by this means they find some reason to suspect1 that those effects of ,bodies1 which have been commonly attributed to ,qualities1 and those confess'd to be occult1 are perform'd by the small ,machines of ,nature1 which are not to be discern'd without these helps1 seeming the meer products of ,motion1 ,figure1 and ,magnitude2 and that the ,natural ,textures1 which some call the ,plastick faculty1 may be made in ,looms1 which a greater perfection of ,opticks may make discernable by these ,glasses2 so as now they are no more puzzled about them1 then the vulgar are to conceive1 how ,tapestry or flowred ,stuffs are woven4 ,and the ends of all these ,inquiries they intend to be the ,pleasure of ,contemplative minds1 but above all1 the ease and dispatch of the labours of mens hands4 ,they do indeed neglect no opportunity to bring all the rare things of ,remote ,countries within the compass of their knowledge and practice4 ,but they still acknowledg their most useful ,informations to arise from common things1 and from diversifying their most ordinary operations upon them4 ,they do not wholly reject ,experiments of meer light and theory2 but they principally aim at such1 whose ,applications will improve and facilitate the present way of ,manual ,arts4 ,and though some men1 who are perhaps taken up about less honourable ,employments1 are pleas'd to censure their proceedings1 yet they can shew more fruits of their first three years1 wherein they have assembled1 then any other ,society in ,europe can for a much larger space of time4 ',tis true1 such undertakings as theirs do commonly meet with small incouragement1 because men are generally rather taken with the plausible and discursive1 then the real and the solid part of ,philosophy2 yet by the good fortune of their institution1 in an ,age of all others the most inquisitive1 they have been assisted by the contribution and presence of very many of the chief ,nobility and ,gentry1 and others who are some of the most considerable in their several ,professions4 ,but that that yet farther convinces me of the ,real esteem that the more serious part of men have of this ,society1 is1 that several ,merchants1 men who act in earnest 7whose ,object is meum tuum1 that great ,rudder of humane affairs7 have adventur'd considerable sums of ,money1 to put in practice what some of our ,members have contrived1 and have continued stedfast in their good opinions of such ,indeavours1 when not one of a hundred of the vulgar have believed their undertakings feasable4 ,and it is also fit to be added1 that they have one advantage peculiar to themselves1 that very many of their number are men of ,converse and ,traffick2 which is a good ,omen1 that their attempts will bring ,philosophy from words to action1 seeing the men of ,business have had so great a share in their first foundation4 ,and of this kind ,i ought not to conceal one particular ,generosity1 which more nearly concerns my self4 ,it is the munificence of ,sir ,john ,cutler1 in endowing a ,lecture for the promotion of ,mechanick ,arts1 to be governed and directed by ,this ,society4,this ,bounty ,i mention for the ,honourableness of the thing it self1 and for the expectation which ,i have of the efficacy of the ,example2 for it cannot now be objected to them1 that their ,designs will be esteemed frivolous and vain1 when they have such a real ,testimony of the ,approbation of a ,man that is such an eminent ,ornament of this renowned ,city1 and one1 who1 by the ,variety1 and the happy ,success1 of his negotiations1 has given evident proofs1 that he is not easie to be deceiv'd4 ,this ,gentleman has well observ'd1 that the ,arts of life have been too long imprison'd in the dark shops of ,mechanicks themselves1 there hindred from growth1 either by ignorance1 or self-interest3 and he has bravely freed them from these inconveniences3 ,he hath not only obliged ,tradesmen1 but ,trade it self3 ,he has done a work that is worthy of ,london1 and has taught the chief ,city of ,commerce in the world the right way how ,commerce is to be improv'd4 ,we have already seen many other great signs of ,liberality and a large mind1 from the same hand3 ,for by his diligence about the ,corporation for the ,poor2 by his honorable ,subscriptions for the rebuilding of ,st4 ,paul's2 by his chearful ,disbursment for the replanting of ,ireland1 and by many other such publick works1 he has shewn by what means he indeavours to establish his ,memory2 and now by this last gift he has done that1 which became one of the wisest ,citizens of our ,nation to accomplish1 seeing one of the wisest of our ,statesmen1 the ,lord ,verulam1 first propounded it4 ,but to return to my ,subject1 from a digression1 which1 ,i hope1 my ,reader will pardon me1 seeing the ,example is so rare that ,i can make no more such digressions4 ,if these my first ,labours shall be any wayes useful to inquiring men1 ,i must attribute the incouragement and promotion of them to a very ,reverend and ,learned ,person1 of whom this ought in justice to be said1 ,that there is scarce any one ,invention1 which this ,nation has produc'd in our ,age1 but it has some way or other been set forward by his assistance4 ,my ,reader1 ,i believe1 will quickly ghess1 that it is ,dr4 ,wilkins that ,i mean4 ,he is indeed a man born for the good of mankind1 and for the honour of his ,country4 ,in the sweetness of whose behaviour1 in the calmness of his mind1 in the unbounded goodness of his heart1 we have an evident ,instance1 what the true and the primitive unpassionate ,religion was1 before it was sowred by particular ,factions4 ,in a word1 his ,zeal has been so constant and effectual in advancing all good and profitable ,arts1 that as one of the ,antient ,romans said of ,scipio1 ,that he thanked ,god that he was a ,roman2 because whereever ,scipio had been born1 there had been the seat of the ,empire of the world3 ,so may ,i thank ,god1 that ,dr4 ,wilkins was an ,englishman1 for whereever he had lived1 there had been the chief ,seat of generous ,knowledge and true ,philosophy4 ,to the truth of this1 there are so many worthy men living that will subscribe1 that ,i am confident1 what ,i have here said1 will not be looked upon1 by any ingenious ,reader1 as a ,panegyrick1 but only as a real testimony4 ,by the ,advice of this ,excellent man ,i first set upon this ,enterprise1 yet still came to it with much ,reluctancy1 because ,i was to follow the footsteps of so eminent a ,person as ,dr4 ,wren1 who was the first that attempted any thing of this nature2 whose original draughts do now make one of the ,ornaments of that great ,collection of ,rarities in the ,kings ,closet4 ,this ,honor1 which his first beginnings of this kind have receiv'd1 to be admitted into the most famous place of the world1 did not so much incourage1 as the hazard of coming after ,dr4 ,wren did affright me2 for of him ,i must affirm1 that1 since the time of ,archimedes1 there scarce ever met in one man1 in so great a perfection1 such a ,mechanical ,hand1 and so ,philosophical a ,mind4 ,but at last1 being assured both by ,dr4 ,wilkins1 and ,dr4 ,wren himself1 that he had given over his intentions of prosecuting it1 and not finding that there was any else design'd the pursuing of it1 ,i set upon this undertaking1 and was not a little incourag'd to proceed in it1 by the ,honour the ,royal ,society was pleas'd to favour me with1 in approving of those draughts 7which from time to time as ,i had an opportunity of describing7 ,i presented to them4 ,and particularly by the ,incitements of divers of those ,noble and excellent ,persons of it1 which were my more especial ,friends1 who were not less urgent with me for the publishing1 then for the prosecution of them4 ,after ,i had almost compleated these ,pictures and ,observations 7having had divers of them engraven1 and was ready to send them to the ,press7 ,i was inform'd1 that the ,ingenious ,physitian ,dr4 ,henry ,power had made several ,microscopical ,observations1 which had ,i not afterwards1 upon our interchangably viewing each others ,papers1 found that they were for the most part differing from mine1 either in the ,subject it self1 or in the particulars taken notice of2 and that his design was only to print ,observations without ,pictures1 ,i had even then suppressed what ,i had so far proceeded in4 ,but being further excited by several of my ,friends1 in compliance with their opinions1 that it would not be unacceptable to several inquisitive ,men1 and hoping also1 that ,i should thereby discover something ,new to the ,world1 ,i have at length cast in my ,mite1 into the vast ,treasury of ,a ,philosophical ,history4 ,and it is my hope1 as well as belief1 that these my ,labours will be no more comparable to the ,productions of many other ,natural ,philosophers1 who are now every where busie about greater things2 then my little ,objects are to be compar'd to the greater and more beautiful ,works of ,nature1 ,a ,flea1 a ,mite1 a ,gnat1 to an ,horse1 an ,elephant1 or a ,lyon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,micrographia1 ,,or ,,some ,physiological ,descriptions ,,of ,,minute ,,bodies1 ,,made ,,by ,,magnifying ,,glasses2 ,,with ,,observations and ,,inquiries thereupon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,i4 ,of the ,point of a sharp small ,needle4 ,as in ,geometry1 the most natural way of beginning is from a ,mathematical point2 so is the same method in ,observations and ,natural history the most genuine1 simple1 and instructive4 ,we must first endevour to make letters1 and draw single strokes true1 before we venture to write whole ,sentences1 or to draw large ,pictures4 ,and in ,physical ,enquiries1 we must endevour to follow ,nature in the more plain and easie ways she treads in the most simple and uncompounded bodies1 to trace her steps1 and be acquainted with her manner of walking there1 before we venture our selves into the multitude of meanders she has in bodies of a more complicated nature2 lest1 being unable to distinguish and judge of our way1 we quickly lose both ,nature our ,guide1 and our selves too1 and are left to wander in the labyrinth of groundless opinions2 wanting both judgment1 that light1 and experience1 that clew1 which should direct our proceedings4 ,we will begin these our ,inquiries therefore with the ,observations of ,bodies of the most simple nature first1 and so gradually proceed to those of a more compounded one4 ,in prosecution of which method1 we shall begin with a ,physical point2 of which kind the ,point of a ,needle is commonly reckon'd for one2 and is indeed1 for the most part1 made so sharp1 that the naked eye cannot distinguish any parts of it3 ,it very easily pierces1 and makes its way through all kind of bodies softer then it self3 ,but if view'd with a very good ,microscope1 we may find that the top of a ,needle 7though as to the sense very sharp7 appears a broad1 blunt1 and very irregular end2 not resembling a ,cone1 as is imagin'd1 but onely a piece of a tapering body1 with a great part of the top remov'd1 or deficient4 ,the ,points of ,pins are yet more blunt1 and the ,points of the most curious ,mathematical ,instruments do very seldome arrive at so great a sharpness2 how much therefore can be built upon demonstrations made onely by the productions of the ,ruler and ,compasses1 he will be better able to consider that shall but view those points and lines with a ,microscope4 ,now though this point be commonly accounted the sharpest 7whence when we would express the sharpness of a point the most superlatively1 we say1 ,as sharp as a ,needle7 yet the ,microscope can afford us hundreds of ,instances of ,points many thousand times sharper3 such as those of the hairs1 and bristles1 and claws of multitudes of ,insects2 the thorns1 or crooks1 or hairs of leaves1 and other small vegetables2 nay1 the ends of the stiri or small parallelipipeds of ,amianthus1 and alumen plumosum2 of many of which1 though the ,points are so sharp as not to be visible1 though view'd with a ,microscope 7which magnifies the ,object1 in bulk1 above a million of times7 yet ,i doubt not1 but were we able practically to make ,microscopes according to the theory of them1 we might find hills1 and dales1 and pores1 and a sufficient bredth1 or expansion1 to give all those parts elbow-room1 even in the blunt top of the very ,point of any of these so very sharp bodies4 ,for certainly the quantity or extension of any body may be ,divisible in infinitum1 though perhaps not the matter4 ,but to proceed3 ,the ,image we have here exhibited in the first ,figure#a1 was the top of a small and very sharp ,needle1 whose point aa nevertheless appear'd through the ,microscope above a quarter of an inch broad1 not round nor flat1 but irregular and uneven2 so that it seem'd to have been big enough to have afforded a hundred armed ,mites room enough to be rang'd by each other without endangering the breaking one anothers necks1 by being thrust off on either side4 ,the surface of which1 though appearing to the naked eye very smooth1 could not nevertheless hide a multitude of holes and scratches and ruggednesses from being discover'd by the ,microscope to invest it1 several of which inequalities 7as ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 seem'd holes made by some small specks of ,rust2 and ,d some adventitious body1 that stuck very close to it7 were casual4 ,all the rest that roughen the surface1 were onely so many marks of the rudeness and bungling of ,art4 ,so unaccurate is it1 in all its productions1 even in those which seem most neat1 that if examin'd with an organ more acute then that by which they were made1 the more we see of their shape1 the less appearance will there be of their beauty3 whereas in the works of ,nature1 the deepest ,discoveries shew us the greatest ,excellencies4 ,an evident ,argument1 that he that was the ,author of all these things1 was no other then ,omnipotent2 being able to include as great a variety of parts and contrivances in the yet smallest ,discernable ,point1 as in those vaster bodies 7which comparatively are called also ,points7 such as the ,earth1 ,sun1 or ,planets4 ,nor need it seem strange that the ,earth it self may be by an ,analogie call'd a ,physical ,point3 ,for as its body1 though now so near us as to fill our eys and fancies with a sense of the vastness of it1 may by a little ,distance1 and some convenient ,diminishing ,glasses1 be made vanish into a scarce visible ,speck1 or ,point 7as ,i have often try'd on the ,moon1 and 7when not too bright7 on the ,sun it self47 ,so1 could a ,mechanical contrivance succesfully answer our ,theory1 we might see the least spot as big as the ,earth it self2 and ,discover1 as ,des ,cartes#b also conjectures1 as great a variety of bodies in the ,moon1 or ,planets1 as in the ,earth4 ,but leaving these ,discoveries to future ,industries1 we shall proceed to add one ,observation more of a point commonly so call'd1 that is1 the mark of a full stop1 or period4 ,and for this purpose ,i observed many both printed ones and written2 and among multitudes ,i found few of them more round or regular then this which ,i have delineated in the third figure of the second ,scheme1 but very many abundantly more disfigur'd2 and for the most part if they seem'd equally round to the eye1 ,i found those points that had been made by a ,copper-plate1 and ,roll-press1 to be as misshapen as those which had been made with ,types1 the most curious and smothly engraven strokes and points1 looking but as so many furrows and holes1 and their printed impressions1 but like smutty daubings on a matt or uneven floor with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick's end4 ,and as for points made with a pen they were much more ragged and deformed4 ,nay1 having view'd certain pieces of exceeding curious writing of the kind 7one of which in the bredth of a two-pence compris'd the ,lords prayer1 the ,apostles ,creed1 the ten ,commandments1 and about half a dozen verses besides of the ,bible1 whose lines were so small and near together1 that ,i was unable to number them with my naked eye17 a very ordinary ,microscope1 ,i had then about me1 inabled me to see that what the ,writer of it had asserted was true1 but withall discover'd of what pitifull bungling scribbles and scrawls it was compos'd1 ,arabian and ,china characters being almost as well shap'd1 yet thus much ,i must say for the ,man1 that it was for the most part legible enough1 though in some places there wanted a good fantsy well preposest to help one through4 ,if this manner of small writing were made easie and practicable 7and ,i think ,i know such a one1 but have never yet made tryal of it1 whereby one might be inabled to write a great deale with much ease1 and accurately enough in a very little roome7 it might be of very good use to convey secret ,intelligence without any danger of ,discovery or mistrusting4 ,but to come again to the point4 ,the ,irregularities of it are caused by three or four coadjutors1 one of which is1 the uneven surface of the paper1 which at best appears no smother then a very course piece of shag'd cloth1 next the irregularity of the ,type or ,ingraving1 and a third is the rough ,daubing of the ,printing-,ink that lies upon the instrument that makes the impression1 to all which1 add the variation made by the ,different lights and shadows1 and you may have sufficient reason to ghess that a point may appear much more ugly then this1 which ,i have here presented1 which though it appear'd through the ,microscope gray1 like a great splatch of ,london dirt1 about three inches over2 yet to the naked eye it was black and no bigger then that in the midst of the ,circle ,a4 ,and could ,i have found ,room in this ,plate to have inserted an ,o you should have seen that the letters were not more distinct then the points of ,distinction1 nor a drawn circle more exactly so1 then we have now shown a point to be a point4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,ii4 ,of the ,edge of a ,razor4 ,the sharpest ,edge hath the same kind of affinity to the sharpest ,point in ,physicks1 as a line hath to a point in ,mathematicks2 and therefore the ,treaty concerning this1 may very properly be annexed to the former4 ,a ,razor doth appear to be a ,body of a very neat and curious aspect1 till more closely viewed by the ,microscope1 and there we may observe its very ,edge to be of all kind of shapes1 except what it should be4 ,for examining that of a very sharp one1 ,i could not find that any part of it had any thing of sharpness in it2 but it appeared a rough surface of a very considerable bredth from side to side1 the narrowest part not seeming thinner then the back of a pretty thick ,knife4 ,nor is't likely that it should appear any otherwise1 since as we just now shew'd that a point appear'd a circle1 'tis rational a line should be a parallelogram4 ,now for the drawing this second ,figure#c 7which represents a part of the ,edge about half a quarter of an inch long of a ,razor well set7 ,i so plac'd it between the ,object-glass the light1 that there appear'd a reflection from the very ,edge1 represented by the white line abcdef4 ,in which you may perceive it to be somewhat sharper then elsewhere about d1 to be indented or pitted about b1 to be broader and thicker about c1 and unequal and rugged about e1 and pretty even between ab and ef4 ,nor was that part of the ,edge ghik so smooth as one would imagine so smooth bodies as a ,hone and ,oyl should leave it2 for besides those multitudes of scratches1 which appear to have raz'd the surface ghik1 and to cross each other every way which are not half of them exprest in the ,figure1 there were several great and deep scratches1 or furrows1 such as gh and ik1 which made the surface yet more rugged1 caus'd perhaps by some small ,dust casually falling on the ,hone1 or some harder or more flinty part of the ,hone it self4 ,the other part of the ,razor ll1 which is polish'd on a grinding-stone1 appear'd much rougher then the other1 looking almost like a plow'd field1 with many parallels1 ridges1 and furrows1 and a cloddy1 as 'twere1 or an uneven surface3 nor shall we wonder at the roughnesses of those surfaces1 since even in the most curious wrought ,glasses for ,microscopes1 and other ,optical uses1 ,i have1 when the ,sun has shone well on them1 discover'd their surface to be variously raz'd or scratched1 and to consist of an infinite of small broken surfaces1 which reflect the light of very various and differing colours4 ,and indeed it seems impossible by ,art to cut the surface of any hard and brittle body smooth1 since ,putte1 or even the most curious ,powder that can be made use of1 to polish such a body1 must consist of little hard rough particles1 and each of them must cut its way1 and consequently leave some kind of gutter or furrow behind it4 ,and though ,nature does seem to do it very readily in all kinds of fluid bodies1 yet perhaps future observators may discover even these also rugged2 it being very probable1 as ,i elsewhere shew1 that fluid bodies are made up of small solid particles variously and strongly mov'd1 and may find reason to think there is scarce a surface in rerum natur perfectly smooth4 ,the black spot mn1 ,i ghess to be some small speck of rust1 for that ,i have oft observ'd to be the manner of the working of ,corrosive ,juyces4 ,to conclude1 this ,edge and piece of a ,razor1 if it had been really such as it appear'd through the ,microscope1 would scarcely have serv'd to cleave wood1 much less to have cut off the hair of beards1 unless it were after the manner that ,lucian merrily relates ,charon to have made use of1 when with a ,carpenters ,axe he chop'd off the beard of a sage ,philosopher1 whose gravity he very cautiously fear'd would indanger the oversetting of his ,wherry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,iii4 ,of fine ,lawn1 or ,linnen ,cloth4 ,this is another product of ,art1 ,a piece of the finest ,lawn ,i was able to get1 so curious that the threads were scarce discernable by the naked eye1 and yet through an ordinary ,microscope you may perceive#d what a goodly piece of coarse ,matting it is2 what proportionable cords each of its threads are1 being not unlike1 both in shape and size1 the bigger and coarser kind of single ,rope-yarn1 wherewith they usually make ,cables4 ,that which makes the ,lawn so transparent1 is by the ,microscope1 nay by the naked eye1 if attentively viewed1 plainly enough evidenced to be the multitude of square holes which are left between the threads1 appearing to have much more hole in respect of the intercurrent parts then is for the most part left in a lattice-window1 which it does a little resemble1 onely the crossing parts are round and not flat4 ,these threads that compose this fine contexture1 though they are as small as those that constitute the finer sorts of ,silks1 have notwithstanding nothing of their glossie1 pleasant1 and lively reflection4 ,nay1 ,i have been informed both by the ,inventor himself1 and several other eye-witnesses1 that though the flax1 out of which it is made1 has been 7by a singular art1 of that excellent ,person1 and ,noble ,virtuoso1 ,m4 ,charls ,howard1 brother to the ,duke of ,norfolk7 so curiously dress'd and prepar'd1 as to appear both to the eye and the touch1 full as fine and as glossie1 and to receive all kinds of colours1 as well as ,sleave-,silk2 yet when this ,silken ,flax is twisted into threads1 it quite loseth its former luster1 and becomes as plain and base a thread to look on1 as one of the same bigness1 made of common ,flax4 ,the reason of which odd ,phenomenon seems no other then this2 that though the curiously drest ,flax has its parts so exceedingly small1 as to equallize1 if not to be much smaller then the clew of the ,silk-worm1 especially in thinness1 yet the differences between the figures of the constituting filaments are so great1 and their substances so various1 that whereas those of the ,silk are small1 round1 hard1 transparent1 and to their bigness proportionably stiff1 so as each filament preserves its proper ,figure1 and consequently its vivid reflection intire1 though twisted into a thread1 if not too hard2 those of ,flax are flat1 limber1 softer1 and less transparent1 and in twisting into a thread they joyn1 and lie so close together1 as to lose their own1 and destroy each others particular reflections4 ,there seems therefore three ,particulars very requisite to make the so drest ,flax appear ,silk also when spun into threads4 ,first1 that the substance of it should be made more clear and transparent1 ,flax retaining in it a kind of opacating brown1 or yellow2 and the parts of the whitest kind ,i have yet observ'd with the ,microscope appearing white1 like flaw'd ,horn or ,glass1 rather then clear1 like clear ,horn or ,glass4 ,next that1 the filaments should each of them be rounded1 if that could be done1 which yet is not so very necessary1 if the first be perform'd1 and this third1 which is1 that each of the small filaments be stifned2 for though they be square1 or flat1 provided they be transparent and stiff1 much the same appearances must necessarily follow4 ,now1 though ,i have not yet made trial1 yet ,i doubt not1 but that both these proprieties may be also induc'd upon the ,flax1 and perhaps too by one and the same ,expedient1 which some trials may quickly inform any ingenious attempter of1 who from the use and profit of such an ,invention1 may find sufficient argument to be prompted to such ,inquiries4 ,as for the tenacity of the substance of ,flax1 out of which the thread is made1 it seems much inferiour to that of ,silk1 the one being a vegetable1 the other an animal substance4 ,and whether it proceed from the better concoction1 or the more homogeneous constitution of animal substances above those of vegetables1 ,i do not here determine2 yet since ,i generally find1 that vegetable substances do not equalize the tenacity of animal1 nor these the tenacity of some purified mineral substances2 ,i am very apt to think1 that the tenacity of bodies does not proceed from the hamous1 or hooked particles1 as the ,epicureans and some modern ,philosophers have imagin'd2 but from the more exact congruity of the constituent parts1 which are contiguous to each other1 and so bulky1 as not to be easily separated1 or shatter'd1 by any small pulls or concussion of heat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,iv4 ,of fine waled ,silk1 or ,taffety4 ,this#e is the appearance of a piece of very fine ,taffety-riband in the bigger magnifying ,glass1 which you see exhibits it like a very convenient substance to make ,bed-matts1 or ,door-matts of1 or to serve for ,beehives1 ,corn-scuttles1 ,chairs1 or ,corn-tubs1 it being not unlike that kind of work1 wherewith in many parts in ,england1 they make such ,utensils of ,straw1 a little wreathed1 and bound together with thongs of ,brambles4 ,for in this ,contexture1 each little filament1 fiber1 or clew of the ,silk-worm1 seem'd about the bigness of an ordinary ,straw1 as appears by the little irregular pieces1 ab1 cd1 and ef2 ,the ,warp1 or the thread that ran crossing the ,riband1 appear'd like a single ,rope of an ,inch ,diameter2 but the ,woof1 or the thread that ran the length of the ,riband1 appear'd not half so big4 ,each ,inch of six-peny-broad ,riband appearing no less then a piece of ,matting ,inch and half thick1 and twelve foot square1 a few yards of this1 would be enough to floor the long ,gallery of the ,loure at ,paris4 ,but to return to our piece of ,riband3 ,it affords us a not unpleasant object1 appearing like a bundle1 or wreath1 of very clear and transparent ,cylinders1 if the ,silk be white1 and curiously ting'd2 if it be colour'd1 each of those small horney ,cylinders affording in some place or other of them1 as vivid a reflection1 as if it had been sent from a ,cylinder of ,glass or ,horn4 ,insomuch1 that the reflections of ,red1 appear'd as if coming from so many ,granates1 or ,rubies4 ,the loveliness of the colours of ,silks above those of hairy ,stuffs1 or ,linnen1 consisting1 as ,i else-where intimate1 chiefly in the transparency1 and vivid reflections from the ,concave1 or inner surface of the transparent ,cylinder1 as are also the colours of ,precious ,stones2 for most of the reflections from each of these ,cylinders1 come from the ,concave surface of the air1 which is as 'twere the foil that incompasses the ,cylinder4 ,the colours with which each of these ,cylinders are ting'd1 seem partly to be superficial1 and sticking to the out-sides of them2 and partly1 to be imbib'd1 or sunck into the substance of them3 for ,silk1 seeming to be little else then a dried thread of ,glew1 may be suppos'd to be very easily relaxt1 and softened1 by being steeped in warm1 nay in cold1 if penetrant1 juyces or liquors4 ,and thereby those tinctures1 though they tinge perhaps but a small part of the substance1 yet being so highly impregnated with the colour1 as to be almost black with it1 may leave an impression strong enough to exhibite the desir'd colour4 ,a pretty kinde of artificial ,stuff ,i have seen1 looking almost like transparent ,parchment1 ,horn1 or ,ising-glass1 and perhaps some such thing it may be made of1 which being transparent1 and of a glutinous nature1 and easily mollified by keeping in water1 as ,i found upon trial1 had imbib'd1 and did remain ting'd with a great variety of very vivid colours1 and to the naked eye1 it look'd very like the substance of the ,silk4 ,and ,i have often thought1 that probably there might be a way found out1 to make an artificial glutinous composition1 much resembling1 if not full as good1 nay better1 then that ,excrement1 or whatever other substance it be out of which1 the ,silk-worm wire-draws his clew4 ,if such a composition were found1 it were certainly an easie matter to find very quick ways of drawing it out into small wires for use4 ,i need not mention the use of such an ,invention1 nor the benefit that is likely to accrue to the finder1 they being sufficiently obvious4 ,this hint therefore1 may1 ,i hope1 give some ,ingenious inquisitive ,person an occasion of making some trials1 which if successfull1 ,i have my aim1 and ,i suppose he will have no occasion to be displeas'd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,v4 ,of watered ,silks1 or ,stuffs4 ,there are but few ,artificial things that are worth observing with a ,microscope1 and therefore ,i shall speak but briefly concerning them4 ,for the ,productions of art are such rude mis-shapen things1 that when view'd with a ,microscope1 is little else observable1 but their deformity4 ,the most curious ,carvings appearing no better then those rude ,russian ,images we find mention'd in ,purchas1 where three notches at the end of a ,stick1 stood for a face4 ,and the most smooth and burnish'd surfaces appear most rough and unpolisht3 ,so that my first ,reason why ,i shall add but a few observations of them1 is1 their mis-shapen form2 and the next1 is their uselessness4 ,for why should we trouble our selves in the examination of that form or shape 7which is all we are able to reach with a ,microscope7 which we know was design'd for no higher a use1 then what we were able to view with our naked eye8 ,why should we endeavour to discover mysteries in that which has no such thing in it8 ,and like ,rabbins find out ,caballisms1 and nigms in the ,figure1 and placing of ,letters1 where no such thing lies hid3 whereas in natural forms there are some so small1 and so curious1 and their design'd business so far remov'd beyond the reach of our sight1 that the more we magnify the object1 the more excellencies and mysteries do appear2 ,and the more we discover the imperfections of our senses2 and the ,omnipotency and ,infinite perfections of the great ,creatour4 ,i shall therefore onely add one or two ,observations more artificial things1 and then come to the ,treaty concerning such matters as are the ,productions of a more curious ,workman4 ,one of these1 shall be that of a piece of water'd ,silk1 represented in the second ,figure of the third ,scheme1#f as it appear'd through the least magnifying ,glass4 ,,ab signifying the long way of the ,stuff1 and ,,cd the broad way4 ,this ,stuff1 if the right side of it be looked upon1 appears to the naked eye1 all over so waved1 undulated1 or grain'd1 with a curious1 though irregular variety of brighter and darker parts1 that it adds no small gracefulness to the ,gloss of it4 ,it is so known a propriety1 that it needs but little explication1 but it is observable1 which perhaps everyone has not considered1 that those parts which appear the darker part of the wave1 in one position to the light1 in another appears the lighter1 and the contrary2 and by this means the undulations become transient1 and in a continual change1 according as the position of the parts in respect of the incident beams of light is varied4 ,the reason of which odd phnomena1 to one that has but diligently examin'd it even with his naked eye1 will be obvious enough4 ,but he that observes it with a ,microscope1 may more easily perceive what this ,proteus is1 and how it comes to change its shape4 ,he may very easily perceive1 that it proceeds onely from the variety of the ,reflections of light1 which is caus'd by the various shape of the ,particles1 or little protuberant parts of the thread that compose the surface2 and that those parts of the waves that appear the brighter1 throw towards the eye a multitude of small reflections of light1 whereas the darker scarce afford any4 ,the reason of which reflection1 the ,microscope plainly discovers1 as appears by the ,figure4 ,in which you may perceive1 that the brighter parts of the surface consist of an abundance of large and strong reflections1 denoted by a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 c4 for the surfaces of those threads that run the long way1 are by the ,mechanical process of watering1 creas'd or angled in another kind of posture then they were by the weaving3 for by the weaving they are onely bent round the warping threads2 but by the watering1 they are bent with an angle1 or elbow1 that is in stead of lying1 or being bent round the threads1 as in the third ,figure1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 are about b1 b1 b 7b1 b1 b representing the ends1 as 'twere1 of the cross threads1 they are bent about7 they are creas'd on the top of those threads1 with an angle1 as in the fourth ,figure1 and that with all imaginable variety2 so that1 whereas before they reflected the light onely from one point of the round surface1 as about c1 c1 c1 they now when water'd1 reflect the beams from more then half the whole surface1 as de1 de1 de1 and in other postures they return no reflections at all from those surfaces4 ,hence in one posture they compose the brighter parts of the waves1 in another the darker4 ,and these reflections are also varied1 according as the particular parts are variously bent4 ,the reason of which creasing we shall next examine2 and here we must fetch our information from the ,mechanism or manner of proceeding in this operation2 which1 as ,i have been inform'd1 is no other then this4 ,they double all the ,stuff that is to be water'd1 that is1 they crease it just through the middle of it1 the whole length of the piece1 leaving the right side of the ,stuff inward1 and placing the two edges1 or silvages just upon one another1 and1 as near as they can1 place the wale so in the doubling of it1 that the wale of the one side may lie very near parallel1 or even with the wale of the other2 for the nearer that posture they lie1 the greater will the watering appear2 and the more obliquely1 or across to each other they lie1 the smaller are the waves4 ,their way for folding it for a great wale is thus3 they take a ,pin1 and begin at one side of the piece in any wale1 and so moving it towards the other side1 thereby direct their hands to the opposite ends of the wale1 and then1 as near as they can1 place the two opposite ends of the same wale together1 and so double1 or fold the whole piece1 repeating this enquiry with a ,pin at every yard or two's distance through the whole length2 then they sprinkle it with water1 and fold it the long-ways1 placing between every fold a piece of ,pastboard1 by which means all the wrong side of the water'd ,stuff becomes flat1 and with little wales1 and the wales on the other side become the more protuberant2 whence the creasings or angular bendings of the wales become the more perspicuous4 ,having folded it in this manner1 they place it with an interjacent ,pastboard into an hot ,press1 where it is kept very violently prest1 till it be dry and stiff2 by which means1 the wales of either contiguous sides leave their own impressions upon each other1 as is very manifest by the second ,figure1 where 'tis obvious enough1 that the wale of the piece ,,abcd runs parallel between the pricked lines ef1 ef1 ef1 and as manifest to discern the impressions upon these wales1 left by those that were prest upon them1 which lying not exactly parallel with them1 but a little athwart them1 as is denoted by the lines of1 oooo1 gh1 gh1 gh1 between which the other wales did lie parallel2 they are so variously1 and irregularly creas'd that being put into that shape when wet1 and kept so till they be drie1 they so let each others threads1 that the ,moldings remain almost as long as the ,stuff lasts4 ,hence it may appear to any one that attentively considers the ,figure1 why the parts of the wale a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 should appear bright2 and why the parts b1 b1 b1 b1 b1 b1 b1 should appear shadowed1 or dark2 why some1 as d1 d1 d1 d1 d1 d1 should appear partly light1 and partly dark3 the varieties of which reflections and shadows are the only cause of the appearance of watering in ,silks1 or any other kind of ,stuffs4 ,from the variety of reflection1 may also be deduc'd the cause why a small breez or gale of wind ruffling the surface of a smooth water1 makes it appear black2 as also1 on the other side1 why the smoothing or burnishing the surface of whitened ,silver makes it look black2 and multitudes of other phnomena might hereby be solv'd1 which are too many to be here insisted on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,vi4 ,of ,small ,glass ,canes4 ,that ,i might be satisfi'd1 whether it were not possible to make an ,artificial pore as small as any ,natural ,i had yet found1 ,i made several attempts with small glass pipes1 melted in the flame of a ,lamp1 and then very suddenly drawn out into a great length4 ,and1 by that means1 without much difficulty1 ,i was able to draw some almost as small as a ,cobweb1 which yet1 with the ,microscope1 ,i could plainly perceive#g to be perforated1 both by looking on the ends of it1 and by looking on it against the light which was much the easier way to determine whether it were solid or perforated2 for1 taking a small pipe of glass1 and closing one end of it1 then filling it half full of water1 and holding it against the light1 ,i could1 by this means1 very easily find what was the differing aspect of a solid and a perforated piece of glass2 and so easily distinguish1 without seeing either end1 whether any ,cylinder of glass ,i look'd on1 were a solid stick1 or a hollow cane4 ,and by this means1 ,i could also presently judge of any small filament of glass1 whether it were hollow or not1 which would have been exceeding tedious to examine by looking on the end4 ,and many such like ways ,i was fain to make use of1 in the examining of divers other particulars related in this ,book1 which would have been no easie task to have determined meerly by the more common way of looking on1 or viewing the ,object4 ,for1 if we consider first1 the very faint light wherewith the object is enlightened1 whence many particles appear opacous1 which when more enlightned1 appear very transparent1 so that ,i was fain to determine its transparency by one glass1 and its texture by another4 ,next1 the unmanageableness of most ,objects1 by reason of their smalness1 #c4 ,the difficulty of finding the desired point1 and of placing it so1 as to reflect the light conveniently for the ,inquiry4 ,lastly1 ones being able to view it but with one eye at once1 they will appear no small obstructions1 nor are they easily remov'd without many contrivances4 ,but to proceed1 ,i could not find that water1 or some deeply ting'd liquors would in small ones rise so high as one would expect2 and the highest ,i have found it yet rise in any of the pipes ,i have try'd1 was to #ba inches above the level of the water in the vessel3 for though ,i found that in the small pipes it would nimbly enter at first1 and run about #f or #g inches upwards2 yet ,i found it then to move upwards so slow1 that ,i have not yet had the patience to observe it above that height of #ba inches 7and that was in a pretty large ,pipe1 in comparison of those ,i formerly mentioned2 for ,i could observe the progress of a very deep ting'd liquor in it with my naked eye1 without much trouble2 whereas many of the other pipes were so very small1 that unless in a convenient posture to the light1 ,i could not perceive them37 ,but 'tis very probable1 that a greater patience and assiduity may discover the liquors to rise1 at least to remain suspended1 at heights that ,i should be loath now even to ghess at1 if at least there be any proportion kept between the height of the ascending liquor1 and the bigness of the holes of the pipes4 ,,an ,,attempt ,,for ,,the ,,explication ,,of ,,this ,,experiment4 ,my ,conjecture1 ,that the unequal height of the surfaces of the water1 proceeded from the greater pressure made upon the water by the ,air without the ,pipes ,,abc1 then by that within them#h2 ,i shall endeavour to confirm from the truth of the two following ,propositions3 ,the first of which is1 ,that an unequal pressure of the incumbent ,air1 will cause an unequal height in the water's ,surfaces4 ,and the second is1 ,that in this experiment there is such an unequal pressure4 ,that the first is true1 the following ,experiment will evince4 ,for if you take any ,vessel so contrived1 as that you can at pleasure either increase or diminish the pressure of the ,air upon this or that part of the ,superficies of the water1 the equality of the height of those parts will presently be lost2 and that part of the ,superficies that sustains the greater pressure1 will be inferior to that which undergoes the less4 ,a fit ,vessel for this purpose1 will be an inverted ,glass ,syphon1 such an one as is described in the ,sixth ,figure4 ,for if into it you put ,water enough to fill it as high as ,,ab1 and gently blow in at ,d1 you shall depress the ,superficies ,b1 and thereby raise the opposite ,superficies ,a to a considerable height1 and by gently sucking you may produce clean contrary effects4 ,next1 ,that there is such an unequal pressure1 ,i shall prove from this1 ,that there is a much greater incongruity of ,air to ,glass1 and some other ,bodies1 then there is of ,water to the same4 ,by ,congruity1 ,i mean a property of a fluid ,body1 whereby any part of it is readily united with any other part1 either of itself1 or of any other ,similar1 fluid1 or solid body3 ,and by ,incongruity a property of a fluid1 by which it is hindred from uniting with any dissimilar1 fluid1 or solid ,body4 ,this last property1 any one that hath been observingly conversant about fluid ,bodies1 cannot be ignorant of4 ,for 7not now to mention several ,chymical ,spirits and ,oyls1 which will very hardly1 if at all1 be brought to mix with one another2 insomuch that there may be found some #h or #i1 or more1 several distinct ,liquors1 which swimming one upon another1 will not presently mix7 we need seek no further for ,examples of this kind in fluids1 then to observe the drops of rain falling through the air and the bubbles of air which are by any means conveyed under the surface of the water2 or a drop of common ,sallet-,oyl swimming upon water4 ,in all which1 and many more examples of this kind that might be enumerated1 the incongruity of two fluids is easily discernable4 ,and as for the ,congruity or ,incongruity of ,liquids1 with several kinds of firm ,bodies1 they have long since been taken notice of1 and called by the ,names of ,driness and ,moisture 7though these two names are not comprehensive enough1 being commonly used to signifie only the adhering or not adhering of water to some other solid ,bodies7 of this kind we may observe that water will more readily wet some woods then others2 and that water1 let fall upon a ,feather1 the whiter side of a ,colwort1 and some other leaves1 or upon almost any dusty1 unctuous1 or resinous superficies1 will not at all adhere to them1 but easily tumble off from them1 like a solid ,bowl2 whereas1 if dropt upon ,linnen1 ,paper1 ,clay1 green ,wood1 c4 it will not be taken off1 without leaving some part of it behind adhering to them4 ,so ,quick-silver1 which will very hardly be brought to stick to any vegetable body1 will readily adhere to1 and mingle with1 several clean metalline bodies4 ,and that we may the better finde what the cause of ,congruity and ,incongruity in bodies is1 it will be requisite to consider1 ,first1 what is the cause of fluidness2 ,and this1 ,i conceive1 to be nothing else but a certain pulse or shake of heat2 for ,heat being nothing else but a very brisk and vehement agitation of the parts of a body 7as ,i have elswhere made probable7 the parts of a body are thereby made so loose from one another1 that they easily move any way1 and become fluid4 ,that ,i may explain this a little by a gross ,similitude1 let us suppose a dish of sand set upon some body that is very much agitated1 and shaken with some quick and strong vibrating motion1 as on a ,milstone turn'd round upon the under stone very violently whilst it is empty2 or on a very stiff ,drum-head1 which is vehemently or very nimbly beaten with the ,drumsticks4 ,by this means1 the sand in the dish1 which before lay like a dull and unactive body1 becomes a perfect fluid2 and ye can no sooner make a hole in it with your finger1 but it is immediately filled up again1 and the upper surface of it levell'd4 ,nor can you bury a light body1 as a piece of ,cork under it1 but it presently emerges or swims as 'twere on the top2 nor can you lay a heavier on the top of it1 as a piece of ,lead1 but it is immediately buried in ,sand1 and 7as 'twere7 sinks to the bottom4 ,nor can you make a hole in the side of the ,dish1 but the sand shall run out of it to a level1 not an obvious property of a fluid body1 as such1 but this dos imitate2 and all this meerly caused by the vehement agitation of the conteining vessel2 for by this means1 each sand becomes to have a vibrative or dancing motion1 so as no other heavier body can rest on it1 unless sustein'd by some other on either side3 ,nor will it suffer any ,body to be beneath it1 unless it be a heavier then it self4 ,another ,instance of the strange loosening nature of a violent jarring ,motion1 or a strong and nimble vibrative one1 we may have from a piece of iron grated on very strongly with a file3 for if into that a pin screw'd so firm and hard1 that though it has a convenient head to it1 yet it can by no means be unscrew'd by the fingers2 if1 ,i say1 you attempt to unscrew this whilst grated on by the file1 it will be found to undoe and turn very easily4 ,the first of these ,examples manifests1 how a body actually divided into small parts1 becomes a fluid4 ,and the latter manifests by what means the agitation of heat so easily loosens and unties the parts of solid and firm bodies4 ,nor need we suppose heat to be any thing else1 besides such a motion2 for supposing we could ,mechanically produce such a one quick and strong enough1 we need not spend fuel to melt a body4 ,now1 that ,i do not speak this altogether groundless1 ,i must refer the ,reader to the ,observations ,i have made upon the shining sparks of ,steel1 for there he shall find that the same effects are produced upon small chips or parcels of ,steel by the flame1 and by a quick and violent motion2 and if the body of steel may be thus melted 7as ,i there shew it may7 ,i think we have little reason to doubt that almost any other may not also4 ,every ,smith can inform one how quickly both his ,file and the ,iron grows hot with filing1 and if you rub almost any two hard bodies together1 they will do the same3 ,and we know1 that a sufficient degree of heat causes fluidity1 in some bodies much sooner1 and in others later2 that is1 the parts of the body of some are so loose from one another1 and so unapt to cohere1 and so minute and little1 that a very small degree of agitation keeps them always in the state of fluidity4 ,of this kind1 ,i suppose1 the ther1 that is the medium or fluid body1 in which all other bodies do as it were swim and move2 and particularly1 the ,air1 which seems nothing else but a kind of tincture or solution of terrestrial and aqueous particles dissolv'd into it1 and agitated by it1 just as the tincture of ,cocheneel is nothing but some finer dissoluble parts of that ,concrete lick'd up or dissolv'd by the fluid water4 ,and from this ,notion of it1 we may easily give a more ,intelligible reason how the ,air becomes so capable of ,rarefaction and ,condensation4 ,for1 as in tinctures1 one grain of some strongly tinging substance may sensibly colour some hundred thousand grains of appropriated ,liquors1 so as every drop of it has its proportionate share1 and be sensibly ting'd1 as ,i have try'd both with ,logwood and ,cocheneel3 ,and as some few grains of ,salt is able to infect as great a quantity1 as may be found by prcipitations1 though not so easily by the sight or taste2 so the ,air1 which seems to be but as 'twere a tincture or saline substance1 dissolv'd and agitated by the fluid and agil ther1 may disperse and expand it self into a vast space1 if it have room enough1 and infect1 as it were1 every part of that space4 ,but1 as on the other side1 if there be but some few grains of the liquor1 it may extract all the colour of the tinging substance1 and may dissolve all the ,salt1 and thereby become much more impregnated with those substances1 so may all the air that sufficed in a rarify'd state to fill some hundred thousand spaces of ther1 be compris'd in only one1 but in a position proportionable dense4 ,and though we have not yet found out such strainers for ,tinctures and ,salts as we have for the ,air1 being yet unable to separate them from their dissolving liquors by any kind of filtre1 without prcipitation1 as we are able to separate the ,air from the ther by ,glass1 and several other bodies4 ,and though we are yet unable and ignorant of the ways of prcipitating ,air out of the ther as we can ,tinctures1 and ,salts out of several dissolvents2 yet neither of these seeming impossible from the nature of the things1 nor so improbable but that some happy future industry may find out ways to effect them2 nay1 further1 since we find that ,nature does really perform 7though by what means we are not certain7 both these actions1 namely1 by prcipitating the ,air in ,rain and ,dews1 and by supplying the ,streams and ,rivers of the ,world with fresh water1 strain'd through secret subterraneous ,caverns3 ,and since1 that in very many other proprieties they do so exactly seem of the same nature2 till further observations or tryals do inform us of the contrary1 we may safely enough conclude them of the same kind4 ,for it seldom happens that any two natures have so many properties coincident or the same1 as ,i have observ'd ,solutions and ,air to have1 and to be different in the rest4 ,and therefore ,i think it neither impossible1 irrational1 nay nor difficult to be able to predict what is likely to happen in other particulars also1 besides those which ,observation or ,experiment have declared thus or thus2 especially1 if the circumstances that do often very much conduce to the variation of the effects be duly weigh'd and consider'd4 ,and indeed1 were there not a probability of this1 our inquiries would be endless1 our tryals vain1 and our greatest inventions would be nothing but the meer products of chance1 and not of ,reason2 and1 like ,mariners in an ,ocean1 destitute both of a ,compass and the sight of the ,celestial guides1 we might indeed1 by chance1 ,steer directly towards our desired ,port1 but 'tis a thousand to one but we miss our aim4 ,but to proceed1 we may hence also give a plain reason1 how the ,air comes to be darkned by clouds1 c4 which are nothing but a kind of precipitation1 and how those precipitations fall down in ,showrs4 ,hence also could ,i very easily1 and ,i think truly1 deduce the cause of the curious sixangular figures of ,snow1 and the appearances of ,haloes1 c4 and the sudden thickning of the ,sky with ,clouds1 and the vanishing and disappearing of those ,clouds again2 for all these things may be very easily imitated in a glass of liquor1 with some slight ,chymical preparations as ,i have often try'd1 and may somewhere else more largely relate1 but have not now time to set them down4 ,but to proceed1 there are other bodies that consist of particles more ,gross1 and of a more apt figure for cohesion1 and this requires somewhat greater agitation2 such1 ,i suppose 1 fermented vinous ,spirits1 several ,chymical ,oils1 which are much of kin to those ,spirits1 c4 ,others yet require a greater1 as water1 and so others much greater1 for almost infinite degrees3 ,for1 ,i suppose there are very few bodies in the world that may not be made aliquatenus fluid1 by some or other degree of agitation or heat4 ,having therefore in short set down my ,notion of a ,fluid body1 ,i come in the next place to consider what ,congruity is2 and this1 as ,i said before1 being a ,relative property of a fluid1 whereby it may be said to be like or unlike to this or that other body1 whereby it does or does not mix with this or that body4 ,we will again have recourse to our former ,experiment1 though but a rude one2 and here if we mix in the dish several kinds of sands1 some of bigger1 others of less and finer bulks1 we shall find that by the agitation the fine sand will eject and throw out of it self all those bigger bulks of small stones and the like1 and those will be gathered together all into one place2 and if there be other bodies in it of other natures1 those also will be separated into a place by themselves1 and united or tumbled up together4 ,and though this do not come up to the highest property of ,congruity1 which is a ,cohsion of the parts of the fluid together1 or a kind of attraction and tenacity1 yet this does as 'twere shadow it out1 and somewhat resemble it2 for just after the same manner1 ,i suppose the pulse of heat to agitate the small parcels of matter1 and those that are of a like bigness1 and figure1 and matter1 will hold1 or dance together1 and those which are of a differing kind will be thrust or shov'd out from between them2 for particles that are similar1 will1 like so many equal musical strings equally stretcht1 vibrate together in a kind of ,harmony or unison2 whereas others that are dissimilar1 upon what account soever1 unless the disproportion be otherwise counter-ballanc'd1 will1 like so many strings out of tune to those unisons1 though they have the same agitating pulse1 yet make quite differing kinds of vibrations and repercussions1 so that though they may be both mov'd1 yet are their vibrations so different1 and so untun'd1 as 'twere to each other1 that they cross and jar against each other1 and consequently1 cannot agree together1 but fly back from each other to their similar particles4 ,now1 to give you an instance how the disproportion of some bodies in one respect1 may be counter-ballanc'd by a contrary disproportion of the same body in another respect1 whence we find that the subtil vinous spirit is congruous1 or does readily mix with water1 which in many properties is of a very differing nature1 we may consider that a unison may be made either by two strings of the same bigness1 length1 and tension1 or by two strings of the same bigness1 but of differing length1 and a contrary differing tension1 or #cly4 by two strings of unequal length and bigness1 and of a differing tension1 or of equal length1 and differing bigness and tension1 and several other such varieties4 ,to which three properties in strings1 will correspond three proprieties also in sand1 or the particles of bodies1 their ,matter or ,substance1 their ,figure or ,shape1 and their ,body or ,bulk4 ,and from the varieties of these three1 may arise infinite varieties in fluid bodies1 though all agitated by the same pulse or vibrative motion4 ,and there may be as many ways of making ,harmonies and ,discords with these1 as there may be with musical strings4 ,having therefore seen what is the cause of ,congruity or ,incongruity1 those relative properties of fluids1 we may1 from what has been said1 very easily collect1 what is the reason of those ,relative proprieties also between fluid bodies and solid2 for since all bodies consist of particles of such a ,substance1 ,figure1 and ,bulk2 but in some they are united together more firmly then to be loosened from each other by every vibrative motion 7though ,i imagine that there is no body in the world1 but that some degree of agitation may1 as ,i hinted before1 agitate and loosen the particles so as to make them fluid7 those cohering particles may vibrate in the same manner almost as those that are loose and become unisons or discords1 as ,i may so speak1 to them4 ,now that the parts of all bodies1 though never so solid1 do yet vibrate1 ,i think we need go no further for proof1 then that all bodies have some degrees of heat in them1 and that there has not been yet found any thing perfectly cold3 ,nor can ,i believe indeed that there is any such thing in ,nature1 as a body whose particles are at rest1 or lazy and unactive in the great ,theatre of the ,world1 it being quite contrary to the grand ,oeconomy of the ,universe4 ,we see therefore what is the reason of the sympathy or uniting of some bodies together1 and of the antipathy or flight of others from each other3 ,for ,congruity seems nothing else but a ,sympathy1 and ,incongruity an ,antipathy of bodies1 hence similar bodies once united will not easily part1 and dissimilar bodies once disjoyn'd will not easily unite again2 from hence may be very easily deduc'd the reason of the suspension of water and ,quick-silver above their usual station1 as ,i shall more at large anon shew4 ,these properties therefore 7alwayes the concomitants of fluid bodies7 produce these following visible ,effects3 ,first1 ,they unite the parts of a fluid to its similar ,solid1 or keep them separate from its dissimilar4 ,hence ,quick-silver will 7as we noted before7 stick to ,gold1 ,silver1 ,tin1 ,lead1 c4 and unite with them3 but roul off from ,wood1 ,stone1 ,glass1 c4 if never so little scituated out of its horizontal level2 and water that will wet salt and dissolve it1 will slip off from ,tallow1 or the like1 without at all adhering2 as it may likewise be observed to do upon a dusty superficies4 ,and next they cause the parts of homogeneal fluid bodies readily to adhere together and mix1 and of heterogeneal1 to be exceeding averse thereunto4 ,hence we find1 that two small drops of water1 on any superficies they can roul on1 will1 if they chance to touch each other1 readily unite and mix into one #c;d drop3 ,the like may be observed with two small ,bowls of ,quick-silver upon a ,table or ,glass1 provided their surfaces be not dusty2 and with two drops of ,oyl upon fair water1 c4 ,and further1 water put unto wine1 salt water1 vinegar1 spirit of wine1 or the like1 does immediately 7especially if they be shaken together7 disperse it self all over them4 ,hence1 on the contrary1 we also find1 that ,oyl of ,tartar poured upon ,quick-silver1 and ,spirit of ,wine on that ,oyl1 and ,oyl of ,turpentine on that ,spirit1 and ,air upon that ,oyl1 though they be stopt closely up into a ,bottle1 and shaken never so much1 they will by no means long suffer any of their bigger parts to be united or included within any of the other ,liquors 7by which recited ,liquors1 may be plainly enough represented the four ,peripatetical ,elements1 and the more subtil ther above all47 ,from this property 'tis1 that a drop of water does not mingle with1 or vanish into ,air1 but is driven 7by that ,fluid equally protruding it on every side7 and forc't into as little a space as it can possibly be contained in1 namely1 into a ,round ,globule4 ,so likewise a little ,air blown under the water1 is united or thrust into a ,bubble by the ambient water4 ,and a parcel of ,quick-silver enclosed with ,air1 ,water1 or almost any other ,liquor1 is formed into a round ,ball4 ,now the cause why all these included ,fluids1 newly mentioned1 or as many others as are wholly included within a heterogeneous fluid1 are not exactly of a ,spherical ,figure 7seeing that if caused by these ,principles only1 it could be of no other7 must proceed from some other kind of pressure against the two opposite flatted sides4 ,this adventitious or accidental pressure may proceed from divers causes1 and accordingly must diversifie the ,figure of the included heterogeneous fluid3 ,for seeing that a body may be included either with a fluid only1 or only with a solid1 or partly with a fluid1 and partly with a solid1 or partly with one fluid1 and partly with another2 there will be found a very great variety of the terminating surfaces1 much differing from a ,spherical1 according to the various resistance or pressure that belongs to each of these encompassing bodies4 ,which ,properties may in general be deduced from two heads1 viz4 ,motion1 and ,rest4 ,for1 either this ,globular ,figure is altered by a natural ,motion1 such as is ,gravity1 or a violent1 such as is any accidental motion of the fluids1 as we see in the wind ruffling up the water1 and the purlings of ,streams1 and foaming of ,catarracts1 and the like4 ,or thirdly1 ,by the ,rest1 ,firmness and ,stability of the ambient ,solid4 ,for if the including ,solid be of an angular or any other irregular ,form1 the included fluid will be near of the like1 as a ,pint-,pot full of water1 or a ,bladder full of ,air4 ,and next1 if the including or included fluid have a greater gravity one than another1 then will the globular ,form be deprest into an ,elliptico-spherical3 ,as if1 for example1 we suppose the ,circle ,,abcd1 in the fourth ,figure1 to represent a drop of water1 ,quick-silver1 or the like1 included with the ,air or the like1 which supposing there were no gravity at all in either of the fluids1 or that the contained and containing were of the same weight1 would be equally comprest into an exactly spherical body 7the ambient fluid forcing equally against every side of it47 ,but supposing either a greater gravity in the included1 by reason whereof the parts of it being prest from ,a towards ,b1 and thereby the whole put into motion1 and that motion being hindred by the resistance of the subjacent parts of the ambient1 the globular ,figure ,,adbc will be deprest into the ,elliptico-spherical1 ,,egfh4 ,for the side ,a is detruded to ,e by the ,gravity1 and ,b to ,f by the resistance of the subjacent medium3 and therefore ,c must necessarily be thrust to ,g2 and ,d to ,h4 ,or else1 supposing a greater gravity in the ambient1 by whose more then ordinary pressure against the under side of the included globule2 ,b will be forced to ,f1 and by its resistance of the motion upwards1 the side ,a will be deprest to ,e1 and therefore ,c being thrust to ,g and ,d to ,h2 the globular ,figure by this means also will be made an ,elliptico-spherical4 ,next if a fluid be included partly with one1 and partly with another fluid1 it will be found to be shaped diversly1 according to the proportion of the gravity and incongruity of the #c fluids one to another3 ,as in the second ,figure1 let the upper ,,mmm be ,air1 the middle ,,lmno be common ,oyl1 the lower ,,ooo be ,water1 the ,oyl will be form'd1 not into a spherical ,figure1 such as is represented by the pricked ,line1 but into such a ,figure as ,,lmno1 whose side ,,lmn will be of a flatter ,elliptical ,figure1 by reason of the great disproportion between the ,gravity of ,oyl and ,air1 and the side ,,lom of a rounder1 because of the smaller difference between the weight of ,oyl and ,water4 ,lastly1 ,the globular ,figure will be changed1 if the ambient be partly fluid and partly solid4 ,and here the termination of the incompassed fluid towards the incompassing is shap'd according to the proportion of the congruity or incongruity of the fluids to the solids1 and of the gravity and incongruity of the fluids one to another4 ,as suppose the subjacent medium that hinders an included fluids descent1 be a solid1 as let ,,ki1 in the fourth ,figure1 represent the smooth superficies of a ,table2 ,,egfh1 a parcel of running ,mercury2 the side ,,gfh will be more flatted1 according to the proportion of the incongruity of the ,mercury and ,air to the ,wood1 and of the gravity of ,mercury and ,air one to another2 ,the side ,,geh will likewise be a little more deprest by reason the subjacent parts are now at rest1 which were before in motion4 ,or further in the third figure1 let ,,aild represent an including solid medium of a cylindrical shape 7as suppose a small ,glass ,jar7 ,let ,,fgemm represent a contain'd fluid1 as water2 this towards the bottom and sides1 is figured according to the concavity of the ,glass3 ,but its upper ,surface1 7which by reason of its gravity1 7not considering at all the ,air above it1 and so neither the congruity or incongruity of either of them to the ,glass7 should be terminated by part of a ,sphere whose diameter should be the same with that of the earth1 which to our sense would appear a straight ,line1 as ,,fge1 ,or which by reason of its having a greater congruity to ,glass than ,air has1 7not considering its ,gravity7 would be thrust into a concave ,sphere1 as ,,chb1 whose diameter would be the same with that of the concavity of the ,vessel37 ,its upper ,surface1 ,i say1 by reason of its having a greater gravity then the ,air1 and having likewise a greater congruity to ,glass then the ,air has1 is terminated1 by a concave ,elliptico-spherical ,figure1 as ,,ckb4 ,for by its congruity it easily conforms it self1 and adheres to the ,glass1 and constitutes as it were one containing body with it1 and therefore should thrust the contained ,air on that side it touches it1 into a spherical ,figure1 as ,,bhc1 but the motion of ,gravity depressing a little the ,corners ,b and ,c1 reduces it into the aforesaid ,figure ,,ckb4 ,now that it is the greater congruity of one of the two contiguous fluids1 then of the other1 to the containing solid1 that causes the separating surfaces to be thus or thus figured3 ,and that it is not because this or that figurated surface is more proper1 natural1 or peculiar to one of these fluid bodies1 then to the other1 will appear from this2 that the same fluids will by being put into differing solids1 change their surfaces4 ,for the same water1 which in a ,glass or wooden ,vessel will have a concave surface upwards1 and will rise higher in a smaller then a greater ,pipe1 the same water1 ,i say1 in the same ,pipes greased over or oyled1 will produce quite contrary effects2 for it will have a protuberant and convex surface upwards1 and will not rise so high in small1 as in bigger ,pipes3 ,nay1 in the very same solid ,vessel1 you may make the very same two contiguous ,liquids to alter their ,surfaces2 for taking a small ,wine-glass1 or such like ,vessel1 and pouring water gently into it1 you shall perceive the surface of the water all the way concave1 till it rise even with the top1 when you shall find it 7if you gently and carefully pour in more7 to grow very protuberant and convex2 the reason of which is plain1 for that the solid sides of the containing body are no longer extended1 to which the water does more readily adhere then the air2 but it is henceforth to be included with air1 which would reduce it into a hemisphere1 but by reason of its gravity1 it is flatted into an ,oval4 ,quicksilver also which to ,glass is more incongruous then ,air 7and thereby being put into a ,glass-pipe1 will not adhere to it1 but by the more congruous air will be forced to have a very protuberant surface1 and to rise higher in a greater then a lesser ,pipe7 this ,quicksilver to clean ,metal1 especially to ,gold1 ,silver1 ,tin1 ,lead1 c4 ,iron excepted1 is more congruous then ,air1 and will not only stick to it1 but have a concave ,surface like water1 and rise higher in a less1 then in a greater ,pipe4 ,in all these ,examples it is evident1 that there is an extraordinary and adventitious force1 by which the globular ,figure of the contained heterogeneous fluid is altered2 neither can it be imagined1 how it should otherwise be of any other ,figure then ,globular3 ,for being by the heterogeneous fluid equally protruded every way1 whatsoever part is protuberant1 will be thereby deprest4 ,from this cause it is1 that in its effects it does very much resemble a round ,spring 7such as a ,hoop47 ,for as in a round ,spring there is required an additional pressure against two opposite sides1 to reduce it into an ,oval ,form1 or to force it in between the sides of a ,hole1 whose ,diameter is less then that of the ,spring1 there must be a considerable force or protrusion against the concave or inner side of the ,spring2 ,so to alter this spherical constitution of an included fluid body1 there is required more pressure against opposite sides to reduce it into an ,oval2 and1 to press it into an ,hole less in ,diameter then it self1 it requires a greater protrusion against all the other sides1 ,what degrees of force are requisite to reduce them into longer and longer ,ovals1 or to press them into less and less holes1 ,i have not yet experimentally calculated2 but thus much by experiment ,i find in general1 that there is alwayes required a greater pressure to close them into longer ,ovals1 or protrude them into smaller holes4 ,the necessity and reason of this1 were it requisite1 ,i could easily explain3 but being not so necessary1 and requiring more room and time then ,i have for it at present1 ,i shall here omit it2 and proceed to shew1 that this may be presently found true1 if ,experiment be made with a round ,spring 7the way of making which trials is obvious enough47 ,and with the fluid bodies of ,mercury1 ,air1 c4 the way of trying which1 will be somewhat more difficult2 and therefore ,i shall in brief describe it4 ,he therefore that would try with ,air1 must first be provided of a ,glass-pipe1 made of the shape of that in the fifth ,figure1 whereof the side ,,ab1 represents a straight ,tube of about three foot long1 ,c1 represents another part of it1 which consists of a round ,bubble2 so ordered1 that there is left a passage or hole at the top1 into which may be fastened with cement several small ,pipes of determinate cylindrical cavities3 as let the hollow of ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,i4 be of an inch4 ,k4 ,l4 ,m4 c4---- ,there may be added as many more1 as the ,experimenter shall think fit1 with holes continually decreasing by known quantities1 so far as his senses are able to help him2 ,i say1 so far1 because there may be made ,pipes so small that it will be impossible to perceive the perforation with ones naked eye1 though by the help of a ,microscope1 it may easily enough be perceived3 ,nay1 ,i have made a ,pipe perforated from end to end1 so small1 that with my naked eye ,i could very hardly see the body of it1 insomuch that ,i have been able to knit it up into a knot without breaking3 ,and more accurately examining one with my ,microscope1 ,i found it not so big as a sixteenth part of one of the smaller hairs of my head which was of the smaller and finer sort of hair1 so that sixteen of these ,pipes bound faggot-wise together1 would but have equalized one single hair2 how small therefore must its perforation be8 ,it appearing to me through the ,microscope to be a proportionably thick-sided ,pipe4 ,to proceed then1 for the trial of the ,experiment1 the ,experimenter must place the ,tube ,,ab1 perpendicular1 and fill the ,pipe ,f 7cemented into the hole ,e7 with water1 but leave the bubble ,c full of ,air1 and then gently pouring in water into the ,pipe ,,ab1 he must observe diligently how high the water will rise in it before it protrude the bubble of ,air ,c1 through the narrow passage of ,f1 and denote exactly the height of the ,cylinder of water1 then cementing in a second ,pipe as ,g1 and filling it with water2 he may proceed as with the former1 denoting likewise the height of the ,cylinder of water1 able to protrude the bubble ,c through the passage of ,g1 the like may he do with the next ,pipe1 and the next1 c4 as far as he is able3 then comparing the several heights of the ,cylinders1 with the several holes through which each ,cylinder did force the air 7having due regard to the ,cylinders of water in the small ,tubes7 it will be very easie to determine1 what force is requisite to press the ,air into such and such a hole1 or 7to apply it to our present experiment7 how much of the pressure of the ,air is taken off by its ingress into smaller and smaller holes4 ,from the application of which to the entring of the ,air into the bigger hole of the ,vessel1 and into the smaller hole of the ,pipe1 we shall clearly find1 that there is a greater pressure of the air upon the water in the ,vessel or greater pipe1 then there is upon that in the lesser pipe3 ,for since the pressure of the air every way is found to be equal1 that is1 as much as is able to press up and sustain a ,cylinder of ,quicksilver of two foot and a half high1 or thereabouts2 ,and since of this pressure so many more degrees are required to force the ,air into a smaller then into a greater hole that is full of a more congruous fluid4 ,and lastly1 since those degrees that are requisite to press it in1 are thereby taken off from the ,air within1 and the ,air within left with so many degrees of pressure less then the ,air without2 it will follow1 that the ,air in the less ,tube or pipe1 will have less pressure against the superficies of the water therein1 then the ,air in the bigger3 which was the minor ,proposition to be proved4 ,the ,conclusion therefore will necessarily follow1 viz4 ,that this unequal pressure of the ,air caused by its ingress into unequal holes1 is a cause sufficient to produce this effect1 without the help of any other concurrent2 and therefore is probably the principal 7if not the only7 cause of these ,phnomena4 ,this therefore being thus explained1 there will be divers ,phnomena explicable thereby1 as1 the rising of ,liquors in a ,filtre1 the rising of ,spirit of ,wine1 ,oyl1 melted ,tallow1 c4 in the ,week of a ,lamp1 7though made of small ,wire1 ,threeds of ,asbestus1 ,strings of ,glass1 or the like7 the rising of ,liquors in a ,spunge1 piece of ,bread1 ,sand1 c4 perhaps also the ascending of the ,sap in ,trees and ,plants1 through their small1 and some of them imperceptible pores1 7of which ,i have said more1 on another occasion7 at least the passing of it out of the earth into their roots4 ,and indeed upon the consideration of this ,principle1 multitudes of other uses of it occurr'd to me1 which ,i have not yet so well examined and digested as to propound for ,axioms1 but only as ,queries and ,conjectures which may serve as hints toward some further discoveries4 ,as first1 ,upon the consideration of the congruity and incongruity of ,bodies1 as to touch1 ,i found also the like congruity and incongruity 7if ,i may so speak7 as to the ,transmitting of the ,rates of ,light3 ,for as in this regard1 water 7not now to mention other ,liquors7 seems nearer of affinity to ,glass then ,air1 and ,air then ,quicksilver3 whence an oblique ,ray out of ,glass1 will pass into water with very little refraction from the perpendicular1 but none out of ,glass into ,air1 excepting a direct1 will pass without a very great refraction from the perpendicular1 nay any oblique ,ray under thirty degrees1 will not be admitted into the ,air at all4 ,and ,quicksilver will neither admit oblique or direct1 but reflects all2 seeming1 as to the transmitting of the ,raies of ,light1 to be of a quite differing constitution1 from that of ,air1 ,water1 ,glass1 c4 and to resemble most those opacous and strong reflecting bodies of ,metals3 ,so also as to the property of cohesion or congruity1 ,water seems to keep the same order1 being more congruous to ,glass then ,air1 and ,air then ,quicksilver4 ,a ,second thing 7which was hinted to me1 by the consideration of the included fluids globular form1 caused by the protrusion of the ambient heterogeneous fluid7 was1 whether the ,phnomena of gravity might not by this means be explained1 by supposing the ,globe of ,earth1 ,water1 and ,air to be included with a fluid1 heterogeneous to all and each of them1 so subtil1 as not only to be every where interspersed through the ,air1 7or rather the air through it7 but to pervade the bodies of ,glass1 and even the closest ,metals1 by which means it may endeavour to detrude all earthly bodies as far from it as it can2 and partly thereby1 and partly by other of its properties may move them towards the ,center of the ,earth4 ,now that there is some such fluid1 ,i could produce many ,experiments and ,reasons1 that do seem to prove it3 ,but because it would ask some time and room to set them down and explain them1 and to consider and answer all the ,objections 7many whereof ,i foresee7 that may be alledged against it2 ,i shall at present proceed to other ,queries1 contenting my self to have here only given a hint of what ,i may say more elswhere4 ,a ,third ,query then was1 ,whether the heterogeneity of the ambient fluid may not be accounted a secondary cause of the roundness or globular form of the greater bodies of the world1 such as are those of the ,sun1 ,stars1 and ,planets1 the substance of each of which seems altogether heterogeneous to the circumambient fluid ther8 ,and of this ,i shall say more in the ,observation of the ,moon4 ,a ,fourth was1 ,whether the globular form of the smaller parcels of matter here upon the ,earth1 as that of ,fruits1 ,pebbles1 or ,flints1 c4 7which seem to have been a ,liquor at first7 may not be caused by the heterogeneous ambient fluid4 ,for thus we see that melted ,glass will be naturally formed into a round ,figure2 so likewise any small ,parcel of any fusible body1 if it be perfectly enclosed by the ,air1 will be driven into a globular ,form2 and1 when cold1 will be found a solid ,ball4 ,this is plainly enough manifested to us by their way of making shot with the drops of ,lead2 which being a very pretty curiosity1 and known but to a very few1 and having the liberty of publishing it granted me1 by that ,eminent ,virtuoso ,sir ,robert ,moray1 who brought in this ,account of it to the ,royal ,society1 ,i have here transcribed and inserted4 ,to make small shot of different sizes2 ,communicated by his ,highness ,p4,r4 ,take ,lead out of the ,pig what quantity you please1 melt it down1 stir and clear it with an iron ,ladle1 gathering together the blackish parts that swim at top like scum1 and when you see the colour of the clear ,lead to be greenish1 but no sooner1 strew upon it ,auripigmentum powdered according to the quantity of ,lead1 about as much as will lye upon a half ,crown piece will serve for eighteen or twenty pound weight of some sorts of ,lead2 others will require more1 or less4 ,after the ,auripigmentum is put in1 stir the ,lead well1 and the ,auripigmentum will flame3 when the flame is over1 take out some of the ,lead in a ,ladle having a lip or notch in the brim for convenient pouring out of the ,lead1 and being well warmed amongst the melted ,lead1 and with a stick make some single drops of ,lead trickle out of the ,ladle into water in a ,glass1 which if they fall to be round and without tails1 there is ,auripigmentum enough put in1 and the temper of the heat is right1 otherwise put in more4 ,then lay two bars of ,iron 7or some more proper ,iron-tool made on purpose7 upon a ,pail of water1 and place upon them a round ,plate of ,copper1 of the size and figure of an ordinary large ,pewter or ,silver ,trencher1 the hollow whereof is to be about three inches over1 the bottom lower then the brims about half an inch1 pierced with thirty1 forty1 or more small holes2 the smaller the holes are1 the smaller the shot will be2 and the brim is to be thicker then the bottom1 to conserve the heat the better4 ,the bottom of the ,trencher being some four inches distant from the water in the ,pail1 lay upon it some burning ,coles1 to keep the ,lead melted upon it4 ,then with the hot ,ladle take ,lead off the ,pot where it stands melted1 and pour it softly upon the burning ,coles over the bottom of the ,trencher1 and it will immediately run through the holes into the water in small round drops4 ,thus pour on new ,lead still as fast as it runs through the ,trencher till all be done2 blowing now and then the ,coles with hand-,bellows1 when the ,lead in the ,trencher cools so as to stop from running4 ,whilst one pours on the ,lead1 another must1 with another ,ladle1 thrusted four or five inches under water in the ,pail1 catch from time to time some of the shot1 as it drops down1 to see the size of it1 and whether there be any faults in it4 ,the greatest care is to keep the ,lead upon the ,trencher in the right degree of heat2 if it be too cool1 it will not run through the ,trencher1 though it stand melted upon it2 and this is to be helped by blowing the ,coals a little1 or pouring on new ,lead that is hotter3 but the cooler the ,lead1 the larger the ,shot2 and the hotter1 the smaller2 when it is too hot1 the drops will crack and fly2 then you must stop pouring on new ,lead1 and let it cool2 and so long as you observe the right temper of the heat1 the ,lead will constantly drop into very round ,shot1 without so much as one with a tail in many pounds4 ,when all is done1 take your ,shot out of the ,pail of water1 and put it in a ,frying-pan over the fire to dry them1 which must be done warily1 still shaking them that they melt not2 and when they are dry you may separate the small from the great1 in ,pearl ,sives made of ,copper or ,lattin let into one another1 into as many sizes at you please4 ,but if you would have your ,shot larger then the ,trencher makes them1 you may do it with a ,stick1 making them trickle out of the ,ladle1 as hath been said4 ,if the ,trencher be but toucht a very little when the ,lead stops from going through it1 and be not too cool1 it will drop again1 but it is better not to touch it at all4 ,at the melting of the ,lead take care that there be no kind of ,oyl1 ,grease1 or the like1 upon the ,pots1 or ,ladles1 or ,trencher4 ,the ,chief cause of this ,globular ,figure of the ,shot1 seems to be the ,auripigmentum2 for1 as soon as it is put in among the melted ,lead1 it loses its shining brightness1 contracting instantly a grayish film or skin upon it1 when you scum it to make it clean with the ,ladle4 ,so that when the ,air comes at the falling drop of the melted ,lead1 that skin constricts them every where equally3 but upon what account1 and whether this be the true cause1 is left to further disquisition4 ,much after this same manner1 when the ,air is exceeding cold through which it passes2 do we find the drops of ,rain1 falling from the ,clouds1 congealed into round ,hail-stones by the freezing ,ambient4 ,to which may be added this other known ,experiment1 ,that if you gently let fall a drop of water upon small sand or dust1 you shall find1 as it were1 an artificial round stone quickly generated4 ,i cannot upon this occasion omit the mentioning of the strange kind of ,grain1 which ,i have observed in a stone brought from ,kettering in ,northamptonshire1 and therefore called by ,masons ,kettering-,stone1 of which see the ,description4 ,which brings into my mind what ,i long since observed in the fiery ,sparks that are struck out of a ,steel4 ,for having a great desire to see what was left behind1 after the ,spark was gone out1 ,i purposely struck fire over a very white piece of ,paper1 and observing diligently where some conspicuous sparks went out1 ,i found a very little black spot no bigger then the point of a ,pin1 which through a ,microscope appeared to be a perfectly round ,ball1 looking much like a polisht ball of ,steel1 insomuch that ,i was able to see the ,image of the window reflected from it4 ,i cannot here stay 7having done it more fully in another place7 to examine the particular ,reasons of it1 but shall only hint1 that ,i imagine it to be some small parcel of the ,steel1 which by the violence of the motion of the stroke 7most of which seems to be imprest upon those small parcels7 is made so glowing hot1 that it is melted into a ,vitrum1 which by the ambient ,air is thrust into the form of a ,ball4 ,a ,fifth thing which ,i thought worth ,examination was1 ,whether the motion of all kind of ,springs1 might not be reduced to the ,principle whereby the included heterogeneous fluid seems to be moved2 or to that whereby two ,solids1 as ,marbles1 or the like1 are thrust and kept together by the ambient fluid4 ,a ,sixth thing was1 ,whether the ,rising and ,ebullition of the ,water out of ,springs and ,fountains 7which lie much higher from the ,center of the ,earth then the ,superficies of the ,sea1 from whence it seems to be derived7 may not be explicated by the rising of ,water in a smaller ,pipe3 ,for the ,sea-water being strained through the ,pores or ,crannies of the ,earth1 is1 as it were1 included in little ,pipes1 where the pressure of the ,air has not so great a power to resist its rising3 ,but examining this way1 and finding in it several difficulties almost irremovable1 ,i thought upon a way that would much more naturally and conceivably explain it1 which was by this following ,experiment3 ,i took a ,glass-,tube1 of the form of that described in the sixth ,figure1 and chusing two heterogeneous fluids1 such as ,water and ,oyl1 ,i poured in as much ,water as filled up the ,pipes as high as ,,ab1 then putting in some ,oyl into the ,tube ,,ac1 ,i deprest the superficies ,a of the ,water to ,f1 and ,b ,i raised to ,g1 which was not so high perpendicularly as the superficies of the ,oyl ,f1 by the space ,,fi1 wherefore the proportion of the gravity of these two ,liquors was as ,,gh to ,,fe4 ,this ,experiment ,i tried with several other ,liquors1 and particularly with fresh ,water and ,salt 7which ,i made by dissolving ,salt in warm ,water7 which two though they are nothing heterogeneous1 yet before they would perfectly mix one with another1 ,i made trial of the ,experiment3 ,nay1 letting the ,tube wherein ,i tried the ,experiment remain for many dayes1 ,i observed them not to mix2 but the superficies of the fresh was rather more then less elevated above that of the ,salt4 ,now the proportion of the gravity of ,sea-water1 to that of ,river-water1 according to ,stevinus and ,varenius1 and as ,i have since found pretty true by making trial my self1 is as #df4 to #de4 that is1 #df4 ,ounces of the salt ,water will take up no more room then #de4 of the fresh4 ,or reciprocally #de pints of salt-water weigh as much as #df of fresh4 ,but ,i found the proportion of ,brine to fresh ,water to be near #ac to #ab3 ,supposing therefore ,,ghm to represent the ,sea1 and ,,fi the height of the ,mountain above the ,superficies of the ,sea1 ,,fm a ,cavern in the ,earth1 beginning at the bottom of the ,sea1 and terminated at the top of the ,mountain1 ,,lm the ,sand at the bottom1 through which the ,water is as it were strained1 so as that the fresher parts are only permitted to transude1 and the saline kept back2 if therefore the proportion of ,g ,m to ,,fm be as #de to #df1 then may the ,cylinder of ,salt-water ,,gm make the ,cylinder of ,fresh-water to rise as high as ,e1 and to run over at ,n4 ,i cannot here stand to examine or confute their ,opinion1 who make the depth of the ,sea1 below its ,superficies1 to be no more perpendicularly measured then the height of the ,mountains above it3 ',tis enough for me to say1 there is no one of those that have asserted it1 have experimentally known the perpendicular of either2 nor shall ,i here determine1 whether there may not be many other causes of the separation of the fresh water from the salt1 as perhaps some parts of the ,earth through which it is to pass1 may contain a ,salt1 that mixing and uniting with the ,sea-salt1 may precipitate it2 much after the same manner as the ,alcalizate and ,acid ,salts mix and precipitate each other in the preparation of ,tartarum ,vitriolatum4 ,i know not also whether the exceeding cold 7that must necessarily be7 at the bottom of the ,water1 may not help towards this separation1 for we find1 that warm ,water is able to dissolve and contain more ,salt1 then the same cold2 insomuch that ,brines strongly impregnated by heat1 if let cool1 do suffer much of their ,salt to subside and crystallize about the bottom and sides4 ,i know not also whether the exceeding pressure of the parts of the ,water one against another1 may not keep the ,salt from descending to the very bottom1 as finding little or no room to insert it self between those parts1 protruded so violently together1 or else squeeze it upwards into the superiour parts of the ,sea1 where it may more easily obtain room for it self1 amongst the parts of the ,water1 by reason that there is more heat and less pressure4 ,to this ,opinion ,i was somewhat the more induced by the relations ,i have met with in ,geographical ,writers1 of drawing fresh ,water from the bottom of the ,sea1 which is salt above4 ,i cannot now stand to examine1 whether this natural perpetual motion may not artificially be imitated3 ,nor can ,i stand to answer the ,objections which may be made against this my ,supposition3 ,as1 ,first1 ,how it comes to pass1 that there are sometimes salt ,springs much higher then the ,superficies of the ,water8 ,and1 ,secondly1 ,why ,springs do not run faster and slower1 according to the varying height made of the ,cylinder of ,sea-water1 by the ebbing and flowing of the ,sea8 ,as to the ,first1 ,in short1 ,i say1 the fresh ,water may receive again a saline ,tincture near the ,superficies of the ,earth1 by passing through some salt ,mines1 or else many of the saline parts of the ,sea may be kept back1 though not all4 ,and as to the ,second1 ,the same ,spring may be fed and supplyed by divers ,caverns1 coming from very far distant parts of the ,sea1 so as that it may in one place be high1 in another low water2 and so by that means the ,spring may be equally supply'd at all times4 ,or else the ,cavern may be so straight and narrow1 that the water not having so ready and free passage through it1 cannot upon so short and quick mutations of pressure1 be able to produce any sensible effect at such a distance4 ,besides that1 to confirm this hypothesis1 there are many ,examples found in ,natural ,historians1 of ,springs that do ebb and flow like the ,sea3 ,as particularly1 those recorded by the ,learned ,camden1 and after him by ,speed1 to be found in this ,island3 ,one of which1 they relate to be on the ,top of a ,mountain1 by the small ,village ,kilken in ,flintshire1 ,maris mulus qui statis temporibus suas evomit resorbet ,aquas2 ,which at certain times riseth and falleth after the manner of the ,sea4 ,a ,second in ,caermardenshire1 near ,caermarden1 at a place called ,cantred ,bichan2 ,qui 7ut scribit ,giraldus7 naturali die bis undis deficiens1 toties exuberans1 marinas imitatur instabilitates2 ,that twice in four and twenty hours ebbing and flowing2 resembleth the unstable motions of the ,sea4 ,the ,phnomena of which two may be easily made out1 by supposing the ,cavern1 by which they are fed1 to arise from the bottom of the next ,sea4 ,a ,third1 is a ,well upon the ,river ,ogmore in ,glamorganshire1 and near unto ,newton1 of which ,camden relates himself to be certified1 by a ,letter from a ,learned ,friend of his that observed it1 ,fons abest hinc1 c4 ,the ,letter is a little too long to be inserted1 but the substance is this2 ,that this ,well ebbs and flows quite contrary to the flowing and ebbing of the ,sea in those parts3 for 'tis almost empty at ,full ,sea1 but full at ,low water4 ,this may happen from the ,channel by which it is supplied1 which may come from the bottom of a ,sea very remote from those parts1 and where the ,tides are much differing from those of the approximate shores4 ,a ,fourth1 lies in ,westmorland1 near the ,river ,leder2 ,qui instar ,euripi spius in die reciprocantibus undis fluit refluit1 which ebbs and flows many times a day4 ,this may proceed from its being supplyed from many ,channels1 coming from several parts of the ,sea1 lying sufficiently distant asunder to have the times of ,high water differing enough one from the other2 so as that whensoever it shall be ,high water over any of those places1 where these ,channels begin1 it shall likewise be so in the ,well2 but this is but a supposition4 ,a ,seventh ,query was1 ,whether the dissolution or mixing of several bodies1 whether fluid or solid1 with saline or other ,liquors1 might not partly be attributed to this ,principle of the congruity of those bodies and their dissolvents8 ,as of ,salt in ,water1 ,metals in several ,menstruums1 ,unctuous ,gums in ,oyls1 the mixing of ,wine and ,water1 c4 ,and whether precipitation be not partly made from the same ,principle of ,incongruity8 ,i say partly1 because there are in some ,dissolutions1 some other ,causes concurrent4 ,i shall lastly make a much more seemingly strange and unlikely ,query2 and that is1 ,whether this ,principle1 well examined and explained1 may not be found a coefficient in the most considerable ,operations of ,nature8 ,as in those of ,heat1 and ,light1 and consequently of ,rarefaction and ,condensation1 ,hardness1 and ,fluidness1 ,perspicuity and ,opacousness1 ,refractions and ,colours4 c4 ,nay1 ,i know not whether there may be many things done in ,nature1 in which this may not 7be said to7 have a ,finger8 ,this ,i have in some other passages of this ,treatise further enquired into and shewn1 that as well ,light as ,heat may be caused by corrosion1 which is applicable to congruity1 and consequently all the rest will be but subsequents3 ,in the mean time ,i would not willingly be guilty of that ,error1 which the thrice ,noble and ,learned ,verulam justly takes notice of1 as such1 and calls ,philosophi ,genus ,empiricum1 quod in paucorum ,experimentorum ,angustiis ,obscuritate fundatum est4 ,for ,i neither conclude from one single ,experiment1 nor are the ,experiments ,i make use of all made upon one ,subject3 ,nor wrest ,i any ,experiment to make it quadrare with any preconceiv'd ,notion4 ,but on the contrary1 ,i endeavour to be conversant in divers kinds of ,experiments1 and all and every one of those ,trials1 ,i make the ,standards or ,touchstones1 by which ,i try all my former ,notions1 whether they hold out in weight1 and measure1 and touch1 c4 ,for as that ,body is no other then a ,counterfeit ,gold1 which wants any one of the ,proprieties of ,gold1 7such as are the ,malleableness1 ,weight1 ,colour1 ,fixtness in the ,fire1 ,indissolubleness in ,aqua fortis1 and the like7 though it has all the other2 so will all those ,notions be found to be false and deceitful1 that will not undergo all the ,trials and ,tests made of them by ,experiments4 ,and therefore such as will not come up to the desired ,apex of ,perfection1 ,i rather wholly reject and take new1 then by piecing and patching1 endeavour to retain the old1 as knowing such things at best to be but lame and imperfect4 ,and this course ,i learned from ,nature2 whom we find neglectful of the old ,body1 and suffering its ,decaies and ,infirmities to remain without repair1 and altogether sollicitous and careful of perpetuating the ,species by new ,individuals4 ,and it is certainly the most likely way to erect a glorious ,structure and ,temple to ,nature1 such as she will be found 7by any zealous ,votary7 to reside in2 to begin to build a new upon a sure ,foundation of ,experiments4 ,but to digress no further from the consideration of the ,phnomena1 more immediately explicable by this ,experiment1 we shall proceed to shew1 ,that1 as to the rising of ,water in a ,filtre1 the reason of it will be manifest to him1 that does take notice1 that a ,filtre is constituted of a great number of small long solid bodies1 which lie so close together1 that the ,air in its getting in between them1 doth lose of its pressure that it has against the ,fluid without them1 by which means the ,water or ,liquor not finding so strong a resistance between them as is able to counter-ballance the pressure on its superficies without1 is raised upward1 till it meet with a pressure of the ,air which is able to hinder it4 ,and as to the ,rising of ,oyl1 melted ,tallow1 ,spirit of ,wine1 c4 in the ,week of a ,candle or ,lamp1 it is evident1 that it differs in nothing from the former1 save only in this1 that in a ,filtre the ,liquor descends and runs away by another part2 and in the ,week the ,liquor is dispersed and carried away by the ,flame2 something there is ascribable to the ,heat1 for that it may rarifie the more volatil and spirituous parts of those combustible ,liquors1 and so being made lighter then the ,air1 it may be protruded upwards by that more ponderous fluid body in the ,form of ,vapours2 but this can be ascribed to the ascension of but a very little1 and most likely of that only which ascends without the ,week4 ,as for the ,rising of it in a ,spunge1 ,bread1 ,cotton1 c4 above the superficies of the subjacent ,liquor1 what has been said about the ,filtre 7if considered7 will easily suggest a reason1 considering that all these bodies abound with small holes or pores4 ,from this same ,principle also 7viz4 the unequal pressure of the ,air against the unequal superficies of the water7 proceeds the cause of the accession or incursion of any floating body against the sides of the containing ,vessel2 or the appropinquation of two floating bodies1 as ,bubbles1 ,corks1 ,sticks1 ,straws1 c4 one towards another4 ,as for instance1 ,take a ,glass jar1 such as ,,ab in the seventh ,figure1 and filling it pretty near the top with water1 throw into it a small round piece of ,cork1 as ,c1 and plunge it all over in water1 that it be wet1 so as that the water may rise up by the sides of it1 then placing it any where upon the superficies1 about an inch1 or one inch and a quarter from any side1 and you shall perceive it by degrees to make perpendicularly toward the nearest part of the side1 and the nearer it approaches1 the faster to be moved1 the reason of which ,phnomenon will be found no other then this1 that the ,air has a greater pressure against the middle of the superficies1 then it has against those parts that approach nearer1 and are contiguous to the sides4 ,now that the pressure is greater1 may 7as ,i shewed before in the explication of the third ,figure7 be evinced from the flatting of the water in the middle1 which arises from the gravity of the under fluid3 for since1 as ,i shewed before1 if there were no gravity in the under fluid1 or that it were equal to that of the upper1 the terminating ,surface would be ,spherical1 and since it is the additional pressure of the gravity of water that makes it so flat1 it follows1 that the pressure upon the middle must be greater then towards the sides4 ,hence the ,ball having a stronger pressure against that side of it which respects the middle of the superficies1 then against that which respects the approximate side1 must necessarily move towards that part1 from whence it finds least resistance1 and so be accelerated1 as the resistance decrease4 ,hence the more the water is raised under that part of its way it is passing above the middle1 the faster it is moved3 ,and therefore you will find it to move faster in ,e then in ,d1 and in ,d then in ,c4 ,neither could ,i find the floating substance to be moved at all1 until it were placed upon some part of the ,superficies that was sensibly elevated above the height of the middle part4 ,now that this may be the true cause1 you may try with a blown ,bladder1 and an exactly round ,ball upon a very smooth side of some pliable body1 as ,horn or ,quicksilver4 ,for if the ,ball be placed under a part of the ,bladder which is upon one side of the middle of its pressure1 and you press strongly against the ,bladder1 you shall find the ,ball moved from the middle towards the sides4 ,having therefore shewn the reason of the motion of any float towards the sides1 the reason of the incursion of any two floating bodies will easily appear3 ,for the rising of the water against the sides of either of them1 is an ,argument sufficient1 to shew the pressure of the ,air to be there less1 then it is further from it1 where it is not so much elevated2 and therefore the reason of the motion of the other toward it1 will be the same as towards the side of the ,glass1 only here from the same reason1 they are mutually moved toward each other1 whereas the side of the ,glass in the former remains fixt4 ,if also you gently fill the ,jar so full with water1 that the water is protuberant above the sides1 the same piece of ,cork that before did hasten towards the sides1 does now fly from it as fast towards the middle of the ,superficies2 the reason of which will be found no other then this1 that the pressure of the ,air is stronger against the sides of the ,superficies ,g and ,h1 then against the middle ,i2 for since1 as ,i shewed before1 the ,principle of congruity would make the terminating ,surface ,spherical1 and that the flatting of the ,surface in the middle is from the abatement of the waters pressure outwards1 by the contrary indeavour of its gravity2 it follows that the pressure in the middle must be less then on the sides2 and therefore the consecution will be the same as in the former4 ,it is very odd to one that considers not the reason of it1 to see two floating bodies of wood to approach each other1 as though they were indued with some magnetical vigour2 which brings into my mind what ,i formerly tried with a piece of ,cork or such like body1 which ,i so ordered1 that by putting a little stick into the same water1 one part of the said ,cork would approach and make toward the stick1 whereas another would discede and fly away1 nay it would have a kind of verticity1 so as that if the quator 7as ,i may so speak7 of the ,cork were placed towards the stick1 if let alone1 it would instantly turn its appropriate ,pole toward it1 and then run a-tilt at it3 and this was done only by taking a dry ,cork1 and wetting one side of it with one small stroak2 for by this means gently putting it upon the water1 it would depress the superficies on every side of it that was dry1 and therefore the greatest pressure of the ,air1 being near those sides1 caused it either to chase away1 or else to fly off from any other floating body1 whereas that side only1 against which the water ascended1 was thereby able to attract4 ,it remains only1 that ,i should determine how high the ,water or other ,liquor may by this means be raised in a smaller ,pipe above the ,superficies of that without it1 and at what height it may be sustained3 ,but to determine this1 will be exceeding difficult1 unless ,i could certainly know how much of the ,airs pressure is taken off by the smalness of such and such a ,pipe1 and whether it may be wholly taken off1 that is1 whether there can be a hole or pore so small1 into which ,air could not at all enter1 though water might with its whole force1 for were there such1 'tis manifest1 that the water might rise in it to some five or six and thirty ,english ,foot high4 ,i know not whether the capillary ,pipes in the bodies of small ,trees1 which we call their ,microscopical pores1 may not be such2 and whether the congruity of the sides of the ,pore may not yet draw the juyce even higher then the ,air was able by its bare pressure to raise it3 ,for1 ,congruity is a principle that not only unites and holds a body joyned to it1 but1 which is more1 attracts and draws a body that is very near it1 and holds it above its usual height4 ,and this is obvious even in a drop of water suspended under any ,similar or ,congruous body3 ,for1 besides the ambient pressure that helps to keep it sustein'd1 there is the ,congruity of the bodies that are contiguous4 ,this is yet more evident in ,tenacious and ,glutinous bodies2 such as ,gummous ,liquors1 ,syrups1 ,pitch1 and ,rosin melted1 c4 ,tar1 ,turpentine1 ,balsom1 ,birdlime1 c4 for there it is evident1 that the ,parts of the tenacious body1 as ,i may so call it1 do stick and adhere so closely together1 that though drawn out into long and very slender ,cylinders1 yet they will not easily relinquish one another2 and this1 though the bodies be aliquatenus fluid1 and in motion by one another1 which1 to such as consider a fluid body only as its parts are in a confused irregular motion1 without taking in also the congruity of the parts one among another1 and incongruity to some other bodies1 does appear not a little strange4 ,so that besides the incongruity of the ambient fluid to it1 we are to consider also the congruity of the parts of the contein'd fluid one with another4 ,and this ,congruity 7that ,i may here a little further explain it7 is both a ,tenacious and an ,attractive power2 for the ,congruity1 in the ,vibrative motions1 may be the cause of all kind of attraction1 not only ,electrical1 but ,magnetical also1 and therefore it may be also of ,tenacity and ,glutinousness4 ,for1 from a perfect congruity of the motions of two distant bodies1 the intermediate fluid particles are separated and droven away from between them1 and thereby those congruous bodies are1 by the incompassing mediums1 compell'd and forced neerer together2 wherefore that attractiveness must needs be stronger1 when1 by an immediate contact1 they are forc'd to be exactly the same3 ,as ,i shew more at large in my ,theory of the ,magnet4 ,and this hints to me the reason of the suspension of the ,mercury many inches1 nay many feet1 above the usual station of #cj inches4 ,for the parts of ,quick-,silver1 being so very similar and congruous to each other1 if once united1 will not easily suffer a divulsion3 ,and the parts of water1 that were any wayes heterogeneous1 being by exantlation or rarefaction exhausted1 the remaining parts being also very similar1 will not easily part neither4 ,and the parts of the ,glass being solid1 are more difficultly disjoyn'd2 and the water1 being somewhat similar to both1 is1 as it were1 a medium to unite both the ,glass and the ,mercury together4 ,so that all three being united1 and not very dissimilar1 by means of this contact1 if care be taken that the ,tube in erecting be not shogged1 the ,quicksilver will remain suspended1 notwithstanding its contrary indeavour of ,gravity1 a great height above its ordinary ,station2 but if this immediate ,contact be removed1 either by a meer separation of them one from another by the force of a shog1 whereby the other becomes imbodied between them1 and licks up from the surface some agil parts1 and so hurling them makes them air1 or else by some small heterogeneous agil part of the ,water1 or ,air1 or ,quicksilver1 which appears like a bubble1 and by its jumbling to and fro there is made way for the heterogeneous ther to obtrude it self between the ,glass and either of the other ,fluids1 the ,gravity of ,mercury precipitates it downward with very great violence2 and if the ,vessel that holds the restagnating ,mercury be convenient1 the ,mercury will for a time vibrate to and fro with very large reciprocations1 and at last will remain kept up by the pressure of the external ,air at the height of neer thirty inches4 ,and whereas it may be objected1 that it cannot be1 that the meer imbodying of the ther between these bodies can be the cause1 since the ther having a free passage alwayes1 both through the ,pores of the ,glass1 and through those of the ,fluids1 there is no reason why it should not make a separation at all times whilst it remains suspended1 as when it is violently disjoyned by a shog4 ,to this ,i answer1 ,that though the ther passes between the ,particles1 that is1 through the ,pores of bodies1 so as that any chasm or separation being made1 it has infinite passages to admit its entry into it1 yet such is the tenacity or attractive virtue of ,congruity1 that till it be overcome by the meer strength of ,gravity1 or by a shog assisting that ,conatus of ,gravity1 or by an agil ,particle1 that is like a leaver agitated by the ther2 and thereby the parts of the congruous substances are separated so far asunder1 that the strength of congruity is so far weakened1 as not to be able to reunite them1 the parts to be taken hold of being removed out of the attractive ,sphere1 as ,i may so speak1 of the congruity2 such1 ,i say1 is the tenacity of congruity1 that it retains and holds the almost contiguous ,particles of the ,fluid1 and suffers them not to be separated1 till by meer force that attractive or retentive faculty be overcome3 ,but the separation being once made beyond the ,sphere of the attractive activity of congruity1 that virtue becomes of no effect at all1 but the ,mercury freely falls downwards till it meet with a resistance from the pressure of the ambient ,air1 able to resist its gravity1 and keep it forced up in the ,pipe to the height of about thirty inches4 ,thus have ,i gently raised a ,steel pendulum by a ,loadstone to a great ,angle1 till by the shaking of my hand ,i have chanced to make a separation between them1 which is no sooner made1 but as if the ,loadstone had retained no attractive virtue1 the ,pendulum moves freely from it towards the other side4 ,so vast a difference is there between the attractive virtue of the ,magnet when it acts upon a contiguous and upon a disjoyned body3 and much more must there be between the attractive virtues of congruity upon a contiguous and disjoyned body2 and in truth the attractive virtue is so little upon a body disjoyned1 that though ,i have with a ,microscope observed very diligently1 whether there were any extraordinary protuberance on the side of a drop of water that was exceeding neer to the end of a green stick1 but did not touch it1 ,i could not perceive the least2 though ,i found1 that as soon as ever it toucht it the whole drop would presently unite it self with it2 so that it seems an absolute contact is requisite to the exercising of the tenacious faculty of congruity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,vii4 ,of some ,phnomena of ,glass drops4 ,these ,glass ,drops are small parcels of coarse green ,glass taken out of the ,pots that contain the ,metal 7as they call it7 in fusion1 upon the end of an ,iron ,pipe2 and being exceeding hot1 and thereby of a kind of sluggish fluid ,consistence1 are suffered to drop from thence into a ,bucket of cold ,water1 and in it to lye till they be grown sensibly cold4 ,some of these ,i broke in the open air1 by snapping off a little of the small stem with my fingers1 others by crushing it with a small pair of ,plyers2 which ,i had no sooner done1 then the whole bulk of the drop flew violently1 with a very brisk noise1 into multitudes of small pieces1 some of which were as small as dust1 though in some there were remaining pieces pretty large1 without any flaw at all1 and others very much flaw'd1 which by rubbing between ones fingers was easily reduced to dust2 these dispersed every way so violently1 that some of them pierced my skin4 ,i could not find1 either with my naked ,eye1 or a ,microscope1 that any of the broken pieces were of a regular figure1 nor any one like another1 but for the most part those that flaw'd off in large pieces were prettily branched4 ,the ends of others of these drops ,i nipt off whilst all the bodies and ends of them lay buried under the water1 which1 like the former1 flew all to pieces with as brisk a noise1 and as strong a motion4 ,others of these ,i tried to break1 by grinding away the blunt end1 and though ,i took a seemingly good one1 and had ground away neer two thirds of the ,ball1 yet would it not fly to pieces1 but now and then some small rings of it would snap and fly off1 not without a brisk noise and quick motion1 leaving the ,surface of the drop whence it flew very prettily branched or creased1 which was easily discoverable by the ,microscope4 ,this drop1 after ,i had thus ground it1 without at all impairing the remnant that was not ground away1 ,i caused to fly immediately all into sand upon the nipping off the very tip of its slender end4 ,another of these drops ,i began to grind away at the smaller end1 but had not worn away on the stone above a quarter of an inch before the whole drop flew with a brisk crack into sand or small dust2 nor would it have held so long1 had there not been a little flaw in the piece that ,i ground away1 as ,i afterwards found4 ,several others of these drops ,i covered over with a thin but very tuff skin of ,icthyocolla1 which being very tough and very transparent1 was the most convenient substance for these tryals that ,i could imagine1 having dipt1 ,i say1 several of these drops in this transparent ,glue whilst hot1 and suffering them to hang by a string tied about the end of them till they were cold1 and the skin pretty tough2 then wrapping all the body of the drop 7leaving out only the very tip7 in fine supple ,kids-leather very closely1 ,i nipped off the small top1 and found1 as ,i expected1 that notwithstanding this skin of ,glue1 and the close wrapping up in ,leather1 upon the breaking of the top1 the drop gave a crack like the rest1 and gave my hand a pretty brisk impulse3 but yet the skin and leather was so strong as to keep the parts from flying out of their former posture2 and1 the skin being transparent1 ,i found that the drop retained exactly its former figure and polish1 but was grown perfectly opacous and all over flaw'd1 all those flaws lying in the manner of rings1 from the bottom or blunt end1 to the very top or small point4 ,and by several examinations with a ,microscope1 of several thus broken1 ,i found the flaws1 both within the body of the drop1 and on the outward surface1 to lye much in this order4 ,let ,,ab in the ,figure ,x of the fourth ,scheme represent the drop cased over with ,icthyocolla or ,isinglass1 7by being ordered as is before prescribed7 crazed or flawed into pieces1 but by the skin or case kept in its former figure1 and each of its flawed parts preserved exactly in its due posture2 the outward appearance of it somewhat plainly to the naked eye1 but much more conspicuous if viewed with a small lens appeared much after this shape4 ,that is1 the blunt end ,b for a pretty breadth1 namely1 as far as the ,ring ,,ccc seemed irregularly flawed with divers clefts1 which all seemed to tend towards the ,center of it1 being1 as ,i afterwards found1 and shall anon shew in the description of the figure ,y1 the ,basis1 as it were1 of a ,cone1 which was terminated a little above the middle of the drop1 all the rest of the ,surface from ,,ccc to ,a was flawed with an infinite number of small and parallel ,rings1 which as they were for the most part very round1 so were they very thick and close together1 but were not so exactly flaw'd as to make a perfect ,ring1 but each circular part was by irregular cracks flawed likewise into multitudes of irregular flakes or tiles2 and this order was observed likewise the whole length of the neck4 ,now though ,i could not so exactly cut this conical ,body through the ,axis1 as is represented by the figure ,y2 yet by anatomizing1 as it were1 of several1 and taking notice of divers particular circumstances1 ,i was informed1 that could ,i have artificially divided a flaw'd drop through the ,axis or ,center1 ,i should with a ,microscope have found it to appear much of this form1 where ,a signifies the ,apex1 and ,b the blunt end1 ,,cc the ,cone of the ,basis1 which is terminated at ,t the top or end of it1 which seems to be the very middle of the blunt end in which1 not only the conical body of the ,basis ,,cc is terminated1 but as many of the parts of the drop as reach as high as ,,dd4 ,and it seemed to be the head or beginning of a ,pith1 as it were1 or a part of the body which seemed more spungy then the rest1 and much more irregularly flawed1 which from ,t ascended by ,,ee1 though less visible1 into the small neck towards ,a4 ,the ,grain1 as it were1 of all the flaws1 that proceeds from all the outward ,surface ,,adccda1 was much the same1 as is represented by the black strokes that meet in the middle ,,dt1 ,,dt1 ,,de1 ,,de1 c4 ,nor is this kind of ,grain1 as ,i may call it1 peculiar to ,glass drops thus quenched2 for 7not to mention ,coperas-stones1 and divers other ,marchasites and ,minerals1 which ,i have often taken notice of to be in the very same manner flaked or grained1 with a kind of ,pith in the middle7 ,i have observed the same in all manner of cast ,iron1 especially the coarser sort1 such as ,stoves1 and ,furnaces1 and ,backs1 and ,pots are made of3 ,for upon the breaking of any of those ,substances it is obvious to observe1 how from the out-sides towards the middle1 there is a kind of ,radiation or ,grain much resembling this of the ,glass-drop2 but this ,grain is most conspicuous in ,iron-bullets1 if they be broken3 the same ,phnomena may be produced by casting regulus of ,antimony into a ,bullet-mold1 as also with ,glass of ,antimony1 or with almost any such kind of ,vitrified substance1 either cast into a cold ,mold or poured into ,water4 ,others of these ,drops ,i heat red hot in the fire1 and then suffered them to cool by degrees4 ,and these ,i found to have quite lost all their fulminating or flying quality1 as also their hard1 brittle and springy texture2 and to emerge of a much softer temper1 and much easier to be broken or snapt with ones finger2 but its strong and brittle quality was quite destroyed1 and it seemed much of the same consistence with other green ,glass well nealed in the ,oven4 ,the ,figure and bigness of these for the most part was the same with that of the ,figure ,z2 that is1 all the surface of them was very smooth and polisht1 and for the most part round1 but very rugged or knobbed about ,d1 and all the length of the stem was here and there pitted or flatted4 ,about ,d1 which is at the upper part of the drop under that side of the stem which is concave1 there usually was made some one or more little ,hillocks or ,prominences4 ,the drop it self1 before it be broken1 appears very transparent1 and towards the middle of it1 to be very full of small ,bubbles1 of some kind of aerial substance1 which by the refraction of the outward surface appear much bigger then really they are2 and this may be in good part removed1 by putting the drop under the surface of clear ,water1 for by that means most part of the refraction of the convex ,surface of the drop is destroyed1 and the bubbles will appear much smaller4 ,and this1 by the by1 minds me of the appearing magnitude of the aperture of the iris1 or pupil of the eye1 which though it appear1 and be therefore judged very large1 is yet not above a quarter of the bigness it appears of1 by the lenticular refraction of the ,cornea4 ,the cause of all which ,phnomena ,i imagine to be no other then this1 ,that the ,parts of the ,glass being by the excessive heat of the fire kept off and separated one from another1 and thereby put into a kind of sluggish fluid ,consistence1 are suffered to drop off with that heat or agitation remaining in them1 into cold ,water2 by which means the outsides of the drop are presently cool'd and crusted1 and are thereby made of a loose texture1 because the parts of it have not time to settle themselves leisurely together1 and so to lie very close together3 ,and the innermost parts of the drop1 retaining still much of their former heat and agitations1 remain of a loose texture also1 and1 according as the cold strikes inwards from the bottom and sides1 are quenched1 as it were1 and made rigid in that very posture wherein the cold finds them4 ,for the parts of the crust being already hardened1 will not suffer the parts to shrink any more from the outward ,surface inward2 and though it shrink a little by reason of the small parcels of some ,aerial substances dispersed through the matter of the ,glass1 yet that is not neer so much as it appears 7as ,i just now hinted27 nor if it were1 would it be sufficient for to consolidate and condense the body of ,glass into a tuff and close texture1 after it had been so excessively rarified by the heat of the glass-,furnace4 ,but that there may be such an expansion of the aerial substance contained in those little blebbs or bubbles in the body of the drop1 this following ,experiment will make more evident4 99 99 99 99 99 ,take a small ,glass-,cane about a foot long1 seal up one end of it hermetically1 then put in a very small bubble of ,glass1 almost of the shape of an ,essence-viol with the open mouth towards the sealed end1 then draw out the other end of the ,pipe very small1 and fill the whole ,cylinder with water1 then set this ,tube by the ,fire till the ,water begin to boyl1 and the ,air in the bubble be in good part rarified and driven out1 then by sucking at the smalling ,pipe1 more of the ,air or vapours in the bubble may be suck'd out1 so that it may sink to the bottom2 when it is sunk to the bottom1 in the flame of a ,candle1 or ,lamp1 nip up the slender ,pipe and let it cool3 whereupon it is obvious to observe1 first1 that the ,water by degrees will subside and shrink into much less room3 ,next1 that the ,air or vapours in the ,glass will expand themselves so1 as to buoy up the little ,glass3 ,thirdly1 that all about the inside of the ,glass-pipe there will appear an infinite number of small bubbles1 which as the ,water grows colder and colder will swell bigger and bigger1 and many of them buoy themselves up and break at the top4 ,from this ,disceding of the heat in ,glass drops1 that is1 by the quenching or cooling ,irradiations propagated from the ,surface upwards and inwards1 by the lines ,,ct1 ,,ct1 ,,dt1 ,,de1 c4 the bubbles in the drop have room to expand themselves a little1 and the parts of the ,glass contract themselves2 but this operation being too quick for the sluggish parts of the ,glass1 the contraction is performed very unequally and irregularly1 and thereby the ,particles of the ,glass are bent1 some one way1 and some another1 yet so as that most of them draw towards the ,pith or middle ,,teee1 or rather from that outward3 so that they cannot extricate or unbend themselves1 till some part of ,,teee be broken and loosened1 for all the parts about that are placed in the manner of an ,arch1 and so till their hold at ,,teee be loosened they cannot fly asunder1 but uphold1 and shelter1 and fix each other much like the stones in a ,vault1 where each stone does concurre to the stability of the whole ,fabrick1 and no one stone can be taken away but the whole ,arch falls4 ,and wheresoever any of those radiating wedges ,,dtd1 c4 are removed1 which are the component parts of this ,arch1 the whole ,fabrick presently falls to pieces2 for all the ,springs of the several parts are set at liberty1 which immediately extricate themselves and fly asunder every way2 each part by its spring contributing to the darting of it self and some other contiguous part4 ,but if this drop be heat so hot as that the parts by degrees can unbend themselves1 and be settled and annealed in that posture1 and be then suffered gently to subside and cool2 ,the parts by this nealing losing their springiness1 constitute a drop of a more soft but less brittle texture1 and the parts being not at all under a flexure1 though any part of the middle or ,pith ,,teee be broken1 yet will not the drop at all fly to pieces as before4 ,this ,conjecture of mine ,i shall indeavour to make out by explaining each particular ,assertion with analogous ,experiments3 ,the ,assertions are these4 ,first1 ,that the parts of the ,glass1 whilst in a fluid ,consistence and hot1 are more rarified1 or take up more room1 then when hard and cold4 ,secondly1 ,that the parts of the drop do suffer a two-fold contraction4 ,thirdly1 ,that the dropping or quenching the glowing metal in the ,water makes it of a hard1 springing1 and rarified texture4 ,fourthly1 ,that there is a flexion or force remaining upon the parts of the ,glass thus quenched1 from which they indeavour to extricate themselves4 ,fifthly1 ,that the ,fabrick of the drop1 that is able to hinder the parts from extricating themselves1 is analogus to that of an ,arch4 ,sixthly1 ,that the sudden flying asunder of the parts proceeds from their springiness4 ,seventhly1 ,that a gradual heating and cooling does anneal or reduce the parts of ,glass to a texture that is more loose1 and easilier to be broken1 but not so brittle4 ,that the first of these is true may be gathered from this1 ,that ,heat is a property of a body arising from the motion or agitation of its parts2 and therefore whatever body is thereby toucht must necessarily receive some part of that motion1 whereby its parts will be shaken and agitated1 and so by degrees free and extricate themselves from one another1 and each part so moved does by that motion exert a conatus of protruding and displacing all the adjacent ,particles4 ,thus ,air included in a vessel1 by being heated will burst it to pieces4 ,thus have ,i broke a ,bladder held over the fire in my hand1 with such a violence and noise1 that it almost made me deaf for the present1 and much surpassed the noise of a ,musket3 ,the like have ,i done by throwing into the fire small glass ,bubbles hermetically sealed1 with a little drop of ,water included in them4 ,thus ,water also1 or any other ,liquor1 included in a convenient vessel1 by being warmed1 manifestly expands it self with a very great violence1 so as to break the strongest vessel1 if when heated it be narrowly imprisoned in it4 ,this is very manifest by the ,sealed ,thermometers1 which ,i have1 by several tryals1 at last brought to a great certainty and tenderness3 for ,i have made some with stems above four foot long1 in which the expanding ,liquor would so far vary1 as to be very neer the very top in the heat of ,summer1 and prety neer the bottom at the coldest time of the ,winter4 ,the ,stems ,i use for them are very thick1 straight1 and even ,pipes of ,glass1 with a very small perforation1 and both the head and body ,i have made on purpose at the ,glass-house1 of the same metal whereof the ,pipes are drawn3 these ,i can easily in the flame of a ,lamp1 urged with the blast of a pair of ,bellows1 seal and close together1 so as to remain very firm1 close and even2 by this means ,i joyn on the body first1 and then fill both it and a part of the stem1 proportionate to the length of the stem and the warmth of the season ,i fill it in with the best rectified ,spirit of ,wine highly ting'd with the lovely colour of ,cocheneel1 which ,i deepen the more by pouring some drops of common ,spirit of ,urine1 which must not be too well rectified1 because it will be apt to make the ,liquor to curdle and stick in the small perforation of the stem4 ,this ,liquor ,i have upon tryal found the most tender of any spirituous ,liquor1 and those are much more sensibly affected with the variations of heat and cold then other more flegmatick and ponderous ,liquors1 and as capable of receiving a deep tincture1 and keeping it1 as any ,liquor whatsoever2 and 7which makes it yet more acceptable7 is not subject to be frozen by any cold yet known4 ,when ,i have thus filled it1 ,i can very easily in the forementioned flame of a ,lamp seal and joyn on the head of it4 ,then1 for graduating the stem1 ,i fix that for the beginning of my division where the surface of the liquor in the stem remains when the ball is placed in common distilled water1 that is so cold that it just begins to freeze and shoot into flakes2 and that mark ,i fix at a convenient place of the stem1 to make it capable of exhibiting very many degrees of cold1 below that which is requisite to freeze water3 the rest of my divisions1 both above and below this 7which ,i mark with a #j or nought7 ,i place according to the ,degrees of ,expansion1 or ,contraction of the ,liquor in proportion to the bulk it had when it indur'd the newly mention'd freezing cold4 ,and this may be very easily and accurately enough done by this following way2 ,prepare a ,cylindrical vessel of very thin plate ,brass or ,silver1 ,,abcd of the figure ,z2 the ,diameter ,,ab of whose cavity let be about two inches1 and the depth ,,bc the same2 let each end be cover'd with a flat and smooth plate of the same substance1 closely soder'd on1 and in the midst of the upper cover make a pretty large hole ,,ef1 about the bigness of a fifth part of the ,diameter of the other2 into this fasten very well with cement a straight and even ,cylindrical pipe of ,glass1 ,,efgh1 the ,diameter of whose cavity let be exactly one tenth of the ,diameter of the greater ,cylinder4 ,let this pipe be mark'd at ,,gh with a ,diamant1 so that ,g from ,e may be distant just two inches1 or the same height with that of the cavity of the greater ,cylinder1 then divide the length ,,eg exactly into #aj parts1 so the capacity of the hollow of each of these divisions will be part of the capacity of the greater ,cylinder4 ,this vessel being thus prepared1 the way of marking and graduating the ,thermometers may be very easily thus performed3 ,fill this ,cylindrical vessel with the same liquor wherewith the ,thermometers are fill'd1 then place both it and the ,thermometer you are to graduate1 in water that is ready to be frozen1 and bring the surface of the liquor in the ,thermometer to the first marke or #j2 then so proportion the liquor in the ,cylindrical vessel1 that the surface of it may just be at the lower end of the small glass-,cylinder2 then very gently and gradually warm the water in which both the ,thermometer and this ,cylindrical vessel stand1 and as you perceive the ting'd liquor to rise in both stems1 with the point of a ,diamond give several marks on the stem of the ,thermometer at those places1 which by comparing the expansion in both ,stems1 are found to correspond to the divisions of the cylindrical vessel1 and having by this means marked some few of these divisions on the ,stem1 it will be very easie by these to mark all the rest of the ,stem1 and accordingly to assign to every division a proper character4 ,a ,thermometer1 thus marked and prepared1 will be the fittest ,instrument to make a ,standard of heat and cold that can be imagined4 ,for being sealed up1 it is not at all subject to variation or wasting1 nor is it liable to be changed by the varying pressure of the ,air1 which all other kind of ,thermometers that are open to the ,air are liable to4 ,but to proceed4 ,this property of ,expansion with ,heat1 and ,contraction with ,cold1 is not peculiar to ,liquors only1 but to all kind of solid ,bodies also1 especially ,metals1 which will more manifestly appear by this ,experiment4 ,take the ,barrel of a ,stopcock of ,brass1 and let the ,key1 which is well fitted to it1 be riveted into it1 so that it may slip1 and be easily turned round1 then heat this ,cock in the fire1 and you will find the ,key so swollen1 that you will not be able to turn it round in the ,barrel2 but if it be suffered to cool again1 as soon as it is cold it will be as movable1 and as easie to be turned as before4 ,this ,quality is also very observable in ,lead1 ,tin1 ,silver1 ,antimony1 ,pitch1 ,rosin1 ,bees-wax1 ,butter1 and the like2 all which1 if after they be melted you suffer gently to cool1 you shall find the parts of the upper ,surface to subside and fall inwards1 losing that plumpness and smoothness it had whilst in fusion4 ,the like ,i have also observed in the cooling of ,glass of ,antimony1 which does very neer approach the nature of ,glass1 ,but because these are all ,examples taken from other materials then ,glass1 and argue only1 that possibly there may be the like property also in ,glass1 not that really there is2 we shall by three or four ,experiments indeavour to manifest that also4 ,and the ,first is an ,observation that is very obvious even in these very drops1 to wit1 that they are all of them terminated with an unequal or irregular ,surface1 especially about the smaller part of the drop1 and the whole length of the stem2 as about ,d1 and from thence to ,a1 the whole ,surface1 which would have been round if the drop had cool'd leisurely1 is1 by being quenched hastily1 very irregularly flatted and pitted2 which ,i suppose proceeds partly from the ,waters unequally cooling and pressing the parts of the drop1 and partly from the self-contracting or subsiding quality of the substance of the ,glass3 ,for the vehemency of the heat of the drop causes such hidden motions and bubbles in the cold ,water1 that some parts of the ,water bear more forcibly against one part then against another1 and consequently do more suddenly cool those parts to which they are contiguous4 ,a ,second ,argument may be drawn from the ,experiment of cutting ,glasses with a hot ,iron4 ,for in that ,experiment the top of the ,iron heats1 and thereby rarifies the parts of the ,glass that lie just before the crack1 whence each of those agitated parts indeavouring to expand its self and get elbow-room1 thrusts off all the rest of the contiguous parts1 and consequently promotes the crack that was before begun4 ,a ,third ,argument may be drawn from the way of producing a crack in a sound piece or plate of ,glass1 which is done two wayes1 either ,first1 by suddenly heating a piece of ,glass in one place more then in another4 ,and by this means chymists usually cut off the necks of ,glass-bodies1 by two kinds of ,instruments1 either by a glowing hot round ,iron-,ring1 which just incompasses the place that is to be cut1 or else by a ,sulphur'd ,threed1 which is often wound about the place where the separation is to be made1 and then fired4 ,or ,secondly1 ,a ,glass may be cracked by cooling it suddenly in any place with ,water1 or the like1 after it has been all leisurely and gradually heated very hot4 ,both which ,phnomena seem manifestly to proceed from the expansion and contraction of the parts of the ,glass1 which is also made more probable by this circumstance which ,i have observed1 that a piece of common window-glass being heated in the middle very suddenly with a live ,coal or hot ,iron1 does usually at the first crack fall into pieces1 whereas if the ,plate has been gradually heated very hot1 and a drop of cold ,water and the like be put on the middle of it1 it only flaws it1 but does not break it asunder immediately4 ,a ,fourth ,argument may be drawn from this ,experiment2 ,take a ,glass-pipe1 and fit into a solid stick of ,glass1 so as it will but just be moved in it4 ,then by degrees heat them whilst they are one within another1 and they will grow stiffer1 but when they are again cold1 they will be as easie to be turned as before4 ,this ,expansion of ,glass is more manifest in this ,experiment4 ,take a stick of ,glass of a considerable length1 and fit it so between the two ends or screws of a ,lath1 that it may but just easily turn1 and that the very ends of it may be just toucht and susteined thereby2 then applying the flame of the ,candle to the middle of it1 and heating it hot1 you will presently find the ,glass to stick very fast on those points1 and not without much difficulty to be convertible on them1 before that by removing the flame for a while from it1 it be suffered to cool1 and when you will find it as easie to be turned round as at the first4 ,from all which ,experiments it is very evident1 that all those ,bodies1 and particularly ,glass1 suffers an ,expansion by ,heat1 and that a very considerable one1 whilst they are in a state of ,fusion4 ,for ,fluidity1 as ,i elsewhere mention1 being nothing but an effect of very strong and quick shaking motion1 whereby the parts are1 as it were1 loosened from each other1 and consequently leave an interjacent space or vacuity2 it follows1 that all those shaken ,particles must necessarily take up much more room then when they were at rest1 and lay quietly upon each other4 ,and this is further confirmed by a ,pot of boyling ,alabaster1 which will manifestly rise a sixth or eighth part higher in the ,pot1 whilst it is boyling1 then it will remain at1 both before and after it be boyled4 ,the reason of which odd ,phnomenon 7to hint it here only by the way7 is this1 that there is in the curious powder of ,alabaster1 and other calcining ,stones1 a certain watery substance1 which is so fixt and included with the solid ,particles1 that till the heat be very considerable they will not fly away2 but after the heat is increased to such a degree1 they break out every way in vapours1 and thereby so shake and loosen the small corpuscles of the ,powder from each other1 that they become perfectly of the nature of a fluid body1 and one may move a stick to and fro through it1 and stir it as easily as water1 and the vapours burst and break out in bubbles just as in boyling water1 and the like2 whereas1 both before those watery parts are flying away1 and after they are quite gone2 that is1 before and after it have done boyling1 all those effects cease1 and a stick is as difficultly moved to and fro in it as in sand1 or the like4 ,which ,explication ,i could easily prove1 had ,i time2 but this is not a fit place for it4 ,to proceed therefore1 ,i say1 that the dropping of this expanded ,body into cold ,water1 does make the parts of the ,glass suffer a double contraction3 ,the first is1 of those parts which are neer the ,surface of the ,drop4 ,for ,cold1 as ,i said before1 contracting ,bodies1 that is1 by the abatement of the agitating faculty the parts falling neerer together2 the parts next adjoyning to the ,water must needs lose much of their motion1 and impart it to the ,ambient water 7which the ,ebullition and commotion of it manifests7 and thereby become a solid and hard crust1 whilst the innermost parts remain yet fluid and expanded2 whence1 as they grow cold also by degrees1 their parts must necessarily be left at liberty to be condensed1 but because of the hardness of the outward crust1 the contraction cannot be admitted that way2 but there being many very small1 and before inconspicuous1 bubbles in the substance of the ,glass1 upon the subsiding of the parts of the ,glass1 the agil substance contained in them has liberty of expanding it self a little1 and thereby those bubbles grow much bigger1 which is the second ,contraction4 ,and both these are confirmed from the appearance of the ,drop it self3 for as for the outward parts1 we see1 first1 that it is irregular and shrunk1 as it were1 which is caused by the yielding a little of the hardened ,skin to a ,contraction1 after the very outmost ,surface is settled2 and as for the internal parts1 one may with ones naked ,eye perceive abundance of very conspicuous bubbles1 and with the ,microscope many more4 ,the ,consideration of which ,particulars will easily make the ,third ,position probable1 that is1 that the parts of the drop will be of a very hard1 though of a rarified ,texture2 for if the outward parts of the ,drop1 by reason of its hard crust1 will indure very little ,contraction1 and the agil ,particles1 included in those bubbles1 by the losing of their agitation1 by the decrease of the ,heat1 lose also most part of their ,spring and ,expansive power2 it follows 7the withdrawing of the heat being very sudden7 that the parts must be left in a very loose ,texture1 and by reason of the implication of the parts one about another1 which from their sluggishnes and glutinousness ,i suppose to be much after the manner of the sticks in a ,thorn-bush1 or a ,lock of ,wool2 it will follow1 ,i say1 that the parts will hold each other very strongly together1 and indeavour to draw each other neerer together1 and consequently their ,texture must be very hard and stiff1 but very much rarified4 ,and this will make probable my next ,position1 ,that the parts of the ,glass are under a kind of tension or flexure1 out of which they indeavour to extricate and free themselves1 and thereby all the parts draw towards the ,center or middle1 and would1 if the outward parts would give way1 as they do when the outward parts cool leisurely 7as in baking of ,glasses7 contract the bulk of the drop into a much less compass4 ,for since1 as ,i proved before1 the ,internal parts of the drop1 when fluid1 were of a very rarified ,texture1 and1 as it were1 tos'd open like a ,lock of ,wool1 and if they were suffered leisurely to cool1 would be again prest1 as it were1 close together3 ,and since that the heat1 which kept them bended and open1 is removed1 and yet the parts not suffered to get as neer together as they naturally would2 ,it follows1 that the ,particles remain under a kind of tension and flexure1 and consequently have an indeavour to free themselves from that bending and distension1 which they do1 as soon as either the tip be broken1 or as soon as by a leisurely heating and cooling1 the parts are nealed into another posture4 ,and this will make my next ,position probable1 that the parts of the ,glass drops are contignated together in the form of an ,arch1 cannot any where yield or be drawn inwards1 till by the removing of some one part of it 7as it happens in the removing one of the stones of an ,arch7 the whole ,fabrick is shatter'd1 and falls to pieces1 and each of the ,springs is left at liberty1 suddenly to extricate it self3 for since ,i have made it probable1 that the internal parts of the ,glass have a contractive power inwards1 and the external parts are incapable of such a ,contraction1 and the figure of it being spherical2 it follows1 that the superficial parts must bear against each other1 and keep one another from being condens'd into a less room1 in the same manner as the stones of an ,arch conduce to the upholding each other in that ,figure4 ,and this is made more probable by another ,experiment which was communicated to me by an excellent ,person1 whose extraordinary ,abilities in all kind of ,knowledg1 especially in that of ,natural things1 and his generous ,disposition in communicating1 incouraged me to have recourse to him on many occasions4 ,the ,experiment was this3 ,small ,glass-balls 7about the bigness of that represented in the ,figure 47 would1 upon rubbing or scratching the inward ,surface1 fly all insunder1 with a pretty brisk noise2 whereas neither before nor after the inner ,surface had been thus scratcht1 did there appear any flaw or crack4 ,and putting the pieces of one of those broken ones together again1 the flaws appeared much after the manner of the black lines on the ,figure1 4 ,these ,balls were small1 but exceeding thick bubbles of ,glass1 which being crack'd off from the ,puntilion whilst very hot1 and so suffered to cool without nealing them in the ,oven over the ,furnace1 do thereby 7being made of white ,glass1 which cools much quicker then green ,glass1 and is thereby made much brittler7 acquire a very porous and very brittle texture3 so that if with the point of a ,needle or ,bodkin1 the inside of any of them be rubbed prety hard1 and then laid on a ,table1 it will1 within a very little while1 break into many pieces with a brisk noise1 and throw the parts above a span asunder on the ,table3 ,now though the pieces are not so small as those of a fulminating drop1 yet they as plainly shew1 that the outward parts of the ,glass have a great ,conatus to fly asunder1 were they not held together by the tenacity of the parts of the inward ,surface3 for we see as soon as those parts are crazed by hard rubbing1 and thereby their tenacity spoiled1 the springiness of the more outward parts quickly makes a divulsion1 and the broken pieces will1 if the concave ,surface of them be further scratcht with a ,diamond1 fly again into smaller pieces4 ,from which preceding considerations it will follow ,sixthly1 ,that the sudden flying asunder of the parts as soon as this ,arch is any where disordered or broken1 proceeds from the springing of the parts2 which1 indeavouring to extricate themselves as soon as they get the liberty1 they perform it with such a quickness1 that they throw one another away with very great violence3 for the ,particles that compose the ,crust have a ,conatus to lye further from one another1 and therefore as soon as the external parts are loosened they dart themselves outward with great violence1 just as so many ,springs would do1 if they were detained and fastened to the body1 as soon as they should be suddenly loosened2 and the internal parts drawing inward1 they contract so violently2 that they rebound back again and fly into multitude of small shivers or sands4 ,now though they appear not1 either to the naked ,eye1 or the ,microscope1 yet ,i am very apt to think there may be abundance of small flaws or cracks1 which1 by reason the strong reflecting ,air is not got between the contiguous parts1 appear not4 ,and that this may be so1 ,i argue from this1 that ,i have very often been able to make a crack or flaw1 in some convenient pieces of ,glass1 to appear and disappear at pleasure1 according as by pressing together1 or pulling asunder the contiguous parts1 ,i excluded or admitted the strong reflecting ,air between the parts3 ,and it is very probable1 that there may be some ,body1 that is either very rarified ,air1 or something analogous to it1 which fills the bubbles of these drops2 which ,i argue1 first1 from the roundness of them1 and next1 from the vivid reflection of ,light which they exhibite3 ,now though ,i doubt not1 but that the ,air in them is very much rarified1 yet that there is some in them1 to such as well consider this ,experiment of the disappearing of a crack upon the extruding of the ,air1 ,i suppose it will seem more then probable4 ,the ,seventh and last therefore that ,i shall prove1 is1 ,that the gradual heating and cooling of these so extended bodies does reduce the parts of the ,glass to a looser and softer temper4 ,and this ,i found by heating them1 and keeping them for a prety while very red hot in a fire2 for thereby ,i found them to grow a little lighter1 and the small ,stems to be very easily broken and snapt any where1 without at all making the drop fly2 whereas before they were so exceeding hard1 that they could not be broken without much difficulty2 and upon their breaking the whole drop would fly in pieces with very great violence4 ,the ,reason of which last seems to be1 that the leisurely heating and cooling of the parts does not only wast some part of the ,glass it self1 but ranges all the parts into a better order1 and gives each ,particle an opportunity of relaxing its self1 and consequently neither will the parts hold so strongly together as before1 nor be so difficult to be broken3 ,the parts now more easily yielding1 nor will the other parts fly in pieces1 because the parts have no bended ,springs4 ,the relaxation also in the temper of hardned ,steel1 and hammered ,metals1 by nealing them in the fire1 seems to proceed from much the same cause4 ,for both by quenching suddenly such ,metals as have vitrified parts interspers'd1 as ,steel has1 and by hammering of other kinds that do not so much abound with them1 as ,silver1 ,brass1 c4 the parts are put into and detained in a bended posture1 which by the agitation of ,heat are shaken1 and loosened1 and suffered to unbend themselves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,viii4 ,of the fiery ,sparks struck from a ,flint or ,steel4 ,it is a very common ,experiment1 by striking with a ,flint against a ,steel1 to make certain fiery and shining ,sparks to fly out from between those two compressing ,bodies4 ,about eight years since1 upon casually reading the ,explication of this odd ,phnomenon1 by the most ,ingenious ,des ,cartes1 ,i had a great desire to be satisfied1 what that ,substance was that gave such a shining and bright ,light3 ,and to that end ,i spread a sheet of white ,paper1 and on it1 observing the place where several of these ,sparks seemed to vanish1 ,i found certain very small1 black1 but glistering ,spots of a movable ,substance1 each of which examining with my ,microscope1 ,i found to be a small round ,globule2 some of which1 as they looked prety small1 so did they from their ,surface yield a very bright and strong reflection on that side which was next the ,light2 and each look'd almost like a prety bright ,iron-,ball1 whose ,surface was prety regular1 such as is represented by the ,figure ,a4 ,in this ,i could perceive the ,image of the ,window prety well1 or of a ,stick1 which ,i moved up and down between the ,light and it4 ,others ,i found1 which were1 as to the bulk of the ,ball1 prety regularly round1 but the ,surface of them1 as it was not very smooth1 but rough1 and more irregular1 so was the reflection from it more faint and confused4 ,such were the ,surfaces of ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 and ,e4 ,some of these ,i found cleft or cracked1 as ,c1 others quite broken in two and hollow1 as ,d4 which seemed to be half the hollow shell of a ,granado1 broken irregularly in pieces4 ,several others ,i found of other shapes2 but that which is represented by ,e1 ,i observed to be a very big ,spark of fire1 which went out upon one side of the ,flint that ,i struck fire withall1 to which it stuck by the root ,f1 at the end of which small ,stem was fastened-on a ,hemisphere1 or half a hollow ,ball1 with the mouth of it open from the stemwards1 so that it looked much like a ,funnel1 or an old fashioned ,bowl without a foot4 ,this night1 making many tryals and observations of this ,experiment1 ,i met1 among a multitude of the ,globular ones which ,i had observed1 a couple of ,instances1 which are very remarkable to the confirmation of my ,hypothesis4 ,and the ,first was of a pretty big ,ball fastened on to the end of a small sliver of ,iron1 which ,compositum seemed to be nothing else but a long thin chip of ,iron1 one of whose ends was melted into a small round ,globul2 the other end remaining unmelted and irregular1 and perfectly ,iron4 ,the ,second ,instance was not less remarkable then the ,first2 for ,i found1 when a ,spark went out1 nothing but a very small thin long sliver of ,iron or ,steel1 unmelted at either end4 ,so that it seems1 that some of these ,sparks are the slivers or chips of the ,iron vitrified1 ,others are only the slivers melted into ,balls without vitrification1 ,and the third kind are only small slivers of the ,iron1 made red-hot with the violence of the stroke given on the ,steel by the ,flint4 ,he that shall diligently examine the ,phnomena of this ,experiment1 will1 ,i doubt not1 find cause to believe1 that the reason ,i have heretofore given of it1 is the true and genuine cause of it1 namely1 ,that the ,spark1 appearing so bright in the falling1 is nothing else but a small piece of the ,steel or ,flint1 but most commonly of the ,steel1 which by the violence of the stroke is at the same time sever'd and heat red-hot1 and that sometimes to such a degree1 as to make it melt together into a small ,globule of ,steel2 and sometimes also is that heat so very intense1 as further to melt it and vitrifie it2 but many times the heat is so gentle1 as to be able to make the sliver only red hot1 which notwithstanding falling upon the tinder 7that is only a very curious small ,coal made of the small threads of ,linnen burnt to coals and char'd7 it easily sets it on fire4 ,nor will any part of this ,hypothesis seem strange to him that considers1 ,first1 that either hammering1 or filing or otherwise violently rubbing of ,steel1 will presently make it so hot as to be able to burn ones fingers4 ,next1 that the whole force of the stroke is exerted upon that small part where the ,flint and ,steel first touch3 ,for the ,bodies being each of them so very hard1 the puls cannot be far communicated1 that is1 the parts of each can yield but very little1 and therefore the violence of the concussion will be exerted on that piece of ,steel which is cut off by the ,flint4 ,thirdly1 that the filings or small parts of ,steel are very apt1 as it were1 to take fire1 and are presently red hot1 that is1 there seems to be a very combustible sulphureous ,body in ,iron or ,steel1 which the ,air very readily preys upon1 as soon as the body is a little violently heated4 ,and this is obvious in the filings of ,steel or ,iron cast through the flame of a ,candle2 for even by that sudden transitus of the small chips of ,iron1 they are heat red hot1 and that combustible sulphureous ,body is presently prey'd upon and devoured by the aereal incompassing ,menstruum1 whose office in this ,particular ,i have shewn in the ,explication of ,charcole4 ,and in prosecution of this ,experiment1 having taken the filings of ,iron and ,steel1 and with the point of a ,knife cast them through the flame of a ,candle1 ,i observed where some conspicuous shining ,particles fell1 and looking on them with my ,microscope1 ,i found them to be nothing else but such round ,globules1 as ,i formerly found the ,sparks struck from the ,steel by a stroke to be1 only a little bigger2 and shaking together all the filings that had fallen upon the sheet of ,paper underneath and observing them with the ,microscope1 ,i found a great number of small ,globules1 such as the former1 though there were also many of the parts that had remained untoucht and rough filings or chips of ,iron4 ,so that1 it seems1 ,iron does contain a very combustible sulphureous ,body1 which is1 in all likelihood1 one of the causes of this ,phnomenon1 and which may be perhaps very much concerned in the business of its hardening and tempering3 of which somewhat is said in the ,description of ,muscovy-glass4 ,so that1 these things considered1 we need not trouble our selves to find out what kind of ,pores they are1 both in the ,flint and ,steel1 that contain the ,atoms of fire1 nor how those ,atoms come to be hindred from running all out1 when a dore or passage in their ,pores is made by the concussion3 nor need we trouble our selves to examine by what ,prometheus the ,element of ,fire comes to be fetcht down from above the ,regions of the ,air1 in what ,cells or ,boxes it is kept1 and what ,epimetheus lets it go3 ,nor to consider what it is that causes so great a conflux of the atomical ,particles of ,fire1 which are said to fly to a flaming ,body1 like ,vultures or ,eagles to a putrifying ,carcass1 and there to make a very great pudder4 ,since we have nothing more difficult in this ,hypothesis to conceive1 first1 as to the kindling of ,tinder1 then how a large ,iron-bullet1 let fall red or glowing hot upon a heap of ,small-coal1 should set fire to those that are next to it first3 ,nor secondly1 is this last more difficult to be explicated1 then that a ,body1 as ,silver for ,instance1 put into a weak ,menstruum1 as unrectified ,aqua fortis should1 when it is put in a great heat1 be there dissolved by it1 and not before2 which ,hypothesis is more largely explicated in the ,description of ,charcoal4 ,to conclude1 we see by this ,instance1 how much ,experiments may conduce to the regulating of ,philosophical notions4 ,for if the most ,acute ,des ,cartes had applied himself experimentally to have examined what substance it was that caused that shining of the falling ,sparks struck from a ,flint and a ,steel1 he would certainly have a little altered his ,hypothesis1 and we should have found1 that his ,ingenious ,principles would have admitted a very plausible ,explication of this ,phnomenon2 whereas by not examining so far as he might1 he has set down an ,explication which ,experiment do's contradict4 ,but before ,i leave this ,description1 ,i must not forget to take notice of the ,globular form into which each of these is most curiously formed4 ,and this ,phnomenon1 as ,i have elsewhere more largely shewn1 proceeds from a propriety which belongs to all kinds of fluid ,bodies more or less1 and is caused by the ,incongruity of the ,ambient and included ,fluid1 which so acts and modulates each other1 that they acquire1 as neer as is possible1 a spherical or globular form1 which propriety and several of the ,phnomena that proceed from it1 ,i have more fully explicated in the sixth ,observation4 ,one ,experiment1 which does very much illustrate my present ,explication1 and is in it self exceeding pretty1 ,i must not pass by3 ,and that is a way of making small ,globules or ,balls of ,lead1 or ,tin1 as small almost as these of ,iron or ,steel1 and that exceeding easily and quickly1 by turning the filings or chips of those ,metals also into perfectly round ,globules4 ,the way1 in short1 as ,i received it from the ,learned ,physitian ,doctor ,i4,g4 is this2 ,reduce the ,metal you would thus shape1 into exceeding fine filings1 the finer the filings are1 the finer will the ,balls be3 ,stratifie these filings with the fine and well dryed powder of quick ,lime in a ,crucible proportioned to the quantity you intend to make3 ,when you have thus filled your ,crucible1 by continual stratifications of the filings and powder1 so that1 as neer as may be1 no one of the filings may touch another1 place the ,crucible in a gradual fire1 and by degrees let it be brought to a heat big enough to make all the filings1 that are mixt with the quick ,lime1 to melt1 and no more2 for if the fire be too hot1 many of these filings will joyn and run together2 whereas if the heat be proportioned1 upon washing the ,lime-dust in fair ,water1 all those small filings of the ,metal will subside to the bottom in a most curious powder1 consisting all of exactly round ,globules1 which1 if it be very fine1 is very excellent to make ,hour-glasses of4 ,now though quick ,lime be the powder that this direction makes choice of1 yet ,i doubt not1 but that there may be much more convenient ones found out1 one of which ,i have made tryal of1 and found very effectual2 and were it not for discovering1 by the mentioning of it1 another ,secret1 which ,i am not free to impart1 ,i should have here inserted it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,ix4 ,of the ,colours observable in ,muscovy-,glass1 and other thin ,bodies4 ,moscovy-glass1 or ,lapis specularis1 is a ,body that seems to have as many ,curiosities in its ,fabrick as any common ,mineral ,i have met with3 for first1 ,it is transparent to a great thickness3 ,next1 it is compounded of an infinite number of thin flakes joyned or generated one upon another so close smooth1 as with many hundreds of them to make one smooth and thin ,plate of a transparent flexible substance1 which with care and diligence may be slit into pieces so exceedingly thin as to be hardly perceivable by the eye1 and yet even those1 which ,i have thought the thinnest1 ,i have with a good ,microscope found to be made up of many other ,plates1 yet thinner2 and it is probable1 that1 were our ,microscopes much better1 we might much further discover its divisibility4 ,nor are these flakes only regular as to the smoothness of their ,surfaces1 but thirdly1 ,in many ,plates they may be perceived to be terminated naturally with edges of the figure of a ,rhomboeid4 ,this ,figure is much more conspicuous in our ,english talk1 much whereof is found in the ,lead ,mines1 and is commonly called ,spar1 and ,kauck1 which is of the same kind of substance with the ,selenitis1 but is seldom found in so large flakes as that is1 nor is it altogether so tuff1 but is much more clear and transparent1 and much more curiously shaped1 and yet may be cleft and flak'd like the other ,selenitis4 ,but fourthly1 this stone has a property1 which in respect of the ,microscope1 is more notable1 and that is1 that it exhibits several appearances of ,colours1 both to the naked ,eye1 but much more conspicuously to the ,microscope2 for the exhibiting of which1 ,i took a piece of ,muscovy-glass1 and splitting or cleaving it into thin ,plates1 ,i found that up and down in several parts of them ,i could plainly perceive several white specks or flaws1 and others diversly coloured with all the ,colours of the ,rainbow2 and with the ,microscope ,i could perceive1 that these ,colours were ranged in rings that incompassed the white speck or flaw1 and were round or irregular1 according to the shape of the spot which they terminated2 and the position of ,colours1 in respect of one another1 was the very same as in the ,rainbow4 ,the consecution of those ,colours from the middle of the spot outward being ,blew1 ,purple1 ,scarlet1 ,yellow1 ,green2 ,blew1 ,purple1 ,scarlet1 and so onwards1 sometimes half a score times repeated1 that is1 there appeared six1 seven1 eight1 nine or ten several coloured rings or lines1 each incircling the other1 in the same manner as ,i have often seen a very vivid ,rainbow to have four or five several ,rings of ,colours1 that is1 accounting all the ,gradations between ,red and ,blew for one3 ,but the order of the ,colours in these ,rings was quite contrary to the primary or innermost ,rainbow1 and the same with those of the secondary or outermost ,rainbow2 these coloured ,lines or ,irises1 as ,i may so call them1 were some of them much brighter then others1 and some of them also very much broader1 they being some of them ten1 twenty1 nay1 ,i believe1 neer a hundred times broader then others2 and those usually were broadest which were neerest the center or middle of the flaw4 ,and oftentimes ,i found1 that these ,colours reacht to the very middle of the flaw1 and then there appeared in the middle a very large spot1 for the most part1 all of one colour1 which was very vivid1 and all the other ,colours incompassing it1 gradually ascending1 and growing narrower towards the edges1 keeping the same order1 as in the secundary ,rainbow1 that is1 if the middle were ,blew1 the next incompassing it would be a ,purple1 the third a ,red1 the fourth a ,yellow1 c4 as above2 if the middle were a ,red1 the next without it would be a ,yellow1 the third a ,green1 the fourth a ,blew1 and so onward4 ,and this order it alwayes kept whatsoever were the middle ,colour4 ,there was further observable in several other parts of this ,body1 many ,lines or ,threads1 each of them of some one peculiar ,colour1 and those so exceedingly bright and vivid1 that it afforded a very pleasant object through the ,microscope4 ,some of these threads ,i have observed also to be pieced or made up of several short lengths of differently coloured ends 7as ,i may so call them7 as a line appearing about two inches long through the ,microscope1 has been compounded of about half an inch of a ,peach colour1 of a lovely ,grass-green1 of an inch more of a bright ,scarlet1 and the rest of the line of a ,watchet blew4 ,others of them were much otherwise coloured2 the variety being almost infinite4 ,another thing which is very observable1 is1 that if you find any place where the colours are very broad and conspicuous to the naked eye1 you may1 by pressing that place with your finger1 make the colours change places1 and go from one part to another4 ,there is one ,phnomenon more1 which may1 if care be used1 exhibit to the beholder1 as it has divers times to me1 an exceeding pleasant1 and not less instructive ,spectacle2 ,and that is1 if curiosity and diligence be used1 you may so split this admirable ,substance1 that you may have pretty large ,plates 7in companion of those smaller ones which you may observe in the ,rings7 that are perhaps an or a part of an inch over1 each of them appearing through the ,microscope most curiously1 intirely1 and uniformly adorned with some one vivid colour3 this1 if examined with the ,microscope1 may be plainly perceived to be in all parts of it equally thick4 ,two1 three1 or more of these lying one upon another1 exhibit oftentimes curious compounded colours1 which produce such a ,compositum1 as one would scarce imagine should be the result of such ingredients3 ,as perhaps a faint yellow and a blew may produce a very deep purple4 ,but when anon we come to the more strict examination of these ,phnomena1 and to inquire into the causes and reasons of these productions1 we shall1 ,i hope1 make it more conceivable how they are produced1 and shew them to be no other then the natural and necessary effects arising from the peculiar union of concurrent causes4 ,these ,phnomena1 being so various1 and so truly admirable1 it will certainly be very well worth our inquiry1 to examine the causes and reasons of them1 and to consider1 whether from these causes demonstratively evidenced1 may not be deduced the true causes of the production of all kind of ,colours4 ,and ,i the rather now do it1 instead of an ,appendix or ,digression to this ,history1 then upon the occasion of examining the ,colours in ,peacocks1 or other ,feathers1 because this ,subject1 as it does afford more variety of particular ,colours1 so does it afford much better wayes of examining each circumstance4 ,and this will be made manifest to him that considers1 first1 that this laminated body is more simple and regular then the parts of ,peacocks feathers1 this consisting only of an indefinite number of plain and smooth ,plates1 heaped up1 or incumbent on each other4 ,next1 that the parts of this body are much more manageable1 to be divided or joyned1 then the parts of a ,peacocks feather1 or any other substance that ,i know4 ,and thirdly1 because that in this we are able from a colourless body to produce several coloured bodies1 affording all the variety of ,colours imaginable3 ,and several others1 which the subsequent ,inquiry will make manifest4 ,to begin therefore1 it is manifest from several circumstances1 that the material cause of the apparition of these several ,colours1 is some ,lamina or ,plate of a transparent or pellucid body of a thickness very determinate and proportioned according to the greater or less refractive power of the pellucid body4 ,and that this is so1 abundance of ,instances and particular ,circumstances will make manifest4 ,as first1 if you take any small piece of the ,muscovy-glass1 and with a ,needle1 or some other convenient ,instrument1 cleave it oftentimes into thinner and thinner ,lamin1 you shall find1 that till you come to a determinate thinness of them1 they shall all appear transparent and colourless1 but if you continue to split and divide them further1 you shall find at last1 that each ,plate1 after it comes to such a determinate thickness1 shall appear most lovely ting'd or imbued with a determinate colour4 ,if further1 by any means you so flaw a pretty thick piece1 that one part does begin to cleave a little from the other1 and between those two there be by any means gotten some pellucid medium1 those laminated pellucid bodies that fill that space1 shall exhibit several ,rainbows or coloured ,lines1 the colours of which will be disposed and ranged according to the various thicknesses of the several parts of that ,plate4 ,that this is so1 is yet further confirmed by this ,experiment4 ,take two small pieces of ground and polisht ,looking-glass-plate1 each about the bigness of a shilling1 take these two dry1 and with your fore-fingers and thumbs press them very hard and close together1 and you shall find1 that when they approach each other very near1 there will appear several ,irises or coloured ,lines1 in the same manner almost as in the ,muscovy-glass2 and you may very easily change any of the ,colours of any part of the interposed body1 by pressing the ,plates closer and harder together1 or leaving them more lax2 that is1 a part which appeared coloured with a red1 may be presently ting'd with a yellow1 blew1 green1 purple1 or the like1 by altering the appropinquation of the terminating ,plates4 ,now that air is not necessary to be the interposed body1 but that any other transparent fluid will do much the same1 may be tryed by wetting those approximated ,surfaces with ,water1 or any other transparent ,liquor1 and proceeding with it in the same manner as you did with the ,air2 and you will find much the like effect1 only with this difference1 that those comprest bodies1 which differ most1 in their refractive quality1 from the compressing bodies1 exhibit the most strong and vivid tinctures4 ,nor is it necessary1 that this laminated and ting'd body should be of a fluid substance1 any other substance1 provided it be thin enough and transparent1 doing the same thing3 this the ,lamin of our ,muscovy-glass hint2 but it may be confirm'd by multitudes of other ,instances4 ,and first1 we shall find1 that even ,glass it self may1 by the help of a ,lamp1 be blown thin enough to produce these ,phnomena of ,colours3 which ,phnomena accidentally happening1 as ,i have been attempting to frame small ,glasses with a ,lamp1 did not a little surprize me at first1 having never heard or seen any thing of it before2 though afterwards comparing it with the ,phnomena1 ,i had often observed in those ,bubbles which ,children use to make with ,soap-water1 ,i did the less wonder2 especially when upon ,experiment ,i found1 ,i was able to produce the same ,phnomena in thin ,bubbles made with any other transparent ,substance4 ,thus have ,i produced them with ,bubbles of ,pitch1 ,rosin1 ,colophony1 ,turpentine1 ,solutions of several ,gums1 as ,gum-,arabick in water2 any glutinous ,liquor1 as ,wort1 ,wine1 ,spirit of ,wine1 ,oyl of ,turpentine1 ,glare of ,snails1 c4 ,it would be needless to enumerate the several ,instances1 these being enough to shew the generality or universality of this propriety4 ,only ,i must not omit1 that we have instances also of this kind even in metalline ,bodies and animal2 for those several ,colours which are observed to follow each other upon the polisht surface of hardned ,steel1 when it is by a sufficient degree of heat gradually tempered or softened1 are produced1 from nothing else but a certain thin ,lamina of a vitrum or vitrified part of the ,metal1 which by that degree of heat1 and the concurring action of the ambient ,air1 is driven out and fixed on the surface of the ,steel4 ,and this hints to me a very probable 7at least1 if not the true7 cause of the hardning and tempering of ,steel1 which has not1 ,i think1 been yet given1 nor1 that ,i know of been so much as thought of by any4 ,and that is this1 that the hardness of it arises from a greater proportion of a vitrified ,substance interspersed through the pores of the ,steel4 ,and that the tempering or softning of it arises from the proportionate or smaller parcels of it left within those pores4 ,this will seem the more probable1 if we consider these ,particulars4 ,first1 ,that the pure parts of ,metals are of themselves very flexible and tuff2 that is1 will indure bending and hammering1 and yet retain their continuity4 ,next1 ,that the ,parts of all vitrified ,substances1 as all kinds of ,glass1 the ,scoria of ,metals1 c4 are very hard1 and also very brittle1 being neither flexible nor malleable1 but may by hammering or beating be broken into small parts or powders4 ,thirdly1 ,that all ,metals 7excepting ,gold and ,silver1 which do not so much with the bare fire1 unless assisted by other saline ,bodies7 do more or less vitrifie by the strength of fire1 that is1 are corroded by a ,saline ,substance1 which ,i elsewhere shew to be the true cause of fire2 and are thereby1 as by several other ,menstruums converted into ,scoria2 ,and this is called1 calcining of them1 by ,chimists4 ,thus ,iron and ,copper by heating and quenching do turn all of them by degrees into ,scoria1 which are evidently vitrified ,substances1 and unite with ,glass1 and are easily fusible2 and when cold1 very hard1 and very brittle4 ,fourthly1 ,that most kind of ,vitrifications or ,calcinations are made by ,salts1 uniting and incorporating with the metalline ,particles4 ,nor do ,i know any one calcination wherein a ,saline body may not1 with very great probability1 be said to be an agent or coadjutor4 ,fifthly1 ,that ,iron is converted into ,steel by means of the incorporation of certain salts1 with which it is kept a certain time in the fire4 ,sixthly1 ,that any ,iron may1 in a very little time1 be case hardned1 as the ,tradesmen call it1 by casing the iron to be hardned with clay1 and putting between the clay and iron a good quantity of a mixture of ,urine1 ,soot1 ,sea-salt1 and ,horses hoofs 7all which contein great quantities of ,saline bodies7 and then putting the case into a good strong fire1 and keeping it in a considerable degree of heat for a good while1 and afterwards heating1 and quenching or cooling it suddenly in cold water4 ,seventhly1 ,that all kind of vitrify'd substances1 by being suddenly cool'd1 become very hard and brittle4 ,and thence arises the pretty ,phnomena of the ,glass ,drops1 which ,i have already further explained in its own place4 ,eighthly1 ,that those metals which are not so apt to vitrifie1 do not acquire any hardness by quenching in water1 as ,silver1 ,gold1 c4 ,these considerations premis'd1 will1 ,i suppose1 make way for the more easie reception of this following ,explication of the ,phnomena of hardned and temper'd ,steel4 ,that ,steel is a substance made out of ,iron1 by means of a certain proportionate ,vitrification of several parts1 which are so curiously and proportionately mixt with the more tough and unalter'd parts of the ,iron1 that when by the great heat of the fire this vitrify'd substance is melted1 and consequently rarify'd1 and thereby the pores of the ,iron are more open1 if then by means of dipping it in cold water it be suddenly cold1 and the parts hardned1 that is1 stay'd in that same degree of ,expansion they were in when hot1 the parts become very hard and brittle1 and that upon the same account almost as small parcels of glass quenched in water grow brittle1 which we have already explicated4 ,if after this the piece of ,steel be held in some convenient heat1 till by degrees certain colours appear upon the surface of the brightned metal1 the very hard and brittle tone of the metal1 by degrees relaxes and becomes much more tough and soft2 namely1 the action of the heat does by degrees loosen the parts of the ,steel that were before streached or set atilt as it were1 and stayed open by each other1 whereby they become relaxed and set at liberty1 whence some of the more brittle interjacent parts are thrust out and melted into a thin skin on the surface of the ,steel1 which from no colour increases to a deep ,purple1 and so onward by these gradations or consecutions1 ,white1 ,yellow1 ,orange1 ,minium1 ,scarlet1 ,purple1 ,blew1 ,watchet1 c4 and the parts within are more conveniently1 and proportionately mixt2 and so they gradually subside into a texture which is much better proportion'd and closer joyn'd1 whence that rigidness of parts ceases1 and the parts begin to acquire their former ductilness4 ,now1 that 'tis nothing but the vitrify'd metal that sticks upon the surface of the colour'd body1 is evident from this1 that if by any means it be scraped and rubb'd off1 the metal underneath it is white and clear2 and if it be kept longer in the fire1 so as to increase to a considerable thickness1 it may1 by blows1 be beaten off in flakes4 ,this is further confirm'd by this observable1 that that ,iron or ,steel will keep longer from rusting which is covered with this vitrify'd case3 ,thus also ,lead will1 by degrees1 be all turn'd into a litharge2 for that colour which covers the top being scum'd or shov'd aside1 appears to be nothing else but a litharge or vitrify'd ,lead4 ,this is observable also in some sort1 on ,brass1 ,copper1 ,silver1 ,gold1 ,tin1 but is most conspicuous in ,lead3 all those ,colours that cover the surface of the ,metal being nothing else1 but a very thin vitrifi'd part of the heated ,metal4 ,the other ,instance we have1 is in ,animal bodies1 as in ,pearls1 ,mother of ,pearl-shels1 ,oyster-shels1 and almost all other kinds of stony shels whatsoever4 ,this have ,i also sometimes with pleasure observ'd even in ,muscles and ,tendons4 ,further1 if you take any glutinous substance and run it exceedingly thin upon the surface of a smooth glass or a polisht metaline body1 you shall find the like effects produced3 and in general1 wheresoever you meet with a transparent body thin enough1 that is terminated by reflecting bodies of differing refractions from it1 there will be a production of these pleasing and lovely colours4 ,nor is it necessary1 that the two terminating ,bodies should be both of the same kind1 as may appear by the vitrified ,lamin on ,steel1 ,lead1 and other ,metals1 one surface of which ,lamin is contiguous to the surface of the ,metal1 the other to that of the ,air4 ,nor is it necessary1 that these colour'd ,lamin should be of an even thickness1 that is1 should have their edges and middles of equal thickness1 as in a ,looking-glass-plate1 which circumstance is only requisite to make the ,plate appear all of the same colour2 but they may resemble a ,lens1 that is1 have their middles thicker then their edges2 or else a double concave1 that is1 be thinner in the middle then at the edges2 in both which cases there will be various coloured rings or lines1 with differing consecutions or orders of ,colours2 the order of the first from the middle outwards being ,red1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blew1 c4 ,and the latter quite contrary4 ,but further1 it is altogether necessary1 that the ,plate1 in the places where the ,colours appear1 should be of a determinate thickness3 ,first1 ,it must not be more then such a thickness1 for when the ,plate is increased to such a thickness1 the ,colours cease2 and besides1 ,i have seen in a thin piece of ,muscovy-glass1 where the two ends of two ,plates1 which appearing both single1 exhibited two distinct and differing ,colours2 but in that place where they were united1 and constituted one double ,plate 7as ,i may call it7 they appeared transparent and colourless4 ,nor1 ,secondly1 may the ,plates be thinner then such a determinate cize2 for we alwayes find1 that the very outmost ,rim of these flaws is terminated in a white and colourless ,ring4 ,further1 in this ,production of ,colours there is no need of a determinate ,light of such a bigness and no more1 nor of a determinate position of that ,light1 that it should be on this side1 and not on that side2 nor of a terminating shadow1 as in the ,prisme1 and ,rainbow1 or ,water-ball3 for we find1 that the ,light in the open ,air1 either in or out of the ,sun-beams1 and within a ,room1 either from one or many ,windows1 produces much the same effect3 only where the ,light is brightest1 there the ,colours are most vivid4 ,so does the light of a ,candle1 collected by a ,glass-ball4 ,and further1 it is all one whatever side of the coloured ,rings be towards the light2 for the whole ,ring keeps its proper ,colours from the middle outwards in the same order as ,i before related1 without varying at all1 upon changing the position of the light4 ,but above all it is most observable1 that here are all kind of ,colours generated in a pellucid body1 where there is properly no such refraction as ,des ,cartes supposes his ,globules to acquire a verticity by3 ,for in the plain and even ,plates it is manifest1 that the second refraction 7according to ,des ,cartes his ,principles in the fifth ,section of the eighth ,chapter of his ,meteors7 does regulate and restore the supposed turbinated ,globules unto their former uniform motion4 ,this ,experiment therefore will prove such a one as our thrice excellent ,verulam calls ,experimentum ,crucis1 serving as a ,guide or ,land-mark1 by which to direct our course in the search after the true cause of ,colours4 ,affording us this particular negative ,information1 that for the production of ,colours there is not necessary either a great refraction1 as in the ,prisme2 nor ,secondly1 a determination of ,light and shadow1 such as is both in the ,prisme and ,glass-ball4 ,now that we may see likewise what affirmative and positive ,instruction it yields1 it will be necessary1 to examine it a little more particularly and strictly2 which that we may the better do1 it will be requisite to premise somewhat in general concerning the nature of ,light and ,refraction4 ,and first for ,light it seems very manifest1 that there is no luminous ,body but has the parts of it in motion more or less4 ,first1 ,that all kind of fiery burning ,bodies have their parts in motion1 ,i think1 will be very easily granted me4 ,that the spark struck from a ,flint and ,steel is in a rapid agitation1 ,i have elsewhere made probable4 ,and that the ,parts of rotten ,wood1 rotten ,fish and the like1 are also in motion1 ,i think1 will as easily be conceded by those1 who consider1 that those parts never begin to shine till the ,bodies be in a state of putrefaction2 and that is now generally granted by all1 to be caused by the motion of the parts of putrifying bodies4 ,that the ,bononian stone shines no longer then it is either warmed by the ,sun-beams1 or by the flame of a ,fire or of a ,candle1 is the general report of those that write of it1 and of others that have seen it4 ,and that heat argues a motion of the internal parts is 7as ,i said before7 generally granted4 ,but there is one ,instance more1 which was first shewn to the ,royal ,society by ,mr4 ,clayton a worthy ,member thereof1 which does make this ,assertion more evident then all the rest3 ,and that is1 ,that a ,diamond being rub'd1 struck or heated in the dark1 shines for a pretty while after1 so long as that motion1 which is imparted by any of those ,agents1 remains 7in the same manner as a ,glass1 rubb'd1 struck1 or 7by a means which ,i shall elsewhere mention7 heated1 yields a sound which lasts as long as the vibrating motion of that sonorous body7 several ,experiments made on which ,stone1 are since published in a ,discourse of ,colours1 by the truly honourable ,mr4 ,boyle4 ,what may be said of those ,ignes fatui that appear in the night1 ,i cannot so well affirm1 having never had the opportunity to examine them my self1 nor to be inform'd by any others that had observ'd them3 ,and the relations of them in ,authors are so imperfect1 that nothing can be built on them4 ,but ,i hope ,i shall be able in another place to make it at least very probable1 that there is even in those also a ,motion which causes this effect4 ,that the shining of ,sea-water proceeds from the same cause1 may be argued from this1 ,that it shines not till either it be beaten against a ,rock1 or be some other wayes broken or agitated by ,storms1 or ,oars1 or other percussing bodies4 ,and that the ,animal ,energies or ,spirituous agil parts are very active in ,cats eyes when they shine1 seems evident enough1 because their eyes never shine but when they look very intensly either to find their prey1 or being hunted in a dark room1 when they seek after their adversary1 or to find a way to escape4 ,and the like may be said of the shining ,bellies of ,gloworms2 since 'tis evident they can at pleasure either increase or extinguish that ,radiation4 ,it would be somewhat too long a work for this place ,zetetically to examine1 and positively to prove1 what particular kind of motion it is that must be the efficient of ,light2 for though it be a motion1 yet 'tis not every motion that produces it1 since we find there are many bodies very violently mov'd1 which yet afford not such an effect2 and there are other bodies1 which to our other senses1 seem not mov'd so much1 which yet shine4 ,thus ,water and quick-silver1 and most other liquors heated1 shine not2 and several hard bodies1 as ,iron1 ,silver1 ,brass1 ,copper1 ,wood1 c4 though very often struck with a hammer1 shine not presently1 though they will all of them grow exceeding hot2 whereas rotten ,wood1 rotten ,fish1 ,sea-water1 ,gloworms1 c4 have nothing of tangible heat in them1 and yet 7where there is no stronger light to affect the ,sensory7 they shine some of them so ,vividly1 that one may make a shift to read by them4 ,it would be too long1 ,i say1 here to insert the discursive progress by which ,i inquir'd after the proprieties of the motion of ,light1 and therefore ,i shall only add the result4 ,and1 ,first1 ,i found it ought to be exceeding quick1 such as those motions of fermentation and putrefaction1 whereby1 certainly1 the parts are exceeding nimbly and violently mov'd2 and that1 because we find those motions are able more minutely to shatter and divide the body1 then the most violent heats or menstruums we yet know4 ,and that fire is nothing else but such a dissolution of the ,burning body1 made by the most universal menstruum of all sulphureous bodies1 namely1 the ,air1 we shall in an other place of this ,tractate endeavour to make probable4 ,and that1 in all extreamly hot shining bodies1 there is a very quick motion that causes ,light1 as well as a more robust that causes ,heat1 may be argued from the celerity wherewith the bodyes are dissolv'd4 ,next1 it must be a ,vibrative motion4 ,and for this the newly mention'd ,diamond affords us a good argument2 since if the motion of the parts did not return1 the ,diamond must after many rubbings decay and be wasted3 but we have no reason to suspect the latter1 especially if we consider the exceeding difficulty that is found in cutting or wearing away a ,diamond4 ,and a ,circular motion of the parts is much more improbable1 since1 if that were granted1 and they be suppos'd irregular and ,angular parts1 ,i see not how the parts of the ,diamond should hold so firmly together1 or remain in the same sensible dimensions1 which yet they do4 ,next1 if they be ,globular1 and mov'd only with a turbinated motion1 ,i know not any cause that can impress that motion upon the pellucid medium1 which yet is done4 ,thirdly1 any other irregular motion of the parts one amongst another1 must necessarily make the body of a fluid consistence1 from which it is far enough4 ,it must therefore be a ,vibrating motion4 ,and ,thirdly1 ,that it is a very short-vibrating motion1 ,i think the instances drawn from the shining of ,diamonds will also make probable4 ,for a ,diamond being the hardest body we yet know in the ,world1 and consequently the least apt to yield or bend1 must consequently also have its vibrations exceeding short4 ,and these1 ,i think1 are the three principal proprieties of a motion1 requisite to produce the effect call'd ,light in the ,object4 ,the next thing we are to consider1 is the way or manner of the trajection of this motion through the interpos'd pellucid body to the eye3 ,and here it will be easily granted1 ,first1 ,that it must be a body susceptible and impartible of this motion that will deserve the name of a ,transparent4 ,and next1 that the parts of such a body must be ,homogeneous1 or of the same kind4 ,thirdly1 that the constitution and motion of the parts must be such1 that the appulse of the luminous body may be communicated or propagated through it to the greatest imaginable distance in the least imaginable time1 though ,i see no reason to affirm1 that it must be in an instant3 ,for ,i know not any one ,experiment or observation that does prove it4 ,and1 whereas it may be objected1 ,that we see the ,sun risen at the very instant when it is above the sensible ,horizon1 and that we see a ,star hidden by the body of the ,moon at the same instant1 when the ,star1 the ,moon1 and our ,eye are all in the same line2 and the like ,observations1 or rather suppositions1 may be urg'd4 ,i have this to answer1 ,that ,i can as easily deny as they affirm2 for ,i would fain know by what means any one can be assured any more of the ,affirmative1 then ,i of the ,negative4 ,if indeed the propagation were very slow1 'tis possible something might be discovered by ,eclypses of the ,moon2 but though we should grant the progress of the light from the ,earth to the ,moon1 and from the ,moon back to the ,earth again to be full two ,minutes in performing1 ,i know not any possible means to discover it2 nay1 there may be some instances perhaps of ,horizontal ,eclypses that may seem very much to favour this supposition of the slower progression of ,light then most imagine4 ,and the like may be said of the ,eclypses of the ,sun1 c4 ,but of this only by the by4 ,fourthly1 ,that the motion is propagated every way through an ,homogeneous medium by direct or straight lines extended every way like ,rays from the center of a ,sphere4 ,fifthly1 in an ,homogeneous medium this motion is propagated every way with equal velocity1 whence necessarily every pulse or vibration of the luminous body will generate a ,sphere1 which will continually increase1 and grow bigger1 just after the same manner 7though indefinitely swifter7 as the waves or rings on the surface of the water do swell into bigger and bigger circles about a point of it1 where1 by the sinking of a ,stone the motion was begun1 whence it necessarily follows1 that all the parts of these ,spheres undulated through an ,homogeneous medium cut the ,rays at right angles4 ,but because all transparent mediums are not ,homogeneous to one another1 therefore we will next examine how this pulse or motion will be propagated through differingly transparent mediums4 ,and here1 according to the most acute and excellent ,philosopher ,des ,cartes1 ,i suppose the sign of the angle of inclination in the first medium to be to the sign of refraction in the second1 ,as the density of the first1 to the density of the second4 ,by density1 ,i mean not the density in respect of gravity 7with which the refractions or transparency of mediums hold no proportion7 but in respect onely to the trajection of the ,rays of light1 in which respect they only differ in this2 that the one propagates the pulse more easily and weakly1 the other more slowly1 but more strongly4 ,but as for the pulses themselves1 they will by the refraction acquire another propriety1 which we shall now endeavour to explicate4 ,we will suppose therefore in the first ,figure ,,acfd to be a physical ,ray1 or ,,abc and ,,def to be two ,mathematical ,rays1 trajected from a very remote point of a luminous body through an ,homogeneous transparent medium ,,lll1 and ,,da1 ,,eb1 ,,fc1 to be small portions of the orbicular impulses which must therefore cut the ,rays at right angles2 these ,rays meeting with the plain surface ,,no of a medium that yields an easier transitus to the propagation of light1 and falling obliquely on it1 they will in the medium ,,mmm be refracted towards the perpendicular of the surface4 ,and because this medium is more easily trajected then the former by a third1 therefore the point ,c of the orbicular pulse ,,fc will be mov'd to ,h four spaces in the same time that ,f the other end of it is mov'd to ,g three spaces1 therefore the whole refracted pulse ,,gh shall be oblique to the refracted ,rays ,,chk and ,,gi2 and the angle ,,ghc shall be an acute1 and so much the more acute by how much the greater the refraction be1 then which nothing is more evident1 for the sign of the inclination is to the sign of refraction as ,,gf to ,,tc the distance between the point ,c and the perpendicular from ,g on ,,ck1 which being as four to three1 ,,hc being longer then ,,gf is longer also then ,,tc1 therefore the angle ,,ghc is less than ,,gtc4 ,so that henceforth the parts of the pulses ,,gh and ,,ik are mov'd ascew1 or cut the ,rays at oblique angles4 ,it is not my business in this place to set down the reasons why this or that body should impede the ,rays more1 others less3 as why ,water should transmit the ,rays more easily1 though more weakly than air4 ,onely thus much in general ,i shall hint1 that ,i suppose the medium ,,mmm to have less of the transparent undulating subtile matter1 and that matter to be less implicated by it1 whereas ,,lll ,i suppose to contain a greater quantity of the fluid undulating substance1 and this to be more implicated with the particles of that medium4 ,but to proceed1 the same kind of obliquity of the ,pulses and ,rays will happen also when the refraction is made out of a more easie into a more difficult mediu2 as by the calculations of ,,gq ,,csr which are refracted from the perpendicular4 ,in both which calculations 'tis obvious to observe1 that always that part of the ,ray towards which the refraction is made has the end of the orbicular pulse precedent to that of the other side4 ,and always1 the oftner the refraction is made the same way1 ,or the greater the single refraction is1 the more is this unequal progress4 ,so that having found this odd propriety to be an inseparable concomitant of a refracted ,ray1 not streightned by a contrary refraction1 we will next examine the refractions of the ,sun-beams1 as they are suffer'd onely to pass through a small passage1 obliquely out of a more difficult1 into a more easie medium4 ,let us suppose therefore ,,abc in the second ,figure to represent a large ,chemical ,glass-body about two foot long1 filled with very fair ,water as high as ,,ab1 and inclin'd in a convenient posture with ,b towards the ,sun3 ,let us further suppose the top of it to be cover'd with an opacous body1 all but the hole ab1 through which the ,sun-beams are suffer'd to pass into the ,water1 and are thereby refracted to cdef1 against which part1 if a ,paper be expanded on the outside1 there will appear all the colours of the ,rainbow1 that is1 there will be generated the two principal colours1 ,scarlet and ,blue1 and all the intermediate ones which arise from the composition and dilutings of these two1 that is1 cd shall exhibit a ,scarlet1 which toward d is diluted into a ,yellow2 this is the refraction of the ,ray1 ik1 which comes from the underside of the ,sun2 and the ,ray ef shall appear of a deep ,blue1 which is gradually towards e diluted into a pale ,watchet-blue4 ,between d and e the two diluted colours4 ,blue and ,yellow are mixt and compounded into a ,green2 and this ,i imagine to be the reason why ,green is so acceptable a colour to the eye1 and that either of the two extremes are1 if intense1 rather a little offensive1 namely1 the being plac'd in the middle between the two extremes1 and compounded out of both those1 diluted also1 or somewhat qualifi'd1 for the composition1 arising from the mixture of the two extremes undiluted1 makes a ,purple1 which though it be a lovely colour1 and pretty acceptable to the eye1 yet is it nothing comparable to the ravishing pleasure with which a curious and well tempered ,green affects the eye4 ,if removing the ,paper1 the eye be plac'd against cd1 it will perceive the lower side of the ,sun 7or a ,candle at night which is much better1 because it offends not the eye1 and is more easily manageable7 to be of a deep ,red1 and if against ef it will perceive the upper part of the luminous body to be of a deep ,blue2 and these colours will appear deeper and deeper1 according as the ,rays from the luminous body fall more obliquely on the surface of the ,water1 and thereby suffer a greater refraction1 and the more distinct1 the further cdef is removed from the trajecting hole4 ,so that upon the whole1 we shall find that the reason of the ,phnomena seems to depend upon the obliquity of the orbicular pulse1 to the ,lines of ,radiation1 and in particular1 that the ,ray cd which constitutes the ,scarlet has its inner parts1 namely those which are next to the middle of the luminous body1 precedent to the outermost which are contiguous to the dark and unradiating skie4 ,and that the ,ray ef which gives a ,blue1 has its outward part1 namely1 that which is contiguous to the dark skie precedent to the pulse from the innermost1 which borders on the bright area of the luminous body4 ,we may observe further1 that the cause of the diluting of the colours towards the middle1 proceeds partly from the wideness of the hole through which the ,rays pass1 whereby the ,rays from several parts of the luminous body1 fall upon many of the same parts between c and f as is more manifest by the ,figure3 ,and partly also from the nature of the refraction it self1 for the vividness or strength of the two terminating colours1 arising chiefly as we have seen1 from the very great difference that is betwixt the outsides of those oblique undulations the dark ,rays circumambient1 and that disparity betwixt the approximate ,rays1 decaying gradually3 the further inward toward the middle of the luminous body they are remov'd1 the more must the colour approach to a white or an undisturbed light4 ,upon the calculation of the refraction and reflection from a ,ball of ,water or ,glass1 we have much the same ,phnomena1 namely1 an obliquity of the undulation in the same manner as we have found it here4 ,which1 because it is very much to our present purpose1 and affords such an ,instancia crucis1 as no one that ,i know has hitherto taken notice of1 ,i shall further examine4 ,for it does very plainly and positively distinguish1 and shew1 which of the two ,hypotheses1 either the ,cartesian or this is to be followed1 by affording a generation of all the colors in the ,rainbow1 where according to the ,cartesian ,principles there should be none at all generated4 ,and secondly1 by affording an instance that does more closely confine the cause of these ,phnomena of colours to this present ,hypothesis4 ,and first1 for the ,cartesian1 we have this to object against it1 ,that whereas he says 7,meteorum ,cap4 #h4 ,sect4 #e47 ,sed judicabam unicam 7refractione scilicet7 ad minimum requiri1 quidem talem ut ejus effectus ali contrari 7refractione7 non destruatur3 ,nam experientia docet si superficies ,,nm ,,np 7nempe refringentes7 ,parallel forent1 radios tantundem per alteram iterum erectos quantum per unam frangerentur1 nullos colores depicturos2 ,this ,principle of his holds true indeed in a prisme where the refracting surfaces are plain1 but is contradicted by the ,ball or ,cylinder1 whether of ,water or ,glass1 where the refracting surfaces are ,orbicular or ,cylindrical4 ,for if we examine the passage of any ,globule or ,ray of the primary ,iris1 we shall find it to pass out of the ,ball or ,cylinder again1 with the same inclination and refraction that it enter'd in withall1 and that that last refraction by means of the intermediate reflection shall be the same as if without any reflection at all the ,ray had been twice refracted by two ,parallel surfaces4 ,and that this is true1 not onely in one1 but in every ,ray that goes to the constitution of the ,primary ,iris2 nay1 in every ,ray1 that suffers only two refractions1 and one reflection1 by the surface of the round body1 we shall presently see most evident1 if we repeat the ,cartesian ,scheme1 mentioned in the tenth ,section of the eighth ,chapter of his ,meteors1 where ,,efknp in the third ,figure#i is one of the ,rays of the ,primary ,iris1 twice refracted at ,f and ,n1 and once reflected at ,k by the surface of the ,water-ball4 ,for1 first it is evident1 that ,,kf and ,,kn are equal1 because ,,kn being the reflected part of ,,kf they have both the same inclination on the surface ,k that is the angles ,,fkt1 and ,,nkv made by the two ,rays and the ,tangent of ,k are equal1 which is evident by the ,laws of reflection2 whence it will follow also1 that ,,kn has the same inclination on the surface ,n1 or the ,tangent of it ,,xn that the ,ray ,,kf has to the surface ,f1 or the ,tangent of it ,,fy1 whence it must necessarily follow1 that the refractions at ,f and ,n are equal1 that is1 ,,kfe and ,,knp are equal4 ,now1 that the surface ,n is by the reflection at ,k made parallel to the surface at ,f1 is evident from the principles of reflection2 for reflection being nothing but an inverting of the ,rays1 if we re-invert the ,ray ,,knp1 and make the same inclinations below the line ,,tkv that it has above1 it will be most evident1 that ,,kh the inverse of ,,kn will be the continuation of the line ,,fk1 and that ,,lhi the inverse of ,,ox is parallel to ,,fy4 ,and ,,hm the inverse of ,,np is ,parallel to ,,ef for the angle ,,khi is equal to ,,kno which is equal to ,,kfy1 and the angle ,,khm is equal to ,,knp which is equal to ,,kfe which was to be prov'd4 ,so that according to the above mentioned ,cartesian principles there should be generated no colour at all in a ,ball of ,water or ,glass by two refractions and one reflection1 which does hold most true indeed1 if the surfaces be plain1 as may be experimented with any kind of prisme where the two refracting surfaces are equally inclin'd to the reflecting2 but in this the ,phnomena are quite otherwise4 ,the cause therefore of the generation of colour must not be what ,des ,cartes assigns1 namely1 a certain rotation of the ,globuli therei1 which are the particles which he supposes to constitute the ,pellucid medium1 ,but somewhat else1 perhaps what we have lately supposed1 and shall by and by further prosecute and explain4 ,but1 ,first ,i shall crave leave to propound some other difficulties of his1 notwithstanding exceedingly ingenious ,hypothesis1 which ,i plainly confess to me seem such2 and those are1 ,first1 if that light be 7as is affirmed1 ,diopt4 cap4 #a4 4 #h47 not so properly a motion1 as an action or propension to motion1 ,i cannot conceive how the eye can come to be sensible of the verticity of a ,globule1 which is generated in a drop of ,rain1 perhaps a mile off from it4 ,for that ,globule is not carry'd to the eye according to his formerly recited ,principle2 and if not so1 ,i cannot conceive how it can communicate its rotation1 or circular motion to the line of the ,globules between the drop and the eye4 ,it cannot be by means of every ones turning the next before him2 for if so1 then onely all the ,globules that are in the odd places must be turned the same way with the first1 namely1 the #c4 #e4 #g4 #i4 #aa1 c4 but all the ,globules interposited between them in the even places2 namely1 the #b4 #d4 #f4 #h4 #aj4 c4 must be the quite contrary1 whence1 according to the ,cartesian ,hypothesis1 there must be no distinct colour generated1 but a confusion4 ,next1 since the ,cartesian ,globuli are suppos'd 7,principiorum ,philosoph4 ,part4 #c4 4 #hf47 to be each of them continually in motion about their centers1 ,i cannot conceive how the eye is able to distinguish this new generated motion from their former inherent one1 if ,i may so call that other wherewith they are mov'd or turbinated1 from some other cause than refraction4 ,and thirdly1 ,i cannot conceive how these motions should not happen sometimes to oppose each other1 and then1 in stead of a rotation1 there would be nothing but a direct motion generated1 and consequently no colour4 ,and fourthly1 ,i cannot conceive1 how by the ,cartesian ,hypothesis it is possible to give any plausible reason of the nature of the ,colours generated in the thin lamin of these our ,microscopical ,observations2 for in many of these1 the refracting and reflecting surfaces are parallel to each other1 and consequently no rotation can be generated1 nor is there any necessity of a shadow or termination of the bright ,rays1 such as is suppos'd 7,chap4 #h4 4 #e4 ,et prterea observavi umbram quoque1 aut limitationem luminis requiri3 and ,chap4 #h4 4 #i47 to be necessary to the generation of any distinct colours2 ,besides that1 here is oftentimes one colour generated without any of the other appendant ones1 which cannot be by the ,cartesian ,hypothesis4 ,there must be therefore some other propriety of refraction that causes colour4 ,and upon the examination of the thing1 ,i cannot conceive any one more general1 inseparable1 and sufficient1 than that which ,i have before assign'd4 ,that we may therefore see how exactly our ,hypothesis agrees also with the ,phnomena of the refracting round body1 whether ,globe or ,cylinder1 we shall next subjoyn our ,calculation or ,examen of it4 ,and to this end1 we will calculate any two ,rays3 as for instance2#aj let ,,ef be a ,ray cutting the ,radius ,,cd 7divided into #bj4 parts7 in ,g #af4 parts distant from ,c1 and ef another ,ray1 which cuts the same ,radius in g #ag4 parts distant1 these will be refracted to ,k and k1 and from thence reflected to ,n and n1 and from thence refracted toward ,p and p2 therefore the ,arch ,ff will be #e4;d #e4 ,the ,arch ,,fk #ajf4;d #cj4 the ,arch fk #aja4;d #b4 ,the line ,,fg #fjjj4 and fg #ebfg4 therefore hf4 #gcc4 therefore ,fc #ihj1 almost4 ,the line ,,fk #afjbd4 and fk #aedcf4 therefore ,nd #aif4 and no #adg almost1 the line ,nn #ajai the ,arch ,nn #e4;d #ea4 therefore the ,angle ,nno is #cd4;d #dc4 therefore the ,angle ,non is #aci4;d #ef4 which is almost #ej4;d more than a right ,angle4 ,it is evident therefore by this ,hypothesis1 that at the same time that ef touches f4 ,,ef is arrived at c4 ,and by that time efkn is got to n1 ,,efkn is got to d and when it touches ,n1 the pulse of the other ,ray is got to o4 and no farther1 which is very short of the place it should have arriv'd to1 to make the ,ray np to cut the orbicular pulse ,no at right ,angles3 therefore the ,angle ,nop is an acute ,angle1 but the quite contrary of this will happen1 if #ag4 and #ah4 be calculated in stead of #af4 and #ag4 both which does most exactly agree with the ,phnomena3 ,for if the ,sun1 or a ,candle 7which is better7 be placed about ,ee1 and the eye about ,pp1 the ,rays ,e,fef at #af4 and #ag4 will paint the side of the luminous object toward np ,blue1 and towards ,,np ,red4 ,but the quite contrary will happen when ,,ef is #ag4 and ef #ah4 for then towards ,,np shall be a ,blue1 and towards np a ,red1 exactly according to the calculation4 ,and there appears the ,blue of the ,rainbow1 where the two ,blue sides of the two ,images unite1 and there the ,red where the two ,red sides unite1 that is1 where the two ,images are just disappearing2 which is1 when the ,rays ,,ef and ,,np produc'd till they meet1 make an ,angle of about #da4 and an half2 the like union is there of the two ,images in the ,production of the ,secundary ,iris1 and the same causes1 as upon calculation may appear2 onely with this difference1 that it is somewhat more faint1 by reason of the duplicate reflection1 which does always weaken the impulse the oftner it is repeated4 ,now1 though the second refraction made at ,nn be convenient1 that is1 do make the ,rays glance the more1 yet is it not altogether requisite2 for it is plain from the calculation1 that the pulse dn is sufficiently oblique to the ,rays ,,kn and kn1 as wel as the pulse fc is oblique to the ,rays ,,fk fk4 ,and therefore if a piece of very fine ,paper be held close against ,nn and the eye look on it either through the ,ball as from ,d1 or from the other side1 as from ,b4 there shall appear a ,rainbow1 or colour'd line painted on it with the part toward ,x appearing ,red1 towards ,o1 ,blue2 the same also shall happen1 if the ,paper be placed about ,kk1 for towards ,t shall appear a ,red1 and towards ,v a ,blue1 which does exactly agree with this my ,hypothesis1 as upon the calculation of the progress of the pulse will most easily appear4 ,nor do these two observations of the colours appearing to the eye about p differing from what they appear on the ,paper at ,n contradict each other2 but rather confirm and exactly agree with one another1 as will be evident to him that examines the reasons set down by the ingenious4 ,des ,cartes in the #ab4 ,sect4 of the #h4 ,chapter of his ,meteors1 where he gives the true reason why the colours appear of a quite contrary order to the eye1 to what they appear'd on the ,paper if the eye be plac'd in steed of the ,paper3 ,and as in the ,prisme1 so also in the ,water-drop1 or ,globe the ,phnomena1 and reason are much the same4 ,having therefore shewn that there is such a propriety in the prisme and water ,globule whereby the pulse is made oblique to the progressive1 and that so much the more1 by how much greater the refraction is1 ,i shall in the next place consider1 how this conduces to the production of colours1 and what kind of impression it makes upon the bottom of the eye2 and to this end it will be requisite to examine this ,hypothesis a little more particularly4 ,first therefore1 if we consider the manner of the progress of the pulse1 it will seem rational to conclude1 that that part or end of the pulse which precedes the other1 must necessarily be somwhat more obtunded1 or impeded by the resistance of the transparent medium1 than the other part or end of it which is subsequent1 whose way is1 as it were1 prepared by the other2 especially if the adjacent medium be not in the same manner enlightned or agitated4 ,and therefore 7in the fourth ,figure of the sixth ,iconism7 the ,ray ,,aaahb will have its side ,,hh more deadened by the resistance of the dark or quiet medium ,,ppp1 ,whence there will be a kind of deadness superinduc'd on the side ,,hhh1 which will continually increase from ,b1 and strike deeper and deeper into the ,ray by the line ,,br2 ,whence all the parts of the triangle1 ,,rbho will be of a dead ,blue colour1 and so much the deeper1 by how much the nearer they lie to the line ,,bhh1 which is most deaded or impeded1 and so much the more dilute1 by how much the nearer it approaches the line ,,br4 ,next on the other side of the ,ray ,,aan1 the end ,a of the pulse ,,ah will be promoted1 or made stronger1 having its passage already prepar'd as 'twere by the other parts preceding1 and so its impression wil be stronger2 ,and because of its obliquity to the ,ray1 there will be propagated a kind of faint motion into ,,qq the adjacent dark or quiet medium1 which faint motion will spread further and further into ,,qq as the ,ray is propagated further and further from ,a1 namely1 as far as the line ,,ma1 whence all the triangle ,,man will be ting'd with a ,red1 and that ,red will be the deeper the nearer it approaches the line ,,ma1 and the paler or yellower the nearer it is the line ,,na4 ,and if the ,ray be continued1 so that the lines ,,an and ,,br 7which are the bounds of the ,red and ,blue diluted7 do meet and cross each other1 there will be beyond that intersection generated all kinds of ,greens4 ,now1 these being the proprieties of every single refracted ,ray of light1 it will be easie enough to consider what must be the result of very many such ,rays collateral3 ,as if we suppose infinite such ,rays interjacent between ,,aksb and ,,anob1 which are the terminating3 ,for in this case the ,ray ,,aksb will have its ,red triangle intire1 as lying next to the dark or quiet medium1 but the other side of it ,,bs will have no ,blue1 because the medium adjacent to it ,,sbo1 is mov'd or enlightned1 and consequently that light does destroy the colour4 ,so likewise will the ,ray ,,anob lose its ,red1 because the adjacent medium is mov'd or enlightned1 but the other side of the ,ray that is adjacent to the dark1 namely1 ,,aho will preserve its ,blue entire1 and these ,rays must be so far produc'd as till ,,an and ,,br cut each other1 before there will be any ,green produc'd4 ,from these ,proprieties well consider'd1 may be deduc'd the reasons of all the ,phnomena of the prisme1 and of the ,globules or drops of ,water which conduce to the production of the ,rainbow4 ,next for the impression they make on the ,retina1 we will further examine this ,hypothesis3 ,suppose therefore ,,abcdef1 in the fifth ,figure1 to represent the ,ball of the eye3 on the ,cornea of which ,,abc two ,rays ,,gach and ,,kcai 7which are the terminating ,rays of a luminous body7 falling1 are by the refraction thereof collected or converg'd into two points at the bottom of the eye4 ,now1 because these terminating ,rays1 and all the intermediate ones which come from any part of the luminous body1 are suppos'd by some sufficient refraction before they enter the eye1 to have their pulses made oblique to their progression1 and consequently each ,ray to have potentially superinduc'd two proprieties1 or colours1 viz4 a ,red on the one side1 and a ,blue on the other1 which notwithstanding are never actually manifest1 but when this or that ,ray has the one or the other side of it bordering on a dark or unmov'd medium1 therefore as soon as these ,rays are entred into the eye and so have one side of each of them bordering on a dark part of the humours of the eye1 they will each of them actually exhibit some colour2 therefore ,,adc the production of ,,gach will exhibit a ,blue1 because the side ,,cd is adjacent to the dark medium ,,cqdc1 but nothing of a ,red1 because its side ,,ad is adjacent to the enlightned medium ,,adfa3 ,and all the ,rays that from the points of the luminous body are collected on the parts of the ,retina between ,d and ,f shall have their ,blue so much the more diluted by how much the farther these points of collection are distant from ,d towards ,f2 and the ,ray ,,afc the production of ,,kcai1 will exhibit a ,red1 because the side ,,af is adjacent to the dark or quiet medium of the eye ,,apfa1 but nothing of a ,blue1 because its side ,,cf is adjacent to the enlightned medium ,,cfdc1 and all the ,rays from the intermediate parts of the luminous body that are collected between ,f and ,d shall have their ,red so much the more diluted1 by how much the farther they are distant from ,f towards ,d4 ,now1 because by the refraction in the ,cornea1 and some other parts of the eye1 the sides of each ,ray1 which before were almost parallel1 are made to converge and meet in a point at the bottom of the eye1 therefore that side of the pulse which preceded before these refractions1 shall first touch the ,retina1 and the other side last4 ,and therefore according as this or that side1 or end of the pulse shall be impeded1 accordingly will the impressions on the ,retina be varied2 therefore by the ,ray ,,gach refracted by the ,cornea to ,d there shall be on that point a stroke or impression confus'd1 whose weakest end1 namely1 that by the line ,,cd shall precede1 and the stronger1 namely1 that by the line ,,ad shall follow4 ,and by the ,ray ,,kcai refracted to ,f1 there shall be on that part a confus'd stroke or impression1 whose strongest part1 namely1 that by the line ,,cf shal precede1 and whose weakest or impeded1 namely1 that by the line ,,af shall follow1 and all the intermediate points between ,f and ,d will receive impressions from the converg'd ,rays so much the more like the impressions on ,f and ,d by how much the nearer they approach that or this4 ,from the consideration of the proprieties of which impressions1 we may collect these short definitions of ,colours3 ,that ,blue is an impression on the ,retina of an oblique and confus'd pulse of light1 whose weakest part precedes1 and whose strongest follows4 ,and1 that ,red is an impression on the ,retina of an oblique and confus'd pulse of light1 whose strongest part precedes1 and whose weakest follows4 ,which proprieties1 as they have been already manifested1 in the ,prisme and falling drops of ,rain1 to be the causes of the colours there generated1 may be easily found to be the efficients also of the colours appearing in thin laminated transparent bodies2 for the explication of which1 all this has been premised4 ,and that this is so1 a little closer examination of the ,phnomena and the ,figure of the body1 by this ,hypothesis will make evident4 ,for first 7as we have already observed7 the laminated body must be of a determinate thickness1 that is1 it must not be thinner then such a determinate quantity2 for ,i have always observ'd1 that neer the edges of those which are exceeding thin1 the colours disappear1 and the part grows white2 nor must it be thicker then another determinate quantity2 for ,i have likewise observ'd1 that beyond such a thickness1 no colours appear'd1 but the ,plate looked white1 between which two determinate thicknesses were all the colour'd ,rings2 of which in some substances ,i have found ten or twelve1 in others not half so many1 which ,i suppose depends much upon the transparency of the laminated body4 ,thus though the consecutions are the same in the scum or the skin on the top of metals2 yet in those consecutions in the same colour is not so often repeated as in the consecutions in thin ,glass1 or in ,sope-water1 or any other more transparent and glutinous liquor2 for in these ,i have observ'd1 ,red1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue1 ,purple2 ,red1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue1 ,purple2 ,red1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue1 ,purple2 ,red1 ,yellow1 c4 to succeed each other1 ten or twelve times1 but in the other more opacous bodies the consecutions will not be half so many4 ,and therefore secondly1 the laminated body must be transparent1 and this ,i argue from this1 that ,i have not been able to produce any colour at all with an opacous body1 though never so thin4 ,and this ,i have often try'd1 by pressing small ,globule of ,mercury between two smooth ,plates of ,glass1 whereby ,i have reduc'd that body to a much greater thinness then was requisite to exhibit the colours with a transparent body4 ,thirdly1 there must be a considerable reflecting body adjacent to the under or further side of the lamina or plate3 for this ,i always found1 that the greater that reflection was1 the more vivid were the appearing colours4 ,from which ,observations1 is most evident1 that the reflection from the under or further side of the body is the principal cause of the production of these colours2 which1 that it is so1 and how it conduces to that effect1 ,i shall further explain in the following ,figure1 which is here described of a very great thickness1 as if it had been view'd through the ,microscope2 and 'tis indeed much thicker than any ,microscope 7,i have yet us'd7 has been able to shew me those colour'd plates of ,glass1 or ,muscovie-glass1 which ,i have not without much trouble view'd with it1 for though ,i have endeavoured to magnifie them as much as the ,glasses were capable of1 yet are they so exceeding thin1 that ,i have not hitherto been able positively to determine their thickness4 ,this ,figure therefore ,i here represent1 is wholy ,hypothetical4 ,let ,,abcdhfe in the sixth ,figure be a frustum of ,muscovy-glass1 thinner toward the end ,,ae1 and thicker towards ,,df4 ,let us first suppose the ,ray aghb coming from the ,sun1 of some remote luminous object to fall obliquely on the thinner plate ,,bae1 part therefore is reflected back by cghd1 the first ,superficies2 whereby the perpendicular pulse ab is after reflexion propagated by cd1 cd1 equally remote from each other with ab1 ab1 so that ag gc1 or bh hd are either of them equal to aa1 as is also cc1 but the body ,,bae being transparent1 a part of the light of this ,ray is refracted in the surface ,,ab1 and propagated by gikh to the surface ,,ef1 whence it is reflected and refracted again by the surface ,,ab4 ,so that after two refractions and one reflection1 there is propagated a kind of fainter ,ray emnf1 whose pulse is not only weaker by reason of the two refractions in the surface ,,ab1 but by reason of the time spent in passing and repassing between the two surfaces ,,ab and ,,ef1 ef which is this fainter or weaker pulse comes behind the pulse cd2 so that hereby 7the surfaces ,,ab1 and ,,ef being so neer together1 that the eye cannot discriminate them from one7 this confus'd or duplicated pulse1 whose strongest part precedes1 and whose weakest follows1 does produce on the ,retina1 7or the optick nerve that covers the bottom of the eye7 the sensation of a ,yellow4 ,and secondly1 this ,yellow will appear so much the deeper1 by how much the further back towards the middle between cd and cd the spurious pulse ef is remov'd1 as in #b where the surface ,,bc being further remov'd from ,,ef1 the weaker pulse ef will be nearer to the middle1 and will make an impression on the eye of a ,red4 ,but thirdly1 if the two reflecting surfaces be yet further remov'd asunder 7as in #c ,,cd and ,,ef are7 then will the weaker pulse be so farr behind1 that it will be more then half the distance between cd and cd4 ,and in this case it will rather seem to precede the following stronger pulse1 then to follow the preceding one1 and consequently a ,blue will be generated4 ,and when the weaker pulse is just in the middle between two strong ones1 then is a deep and lovely ,purple generated2 but when the weaker pulse ef is very neer to cd1 then is there generated a ,green1 which will be bluer1 or yellower1 according as the approximate weak pulse does precede or follow the stronger4 ,now fourthly1 if the thicker ,plate chance to be cleft into two thinner ,plates1 as ,,cdfe is divided into two ,plates by the surface ,,gh then from the composition arising from the three reflections in the surfaces ,,cd1 ,,gh1 and ,,ef1 there will be generated several compounded or mixt colours1 which will be very differing1 according as the proportion between the thicknesses of those two divided ,plates ,,cdhg1 and ,,ghfe are varied4 ,and fifthly1 if these surfaces ,,cd and ,,fe are further remov'd asunder1 the weaker pulse will yet lagg behind much further1 and not onely be coincident with the second1 cd1 but lagg behind that also1 and that so much the more1 by how much the thicker the ,plate be2 so that by degrees it will be coincident with the third cd backward also1 and by degrees1 as the ,plate grows thicker with a fourth1 and so onward to a fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 or eighth2 so that if there be a thin transparent body1 that from the greatest thinness requisite to produce colours1 does1 in the manner of a ,wedge1 by degrees grow to the greatest thickness that a ,plate can be of1 to exhibit a colour by the reflection of ,light from such a body1 there shall be generated several consecutions of colours1 whose order from the thin end towards the thick1 shall be ,yellow1 ,red1 ,purple1 ,blue1 ,green2 ,yellow1 ,red1 ,purple1 ,blue1 ,green2 ,yellow1 ,red1 ,purple1 ,blue1 ,green2 ,yellow1 c4 and these so often repeated1 as the weaker pulse does lose paces with its ,primary1 or first pulse1 and is coincident with a second1 third1 fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 c4 pulse behind the first4 ,and this1 as it is coincident1 or follows from the first ,hypothesis ,i took of colours1 so upon experiment have ,i found it in multitudes of instances that seem to prove it4 ,one thing which seems of the greatest concern in this ,hypothesis1 is to determine the greatest or least thickness requisite for these effects1 which1 though ,i have not been wanting in attempting1 yet so exceeding thin are these coloured ,plates1 and so imperfect our ,microscope1 that ,i have not been hitherto successfull1 though if my endeavours shall answer my expectations1 ,i shall hope to gratifie the curious ,reader with some things more remov'd beyond our reach hitherto4 ,thus have ,i1 with as much brevity as ,i was able1 endeavoured to explicate 7,hypothetically at least7 the causes of the ,phnomena ,i formerly recited1 on the consideration of which ,i have been the more particular4 ,first1 because ,i think these ,i have newly given are capable of explicating all the ,phnomena of colours1 not onely of those appearing in the ,prisme1 ,water-drop1 or ,rainbow1 and in laminated or plated bodies1 but of all that are in the world1 whether they be fluid or solid bodies1 whether in thick or thin1 whether transparent1 or seemingly opacous1 as ,i shall in the next ,observation further endeavour to shew4 ,and secondly1 because this being one of the two ornaments of all bodies discoverable by the sight1 whether looked on with1 or without a ,microscope1 it seem'd to deserve 7somewhere in this ,tract1 which contains a description of the ,figure and ,colour of some minute bodies7 to be somewhat the more intimately enquir'd into4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,x4 ,of ,metalline1 and other real ,colours4 ,having in the former ,discourse1 from the ,fundamental cause of ,colour1 made it probable1 that there are but two ,colours1 and shewn1 that the ,phantasm of ,colour is caus'd by the sensation of the oblique or uneven pulse of ,light which is capable of no more varieties than two that arise from the two sides of the oblique pulse1 though each of those be capable of infinite gradations or degrees 7each of them beginning from ,white1 and ending the one in the deepest ,scarlet or ,yellow1 the other in the deepest ,blue7 ,i shall in this ,section set down some ,observations which ,i have made of other colours1 such as ,metalline powders tinging or colour'd bodies and several kinds of tinctures or ting'd liquors1 all which1 together with those ,i treated of in the former ,observation will1 ,i suppose1 comprise the several subjects in which colour is observ'd to be inherent1 and the several manners by which it inheres1 or is apparent in them4 ,and here ,i shall endeavour to shew by what composition all kind of compound colours are made1 and how there is no colour in the world but may be made from the various degrees of these two colours1 together with the intermixtures of ,black and ,white4 ,and this being so1 as ,i shall anon shew1 it seems an evident argument to me1 that all colours whatsoever1 whether in fluid or solid1 whether in very transparent or seemingly opacous1 have the same efficient cause1 to wit1 some kind of refraction whereby the ,rays that proceed from such bodies1 have their pulse obliquated or confus'd in the manner ,i explicated in the former ,section2 that is1 a ,red is caus'd by a duplicated or confus'd pulse1 whose strongest pulse precedes1 and a weaker follows3 and a ,blue is caus'd by a confus'd pulse1 where the weaker pulse precedes1 and the stronger follows4 ,and according as these are1 more or less1 or variously mixt and compounded1 so are the sensations1 and consequently the phantasms of colours diversified4 ,to proceed therefore2 ,i suppose1 that all transparent colour'd bodies1 whether fluid or solid1 do consist at least of two parts1 or two kinds of substances1 the one of a substance of a somewhat differing refraction from the other4 ,that one of these substances which may be call'd the tinging substance1 does consist of distinct parts1 or particles of a determinate bigness which are disseminated1 or dispers'd all over the other3 ,that these particles1 if the body be equally and uniformly colour'd1 are evenly rang'd and dispers'd over the other contiguous body2 ,that where the body is deepest ting'd1 there these particles are rang'd thickest1 and where 'tis but faintly ting'd1 they are rang'd much thinner1 but uniformly4 ,that by the mixture of another body that unites with either of these1 which has a differing refraction from either of the other1 quite differing effects will be produc'd1 that is1 the consecutions of the confus'd pulses will be much of another kind1 and consequently produce other sensations and phantasms of colours1 and from a ,red may turn to a ,blue1 or from a ,blue to a ,red1 c4 ,now1 that this may be the better understood1 ,i shall endeavour to explain my meaning a little more sensible by a ,scheme3 ,suppose we therefore in the seventh ,figure of the sixth ,scheme1 that ,,abcd represents a ,vessel holding a ting'd liquor1 let ,,iiiii1 c4 be the clear liquor1 and let the tinging body that is mixt with it be ,,ee1 c4 ,,ff1 c4 ,,gg1 c4 ,,hh1 c4 whose particles 7whether round1 or some other determinate ,figure is little to our purpose7 are first of a determinate and equal bulk4 ,next1 they are rang'd into the form of ,quincunx1 or ,equilaterotriangular order1 which that probably they are so1 and why they are so1 ,i shall elsewhere endeavour to shew4 ,thirdly1 they are of such a nature1 as does either more easily or more difficultly transmit the ,rays of light then the liquor2 if more easily1 a ,blue is generated1 and if more difficultly1 a ,red or ,scarlet4 ,and first1 let us suppose the tinging particles to be of a substance that does more impede the ,rays of light1 we shall find that the pulse or wave of light mov'd from ,,ad to ,,bc1 will proceed on1 through the containing medium by the pulses or waves ,,kk1 ,,ll1 ,,mm1 ,,nn1 ,,oo2 but because several of these ,rays that go to the constitution of these pulses will be slugged or stopped by the tinging particles ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h2 therefore there shall be secundary and weak pulse that shall follow the ,ray1 namely ,,pp which will be the weaker3 first1 because it has suffer'd many refractions in the impeding body2 next1 for that the ,rays will be a little dispers'd or confus'd by reason of the refraction in each of the particles1 whether round or angular2 and this will be more evident1 if we a little more closely examine any one particular tinging ,globule4 ,suppose we therefore ,,ab in the eighth ,figure of the sixth ,scheme1 to represent a tinging ,globule or particle which has a greater refraction than the liquor in which it is contain'd3 ,let ,,cd be a part of the pulse of light which is propagated through the containing medium2 this pulse will be a little stopt or impeded by the ,globule1 and so by that time the pulse is past to ,,ef that part of it which has been impeded by passing through the ,globule1 will get but to ,,lm1 and so that pulse which has been propagated through the ,globule1 to wit1 ,,lm1 ,,no1 ,,pq1 will always come behind the pulses ,,ef1 ,,gh1 ,,ik1 c4 ,next1 by reason of the greater impediment in ,,ab1 and its ,globular ,figure1 the ,rays that pass through it will be dispers'd1 and very much scatter'd4 ,whence ,,ca and ,,db which before went direct and parallel1 will after the refraction in ,,ab1 diverge and spread by ,,ap1 and ,,bq2 so that as the ,rays do meet with more and more of these tinging particles in their way1 by so much the more will the pulse of light further lagg behind the clearer pulse1 or that which has fewer refractions1 and thence the deeper will the colour be1 and the fainter the light that is trajected through it2 for not onely many ,rays are reflected from the surfaces of ,,ab1 but those ,rays that get through it are very much disordered4 ,by this ,hypothesis there is no one experiment of colour that ,i have yet met with1 but may be1 ,i conceive1 very rationably solv'd1 and perhaps1 had ,i time to examine several particulars requisite to the demonstration of it1 ,i might prove it more than probable1 for all the experiments about the changes and mixings of colours related in the ,treatise of ,colours1 published by the ,incomparable ,mr4 ,boyle1 and multitudes of others which ,i have observ'd1 do so easily and naturally flow from those principles1 that ,i am very apt to think it probable1 that they own their production to no other secundary cause3 ,as to instance in two or three experiments4 ,in the twentieth ,experiment1 this ,noble ,authour has shewn that the deep bluish purple-colour of ,violets1 may be turn'd into a ,green1 by ,alcalizate ,salts1 and to a ,red by acid2 that is1 a ,purple consists of two colours1 a deep ,red1 and a deep ,blue2 when the ,blue is diluted1 or altered1 or destroy'd by acid ,salts1 the ,red becomes predominant1 but when the ,red is diluted by ,alcalizate1 and the ,blue heightned1 there is generated a ,green2 for of a ,red diluted1 is made a ,yellow1 and ,yellow and ,blue make a ,green4 ,now1 because the spurious pulses which cause a ,red and a ,blue1 do the one follow the clear pulse1 and the other precede it1 it usually follows1 that those ,saline refracting bodies which do dilute the colour of the one1 do deepen that of the other4 ,and this will be made manifest by almost all kinds of ,purples1 and many sorts of ,greens1 both these colours consisting of mixt colours2 for if we suppose ,a and ,a in the ninth ,figure1 to represent two pulses of clear light1 which follow each other at a convenient distance1 ,,aa1 each of which has a spurious pulse preceding it1 as ,,bb1 which makes a ,blue1 and another following it1 as ,,cc1 which makes a ,red1 the one caus'd by tinging particles that have a greater refraction1 the other by others that have a less refracting quality then the liquor or ,menstruum in which these are dissolv'd1 whatsoever liquor does so alter the refraction of the one1 without altering that of the other part of the ting'd liquor1 must needs very much alter the colour of the liquor2 for if the refraction of the dissolvent be increas'd1 and the refraction of the tinging particles not altered1 then will the preceding spurious pulse be shortned or stopt1 and not out-run the clear pulse so much2 so that ,,bb will become ,,ee1 and the ,blue be diluted1 whereas the other spurious pulse which follows will be made to lagg much more1 and be further behind ,,aa than before1 and ,,cc will become ff1 and so the ,yellow or ,red will be heightned4 ,a ,saline liquor therefore1 mixt with another ting'd liquor1 may alter the colour of it several ways1 either by altering the refraction of the liquor in which the colour swims3 or secondly by varying the refraction of the coloured particles1 by uniting more intimately either with some particular corpuscles of the tinging body1 or with all of them1 according as it has a congruity to some more especially1 or to all alike3 or thirdly1 by uniting and interweaving it self with some other body that is already joyn'd with the tinging particles1 with which substance it may have a congruity1 though it have very little with the particles themselves3 or fourthly1 it may alter the colour of a ting'd liquor by dis-joyning certain particles which were before united with the tinging particles1 which though they were somewhat congruous to these particles1 have yet a greater congruity with the newly infus'd ,saline menstruum4 ,it may likewise alter the colour by further dissolving the tinging substance into smaller and smaller particles1 and so diluting the colour2 or by uniting several particles together as in precipitations1 and so deepning it1 and some such other ways1 which many experiments and comparisons of differing trials together1 might easily inform one of4 ,from these ,principles applied1 may be made out all the varieties of colours observable1 either in liquors1 or any other ting'd bodies1 with great ease1 and ,i hope intelligible enough1 there being nothing in the notion of colour1 or in the suppos'd production1 but is very conceivable1 and may be possible4 ,the greatest difficulty that ,i find against this ,hypothesis1 is1 that there seem to be more distinct colours then two1 that is1 then ,yellow and ,blue4 ,this ,objection is grounded on this reason1 that there are several ,reds1 which diluted1 make not a ,saffron or pale ,yellow1 and therefore ,red1 or ,scarlet seems to be a third colour distinct from a deep degree of ,yellow4 ,to which ,i answer1 that ,saffron affords us a deep ,scarlet tincture1 which may be diluted into as pale a ,yellow as any1 either by making a weak solution of the ,saffron1 by infusing a small parcel of it into a great quantity of liquor1 as in spirit of ,wine1 or else by looking through a very thin quantity of the tincture1 and which may be heightn'd into the loveliest ,scarlet1 by looking through a very thick body of this tincture1 or through a thinner parcel of it1 which is highly impregnated with the tinging body1 by having had a greater quantity of the ,saffron dissolv'd in a smaller parcel of the liquor4 ,now1 though there may be some particles of other tinging bodies that give a lovely ,scarlet also1 which though diluted never so much with liquor1 or looked on through never so thin a parcel of ting'd liquor1 will not yet afford a pale ,yellow1 but onely a kind of faint ,red2 yet this is no argument but that those ting'd particles may have in them the faintest degree of ,yellow1 though we may be unable to make them exhibit it2 ,for that power of being diluted depending upon the divisibility of the ting'd body1 if ,i am unable to make the tinging particles so thin as to exhibit that colour1 it does not therefore follow1 that the thing is impossible to be done2 now1 the tinging particles of some bodies are of such a nature1 that unless there be found some way of comminuting them into less bulks then the liquor does dissolve them into1 all the ,rays that pass through them must necessarily receive a tincture so deep1 as their appropriate refractions and bulks compar'd with the proprieties of the dissolving liquor must necessarily dispose them to empress1 which may perhaps be a pretty deep ,yellow1 or pale ,red4 ,and that this is not gratis dictum1 ,i shall add one instance of this kind1 wherein the thing is most manifest4 ,if you take ,blue ,smalt1 you shall find1 that to afford the deepest ,blue1 which cteris paribus has the greatest particles or sands2 and if you further divide1 or grind those particles on a ,grindstone1 or porphyry stone1 you may by comminuting the sands of it1 dilute the ,blue into as pale a one as you please1 which you cannot do by laying the colour thin2 for wheresoever any single particle is1 it exhibits as deep a ,blue as the whole mass4 ,now1 there are other ,blues1 which though never so much ground1 will not be diluted by grinding1 because consisting of very small particles1 very deeply ting'd1 they cannot by grinding be actually separated into smaller particles then the operation of the fire1 or some other dissolving menstruum1 reduc'd them to already4 ,thus all kind of ,metalline colours1 whether precipitated1 sublim'd1 calcin'd1 or otherwise prepar'd1 are hardly chang'd by grinding1 as ultra marine is not more diluted2 nor is ,vermilion or ,red-lead made of a more faint colour by grinding2 for the smallest particles of these which ,i have view'd with my greatest ,magnifying-,glass1 if they be well enlightned1 appear very deeply ting'd with their peculiar colours2 nor1 though ,i have magnified and enlightned the particles exceedingly1 could ,i in many of them1 perceive them to be transparent1 or to be whole particles1 but the smallest specks that ,i could find among well ground ,vermilion and ,red-lead1 seem'd to be a ,red mass1 compounded of a multitude of less and less motes1 which sticking together1 compos'd a bulk1 not one thousand thousandth part of the smallest visible sand or mote4 ,and this ,i find generally in most ,metalline colours1 that though they consist of parts so exceedingly small1 yet are they very deeply ting'd1 they being so ponderous1 and having such a multitude of terrestrial particles throng'd into a little room2 so that 'tis difficult to find any particle transparent or resembling a pretious stone1 though not impossible2 for ,i have observ'd divers such shining and resplendent colours intermixt with the particles of ,cinnaber1 both natural and artificial1 before it hath been ground and broken or flaw'd into ,vermilion3 ,as ,i have also in ,orpiment1 ,red-lead1 and ,bise1 which makes me suppose1 that those metalline colours are by grinding1 not onely broken and separated actually into smaller pieces1 but that they are also flaw'd and brused1 whence they1 for the most part1 become opacous1 like flaw'd ,crystal or ,glass1 c4 ,but for ,smalts and verditures1 ,i have been able with a ,microscope to perceive their particles very many of them transparent4 ,now1 that the others also may be transparent1 though they do not appear so to the ,microscope1 may be made probable by this ,experiment3 that if you take ammel that is almost opacous1 and grind it very well on a ,porphyry1 or ,serpentine1 the small particles will by reason of their flaws1 appear perfectly opacous2 and that 'tis the flaws that produce this opacousness1 may be argued from this1 that particles of the same ,ammel much thicker if unflaw'd will appear somewhat transparent even to the eye2 and from this also1 that the most transparent and clear ,crystal1 if heated in the fire1 and then suddenly quenched1 so that it be all over flaw'd1 will appear opacous and white4 ,and that the particles of ,metalline colours are transparent1 may be argued yet further from this1 that the ,crystals1 or ,vitriols of all ,metals1 are transparent1 which since they consist of metalline as well as saline particles1 those metalline ones must be transparent1 which is yet further confirm'd from this1 that they have for the most part1 appropriate colours2 so the vitriol of ,gold is ,yellow2 of ,copper1 ,blue1 and sometimes ,green2 of ,iron1 green2 of ,tinn and ,lead1 a pale ,white2 of ,silver1 a pale ,blue1 4 ,and next1 the ,solution of all ,metals into menstruums are much the same with the ,vitriols1 or ,crystals4 ,it seems therefore very probable1 that those colours which are made by the precipitation of those particles out of the menstruums by transparent precipitating liquors should be transparent also4 ,thus ,gold precipitates with oyl of ,tartar1 or spirit of ,urine into a brown ,yellow1 ,copper with spirit of ,urine into a ,mucous blue1 which retains its transparency4 ,a solution of sublimate 7as the same ,illustrious ,authour ,i lately mention'd shews in his #dj4 ,experiment7 precipitates with oyl of ,tartar per deliquium1 into an ,orange colour'd precipitate2 nor is it less probable1 that the calcination of those ,vitriols by the fire1 should have their particles transparent3 ,thus ,saccarum ,saturni1 or the ,vitriol of ,lead by calcination becomes a deep ,orange-colour'd minium1 which is a kind of precipitation by some ,salt which proceeds from the fire2 common ,vitriol calcin'd1 yields a deep ,brown ,red1 c4 ,a third ,argument1 that the particles of ,metals are transparent1 is1 that being calcin'd1 and melted with ,glass1 they tinge the ,glass with transparent colours4 ,thus the ,calx of ,silver tinges the ,glass on which it is anneal'd with a lovely ,yellow1 or ,gold colour1 c4 ,and that the parts of ,metals are transparent1 may be farther argued from the transparency of ,leaf-gold1 which held against the light1 both to the naked eye1 and the ,microscope1 exhibits a deep ,green4 ,and though ,i have never seen the other ,metals laminated so thin1 that ,i was able to perceive them transparent1 yet1 for ,copper and ,brass1 if we had the same conveniency for laminating them1 as we have for ,gold1 we might1 perhaps1 through such plates or leaves1 find very differing degrees of ,blue1 or ,green2 for it seems very probable1 that those ,rays that rebound from them ting'd1 with a deep ,yellow1 or pale ,red1 as from ,copper1 or with a pale ,yellow1 as from ,brass1 have past through them2 for ,i cannot conceive how by reflection alone those ,rays can receive a tincture1 taking any ,hypothesis extant4 ,so that we see there may a sufficient reason be drawn from these instances1 why those colours which we are unable to dilute to the palest ,yellow1 or ,blue1 or ,green1 are not therefore to be concluded not to be a deeper degree of them2 for supposing we had a great company of small ,globular essence ,bottles1 or round ,glass bubbles1 about the bigness of a ,walnut1 fill'd each of them with a very deep mixture of ,saffron1 and that every one of them did appear of a deep ,scarlet colour1 and all of them together did exhibit at a distance1 a deep dy'd ,scarlet body4 ,it does not follow1 because after we have come nearer to this congeries1 or mass1 and divided it into its parts1 and examining each of its parts severally or apart1 we find them to have much the same colour with the whole mats2 it does not1 ,i say1 therefore follow1 that if we could break those ,globules smaller1 or any other ways come to see a smaller or thinner parcel of the ting'd liquor that fill'd those bubbles1 that that ting'd liquor must always appear ,red1 or of a ,scarlet hue1 since if ,experiment be made1 the quite contrary will ensue2 for it is capable of being diluted into the palest ,yellow4 ,now1 that ,i might avoid all the ,objections of this kind1 by exhibiting an ,experiment that might by ocular proof convince those whom other reasons would not prevail with1 ,i provided me a ,prismatical ,glass1 made hollow1 just in the form of a ,wedge1 such as is represented in the tenth ,figure of the sixth ,scheme4 ,the two parallelogram sides ,,abcd1 ,,abef1 which met at a point1 were made of the clearest ,looking-glass plates well ground and polish'd that ,i could get2 these were joyn'd with hard cement to the triangular sides1 ,,bce1 ,,adf1 which were of ,wood2 the ,parallelogram base ,,bcef1 likewise was of ,wood joyn'd on to the rest with hard cement1 and the whole ,prismatical ,box was exactly stopt every where1 but onely a little hole near the base was left1 whereby the ,vessel could be fill'd with any liquor1 or emptied again at pleasure4 ,one of these ,boxes 7for ,i had two of them7 ,i fill'd with a pretty deep tincture of ,aloes1 drawn onely with fair ,water1 and then stopt the hole with a piece of ,wax1 then1 by holding this ,wedge against the ,light1 and looking through it1 it was obvious enough to see the tincture of the liquor near the edge of the ,wedge where it was but very thin1 to be a pale but well colour'd ,yellow1 and further and further from the edge1 as the liquor grew thicker and thicker1 this tincture appear'd deeper and deeper1 so that near the blunt end1 which was seven ,inches from the edge and three ,inches and an half thick2 it was of a deep and well colour'd ,red4 ,now1 the clearer and purer this tincture be1 the more lovely will the deep ,scarlet be1 and the fouler the tincture be1 the more dirty will the ,red appear2 so that some dirty tinctures have afforded their deepest ,red much of the colour of burnt ,oker or ,spanish brown2 others as lovely a colour as ,vermilion1 and some much brighter2 but several others1 according as the tinctures were worse or more foul1 exhibited various kinds of ,reds1 of very differing degrees4 ,the other of these ,wedges1 ,i fill'd with a most lovely tincture of ,copper1 drawn from the filings of it1 with spirit of ,urine1 and this ,wedge held as the former against the ,light1 afforded all manner of ,blues1 from the faintest to the deepest1 so that ,i was in good hope by these two1 to have produc'd all the varieties of colours imaginable2 for ,i thought by this means to have been able by placing the two ,parallelogram sides together1 and the edges contrary ways1 to have so mov'd them to and fro one by another1 as by looking through them in several places1 and through several thicknesses1 ,i should have compounded1 and consequently have seen all those colours1 which by other like compositions of colours would have ensued4 ,but insteed of meeting with what ,i look'd for1 ,i met with somewhat more admirable2 and that was1 that ,i found my self utterly unable to see through them when placed both together1 though they were transparent enough when asunder2 and though ,i could see through twice the thickness1 when both of them were fill'd with the same colour'd liquors1 whether both with the ,yellow1 or both with the ,blue1 yet when one was fill'd with the ,yellow1 the other with the ,blue1 and both looked through1 they both appear'd dark1 onely when the parts near the tops were look'd through1 they exhibited ,greens1 and those of very great variety1 as ,i expected1 but the ,purples and other colours1 ,i could not by any means make1 whether ,i endeavour'd to look through them both against the ,sun1 or whether ,i plac'd them against the hole of a darkned room4 ,but notwithstanding this mis-ghessing1 ,i proceeded on with my trial in a dark room1 and having two holes near one another1 ,i was able1 by placing my ,wedges against them1 to mix the ting'd ,rays that past through them1 and fell on a sheet of white ,paper held at a convenient distance from them as ,i pleas'd2 so that ,i could make the ,paper appear of what colour ,i would1 by varying the thicknesses of the ,wedges1 and consequently the tincture of the ,rays that past through the two holes1 and sometimes also by varying the ,paper1 that is1 insteed of a white ,paper1 holding a gray1 or a black piece of ,paper4 ,whence ,i experimentally found what ,i had before imagin'd1 that all the varieties of colours imaginable are produc'd from several degrees of these two colours1 namely1 ,yellow and ,blue1 or the mixture of them with light and darkness1 that is1 white and black4 ,and all those almost infinite varieties which ,limners and ,painters are able to make by compounding those several colours they lay on their ,shels or ,palads1 are nothing else1 but some compositum1 made up of some one or more1 or all of these four4 ,now1 whereas it may here again be objected1 that neither can the ,reds be made out of the ,yellows1 added together1 or laid on in greater or less quantity1 nor can the ,yellows be made out of the ,reds though laid never so thin2 and as for the addition of ,white or ,black1 they do nothing but either whiten or darken the colours to which they are added1 and not at all make them of any other kind of colour3 as for instance1 ,vermilion1 by being temper'd with ,white ,lead1 does not at all grow more ,yellow1 but onely there is made a whiter kind of ,red4 ,nor does ,yellow ,oker1 though laid never so thick1 produce the colour of ,vermilion1 nor though it be temper'd with ,black1 does it at all make a ,red2 nay1 though it be temper'd with ,white1 it will not afford a fainter kind of ,yellow1 such as masticut1 but onely a whiten'd ,yellow2 nor will the ,blues be diluted or deepned after the manner ,i speak of1 as ,indico will never afford so fine a ,blue as ,ultramarine or ,bise2 nor will it1 temper'd with ,vermilion1 ever afford a ,green1 though each of them be never so much temper'd with white4 ,to which ,i answer1 that there is a great difference between diluting a colour and whitening of it2 for diluting a colour1 is to make the colour'd parts more thin1 so that the ting'd light1 which is made by trajecting those ting'd bodies1 does not receive so deep a tincture2 but whitening a colour is onely an intermixing of many clear reflections of light among the same ting'd parts2 deepning also1 and darkning or blacking a colour1 are very different2 for deepning a colour1 is to make the light pass through a greater quantity of the same tinging body2 and darkning or blacking a colour1 is onely interposing a multitude of dark or black spots among the same ting'd parts1 or placing the colour in a more faint light4 ,first therefore1 as to the former of these operations1 that is1 diluting and deepning1 most of the colours us'd by the ,limners and ,painters are incapable of1 to wit1 ,vermilion and ,red-lead1 and ,oker1 because the ting'd parts are so exceeding small1 that the most curious ,grindstones we have1 are not able to separate them into parts actually divided so small as the ting'd particles are2 for looking on the most curiously ground ,vermilion1 and ,oker1 and ,red-lead1 ,i could perceive that even those small corpuscles of the bodies they left were compounded of many pieces1 that is1 they seem'd to be small pieces compounded of a multitude of lesser ting'd parts3 each piece seeming almost like a piece of ,red ,glass1 or ting'd ,crystal all flaw'd2 so that unless the ,grindstone could actually divide them into smaller pieces then those flaw'd particles were1 which compounded that ting'd mote ,i could see with my ,microscope1 it would be impossible to dilute the colour by grinding1 which1 because the finest we have will not reach to do in ,vermilion or ,oker1 therefore they cannot at all1 or very hardly be diluted4 ,other colours indeed1 whose ting'd particles are such as may be made smaller1 by grinding their colour1 may be diluted4 ,thus several of the ,blues may be diluted1 as ,smalt and ,bise2 and ,masticut1 which is ,yellow1 may be made more faint3 ,and even ,vermilion it self may1 by too much grinding1 be brought to the colour of ,red-lead1 which is but an ,orange colour1 which is confest by all to be very much upon the ,yellow4 ,now1 though perhaps somewhat of this diluting of ,vermilion by overmuch grinding may be attributed to the ,grindstone1 or muller1 for that some of their parts may be worn off and mixt with the colour1 yet there seems not very much1 for ,i have done it on a ,serpentine-stone with a muller made of a ,pebble1 and yet observ'd the same effect follow4 ,and secondly1 as to the other of these operations on colours1 that is1 the deepning of them1 ,limners and ,painters colours are for the most part also uncapable4 ,for they being for the most part opacous2 and that opacousness1 as ,i said before1 proceeding from the particles1 being very much flaw'd1 unless we were able to joyn and reunite those flaw'd particles again into one piece1 we shall not be able to deepen the colour1 which since we are unable to do with most of the colours which are by ,painters accounted opacous1 we are therefore unable to deepen them by adding more of the same kind4 ,but because all those opacous colours have two kinds of beams or ,rays reflected from them1 that is1 ,rays unting'd1 which are onely reflected from the outward surface1 without at all penetrating of the body1 and ting'd ,rays which are reflected from the inward surfaces or flaws after they have suffer'd a two-fold refraction2 and because that transparent liquors mixt with such corpuscles1 do1 for the most part1 take off the former kind of reflection2 therefore these colours mixt with ,water or ,oyl1 appear much deeper than when dry1 for most part of that white reflection from the outward surface is remov'd4 ,nay1 some of these colours are very much deepned by the mixture with some transparent liquor1 and that because they may perhaps get between those two flaws1 and so consequently joyn two or more of those flaw'd pieces together2 but this happens but in a very few4 ,now1 to shew that all this is not gratis dictum1 ,i shall set down some ,experiments which do manifest these things to be probable and likely1 which ,i have here deliver'd4 ,for1 first1 if you take any ting'd liquor whatsoever1 especially if it be pretty deeply ting'd1 and by any means work it into a froth1 the congeries of that froth shall seem an opacous body1 and appear of the same colour1 but much whiter than that of the liquor out of which it is made4 ,for the abundance of reflections of the ,rays against those surfaces of the bubbles of which the froth consists1 does so often rebound the ,rays backwards1 that little or no light can pass through1 and consequently the froth appears opacous4 ,again1 if to any of these ting'd liquors that will endure the boiling there be added a small quantity of fine flower 7the parts of which through the ,microscope are plainly enough to be perceiv'd to consist of transparent corpuscles7 and suffer'd to boyl till it thicken the liquor1 the mass of the liquor will appear opacous1 and ting'd with the same colour1 but very much whiten'd4 ,thus1 if you take a piece of transparent ,glass that is well colour'd1 and by heating it1 and then quenching it in ,water1 you flaw it all over1 it will become opacous1 and will exhibit the same colour with which the piece is ting'd1 but fainter and whiter4 ,or1 if you take a ,pipe of this transparent ,glass1 and in the flame of a ,lamp melt it1 and then blow it into very thin bubbles1 then break those bubbles1 and collect a good parcel of those lamin together in a ,paper1 you shall find that a small thickness of those ,plates will constitute an opacous body1 and that you may see through the mass of ,glass before it be thus laminated1 above four times the thickness3 ,and besides1 they will now afford a colour by reflection as other opacous 7as they are call'd7 colours will1 but much fainter and whiter than that of the ,lump or ,pipe out of which they were made4 ,thus also1 if you take ,putty1 and melt it with any transparent colour'd ,glass1 it will make it become an opacous colour'd lump1 and to yield a paler and whiter colour than the lump by reflection4 ,the same thing may be done by a preparation of ,antimony1 as has been shewn by the ,learned ,physician1 ,dr4 ,c4,m4 in his ,excellent ,observations and ,notes on ,nery's ,art of ,glass2 and by this means all transparent colours become opacous1 or ammels4 ,and though by being ground they lose very much of their colour1 growing much whiter by reason of the multitude of single reflections from their outward surface1 as ,i shew'd afore1 yet the fire that in the nealing or melting re-unites them1 and so renews those spurious reflections1 removes also those whitenings of the colour that proceed from them4 ,as for the other colours which ,painters use1 which are transparent1 and us'd to varnish over all other paintings1 'tis well enough known that the laying on of them thinner or thicker1 does very much dilute or deepen their colour4 ,painters ,colours therefore consisting most of them of solid particles1 so small that they cannot be either re-united into thicker particles by any ,art yet known1 and consequently cannot be deepned2 or divided into particles so small as the flaw'd particles that exhibit that colour1 much less into smaller1 and consequently cannot be diluted2 ,it is necessary that they which are to imitate all kinds of colours1 should have as many degrees of each colour as can be procur'd4 ,and to this purpose1 both ,limners and ,painters have a very great variety both of ,yellows and ,blues1 besides several other colour'd bodies that exhibit very compounded colours1 such as ,greens and ,purples2 and others that are compounded of several degrees of ,yellow1 or several degrees of ,blue1 sometimes unmixt1 and sometimes compounded with several other colour'd bodies4 ,the ,yellows1 from the palest to the deepest ,red or ,scarlet1 which has no intermixture of ,blue1 are pale and deep ,masticut1 ,orpament1 ,english ,oker1 brown ,oker1 ,red-,lead1 and ,vermilion1 burnt ,english ,oker1 and burnt brown ,oker1 which last have a mixture of dark or dirty parts with them1 c4 ,their ,blues are several kinds of ,smalts1 and ,verditures1 and ,bise1 and ,ultramarine1 and ,indico1 which last has many dirty or dark parts intermixt with it4 ,their compounded colour'd bodies1 as ,pink1 and ,verdigrese1 which are ,greens1 the one a ,popingay1 the other a ,sea-green2 then ,lac1 which is a very lovely ,purple4 ,to which may be added their ,black and ,white1 which they also usually call ,colours1 of each of which they have several kinds1 such as ,bone ,black1 made of ,ivory burnt in a close ,vessel1 and ,blue ,black1 made of the small coal of ,willow1 or some other ,wood2 and ,cullens earth1 which is a kind of brown ,black1 c4 ,their usual ,whites are either artificial or natural ,white ,lead1 the last of which is the best they yet have1 and with the mixing and tempering these colours together1 are they able to make an imitation of any colour whatsoever3 ,their ,reds or deep ,yellows1 they can dilute by mixing pale ,yellows with them1 and deepen their pale by mixing deeper with them2 for it is not with ,opacous colours as it is with transparent1 where by adding more ,yellow to yellow1 it is deepned1 but in opacous diluted4 ,they can whiten any colour by mixing ,white with it1 and darken any colour by mixing ,black1 or some dark and dirty colour4 ,and in a word1 most of the colours1 or colour'd bodies they use in ,limning and ,painting1 are such1 as though mixt with any other of their colours1 they preserve their own hue1 and by being in such very smal parts dispers'd through the other colour'd bodies1 they both1 or altogether represent to the eye a compositum of all2 the eye being unable1 by reason of their smalness1 to distinguish the peculiarly colour'd particles1 but receives them as one intire compositum3 whereas in many of these1 the ,microscope very easily distinguishes each of the compounding colours distinct1 and exhibiting its own colour4 ,thus have ,i by gently mixing ,vermilion and ,bise dry1 produc'd a very fine ,purple1 or mixt colour1 but looking on it with the ,microscope1 ,i could easily distinguish both the ,red and the ,blue particles1 which did not at all produce the ,phantasm of ,purple4 ,to summ up all therefore in a word1 ,i have not yet found any solid colour'd body1 that ,i have yet examin'd1 perfectly opacous2 but those that are least transparent are ,metalline and ,mineral bodies1 whose particles generally1 seeming either to be very small1 or very much flaw'd1 appear for the most part opacous1 though there are very few of them that ,i have look'd on with a ,microscope1 that have not very plainly or circumstantially manifested themselves transparent4 ,and indeed1 there seem to be so few bodies in the world that are in minimis opacous1 that ,i think one may make it a rational ,query1 ,whether there be any body absolutely thus opacous8 ,for ,i doubt not at all 7and ,i have taken notice of very many circumstances that make me of this mind7 that could we very much improve the ,microscope1 we might be able to see all those bodies very plainly transparent1 which we now are fain onely to ghess at by circumstances4 ,nay1 the ,object ,glasses we yet make use of are such1 that they make many transparent bodies to the eye1 seem opacous through them1 which if we widen the ,aperture a little1 and cast more light on the objects1 and not charge the ,glasses so deep1 will again disclose their transparency4 ,now1 as for all kinds of colours that are dissolvable in ,water1 or other liquors1 there is nothing so manifest1 as that all those ting'd liquors are transparent2 and many of them are capable of being diluted and compounded or mixt with other colours1 and divers of them are capable of being very much chang'd and heightned1 and fixt with several kinds of ,saline menstruums4 ,others of them upon compounding1 destroy or vitiate each others colours1 and precipitate1 or otherwise very much alter each others tincture4 ,in the true ordering and diluting1 and deepning1 and mixing1 and fixing of each of which1 consists one of the greatest mysteries of the ,dyers2 of which particulars1 because our ,microscope affords us very little information1 ,i shall add nothing more at present2 but onely that with a very few tinctures order'd and mixt after certain ways1 too long to be here set down1 ,i have been able to make an appearance of all the various colours imaginable1 without at all using the help of ,salts1 or ,saline menstruums to vary them4 ,as for the mutation of ,colours by ,saline menstruums1 they have already been so fully and excellently handled by the lately mention'd ,incomparable ,authour1 that ,i can add nothing1 but that of a multitude of trials that ,i made1 ,i have found them exactly to agree with his ,rules and ,theories2 and though there may be infinite instances1 yet may they be reduc'd under a few ,heads1 and compris'd within a very few ,rules4 ,and generally ,i find1 that ,saline menstruums are most operative upon those colours that are ,purple1 or have some degree of ,purple in them1 and upon the other colours much less4 ,the spurious pulses that compose which1 being 7as ,i formerly noted7 so very neer the middle between the true ones1 that a small variation throws them both to one side1 or both to the other1 and so consequently must make a vast mutation in the formerly appearing ,colour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xi4 ,of ,figures observ'd in small ,sand4 ,sand generally seems to be nothing else but exceeding small ,pebbles1 or at least some very small parcels of a bigger stone2 the whiter kind seems through the ,microscope to consist of small transparent pieces of some pellucid body1 each of them looking much like a piece of ,alum1 or ,salt ,gem2 and this kind of ,sand is angled for the most part irregularly1 without any certain shape1 and the granules of it are for the most part flaw'd1 through amongst many of them it is not difficult to find some that are perfectly pellucid1 like a piece of clear ,crystal1 and divers likewise most curiously shap'd1 much after the manner of the bigger ,stiri of ,crystal1 or like the small ,diamants ,i observ'd in certain ,flints1 of which ,i shall by and by relate2 which last particular seems to argue1 that this kind of ,sand is not made by the comminution of greater transparent ,crystaline bodies1 but by the concretion or coagulation of ,water1 or some other fluid body4 ,there are other kinds of courser ,sands1 which are browner1 and have their particles much bigger2 these1 view'd with a ,microscope1 seem much courser and more opacous substances1 and most of them are of some irregularly rounded ,figures2 and though they seem not so opacous as to the naked eye1 yet they seem very foul and cloudy1 but neither do these want curiously transparent1 no more than they do regularly figur'd and well colour'd particles1 as ,i have often found4 ,there are multitudes of other kinds of ,sands1 which in many particulars1 plainly enough discoverable by the ,microscope1 differ both from these last mention'd kinds of ,sands1 and from one another3 there seeming to be as great variety of ,sands1 as there is of ,stones4 ,and as amongst ,stones some are call'd precious from their excellency1 so also are there ,sands which deserve the same ,epithite for their beauty2 for viewing a small parcel of ,east-,india ,sand 7which was given me by my highly honoured friend1 ,mr4 ,daniel ,colwall7 and1 since that1 another parcel1 much of the same kind1 ,i found several of them1 both very transparent like precious ,stones1 and regularly figur'd like ,crystal1 ,cornish ,diamants1 some ,rubies1 c4 and also ting'd with very lively and deep colours1 like ,rubys1 ,saphyrs1 ,emeralds1 c4 ,these kinds of granules ,i have often found also in ,english ,sand4 ,and 'tis easie to make such a counterfeit ,sand with deeply ting'd ,glass1 ,enamels and ,painters colours4 ,it were endless to describe the multitudes of ,figures ,i have met with in these kind of minute bodies1 such as ,spherical1 ,oval1 ,pyramidal1 ,conical1 ,prismatical1 of each of which kinds ,i have taken notice4 ,but amongst many others1 ,i met with none more observable than this pretty ,shell 7described in the ,figure ,x4 of the fifth ,scheme7 which1 though as it was light on by chance1 deserv'd to have been omitted 7,i being unable to direct any one to find the like7 yet for its rarity was it not inconsiderable1 especially upon the account of the information it may afford us4 ,for by it we have a very good instance of the curiosity of ,nature in another kind of ,animals which are remov'd1 by reason of their minuteness1 beyond the reach of our eyes1 so that as there are several sorts of ,insects1 as ,mites1 and others1 so small as not yet to have had any names2 7some of which ,i shall afterwards describe7 and small ,fishes1 as ,leeches in ,vinegar2 and smal vegetables1 as ,moss1 and ,rose-,leave-plants2 and small ,mushroms1 as mould3 so are there1 it seems1 small ,shel-fish likewise1 ,nature shewing her curiosity in every ,tribe of ,animals1 ,vegetables1 and ,minerals4 ,i was trying several small and single ,magnifying ,glasses1 and casually viewing a parcel of white ,sand1 when ,i perceiv'd one of the grains exactly shap'd and wreath'd like a ,shell1 but endeavouring to distinguish it with my naked eye1 it was so very small1 that ,i was fain again to make use of the ,glass to find it2 then1 whilest ,i thus look'd on it1 with a ,pin ,i separated all the rest of the granules of ,sand1 and found it afterwards to appear to the naked eye an exceeding small white spot1 no bigger than the point of a ,pin4 ,afterwards ,i view'd it every way with a better ,microscope and found it on both sides1 and edge-ways1 to resemble the ,shell of a small ,water-,snail with a flat spiral ,shell3 it had twelve wreathings1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 c4 all very proportionably growing one less than another toward the middle or center of the ,shell1 where there was a very small round white spot4 ,i could not certainly discover whether the ,shell were hollow or not1 but it seem'd fill'd with somewhat1 and 'tis probable that it might be petrify'd as other larger ,shels often are1 such as are mention'd in the seventeenth ,observation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xii4 ,of ,gravel in ,urine4 ,i ,have often observ'd the ,sand or ,gravel of ,urine1 which seems to be a tartareous substance1 generated out of a saline and a terrestrial substance crystalliz'd together1 in the form of ,tartar1 sometimes sticking to the sides of the ,urinal1 but for the most part sinking to the bottom1 and there lying in the form of coorse common ,sand2 these1 through the ,microscope1 appear to be a company of small bodies1 partly transparent and partly opacous1 some ,white1 some ,yellow1 some ,red1 others of more brown and duskie colours4 ,the ,figure of them is for the most part flat1 in the manner of ,slats or such like plated ,stones1 that is1 each of them seem to be made up of several other thinner ,plates1 much like ,muscovie ,glass1 or ,english ,sparr to the last of which1 the white plated ,gravel seems most likely2 for they seem not onely plated like that1 but their sides shap'd also into ,rhombs1 ,rhomboeids1 and sometimes into ,rectangles and ,squares4 ,their bigness and ,figure may be seen in the second ,figure of the seventh ,plate1 which represents about a dozen of them lying upon a plate ,,abcd1 some of which1 as a1 b1 c1 d seem'd more regular than the rest1 and e1 which was a small one1 sticking on the top of another1 was a perfect ,rhomboeid on the top1 and had four ,rectangular sides4 ,the line ,e which was the measure of the ,microscope1 is part of an ,english ,inch1 so that the greatest bredth of any of them1 exceeded not part of an ,inch4 ,putting these into several liquors1 ,i found oyl of ,vitriol1 ,spirit of ,urine1 and several other ,saline menstruums to dissolve them2 and the first of these in less than a minute without ,ebullition1 ,water1 and several other liquors1 had no sudden operation upon them4 ,this ,i mention1 because those liquors that dissolve them1 first make them very white1 not vitiating1 but rather rectifying their ,figure1 and thereby make them afford a very pretty object for the ,microscope4 ,how great an advantage it would be to such as are troubled with the ,stone1 to find some menstruum might dissolve them without hurting the ,bladder1 is easily imagin'd1 since some injections made of such bodies might likewise dissolve the stone1 which seems much of the same nature4 ,it may therefore1 perhaps1 be worthy some ,physicians enquiry1 whether there may not be something mixt with the ,urine in which the ,gravel or ,stone lies1 which may again make it dissolve it1 the first of which seems by it's regular ,figures to have been sometimes ,crystalliz'd out of it4 ,for whether this ,crystallization be made in the manner as ,alum1 ,peter1 c4 are crystallized out of a cooling liquor1 in which1 by boyling they have been dissolv'd2 or whether it be made in the manner of ,tartarum ,vitriolatum1 that is1 by the ,coalition of an acid and a ,sulphureous substance1 it seems not impossible1 but that the liquor it lies in1 may be again made a dissolvent of it4 ,but leaving these inquiries to ,physicians or ,chymists1 to whom it does more properly belong1 ,i shall proceed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xiii4 ,of the small ,diamants1 or ,sparks in ,flints4 ,chancing to break a ,flint stone in pieces1 ,i found within it a certain cavity all crusted over with a very pretty candied substance1 some of the parts of which1 upon changing the posture of the ,stone1 in respect of the ,incident light1 exhibited a number of small1 but very vivid reflections2 and having made use of my ,microscope1 ,i could perceive the whole surface of that cavity to be all beset with a multitude of little ,crystaline or ,adamantine bodies1 so curiously shap'd1 that it afforded a not unpleasing object4 ,having considered those vivid repercussions of light1 ,i found them to be made partly from the plain external surface of these regularly figured bodies 7which afforded the vivid reflections7 and partly to be made from within the somewhat pellucid body1 that is1 from some surface of the body1 opposite to that superficies of it which was next the eye4 ,and because these bodies were so small1 that ,i could not well come to make ,experiments and ,examinations of them1 ,i provided me several small stiri of ,crystals or ,diamants1 found in great quantities in ,cornwall and are therefore commonly called ,cornish ,diamants3 these being very pellucid1 and growing in a hollow cavity of a ,rock 7as ,i have been several times informed by those that have observ'd them7 much after the same manner as these do in the ,flint1 and having besides their outward surface very regularly shap'd1 retaining very near the same ,figures with some of those ,i observ'd in the other1 became a convenient help to me for the ,examination of the proprieties of those kinds of bodies4 ,and first for the ,reflections1 in these ,i found it very observable1 ,that the brightest reflections of light proceeded from within the pellucid body2 that is1 that the ,rays admitted through the pellucid substance in their getting out on the opposite side1 were by the contiguous and strong reflecting surface of the ,air very vividly reflected1 so that more ,rays were reflected to the eye by this surface1 though the ,ray in entring and getting out of the ,crystal had suffer'd a double refraction1 than there were from the outward surface of the ,glass where the ,ray had suffer'd no refraction at all4 ,and that this was the surface of the ,air that gave so vivid a re-percussion ,i try'd by this means ,i sunk half of a stiria in ,water1 so that only ,water was contiguous to the under surface1 and then the internal reflection was so exceedingly faint1 that it was scarce discernable4 ,again1 ,i try'd to alter this vivid reflection by keeping off the ,air1 with a body not fluid1 and that was by rubbing and holding my finger very hard against the under surface1 so as in many places the pulp of my finger did touch the ,glass1 without any interjacent air between1 then observing the reflection1 ,i found1 that wheresoever my finger or skin toucht the surface1 from that part there was no reflection1 but in the little furrows or creases of my skin1 where there remain'd little small lines of air1 from them was return'd a very vivid reflection as before4 ,i try'd further1 by making the surface of very pure ,quicksilver to be contiguous to the under surface of this pellucid body1 and then the reflection from that was so exceedingly more vivid than from the air1 as the reflection from air was than the reflection from the ,water2 from all which trials ,i plainly saw1 that the strong reflecting air was the cause of this ,phnomenon4 ,and this agrees very well with the ,hypothesis of light and ,pellucid bodies which ,i have mention'd in the description of ,muscovy-glass2 for we there suppose ,glass to be a medium1 which does less resist the pulse of light1 and consequently1 that most of the ,rays incident on it enter into it1 and are refracted towards the perpendicular2 whereas the air ,i suppose to be a body that does more resist it1 and consequently more are re-percuss'd then do enter it3 the same kind of trials have ,i made1 with ,crystalline ,glass1 with drops of fluid bodies1 and several other ways1 which do all seem to agree very exactly with this ,theory4 ,so that from this ,principle well establish'd1 we may deduce severall ,corollaries not unworthy observation4 ,and the first is2 that it plainly appears by this1 that the production of the ,rainbow is as much to be ascribed to the reflection of the concave surface of the air1 as to the refraction of the ,globular drops3 this will be evidently manifest by these ,experiments1 if you foliate that part of a ,glass-ball that is to reflect an ,iris1 as in the ,cartesian ,experiment1 above mention'd1 the reflections will be abundantly more strong1 and the colours more vivid3 and if that part of the surface be touch'd with ,water1 scarce affords any sensible colour at all4 ,next we learn1 that the great reason why pellucid bodies beaten small are white1 is from the multitude of reflections1 not from the particles of the body1 but from the contiguous surface of the air4 ,and this is evidently manifested1 by filling the ,interstitia of those powder'd bodies with ,water1 whereby their whiteness presently disappears4 ,from the same reason proceeds the whiteness of many kinds of ,sands1 which in the ,microscope appear to be made up of a multitude of little pellucid bodies1 whose brightest reflections may by the ,microscope be plainly perceiv'd to come from their internal surfaces2 and much of the whiteness of it may be destroy'd by the affusion of fair ,water to be contiguous to those surfaces4 ,the whiteness also of froth1 is for the most part to be ascribed to the reflection of the light from the surface of the air within the ,bubbles1 and very little to the reflection from the surface of the ,water it self3 for this last reflection does not return a quarter so many ,rays1 as that which is made from the surface of the air1 as ,i have certainly found by a multitude of ,observations and ,experiments4 ,the whiteness of ,linnen1 ,paper1 ,silk1 c4 proceeds much from the same reason1 as the ,microscope will easily discover2 for the ,paper is made up of an abundance of pellucid bodies1 which afford a very plentifull reflection from within1 that is1 from the concave surface of the air contiguous to its component particles2 wherefore by the affusion of ,water1 ,oyl1 ,tallow1 ,turpentine1 c4 all those reflections are made more faint1 and the beams of light are suffer'd to traject run through the ,paper more freely4 ,hence further we may learn the reason of the whiteness of many bodies1 and by what means they may be in part made pellucid3 ,as white ,marble for instance1 for this body is composed of a pellucid body exceedingly flaw'd1 that is1 there are abundance of thin1 and very fine cracks or chinks amongst the multitude of particles of the body1 that contain in them small parcels of air1 which do so re-percuss and drive back the penetrating beams1 that they cannot enter very deep within that body2 which the ,microscope does plainly inform us to be made up of a ,congeries of pellucid particles4 ,and ,i further found it somewhat more evidently by some attempts ,i made towards the making transparent ,marble1 for by heating the ,stone a little1 and soaking it in ,oyl1 ,turpentine1 ,oyl of ,turpentine1 c41 ,i found that ,i was able to see much deeper into the body of ,marble than before2 and one trial1 which was not with an unctuous substance1 succeeded better than the rest1 of which1 when ,i have a better opportunity1 ,i shall make further trial4 ,this also gives us a probable reason of the so much admired ,phnomena1 of the ,oculus ,mundi1 an ,oval stone1 which commonly looks like white ,alabaster1 but being laid a certain time in ,water1 it grows pellucid1 and transparent1 and being suffer'd to lie again dry1 it by degrees loses that transparency1 and becomes white as before4 ,for the ,stone being of a hollow spongie nature1 has in the first and last of these appearances1 all those pores fill'd with the obtunding and reflecting air2 whereas in the second1 all those pores are fill'd with a medium that has much the same refraction with the particles of the ,stone1 and therefore those two being contiguous1 make1 as 'twere1 one continued medium1 of which more is said in the #ae4 ,observation4 ,there are a multitude of other ,phnomena1 that are produc'd from this same ,principle1 which as it has not been taken notice of by any yet that ,i know1 so ,i think1 upon more diligent observation1 will it not be found the least considerable4 ,but ,i have here onely time to hint ,hypotheses1 and not to prosecute them so fully as ,i could wish2 many of them having a vast extent in the production of a multitude of ,phnomena1 which have been by others1 either not attempted to be explain'd1 or else attributed to some other cause than what ,i have assign'd1 and perhaps than the right2 and therefore ,i shall leave this to the prosecution of such as have more leisure3 onely before ,i leave it1 ,i must not pretermit to hint1 that by this ,principle1 multitudes of the ,phnomena of the air1 as about ,mists1 ,clouds1 ,meteors1 ,haloes1 c4 are most plainly and 7perhaps7 truly explicable2 multitudes also of the ,phnomena in colour'd bodies1 as liquors1 c4 are deducible from it4 ,and from this ,i shall proceed to a second considerable ,phnomenon which these ,diamants exhibit1 and that is the regularity of their ,figure1 which is a propriety not less general than the former1 ,it comprising within its extent1 all kinds of ,metals1 all kinds of ,minerals1 most ,precious stones1 all kinds of ,salts1 multitudes of ,earths1 and almost all kinds of fluid bodies4 ,and this is another propiety1 which1 though a little superficially taken notice of by some1 has not1 that ,i know1 been so much as attempted to be explicated by any4 ,this propriety of bodies1 as ,i think it the most worthy1 and next in order to be consider'd after the contemplation of the ,globular ,figure1 so have ,i long had a desire as wel as a determination to have prosecuted it if ,i had had an opportunity1 having long since propos'd to my self the method of my enquiry therein1 it containing all the allurements that ,i think any enquiry is capable of3 ,for1 first ,i take it to proceed from the most simple principle that any kind of form can come from1 next the ,globular1 which was therefore the first ,i set upon1 and what ,i have therein perform'd1 ,i leave the ,judicious ,reader to determine4 ,for as that form proceeded from a propiety of fluid bodies1 which ,i have call'd ,congruity1 or ,incongruity2 so ,i think1 had ,i time and opportunity1 ,i could make probable1 that all these regular ,figures that are so conspicuously various and curious1 and do so adorn and beautifie such multitudes of bodies1 as ,i have above hinted1 arise onely from three or four several positions or postures of ,globular particles1 and those the most plain1 obvious1 and necessary conjunctions of such figur'd particles that are possible1 so that supposing such and such plain and obvious causes concurring the coagulating particles must necessarily compose a body of such a determinate regular ,figure1 and no other1 and this with as much necessity and obviousness as a fluid body encompast with a ,heterogeneous fluid must be protruded into a ,spherule or ,globe4 ,and this ,i have ad oculum demonstrated with a company of bullets1 and some few other very simple bodies2 so that there was not any regular ,figure1 which ,i have hitherto met withall1 of any of those bodies that ,i have above named1 that ,i could not with the composition of bullets or globules1 and one or two other bodies1 imitate1 even almost by shaking them together4 ,and thus for instance may we find that the ,globular bullets will of themselves1 if put on an inclining plain1 so that they may run together1 naturally run into a triangular order1 composing all the variety of figures that can be imagin'd to be made out of quilateral triangles2 and such will you find1 upon trial1 all the ,surfaces of ,alum to be compos'd of3 ,for three bullets lying on a plain1 as close to one another as they can compose an quilatero-triangular form1 as in ,a in the #g4 ,scheme4 ,if a fourth be joyn'd to them on either side as closely as it can1 they four compose the most regular ,rhombus consisting of two quilateral triangles1 as ,b4 ,if a fifth be joyn'd to them on either side in as close a position as it can1 which is the propriety of the ,texture1 it makes a ,trapezium1 or four-sided ,figure1 two of whose angles are #abj4 and two #fj4 degrees1 as ,c4 ,if a sixth be added1 as before1 either it makes an quilateral triangle1 as ,d1 or a ,rhomboeid1 as ,e1 or an ,hexangular ,figure1 as ,f1 which is compos'd of two primary ,rhombs4 ,if a seventh be added1 it makes either an quilatero-hexagonal ,figure1 as ,g1 or some kind of six-sided ,figure1 as ,h1 or ,i4 ,and though there be never so many placed together1 they may be rang'd into some of these lately mentioned ,figures1 all the angles of which will be either #fj4 degrees1 or #abj4 as the figure ,k4 which is an quiangular hexagonal ,figure is compounded of #ab4 ,globules1 or may be of #be1 or #bg1 or #cf1 or #db1 c4 and by these kinds of texture1 or position of globular bodies1 may you find out all the variety of regular shapes1 into which the smooth surfaces of ,alum are form'd1 as upon examination any one may easily find2 nor does it hold only in superficies1 but in solidity also1 for it's obvious that a fourth ,globule laid upon the third in this texture1 composes a regular ,tetrahedron1 which is a very usual ,figure of the ,crystals of ,alum4 ,and 7to hasten7 there is no one ,figure into which ,alum is observ'd to be crystallized1 but may by this texture of ,globules be imitated1 and by no other4 ,i could instance also in the ,figure of ,sea-salt1 and ,sal-gem1 that it is compos'd of a texture of ,globules1 placed in a cubical form1 as ,l1 and that all the ,figures of those ,salts may be imitated by this texture of ,globules and by no other whatsoever4 ,and that the forms of ,vitriol and of ,salt-,peter1 as also of ,crystal1 ,hore-frost1 c4 are compounded of these two textures1 but modulated by certain proprieties3 ,but ,i have not here time to insist upon1 as ,i have not neither to shew by what means ,globules come to be thus context1 and what those ,globules are1 and many other particulars requisite to a full and intelligible explication of this propriety of bodies4 ,nor have ,i hitherto found indeed an opportunity of prosecuting the inquiry so farr as ,i design'd2 nor do ,i know when ,i may1 it requiring abundance of time1 and a great deal of assistance to go through with what ,i design'd2 the model of which was this3 ,first1 to get as exact and full a collection as ,i could1 of all the differing kinds of ,geometrical figur'd bodies1 some three or four several bodies of each kind4 ,secondly1 with them to get as exact a ,history as possibly ,i could learn of their places of ,generation or finding1 and to enquire after as many circumstances that tended to the ,illustrating of this ,enquiry1 as possibly ,i could observe4 ,thirdly1 to make as many trials as upon experience ,i could find requisite1 in ,dissolutions and ,coagulations of several crystallizing ,salts2 for the needfull instruction and information in this ,enquiry4 ,fourthly1 to make several trials on divers other bodies1 as ,metals1 ,minerals1 and ,stones1 by dissolving them in several ,menstruums1 and crystalizing them1 to see what ,figures would arise from those several ,compositums4 ,fifthly1 to make ,compositions and ,coagulations of several ,salts together into the same mass1 to observe of what ,figure the product of them would be2 and in all1 to note as many circumstances as ,i should judge conducive to my ,enquiry4 ,sixthly1 to enquire the closeness or rarity of the texture of these bodies1 by examining their gravity1 and their refraction1 c4 ,seventhly1 to enquire particularly what operations the fire has upon several kinds of ,salts1 what changes it causes in their ,figures1 ,textures1 or ,energies4 ,eighthly1 to examine their manner of dissolution1 or acting upon those bodies dissoluble in them2 ,the texture of those bodies before and after the process4 ,and this for the ,history4 ,next for the ,solution1 ,to have examin'd by what1 and how many means1 such and such ,figures1 actions and effects could be produc'd possibly4 ,and lastly1 from all circumstances well weigh'd1 ,i should have endeavoured to have shewn which of them was most likely1 and 7if the informations by these ,enquiries would have born it7 to have demonstrated which of them it must be1 and was4 ,but to proceed1 ,as ,i believe it next to the ,globular the most simple2 so do ,i1 in the second place1 judge it not less pleasant2 for that which makes an ,enquiry pleasant1 are1 first a noble ,inventum that promises to crown the successfull endeavour2 and such must certainly the knowledge of the efficient and concurrent causes of all these curious ,geometrical ,figures be1 which has made the ,philosophers hitherto to conclude nature in these things to play the ,geometrician1 according to that saying of ,plato1 4 ,or next1 a great variety of matter in the ,enquiry2 and here we meet with nothing less than the ,mathematicks of nature1 having every day a new ,figure to contemplate1 or a variation of the same in another body1 ,which do afford us a third thing1 which will yet more sweeten the ,enquiry1 and that is1 a multitude of information2 we are not so much to grope in the dark1 as in most other ,enquiries1 where the ,inventum is great2 for having such a multitude of instances to compare1 and such easie ways of generating1 or compounding and of destroying the form1 as in the ,solution and ,crystallization of ,salts1 we cannot but learn plentifull information to proceed by4 ,and this will further appear from the universality of the ,principle which ,nature has made use of almost in all inanimate bodies4 ,and therefore1 as the contemplation of them all conduces to the knowledg of any one2 so from a ,scientifical knowledge of any one does follow the fame of all1 and every one4 ,and fourthly1 for the usefulness of this knowledge1 when acquir'd2 certainly none can doubt1 that considers that it caries us a step forward into the ,labyrinth of ,nature1 in the right way towards the end we propose our selves in all ,philosophical ,enquiries4 ,so that knowing what is the form of ,inanimate or ,mineral bodies1 we shall be the better able to proceed in our next ,enquiry after the forms of ,vegetative bodies2 and last of all1 of ,animate ones1 that seeming to be the highest step of natural knowledge that the mind of man is capable of4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xiv4 ,of several kindes of frozen ,figures4 ,i have very often in a ,morning1 when there has been a great hoar-frost1 with an indifferently magnifying ,microscope1 observ'd the small ,stiri1 or ,crystalline beard1 which then usually covers the face of most bodies that lie open to the cold air1 and found them to be generally ,hexangular prismatical bodies1 much like the long ,crystals of ,salt-peter1 save onely that the ends of them were differing3 for whereas those of ,nitre are for the most part pyramidal1 being terminated either in a point or edge2 these of ,frost were hollow1 and the cavity in some seem'd pretty deep1 and this cavity was the more plainly to be seen1 because usually one or other of the six parallelogram sides was wanting1 or at least much shorter then the rest4 ,but this was onely the ,figure of the ,bearded hoar-frost2 and as for the particles of other kinds of hoar-frosts1 they seem'd for the most part irregular1 or of no certain ,figure4 ,nay1 the parts of those curious branchings1 or vortices1 that usually in cold weather tarnish the surface of ,glass1 appear through the ,microscope very rude and unshapen1 as do most other kinds of frozen ,figures1 which to the naked eye seem exceeding neat and curious1 such as the ,figures of ,snow1 frozen ,urine1 ,hail1 several ,figures frozen in common ,water1 c4 ,some ,observations of each of which ,i shall hereunto annex1 because if well consider'd and examin'd1 they may1 perhaps1 prove very instructive for the finding out of what ,i have endeavoured in the preceding ,observation to shew1 to be 7next the ,globular ,figure which is caus'd by congruity1 as ,i hope ,i have made probable in the sixth ,observation7 the most simple and plain operation of ,nature1 of which1 notwithstanding we are yet ignorant4 ,i4 ,several ,observables in the six-branched ,figures form'd on the surface of ,urine by freezing4 #a #aa,the ,figures were all frozen almost even with the surface of the ,urine in the ,vessel2 but the bigger stems were a little prominent above that surface1 and the parts of those stems which were nearest the center 7a7 were biggest above the surface4 #b ,i have observ'd several kinds of these ,figures1 some smaller1 no bigger then a ,two-pence1 others so bigg1 that ,i have by measure found one of its stems or branches above four foot long2 and of these1 some were pretty round1 having all their branches pretty neer alike2 other of them were more extended towards one side1 as usually those very large ones were1 which ,i have observ'd in ,ditches which have been full of foul water4 #c ,none of all these ,figures ,i have yet taken notice of1 had any regular position in respect of one another1 or of the sides of the ,vessel2 nor did ,i find any of them equally to exactness extended every way from the center a4 #d ,where ever there was a center1 the branchings from it1 ab1 ac1 ad1 ae1 af1 ag1 were never fewer1 or more then six1 which usually concurr'd1 or met one another very neer in the same point or center1 a2 though oftentimes not exactly2 and were enclin'd to each other by an angle1 of very near sixty degrees1 ,i say1 very neer1 because1 though having endeavoured to measure them the most accurately ,i was able1 with the largest ,compasses ,i had1 ,i could not find any sensible variation from that measure1 yet the whole six-branched ,figure seeming to compose a solid angle1 they must necessarily be somewhat less4 #e ,the middle lines or stems of these branches1 ab1 ac1 ad1 ae1 af1 ag1 seem'd somewhat whiter1 and a little higher then any of the intermediate branchings of these ,figures2 and the center a1 was the most prominent part of the whole ,figure1 seeming the apex of a solid angle or pyramid1 each of the six plains being a little enclin'd below the surface of the ,urin4 #f ,the lateral branchings issuing out of the great ones1 such as op1 mq1 c4 were each of them inclin'd to the great ones1 by the same angle of about sixty degrees1 as the great ones were one to another1 and always the bigger branchings were prominent above the less1 and the less above the least1 by proportionate gradations4 #g ,the lateral branches shooting out of the great ones1 went all of them from the center1 and each of them was parallel to that great branch1 next to which it lay2 so that as all the branches on one side were parallel to one another1 so were they all of them to the approximate great branch1 as po1 qr1 as they were parallel to each other1 and shot from the center1 so were they parallel also to the great branch ab4 #h ,some of the stems of the six branches proceeded straight1 and of a thickness that gradually grew sharper towards the end1 as ag4 #i ,others of the stems of those branches grew bigger and knotty towards the middle1 and the branches also as well as stems1 from ,cylinders grew into ,plates1 in a most admirable and curious order1 so exceeding regular and delicate1 as nothing could be more1 as is visible in ab1 ac1 ad1 ae1 af1 but towards the end of some of these stems1 they began again to grow smaller and to recover their former branchings1 as about k and n4 #aj ,many of the lateral branches had collateral branches 7if ,i may so call them7 as qm had many such as st1 and most of those again subcollateral1 as vw1 and these again had others less1 which one may call laterosubcollateral1 and these again others1 and they others1 c4 in greater ,figures4 #aa ,the branchings of the main ,stems joyn'd not together by any regular line1 nor did one side of the one lie over the other side of the other1 but the small collateral and subcollateral branches did lie at top of one another according to a certain order or method1 which ,i always observ'd to be this4 #ab ,that side of a collateral or subcollateral1 c4 branch1 lay over the side of the approximate 7as the feathers in the wing of a ,bird7 whose branchings proceeded parallel to the last biggest stem from which it sprung1 and not to the biggest stem of all1 unless that were a second stem backwards4 #ac ,this rule that held in the branchings of the ,sexangular ,figure held also in the branchings of any other great or small stem1 though it did not proceed from a center4 #ad ,the exactness and curiosity of the figuration of these branches1 was in every particular so transcendent1 that ,i judge it almost impossible for humane art to imitate4 #ae ,tasting several cleer pieces of this ,ice1 ,i could not find any ,urinous taste in them1 but those few ,i tasted1 seem'd as insipid as water4 #af ,a figuration somewhat like this1 though indeed in some particulars much more curious1 ,i have several times observ'd in regulus martis stellatus1 but with this difference1 that all the stems and branchings are bended in a most excellent and regular order1 whereas in ,ice the stems and branchings are streight1 but in all other particulars it agrees with this1 and seems indeed nothing but one of these stars1 or branched ,figures frozen on ,urine1 distorted1 or wreathed a little1 with a certain proportion3 ,lead also that has ,arsenick and some other things mixt with it1 ,i have found to have its surface1 when suffer'd to cool1 figured somewhat like the branchings of ,urine1 but much smaller4 #ag ,but there is a ,vegetable which does exceedingly imitate these branches1 and that is1 ,fearn1 where the main stem may be observ'd to shoot out branches1 and the stems of each of these lateral branches1 to send forth collateral1 and those subcollateral and those laterosubcollateral1 c4 and all those much after the same order with the branchings1 divisions1 and subdivisions in the branchings of these ,figures in frozen ,urine2 so that if the ,figures of both be well consider'd1 one would ghess that there were not much greater need of a seminal principle for the production of ,fearn1 then for the production of the branches of ,urine1 or the ,stella martis1 there seeming to be as much form and beauty in the one as in the other4 ,and indeed1 this ,plant of ,fearn1 if all particulars be well consider'd1 will seem of as simple1 and uncompounded a form as any ,vegetable1 next to ,mould or ,mushromes1 and would next after the invention of the forms of those1 deserve to be enquir'd into2 for notwithstanding several have affirm'd it to have seed1 and to be propagated thereby2 yet1 though ,i have made very diligent enquiry after that particular1 ,i cannot find that there is any part of it that can be imagin'd to be more seminal then another3 ,but this onely here by the by3 ,for the freezing ,figures in ,urine1 ,i found it requisite1 ,first1 that the ,superficies be not disturbed with any wind1 or other commotion of the air1 or the like4 ,secondly1 that it be not too long exposed1 so as that the whole bulk be frozen1 for oftentimes1 in such cases1 by reason of the swelling the of ,ice1 or from some other cause1 the curious branched ,figures disappear4 ,thirdly1 an artificial freezing with ,snow and ,salt1 apply'd to the outside of the containing ,vessel1 succeeds not well1 unless there be a very little quantity in the ,vessel4 ,fourthly1 ,if you take any cleer and smooth ,glass1 and wetting all the inside of it with ,urine1 you expose it to a very sharp freezing1 you will find it cover'd with a very regular and curious ,figure4 ,,ii4 ,observables in figur'd ,snow4 ,exposing a piece of black ,cloth1 or a black ,hatt to the falling ,snow1 ,i have often with great pleasure1 observ'd such an infinite variety of curiously figur'd ,snow1 that it would be as impossible to draw the ,figure and shape of every one of them1 as to imitate exactly the curious and ,geometrical ,mechanisme of ,nature in any one4 ,some coorse draughts1 such as the coldness of the weather1 and the ill provisions1 ,i had by me for such a purpose1 would permit me to make1 ,i have here added in the ,second ,figure of the ,eighth ,scheme4#ab ,in all which ,i observ'd1 that if they were of any regular ,figures1 they were always branched out with six principal branches1 all of equal length1 shape and make1 from the center1 being each of them inclin'd to either of the next branches on either side of it1 by an angle of sixty degrees4 ,now1 as all these stems were for the most part in one flake exactly of the same make1 so were they in differing ,figures of very differing ones2 so that in a very little time ,i have observ'd above an hundred several cizes and shapes of these starry flakes4 ,the branches also out of each stem of any one of these flakes1 were exactly alike in the same flake2 so that of whatever ,figure one of the branches were1 the other five were sure to be of the same1 very exactly1 that is1 if the branchings of the one were small ,perallelipipeds or ,plates1 the branchings of the other five were of the same2 and generally1 the branchings were very conformable to the rules and method observ'd before1 in the ,figures on ,urine1 that is1 the branchings from each side of the stems were parallel to the next stem on that side1 and if the stems were plated1 the branches also were the same2 if the stems were very long1 the branches also were so1 c4 ,observing some of these figur'd flakes with a ,microscope1 ,i found them not to appear so curious and exactly figur'd as one would have imagin'd1 but like ,artificial ,figures1 the bigger they were magnify'd1 the more irregularities appear'd in them2 but this irregularity seem'd ascribable to the thawing and breaking of the flake by the fall1 and not at all to the defect of the plastick virtue of ,nature1 whose curiosity in the formation of most of these kind of regular ,figures1 such as those of ,salt1 ,minerals1 c4 appears by the help of the ,microscope1 to be very many degrees smaller then the most acute eye is able to perceive without it4 ,and though one of these six-branched ,stars appear'd here below much of the shape described in the ,third ,figure of the ,eighth ,scheme2 yet ,i am very apt to think1 that could we have a sight of one of them through a ,microscope as they are generated in the ,clouds before their ,figures are vitiated by external accidents1 they would exhibit abundance of curiosity and neatness there also1 though never so much magnify'd3 ,for since ,i have observ'd the ,figures of ,salts and ,minerals to be some of them so exceeding small1 that ,i have scarcely been able to perceive them with the ,microscope1 and yet have they been regular1 and since 7as far as ,i have yet examin'd it7 there seems to be but one and the same cause that produces both these effects1 ,i think it not irrational to suppose that these pretty figur'd ,stars of ,snow1 when at first generated might be also very regular and exact4 ,,iii4 ,several kinds of ,figures in ,water frozen4 ,putting fair ,water into a large capacious ,vessel of ,glass1 and exposing it to the cold1 ,i observ'd after a little time1 several broad1 flat1 and thin lamin1 or plates of ,ice1 crossing the bulk of the water and one another very irregularly1 onely most of them seem'd to turn one of their edges towards that side of the ,glass which was next it1 and seem'd to grow1 as 'twere from the inside of the ,vessel inwards towards the middle1 almost like so many blades of ,fern4 ,having taken several of these plates out of water on the blade of a ,knife1 ,i observ'd them figur'd much after the manner of ,herring bones1 or ,fern blades1 that is1 there was one bigger stem in the middle like the back-bone1 and out of it1 on either side1 were a multitude of small stiri1 or icicles1 like the smaller bones1 or the smaller branches in ,fern1 each of these branches on the one side1 were parallel to all the rest on the same side1 and all of them seem'd to make an angle with the stem1 towards the top1 of sixty degrees1 and towards the bottom or root of this stem1 of #abj4 ,see the fourth ,figure of the #h4 ,plate4 ,i observ'd likewise several very pretty ,varieties of ,figures in ,water1 frozen on the top of a broad flat ,marble-stone1 expos'd to the cold with a little ,water on it1 some like feathers1 some of other shapes1 many of them were very much of the shape exprest in the fifth ,figure of the #h4 ,scheme1 which is extremely differing from any of the other ,figures4 ,i observ'd likewise1 that the shootings of ,ice on the top of ,water1 beginning to freeze1 were in streight prismatical bodies much like those of roch-peter1 that they crost each other usually without any kind of order or rule1 that they were always a little higher then the surface of the ,water that lay between them2 that by degrees those interjacent spaces would be fill'd with ,ice also1 which usually would be as high as the surface of the rest4 ,in flakes of ,ice that had been frozen on the top of ,water to any considerable thickness1 ,i observ'd that both the upper and the under sides of it were curiously quill'd1 furrow'd1 or grain'd1 as it were1 which when the ,sun shone on the ,plate1 was exceeding easily to be perceiv'd to be much after the shape of the lines in the #f4 ,figure of the #h4 ,scheme1 that is1 they consisted of several streight ends of parallel ,plates1 which were of divers lengths and angles to one another without any certain order4 ,the cause of all which regular ,figures 7and of hundreds of others1 namely of ,salts1 ,minerals1 ,metals1 c4 which ,i could have here inserted1 would it not have been too long7 seems to be deducible from the same ,principles1 which ,i have 7in the #ac4 ,observation7 hinted only1 having not yet had time to compleat a ,theory of them4 ,but indeed 7which ,i there also hinted7 ,i judge it the second step by which the ,pyramid of natural knowledge 7which is the knowledge of the form of bodies7 is to be ascended3 ,and whosoever will climb it1 must be well furnish'd with that which the ,noble ,verulam calls ,scalam ,intellectus2 he must have scaling ,ladders1 otherwise the steps are so large and high1 there will be no getting up them1 and consequently little hopes of attaining any higher station1 such as to the knowledge of the most simple principle of ,vegetation manifested in ,mould and ,mushromes1 which1 as ,i elsewhere endeavoured to shew1 seems to be the third step2 for it seems to me1 that the ,intellect of man is like his body1 destitute of wings1 and cannot move from a lower to a higher and more sublime station of knowledg1 otherwise then step by step1 nay even there where the way is prepar'd and already made passible2 as in the ,elements of ,geometry1 or the like1 where it is fain to climb a whole series of ,propositions by degrees1 before it attains the knowledge of one ,probleme4 ,but if the ascent be high1 difficult and above its reach1 it must have recourse to a novum organum1 some new engine and contrivance1 some new kind of ,algebra1 or ,analytick ,art before it can surmount it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xv4 ,of ,kettering-stone1 and of the pores of ,inanimate bodies4 #ac,this ,stone which is brought from ,kettering in ,northampton-,shire1 and digg'd out of a ,quarry1 as ,i am inform'd1 has a grain altogether admirable1 nor have ,i ever seen or heard of any other stone that has the like4 ,it is made up of an innumerable company of small bodies1 not all of the same cize or shape1 but for the most part1 not much differing from a ,globular form1 nor exceed they one another in ,diameter above three or four times2 they appear to the eye1 like the ,cobb or ,ovary of a ,herring1 or some smaller fishes1 but for the most part1 the particles seem somewhat less1 and not so uniform2 but their variation from a perfect globular ball1 seems to be only by the pressure of the contiguous bals which have a little deprest and protruded those toucht sides inward1 and forc'd the other sides as much outwards beyond the limits of a ,globe2 just as it would happen1 if a heap of exactly round ,balls of soft ,clay were heaped upon one another2 or1 as ,i have often seen a heap of small ,globules of ,quicksilver1 reduc'd to that form by rubbing it much in a glaz'd ,vessel1 with some slimy or sluggish liquor1 such as ,spittle1 when though the top of the upper ,globules be very neer spherical1 yet those that are prest upon by others1 exactly imitate the forms of these lately mention'd grains4 ,where these grains touch each other1 they are so firmly united or settled together1 that they seldom part without breaking a hole in one or th'other of them1 such as a1 a1 a1 b1 c1 c1 c4 ,some of which fractions1 as a1 a1 a1 a1 where the touch has been but light1 break no more then the outward crust1 or first shell of the stone1 which is of a white colour1 a little dash'd with a brownish ,yellow1 and is very thin1 like the shell of an ,egg3 and ,i have seen some of those grains perfectly resemble some kind of ,eggs1 both in colour and shape3 ,but where the union of the contiguous granules has been more firm1 there the divulsion has made a greater ,chasm1 as at b1 b1 b1 in so much that ,i have observ'd some of them quite broken in two1 as at c1 c1 c1 which has discovered to me a further resemblance they have to ,eggs1 they having an appearance of a white and yelk1 by two differing substances that envelope and encompass each other4 ,that which we may call the white was pretty whitish neer the yelk1 but more duskie towards the shell2 some of them ,i could plainly perceive to be shot or radiated like a ,pyrites or fire-stone2 the yelk in some ,i saw hollow1 in others fill'd with a duskie brown and porous substance like a kind of pith4 ,the small pores1 or interstitia eeee betwixt the ,globules1 ,i plainly saw1 and found by other trials to be every way pervious to air and water1 for ,i could blow through a piece of this stone of a considerable thickness1 as easily as ,i have blown through a ,cane1 which minded me of the pores which ,des ,cartes allow his materia subtilis between the thereal globules4 ,the object1 through the ,microscope1 appears like a ,congeries or heap of ,pibbles1 such as ,i have often seen cast up on the shore1 by the working of the ,sea after a great storm1 or like 7in shape1 though not colour7 a company of small ,globules of ,quicksilver1 look'd on with a ,microscope1 when reduc'd into that form by the way lately mentioned4 ,and perhaps1 this last may give some hint at the manner of the formation of the former3 ,for supposing some ,lapidescent substance to be generated1 or some way brought 7either by some commixture of bodies in the ,sea it self1 or protruded in1 perhaps1 out of some subterraneous caverns7 to the bottom of the ,sea1 and there remaining in the form of a liquor like ,quicksilver1 heterogeneous to the ambient ,saline fluid1 it may by the working and tumblings of the ,sea to and fro be jumbled and comminuted into such ,globules as may afterwards be hardned into ,flints1 the lying of which one upon another1 when in the ,sea1 being not very hard1 by reason of the weight of the incompassing fluid1 may cause the undermost to be a little1 though not much1 varied from a globular ,figure4 ,but this only by the by4 ,after what manner this ,kettering-stone should be generated ,i cannot learn1 having never been there to view the place1 and observe the circumstances2 but it seems to me from the structure of it to be generated from some substance once more fluid1 and afterwards by degrees growing harder1 almost after the same manner as ,i supposed the generation of ,flints to be made4 ,but whatever were the cause of its curious texture1 we may learn this information from it2 that even in those things which we account vile1 rude1 and coorse1 ,nature has not been wanting to shew abundance of curiosity and excellent ,mechanisme4 ,we may here find a ,stone by help of a ,microscope1 to be made up of abundance of small ,balls1 which do but just touch each other1 and yet there being so many contacts1 they make a firm hard mass1 or a ,stone much harder then ,free-stone4 ,next1 though we can by a ,microscope discern so curious a shape in the particles1 yet to the naked eye there scarce appears any such thing2 which may afford us a good argument to think1 that even in those bodies also1 whose texture we are not able to discern1 though help'd with ,microscopes1 there may be yet latent so curious a ,schematisme1 that it may abundantly satisfie the curious searcher1 who shall be so happy as to find some way to discover it4 ,next1 we here find a ,stone1 though to the naked eye a very close one1 yet every way perforated with innumerable pores1 which are nothing else but the interstitia1 between those multitudes of minute globular particles1 that compose the bulk it self1 and these pores are not only discover'd by the ,microscope1 but by this contrivance4 ,i took a pretty large piece of this stone1 and covering it all over with cement1 save only at two opposite parts1 ,i found my self able1 by blowing in at one end that was left open1 to blow my spittle1 with which ,i had wet the other end1 into abundance of bubbles1 which argued these pores to be open and pervious through the whole stone1 which affords us a very pretty instance of the porousness of some seemingly close bodies1 of which kind ,i shall anon have occasion to subjoyn many more1 tending to prove the same thing4 ,i must not here omit to take notice1 that in this body there is not a vegetative faculty that should so contrive this structure for any peculiar use of ,vegetation or growth1 whereas in the other instances of vegetable porous bodies1 there is an anima or forma informans1 that does contrive all the ,structures and ,mechanisms of the constituting body1 to make them subservient and usefull to the great ,work or ,function they are to perform4 ,and so ,i ghess the pores in ,wood1 and other vegetables1 in bones1 and other ,animal substances1 to be as so many channels1 provided by the ,great and ,alwise ,creator1 for the conveyance of appropriated juyces to particular parts4 ,and therefore1 that this may tend1 or be pervious all towards one part1 and may have impediments1 as valves or the like1 to any other2 but in this body we have very little reason so suspect there should be any such design1 for it is equally pervious every way1 not onely forward1 but backwards1 and side-ways1 and seems indeed much rather to be ,homogeneous or similar to those pores1 which we may with great probability believe to be the channels of pellucid bodies1 not directed1 or more open any one way1 then any other1 being equally pervious every way4 ,and1 according as these pores are more or greater in respect of the interstitial bodies1 the more transparent are the so constituted concretes2 and the smaller those pores are1 the weaker is the ,impulse of light communicated through them1 though the more quick be the progress4 ,upon this ,occasion1 ,i hope it will not be altogether unseasonable1 if ,i propound my conjectures and ,hypothesis about the medium and conveyance of light4 ,i suppose then1 that the greatest part of the ,interstitia of the world1 that lies between the bodies of the ,sun and ,starrs1 and the ,planets1 and the ,earth1 to be an exceeding fluid body1 very apt and ready to be mov'd1 and to communicate the motion of any one part to any other part1 though never so far distant3 ,nor do ,i much concern my self1 to determine what the ,figure of the particles of this exceedingly subtile fluid medium must be1 nor whether it have any interstitiated pores or vacuities1 it being sufficient to solve all the ,phnomena to suppose it an exceedingly fluid1 or the most fluid body in the world1 and as yet impossible to determine the other difficulties4 ,that being so exceeding fluid a body1 it easily gives passage to all other bodies to move to and fro in it4 ,that it neither receives from any of its parts1 or from other bodies2 nor communicates to any of its parts1 or to any other body1 any impulse1 or motion in a direct line1 that is not of a determinate quickness4 ,and that when the motion is of such determinate swiftness1 it both receives1 and communicates1 or propagates an impulse or motion to any imaginable distance in streight lines1 with an unimaginable celerity and vigour4 ,that all kind of solid bodies consist of pretty massie particles in respect of the particles of this fluid medium1 which in many places do so touch each other1 that none of this fluid medium interposes much after the same manner 7to use a gross similitude7 as a heap of great stones compose one great congeries or mass in the midst of the water4 ,that all fluid bodies which we may call tangible1 are nothing but some more subtile parts of those particles1 that serve to constitute all tangible bodies4 ,that the water1 and such other fluid bodies1 are nothing but a congeries of particles agitated or made fluid by it in the same manner as the particles of ,salt are agitated or made fluid by a parcel of water1 in which they are dissolv'd1 and subsiding to the bottom of it1 constitute a fluid body1 much more massie and dense1 and less fluid then the pure water it self4 ,that the air on the other side is a certain company of particles of quite another kind1 that is1 such as are very much smaller1 and more easily moveable by the motion of this fluid medium2 much like those very subtile parts of ,cochenel1 other very deep tinging bodies1 where by a very small parcel of matter is able to tinge and diffuse it self over a very great quantity of the fluid dissolvent2 or somewhat after that manner1 as smoak1 and such like minute bodies1 or steams1 are observ'd to tinge a very great quantity of air2 onely this last similitude is deficient in one propriety1 and that is a perpetuity or continuance in that state of commixture with the air1 but the former does more nearly approach to the nature and manner of the air's being dissolv'd by this fluid or ther4 ,and this ,similitude will further hold in these proprieties2 that as those tinctures may be increased by certain bodies1 so may they be precipitated by others1 as ,i shall afterwards shew it to be very probable1 that the like accidents happen even to the ,air it self4 ,further1 as these solutions and tinctures do alter the nature of these fluid bodies1 as to their aptness to propagate a motion or impulse through them1 even so does the particles of the ,air1 ,water1 and other fluid bodies1 and of ,glass1 ,crystal1 c4 which are commixt with this bulk of the ther alter the motion of the propagated pulse of light2 that is1 where these more bulkie particles are more plentifull1 and consequently a lesser quantity of the ther between them to be mov'd1 there the motion must necessarily be the swifter1 though not so robust1 which will produce those effects1 which ,i have 7,i hope7 with some probability1 ascribed to it in the digression about ,colours1 at the end of the ,observations on ,muscovy-glass4 ,now1 that other ,stones1 and those which have the closest and hardest textures1 and seem 7as far as we are able to discover with our eyes1 though help'd with the best ,microscopes7 freest from pores1 are yet notwithstanding replenish'd with them1 an ,instance or two will1 ,i suppose1 make more probable4 ,a very solid and unflaw'd piece of cleer white ,marble1 if it be well polish'd and glaz'd1 has so curiously smooth a surface1 that the best and most polish'd surface of any wrought-glass1 seems not to the naked eye1 nor through a ,microscope1 to be more smooth1 and less porous4 ,and yet1 that this hard close body is replenish'd with abundance of pores1 ,i think these following ,experiments will sufficiently prove4 ,the first is1 ,that if you take such a piece1 and for a pretty while boyl it in ,turpentine and ,oyl of ,turpentine1 you shall find that the stone will be all imbu'd with it2 and whereas before it look'd more white1 but more opacous1 now it will look more greasie1 but be much more transparent1 and if you let it lie but a little while1 and then break off a part of it1 you shall find the unctuous body to have penetrated it to such a determinate depth every way within the surface4 ,this may be yet easier try'd with a piece of the same ,marble1 a little warm'd in the fire1 and then a little ,pitch or ,tarr melted on the top of it2 for these black bodies1 by their insinuating themselves into the invisible pores of the stone1 ting it with so black a hue1 that there can be no further doubt of the truth of this assertion1 that it abounds with small imperceptible pores4 ,now1 that other bodies will also sink into the pores of ,marble1 besides unctuous1 ,i have try'd1 and found1 that a very ,blue tincture made in spirit of ,urine would very readily and easily sink into it1 as would also several tinctures drawn with spirit of ,wine4 ,nor is ,marble the only seemingly close stone1 which by other kinds of ,experiments may be found porous2 for ,i have by this kind of ,experiment on divers other stones found much the same effect1 and in some1 indeed much more notable4 ,other stones ,i have found so porous1 that with the ,microscope ,i could perceive several small winding holes1 much like ,worm-holes1 as ,i have noted in some kind of ,purbeck-stone1 by looking on the surface of a piece newly flaw'd off1 for if otherwise1 the surface has been long expos'd to the ,air1 or has been scraped with any tool1 those small caverns are fill'd with dust1 and disappear4 ,and to confirm this ,conjecture1 yet further1 ,i shall here insert an excellent account1 given into the ,royal ,society by that ,eminently ,learned ,physician1 ,doctor ,goddard1 of an ,experiment1 not less instructive then curious and accurate1 made by himself on a very hard and seemingly close stone call'd ,oculus ,mundi1 as ,i find it preserv'd in the ,records of that ,honourable ,society4 ,a small stone of the kind1 call'd by some ,authours1 ,oculus ,mundi1 being dry and cloudy1 weigh'd #e ,grains4 ,the same put under water for a night1 and somewhat more1 became transparent1 and the superficies being wiped dry1 weighed #f ,grains4 ,the difference between these two weights1 #j of a ,grain4 ,the same ,stone kept out of water one ,day and becoming cloudy again weighed1 #e ,graines4 ,which was more then the first weight1 #j of a ,grain4 ,the same being kept two ,days longer weighed1 #e ,graines4 ,which was less then at first1 #j a ,grain4 ,being kept dry something longer it did not grow sensibly lighter4 ,being put under water for a night and becoming again transparent and wiped dry1 the weight was1 #f ,grains1 the same with the first after putting in water1 and more then the last weight after keeping of it dry1 #j of a ,grain4 ,another ,stone of the same kind being variegated with milky white and gray like some sorts of ,agates1 while it lay under water1 was alwaies invironed with little ,bubbles1 such as appear in water a little before boyling1 next the sides of the ,vessel4 ,there were also some the like ,bubbles on the ,surface of the water just over it1 as if either some exhalations came out of it1 or that it did excite some fermentation in the parts of the water contiguous to it4 ,there was little sensible difference in the transparency of this ,stone1 before the putting under water1 and after3 ,to be sure the milky-white parts continued as before1 but more difference in weight then in the former4 ,for whereas before the putting into the water the weight was #ah ,graines4 ,after it had lyen in about four and twenty hours the weight was #bj ,graines1 so the difference was1 #a ,graines4 ,the same ,stone was infused in the water scalding hot1 and so continued for a while after it was cold1 but got no more weight then upon infusing in the cold1 neither was there any sensible ,difference in the weight both times4 ,in which ,experiment1 there are three ,observables that seem very manifestly to prove the porousness of these seemingly close bodies3 the first is their acquiring a transparency1 and losing their whiteness after steeping in water1 which will seem the more strongly to argue it1 if what ,i have already said about the making transparent1 or clarifying of some bodies1 as the white powder of beaten ,glass1 and the froth of some glutinous transparent liquor be well consider'd2 for thereby it will seem rational to think that this transparency arises from the insinuation of the water 7which has much the same refraction with such stony particles1 as may be discover'd by ,sand view'd with a ,microscope7 into those pores which were formerly repleat with air 7that has a very differing refraction1 and consequently is very reflective7 which seems to be confirm'd by the second ,observable1 namely1 the increase of weight after keeping1 and decrease upon drying4 ,and thirdly1 seem'd yet more sensibly confirm'd by the multitude of bubbles in the last ,experiment4 ,we find also most ,acid ,salts very readily to dissolve and separate the parts of this body one from another2 which is yet a further ,argument to confirm the porousness of bodies1 and will serve as such1 to shew that even ,glass also has an abundance of pores in it1 since there are several liquors1 that with long staying in a ,glass1 will so ,corrode and eat into it1 as at last1 to make it pervious to the liquor it contain'd1 of which ,i have seen very many ,instances4 ,since therefore we find by other proofs1 that many of those bodies which we think the most solid ones1 and appear so to our sight1 have notwithstanding abundance of those grosser kind of pores1 which will admit several kinds of liquors into them1 why should we not believe that ,glass1 and all other transparent bodies abound with them1 since we have many other arguments1 besides the propagation of light1 which seem to argue for it8 ,and whereas it may be objected1 that the propagation of light is no argument that there are those atomical pores in glass1 since there are ,hypotheses plausible enough to solve those ,phnomena1 by supposing the pulse onely to be communicated through the transparent body4 ,to this ,i answer1 that that ,hypothesis which the industrious ,mersennus has publish'd about the slower motion of the end of a ,ray in a denser medium1 then in a more rare and thin1 seems altogether unsufficient to solve abundance of ,phnomena1 of which this is not the least considerable1 that it is impossible from that supposition1 that any colours should be generated from the refraction of the ,rays2 for since by that ,hypothesis the undulating pulse is always carried perpendicular1 or at right angles with the ,ray or ,line of direction1 it follows1 that the stroke of the pulse of light1 after it has been once or twice refracted 7through a ,prisme1 for example7 must affect the eye with the same kind of stroke as if it had not been refracted at all4 ,nor will it be enough for a ,defendant of that ,hypothesis1 to say1 that perhaps it is because the refractions have made the ,rays more weak1 for if so1 then two refractions in the two parallel sides of a ,quadrangular ,prisme would produce colours1 but we have no such ,phnomena produc'd4 ,there are several ,arguments that ,i could bring to evince that there are in all transparent bodies such atomical pores4 ,and that there is such a fluid body as ,i am arguing for1 which is the medium1 or ,instrument1 by which the pulse of ,light is convey'd from the lucid body to the enlightn'd4 ,but that it being a digression from the ,observations ,i was recording1 about the ,pores of ,kettering-,stone1 it would be too much such1 if ,i should protract it too long2 and therefore ,i shall proceed to the next ,observation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xvi4 ,of ,charcoal1 or burnt ,vegetables4 ,charcoal1 or a ,vegetable burnt black1 affords an object no less pleasant than instructive1 for if you take a small round ,charcoal1 and break it short with your fingers1 you may perceive it to break with a very smooth and sleek surface1 almost like the surface of black sealing ,wax2 this surface1 if it be look'd on with an ordinary ,microscope1 does manifest abundance of those pores which are also visible to the eye in many kinds of ,wood1 rang'd round the pith1 both a in kind of circular order1 and a radiant one4 ,of these there are a multitude in the substance of the ,coal1 every where almost perforating and drilling it from end to end2 by means of which1 be the ,coal never so long1 you may easily blow through it2 and this you may presently find1 by wetting one end of it with ,spittle1 and blowing at the other4 ,but this is not all1 for besides those many great and conspicuous irregular spots or pores1 if a better ,microscope be made use of1 there will appear an infinite company of exceedingly small1 and very regular pores1 so thick and so orderly set1 and so close to one another1 that they leave very little room or space between them to be fill'd with a solid body1 for the apparent interstitia or separating sides of these pores seem so thin in some places1 that the texture of a ,honey-comb cannot be more porous4 ,though this be not every where so1 the intercurrent partitions in some places being very much thicker in proportion to the holes4 ,most of these small pores seem'd to be pretty round1 and were rang'd in rows that radiated from the pith to the bark2 they all of them seem'd to be continued open pores1 running the whole length of the ,stick2 and that they were all perforated1 ,i try'd by breaking off a very thin sliver of the ,coal cross-ways1 and then with my ,microscope1 diligently surveying them against the light1 for by that means ,i was able to see quite through them4 ,these pores were so exceeding small and thick1 that in a line of them1 part of an ,inch long1 ,i found by numbering them no less then #aej4 small pores2 and therefore in a line of them an ,inch long1 must be no less then #bgjj4 pores1 and in a circular area of an ,inch diameter1 must be about #egbecej4 of the like pores2 so that a ,stick of an ,inch ,diameter1 may contain no less then seven hundred and twenty five thousand1 besides #e ,millions of pores1 which would1 ,i doubt not1 seem even incredible1 were not every one left to believe his own eyes4 ,nay1 having since examin'd ,cocus1 black and green ,ebony1 ,lignum ,vit1 c4 ,i found1 that all these ,woods have their pores1 abundantly smaller then those of soft light ,wood2 in so much1 that those of ,guajacum seem'd not above an eighth part of the bigness of the pores of ,beech1 but then the ,interstitia were thicker2 so prodigiously curious are the contrivances1 pipes1 or sluces by which the ,succus nutritius1 or ,juyce of a ,vegetable is convey'd from place to place4 ,this ,observation seems to afford us the true reason of several ,phnomena of ,coals2 as ,first1 why they look black2 and for this we need go no further then the ,scheme1 for certainly1 a body that has so many pores in it as this is discover'd to have1 from each of which no light is reflected1 must necessarily look black1 especially1 when the pores are somewhat bigger in proportion to the intervals then they are cut in the ,scheme1 black being nothing else but a privation of ,light1 or a want of reflection2 and wheresoever this reflecting quality is deficient1 there does that part look black1 whether it be from a porousness of the body1 as in this ,instance1 or in a deadning and dulling quality1 such as ,i have observ'd in the ,scoria of ,lead1 ,tin1 ,silver1 ,copper1 c4 ,next1 we may also as plainly see the reason of its shining quality1 and that is from the even breaking off of the stick1 the solid interstitia having a regular termination or surface1 and having a pretty strong reflecting quality1 the many small reflections become united to the naked eye1 and make a very pretty shining surface4 ,thirdly1 the reason of its hardness and brittleness seems evident1 for since all the watery or liquid substance that moistn'd and toughn'd those ,interstitia of the more solid parts1 are evaporated and remov'd1 that which is left behind becomes of the nature almost of a stone1 which will not at all1 or very little1 bend without a divulsion or solution of its continuity4 ,it is not my design at present1 to examine the use and ,mechanisme of these parts of ,wood1 that being more proper to another ,enquiry2 but rather to hint1 that from this ,experiment we may learn1 ,first1 what is the cause of the blackness of many burnt bodies1 which we may find to be nothing else but this2 that the heat of the fire agitating and rarifying the waterish1 transparent1 and volatile water that is contain'd in them1 by the continuation of that action1 does so totally expel and drive away all that which before fill'd the pores1 and was dispers'd also through the solid mass of it1 and thereby caus'd an universal kind of transparency1 that it not onely leaves all the pores empty1 but all the ,interstitia also so dry and opacous1 and perhaps also yet further perforated1 that that light onely is reflected back which falls upon the very outward edges of the pores1 all they that enter into the pores of the body1 never returning1 but being lost in it4 ,now1 that the ,charring or coaling of a body is nothing else1 may be easily believ'd by one that shall consider the means of its production1 which may be done after this1 or any such manner4 ,the body to be charr'd or coal'd1 may be put into a ,crucible1 ,pot1 or any other ,vessel that will endure to be made red-hot in the fire without breaking1 and then cover'd over with ,sand1 so as no part of it be suffer'd to be open to the ,air1 then set into a good fire1 and there kept till the ,sand has continu'd red hot for a quarter1 half1 an hour or two1 or more1 according to the nature and bigness of the body to be coal'd or charr'd1 then taking it out of the fire1 and letting it stand till it be quite cold1 the body may be taken out of the ,sand well charr'd and cleans'd of its waterish parts2 but in the taking of it out1 care must be had that the ,sand be very neer cold1 for else1 when it comes into the free air1 it will take fire1 and readily burn away4 ,this maybe done also in any close ,vessel of ,glass1 as a ,retort1 or the like1 and the several fluid substances that come over may be receiv'd in a fit ,recipient1 which will yet further countenance this ,hypothesis3 ,and their manner of charring ,wood in great quantity comes much to the same thing1 namely1 an application of a great heat to the body1 and preserving it from the free access of the devouring air2 this may be easily learn'd from the ,history of ,charring of ,coal1 most excellently describ'd and publish'd by that most accomplish'd ,gentleman1 ,mr4 ,john ,evelin1 in the #ajj1 #aja1 #ajc1 pages of his ,sylva1 to which ,i shall therefore refer the curious ,reader that desires a full information of it4 ,next1 we may learn what part of the ,wood it is that is the combustible matter1 for since we shall find that none1 or very little of those fluid substances that are driven over into the ,receiver are combustible1 and that most of that which is left behind is so1 it follows1 that the solid interstitia of the ,wood are the combustible matter4 ,further1 the reason why uncharr'd ,wood burns with a greater flame then that which is charr'd1 is as evident1 because those waterish or volatil parts issuing out of the fired ,wood1 every way1 not onely shatter and open the body1 the better for the fire to enter1 but issuing out in vapours or wind1 they become like so many little olipiles1 or ,bellows1 whereby they blow and agitate the fir'd part1 and conduce to the more speedy and violent consumption or dissolution of the body4 ,thirdly1 from the ,experiment of charring of ,coals 7whereby we see that notwithstanding the great heat1 and the duration of it1 the solid parts of the ,wood remain1 whilest they are preserv'd from the free access of the air undissipated7 we may learn1 that which has not1 that ,i know of1 been publish'd or hinted1 nay1 not so much as thought of1 by any2 and that in short is this4 ,first1 that the ,air in which we live1 move1 and breath1 and which encompasses very many1 and cherishes most bodies it encompasses1 that this ,air is the menstruum1 or universal dissolvent of all ,sulphureous bodies4 ,secondly1 that this action it performs not1 till the body be first sufficiently heated1 as we find requisite also to the dissolution of many other bodies by several other menstruums4 ,thirdly1 that this action of dissolution1 produces or generates a very great heat1 and that which we call ,fire2 and this is common also to many dissolutions of other bodies1 made by menstruums1 of which ,i could give multitudes of ,instances4 ,fourthly1 that this action is perform'd with so great a violence1 and does so minutely act1 and rapidly agitate the smallest parts of the combustible matter1 that it produces in the diaphanous medium of the ,air1 the action or pulse of light1 which what it is1 ,i have else-where already shewn4 ,fifthly1 that the dissolution of sulphureous bodies is made by a substance inherent1 and mixt with the ,air1 that is like1 if not the very same1 with that which is fixt in ,salt-peter1 which by multitudes of ,experiments that may be made with ,salt-peter1 will1 ,i think1 most evidently be demonstrated4 ,sixthly1 that in this dissolution of bodies by the ,air1 a certain part is united and mixt1 or dissolv'd and turn'd into the ,air1 and made to fly up and down with it in the same manner as a metalline or other body dissolved into any menstruums1 does follow the motions and progresses of that menstruum till it be precipitated4 ,seventhly1 ,that as there is one part that is dissoluble by the ,air1 so are there other parts with which the parts of the ,air mixing and uniting1 do make a ,coagulum1 or precipitation1 as one may call it1 which causes it to be separated from the ,air1 but this precipitate is so light1 and in so small and rarify'd or porous clusters1 that it is very volatil1 and is easily carry'd up by the motion of the ,air1 though afterwards1 when the heat and agitation that kept it rarify'd ceases1 it easily condenses1 and commixt with other indissoluble parts1 it sticks and adheres to the next bodies it meets withall2 and this is a certain ,salt that may be extracted out of ,soot4 ,eighthly1 that many indissoluble parts being very apt and prompt to be rarify'd1 and so1 whilest they continue in that heat and agitation1 are lighter then the ,ambient ,air1 are thereby thrust and carry'd upwards with great violence1 and by that means carry along with them1 not onely that ,saline concrete ,i mention'd before1 but many terrestrial1 or indissoluble and irrarefiable parts1 nay1 many parts also which are dissoluble1 but are not suffer'd to stay long enough in a sufficient heat to make them prompt and apt for that action4 ,and therefore we find in ,soot1 not onely a part1 that being continued longer in a competent heat1 will be dissolv'd by the ,air1 or take fire and burn2 but a part also which is fixt1 terrestrial1 and irrarefiable4 ,ninthly1 that as there are these several parts that will rarifie and fly1 or be driven up by the heat1 so are there many others1 that as they are indissoluble by the aerial menstruum1 so are they of such sluggish and gross parts1 that they are not easily rarify'd by heat1 and therefore cannot be rais'd by it2 the volatility or fixtness of a body seeming to consist only in this1 that the one is of a texture1 or has component parts that will be easily rarify'd into the form of ,air1 and the other1 that it has such as will not1 without much ado1 be brought to such a constitution2 and this is that part which remains behind in a white body call'd ,ashes1 which contains a substance1 or ,salt1 which ,chymists call ,alkali3 what the particular natures of each of these bodies are1 ,i shall not here examine1 intending it in another place1 but shall rather add that this ,hypothesis does so exactly agree with all ,phnomena1 of ,fire1 and so genuinely explicate each particular circumstance that ,i have hitherto observ'd1 that it is more then probable1 that this cause which ,i have assign'd is the true adequate1 real1 and onely cause of those ,phnomena2 ,and therefore ,i shall proceed a little further1 to shew the nature and use of the ,air4 ,tenthly1 therefore the dissolving parts of the ,air are but few1 that is1 it seems of the nature of those ,saline menstruums1 or spirits1 that have very much flegme mixt with the spirits1 and therefore a small parcel of it is quickly glutted1 and will dissolve no more2 and therefore unless some fresh part of this menstruum be apply'd to the body to be dissolv'd1 the action ceases1 and the body leaves to be dissolv'd and to shine1 which is the ,indication of it1 though plac'd or kept in the greatest heat2 whereas ,salt-peter is a menstruum1 when melted and red-hot1 that abounds more with those ,dissolvent particles1 and therefore as a small quantity of it will dissolve a great sulphureous body1 so will the dissolution be very quick and violent4 ,therefore in the ,eleventh place1 it is observable1 that1 as in other solutions1 if a copious and quick supply of fresh menstruum1 though but weak1 be poured on1 or applied to the dissoluble body1 it quickly consumes it3 ,so this menstruum of the ,air1 if by ,bellows1 or any other such contrivance1 it be copiously apply'd to the shining body1 is found to dissolve it as soon1 and as violently as the more strong menstruum of melted ,nitre4 ,therefore twelfthly1 it seems reasonable to think that there is no such thing as an ,element of ,fire that should attract or draw up the flame1 or towards which the flame should endeavour to ascend out of a desire or appetite of uniting with that as its ,homogeneal primitive and generating ,element2 but that that shining transient body which we call ,flame1 is nothing else but a mixture of ,air1 and volatil sulphureous parts of dissoluble or combustible bodies1 which are acting upon each other whilst they ascend1 that is1 flame seems to be a mixture of ,air1 and the combustible volatil parts of any body1 which parts the encompassing ,air does dissolve or work upon1 which action1 as it does intend the heat of the aerial parts of the dissolvent1 so does it thereby further rarifie those parts that are acting1 or that are very neer them1 whereby they growing much lighter then the heavie parts of that ,menstruum that are more remote1 are thereby protruded and driven upward2 and this may be easily observ'd also in dissolutions made by any other menstruum1 especially such as either create heat or bubbles4 ,now1 this action of the ,menstruum1 or ,air1 on the dissoluble parts1 is made with such violence1 or is such1 that it imparts such a motion or pulse to the diaphanous parts of the ,air1 as ,i have elsewhere shewn is requisite to produce light4 ,this ,hypothesis ,i have endeavoured to raise from an ,infinite of ,observations and ,experiments1 the process of which would be much too long to be here inserted1 and will perhaps another time afford matter copious enough for a much larger ,discourse1 the ,air being a ,subject which 7though all the world has hitherto liv'd and breath'd in1 and been unconversant about7 has yet been so little truly examin'd or explain'd1 that a diligent enquirer will be able to find but very little information from what has been 7till of late7 written of it3 ,but being once well understood1 it will1 ,i doubt not1 inable a man to render an intelligible1 nay probable1 if not the true reason of all the ,phnomena of ,fire1 which1 as it has been found by ,writers and ,philosophers of all ,ages a matter of no small difficulty1 as may be sufficiently understood by their strange ,hypotheses1 and unintelligible ,solutions of some few ,phnomena of it2 so will it prove a matter of no small concern and use in humane affairs1 as ,i shall elsewhere endeavour to manifest when ,i come to shew the use of the ,air in respiration1 and for the preservation of the life1 nay1 for the conservation and restauration of the health and natural constitution of mankind as well as all other aereal animals1 as also the uses of this principle or propriety of the ,air in chymical1 mechanical1 and other operations4 ,in this place ,i have onely time to hint an ,hypothesis1 which1 if ,god permit me life and opportunity1 ,i may elsewhere prosecute1 improve and publish4 ,in the mean time1 before ,i finish this ,discourse1 ,i must not forget to acquaint the ,reader1 that having had the liberty granted me of making some trials on a piece of ,lignum fossile shewn to the ,royal ,society1 by the eminently ,ingenious and ,learned ,physician1 ,doctor ,ent1 who receiv'd it for a ,present from the famous ,ingenioso ,cavalliero de ,pozzi1 it being one of the fairest and best pieces of ,lignum fossile he had seen2 ,having 7,i say7 taken a small piece of this ,wood1 and examin'd it1 ,i found it to burn in the open ,air almost like other ,wood1 and insteed of a resinous smoak or fume1 it yielded a very bituminous one1 smelling much of that kind of sent3 ,but that which ,i chiefly took notice of1 was1 that cutting off a small piece of it1 about the bigness of my ,thumb1 and charring it in a ,crucible with ,sand1 after the manner ,i above prescrib'd1 ,i found it infinitely to abound with the smaller sort of pores1 so extreamly thick1 and so regularly perforating the substance of it long-ways1 that breaking it off across1 ,i found it to look very like an ,honey-comb2 but as for any of the second1 or bigger kind of pores1 ,i could not find that it had any2 so that it seems1 whatever were the cause of its production1 it was not without those small kind of pores which we have onely hitherto found in ,vegetable bodies3 and comparing them with the pores which ,i have found in the ,charcoals that ,i by this means made of several other kinds of ,wood1 ,i find it resemble none so much as those of ,firr1 to which it is not much unlike in grain also1 and several other proprieties4 ,and therefore1 what ever is by some1 who have written of it1 and particularly by ,francisco ,stelluto1 wrote a ,treatise in ,italian of that ,subject1 which was ,printed at ,rome1 #afcg1 affirm'd that it is a certain kind of ,clay or ,earth1 which in tract of time is turn'd into ,wood2 ,i rather suspect the quite contrary1 that it was at first certain great ,trees of ,fir or ,pine1 which by some ,earthquake1 or other casualty1 came to be buried under the ,earth1 and was there1 after a long time's residence 7according to the several natures of the encompassing adjacent parts7 either rotted and turn'd into a kind of ,clay1 or petrify'd and turn'd into a kind of ,stone1 or else had its pores fill'd with certain ,mineral juices1 which being stay'd in them1 and in tract of time coagulated1 appear'd1 upon cleaving out1 like small ,metalline ,wires1 or else from some flames or scorching forms that are the occasion oftentimes1 and usually accompany ,earthquakes1 might be blasted and turn'd into ,coal1 or else from certain subterraneous fires which are affirm'd by that ,authour to abound much about those parts 7namely1 in a ,province of ,italy1 call'd ,umbria1 now the ,dutchie of ,spoletto1 in the ,territory of ,todi1 anciently call'd ,tudor2 and between the two ,villages of ,collesecco and ,rosaro not far distant from the high-way leading to ,rome1 where it is found in greater quantity then elsewhere7 are by reason of their being encompassed with ,earth1 and so kept close from the dissolving ,air1 charr'd and converted into ,coal4 ,it would be too long a work to describe the several kinds of pores which ,i met withall1 and by this means discovered in several other ,vegetable bodies2 nor is it my present design to expatiate upon ,instances of the same kind1 but rather to give a ,specimen of as many kinds as ,i have had opportunity as yet of observing1 reserving the prosecution and enlarging on particulars till a more fit opportunity2 and in prosecution of this design1 ,i shall here add3 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xvii4 ,of ,petrify'd wood1 and other ,petrify'd bodies4 ,of this sort of substance1 ,i observ'd several pieces of very differing kinds1 both for their outward shape1 colour1 grain1 texture1 hardness1 c4 some being brown and reddish2 others gray1 like a ,hone2 others black1 and ,flint-like3 some soft1 like a ,slate or ,whetstone1 others as hard as a ,flint1 and as brittle4 ,that which ,i more particular examin'd1 was a piece about the bigness of a mans hand1 which seem'd to have been a part of some large tree1 that by rottenness had been broken off from it before it began to be petrify'd4 ,and indeed1 all that ,i have yet seen1 seem to have been rotten ,wood before the petrifaction was begun2 and not long since1 examining and viewing a huge great ,oak1 that seem'd with meer age to be rotten as it stood1 ,i was very much confirm'd in this opinion2 for ,i found1 that the grain1 colour1 and shape of the ,wood1 was exactly like this petrify'd substance2 and with a ,microscope1 ,i found1 that all those ,microscopical pores1 which in sappy or firm and sound ,wood are fill'd with the natural or innate juices of those ,vegetables1 in this they were all empty1 like those of ,vegetables charr'd2 but with this difference1 that they seem'd much larger then ,i have seen any in ,charcoals2 nay1 even then those of ,coals made of great blocks of ,timber1 which are commonly call'd ,old-coals4 ,the reason of which difference may probably be1 that the charring of ,vegetables1 being an operation quickly perform'd1 and whilest the ,wood is sappy1 the more solid parts may more easily shrink together1 and contract the pores or interstitia between them1 then in the rotten ,wood1 where that natural juice seems onely to be wash'd away by adventitious or unnatural moisture2 and so though the natural juice be wasted from between the firm parts1 yet those parts are kept asunder by the adventitious moystures1 and so by degrees settled in those postures4 ,and this ,i likewise found in the petrify'd ,wood1 that the pores were somewhat bigger then those of ,charcoal1 each pore being neer upon half as bigg again1 but they did not bear that disproportion which is exprest in the tenth ,scheme1 between the small specks or pores in the first ,figure 7which representeth the pores of ,coal or ,wood charr'd7 and the black spots of the second ,figure 7which represent the like ,microscopical pores in the petrify'd ,wood7 for these last were drawn by a ,microscope that magnify'd the object above six times more in ,diameter then the ,microscope by which those pores of ,coal were observ'd4 ,now1 though they were a little bigger1 yet did they keep the exact figure and order of the pores of ,coals and of rotten ,wood1 which last also were much of the same cize4 ,the other ,observations on this petrify'd substance1 that a while since1 by the appointment of the ,royal ,society1 ,i made1 and presented to them an account of1 were these that follow1 which had the honour done them by the most accomplish'd ,mr4 ,evelin1 my highly honoured friend1 to be inserted and published among those excellent ,observations wherewith his ,sylva is replenish'd1 and would therefore have been here omitted1 had not the ,figure of them1 as they appear'd through the ,microscope been before that engraven4 ,this ,petrify'd substance resembled ,wood1 in that ,first1 all the parts of it seem'd not at all dislocated1 or alter'd from their natural ,position1 whil'st they were ,wood1 but the whole piece retain'd the exact shape of ,wood1 having many of the conspicuous pores of wood still remaining pores1 and shewing a manifest difference visible enough between the grain of the ,wood and that of the bark1 especially when any side of it was cut smooth and polite2 for then it appear'd to have a very lovely grain1 like that of some curious close ,wood4 ,next 7it resembled ,wood7 in that all the smaller and 7if ,i may so call those which are onely visible with a good magnifying ,glass7 ,microscopical pores of it appear 7both when the substance is cut and polish'd transversly and parallel to the pores of it7 perfectly like the ,microscopical pores of several kinds of ,wood1 especially like and equal to those of several sorts of rotten ,wood which ,i have since observ'd1 retaining both the shape1 position and magnitude of such pores4 ,it was differing from ,wood3 ,first2 in weight1 being to common water as #c to #a4 whereas there are few of our ,english ,woods1 that when very dry are found to be full as heavie as water4 ,secondly1 in hardness1 being very neer as hard as a ,flint2 and in some places of it also resembling the grain of a ,flint3 and1 like it1 it would very readily cut ,glass1 and would not without difficulty1 especially in some parts of it1 be scratch'd by a black hard ,flint3 ,it would also as readily strike fire against a ,steel1 or against a ,flint1 as any common ,flint4 ,thirdly1 in the closeness of it1 for though all the ,microscopical pores of this petrify'd substance were very conspicuous in one position1 yet by altering that position of the polish'd surface to the light1 it was also manifest1 that those pores appear'd darker then the rest of the body1 onely because they were fill'd up with a more duskie substance1 and not because they were hollow4 ,fourthly1 in its incombustibleness1 in that it would not burn in the fire2 nay1 though ,i kept it a good while red-hot in the flame of a ,lamp1 made very intense by the blast of a small ,pipe1 and a large ,charcoal1 yet it seem'd not at all to have diminish'd its extension2 but only ,i found it to have chang'd its colour1 and to appear of a more dark and duskie brown colour2 nor could ,i perceive that those parts which seem'd to have been ,wood at first1 were any thing wasted1 but the parts appear'd as solid and close as before4 ,it was further observable also1 that as it did not consume like ,wood1 so neither did it crack and flie like a ,flint1 or such like hard ,stone1 nor was it long before it appear'd red-hot4 ,fifthly1 in its dissolubleness2 for putting some drops of distill'd ,vinegar upon the ,stone1 ,i found it presently to yield very many ,bubbles1 just like those which may be observ'd in spirit of ,vinegar when it corrodes corals1 though perhaps many of those small ,bubbles might proceed from some small parcels of ,air which were driven out of the pores of this petrify'd substance by the insinuating liquid menstruum4 ,sixthly1 in its rigidness1 and friability1 being not at all flexible but brittle like a ,flint1 insomuch that ,i could with one knock of a ,hammer break off a piece of it1 and with a few more1 reduce that into a pretty fine powder4 ,seventhly1 it seem'd also very differing from ,wood to the touch1 feeling more cold then ,wood usually does1 and much like other close stones and ,minerals4 ,the ,reasons of all which ,phnomena seem to be1 ,that petrify'd ,wood having lain in some place where it was well soak'd with petrifying water 7that is1 such a water as is well impregnated with stony and earthy particles7 did by degrees separate1 either by straining and filtration1 or perhaps1 by precipitation1 cohesion or coagulation1 abundance of stony particles from the permeating water1 which stony particles1 being by means of the fluid vehicle convey'd1 not onely into the ,microscopical pores1 and so perfectly stopping them up1 but also into the pores or interstitia1 which may1 perhaps1 be even in the texture or ,schematisme of that part of the ,wood1 which1 through the ,microscope1 appears most solid1 do thereby so augment the weight of the ,wood1 as to make it above three times heavier then water1 and perhaps1 six times as heavie as it was when ,wood4 ,next1 they thereby so lock up and fetter the parts of the ,wood1 that the fire cannot easily make them flie away1 but the action of the fire upon them is onely able to ,char those parts1 as it were1 like a piece of ,wood1 if it be clos'd very fast up in ,clay1 and kept a good while red-hot in the fire1 will by the heat of the fire be charr'd and not consum'd1 which may1 perhaps1 also be somewhat of the cause1 why the petrify'd substance appear'd of a dark brown colour after it had been burnt4 ,by this intrusion of the petrifying particles1 this substance also becomes hard and friable2 for the smaller pores of the ,wood being perfectly wedg'd1 and stuft up with those stony particles1 the small parts of the ,wood have no places or pores into which they may slide upon bending1 and consequently little or no flexion or yielding at all can be caus'd in such a substance4 ,the remaining particles likewise of the ,wood among the stony particles1 may keep them from cracking and flying when put into the fire1 as they are very apt to do in a ,flint4 ,nor is ,wood the onely substance that may by this kind of transmutation be chang'd into stone2 for ,i my self have seen and examin'd very many kinds of substances1 and among very credible ,authours1 we may meet with ,histories of such ,metamorphoses wrought almost on all kind of substances1 both ,vegetable and ,animal1 which ,histories1 it is not my business at present1 either to relate1 or epitomise1 but only to set down some ,observation ,i lately made on several kind of petrify'd ,shels1 found about ,keinsham1 which lies within four or five miles of ,bristol1 which are commonly call'd ,serpentine-stones4 ,examining several of these very curiously figur'd bodies 7which are commonly thought to be ,stones form'd by some extraordinary ,plastick virtue latent in the ,earth it self7 ,i took notice of these particulars3 ,first1 that these figured bodies1 or stones1 were of very differing substances1 as to hardness3 some of ,clay1 some ,marle1 some soft ,stone1 almost of the hardness of those soft stones which ,masons call ,fire-stone1 others as hard as ,portland stone1 others as hard as ,marble1 and some as hard as a ,flint or ,crystal4 ,next1 they were of very differing substances as to transparency and colour2 some white1 some almost black1 some brown1 some ,metalline1 or like ,marchasites2 some transparent like white ,marble1 others like flaw'd ,crystal1 some gray1 some of divers colours2 some radiated like those long petrify'd drops1 which are commonly found at the ,peak1 and in other subterraneous caverns1 which have a kind of pith in the middle4 ,thirdly1 that they were very different as to the manner of their outward figuration2 for some of them seem'd to have been the substance that had fill'd the ,shell of some kind of ,shel-fish2 others1 to have been the substance that had contain'd or enwrapp'd one of those ,shels1 on both which1 the perfect impression either of the inside or outside of such ,shells seem'd to be left1 but for the most part1 those impressions seem'd to be made by an imperfect or broken ,shell1 the great end or mouth of the ,shell being always wanting1 and oftentimes the little end1 and sometimes half1 and in some there were impressions1 just as if there had been holes broken in the figurating1 imprinting or moulding ,shell2 some of them seem'd to be made by such a ,shell very much brused or flaw'd1 insomuch that one would verily have thought that very figur'd stone had been broken or brused whilst a gelly1 as 'twere1 and so hardned1 but within in the grain of the stone1 there appear'd not the least sign of any such bruse or breaking1 but onely on the very uttermost superficies4 ,fourthly1 they were very different1 as to their outward covering1 some having the perfect ,shell1 both in figure1 colour1 and substance1 sticking on upon its surface1 and adhering to it1 but might very easily be separated from it1 and like other common ,cockle or ,scolop-shels1 which some of them most accurately resembled1 were very dissoluble in common ,vinegar1 others of them1 especially those ,serpentine1 or ,helical stones were cover'd or retained the shining or ,pearl-colour'd substance of the inside of a ,shel1 which substance1 on some parts of them1 was exceeding thin1 and might very easily be rubbed off2 on other parts it was pretty thick1 and retained a white coat1 or flaky substance on the top1 just like the outsides of such ,shells2 some of them had very large pieces of the ,shell very plainly sticking on to them1 which were easily to be broken or flaked off by degrees3 they likewise1 some of them retain'd all along the surface of them very pretty kind of sutures1 such as are observ'd in the skulls of several kinds of living creatures1 which sutures were most curiously shap'd in the manner of leaves1 and every one of them in the same ,shell1 exactly one like another1 which ,i was able to discover plainly enough with my naked eye1 but more perfectly and distinctly with my ,microscope2 all these sutures1 by breaking some of these stones1 ,i found to be the termini1 or boundings of certain diaphragms1 or partitions1 which seem'd to divide the cavity of the ,shell into a multitude of very proportionate and regular cells or caverns1 these ,diaphragms1 in many of them1 ,i found very perfect and compleat1 of a very distinct substance from that which fill'd the cavities1 and exactly of the same kind with that which covered the outside1 being for the most part whitish1 or mother of pearl colour'd4 ,as for the cavities between those ,diaphragms1 ,i found some of them fill'd with ,marle1 and others with several kinds of stones1 others1 for the most part hollow1 onely the whole cavity was usually covered over with a kind of tartareous petrify'd substance1 which stuck about the sides1 and was there shot into very curious regular ,figures1 just as ,tartar1 or other dissolv'd ,salts are observ'd to stick and crystallize about the sides of the containing ,vessels2 or like those little ,diamants which ,i before observed to have covered the vaulted cavity of a ,flint2 others had these cavities all lin'd with a kind of metalline or marchasite-like substance1 which with a ,microscope ,i could as plainly see most curiously and regularly figured1 as ,i had done those in a ,flint4 ,from all which1 and several other particulars which ,i observ'd1 ,i cannot but think1 that all these1 and most other kinds of stony bodies which are found thus strangely figured1 do owe their formation and figuration1 not to any kind of ,plastick virtue inherent in the earth1 but to the ,shells of certain ,shel-fishes1 which1 either by some ,deluge1 ,inundation1 ,earthquake1 or some such other means1 came to be thrown to that place1 and there to be fill'd with some kind of ,mudd or ,clay1 or petrifying ,water1 or some other substance1 which in tract of time has been settled together and hardned in those shelly moulds into those shaped substances we now find them2 that the great and thin end of these ,shells by that ,earthquake1 or what ever other extraordinary cause it was that brought them thither1 was broken off2 and that many others were otherwise broken1 bruised and disfigured2 that these ,shells which are thus spirallied and separated with ,diaphragmes1 were some kind of ,nautili or ,porcelane shells2 and that others were shells of ,cockles1 ,muscles1 ,periwincles1 ,scolops1 c4 of various sorts2 that these ,shells in many1 from the particular nature of the containing or enclos'd ,earth1 or some other cause1 have in tract of time rotted and mouldred away1 and onely left their impressions1 both on the containing and contained substances2 and so left them pretty loose one within another1 so that they may be easily separated by a knock or two of a ,hammer4 ,that others of these ,shells1 according to the nature of the substances adjacent to them1 have1 by a long continuance in that posture1 been petrify'd and turn'd into the nature of stone1 just as ,i even now observ'd several sorts of ,wood to be4 ,that oftentimes the ,shell may be found with one kind of substance within1 and quite another without2 having1 perhaps1 been fill'd in one place1 and afterwards translated to another1 which ,i have very frequently observ'd in ,cockle1 ,muscle1 ,periwincle1 and other shells1 which ,i have found by the ,sea side4 ,nay1 further1 that some parts of the same ,shell may be fill'd in one place1 and some other caverns in another1 and others in a third1 or a fourth1 or a fifth place1 for so many differing substances have ,i found in one of these petrify'd ,shells1 and perhaps all these differing from the encompassing earth or stone2 the means how all which varieties may be caus'd1 ,i think1 will not be difficult to conceive1 to any one that has taken notice of those ,shells1 which are commonly found on the ,sea shore3 ,and he that shall throughly examine several kinds of such curiously form'd stones1 will 7,i am very apt to think7 find reason to suppose their generation or formation to be ascribable to some such accidents as ,i have mention'd1 and not to any ,plastick virtue3 ,for it seems to me quite contrary to the infinite prudence of ,nature1 which is observable in all its works and productions1 to design every thing to a determinate end1 and for the attaining of that end1 makes use of such ways as are 7as farr as the knowledge of man has yet been able to reach7 altogether consonant1 and most agreeable to man's reason1 and of no way or means that does contradict1 or is contrary to humane ,ratiocination2 whence it has a long time been a general observation and maxime1 that ,nature does nothing in vain2 ,it seems1 ,i say1 contrary to that great ,wisdom of ,nature1 that these prettily shap'd bodies should have all those curious ,figures and contrivances 7which many of them are adorn'd and contriv'd with7 generated or wrought by a ,plastick virtue1 for no higher end1 then onely to exhibite such a form2 which he that shall throughly consider all the circumstances of such kind of ,figur'd bodies1 will1 ,i think1 have great reason to believe1 though1 ,i confess1 one cannot presently be able to find out what ,nature's designs are4 ,it were therefore very desirable1 that a good collection of such kind of figur'd stones were collected2 and as many particulars1 circumstances1 and informations collected with them as could be obtained1 that from such a ,history of ,observations well rang'd1 examin'd and digested1 the true original or production of all those kinds of stones might be perfectly and surely known2 such as are ,thunder-stones1 ,lapides ,stellares1 ,lapides ,judaici1 and multitudes of other1 whereof mention is made in ,aldonandus1 ,wormius1 and other ,writers of ,minerals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xviii4 ,of the ,schematisme or ,texture of ,cork1 and of the ,cells and ,pores of some other such frothy ,bodies4 ,i took a good clear piece of ,cork1 and with a ,pen-knife sharpen'd as keen as a ,razor1 ,i cut a piece of it off1 and thereby left the surface of it exceeding smooth1 then examining it very diligently with a ,microscope1 me thought ,i could perceive it to appear a little porous2 but ,i could not so plainly distinguish them1 as to be sure that they were pores1 much less what ,figure they were of3 ,but judging from the lightness and yielding quality of the ,cork1 that certainly the texture could not be so curious1 but that possibly1 if ,i could use some further diligence1 ,i might find it to be discernable with a ,microscope1 ,i with the same sharp ,penknife1 cut off from the former smooth surface an exceeding thin piece of it1 and placing it on a black object ,plate1 because it was it self a white body1 and casting the light on it with a deep plano convex ,glass1 ,i could exceeding plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous1 much like a ,honey-comb1 but that the pores of it were not regular2 yet it was not unlike a ,honey-comb in these particulars4 ,first1 in that it had a very little solid substance1 in comparison of the empty cavity that was contain'd between1 as does more manifestly appear by the ,figure ,a and ,b of the ,,xi4 ,scheme1 for the ,interstitia1 or walls 7as ,i may so call them7 or partitions of those pores were neer as thin in proportion to their pores1 as those thin films of ,wax in a ,honey-comb 7which enclose and constitute the sexangular celts7 are to theirs4 ,next1 in that these pores1 or cells1 were not very deep1 but consisted of a great many little ,boxes1 separated out of one continued long pore1 by certain ,diaphragms1 as is visible by the ,figure ,b1 which represents a sight of those pores split the long-ways4 ,i no sooner discern'd these 7which were indeed the first microscopical pores ,i ever saw1 and perhaps1 that were ever seen1 for ,i had not met with any ,writer or ,person1 that had made any mention of them before this7 but me thought ,i had with the discovery of them1 presently hinted to me the true and intelligible reason of all the ,phnomena of ,cork2 ,as1 ,first1 if ,i enquir'd why it was so exceeding light a body8 my ,microscope could presently inform me that here was the same reason evident that there is found for the lightness of froth1 an empty ,honey-comb1 ,wool1 a ,spunge1 a ,pumice-stone1 or the like2 namely1 a very small quantity of a solid body1 extended into exceeding large dimensions4 ,next1 it seem'd nothing more difficult to give an intelligible reason1 why ,cork is a body so very unapt to suck and drink in ,water1 and consequently preserves it self1 floating on the top of ,water1 though left on it never so long3 and why it is able to stop and hold air in a ,bottle1 though it be there very much condens'd and consequently presses very strongly to get a passage out1 without suffering the least bubble to pass through its substance4 ,for1 as to the first1 since our ,microscope informs us that the substance of ,cork is altogether fill'd with ,air1 and that that ,air is perfectly enclosed in little ,boxes or ,cells distinct from one another4 ,it seems very plain1 why neither the ,water1 nor any other ,air can easily insinuate it self into them1 since there is already within them an intus existens1 and consequently1 why the pieces of ,cork become so good floats for ,nets1 and stopples for ,viols1 or other close ,vessels4 ,and thirdly1 if we enquire why ,cork has such a springiness and swelling nature when compress'd8 and how it comes to suffer so great a compression1 or seeming penetration of dimensions1 so as to be made a substance as heavie again and more1 bulk for bulk1 as it was before compression1 and yet suffer'd to return1 is found to extend it self again into the same space8 ,our ,microscope will easily inform us1 that the whole mass consists of an infinite company of small ,boxes or ,bladders of ,air1 which is a substance of a springy nature1 and that will suffer a considerable condensation 7as ,i have several times found by divers trials1 by which ,i have most evidently condens'd it into less then a twentieth part of its usual dimensions neer the ,earth1 and that with no other strength then that of my hands without any kind of forcing ,engine1 such as ,racks1 ,leavers1 ,wheels1 ,pullies1 or the like1 but this onely by and by7 and besides1 it seems very probable that those very films or sides of the pores1 have in them a springing quality1 as almost all other kind of ,vegetable substances have1 so as to help to restore themselves to their former position4 ,and could we so easily and certainly discover the ,schematisme and ,texture even of these films1 and of several other bodies1 as we can these of ,cork2 there seems no probable reason to the contrary1 but that we might as readily render the true reason of all their ,phnomena2 as namely1 what were the cause of the springiness1 and toughness of some1 both as to their flexibility and restitution4 ,what1 of the friability or brittleness of some others1 and the like2 but till such time as our ,microscope1 or some other means1 enable us to discover the true ,schematism and ,texture of all kinds of bodies1 we must grope1 as it were1 in the dark1 and onely ghess at the true reasons of things by similitudes and comparisons4 ,but1 to return to our ,observation4 ,i told several lines of these pores1 and found that there were usually about threescore of these small ,cells placed end-ways in the eighteenth part of an ,inch in length1 whence ,i concluded there must be neer eleven hundred of them1 or somewhat more then a thousand in the length of an ,inch1 and therefore in a square ,inch above a ,million1 or #aaffdjj4 and in a ,cubick ,inch1 above twelve hundred ,millions1 or #abeigabjjj4 a thing almost incredible1 did not our ,microscope assure us of it by ocular demonstration2 nay1 did it not discover to us the pores of a body1 which were they diaphragm'd1 like those of ,cork1 would afford us in one ,cubick ,inch1 more then ten times as many little ,cells1 as is evident in several charr'd ,vegetables2 so prodigiously curious are the works of ,nature1 that even these conspicuous pores of bodies1 which seem to be the channels or pipes through which the ,succus nutritius1 or natural juices of ,vegetables are convey'd1 and seem to correspond to the veins1 arteries and other ,vessels in sensible creatures1 that these pores ,i say1 which seem to be the ,vessels of nutrition to the vastest body in the ,world1 are yet so exceeding small1 that the ,atoms which ,epicurus fancy'd would go neer to prove too bigg to enter them1 much more to constitute a fluid body in them4 ,and how infinitely smaller then must be the ,vessels of a ,mite1 or the pores of one of those little ,vegetables ,i have discovered to grow on the back side of a ,rose-leaf1 and shall anon more fully describe1 whose bulk is many millions of times less then the bulk of the small shrub it grows on2 and even that shrub1 many millions of times less in bulk then several trees 7that have heretofore grown in ,england1 and are this day flourishing in other hotter ,climates1 as we are very credibly inform'd7 if at least the pores of this small ,vegetable should keep any such proportion to the body of it1 as we have found these pores of other ,vegetables to do to their bulk4 ,but of these pores ,i have said more elsewhere4 ,to proceed then1 ,cork seems to be by the transverse constitution of the pores1 a kind of ,fungus or ,mushrome1 for the pores lie like so many ,rays tending from the center1 or pith of the tree1 outwards2 so that if you cut off a piece from a board of ,cork transversly1 to the flat of it1 you will1 as it were1 split the pores1 and they will appear just as they are express'd in the ,figure ,b of the ,,xi4 ,scheme4 ,but if you shave off a very thin piece from this board1 parallel to the plain of it1 you will cut all the pores transversly1 and they will appear almost as they are express'd in the ,figure ,a1 save onely the solid ,interstitia will not appear so thick as they are there represented4 ,so that ,cork seems to suck its nourishment from the subjacent bark of the ,tree immediately1 and to be a kind of excrescence1 or a substance distinct from the substances of the entire ,tree1 something analogus to the ,mushrome1 or ,moss on other ,trees1 or to the hairs on ,animals4 ,and having enquir'd into the ,history of ,cork1 ,i find it reckoned as an excrescency of the bark of a certain ,tree1 which is distinct from the two barks that lie within it1 which are common also to other trees2 ,that 'tis some time before the ,cork that covers the young and tender sprouts comes to be discernable2 ,that it cracks1 flaws1 and cleaves into many great chaps1 the bark underneath remaining entire2 ,that it may be separated and remov'd from the ,tree1 and yet the two under-barks 7such as are also common to that with other ,trees7 not at all injur'd1 but rather helped and freed from an external injury4 ,thus ,jonstonus in ,dendrologia1 speaking de ,subere1 says1 ,arbor est procera1 ,lignum est robustum1 dempto cortice in aquis non fluitat1 ,cortice in orbem detracto juvatur1 crascescens enim prstringit strangulat1 intra triennium iterum repletur3 ,caudex ubi adolescit crassus1 cortex superior densus carnosus1 duos digitos crassus1 scaber1 rimosus1 qui nisi detrahatur dehiscit1 alioque subnascente expellitur1 interior qui subest novellus ita rubet ut arbor minio picta videatur4 ,which ,histories1 if well consider'd1 and the tree1 substance1 and manner of growing1 if well examin'd1 would1 ,i am very apt to believe1 much confirm this my conjecture about the origination of ,cork4 ,nor is this kind of ,texture peculiar to ,cork onely2 for upon examination with my ,microscope1 ,i have found that the pith of an ,elder1 or almost any other ,tree1 the inner pulp or pith of the ,cany hollow stalks of several other ,vegetables3 as of ,fennel1 ,carrets1 ,daucus1 ,bur-docks1 ,teasels1 ,fearn1 some kinds of ,reeds1 c4 have much such a kind of ,schematisme1 as ,i have lately shewn that of ,cork1 save onely that here the pores are rang'd the long-ways1 or the same ways with the length of the ,cane1 whereas in ,cork they are transverse4 ,the pith also that fills that part of the stalk of a ,feather that is above the ,quil1 has much such a kind of texture1 save onely that which way soever ,i set this light substance1 the pores seem'd to be cut transversly2 so that ,i ghess this pith which fills the ,feather1 not to consist of abundance of long pores separated with ,diaphragms1 as ,cork does1 but to be a kind of solid or hardned froth1 or a congeries of very small bubbles consolidated in that form1 into a pretty stiff as well as tough concrete1 and that each ,cavern1 ,bubble1 or ,cell1 is distinctly separate from any of the rest1 without any kind of hole in the encompassing films1 so that ,i could no more blow through a piece of this kinde of substance1 then ,i could through a piece of ,cork1 or the sound pith of an ,elder4 ,but though ,i could not with my ,microscope1 nor with my breath1 nor any other way ,i have yet try'd1 discover a passage out of one of those cavities into another1 yet ,i cannot thence conclude1 that therefore there are none such1 by which the ,succus nutritius1 or appropriate juices of ,vegetables1 may pass through them2 for1 in several of those ,vegetables1 whil'st green1 ,i have with my ,microscope1 plainly enough discover'd these ,cells or ,poles fill'd with juices1 and by degrees sweating them out2 as ,i have also observed in green ,wood all those long ,microscopical pores which appear in ,charcoal perfectly empty of any thing but ,air4 ,now1 though ,i have with great diligence endeavoured to find whether there be any such thing in those ,microscopical pores of ,wood or ,piths1 as the ,valves in the heart1 veins1 and other passages of ,animals1 that open and give passage to the contain'd fluid juices one way1 and shut themselves1 and impede the passage of such liquors back again1 yet have ,i not hitherto been able to say any thing positive in it2 though1 me thinks1 it seems very probable1 that ,nature has in these passages1 as well as in those of ,animal bodies1 very many appropriated ,instruments and contrivances1 whereby to bring her designs and end to pass1 which 'tis not improbable1 but that some diligent ,observer1 if help'd with better ,microscopes1 may in time detect4 ,and that this may be so1 seems with great probability to be argued from the strange ,phnomena of sensitive ,plants1 wherein ,nature seems to perform several ,animal actions with the same ,schematism or ,orginization that is common to all ,vegetables1 as may appear by some no less instructive then curious ,observations that were made by divers ,eminent ,members of the ,royal ,society on some of these kind of ,plants1 whereof an account was delivered in to them by the most ,ingenious and ,excellent ,physician1 ,doctor ,clark1 which1 having that liberty granted me by that most ,illustrious ,society1 ,i have hereunto adjoyn'd4 ,observations on the ,humble and ,sensible ,plants in ,m ,chiffin's ,garden in ,saint ,james's ,park1 made ,august the #ith1 #affa4 ,present1 the ,lord ,brouncker1 ,sr4 ,robert ,moray1 ,dr4 ,wilkins1 ,mr4 ,evelin1 ,dr4 ,henshaw1 and ,dr4 ,clark4 ,there are four ,plants1 two of which are little shrub ,plants1 with a little short stock1 about an ,inch above the ground1 from whence are spread several sticky branches1 round1 streight1 and smooth in the distances between the ,sprouts1 but just under the ,sprouts there are two sharp thorny prickles1 broad in the letting on1 as in the ,bramble1 one just under the ,sprout1 the other on the opposite side of the branch4 #ad,the distances betwixt the ,sprouts are usually something more then an ,inch1 and many upon a ,branch1 according to its length1 and they grew so1 that if the lower ,sprout be on the left side of the ,branch1 the next above is on the right1 and so to the end1 not sprouting by pairs4 ,at the end of each ,sprout are generally four sprigs1 two at the ,extremity1 and one on each side1 just under it4 ,at the first sprouting of these from the ,branch to the ,sprig where the leaves grow1 they are full of little short white hairs1 which wear off as the leaves grow1 and then they are smooth as the ,branch4 ,upon each of these sprigs1 are1 for the most part1 eleven pair of leaves1 neatly set into the uppermost part of the little sprig1 exactly one against another1 as it were in little articulations1 such as ,anatomists call ,enarthrosis1 where the round head of a ,bone is received into another fitted for its motion2 and standing very fitly to shut themselves and touch1 the pairs just above them closing somewhat upon them1 as in the shut sprig2 so is the little round ,pedunculus of this leaf fitted into a little cavity of the sprig1 visible to the eye in a sprig new pluck'd1 or in a sprig withered on the ,branch1 from which the leaves easily fall by touching4 ,the leaf being almost an oblong square1 and set into the ,pedunculus1 at one of the lower corners1 receiveth from that not onely a ,spine1 as ,i may call it1 which1 passing through the leaf1 divides it so length-ways that the outer-side is broader then the inner next the sprig1 but little fibres passing obliquely towards the opposite broader side1 seem to make it here a little muscular1 and fitted to move the whole leaf1 which1 together with the whole sprig1 are set full with little short whitish hairs4 ,one of these ,plants1 whose branch seem'd to be older and more grown then the other1 onely the tender ,sprouts of it1 after the leaves are shut1 fall and hang down2 of the other1 the whole branches fall to the ground1 if the ,sun shine very warm1 upon the first taking off the ,glass1 which ,i therefore call the humble ,plant4 ,the other two1 which do never fall1 nor do any of their branches flag and hang down1 shut not their leaves1 but upon somewhat a hard stroke2 the stalks seem to grow up from a root1 and appear more herbaceous1 they are round and smooth1 without any prickle1 the ,sprouts from them have several pairs of sprigs1 with much less leaves then the other on them1 and have on each sprig generally seventeen pair4 ,upon touching any of the sprigs with leaves on1 all the leaves on that sprig contracting themselves by pairs1 joyned their upper superficies close together4 ,upon the dropping a drop of ,aqua fortis on the sprig betwixt the leaves1 ff all the leaves above shut presently1 those below by pairs successively after1 and by the lower leaves of the other branches1 ll1 kk1 c4 and so every pair successively1 with some little distance of time betwixt1 to the top of each sprig1 and so they continu'd shut all the time we were there4 ,but ,i returning the next day1 and several days since1 found all the leaves dilated again on two of the sprigs2 but from ff1 where the ,aqua fortis had dropped upwards1 dead and withered2 but those below on the same sprig1 green1 and closing upon the touch1 and are so to this day1 ,august #ad4 ,with a pair of ,scissers1 as suddenly as it could be done1 one of the leaves bb was clipped off in the middle1 upon which that pair1 and the pair above1 closed presently1 after a little interval1 dd1 then ee1 and so the rest of the pairs1 to the bottom of the sprig1 and then the motion began in the lower pairs1 ll1 on the other sprigs1 and so shut them by pairs upwards1 though not with such distinct distances4 ,under a pretty large branch with its sprigs on1 there lying a large ,shell betwixt two and three ,inches below it1 there was rubbed on a strong scented oyl1 after a little time all the leaves on that sprig were shut1 and so they continued all the time of our stay there1 but at my returne the next day1 ,i found the position of the ,shell alter'd1 and the leaves expanded as before1 and closing upon the touch4 ,upon the application of the ,sun-beams by a ,burning-glass1 the more humble ,plant fell1 the other shut their leaves4 ,we could not so apply the smoak of ,sulpher1 as to have any visible effect from that1 at two or three times trial2 but on another trial1 the smoak touching the leaves1 it succeeded4 ,the humble ,plant fell upon taking off the ,glass wherewith it was covered4 ,cutting off one of the little ,sprouts1 two or three drops of liquor were thrust out of the part from whence that was cut1 very cleer1 and pellucid1 of a bright greenish colour1 tasting at first a little bitterish1 but after leaving a licorish-like taste in my mouth4 ,since1 going two or three times when it was cold1 ,i took the ,glasses from the more humble ,plant1 and it did not fall as formerly1 but shut its leaves onely4 ,but coming afterwards1 when the ,sun shone very warm1 as soon as it was taken off1 it fell as before4 ,since ,i pluck'd off another sprig1 whose leaves were all shut1 and had been so some time1 thinking to observe the liquor should come from that ,i had broken off1 but finding none1 though with pressing1 to come1 ,i1 as dexterously as ,i could1 pull'd off one whose leaves were expanded1 and then had upon the shutting of the leaves1 a little of the mention'd liquor1 from the end of the sprig ,i had broken from the ,plant4 ,and this twice successively1 as often almost as ,i durst rob the ,plant4 ,but my curiosity carrying me yet further1 ,i cut off one of the harder branches of the stronger ,plant1 and there came of the liquor1 both from that ,i had cut1 and that ,i had cut it from1 without pressure4 ,which made me think1 that the motion of this ,plant upon touching1 might be from this1 that there being a constant intercourse betwixt every part of this ,plant and its root1 either by a circulation of this liquor1 or a constant pressing of the subtiler parts of it to every extremity of the ,plant4 ,upon every pressure1 from whatsoever it proceeds1 greater then that which keeps it up1 the subtile parts of this liquor are thrust downwards1 towards its articulations of the leaves1 where1 not having room presently to get into the sprig1 the little round pedunculus1 from whence the ,spine and those oblique ,fibres ,i mentioned rise1 being dilated1 the ,spine and ,fibres 7being continued from it7 must be contracted and shortned1 and so draw the leaf upwards to joyn with its fellow in the same condition with it self1 where1 being closed1 they are held together by the implications of the little whitish hair1 as well as by the still retreating liquor1 which distending the ,fibres that are continued lower to the branch and root1 shorten them above2 and when the liquor is so much forced from the ,sprout1 whose ,fibres are yet tender1 and not able to support themselves1 but by that tensness which the liquor filling their interstices gives them1 the ,sprout hangs and flags4 ,but1 perhaps1 he that had the ability and leisure to give you the exact ,anatomy of this pretty ,plant1 to shew you its ,fibres1 and visible ,canales1 through which this fine liquor circulateth1 or is moved1 and had the faculty of better and more copiously expressing his ,observations and conceptions1 such a one would easily from the motion of this liquor1 solve all the ,phnomena1 and would not fear to affirm1 that it is no obscure sensation this ,plant hath4 ,but ,i have said too much1 ,i humbly submit1 and am ready to stand corrected4 ,i have not yet made so full and satisfactory ,observations as ,i desire on this ,plant1 which seems to be a ,subject that will afford abundance of information4 ,but as farr as ,i have had opportunity to examine it1 ,i have discovered with my ,microscope very curious structures and contrivances2 but designing much more accurate examinations and trials1 both with my ,microscope1 and otherwise1 as soon as the season will permit1 ,i shall not till then add any thing of what ,i have already taken notice of2 but as farr as ,i have yet observ'd1 ,i judge the motion of it to proceed from causes very differing from those by which ,gut-strings1 or ,lute-strings1 the beard of a wilde ,oat1 or the beard of the ,seeds of ,geranium1 ,moscatum1 or ,musk-grass and other kinds of ,cranes-bill1 move themselves4 ,of which ,i shall add more in the subsequent ,observations on those bodies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xix4 ,of a ,plant growing in the blighted or yellow specks of ,damask-rose-leaves1 ,bramble-leaves1 and some other kind of leaves4 ,i have for several years together1 in the ,moneths of ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september 7when any of the green leaves of ,roses begin to dry and grow yellow7 observ'd many of them1 especially the leaves of the old shrubs of ,damask ,roses1 all bespecked with yellow stains2 and the undersides just against them1 to have little yellow hillocks of a gummous substance1 and several of them to have small black spots in the midst of those yellow ones1 which1 to the naked eye1 appear'd no bigger then the point of a ,pin1 or the smallest black spot or tittle of ,ink one is able to make with a very sharp pointed ,pen4 ,examining these with a ,microscope1 ,i was able plainly to distinguish1 up and down the surface1 several small yellow knobs1 of a kind of yellowish red gummy substance1 out of which ,i perceiv'd there sprung multitudes of little cases or black bodies like ,seed-cods1 and those of them that were quite without the hillock of ,gumm1 disclos'd themselves to grow out of it with a small ,straw-colour'd and transparent stem1 the which seed and stem appear'd very like those of common ,moss 7which ,i elsewhere describe7 but that they were abundantly less1 many hundreds of them being not able to equalize one single seed ,cod of ,moss4 ,i have often doubted whether they were the seed ,cods of some little ,plant1 or some kind of small ,buds1 or the ,eggs of some very small ,insect1 they appear'd of a dark brownish red1 some almost quite black1 and of a ,figure much resembling the seed-cod of ,moss1 but their stalks on which they grew were of a very fine transparent substance1 almost like the stalk of mould1 but that they seem'd somewhat more yellow4 ,that which makes me to suppose them to be ,vegetables1 is for that ,i perceiv'd many of those hillocks bare or destitute1 as if those bodies lay yet conceal'd1 as ,g4 ,in others of them1 they were just springing out of their gummy hillocks1 which all seem'd to shoot directly outwards1 as at ,a4 ,in others1 as at ,b1 ,i found them just gotten out1 with very little or no stalk1 and the ,cods of an indifferent cize2 but in others1 as ,c1 ,i found them begin to have little short stalks1 or stems2 in others1 as ,d1 those stems were grown bigger1 and larger2 and in others1 as at ,e1 ,f1 ,h1 ,i1 ,k1 ,l1 c4 those stems and ,cods were grown a great deal bigger1 and the stalks were more bulky about the root1 and very much taper'd towards the top1 as at ,f and ,l is most visible4 ,i did not find that any of them had any seed in them1 or that any of them were hollow1 but as they grew bigger and bigger1 ,i found those heads or ,cods begin to turn their tops towards their roots1 in the same manner as ,i had observ'd that of ,moss to do2 so that in all likelihood1 ,nature did intend in that posture1 what she does in the like seed-cods of greater bulk1 that is1 that the seed1 when ripe1 should be shaken out and dispersed at the end of it1 as we find in ,columbine ,cods1 and the like4 ,the whole ,oval ,,oooo in the second ,figure of the #ab4 ,scheme represents a small part of a ,rose-leaf1 about the bigness of the little ,oval in the hillock1 ,c1 marked with the ,figure ,x4 in which ,i have not particularly observ'd all the other forms of the surface of the ,rose-leaf1 as being little to my present purpose4 ,now1 if these ,cods have a seed in them so proportion'd to the ,cod1 as thole of ,pinks1 and ,carnations1 and ,columbines1 and the like1 how unimaginably small must each of those seeds necessarily be1 for the whole length of one of the largest of those ,cods was not part of an ,inch2 some not above 1 and therefore certainly1 very many thousand of them would be unable to make a bulk that should be visible to the naked eye2 and if each of these contain the ,rudiments of a young ,plant of the same kind1 what must we say of the pores and constituent parts of that8 ,the generation of this ,plant seems in part1 ascribable to a kind of ,mildew or ,blight1 whereby the parts of the leaves grow scabby1 or putrify'd1 as it were1 so as that the moisture breaks out in little scabs or spots1 which1 as ,i said before1 look like little knobs of a red gummous substance4 ,from this putrify'd scab breaks out this little ,vegetable2 which may be somewhat like a ,mould or ,moss2 and may have its equivocal generation much after the same manner as ,i have supposed ,moss or ,mould to have1 and to be a more simple and uncompounded kind of vegetation1 which is set a moving by the putrefactive and fermentative heat1 joyn'd with that of the ambient aerial1 when 7by the putrifaction and decay of some other parts of the vegetable1 that for a while staid its progress7 it is unfetter'd and left at liberty to move in its former course1 but by reason of its regulators1 moves and acts after quite another manner then it did when a coagent in the more compounded machine of the more perfect ,vegetable4 ,and from this very same ,principle1 ,i imagine the ,misleto of ,oaks1 ,thorns1 ,appletrees1 and other ,trees1 to have its original3 ,it seldom or never growing on any of those ,trees1 till they begin to wax decrepid1 and decay with age1 and are pester'd with many other infirmities4 ,hither also may be referr'd those multitudes and varieties of ,mushroms1 such as that1 call'd ,jews-ears1 all sorts of gray and green ,mosses1 c4 which infest all kind of ,trees1 shrubs1 and the like1 especially when they come to any bigness4 ,and this we see to be very much the method of ,nature throughout its operations1 putrifactive ,vegetables very often producing a ,vegetable of a much less compounded nature1 and of a much inferiour tribe2 and putrefactive animal substances degenerating into some kind of animal production of a much inferiour rank1 and of a more simple nature4 ,thus we find the humours and substances of the body1 upon putrifaction1 to produce strange kinds of moving ,vermine3 the putrifaction of the slimes and juices of the ,stomack and ,guts1 produce ,worms almost like ,earth-worms1 the ,wheals in childrens hands produce a little ,worm1 call'd a ,wheal-worm3 ,the bloud and milk1 and other humours1 produce other kinds of ,worms1 at least1 if we may believe what is deliver'd to us by very famous ,authors2 though1 ,i confess1 ,i have not yet been able to discover such my self4 ,and whereas it may seem strange that ,vinegar1 ,meal1 musty ,casks1 c4 are observ'd to breed their differing kinds of ,insects1 or living creatures1 whereas they being ,vegetable substances1 seem to be of an inferiour kind1 and so unable to produce a creature more noble1 or of a more compounded nature then they themselves are of1 and so without some concurrent seminal principle1 may be thought utterly unfit for such an operation2 ,i must add1 that we cannot presently positively say1 there are no animal substances1 either mediately1 as by the soil or fatning of the ,plant from whence they sprung1 or more immediately1 by the real mixture or composition of such substances1 join'd with them2 or perchance some kind of ,insect1 in such places where such kind of putrifying or fermenting bodies are1 may1 by a certain instinct of nature1 eject some sort of seminal principle1 which cooperating with various kinds of putrifying substances1 may produce various kinds of ,insects1 or ,animate bodies3 ,for we find in most sorts of those lower degrees of ,animate bodies1 that the putrifying substances on which these ,eggs1 ,seeds1 or seminal principles are cast by the ,insect1 become1 as it were1 the ,matrices or ,wombs that conduce very much to their generation1 and may perchance also to their variation and alteration1 much after the same manner1 as1 by strange and unnatural copulations1 several new kinds of ,animals are produc'd1 as ,mules1 and the like1 which are usually call'd ,monstrous1 because a little unusual1 though many of them have all their principal parts as perfectly shap'd and adapted for their peculiar uses1 as any of the most perfect ,animals4 ,if therefore the putrifying body1 on which any kind of seminal or vital principle chances to be cast1 become somewhat more then meerly a nursing and fostering helper in the generation and production of any kind of ,animate body1 the more neer it approaches the true nature of a ,womb1 the more power will it have on the by-blow it incloses4 ,but of this somewhat more in the description of the ,water-gnat4 ,perhaps some more accurate ,enquiries and ,observations about these matters might bring the ,question to some certainty1 which would be of no small concern in ,natural ,philosophy4 ,but that putrifying animal substances may produce animals of an inferior kind1 ,i see not any so very great a difficulty1 but that one may1 without much absurdity1 admit3 ,for as there may be multitudes of contrivances that go to the making up of one compleat ,animate body2 so1 ,that some of those coadjutors1 in the perfect existence and life of it1 may be vitiated1 and the life of the whole destroyed1 and yet several of the constituting contrivances remain intire1 ,i cannot think it beyond imagination or possibility2 no more then that a like accidental process1 as ,i have elswhere hinted1 may also be supposed to explicate the method of ,nature in the ,metamorphosis of ,plants4 ,and though the difference between a ,plant and an ,animal be very great1 yet ,i have not hitherto met with any so cogent an ,argument1 as to make me positive in affirming these two to be altogether ,heterogeneous and of quite differing kinds of ,nature3 ,and besides1 as there are many ,zoophyts1 and sensitive ,plants 7divers of which ,i have seen1 which are of a middle nature1 and seem to be ,natures transition from one degree to another1 which may be observ'd in all her other passages1 wherein she is very seldom observ'd to leap from one step to another7 so have we1 in some ,authors1 ,instances of ,plants turning into ,animals1 and ,animals into ,plants1 and the like2 and some other very strange 7because unheeded7 proceedings of ,nature2 something of which kind may be met with1 in the description of the ,water-,gnat1 though it be not altogether so direct to the present purpose4 ,but to refer this ,discourse of ,animals to their proper places1 ,i shall add1 that though one should suppose1 or it should be prov'd by ,observations2 that several of these kinds of ,plants are accidentally produc'd by a casual putrifaction1 ,i see not any great reason to question1 but that1 notwithstanding its own production was as 'twere casual1 yet it may germinate and produce seed1 and by it propagate its own1 that is1 a new ,species4 ,for we do not know1 but that the ,omnipotent and ,all-wise ,creator might as directly design the structure of such a ,vegetable1 or such an ,animal to be produc'd out of such or such a putrifaction or change of this or that body1 towards the constitution or structure of which1 he knew it necessary1 or thought it fit to make it an ingredient2 as that the digestion or moderate heating of an ,egg1 either by the ,female1 or the ,sun1 or the heat of the ,fire1 or the like1 should produce this or that ,bird2 or that ,putrifactive and warm steams should1 out of the blowings1 as they call them1 that is1 the ,eggs of a ,flie1 produce a living ,magot1 and that1 by degrees1 be turn'd into an ,aurelia1 and that1 by a longer and a proportion'd heat1 be transmuted into a ,fly4 ,nor need we therefore to suppose it the more imperfect in its kind1 then the more compounded ,vegetable or ,animal of which it is a part2 for he might as compleatly furnish it with all kinds of contrivances necessary for its own existence1 and the propagation of its own ,species1 and yet make it a part of a more compounded body3 as a ,clock-maker might make a ,set of ,chimes to be a part of a ,clock1 and yet1 when the watch part or striking part are taken away1 and the hindrances of its motion remov'd1 this chiming part may go as accurately1 and strike its tune as exactly1 as if it were still a part of the compounded ,automaton4 ,so1 though the original cause1 or seminal principle from which this minute ,plant on ,rose leaves did spring2 were1 before the corruption caus'd by the ,mill-dew1 a component part of the leaf on which it grew1 and did serve as a coagent in the production and constitution of it1 yet might it be so consummate1 as to produce a seed which might have a power of propagating the same species3 the works of the ,creator seeming of such an excellency1 that though they are unable to help to the perfecting of the more compounded existence of the greater ,plant or ,animal1 they may have notwithstanding an ability of acting singly upon their own internal principle1 so as to produce a ,vegetable body1 though of a less compounded nature1 and to proceed so farr in the method of other ,vegetables1 as to bear flowers and seeds1 which may be capable of propagating the like4 ,so that the little cases which appear to grow on the top of the slender stalks1 may1 for ought ,i know1 though ,i should suppose them to spring from the perverting of the usual course of the parent ,vegetable1 contain a seed1 which1 being scatter'd on other leaves of the same ,plant1 may produce a ,plant of much the same kind4 ,nor are ,damask-,rose leaves the onely leaves that produce these kinds of ,vegetable sproutings2 for ,i have observ'd them also in several other kinds of ,rose leaves1 and on the leaves of several sorts of ,briers1 and on ,bramble leaves they are oftentimes to be found in very great clusters2 so that ,i have found in one cluster1 three1 four1 or five hundred of them1 making a very conspicuous black spot or scab on the back side of the leaf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xx4 ,of blue ,mould1 and of the first ,principles of ,vegetation arising from ,putrefaction4 ,the ,blue and ,white and several kinds of hairy mouldy spots1 which are observable upon divers kinds of putrify'd bodies1 whether ,animal substances1 or ,vegetable1 such as the skin1 raw or dress'd1 flesh1 bloud1 humours1 milk1 green ,cheese1 c4 or rotten sappy ,wood1 or ,herbs1 ,leaves1 ,barks1 ,roots1 c4 of ,plants1 are all of them nothing else but several kinds of small and variously figur'd ,mushroms1 which1 from convenient materials in those putrifying bodies1 are1 by the concurrent heat of the ,air1 excited to a certain kind of vegetation1 which will not be unworthy our more serious speculation and examination1 as ,i shall by and by shew4 ,but1 first1 ,i must premise a short description of this ,specimen1 which ,i have added of this ,tribe1 in the first ,figure of the ,,xii4 ,scheme1 which is nothing else but the appearance of a small white spot of hairy mould1 multitudes of which ,i found to bespeck whiten over the red covers of a small book1 which1 it seems1 were of ,sheeps skin1 that being more apt to gather mould1 even in a dry and clean room1 then other leathers4 ,these spots appear'd1 through a good ,microscope1 to be a very pretty shap'd ,vegetative body1 which1 from almost the same part of the ,leather1 shot out multitudes of small long cylindrical and transparent stalks1 not exactly streight1 but a little bended with the weight of a round and white knob that grew on the top of each of them2 many of these knobs ,i observ'd to be very round1 and of a smooth surface1 such as ,a1 ,a1 c4 others smooth likewise1 but a little oblong1 as ,b2 several of them a little broken1 or cloven with chops at the top1 as ,c2 others flitter'd as 'twere1 or flown all to pieces1 as ,d1 ,d4 ,the whole substance of these pretty bodies was of a very tender constitution1 much like the substance of the softer kind of common white ,mushroms1 for by touching them with a ,pin1 ,i found them to be brused and torn2 they seem'd each of them to have a distinct root of their own2 for though they grew neer together in a cluster1 yet ,i could perceive each stem to rise out of a distinct part or pore of the ,leather2 some of these were small and short1 as seeming to have been but newly sprung up1 of these the balls were for the most part round1 others were bigger1 and taller1 as being perhaps of a longer growth1 and of these1 for the most part1 the heads were broken1 and some much wasted1 as ,e2 what these heads contain'd ,i could not perceive2 whether they were knobs and flowers1 or seed cases1 ,i am not able to say1 but they seem'd most likely to be of the same nature with those that grow on ,mushroms1 which they did1 some of them1 not a little resemble4 ,both their smell and taste1 which are active enough to make a sensible impression upon those organs1 are unpleasant and noisome4 ,i could not find that they would so quickly be destroy'd by the actual flame of a ,candle1 as at first sight of them ,i conceived they would be1 but they remain'd intire after ,i had past that part of the ,leather on which they stuck three or four times through the flame of a ,candle2 so that1 it seems they are not very apt to take fire1 no more then the common white ,mushroms are when they are sappy4 ,there are a multitude of other shapes1 of which these ,microscopical ,mushroms are figur'd1 which would have been a long ,work to have described1 and would not have suited so well with my design in this ,treatise1 onely1 amongst the rest1 ,i must not forget to take notice of one that was a little like to1 or resembled1 a ,spunge1 consisting of a multitude of little ,ramifications almost as that body does1 which indeed seems to be a kind of ,water-,mushrom1 of a very pretty texture1 as ,i else-where manifest4 ,and a second1 which ,i must not omit1 because often mingled1 and neer adjoining to these ,i have describ'd1 and this appear'd much like a ,thicket of bushes1 or brambles1 very much branch'd1 and extended1 some of them1 to a great length1 in proportion to their ,diameter1 like creeping brambles4 ,the manner of the growth and formation of this kind of ,vegetable1 is the third head of ,enquiry1 which1 had ,i time1 ,i should follow3 the figure and method of ,generation in this concrete seeming to me1 next after the ,enquiry into the formation1 figuration2 or chrystalization of ,salts1 to be the most simple1 plain1 and easie2 and it seems to be a medium through which he must necessarily pass1 that would with any likelihood investigate the forma informans of ,vegetables3 for as ,i think that he shall find it a very difficult task1 who undertakes to discover the form of ,saline crystallizations1 without the consideration and prescience of the nature and reason of a ,globular form1 and as difficult to explicate this configuration of ,mushroms1 without the previous consideration of the form of ,salts2 so will the enquiry into the forms of ,vegetables be no less1 if not much more difficult1 without the fore-knowledge of the forms of ,mushroms1 these several ,enquiries having no less dependance one upon another then any select number of ,propositions in ,mathematical ,elements may be made to have4 ,nor do ,i imagine that the skips from the one to another will be found very great1 if beginning from fluidity1 or body without any form1 we descend gradually1 till we arrive at the highest form of a bruite ,animal's ,soul1 making the steps or foundations of our ,enquiry1 ,fluidity1 ,orbiculation1 ,fixation1 ,angulization1 or ,crystallization ,germination or ,ebullition1 ,vegetation1 ,plantanimation1 ,animation1 ,sensation1 ,imagination4 ,now1 that we may the better proceed in our ,enquiry1 ,it will be requisite to consider3 ,first1 that ,mould and ,mushroms require no seminal property1 but the former may be produc'd at any time from any kind of putrifying ,animal1 or ,vegetable ,substance1 as ,flesh1 c4 kept moist and warm1 and the latter1 if what ,mathiolus relates be true1 of making them by ,art1 are as much within our command1 of which ,matter take the ,epitomie which ,mr4 ,parkinson has deliver'd in his ,herbal1 in his ,chapter of ,mushroms1 because ,i have not ,mathiolus now by me3 ,unto these ,mushroms 7saith he7 may also be adjoyn'd those which are made of ,art 7whereof ,mathiolus makes mention7 that grow naturally among certain stones in ,naples1 and that the stones being digg'd up1 and carried to ,rome1 and other places1 where they set them in their ,wine ,cellars1 covering them with a little ,earth1 and sprinkling a little warm water thereon1 would within four days produce ,mushroms fit to be eaten1 at what time one will3 ,as also that ,mushroms may be made to grow at the foot of a wilde ,poplar ,tree1 within four days after1 warm water wherein some leaves have been dissolv'd shall be pour'd into the ,root 7which must be slit7 and the stock above ground4 ,next1 that as ,mushroms may be generated without seed1 so does it not appear that they have any such thing as seed in any part of them2 for having considered several kinds of them1 ,i could never find any thing in them that ,i could with any probability ghess to be the seed of it1 so that it does not as yet appear 7that ,i know of7 that ,mushroms may be generated from a seed1 but they rather seem to depend merely upon a convenient constitution of the matter out of which they are made1 and a concurrence of either natural or artificial heat4 ,thirdly1 that by several bodies 7as ,salts and ,metals both in ,water and in the air1 and by several kinds of sublimations in the ,air7 actuated and guided with a congruous heat1 there may be produc'd several kinds of bodies as curiously1 if not of a more compos'd ,figure2 several kinds of rising or ,ebulliating ,figures seem to manifest2 as witness the shooting in the ,rectification of spirits of ,urine1 ,hart-horn1 ,bloud1 c4 witness also the curious branches of evaporated dissolutions1 some of them against the sides of the containing ,jar3 others standing up1 or growing an end1 out of the bottom1 of which ,i have taken notice of a very great variety4 ,but above all the rest1 it is a very pretty kind of ,germination which is afforded us in the ,silver ,tree1 the manner of making which with ,mercury and ,silver1 is well known to the ,chymists1 in which there is an ,ebullition or ,germination1 very much like this of ,mushroms1 if ,i have been rightly inform'd of it4 ,fourthly1 ,i have very often taken notice of1 and also observ'd with a ,microscope1 certain excrescencies or ,ebullitions in the snuff of a ,candle1 which1 partly from the sticking of the smoaky particles as they are carryed upwards by the current of the rarify'd ,air and flame1 and partly also from a kind of ,germination or ,ebullition of some actuated unctuous parts which creep along and filter through some small string of the ,week1 are formed into pretty round and uniform heads1 very much resembling the form of hooded ,mushroms1 which1 being by any means expos'd to the fresh ,air1 or that air which encompasses the flame1 they are presently lick'd up and devour'd by it1 and vanish4 ,the reason of which ,phnomenon seems to me1 to be no other then this3 ,that when a convenient thread of the ,week is so bent out by the sides of the snuff that are about half an ,inch or more1 remov'd above the bottom1 or lowest part of the flame1 and that this part be wholly included in the flame2 the ,oyl 7for the reason of filtration1 which ,i have elsewhere rendred7 being continualy driven up the snuff is driven likewise into this ragged bended-end1 and this being remov'd a good distance1 as half an ,inch or more1 above the bottom of the flame1 the parts of the air that passes by it1 are already1 almost satiated with the dissolution of the boiling unctuous steams that issued out below1 and therefore are not onely glutted1 that is1 can dissolve no more then what they are already acting upon1 but they carry up with them abundance of unctuous and sooty particles1 which meeting with that rag of the ,week1 that is plentifully fill'd with ,oyl1 and onely spends it as fast as it evaporates1 and not at all by dissolution or burning1 by means of these steamy parts of the filtrated ,oyl issuing out at the sides of this ragg1 and being inclos'd with an air that is already satiated and cannot prey upon them nor burn them1 the ascending sooty particles are stay'd about it and fix'd1 so as that about the end of that ragg or filament of the snuff1 whence the greatest part of the steams issue1 there is conglobated or fix'd a round and pretty uniform cap1 much resembling the head of a ,mushrom1 which1 if it be of any great bigness1 you may observe that its underside will be bigger then that which is above the ragg or stem of it2 for the ,oyl that is brought into it by filtration1 being by the bulk of the cap a little shelter'd from the heat of the flame1 does by that means issue as much out beneath from the stalk or downwards1 as it does upwards1 and by reason of the great access of the adventitious smoak from beneath1 it increases most that way4 ,that this may be the true reason of this ,phnomenon1 ,i could produce many ,arguments and ,experiments to make it probable3 ,as1 ,first1 that the ,filtration carries the ,oyl to the top of the ,week1 at least as high as these raggs1 is visible to one that will observe the snuff of a burning ,candle with a ,microscope1 where he may see an ,ebullition or bubbling of the ,oyl1 as high as the snuff looks black4 ,next1 that it does steam away more then burn2 ,i could tell you of the dim burning of a ,candle1 the longer the snuff be which arises from the abundance of vapours out of the higher parts of it4 ,and1 thirdly1 that in the middle of the flame of the ,candle1 neer the top of the snuff1 the fire or dissolving principle is nothing neer so strong1 as neer the bottom and out edges of the flame1 which may be observ'd by the burning asunder of a thread1 that will first break in those parts that the edges of the flame touch1 and not in the middle4 ,and ,i could add several ,observables that ,i have taken notice of in the flame of a ,lamp actuated with ,bellows1 and very many others that confirm me in my opinion1 but that it is not so much to my present purpose1 which is onely to consider this concreet in the snuff of a ,candle1 so farr as it has any resemblance of a ,mushrom1 to the consideration of which1 that ,i may return1 ,i say1 we may also observe3 ,in the fifth place1 that the droppings or trillings of ,lapidescent waters in ,vaults under ground1 seem to constitute a kind of petrify'd body1 form'd almost like some kind of ,mushroms inverted1 in so much that ,i have seen some knobb'd a little at the lower end1 though for the most part1 indeed they are otherwise shap'd1 and taper'd towards the end2 the generation of which seems to be from no other reason but this1 that the water by soaking through the earth and ,lime 7for ,i ghess that substance to add much to it petrifying quality7 does so impregnate it self with stony particles1 that hanging in drops in the roof of the ,vault1 by reason that the soaking of the water is but slow1 it becomes expos'd to the ,air1 and thereby the outward part of the drop by degrees grows hard1 by reason that the water gradually evaporating the stony particles neer the outsides of the drop begin to touch1 and by degrees1 to dry and grow closer together1 and at length constitute a crust or shell about the drop2 and this soaking by degrees1 being more and more supply'd1 the drop grows longer and longer1 and the sides harden thicker and thicker into a ,quill or ,cane1 and at length1 that hollow or pith becomes almost stop'd up1 and solid3 afterwards the soaking of the petrifying water1 finding no longer a passage through the middle1 bursts out1 and trickles down the outside1 and as the water evaporates1 leaves new superinduc'd shells1 which more and more swell the bulk of those ,iceicles1 and because of the great supply from the ,vault1 of petrifying wafer1 those bodies grow bigger and bigger next to the ,vault1 and taper or sharpen towards the point2 for the access from the arch of the ,vault being but very slow1 and consequently the water being spread very thinly over the surface of the ,iceicle1 the water begins to settle before it can reach to the bottom1 or corner end of it2 whence1 if you break one of these1 you would almost imagine it a stick of ,wood petrify'd1 it having so pretty a resemblance of pith and grain1 and if you look on the outside of a piece1 or of one whole1 you would think no less1 both from its vegetable roundness and tapering form2 but whereas all ,vegetables are observ'd to shoot and grow perpendicularly upwards1 this does shoot or propend directly downwards4 ,by which last ,observables1 we see that there may be a very pretty body shap'd and concreeted by ,mechanical principles1 without the least shew or probability of any other seminal formatrix4 ,and since we find that the great reason of the ,phnomena of this pretty petrifaction1 are to be reduc'd from the gravity of a fluid and pretty volatil body impregnated with stony particles1 why may not the ,phnomena of ,ebullition or ,germination be in part possibly enough deduc'd from the levity of an impregnated liquor1 which therefore perpendicularly ascending by degrees1 evaporates and leaves the more solid and fix'd parts behind in the form of a ,mushrom1 which is yet further diversify'd and specificated by the forms of the parts that impregnated the liquor1 and compose or help to constitute the ,mushrom4 ,that the foremention'd ,figures of growing ,salts1 and the ,silver ,tree1 are from this principle1 ,i could very easily manifest1 but that ,i have not now a convenient opportunity of following it1 nor have ,i made a sufficient number of ,experiments and ,observations to propound1 explicate1 and prove so usefull a ,theory as this of ,mushroms3 for1 though the contrary principle to that of petrify'd ,iceicles may be in part a cause1 yet ,i cannot but think1 that there is somewhat a more complicated cause1 though yet ,mechanical1 and possible to be explain'd4 ,we therefore have further to enquire of it1 what makes it to be such a liquor1 and to ascend1 whether the heat of the ,sun and ,air1 or whether that firmentiation and putrifaction1 or both together2 as also whether there be not a third or fourth2 whether a ,saline principle be not a considerable agent in this business also as well as heat2 whether also a fixation1 precipitation or settling of certain parts out of the aerial menstruum may not be also a considerable coadjutor in the business4 ,since we find that many pretty beards or stiri of the particles of ,silver may be precipitated upon a piece of ,brass put into a solution of ,silver very much diluted with fair water1 which look not unlike a kind of mould or hoar upon that piece of metal2 and the hoar frost looks like a kind of mould2 and whether there may not be several others that do concurr to the production of a ,mushrom1 having not yet had sufficient time to prosecute according to my desires1 ,i must refer this to a better opportunity of my own1 or leave and recommend it to the more diligent enquiry and examination of such as can be masters both of leisure and conveniencies for such an ,enquiry4 ,and in the mean time1 ,i must conclude1 that as far as ,i have been able to look into the nature of this ,primary kind of life and vegetation1 ,i cannot find the least probable argument to perswade me there is any other concurrent cause then such as is purely ,mechanical1 and that the effects or productions are as necessary upon the concurrence of those causes as that a ,ship1 when the ,sails are hoist up1 and the ,rudder is set to such a position1 should1 when the ,wind blows1 be mov'd in such a way or course to that or t'other place2 ,or1 as that the brused ,watch1 which ,i mention in the description of ,moss1 should1 when those parts which hindred its motion were fallen away1 begin to move1 but after quite another manner then it did before4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxi4 ,of ,moss1 and several other small vegetative ,substances4 ,moss is a ,plant1 that the wisest of ,kings thought neither unworthy his speculation1 nor his ,pen1 and though amongst ,plants it be in bulk one of the smallest1 yet it is not the least considerable3 ,for1 as to its shape1 it may compare for the beauty of it with any ,plant that grows1 and bears a much bigger breadth2 it has a root almost like a seedy ,parsnep1 furnish'd with small strings and suckers1 which are all of them finely branch'd1 like those of the roots of much bigger ,vegetables2 out of this springs the stem or body of the ,plant1 which is somewhat ,quadrangular1 rather then ,cylindrical1 most curiously fluted or strung with small creases1 which run1 for the most part1 parallel the whole stem2 on the sides of this are close and thick set1 a multitude of fair1 large1 well-shap'd leaves1 some of them of a rounder1 others of a longer shape1 according as they are younger or older when pluck'd2 as ,i ghess by this1 that those ,plants that had the stalks growing from the top of them1 had their leaves of a much longer shape1 all the surface of each side of which1 is curiously cover'd with a multitude of little oblong transparent bodies1 in the manner as you see it express'd in the leaf ,b1 in the ,,xiii4 ,scheme4 ,this ,plant1 when young and springing up1 does much resemble a ,housleek1 having thick leaves1 almost like that1 and seems to be somwhat of kin to it in other particulars2 also from the top of the leaves1 there shoots out a small white and transparent hair1 or thorn3 ,this stem1 in time1 come to shoot out into a long1 round and even stalk1 which by cutting transversly1 when dry1 ,i manifestly found to be a stiff1 hard1 and hollow ,cane1 or ,reed1 without any kind of knot1 or stop1 from its bottom1 where the leaves encompass'd it1 to the top1 on which there grows a large seed case1 ,a1 cover'd with a thin1 and more whitish skin1 ,b1 terminated in a long thorny top1 which at first covers all the ,case1 and by degrees1 as that swells1 the skin cleaves1 and at length falls off1 with its thorny top and all 7which is a part of it7 and leaves the seed ,case to ripen1 and by degrees1 to shatter out its seed at a place underneath this cap1 ,b1 which before the seed is ripe1 appears like a flat barr'd button1 without any hole in the middle2 but as it ripens1 the button grows bigger1 and a hole appears in the middle of it1 ,e1 out of which1 in all probability1 the seed falls3 ,for as it ripens by a provision of ,nature1 that end of this ,case turns downward after the same manner as the ears of ,wheat and ,barley usually do2 and opening several of these dry red ,cases1 ,f1 ,i found them to be quite hollow1 without anything at all in them2 whereas when ,i cut them asunder with a sharp ,pen-knife when green1 ,i found in the middle of this great ,case1 another smaller round ,case1 between which two1 the interstices were fill'd with multitudes of stringie fibres1 which seem'd to suspend the lesser ,case in the middle of the other1 which 7as farr as ,i was able to discern7 seem'd full of exceeding small white seeds1 much like the seed-bagg in the knop of a ,carnation1 after the flowers have been two or three days1 or a week1 fallen off2 but this ,i could not so perfectly discern1 and therefore cannot positively affirm it4 ,after the seed was fallen away1 ,i found both the ,case1 ,stalk1 and ,plant1 all grow red and wither1 and from other parts of the root continually to spring new branches or slips1 which by degrees increased1 and grew as bigg as the former1 seeded1 ripen'd1 shatter'd1 and wither'd4 ,i could not find that it observ'd any particular seasons for these several kinds of growth1 but rather found it to be springing1 mature1 ripe1 seedy1 and wither'd at all times of the year2 ,but ,i found it most to flourish and increase in warm and moist weather4 ,it gathers its nourishments1 for the most part1 out of some ,lapidescent1 or other substance corrupted or chang'd from its former texture1 or substantial form2 for ,i have found it to grow on the rotten parts of ,stone1 of ,bricks1 of ,wood1 of ,bones1 of ,leather1 c4 ,it oft grows on the barks of several ,trees1 spreading it self1 sometimes from the ground upwards1 and sometimes from some chink or cleft of the bark of the ,tree1 which has some putrify'd substance in it1 but this seems of a distinct kind from that which ,i observ'd to grow on putrify'd inanimate bodies1 and rotten earth4 ,there are also great varieties of other kinds of ,mosses1 which grow on ,trees1 and several other ,plants1 of which ,i shall here make no mention1 nor of the ,moss growing on the skull of a dead man1 which much resembles that of ,trees4 ,whether this ,plant does sometimes originally spring or rise out of corruption1 without any disseminated seed1 ,i have not yet made trials enough to be very much1 either positive or negative2 for as it seems very hard to conceive how the seed should be generally dispers'd into all parts where there is a corruption begun1 unless we may rationally suppose1 that this seed being so exceeding small1 and consequently exceeding light1 is thereby taken up1 and carried to and fro in the ,air into every place1 and by the falling drops of rain is wash'd down out of it1 and so dispers'd into all places1 and there onely takes root and propagates1 where it finds a convenient soil or matrix for it to thrive in2 so if we will have it to proceed from corruption1 it is not less difficult to conceive1 ,first1 how the corruption of any ,vegetable1 much less of any ,stone or ,brick1 should be the ,parent of so curiously figur'd1 and so perfect a ,plant as this is4 ,but here indeed1 ,i cannot but add1 that it seems rather to be a product of the ,rain in those bodies where it is stay'd1 then of the very bodies themselves1 since ,i have found it growing on ,marble1 and ,flint1 but always the ,microscope1 if not the naked eye1 would discover some little hole of ,dirt in which it was rooted4 ,next1 how the corruption of each of those exceedingly differing bodies should all conspire to the production of the same ,plant1 that is1 that ,stones1 ,bricks1 ,wood1 or vegetable substances1 and ,bones1 ,leather1 ,horns1 or animate substances1 unless we may with some plausibleness say1 that ,air and ,water are the coadjutors1 or menstruums1 all kinds of putrifactions1 and that thereby the bodies 7though whil'st they retain'd their substantial forms1 were of exceeding differing natures1 yet7 since they are dissolv'd and mixt into another1 they may be very ,homogeneous1 they being almost resolv'd again into ,air1 ,water1 and ,earth2 retaining1 perhaps1 one part of their vegetative faculty yet entire1 which meeting with congruous assistants1 such as the heat of the ,air1 and the fluidity of the ,water1 and such like coadjutors and conveniences1 acquires a certain vegetation for a time1 wholly differing perhaps from that kind of vegetation it had before4 ,to explain my meaning a little better by a gross ,similitude3 ,suppose a curious piece of ,clock-work1 that had had several motions and contrivances in it1 which1 when in order1 would all have mov'd in their design'd methods and ,periods4 ,we will further suppose1 by some means1 that this ,clock comes to be broken1 brused1 or otherwise disordered1 so that several parts of it being dislocated1 are impeded1 and so stand still1 and not onely hinder its own progressive motion1 and produce not the effect which they were design'd for1 but because the other parts also have a dependence upon them1 put a stop to their motion likewise2 and so the whole ,instrument becomes unserviceable1 and not fit for any use4 ,this ,instrument afterwards1 by some shaking and tumbling1 and throwing up and down1 comes to have several of its parts shaken out1 and several of its curious motions1 and contrivances1 and particles all fallen asunder2 here a ,pin falls out1 and there a ,pillar1 and here a ,wheel1 and there a ,hammer1 and a ,spring1 and the like1 and among the rest1 away falls those parts also which were brused and disorder'd1 and had all this while impeded the motion of all the rest2 hereupon several of those other motions that yet remain1 whole springs were not quite run down1 being now at liberty1 begin each of them to move1 thus or thus1 but quite after another method then before1 there being many regulating parts and the like1 fallen away and lost4 ,upon this1 the ,owner1 who chances to hear and observe some of these effects1 being ignorant of the ,watch-makers ,art1 wonders what is betid his ,clock1 and presently imagines that some ,artist has been at work1 and has set his ,clock in order1 and made a new kind of ,instrument of it1 but upon examining circumstances1 he finds there was no such matter1 but that the casual slipping out of a ,pin had made several parts of his ,clock fall to pieces1 and that thereby the obstacle that all this while hindred his ,clock1 together with other usefull parts were fallen out1 and so his ,clock was set at liberty4 ,and upon winding up those springs again when run down1 he finds his ,clock to go1 but quite after another manner then it was wont heretofore4 ,and thus may it be perhaps in the business of ,moss1 and ,mould1 and ,mushroms1 and several other spontaneous kinds of vegetations1 which may be caus'd by a vegetative principle1 which was a coadjutor to the life and growth of the greater ,vegetable1 and was by the destroying of the life of it stopt and impeded in performing its office2 but afterwards1 upon a further corruption of several parts that had all the while impeded it1 the heat of the ,sun winding up1 as it were1 the spring1 sets it again into a vegetative motion1 and this being single1 and not at all regulated as it was before 7when a part of that greater machine the pristine vegetable7 is mov'd after quite a differing manner1 and produces effects very differing from those it did before4 ,but this ,i propound onely as a conjecture1 not that ,i am more enclin'd to this ,hypothesis then the seminal1 which upon good reason ,i ghess to be ,mechanical also1 as ,i may elsewhere more fully shew3 ,but because ,i may1 by this1 hint a possible way how this appearance may be solv'd2 supposing we should be driven to confess from certain ,experiments and ,observations made1 that such or such ,vegetables were produc'd out of the corruption of another1 without any concurrent seminal principle 7as ,i have given some reason to suppose1 in the description of a ,microscopical ,mushrome7 without derogating at all from the infinite wisdom of the ,creator4 ,for this accidental production1 as ,i may call it1 does manifest as much1 if not very much more1 of the excellency of his contrivance as any thing in the more perfect vegetative bodies of the world1 even as the accidental motion of the ,automaton does make the owner see1 that there was much more contrivance in it then at first he imagin'd4 ,but of this ,i have added more in the description of ,mould1 and the ,vegetables on ,rose leaves1 c4 those being much more likely to have their original from such a cause then this which ,i have here described1 in the #ac4 ,scheme1 which indeed ,i cannot conceive otherwise of1 then as of a most perfect ,vegetable1 wanting nothing of the perfections of the most conspicuous and vastest ,vegetables of the world1 and to be of a rank so high1 as that it may very properly be reckon'd with the tall ,cedar of ,lebanon1 as that ,kingly ,botanist has done4 ,we know there may be as much curiosity of contrivance1 and excellency of form in a very small ,pocket-clock1 that takes not up an ,inch square of room1 as there may be in a ,church-clock that fills a whole room2 ,and ,i know not whether all the contrivances and ,mechanisms requisite to a perfect ,vegetable1 may not be crowded into an exceedingly less room then this of ,moss1 as ,i have heard of a striking ,watch so small1 that it serv'd for a ,pendant in a ,ladies ear2 and ,i have already given you the description of a ,plant growing on ,rose leaves1 that is abundantly smaller then ,moss2 insomuch1 that neer #ajjj4 of them would hardly make the bigness of one single ,plant of ,moss4 ,and by comparing the bulk of ,moss1 with the bulk of the biggest kind of ,vegetable we meet with in ,story 7of which kind we find in some hotter climates1 as ,guine1 and ,brasile1 the stock or body of some ,trees to be twenty foot in ,diameter1 whereas the body or stem of ,moss1 for the most part1 is not above one sixtieth part of an ,inch7 we shall find that the bulk of the one will exceed the bulk of the other1 no less then #biheihd ,millions1 or #biheihdjjjjjj1 and supposing the production on a ,rose leaf to be a ,plant1 we shall have of those ,indian ,plants to exceed a production of the same ,vegetable kingdom no less then #ajjj times the former number2 so prodigiously various are the works of the ,creator1 and so ,all-sufficient is he to perform what to man would seem unpossible1 they being both alike easie to him1 even as one day1 and a thousand years are to him as one and the same time4 ,i have taken notice of such an infinite variety of those smaller kinds of vegetations1 that should ,i have described every one of them1 they would almost have fill'd a ,volume1 and prov'd bigg enough to have made a new ,herbal1 such multitudes are there to be found in moist hot weather1 especially in the ,summer time1 on all kind of putrifying substances1 which1 whether they do more properly belong to the ,classis of ,mushrooms1 or ,moulds1 or ,mosses1 ,i shall not now dispute1 there being some that seem more properly of one kind1 others of another1 their colours and magnitudes being as much differing as their ,figures and substances4 ,nay1 ,i have observ'd1 that putting fair ,water 7whether ,rain-water or ,pump-water1 or ,may-dew or ,snow-water1 it was almost all one7 ,i have often observ'd1 ,i say1 that this ,water would1 with a little standing1 tarnish and cover all about the sides of the ,glass that lay under water1 with a lovely green2 but though ,i have often endeavour'd to discover with my ,microscope whether this green were like ,moss1 or long striped ,sea-weed1 or any other peculiar form1 yet so ill and imperfect are our ,microscopes1 that ,i could not certainly discriminate any4 ,growing ,trees also1 and any kinds of ,woods1 ,stones1 ,bones1 c4 that have been long expos'd to the ,air and ,rain1 will be all over cover'd with a greenish scurff1 which will very much foul and green any kind of cloaths that are rubb'd against it2 viewing this1 ,i could not certainly perceive in many parts of it any determinate form1 though in many ,i could perceive a ,bed as 'twere of young ,moss1 but in other parts it look'd almost like green bushes1 and very confus'd1 but always of what ever irregular ,figures the parts appear'd of1 they were always green1 and seem'd to be either some ,vegetable1 or to have some vegetating principle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxii4 ,of common ,sponges1 and several other ,spongie fibrous bodies4 ,a ,sponge is commonly reckon'd among the ,zoophyts1 or ,plant ,animals2 and the texture of it1 which the ,microscope discovers1 seems to confirm it2 for it is of a form whereof ,i never observ'd any other ,vegetable1 and indeed1 it seems impossible that any should be of it1 for it consists of an infinite number of small short fibres1 or nervous parts1 much of the same bigness1 curiously jointed or contex'd together in the form of a ,net1 as is more plainly manifest by the little ,draught which ,i have added1 in the third ,figure of the ,,ix4 ,scheme1 of a piece of it1 which you may perceive represents a confus'd heap of the fibrous parts curiously jointed and implicated4 ,the joints are1 for the most part1 where three fibres onely meet1 for ,i have very seldom met with any that had four4 ,at these joints there is no one of the three that seems to be the stock whereon the other grow1 but each of the fibres are1 for the most part1 of an equal bigness1 and seem each of them to have an equal share in the joint2 the fibres are all of them much about the same bigness1 not smaller towards the top of the ,sponge1 and bigger neerer the bottom or root1 as is usuall in ,plants1 the length of each between the joints1 is very irregular and different2 the distance between some two joints1 being ten or twelve times more then between some others4 ,nor are the joints regular1 and of an equitriagonal ,figure1 but1 for the most part1 the three fibres so meet1 that they compose three angles very differing all of them from one another4 ,the meshes likewise1 and holes of this reticulated body1 are not less various and irregular3 some bilateral1 others trilateral1 and quadrilateral ,figures2 nay1 ,i have observ'd some meshes to have #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 or #i4 sides1 and some to have onely one1 so exceeding various is the ,lusus ,natur in this body4 ,as to the outward appearance of this ,vegetative body1 they are so usuall everywhere1 that ,i need not describe them1 consisting of a soft and porous substance1 representing a ,lock1 sometimes a fleece of ,wool2 but it has besides these small microscopical pores which lie between the fibres1 a multitude of round pores or holes1 which1 from the top of it1 pierce into the body1 and sometimes go quite through to the bottom4 ,i have observ'd many of these ,sponges1 to have included likewise in the midst of their fibrous contextures1 pretty large friable stones1 which must either have been inclos'd whil'st this ,vegetable was in formation1 or generated in those places after it was perfectly shap'd4 ,the later of which seems the more improbable1 because ,i did not find that any of these stony substances were perforated with the fibres of the ,sponge4 ,i have never seen nor been enform'd of the true manner of the growing of ,sponges on the ,rock2 whether they are found to increase from little to great1 like ,vegetables1 that is1 part after part1 or like ,animals1 all parts equally growing together2 or whether they be matrices or feed-baggs of any kind of ,fishes1 or some kind of watry ,insect2 or whether they are at any times more soft and tender1 or of another nature and texture1 which things1 if ,i knew how1 ,i should much desire to be informed of3 but from a cursory view that ,i at first made with my ,microscope1 and some other trials1 ,i supposed it to be some ,animal substance cast out1 and fastned upon the ,rocks in the form of a froth1 or congeries of bubbles1 like that which ,i have often observ'd on ,rosemary1 and other ,plants 7wherein is included a little ,insect7 that all the little films which divide these bubbles one from another1 did presently1 almost after the substance began to grow a little harder1 break1 and leave onely the thread behind1 which might be1 as 'twere1 the angle or thread between the bubbles1 that the great holes or pores observable in these ,sponges were made by the eruption of the included ,heterogeneous substance 7whether air1 or some other body1 for many other fluid bodies will do the same thing7 which breaking out of the lesser1 were collected into very large bubbles1 and so might make their way out of the ,sponge1 and in their passage might leave a round cavity2 and if it were large1 might carry up with it the adjacent bubbles1 which may be perceiv'd at the outside of the ,sponge1 if it be first throughly wetted1 and sufferr'd to plump itself into its natural form1 or be then wrung dry1 and suffer'd to expand it self again1 which it will freely do whil'st moist3 for when it has thus plump'd it self into its natural shape and dimensions1 'tis obvious enough that the mouths of the larger holes have a kind of lip or rising round about them1 but the other smaller pores have little or none4 ,it may further be found1 that each of these great pores has many other small pores below1 that are united unto it1 and help to constitute it1 almost like so many rivulets or small streams that contribute to the maintenance of a large ,river4 ,nor from this ,hypothesis would it have been difficult to explicate1 how those little branches of ,coral1 smal ,stones1 shells1 and the like1 come to be included by these frothy bodies3 ,but this indeed was but a conjecture2 and upon a more accurate enquiry into the form of it with the ,microscope1 it seems not to be the true origine of them2 for whereas ,sponges have onely three arms which join together at each knot1 if they had been generated from bubbles they must have had four4 ,but that they are ,animal ,substances1 the ,chymical examination of them seems to manifest1 they affording a volatil ,salt and spirit1 like ,harts-,horn1 as does also their great strength and toughness1 and their smell when burn'd in the ,fire or a ,candle1 which has a kind of fleshy sent1 not much unlike to hair4 ,and having since examin'd several ,authors concerning them1 among others2 ,i find this account given by ,bellonius1 in the ,,xi4 ,chap4 of his #b;d ,book1 ,de ,aquatilibus4 ,spongi recentes1 says he1 siccis longe divers1 scopulis aqu marin ad duos vel tres cubitos1 nonnunquam quatuor tantum digitos immersis1 ut fungi arboribus adhrent1 sordido quodam succo aut mucosa potius sanie rfert1 usque ade ftida1 ut vel eminus nauseam excitet1 continetur autem iis cavernis1 quas inanes in siccis lotis ,spongiis cernimus3 ,putris pulmonis modo nigr conspiciuntur1 verm qu in sublimi aqu nascuntur multo magis opaca nigredine suffus sunt4 ,vivere quidem ,spongias adhrendo ,aristoteles censet3 absolute vero minime3 sensumque aliquem habere1 vel eo argumento 7inquit7 credantur1 quod difficillime abstrahantur1 nisi clanculum agatur3 ,atq2 ad avulsoris accessum ita contrahantur1 ut eas evellere difficile sit1 quod idem etiam faciunt quoties flatus tempestatsque urgent4 ,puto autem illis succum sordidum quem supra diximus carnis loco natura attributum fuisse3 atque meatibus latioribus tanquam intestinis aut interaneis uti4 ,cterum pars ea qu ,spongi cautibus adhrent est tanquam folii petiolus1 quo veluti collum quoddam gracile incipit3 quod deinde in latitudinem diffusum capitis globum facit4 ,recentibus nihil est fistulosum1 hsitantque tanquam radicibus4 ,superne omnes propemodum meatus concreti latent3 inferne ver quaterni aut quini patent1 per quos eas sugere existimamus4 ,from which ,description1 they seem to be a kind of ,plant-,animal that adheres to a ,rock1 and these small fibres or threads which we have described1 seem to have been the ,vessels which 7'tis very probable7 were very much bigger whil'st the ,interstitia were fill'd 7as he affirms7 with a mucous1 pulpy or fleshy substance2 but upon the drying were shrunk into the bigness they now appear4 ,the texture of it is such1 that ,i have not yet met with any other body in the world that has the like1 but onely one of a larger sort of ,sponge 7which is preserv'd in the ,museum ,harveanum belonging to the most ,illustrious and most learned ,society of the ,physicians of ,london7 which is of a horney1 or rather of a petrify'd substance4 ,and of this indeed1 the texture and make is exactly the same with common ,sponges1 but onely that both the holes and the fibres1 or texture of it is exceedingly much bigger1 for some of the holes were above an ,inch and half over1 and the fibres and texture of it was bigg enough to be distinguished easily with ones eye1 but conspicuously with an ordinary single ,microscope4 ,and these indeed1 seem'd to have been the habitation of some ,animal2 and examining ,aristotle1 ,i find a very consonant account hereunto1 namely1 that he had known a certain little ,animal1 call'd ,pinnothera1 like a ,spider1 to be bred in those caverns of a ,sponge1 from within which1 by opening and closing those holes1 he insnares and catches the little ,fishes2 and in another place he says1 ,that 'tis very confidently reported1 that there are certain ,moths or ,worms that reside in the cavities of a ,sponge1 and are there nourished3 ,notwithstanding all which ,histories1 ,i think it well worth the enquiring into the ,history and nature of a ,sponge1 it seeming to promise some information of the ,vessels in ,animal substances1 which 7by reason of the solidity of the interserted flesh that is not easily remov'd1 without destroying also those interspers'd ,vessels7 are hitherto undiscover'd2 whereas here in a ,sponge1 the ,parenchyma1 it seems1 is but a kind of mucous gelly1 which is very easily and clearly wash'd away4 ,the reason that makes me imagine1 that there may probably be some such texture in ,animal substances1 is1 that examining the texture of the filaments of tann'd ,leather1 ,i find it to be much of the same nature and strength of a ,sponge2 and with my ,microscope1 ,i have observ'd many such joints and knobs1 as ,i have described in ,sponges1 the fibres also in the hollow of several sorts of ,bones1 after the ,marrow has been remov'd1 ,i have found somewhat to resemble this texture1 though1 ,i confess1 ,i never yet found any texture exactly the same1 nor any for curiosity comparable to it4 ,the filaments of it are much smaller then those of ,silk1 and through the ,microscope appear very neer as transparent1 nay1 some parts of them ,i have observ'd much more4 ,having examin'd also several kinds of ,mushroms1 ,i finde their texture to be somewhat of this kind1 that is1 to consist of an infinite company of small filaments1 every way contex'd and woven together1 so as to make a kind of cloth1 and more particularly1 examining a piece of ,touch-wood 7which is a kind ,jews-ear1 or ,mushrom1 growing here in ,england also1 on several sorts of ,trees1 such as ,elders1 ,maples1 ,willows1 c4 and is commonly call'd by the name of ,spunk2 but that we meet with to be sold in ,shops1 is brought from beyond ,seas7 ,i found it to be made of an exceeding delicate texture3 ,for the substance of it feels1 and looks to the naked eye1 and may be stretch'd any way1 exactly like a very fine piece of ,chamois ,leather1 or wash'd ,leather1 but it is of somewhat a browner hew1 and nothing neer so strong2 but examining it with my ,microscope1 ,i found it of somewhat another make then any kind of ,leather2 for whereas both ,chamois1 and all other kinds of ,leather ,i have yet view'd1 consist of an infinite company of filaments1 somewhat like bushes interwoven one within another1 that is1 of bigger parts or stems1 as it were1 and smaller branchings that grow out of them2 or like a heap of ,ropes ends1 where each of the larger ,ropes by degrees seem to split or untwist1 into many smaller ,cords1 and each of those ,cords into smaller ,lines1 and those ,lines into ,threads1 c4 and these strangely intangled1 or interwoven one within another3 ,the texture of this ,touch-wood seems more like that of a ,lock or a ,fleece of ,wool1 for it consists of an infinite number of small filaments1 all of them1 as farr as ,i could perceive1 of the same bigness like those of a ,sponge1 but that the filaments of this were not a twentieth part of the bigness of those of a ,sponge2 and ,i could not so plainly perceive their joints1 or their manner of interweaving1 though1 as farr as ,i was able to discern with that ,microscope ,i had1 ,i suppose it to have some kind of resemblance1 but the joints are nothing neer so thick1 nor without much trouble visible4 ,the filaments ,i could plainly enough perceive to be even1 round1 cylindrical1 transparent bodies1 and to cross each other every way1 that is1 there were not more seem'd to lie horizontally then perpendicularly and thwartway1 so that it is somewhat difficult to conceive how they should grow in that manner4 ,by tearing off a small piece of it1 and looking on the ragged edge1 ,i could among several of those fibres perceive small joints1 that is1 one of those hairs split into two1 each of the same bigness with the other out of which they seem'd to grow1 but having not lately had an opportunity of examining their manner of growth1 ,i cannot positively affirm any thing of them4 ,but to proceed1 ,the swelling of ,sponges upon wetting1 and the rising of the ,water in it above the surface of the ,water that it touches1 are both from the same cause1 of which an account is already given in the sixth ,observation4 ,the substance of them indeed1 has so many excellent properties1 scarce to be met with in any other body in the world1 that ,i have often wondered that so little use is made of it1 and those onely vile and sordid2 certainly1 if it were well consider'd1 it would afford much greater conveniencies4 ,that use which the ,divers are said to make of it1 seems1 if true1 very strange1 but having made trial of it my self1 by dipping a small piece of it in very good ,sallet-oyl1 and putting it in my mouth1 and then keeping my mouth and nose under water1 ,i could not find any such thing2 for ,i was as soon out of breath as if ,i had had no ,sponge1 nor could ,i fetch my breath without taking in water at my mouth2 but ,i am very apt to think1 that were there a contrivance whereby the expir'd air might be forc'd to pass through a wet or oyly ,sponge before it were again inspir'd1 it might much cleanse1 and strain away from the ,air divers fuliginous and other noisome steams1 and the dipping of it in certain liquors might1 perhaps1 so renew that property in the ,air which it loses in the ,lungs1 by being breath'd1 that one square foot of ,air might last a man for respiration much longer1 perhaps1 then ten will now serve him of common ,air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxiii4 ,of the curious texture of ,sea-weeds4 ,for curiosity and beauty1 ,i have not among all the ,plants or ,vegetables ,i have yet observ'd1 seen any one comparable to this ,sea-weed ,i have here describ'd1 of which ,i am able to say very little more then what is represented by the second ,figure of the ninth ,scheme3 ,namely1 that it is a ,plant which grows upon the ,rocks under the water1 and increases and spreads it self into a great tuft1 which is not onely handsomely branch'd into several leaves1 but the whole surface of the ,plant is cover'd over with a most curious kind of carv'd work1 which consists of a texture much resembling a ,honey-comb2 for the whole surface on both sides is cover'd over with a multitude of very small holes1 being no bigger then so many holes made with the point of a small ,pinn1 and rang'd in the neatest and most delicate order imaginable1 they being plac'd in the manner of a ,quincunx1 or very much like the rows of the eyes of a ,fly1 the rows or orders being very regular1 which way soever they are observ'd3 what the texture was1 as it appear'd through a pretty bigg ,magnifying ,microscope1 ,i have here adjoin'd in the first ,figure of the #ad4 ,scheme4 which round ,area ,,abcd represents a part of the surface about one eighth part of an ,inch in ,diameter3 ,those little holes1 which to the eye look'd round1 like so many little spots1 here appear'd very regularly shap'd holes1 representing almost the shape of the sole of a round toed shoe1 the hinder part of which1 is1 as it were1 trod on or cover'd by the toe of that next below it2 these holes seem'd wall'd about with a very thin and transparent substance1 looking of a pale straw-colour2 from the edge of which1 against the middle of each hole1 were sprouted out four small transparent straw-colour'd ,thorns1 which seem'd to protect and cover those cavities1 from either side two2 neer the root of this ,plant1 were sprouted out several small branches of a kind of bastard ,coralline1 curiously branch'd1 though small4 ,and to confirm this1 having lately the opportunity of viewing the large ,plant 7if ,i may so call it7 of a ,sponge petrify'd1 of which ,i made mention in the last ,observation1 ,i found1 that each of the ,branches or ,figures of it1 did1 by the range of its pores1 exhibit just such a texture1 the rows of pores crossing one another1 much after the manner as the rows of eyes do which are describ'd in the #bf4 ,scheme3 ,coralline also1 and several sorts of white ,coral1 ,i have with a ,microscope observ'd very curiously shap'd4 ,and ,i doubt not1 but that he that shall observe these several kinds of ,plants that grow upon ,rocks1 which the ,sea sometimes overflows1 and those heaps of others which are vomited out of it upon the shore1 may find multitudes of little ,plants1 and other bodies1 which like this will afford very beautifull objects for the ,microscope2 and this ,specimen here is adjoin'd onely to excite their curiosities who have opportunity of observing to examine and collect what they find worthy their notice2 for the ,sea1 among terrestrial bodies1 is also a prolifick mother1 and affords as many ,instances of spontaneous generations as either the ,air or ,earth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxiv4 ,of the surfaces of ,rosemary1 and other leaves4 ,this which is delineated within the circle of the second ,figure of the #ad4 ,scheme1 is a small part of the back or under side of a leaf of ,rosemary1 which ,i did not therefore make choice of because it had any thing peculiar which was not observable with a ,microscope in several other ,plants1 but because it exhibits at one view1 ,first1 a smooth and shining surface1 namely1 ,,ab1 which is a part of the upper side of the leaf1 that by a kind of hem or doubling of the leaf appears on this side4 ,there are multitudes of leaves1 whose surfaces are like this smooth1 and as it were quilted1 which look like a curious quilted bagg of green ,silk1 or like a ,bladder1 or some such pliable transparent substance1 full stuffed out with a green juice or liquor2 the surface of ,rue1 or ,herbgrass1 is polish'd1 and all over indented1 or pitted1 like the ,silk-worm's ,egg1 which ,i shall anon describe2 the smooth surfaces of other ,plants are otherwise quilted1 ,nature in this1 as it were1 expressing her ,needle-work1 or imbroidery4 ,next a downy or bushy surface1 such as is all the under side almost1 appearing through the ,microscope much like a thicket of bushes1 and with this kind of ,down or ,hair the leaves and stalks of multitudes of ,vegetables are covered2 and there seems to be as great a variety in the shape1 bulk1 and manner of the growing of these secundary ,plants1 as ,i may call them 7they being1 as it were1 a ,plant growing out of a ,plant1 or somewhat like the hairs of ,animals7 as there is to be found amongst small shrubs that compose bushes2 but for the most part1 they consist of small transparent parts1 some of which grow in the shape of small ,needles or ,bodkins1 as on the ,thistle1 ,cowag-ecod and ,nettle2 others in the form of ,cat's claws1 as in ,cliders1 the beards of ,barley1 the edges of several sorts of ,grass and ,reeds1 c4 in other1 as ,coltsfoot1 ,rose-campion1 ,aps1 ,poplar1 ,willow1 and almost all other downy ,plants1 they grow in the form of bushes very much diversify'd in each particular ,plant1 ,that which ,i have before in the #ai4 ,observation noted on ,rose leaves1 is of a quite differing kind1 and seems indeed a real ,vegetable1 distinct from the leaf4 ,thirdly1 among these small bushes are observable an infinite company of small round ,balls1 exactly ,globular1 and very much resembling ,pearls1 namely1 ,,cccc1 of these there maybe multitudes observ'd in ,sage1 and several other ,plants1 which ,i suppose was the reason why ,athanasius ,kircher supposed them to be all cover'd with ,spiders ,eggs1 or young ,spiders1 which indeed is nothing else but some kind of gummous exsudation1 which is always much of the same bigness4 ,at first sight of these1 ,i confess1 ,i imagin'd that they might have been some kind of matrices1 or nourishing receptacles for some small ,insect1 just as ,i have found ,oak-apples1 and multitudes of such other large excrescencies on the leaves and other parts of ,trees and shrubs to be for ,flyes1 and divers other ,insects1 but observing them to be there all the year1 and scarce at all to change their magnitude1 that conjecture seem'd not so probable4 ,but what ever be the use of it1 it affords a very pleasant object through the ,microscope1 and may1 perhaps1 upon further examination1 prove very luciferous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxv4 ,of the stinging points and juice of ,nettles1 and some other venomous ,plants4 ,a ,nettle is a ,plant so well known to every one1 as to what the appearance of it is to the naked eye1 that it needs no description2 and there are very few that have not felt as well as seen it2 and therefore it will be no news to tell that a gentle and slight touch of the skin by a ,nettle1 does oftentime1 not onely create very sensible and acute pain1 much like that of a burn or scald1 but often also very angry and hard swellings and inflamations of the parts1 such as will presently rise1 and continue swoln divers hours4 ,these observations1 ,i say1 are common enough2 but how the pain is so suddenly created1 and by what means continued1 augmented for a time1 and afterwards diminish'd1 and at length quite exstinguish'd1 has not1 that ,i know1 been explain'd by any4 ,and here we must have recourse to our ,microscope1 and that will1 if almost any part of the ,plant be looked on1 shew us the whole surface of it very thick set with turn-,pikes1 or sharp ,needles1 of the shape of those represented in the #ae4 ,scheme and first ,figure by ,,ab1 which are visible also to the naked eye2 each of which consists of two parts very distinct for shape1 and differing also in quality from one another4 ,for the part ,a1 is shaped very much like a round ,bodkin1 from ,b tapering till it end in a very sharp point2 it is of substance very hard and stiff1 exceedingly transparent and cleer1 and1 as ,i by many trials certainly found1 is hollow from top to bottom4 ,this ,i found by this ,experiment1 ,i had a very convenient ,microscope with a single ,glass which drew about half an ,inch1 this ,i had fastned into a little frame1 almost like a pair of ,spectacles1 which ,i placed before mine eyes1 and so holding the leaf of a ,nettle at a convenient distance from my eye1 ,i did first1 with the thrusting of several of these bristles into my skin1 perceive that presently after ,i had thrust them in ,i felt the burning pain begin2 next ,i observ'd in divers of them1 that upon thrusting my finger against their tops1 the ,bodkin 7if ,i may so call it7 did not in the least bend1 but ,i could perceive moving up and down within it a certain liquor1 which upon thrusting the ,bodkin against its basis1 or bagg ,b1 ,i could perceive to rise towards the top1 and upon taking away my hand1 ,i could see it again subside1 and shrink into the bagg2 this ,i did very often1 and saw this ,phnomenon as plain as ,i could ever see a parcel of water ascend and descend in a pipe of ,glass4 ,but the basis underneath these ,bodkins on which they were fast1 were made of a more pliable substance1 and looked almost like a little bagg of green ,leather1 or rather resembled the shape and surface of a wilde ,cucumber1 or cucumeris asinini1 and ,i could plainly perceive them to be certain little baggs1 bladders1 or receptacles full of water1 or as ,i ghess1 the liquor of the ,plant1 which was poisonous1 and those small ,bodkins were but the ,syringe-pipes1 or ,glyster-pipes1 which first made way into the skin1 and then served to convey that poisonous juice1 upon the pressing of those little baggs1 into the interior and sensible parts of the skin1 which being so discharg'd1 does corrode1 or1 as it were1 burn that part of the skin it touches2 and this pain will sometimes last very long1 according as the impression is made deeper or stronger4 ,the other parts of the leaf or surface of the ,nettle1 have very little considerable1 but what is common to most of these kinds of ,plants1 as the ruggedness or indenting1 and hairiness1 and other roughnesses of the surface or outside of the ,plant1 of which ,i may say more in another place4 ,as ,i shall likewise of certain little pretty cleer ,balls or ,apples which ,i have observed to stick to the sides of these leaves1 both on the upper and under side1 very much like the small ,apples which ,i have often observ'd to grow on the leaves of an ,oak call'd ,oak-apples which are nothing but the ,matrices of an ,infect1 as ,i elsewhere shew4 ,the chief thing therefore is1 how this ,plant comes1 by so slight a touch1 to create so great a pain2 and the reason of this seems to be nothing else1 but the corrosive penetrant liquor contain'd in the small baggs or bladders1 upon which grow out those sharp ,syringe-pipes1 as ,i before noted2 and very consonant to this1 is the reason of the pain created by the sting of a ,bee1 ,wasp1 c4 as ,i elsewhere shew3 ,for by the ,dart1 which is likewise a pipe1 is made a deep passage into the skin1 and then by the anger of the ,fly1 is his gally poisonous liquor injected2 which being admitted among the sensible parts1 and so mix'd with the humours or stagnating juices of that part1 does create an ,ebullition perhaps1 or effervescens1 as is usually observ'd in the mingling of two differing ,chymical saline liquors1 by which means the parts become swell'd1 hard1 and very painfull2 for thereby the nervous and sensible parts are not onely stretch'd and strain'd beyond their natural tone1 but are also prick'd1 perhaps1 or corroded by the pungent and incongruous parts of the intruded liquor4 ,and this seems to be the reason1 why ,aqua fortis1 and other saline liquors1 if they come to touch the sensitive parts1 as in a cut of the skin1 or the like1 do so violently and intollerably excruciate and torment the ,patient4 ,and 'tis not unlikely1 but the ,inventors of that ,diabolical practice of poisoning the points of ,arrows and ,ponyards1 might receive their first hint from some such ,instance in natural contrivances1 as this of the ,nettle3 for the ground why such poison'd weapons kill so infallibly as they do1 seems no other then this of our ,nettle's stinging2 for the ,ponyard or ,dart makes a passage or entrance into the sensitive or vital parts of the body1 whereby the contagious substance comes to be dissolv'd by1 and mix'd with the fluid parts or humours of the body1 and by that means spreads it self by degrees into the whole liquid part of the body1 in the same manner1 as a few grains of ,salt1 put into a great quantity of ,water1 will by degrees diffuse it self over the whole4 ,and this ,i take to be the reason of killing of ,toads1 ,frogs1 ,effs1 and several ,fishes1 by strewing ,salt on their backs 7which ,experiment was shewn to the ,royal ,society by a very ingenious ,gentleman1 and a worthy ,member of it7 for those creatures having always a continual exsudation1 as it were1 of slimy and watry parts1 sweating out of the pores of their skin1 the saline particles1 by that means obtain a vehicle1 which conveys them into the internal and vital parts of the body4 ,this seems also to be the reason why bathing in ,mineral waters are such soveraign remedies for multitudes of distempers1 especially chronical2 for the liquid warm vehicles of the ,mineral particles1 which are known to be in very considerable quantities in those healing baths1 by the body's long stay in them1 do by degrees steep and insinuate themselves into the pores and parts of the skin1 and thereby those ,mineral particles have their ways and passages open'd to penetrate into the inner parts1 and mingle themselves with the stagnant juices of the several parts2 besides1 many of those offensive parts which were united with those stagnant juices1 and which were contrary to the natural constitution of the parts1 and so become irksome and painfull to the body1 but could not be discharged1 because ,nature had made no provision for such accidental mischiefs1 are1 by means of this soaking1 and filling the pores of the skin with a liquor1 afforded a passage through that liquor that fills the pores into the ambient fluid1 and thereby the body comes to be discharged4 ,so that 'tis very evident1 there may be a good as well as an evil application of this ,principle4 ,and the ingenious ,invention of that ,excellent person1 ,doctor ,wren of injecting liquors into the veins of an ,animal1 seems to be reducible to this head3 ,i cannot stay1 nor is this a fit place1 to mention the several ,experiments made of this kind by the most incomparable ,mr4 ,boyle1 the multitudes made by the lately mention'd ,physician ,doctor ,clark1 the ,history whereof1 as he has been pleas'd to communicate to the ,royal ,society1 so he may perhaps be prevail'd with to make publique himself3 ,but ,i shall rather hint1 that certainly1 if this ,principle were well consider'd1 there might1 besides the further improving of ,bathing and ,syringing into the veins1 be thought on several ways1 whereby several obstinate distempers of a humane body1 such as the ,gout1 ,dropsie1 ,stone1 c4 might be master'd1 and expell'd2 and good men might make as good a use of it1 as evil men have made a perverse and ,diabolical4 ,and that the filling of the pores of the skin with some fluid vehicle1 is of no small efficacy towards the preparing a passage for several kinds of penetrant juices1 and other dissoluble bodies1 to insinuate themselves within the skin1 and into the sensitive parts of the body1 may be1 ,i think1 prov'd by an ,instance given us by ,bellonius1 in the #bf4 ,chapter of the second ,book of his ,observations1 which containing a very remarkable ,story ,i have here transcrib'd3 ,cum ,chamleonis nigri radices 7says he7 apud ,pagum quendam ,livadochorio nuncupatum erui curaremus1 plurimi ,grci ,turc spectatum venerunt quid erueremus1 eas vero frustulatim secabamus1 filo trajiciebamus ut facilius exsiccari possent4 ,turc in eo negotio occupatos nos videntes1 similiter eas radices tractare secare voluerunt3 at cum summus esset stus1 omnes sudore maderent1 quicunque eam radicem manibus tractaverant sudoremque absterserant1 aut faciem digitis scalpserant1 tantam pruriginem iis locis quos attigerant postea senserunt1 ut aduri viderentur4 ,chamleonis enim nigri radix ea virtute pollet1 ut cuti applicata ipsam adeo inflammet1 ut nec squill1 nec urtic ull centesima parte ita adurent3 ,at prurigo non adeo celeriter sese prodit4 ,post unam aut alteram porro horam1 singuli variis faciei locis cutem adeo inflammatam habere cpimus ut tota sanguinea videretur1 atque quo magis eam confricabamus1 tanto magis excitabatur prurigo4 ,fonti assidebamus sub platano1 atque initio pro ludicro habebamus ridebamus3 at tandem illi plurimum indignati sunt1 nisi asseverassemus nunquam expertos tali virtute eam plantam pollere1 haud dubie male nos multassent1 ,attamen nostra excusatio fuit ab illis facilitus accepta1 cum eodem incommodo nos affectos conspicerent4 ,mirum sane quod in tantillo radice tam ingentem efficaciam nostro malo experti sumus4 ,by which observation of his1 it seems manifest1 that their being all cover'd with sweat who gather'd and cut this root of the black ,chameleon ,thistle1 was the great reason why they suffer'd that inconvenience1 for it seems the like circumstance had not been before that noted1 nor do ,i find any mention of such a property belonging to this ,vegetable in any of the ,herbals ,i have at present by me4 ,i could give very many ,observations which ,i have made of this kind1 whereby ,i have found that the best way to get a body to be insinuated into the substance or insensible pores of another1 is first1 to find a fluid vehicle that has some congruity1 both to the body to be insinuated1 and to the body into whose pores you would have the other convey'd4 ,and in this ,principle lies the great mystery of staining several sorts of bodies1 as ,marble1 ,woods1 ,bones1 c4 and of ,dying ,silks1 ,cloaths1 ,wools1 ,feathers1 c4 ,but these being digressions1 ,i shall proceed to3 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxvi4 ,of ,cowage1 and the itching operation of some bodies4 ,there is a certain ,down of a ,plant1 brought from the ,east-,indies1 call'd commonly1 though very improperly1 ,cow-itch1 the reason of which mistake is manifest enough from the description of it1 which ,mr4 ,parkinson sets down in his ,herbal1 ,tribe ,,xi4 ,chap4 #b4 ,phasiolus siliqua hirsuta2 ,the hairy ,kidney-bean1 called in ,zurratte where it grows1 ,couhage3 ,we have had 7says he7 another of this kind brought us out of the ,east-,indies1 which being planted was in shew like the former1 but came not to perfection1 the unkindly season not suffering it to shew the flower2 but of the ,cods that were brought1 some were smaller1 shorter1 and rounder then the ,garden kind2 others much longer1 and many growing together1 as it were in clusters1 and cover'd all over with a brown short hairiness1 so fine1 that if any of it be rubb'd1 or fall on the back of ones hand1 or other tender parts of the skin1 it will cause a kind of itching1 but not strong1 nor long induring1 but passing quickly away1 without either danger or harm2 the ,beans were smaller then ordinary1 and of a black shining colour4 ,having one of these ,cods given me by a ,sea-,captain1 who had frequented those parts1 ,i found it to be a small ,cod1 about three ,inches long1 much like a short ,cod of ,french ,beans1 which had six ,beans in it1 the whole surface of it was cover'd over with a very thick and shining brown ,down or ,hair1 which was very fine1 and for its bigness stiff2 taking some of this ,down1 and rubbing it on the back of my hand1 ,i found very little or no trouble1 only ,i was sensible that several of these little downy parts with rubbing did penetrate1 and were sunk1 or stuck pretty deep into my skin4 ,after ,i had thus rubb'd it for a pretty while1 ,i felt very little or no pain1 in so much that ,i doubted1 whether it were the true ,couhage2 but whil'st ,i was considering2 ,i found the ,down begin to make my hand itch1 and in some places to smart again1 much like the stinging of a ,flea or ,gnat1 and this continued a pretty while1 so that by degrees ,i found my skin to be swell'd with little red pustules1 and to look as if it had been itchie4 ,but suffering it without rubbing or scratching1 the itching tickling pain quickly grew languid1 and within an hour ,i felt nothing at all1 and the little protuberancies were vanish'd4 ,the cause of which odd ,phnomenon1 ,i suppose to be much the same with that of the stinging of a ,nettle1 for by the ,microscope1 ,i discover'd this ,down to consist of a multitude of small and slender conical bodies1 much resembling ,needles or ,bodkins1 such as are represented by ,,ab4 ,,cd4 ,,ef4 of the first ,figure of the ,,xvi4 ,scheme2 that their ends ,,aaa1 were very sharp1 and the substance of them stiff and hard1 much like the substance of several kinds of ,thorns and crooks growing on ,trees4 ,and though they appear'd very cleer and transparent1 yet ,i could not perceive whether they were hollow or not1 but to me they appear'd like solid transparent bodies1 without any cavity in them2 whether1 though they might not be a kind of ,cane1 fill'd with some transparent liquor which was hardned 7because the ,cod which ,i had was very dry7 ,i was not able to examine4 ,now1 being such stiff1 sharp bodies1 it is easie to conceive1 how with rubbing they might easily be thrust into the tender parts of the skin1 and there1 by reason of their exceeding fineness and driness1 not create any considerable trouble or pain1 till by remaining in those places moistned with the humours of the body1 some caustick part sticking on them1 or residing within them might be dissolv'd and mix'd with the ambient juices of that place1 and thereby those fibres and tender parts adjoyning become affected1 and as it were corroded by it2 whence1 while that action lasts1 the pains created are pretty sharp and pungent1 though small1 which is the essential property of an itching one4 ,that the pain also caused by the stinging of a ,flea1 a ,gnat1 a ,flie1 a ,wasp1 and the like1 proceeds much from the very same cause1 ,i elsewhere in their proper places endeavour to manifest4 ,the stinging also of shred ,hors-hair1 which in meriment is often strew'd between the sheets of a ,bed1 seems to proceed from the same cause4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxvii4 ,of the ,beard of a wilde ,oat1 and the use that may be made of it for exhibiting always to the ,eye the temperature of the ,air1 as to driness and moisture4 ,this ,beard of a wild ,oat1 is a body of a very curious structure1 though to the naked ,eye it appears very slight1 and inconsiderable1 it being only a small black or brown ,beard or ,bristle1 which grows out of the side of the inner ,husk that covers the ,grain of a wild ,oat2 the whole length of it1 when put in ,water1 so that it may extend it self to its full length1 is not above an ,inch and a half1 and for the most part somewhat shorter1 but when the ,grain is ripe1 and very dry1 which is usually in the ,moneths of ,july1 and ,august1 this ,beard is bent somewhat below the middle1 namely1 about from the bottom of it1 almost to a right ,angle1 and the under part of it is wreath'd lik a ,with2 the substance of it is very brittle when dry1 and it will very easily be broken from the husk on which it grows4 ,if you take one of these ,grains1 and wet the ,beard in ,water1 you will presently see the small bended top to turn and move round1 as if it were sensible2 and by degrees1 if it be continued wet enough1 the joint or knee will streighten it self2 and if it be suffer'd to dry again1 it will by degrees move round another way1 and at length bend again into its former posture4 ,if it be view'd with an ordinary single ,microscope1 it will appear like a small wreath'd ,sprig1 with two clefts2 and if wet as before1 and then look'd on with this ,microscope1 it will appear to unwreath it self1 and by degrees1 to streighten its knee1 and the two clefts will become streight1 and almost on opposite sides of the small cylindrical body4 ,if it be continued to be look'd on a little longer with a ,microscope1 it will within a little while begin to wreath it self again1 and soon after return to its former posture1 bending it self again neer the middle1 into a kind of knee or angle4 ,several of those bodies ,i examin'd with larger ,microscopes1 and there found them much of the make of those two long wreath'd cylinders delineated in the second ,figure of the #ae4 ,scheme1 which two cylinders represent the wreathed part broken into two pieces1 whereof the end ,,ab is to be suppos'd to have join'd to the end ,,cd1 so that ,,eacf does represent the whole wreath'd part of the ,beard1 and ,,eg a small piece of the upper part of the ,beard which is beyond the knee1 which as ,i had not room to insert1 so was it not very considerable1 either for its form1 or any known property2 but the under or wreathed part is notable for both3 ,as to its form1 it appear'd1 if it were look'd on side-ways1 almost like a ,willow1 or a small tapering rod of ,hazel1 the lower or bigger half of which onely1 is twisted round several times1 in some three1 in others more1 in others less1 according to the bigness and maturity of the ,grain on which it grew1 and according to the driness and moisture of the ambient ,air1 as ,i shall shew more at large by and by4 ,the whole outward ,superficies of this ,cylindrical body is curiously adorned or fluted with little channels1 and interjacent ridges1 or little protuberances between them1 which run the whole length of the ,beard1 and are streight where the ,beard is not twisted1 and wreath'd where it is1 just after the same manner3 each of those sides is beset pretty thick with small ,bristes or ,thorns1 somewhat in form resembling that of ,porcupines ,quills1 such as aaaaa in the ,figure2 all whose points are directed like so many ,turn-pikes towards the small end or top of the ,beard1 which is the reason1 why1 if you endeavour to draw the ,beard between your fingers the contrary way1 you will find it to stick1 and grate1 as it were1 against the skin4 ,the proportion of these small conical bodies aaaaa to that whereon they grow1 the ,figure will sufficiently shew1 as also their manner of growing1 their thickness1 and nearness to each other1 as1 that towards the root or bottom of the ,beard1 they are more thin1 and much shorter1 insomuch that there is usually left between the top of the one1 and the bottom of that next above it1 more then the length of one of them1 and that towards the top of the ,beard they grow more thick and close 7though there be fewer ridges7 so that the root1 and almost half the upper are hid by the tops of those next below them4 ,i could not perceive any transverse pores1 unless the whole wreath'd part were separated and cleft1 in those little channels1 by the wreathing into so many little strings as there were ridges1 which was very difficult to determine2 but there were in the wreathed part two very conspicuous channels or clefts1 which were continued from the bottom ,f to the elbow ,,eh or all along the part which was wreath'd1 which seem'd to divide the wreath'd ,cylinder into two parts1 a bigger and a less2 the bigger was that which was at the convex side of the knee1 namely1 on the side ,a1 and was wreath'd by ,,ooooo2 this1 as it seem'd the broader1 so did it also the longer1 the other ,,ppppp1 which was usually purs'd or wrinckled in the bending of the knee1 as about ,e1 seem'd both the shorter and narrower1 so that at first ,i thought the wreathing and unwreathing of the ,beard might have been caus'd by the shrinking or swelling of that part2 but upon further examination1 ,i found that the clefts1 ,,kk1 ,,ll1 were stuft up with a kind of ,spongie substance1 which1 for the most part1 was very conspicuous neer the knee1 as in the cleft ,,kk1 when the ,beard was dry2 upon the discovery of which1 ,i began to think1 that it was upon the swelling of this porous pith upon the access of moisture or water that the ,beard1 being made longer in the midst1 was streightned1 and by the shrinking or subsiding of the parts of that ,spongie substance together1 when the water or moisture was exhal'd or dried1 the pith or middle parts growing shorter1 the whole became twisted4 ,but this ,i cannot be positive in1 for upon cutting the wreath'd part in many places transversly1 ,i was not so well satisfy'd with the shape and manner of the pores of the pith2 for looking on these transverse ,sections with a very good ,microscope1 ,i found that the ends of those transverse ,sections appear'd much of the manner of the third ,figure of the #ae4 scheme ,,abcfe1 and the middle of pith ,,cc1 seem'd very full of pores indeed1 but all of them seem'd to run the long-ways4 ,this ,figure plainly enough shews in what manner those clefts1 ,k and ,l divided the wreath'd ,cylinder into two unequal parts1 and also of what kind of substance the whole body consists2 for by cutting the same ,beard in many places1 with transverse ,sections1 ,i found much the same appearance with this express'd2 so that those pores seem to run1 as in most other such ,cany bodies1 the whole length of it4 ,the clefts of this body ,,kk1 and ,,ll1 seem'd 7as is also express'd in the ,figure7 to wind very oddly in the inner part of the wreath1 and in some parts of them1 they seem'd stuffed1 as it were1 with that ,spongie substance1 which ,i just now described4 ,this so oddly constituted ,vegetable substance1 is first 7that ,i have met with7 taken notice of by ,baptista ,porta1 in his ,natural ,magick1 as a thing known to children and ,juglers1 and it has been call'd by some of those last named persons1 the better to cover their cheat1 the ,legg of an ,arabian ,spider1 or the ,legg of an inchanted ,egyptian fly1 and has been used by them to make a small ,index1 ,cross1 or the like1 to move round upon the wetting of it with a drop of ,water1 and muttering certain words4 ,but the use that has been made of it1 for the discovery of the various constitutions of the ,air1 as to driness and moistness1 is incomparably beyond any other1 for this it does to admiration3 ,the manner of contriving it so1 as to perform this great effect1 is onely thus3 ,provide a good large ,box of ,ivory1 about four ,inches over1 and of what depth you shall judge convenient 7according to your intention of making use of one1 two1 three1 or more of these small ,beards1 ordered in the manner which ,i shall by and by describe7 let all the sides of this ,box be turned of ,basket-work 7which here in ,london is easily enough procur'd7 full of holes1 in the manner almost of a ,lettice1 the bigger1 or more the holes are1 the better1 that so the ,air may have the more free passage to the inclosed ,beard1 and may the more easily pass through the ,instrument2 it will be better yet1 though not altogether so handsom1 if insteed of the ,basket-work on the sides of the ,box1 the bottom and top of the ,box be join'd together onely with three or four small ,pillars1 after the manner represented in the #d4 ,figure of the #ae4 ,scheme4 ,or1 if you intend to make use of many of these small ,beards join'd together1 you may have a small long ,case of ,ivory1 whose sides are turn'd of ,basket-work1 full of holes1 which may be screw'd on to the underside of a broad ,plate of ,ivory1 on the other side of which is to be made the divided ,ring or ,circle1 to which divisions the pointing of the ,hand or ,index1 which is moved by the conjoin'd ,beard1 may shew all the ,minute variations of the ,air4 ,there may be multitudes of other ways for contriving this small ,instrument1 so as to produce this effect1 which any one may1 according to his peculiar use1 and the exigency of his present occasion1 easily enough contrive and take1 on which ,i shall not therefore insist4 ,the whole manner of making any one of them is thus3 ,having your ,box or frame ,,aabb1 fitly adapted for the free passage of the ,air through it1 in the midst of the bottom ,,bbb1 you must have a very small hole ,c1 into which the lower end of the ,beard is to be fix'd1 the upper end of which ,beard ab1 is to pass through a small hole of a ,plate1 or top ,,aa1 if you make use onely of a single one1 and on the top of it e1 is to be fix'd a small and very light ,index fg1 made of a very thin sliver of a ,reed or ,cane2 but if you make use of two or more ,beards1 they must be fix'd and bound together1 either with a very fine piece of ,silk1 or with a very small touch of hard ,wax1 or ,glew1 which is better1 and the ,index fg1 is to be fix'd on the top of the second1 third1 or fourth in the same manner as on the single one4 ,now1 because that in every of these contrivances1 the ,index fg1 will with some temperatures of ,air1 move two1 three1 or more times round1 which without some other contrivance then this1 will be difficult to distinguish1 therefore ,i thought of this ,expedient3 ,the ,index or ,hand fg1 being rais'd a pretty way above the surface of the ,plate ,,aa1 fix in at a little distance from the middle of it a small ,pin h1 so as almost to touch the surface of the ,plate ,,aa1 and then in any convenient place of the surface of the ,plate1 fix a small ,pin1 on which put on a small piece of ,paper1 or thin ,pastboard1 ,vellom1 or ,parchment1 made of a convenient cize1 and shap'd in the manner of that in the ,figure express'd by ik1 so that having a convenient number of teeth every turn or return of the ,pin h1 may move this small indented ,circle1 a tooth forward or backwards1 by which means the teeth of the ,circle1 being mark'd1 it will be thereby very easie to know certainly1 how much variation any change of weather will make upon the small wreath'd body4 ,in the making of this ,secundary ,circle of ,vellom1 or the like1 great care is to be had1 that it be made exceeding light1 and to move very easily1 for otherwise a small variation will spoil the whole operation4 ,the ,box may be made of ,brass1 ,silver1 ,iron1 or any other substance1 if care be taken to make it open enough1 to let the ,air have a sufficiently free access to the ,beard4 ,the ,index also may be various ways contrived1 so as to shew both the number of the revolutions it makes1 and the ,minute divisions of each revolution4 ,i have made several trials and ,instruments for discovering the driness and moisture of the ,air with this little wreath'd body1 and find it to vary exceeding sensibly with the least change in the constitution of the ,air1 as to driness and moisture1 so that with one breathing upon it1 ,i have made it untwist a whole bout1 and the ,index or ,hand has shew'd or pointed to various divisions on the upper ,face or ,ring of the ,instrument1 according as it was carried neerer and neerer to the fire1 or as the heat of the ,sun increased upon it4 ,other trials ,i have made with ,gut-strings1 but find them nothing neer so sensible1 though they also may be so contriv'd as to exhibit the changes of the ,air1 as to driness and moisture1 both by their stretching and shrinking in length1 and also by their wreathing and unwreathing themselves2 but these are nothing neer so exact or so tender1 for their varying property will in a little time change very much4 ,but there are several other ,vegetable substances that are much more sensible then even this ,beard of a wilde ,oat2 such ,i have found the ,beard of the seed of ,musk-grass1 or ,geranium moschatum1 and those of other kinds of ,cranes-bil seeds1 and the like4 ,but always the smaller the wreathing substance be1 the more sensible is it of the mutations of the ,air1 a conjecture at the reason of which ,i shall by and by add4 ,the lower end of this wreath'd ,cylinder being stuck upright in a little soft ,wax1 so that the bended part or ,index of it lay horizontal1 ,i have observ'd it always with moisture to unwreath it self from the ,east 7,for instance7 by the ,south to the ,west1 and so by the ,north to the ,east again1 moving with the ,sun 7as we commonly say7 and with heat and drouth to re-twist2 and wreath it self the contrary way1 namely1 from the ,east1 7for instance7 by the ,north to the ,west1 and so onwards4 ,the cause of all which ,phnomena1 seems to be the differing texture of the parts of these bodies1 each of them 7especially the ,beard of a wilde ,oat1 and of ,mosk-grass seed7 seeming to have two kind of substances1 one that is very porous1 loose1 and spongie1 into which the watry steams of the ,air may be very easily forced1 which will be thereby swell'd and extended in its dimensions1 just as we may observe all kind of ,vegetable substance upon steeping in water to swell and grow bigger and longer4 ,and a second that is more hard and close1 into which the water can very little1 or not at all penetrate1 this therefore retaining always very neer the same dimensions1 and the other stretching and shrinking1 according as there is more or less moisture or water in its pores1 by reason of the make and shape of the parts1 the whole body must necessarily unwreath and wreath it self4 ,and upon this ,principle1 it is very easie to make several sorts of contrivances that should thus wreath and unwreath themselves1 either by heat and cold1 or by driness and moisture1 or by any greater or less force1 from whatever cause it proceed1 whether from gravity or weight1 or from wind which is motion of the ,air1 or from some springing body1 or the like4 ,this1 had ,i time1 ,i should enlarge much more upon2 for it seems to me to be the very first footstep of ,sensation1 and ,animate motion1 the most plain1 simple1 and obvious contrivance that ,nature has made use of to produce a motion2 next to that of ,rarefaction and ,condensation by heat and cold4 ,and were this ,principle very well examin'd1 ,i am very apt to think1 it would afford us a very great help to find out the ,mechanism of the ,muscles1 which indeed1 as farr as ,i have hitherto been able to examine1 seems to me not so very perplex as one might imagine1 especially upon the examination which ,i made of the ,muscles of ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 and several sorts of large ,shell-fish1 and comparing my ,observations on them1 with the circumstances ,i observ'd in the muscles of terrestrial ,animals4 ,now1 as in this ,instance of the ,beard of a wilde ,oat1 we see there is nothing else requisite to make it wreath and unwreath it self1 and to streighten and bend its knee1 then onely a little breath of moist or dry ,air1 or a small atome almost of water or liquor1 and a little heat to make it again evaporate1 for1 by holding this ,beard1 plac'd and fix'd as ,i before directed1 neer a ,fire1 and dipping the tip of a small shred of ,paper in well rectify'd spirit of ,wine1 and then touching the wreath'd ,cylindrical part1 you may perceive it to untwist it self2 and presently again1 upon the avolation of the spirit1 by the great heat1 it will re-twist it self1 and thus will it move forward and backwards as oft as you repeat the touching it with the spirit of ,wine2 so may1 perhaps1 the shrinking and relaxing of the muscles be by the influx and evaporation of some kind of liquor or juice4 ,but of this ,enquiry ,i shall add more elsewhere4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxviii4 ,of the ,seeds of ,venus looking-glass1 or ,corn ,violet4 ,from the ,leaves1 and ,downs1 and ,beards of ,plants1 we come at last to the ,seeds2 and here indeed seems to be the ,cabinet of ,nature1 wherein are laid up its ,jewels4 ,the providence of ,nature about ,vegetables1 is in no part manifested more1 then in the various contrivances about the seed1 nor indeed is there in any part of the ,vegetable so curious carvings1 and beautifull adornments1 as about the seed2 this in the larger sorts of seeds is most evident to the eye2 nor is it lest manifest through the ,microscope1 in those seeds whose shape and structure1 by reason of their smalness1 the eye is hardly able to distinguish4 ,of these there are multitudes1 many of which ,i have observ'd through a ,microscope1 and find1 that they do1 for the most part1 every one afford exceeding pleasant and beautifull objects4 ,for besides those that have various kinds of carv'd surfaces1 there are other that have smooth and perfectly polish'd surfaces1 others a downy hairy surface2 some are cover'd onely with a skin1 others with a kind of shell1 others with both1 as is observable also in greater seeds4 ,of these seeds ,i have onely described four sorts which may serve as a specimen of what the inquisitive observers are likely to find among the rest4 ,the first of these seeds which are described in the #ag4 ,scheme1 are those of ,corn-,violets1 the seed is very small1 black1 and shining1 and1 to the naked eye1 looks almost like a very small ,flea2 ,but through the ,microscope1 it appears a large body1 cover'd with a tough thick and bright reflecting skin very irregularly shrunk and pitted1 insomuch that it is almost an impossibility to find two of them wrinkled alike1 so great a variety may there be even in this little seed4 ,this1 though it appear'd one of the most promising seeds for beauty to the naked eye1 yet through the ,microscope it appear'd but a rude misshapen seed1 which ,i therefore drew1 that ,i might thereby manifest how unable we are by the naked eye to judge of beauteous or less curious microscopical ,objects2 cutting some of them in sunder1 ,i observ'd them to be fill'd with a greenish yellow pulp1 and to have a very thick husk1 in proportion to the pulp4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxix4 ,of the ,seeds of ,tyme4 ,these pretty fruits here represented1 in the #ah4 ,scheme1 are nothing else1 but nine several seeds of ,tyme2 they are all of them in differing posture1 both as to the eye and the light2 nor are they all of them exactly of the same shape1 there being a great variety both in the bulk and figure of each seed2 but they all agreed in this1 that being look'd on with a ,microscope1 they each of them exactly resembled a ,lemmon or ,orange dry'd2 and this both in shape and colour4 ,some of them are a little rounder1 of the shape of an ,orange1 as ,a and ,b1 they have each of them a very conspicuous part by which they were join'd to their little stalk1 and one of them had a little piece of stalk remaining on2 the opposite side of the seed1 you may perceive very plainly by the ,figure1 is very copped and prominent1 as is very usual in ,lemmons2 which prominencies are express'd in ,d1 ,e and ,f4 ,they seem'd each of them a little creas'd or wrinckled1 but ,e was very conspicuously furrow'd1 as if the inward make of this seed had been somewhat like that of a ,lemmon also1 but upon dividing several seeds with a very sharp ,pen-knife1 and examining them afterward1 ,i found their make to be in nothing but bulk differing from that of ,peas1 that is1 to have a pretty thick coat1 and all the rest an indifferent white pulp1 which seem'd very close2 so that it seems ,nature does not very much alter her method in the manner of inclosing and preserving the vital ,principle in the seed1 in these very small grains1 from that of ,beans1 ,peas1 c4 ,the ,grain affords a very pretty ,object for the ,microscope1 namely1 a ,dish of ,lemmons plac'd in a very little room2 should a ,lemmon or ,nut be proportionably magnify'd to what this seed of ,tyme is1 it would make it appear as bigg as a large ,hay-reek and it would be no great wonder to see ,homers ,iliads1 and ,homer and all1 cramm'd into such a ,nutshell4 ,we may perceive even in these small ,grains1 as well as in greater1 how curious and carefull ,nature is in preserving the seminal principle of ,vegetable bodies1 in what delicate1 strong and most convenient ,cabinets she lays them and closes them in a pulp for their safer protection from outward dangers1 and for the supply of convenient alimental juice1 when the heat of the ,sun begins to animate and move these little automatons or ,engines2 as if she would1 from the ornaments wherewith she has deckt these ,cabinets1 hint to us1 that in them she has laid up her ,jewels and ,master-pieces4 ,and this1 if we are but diligent in observing1 we shall find her method throughout4 ,there is no curiosity in the ,elemental kingdom1 if ,i may so call the bodies of ,air1 ,water1 ,earth1 that are comparable in form to those of ,minerals1 ,air and ,water having no form at all1 unless a potentiality to be form'd into ,globules2 and the clods and parcels of ,earth are all irregular1 whereas in ,minerals she does begin to ,geometrize1 and practise1 as 'twere1 the first principles of ,mechanicks1 shaping them of plain regular figures1 as triangles1 squares1 c4 and tetraedrons1 cubes1 c4 ,but none of their forms are comparable to the more compounded ones of ,vegetables2 ,for here she goes a step further1 forming them both of more complicated shapes1 and adding also multitudes of curious ,mechanick contrivances in their structure2 for whereas in ,vegetables there was no determinate number of the leaves or branches1 nor no exactly certain figure of leaves1 or flowers1 or seeds1 in ,animals all those things are exactly defin'd and determin'd2 and whereever there is either an excess or defect of those determinate parts or limbs1 there has been some impediment that has spoil'd the principle which was most regular3 ,here we shall find1 not onely most curiously compounded shapes1 but most stupendious ,mechanisms and contrivances1 here the ornaments are in the highest perfection1 nothing in all the ,vegetable kingdom that is comparable to the deckings of a ,peacock2 nay1 to the curiosity of any feather1 as ,i elsewhere shew2 nor to that of the smallest and most despicable ,fly4 ,but ,i must not stay on these speculations1 though perhaps it were very well worth while for one that had leisure1 to see what ,information may be learn'd of the nature1 or use1 or virtues of bodies1 by their several forms and various excellencies and properties4 ,who knows but ,adam might from some such contemplation1 give names to all creatures8 ,if at least his names had any significancy in them of the creatures nature on which he impos'd it2 as many 7upon what grounds ,i know not7 have suppos'd3 ,and who knows1 but the ,creator may1 in those characters1 have written and engraven many of his most mysterious designs and counsels1 and given man a capacity1 which1 assisted with diligence and industry1 may be able to read and understand them4 ,but not to multiply my digression more then ,i can the time1 ,i will proceed to the next1 which is1 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxx4 ,of the ,seeds of ,poppy4 ,the small seeds of ,poppy1 which are described in the #ai4 ,scheme1 both for their smalness1 multiplicity and prettiness1 as also for their admirable soporifick quality1 deserve to be taken notice of among the other microscopical seeds of ,vegetables3 ,for first1 though they grow in a ,case or ,hive oftentimes bigger then one of these ,pictures of the microscopical appearance1 yet are they for the most part so very little1 that they exceed not the bulk of a small ,nitt1 being not above part of an ,inch in ,diameter1 whereas the ,diameter of the ,hive of them oftentimes exceeds two ,inches1 so that it is capable of containing near two hundred thousand1 and so in all likelihood does contain a vast quantity1 though perhaps not that number4 ,next1 for their prettiness1 they may be compar'd to any microscopical seed ,i have yet seen2 for they are of a dark brownish red colour1 curiously ,honey-comb'd all over with a very pretty variety of ,net-work1 or a small kind of imbosment of very orderly rais'd ridges1 the surface of them looking not unlike the inside of a ,beev's stomack4 ,but that which makes it most considerable of all1 is1 the medicinal virtues of it1 which are such as are not afforded us by any ,mineral preparation2 and that is for the procuring of sleep1 a thing as necessary to the well-being of a creature as his meat1 and that which refreshes both the voluntary and rational faculties1 which1 whil'st this affection has seis'd the body1 are for the most part unmov'd1 and at rest4 ,and1 methinks1 ,nature does seem to hint some very notable virtue or excellency in this ,plant from the curiosity it has bestow'd upon it4 ,first1 in its flower1 it is of the highest scarlet-,dye1 which is indeed the prime and chiefest colour1 and has been in all ,ages of the world most highly esteem'd3 ,next1 it has as much curiosity shew'd also in the husk or case of the seed1 as any one ,plant ,i have yet met withall2 and thirdly1 the very seeds themselves1 the ,microscope discovers to be very curiously shap'd bodies2 and lastly1 ,nature has taken such abundant care for the propagation of it1 that one single seed grown into a ,plant1 is capable of bringing some hundred thousands of seeds4 ,it were very worthy some able man's enquiry whether the intention of ,nature1 as to the secundary end of ,animal and ,vegetable substances might not be found out by some such characters and notable impressions as these1 or from divers other circumstances1 as the figure1 colour1 place1 time of flourishing1 springing and fading1 duration1 taste1 smell1 c4 ,for if such there are 7as an able ,physician upon good grounds has given me cause to believe7 we might then1 insteed of studying ,herbals 7where so little is deliver'd of the virtues of a ,plant1 and less of truth7 have recourse to the ,book of ,nature it self1 and there find the most natural1 usefull1 and most effectual and specifick ,medicines1 of which we have amongst ,vegetables1 two very noble ,instances to incourage such a hope1 the one of the ,jesuite powder for the cure of intermitting ,feavers1 and the other of the juice of ,poppy for the curing the defect of sleeping4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxi4 ,of ,purslane-seed4 ,the ,seeds of ,purslane seem of very notable shapes1 appearing through the ,microscope shap'd somewhat like a nautilus or ,porcelane shell1 as may be seen in the ,,xx4 ,scheme1 it being a small body1 coyl'd round in the manner of a ,spiral1 at the greater end whereof1 which represents the mouth or orifice of the ,shell1 there is left a little white transparent substance1 like a skin1 represented by ,,bbbb1 which seems to have been the place whereunto the stem was join'd4 ,the whole surface of this ,coclea or ,shell1 is cover'd over with abundance of little prominencies or buttons very orderly rang'd into ,spiral rows1 the shape of each of which seem'd much to resemble a ,wart upon a mans hand4 ,the order1 variety1 and curiosity in the shape of this little seed1 makes it a very pleasant object for the ,microscope1 one of them being cut asunder with a very sharp ,penknife1 discover'd this carved ,casket to be of a brownish red1 and somewhat transparent substance1 and manifested the inside to be fill'd with a whitish green substance or pulp1 the ,bed wherein the seminal principle lies invelop'd4 ,there are multitudes of other seeds which in shape represent or imitate the forms of divers other sorts of ,shells3 as the seed of ,scurvy-grass very much resembles the make of a ,concha ,venerea1 a kind of ,purcelane ,shell2 others represent several sorts of larger fruits1 sweat ,marjerome and ,pot-marjerome represent ,olives4 ,carret seeds are like a cleft of a ,coco-,nut ,husk1 others are like ,artificial things1 as ,succory seeds are like a ,quiver full of ,arrows1 the seeds of ,amaranthus are of an exceeding lovely shape1 somewhat like an ,eye3 ,the skin of the black and shrivled seeds of ,onyons and ,leeks1 are all over knobbed like a ,seals skin4 ,sorrel has a pretty black shining three-square seed1 which is picked at both ends with three ridges1 that are bent the whole length of it4 ,it were almost endless to reckon up the several shapes1 they are so many and so various2 ,leaving them therefore to the curious observer1 ,i shall proceed to the ,observations on the parts of ,animals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxii4 ,of the ,figure of several sorts of ,hair1 and of the texture of the skin4 ,viewing some of the ,hairs of my ,head with a very good ,microscope1 ,i took notice of these particulars3 #a4 ,that they were1 for the most part1 ,cylindrical1 some of them were somewhat ,prismatical1 but generally they were very neer round1 such as are represented in the second ,figure of the #e4 ,scheme1 by the ,cylinders ,,eee4 nor could ,i find any that had sharp angles4 #b4 ,that that part which was next the top1 was bigger then that which was neerer the root4 #c4 ,that they were all along from end to end transparent1 though not very cleer1 the end next the root appearing like a black transparent piece of ,horn1 the end next the top more brown1 somewhat like transparent ,horn4 #d4 ,that the root of the ,hairs were pretty smooth1 tapering inwards1 almost like a ,parsneb2 nor could ,i find that it had any filaments1 or any other vessels1 such as the fibres of ,plants4 #e4 ,that the top when split 7which is common in long ,hair7 appear'd like the end of a stick1 beaten till it be all flitter'd1 there being not onely two splinters1 but sometimes half a score and more4 #f4 ,that they were all1 as farr as ,i was able to find1 solid ,cylindrical bodies1 not pervious1 like a ,cane or ,bulrush2 nor could ,i find that they had any ,pith1 or distinction of ,rind1 or the like1 such as ,i had observ'd in ,horse-hairs1 the ,bristles of a ,cat1 the ,indian ,deer's ,hair1 c4 ,observations on several other sorts of ,hair4 ,for the ,brisles of a ,hogg1 ,i found them to be first a hard transparent horny substance1 without the least appearance of pores or holes in it2 and this ,i try'd with the greatest care ,i was able1 cutting many of them with a very sharp ,razor1 so that they appear'd1 even in the ,glass1 to have a pretty smooth surface1 but somewhat waved by the sawing to and fro of the ,razor1 as is visible in the end of the ,prismatical body ,a of the same ,figure2 and then making trials with causing the light to be cast on them all the various ways ,i could think of1 that was likely to make the pores appear1 if there had been any1 ,i was not able to discover any4 ,next1 the ,figure of the ,brisles was very various1 neither perfectly round1 nor sharp edg'd1 but ,prismatical1 with divers sides1 and round angles1 as appears in the ,figure ,a4 ,the bending of them in any part where they before appear'd cleer1 would all flaw them1 and make them look white4 ,the ,mustacheos of a ,cat 7part of one of which is represented by the short ,cylinder ,b of the same ,figure7 seem'd to have1 all of them that ,i observ'd1 a large pith in the middle1 like the pith of an ,elder1 whose texture was so close1 that ,i was not able to discover the least sign of pores2 and those parts which seem to be pores1 as they appear'd in one position to the light1 in another ,i could find a manifest reflection to be cast from them4 ,this ,i instance in1 to hint that it is not safe to conclude any thing to be positively this or that1 though it appear never so plain and likely when look'd on with a ,microscope in one posture1 before the same be examin'd by placing it in several other positions4 ,and this ,i take to be the reason why many have believed and asserted the ,hairs of a man's head to be hollow1 and like so many small pipes perforated from end to end4 ,now1 though ,i grant that by an ,analogie one may suppose them so1 and from the ,polonian disease one may believe them such1 yet ,i think we have not the least encouragement to either from the ,microscope1 much less positively to assert them such4 ,and perhaps the very essence of the ,plica ,polonica may be the hairs growing hollow1 and of an unnatural constitution4 ,and as for the ,analogie1 though ,i am apt enough to think that the hairs of several ,animals may be perforated somewhat like a ,cane1 or at least have a kind of pith in them1 first1 because they seem as 'twere a kind of ,vegetable growing on an ,animal1 which growing1 they say1 remains a long while after the ,animal is dead1 and therefore should like other ,vegetables have a pith2 and secondly1 because ,horns and ,feathers1 and ,porcupine's ,quils1 and ,cats ,brisles1 and the long hairs of ,horses1 which come very neer the nature of a mans hair1 seem all of them to have a kind of pith1 and some of them to be porous1 yet ,i think it not 7in these cases1 where we have such helps for the sense as the ,microscope affords7 safe concluding or building on more then we sensibly know1 since we may1 with examining1 find that ,nature does in the make of the same kind of substance1 often vary her method in framing of it3 ,instances enough to confirm this we may find in the ,horns of several creatures3 as what a vast difference is there between the ,horns of an ,oxe1 and those of some sorts of ,staggs as to their shape8 and even in the hairs of several creatures1 we find a vast difference1 as the hair of a man's head seems1 as ,i said before1 long1 ,cylindrical and sometime a little ,prismatical1 solid or impervious1 and very small2 the hair of an ,indian ,deer 7a part of the middle of which is described in the third ,figure of the fifth ,scheme1 marked with ,f7 is bigger in compass through all the middle of it1 then the ,bristle of an ,hogg1 but the end of it is smaller then the hair of any kind of ,animal 7as may be seen by the ,figure ,g7 the whole belly of it1 which is about two or three ,inches long1 looks to the eye like a thread of course ,canvass1 that has been newly unwreath'd1 it being all wav'd or bended to and fro1 much after that manner1 but through the ,microscope1 it appears all perforated from side to side1 and ,spongie1 like a small kind of spongy ,coral1 which is often found upon the ,english shores2 but though ,i cut it transversly1 ,i could not perceive that it had any pores that ran the long way of the hair3 the long hairs of ,horses ,,cc and ,d1 seem ,cylindrical and somewhat pithy2 the ,bristles of a ,cat ,b1 are conical and pithy3 the ,quils of ,porcupines and ,hedghoggs1 being cut transversly1 have a whitish pith1 in the manner of a ,starr1 or ,spur-rowel3 ,piggs-hair 7,a7 is somewhat triagonal1 and seems to have neither pith nor pore3 ,and other kinds of hair have quite a differing structure and form4 ,and therefore ,i think it no way agreeable to a true natural ,historian1 to pretend to be so sharp-sighted1 as to see what a preconceiv'd ,hypothesis tells them should be there1 where another man1 though perhaps as seeing1 but not forestall'd1 can discover no such matter4 ,but to proceed2 ,i observ'd several kind of hairs that had been ,dyed1 and found them to be a kind of horny ,cylinder1 being of much about the transparency of a pretty cleer piece of ,oxe horn2 these appear'd quite throughout ting'd with the colours they exhibited4 ,and 'tis likely1 that those hairs being boyl'd or steep'd in those very hot ting'd liquors in the ,dye-fat1 ,and the substance of the hair being much like that of an ,oxes ,horn1 the penetrant liquor does so far mollifie and soften the substance1 that it sinks into the very center of it1 and so the ting'd parts come to be mix'd and united with the very body of the hair1 and do not 7as some have thought7 only stick on upon the outward surface4 ,and this1 the boiling of ,horn will make more probable2 for we shall find by that action1 that the water will insinuate it self to a pretty depth within the surface of it1 especially if this penetrancy of the water be much helped by the ,salts that are usually mix'd with the ,dying liquors4 ,now1 whereas ,silk may be dyed or ting'd into all kind of colours without boiling or dipping into hot liquors1 ,i ghess the reason to be two-fold3 ,first1 because the filaments1 or small cylinders of ,silk1 are abundantly smaller and finer1 and so have a much less depth to be penetrated then most kind of hairs2 and next1 because the substance or matter of ,silk1 is much more like a ,glew then the substance of ,hair is4 ,and that ,i have reason to suppose3 ,first1 because when it is spun or drawn out of the ,worm1 it is a perfect glutinous substance1 and very easily sticks and cleaves to any adjacent body1 as ,i have several times observed1 both in ,silk-worms and ,spiders4 ,next1 because that ,i find that water does easily dissolve and mollifie the substance again1 which is evident from their manner of ordering those bottoms or pods of the ,silk-worm before they are able to unwind them4 ,it is no great wonder therefore1 if those ,dyes or ting'd liquors do very quickly mollifie and tinge the surfaces of so small and so glutinous a body4 ,and we need not wonder that the colours appear so lovely in the one1 and so dull in the other1 if we view but the ting'd cylinders of both kinds with a good ,microscope2 for whereas the substance of ,hair1 at best1 is but a dirty duskish white somewhat transparent1 the filaments of ,silk have a most lovely transparency and cleerness1 the difference between those two being not much less then that between a piece of ,horn1 and a piece of ,crystal2 the one yielding a bright and vivid reflection from the concave side of the cylinder1 that is1 from the concave surface of the ,air that incompasses the back-part of the cylinder2 the other yielding a dull and perturb'd reflection from the several ,heterogeneous parts that compose it4 ,and this difference will be manifest enough to the eye1 if you get a couple of small ,cylinders1 the smaller of ,crystal ,glass1 the other of ,horn1 and then varnishing them over very thinly with some transparent colour1 which will represent to the naked eye much the same kind of object which is represented to it from the filaments of ,silk and ,hair by the help of the ,microscope4 ,now1 since the threads of ,silk and ,serge are made up of a great number of these filaments1 we may henceforth cease to wonder at the difference4 ,from much the same reason proceeds the vivid and lovely colours of ,feathers1 wherein they very farr exceed the natural as well as ,artificial colours of hair1 of which ,i shall say more in its proper place4 ,the ,teguments indeed of creatures are all of them adapted to the peculiar use and convenience of that ,animal which they inwrap2 and very much also for the ornament and beauty of it1 as will be most evident to any one that shall attentively consider the various kinds of cloathings wherewith most creatures are by ,nature invested and cover'd4 ,thus ,i have observed1 that the hair or furr of those ,northern white ,bears that inhabite the colder ,regions1 is exceeding thick and warm3 the like have ,i observ'd of the hair of a ,greenland ,deer1 which being brought alive to ,london1 ,i had the opportunity of viewing2 its hair was so exceeding thick1 long and soft1 that ,i could hardly with my hand1 grasp or take hold of his skin1 and it seem'd so exceeding warm1 as ,i had never met with any before4 ,and as for the ornamentative use of them1 it is most evident in a multitude of creatures1 not onely for colour1 as the ,leopards1 ,cats1 ,rhein ,deer1 c4 but for the shape1 as in ,horses manes1 ,cats beards1 and several other of the greater sort of terrestrial ,animals1 but is much more conspicuous1 in the ,vestments of ,fishes1 ,birds1 ,insects1 of which ,i shall by and by give some ,instances4 ,as for the skin1 the ,microscope discovers as great a difference between the texture of those several kinds of ,animals1 as it does between their hairs2 but all that ,i have yet taken notice of1 when tann'd or dress'd1 are of a ,spongie nature1 and seem to be constituted of an infinite company of small long fibres or hairs1 which look not unlike a heap of ,tow or ,okum2 every of which fibres seem to have been some part of a ,muscle1 and probably1 whil'st the ,animal was alive1 might have its distinct function1 and serve for the contraction and relaxation of the skin1 and for the stretching and shrinking of it this or that way4 ,and indeed1 without such a kind of texture as this1 which is very like that of ,spunk it would seem very strange1 how any body so strong as the skin of an ,animal usually is1 and so close as it seems1 whil'st the ,animal is living1 should be able to suffer so great an extension any ways1 without at all hurting or dilacerating any part of it4 ,but1 since we are inform'd by the ,microscope1 that it consists of a great many small filaments1 which are implicated1 or intangled one within another1 almost no otherwise then the hairs in a lock of ,wool1 or the flakes in a heap of ,tow1 though not altogether so loose1 but the filaments are here and there twisted1 as 'twere1 or interwoven1 and here and there they join and unite with one another1 so as indeed the whole skin seems to be but one piece1 we need not much wonder3 ,and though these fibres appear not through a ,microscope exactly jointed and contex'd1 as in ,sponge2 yet1 as ,i formerly hinted1 ,i am apt to think1 that could we find some way of discovering the texture of it1 whil'st it invests the living ,animal1 or had some very easie way of separating the pulp or intercurrent juices1 such as in all probability fill those ,interstitia1 without dilacerating1 brusing1 or otherwise spoiling the texture of it 7as it seems to be very much by the ways of tanning and dressing now us'd7 we might discover a much more curious texture then ,i have hitherto been able to find2 perhaps somewhat like that of ,sponges4 ,that of ,chamoise ,leather is indeed very much like that of ,spunk1 save onely that the filaments seem nothing neer so even and round1 nor altogether so small1 nor has it so curious joints as ,spunk has1 some of which ,i have lately discover'd like those of a ,sponge1 and perhaps all these three bodies may be of the same kind of substance1 though two of them indeed are commonly accounted ,vegetable 7which1 whether they be so or no1 ,i shall not now dispute7 ,but this seems common to all three1 that they undergo a tanning or dressing1 whereby the interspers'd juices are wasted and wash'd away before the texture of them can be discover'd4 ,what their way is of dressing1 or curing ,sponges1 ,i confess1 ,i cannot learn2 but the way of dressing ,spunk1 is1 by boiling it a good while in a strong ,lixivium1 and then beating it very well2 and the manner of dressing ,leather is sufficiently known4 ,it were indeed extremely desirable1 if such a way could be found whereby the ,parenchyma or flesh of the ,muscles1 and several other parts of the body1 might be wash'd1 or wafted clean away1 without vitiating the form of the fibrous parts or vessells of it1 for hereby the texture of those parts1 by the help of a good ,microscope1 might be most accurately found4 ,but to digress no further1 we may1 from this discovery of the ,microscope1 plainly enough understand how the skin1 though it looks so close as it does1 comes to give a passage to so vast a quantity of excrementitious substances1 as the diligent ,sanctorius has excellently observed it to do1 in his medicina statica2 for it seems very probable1 from the texture after dressing1 that there are an infinite of pores that every way pierce it1 and that those pores are onely fill'd with some kind of juice1 or some very pulpy soft substance1 and thereby the steams may almost as easily find a passage through such a fluid vehicle as the vaporous bubbles which are generated at the bottom of a ,kettle of hot water do find a passage through that fluid medium into the ambient ,air4 ,nor is the skin of animals only thus pervious1 but even those of vegetables also seem to be the same2 for otherwise ,i cannot conceive why1 if two sprigs of ,rosemary 7for ,instance7 be taken as exactly alike in all particulars as can be1 and the one be set with the bottom in a ,glass of water1 and the other be set just without the ,glass1 but in the ,air onely1 though you stop the lower end of that in the ,air very carefully with ,wax1 yet shall it presently almost wither1 whereas the other that seems to have a supply from the subjacent water by its small pipes1 or microscopical pores1 preserves its greenness for many days1 and sometimes weeks4 ,now1 this to me1 seems not likely to proceed from any other cause then the avolation of the juice through the skin2 for by the ,wax1 all those other pores of the stem are very firmly and closely stop'd up4 ,and from the more or less porousness of the skins or rinds of ,vegetables may1 perhaps1 be somewhat of the reason given1 why they keep longer green1 or sooner wither2 for we may observe by the bladdering and craking of the leaves of ,bays1 ,holly1 ,laurel1 c4 that their skins are very close1 and do not suffer so free a passage through them of the included juices4 ,but of this1 and of the ,experiment of the ,rosemary1 ,i shall elsewhere more fully consider1 seeming to me an extreme luciferous ,experiment1 such as seems indeed very plainly to prove the ,schematism or structure of ,vegetables altogether mechanical1 and as necessary1 that 7water and warmth being apply'd to the bottom of the sprig of a ,plant7 some of it should be carried upwards into the stem1 and thence distributed into the leaves1 as that the water of the ,thames covering the bottom of the ,mills at the ,bridge foot of ,london1 and by the ebbing and flowing of it1 passing strongly by them1 should have some part of it convey'd to the ,cesterns above1 and thence into several houses and ,cesterns up and down the ,city4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxiii4 ,of the ,scales of a ,soal1 and other ,fishes4 ,having hinted somewhat of the skin and covering of terrestrial ,animals1 ,i shall next add an ,observation ,i made on the skin and ,scales of a ,soal1 a small ,fish1 commonly enough known2 and here in ,fishes1 as well as other ,animals1 ,nature follows its usual method1 framing all parts so1 as that they are both usefull and ornamental in all its composures1 mingling utile and dulce together2 and both these designs it seems to follow1 though our unassisted senses are not able to perceive them3 ,this is not onely manifest in the covering of this ,fish1 but in multitudes of others1 which it would be too long to enumerate1 witness particularly that small ,sand ,shell1 which ,i mention'd in the ,,xi4 ,observation1 and infinite other small ,shells and ,scales1 divers of which ,i have view'd4 ,this skin ,i view'd1 was flead from a pretty large ,soal1 and then expanded and dry'd1 the inside of it1 when dry1 to the naked eye1 look'd very like a piece of ,canvass1 but the ,microscope discover'd that texture to be nothing else1 but the inner ends of those curious ,scolop'd ,scales ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 in the second ,figure of the ,,xxi4 ,scheme1 namely1 the part of ,,gggg 7of the larger representation of a single ,scale1 in the first ,figure of the same ,scheme7 which on the back side1 through an ordinary single ,magnifying ,glass1 look'd not unlike the ,tyles on an house4 ,the outside of it1 to the naked eye1 exhibited nothing more of ornament1 save the usual order of ranging the ,scales into a triagonal form1 onely the edges seem'd a little to shine1 the finger being rubb'd from the tail-wards towards the head1 the ,scales seem'd to stay and raze it2 ,but through an ordinary ,magnifying glass1 it exhibited a most curiously carved and adorned surface1 such as is visible in the second ,figure1 each of those 7formerly almost imperceptible7 ,scales appearing much of the shape ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 that is1 they were round1 and protuberant1 and somewhat shap'd like a ,scolop1 the whole ,scale being creas'd with curiously wav'd and indented ridges1 with proportionable furrows between2 each of which was terminated with a very sharp transparent bony substance1 which1 like so many small ,turnpikes1 seem'd to arm the edges4 ,the back part ,,kkk was the skin into which each of these ,scales were very deeply fix'd1 in the curious regular order1 visible in the second ,figure4 ,the length and shape of the part of the ,scale which was buried by the skin1 is evidenced by the first ,figure2 which is the representation of one of them pluck'd out and view'd through a good ,microscope1 namely1 the part ,,lfggfl1 wherein is also more plainly to be seen1 the manner of carving of the scolopt part of every particular ,scale1 how each ridge or barr ,,eee is alternately hollowed or engraven1 and how every gutter between them is terminated with very transparent and hard pointed spikes1 and how every other of these1 as ,,aaaa1 are much longer then the interjacent ones1 ,,ddd4 ,the texture or form also of the hidden part appears1 namely1 the middle part1 ,,ggg1 seems to consist of a great number of small quills or pipes1 by which1 perhaps1 the whole may be nourished2 and the side parts ,,ff consist of a more fibrous texture1 though indeed the whole ,scale seem'd to be of a very tough gristly substance like the larger ,scales of other ,fishes4 ,the ,scales of the skin of a ,dog-fish 7which is us'd by such as work in ,wood1 for the smoothing of their work1 and consists plainly enough to the naked eye1 of a great number off small horny points7 through the ,microscope appear'd each of them curiously ridg'd1 and very neatly carved2 and indeed1 you can hardly look on the scales of any ,fish1 but you may discover abundance of curiosity and beautifying2 and not only in these ,fishes1 but in the shells and crusts or armour of most sorts of ,marine ,animals so invested4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxiv4 ,of the ,sting of a ,bee4 ,the ,sting of a ,bee1 delineated in the second ,figure of the ,,xvi4 ,scheme1 seems to be a weapon of offence1 and is as great an ,instance1 that ,nature did really intend revenge as any1 and that first1 because there seems to be no other use of it4 ,secondly1 by reason of its admirable shape1 seeming to be purposely shap'd for that very end4 ,thirdly1 from the virulency of the liquor it ejects1 and the sad effects and symptoms that follow it4 ,but whatever be the use of it1 certain it is1 that the structure of it is very admirable2 what it appears to the naked eye1 ,i need not describe1 the thing being known almost to every one1 but it appears through the ,microscope1 to consist of two parts1 the one a sheath1 without a chape or top1 shap'd almost like the ,holster of a ,pistol1 beginning at d1 and ending at b1 this sheath ,i could most plainly perceive to be hollow1 and to contain in it1 both a ,sword or ,dart1 and the poisonous liquor that causes the pain4 ,the sheath or case seem'd to have several joints or settings together1 marked by fghiklmno1 it was arm'd moreover neer the top1 with several crooks or forks 7pqrst7 on one side1 and 7pqrstu7 on the other1 each of which seem'd like so many ,thorns growing on a briar1 or rather like so many ,cat's ,claws2 for the crooks themselves seem'd to be little sharp transparent points or claws1 growing out of little protuberancies on the side of the sheath1 which1 by observing the ,figure diligently1 is easie enough to be perceiv'd2 and from several particulars1 ,i suppose the ,animal has a power of displaying them1 and shutting them in again as it pleases1 as a ,cat does its claws1 or as an ,adder or ,viper can its teeth or fangs4 ,the other part of the ,sting was the ,sword1 as ,i may so call it1 which is sheath'd1 as it were1 in it1 the top of which ab appears quite through at the smaller end1 just as if the chape of the sheath of a ,sword were lost1 and the end of it appear'd beyond the ,scabbard2 the end of this ,dart7a7 was very sharp1 and it was arm'd likewise with the like ,tenter-hooks or claws with those of the sheath1 such as 7vxy1 xyzz7 these crooks1 ,i am very apt to think1 can be clos'd up also1 or laid flat to the sides of the ,sword when it is drawn into the ,scabbard1 as ,i have several times observ'd it to be1 and can be spred again or extended when ever the ,animal pleases4 ,the consideration of which very pretty structure1 has hinted to me1 that certainly the use of these claws seems to be very considerable1 as to the main end of this ,instrument1 for the drawing in1 and holding the sting in the flesh2 for the point being very sharp1 the top of the ,sting or ,dagger 7ab7 is very easily thrust into an ,animal's body1 which being once entred1 the ,bee1 by endeavouring to pull it into the sheath1 draws 7by reason of the crooks 7vxy7 and 7xyzz7 which lay hold of the skin on either side7 the top of the sheath 7tsrv7 into the skin after it1 and the crooks t1 s1 and r1 v1 being entred1 when the ,bee endeavours to thrust out the top of the sting out of the sheath again1 they lay hold of the skin on either side1 and do not onely keep the sheath from sliding back1 but helps the top inwards1 and thus1 by an alternate and successive retracting and emitting of the ,sting in and out of the sheath1 the little enraged creature by degrees makes his revengfull weapon pierce the toughest and thickest ,hides of his enemies1 in so much that some few of these stout and resolute soldiers with these little engines1 do often put to flight a huge masty ,bear1 one of their deadly enemies1 and thereby shew the world how much more considerable in ,warr a few skilfull ,engineers and resolute soldiers politickly order'd1 that know how to manage such engines1 are1 then a vast unweildy rude force1 that confides in1 and acts onely by1 its strength4 ,but 7to proceed7 that he thus gets in his ,sting into the skin1 ,i conjecture1 because1 when ,i have observ'd this creature living1 ,i have found it to move the ,sting thus1 to and fro1 and thereby also1 perhaps1 does1 as 'twere1 pump or force out the poisonous liquor1 and make it hang at the end of the sheath about b in a drop4 ,the crooks1 ,i suppose also to be the cause why these angry creatures1 hastily removing themselves from their revenge1 do often leave these weapons behind them1 sheath'd1 as 'twere1 in the flesh1 and1 by that means1 cause the painfull symptoms to be greater1 and more lasting1 which are very probably caus'd1 partly by the piercing and tearing of the skin by the ,sting1 but chiefly by the corrosive and poisonous liquor that is by this ,syringe-pipe convey'd among the sensitive parts thereof and thereby more easily gnaws and corrodes those tender fibres3 ,as ,i have shewed in the description of a ,nettle and of ,cowhage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxv4 ,of the contexture and shape of the particles of ,feathers4 ,examining several sorts of ,feathers1 ,i took notice of these particulars in all sorts of wing-,feathers1 especially in those which serv'd for the beating of the air in the action of flying4 ,that the outward surface of the ,quill and ,stem was of a very hard1 stiff1 and horny substance1 which is obvious enough1 and that the part above the ,quill was fill'd with a very white and light pith1 and1 with the ,microscope1 ,i found this pith to be nothing else1 but a kind of natural congeries of small bubbles1 the films of which seem to be of the same substance with that of the ,quill1 that is1 of a stiff transparent horny substance4 ,which particular seems to me1 very worthy a more serious consideration2 ,for here we may observe ,nature1 as 'twere1 put to its shifts1 to make a substance1 which shall be both light enough1 and very stiff and strong1 without varying from its own establish'd principles1 which we may observe to be such1 that very strong bodies are for the most part very heavie also1 a strength of the parts usually requiring a density1 and a density a gravity2 and therefore should ,nature have made a body so broad and so strong as a ,feather1 almost1 any other way then what it has taken1 the gravity of it must necessarily have many times exceeded this2 for this pith seems to be like so many stops or cross pieces in a long optical tube1 which do very much contribute to the strength of the whole1 the pores of which were such1 as that they seem'd not to have any communication with one another1 as ,i have elsewhere hinted4 ,but the ,mechanism of ,nature is usually so excellent1 that one and the same substance is adapted to serve for many ends4 ,for the chief use of this1 indeed1 seems to be for the supply of nourishment to the downy or feathery part of the stem2 for 'tis obvious enough in all sorts of ,feathers1 that 'tis plac'd just under the roots of the branches that grow out of either side of the quill or stalk1 and is exactly shap'd according to the ranking of those branches1 coming no lower into the quill1 then just the beginning of the downy branches1 and growing onely on the under side of the quill where those branches do so4 ,now1 in a ripe ,feather 7as one may call it7 it seems difficult to conceive how the ,succus nutritius should be convey'd to this pith2 for it cannot1 ,i think1 be well imagin'd to pass through the substance of the quill1 since1 having examin'd it with the greatest diligence ,i was able1 ,i could not find the least appearance of pores2 but he that shall well examine an unripe or pinn'd ,feather1 will plainly enough perceive the ,vessel for the conveyance of it to be the thin filmy pith 7as 'tis call'd7 which passes through the middle of the quill4 ,as for the make and contexture of the ,down it self1 it is indeed very rare and admirable1 and such as ,i can hardly believe1 that the like is to be discover'd in any other body in the world2 for there is hardly a large ,feather in the wing of a ,bird1 but contains neer a million of distinct parts1 and every one of them shap'd in a most regular admirable form1 adapted to a particular ,design3 ,for examining a middle ciz'd ,goose-quill1 ,i easily enough found with my naked eye1 that the main stem of it contain'd about #cjj4 longer and more ,downy branchings upon one side1 and as many on the other of more stiff but somewhat shorter branchings4 ,many of these long and downy branchings1 examining with an ordinary ,microscope1 ,i found divers of them to contain neer #abjj4 small leaves 7as ,i may call them1 such as ,,ef of the first ,figure of the #bb4 ,scheme7 and as many stalks on the other side1 such as ,,ik of the same ,figure1 each of the leaves or branchings1 ,,ef1 seem'd to be divided into about sixteen or eighteen small joints1 as may be seen plainly enough in the ,figure1 out of most of which there seem to grow small long fibres1 such as are express'd in the ,figure1 each of them very proportionably shap'd according to its position1 or place on the stalk ,,ef2 those on the under side of it1 namely1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 c4 being much longer then those directly opposite to them on the upper2 and divers of them1 such as #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 c4 were terminated with small crooks1 much resembling those small crooks1 which are visible enough to the naked eye1 in the seed-buttons of ,bur-docks4 ,the stalks likewise1 ,,ik on the other side1 seem'd divided into neer as many small knotted joints1 but without any appearance of strings or crooks1 each of them about the middle ,k1 seem'd divided into two parts by a kind of fork1 one side of which1 namely1 ,,kl1 was extended neer the length of ,,ki1 the other1 ,m1 was very short4 ,the transverse ,sections of the stems of these branchings1 manifested the shape or figure of it to be much like ,,inoe1 which consisted of a horny skin or covering1 and a white seemingly frothy pith1 much like the make of the main stem of a ,feather4 ,the use of this strange kind of form1 is indeed more admirable then all the rest1 and such as deserves to be much more seriously examin'd and consider'd1 then ,i have hitherto found time or ability to do2 for certainly1 it may very much instruct us in the nature of the ,air1 especially as to some properties of it4 ,the stems of the ,downy branches ,,inoe1 being rang'd in the order visible enough to the naked eye1 at the distance of ,,if1 or somewhat more1 the collateral stalks and leaves 7if ,i may so call those bodies ,i newly described7 are so rang'd1 that the leaves or hairy stalks of the one side lie at top1 or are incumbent on the stalks of the other1 and cross each other1 much after the manner express'd in the second ,figure of the #bb4 ,scheme1 by which means every of those little hooked fibres of the leaved stalk get between the naked stalks1 and the stalks being full of knots1 and a prety way dis-join'd1 so as that the fibres can easily get between them1 the two parts are so closely and admirably woven together1 that it is able to impede1 for the greatest part1 the transcursion of the ,air2 and though they are so exceeding small1 as that the thickness of one of these stalks amounts not to a #ejj4 part of an ,inch1 yet do they compose so strong a texture1 as1 notwithstanding the exceeding quick and violent beating of them against the ,air1 by the strength of the ,birds wing1 they firmly hold together4 ,and it argues an admirable providence of ,nature in the contrivance and fabrick of them2 for their texture is such1 that though by any external injury the parts of them are violently disjoyn'd1 so as that the leaves and stalks touch not one another1 and consequently several of these rents would impede the ,bird's flying2 yet1 for the most part1 of themselves they readily re-join and re-contex themselves1 and are easily by the ,birds stroking the ,feather1 or drawing it through its ,bill1 all of them settled and woven into their former and natural posture2 for there are such an infinite company of those small fibres in the under side of the leaves1 and most of them have such little crooks at their ends1 that they readily catch and hold the stalks they touch4 ,from which strange contexture1 it seems rational to suppose that there is a certain kind of mesh or hole so small1 that the ,air will not very easily pass through it1 as ,i hinted also in the sixth ,observation about small ,glass ,canes1 for otherwise it seems probable1 that ,nature would have drawn over some kind of thin film which should have covered all those almost square meshes or holes1 there seeming through the ,microscope to be more then half of the surface of the ,feather which is open and visibly pervious2 which conjecture will yet seem more probable from the texture of the brushie wings of the ,tinea argentea1 or white ,feather wing'd moth1 which ,i shall anone describe4 ,but ,nature1 that knows best its own laws1 and the several properties of bodies1 knows also best how to adapt and fit them to her designed ends1 and whoso would know those properties1 must endeavour to trace ,nature in its working1 and to see what course she observes4 ,and this ,i suppose will be no inconsiderable advantage which the ,schematisms and ,structures of ,animate bodies will afford the diligent enquirer1 namely1 most sure and excellent instructions1 both as to the practical part of ,mechanicks and to the ,theory and knowledge of the nature of the bodies and motions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxvi4 ,of ,peacocks1 ,ducks1 and other ,feathers of changeable colours4 ,the parts of the ,feathers of this glorious ,bird appear1 through the ,microscope1 no less gaudy then do the whole ,feathers2 for1 as to the naked eye 'tis evident that the stem or quill of each ,feather in the tail sends out multitudes of ,lateral branches1 such as ,,ab in the third ,figure of the #bb4 ,scheme represents a small part of about part of an ,inch long1 and each of the lateral branches emit multitudes of little sprigs1 threads or hairs on either side of them1 such as ,,cd1 ,,cd1 ,,cd1 so each of those threads in the ,microscope appears a large long body1 consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts1 whose ,figure 'tis no easie matter to determine1 as he that examines it shall find2 for every new position of it to the light makes it perfectly seem of another form and shape1 and nothing what it appear'd a little before2 nay1 it appear'd very differing ofttimes from so seemingly inconsiderable a circumstance1 that the interposing of ones hand between the light and it1 makes a very great change1 and the opening or shutting a ,casement and the like1 very much diversifies the appearance4 ,and though1 by examining the form of it very many ways1 which would be tedious here to enumerate1 ,i suppose ,i have discover'd the true ,figure of it1 yet oftentimes1 upon looking on it in another posture1 ,i have almost thought my former observations deficient1 though indeed1 upon further examination1 ,i have found even those also to confirm them4 ,these threads therefore ,i find to be a congeries of small ,lamin or plates1 as eeeee1 c4 each of them shap'd much like this of abcd1 in the fourth ,figure1 the part ac being a ridge1 prominency1 or stem1 and b and d the corners of two small thin ,plates that grow unto the small stalk in the middle1 so that they make a kind of little feather2 each of these ,plates lie one close to another1 almost like a company of sloping ridge or gutter ,tyles2 they grow on each side of the stalk opposite to one another1 by two and two1 from top to bottom1 in the manner express'd in the fifth ,figure1 the tops of the lower covering the roots of the next above them2 the under side of each of these laminated bodies1 is of a very dark and opacous substance1 and suffers very few ,rays to be trajected1 but reflects them all toward that side from whence they come1 much like the foil of a ,looking-glass2 but their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies1 which are exceeding thin1 and lie very close together1 and thereby1 like mother of ,pearl shells1 do not onely reflect a very brisk light1 but tinge that light in a most curious manner2 and by means of various positions1 in respect of the light1 they reflect back now one colour1 and then another1 and those most vividly4 ,now1 that these colours are onely fantastical ones1 that is1 such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light1 ,i found by this1 that water wetting these colour'd parts1 destroy'd their colours1 which seem'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction4 ,now1 though ,i was not able to see those hairs at all transparent by a common light1 yet by looking on them against the ,sun1 ,i found them to be ting'd with a darkish red colour1 nothing a-kin to the curious and lovely greens and blues they exhibited4 ,what the reason of colour seems to be in such thin plated bodies1 ,i have elsewhere shewn4 ,but how water cast upon those threads destroys their colours1 ,i suppose to be perform'd thus2 ,the water falling upon these plated bodies from its having a greater congruity to ,feathers then the ,air1 insinuates it self between those ,plates1 and so extrudes the strong reflecting ,air1 whence both these parts grow more transparent1 as the ,microscope informs1 and colourless also1 at best retaining a very faint and dull colour4 ,but this wet being wasted away by the continual evaporations and steams that pass through them from the ,peacock1 whil'st that ,bird is yet alive1 the colours again appear in their former luster1 the interstitia of these ,plates being fill'd with the strongly reflecting ,air4 ,the beauteous and vivid colours of the ,feathers of this ,bird1 being found to proceed from the curious and exceeding smalness and fineness of the reflecting parts1 we have here the reason given us of all those gauderies in the apparel of other ,birds also1 and how they come to exceed the colours of all other kinds of ,animals1 besides ,insects2 for since 7as we here1 and elsewhere also shew7 the vividness of a colour1 depends upon the fineness and transparency of the reflecting and refracting parts2 and since our ,microscope discovers to us1 that the component parts of feathers are such1 and that the hairs of ,animals are otherwise2 and since we find also by the ,experiment of that ,noble and most ,excellent ,person ,i formerly named2 that the difference between ,silk and ,flax1 as to its colour1 is nothing else 7for ,flax reduc'd to a very great fineness of parts1 both white and colour'd1 appears as white and as vivid as any ,silk1 but loses that brightness and its ,silken aspect as soon as it is twisted into thread1 by reason that the component parts1 though very small and fine1 are yet pliable flakes1 and not cylinders1 and thence1 by twisting1 become united into one opacous body1 whereas the threads of ,silk and ,feathers retain their lustre1 by preserving their cylindrical form intire without mixing2 so that each reflected and refracted beam that composes the gloss of ,silk1 preserves its own property of modulating the light intire72 ,and since we find the same confirm'd by many other ,experiments elsewhere mentioned1 ,i think we may safely conclude this for an ,axiome1 that wheresoever we meet with transparent bodies1 spun out into very fine parts1 either cleer1 or any ways ting'd1 the colours resulting from such a composition must necessarily be very glorious1 vivid1 and cleer1 like those of ,silk and ,feathers4 ,this may perhaps hint some usefull way of making other bodies1 besides ,silk1 be susceptible of bright tinctures1 but of this onely by the by4 ,the changeable colour'd ,feathers also of ,ducks1 and several other ,birds1 ,i have found by examination with my ,microscope1 to proceed from much the same causes and textures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxvii4 ,of the ,feet of ,flies1 and several other ,insects4 ,the foot of a ,fly 7delineated in the first ,figure of the #bc4 ,scheme1 which represents three joints1 the two ,tallons1 and the two ,pattens in a flat posture2 and in the second ,figure of the same ,scheme1 which represents onely one joint1 the ,tallons and ,pattens in another posture7 is of a most admirable and curious contrivance1 for by this the ,flies are inabled to walk against the sides of ,glass1 perpendicularly upwards1 and to contain themselves in that posture as long as they please2 nay1 to walk and suspend themselves against the under surface of many bodies1 as the ceiling of a room1 or the like1 and this with as great a seeming facility and firmness1 as if they were a kind of ,antipodes1 and had a tendency upwards1 as we are sure they have the contrary1 which they also evidently discover1 in that they cannot make themselves so light1 as to stick or suspend themselves on the under surface of a ,glass well polish'd and cleans'd2 their suspension therefore is wholly to be ascrib'd to some ,mechanical contrivance in their feet2 which1 what it is1 we shall in brief explain1 by shewing1 that its ,mechanism consists principally in two parts1 that is1 first its two ,claws1 or ,tallons1 and secondly1 two ,palms1 ,pattens1 or ,soles4 ,the two ,tallons are very large1 in proportion to the foot1 and handsomely shap'd in the manner describ'd in the ,figures1 by ,,ab1 and ,,ac1 the bigger part of them from ,a to dd1 is all hairy1 or brisled1 but toward the top1 at ,c and ,b smooth1 the tops or points1 which seem very sharp turning downwards and inwards1 are each of them mov'd on a joint at ,a1 by which the ,fly is able to open or shut them at pleasure1 so that the points ,b and ,c being entered in any pores1 and the ,fly endeavouring to shut them1 the ,claws not onely draw one against another1 and so fasten each other1 but they draw the whole foot1 ,,ggadd forward1 so that on a soft footing1 the tenters or points ,,gggg1 7whereof a ,fly has about ten in each foot1 to wit1 two in every joint7 run into the pores1 if they find any1 or at least make their way2 and this is sensible to the naked eye1 in the feet of a ,chafer1 which1 if he be suffer'd to creep over the hand1 or any other part of the skin of ones body1 does make his steps as sensible to the touch as the sight4 ,but this contrivance1 as it often fails the ,chafer1 when he walks on hard and close bodies1 so would it also our ,fly1 though he be a much lesser1 and nimbler creature1 and therefore ,nature has furnish'd his foot with another additament much more curious and admirable1 and that is1 with a couple of ,palms1 ,pattens or ,soles ,,dd1 the structure of which is this3 ,from the bottom or under part of the last joint of his foot1 ,k1 arise two small thin plated horny substances1 each consisting of two flat pieces1 ,,dd1 which seem to be flexible1 like the covers of a ,book1 about ,,ff1 by which means1 the plains of the two sides ,,ee1 do not always lie in the same plain1 but may be sometimes shut closer1 and so each of them may take a little hold themselves on a body2 but that is not all1 for the under sides of these ,soles are all beset with small brisles1 or tenters1 like the ,wire teeth of a ,card used for working ,wool1 the points of all which tend forwards1 hence the two ,tallons drawing the feet forwards1 as ,i before hinted1 and these being applied to the surface of the body with all the points looking the contrary way1 that is1 forwards and outwards1 if there be any irregularity or yielding in the surface of the body1 the ,fly suspends it self very firmly and easily1 without the access or need of any such ,sponges fill'd with an imaginary gluten1 as many have1 for want of good ,glasses1 perhaps1 or a troublesome and diligent examination1 suppos'd4 ,now1 that the ,fly is able to walk on ,glass1 proceeds partly from some ruggedness of the surface3 and chiefly from a kind of tarnish1 or dirty smoaky substance1 which adheres to the surface of that very hard body2 and though the pointed parts cannot penetrate the substance of ,glass1 yet may they find pores enough in the tarnish1 or at least make them4 ,this ,structure ,i somewhat the more diligently survey'd1 because ,i could not well comprehend1 how1 if there were such a glutinous matter in those supposed ,sponges1 as most 7that have observ'd that ,object in a ,microscope7 have hitherto believ'd1 how1 ,i say1 the ,fly could so readily unglew and loosen its feet3 and1 because ,i have not found any other creature to have a contrivance any ways like it1 and chiefly1 that we might not be cast upon unintelligible explications of the ,phnomena of ,nature1 at least others then the true ones1 where our senses were able to furnish us with an intelligible1 rationall and true one4 ,somewhat a like contrivance to this of ,flies shall we find in most other ,animals1 such as all kinds of ,flies and case-wing'd creatures2 nay1 in a ,flea1 an ,animal abundantly smaller then this ,fly4 ,other creatures1 as ,mites1 the ,land-,crab1 c4 have onely one small very sharp ,tallon at the end of each of their legs1 which all drawing towards the center or middle of their body1 inable these exceeding light bodies to suspend and fasten themselves to almost any surface4 ,which how they are able to do1 will not seem strange1 if we consider1 first1 how little body there is in one of these creatures compar'd to their superficies1 or outside1 their thickness1 perhaps1 oftentimes1 not amounting to the hundredth part of an ,inch3 ,next1 the strength and agility of these creatures compar'd to their bulk1 being1 proportionable to their bulk1 perhaps1 an hundred times stronger then an ,horse or ,man4 ,and thirdly1 if we consider that ,nature does always appropriate the instruments1 so as they are the most fit and convenient to perform their offices1 and the most simple and plain that possibly can be2 this we may see further verify'd also in the foot of a ,louse which is very much differing from those ,i have been describing1 but more convenient and necessary for the place of its habitation1 each of his leggs being footed with a couple of small claws which he can open or shut at pleasure1 shap'd almost like the claws of a ,lobster or ,crab1 but with appropriated contrivances for his peculiar use1 which being to move its body to and fro upon the hairs of the creature it inhabits1 ,nature has furnish'd one of its claws with joints1 almost like the joints of a man's fingers1 so as thereby it is able to encompass or grasp a hair as firmly as a man can a stick or rope4 ,nor1 is there a less admirable and wonderfull ,mechanism in the foot of a ,spider1 whereby he is able to spin1 weave1 and climb1 or run on his curious transparent clew1 of which ,i shall say more in the description of that ,animal4 ,and to conclude1 we shall in all things find1 that ,nature does not onely work ,mechanically1 but by such excellent and most compendious1 as well as stupendious contrivances1 that it were impossible for all the reason in the world to find out any contrivance to do the same thing that should have more convenient properties4 ,and can any be so sottish1 as to think all those things the productions of chance8 ,certainly1 either their ,ratiocination must be extremely depraved1 or they did never attentively consider and contemplate the ,works of the ,al-mighty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxviii4 ,of the ,structure and motion of the ,wings of ,flies4 ,the ,wings of all kinds of ,insects1 are1 for the most part1 very beautifull ,objects1 and afford no less pleasing an ,object to the mind to speculate upon1 then to the eye to behold4 ,this of the blue ,fly1 among the rest1 wants not its peculiar ornaments and contrivances2 it grows out of the ,thorax1 or middle part of the body of a ,fly1 and is seated a little beyond the center of gravity in the body towards the head1 but that ,excentricly is curiously balanc'd2 first1 by the expanded ,area of the wings which lies all more backwards then the root1 by the motion of them1 whereby the center of their vibration is much more backwards towards the tail of the ,fly then the root of the wing is4 ,what the vibrative motion of the wings is1 and after what manner they are moved1 ,i have endeavoured by many trials to find out3 ,and first for the manner of their motion1 ,i endeavoured to observe several of those kind of small spinning ,flies1 which will naturally suspend themselves1 as it were1 pois'd and steady in one place of the air1 without rising or falling1 or moving forwards or backwards2 for by looking down on those1 ,i could by a kind of faint shadow1 perceive the utmost extremes of the vibrative motion of their wings1 which shadow1 whil'st they so endeavoured to suspend themselves1 was not very long1 but when they endeavour'd to flie forwards1 it was somewhat longer2 next1 ,i tried it1 by fixing the leggs of a ,fly upon the top of the stalk of a feather1 with ,glew1 ,wax1 c4 and then making it endeavour to flie away2 for being thereby able to view it in any posture1 ,i collected that the motion of the wing was after this manner4 ,the extreme limits of the vibrations were usually somewhat about the length of the body distant from one another1 oftentimes shorter1 and sometimes also longer2 that the formost limit was usually a little above the back1 and the hinder somwhat beneath the belly2 between which two limits1 if one may ghess by the sound1 the wing seem'd to be mov'd forwards and backwards with an equal velocity3 ,and if one may 7from the shadow or faint representation the wings afforded1 and from the consideration of the nature of the thing7 ghess at the posture or manner of the wings moving between them1 it seem'd to be this3 ,the wing being suppos'd placed in the upmost limit1 seems to be put so that the plain of it lies almost horizontal1 but onely the forepart does dip a little1 or is somewhat more deprest2 in this position is the wing vibrated or mov'd to the lower limit1 being almost arrived at the lower limit1 the hinder part of the wing moving somewhat faster then the former1 the ,area of the wing begins to dip behind1 and in that posture seems it to be mov'd to the upper limit back again1 and thence back again in the first posture1 the former part of the ,area dipping again1 as it is moved downwards by means of the quicker motion of the main stem which terminates or edges the forepart of the wing4 ,and these vibrations or motions to and fro between the two limits seem so swift1 that 'tis very probable 7from the sound it affords1 if it be compar'd with the vibration of a musical string1 tun'd unison to it7 it makes many hundreds1 if not some thousands of vibrations in a second minute of time4 ,and1 if we may be allow'd to ghess by the sound1 the wing of a ,bee is yet more swift1 for the tone is much more acute1 and that1 in all likelihood1 proceeds from the exceeding swift beating of the air by the small wing4 ,and it seems the more likely too1 because the wing of a ,bee is less in proportion to its body1 then the other wing to the body of a ,fly2 so that for ought ,i know1 it may be one of the quickest vibrating spontaneous motions of any in the world2 and though perhaps there may be many ,flies in other places that afford a yet more shrill note with their wings1 yet 'tis most probable that the quickest vibrating spontaneous motion is to be found in the wing of some creature4 ,now1 if we consider the exceeding quickness of these ,animal spirits that must cause these motions1 we cannot chuse but admire the exceeding vividness of the governing faculty or ,anima of the ,insect1 which is able to dispose and regulate so the motive faculties1 as to cause every peculiar organ1 not onely to move or act so quick1 but to do it also so regularly4 ,whil'st ,i was examining and considering the curious ,mechanism of the wings1 ,i observ'd that under the wings of most kind of ,flies1 ,bees1 c4 there were plac'd certain pendulums or extended drops 7as ,i may so call them from their resembling motion and figure7 for they much resembled a long hanging drop of some transparent viscous liquor2 and ,i observed them constantly to move just before the wings of the ,fly began to move1 so that at the first sight ,i could not but ghess1 that there was some excellent use1 as to the regulation of the motion of the wing1 and did phancy1 that it might be something like the handle of a ,cock1 which by vibrating to and fro1 might1 as 'twere1 open and shut the ,cock1 and thereby give a passage to the determinate influences into the ,muscles2 afterwards1 upon some other trials1 ,i suppos'd that they might be for some use in respiration1 which for many reasons ,i suppose those ,animals to use1 and1 me thought1 it was not very improbable1 but that they might have convenient passages under the wings for the emitting1 at least1 of the air1 if not admitting1 as in the gills of ,fishes is most evident2 or1 perhaps1 this ,pendulum might be somewhat like the staff to a ,pump1 whereby these creatures might exercise their ,analogous lungs1 and not only draw in1 but force out1 the air they live by3 but these were but conjectures1 and upon further examination seem'd less probable4 ,the fabrick of the wing1 as it appears through a moderately magnifying ,microscope1 seems to be a body consisting of two parts1 as is visible in the #d4 ,figure of the #bc4 ,scheme2 and by the #b4 ,figure of the #bf4 ,scheme2 the one is a quilly or finny substance1 consisting of several long1 slender and variously bended quills or wires1 something resembling the veins of leaves2 these are1 as 'twere1 the finns or quills which stiffen the whole ,area1 and keep the other part distended1 which is a very thin transparent skin or membrane variously folded1 and platted1 but not very regularly1 and is besides exceeding thickly bestuck with innumerable small bristles1 which are onely perceptible by the bigger magnifying ,microscope1 and not with that neither1 but with a very convenient augmentation of sky-light projected on the ,object with a burning ,glass1 as ,i have elsewhere shew'd1 or by looking through it against the light4 ,in steed of these small hairs1 in several other ,flies1 there are infinite of small ,feathers1 which cover both the under and upper sides of this thin film as in almost all the sorts of ,butterflies and ,moths3 and those small parts are not onely shap'd very much like the feathers of ,birds1 but like those variegated with all the variety of curious bright and vivid colours imaginable2 and those feathers are likewise so admirably and delicately rang'd1 as to compose very fine flourishings and ornamental paintings1 like ,turkie and ,persian ,carpets1 but of far more surpassing beauty1 as is evident enough to the naked eye1 in the painted wings of ,butterflies1 but much more through an ordinary ,microscope4 ,intermingled likewise with these hairs1 may be perceived multitudes of little pits1 or black spots1 in the extended membrane1 which seem to be the root of the hairs that grow on the other side2 these two bodies seem dispers'd over the whole surface of the wing4 ,the hairs are best perceiv'd1 by looking through it against the light1 or1 by laying the wing upon a very white piece of ,paper1 in a convenient light1 for thereby every little hair most manifestly appears2 a ,specimen of which you may observe drawn in the fourth ,figure of the #bc4 ,scheme1 ,,ab1 ,,cd1 ,,ef whereof represent some parts of the bones or quills of the wing1 each of which you may perceive to be cover'd over with a multitude of scales1 or bristles1 the former ,,ab1 is the biggest stem of all the wing1 and may be properly enough call'd the cut-air1 it being that which terminates and stiffens the formost edge of the wing2 the fore-edge of this is arm'd with a multitude of little brisles1 or ,tenter-hooks1 in some standing regular and in order1 in others not2 all the points of which are directed from the body towards the tip of the wing1 nor is this edge onely thus fring'd1 but even all the whole edge of the wing is covered with a small fringe1 consisting of short and more slender brisles4 ,this ,subject1 had ,i time1 would afford excellent matter for the contemplation of the nature of wings and of flying1 but1 because ,i may1 perhaps1 get a more convenient time to prosecute that speculation1 and recollect several ,observations that ,i have made of that particular4 ,i shall at present proceed to 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xxxix4 ,of the ,eyes and ,head of a ,grey drone-,fly1 and of several other creatures4 ,i took a large grey ,drone-,fly1 that had a large head1 but a small and slender body in proportion to it1 and cutting off its head1 ,i fix'd it with the forepart or face upwards upon my ,object ,plate 7this ,i made choice of rather then the head of a great blue ,fly1 because my enquiry being now about the eyes1 ,i found this ,fly to have1 first the biggest clusters of eyes in proportion to his head1 of any small kind of ,fly that ,i have yet seen1 it being somewhat inclining towards the make of the large ,dragon-,flies4 ,next1 because there is a greater variety in the knobs or balls of each cluster1 then is of any small ,fly47 ,then examining it according to my usual manner1 by varying the degrees of light1 and altering its position to each kinde of light1 ,i drew that representation of it which is delineated in the #bd4 ,scheme1 and found these things to be as plain and evident1 as notable and pleasant4 ,first1 that the greatest part of the face1 nay1 of the head1 was nothing else but two large and protuberant bunches1 or prominent parts1 ,,abcdea1 the surface of each of which was all cover'd over1 or shap'd into a multitude of small ,hemispheres1 plac'd in a triagonal order1 that being the closest and most compacted1 and in that order1 rang'd over the whole surface of the eye in very lovely rows1 between each of which1 as is necessary1 were left long and regular trenches1 the bottoms of every of which1 were perfectly intire and not at all perforated or drill'd through1 which ,i most certainly was assured of1 by the regularly reflected ,image of certain ,objects which ,i mov'd to and fro between the head and the light4 ,and by examining the ,cornea or outward skin1 after ,i had stript it off from the several substances that lay within it1 and by looking both upon the inside and against the light4 ,next1 that of those multitudes of ,hemispheres1 there were observable two degrees of bigness1 the half of them that were lowermost1 and look'd toward the ground or their own leggs1 namely1 ,,cde1 ,,cde being a pretty deal smaller then the other1 namely1 ,,abce1 ,,abce1 that look'd upward1 and side-ways1 or foreright1 and backward1 which variety ,i have not found in any other small ,fly4 ,thirdly1 that every one of these ,hemispheres1 as they seem'd to be pretty neer the true shape of a ,hemisphere1 so was the surface exceeding smooth and regular1 reflecting as exact1 regular1 and perfect an ,image of any ,object from the surface of them1 as a small ,ball of ,quick-silver of that bigness would do1 but nothing neer so vivid1 the reflection from these being very languid1 much like the reflection from the outside of ,water1 ,glass1 ,crystal1 c4 ,in so much that in each of these ,hemispheres1 ,i have been able to discover a ,land-scape of those things which lay before my window1 one thing of which was a large ,tree1 whose trunk and top ,i could plainly discover1 as ,i could also the parts of my window1 and my hand and fingers1 if ,i held it between the ,window and the ,object2 a small draught of nineteen of which1 as they appear'd in the bigger ,magnifying-glass to reflect the ,image of the two windows of my ,chamber1 are delineated in the third ,figure of the #bc4 ,scheme4 ,fourthly1 that these rows were so dispos'd1 that there was no quarter visible from his head that there was not some of these ,hemispheres directed against1 so that a ,fly may be truly said to have an eye every way1 and to be really circumspect4 ,and it was further observable1 that that way where the trunk of his body did hinder his prospect backward1 these protuberances were elevated1 as it were1 above the plain of his shoulders and back1 so that he was able to see backwards also over his back4 ,fifthly1 in living ,flies1 ,i have observ'd1 that when any small mote or dust1 which flies up and down the air1 chances to light upon any part of these knobs1 as it is sure to stick firmly to it and not fall1 though through the ,microscope it appears like a large stone or stick 7which one would admire1 especially since it is no ways probable that there is any wet or glutinous matter upon these ,hemispheres1 but ,i hope ,i shall render the reason in another place7 so the ,fly presently makes use of his two fore-feet in stead of eye-lids1 with which1 as with two ,brooms or ,brushes1 they being all bestuck with ,brisles1 he often sweeps or brushes off what ever hinders the prospect of any of his ,hemispheres1 and then1 to free his leggs from that dirt1 he rubs them one against another1 the pointed ,brisles or ,tenters of which looking both one way1 the rubbing of them to and fro one against another1 does cleanse them in the same manner as ,i have observ'd those that ,card ,wool1 to cleanse their ,cards1 by placing their ,cards1 so as the teeth of both look the same way1 and then rubbing them one against another4 ,in the very same manner do they brush and cleanse their bodies and wings1 as ,i shall by and by shew2 other creatures have other contrivances for the cleansing and cleering their eyes4 ,sixthly that the number of the ,pearls or ,hemispheres in the clusters of this ,fly1 was neer #adjjj4 which ,i judged by numbering certain rows of them several ways1 and casting up the whole content1 accounting each cluster to contain about seven thousand ,pearls1 three thousand of which were of a size1 and consequently the rows not so thick1 and the foure thousand ,i accounted to be the number of the smaller ,pearls next the feet and proboscis4 ,other ,animals ,i observ'd to have yet a greater number1 as the ,dragon-,fly or ,adderbolt3 ,and others to have a much less company1 as an ,ant1 c4 and several other small ,flies and ,insects4 ,seventhly1 that the order of these eies or ,hemispheres was altogether curious and admirable1 they being plac'd in all kind of ,flies1 and aerial animals1 in a most curious and regular ordination of triangular rows1 in which order they are rang'd the neerest together that possibly they can1 and consequently leave the least pits or trenches between them4 ,but in ,shrimps1 ,crawfishes1 ,lobsters1 and such kinds of ,crustaceous water ,animals1 ,i have yet observ'd them rang'd in a quadrangular order1 the rows cutting each other at right angles1 which as it admits of a less number of ,pearls in equal surfaces2 so have those creatures a recompence made them1 by having their eyes a little movable in their heads1 which the other altogether want4 ,so infinitely wise and provident do we find all the ,dispensations in ,nature1 that certainly ,epicurus1 and his followers1 must very little have consider'd them1 who ascrib'd those things to the production of chance1 that wil1 to a more attentive considerer1 appear the products of the highest ,wisdom and ,providence4 ,upon the ,anatomy or ,dissection of the ,head1 ,i observ'd these particulars3 ,first1 that this outward skin1 like the ,cornea of the eyes of the greater ,animals1 was both flexible and transparent1 and seem'd1 through the ,microscope perfectly to resemble the very substance of the ,cornea of a man's eye2 for having cut out the cluster1 and remov'd the dark and mucous stuff that is subjacent to it1 ,i could see it transparent like a thin piece of skin1 having as many cavities in the inside of it1 and rang'd in the same order as it had protuberances on the outside1 and this propriety1 ,i found the same in all the ,animals that had it1 whether ,flies or ,shell-,fish4 ,secondly1 ,i found that all ,animals that ,i have observ'd with those kind of eyes2 have within this ,cornea1 a certain cleer liquor or juice1 though in a very little quantity1 and1 ,i observ'd thirdly1 that within that cleer liquor1 they had a kind of dark mucous lining1 which was all spread round within the cavity of the clutter1 and seem'd very neer adjoining to it1 the colour of which1 in some ,flies1 was grey2 in others1 black1 in others red2 in others1 of a mix'd colour2 in others1 spotted2 and that the whole clusters1 when look'd on whilst the ,animal was living1 or but newly kill'd1 appear'd of the same colour that this coat 7as ,i may so call it7 appear'd of1 when that outward skin1 or ,cornea1 was remov'd4 ,fourthly1 that the rest of the capacity of the clusters was in some1 as in ,dragon ,flies1 c4 hollow1 or empty2 in others fill'd with some kind of substance2 in blue ,flies1 with a reddish musculous substance1 with fibres tending from the center or bottom outwards2 and divers other1 with various and differing kinds of substances4 ,that this curious contrivance is the organ of sight to all those various ,crustaceous ,animals1 which are furnish'd with it1 ,i think we need not doubt1 if we consider but the several congruities it has with the eyes of greater creatures4 ,as first1 that it is furnish'd with a ,cornea1 with a transparent humour1 and with a uvea or retina1 that the ,figure of each of the small ,hemispheres are very ,spherical1 exactly polish'd1 and most vivid1 lively and plump1 when the ,animal is living1 as in greater ,animals1 and in like manner dull1 flaccid1 and irregular1 or shrunk1 when the ,animal is dead4 ,next1 that those creatures that are furnish'd with it1 have no other organs that have any resemblance to the known eyes of other creatures4 ,thirdly1 that those which they call the eyes of ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 ,shrimps1 and the like1 and are really so1 are ,hemispher'd1 almost in the same manner as these of ,flies are4 ,and that they really are so1 ,i have very often try'd1 by cutting off these little movable knobs1 and putting the creature again into the water1 that it would swim to and fro1 and move up and down as well as before1 but would often hit it self against the rocks or stones2 and though ,i put my hand just before its head1 it would not at all start or fly back till ,i touch'd it1 whereas whil'st those were remaining1 it would start back1 and avoid my hand or a stick at a good distance before it touch'd it4 ,and if in crustaceous ,sea-animals1 then it seems very probable also1 that these knobs are the eyes in crustaceous ,insects1 which are also of the same kind1 onely in a higher and more active ,element2 this the conformity or congruity of many other parts common to either of them1 will strongly argue1 their crustaceous armour1 their number of leggs1 which are six1 beside the two great claws1 which answer to the wings in ,insects2 and in all kind of ,spiders1 as also in many other ,insects that want wings1 we shall find the compleat number of them1 and not onely the number1 but the very shape1 figure1 joints1 and claws of ,lobsters and ,crabs1 as is evident in ,scorpions and ,spiders1 as is visible in the second ,figure of the #ca4 ,scheme1 and in the little ,mite-worm1 which ,i call a ,land-crab1 describ'd in the second ,figure of the #cc4 ,scheme1 but in their manner of generation being oviparous1 c4 ,and it were very worthy observation1 whether there be not some kinds of transformation and metamorphosis in the several states of crustaceous water-animals1 as there is in several sorts of ,insects2 for if such could be met with1 the progress of the variations would be much more conspicuous in those larger ,animals1 then they can be in any kind of ,insects our colder ,climate affords4 ,these being their eyes1 it affords us a very pretty ,speculation to contemplate their manner of vision1 which1 as it is very differing from that of biocular ,animals1 so is it not less admirable4 ,that each of these ,pearls or ,hemispheres is a perfect eye1 ,i think we need not doubt1 if we consider onely the outside or figure of any one of them1 for they being each of them cover'd with a transparent protuberant ,cornea1 and containing a liquor within them1 resembling the watry or glassie humours of the eye1 must necessarily refract all the parallel ,rays that fall on them out of the air1 into a point not farr distant within them1 where 7in all probability7 the ,retina of the eye is placed1 and that opacous1 dark1 and mucous inward coat that 7,i formerly shew'd7 ,i found to subtend the concave part of the cluster is very likely to be that tunicle or coat1 it appearing through the ,microscope to be plac'd a little more than a ,diameter of those ,pearls below or within the tunica cornea4 ,and if so1 then is there in all probability1 a little ,picture or ,image of the objects without1 painted or made at the bottom of the ,retina against every one of those ,pearls1 so that there are as many impressions on the ,retina or opacous skin1 as there are ,pearls or ,hemispheres on the cluster4 ,but because it is impossible for any protuberant surface whatsoever1 whether sphrial or other1 so to refract the ,rays that come from farr remote lateral points of any ,object as to collect them again1 and unite them each in a distinct point1 and that onely those ,rays which come from some point that lies in the ,axis of the ,figure produc'd1 are so accurately refracted to one and the same point again1 and that the lateral ,rays1 the further they are remov'd1 the more imperfect is their refracted confluence2 ,it follows therefore1 that onely the ,picture of those parts of the external objects that lie in1 or neer1 the ,axis of each ,hemisphere1 are discernably painted or made on the ,retina of each ,hemisphere1 and that therefore each of them can distinctly sensate or see onely those parts which are very neer perpendicularly oppos'd to it1 or lie in or neer its optick ,axis4 ,now1 though there may be by each of these eye-pearls1 a representation to the ,animal of a whole ,hemisphere in the same manner as in a man's eye there is a picture or sensation in the ,retina of all the objects lying almost in an ,hemisphere2 yet1 as in a man's eye also1 there are but some very few points which liyng in1 or neer1 the optick ,axis are distinctly discern'd3 ,so there may be multitudes of ,pictures made of an ,object in the several ,pearls1 and yet but one1 or some very few that are distinct2 ,the representation of any object that is made in any other ,pearl1 but that which is directly1 or very neer directly1 oppos'd1 being altogether confus'd and unable to produce a distinct vision4 ,so that we see1 that though it has pleas'd the ,all-wise ,creator1 to indue this creature with such multitudes of eyes1 yet has he not indued it with the faculty of seeing more then another creature2 for whereas this cannot move his head1 at least can move it very little1 without moving his whole body1 biocular creatures can in an instant 7or the twinkling of an eye1 which1 being very quick1 is vulgarly used in the same signification7 move their eyes so as to direct the optick ,axis to any point2 nor is it probable1 that they are able to see attentively at one time more then one ,physical point2 for though there be a distinct ,image made in every eye1 yet 'tis very likely1 that the observing faculty is only imploy'd about some one object for which they have most concern4 ,now1 as we accurately distinguish the site or position of an ,object by the motion of the ,muscles of the eye requisite to put the optick ,line in a direct position1 and confusedly by the position of the imperfect ,picture of the object at the bottom of the eye2 so are these crustaceous creatures able to judge confusedly of the position of objects by the ,picture or impression made at the bottom of the opposite ,pearl1 and distinctly by the removal of the attentive or observing faculty1 from one ,pearl to another1 but what this faculty is1 as it requires another place1 so a much deeper speculation4 ,now1 because it were impossible1 even with this multitude of eye-balls1 to see any object distinct 7for as ,i hinted before1 onely those parts that lay in1 or very neer1 the optick ,lines could be so7 the ,infinitely wise ,creator has not left the creature without a power of moving the head a little in ,aerial crustaceous animals1 and the very eyes also in crustaceous ,sea-animals2 so that by these means they are inabled to direct some optick line or other against any object1 and by that means they have the visive faculty as compleat as any ,animal that can move its eyes4 ,distances of ,objects also1 'tis very likely they distinguish1 partly by the consonant impressions made in some two convenient ,pearls1 one in each cluster2 for1 according as those congruous impressions affect1 two ,pearls neerer approach'd to each other1 the neerer is the ,object1 and the farther they are distant1 the more distant is the ,object3 partly also by the alteration of each ,pearl1 requisite to make the ,sensation or ,picture perfect2 for 'tis impossible that the ,pictures of two ,objects1 variously distant1 can be perfectly painted1 or made on the same ,retina or bottom of the eye not altered1 as will be very evident to any one that shall attentively consider the nature of refraction4 ,now1 whether this alteration may be in the ,figure of the ,cornea1 in the motion of access or recess of the ,retina towards the ,cornea1 or in the alteration of a crystalline humour1 if such there be1 ,i pretend not to determine2 though ,i think we need not doubt1 but that there may be as much curiosity of contrivance and structure in every one of these ,pearls1 as in the eye of a ,whale or ,elephant1 and the almighty's ,fiat could as easily cause the existence of the one as the other2 and as one day and a thousand years are the same with him1 so may one eye and ten thousand4 ,this we may be sure of1 that the filaments or sensative parts of the ,retina must be most exceedingly curious and minute1 since the whole ,picture it self is such2 what must needs the component parts be of that ,retina1 which distinguishes the part of an object's ,picture that must be many millions of millions less then that in a man's eye8 ,and how exceeding curious and subtile must the component parts of the medium that conveys light be1 when we find the instrument made for its reception or refraction to be so exceedingly small8 we may1 ,i think1 from this speculation be sufficiently discouraged from hoping to discover by any optick or other instrument the determinate bulk of the parts of the medium that conveys the pulse of light1 since we find that there is not less accurateness shewn in the ,figure and polish of those exceedingly minute lenticular surfaces1 then in those more large and conspicuous surfaces of our own eyes4 ,and yet can ,i not doubt1 but that there is a determinate bulk of those parts1 since ,i find them unable to enter between the parts of ,mercury1 which being in motion1 must necessarily have pores1 as ,i shall elsewhere shew1 and here pass by1 as being a digression4 ,as concerning the horns ,,ff1 the feelers or smellers1 ,,gg1 the ,proboscis ,,hh1 and ,i1 the hairs and brisles1 ,,kk1 ,i shall indeavour to describe in the #db4 ,observation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xl4 ,of the ,teeth of a ,snail4 ,i have little more to add of the ,teeth of a ,snail1 besides the ,picture of it1 which is represented in the first ,figure of the #be4 ,scheme1 save that his bended body1 ,,abcdef1 which seem'd fashioned very much like a row of small teeth1 orderly plac'd in the ,gums1 and looks as if it were divided into several smaller and greater black teeth1 was nothing but one small bended hard bone1 which was plac'd in the upper jaw of the mouth of a ,house-,snail1 with which ,i observ'd this very ,snail to feed on the leaves of a ,rose-tree1 and to bite out pretty large and half round bits1 not unlike the ,figure of a 7,c7 nor very much differing from it in bigness1 the upper part ,,abcd of this bone1 ,i found to be much whiter1 and to grow out of the upper chap of the ,snail1 ,,ggg1 and not to be any thing neer so much creas'd as the lower and blacker part of it ,,hiihkkh which was exactly shap'd like teeth1 the bone growing thinner1 or tapering to an edge towards ,,kkk4 ,it seem'd to have nine teeth1 or prominent parts ,,ik1 ,,ik1 ,,if1 c4 which were join'd together by the thinner interpos'd parts of the bone4 ,the ,animal to which these teeth belong1 is a very anomalous creature1 and seems of a kind quite distinct from any other terrestrial ,animal or ,insect1 the ,anatomy whereof exceedingly differing from what has been hitherto given of it ,i should have inserted1 but that it will be more proper in another place4 ,i have never met with any kind of ,animal whose teeth are all join'd in one1 save onely that ,i lately observ'd1 that all the teeth of a ,rhinocerot1 which grow on either side of its mouth1 are join'd into one large bone1 the weight of one of which ,i found to be neer eleven pound ,haverdupois4 ,so that it seems one of the biggest sort of terrestrial ,animals1 as well as one of the smallest1 has his teeth thus shap'd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xli4 ,of the ,eggs of ,silk-worms1 and other ,insects4 ,the ,eggs of ,silk-worms 7one of which ,i have describ'd in the second ,figure of #be4 ,scheme7 afford a pretty ,object for a ,microscope that magnifies very much1 especially if it be bright weather1 and the light of a window be cast or collected on it by a deep ,convex glass1 or ,water-ball4 ,for then the whole surface of the ,shell may be perceiv'd all cover'd over with exceeding small pits or cavities with interposed edges1 almost in the manner of the surface of a ,poppy-seed1 but that these holes are not an hundredth part scarce of their bigness2 the ,shell1 when the young ones were hatch'd 7which ,i found an easie thing to do1 if the ,eggs were kept in a warm place7 appear'd no thicker in proportion to its bulk1 then that of an ,hen's or ,goos's ,egg is to its bulk1 and all the ,shell appear'd very white 7which seem'd to proceed from its transparency7 whence all those pittings did almost vanish1 so that they could not1 without much difficulty1 be discern'd1 the inside of the ,shell seem'd to be lin'd also with a kind of thin film1 not unlike 7keeping the proportion to its ,shell7 that with which the shell of an ,hen-egg is lin'd2 and the shell it self seem'd like common ,egg-shells2 very brittle1 and crack'd4 ,in divers other of these ,eggs ,i could plainly enough1 through the shell1 perceive the small ,insect lie coyled round the edges of the shell4 ,the shape of the ,egg it self1 the ,figure pretty well represents 7though by default of the ,graver it does not appear so rounded1 and lying above the ,paper1 as it were1 as it ought to do7 that is1 it was for the most part pretty oval end-ways1 somewhat like an ,egg1 but the other way it was a little flatted on two opposite sides4 ,divers of these ,eggs1 as is common to most others1 ,i found to be barren1 or addle1 for they never afforded any young ones4 ,and those ,i usually found much whiter then the other that were prolifick4 ,the ,eggs of other kinds of ,oviparous ,insects ,i have found to be perfectly round every way1 like so many ,globules1 of this sort ,i have observ'd some sorts of ,spiders ,eggs2 and chancing the last ,summer to inclose a very large and curiously painted ,butterfly in a ,box1 intending to examine its gaudery with my ,microscope1 ,i found within a day or two after ,i inclos'd her1 almost all the inner surface of the ,box cover'd over with an infinite of exactly round ,eggs1 which were stuck very fast to the sides of it1 and in so exactly regular and close an order1 that made me call to mind my ,hypothesis1 which ,i had formerly thought on for the making out of all the regular ,figures of ,salt1 which ,i have elsewhere hinted2 for here ,i found all of them rang'd into a most exact triagonal order1 much after the manner as the ,hemispheres are place on the eye of a ,fly2 all which ,eggs ,i found after a little time to be hatch'd1 and out of them to come a multitude of small ,worms1 very much resembling young ,silk-worms1 leaving all their thin hollow shells behind them1 sticking on the ,box in their triagonal posture2 these ,i found with the ,microscope to have much such a substance as the ,silk-worms ,eggs1 but could not perceive them pitted4 ,and indeed1 there is as great a variety in the shape of the ,eggs of ,oviparous ,insects as among those of ,birds4 ,of these ,eggs1 a large and lusty ,fly will at one time lay neer four or five hundred1 so that the increase of these kind of ,insects must needs be very prodigious1 were they not prey'd on by multitudes of ,birds1 and destroy'd by ,frosts and ,rains2 and hence 'tis those hotter ,climates between the ,tropicks are infested with such multitudes of ,locusts1 and such other ,vermine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlii4 ,of a blue ,fly4 ,this kind of ,fly1 whereof a ,microscopical ,picture is delineated in the first ,figure of the #bf4 ,scheme1 is a very beautifull creature1 and has many things about it very notable2 divers of which ,i have already partly describ'd1 namely1 the feet1 wings1 eyes1 and head1 in the preceding ,observations4 ,and though the head before describ'd be that of a grey ,drone-,fly1 yet for the main it is very agreeable to this4 ,the things wherein they differ most1 will be easily enough found by the following particulars3 ,first1 the clusters of eyes of this ,fly1 are very much smaller then those of the ,dron-,fly1 in proportion to the head4 ,and next1 all the eyes of each cluster seem'd much of the same bigness one with another1 not differing as the other1 but rang'd in the same triagonal order4 ,thirdly1 between these two clusters1 there was a scaly prominent front ,b1 which was arm'd and adorn'd with large tapering sharp black brisles1 which growing out in rows on either side1 were so bent toward each other neer the top1 as to make a kind of arched arbour of ,brisles1 which almost cover'd the former front4 ,fourthly1 at the end of this ,arch1 about the middle of the face1 on a prominent part ,c1 grew two small oblong bodies1 ,,dd1 which through a ,microscope look'd not unlike the ,pendants in ,lillies1 these seem'd to be jointed on to two small parts at ,c1 each of which seem'd again jointed into the front4 ,fifthly1 out of the upper part and outsides of these horns 7as ,i may call them1 from the ,figure they are of1 in the #bd4 ,scheme1 where they are marked with ,,ff7 there grows a single feather1 or brushy ,brisle1 ,,ee1 somewhat of the same kind with the tufts of a ,gnat1 which ,i have before described4 ,what the use of these kind of horned and tufted bodies should be1 ,i cannot well imagine1 unless they serve for smelling or hearing1 though how they are adapted for either1 it seems very difficult to describe3 they are in almost every several kind of ,flies of so various a shape2 though certainly they are some very essential part of the head1 and have some very notable office assign'd them by ,nature1 since in all ,insects they are to be found in one or other form4 ,sixthly1 at the under part of the face ,,ff1 were several of the former sort of bended ,brisles1 and below all1 the mouth1 out of the middle of which1 grew the proboscis ,,ghi1 which1 by means of several joints1 whereof it seem'd to consist1 the ,fly was able to move to and fro1 and thrust it in and out as it pleas'd2 the end of this hollow body 7which was all over cover'd with small short hairs or brisles7 was1 as 'twere1 bent at ,h1 and the outer or formost side of the bended part ,,hi1 slit1 as it were1 into two chaps1 ,,hi1 ,,hi1 all the outside of which where cover'd with hairs1 and pretty large brisles2 these he could1 like two chaps1 very readily open and shut1 and when he seem'd to suck any thing from the surface of a body1 he would spread abroad those chaps1 and apply the hollow part of them very close to it4 ,from either side of the ,proboscis1 within the mouth1 grew two other small horns1 or fingers1 ,,kk1 which were hairy1 but small in this ,figure2 but of another shape1 and bigger in proportion1 in the #bd4 ,scheme1 where they are marked with ,,gg1 which two indeed seem'd a kind of smellers1 but whether so or not1 ,i cannot positively determine4 ,the ,thorax or middle part of this ,fly1 was cas'd1 both above and beneath1 with a very firm crust of armour1 the upper part more round1 and covered over with long conical brisles1 all whose ends pointed backwards2 out of the hinder and under part of this grew out in a cluster six leggs1 three of which are apparent in the ,figure1 the other three were hid by the body plac'd in that posture4 ,the leggs were all much of the same make1 being all of them cover'd with a strong hairy scale or shel1 just like the legs of a ,crab or ,lobster1 and the contrivance of the joints seem'd much the same1 each legg seem'd made up of eight parts1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 to the eighth or last of which1 grew the soles and claws1 described before in the #ch4 ,observation4 ,out of the upper part of this trunk grew the two wings1 which ,i mention'd in the #ch4 ,observation1 consisting of a film1 extended on certain small stiff wires or bones3 these in a blue ,fly1 were much longer then the body1 but in other kind of ,flies they are of very differing proportions to the body4 ,these films1 in many ,flies1 were so thin1 that1 like several other plated bodies 7mention'd in the ninth ,observation7 they afforded all varieties of fantastical or transient colours 7the reason of which ,i have here endeavoured to explain7 they seem'd to receive their nourishment from the stalks or wires1 which seem'd to be hollow1 and neer the upper part of the wing ,,ll several of them seem'd jointed1 the shape of which will sufficiently appear by the black lines in the second ,figure of the #bf4 ,scheme1 which is a delineation of one of those wings expanded directly to the eyes4 ,all the hinder part of its body is cover'd with a most curious blue shining armour1 looking exactly like a polish'd piece of steel brought to that blue colour by annealing1 all which armour is very thick bestuck with abundance of tapering brisles1 such as grow on its back1 as is visible enough by the ,figure4 ,nor was the inside of this creature less beautifull then its outside1 for cutting off a part of the belly1 and then viewing it1 to see if ,i could discover any ,vessels1 such as are to be found in a greater ,animals1 and even in ,snails exceeding manifestly1 ,i found1 much beyond my expectation1 that there were abundance of branchings of ,milk-white vessels1 no less curious then the branchings of veins and arteries in bigger terrestrial ,animals1 in one of which1 ,i found two notable branches1 joining their two main stocks1 as it were1 into one common ductus2 now1 to what veins or arteries these ,vessells were analogus1 whether to the vena porta1 or the meseraick vessells1 or the like1 or indeed1 whether they were veins and arteries1 or vasa lactea1 properly so called1 ,i am not hitherto able to determine1 having not yet made sufficient enquiry2 but in all particulars1 there seems not to be any thing less of curious contrivance in these ,insects1 then in those larger terrestrial ,animals1 for ,i had never seen any more curious branchings of ,vessels1 then those ,i observ'd in two or three of these ,flies thus opened4 ,it is a creature active and nimble1 so as there are very few creatures like it1 whether bigger or smaller1 in so much1 that it will scape and avoid a small body1 though coming on it exceeding swiftly1 and if it sees any thing approaching it1 which it fears1 it presently squats down1 as it were1 that it may be the more ready for its rise4 ,nor is it less hardy in the ,winter1 then active in the ,summer1 induring all the ,frosts1 and surviving till the next ,summer1 notwithstanding the bitter cold of our ,climate2 nay1 this creature will indure to be frozen1 and yet not be destroy'd1 for ,i have taken one of them out of the ,snow whereon it has been frozen almost white1 with the ,ice about it1 and yet by thawing it gently by the warmth of a fire1 it has quickly reviv'd and flown about4 ,this kind of ,fly seems by the steams or taste of fermenting and putrifying meat 7which it often kisses1 as 'twere1 with its proboscis as it trips over it7 to be stimulated or excited to eject its ,eggs or ,seed on it1 perhaps1 from the same reason as ,dogs1 ,cats1 and many other brute creatures are excited to their particular lusts1 by the smell of their females1 when by ,nature prepared for generation2 the males seeming by those kind of smells1 or other incitations1 to be as much necessitated thereto1 as ,aqua ,regis strongly impregnated with a solution of ,gold1 is forced to precipitate it by the affusion of spirit of ,urine1 or a solution of ,salt of ,tartar4 ,one of these put in spirit of ,wine1 was very quickly seemingly kill'd1 and both its eys and mouth began to look very red1 but upon the taking of it out1 and suffering it to lie three or four hours1 and heating it with the ,sun beams cast through a ,burning-glass1 it again reviv'd1 seeming1 as it were1 to have been all the intermediate time1 but dead drunk1 and after certain hours to grow fresh again and sober4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xliii4 ,of the ,water ,insect or ,gnat4 ,this little creature1 described in the first ,figure of the #bg4 ,scheme1 was a small scaled or crusted ,animal1 which ,i have often observ'd to be generated in ,rain-water2 ,i have also observ'd it both in ,pond and ,river-water4 ,it is suppos'd by some1 to deduce its first original from the putrifaction of ,rain-water1 in which1 if it have stood any time open to the air1 you shall seldom miss1 all the ,summer long1 of store of them frisking too and fro4 ',tis a creature1 wholly differing in shape from any ,i ever observ'd2 nor is its motion less strange3 ,it has a very large head1 in proportion to its body1 all covered with a shell1 like other testaceous ,animals1 but it differs in this1 that it has1 up and down several parts of it1 several tufts of hairs1 or brisles1 plac'd in the order express'd in the ,figure2 ,it has two horns1 which seem'd almost like the horns of an ,oxe1 inverted1 and1 as neer as ,i could guess1 were hollow1 with tufts of brisles1 likewise at the top2 these horns they could move easily this or that way1 and might1 perchance1 be their nostrils4 ,it has a pretty large mouth1 which seem'd contriv'd much like those of ,crabs and ,lobsters1 by which1 ,i have often observ'd them to feed on water1 or some imperceptible nutritive substance in it4 ,i could perceive1 through the transparent shell1 while the ,animal surviv'd1 several motions in the head1 thorax1 and belly1 very distinctly1 of differing kinds which ,i may1 perhaps1 elsewhere endeavour more accurately to examine1 and to shew of how great benefit the use of a ,microscope may be for the discovery of ,nature's course in the operations perform'd in ,animal bodies1 by which we have the opportunity of observing her through these delicate and pellucid teguments of the bodies of ,insects acting according to her usual course and way1 undisturbed1 whereas1 when we endeavour to pry into her secrets by breaking open the doors upon her1 and dissecting and mangling creatures whil'st there is life yet within them1 we find her indeed at work1 but put into such disorder by the violence offer'd1 as it may easily be imagin'd1 how differing a thing we should find1 if we could1 as we can with a ,microscope in these smaller creatures1 quietly peep in at the windows1 without frighting her out of her usual byas4 ,the form of the whole creature1 as it appear'd in the ,microscope1 may1 without troubling you with more descriptions1 be plainly enough perceiv'd by the ,scheme1 the hinder part or belly consisting of eight several jointed parts1 namely1 ,,abcdefgh1 of the first ,figure1 from the midst of each of which1 on either side issued out three or four small brisles or hairs1 ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 the tail was divided into two parts of very differing make2 one of them1 namely1 ,k1 having many tufts of hair or brisles1 which seem'd to serve both for the finns and tail1 for the ,oars and ,ruder of this little creature1 wherewith it was able1 by frisking and bending its body nimbly to and fro1 to move himself any whither1 and to skull and steer himself as he pleas'd1 the other part1 ,l1 seem'd to be1 as 'twere1 the ninth division of his belly1 and had many single brisles on either side4 ,from the end ,v1 of which1 through the whole belly1 there was a kind of ,gut of a darker colour1 ,,mmm1 wherein1 by certain ,peristaltick motions there was a kind of black substance mov'd upwards and downwards through it from the orbicular part of it1 ,n1 7which seem'd the ,ventricle1 or stomach7 to the tail ,v1 and so back again1 which peristaltick motion ,i have observ'd also in a ,louse1 a ,gnat1 and several other kinds of transparent body'd ,flies4 ,the ,thorax or chest of this creature ,,oooo1 was thick and short1 and pretty transparent1 for through it ,i could see the white heart 7which is the colour also of the bloud in these1 and most other ,insects7 to beat1 and several other kind of motions4 ,it was bestuck and adorn'd up and down with several tufts of brisles1 such as are pointed out by ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 the head ,q was likewise bestuck with several of those tufts1 ,,sss2 it was broad and short1 had two black eyes1 ,,tt1 which ,i could not perceive at all pearl'd1 as they afterwards appear'd1 and two small horns1 ,,rr1 such as ,i formerly describ'd4 ,both its motion and rest is very strange1 and pleasant1 and differing from those of most other creatures ,i have observ'd2 for1 where it ceases from moving its body1 the tail of it seeming much lighter then the rest of its body1 and a little lighter then the water it swims in1 presently boys it up to the top of the water1 where it hangs suspended with the head always downward2 and like our ,antipodes1 if they do by a frisk get below that superficies1 they presently ascend again unto it1 if they cease moving1 until they tread1 as it were1 under that superficies with their tails2 the hanging of these in this posture1 put me in mind of a certain creature ,i have seen in ,london1 that was brought out of ,america1 which would very firmly suspend it self by the tail1 with the head downwards1 and was said to keep in that posture1 with her young ones in her false belly1 which is a ,purse1 provided by ,nature for the production1 nutrition1 and preservation of her young ones1 which is described by ,piso in the #bd4 ,chapter of the fifth ,book of his ,natural ,history of ,brasil4 ,the motion of it was with the tail forwards1 drawing its self backwards1 by the striking to and fro of that tuft which grew out of one of the stumps of its tail4 ,it had another motion1 which was more sutable to that of other creatures1 and that is1 with the head forward2 for by the moving of his chaps 7if ,i may so call the parts of his mouth7 it was able to move it self downwards very gently towards the bottom1 and did1 as 'twere1 eat up its way through the water4 ,but that which was most observable in this creature1 was1 its ,metamorphosis or change2 for having kept several of these ,animals in a ,glass of ,rain-water1 in which they were produc'd1 ,i found1 after about a fortnight or three weeks keeping1 that several of them flew away in ,gnats1 leaving their husks behind them in the water floating under the surface1 the place where these ,animals were wont to reside1 whil'st they were inhabitants of the water3 this made me more diligently to watch them1 to see if ,i could find them at the time of their transformation2 and not long after1 ,i observ'd several of them to be changed into an unusual shape1 wholly differing from that they were of before1 their head and body being grown much bigger and deeper1 but not broader1 and their belly1 or hinder part smaller1 and coyl'd1 about this great body much of the fashion represented by the prick'd line in the second ,figure of the #bg4 ,scheme1 the head and horns now swam uppermost1 and the whole bulk of the body seem'd to be grown much lighter2 for when by my frighting of it1 it would by frisking out of its tail 7in the manner express'd in the ,figure by ,,bc7 sink it self below the surface towards the bottom2 the body would more swiftly re-ascend1 then when it was in its former shape4 ,i still marked its progress from time to time1 and found its body still to grow bigger and bigger1 ,nature1 as it were1 fitting and accoutring it for the lighter ,element1 of which it was now going to be an inhabitant2 for1 by observing one of these with my ,microscope1 ,i found the eyes of it to be altogether differing from what they seem'd before1 appearing now all over pearl'd or knobb'd1 like the eyes of ,gnats1 as is visible in the second ,figure by ,a4 ,at length1 ,i saw part of this creature to swim above1 and part beneath the surface of the water1 below which though it would quickly plunge it self if ,i by any means frighted it1 and presently re-ascend into its former posture2 after a little longer expectation1 ,i found that the head and body of a ,gnat1 began to appear and stand cleer above the surface1 and by degrees it drew out its leggs1 first the two formost1 then the other1 at length its whole body perfect and entire appear'd out of the husk 7which it left in the water7 standing on its leggs upon the top of the water1 and by degrees it began to move1 and after flew about the ,glass a perfect ,gnat4 ,i have been the more particular1 and large in the relation of the transformation of divers of these little ,animals which ,i observ'd1 because ,i have not found that any ,authour has observ'd the like1 and because the thing it self is so strange and heterogeneous from the usual progress of other ,animals1 that ,i judge it may not onely be pleasant1 but very usefull and necessary towards the compleating of ,natural ,history4 ,there is indeed in ,piso1 a very odd ,history1 which this relation may make the more probable2 and that is in the #b4 ,chapter of the #d4 ,book of his ,natural ,history of ,brasil1 where he says1 ,porro prter tot documenta fertilitatis circa vegetabilia sensitiva marina telluris mula1 accidit illud1 quod paucis ,paranambucensi milliaribus1 piscatoris uncum citra intentionem contingat infigi vadis petrosis1 loco piscis spongia1 coralla1 aliasque arbusculas marinas capi4 ,inter hc inusitat form prodit spongiosa arbuscula sesquipedis longitudinis1 brevioribus radicibus1 lapideis nitens vadis1 rupibus infixa1 erigiturque in corpus spongiosum molle oblongum rotundum turbinatum3 intus miris cancellis alveis fabricatum1 extus autem tenaci glutine instar ,apum propolis undique vestitum1 ostio satis patulo profundo in summitate relicto1 sicut ex altera iconum probe depicta videre licet 7see the third and fourth ,figures of the #bg4 ,scheme47 ,ita ut ,apiarium marinum vere dixeris2 primo enim intuitu ,mare ad ,terram delatum1 vermiculis scatebat cruleis parvis1 qui mox calore solis in ,muscas1 vel ,apes potius1 easq2 exiguas nigras transformebantur1 circumvolantesque evanescebant1 ita ut de eorum mellificatione nihil certi conspici datum fuerit1 cum tamen crosa materia propolis ,apumque cell manifeste apparerent1 atque ipsa mellis qualiscunque substantia proculdubio urinatoribus patebit1 ubi curiosius inquisiverint hc apiaria1 eaque in natali solo salo diversis temporibus penitius lustrarint4 ,which ,history contains things sufficiently strange to be consider'd1 as whether the husk were a ,plant1 growing at the bottom of the ,sea before1 of it self1 out of whose putrifaction might be generated these strange kind of ,magots2 or whether the seed of certain ,bees1 sinking to the bottom1 might there naturally form it self that vegetable hive1 and take root2 or1 whether it might not be placed there by some diving ,fly2 or1 whether it might not be some peculiar propriety of that ,plant1 whereby it might ripen or form its vegetable juice into an ,animal substance2 or1 whether it may not be of the nature of a ,sponge1 or rather a ,sponge of the nature of this1 according to some of those relations and conjectures ,i formerly made of that body1 is a matter very difficult to be determined4 ,but indeed1 in this description1 the ,excellent ,piso has not been sufficiently particular in the setting down the whole process1 as it were to be wish'd3 ,there are indeed very odd progresses in the production of several kinds of ,insects1 which are not less instructive then pleasant1 several of which1 the diligent ,goedartius has carefully observ'd and recorded1 but among all his ,observations1 he has none like this1 though that of the ,hemerobius be somewhat of this kind1 which is added as an ,appendix by ,johannes ,mey4 ,i have1 for my own particular1 besides several of those mention'd by him1 observ'd divers other circumstances1 perhaps1 not much taken notice of1 though very common1 which do indeed afford us a very coercive argument to admire the goodness and providence of the infinitely wise ,creator in his most excellent contrivances and dispensations4 ,i have observ'd1 at several times of the ,summer1 that many of the leaves of divers ,plants have been spotted1 or1 as it were scabbed1 and looking on the undersides of those of them that have been but a little irregular1 ,i have perceiv'd them to be sprinkled with divers sorts of little ,eggs1 which letting alone1 ,i have found by degrees to grow bigger1 and become little ,worms with leggs1 but still to keep their former places1 and those places of the leaves1 of their own accords1 to be grown very protuberant upwards1 and very hollow1 and arched underneath1 whereby those young creatures are1 as it were1 shelter'd and housed from external injury2 divers leaves ,i have observ'd to grow and swell so farr1 as at length perfectly to inclose the ,animal1 which1 by other observations ,i have made1 ,i ghess to contain it1 and become1 as it were a womb to it1 so long1 till it be fit and prepar'd to be translated into another state1 at what time1 like 7what they say of7 ,vipers1 they gnaw their way through the womb that bred them2 divers of these kinds ,i have met with upon ,goosberry leaves1 ,rose-tree leaves1 ,willow leaves1 and many other kinds4 ,there are often to be found upon ,rose-trees and ,brier bushes1 little red tufts1 which are certain knobs or excrescencies1 growing out from the ,rind1 or barks of those kinds of ,plants1 they are cover'd with strange kinds of threads or red hairs1 which feel very soft1 and look not unpleasantly4 ,in most of these1 if it has no hole in it1 you shall find certain little ,worms1 which ,i suppose to be the causes of their production2 for when that ,worm has eat its way through1 they1 having performed what they were design'd by ,nature to do1 by degrees die and wither away4 ,now1 the manner of their production1 ,i suppose to be thus1 that the ,alwise ,creator has as well implanted in every creature a faculty of knowing what place is convenient for the hatching1 nutrition1 and preservation of their ,eggs and of-springs whereby they are stimulated and directed to convenient places1 which become1 as 'twere the wombs that perform those offices3 ,as he has also suited and adapted a property to those places wherby they grow and inclose those seeds1 and having inclosed them1 provide a convenient nourishment for them1 but as soon as they have done the office of a womb1 they die and wither4 ,the progress of inclosure ,i have often observ'd in leaves1 which in those places where those seeds have been cast1 have by degrees swell'd and inclos'd them1 so perfectly round1 as not to leave any perceptible passage out4 ,from this same cause1 ,i suppose that ,galls1 ,oak-apples1 and several other productions of that kind1 upon the branches and leaves of ,trees1 have their original1 for if you open any of them1 when almost ripe1 you shall find a little ,worm in them4 ,thus1 if you open never so many dry ,galls1 you shall find either a hole whereby the ,worm has eat its passage out1 or if you find no passage1 you may1 by breaking or cutting the ,gall1 find in the middle of it a small cavity1 and in it a small body1 which does plainly enough yet retain a shape1 to manifest it once to have been a ,worm1 though it dy'd by a too early separation from the ,oak on which it grew1 its navel-string1 as 'twere1 being broken off from the leaf or branch by which the ,globular body that invelop'd it1 received its nourishment from the ,oak4 ,and indeed1 if we consider the great care of the ,creator in the dispensations of his providences for the propagation and increase of the race1 not onely of all kind of ,animals1 but even of ,vegetables1 we cannot chuse but admire and adore him for his ,excellencies1 but we shall leave off to admire the creature1 or to wonder at the strange kind of acting in several ,animals1 which seem to favour so much of reason2 it seeming to me most manifest1 that those are but actings according to their structures1 and such operations as such bodies1 so compos'd1 must necessarily1 when there are such and such circumstances concurring1 perform3 thus1 when we find ,flies swarming1 about any piece of flesh that does begin a little to ferment2 ,butterflies about ,colworts1 and several other leaves1 which will serve to hatch and nourish their young2 ,gnats1 and several other ,flies about the ,waters1 and marishy places1 or any other creatures1 seeking and placing their ,seeds in convenient repositories1 we may1 if we attentively consider and examine it1 find that there are circumstances sufficient1 upon the supposals of the excellent contrivance of their machine1 to excite and force them to act after such or such a manner2 those steams that rise from these several places may1 perhaps1 set several parts of these little ,animals at work1 even as in the contrivance of killing a ,fox or ,wolf with a ,gun1 the moving of a string1 is the death of the ,animal2 for the ,beast1 by moving the flesh that is laid to entrap him1 pulls the string which moves the trigger1 and that lets go the ,cock which on the steel strikes certain sparks of fire which kindle the powder in the pann1 and that presently flies into the barrel1 where the powder catching fire rarifies and drives out the bullet which kills the ,animal2 in all which actions1 there is nothing of intention or ratiocination to be ascrib'd either to the ,animal or ,engine1 but all to the ingeniousness of the contriver4 ,but to return to the more immediate consideration of our ,gnat3 ,we have in it an ,instance1 not usual or common1 of a very strange amphibious creature1 that being a creature that inhabits the ,air1 does yet produce a creature1 that for some time lives in the water as a ,fish1 though afterward 7which is as strange7 it becomes an inhabitant of the ,air1 like its ,sire1 in the form of a ,fly4 ,and this1 methinks1 does prompt me to propose certain conjectures1 as ,queries1 having not yet had sufficient opportunity and leisure to answer them my self from my own ,experiments or ,observations4 ,and the first is1 ,whether all those things that we suppose to be bred from corruption and putrifaction1 may not be rationally suppos'd to have their origination as natural as these ,gnats1 who1 'tis very probable1 were first dropt into this ,water1 in the form of ,eggs4 ,those ,seeds or ,eggs must certainly be very small1 which so small a creature as a ,gnat yields1 and therefore1 we need not wonder that we find not the ,eggs themselves1 some of the younger of them1 which ,i have observ'd1 having not exceeded a tenth part of the bulk they have afterwards come to2 and next1 ,i have observed some of those little ones which must have been generated after the ,water was inclosed in the ,bottle1 and therefore most probably from ,eggs1 whereas those creatures have been suppos'd to be bred of the corruption of the ,water1 there being not formerly known any probable way how they should be generated4 ,a second is1 whether these ,eggs are immediately dropt into the ,water by the ,gnats themselves1 or1 mediately1 are brought down by the falling rain2 for it seems not very improbable1 but that those small seeds of ,gnats may 7being1 perhaps1 of so light a nature1 and having so great a proportion of surface to so small a bulk of body7 be ejected into the ,air1 and so1 perhaps1 carried for a good while too and fro in it1 till by the drops of ,rain it be wash'd out of it4 ,a third is1 whether multitudes of those other little creatures that are found to inhabit the ,water for some time1 do not1 at certain times1 take wing and fly into the ,air1 others dive and hide themselves in the ,earth1 and so contribute to the increase both of the one and the other ,element4 99 99 99 99 99 ,postscript4 ,a good while since the writing of this ,description1 ,i was presented by ,doctor ,peter ,ball1 an ingenious ,member of the ,royal ,society1 with a little ,paper of ,nuts1 which he told me was sent him from a ,brother of his out of the ,countrey1 from ,mamhead in ,devonshire1 some of them were loose1 having been1 as ,i suppose1 broken off1 others were still growing fast on upon the sides of a stick1 which seem'd by the bark1 pliableness of it1 and by certain strings that grew out of it1 to be some piece of the root of a ,tree2 they were all of them dry'd1 and a little shrivell'd1 others more round1 of a brown colour2 their shape was much like a ,figg1 but very much smaller1 some being about the bigness of a ,bay-berry1 others1 and the biggest1 of a ,hazel-,nut4 ,some of these that had no hole in them1 ,i carefully opened with my ,knife1 and found in them a good large round white ,maggot1 almost as bigg as a small ,pea1 which seem'd shap'd like other ,maggots1 but shorter4 ,i could not find them to move1 though ,i ghess'd them to be alive1 because upon pricking them with a ,pinn1 there would issue out a great deal of white mucous matter1 which seem'd to be from a voluntary contraction of their skin2 their husk or matrix consisted of three ,coats1 like the barks of ,trees1 the outermost being more rough and spongie1 and the thickest1 the middlemost more close1 hard1 white1 and thin1 the innermost very thin1 seeming almost like the skin within an ,egg's shell4 ,the two outermost had root in the branch or stick1 but the innermost had no stem or process1 but was onely a skin that cover'd the cavity of the ,nut4 ,all the ,nuts that had no holes eaten in them1 ,i found to contain these ,maggots1 but all that had holes1 ,i found empty1 the ,maggots1 it seems1 having eaten their way through1 taken wings and flown away1 as this following account 7which ,i receiv'd in writing from the same person1 as it was sent him by his ,brother7 manifests4 ,in a moorish black ,peaty mould1 with some small veins of whitish yellow ,sands1 upon occasion of digging a hole two or three foot deep1 at the head of a ,pond or ,pool1 to set a ,tree in1 at that depth1 were found1 about the end of ,october #affc4 in those very veins of ,sand1 those ,buttons or ,nuts1 sticking to a little loose stick1 that is1 not belonging to any live ,tree1 and some of them also free by themselves4 ,four or five of which being then open'd1 some were found to contain live ,insects come to perfection1 most like to flying ,ants1 if not the same2 in others1 ,insects1 yet imperfect1 having but the head and wings form'd1 the rest remaining a soft white pulpy substance4 ,now1 as this furnishes us with one odd ,history more1 very agreeable to what ,i before hinted1 so ,i doubt not1 but were men diligent observers1 they might meet with multitudes of the same kind1 both in the ,earth and in the ,water1 and in the ,air1 on ,trees1 ,plants1 and other ,vegetables1 all places and things being1 as it were1 animarum plena4 ,and ,i have often1 with wonder and pleasure1 in the ,spring and ,summer time1 look'd close to1 and diligently on1 common ,garden mould1 and in a very small parcel of it1 found such multitudes and diversities of little reptiles1 some in husks1 others onely creepers1 many wing'd1 and ready for the ,air2 divers husks or habitations left behind empty4 ,now1 if the ,earth of our cold ,climate be so fertile of animate bodies1 what may we think of the fat ,earth of hotter ,climates8 ,certainly1 the ,sun may there1 by its activity1 cause as great a parcel of ,earth to fly on wings in the ,air1 as it does of ,water in steams and vapours4 ,and what swarms must we suppose to be sent out of those plentifull inundations of water which are poured down by the sluces of ,rain in such vast quantities8 ,so that we need not much wonder at those innumerable clouds of ,locusts with which ,africa1 and other hot countries are so pestred1 since in those places are found all the convenient causes of their production1 namely1 genitors1 or ,parents1 concurrent receptacles or matrixes1 and a sufficient degree of natural heat and moisture4 ,i was going to annex a little draught of the ,figure of those ,nuts sent out of ,devonshire1 but chancing to examine ,mr4 ,parkinson's ,herbal for something else1 and particularly about ,galls and ,oak-apples1 ,i found among no less then #bd4 several kinds of excrescencies of the ,oak1 which ,i doubt not1 but upon examination1 will be all found to be the matrixes of so many several kinds of ,insects2 ,i having observ'd many of them my self to be so1 among #bd4 several kinds1 ,i say1 ,i found one described and ,figur'd directly like that which ,i had by me1 the ,scheme is there to be seen1 the description1 because but short1 ,i have here adjoin'd ,theatri ,botanici trib4 #af4 ,chap4 #b4 ,there groweth at the roots of old ,oaks in the ,spring-time1 and sometimes also in the very heat of ,summer1 a peculiar kind of ,mushrom or ,excrescence1 call'd ,uva ,quercina1 swelling out of the ,earth1 many growing one close unto another1 of the fashion of a ,grape1 and therefore took the name1 the ,oak-,grape1 and is of a ,purplish colour on the outside1 and white within like ,milk1 and in the end of ,summer becometh hard and woody4 ,whether this be the very same kind1 ,i cannot affirm1 but both the ,picture and ,description come very neer to that ,i have1 but that he seems not to take notice of the hollowness or ,worm1 for which 'tis most observable4 ,and therefore 'tis very likely1 if men did but take notice1 they might find very many differing ,species of these ,nuts1 ,ovaries1 or ,matrixes1 and all of them to have much the same designation and office4 ,and ,i have very lately found several kinds of ,excrescencies on ,trees and ,shrubs1 which having endured the ,winter1 upon opening them1 ,i found most of them to contain little ,worms1 but dead1 those things that contain'd them being wither'd and dry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xliv4 ,of the tufted or ,brush-horn'd ,gnat4 ,this little creature was one of those multitudes that fill our ,english air all the time that warm weather lasts1 and is exactly of the shape of that ,i observ'd to be generated and hatch'd out of those little ,insects that wriggle up and down in ,rain-water4 ,but1 though many were of this form1 yet ,i observ'd others to be of quite other kinds2 nor were all of this or the other kind generated out of ,water ,insects2 for whereas ,i observ'd that those that proceeded from those ,insects were at their full growth1 ,i have also found multitudes of the same shape1 but much smaller and tenderer seeming to be very young ones1 creep up and down upon the leaves of ,trees1 and flying up and down in small clusters1 in places very remote from water2 and this ,spring1 ,i observ'd one day1 when the ,wind was very calm1 and the afternoon very fair1 and pretty warm1 though it had for a long time been very cold weather1 and the wind continued still in the ,east1 several small swarms of them playing to and fro in little clouds in the ,sun1 each of which were not a tenth part of the bigness of one of these ,i here have delineated1 though very much of the same shape1 which makes me ghess1 that each of these swarms might be the of-spring of one onely ,gnat1 which had been hoorded up in some safe repository all this ,winter by some provident ,parent1 and were now1 by the warmth of the ,spring-air1 hatch'd into little ,flies4 ,and indeed1 so various1 and seemingly irregular are the generations or productions of ,insects1 that he that shall carefully and diligently observe the several methods of ,nature therein1 will have infinitely cause further to admire the wisdom and providence of the ,creator2 for not onely the same kind of creature may be produc'd from several kinds of ways1 but the very same creature may produce several kinds3 ,for1 as divers ,watches may be made out of several materials1 which may yet have all the same appearance1 and move after the same manner1 that is1 shew the hour equally true1 the one as the other1 and out of the same kind of matter1 like ,watches1 may be wrought differing ways2 and1 as one and the same ,watch may1 by being diversly agitated1 or mov'd1 by this or that agent1 or after this or that manner1 produce a quite contrary effect3 ,so may it be with these most curious ,engines of ,insect's bodies2 the ,all-wise ,god of ,nature1 may have so ordered and disposed the little ,automatons1 that when nourished1 acted1 or enlivened by this cause1 they produce one kind of effect1 or animate shape1 when by another they act quite another way1 and another ,animal is produc'd4 ,so may he so order several materials1 as to make them1 by several kinds of methods1 produce similar ,automatons4 ,but to come to the ,description of this ,insect1 as it appears through a ,microscope1 of which a representation is made in the #bh4 ,scheme4 ,its head ,a1 is exceeding small1 in proportion to its body1 consisting of two clusters of pearl'd eyes ,,bb1 on each side of its head1 whose pearls or eye-balls are curiously rang'd like those of other ,flies2 between these1 in the forehead of it1 there are plac'd upon two small black balls1 ,,cc1 two long jointed horns1 tapering towards the top1 much resembling the long horns of ,lobsters1 each of whose stems or quills1 ,,dd1 were brisled or brushed with multitudes of small stiff hairs1 issuing out every way from the several joints1 like the strings or sproutings of the herb ,horse-tail1 which is oft observ'd to grow among ,corn1 and for the whole shape1 it does very much resemble those brushy ,vegetables2 besides these1 there are two other jointed and brisled horns1 or feelers1 ,,ee1 in the forepart of the head1 and a proboscis1 ,f1 underneath1 which in some ,gnats are very long1 streight hollow pipes1 by which these creatures are able to drill and penetrate the skin1 and thence1 through those pipes suck so much bloud as to stuff their bellies so full till they be ready to burst4 ,this small head1 with its appurtenances1 is fastned on by a short neck1 ,g1 to the middle of the thorax1 which is large1 and seems cased with a strong black shel1 ,,hik1 out of the under part of which1 issue six long and slender legs1 ,,llllll1 shap'd just like the legs of ,flies1 but spun or drawn out longer and slenderer1 which could not be express'd in the ,figure1 because of their great length2 and from the upper part1 two oblong1 but slender transparent wings1 ,,mm1 shaped somewhat like those of a ,fly1 underneath each of which1 as ,i have observ'd also in divers sorts of ,flies1 and other kinds of ,gnats1 was placed a small body1 ,n1 much resembling a drop of some transparent glutinous substance1 hardned or cool'd1 as it was almost ready to fall1 for it has a round knob at the end1 which by degrees grows slenderer into a small stem1 and neer the insertion under the wing1 this stem again grows bigger2 these little ,pendulums1 ,i may so call them1 the little creature vibrates to and fro very quick when it moves its wings1 and ,i have sometimes observ'd it to move them also1 whil'st the wing lay still1 but always their motion seem'd to further the motion of the wing ready to follow2 of what use they are1 as to the moving of the wing1 or otherwise1 ,i have not now time to examine4 ,its belly was large1 as it is usually in all ,insects1 and extended into nine lengths or partitions1 each of which was cover'd with round armed rings or shells2 six of which1 ,,opqrst were transparent1 and divers kinds of ,peristaltick motions might be very easily perceiv'd1 whil'st the ,animal was alive1 but especially a small cleer white part ,v1 seemed to beat like the heart of a larger ,animal4 ,the last three divisios1 ,,wxy1 were cover'd with black and opacous shells4 ,to conclude1 take this creature altogether1 and for beauty and curious contrivances1 it may be compared with the largest ,animal upon the ,earth4 ,nor doth the ,alwise ,creator seem to have shewn less care and providence in the fabrick of it1 then in those which seem most considerable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlv4 ,of the great ,belly'd ,gnat or female ,gnat4 ,the second ,gnat1 delineated in the twenty ninth ,scheme1 is of a very differing shape from the former2 but yet of this sort also1 ,i found several of the ,gnats1 that were generated out of the ,water ,insect3 the wings of this1 were much larger then those of the other1 and the belly much bigger1 shorter and of an other shape2 and1 from several particulars1 ,i ghest it to be the ,female ,gnat1 and the former to be the ,male4 ,the thorax of this1 was much like that of the other1 having a very strong and ridged back-piece1 which went also on either side of its leggs2 about the wings there were several joynted pieces of ,armor1 which seem'd curiously and conveniently contriv'd1 for the promoting and strengthning the motion of the wings3 its head was much differing from the other1 being much bigger and neater shap'd1 and the horns that grew out between his eyes on two little balls1 were of a very differing shape from the tufts of the other ,gnat1 these having but a few knots or joynts1 and each of those but a few1 and those short and strong1 brisles4 ,the formost horns or feelers1 were like those of the former ,gnat4 ,one of these ,gnats ,i have suffer'd to pierce the skin of my hand1 with its proboscis1 and thence to draw out as much blood as to fill its belly as full as it could hold1 making it appear very red and transparent2 and this without any further pain1 then whilst it was sinking in its proboscis1 as it is also in the stinging of ,fleas3 a good argument1 that these creatures do not wound the skin1 and suck the blood out of enmity and revenge1 but for meer necessity1 and to satisfy their hunger4 ,by what means this creature is able to suck1 we shall shew in another place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlvi4 ,of the white featherwing'd ,moth or ,tinea ,argentea4 ,this white long wing'd ,moth1 which is delineated in the #cj4 ,scheme2 afforded a lovely object both to the naked ,eye1 and through a ,microscope3 to the ,eye it appear'd a small ,milk-white ,fly with four white ,wings1 the two formost somewhat longer then the two hindermost1 and the two shorter about half an ,inch long1 each of which four ,wings seem'd to consist of two small long ,feathers1 very curiously tufted1 or haired on each side1 with purely white1 and exceedingly fine and small ,haires1 proportion'd to the stalks or stems1 out of which they grew1 much like the tufts of a long wing-feather of some ,bird1 and their stalks or stems were1 like those1 bended backwards and downwards1 as may be plainly seen by the draughts of them in the ,figure4 ,observing one of these in my ,microscope1 ,i found1 in the first place1 that all the ,body1 ,legs1 ,horns and the ,stalks of the ,wings1 were covered over with various kinds of curious white ,feathers1 which did1 with handling or touching1 easily rubb off and fly about1 in so much that looking on my ,fingers1 with which ,i had handled this ,moth1 and perceiving on them little white specks1 ,i found by my ,microscope1 that they were several of the small ,feathers of this little creature1 that stuck up and down in the rugosities of my ,skin4 ,next1 ,i found that underneath these ,feathers1 the pretty ,insect was covered all over with a crusted ,shell1 like other of those ,animals1 but with one much thinner and tenderer4 ,thirdly1 ,i found1 as in ,birds also is notable1 it had differing and appropriate kinds of ,feathers1 that covered several parts of its body4 ,fourthly1 surveying the parts of its body1 with a more accurate and better ,magnifying ,microscope1 ,i found that the tufts or haires of its ,wings were nothing else but a congeries1 or thick set cluster of small vimina or twiggs1 resembling a small twigg of ,birch1 stript or whitened1 with which ,brushes are usually made1 to beat out or brush off the dust from ,cloth and ,hangings4 ,every one of the twiggs or branches that composed the ,brush of the ,feathers1 appeared in this bigger ,magnifying ,glass 7of which ,,ef which represents part of an ,inch1 is the scale1 as ,g is of the lesser1 which is only 7 like the figure ,d4 ,the ,feathers also that covered a part of his ,body1 and were interspersed among the brush of his ,wings1 ,i found1 in the bigger ,magnifying ,glass1 of the shape ,a1 consisting of a stalk or stem in the middle1 and a seeming tuftedness or brushy part on each side4 ,the ,feathers that cover'd most part of his ,body and the stalk of his wings1 were1 in the same ,microscope1 much of the figure ,b1 appearing of the shape of a small ,feather1 and seemed tufted3 those which covered the ,horns and small parts of the ,leggs1 through the same ,microscope1 appear'd of the shape ,c4 ,whether the tufts of any or all of these small ,feathers1 consisted of such component particles as the ,feathers of ,birds1 ,i much doubt1 because ,i find that ,nature does not alwaies keep1 or operate after the same method1 in smaller and bigger creatures4 ,and of this1 we have particular ,instances in the ,wings of several creatures4 ,for whereas1 in ,birds of all kinds1 it composes each of the ,feathers of which its ,wing consists1 of such an exceeding curious and most admirable and stupendious texture1 as ,i else-where shew1 in the ,observations on a ,feather2 we find it to alter its method quite1 in the fabrick of the ,wings of these minute creatures1 composing some of thin extended membranes or skins1 such as the ,wings of ,dragon-flys2 in others1 those skins are all over-grown1 or pretty thick bestuck1 with short brisles1 as in ,flesh-flies2 in others1 those filmes are covered1 both on the upper and under side1 with small ,feathers1 plac'd almost like the tyles on a ,house1 and are curiously rang'd and adorn'd with most lively colours1 as is observable in ,butter-flies1 and several kinds of ,moths2 ,in others1 instead of their films1 ,nature has provided nothing1 but a matter of half a score stalks 7if ,i well remember the number2 for ,i have not lately met with any of these flys1 and did not1 when ,i first observ'd them1 take sufficient notice of divers particulars7 and each of these stalks1 with a few single branchings on each side1 resembling much the branched back-bone of a ,herring or the like ,fish1 or a thin hair'd ,peacocks feather1 the top or the eye being broken off4 ,with a few of these on either side 7which it was able to shut up or expand at pleasure1 much like a ,fann1 or rather like the posture of the feathers in a wing1 which ly all one under another1 when shut1 and by the side of each other1 when expanded7 this pretty little grey ,moth 7for such was the creature ,i observ'd1 thus wing'd7 could very nimbly1 and as it seem'd very easily move its corpuscle1 through the ,air1 from place to place4 ,other ,insects have their wings cas'd1 or cover'd over1 with certain hollow shells1 shap'd almost like those hollow ,trayes1 in which ,butchers carry meat1 whose hollow sides being turn'd downwards1 do not only secure their folded wings from injury of the earth1 in which most of those creatures reside1 but whilst they fly1 serves as a help to sustain and bear them up4 ,and these are observable in ,scarabees and a multitude of other terrestrial crustaceous ,insects2 in which we may yet further observe a particular providence of ,nature4 ,now in all these kinds of wings1 we observe this particular1 as a thing most worthy remark2 that where ever a wing consists of discontinued parts1 the ,pores or interstitia between those parts are very seldom1 either much bigger1 or much smaller1 then these which we here find between the particles of these brushes1 so that it should seem to intimate1 that the parts of the ,air are such1 that they will not easily or readily1 if at all1 pass through these ,pores1 so that they seem to be strainers fine enough to hinder the particles of the ,air 7whether hinder'd by their bulk1 or by their agitation1 circulation1 rotation or undulation1 ,i shall not here determine7 from getting through them1 and1 by that means1 serve the ,animal as well1 if not better1 then if they were little films4 ,i say1 if not better1 because ,i have observ'd that all those creatures1 that have film'd wings1 move them aboundantly quicker and more strongly1 such as all kind of ,flies and ,scarabees and ,batts1 then such as have their wings covered with feathers1 as ,butter-flies and ,birds1 or twiggs1 as ,moths1 which have each of them a much slower motion of their wings2 ,that little ruggedness perhaps of their wings helping them somewhat1 by taking better hold of the parts of the ,air1 or not suffering them so easily to pass by1 any other way then one4 ,but what ever be the reason of it1 'tis most evident1 that the smooth wing'd ,insects1 have the strongest ,muscles or movent parts of their wings1 and the other much weaker2 and this very ,insect1 we are now describing1 had a very small thorax or middle part of his body1 if compar'd to the length and number of his wings2 which therefore1 as he mov'd them very slowly1 so must he move them very weakly4 ,and this last propriety do we find somewhat observ'd also in bigger kind of ,flying creatures1 ,birds2 so that we see that the ,wisdom and ,providence of the ,all-wise ,creator1 is not less shewn in these small despicable creatures1 ,flies and ,moths1 which we have branded with a name of ignominy1 calling them ,vermine1 then in those greater and more remarkable animate bodies1 ,birds4 ,i cannot here stand to add any thing about the nature of flying1 though1 perhaps1 on another occasion1 ,i may say something on that subject1 it being such as may deserve a much more accurate examination and scrutiny then it has hitherto met with2 ,for to me there seems nothing wanting to make a man able to fly1 but what may be easily enough supply'd from the ,mechanicks hitherto known1 save onely the want of strength1 which the ,muscles of a man seem utterly uncapable of1 by reason of their smalness and texture1 but how even strength also may be mechanically made1 and an artificial ,muscle so contriv'd1 that thereby a man shall be able to exert what strength he pleases1 and to regulate it also to his own mind1 ,i may elsewhere endeavour to manifest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlvii4 ,of the ,shepherd ,spider1 or long-legg'd ,spider4 ,the ,carter1 ,shepherd ,spider1 or long-legg'd ,spider1 has1 for two particularities1 very few similar creatures that ,i have met with1 the first1 which is discoverable onely by the ,microscope1 and is in the first and second ,figures of the #ca4 ,scheme1 plainly describ'd1 is the curious contrivance of his eyes1 of which 7differing from most other ,spiders7 he has onely two1 and those plac'd upon the top of a small pillar or hillock1 rising out of the middle of the top of its back1 or rather the crown of its head1 for they were fix'd on the very top of this pillar 7which is about the heighth of one of the transverse ,diameters of the eye1 and look'd on in another posture1 appear'd much of the shape1 ,,bcd47 ,the two eyes1 ,,bb1 were placed back to back1 with the transparent parts1 or the pupils1 looking towards either side1 but somewhat more forward then backwards4 ,c was the column or neck on which they stood1 and ,d the crown of the head out of which that neck sprung4 ,these eyes1 to appearance1 seem'd to be of the very same structure with that of larger binocular creatures1 seeming to have a very smooth and very protuberant ,cornea1 and in the midst of it to have a very black pupil1 incompassed about with a kind of grey ,iris1 as appears by the ,figure2 whether it were able to move these eyes to and fro1 ,i have not observ'd1 but 'tis not very likely he should1 the pillar or neck ,c1 seeming to be cover'd and stiffen'd with a crusty shell2 but ,nature1 in probability1 has supply'd that defect1 by making the ,cornea so very protuberant1 and setting it so cleer above the shadowing or obstructing of its prospect by the body1 that 'tis likely each eye may perceive1 though not see distinctly1 almost a ,hemisphere1 whence having so small and round a body plac'd upon such long leggs1 it is quickly able so to wind1 and turn it1 as to see any thing distinct4 ,this creature1 as do all other ,spiders ,i have yet examin'd1 does very much differ from most other ,insects in the ,figure of its eyes2 for ,i cannot1 with my best ,microscope1 discover its eyes to be any ways knobb'd or pearl'd like those of other ,insects4 ,the second ,peculiarity which is obvious to the eye1 is also very remarkable1 and that is the prodigious length of its leggs1 in proportion to its small round body1 each legg of this ,i drew1 being above sixteen times the length of its whole body1 and there are some which have them yet longer1 and others that seem of the same kind1 that have them a great deal shorter2 the eight leggs are each of them jointed1 just like those of a ,crab1 but every of the parts are spun out prodigiously longer in proportion2 each of these leggs are terminated in a small case or shell1 shap'd almost like that of a ,musle-shell1 as is evident in the third ,figure of the same ,scheme 7that represents the appearance ot the under part or belly of the creature7 by the shape of the protuberant conical body1 ,,iiii1 c4 ,these are as 'twere plac'd or fasten'd on to the protuberant body of the ,insect1 which is to be suppos'd very high at ,m1 making a kind of blunt cone whereof ,m is to be suppos'd the ,apex1 about which greater cone of the body1 the smaller cones of the leggs are plac'd1 each of them almost reaching to the top in so admirable a manner1 as does not a little manifest the wisdom of ,nature in the contrivance2 for these long ,leavers 7as ,i may so call them7 of the legs1 having not the advantage of a long end on the other side of the hypomochlion or centers on which the parts of the leggs move1 must necessarily require a vast strength to move them1 and keep the body ballanc'd and suspended1 in so much1 that if we should suppose a man's body suspended by such a contrivance1 an hundred and fifty times the strength of a man would not keep the body from falling on the breast4 ,to supply therefore each of these leggs with its proper strength1 ,nature has allow'd to each a large ,chest or ,cell1 in which is included a very large and strong ,muscle1 and thereby this little ,animal is not onely able to suspend its body upon less then these eight1 but to move it very swiftly over the tops of grass and leaves4 ,nor are these eight leggs so prodigiously long1 but the ninth1 and tenth1 which are the two claws1 ,,kk1 are as short1 and serve in steed of a proboscis1 for those seem'd very little longer then his mouth2 each of them had three parts1 but very short1 the joints ,,kk1 which represented the third1 being longer then both the other4 ,this creature1 seems 7which ,i have several times with pleasure observ'd7 to throw its body upon the prey1 insteed of its hands1 not unlike a hunting ,spider1 which leaps like a ,cat at a ,mouse4 ,the whole ,fabrick was a very pretty one1 and could ,i have dissected it1 ,i doubt not but ,i should have found as many singularities within it as without1 perhaps1 for the most part1 not unlike the parts of a ,crab1 which this little creature does in many things1 very much resemble2 the curiosity of whose contrivance1 ,i have in another place examin'd4 ,i omit the description of the horns1 ,,aa1 of the mouth1 ,,ll1 which seem'd like that of a ,crab2 the speckledness of his shell1 which proceeded from a kind of feathers or hairs1 and the hairiness of his leggs1 his large thorax and little belly1 and the like1 they being manifested by the ,figure2 and shall onely take notice that the three parts of the body1 namely1 the head1 breast1 and belly1 are in this creature strangely confus'd1 so that 'tis difficult to determine which is which1 as they are also in a ,crab2 and indeed1 this seems to be nothing else1 but an ,air-crab1 being made more light and nimble1 proportionable to the medium wherein it resides2 and as ,air seems to have but one thousandth part of the body of ,water1 so does this ,spider seem not to be a thousandth part of the bulk of a ,crab4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlviii4 ,of the hunting ,spider1 and several other sorts of ,spiders4 ,the hunting ,spider is a small grey ,spider1 prettily bespeck'd with black spots all over its body1 which the ,microscope discovers to be a kind of feathers like those on ,butterflies wings1 or the body of the white ,moth ,i lately describ'd4 ,its gate is very nimble by fits1 sometimes running1 and sometimes leaping1 like a ,grashopper almost1 then standing still1 and setting it self on its hinder leggs1 it will very nimbly turn its body1 and look round it self every way3 ,it has six very conspicuous eyes1 two looking directly forwards1 plac'd just before2 two other1 on either side of those1 looking forward and side-ways2 and two other about the middle of the top of its back or head1 which look backwards and side-wards2 these seem'd to be the biggest4 ,the surface of them all was very black1 sphrical1 purely polish'd1 reflecting a very cleer and distinct ,image of all the ambient objects1 such as a window1 a man's hand1 a white ,paper1 or the like4 ,some other properties of this ,spider1 observ'd by the most accomplish'd ,mr4 ,evelyn1 in his travels in ,italy1 are most emphatically set forth in the ,history hereunto annexed1 which he was pleas'd upon my desire to send me in writing4 ,of all the sorts of ,insects1 there is none has afforded me more divertisements then the ,venatores1 which are a sort of ,lupi1 that have their ,denns in the rugged walls1 and crevices of our houses2 a small brown and delicately spotted kind of ,spiders1 whose hinder leggs are longer then the rest4 ,such ,i did frequently observe at ,rome1 which espying a ,fly at three or four yards distance1 upon the ,balcony 7where ,i stood7 would not make directly to her1 but craul under the ,rail1 till being arriv'd to the ,antipodes1 it would steal up1 seldom missing its aim2 but if it chanced to want any thing of being perfectly opposite1 would at first peep1 immediately slide down again1 till taking better notice1 it would come the next time exactly upon the ,fly's back3 ,but1 if this hapn'd not to be within a competent leap1 then would this ,insect move so softly1 as the very shadow of the ,gnomon seem'd not to be more imperceptible1 unless the ,fly mov'd2 and then would the ,spider move also in the same proportion1 keeping that just time with her motion1 as if the same ,soul had animated both those little bodies2 and whether it were forwards1 backwards1 or to either side1 without at all turning her body1 like a well mannag'd ,horse3 ,but1 if the capricious ,fly took wing1 and pitch'd upon another place behind our ,huntress1 then would the ,spider whirle its body so nimbly about1 as nothing could be imagin'd more swift2 by which means1 she always kept the head towards her prey1 though to appearance1 as immovable1 as if it had been a ,nail driven into the ,wood1 till by that indiscernable progress 7being arriv'd within the sphere of her reach7 she made a fatal leap 7swift as ,lightning7 upon the ,fly1 catching him in the pole1 where she never quitted hold till her belly was full1 and then carried the remainder home4 ,i have beheld them instructing their young ones1 how to hunt1 which they would sometimes discipline for not well observing2 but1 when any of the old ones did 7as sometimes7 miss a leap1 they would run out of the field1 and hide them in their crannies1 as asham'd1 and haply not be seen abroad for four or five hours after2 for so long have ,i watched the nature of this strange ,insect1 the contemplation of whose so wonderfull sagacity and address has amaz'd me2 nor do ,i find in any chase whatsoever1 more cunning and ,stratagem observ'd3 ,i have found some of these ,spiders in my ,garden1 when the weather 7towards the ,spring7 is very hot1 but they are nothing so eager of hunting as they are in ,italy4 ,there are multitudes of other sorts of ,spiders1 whose eyes1 and most other parts and properties1 are so exceedingly different both from those ,i have describ'd1 and from one another1 that it would be almost endless1 at least too long for my present ,essay1 to describe them1 as some with six eyes1 plac'd in quite another order2 others with eight eyes2 others with fewer1 and some with more4 ,they all seem to be creatures of prey1 and to feed on other small ,insects1 but their ways of catching them seem very differing3 the ,shepherd ,spider by running on his prey2 the ,hunting ,spider by leaping on it1 other sorts weave ,nets1 or ,cobwebs1 whereby they ensnare them1 ,nature having both fitted them with materials and tools1 and taught them how to work and weave their ,nets1 and to lie perdue1 and to watch diligently to run on any ,fly1 as soon as ever entangled4 ,their thread or web seems to be spun out of some viscous kind of excrement1 lying in their belly1 which1 though soft when drawn out1 is1 presently by reason of its smallness1 hardned and dried by the ambient ,air4 ,examining several of which with my ,microscope1 ,i found them to appear much like white ,hors-hair1 or some such transparent horny substance1 and to be of very differing magnitudes2 some appearing as bigg as a ,pigg's brisle1 others equal to a ,horss-hair2 other no bigger then a man's hair2 others yet smaller and finer4 ,i observ'd further1 that the radiating chords of the web were much bigger1 and smoother then those that were woven round1 which seem'd smaller1 and all over knotted or pearl'd1 with small transparent ,globules1 not unlike small ,crystal ,beads or seed ,pearls1 thin strung on a ,clew of ,silk2 which1 whether they were so spun by the ,spider1 or by the adventitious moisture of a fogg 7which ,i have observ'd to cover all these filaments with such ,crystalline ,beads7 ,i will not now dispute4 ,these threads were some of them so small1 that ,i could very plainly1 with the ,microscope1 discover the same consecutions of colours as in a ,prisme1 and they seem'd to proceed from the same cause with those colours which ,i have already describ'd in thin plated bodies4 ,much resembling a ,cobweb1 or a confus'd lock of these ,cylinders1 is a certain white substance which1 after a fogg1 may be observ'd to fly up and down the ,air2 catching several of these1 and examining them with my ,microscope1 ,i found them to be much of the same form1 looking most like to a flake of ,worsted prepar'd to be spun1 though by what means they should be generated1 or produc'd1 is not easily imagined3 they were of the same weight1 or very little heavier then the ,air2 and 'tis not unlikely1 but that those great white clouds1 that appear all the ,summer time1 may be of the same substance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,xlix4 ,of an ,ant or ,pismire4 ,this was a creature1 more troublesome to be drawn1 then any of the rest1 for ,i could not1 for a good while1 think of a way to make it suffer its body to ly quiet in a natural posture2 but whil'st it was alive1 if its feet were fetter'd in ,wax or ,glew1 it would so twist and wind its body1 that ,i could not any wayes get a good view of it2 and if ,i killed it1 its body was so little1 that ,i did often spoil the shape of it1 before ,i could throughly view it3 for this is the nature of these minute ,bodies1 that as soon1 almost1 as ever their life is destroy'd1 their parts immediately shrivel1 and lose their beauty2 and so is it also with small ,plants1 as ,i instanced before1 in the description of ,moss4 ,and thence also is the reason of the variations in the beards of wild ,oats1 and in those of ,musk-grass seed1 that their bodies1 being exceeding small1 those small variations which are made in the surfaces of all bodies1 almost upon every change of ,air1 especially if the body be porous1 do here become sensible1 where the whole body is so small1 that it is almost nothing but surface2 for as in vegetable substances1 ,i see no great reason to think1 that the moisture of the ,aire 7that1 sticking to a wreath'd beard1 does make it untwist7 should evaporate1 or exhale away1 any faster then the moisture of other bodies1 but rather that the avolation from1 or access of moisture to1 the surfaces of bodies being much the same1 those bodies become most sensible of it1 which have the least proportion of body to their surface4 ,so is it also with ,animal substances2 the dead body of an ,ant1 or such little creature1 does almost instantly shrivel and dry1 and your object shall be quite another thing1 before you can half delineate it1 which proceeds not from the extraordinary exhalation1 but from the small proportion of body and juices1 to the usual drying of bodies in the ,air1 especially if warm4 ,for which inconvenience1 where ,i could not otherwise remove it1 ,i thought of this expedient4 ,i took the creature1 ,i had design'd to delineate1 and put it into a drop of very well rectified spirit of ,wine1 this ,i found would presently dispatch1 as it were1 the ,animal1 and being taken out of it1 and lay'd on a paper1 the spirit of ,wine would immediately fly away1 and leave the ,animal dry1 in its natural posture1 or at least1 in a constitution1 that it might easily with a pin be plac'd1 in what posture you desired to draw it1 and the limbs would so remain1 without either moving1 or shriveling4 ,and thus ,i dealt with this ,ant1 which ,i have here delineated1 which was one of many1 of a very large kind1 that inhabited under the ,roots of a ,tree1 from whence they would sally out in great parties1 and make most grievous havock of the ,flowers and ,fruits1 in the ambient ,garden1 and return back again very expertly1 by the same wayes and paths they went4 ,it was more then half the bigness of an ,earwig1 of a dark brown1 or reddish colour1 with long legs1 on the hinder of which it would stand up1 and raise its head as high as it could above the ground1 that it might stare the further about it1 just after the same manner as ,i have also observ'd a hunting ,spider to do3 and putting my finger towards them1 they have at first all run towards it1 till almost at it2 and then they would stand round about it1 at a certain distance1 and smell1 as it were1 and consider whether they should any of them venture any further1 till one more bold then the rest venturing to climb it1 all the rest1 if ,i would have suffered them1 would have immediately followed3 many such other seemingly rational actions ,i have observ'd in this little ,vermine with much pleasure1 which would be too long to be here related2 those that desire more of them may satisfie their curiosity in ,ligons ,history of the ,barbadoes4 ,having insnar'd several of these into a small ,box1 ,i made choice of the tallest grown among them1 and separating it from the rest1 ,i gave it a ,gill of ,brandy1 or ,spirit of ,wine1 which after a while e'en knock'd him down dead drunk1 so that he became moveless1 though at first putting in he struggled for a pretty while very much1 till at last1 certain bubbles issuing out of its mouth1 it ceased to move2 this 7because ,i had before found them quickly to recover again1 if they were taken out presently7 ,i suffered to lye above an hour in the ,spirit2 and after ,i had taken it out1 and put its body and legs into a natural posture1 remained moveless about an hour2 but then1 upon a sudden1 as if it had been awaken out of a drunken sleep1 it suddenly reviv'd and ran away2 being caught1 and serv'd as before1 he for a while continued struggling and striving1 till at last there issued several bubbles out of its mouth1 and then1 tanquam animam expirasset1 he remained moveless for a good while2 but at length again recovering1 it was again redipt1 and suffered to lye some hours in the ,spirit2 notwithstanding which1 after it had layen dry some three or four hours1 it again recovered life and motion3 ,which kind of ,experiments1 if prosecuted1 which they highly deserve1 seem to me of no inconsiderable use towards the invention of the ,latent ,scheme1 7as the ,noble ,verulam calls it7 or the hidden1 unknown ,texture of ,bodies4 ,of what ,figure this ,creature appear'd through the ,microscope1 the #cb4 ,scheme 7though not so carefully graven as it ought7 will represent to the eye1 namely1 ,that it had a large head ,,aa1 at the upper end of which were two protuberant eyes1 pearl'd like those of a ,fly1 but smaller ,,bb2 out of the ,nose1 or foremost part1 issued two horns ,,cc1 of a shape sufficiently differing from those of a blew ,fly1 though indeed they seem to be both the same kind of ,organ1 and to serve for a kind of smelling2 beyond these were two indented jaws ,,dd1 which he open'd side-wayes1 and was able to gape them asunder very wide2 and the ends of them being armed with teeth1 which meeting went between each other1 it was able to grasp and hold a heavy body1 three or four times the bulk and weight of its own body3 ,it had only six legs1 shap'd like those of a ,fly1 which1 as ,i shewed before1 is an ,argument that it is a winged ,insect1 and though ,i could not perceive any sign of them in the middle part of its body 7which seem'd to consist of three joints or pieces ,,efg1 out of which sprung two legs71 yet 'tis known that there are of them that have long wings1 and fly up and down in the air4 ,the third and last part of its body ,,iii was bigger and larger then the other two1 unto which it was joyn'd by a very small middle1 and had a kind of loose shell1 or another distinct part of its body ,h1 which seem'd to be interpos'd1 and to keep the thorax and belly from touching4 ,the whole body was cas'd over with a very strong armour1 and the belly ,,iii was covered likewise with multitudes of small white shining brisles2 the legs1 horns1 head1 and middle parts of its body were bestuck with hairs also1 but smaller and darker4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,l4 ,of the wandring ,mite4 ,in ,september and ,october1 #affa4 ,i observ'd in ,oxford several of these little pretty ,creatures to wander to and fro1 and often to travel over the plains of my ,window4 ,and in ,september and ,october1 #affc4 ,i observ'd likewise several of these very same ,creatures traversing a window at ,london1 and looking without the window upon the subjacent wall1 ,i found whole flocks of the same kind running to and fro among the small groves and thickets of green moss1 and upon the curiously spreading vegetable blew or yellow moss1 which is a kind of a ,mushrome or ,jews-ear4 ,these ,creatures to the naked eye seemed to be a kind of black ,mite1 but much nimbler and stronger then the ordinary ,cheese-,mites2 but examining them in a ,microscope1 ,i found them to be a very fine crusted or shell'd ,insect1 much like that represented in the first ,figure of the three and thirtieth ,scheme1 with a protuberant oval shell ,a1 indented or pitted with an abundance of small pits1 all covered over with little white brisles1 whose points all directed backwards4 ,it had eight legs1 each of them provided with a very sharp tallon1 or claw at the end1 which this little ,animal1 in its going1 fastned into the pores of the body over which it went4 ,each of these legs were bestuck in every joynt of them with multitudes of small hairs1 or 7if we respect the proportion they bore to the bigness of the leg7 turnpikes1 all pointing towards the claws4 ,the ,thorax1 or middle parts of the body of this ,creature1 was exceeding small1 in respect both of the head and belly1 it being nothing but that part which was covered by the two shells ,,bb1 though it seem'd to grow thicker underneath3 ,and indeed1 if we consider the great variety ,nature uses in proportioning the three parts of the body1 7the ,head1 ,thorax1 and ,belly7 we shall not wonder at the small proportion of this ,thorax1 nor at the vaster bulk of the belly1 for could we exactly anatomise this little ,creature1 and observe the particular designs of each part1 we should doubtless1 as we do in all her more manageable and tractable fabricks1 find much more reason to admire the excellency of her contrivance and workmanship1 then to wonder1 it was not made otherwise4 ,the head of this little ,insect was shap'd somewhat like a ,mite's1 that is1 it had a long snout1 in the manner of a ,hogs1 with a knobbed ridge running along the middle of it1 which was bestuck on either side with many small brisles1 all pointing forward1 and two very large pikes or horns1 which rose from the top of the head1 just over each eye1 and pointed forward also4 ,it had two pretty large black eyes on either side of the head ,,ee1 from one of which ,i could see a very bright reflection of the window1 which made me ghess1 that the ,cornea of it was smooth1 like those of bigger ,insects4 ,its motion was pretty quick and strong1 it being able very easily to tumble a stone or clod four times as big as its whole body4 ,at the same time and place1 and divers times since1 ,i have observed with my ,microscope1 another little ,insect1 which1 though ,i have not annexed the picture of1 may be worth noting1 for its exceeding nimbleness as well as smalness2 it was as small as a ,mite1 with a body deep and ridged1 almost like a ,flea2 it had eight blood-red legs1 not very long1 but slender2 and two horns or feelers before4 ,its motion was so exceeding quick1 that ,i have often lost sight of one ,i have observed with my naked eye2 and though1 when it was not frighted1 ,i was able to follow the motions of some with my ,microscope2 yet if it were never so little startled1 it posted away with such speed1 and turn'd and winded it self so quick1 that ,i should presently lose sight of it4 ,when ,i first observ'd the former of these ,insects1 or ,mites1 ,i began to conjecture1 that certainly ,i had found out the vagabond ,parents of those ,mites we find in ,cheeses1 ,meal1 ,corn1 ,seeds1 musty ,barrels1 musty ,leather1 c4 these little ,creatures1 wandring to and fro every whither1 might perhaps1 as they were invited hither and thither by the musty steams of several putrifying bodies1 make their invasions upon those new and pleasing territories1 and there spending the remainder of their life1 which might be perhaps a day1 or thereabouts1 in very plentiful and riotous living1 might leave their offspring behind them1 which by the change of the soil and ,country they now inhabite1 might be quite alter'd from the hew of their primogenitors1 and1 like ,mores translated into ,northern ,european ,climates1 after a little time1 change both their skin and shape4 ,and this seems yet more probable in these ,insects1 because that the soil or body they inhabit1 seems to be almost half their parent1 for it not only hatches and brings those little eggs1 or seminal principles1 to perfection1 but seems to augment and nourish them also before they are hatch'd or shaped2 for it is obvious enough to be observ'd1 that the eggs of many other ,insects1 and particularly of ,mites1 are increas'd in bulk after they are laid out of the bodies of the ,insects1 and plump'd sometimes into many times their former bigness1 so that the bodies they are laid in being1 as it were1 half their mothers1 we shall not wonder that it should have such an active power to change their forms4 ,we find by relations how much the ,negro ,women do besmeer the of-spring of the ,spaniard1 bringing forth neither white-skinn'd nor black1 but tawny hided ,mulattos4 ,now1 though ,i propound this as probable1 ,i have not yet been so farr certify'd by ,observations as to conclude any thing1 either positively or negatively1 concerning it4 ,perhaps1 some more lucky diligence may please the curious ,inquirer with the discovery of this1 to be a truth1 which ,i now conjecture1 and may thereby give him a satisfactory account of the cause of those creatures1 whose original seems yet so obscure1 and may give him cause to believe1 that many other animate beings1 that seem also to be the mere product of putrifaction1 may be innobled with a ,pedigree as antient as the first creation1 and farr exceed the greatest beings in their numerous ,genealogies4 ,but on the other side1 if it should be found that these1 or any other animate body1 have no immediate similar ,parent1 ,i have in another place set down a conjectural ,hypothesis whereby those ,phnomena may likely enough be solv'd1 wherein the infinite wisdom and providence of the ,creator is no less rare and wonderfull4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,li4 ,of the ,crab-like ,insect4 ,reading one day in ,septemb4 ,i chanced to observe a very smal creature creep over the ,book ,i was reading1 very slowly2 having a ,microscope by me1 ,i observ'd it to be a creature of a very unusual form1 and that not less notable2 such as is describ'd in the second ,figure of the #cc4 ,scheme4 ,it was about the bigness of a large ,mite1 or somewhat longer1 it had ten legs1 eight of which1 ,,aaaa1 were topt with very sharp claws1 and were those upon which he walk'd1 seeming shap'd much like those of a ,crab1 which in many other things also this little creature resembled2 for the two other claws1 ,,bb1 which were the formost of all the ten1 and seem'd to grow out of his head1 like the horns of other ,animals1 were exactly form'd in the manner of ,crabs or ,lobsters claws1 for they were shap'd and jointed much like those represented in the ,scheme and the ends of them were furnish'd with a pair of claws or pincers1 ,,cc1 which this little animal did open and shut at pleasure3 ,it seem'd to make use of those two horns or claws both for feelers and holders2 for in its motion it carried these aloft extended before1 moving them to and fro1 just as a man blindfolded would do his hands when he is fearfull of running against a wall1 and if ,i put a hair to it1 it would readily take hold of it with these claws1 and seem to hold it fast4 ,now1 though these horns seem'd to serve him for two uses1 namely1 for feeling and holding2 yet he seem'd neither blind1 having two small black spots1 ,,dd1 which by the make of them1 and the bright reflection from them seem'd to be his eyes1 nor did it want other hands1 having another pair of claws1 ,,ee1 very neer plac'd to its mouth1 and seem'd adjoining to it4 ,the whole body was cased over with armour-shells1 as is usuall in all those kinds of crustaceous creatures1 especially about their bellies1 and seem'd of three kinds1 the head ,f seem'd cover'd with a kind of scaly shell1 the thorax with two smooth shells1 or ,rings1 ,,gg1 and the belly with eight knobb'd ones4 ,i could not certainly find whether it had under these last shells any wings1 but ,i suspect the contrary2 for ,i have not found any wing'd ,insect with eight leggs1 two of those leggs being always converted into wings1 and1 for the most part1 those that have but six1 have wings4 ,this creature1 though ,i could never meet with more then one of them1 and so could not make so many examinations of it as otherwise ,i would1 ,i did notwithstanding1 by reason of the great curiosity that appear'd to me in its shape1 delineate it1 to shew that1 in all likelihood1 ,nature had crouded together into this very minute ,insect1 as many1 and as excellent contrivances1 as into the body of a very large ,crab1 which exceeds it in bulk1 perhaps1 some ,millions of times2 for as to all the apparent parts1 there is a greater rather then a less multiplicity of parts1 each legg has as many parts1 and as many joints as a ,crabs1 nay1 and as many hairs or brisles2 and the like may be in all the other visible parts2 and 'tis very likely1 that the internal curiosities are not less excellent3 ,it being a general rule in ,nature's proceedings1 that where she begins to display any excellency1 if the subject be further search'd into1 it will manifest1 that there is not less curiosity in those parts which our single eye cannot reach1 then in those which are more obvious4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lii4 ,of the small ,silver-colour'd ,book-worm4 ,as among greater ,animals there are many that are scaled1 both for ornament and defence1 so are there not wanting such also among the lesser bodies of ,insects1 whereof this little creature gives us an ,instance4 ,it is a small white ,silver-shining ,worm or ,moth1 which ,i found much conversant among ,books and ,papers1 and is suppos'd to be that which corrodes and eats holes through the leaves and covers2 it appears to the naked eye1 a small glittering ,pearl-colour'd ,moth1 which upon the removing of ,books and ,papers in the ,summer1 is often observ'd very nimbly to scud1 and pack away to some lurking cranney1 where it may the better protect itself from any appearing dangers4 ,its head appears bigg and blunt1 and its body tapers from it towards the tail1 smaller and smaller1 being shap'd almost like a ,carret4 ,this the ,microscopical appearance will more plainly manifest1 which exhibits1 in the third ,figure of the #cc4 ,scheme1 a conical body1 divided into fourteen several partitions1 being the appearance of so many several shels1 or shields that cover the whole body1 every of these shells are again cover'd or tiled over with a multitude of thin transparent scales1 which1 from the multiplicity of their reflecting surfaces1 make the whole ,animal appear of a perfect ,pearl-colour4 ,which1 by the way1 may hint us the reason of that so much admired appearance of those so highly esteem'd bodies1 as also of the like in mother of ,pearl shells1 and in multitudes of other shelly ,sea-substances2 for they each of them consisting of an infinite number of very thin shells or laminated orbiculations1 cause such multitudes of reflections1 that the compositions of them together with the reflections of others that are so thin as to afford colours 7of which ,i elsewhere give the reason7 gives a very pleasant reflection of light4 ,and that this is the true cause1 seems likely1 first1 because all those so appearing bodies are compounded of multitudes of plated substances4 ,and next that1 by ordering any trasparent substance after this manner1 the like ,phnomena may be produc'd2 this will be made very obvious by the blowing of ,glass into exceeding thin shells1 and then breaking them into scales1 which any lamp-worker will presently do2 for a good quantity of these scales1 laid in a heap together1 have much the same resemblance of ,pearls4 ,another way1 not less instructive and pleasant1 is a way which ,i have several times done1 which is by working and tossing1 as 'twere1 a parcel of pure crystalline glass whilst it is kept glowing hot in the blown flame of a ,lamp1 for1 by that means1 that purely transparent body will be so divided into an infinite number of plates1 or small strings1 with interpos'd aerial plates and fibres1 that from the multiplicity of the reflections from each of those internal surfaces1 it may be drawn out into curious ,pearl-like or ,silver wire1 which though small1 will yet be opacous2 the same thing ,i have done with a composition of red ,colophon and ,turpentine1 and a little ,bee's ,wax1 and may be done likewise with ,birdlime1 and such like glutinous and transparent bodies3 ,but to return to our description4 ,the small blunt head of this ,insect was furnish'd on either side of it with a cluster of eyes1 each of which seem'd to contain but a very few1 in comparison of what ,i had observ'd the clusters of other ,insects to abound with2 each of these clusters were beset with a row of small brisles1 much like the cilia or hairs on the eye-lids1 and1 perhaps1 they serv'd for the same purpose4 ,it had two long horns before1 which were streight1 and tapering towards the top1 curiously ring'd or knobb'd1 and brisled much like the ,marsh ,weed1 call'd ,horse-tail1 or ,cats-tail1 having at each knot a fring'd ,girdle1 as ,i may so call it1 of smaller hairs1 and several bigger and larger brisles1 here and there dispers'd among them3 besides these1 it had two shorter horns1 or feelers1 which were knotted and fring'd1 just as the former1 but wanted brisles1 and were blunt at the ends2 the hinder part of the creature was terminated with three tails1 in every particular resembling the two longer horns that grew out of the head3 ,the leggs of it were scal'd and hair'd much like the rest1 but are not express'd in this ,figure1 the ,moth being intangled all in ,glew1 and so the leggs of this appear'd not through the ,glass which looked perpendicularly upon the back4 ,this ,animal probably feeds upon the ,paper and covers of ,books1 and perforates in them several small round holes1 finding1 perhaps1 a convenient nourishment in those husks of ,hemp and ,flax1 which have pass'd through so many scourings1 washings1 dressings and dryings1 as the parts of old ,paper must necessarily have suffer'd2 the digestive faculty1 it seems1 of these little creatures being able yet further to work upon those stubborn parts1 and reduce them into another form4 ,and indeed1 when ,i consider what a heap of ,saw-dust or chips this little creature 7which is one of the teeth of ,time7 conveys into its intrals1 ,i cannot chuse but remember and admire the excellent contrivance of ,nature1 in placing in ,animals such a fire1 as is continually nourished and supply'd by the materials convey'd into the stomach1 and fomented by the bellows of the lungs2 and in so contriving the most admirable fabrick of ,animals1 as to make the very spending and wasting of that fire1 to be instrumental to the procuring and collecting more materials to augment and cherish it self1 which indeed seems to be the principal end of all the contrivances observable in bruit ,animals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,liii4 ,of a ,flea4 ,the strength and beauty of this small creature1 had it no other relation at all to man1 would deserve a description4 ,for its strength1 the ,microscope is able to make no greater discoveries of it then the naked eye1 but onely the curious contrivance of its leggs and joints1 for the exerting that strength1 is very plainly manifested1 such as no other creature1 ,i have yet observ'd1 has any thing like it2 for the joints of it are so adapted1 that he can1 as 'twere1 fold them short one within another1 and suddenly stretch1 or spring them out to their whole length1 that is1 of the fore-leggs1 the part ,a1 of the #cd4 ,scheme1 lies within ,b1 and ,b within ,c1 parallel to1 or side by side each other2 but the parts of the two next1 lie quite contrary1 that is1 ,d without ,e1 and ,e without ,f1 but parallel also2 but the parts of the hinder leggs1 ,g1 ,h and ,i1 bend one within another1 like the parts of a double jointed ,ruler1 or like the foot1 legg and thigh of a man2 these six leggs he clitches up altogether1 and when he leaps1 springs them all out1 and thereby exerts his whole strength at once4 ,but1 as for the beauty of it1 the ,microscope manifests it to be all over adorn'd with a curiously polish'd suit of sable ,armour1 neatly jointed1 and beset with multitudes of sharp pinns1 shap'd almost like ,porcupine's ,quills1 or bright conical ,steel-bodkins2 the head is on either side beautify'd with a quick and round black eye ,k1 behind each of which also appears a small cavity1 ,l1 in which he seems to move to and fro a certain thin film beset with many small transparent hairs1 which probably may be his ears2 in the forepart of his head1 between the two fore-leggs1 he has two small long jointed feelers1 or rather smellers1 ,,mm1 which have four joints1 and are hairy1 like those of several other creatures2 between these1 it has a small proboscis1 or probe1 ,,nno1 that seems to consist of a tube ,,nn1 and a tongue or sucker ,o1 which ,i have perceiv'd him to slip in and out4 ,besides these1 it has also two chaps or biters ,,pp1 which are somewhat like those of an ,ant1 but ,i could not perceive them tooth'd2 these were shap'd very like the blades of a pair of round top'd ,scizers1 and were opened and shut just after the same manner2 with these ,instruments does this little busie ,creature bite and pierce the skin1 and suck out the blood of an ,animal1 leaving the skin inflamed with a small round red spot4 ,these parts are very difficult to be discovered1 because1 for the most part1 they lye covered between the fore-legs4 ,there are many other particulars1 which1 being more obvious1 and affording no great matter of information1 ,i shall pass by1 and refer the ,reader to the ,figure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,liv4 ,of a ,louse4 ,this is a ,creature so officious1 that 'twill be known to every one at one time or other1 so busie1 and so impudent1 that it will be intruding it self in every ones company1 and so proud and aspiring withall1 that it fears not to trample on the best1 and affects nothing so much as a ,crown2 feeds and lives very high1 and that makes it so saucy1 as to pull any one by the ears that comes in its way1 and will never be quiet till it has drawn blood3 it is troubled at nothing so much as at a man that scratches his head1 as knowing that man is plotting and contriving some mischief against it1 and that makes it oftentime sculk into some meaner and lower place1 and run behind a mans back1 though it go very much against the hair2 which ill conditions of it having made it better known then trusted1 would exempt me from making any further description of it1 did not my faithful ,mercury1 my ,microscope1 bring me other information of it4 ,for this has discovered to me1 by means of a very bright light cast on it1 that it is a ,creature of a very odd shape2 it has a head shap'd like that exprest in #ce4 ,scheme marked with ,a1 which seems almost ,conical1 but is a little flatted on the upper and under sides1 at the biggest part of which1 on either side behind the head 7as it were1 being the place where other ,creatures ears stand7 are placed its two black shining goggle eyes ,,bb1 looking backwards1 and fenced round with several small cilia1 or hairs that incompass it1 so that it seems this ,creature has no very good foresight3 ,it does not seem to have any eye-lids1 and therefore perhaps its eyes were so placed1 that it might the better cleanse them with its fore-legs2 and perhaps this may be the reason1 why they so much avoid and run from the light behind them1 for being made to live in the shady and dark recesses of the hair1 and thence probably their eye having a great aperture1 the open and clear light1 especially that of the ,sun1 must needs very much offend them2 to secure these eyes from receiving any injury from the hairs through which it passes1 it has two horns that grow before it1 in the place where one would have thought the eyes should be2 each of these ,,cc hath four joynts1 which are fringed1 as 'twere1 with small brisles1 from which to the tip of its snout ,d1 the head seems very round and tapering1 ending in a very sharp nose ,d1 which seems to have a small hole1 and to be the passage through which he sucks the blood4 ,now whereas if it be plac'd on its back1 with its belly upwards1 as it is in the #ce4 ,scheme1 it seems in several ,positions to have a resemblance of chaps1 or jaws1 as is represented in the ,figure by ,,ee1 yet in other postures those dark strokes disappear2 and having kept several of them in a box for two or three dayes1 so that for all that time they had nothing to feed on1 ,i found1 upon letting one creep on my hand1 that it immediately fell to sucking1 and did neither seem to thrust its nose very deep into the skin1 nor to open any kind of mouth1 but ,i could plainly perceive a small current of blood1 which came directly from its snout1 and past into its belly2 and about ,a there seem'd a contrivance1 somewhat resembling a ,pump1 pair of ,bellows1 or ,heart1 for by a very swift systole and diastole the blood seem'd drawn from the nose1 and forced into the body4 ,it did not seem at all1 though ,i viewed it a good while as it was sucking1 to thrust more of its nose into the skin then the very snout ,d1 nor did it cause the least discernable pain1 and yet the blood seem'd to run through its head very quick and freely1 so that it seems there is no part of the skin but the blood is dispers'd into1 nay1 even into the cuticula2 for had it thrust its whole nose in from ,d to ,,cc1 it would not have amounted to the supposed thickness of that tegument1 the length of the nose being not more then a three hundredth part of an inch4 ,it has six legs1 covered with a very transparent shell1 and joynted exactly like a ,crab's1 or ,lobster's2 each leg is divided into six parts by these joynts1 and those have here and there several small hairs2 and at the end of each leg it has two claws1 very properly adapted for its peculiar use1 being thereby inabled to walk very securely both on the skin and hair2 and indeed this contrivance of the feet is very curious1 and could not be made more commodiously and compendiously1 for performing both these requisite motions1 of walking and climbing up the hair of a mans head1 then it is3 for1 by having the lesser claw 7a7 set so much short of the bigger 7b7 when it walks on the skin the shorter touches not1 and then the feet are the same with those of a ,mite1 and several other small ,insects1 but by means of the small joynts of the longer claw it can bend it round1 and so with both claws take hold of a hair1 in the manner represented in the ,figure1 the long transparent ,cylinder ,,fff1 being a ,man's hair held by it4 ,the ,thorax seem'd cas'd with another kind of substance then the belly1 namely1 with a thin transparent horny substance1 which upon the fasting of the ,creature did not grow flaccid2 through this ,i could plainly see the blood1 suck'd from my hand1 to be variously distributed1 and mov'd to and fro2 and about ,g there seem'd a pretty big white substance1 which seem'd to be moved within its thorax2 besides1 there appear'd very many small milk-white vessels1 which crost over the breast between the legs1 out of which1 on either side1 were many small branchings1 these seem'd to be the veins and arteries1 for that which is analogus to blood in all ,insects is milk-white4 ,the belly is covered with a transparent substance likewise1 but more resembling a skin then a shell1 for 'tis grain'd all over the belly just like the skin in the palms of a man's hand1 and when the belly is empty1 grows very flaccid and wrinkled2 at the upper end of this is placed the stomach ,,hh1 and perhaps also the white spot ,,ii may be the liver or pancreas1 which1 by the peristalick motion of the guts1 is a little mov'd to and fro1 not with a systole and diastole1 but rather with a thronging or justling motion4 ,viewing one of these ,creatures1 after it had fasted two dayes1 all the hinder part was lank and flaccid1 and the white spot ,,ii hardly mov'd1 most of the white branchings disappear'd1 and most also of the redness or sucked blood in the guts1 the peristaltick motion of which was scarce discernable2 but upon the suffering it to suck1 it presently fill'd the skin of the belly1 and of the six scolop'd embosments on either side1 as full as it could be stuft1 the stomach and guts were as full as they could hold2 the peristaltick motion of the gut grew quick1 and the justling motion of ,,ii accordingly2 multitudes of milk-white vessels seem'd quickly filled1 and turgid1 which were perhaps the veins and arteries and the ,creature was so greedy1 that though it could not contain more1 yet it continued sucking as fast as ever1 and as fast emptying it self behind3 the digestion of this ,creature must needs be very quick1 for though ,i perceiv'd the blood thicker and blacker when suck'd1 yet1 when in the guts1 it was of a very lovely ruby colour1 and that part of it1 which was digested into the veins1 seemed white2 whence it appears1 that a further digestion of blood may make it milk1 at least of a resembling colour3 ,what is else observable in the figure of this ,creature1 may be seen by the #ce4 ,scheme4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lv4 ,of ,mites4 ,the least of ,reptiles ,i have hitherto met with1 is a ,mite1 a ,creature whereof there are some so very small1 that the sharpest sight1 unassisted with ,glasses1 is not able to discern them1 though1 being white of themselves1 they move on a black and smooth surface2 and the ,eggs1 out of which these ,creatures seem to be hatch'd1 are yet smaller1 those being usually not above a four or five hundredth part of a well grown ,mite1 and those well grown ,mites not much above one hundredth of an inch in thickness2 so that according to this reckoning there may be no less then a million of well grown ,mites contain'd in a cubick inch1 and five hundred times as many ,eggs4 ,notwithstanding which minuteness a good ,microscope discovers those small movable specks to be very prettily shap'd ,insects1 each of them furnished with eight well shap'd and proportion'd legs1 which are each of them joynted or bendable in eight several places1 or joynts1 each of which is covered1 for the most part1 with a very transparent shell1 and the lower end of the shell of each joynt is fringed with several small hairs2 the contrivance of the joynts seems the very same with that of ,crabs and ,lobsters legs1 and like those also1 they are each of them terminated with a very sharp claw or point2 four of these legs are so placed1 that they seem to draw forwards1 the other four are placed in a quite contrary position1 thereby to keep the body backwards when there is occasion4 #ae,the body1 as in other larger ,insects1 consists of three regions or parts2 the hinder or belly ,a1 seems covered with one intire shell1 the middle1 or chest1 seems divided into two shells ,,bc4 which running one within the other1 the ,mite is able to shrink in and thrust out as it finds occasion1 as it can also the snout ,d4 ,the whole body is pretty transparent1 so that being look'd on against the light1 divers motions within its body may be perceived2 as also all the parts are much more plainly delineable1 then in other postures1 to the light4 ,the shell1 especially that which covers the back1 is curiously polisht1 so that 'tis easie to see1 as in a convex ,looking-glass1 or foliated ,glass-ball1 the picture of all the objects round about2 up and down1 in several parts of its body1 it has several small long white hairs growing out of its shell1 which are often longer then the whole body1 and are represented too short in the first and second ,figures2 they seem all pretty straight and pliable1 save only two upon the forepart of its body1 which seem to be the horns1 as may be seen in the ,figures2 the first whereof is a prospect of a smaller sort of ,mites 7which are usually more plump7 as it was passant to and fro2 the second is the prospect of one fixt on its tail 7by means of a little mouth-glew rub'd on the object plate7 exhibiting the manner of the growing of the legs1 together with their several joynts4 ,this ,creature is very much diversify'd in shape1 colour1 and divers other properties1 according to the nature of the substance out of which it seems to be ingendred and nourished1 being in one substance more long1 in another more round1 in some more hairy1 in others more smooth1 in this nimble1 in that slow1 here pale and whiter1 there browner1 blacker1 more transparent1 c4 ,i have observed it to be resident almost on all kinds of substances that are mouldy1 or putrifying1 and have seen it very nimbly meshing through the thickets of mould1 and sometimes to lye dormant underneath them2 and 'tis not unlikely1 but that it may feed on that vegetating substance1 spontaneous ,vegetables seeming a food proper enough for spontaneous ,animals1 ,but whether indeed this ,creature1 or any other1 be such or not1 ,i cannot positively1 from any ,experiment1 or ,observation1 ,i have yet made1 determine4 ,but1 as ,i formerly hinted1 it seems probable1 that some kind of wandring ,mite may sow1 as 'twere1 the first seeds1 or lay the first eggs1 in those places1 which ,nature has instructed them to know convenient for the hatching and nourishing their young2 and though perhaps the prime ,parent might be of a shape very differing from what the offspring1 after a little while1 by reason of the substance they feed on1 or the ,region 7as 'twere7 they inhabite2 yet perhaps even one of these alter'd progeny1 wandering again from its native soil1 and lighting on by chance the same place from whence its prime ,parent came1 and there settling1 and planting1 may produce a generation of ,mites of the same shapes and properties with the first wandring ,mite3 ,and from some such accidents as these1 ,i am very apt to think1 the most sorts of ,animals1 generally accounted spontaneous1 have their origination1 and all those various sorts of ,mites1 that are to be met with up and down in divers putrifying substances1 may perhaps be all of the same kind1 and have sprung from one and the same sort of ,mites at the first4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lvi4 ,of a small ,creature hatch'd on a ,vine4 ,there is1 almost all the ,spring and ,summer time1 a certain small1 round1 white ,cobweb1 as 'twere1 about the bigness of a ,pea1 which sticks very close and fast to the stocks of ,vines nayl'd against a warm wall3 being attentively viewed1 they seem cover'd1 upon the upper side of them1 with a small husk1 not unlike the scale1 or shell of a ,wood-louse1 or ,hog-louse1 a small ,insect usually found about rotten wood1 which upon touching presently rouls it self into the form of a peppercorn3 ,separating several of these from the stock1 ,i found them1 with my ,microscope1 to consist of a shell1 which now seemed more likely to be the husk of one of these ,insects3 ,and the fur seem'd a kind of cobweb1 consisting of abundance of small filaments1 or sleaves of cobwebs4 ,in the midst of this1 if they were not hatch'd1 and run away before1 the time of which hatching was usually about the latter end of ,june1 or beginning of ,july1 ,i have often found abundance of small brown ,eggs1 such as ,a and ,b in the second ,figure of the #cf4 ,scheme1 much about the bigness of ,mites ,eggs2 and at other times1 multitudes of small ,insects1 shaped exactly like that in the third ,figure marked with ,x4 ,its head large1 almost half the bigness of its body1 which is usual in the ftus of most ,creatures4 ,it had two small black eyes aa1 and two small long joynted and brisled horns bb4 ,the hinder part of its body seem'd to consist of nine scales1 and the last ended in a forked tayl1 much like that of a ,cutio1 or ,wood-louse1 out of which grew two long hairs2 they ran to and fro very swiftly1 and were much of the bigness of a common ,mite1 but some of them less3 ,the longest of them seem'd not the hundredth part of an inch1 and the ,eggs usually not above half as much4 ,they seemed to have six legs1 which were not visible in this ,i have here delineated1 by reason they were drawn under its body4 ,if these ,minute creatures were ,wood-lice 7as indeed from their own shape and from the frame1 the skin1 or shell1 that grows on them1 one may with great probability ghess7 it affords us an ,instance1 whereof perhaps there are not many like in ,nature1 and that is1 of the prodigious increase of these ,creatures1 after they are hatch'd and run about2 for a common ,wood-louse1 of about half an inch long1 is no less then a hundred and twenty five thousand times bigger then one of these1 which though indeed it seems very strange1 yet ,i have observed the young ones of some ,spiders have almost kept the same proportion to their ,dam4 ,this1 methinks1 if it be so1 does in the next place hint a ,qury1 which may perhaps deserve a little further examination3 ,and that is1 ,whether there be not many of those minute ,creatures1 such as ,mites1 and the like1 which1 though they are commonly thought of otherwise1 are only the pully1 or young ones1 of much bigger ,insects1 and not the generating1 or parent ,insect1 that has layd those ,eggs2 for having many times observ'd those ,eggs1 which usually are found in great abundance where ,mites are found1 it seems something strange1 that so small an ,animal should have an ,egg so big in proportion to its body4 ,though on the other side1 ,i must confess1 that having kept divers of those ,mites inclosed in a box for a good while1 ,i did not find them very much augmented beyond their usual bigness4 ,what the husk and cobweb of this little white substance should be1 ,i cannot imagine1 unless it be1 that the old one1 when impregnated with ,eggs1 should there stay1 and fix it self on the ,vine1 and dye1 and all the body by degrees should rot1 save only the husk1 and the ,eggs in the body3 ,and the heat1 or fire1 as it were1 of the approaching ,sun-beams should vivifie those ,relicts of the corrupted ,parent1 and out of the ashes1 as 'twere1 7as it is fabled of the ,phnix7 should raise a new offspring for the perpetuation of the ,species4 ,nor will the cobweb1 as it were1 in which these ,eggs are inclos'd1 make much against this ,conjecture2 for we may1 by those cobwebs that are carried up and down the ,air after a ,fog 7which with my ,microscope ,i have discovered to be made up of an infinite company of small filaments or threads7 learn1 that such a texture of body may be otherwise made then by the spinning of a ,worm4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lvii4 ,of the ,eels in ,vinegar4 ,of these small ,eels1 which are to be found in divers sorts of ,vinegar1 ,i have little to add besides their ,picture1 which you may find drawn in the third ,figure of the #be4 ,scheme3 ,that is1 they were shaped much like an ,eel1 save only that their nose ,a1 7which was a little more opacous then the rest of their body7 was a little sharper1 and longer1 in proportion to their body1 and the wrigling motion of their body seem'd to be onely upwards and downwards1 whereas that of ,eels is onely side-wayes3 ,they seem'd to have a more opacous part about ,b1 which might1 perhaps1 be their ,gills2 it seeming always the same proportionate distant from their nose1 from which1 to the tip of their tail1 ,c1 their body seem'd to taper4 ,taking several of these out of their ,pond of ,vinegar1 by the net of a small piece of filtring ,paper1 and laying them on a black smooth ,glass plate1 ,i found that they could wriggle and winde their body1 as much almost as a ,snake1 which made me doubt1 whether they were a kind of ,eal or ,leech4 ,i shall add no other observations made on this minute ,animal1 being prevented herein by many excellent ones already publish'd by the ingenious1 ,doctor ,power1 among his ,microscopical ,observations1 save onely that a quantity of ,vinegar repleat with them being included in a small ,viol1 and stop'd very close from the ambient air1 all the included ,worms in a very short time died1 as if they had been stifled4 ,and that their motion seems 7contrary to what we may observe in the motion of all other ,infects7 exceeding slow4 ,but the reason of it seems plain1 for being to move to and fro after that manner which they do1 by waving onely1 or wrigling their body2 the tenacity1 or glutinousness1 and the density or resistance of the fluid medium becomes so exceeding sensible to their extremely minute bodies1 that it is to me indeed a greater wonder that they move them so fast as they do1 then that they move them no faster4 ,for what a vastly greater proportion have they of their superficies to their bulk1 then ,eels or other larger ,fishes1 and next1 the tenacity and density of the liquor being much the same to be moved1 both by the one and the other1 the resistance or impediment thence arising to the motions made through it1 must be almost infinitely greater to the small one then to the great4 ,this we find experimentally verify'd in the ,air1 which though a medium a thousand times more rarify'd then the water1 the resistance of it to motions made through it1 is yet so sensible to very minute bodies1 that a ,down-feather 7the least of whose parts seem yet bigger then these ,eels1 and many of them almost incomparably bigger1 such as the quill and stalk7 is suspended by it1 and carried to and fro as if it had no weight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lviii4 ,of a new ,property in the ,air1 and several other transparent ,mediums nam'd ,inflection1 whereby very many considerable ,phnomena are attempted to be solv'd1 and divers other uses are hinted4 ,since the ,invention 7and perfecting in some measure7 of ,telescopes1 it has been observ'd by several1 that the ,sun and ,moon neer the ,horizon1 are disfigur'd 7losing that exactly-smooth terminating circular limb1 which they are observ'd to have when situated neerer the ,zenith7 and are bounded with an edge every way 7especially upon the right and left sides7 ragged and indented like a ,saw3 which inequality of their limbs1 ,i have further observ'd1 not to remain always the same1 but to be continually chang'd by a kind of fluctuating motion1 not unlike that of the waves of the ,sea1 so as that part of the limb1 which was but even now nick'd or indented in1 is now protuberant1 and will presently be sinking again2 neither is this all but the whole body of the ,luminaries1 do in the ,telescope1 seem to be depress'd and flatted1 the upper1 and more especially the under side appearing neerer to the middle then really they are1 and the right and left appearing more remote3 whence the whole ,area seems to be terminated by a kind of ,oval4 ,it is further observ'd1 that the body1 for the most part1 appears red1 or of some colour approaching neer unto it1 as some kind of yellow2 and this ,i have always mark'd1 that the more the limb is flatted or ovalled1 the more red does the body appear1 though not always the contrary4 ,it is further observable1 that both fix'd ,stars and ,planets1 the neerer they appear to the ,horizon1 the more red and dull they look1 and the more they are observ'd to twinkle2 in so much1 that ,i have seen the ,dog-starr to vibrate so strong and bright a radiation of light1 as almost to dazle my eyes1 and presently1 almost to disappear4 ,it is also observable1 that those bright scintillations neer the ,horizon1 are not by much so quick and sudden in their consecutions of one another1 as the nimbler twinklings of ,stars neerer the ,zenith4 ,this is also notable1 that the ,starrs neer the ,horizon1 are twinkled with several colours2 so as sometimes to appear red1 sometimes more yellow1 and sometimes blue1 and this when the ,starr is a pretty way elevated above the ,horizon4 ,i have further1 very often seen some of the small ,starrs of the fifth or sixth magnitude1 at certain times to disappear for a small moment of time1 and again appear more conspicuous1 and with a greater luster4 ,i have several times1 with my naked eye1 seen many smaller ,starrs1 such as may be call'd of the seventh or eighth magnitude to appear for a short space1 and then vanish1 which1 by directing a small ,telescope towards that part they appear'd and disappear'd in2 ,i could presently find to be indeed small ,starrs so situate1 as ,i had seen them with my naked eye1 and to appear twinkling like the ordinary visible ,stars2 nay1 in examining some very notable parts of the ,heaven1 with a three foot ,tube1 me thought ,i now and then1 in several parts of the constellation1 could perceive little twinklings of ,starrs1 making a very short kind of apparition1 and presently vanishing1 but noting diligently the places where they thus seem'd to play at boe-peep1 ,i made use of a very good twelve foot ,tube1 and with that it was not uneasie to see those1 and several other degrees of smaller ,starrs1 and some smaller yet1 that seem'd again to appear and disappear1 and these also by giving the same ,object-glass a much bigger aperture1 ,i could plainly and constantly see appear in their former places2 so that ,i have observ'd some twelve several magnitudes of ,starrs less then those of the six magnitudes commonly recounted in the ,globes4 ,it has been observ'd and confirm'd by the accuratest ,observations of the best of our modern ,astronomers1 that all the ,luminous bodies appear above the ,horizon1 when they really are below it4 ,so that the ,sun and ,moon have both been seen above the ,horizon1 whil'st the ,moon has been in an ,eclipse4 ,i shall not here instance in the great refractions1 that the tops of high mountains1 seen at a distance1 have been found to have2 all which seem to argue the ,horizontal refraction1 much greater then it is hitherto generally believ'd4 ,i have further taken notice1 that not onely the ,sun1 ,moon and ,starrs1 and high tops of mountains have suffer'd these kinds of refraction1 but ,trees1 and several bright ,objects on the ground3 ,i have often taken notice of the twinkling of the reflections of the ,sun from a ,glass-window at a good distance1 and of a ,candle in the night1 but that is not so conspicuous1 and in observing the setting ,sun1 ,i have often taken notice of the tremulation of the ,trees and ,bushes1 as well as of the edges of the ,sun4 ,divers of these ,phnomena have been taken notice of by several1 who have given several reasons of them1 but ,i have not yet met with any altogether satisfactory1 though some of their conjectures have been partly true1 but partly also false4 ,setting my self therfore upon the inquiry of these ,phnomena1 ,i first endeavour'd to be very diligent in taking notice of the several particulars and circumstances observable in them2 and next1 in making divers particular ,experiments1 that might cleer some doubts1 and serve to determine1 confirm1 and illustrate the true and adquate cause of each2 and upon the whole1 ,i find much reason to think1 that the true cause of all these ,phnomena is from the inflection1 or multiplicate refraction of those ,rays of light within the body of the ,atmosphere1 and that it does not proceed from a refraction caus'd by any terminating superficies of the ,air above1 nor from any such exactly defin'd superficies within the body of the ,atmosphere4 ,this ,conclusion is grounded upon these two ,propositions3 ,first1 that a medium1 whose parts are unequally dense1 and mov'd by various motions and transpositions as to one another1 will produce all these visible effects upon the ,rays of light1 without any other coefficient cause4 ,secondly1 that there is in the ,air or ,atmosphere such a variety in the constituent parts of it1 both as to their density and rarity1 and as to their divers mutations and positions one to another4 ,by ,density and ,rarity1 ,i understand a property of a transparent body1 that does either more or less refract a ,ray of light 7coming obliquely upon its superficies out of a third medium7 toward its perpendicular3 ,as ,i call ,glass a more dense body then ,water1 and ,water a more rare body then ,glass1 because of the refractions 7more or less deflecting towards the perpendicular7 that are made in them1 of a ,ray of light out of the ,air that has the same inclination upon either of their superficies4 ,so as to the business of ,refraction1 spirit of ,wine is a more dense body then ,water1 it having been found by an accurate ,instrument that measures the angles of ,refractions to ,minutes that for the same refracted angle of #cj4jj4 in both those ,mediums1 the angle of incidence in ,water was but #da4ce4 but the angle of the incidence in the trial with spirit of ,wine was #db4de4 ,but as to gravity1 ,water is a more dense body then spirit of ,wine1 for the proportion of the same ,water1 to the same very well rectify'd spirit of ,wine was1 as #ba4 to #ai4 ,so as to ,refraction1 ,water is more ,dense then ,ice2 for ,i have found by a most certain ,experiment1 which ,i exhibited before divers illustrious ,persons of the ,royal ,society1 that the ,refraction of ,water was greater then that of ,ice1 though some considerable ,authors have affirm'd the contrary1 and though the ,ice be a very hard1 and the ,water a very fluid body4 ,that the former of the two preceding ,propositions is true1 may be manifested by several ,experiments2 ,as first1 if you take any two liquors differing from one another in density1 but yet such as will readily mix3 as ,salt ,water1 or ,brine1 ,fresh2 almost any kind of ,salt dissolv'd in ,water1 and filtrated1 so that it be cleer1 spirit of ,wine and ,water2 nay1 spirit of ,wine1 and spirit of ,wine1 one more highly rectify'd then the other1 and very many other liquors2 if 7,i say7 you take any two of these liquors1 and mixing them in a ,glass ,viol1 against one side of which you have fix'd or glued a small round piece of ,paper1 and shaking them well together 7so that the parts of them may be somewhat disturb'd and move up and down7 you endeavour to see that round piece of ,paper through the body of the liquors1 you shall plainly perceive the ,figure to wave1 and to be indented much after the same manner as the limb of the ,sun through a ,telescope seems to be1 save onely that the mutations here1 are much quicker4 ,and if1 in steed of this bigger ,circle1 you take a very small spot1 and fasten and view it as the former1 you will find it to appear much like the twinkling of the ,starrs1 though much quicker3 which two ,phnomena1 7for ,i shall take notice of no more at present1 though ,i could instance in multitudes of others7 must necessarily be caus'd by an inflection of the ,rays within the terminating superficies of the compounded medium1 since the surfaces of the transparent body through which the ,rays pass to the eye1 are not at all altered or chang'd4 ,this inflection 7if ,i may so call it7 ,i imagine to be nothing else1 but a multiplicate refraction1 caused by the unequal density of the constituent parts of the medium1 whereby the motion1 action or progress of the ,ray of light is hindred from proceeding in a streight line1 and inflected or deflected by a curve4 ,now1 that it is a curve line is manifest by this ,experiment3 ,i took a ,box1 such as ,,adge1 in the first ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 whose sides ,,abcd1 and ,,efgh1 were made of two smooth flat plates of ,glass1 then filling it half full with a very strong solution of ,salt1 ,i filled the other half with very fair fresh water1 then exposing the opacous side1 ,,dhgc1 to the ,sun1 ,i observ'd both the refraction and inflection of the ,sun beams1 ,,id ,,kh1 and marking as exactly as ,i could1 the points1 ,p1 ,n1 ,o1 ,m1 by which the ,ray1 ,,kh1 passed through the compounded medium1 ,i found them to be in a curve line2 for the parts of the medium being continually more dense the neerer they were to the bottom1 the ,ray pf was continually more and more deflected downwards from the streight line4 ,this ,inflection may be mechanically explained1 either by ,monsieur ,des ,cartes principles by conceiving the ,globuls of the third ,element to find less and less resistance against that side of them which is downwards1 or by a way1 which ,i have further explicated in the ,inquisition about ,colours1 to be from an obliquation of the pulse of light1 whence the under part is continually promoted1 and consequently refracted towards the perpendicular1 which cuts the ,orbs at right angles4 ,what the particular ,figure of the ,curve line1 describ'd by this way of light1 is1 ,i shall not now stand to examine1 especially since there may be so many sorts of it as there may be varieties of the ,positions of the intermediate degrees of density and rarity between the bottom and the top of the inflecting ,medium4 ,i could produce many more ,examples and ,experiments1 to illustrate and prove this first ,proposition1 viz4 that there is such a constitution of some bodies as will cause inflection4 ,as not to mention those ,i have observ'd in ,horn1 ,tortoise-,shell1 transparent ,gums1 and resinous ,substances3 ,the veins of ,glass1 nay1 of melted ,crystal1 found1 and much complained of by ,glass-grinders1 and others1 might sufficiently demonstrate the truth of it to any diligent ,observator4 ,but that1 ,i presume1 ,i have by this ,example given proof sufficient 7viz4 ocular demonstration7 to evince1 that there is such a modulation1 or bending of the rayes of light1 as ,i have call'd inflection1 differing both from reflection1 and refraction 7since they are both made in the superficies1 this only in the middle72 and likewise1 that this is able or sufficient to produce the effects ,i have ascribed to it4 ,it remains therefore to shew1 that there is such a property in the ,air1 and that it is sufficient to produce all the above mentioned ,phnomena1 and therefore may be the principal1 if not the only cause of them4 ,first1 ,that there is such a property1 may be proved from this1 that the parts of the ,air are some of them more condens'd1 others more rarified1 either by the differing heat1 or differing pressure it sustains1 or by the somewhat heterogeneous vapours interspers'd through it4 ,for as the ,air is more or less rarified1 so does it more or less refract a ray of light 7that comes out of a denser medium7 from the perpendicular4 ,this you may find true1 if you make tryal of this ,experiment4 ,take a small ,glass-bubble1 made in the form of that in the second ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 and by heating the ,glass very hot1 and thereby very much rarifying the included ,air1 or1 which is better1 by rarifying a small quantity of water1 included in it1 into vapours1 which will expel the most part1 if not all the ,air1 and then sealing up the small neck of it1 and letting it cool1 you may find1 if you place it in a convenient ,instrument1 that there will be a manifest difference1 as to the refraction4 ,as if in this second ,figure you suppose ,a to represent a small sight or hole1 through which the eye looks upon an object1 as ,c1 through the ,glass-bubble ,b1 and the second sight ,l2 all which remain exactly fixt in their several places1 the object ,c being so cized and placed1 that it may just seem to touch the upper and under edge of the hole ,l3 and so all of it be seen through the small ,glass-ball of rarified ,air2 then by breaking off the small seal'd neck of the ,bubble 7without at all stirring the sights1 object1 or glass7 and admitting the external ,air1 you will find your self unable to see the utmost ends of the object2 but the terminating rayes ,,ae and ,,ad 7which were before refracted to ,g and ,f by the rarified ,air7 will proceed almost directly to ,i and ,h2 which alteration of the rayes 7seeing there is no other alteration made in the ,organ by which the ,experiment is tryed1 save only the admission1 or exclusion of the condens'd ,air7 must necessarily be caused by the variation of the medium contain'd in the ,glass ,b2 the greatest difficulty in the making of which ,experiment1 is from the uneven surfaces of the bubble1 which will represent an uneven image of the object4 ,now1 that there is such a difference of the upper and under parts of the ,air is clear enough evinc'd from the late improvement of the ,torricellian ,experiment1 which has been tryed at the tops and feet of ,mountains2 and may be further illustrated1 and inquired into1 by a means1 which some whiles since ,i thought of1 and us'd1 for the finding by what degrees the ,air passes from such a degree of ,density to such a degree of ,rarity4 ,and another1 for the finding what pressure was requisite to make it pass from such a degree of ,rarefaction to a determinate ,density3 ,which ,experiments1 because they may be useful to illustrate the present ,inquiry1 ,i shall briefly describe4 #af ,i took then a small ,glass-pipe ,,ab1 about the bigness of a ,swans quill1 and about four foot long1 which was very equally drawn1 so that1 as far as ,i could perceive1 no one part was bigger then another3 ,this ,tube 7being open at both ends7 ,i fitted into another small ,tube ,,de1 that had a small bore just big enough to contain the small ,pipe1 and this was seal'd up at one1 and open at the other1 end2 about which open end ,i fastned a small wooden box ,c with cement1 so that filling the bigger ,tube1 and part of the box1 with ,quicksilver1 ,i could thrust the smaller ,tube into it1 till it were all covered with the ,quicksilver3 ,having thus done1 ,i fastned my bigger ,tube against the side of a wall1 that it might stand the steadier1 and plunging the small ,tube cleer under the ,mercury in the box1 ,i stopt the upper end of it very fast with cement1 then lifting up the small ,tube1 ,i drew it up by a small pully1 and a string that ,i had fastned to the top of the ,room1 and found the height of the ,mercurial ,cylinder to be about twenty nine inches4 ,then letting down the ,tube again1 ,i opened the top1 and then thrust down the small ,tube1 till ,i perceived the ,quicksilver to rise within it to a mark that ,i had plac'd just an inch from the top2 and immediately clapping on a small piece of cement that ,i had kept warm1 ,i with a hot ,iron seal'd up the top very fast1 then letting it cool 7that both the cement might grow hard1 and more especially1 that the ,air might come to its temper1 natural for the ,day ,i try'd the ,experiment in7 ,i observ'd diligently1 and found the included ,air to be exactly an ,inch4 ,here you are to take notice1 that after the ,air is seal'd up1 the top of the ,tube is not to be elevated above the superficies of the ,quicksilver in the box1 till the surface of that within the ,tube be equal to it1 for the ,quicksilver 7as ,i have elsewhere prov'd7 being more heterogeneous to the ,glass then the ,air1 will not naturally rise up so high within the small ,pipe1 as the superficies of the ,mercury in the box1 and therefore you are to observe1 how much below the outward superficies of the ,mercury in the box1 that of the same in the ,tube does stand1 when the top being open1 free ingress is admitted to the outward ,air4 ,having thus done1 ,i permitted the ,cylinder1 or small ,pipe1 to rise out of the box1 till ,i found the surface of the ,quicksilver in the ,pipe to be two inches above that in the box1 and found the ,air to have expanded it self but one sixteenth part of an inch2 then drawing up the small pipe1 till ,i found the height of the ,quicksilver within to be four inches above that without1 ,i observed the ,air to be expanded only of an inch more then it was at first1 and to take up the room of #a inch3 then ,i raised the ,tube till the ,cylinder was six inches high1 and found the ,air to take up #a inches of room in the ,pipe2 then to #h1 #aj1 #ab4 c4 the expansion of the ,air that ,i found to each of which ,cylinders are set down in the following ,table2 where the first row signifies the height of the ,mercurial ,cylinder2 the next1 the expansion of the ,air2 the third1 the pressure of the ,atmosphere1 or the highest ,cylinder of ,mercury1 which was then neer thirty inches3 ,the last signifies the force of the ,air so expanded1 which is found by substracting the first row of numbers out of the third2 for having found1 that the outward ,air would then keep up the ,quicksilver to thirty inches1 look whatever of that height is wanting must be attributed to the ,elater of the ,air depressing4 ,and therefore having the ,expansion in the second row1 and the height of the subjacent ,cylinder of ,mercury in the first1 and the greatest height of the ,cylinder of ,mercury1 which of it self counterballances the whole pressure of the ,atmosphere2 by substracting the numbers of the first row out of the numbers of the third1 you will have the measure of the ,cylinders so deprest1 and consequently the force of the ,air1 in the several ,expansions1 registred4 ,the height of the ,the ,expansion ,the height of ,the strength ,cylinder of ,mercury1 of the ,air4 the ,mercury of the ,elater that1 together with that counter- of the expanded the ,elater of the ballanc'd the ,air4 included ,air1 ,atmosphere4 ballanced the pressure of the ,atmosphere4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- #jj #ja #cj #cj #jb #ja #cj #bh #jd #ja #cj #bf #jf #ja #cj #bd #jh #ja #cj #bb #aj #ja #cj #bj #ab #ja #cj #ah #ad #ja #cj #af #af #jb #cj #ad #ah #jb #cj #ab #bj #jc #cj #aj #bb #jc #cj #h #bd #je #cj #f #be #jf #cj #e #bf #jh #cj #d #bf #ji #cj #c #bf #aj #cj #c #bf #ac #cj #c #bg #ae #cj #c ,i had several other ,tables of my ,observations1 and ,calculations1 which ,i then made2 but it being above a twelve month since ,i made them2 and by that means having forgot many circumstances and particulars1 ,i was resolved to make them over once again1 which ,i did ,august the second #affa4 with the very same ,tube which ,i used the year before1 when ,i first made the ,experiment 7for it being a very good one1 ,i had carefully preserv'd it37 ,and after having tryed it over and over again2 and being not well satisfied of some particulars1 ,i1 at last1 having put all things in very good order1 and being as attentive1 and observant1 as possibly ,i could1 of every circumstance requisite to be taken notice of1 did register my several ,observations in this following ,table4 ,in the making of which1 ,i did not exactly follow the method that ,i had used at first2 but1 having lately heard of ,mr4 ,townly's ,hypothesis1 ,i shap'd my course in such sort1 as would be most convenient for the examination of that ,hypothesis2 the event of which you have in the latter part of the last ,table4 ,the other ,experiment was1 to find what degrees of force were requisite to compress1 or condense1 the ,air into such or such a bulk4 ,the manner of proceeding therein was this3 ,i took a ,tube about five foot long1 one of whose ends was sealed up1 and bended in the form of a ,syphon1 much like that represented in the fourth ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 one side whereof ,,ad1 that was open at ,a1 was about fifty inches long1 the other side ,,bc1 shut at ,b1 was not much above seven inches long1 then placing it exactly perpendicular1 ,i pour'd in a little ,quicksilver1 and found that the ,air ,,bc was #f inches1 or very near to seven2 then pouring in ,quicksilver at the longer ,tube1 ,i continued filling of it till the ,air in the shorter part of it was contracted into half the former dimensions1 and found the height exactly nine and twenty inches2 and by making several other tryals1 in several other degrees of condensation of the ,air1 ,i found them exactly answer the former ,hypothesis4 ,but having 7by reason it was a good while since ,i first made7 forgotten many particulars1 and being much unsatisfied in others1 ,i made the ,experiment over again1 and1 from the several tryals1 collected the former part of the following ,table3 ,where in the row next the left hand #bd4 signifies the dimensions of the ,air1 sustaining only the pressure of the ,atmosphere1 which at that time was equal to a ,cylinder of ,mercury of nine and twenty inches3 ,the next ,figure above it 7#bj7 was the dimensions of the ,air induring the first compression1 made by a ,cylinder of ,mercury #e high1 to which the pressure of the ,atmosphere nine and twenty inches being added1 the elastick strength of the ,air so comprest will be found #cd1 c4 ,a ,table of the ,elastick power of the ,air1 both ,experimentally and ,hypothetically calculated1 according to its various ,dimensions4 ,the dimensions ,the height ,the ,mercurial ,the sum or ,what they of the included of the ,cylinder difference ought to ,air4 ,mercurial added1 or of these be according ,cylinder taken from two to the counter- the former4 ,cylinders4 ,hypothesis4 pois'd by the ,atmosphere4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- #ab #bi #bi #eh #eh #ac #bi #bd #ec #ec #ad #bi #bj #di #di #af #bi #ad #dc #dc #ah #bi #i #ch #ch #bj #bi #e #cd #cd #bd #bi #j #bi #bi #dh #bi #ad #ad #ad #if #bi #bb #f #g #aib #bi #be #c #c #chd #bi #bg #a #a #egf #bi #bg #a #a #gfh #bi #bh #j #jg #ifj #bi #bh #j #je #aaeb #bi #bh #j #j ,from which ,experiments1 ,i think1 we may safely conclude1 that the ,elater of the ,air is reciprocal to its extension1 or at least very neer4 ,so that to apply it to our present purpose 7which was indeed the chief cause of inventing these wayes of tryal7 we will suppose a ,cylinder indefinitely extended upwards1 ,i say a ,cylinder1 not a piece of a ,cone1 because1 as ,i may elsewhere shew in the ,explication of ,gravity1 that triplicate proportion of the shels of a ,sphere1 to their respective diameters1 ,i suppose to be removed in this case by the decrease of the power of ,gravity and the pressure of the ,air at the bottom of this ,cylinder to be strong enough to keep up a ,cylinder of ,mercury of thirty inches3 ,now because by the most accurate tryals of the most illustrious and incomparable ,mr4 ,boyle1 published in his deservedly famous ,pneumatick ,book1 the weight of ,quicksilver1 to that of the ,air here below1 is found neer about as fourteen thousand to one3 ,if we suppose the parts of the ,cylinder of the ,atmosphere to be every where of an equal density1 we shall 7as he there deduces7 find it extended to the height of thirty five thousand feet1 or seven miles3 ,but because by these ,experiments we have somewhat confirm'd the hypothesis of the reciprocal proportion of the ,elaters to the ,extensions we shall find1 that by supposing this ,cylinder of the ,atmosphere divided into a thousand parts1 each of which being equivalent to thirty five feet1 or seven geometrical paces1 that is1 each of these divisions containing as much ,air as is suppos'd in a ,cylinder neer the earth of equal diameter1 and thirty five foot high1 we shall find the lowermost to press against the surface of the ,earth with the whole weight of the above mentioned thousand parts2 the pressure of the bottom of the second against the top of the first to be #ajjj #a #iii4 of the third against the second to be #ajjj #b #iih4 of the fourth against the third to be #ajjj #c #iig4 of the uppermost against the #iii4 or that next below it1 to be #ajjj #iii #a4 so that the extension of the lowermost next the ,earth1 will be to the extension of the next below the uppermost1 as #a4 to #iii4 for as the pressure sustained by the #iii4 is to the pressure sustain'd by the first1 so is the extension of the first to the extension of the #iii4 so that1 from this hypothetical calculation1 we shall find the ,air to be indefinitely extended3 ,for if we suppose the whole thickness of the ,air to be divided1 as ,i just now instanced1 into a thousand parts1 and each of those under differing ,dimensions1 or ,altitudes1 to contain an equall quantity of ,air1 we shall find1 that the first ,cylinder1 whose ,base is supposed to lean on the ,earth1 will be found to be extended #ce foot2 the second equal ,division1 or ,cylinder1 whose basis is supposed to lean on the top of the first1 shall have its top extended higher by #ce the third #ce the fourth #ce and so onward1 each equal quantity of ,air having its dimensions measured by #ce4 and some additional number exprest alwayes in the manner of a fraction1 whose numerator is alway the number of the place multipli'd by #ce4 and whose denominator is alwayes the pressure of the ,atmosphere sustain'd by that part1 so that by this means we may easily calculate the height of #iii4 divisions of those #ajjj4 divisions1 ,i suppos'd2 whereas the uppermost may extend it self more then as high again1 nay1 perhaps indefinitely1 or beyond the ,moon2 for the ,elaters and ,expansions being in reciprocal proportions1 since we cannot yet find the plus ultra1 beyond which the ,air will not expand it self1 we cannot determine the height of the ,air3 for since1 as we have shewn1 the proportion will be alway as the pressure sustain'd by any part is to #ce4 so #ajjj4 to the expansion of that part2 the multiplication or product therefore of the pressure1 and expansion1 that is1 of the two extream proportionals1 being alwayes equal to the product of the means1 or #cejjj4 it follows1 since that ,rectangle or ,product may be made up of the multiplication of infinite diversities of numbers1 that the height of the ,air is also indefinite2 for since 7as far as ,i have yet been able to try7 the ,air seems capable of an indefinite ,expansion1 the pressure may be decreased in infinitum1 and consequently its expansion upwards indefinite also4 ,there being therefore such a difference of density1 and no ,experiment yet known to prove a ,saltus1 or skipping from one degree of rarity to another much differing from it1 that is1 that an upper part of the ,air should so much differ from that immediately subjacent to it1 as to make a distinct superficies1 such as we observe between the ,air and ,water1 c4 ,but it being more likely1 that there is a continual increase of rarity in the parts of the ,air1 the further they are removed from the surface of the ,earth3 ,it will hence necessarily follow1 that 7as in the ,experiment of the salt and fresh ,water7 the ray of ,light passing obliquely through the ,air also1 which is of very different density1 will be continually1 and infinitely inflected1 or bended1 from a streight1 or direct motion4 ,this granted1 the reason of all the above recited ,phnomena1 concerning the appearance of the ,celestial ,bodies1 will very easily be deduced4 ,as1 ,first1 ,the redness of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 will be found to be caused by the inflection of the rays within the ,atmosphere4 ,that it is not really in or near the luminous bodies1 will1 ,i suppose1 be very easily granted1 seeing that this redness is observable in several places differing in ,longitude1 to be at the same time different1 the setting and rising ,sun of all parts being for the most part red3 ,and secondly1 ,that it is not meerly the colour of the ,air interpos'd1 will1 ,i suppose1 without much more difficulty be yielded1 seeing that we may observe a very great interstitium of ,air betwixt the ,object1 and the ,eye1 makes it appear of a dead blew1 far enough differing from a red1 or yellow4 ,but thirdly1 ,that it proceeds from the refraction1 or inflection1 of the rays by the ,atmosphere1 this following ,experiment will1 ,i suppose1 sufficiently manifest4 ,take a sphrical ,crystalline ,viol1 such as is describ'd in the fifth ,figure ,,abcd1 and1 having fill'd it with pure clear ,water1 expose it to the ,sun beams2 then taking a piece of very fine ,venice ,paper1 apply it against that side of the ,globe that is opposite to the ,sun1 as against the side ,,bc1 and you shall perceive a bright red ,ring to appear1 caus'd by the refraction of the ,rays1 ,,aaaa1 which is made by the ,globe2 in which ,experiment1 if the ,glass and ,water be very cleer1 so that there be no ,sands nor bubbles in the ,glass1 nor dirt in the ,water1 you shall not perceive any appearance of any other colour4 ,to apply which ,experiment1 we may imagine the ,atmosphere to be a great transparent ,globe1 which being of a substance more dense then the other1 or 7which comes to the same7 that has its parts more dense towards the middle1 the ,sun beams that are tangents1 or next within the tangents of this ,globe1 will be refracted or inflected from their direct passage towards the center of the ,globe1 whence1 according to the laws of refractions made in a triangular ,prism1 and the generation of colour set down in the description of ,muscovi-glass there must necessarily appear a red colour in the transitus or passage of those tangent ,rays4 ,to make this more plain1 we will suppose 7in the sixth ,figure7 ,,abcd1 to represent the ,globe of the ,atmosphere1 ,,efgh to represent the opacous ,globe of the ,earth1 lying in the midst of it1 neer to which1 the parts of the ,air1 sustaining a very great pressure1 are thereby very much condens'd1 from whence those ,rays that are by inflection made tangents to the ,globe of the ,earth1 and those without them1 that pass through the more condens'd part of the ,atmosphere1 as suppose between ,a and ,e1 are by reason of the inequality of the medium1 inflected towards the center1 whereby there must necessarily be generated a red colour1 as is more plainly shewn in the former cited place2 hence whatsoever opacous bodies 7as vapours1 or the like7 shall chance to be elevated into those parts1 will reflect a red towards the eye2 and therefore those evenings and mornings appear reddest1 that have the most store of vapours and halituous substances exhaled to a convenient distance from the ,earth2 for thereby the inflection is made the greater1 and thereby the colour also the more intense2 and several of those exhalations being opacous1 reflect several of those ,rays1 which1 through an ,homogeneous transparent medium would pass unseen2 and therefore we see1 that when there chances to be any clouds situated in those ,regions they reflect a strong and vivid red4 ,now1 though one great cause of the redness may be this inflection1 yet ,i cannot wholly exclude the colour of the vapours themselves1 which may have something of redness in them1 they being partly nitrous2 and partly fuliginous2 both which steams tinge the ,rays that pass through them1 as is made evident by looking at bodies through the fumes of ,aqua fortis or spirit of ,nitre as the newly mentioned ,illustrious ,person has demonstrated and also through the smoak of a ,fire or ,chimney4 ,having therefore made it probable at least1 that the morning and evening redness may partly proceed from this inflection or refraction of the ,rays1 we shall next shew how the ,oval ,figure will be likewise easily deduced4 ,suppose we therefore1 ,,efgh in the sixth ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 to represent the ,earth2 ,,abcd1 the ,atmosphere2 ,,ei1 and ,,el1 two ,rays coming from the ,sun1 the one from the upper1 the other from the neather ,limb1 these ,rays1 being by the ,atmosphere inflected1 appear to the eye at ,e1 as if they had come from the points1 ,n and ,o2 and because the ,ray ,l has a greater inclination upon the inequality of the ,atmosphere then ,i1 therefore must it suffer a greater inflection1 and consequently be further elevated above its true place1 then the ,ray ,i1 which has a less inclination1 will be elevated above its true place2 whence it will follow1 that the lower side appearing neerer the upper then really it is1 and the two lateral sides1 viz4 the right and left side1 suffering no sensible alteration from the inflection1 at least what it does suffer1 does rather increase the visible ,diameter then diminish it1 as ,i shall shew by and by1 the ,figure of the luminous body must necessarily appear somewhat ,elliptical4 ,this will be more plain1 if in the seventh ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme we suppose ,,ab to represent the sensible ,horizon2 ,,cdef1 the body of the ,sun really below it2 ,,ghik1 the same appearing above it1 elevated by the inflection of the ,atmosphere3 ,for if1 according to the best observation1 we make the visible ,diameter of the ,sun to be about three or four and thirty minutes1 and the ,horizontal refraction according to ,ticho be thereabout1 or somewhat more1 the lower limb of the ,sun ,e1 will be elevated to ,i2 but because1 by his account1 the point ,c will be elevated but #bi4 minutes1 as having not so great an inclination upon the inequality of the ,air1 therefore ,,ig1 which will be the apparent refracted perpendicular ,diameter of the ,sun1 will be less then ,,cg1 which is but #bi4 minutes1 and consequently six or seven minutes shorter then the unrefracted apparent ,diameter4 ,the parts1 ,d and ,f1 will be likewise elevated to ,h and ,k1 whose refraction1 by reason of its inclination1 will be bigger then that of the point ,c1 though less then that of ,e2 therefore will the semidiameter ,,il1 be shorter then ,,lg1 and consequently the under side of the appearing ,sun more flat then the upper4 ,now1 because the ,rays from the right and left sides of the ,sun1 c4 have been observ'd by ,ricciolo and ,grimaldus1 to appear more distant one from another then really they are1 though 7by very many ,observations that ,i have made for that purpose1 with a very good ,telescope1 fitted with a divided ,ruler7 ,i could never perceive any great alteration1 yet there being really some1 it will not be amiss1 to shew that this also proceeds from the refraction or inflection of the ,atmosphere2 and this will be manifest1 if we consider the ,atmosphere as a transparent ,globe1 or at least a transparent shell1 encompassing an opacous ,globe1 which1 being more dense then the medium encompassing it1 refracts or inflects all the entring parallel ,rays into a point or focus1 so that wheresoever the ,observator is plac'd within the ,atmosphere1 between the focus and the luminous body1 the lateral ,rays must necessarily be more converg'd towards his eye by the refraction or inflection1 then they would have been without it2 and therefore the ,horizontal ,diameter of the luminous body must necessarily be augmented4 ,this might be more plainly manifest to the eye by the sixth ,figure2 but because it would be somwhat tedious1 and the thing being obvious enough to be imagin'd by any one that attentively considers it1 ,i shall rather omit it1 and proceed to shew1 that the mass of ,air neer the surface of the ,earth1 consists1 or is made up1 of parcels1 which do very much differ from one another in point of density and rarity2 and consequently the ,rays of light that pass through them will be variously inflected1 here one way1 and there another1 according as they pass so or so through those differing parts2 and those parts being always in motion1 either upwards or downwards1 or to the right or left1 or in some way compounded of these1 they do by this their motion inflect the ,rays1 now this way1 and presently that way4 ,this irregular1 unequal and unconstant inflection of the ,rays of light1 is the reason why the limb of the ,sun1 ,moon1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,mars1 and ,venus1 appear to wave or dance2 and why the body of the ,starrs appear to tremulate or twinkle1 their bodies1 by this means1 being sometimes magnify'd1 and sometimes diminished2 sometimes elevated1 otherwhiles depress'd2 now thrown to the right hand1 and then to the left4 ,and that there is such a property or unequal distribution of parts1 is manifest from the various degrees of heat and cold that are found in the ,air2 from whence will follow a differing density and rarity1 both as to quantity and refraction2 and likewise from the vapours that are interpos'd1 7which1 by the way1 ,i imagine1 as to refraction or inflection1 to do the same thing1 as if they were rarify'd ,air2 and that those vapours that ascend1 are both lighter1 and less dense1 then the ambient ,air which boys them up2 and that those which descend1 are heavier and more dense7 ,the first of these may be found true1 if you take a good thick piece of ,glass1 and heating it pretty hot in the fire1 lay it upon such another piece of ,glass1 or hang it in the open ,air by a piece of ,wire1 then looking upon some far distant ,object 7such as a ,steeple or ,tree7 so as the ,rays from that ,object pass directly over the ,glass before they enter your eye1 you shall find such a tremulation and wavering of the remote ,object1 as will very much offend your eye3 ,the like tremulous motion you may observe to be caus'd by the ascending steams of ,water1 and the like4 ,now1 from the first of these it is manifest1 that from the rarifaction of the parts of the ,air1 by heat1 there is caus'd a differing refraction1 and from the ascension of the more rarify'd parts of the ,air1 which are thrust up by the colder1 and therefore more condens'd and heavie1 is caus'd an undulation or wavering of the ,object2 for ,i think1 that there are very few will grant1 that ,glass1 by as gentle a heat as may be endur'd by ones hand1 should send forth any of its parts in steams or vapours1 which does not seem to be much wasted by that violent fire of the green ,glass-house2 but1 if yet it be doubted1 let ,experiment be further made with that body that is accounted1 by ,chymists and others1 the most ponderous and fix'd in the world2 for by heating of a piece of ,gold1 and proceeding in the same manner1 you may find the same effects4 ,this trembling and shaking of the ,rays1 is more sensibly caus'd by an actual flame1 or quick fire1 or anything else heated glowing hot2 as by a ,candle1 live ,coal1 red-hot ,iron1 or a piece of ,silver1 and the like3 the same also appears very conspicuous1 if you look at an ,object betwixt which and your eye1 the rising smoak of some ,chimney is interpos'd2 which brings into my mind what ,i had once the opportunity to observe1 which was1 the ,sun rising to my eye just over a ,chimney that sent forth a copious steam of smoak2 and taking a short ,telescope1 which ,i had then by me1 ,i observ'd the body of the ,sun1 though it was but just peep'd above the ,horizon1 to have its underside1 not onely flatted1 and press'd inward1 as it usually is when neer the ,earth2 but to appear more protuberant downwards then if it had suffered no refraction at all2 and besides all this1 the whole body of the ,sun appear'd to tremble or dance1 and the edges or limb to be very ragged or indented1 undulating or waving1 much in the manner of a flag in the ,wind4 ,this ,i have likewise often observ'd in a hot ,sunshiny ,summer's day1 that looking on an ,object over a hot stone1 or dry hot earth1 ,i have found the ,object to be undulated or shaken1 much after the same manner4 ,and if you look upon any remote ,object through a ,telescope 7in a hot ,summer's day especially7 you shall find it likewise to appear tremulous4 ,and further1 if there chance to blow any wind1 or that the air between you and the ,object be in a motion or current1 whereby the parts of it1 both rarify'd and condens'd1 are swiftly remov'd towards the right or left1 if then you observe the ,horizontal ridge of a ,hill far distant1 through a very good ,telescope1 you shall find it to wave much like the ,sea1 and those waves will appear to pass the same way with the wind4 ,from which1 and many other ,experiments1 'tis cleer that the lower ,region of the ,air1 especially that part of it which lieth neerest to the ,earth1 has1 for the most part1 its constituent parcels variously agitated1 either by heat or winds1 by the first of which1 some of them are made more rare1 and so suffer a less refraction2 others are interwoven1 either with ascending or descending vapours2 the former of which being more light1 and so more rarify'd1 have likewise a less refraction2 the latter being more heavie1 and consequently more dense1 have a greater4 ,now1 because that heat and cold are equally diffus'd every way2 and that the further it is spread1 the weaker it grows2 hence it will follow1 that the most part of the under ,region of the ,air will be made up of several kinds of lentes1 some whereof will have the properties of ,convex1 others of ,concave glasses1 which1 that ,i may the more intelligibly make out1 we will suppose in the eighth ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 that ,a represents an ascending vapour1 which1 by reason of its being somewhat ,heterogeneous to the ambient ,air1 is thereby thrust into a kind of ,globular form1 not any where terminated1 but gradually finished1 that is1 it is most rarify'd in the middle about ,a4 somewhat more condens'd about ,,bb1 more then that about ,,cc2 yet further1 about ,,dd1 almost of the same density with the ambient ,air about ,,ee21 and lastly1 inclosed with the more dense ,air ,,ff1 so that from ,a1 to ,,ff1 there is a continual increase of density4 ,the reason of which will be manifest1 if we consider the rising vapour to be much warmer then the ambient heavie ,air2 for by the coldness of the ambient ,air1 the shell ,,ee will be more refrigerated then ,,dd1 and that then ,,cc1 which will be yet more then ,,bb1 and that more then ,a2 so that from ,f to ,a1 there is a continual increase of heat1 and consequently of rarity2 from whence it will necessarily follow1 that the ,rays of light will be inflected or refracted in it1 in the same manner as they would be in a ,concave-glase2 for the ,rays ,,gki1 ,,gki will be inflected by ,,gkh1 ,,gkh1 which will easily follow from what ,i before explained concerning the inflection of the ,atmosphere4 ,on the other side1 a descending vapour1 or any part of the air included by an ascending vapour1 will exhibit the same effects with a ,convex lens2 for1 if we suppose1 in the former ,figure1 the quite contrary constitution to that last describ'd2 that is1 the ambient ,air ,,ff being hotter then any part of that matter within any circle1 therefore the coldest part must necessarily be ,a1 as being farthest remov'd from the heat1 all the intermediate spaces will be gradually discriminated by the continuall mixture of heat and cold1 so that it will be hotter at ,,ee1 then ,,dd1 in ,,dd then ,,cc1 in ,,cc then ,,bb1 and in ,,bb then ,a4 ,from which1 a like refraction and condensation will follow1 and consequently a lesser or greater refraction1 so that every included part will refract more then the including1 by which means the ,rays1 ,,gki1 ,,gki1 coming from a ,starr1 or some remote ,object1 are so inflected1 that they will again concurr and meet1 in the point ,m4 ,by the interposition therefore of this desending vapour the visible body of the ,star1 or other ,object1 is very much augmented1 as by the former it was diminished4 ,from the quick consecutions of these two1 one after another1 between the ,object and your eye1 caused by their motion upwards or downwards1 proceeding from their levity or gravity1 or to the right or left1 proceeding from the wind1 a ,starr may appear1 now bigger1 now less1 then really it would otherwise without them2 and this is that property of a ,starr1 which is commonly call'd twinkling1 or scintillation4 ,the reason why a ,star will now appear of one colour1 now of another1 which for the most part happens when 'tis neer the ,horizon1 may very easily be deduc'd from its appearing now in the middle of the vapour1 other whiles neer the edge2 for if you look against the body of a ,starr with a ,telescope that has a pretty deep ,convex ,eye-glass1 and so order it1 that the ,star may appear sometimes in one place1 and sometimes in another of it2 you may perceive this or that particular colour to be predominant in the apparent ,figure of the ,starr1 according as it is more or less remote from the middle of the ,lens4 ,this ,i had here further explain'd1 but that it does more properly belong to another place4 ,i shall therefore onely add some few ,quries1 which the consideration of these particulars hinted1 and so finish this ,section4 ,and the first ,i shall propound is1 ,whether there may not be made an artificial transparent body of an exact ,globular ,figure that shall so inflect or refract all the ,rays1 that1 coming from one point1 fall upon any ,hemisphere of it2 that every one of them may meet on the opposite side1 and cross one another exactly in a point2 and that it may do the like also with all the ,rays that1 coming from a lateral point1 fall upon any other ,hemisphere2 for if so1 there were to be hoped a perfection of ,dioptricks1 and a transmigration into heaven1 even whil'st we remain here upon earth in the flesh1 and a descending or penetrating into the center and innermost recesses of the earth1 and all earthly bodies2 nay1 it would open not onely a cranney1 but a large window 7as ,i may so speak7 into the ,shop of ,nature1 whereby we might be enabled to see both the tools and operators1 and the very manner of the operation it self of ,nature2 this1 could it be effected1 would as farr surpass all other kind of perspectives as the vast extent of ,heaven does the small point of the ,earth1 which distance it would immediately remove1 and unite them1 as 'twere1 into one1 at least1 that there should appear no more distance between them then the length of the ,tube1 into the ends of which these ,glasses should be inserted3 ,now1 whether this may not be effected with parcels of ,glass of several densities1 ,i have sometimes proceeded so farr as to doubt 7though in truth1 as to the general1 ,i have wholly despair'd of it7 for ,i have often observ'd in ,optical ,glasses a very great variety of the parts1 which are commonly called ,veins2 nay1 some of them round enough 7for they are for the most part1 drawn out into strings7 to constitute a kind of lens4 ,this ,i should further proceed to hope1 had any one been so inquisitive as to have found out the way of making any transparent body1 either more dense or more rare1 for then it might be possible to compose a ,globule that should be more dense in the middle of it1 then in any other part1 and to compose the whole bulk1 so as that there should be a continual gradual transition from one degree of density to another2 such as should be found requisite for the desired inflection of the transmigrating ,rays2 but of this enough at present1 because ,i may say more of it when ,i set down my own ,trials concerning the melioration of ,dioptricks1 where ,i shall enumerate with how many several substances ,i have made both ,microscopes1 and ,telescopes1 and by what and how many1 ways3 ,let such as have leisure and opportunity farther consider it4 ,the next ,qury shall be1 whether by the same collection of a more dense body then the other1 or at least1 of the denser part of the other1 there might not be imagin'd a reason of the apparition of some new fix'd ,stars1 as those in the ,swan1 ,cassiope's ,charr1 ,serpentarius1 ,piscis1 ,cetus1 c4 ,thirdly1 ,whether it be possible to define the height of the ,atmosphere from this inflection of the ,rays1 or from the ,quicksilver ,experiment of the rarifaction or extension of the ,air4 ,fourthly1 ,whether the disparity between the upper and under ,air be not sometimes so great1 as to make a reflecting superficies2 ,i have had several ,observations which seem to have proceeded from some such cause1 but it would be too long to relate and examine them4 ,an ,experiment1 also somewhat analogous to this1 ,i have made with ,salt-water and ,fresh1 which two liquors1 in most ,positions1 seem'd the same1 and not to be separated by any determinate superficies1 which separating surface yet in some other ,positions did plainly appear4 ,and if so1 ,whether the reason of the equal bounding or terminus of the under parts of the clouds may not proceed from this cause2 whether1 secondly1 the ,reason of the apparition of many ,suns may not be found out1 by considering how the ,rays of the ,sun may so be reflected1 as to describe a pretty true ,image of the body1 as we find them from any regular ,superficies4 ,whether also this may not be found to cause the apparition of some of those ,parelii1 of counterfeit ,suns1 which appear coloured1 by refracting the ,rays so1 as to make the body of the ,sun appear in quite another place then really it is4 ,but of this more elsewhere4 #e4 ,whether the ,phnomena of the ,clouds may not be made out by this diversity of density in the upper and under parts of the ,air1 by supposing the ,air above them to be much lighter then they themselves are1 and they themselves to be yet lighter then that which is subjacent to them1 many of them seeming to be the same substance with the ,cobwebs that fly in the ,air after a ,fog4 ,now that such a constitution of the ,air and ,clouds1 if such there be1 may be sufficient to perform this effect1 may be confirm'd by this ,experiment4 ,make as strong a ,solution of ,salt as you are able1 then filling a ,glass of some depth half full with it1 fill the other half with fresh ,water1 and poyse a little ,glass-bubble1 so as that it may sink pretty quick in fresh ,water1 which take and put into the aforesaid ,glass1 and you shall find it to sink till it comes towards the middle1 where it will remain fixt1 without moving either upwards or downwards4 ,and by a second ,experiment1 of poising such a bubble in water1 whose upper part is warmer1 and consequently lighter1 then the under1 which is colder and heavier2 the manner of which follows in this next ,qury1 which is1 #f4 ,whether the rarifaction and condensation of ,water be not made after the same manner1 as those effects are produc'd in the ,air by heat2 for ,i once pois'd a seal'd up ,glass-bubble so exactly1 that never so small an addition would make it sink1 and as small a detraction make it swim1 which suffering to rest in that ,vessel of ,water for some time1 ,i alwayes found it about noon to be at the bottom of the ,water1 and at night1 and in the morning1 at the top3 ,imagining this to proceed from the ,rarifaction of the ,water1 caus'd by the heat1 ,i made tryal1 and found most true2 for ,i was able at any time1 either to depress1 or raise it1 by heat and cold2 for if ,i let the ,pipe stand for some time in cold water1 ,i could easily raise the ,bubble from the bottom1 whither ,i had a little afore detruded it1 by putting the same ,pipe into warm ,water4 ,and this way ,i have been able1 for a very considerable time1 to keep a ,bubble so poys'd in the ,water1 as that it should remain in the middle1 and neither sink1 nor swim3 ,for gently heating the upper part of the ,pipe with a ,candle1 ,coal1 or hot ,iron1 till ,i perceived the ,bubble begin to descend1 then forbearing1 ,i have observed it to descend to such or such a station1 and there to remain suspended for some hours1 till the heat by degrees were quite vanished1 when it would again ascend to its former place4 ,this ,i have also often observed naturally performed by the heat of the ,air1 which being able to rarifie the upper parts of the ,water sooner then the lower1 by reason of its immediate contact1 the heat of the ,air has sometimes so slowly increased1 that ,i have observed the ,bubble to be some hours in passing between the top and bottom4 #g4 ,whether the appearance of the ,pike of ,tenerif1 and several other high ,mountains1 at so much greater a distance then seems to agree with their respective heights1 be not to be attributed to the ,curvature of the visual ,ray1 that is made by its passing obliquely through so differingly ,dense a ,medium from the top to the eye very far distant in the ,horizon3 ,for since we have already1 ,i hope1 made it very probable1 that there is such an inflection of the ,rays by the differing density of the parts of the ,air2 and since ,i have found1 by several ,experiments made on places comparatively not very high1 and have yet found the pressure sustain'd by those parts of the ,air at the top and bottom1 and also their differing ,expansions very considerable3 ,insomuch that ,i have found the pressure of the ,atmosphere lighter at the top of ,st4 ,paul's ,steeple in ,london 7which is about two hundred foot high7 then at the bottom by a sixtieth or fiftieth part1 and the expansion at the top greater then that at the bottom by neer about so much also2 for the ,mercurial ,cylinder at the bottom was about #ci4 inches1 and at the top half an inch lower2 the ,air also included in the ,weather-glass1 that at the bottom fill'd only #aee4 spaces1 at the top fill'd #aeh4 though the heat at the top and bottom was found exactly the same with a scal'd ,thermometer3 ,i think it very rational to suppose1 that the greatest ,curvature of the ,rays is made nearest the ,earth1 and that the inflection of the ,rays1 above #c4 or #d4 miles upwards1 is very inconsiderable1 and therefore that by this means such calculations of the height of ,mountains1 as are made from the distance they are visible in the ,horizon1 from the supposal that that ,ray is a straight ,line 7that from the top of the ,mountain is1 as 'twere1 a ,tangent to the ,horizon whence it is seen7 which really is a ,curve1 is very erroneous4 ,whence1 ,i suppose1 proceeds the reason of the exceedingly differing ,opinions and ,assertions of several ,authors1 about the height of several very high ,hills4 #h4 ,whether this ,inflection of the ,air will not very much alter the supposed distances of the ,planets1 which seem to have a very great dependence upon the ,hypothetical refraction or inflection of the ,air1 and that refraction upon the hypothetical height and density of the ,air3 ,for since 7as ,i hope7 ,i have here shewn the ,air to be quite otherwise then has been hitherto suppos'd1 by manifesting it to be1 both of a vast1 at least an uncertain1 height1 and of an unconstant and irregular density2 ,it must necessarily follow1 that its inflection must be varied accordingly3 ,and therefore we may hence learn1 upon what sure grounds all the ,astronomers hitherto have built1 who have calculated the distance of the ,planets from their ,horizontal ,parallax2 for since the ,refraction and ,parallax are so nearly ally'd1 that the one cannot be known without the other1 especially by any wayes that have been yet attempted1 how uncertain must the ,parallax be1 when the ,refraction is unknown8 ,and how easie is it for ,astronomers to assign what distance they please to the ,planets1 and defend them1 when they have such a curious subterfuge as that of ,refraction1 wherein a very little variation will allow them liberty enough to place the ,celestial ,bodies at what distance they please4 ,if therefore we would come to any certainty in this point1 we must go other wayes to work2 and as ,i have here examined the height and refractive property of the ,air by other wayes then are usual1 so must we find the ,parallax of the ,planets by wayes not yet practiced2 and to this end1 ,i cannot imagine any better way1 then the ,observations of them by two persons at very far distant parts of the ,earth1 that lye as neer as may be under the same ,meridian1 or ,degree of longitude1 but differing as much in latitude1 as there can be places conveniently found3 ,these two persons1 at certain appointed times1 should 7as near as could be7 both at the same time1 observe the way of the ,moon1 ,mars1 ,venus1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn1 amongst the fixt ,stars1 with a good large ,telescope1 and making little ,iconismes1 or pictures1 of the small fixed ,stars1 that appear to each of them to lye in or near the way of the ,center of the ,planet1 and the exact measure of the apparent ,diameter2 from the comparing of such ,observations together1 we might certainly know the true distance1 or ,parallax1 of the ,planet4 ,and having any one true ,parallax of these ,planets1 we might very easily have the other by their apparent ,diameters1 which the ,telescope likewise affords us very accurately4 ,and thence their motions might be much better known1 and their ,theories more exactly regulated4 ,and for this purpose ,i know not any one place more convenient for such an ,observation to be made in1 then in the ,island of ,st4 ,helena1 upon the ,coast of ,africk1 which lyes about sixteen degrees to the ,southwards of the ,line1 and is very near1 according to the latest ,geographical ,maps1 in the same ,meridian with ,london2 for though they may not perhaps lye exactly in the same1 yet their ,observations1 being ordered according to what ,i shall anon shew1 it will not be difficult to find the true distance of the ,planet4 ,but were they both under the same ,meridian1 it would be much better4 ,and because ,observations may be much easier1 and more accurately made with good ,telescopes1 then with any other ,instruments1 it will not1 ,i suppose1 seem impertinent to explain a little what wayes ,i judge most fit and convenient for that particular4 ,such therefore as shall be the ,observators for this purpose1 should be furnished with the best ,telescopes that can be had1 the longer the better and more exact will their ,observations be1 though they are somewhat the more difficultly manag'd4 ,these should be fitted with a ,rete1 or divided ,scale1 plac'd at such a distance within the ,eye-glass1 that they may be distinctly seen1 which should be the measures of minutes and seconds2 by this ,instrument each ,observator should1 at certain prefixt times1 observe the ,moon1 or other ,planet1 in1 or very near1 the ,meridian2 and because it may be very difficult to find two convenient stations that will happen to be just under the same ,meridian1 they shall1 each of them1 observe the way of the ,planet1 both for an hour before1 and an hour after1 it arrive at the ,meridian2 and by a line1 or stroke1 amongst the small fixed ,stars1 they shall denote out the way that each of them observ'd the ,center of the ,planet to be mov'd in for those two hours3 ,these ,observations each of them shall repeat for many dayes together1 that both it may happen1 that both of them may sometimes make their ,observations together1 and that from divers ,experiments we may be the better assured of what certainty and exactness such kind of ,observations are like to prove4 ,and because many of the ,stars which may happen to come within the compass of such an ,iconism1 or ,map1 may be such as are only visible through a good ,telescope1 whose ,positions perhaps have not been noted1 nor their longitudes1 or latitudes1 any where remarked2 therefore each ,observator should indeavour to insert some fixt ,star1 whose longitude1 and latitude1 is known2 or with his ,telescope he shall find the ,position of some notable telescopical ,star1 inserted in his ,map1 to some known fixt ,star1 whose place in the ,zodiack is well defin'd4 ,having by this means found the true distance of the ,moon1 and having observed well the apparent ,diameter of it at that time with a good ,telescope1 it is easie enough1 by one single ,observation of the apparent ,diameter of the ,moon with a good ,glass1 to determine her distances in any other part of her ,orbit1 or ,dragon1 and consequently1 some few ,observations will tell us1 whether she be mov'd in an ,ellipsis1 7which1 by the way1 may also be found1 even now1 though ,i think we are yet ignorant of her true distance7 and next 7which without such ,observations1 ,i think1 we shall not be sure of7 we may know exactly the bigness of that ,ellipsis1 or ,circle1 and her true velocity in each part1 and thereby be much the better inabled to find out the true cause of all her ,motions4 ,and though1 even now also1 we may1 by such ,observations in one station1 as here at ,london1 observe the apparent ,diameter and motion of the ,moon in her ,dragon1 and consequently be inabled to make a better ghess at the ,species or kind of ,curve1 in which she is mov'd1 that is1 whether it be sphrical1 or elliptical1 or neither1 and with what proportional velocities she is carried in that ,curve2 yet till her true ,parallax be known1 we cannot determine either4 ,next1 for the true distance of the ,sun1 the best way will be1 by accurate ,observations1 made in both these forementioned stations1 of some convenient ,eclipse of the ,sun1 many of which may so happen1 as to be seen by both2 for the ,penumbra of the ,moon may1 if she be sixty ,semidiameters distant from the ,earth1 and the ,sun above seven thousand1 extend to about seventy degrees on the ,earth1 and consequently be seen by ,observators as far distant as ,london1 and ,st4 ,helena1 which are not full sixty nine degrees distant4 ,and this would much more accurately1 then any way that has been yet used1 determine the ,parallax1 and distance1 of the ,sun2 for as for the ,horizontal ,parallax ,i have already shewn it sufficiently uncertain2 nor is the way of finding it by the ,eclipse of the ,moon any other then hypothetical2 and that by the difference of the true and apparent quadrature of the ,moon is not less uncertain1 witness their ,deductions from it1 who have made use of it2 for ,vendeline puts that difference to be but #d4cj4 whence he deduces a vast distance of the ,sun1 as ,i have before shewn4 ,ricciolo makes it full #cj4jj4 but ,reinoldus1 and ,kircher1 no less then three degrees4 ,and no wonder1 for if we examine the ,theory1 we shall find it so complicated with uncertainties4 ,first1 ,from the irregular surface of the ,moon1 and from several ,parallaxes1 that unless the ,dichotomy happen in the ,nonagesimus of the ,ecliptick1 and that in the ,meridian1 c4 all which happen so very seldom1 that it is almost impossible to make them otherwise then uncertainly4 ,besides1 we are not yet certain1 but that there may be somewhat about the ,moon analogus to the ,air about the ,earth1 which may cause a refraction of the light of the ,sun1 and consequently make a great difference in the apparent dichotomy of the ,moon4 ,their way indeed is very rational and ingenious2 and such as is much to be preferred before the way by the ,horizontal ,parallax1 could all the uncertainties be remov'd1 and were the true distance of the ,moon known4 ,but because we find by the ,experiments of ,vendiline1 ,reinoldus1 c4 that ,observations of this kind are very uncertain also3 ,it were to be wisht1 that such kind of ,observations1 made at two very distant stations1 were promoted4 ,and it is so much the more desirable1 because1 from what ,i have now shewn of the nature of the ,air1 it is evident1 that the refraction may be very much greater then all the ,astronomers hitherto have imagined it3 ,and consequently1 that the distance of the ,moon1 and other ,planets1 may be much lesse then what they have hitherto made it4 ,for first1 this ,inflection1 ,i have here propounded1 will allow the shadow of the ,earth to be much shorter then it can be made by the other ,hypothesis of refraction1 and consequently1 the ,moon will not suffer an ,eclipse1 unless it comes very much nearer the ,earth then the ,astronomers hitherto have supposed it4 ,secondly1 ,there will not in this ,hypothesis be any other shadow of the ,earth1 such as ,kepler supposes1 and calls the ,penumbra1 which is the shadow of the refracting ,atmosphere2 for the bending of the ,rays being altogether caus'd by ,inflection1 as ,i have already shewn1 all that part which is ascribed by ,kepler1 and others after him1 to the ,penumbra1 or dark part1 which is without the umbra terr1 does clear vanish2 for in this ,hypothesis there is no refracting surface of the ,air1 and consequently there can be no shadows1 such as appear in the ninth ,figure of the #cg4 ,scheme1 where let ,,abcd represent the ,earth1 and ,,efgh the ,atmosphere1 which according to ,keplers supposition1 is like a ,sphre of ,water terminated with an exact surface ,,efgh1 let the lines ,,mf1 ,,lb1 ,,id1 ,,kh1 represent the ,rays of the ,sun2 'tis manifest1 that all the ,rayes between ,,lb1 and ,,id1 will be reflected by the surface of the ,earth ,,bad1 and consequently1 the conical space ,,bod would be dark and obscure2 but1 say the followers of ,kepler1 the ,rays between ,,mf1 and ,,lb1 and between ,,id1 and ,,kh1 falling on the ,atmosphere1 are refracted1 both at their ingress and egress out of the ,atmosphere1 nearer towards the ,axis of the sphrical shadow ,,co1 and consequently1 inlighten a great part of that former dark ,cone1 and shorten1 and contract1 its top to ,n4 ,and because of this ,reflection of these ,rays1 say they1 there is superinduc'd another shell of a dark ,cone ,,fph1 whose ,apex ,p is yet further distant from the ,earth3 ,by this ,penumbra1 say they1 the ,moon is ,eclipsed1 for it alwayes passes between the lines #ab1 and #cd4 ,to which ,i say1 ,that if the ,air be such1 as ,i have newly shewn it to be1 and consequently cause such an inflection of the ,rays that fall into it1 those dark ,penumbra's ,,fyzq1 ,,hxvt1 and ,,orps1 will all vanish4 ,for if we suppose the ,air indefinitely extended1 and to be no where bounded with a determinate refracting surface1 as ,i have shewn it uncapable of having1 from the nature of it2 it will follow1 that the ,moon will no where be totally obscured1 but when it is below the ,apex ,n1 of the dark blunt ,cone of the ,earth's shadow3 ,now1 from the supposition1 that the ,sun is distant about seven thousand ,diameters1 the point ,n1 according to calculation1 being not above twenty five terrestrial ,semidiameters from the ,center of the ,earth3 ,it follows1 that whensoever the ,moon eclipsed is totally darkned1 without affording any kind of light1 it must be within twenty five ,semidiameters of the ,earth1 and consequently much lower then any ,astronomers have hitherto put it4 ,this will seem much more consonant to the rest of the secundary ,planets2 for the highest of ,jupiter's ,moons is between twenty and thirty ,jovial ,semidiameters distant from the ,center of ,jupiter2 and the ,moons of ,saturn much about the same number of ,saturnial ,semidiameters from the ,center of that ,planet4 ,but these are but conjectures also1 and must be determin'd by such kind of ,observations as ,i have newly mention'd4 ,nor will it be difficult1 by this ,hypothesis1 to salve all the appearances of ,eclipses of the ,moon1 for in this ,hypothesis also1 there will be on each side of the shadow of the ,earth1 a ,penumbra1 not caus'd by the ,refraction of the ,air1 as in the ,hypothesis of ,kepler2 but by the faint inlightning of it by the ,sun3 ,for if1 in the sixth ,figure1 we suppose ,,esq1 and ,,gsr1 to be the ,rays that terminate the shadow from either side of the ,earth2 ,,esq coming from the upper limb of the ,sun1 and ,,gsr from the under2 it will follow1 that the shadow of the ,earth1 within those ,rays1 that is1 the ,cone ,,gse1 will be totally dark4 ,but the ,sun being not a point1 but a large area of light1 there will be a secondary dark ,cone of shadow ,,epg1 which will be caus'd by the earth's hindring part of the ,rays of the ,sun from falling on the parts ,,gpr1 and ,,epq1 of which halved shadow1 or ,penumbra1 that part will appear brightest which lyes nearest the terminating ,rayes ,,gp1 and ,,ep1 and those darker that lye nearest to ,,gs1 and ,,es3 when therefore the ,moon appears quite dark in the middle of the ,eclipse1 she must be below ,s1 that is1 between ,s and ,f2 when she appears lighter near the middle of the ,eclipse1 she must pass some where between ,,rq and ,s2 and when she is alike light through the whole ,eclipse1 she must pass between ,,rq1 and ,p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lix4 ,of multitudes of small ,stars discoverable by the ,telescope4 ,having1 in the last ,observation1 premis'd some particulars observable in the medium1 through which we must look upon ,clestial ,objects1 ,i shall here add one ,observation of the ,bodies themselves2 and for a specimen ,i have made choice of the ,pleiades1 or seven ,stars1 commonly so called 7though in our time and ,climate there appear no more then six to the naked eye7 and this ,i did the rather1 because the deservedly famous ,galileo1 having publisht a ,picture of this ,asterisme1 was able1 it seems1 with his ,glass to discover no more then thirty six1 whereas with a pretty good twelve foot ,telescope1 by which ,i drew this #ch ,iconism1 ,i could very plainly discover seventy eight1 placed in the order they are ranged in the ,figure1 and of as many differing ,magnitudes as the ,asterisks1 wherewith they are ,marked1 do specifie2 there being no less then fourteen several ,magnitudes of those ,stars1 which are compris'd within the draught1 the biggest whereof is not accounted greater then one of the third ,magnitude2 and indeed that account is much too big1 if it be compared with other ,stars of the third ,magnitude1 especially by the help of a ,telescope2 for then by it may be perceiv'd1 that its splendor1 to the naked eye1 may be somewhat augmented by the three little ,stars immediately above it1 which are near adjoyning to it4 ,the ,telescope also discovers a great variety1 even in the bigness of those1 commonly reckon'd1 of the first1 second1 third1 fourth1 fifth1 and sixth ,magnitude2 so that should they be distinguish'd thereby1 those six ,magnitudes would1 at least1 afford no less then thrice that number of ,magnitudes1 plainly enough distinguishable by their ,magnitude1 and brightness2 so that a good twelve foot ,glass would afford us no less then twenty five several ,magnitudes4 ,nor are these all1 but a longer ,glass does yet further1 both more nicely distinguish the ,magnitudes of those already noted1 and also discover several other of smaller ,magnitudes1 not discernable by the twelve foot ,glass3 ,thus have ,i been able1 with a good thirty six foot ,glass1 to discover many more ,stars in the ,pleiades then are here delineated1 and those of three or four distinct ,magnitudes less then any of those spots of the fourteenth ,magnitude4 ,and by the twinkling of divers other places of this ,asterisme1 when the ,sky was very clear1 ,i am apt to think1 that with longer ,glasses1 or such as would bear a bigger aperture1 there might be discovered multitudes of other small ,stars1 yet inconspicuous4 ,and indeed1 for the discovery of small ,stars1 the bigger the aperture be1 the better adapted is the ,glass2 for though perhaps it does make the several specks more radiant1 and glaring1 yet by that means1 uniting more ,rays very near to one point1 it does make many of those radiant points conspicuous1 which1 by putting on a less aperture1 may be found to vanish2 and therefore1 both for the discovery of the fixt ,star1 and for finding the ,satellites of ,jupiter1 before it be out of the day1 or twilight1 ,i alwayes leave the ,object-glass as clear without any aperture as ,i can1 and have thereby been able to discover the ,satellites a long while before2 ,i was able to discern them1 when the smaller apertures were put on2 and at other times1 to see multitudes of other smaller ,stars1 which a smaller aperture makes to disappear4 ,in that notable ,asterism also of the ,sword of ,orion1 where the ingenious ,monsieur ,hugens van ,zulichem has discovered only three little ,stars in a cluster1 ,i have with a thirty six foot ,glass1 without any aperture 7the breadth of the ,glass being about some three inches and a half7 discover'd five1 and the twinkling of divers others up and down in divers parts of that small milky ,cloud4 ,so that 'tis not unlikely1 but that the meliorating of ,telescopes will afford as great a variety of new ,discoveries in the ,heavens1 as better ,microscopes would among small terrestrial ,bodies1 and both would give us infinite cause1 more and more to admire the omnipotence of the ,creator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observ4 ,,lx4 ,of the ,moon4 ,having a pretty large corner of the ,plate for the seven ,starrs1 void1 for the filling it up1 ,i have added one small ,specimen of the appearance of the parts of the ,moon1 by describing a small spot of it1 which1 though taken notice of1 both by the ,excellent ,hevelius1 and called ,mons ,olympus 7though ,i think somewhat improperly1 being rather a vale7 and represented by the ,figure ,x4 of the #ch4 ,scheme1 and also by the ,learn'd ,ricciolus1 who calls it ,hipparchus1 and describes it by the ,figure ,y1 yet how far short both of them come of the truth1 may be somewhat perceiv'd by the draught1 which ,i have here added of it1 in the ,figure ,z1 7which ,i drew by a thirty foot ,glass1 in ,october #affd4 just before the ,moon was half inlightned7 but much better by the ,reader's diligently observing it himself1 at a convenient time1 with a ,glass of that length1 and much better yet with one of threescore foot long1 for through these it appears a very spacious ,vale1 incompassed with a ridge of ,hills1 not very high in comparison of many other in the ,moon1 nor yet very steep4 ,the ,vale it self ,,abcd1 is much of the figure of a ,pear1 and from several appearances of it1 seems to be some very fruitful place1 that is1 to have its surface all covered over with some kinds of vegetable substances2 for in all positions of the light on it1 it seems to give a much fainter reflection then the more barren tops of the incompassing ,hills1 and those a much fainter then divers other cragged1 chalky1 or rocky ,mountains of the ,moon4 ,so that ,i am not unapt to think1 that the ,vale may have ,vegetables analogus to our ,grass1 ,shrubs1 and ,trees2 and most of these incompassing ,hills may be covered with so thin a vegetable ,coat1 as we may observe the ,hills with us to be1 such as the short ,sheep pasture which covers the ,hills of ,salisbury ,plains4 ,up and down in several parts of this place here describ'd 7as there are multitudes in other places all over the surface of the ,moon7 may be perceived several kinds of pits1 which are shap'd almost like a dish1 some bigger1 some less1 some shallower1 some deeper1 that is1 they seem to be a hollow ,hemisphere1 incompassed with a round rising bank1 as if the substance in the middle had been digg'd up1 and thrown on either side4 ,these seem to me to have been the effects of some motions within the body of the ,moon1 analogus to our ,earthquakes1 by the eruption of which1 as it has thrown up a brim1 or ridge1 round about1 higher then the ,ambient surface of the ,moon1 so has it left a hole1 or depression1 in the middle1 proportionably lower2 divers places resembling some of these1 ,i have observ'd here in ,england1 on the tops of some ,hills1 which might have been caus'd by some ,earthquake in the younger dayes of the world4 ,but that which does most incline me to this belief1 is1 first1 the generality and diversity of the ,magnitude of these pits all over the body of the ,moon4 ,next1 the two experimental wayes1 by which ,i have made a representation of them4 ,the first was with a very soft and well temper'd mixture of ,tobacco-pipe clay and ,water1 into which1 if ,i let fall any heavy body1 as a ,bullet1 it would throw up the mixture round the place1 which for a while would make a representation1 not unlike these of the ,moon2 but considering the state and condition of the ,moon1 there seems not any probability to imagine1 that it should proceed from any cause analogus to this2 for it would be difficult to imagine whence those bodies should come2 and next1 how the substance of the ,moon should be so soft2 but if a ,bubble be blown under the surface of it1 and suffer'd to rise1 and break2 or if a ,bullet1 or other body1 sunk in it1 be pull'd out from it1 these departing bodies leave an impression on the surface of the mixture1 exactly like these of the ,moon1 save that these also quickly subside and vanish4 ,but the second1 and most notable1 representation was1 what ,i observ'd in a pot of boyling ,alabaster1 for there that powder being by the eruption of vapours reduc'd to a kind of fluid consistence1 if1 whil'st it boyls1 it be gently remov'd besides the fire1 the ,alabaster presently ceasing to boyl1 the whole surface1 especially that where some of the last ,bubbles have risen1 will appear all over covered with small pits1 exactly shap'd like these of the ,moon1 and by holding a lighted ,candle in a large dark ,room1 in divers positions to this surface1 you may exactly represent all the ,phnomena of these pits in the ,moon1 according as they are more or less inlightned by the ,sun4 ,and that there may have been in the ,moon some such motion as this1 which may have made these pits1 will seem the more probable1 if we suppose it like our ,earth1 for the ,earthquakes here with us seem to proceed from some such cause1 as the boyling of the pot of ,alabaster1 there seeming to be generated in the ,earth from some subterraneous fires1 or heat1 great quantities of vapours1 that is1 of expanded aerial substances1 which not presently finding a passage through the ambient parts of the ,earth1 do1 as they are increased by the supplying and generating principles1 and thereby 7having not sufficient room to expand themselves7 extreamly condens'd1 at last overpower1 with their elastick properties1 the resistence of the incompassing ,earth1 and lifting it up1 or cleaving it1 and so shattering of the parts of the ,earth above it1 do at length1 where they find the parts of the ,earth above them more loose1 make their way upwards1 and carrying a great part of the ,earth before them1 not only raise a small brim round about the place1 out of which they break1 but for the most part considerable high ,hills and ,mountains1 and when they break from under the ,sea1 divers times1 mountainous ,islands2 this seems confirm'd by the ,vulcans in several places of the ,earth1 the mouths of which1 for the most part1 are incompassed with a ,hill of a considerable height1 and the tops of those ,hills1 or ,mountains1 are usually shap'd very much like these pits1 or dishes1 of the ,moon3 ,instances of this we have in the descriptions of tna in ,sicily1 of ,hecla in ,iceland1 of ,tenerif in the ,canaries1 of the several ,vulcans in ,new-,spain1 describ'd by ,gage1 and more especially in the eruption of late years in one of the ,canary ,islands4 ,in all of which there is not only a considerable high ,hill raised about the mouth of the ,vulcan1 but1 like the spots of the ,moon1 the top of those ,hills are like a dish1 or bason4 ,and indeed1 if one attentively consider the nature of the thing1 one may find sufficient reason to judge1 that it cannot be otherwise2 for these eruptions1 whether of fire1 or smoak1 alwayes raising great quantities of ,earth before them1 must necessarily1 by the fall of those parts on either side1 raise very considerable heaps4 ,now1 both from the figures of them1 and from several other circumstances2 these pits in the ,moon seem to have been generated much after the same manner that the holes in ,alabaster1 and the ,vulcans of the ,earth are made4 ,for first1 it is not improbable1 but that the substance of the ,moon may be very much like that of our ,earth1 that is1 may consist of an earthy1 sandy1 or rocky substance1 in several of its superficial parts1 which parts being agitated1 undermin'd1 or heav'd up1 by eruptions of vapours1 may naturally be thrown into the same kind of figured holes1 as the small dust1 or powder of ,alabaster4 ,next1 it is not improbable1 but that there may be generated1 within the body of the ,moon1 divers such kind of internal fires and heats1 as may produce such ,exhalations2 for since we can plainly enough discover with a ,telescope1 that there are multitudes of such kind of eruptions in the body of the ,sun it self1 which is accounted the most noble therial body1 certainly we need not be much scandaliz'd at such kind of alterations1 or corruptions1 in the body of this lower and less considerable part of the universe1 the ,moon1 which is only secundary1 or attendant1 on the bigger1 and more considerable body of the ,earth4 ,thirdly1 'tis not unlikely1 but that supposing such a sandy or mouldring substance to be there found1 and supposing also a possibility of the generation of the internal elastical body 7whether you will call it air or vapours7 'tis not unlikely1 ,i say1 but that there is in the ,moon a principle of gravitation1 such as in the ,earth4 ,and to make this probable1 ,i think1 we need no better ,argument1 then the roundness1 or globular ,figure of the body of the ,moon it self1 which we may perceive very plainly by the ,telescope1 to be 7bating the small inequality of the ,hills and ,vales in it1 which are all of them likewise shap'd1 or levelled1 as it were1 to answer to the center of the ,moons body7 perfectly of a ,sphrical figure1 that is1 all the parts of it are so rang'd 7bating the comparatively small ruggedness of the ,hills and ,dales7 that the outmost bounds of them are equally distant from the ,center of the ,moon1 and consequently1 it is exceedingly probable also1 that they are equidistant from the ,center of gravitation2 and indeed1 the figure of the superficial parts of the ,moon are so exactly shap'd1 according as they should be1 supposing it had a gravitating principle as the ,earth has1 that even the figure of those parts themselves is of sufficient efficacy to make the gravitation1 and the other two suppositions probable3 so that the other suppositions may be rather prov'd by this considerable ,circumstance1 or ,observation1 then this suppos'd ,explication can by them2 for he that shall attentively observe with an excellent ,telescope1 how all the ,circumstances1 notable in the shape of the superficial parts1 are1 as it were1 exactly adapted to suit with such a principle1 will1 if he well considers the usual method of ,nature in its other proceedings1 find abundant argument to believe it to have really there also such a principle2 for ,i could never observe1 among all the mountainous or prominent parts of the ,moon 7whereof there is a huge variety7 that any one part of it was plac'd in such a manner1 that if there should be a gravitating1 or attracting principle in the body of the ,moon1 it would make that part to fall1 or be mov'd out of its visible posture4 ,next1 the shape and position of the parts is such1 that they all seem put into those very shapes they are in by a gravitating power3 ,for first1 there are but very few clifts1 or very steep declivities in the ascent of these ,mountains2 for besides those ,mountains1 which are by ,hevelius call'd the ,apennine ,mountains1 and some other1 which seem to border on the ,seas of the ,moon1 and those only upon one side1 as is common also in those ,hills that are here on the ,earth2 there are very few that seem to have very steep ascents1 but1 for the most part1 they are made very round1 and much resemble the make of the ,hills and ,mountains also of the ,earth2 this may be partly perceived by the ,hills incompassing this ,vale1 which ,i have here describ'd2 and as on the ,earth also1 the middlemost of these ,hills seems the highest1 so is it obvious also1 through a good ,telescope1 in those of the ,moon2 the ,vales also in many are much shap'd like those of the ,earth1 and ,i am apt to think1 that could we look upon the ,earth from the ,moon1 with a good ,telescope1 we might easily enough perceive its surface to be very much like that of the ,moon4 ,now whereas in this small draught1 7as there would be multitudes if the whole ,moon were drawn after this manner7 there are several little ,ebullitions1 or ,dishes1 even in the ,vales themselves1 and in the incompassing ,hills also2 this will1 from this supposition1 7which ,i have1 ,i think1 upon very good reason taken7 be exceeding easily explicable2 for1 as ,i have several times also observ'd1 in the surface of ,alabaster so ordered1 as ,i before describ'd1 so may the later eruptions of vapours be even in the middle1 or on the edges of the former2 and other succeeding these also in time may be in the middle or edges of these1 c4 of which there are ,instances enough in divers parts of the body of the ,moon1 and by a boyling pot of ,alabaster will be sufficiently exemplifi'd4 ,to conclude therefore1 it being very probable1 that the ,moon has a principle of gravitation1 it affords an excellent distinguishing ,instance in the search after the cause of gravitation1 or attraction1 to hint1 that it does not depend upon the diurnal or turbinated motion of the ,earth1 as some have somewhat inconsiderately supposed and affirmed it to do2 for if the ,moon has an attractive principle1 whereby it is not only shap'd round1 but does firmly contain and hold all its parts united1 though many of them seem as loose as the sand on the ,earth1 and that the ,moon is not mov'd about its ,center2 then certainly the turbination cannot be the cause of the attraction of the ,earth1 and therefore some other principle must be thought of1 that will agree with all the secundary as well as primary ,planets4 ,but this1 ,i confess1 is but a probability1 and not a demonstration1 which 7from any ,observation yet made7 it seems hardly capable of1 though how successful future indeavours 7promoted by the meliorating of ,glasses1 and observing particular circumstances7 may be in this1 or any other1 kind1 must be with patience expected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,finis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,table4 ,observat4 #a4 ,of the point of a ,needle4 ,a ,description of it3 what other ,bodies have the sharpest points3 of the ruggedness of polisht ,metal4 ,a description of a printed point4 ,of very small writing1 and the use of it for secret intelligence3 the cause of the coursness of printed lines and points4 ,observ4 #b4 ,of the ,edge of a ,razor4 ,a description of it3 the causes of its roughness3 of the roughness of very well polisht ,optick ,glasses44 ,obser4 #c4 ,of fine ,lawn4 ,a description of it3 ,a silken ,flax mention'd1 an attempt to explicate the ,phnomena of it1 with a conjecture at the cause of the gloss of ,silk4 ,observ4 #d4 ,of ,tabby4 ,a short description of it4 ,a conjecture about the reason why ,silk is so susceptible of vivid colours3 and why ,flax and ,hair is not4 ,a conjecture1 that it may perhaps be possible to spin a kind of artificial ,silk1 out of some glutinous substance that may equalize natural ,silk4 ,observ4 #e4 ,of water'd ,silks4 ,the great unaccurateness of artificial works4 ,a description of a piece of water'd ,silk2 an ,explication of the cause of the ,phnomena3 the way by which that operation is perform'd3 some other ,phnomena mention'd depending on the same cause4 ,observ4 #f4 ,of ,glass ,canes4 ,the exceeding smallness of some of these ,bodies4 ,by what means the hollowness of these small pipes was discover'd3 several ,phnomena of it mention'd4 ,an attempt to explicate them from the congruity and incongruity of ,bodies3 what those proprieties are4 ,a hypothetical explication of fluidity3 of the fluidity of the air1 and several other ,phnomena of it3 of congruity incongruity2 illustrated with several ,experiments3 what effects may be ascrib'd to these properties3 an explication of the roundness of the surface of fluid ,bodies3 how the ingress of fluid bodies into a small hole of an heterogeneous body is hindred by incongruity2 a multitude of ,phnomena explicable hereby4 ,several ,quries propounded2 #a4 ,concerning the propagation of light through differing mediums4 #b4 ,concerning ,gravity4 #c4 ,concerning the roundness of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,planets4 #d4 ,concerning the roundness of ,fruits1 ,stones1 and divers artificial ,bodies4 ,his ,highness ,prince ,rupert's way of making ,shot4 ,of the roundness of ,hail4 ,of the grain of ,kettering ,stone1 and of the ,sparks of fire4 #e4 ,concerning springiness and tenacity4 #f4 ,concerning the original of ,fountains2 several ,histories and ,experiments relating thereto4 #g4 ,concerning the dissolution of ,bodies in ,liquors4 #h4 ,concerning the universality of this ,principle3 what method was taken in making and applying experiments4 ,the explication of filtration1 and several other ,phnomena2 such as the motion of ,bodies on the surface of ,liquors2 several ,experiments mention'd to this purpose4 ,of the height to which the water may rise in these ,pipes2 and a conjecture about the juices of ,vegetables1 the use of their pores4 ,a further explication of ,congruity3 ,and an attempt of solving the ,phnomena of the strange ,experiment of the suspension of the ,mercury at a much greater height then thirty inches4 ,the efficacy of immediate contact1 and the reason of it4 ,observ4 #g4 ,of ,glass drops4 ,several ,experiments made with these small ,bodies4 ,the manner of the breaking and flawing of them1 explicated by ,figures4 ,what other bodies will be flawed much in the same manner3 some other tryals1 and a description of the ,drops themselves3 some conjectures at the cause of the ,phnomena1 indeavoured to be made probable by several ,arguments and ,experiments4 ,an ,experiment of the expansion of ,water by heat1 and shrinking by cold3 the like ,proprieties suppos'd in ,glass drops1 and what effects proceed from them3 the seven ,propositions on which the conjectures are grounded4 ,experiments to shew1 that bodies expand by heat4 ,the manner of making ,thermometers1 and the ,instrument for graduating them4 ,the manner of graduating them1 and their use3 ,other ,experiments to prove the expansion of bodies by heat4 ,four experimental ,arguments to prove the expansion of ,glass by heat3 further prov'd by the ,experiment of boyling ,alabaster2 which is explicated4 ,an explication of the contracting of heated ,glass upon cooling4 ,an explication how the parts of the ,glass become bent by sudden cold1 and how kept from extricating themselves by the contignation of the ,glass drop2 which is further explicated by another ,experiment made with a hollow ,glass ball3 the reason of the flying asunder of the parts further explicated3 that 'tis probable these bodies may have many flaws1 though not visible1 and why3 how a gradual heating and cooling does put the parts of ,glass1 and other hardned bodies1 into a looser texture4 ,observ4 #h4 ,of ,fiery ,sparks4 ,the occasion and manner of making this ,experiment3 divers ,observations set down in order to the finding out the reasons3 some conjectures concerning it1 which are endeavoured to be explicated and confirm'd by several ,experiments and ,reasons3 the ,hypothesis a little further explicated4 ,some ,observations about the ,globular ,figure3 and an ,experiment of reducing the filings of ,tin or ,lead to exactly round ,globules4 ,observ4 #i4 ,of ,fantastical ,colours4 ,the texture of ,muscovy ,glass2 its ,figures3 what other ,bodies are like it3 that it exhibits several colours1 and how3 several ,observations and ,experiments about those colours3 the reason why on this occasion the nature of colours is inquir'd into4 ,a conjecture at the reason of these colours explicated by several ,experiments and ,reasons3 ,first1 by continual cleaving the ,body till it become colour'd4 ,secondly1 by producing all kinds of colours with two flat ,plates of ,glass4 ,thirdly1 by blowing ,glass so thin in the ,lamp1 till it produce the same effect4 ,fourthly1 by doing the same with ,bubbles of divers other transparent ,bodies3 the reasons of the colours on nealed ,steel1 where by the way the causes of the hardning and tempering of ,steel1 endeavour'd to be shewn and explicated by several ,reasons and ,experiments3 the reason of the colours on ,lead1 ,brass1 ,copper1 ,silver1 c4 other ,instances of such colour'd bodies in animal substances3 several other distinguishing ,observations4 ,des ,cartes ,hypothesis of ,colours examin'd4 ,an ,hypothesis for the explication of light by motion1 indeavoured to be explicated and determined by several ,reasons and ,experiments3 three distinguishing ,properties of the motion of light4 ,the distinguishing ,properties of a trasparent ,medium that there seems to be no ,experiment that proves the ,instantaneous motion of light the manner of the propagation of light through them4 ,of the homogeniety and heterogeniety of transparent ,mediums1 and what effects they cause on the ,rayes of light1 explicated by a ,figure3 an ,examination of the refraction of the ,rays by a plain ,surface1 which causes ,colours4 ,an ,examination of the like effects produced by a spherical ,surface3 the use that may be made of these ,experiments1 for the examination of several ,hypotheses of ,colours4 ,des ,cartes ,hypothesis examin'd4 ,some ,difficulties taken notice of in it4 ,what seems most likely to be the cause of colour3 that propriety is indeavoured to be shewn in a ,glass ball3 that the reflection is not necessary to produce ,colours nor a double refraction3 the ,hypothesis further examined1 both in the pellucid ,medium and in the ,eye4 ,the definitions of ,colours2 and a further explication and examination of the ,proprieties of laminated ,bodies2 by what means they conduce to the production of ,colours4 ,observ4 #aj4 ,of ,metalline ,colours4 ,that all ,colours seem to be caus'd by refraction4 ,an ,hypothesis consonant hereunto1 explicated by ,figures4 ,how several ,experiments1 of the sudden changing of ,colours by ,chymical ,liquors may be hereby explicated3 how many wayes such ,chymical ,liquors may alter the colours of ,bodies4 ,objections made against this ,hypothesis of two colours only1 indeavoured to be answer'd1 by several ,reasons and ,experiments4 ,the reason why some ,colours are capable of being diluted1 others not3 what those are3 that probably the particles of most metalline ,colours are transparent2 for this several ,arguments and ,observations are recited3 how ,colours become incapable of diluting1 explicated by a ,similitude4 ,an ,instrument1 by which one and the same coloured ,liquor at once exhibited all the degrees of colours between the palest yellow and deepest red3 as likewise another that exhibited all varieties of blues3 several ,experiments try'd with these ,boxes4 ,an ,objection drawn from the nature of ,painters colours answered3 that diluting and whitening a colour are different operations2 as are deepening and blackening3 why some may be diluted by grinding1 and some other by being tempered with ,oyl3 several ,experiments for the explicating of some former ,assertions3 why ,painters are forced to make use of many colours3 what those colours are3 and how mixt4 ,the conclusion1 that most coloured ,bodies seem to consist of transparent particles3 that all colours dissoluble in ,liquors are capable of diluting3 some of mixing1 what a strange variety may thereby be produc'd4 ,observ4 #aa4 ,of the ,figures of ,sand4 ,of the substances and shapes of common and other ,sands3 a description of a very small ,shell4 ,observ4 #ab4 ,of ,gravel in ,urine4 ,a description of such ,gravel1 and some tryals made with it1 and conjectures at its cause4 ,obser4 #ac4 ,of ,diamonds in ,flints4 ,a description and examination of some of them1 explicated further by ,cornish ,diamonds3 several ,observations about reflection and refraction3 and some deductions therefrom2 as an explication of whiteness2 that the ,air has a stronger reflection then ,water4 ,how several ,bodies may be made transparent3 an explication of the ,phnomena of ,oculus ,mundi4 ,of the regular ,geometrical ,figures of several ,bodies3 an hypothetical explication mentioned3 the method of prosecuting this inquiry4 ,observ4 #ad4 ,of frozen ,figure4 ,the ,figures of hoar ,frost1 and the ,vortices on windows3 several ,observations on the branched ,figures of ,urine3 the ,figures of ,regulus ,martis stellatus1 and of ,fern4 ,of the ,figures of ,snow4 ,of frozen water4 ,observ4 #ae4 ,of ,kettering-,stone4 ,a description of the ,figure of the ,particles1 and of the ,pores1 and of the ,contexture4 ,several ,observations and ,considerations thereupon3 some ,conjectures about the medium and propagation of light1 and the constitution of fluid and transparent ,bodies4 ,several ,experiments to prove the porousness of ,marble1 and some other ,stones4 ,an account of some ,experiments to this purpose made on an ,oculus ,mundi3 some other ,considerations and ,experiments about the porousness of ,bodies3 some other ,considerations about the propagation of light and refraction4 ,observ4 #af4 ,of ,charcoal4 ,of two sort of ,pores to be found in all ,woods and ,vegetables2 the shape of them2 the number1 thickness1 manner and use of these ,pores4 ,an explication of the ,phnomena of ,coals4 ,the manner of charring ,wood1 or any other body4 ,what part of ,wood is combustible4 ,an ,hypothesis of fire explicated in twelve particulars1 wherein the ,action of the ,air1 as a ,menstruum in the dissolution of all sulphureous bodies1 is very particularly explicated1 and some other ,considerations about the ,air proposed3 the examination of a piece of ,lignum fossile sent from ,rome1 and some ,conclusions thence deduc'd4 ,observ4 #ag4 ,of ,wood1 and other ,bodies1 petrified4 ,several ,observations of divers kinds of these substances4 ,a more particular examination and explication of one very notable piece of petrified ,wood2 and some ,conjectures about the cause of those productions3 several ,observations made on other petrified ,bodies1 as shells1 c4 ,and some probable ,conclusions thence deduc'd1 about the original cause of those ,bodies4 ,observ4 #ah4 ,of the ,pores of ,cork1 and other ,bodies4 ,several ,observations and ,considerations about the nature of ,cork3 the number of ,pores in a cubical ,inch1 and several considerations about ,pores4 ,several ,experiments and ,observations about the nature of ,cork3 the ,texture and ,pores of the ,pith of an ,elder1 and several other ,trees3 of the ,stalks of ,burdocks1 ,teasels1 ,daisies1 ,carret1 ,fennel1 ,ferne1 ,reeds1 c4 of the frothy texture of the ,pith of a ,feather3 some ,conjectures about the probability of values in these ,pores4 ,argued also from the ,phnomena of sensible and humble ,plant3 some ,observations on which are inserted4 ,observ4 #ai4 ,of a ,vegetable growing on blighted ,leaves4 ,several ,observations and ,examinations made of them3 several ,considerations about spontaneous generation arising from the putrefaction of ,bodies4 ,observ4 #bj4 ,of ,blew ,mould and ,mushromes4 ,the description of several kinds of ,moulds4 ,the method of proceeding in natural ,inquiries4 ,several ,considerations about the nature of ,mould and ,mushromes4 #a4 ,that they may be produc'd without seed4 #b4 ,that they seem to have none4 #c4 ,that ,salts1 c4 are shap'd into as curious figures without a seed4 #d4 ,of a kind of ,mushrome growing in a ,candle3 ,a more particular explication of this last sort of ,mushromes4 #e4 ,of the figure and manner of the production of petrified ,iceicles3 several deductions from these ,considerations1 about the nature of the vegetation of ,mould and ,mushromes4 ,observ4 #ba4 ,of ,moss4 ,the description of several sorts of ,mosses2 upon this occasion several ,conjectures1 about the manner of the production of these kinds of ,bodies1 are hinted1 and some of them explicated by a ,similitude taken from a piece of ,clock-work1 ,the vast difference of the bigness of vegetable ,bodies2 and the probability that the least may comprehend as curious contrivances as the greatest4 ,of multitudes of other ,moulds1 ,mosses1 and ,mushromes1 and other vegetating ,principles1 in ,water1 ,wood1 c4 ,observ4 #bb4 ,of ,sponges1 and other fibrous ,bodies4 ,several ,observations and ,conjectures about the making of these ,bodies1 and several ,histories out of ,authors4 ,scarce any other ,body hath such a texture2 the fibrous texture of ,leather1 ,spunk1 c4 7which are there describ'd7 come nearest to it ,that upon tryal with a piece of ,spunge and ,oyl the necessity of respiration could not be alter'd4 ,observ4 #bc4 ,of the ,form of ,sea-weed4 ,from the curiously shap'd ,surface of this ,sea-weed1 and some others1 is conjectured the possibility of multitudes of the like4 ,observ4 #bd4 ,of the ,surfaces of some ,leaves4 ,the description1 #a4 ,of the bald ,surfaces of ,leaves4 #b4 ,of the downy ,surfaces of several others4 #c4 ,of the gummous exsudation1 or small transparent ,pearls1 discovered with a ,microscope in several others4 ,an ,instance of all which is afforded in a ,rosemary ,leaf4 ,observ4 #be4 ,of the stinging ,points of a ,nettle4 ,a description of the ,needles and several other contrivances in the leaf of a ,nettle3 how the stinging pain is created3 upon this several considerations about poysoning ,darts are set down4 ,an ,experiment of killing ,effs1 and ,fishes with ,salt4 ,some conjectures at the efficacy of ,baths2 the use that may be made of injecting into the ,veins4 ,a very remarkable ,history out of ,bellonius2 and some ,considerations about staining and dying of ,bodies4 ,observ4 #bf4 ,of ,cowage4 ,the description of it out of ,parkinson3 an ,experiment made of it3 a description1 and some conjectures at the cause of the ,phnomena4 ,observ4 #bg4 ,of the ,beard of a wild ,oat4 ,the description of its shape and properties3 the manner of making a ,hygroscope with it2 and a ,conjecture at the causes of these motions1 and of the motions of the ,muscles4 ,observ4 #bh4 ,of the ,seeds of ,venice ,looking-glass4 ,the description of them4 ,obser4 #bi4 ,of the ,seeds of ,time4 ,a description of them4 ,a digression about ,natures method4 ,observ4 #cj4 ,of ,poppy ,seeds4 ,the description and use of them4 ,observ4 #ca4 ,of ,purslane ,seeds4 ,a description of these and many other ,seeds4 ,observ4 #cb4 ,of ,hair4 ,the description of several sorts of ,hair2 their ,figures and ,textures3 the reason of their colours1 ,a description of the texture of the skin1 and of ,spunk and ,sponges3 by what passages and pores of the skin transpiration seems to be made4 ,experiments to prove the porousness of the skin of ,vegetables4 ,observ4 #cc4 ,of the ,scales of a ,soale4 ,a description of their beauteous form4 ,observ4 #cd4 ,of the ,sting of a ,bee4 ,a description of its shape1 mechanisme1 and use4 ,observ4 #ce4 ,of ,feathers4 ,a description of the shape and curious contexture of ,feathers3 and some conjectures thereupon4 ,obser4 #cf4 ,of ,peacocks ,feathers4 ,a description of their curious form and proprieties2 with a conjecture at the cause of their variable colours4 ,obser4 #cg4 ,of the ,feet of ,flyes1 and other ,insects4 ,a description of their figure1 parts1 and use2 and some considerations thereupon4 ,obser4 #ch4 ,of the ,wings of ,flyes4 ,after what manner and how swiftly the wings of ,insects move4 ,a description of the ,pendulums under the wings1 and their motion2 the shape and structure of the parts of the wing4 ,obser4 #ci4 ,of the ,head of a ,fly4 #a4 ,all the face of a ,drone-fly is nothing almost but eyes4 #b4 ,those are of two magnitudes4 #c4 ,they are ,hemispheres1 and very reflective and smooth4 #d4 ,some directed towards every quarter4 #e4 ,how the fly cleanses them4 #f4 ,their number4 #g4 ,their order3 divers particulars observ'd in the dissecting a head4 ,that these are very probably the eyes of the ,creature2 argued from several ,observations and ,experiments1 that ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 ,shrimps1 seem to be water ,insects1 and to be framed much like ,air ,insects4 ,several ,considerations about their manner of vision4 ,obser4 #dj4 ,of the ,teeth of a ,snail4 ,a brief description of it4 ,observ4 #da4 ,of the ,eggs of ,silk-worms4 ,several ,observables about the ,eggs of ,insects4 ,observ4 #db4 ,of a blue ,fly4 ,a description of its outward and inward parts4 ,its hardiness to indure freezing1 and sleeping in ,spirit of wine4 ,observ4 #dc4 ,of a water ,insect4 ,a description of its shape1 transparency1 motion1 both internal and progressive1 and transformation4 ,a ,history somewhat ,analogus cited out of ,piso4 ,several ,observations about the various wayes of the generations of ,insects3 by what means they act so seemingly wisely and prudently4 ,several ,quries propounded4 ,postscript1 containing a relation of another very odd way of the generation of ,insects4 ,an ,observation about the fertility of the ,earth of our ,climate in producing ,insects1 and of divers other wayes of their generation4 ,observ4 #dd4 ,of the tufted ,gnat4 ,several ,observables about ,insects1 and a more particular description the parts of this ,gnat4 ,ob4 #de4 ,of the great belly'd ,gnat4 ,a short description of it4 ,obser4 #df4 ,of a white ,moth4 ,a description of the feathers and wings of this1 and several other ,insects4 ,divers ,considerations about the wings1 and the flying of ,insects and ,birds4 ,obs4 #dg4 ,of the ,shepherd ,spider4 ,a description of its ,eyes3 and the sockets of its long legs3 and a ,conjecture of the mechanical reason of its fabrick2 together with a supposition1 that 'tis not unlikely1 but ,spiders may have the make of their inward parts exactly like a ,crab1 which may be call'd a water ,spider4 ,obser4 #dh4 ,of the hunting ,spider4 ,a short description of it2 to which is annext an excellent ,history of it1 made by ,mr4 ,evelyn4 ,some further ,observations on other ,spiders1 and their ,webs1 together with an examination of a white ,substance flying up and down in the ,air after a ,fog4 ,obser4 #di4 ,of an ,ant4 ,that all small ,bodies1 both ,vegetable and ,animal1 do quickly dry and wither4 ,the best remedy ,i found to hinder it1 and to make the ,animal lye still to be observ'd4 ,several particulars related of the actions of this ,creature and a short description of its parts4 ,obs4 #ej4 ,of the wandring ,mite4 ,a description of this ,creature1 and of another very small one1 which usually bore it company4 ,a ,conjecture at the original of ,mites4 ,observ4 #ea4 ,of a ,crab-like ,insect4 ,a brief description of it4 ,observ4 #eb4 ,of a ,book-worm4 ,a description of it2 where by the way is inserted a digression1 experimentally explicating the ,phnomena of ,pearl4 ,a consideration of its digestive faculty4 ,observ4 #ec4 ,of a ,flea4 ,a short description of it4 ,observ4 #ed4 ,of a ,louse4 ,a description of its parts1 and some notable circumstances4 ,observ4 #ee4 ,of ,mites4 ,the exceeding smalness of some ,mites1 and their ,eggs4 ,a description of the ,mites of ,cheese3 and an intimation of the variety of forms in other ,mites1 with a ,conjecture at the reason4 ,ob4 #ef4 ,of small ,vine-,mites4 ,a description of them2 a ghess at their original2 their exceeding smalness compar'd with that of a ,wood-louse1 from which they may be suppos'd to come4 ,observ4 #eg4 ,of ,vinegar-worms4 ,a description of them1 with some considerations on their motions4 ,obs4 #eh4 ,of the ,inflection of the ,rays of ,light in the ,air4 ,a short rehearsal of several ,phnomena4 ,an attempt to explicate them3 the supposition founded on two ,propositions1 both which are indeavoured to be made out by several ,experiments1 ,what density and rarity is in respect of refraction3 the refraction of ,spirit of ,wine compared with that of common ,water3 the refraction of ,ice4 ,an ,experiment of making an ,undulation of the ,rays by the mixing of ,liquors of differing density4 ,the explication of inflection1 mechanically and hypothetically3 what ,bodies have such an inflection4 ,several ,experiments to shew that the ,air has this propriety2 that it proceeds from the differing density of the ,air3 that the upper and under part of the ,air are of differing density3 some ,experiments to prove this4 ,a ,table of the strength of the spring of the ,air1 answering to each degree of extension2 when first made1 and when repeated4 ,another ,experiment of compressing the ,air4 ,a ,table of the strength of the ,air1 answering to each compression and expansion2 from which the height of the ,air may be suppos'd indefinite2 to what degree the ,air is rarifi'd at any distance above the ,surface of the ,earth3 how1 from this1 ,inflection is inferr'd2 and several ,phnomena explain'd4 ,that the ,air near the ,earth is compos'd of parts of differing density2 made probable by several ,experiments and ,observations2 how this propriety produces the effects of the waving and dancing of ,bodies2 and of the twinkling of the ,stars4 ,several ,phnomena explicated4 ,some ,quries added4 #a4 ,whether this ,principle may not be made use of1 for perfecting ,optick ,glasses8 ,what might be hoped from it if it were to be done8 #b4 ,whether from this ,principle the apparition of some new ,stars may not be explicated8 #c4 ,whether the height of the ,air may be defin'd by it8 #d4 ,whether there may not sometimes be so great a disparity of density between the upper and under parts of the ,air1 as to make a reflecting ,surface8 #e4 ,whether1 if so1 this will not explicate the ,phnomena of the ,clouds4 ,an ,experiment to this purpose8 #g4 ,whether the ,rayes from the top of ,mountains are not bended into ,curve-lines by inflection8 ,an ,argument for it1 taken from an ,experiment made on ,st4 ,paul's ,steeple4 #h4 ,whether the distance of the ,planets will not be more difficult to be found8 ,what wayes are most likely to rectifie the distance of the ,moon3 the way of fitting ,telescopes for such ,observations4 ,how to make the ,observations1 and how from them to find the true distance of the ,moon at any time4 ,how the distance of the ,sun may be found by two ,observators4 ,the way by the ,dichotomy of the ,moon uncertain4 ,that the distance of the ,moon may be less then it has been hitherto suppos'd4 ,kepler's ,supposition not so probable3 the explication of the ,phnomena by another ,hypothesis4 ,observ4 #ei4 ,of the fixt ,stars4 ,of the multitudes of ,stars discoverable by the ,telescope1 and the variety of their magnitudes3 #gh4 ,stars distinguisht in the ,pleiades3 that there are degrees of bigness even in the ,stars accounted of the same magnitude3 the longer the ,glasses are1 and the bigger apertures they will indure1 the more fit they are for these discoveries3 that 'tis probable1 longer ,glasses would yet make greater discoveries4 #e4 ,stars discover'd in the ,galaxie of ,orion's ,sword4 ,observ4 #fj4 ,of the ,moon4 ,a description of a ,vale in the ,moon2 what call'd by ,hevelius and ,ricciolus1 and how describ'd by them3 with what substances the hills of the ,moon may be cover'd4 ,a description of the pits of the ,moon1 and a conjecture at their cause3 two ,experiments that make it probable1 that of the surface of boyl'd ,alabaster dust seeming the most likely to be resembled by eruptions of vapours out of the body of the ,moon3 that ,earthquakes seem to be generated much the same way1 and their effects seem very similar4 ,an ,argument that there may be such variations in the ,moon1 because greater have been observ'd in the ,sun3 because the substance of the ,moon and ,earth seem much alike3 and because 'tis probable the ,moon has a gravitating principle3 this is argued from several particulars4 ,the reason why several pits are one within another4 ,the use that may be made of this ,instance of a gravity in the ,moon4 99 99 99 99 99 #a ,schem4 #b4 ,fig4 #a4 #b ,diop4 ch4 #aj4 #i4 #c ,schem4 #b4 ,fig4 #b4 #d ,schem4 #a499 ,fig4 #c4 #e ,schem4 #c4 ,fig4 #a4 #f ,schem4 #c4 ,fig4 #b4 #g ,schem4 #d4 #h ,schem4 #d4 ,fig4 #a4 #i ,schem4 #f4 ,fig4 #c4 #aj ,schem4 #f4 ,fig4 #c4 #aa ,schem4 #h4 ,fig4 #a4 #ab ,schem4 #h4 ,fig4 #b4 #ac ,schem4 #i4 ,fig4 #a4 #ad ,see ,schem4 #aa4 ,fig4 #b4 #ae ,fig4 #a4 ,schem4 #cf4 #af ,fig4 #c4