,,lectures ,,on ,,popular ,,and ,,scientific ,,subjects ,,by ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,caithness1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,delivered ,,at ,,various ,,times ,,and ,,places4 ,second ,enlarged ,edition4 ,,london3 ,,tr,,bner ,,co41 ,,ludgate ,,hill4 #ahgi4 ,ballantyne ,press ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,and ,,co4 ,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london ,,contents4 ,,coal ,,and ,,coal ,,mines ,,science ,,applied ,,to ,,art ,a ,,penny',s ,,worth2 ,,or1 ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,pence1 ,,and ,,the ,,pounds ,,will ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,themselves ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,,the ,,steam-,,engine ,,on ,,attraction ,,the ,,oil ,,from ,,linseed ,,hodge-,,podge2 ,,or1 ,,what',s ,,intilt ,,lectures ,,on ,,popular ,,and ,,scientific ,,subjects4 ,,coal ,,and ,,coal-,,mines4 ,there are few subjects of more importance1 and few less known or thought about1 than our coal-mines4 ,coal is one of our greatest blessings1 and certainly one originating cause of ,england's greatness and wealth4 ,it has given us a power over other nations1 and vast sums of money are yearly brought to our country from abroad in exchange for the coal we send4 ,nearly #ag1jjj1jjj is the representative value of the coal raised every year at the pit's mouth1 and #bj1jjj1jjj represent its mean value at the various places of consumption4 ,the capital invested in our coal-mining trade1 apart from the value of the mines themselves1 exceeds #bj1jjj1jjj sterling1 and the amount of coal annually extracted from the earth is over #gj1jjj1jjj of tons4 ,taking the calculation of a working miner--,j4 ,ellwood1 ,moss ,pit1 near ,whitehaven--we may state1 that if #fh1jjj1jjj tons were excavated from a mining gallery #f feet high and #ab feet wide1 that gallery would be not less than #eabh miles1 #ajij yards1 in length2 or1 if this amount of coal were erected in a pyramid1 its square base would extend over #dj acres1 and the height would be #ccef feet4 ,there are grounds for believing that the produce of the various coal-fields of the world does not at present much exceed #ajj1jjj1jjj of tons annually1 and therefore our own country contributes more than three-fifths of the total amount4 ,if we divide the coal-yielding counties of ,britain into four classes1 so as to make nearly equal amounts of produce1 we find that ,durham and ,northumberland yield rather more every year than seven other counties1 including ,yorkshire4 ,derbyshire1 again1 produces more than eight other counties1 and nearly as much as the whole of ,north and ,south ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland--the yield of the latter being about #ag1jjj1jjj of tons1 and that of the two first-named about #af1jjj1jjj of tons4 ,in #aggc there were only #ac collieries on the ,tyne1 and these had increased to upwards of #cj in #ahjj4 ,the number of collieries in #ahbh had increased to #da on the ,tyne1 and #ah on the ,wear1 in all #ei1 producing #e1hhg1eeb tons of coal4 ,the out-put of coal in ,northumberland and ,durham in #ahed was no less than #ae1dbj1fae tons1 and now in these two counties there are #bhc collieries4 ,mining began on the ,tyne and continued on the ,wear1 where the industry has been largely developed4 ,there are in all about #eg different seams in the ,great ,northern coal-field1 varying in thickness from #a inch to #e feet #e inches and #f feet1 and these seams comprise an aggregate of nearly #gf feet of coal4 ,taking the area of this field to be #gej square miles--a most probable estimate--we may classify the contents as household coal1 steam coal1 or those employed in steam-engine boilers1 and coking coal1 employed for making coke and gas4 ,of household coal there is only #if square miles out of the total #gej1 all the remainder being steam or coking and gas coal4 ,the greater part even of this #if square miles has been worked out on the ,tyne1 and the supply is rapidly decreasing also on the ,wear1 where the largest bulk of the household coal lies4 ,the collieries of the ,tees possess but six square miles out of the #if1 as far as we at present know4 ,turning1 however1 to that part of the coal-field regarded as precarious1 and consisting of first1 second1 and third-rate household coal1 we have for future use #cjj square miles4 ,london was formerly supplied from the pits east of ,tyne ,bridge1 where is the famous ,wallsend ,colliery1 which gave the name to the best coal4 ,that mine is now drowned out1 and1 like the great ,roman ,wall1 at the termination of which it was sunk1 and from which it derived its name1 is now an antiquity4 ,there is now no ,wallsend coal1 and the principal part of the present so-called coal comes from the ,wear1 but the seam which supplied that famous pit is continued into ,durham1 and that seam1 or its equivalent1 sends a million or two of tons every year into ,london4 ,the supply1 however1 in this district is rapidly decreasing4 ,careful calculations have been made as to the probable duration of this coal1 of which the following is a summary4 ,the workable quantity of coal remaining in the ten principal seams of this coal-field is estimated at #a1hgf1hdh1gef ,newcastle chaldrons 7each #ce cwt474 ,deducting losses and underground and surface waste1 the total merchantable round or good-sized coal will be #a1bea1bcb1ejg ,newcastle chaldrons4 ,proceeding on this estimate1 formed by ,mr4 ,grunwith in #ahdf1 we may arrive at the probable duration of the supplies3 taking the future annual average of coal raised from these seams to be #aj1jjj1jjj of tons--and this is under the present rate--the whole will be exhausted in #cca years4 ,a still later estimate was made by ,mr4 ,t4,g4 ,hall in #ahed1 and he reckoned the quantity of coal left for future use at #e1aba1hhh1ief tons2 dividing this by #ad1jjj1jjj of tons as the annual consumption1 the result would be #cfe years2 and should the annual demand arrive at #bj1jjj1jjj of tons1 the future supply of this famous coal-field would continue for #bef years4 ,the total available coal 7#ahga7 in the ,british coal-fields1 at depths not exceeding #djjj feet1 and in seams not less than #a foot thick1 is #ij1bjg1bhe1cih tons1 and taking into account seams which may yet become available1 lying under the ,permian1 ,new ,red ,sandstone1 and other superincumbent strata1 this estimate is increased to #adf1dhj1jjj1jjj of tons4 ,this quantity1 at the present annual rate of production throughout the country--namely1 #abc1ejj1jjj tons--would last #aahf years4 ,other estimates of various kinds relative to our coal supply have been put forth3 some have asserted that1 owing to increasing population and increasing consumption in manufactures1 it will be exhausted in #ajj years1 and between this extreme and that of #aahf years there are many other conjectures and estimates4 ,in the ,united ,states there are about #abj1jjj square miles underlaid by known workable coal-beds1 besides what yet remains to be discovered2 while on the cliffs of ,nova ,scotia the coal-seams can be seen one over the other for many hundred feet1 and showing how the coal was originally formed4 ,with this immense stock of fuel in the cellars of the earth1 it seems evident that we need not trouble our minds or be anxious as to the duration of our coal supply4 ,besides1 the conversion of vegetable matter into coal seems to be going on even now4 ,in the ,united ,states there are peat-bogs of considerable extent1 in which a substance exactly resembling cannel coal has been found2 and in some of the ,irish peat-beds1 as also in the ,north of ,scotland1 a similar substance has been discovered1 of a very inflammable nature1 resembling coal4 ,yes6 what could have produced this singular-looking1 black1 inflammable rock8 ,how many times was this question asked before ,science could return an answer8 ,this she can now do with confidence4 ,coal was once growing vegetable matter4 ,on the surface of the shale1 immediately above the coal1 you will find innumerable impressions of leaves and branches1 as perfect as artist ever drew4 ,but how could this vegetable matter ever accumulate in such masses as to make beds of coal of such vast extent1 some not less than #cj feet thick8 ,it would take #aj or #ab feet of green vegetable matter to make #a foot of solid coal4 ,let us transport ourselves to the carboniferous times1 and see the condition of the earth1 and this may assist us to answer the question4 ,stand on this rocky eminence and behold that sea of verdure1 whose gigantic waves roll in the greenest of billows to the verge of the horizon--that is a carboniferous forest4 ,mark that steamy cloud floating over it1 an indication of the great evaporation constantly proceeding4 ,the scent of the morning air is like that of a greenhouse2 and well it may be1 for the land of the globe is a mighty hothouse--the crust of the earth is still thin1 and its internal heat makes a tropical climate everywhere1 unchecked by winter's cold1 thus forcing plants to a most luxurious growth4 ,descend1 and let us wander through this forest and examine it more closely4 ,what strange trees are here6 ,no oaks1 no elms1 or ash1 or chestnut--no trees that we ever saw before4 ,it looks as if the plants of a boggy meadow had shot up in a single night to a height of #fj or #gj feet1 and we were walking among the stalks--a gigantic meadow of ferns1 reeds1 grasses1 and club-mosses4 ,a million columns rise1 so thick at the top that they make twilight at mid-day1 and their trunks are so close together we can scarcely edge our way between them1 whilst the ground is carpeted with trailing plants completely interwoven4 ,what strange trees they are6 ,beneath us lies an accumulation of vegetable matter more than #bjj feet in thickness--the result of the growth and decay of plants in this swamp for centuries4 ,all things are here favourable for the growth of vegetation--the great heat of the ground causes water to rise rapidly in vapour1 and this again descends in showers1 supplying the plants with moisture continuously4 ,the air contains a large proportion of carbonic acid gas1 poison to animals but food to plants1 which1 by means of its aid1 build up their woody structure4 ,winds at times level these gigantic plants1 for their hold on the earth is feeble1 and thus the mass goes on increasing4 ,we are now on the edge of a lake abounding with fish1 whose bony scales glitter in the water as they pursue their prey4 ,lying along the shore are shells cast up by the waves1 and there are also seen the tracks of some large animals4 ,how like the impression of a man's hand some of these tracks are6 ,the hind-feet are evidently much larger than the fore-feet4 ,there is the frog-like animal which made them1 and what a size6 ,it must be six feet long1 and its head looks like that of a crocodile1 for its jaws are furnished with formidable rows of long1 strong1 sharp1 conical teeth4 ,the continued growth and decomposition of the vegetation during long ages must have produced beds like the peat-deposits of ,america and ,great ,britain4 ,in the ,dismal ,swamp of ,virginia there is said to be a mass of vegetable matter #dj feet in thickness1 and on the banks of the ,shannon in ,ireland is a peat-bog #c miles broad and #ej feet deep4 ,when conditions were so much more favourable for these deposits1 beds #djj feet in thickness may easily have been produced4 ,this accumulated mass of vegetable matter must be buried1 however1 before we can have a coal-bed4 ,how was this accomplished8 ,the very weight of it may have caused the crust of the earth to sink1 forming a basin into which rivers1 sweeping down from the surrounding higher country1 and carrying down mud in their waters1 the weight of which1 deposited upon the vegetable matter1 pressed and squeezed it into half its original compass4 ,sand carried down subsequently in a similar manner1 and deposited upon the mud1 pressed it into shale1 and the vegetable matter1 still more reduced in volume by this additional pressure1 is prepared for its final conversion into shale4 ,in time the basin becomes shallow from the decomposition of sediment on its bottom1 and then we have another marsh with its myriad plants2 another accumulation of vegetable matter takes place1 which by similar processes is also buried4 ,where thirty or forty seams of coal have been found one below another1 we have evidence of land and water thus changing places many times4 ,when vegetable matter is excluded from air and under great pressure1 it decomposes slowly1 parting with carbonic acid gas2 and is first changed into lignite or brown coal1 and then into bituminous coal1 or the soft coal that burns with smoke and flame4 ,i have been in a coal-mine where the carbonic acid gas1 pouring from a crevice in the coal1 put out a lighted candle4 ,the high temperature to which the coal has been subjected when buried at great depths has also probably assisted in producing this change2 and where that temperature has been very high1 the coal by the influence of the heat having parted with its inflammable gases1 we have the hard or anthracite coal1 which burns with little or no flame and without smoke4 ,it is indeed coal made into coke under tremendous pressure1 and this is the kind of coal which ,americans use exclusively in their dwelling-houses and monster hotels4 ,it was at first supposed that the plants of the carboniferous times were bamboos1 palms1 and gigantic cactuses1 such as are now found in tropical regions1 but a more careful examination of them shows that1 with the exception of the tree-fern now found in the tropics1 they differ from all existing trees4 ,a large proportion of the plants of the coal-measures were ferns1 some authorities say one-half4 ,from their great abundance we may infer the great heat and moisture of the atmosphere at the time when they grew1 as similar ferns at the present day are only found in the greatest abundance on small tropical islands where the temperature is high4 ,coal often contains impressions of fern leaves and palm-like ferns--no less than #icd kinds are drawn and described by geologists4 ,many animals and insects are found in the coal1 such as large toad-like reptiles with beautiful teeth1 small lizards1 water lizards1 great fish with tremendous jaws1 many insects of the grasshopper tribe1 but none of these are of the same species as those found now living on this globe4 ,wood1 peat1 brown coal1 jet1 and true coal1 are chemically alike1 differing only in their amount of oxygen1 due to the difference of compression to which they were subjected4 ,the sun gave his heat and light to the forests now turned into coal1 and when we burn it ages afterwards1 we revive some of the heat and light so long untouched4 ,stephenson once remarked to ,sir ,robert ,peel1 as they stood watching a passing train3 ,there goes the sunshine of former ages6 ,,cost ,,of ,,working4 ,having thus stated shortly the origin and extent of the coal of this country1 more particularly that of the northern coal-fields of ,northumberland and ,durham1 ,i think it may be interesting to say something of the cost at which this valuable article is obtained1 as ,i am sure few are at all aware of the vast sums of money that have to be expended before we can sit down by our comfortable firesides1 with a cold winter night outside1 and read our book1 or have our family gathered round us2 and few know the danger and hardship of the bold worker who risks his life to procure the coal4 ,the first step is to find out if there is coal4 ,this done1 the next is to get at it1 or1 as it is termed1 to win the coal4 ,the process is to sink a shaft1 and this is alike dangerous1 uncertain1 and very costly4 ,the first attempt to sink a pit at ,haswell in ,durham was abandoned after an outlay of #fj1jjj4 ,the sinkers had to pass through sand1 under the magnesian limestone1 where vast quantities of water lay stored1 and though engines were erected that pumped out #bf1gjj tons of water per day1 yet the flood remained the conqueror4 ,this amount seems incredible1 but such is the fact4 ,at another colliery near ,gateshead 7,goose ,colliery71 #ajjj gallons a minute1 or #fjjj tons of water per day1 were pumped out1 and only #cjj tons of coal were brought up in the same time1 and thus the water raised exceeded the coal twenty times4 ,the most astonishing undertaking in mining was the ,dalton le ,dale ,pit1 nine miles from ,durham4 ,on the #ast ,june #ahdj they pumped out #cbhe gallons a minute4 ,engines were erected which raised #ic1jjj gallons a minute from a depth of #ij fathoms or #edj feet1 and this was done night and day4 ,the amount expended to reach the coal in this pit was #cjj1jjj4 ,mr4 ,hall estimates the capital invested in the coal trade of the counties of ,durham and ,northumberland1 including private railways1 waggons1 and docks for loading ships1 at #ac1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,the great difficulty in working coal1 should these upper seams fail1 is not only the increase of cost in sinking further down1 but the increased heat to be worked in4 ,at #bjjj feet the mine will increase in heat #bh1 at #djjj1 #eg2 to this must be added the constant temperature of #ej #e'1 so that at #bjjj feet it would be #gh #e'1 and at #djjj1 #ajg #e' ,fahr4 ,by actual trial on ,july #ag1 #aheg1 in ,duckingfield ,pit1 the temperature at #bbdi feet was #ge #e'4 ,from this it may be conceived in what great heat the men have to work1 and the work is very hard4 ,one may fancy from this what can be endured1 but it would be next to impossible to work in a greater temperature4 ,i can speak upon this from actual experience1 as when down the ,lady ,londonderry ,pit the temperature was #he1 and here the men worked naked4 ,another great source of expense and anxiety lies in keeping up the roof1 as1 from the excessive pressure1 the roof and floor are always inclined to come together1 and props must therefore be used1 and these in some pits cost as much as #aejj a year4 ,to digress for a moment1 an amusing story is told of ,grimaldi1 the celebrated clown1 when paying a visit to a coal-pit4 ,having gone some way through the mine1 a sudden noise1 arising from the falling of coal from the roof1 caused him to ask the reason of the noise4 ,hallo6 exclaimed ,grimaldi1 greatly terrified1 what's that8 ,hech6 said his guide1 it's only a wee bit of coal fallen down--we have that three or four times a day4 ,then ,i'll thank you to ring for my basket1 for ,i'll stop no longer among the wee bits of falling coal4 ,this wee bit was about three tons' weight4 ,a large proportion of the sad accidents in coal-mines is caused by these falls of the roof1 which give no warning1 but suddenly come down and crush to death those who happen to be near4 ,,mode ,,of ,,working4 ,the cost of working having thus been given1 ,i wish now to lay before you an explanation of the method of working and bringing the coal to the surface4 ,it may not be uninteresting to mention how many men are employed in this work1 as the number is very large4 ,coal was not formerly excavated by machinery1 but it is so now1 and therefore hands must be had4 ,the number of men employed in the mines of county ,durham in #ahed was #bh1jjj2 of these1 #ac1ejj were hewers1 winning several thousand tons of coal daily4 ,of the remainder1 #cejj were safety-staff men1 having1 besides1 #adjj boys belonging to their staff2 #bjjj were off-hand men1 for bargain work or other duties2 #gfjj lads and boys1 working under the various designations of putters1 or pushers of coal-tubs1 underground drivers1 marrows1 half-marrows1 and foals1 these latter terms being local1 and significant of age and labour4 ,for ,northumberland must be added #aj1ecf persons1 and ,cumberland #cegi1 making a total for these three counties of upwards of #db1jjj persons labouring in and round our northern collieries4 ,the average that each hewer will raise per day is from two to three tons in thin1 and three to four tons in thick seams4 ,the largest quantity raised by any hewer on an average of the colliers of ,england is about six tons a day of eight hours4 ,the mode of working is very laborious1 as the majority of seams of coal being very thin--that is to say1 not more than two feet thick--the worker of necessity is obliged to work in a constrained position1 often lying on his side2 and you can fancy the labour of using a pick in such a position4 ,to get an idea of the position1 just place yourself under a table1 and then try to use a pick1 and it will give you a pretty clear idea of the comfortable way in which a great part of our coal is got1 and this also at a temperature of #hf in bad air4 ,the object1 of course1 of the worker is to take nothing but coal1 as all labour is lost that is spent in taking any other material away4 ,the man after a time gets twisted in his form1 from being constantly in this constrained position1 and1 in fact1 to sit upright like other men is at last painful4 ,then an amount of danger is always before him1 even in the best regulated and ventilated pits4 ,this danger proceeds from fire-damp1 as one unlucky stroke of the pick may bring forth a stream of carbureted hydrogen gas1 inexplosive of itself1 but if mixed with eight times its bulk of air1 more dangerous than gunpowder1 and which1 if by chance it comes in contact with the flame of a candle1 is sure to explode1 and certain death is the result--not always from the explosion itself1 but from the after-damp or carbonic acid gas which follows it4 ,upwards of #aejj lives are yearly lost from these causes1 and not less than #aj1jjj accidents in the same period show the constant danger that the miner is exposed to4 ,it would appear that ,england has more deaths from mining accidents than foreign countries1 as ,mr4 ,mackworth's table will show3-- ,prussia #a4hi per #ajjj ,belgium #b4h ,england #d4e ,staffordshire #g4c ,this statement shows that more care is wanted in this last-named county especially1 as ,i find that the yield of coal in ,belgium is half as much as in ,england4 ,long working in the dark1 if one may so speak1 is a cause of serious detriment to the sight1 and the worker also suffers much from constantly inhaling the small black dust1 which in course of time affects the lungs1 causing what is known as miner's asthma4 ,without going further into the unhealthy nature of the miner's work1 it may be interesting to mention something of the actual process1 and having myself been an eye-witness of it1 ,i will explain it as shortly as ,i can4 ,the workers having arrived at the pit-mouth at their proper hours--for the pit is worked by shifts1 and consequently is generally worked day and night--the first operation is for each to procure his lamp from the lamp-keeper1 receiving it lighted and locked2 this is found to be necessary1 as from the small light given by the ,davy-lamp the men are often tempted to open them1 and some are even1 so foolhardy as to carry their lamp on their cap and a candle in the hand1 and hence a terrible explosion may take place4 ,a few words on the ,davy-lamp1 which came into use about sixty years ago1 may not be out of place here4 ,this safety-lamp of the miner not only shows the presence of gas1 but prevents its explosion4 ,it is constructed of gauze made of iron-wire one-fortieth to one-sixtieth of an inch in diameter1 having #ghd openings to the inch1 and the cooling effect of the current passing through the lamp prevents the gas taking fire4 ,if we pour turpentine over a lighted safety-lamp1 it will show black smoke1 but no flame4 ,provided with his lamp1 the miner takes his place with others in the tub1 which conveys him with great rapidity to the bottom of the shaft4 ,here landed1 he takes his way to the workings1 some of these1 in large pits1 being two miles from the bottom of the shaft4 ,to a novice this is not easy1 as you have to walk in a crouching manner most part of the way4 ,once there1 he begins in earnest1 and drives at his pick for eight hours1 the monotony only relieved by his gathering the products into small railway waggons or tubs to be removed4 ,this is done mostly by boys1 but in the larger mines by ponies of the ,shetland and other small breeds4 ,the tubs are taken to a part of the mine where1 if one may so speak1 the main line is reached1 and then formed into trains1 and taken to the shaft by means of an endless rope worked by an engine in the pit4 ,in accomplishing all this work1 great care has to be taken that the current of air is not changed or stopped4 ,this is effected by means of doors placed in various parts of the mine1 so as to stop the current and drive it in the required direction4 ,these doors are kept by boys1 whose duty it is to open and close them for the passage of the coal tubs4 ,those boys are often allowed no light1 and sit in a hole cut in the side of the road near to the doors4 ,upon their carefulness the safety of the mine in a great measure depends1 as if they neglect to shut the door the current of air is changed4 ,i have been told that these boys are subject to accidents no less than the workers1 for1 sitting in the dark1 and often alone for hours1 they are very apt to go to sleep4 ,to ensure being awoke at the proper time1 they frequently lie down on the line of rails under the rope1 so that when the rope is started it may awake them by its motion1 but at times so sound is their sleep1 that it has failed to rouse them in time1 and a train of coal waggons has passed over them1 causing in most cases death4 ,the coal having been brought to the pit-mouth1 it remains to be shown what becomes of this most valuable mineral1 the consumption of which is now so large in all parts of the globe4 ,the next person employed in the trade is the sailor1 to convey it to the market1 and the collier vessels are a valuable navy to the country1 proving quite a nursery of seamen for our royal marine service4 ,newcastle1 ,sunderland1 ,west ,hartlepool1 and a large number of other ports along our coast1 have an immense amount of shipping employed exclusively in the coal trade--no less than #ecei vessels carrying coal having entered the port of ,london alone in #ahgc1 and the average annual quantity of coal exported abroad during the three years ending #ahgb was #ab1jjj1jjj tons4 ,i will not now detain you longer on the subject of the extent and working of coal1 lest ,i should tire your patience2 but before concluding ,i should wish to give some account of the uses to which this most valuable product is applied4 ,the main use of coal1 as we all know1 is to produce heat1 without which many a paterfamilias would grumble when the dinner-hour came and he had nothing hot to eat4 ,it not only1 however1 supplies heat1 but the beauty of the processes for lighting up our houses is now mainly derived from coal4 ,the immense consumption of coal1 among other things1 is in the production of the vapour of water--steam1 by which our thousands of engines on sea and land are made to perform their various appointed tasks4 ,this production1 formed of decayed vegetable matter1 which in ages past nourished on the surface of the earth1 as ,i have already shown1 is again brought forth for our use1 and is a testimony of the goodness and kindness of ,god in providing for our wants4 ,by its heat some #aj1jjj locomotive engines are propelled1 and many hundreds of iron furnaces are kept in work1 besides those for other purposes4 ,it moves the machinery of at least #cjjj factories1 #bejj steam vessels1 besides numerous smaller craft1 and ,i cannot tell how many forges and fires4 ,it aids in producing delicacies out of season in our hothouses4 ,it lights our houses and streets with gas1 the cheapest and best of all lights--,london alone in this way spending about #ej1jjj a year4 ,it gives us oil and tar to lubricate machinery and preserve timber and iron2 and last1 not least1 by the aid of chemistry it is made to produce many beautiful dyes1 such as magenta and mauve1 and also1 in the same way1 gives perfumes resembling cloves1 almonds1 and spices4 ,the annual consumption of coal in ,great ,britain is reckoned to be not less than #hj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the amount raised in #ahgc amounted to #abg1jjj1jjj tons1 and of this was imported into ,london alone #g1hhc1ach tons--#d1jjj1jjj tons1 or #ae per cent4 of the total out-put of the country1 being sent from ,durham alone4 ,the cost of the ,wallsend coal on board the ship may be stated at #ajs4 #f;d4 per ton2 to this must be added the charge at coal-market of #bs4 #h;d41 freight say #es4 #i;d41 profit #gs4 #f;d41 so that a ton of coal of this kind will cost in your cellar in ,london the sum of #a1 #fs4 #e;d4 ,i think it is now time to conclude this most interesting subject1 for though ,i have by no means exhausted it1 yet ,i fear ,i have said as much as a lecture will warrant4 ,the subject shows us how mindful a kind ,providence has been of man1 and to this nation in particular1 for to our coal we in a measure owe much of our greatness4 ,so while we admire the geology of our globe1 let us not forget who made it and all that it contains1 and who1 when ,he had finished the work1 pronounced it all very good4 ,let us so strive to live1 that though we may be called away suddenly1 as #aii of our fellow-creatures were called by what is termed a mining accident1 we may be ready to meet ,him who not only made us1 but made the coal1 and who1 when man1 at first made perfect1 fell away1 was pleased to send a ,saviour to redeem us and bring us to that light which fadeth not away4 ,,science ,,applied ,,to ,,art4 ,a resum of science and art requires to set forth what they have already done and what they are now doing--to trace them down to our own time1 and contrast their early stages with their present development4 ,giving to art and science all that is their due1 it must be evident to every one that they are primarily not of human origin1 but owe their existence and progress to those inherent faculties of man which have been bestowed upon him by an ,almighty ,being--faculties given not only to fathom the works of creation1 and adapt them for man's use and benefit1 but also that they might show forth the praise and honour of their ,creator1 as the heavens declare the glory of ,god1 and the firmament showeth ,his handiwork4 ,to set forth science and art before an ,institution like that here met together1 behoves one to enter upon the subject in a way which will not only interest but also instruct4 ,but this is only an opening address1 and the lecturers who will follow me in due course will bring before you the special interests of those special subjects on which they are to treat4 ,these cannot fail to interest as well as instruct those who attend1 their object being profit to the mind1 and hence not only the furtherance of mental culture1 but increasing capabilities for material prosperity4 ,to address a meeting in ,glasgow gives one a feeling of pleasure2 but1 before going further1 ,i trust that when ,i have finished you may not be able to say of me1 as the two ,highlanders did after leaving church--,eh1 man6 wasna that a grand discoorse8--it jumbled the head and confused the understanding6 ,this city has brought forth one of the greatest of men--though1 like many others1 he had to fight an uphill battle in his early career--that man was ,james ,watt4 ,but what a career was his6 and what a benefit to all now living has proved the result of his perseverance1 for to his genius are we mainly indebted for the manifold applications of the wondrous power of ,steam6 ,that word is enough2 and the engines it now propels are a powerful testimony to the talent of the great man who brought this mighty power to bear on the vast machinery1 not only of this great country1 but of the whole world4 ,contrast1 for one thing1 the travelling facilities of ,watt's early days with those we now possess through his persevering industry4 ,fourteen days was then the usual time for a journey from ,glasgow to ,london1 while at present it can be performed in a less number of hours4 ,railways6 what have they not done6 ,we see towns spring up in a few years where only a few cottages formerly stood1 and wild glens transformed into fruitful valleys1 by means of railways in their neighbourhood developing traffic and trade1 and creating employment by placing them in communication with larger towns1 and thus opening up new sources of material prosperity4 ,look at the magnitude of our railways4 ,with respect to locomotives alone1 in #ahff there were #habe of these1 and the work performed by them was the haulage of #f1jjj1jjj trains a distance of #adc1jjj1jjj miles4 ,as each engine possesses a draught-power equal to #dej horses1 these #habe locomotives consequently did the work of more than #c1ejj1jjj horses1 and as the average durability of a locomotive is computed to be about fifteen years1 each will have in that time traversed nearly #cjj1jjj miles6 ,then1 again1 there have to be replaced about #ejj worn-out locomotives every year1 at a cost for each of about #bejj to #cjjj1 entailing an annual expenditure of nearly #a1ejj1jjj sterling4 ,all this money circulates for the country's benefit1 keeping our iron1 copper1 and coal mines1 our furnaces and our workshops1 all at work1 and our people well and usefully employed1 and thus proving one of the greatest advantages of applied science and art to this country and the world at large4 ,if it had not been for steam1 this valuable ,institution might not have been in existence1 having for its chief objects the promotion of the growth and increasing the usefulness of the applied sciences4 ,we have now one of the greatest triumphs of engineering art in the ,mont ,cenis ,railway1 and this1 though worked out under great difficulties1 has proved a perfect success4 ,still more recently we have had brought under our notice the bold scheme of connecting ,britain and ,france by a tunnel under the ,english ,channel--a project which1 but a few years ago1 any one would have been thought mad to propose2 but science has proved that it can be carried out2 and it is only a few days since a large meeting was held in ,liverpool with a view of tunnelling under the ,mersey1 and thus connecting ,liverpool and ,birkenhead4 ,nor do these schemes seem at all visionary when we learn that our go-ahead ,transatlantic cousins have a project before the ,legislature of ,new ,jersey for laying wooden tubes underground1 through which the mails and small parcels will be forwarded at the rate of #aej miles an hour6 ,through a similar tube1 #f feet in diameter1 laid under the ,east and ,hudson ,rivers1 passengers are to be transported from ,brooklyn to ,jersey city4 ,a like scheme is in course of construction under the ,thames4,a ,another ,american engineering triumph will be the railway suspension bridge proposed to be built across the ,hudson ,river at ,peekskill1 in the hilly district known to ,new ,yorkers as the ,highlands1 which is to have a clear span of #afjj feet at a height of #aee feet above high water4 ,another grand and comparatively recent application of steam is in its adaptation to agriculture4 ,fields are now turned up by the steam-plough--an invention as yet in its infancy--in a manner that could never be done by mere hand-labour4 ,steam-culture has already penetrated as far north as ,john-o'-,groats1 where ,i have one of the ploughs of ,mr4 ,howard of ,bedford1 and but for its assistance ,i could not have taken in the land ,i have now worked up4 ,so great is the demand for steam-cultivating apparatus1 not only in ,britain1 but throughout the ,german plains and the flat alluvial soils of ,egypt1 that the makers have now more orders than they can readily supply4 ,in all our manufactories steam proves itself the motive power1 and there is hardly a large work without it4 ,this city can show its weaving1 spinning1 bleaching1 and dyeing works--all which have tended to raise ,glasgow from the small town of ,watt's time to the proud position it now holds of being the first commercial city of ,scotland4 ,in this city1 second only to ,manchester in the production of cotton goods1 it cannot fail to be interesting to state1 that in the first nine months of the present year there has been exported #b1ahh1eia1bhh yards of cotton piece-goods manufactured in this country--a larger quantity by nearly #aej1jjj1jjj yards than the corresponding period of #ahfg1 the year of the largest export of cotton manufactures ever known until then4 ,of course ,glasgow has had its share in this great branch of export trade1 rendering it large1 wealthy1 and populous--results which have mainly followed from the application of science to art4 ,last1 not least1 see what steam has enabled us to do in regard to the food for the mind1 both in printing it and afterwards in its distribution4 ,look1 for instance1 to ,printing ,house ,square--to the ,times newspaper4 ,in the short space of one hour #bj1jjj copies are thrown off the printing-machine1 and1 thanks to the express train1 the same day the paper can be read in ,glasgow4 ,still further in this direction1 the value of steam is also shown by its having enabled us to produce cheap literature1 so strikingly instanced in the world-famed works of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 which we are now enabled to purchase at the small sum of sixpence for each volume--a result which well shows the application of science to art4 ,let us now observe what a varied number of mechanical and agricultural appliances are required to furnish us with this cheap literature4 ,there is agriculture1 in the growth of the fibre that produces the material of which the printing paper is made2 then the flax-mill is brought into play to produce the yarn to be woven2 then weaving to produce the cloth2 after this1 dyeing4 ,then the fine material is used for various purposes too numerous to mention2 and after it has performed its own proper work1 and is cast away as rags1 no more to be thought of by its owner1 it is gathered up as a most precious substance by the papermaker1 who shows us the true value of the cast-off rags4 ,subjected to the beautiful and costly machinery of the paper-mill1 the rags turn out an article of so much value that without it the world would almost come to a stand-still4 ,yet further1 we have next the miner1 who by his labour brings to the surface of the earth the metal required to produce the type for printing2 after this the printing-press2 and next the chemist1 who by certain chemical combinations gives us the ink that is to spread knowledge to the world1 by making clear to the eye the thoughts of authors who have applied their minds for the instruction and amusement of their fellow-men4 ,but we do not end here2 consider also that each and all1 the farmer1 the spinner1 the weaver1 the chemist1 the miner1 the printer1 and the author1 must respectively have a profit out of their various branches of industry1 and does it not strike one forcibly what a boon to the world is this all-important application of science to art--putting within the reach of the poor man and the working man the means of cultivating his mind1 and so1 by giving him matters of deep interest to think over1 keeping him from idleness and perhaps sin 7for idleness is the root of most evil71 and making him a happy family-man instead of a public-house frequenter4 ,many were strongly opposed to the introduction of steam1 and would rather have seen it put down1 and the old coach and printing-press1 loom1 spinning-wheel1 and flail kept in use1 fearing that machinery would limit employment2 and a hard fight it has been to carry forward all that has hitherto been done4 ,but what has proved to be the result8 ,thousands are now employed where formerly a few people sufficed1 and we are all benefited in having better and cheaper goods1 books1 provisions1 and all things needful4 ,there is therefore the satisfaction of knowing that1 by the thousand and one applications of steam1 the physical1 mental1 and even moral condition of the people has been greatly ameliorated2 in this way again proving a triumph for the application of science to art4 ,glasgow is not only famous for its multifarious applications of water in its finely divided gaseous form of steam1 but it has made admirable use of that element in its more familiar and fluid form1 as shown in the gigantic undertaking of bringing a water-supply into this thriving and populous city4 ,the peaceful waters of a ,highland lake are suddenly turned from their quiet resting-place1 where they have remained in peace for generations1 the admiration of all beholders1 and made to take an active part in contributing to the health1 wealth1 and comfort of ,glasgow4 ,the beautiful ,loch ,katrine has been brought into the city1 furnishing a stream of pure water to minister to the wants of all classes of the people--an undertaking which a few years ago would have been pronounced impossible2 but here again science and art have prevailed1 and brought about this all-important object and greatly desired and inestimable boon4 ,the great capital of ,england itself cannot boast of such an advantage1 and must still be content to drink water contaminated with impurities4 ,does not this speak volumes for the wealth and energy of ,glasgow8 ,what so conducive to health and cleanliness 7and cleanliness is akin to godliness7 as a pure and perfect supply of water such as you now possess2 and you have great reason to be grateful for this beneficent application of science and art4 ,with a worldwide celebrity for your waterworks1 you have cause also to be proud of your chemical works1 and that famous chimney of ,st4 ,rollox1 one of the loftiest structures in the world4 ,there are few cities more highly favoured than this4 ,would not ,captain ,shaw be glad if1 in ,london1 he had the head or command of water such as you have from ,loch ,katrine to save the great metropolis from the destruction by fire that they are in daily dread of8 ,in ,glasgow we hardly want this--our grand ,loch ,katrine does it all4 ,turn to your river1 the beautiful ,clyde1 which eighty years ago could be forded at ,erskine1 while ,port ,glasgow was as far as ships could then come up--a striking contrast to what is now to be seen at the ,broomielaw1 where the largest steamers and ships drawing thirty feet of water are moored in the very heart of the city1 discharging produce from all parts of the world4 ,what has done this but steam--the energy of man2 steam cutting a channel by dredging to admit of ships passing so far up the river3 and this has been to ,glasgow a great source of wealth by the promotion of commerce4 ,art has been permitted to work out great things for your city1 and ,i trust still greater things are in store4 ,take the trade now in full progress on the banks of the ,clyde4 ,the shipbuilding is fast leaving the ,thames and finding its way here4 ,it is a pleasure to hear people say3 ,there is a fine ship--she is ,clyde-built4--,who built her8 ,was it ,napier1 or ,thomson1 or ,tod1 or ,m',gregor1 or ,randolph ,elder1 or ,caird1 or ,denny of ,dumbarton1 or ,cunliff ,dunlop8 ,pardon me if ,i have left out any name1 for all are good builders4 ,then1 again1 it may be asked3 ,who engined these ships8--,oh1 ,clyde engineers1 or those who built them4 ,i had the pleasure of being this year on board the ,trinity yacht ,galatea1 on a cruise when fourteen knots an hour were accomplished2 and that yacht is a good specimen of what ,clyde shipbuilders can turn out4 ,she was built by ,caird4 ,i have also had the pleasure of a trip in the ,russia1 one of the finest screw-vessels afloat1 built by ,thomson2 and she has proved herself perhaps the fastest of sea-going steamers4 ,does not all this show what science applied to art has done8 ,glasgow has also a ,college of the first order1 one that is looked up to as sending men of high standing forth to the world4 ,watt worked under its roof as a poor mathematical instrument maker1 and although enjoying little of its valuable instruction1 he produced the steam-engine--a lesson as to what those ought to do towards promoting the application of science to art who have the full benefit of a scientific training such as your ,college affords4 ,each day brings forth something new--the electric telegraph1 for instance1 by which our thoughts and desires are transmitted to all parts of the world1 so to speak1 in a moment of time4 ,when we think that we are within an instant of ,america1 it gives one a feeling of awe1 for it shows to what an extent we have been permitted to carry the application of science to art4 ,a small wire is carried across the great ,atlantic1 and immediate communication is the result4 ,the achievements of science were shown to a great extent in the laying of this cable1 and perhaps still more in its recovery after it had been broken4 ,a small cable is lost at the bottom of the ocean1 far from the land1 and in water about two miles in depth--a ship goes out1 discovers the spot1 and then grappling irons are lowered4 ,science with its long arm1 as it were1 reaches down the almost unfathomable abyss1 and with its powerful hand secures and brings to the surface of the ocean the fractured cable1 which is again made to connect the ,old and ,new ,worlds--thus verifying almost the words of ,shakespeare1 when he speaks of calling spirits from the vasty deep4 ,after splicing the cable1 the vessel proceeds with the work of paying it out1 as it sails across the ,atlantic2 and once more science and art find a successful issue1 for ,europe and ,america are united4 ,what the combination of science and art has done is1 however1 not yet exhausted3 witness the splendid specimens of artillery now produced by ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth and ,sir ,william ,armstrong--weapons by which projectiles are thrown with an almost irresistible force4 ,the beauty of their construction is a triumph to art1 and their mathematical truth a triumph to science4 ,one thing follows another1 and no sooner have men of originality and observation perfected the means of destruction1 when others press forward and furnish the means of defence4 ,our armour-clads1 such as the ,warrior and others which lately visited these waters1 have thus been called into existence1 and they are splendid specimens of what science applied to art can achieve4 ,the ,menai ,bridge is another instance of the power of man in applied science4 ,a railway bridge is required to further communication1 but ,government demands that the navigation of the ,strait shall not be impeded4 ,the mind of a great man is called into action1 and by applying scientific principles to engineering art1 we have that wonder of the world1 the great tubular bridge over the ,menai ,straits4 ,this work required a mind of no ordinary nature1 but such a one was found in the celebrated ,robert ,stephenson4 ,i am proud to say ,i was privileged to have him as a friend1 and ,i greatly lamented his death1 not only as a friend1 but as an irreparable loss to the world of science4 ,another instance of science applied to art--and not the least important--is the adaptation of glass to form the lens which enables the flame of a lamp to be seen from a great distance4 ,what this has done for the mariner is shown in our lighthouses1 which enable him to know where he is by night as well as by day1 for the lights are made to revolve1 to be stationary1 or to show various colours or flashes1 which reveal to him their respective positions4 ,the compass also1 though ancient1 is still an application of applied science1 and by it the mariner is enabled to guide his ship safely over the ocean4 ,a very beautiful instance of applied science to art is electrometallurgy1 in which metals are deposited by means of the galvanic battery in any required form or shape1 and this process of gilding and plating is executed with marvellous rapidity4 ,all these various instances show what the mind of man has done1 and is doing2 but the applications of science to art are so endless1 that even their simple enumeration could not be included in the limits of an opening address1 for there are few things to which science cannot be applied4 ,one of the most recent and beautiful is the art of photography1 where1 by means of applied chemistry1 aided by the rays of the sun1 there can be produced the most pleasing and lifelike representations4 ,this new application of chemistry is a most interesting one1 which shows that we do not stand still1 and as long as arts and science are permitted to be practised by us we are not intended to stand still1 but to exercise our minds to the utmost to unravel those mysteries of nature that are yet to be developed4 ,chemistry1 as a regular branch of natural science1 is of comparatively recent origin1 and can hardly be said to date earlier than the latter third of last century4 ,the ,greek philosophers had some vague yet profound ideas on this subject1 but their acquaintance was limited to speculations priori1 founded on general and often inaccurate observations of natural occurrences4 ,yet their acuteness was such1 that some of their speculations as to the constituent properties of matter coincide in a wonderful degree with those which now prevail among modern philosophers4 ,it is not easy to define what chemistry is in a few words1 but it may be described as the science which has for its object the investigation of all elementary bodies which exist in the universe1 with the view of determining their composition and properties4 ,it also seeks to detect the laws which regulate their mutual relations1 and the proportions in which these elements will combine together to form the compounds which constitute the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms1 as well as the properties of these various compounds4 ,the ancients admitted only four elements--earth1 air1 fire1 and water4 ,chemists now far exceed this number1 and seek to show what these elements are composed of by analysing them into the various gases1 solids1 and liquids4 ,astronomy is the most ancient of all the sciences4 ,the ,chaldeans1 the ,egyptians1 the ,chinese1 the ,hindoos1 ,gauls1 and ,peruvians1 each regarded themselves as the inventors of astronomy1 an honour which ,josephus deprives them of by ascribing it to the antediluvian patriarchs4 ,from the few facts to be gleaned out of the vague accounts by ancient authors regarding the ,chaldeans1 it may be inferred that their boasted knowledge of this science was confined to observations of the simplest kind1 unassisted by any instruments whatever4 ,the ,egyptians1 again1 though anciently considered the rivals of the ,chaldeans in the cultivation of this science1 have yet left behind them still fewer records of their labours1 though it is so far certain that their astronomical knowledge was even greater than that of the ,chaldeans4 ,the ,phoenicians seem to have excelled in the art of navigation1 and would no doubt direct their course among the islands of the ,mediterranean by the stars2 but if they had any further speculative notions of astronomy1 they were probably derived from the ,chaldeans or ,egyptians4 ,in ,china1 astronomy has been known from the remotest ages1 and has always been considered as a science necessary and indispensable to the civil government of the ,celestial ,empire4 ,on considering the accounts of ,chinese astronomy1 we find it consisted only in the practice of certain observations1 which led to nothing more than the knowledge of a few isolated facts1 and they are indebted to foreigners for any further improvements they have since adopted4 ,the ,greeks seem to have made the most early advances in astronomy2 for notwithstanding that the art of observation was still in its infancy1 we are indebted to the labours and speculations of ancient ,greek philosophers for raising astronomy to the dignity of a science4 ,the complicated but ingenious hypotheses of the ,greek ,ptolemy prepared the way for the discovery of the elliptic form of the planetary orbits and other astronomical laws by the ,german ,kepler1 which again conducted our ,english ,newton to the discovery of the law of gravitation4 ,i am not1 however1 desirous of giving this meeting a lecture on astronomy--,i shall leave that to ,professor ,grant4 ,but it is singular that ,i should have come here on a day on which one of the now known observations and movements of the planets has taken place--the transit of ,mercury4 ,this was calculated to occur this day by the science of astronomy1 and it is also known when it will again occur1 namely1 on the #fth of ,may #ahgh4 ,i will end this subject by saying1 that the discoveries in astronomy in the last and present centuries have been so many and interesting1 that it would be quite impossible for me to enter here minutely upon them4 ,in conclusion1--,what have science and art done for us8 ,they have cultivated our minds--they have made us think1 wonder1 and admire1 and ,i trust caused us to adore and reverence the ,creator of this vast universe4 ,they have taught us the knowledge and value of time1 and have also shown the value of what man has been enabled to work out for his own benefit and that of the world at large4 ,the chemist deals with the various substances brought under his notice1 thereby acquiring a knowledge of their properties1 enabling him to produce results which are truly beneficial4 ,this knowledge is power4 ,the painter makes the features of ,nature his study1 and by his brush delineates them on the canvas1 and thus by knowledge of art he exhibits power4 ,the astronomer's science is one of vast magnitude and importance--the study of it embracing both science and art3 science in the various intricate calculations he requires to make in connection with the heavenly bodies4 ,by his researches we have discovered the form of the earth and other planets1 their respective distances from each other1 their revolutions1 their eclipses and their orbits1 and1 more wonderful still1 the precise time when the various movements of each occur4 ,in art1 the astronomer has originated and perfected the many powerful and beautiful instruments now required for taking observations1 and these1 when compared with the instruments in use in bypast times1 are excellent evidences of modern progress in this direction4 ,our wonder is excited when we look at the instruments formerly in use2 that so much was done through them1 and the advance made by art in the perfection of those now adopted1 show us again that knowledge is power4 ,the navigator1 by a combination of astronomy and seamanship1 is enabled to plough the great deep1 and at all times by mathematical calculation to discover the exact position of his ship4 ,what1 however1 would he be without the aid of art8 ,the compass1 the sextant1 or quadrant1 c41 are the means which enable him to attain these grand results1 and to bring his ship to the desired haven4 ,the use of these is knowledge1 and this knowledge is power4 ,alike with all other things which science and art have called into use1 knowledge is power1 and this power was given by the ,almighty1 as ,i said at the beginning of this lecture1 to enable man to fathom the works of creation4 ,let us then so live that we may ever admire the results of the labours of science and of art1 and at the same time ever remember ,him who has given us the power to discover and use them for our benefit1--thanking ,god1 who first made all things and pronounced them very good1 for ,his great mercy toward us4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,now carried out4 ,a ,,penny',s ,,worth2 ,,or1 ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,pence1 ,,and ,,the ,,pounds ,,will ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,themselves4 ,a penny seems a small sum to talk about1 and with many1 ,i am sorry to say1 is looked upon as so insignificant as to be considered almost worthless2 but ,i hope1 before ,i have done1 to show you something of the great value of even a penny1 and of the effects and products we have been enabled to produce and dispose of with a reasonable profit at the cost of one penny4 ,a much smaller sum than this was looked upon and regarded as of inestimable value by our blessed ,saviour1 when ,he saw the rich men and the widow casting their offerings into the treasury1 for ,he said3 ,all these have of their abundance cast in unto the offerings of ,god3 but she of her penury hath cast in all the living that she had4 ,now what did this widow cast in8 ,two mites1 which make one farthing4 ,though this took place more than eighteen hundred years ago1 it shows to us even now the great value of small things when given with the heart and used in the right way4 ,money is a most desirable thing1 and without it the business of the world would come to a stand-still1 but how to spend it aright is a matter of grave thought1 for it may with ease be spent in luxury1 but it requires a mind to use it profitably4 ,both pleasure and profit may be gained by prudent and proper expenditure1 and to show how even a limited income may enjoy great comfort at home 7and there is1 ,i hope you think1 no place like home1 and one's own home-fireside71 ,i have ventured to bring before you at this time what can be done for one penny4 ,the penny itself is a matter which leads one into thought4 ,the vastness of mind which has been brought to bear on the production of the coin is itself worthy of consideration4 ,before any coin can be sanctioned by the realm1 it has to go through the ordeal of ,her ,majesty's ,government1 and after all has been done to the satisfaction of the authorities1 a little bit of copper--though now1 for the good of our pockets1 mixed with an alloy--is made to minister to our wants in ways which ,i hope to lay before you as plainly and shortly as possible4 ,first and foremost we must have that great and valuable thing heat1 for without heat generated by fire we could have no penny4 ,one of the first things required to produce this heat is wood4 ,now the wood must be grown1--trees attended to with care and at great cost4 ,years pass before they are either fit for beauty or use1 yet1 during the time of their growth1 the smaller branches that are lopped off form just what is required to set on fire the coal and coke to produce the heat which is necessary for smelting and blast furnaces1 for our own domestic fires1 and various other uses4 ,a faggot of these lopped branches can be bought for a penny4 ,having thus found out1 as a beginning1 one thing which can be obtained for a penny1 let us go on to see what has to be attended to and encountered before this valuable coin can be made4 ,sums of money have to be spent1 risks very great have to be entered into1 and beautiful machinery constructed before it can be placed in our pockets4 ,the mines of ,cornwall have to be reached for both copper and tin--a matter of great cost to the pockets of speculators1 and of anxiety to the minds of engineers1 who lay themselves out to gain the material4 ,furnaces have to be built to smelt the ore and bring it into a workable condition4 ,the ,mint is then1 after the metal is ready1 called into requisition to produce a coin which1 after all this labour and expense1 is only a penny4 ,i come now to tell some of the things which can be accomplished and produced for a penny4 ,one of the earliest publications of any note was the ,penny ,magazine1 which is endeared to my memory as having shown me the earliest of ,george ,stephenson's great works--the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,this magazine has now passed away1 but it has been amply replaced by others of equal merit1 carrying out its principles of giving a sound and cheap literature to the people2 it was a boon to all who cared for instruction1 and at the same time had to take care of a penny4 ,now we have our daily papers at a penny1 and of the #agaa newspapers issued 7#ahgf7 in the ,united ,kingdom1 #hjh are sold at this small price4 ,look at those papers1 the ,telegraph1 ,standard1 and many others2 are they not a light that has shone over our world1 showing what man has been enabled to do for his fellows1 in being able to disseminate the knowledge of what is transpiring over the world to their readers1 both near and far off1 and all for only one penny6 ,has this been done without labour8 ,no4 ,what has caused it but the earnest desire to know the events of daily life in as short a time as possible4 ,i do not care to vouch for what ,i now say1 but ,i should think that about #bj1jjj copies are thrown off of the ,daily ,telegraph in an hour1 and these can be bought for one penny each4 ,this penny's worth has cost a great amount of thought to bring about4 ,besides the various manufactures which are required for this result1 the daily paper also brings to its aid the agriculturist as regards the paper2 for though this was at first only made of rags1 we now produce it from straw1 and ,i have made it from thistles1 whilst it has also been made from wood and other things4 ,the rags1 of course1 were derived from agriculture in as far as flax required to be grown1 but now the farmer gets his grain from the crop1 and the straw left is made into paper--the chief agent in distributing through the world the thoughts of the learned in science1 arts1 literature1 and politics4 ,with what eagerness do we look for our paper in the morning1 and with what pleasure do we pay our penny for it6 ,a penny's worth with respect to this material does not stop here4 ,look at our beautiful and not costly decorations2 see what a charming room we can show1 produced by a wall-paper at a cost of one penny a yard4 ,some of these coloured decorations produce an eye-deception that quite1 as the ,scotch would say1 jumbles the judgment and confounds the understanding4 ,we have not done with luxuries1 and ,i will now bring one before you that1 like many others1 if used aright1 there is no harm in1 and which ,i look upon as a means of keeping up social good-fellowship among all4 ,i mean smoking4 ,now the use of tobacco in itself is harmless1 but used in excess is not only dangerous1 but acts as a poison4 ,i like a pipe1 but ,i find at the same time it is needful to have a light4 ,the ingenuity of man has supplied my want and wish1 and ,i can now get a light from an article which1 to look at1 seems only something black tipped with red4 ,the labour required to produce this small box of lights1 as it is called1 is wonderful--the chemist1 the wood merchant1 the mechanician 7and ,i am sorry to say1 also the surgeon1 from the deleterious effects of the phosphorus on the human frame71 have all to bring their work to bear on the production of this most useful article4 ,yet1 after all1 it is sold and bought for one penny a box4 ,messrs4 ,bryant ,may profess to save your houses from fire for this sum by using their matches1 and ,i think they are right4 ,fire and heat are among our best friends1 but are also dangerous enemies2 and ,i am sure a penny spent on ,bryant ,may's matches is well spent4 ,i do not wish to disparage other makers--far from it2 but a match that will only ignite on the box is an article all householders should procure1 not only for their own protection1 but also for that of their neighbours4 ,a very striking instance of the value of a penny is set before us in that most wonderful system the penny-postage1 the institution of which was a boon to the kingdom that cannot be too highly appreciated4 ,it enables rich and poor alike to bring their thoughts and desires into communication with each other1 and so relieve anxious cares in regard to the health and wealth1 the joys and sorrows of friends in an easy manner4 ,a penny stamp can convey all our requirements1 whether for good or for evil1 and many a large sum is now transmitted under its care4 ,i have been told that as many as #fj1jjj letters have passed through the travelling post-office of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway in one night4 ,how could this great correspondence ever have been carried on but for railways2 and but for the foresight of ,sir ,rowland ,hill this system might still have been in the background4 ,it is clearly in my recollection when #a s4 #a-a_/b d4 was the charge for a letter from ,london to ,edinburgh1 and that was for what was then called a single letter2 now you may send as much as you like under a certain weight for one penny4 ,travelling is now also a thing within the reach of all1 for you can travel for one penny a mile1 and this at a rate of speed that could not be done a few years ago4 ,so much for railways4 ,having begun with matters more especially affecting older people1 it would be hard indeed to leave out the younger branches1 and the means that are now employed not only for their comfort1 but their amusement4 ,among other requirements for them we may class their toys4 ,they are in a sense most needful1 as well as useful1 for our children1 and from many of the ingenious toys now-a-days we can acquire a great deal of knowledge1 useful to ourselves and of advantage to others4 ,the beauty of their manufacture is a striking instance of the ingenuity of man as applied to small things1 seeing that toys1 so to speak1 are only made for a few days' enjoyment1 and are then almost certain to be broken4 ,but for their short and transient existence what an amount of mental energy has been brought to bear--the fancy of the child has to be studied and provided for1 in a way to please1 gratify1 and amuse1 teaching the young idea how to shoot3 all this for one penny4 ,look at the carts1 horses1 and other articles innumerable that are to be bought at the bazaars in ,london for a penny1 and do they not bring before us in a striking manner what has been done for the benefit of the young4 ,these toys1 which only cost a penny1 have caused many hard and anxious thoughts1 are the means of giving work to thousands1 and enabling these thousands to live an honest and happy life by furnishing a paying living1 while at the same time they minister to the acquirements of those who when young require amusement4 ,all this is done for a penny's worth2 but how divided is this before the wonderful toy is produced6 ,we have wood1 iron1 copper1 tin1 lead--,i may say1 all the metals1 even the most precious 7for gold is frequently used in the production of a toy that can be bought for a penny71 are employed4 ,not only have these to be utilised1 but they have first to be obtained--some by the growth of timber1 others by mining1 then by the heat of the furnace1 then by hammer and workman1 then by the chemist and colour-maker1 then by the maker of the toy--many of these employed at large wages2 and yet you receive for your children an article which not only gives instruction1 but the greatest amusement1 all for one penny4 ,an old saying1 but a very true one1 ,cleanliness is next to godliness2 and this brings us to a luxury which1 though long known in ,france1 has only been lately introduced here4 ,this is the shoe-black4 ,you come up to him1 dirty from the mud of the streets of ,london1 and in a very short time you have your boots shining for a penny4 ,this penny's worth brings before us a large amount of thought before it can be earned and paid for4 ,we have to begin with the farmer1 who feeds the animal that1 after we have eaten a good dish from and think no more of1 yet furnishes the hair which is made into brushes by the brushmaker2 the carpenter has to make the box to hold them2 the blacking-maker also comes to the service2 and the tailor to give the uniform red coat worn by the ,shoeblack ,brigade--yet after all this1 you can get your boots blacked1 and that well done1 for one penny4 ,out of their earnings1 at some stations the boys--so ,i was told a short time ago--have to pay #bs4 #f;d4 a day for leave to stand at their station4 ,i have gone a long way on things that can be obtained for a penny1 but ,i have not yet got to the greatest and most valuable--a thing which is to be obtained for even less than the widow's mite4 ,it is this3 ,come ye1 buy and eat1 without money and without price1 for ,my word is meat indeed1 and ,my word is drink indeed4 ,christ says this1 and man cannot deny it4 ,i am not going to preach a sermon1 but as things have come before me1 ,i have put them down4 ,seeing what a penny can do1 let us turn to some of the results4 ,a penny a week at a school1 and what can be gained8 ,a child is educated to use the talents given him or her1 so as to work out an honest living1 and is there taught what it can do for the life that now is and that which is to come4 ,the value of education is so great that it cannot be over-estimated4 ,a young man ,i knew got into a railway workshop4 ,he saved enough to go to ,australia1 where he has now made a large sum of money4 ,he left this country with less than #ej in his pocket4 ,he knew work and business1 thanks to education1 and had a determined desire to work his way4 ,i wish it was so all over ,england1 for ,i know in the ,midland ,counties every one will not leave home4 ,you must leave home1 at least for a season1 if you wish to get on in the world4 ,nothing is to be gained in this world without striving for it4 ,here is work1 but after death there is rest1 but not till then4 ,so1 in conclusion1 let me say1 ,let us all remember that while on earth it is a season for work4 ,here is work--work for the body1 work for the mind1 and1 above all1 work to prepare the soul for eternity4 ,so that when we come to die1 we may not only be able to look back on a life in which we have spent a penny aright1 but be able to look forward to that life where is everlasting peace and joy1 through ,christ in ,god4 ,and may our last words be--,here was work1 but there is rest1 through ,christ our ,saviour4 ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,means ,,of ,,communication4 ,we may1 ,i think1 commence by saying1 ,lord1 so teach us to number our days that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom1 for1 as ,david says1 ,what is man that ,thou art mindful of him1 and the son of man that ,thou visitest him8 ,thou makest him to have dominion over the works of ,thy hands1 and hast put all things in subjection under his feet4 ,the difference of past and present means of communication are so great1 that it is no easy task to enter into a discussion on the subject2 but it leads one to gravely consider what is said in the #ijth ,psalm3 ,so teach us to number our days1 that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom4 ,to address an association such as ,i have now the honour and pleasure of doing1 gives one a feeling of interest1 as well as a feeling of responsibility1 for as ,i have been kindly asked to close the course of lectures for this session1 such an address is looked to in general with expectation4 ,do not hope for too much from me2 but ,i trust that1 when ,i have concluded1 you will not be able to pay me the compliment an old ,highland woman did to her minister on seeing him after church-service--,ah1 maister1 this discoursing will never do1 for ,i wasna weel asleep till ye were done4 ,having said this by way of introduction1 ,i think it devolves upon me in some way first to explain what is the meaning of the subject of ,communication4 ,it may be briefly stated to be a means to an end--an intercourse or passage of either the body from one place to another1 or of the thoughts of one person to another4 ,and as ,i begin with the communication of the body1 ,i cannot do better than name some of the methods by which communication is carried on1 and shall commence with ,roads1 ,coaches1 ,railways1 ,canals1 and ,steamers4 ,then1 for mind1 ,i will take ,books1 ,printing1 ,letters1 ,exhibitions1 and ,telegraphs4 ,our age has so advanced1 that though ,methuselah lived nearly one thousand years1 yet he in his age did not live as long as we do now4 ,see what science and art have done for us4 ,we now do more in one day than could be done in a month some very few years ago2 and1 as far as travelling about the world is concerned1 ,i can say that ,i have been from ,john-o'-,groat's ,house to ,brighton1 thence into ,hertfordshire1 thence back to ,london1 from there to ,edinburgh1 thence to ,john-o'-,groat's1 and here ,i am before you1 without fatigue1 or a thought that ,i should not be present in time4 ,what has enabled us to do this but the determination of man to communicate with his fellow-men1 and his thirst for the knowledge of what is doing in places where he1 as an individual1 could not be present4 ,when there were no roads1 it was no easy matter to move about1 so the people remained at rest4 ,but the ,romans1 a people who aspired to conquer the world1 were not a people to sleep and let things stand still4 ,they began the making of roads in ,britain1 and to them we owe the first of our greatness4 ,they saw1 as every wise man now sees1 that the first thing to the improvement of land and property is easy communication1 and facilities for bringing the things needed for the improvement of the land1 and the means also of export for the produce4 ,the earliest roads were1 as we may say1 right on end2 and the ,roman roads1 as ,i hear1 have borne the traffic of two thousand years4 ,i hope ,i may say that even a ,roman road would not bear the traffic of a town like ,greenock for anything like that period of time1 or ,i fear the commerce of this populous and most thriving town would be in a bad way4 ,the great ,telford and ,macadam are the persons to be thanked for our beautiful system of road-making1 and no person can1 ,i am sure1 deny the utility of their plans4 ,as ,i said1 roads are a means of communication for the body1 and also for the mind2 and therefore1 now that their advantages are seen1 we should strive to further their advance in all districts4 ,coaches4--,we come now to the means of communication on the roads for the body1 and also for the mind1 as both must go together--viz41 the coach and the carriage or cart 7for before the roads were made we had no coaches74 ,in the first place1 these carts or carriages were rude and heavy waggons1 without springs or other comfort2 but still they served to convey the body1 and the mind that went with it at last discovered1 by degrees1 that conveyances could be constructed so as to cause less wear and tear on animal life4 ,the result of time and labour has been the elegant constructions of the present day4 ,the first hackney-coaches were started in ,london1 ,a4,d4 #afbe1 by a ,captain ,bailey4 ,another conveyance for the body1 the sedan-chair1 was introduced first into ,england in #aehd1 and came into fashion in ,london in #afcd4 ,the late ,sir ,john ,sinclair was called a fool because he said a mail-coach would come from ,london to ,thurso4 ,i am glad to say that he saw it1 and it opened up a communication for the body and mind that has worked wonders in the far ,north4 ,we now have a railway4 ,steam4--,we proceed next to the grandest stage--or1 as it is said in the ,north1 ,we took a start4 ,what place have we to thank for this great start1 but the very town in which ,i have the honour to give this closing address4 ,was not ,james ,watt born here8 ,the #aith ,january #agcf was a great day for ,england1 ,scotland1 and the world at large1 for that day brought into the world a man who1 by his talents and by his observations of what others had done before him1 was the means of bringing to a workable state that all-powerful and most useful machine1 the steam-engine4 ,the people of ,greenock may well indeed feel proud of being citizens of a town that produced such a man2 for though many places have given birth to great and valuable men1 and persons who rendered the world vast and lasting service1 yet1 ,i may safely say1 no one has surpassed ,james ,watt in the benefits he has bestowed on the world1 on its trade1 its commerce1 and its means of communication for both body and mind1 as the producer of the steam-engine4 ,there were not even coaches in his time1 and his first journey to ,london was performed on horseback1 a ten days' ride1 very different to our ten or twelve hours now-a-days4 ,his life and determination show what a man can do1 both for himself and his fellow-men1 and are a bright example to be followed by all those especially who belong to such associations as the one ,i now have the honour to address4 ,he not only thought1 but carried out his thoughts to a practical issue1 and1 though laughed at1 he still stuck to his great work1 and by his perseverance gave to the world one of its greatest boons1 and certainly its greatest motive power--the steam-engine4 ,the first use of the engine1 as you well know1 was the pumping of water4 ,rude were the machines made by ,savory1 ,newcombe1 and others1 to achieve the desired end1 but ,watt1 in his small room in the cottage at ,glasgow1 at last brought about a triumph that the world at large now feels and acknowledges4 ,i will not go further into the history of a man so well known and appreciated1 as his memory must be here1 but will go on to say something briefly on the results of the operations of the mind over the material placed before it1 to bring into form and make it practically useful for the advantage of man4 ,steamers4--,greenock must see and value the great power at her disposal in the steam-ship4 ,she has now her large building yards1 and it was from her yards that1 in #agai1 the first ship--belonging to ,greenock1 and ,i believe built there--sailed for ,america1 and from that time the trade increased rapidly4 ,and ,i believe ,glasgow launched the first ,scotch ship that ever crossed the ,atlantic in #agah1 only one year in advance of ,greenock4 ,the large building yards of ,greenock bring into the town sums of money which1 but for these yards1 would go elsewhere1 and deprive the community of many comforts1 not to say luxuries4 ,they are the means of carrying on the import and export trade of this thriving town in a way that could not otherwise have been done2 famous as this place is for shipbuilding1 spinning1 and its splendid sugar-works4 ,these latter you have indeed reason to be proud of1 for there are few finer4 ,the increase of importation of sugar is striking4 ,in ,britain in #ahef1 our imports of this article were #f1hac1jjj lbs41 in #ahfe it was #g1aab1ggb lbs4 ,though all this did not come to ,greenock1 yet from what you do in this trade1 ,i think the word holds good that we as ,scotchmen are sweet-toothed4 ,you can now boast of a steam communication not only on the coast1 but over the world4 ,i had last year the pleasure of a cruise in the ,trinity yacht ,galatea1 and does not she speak volumes for what can be done by your citizens8 for that vessel was built by ,mr4 ,caird1 and even the ship seemed to feel that she came from the beautiful ,clyde4 ,what a difference now to the time of ,henry ,bell in #ahab1 who first started a steamer for passengers on the ,clyde6 ,we have now in ,great ,britain #bebc steamers1 registering no less than #gff1bjj tons4 ,have not these improvements shown what means of communication do for body and mind8 ,railways4--,having said this much about steamers1 ,i will turn for a short time to another means of communication for body and mind--,i mean the railways4 ,are not they a striking advance in science1 and the bringing to bear the power of mind to work on the material that has been provided for our use by an all-wise ,god8 ,it is but a few years since1 comparatively speaking1 they came into existence1 and yet1 from the time of ,george ,stephenson 7and his perseverance largely aided to perfect the railway71 see what vast sums of money have been spent1 what magnificent and noble structures have been erected1 and what speed has been obtained for the communication of body and mind4 ,instead of the thirty miles from ,manchester to ,liverpool in #ahcj1 we now have in ,great ,britain and ,ireland #ac1bhi miles of railway4 ,the total capital paid in #ahfe was #dee1dgh1jjj1 and this has largely increased since then4 ,an idea may be formed of the difference of the rate of speed in travelling effected1 both before and after the introduction of railways1 by such facts as the following3--,two hundred years ago1 ,king ,james's groom rode six days in succession between ,london and ,york1 and a wonderful feat it was deemed2 whilst now1 the same distance is performed in five hours4 ,about #agee to #agfj1 the ,london and ,edinburgh coach was advertised to run between these cities in fourteen days in summer1 and sixteen in winter1 resting one ,sunday on the road4 ,so much for the growing desire for speedy intercourse for mind and body4 ,suez ,canal4--,there is an all-absorbing topic now before the public1 and it is one that brings strikingly before us the thirst for communication of both body and mind to and from distant parts of our globe4 ,it is one of deep importance to all who take an interest in the advancement of science--,i mean the ,suez ,canal4 ,the ,red ,sea cannot but be familiar to us all--a sea of the most profound interest1 for there did the mighty ,jehovah work one of ,his most stupendous miracles1 when ,he brought the children of ,israel out of ,egypt1 and at the same time destroyed ,pharaoh and all his host4 ,but in how different a manner did the ,lord work6 ,by a word ,he caused the waters to go back1 leaving a wall on the right hand and on the left1 so that the people of ,israel went through on dry land4 ,this was not all4 ,were not ,his chosen people accompanied by a pillar of fire to give light in the night season1 and a cloud of thick darkness to prevent the ,egyptians coming near them during the day8 ,does not this show that ,his mercy is over all ,his works8 ,for after ,he had brought out ,his people with joy1 and ,his chosen with gladness1 ,he overthrew their enemies in the sea--in the same place where ,he had performed such wonders for the preservation of ,his people4 ,often has the spot been crossed by our steamers2 and though some may1 and ,i trust do1 bring to mind the stupendous miracle1 yet it1 like many other thing's1 is regarded as a matter gone by4 ,here now we have the ,red ,sea brought under our notice in a most striking manner1 and one that leads us not only to feel the greatness of the power of man over material things1 but ,i trust it may also lead us to see our littleness when compared with ,him who made us4 ,we1 that is the nations which brought about this great canal1 have had to spend years and vast sums of money to carry out the end aimed at1 and under the ,divine aid it has been brought to a successful termination4 ,but see what ,god did6 ,did the ,almighty consult engineers1 or take soundings and levels1 or ask the laws of ,nature if ,he could or would succeed8 ,nay1--one word was enough4 ,he spake1 and that was sufficient--the waters stood up in a heap4 ,we1 however1 have succeeded in bringing the ,red ,sea and the ,mediterranean into connection with each other--an achievement that strongly shows the determination of man4 ,it is a boon1 indeed1 to the commerce of this country1 and ,i hope also of many others1 as by enabling ships to pass through1 the transhipment of cargo is now done away with1 and the distance to the other side of the globe reduced to its minimum4 ,engineers may truly be proud of the day that brought this great and noble work to a completion2 and ,i trust they will thank the ,lord who hath crowned their strenuous efforts with success4 ,books4--,having got thus far as regards the conveyance of the body1 we must now turn to the communication of the mind1 and the thoughts of one individual as conveyed to another1 and this leads one to speak of books4 ,what are they but the means of communication of the thoughts of great men1 and a distribution of those thoughts for the benefit of their fellows1 by bringing before them matters of interest in the history of our own country and that of others4 ,the great object to be looked to is the selection of our books--the variety is now so great2 and ,i grieve to say 7and ,i think ,i am right7 that the sensational works of the present day have a tendency to lead the mind into a train of thought that is flippant and unsteady1 and ,i would warn young people against them4 ,when we look to such works as those of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,macaulay1 and many others of the same kind1 we find food for the mind1 the benefit of which cannot be over-estimated4 ,printing4--,the spread of knowledge through the world is indeed a boon which cannot be too highly extolled2 but the thoughts of man could not thus have been circulated had it not been for the printing-press4 ,see what science and art have done for us in this most perfect and beautiful machine6 ,when we go only to one example1 the ,times newspaper1 and consider the amount of information it circulates each day through the world1 it strikes one forcibly what man has been allowed and enabled to do for the benefit of himself and his fellow-men4 ,what we have brought the printing-press to1 is shown in #bj1jjj copies of the ,times being thrown off in one hour1 and the advantage it has been to the advancement of literature in our now being able to buy such works as those of ,sir ,walter ,scott for sixpence a volume4 ,having gone so far1 ,i must not detain you for more than a brief period4 ,you have had such an able and interesting course of lectures given by men of high talent1 that little remains for me except to close this course with congratulation to the ,association in being able to procure those individuals to give their valuable time to this desirable object2 for what in life is more interesting than the imparting the knowledge we may possess to others who desire to acquire it1 seeing that there is no way in which moral and social intercourse is more advanced and developed4 ,still1 before closing1 ,i must ask for a short time to go into one or two other subjects4 ,and first1 ,i will take one of the greatest importance to the commerce of this country1 and one that has shown what the mind has done for communicating the thoughts of one person to another at far distant places--,i refer to the telegraph4 ,the land is not only covered with wires1 but even the vast depths of the great ocean are made to minister to our requirements4 ,the world1 we may say1 is encircled with ropes1 and instant communication has been the result4 ,what has achieved these great results but the mind of man applied to science6 ,and see in what a multitude of ways this application of mind has been made to work6 ,what does it bring into play8 ,why1 we have mining to produce the metal to make the wire2 we have the furnace1 hammers1 and wire-drawing machines to produce the wire from the raw material4 ,we have the forest then to go to for gutta-percha1 for land poles1 and for tar to preserve the cables4 ,we have the farmer for our hemp4 ,we have the chemist1 we have the electrician1 we have the steamer1 and a great number of other requisites before the silent but unerring voice of the needle brings the thoughts of one man in ,america to another in this town in an instant of time4 ,accidents and mistakes will occur in the best-regulated works of all kinds1 but ,i hope not often4 ,one as to the telegraph ,i must tell that happened during the ,indian ,mutiny4 ,the message meant to say that ,the general won't act1 and the troops have no head4 ,the transformation was curious1 namely1 ,the general won't eat1 and the troops have cut off his head4 ,if men would only consider well this grand achievement1 they would be led indeed to say and feel1 with all humility and thankfulness1 that ,god has truly given him dominion over the works of ,his hands1 and has put all things in subjection under his feet4 ,i had almost forgotten one other point of communication for mind1 and1 though at the risk of trying your patience1 ,i must mention it1 as its increase has been so large1 and its advantages so manifold and untold4 ,i mean the penny-postage4 ,i am not going to enter into it at any length1 but the increase of correspondence has been so large1 that ,sir ,rowland ,hill's name should not be left out of a lecture treating on subjects such as this one is intended to do4 ,i will content myself by merely telling the increase of correspondence1 and leave you to judge for yourselves as to its benefits4 ,the number of letters in #ahci1 before the penny-postage1 was #hb1dgj1eif1 and in #ahff it was #eig1bgg1faf4 ,judge the difference6 ,coming to the results of communication1 ,i have one subject to bring before you1 and as it has shown to such a large extent the benefits of international communication1 ,i trust a few words on it may not be out of place4 ,the subject is the great ,international ,exhibitions that have been held in various countries in the last eighteen years4 ,the first idea of holding such great exhibitions emanated from a man whose name cannot be held in too great estimation by all4 ,few men were gifted with such rare talents as he was1 for there were few subjects1 whether in science1 literature1 or art1 that he was not intimately acquainted with4 ,this man was the late ,prince ,consort4 ,he conceived the idea that if the products of the various countries of the world could be brought together under one roof1 the knowledge these would convey of the machinery1 cultivation1 science1 literature1 and arts practised in the various parts of the globe would tend to stimulate and advance the mind by showing that we had not only ourselves to look to1 but that in a great measure we had to depend on others for the many blessings we now enjoy2 and also lead us to see how needful to our prosperity and comfort is a constant communication with those who can communicate to us that knowledge which otherwise we could not obtain4 ,certainly the results have proved that he was right4 ,could anything have been more interesting or instructive to all than a visit to the ,great ,exhibitions of #ahea or #ahfb1 or that of ,paris in #ahfg4 ,the public interest is at once shown when ,i tell you that #f1jci1aie persons visited the latter1 and the receipts in money were #ejf1ajj4 ,there1 all and every one had before him at a glance the subject most suited to his taste1 with a full description of the country which produced it4 ,from the largest machine1 the heaviest ordnance1 the most brilliant and precious stones1 the finest silks1 lace1 furniture1 carriages1 the greatest luxuries for the table1 and1 in fact1 everything needful for the use of man2--all were there1 and all to be seen and studied by the inquiring mind1 or to be regarded as very wonderful by those who went to the ,exhibition as a sight4 ,few1 ,i venture to say1 ever left these buildings except wiser than when they entered4 ,it could not fail to strike one1 if one only gave it a moment's reflection1 and asked himself1 how has all this been brought about1 but that it was the result of the communication of the minds of certain individuals with those of others1 and by a concentration of the products of various countries to enlighten the mind as to the vast intelligence of the world at large4 ,in conclusion1 ,i feel now that ,i have spoken long enough for any lecture1 though ,i have not by any means exhausted the subject of communication of either past or present2 but ,i should feel grieved if ,i exhausted your patience4 ,all things1 as we well know1 must have an end1 except that life to which we are looking forward and striving to gain1 where we shall cease from our labours and be at rest4 ,we have been endued by our ,maker with thought and mind1 talents to be used for our benefit1 and not wrapped up in a napkin till our ,lord's return1 but to be placed out so as to bring in either the five or the ten talents4 ,and1 as you all know1 we are answerable for the manner in which we employ them4 ,may the result prove that we have used them aright4 ,the progress of means of communication of mind and body have been gradual but steady1 and ,i think may be represented by human life from its childhood to manhood1 as beautifully set forth in the #acth chapter of #ast ,corinthians #aath verse1 where it is said1 ,when ,i was a child1 ,i spake as a child2 ,i understood as a child1 ,i thought as a child2 but when ,i became a man1 ,i put away childish things4 ,is not this very much in keeping with our growth in communication8 ,at first it was small1 and we were content to hear of what others were engaged in without regard to time1 as one day earlier or later was of little consequence4 ,but now we are not children1 but are become men in our interests and thirst for communication with each other4 ,what should we say if we found the ,express1 as was written on the boy's post-bag1 busily engaged in a game of bowls on the road1 regardless of the loss of time or money thereby occasioned8 ,i think we should be inclined to write to the papers4 ,the results of communication are manifold1 and day by day they are brought before us in a manner which shows the untiring wish of man for improvement both in social and commercial interests4 ,these results are strikingly shown in the various subjects ,i have endeavoured to bring before you4 ,each and all of them are subjects for thought4 ,what should we now be without1 ,i may say1 any one of them8 ,a well-regulated mind is the most desirable of all acquirements1 and ,i know no better means of gaining this than by meetings of such institutions as this4 ,here you have intercourse with your friends1 and you can gain from one another by friendly intercourse stores of knowledge1 that to search for as individuals would take away much more time than you could by any means devote1 and at the same time attend to the business of your calling4 ,here you have the means of amusement as well as of gaining sound information1 and ,i trust no one here will ever have cause to regret the day when he came to associate with his friends1 and hear what others could communicate1 for in the multitude of counsellors there is wisdom4 ,,the ,,steam-,,engine4 ,the many varieties of the world's manufactures--one might almost call them wonders--are now so numerous1 that to bring any particular one in a single form before this meeting is a matter of no easy nature4 ,to-night1 however1 ,i have ventured to single out1 and have the pleasure of bringing before you1 the steam-engine1 as the prime mover at present of our workshops and manufactories1 as also the grand motive power of our railways1 now so different from the time when the great ,stephenson was said to be mad1 because he thought it possible to drive a train at fifteen miles an hour4 ,for the first serviceable use of this grand machine we are indebted to the great ,james ,watt4 ,he it was who first wrought it so as to be under the useful and entire control of man1 from what it was in the time of ,hero of ,alexandria1 about #abj years before ,christ4 ,our engineers have1 since ,watt's time1 improved upon it year by year1 till at the present day1 instead of having to go in a mail-coach from ,london to ,edinburgh1 which formerly took fifty hours1 we now go in the express train in ten1 a distance of #dbj miles4 ,if beyond this ten hours1 we grumble1 and ask guards1 porters1 c41 at the various stations1 ,what has made the train so late to-day8 forgetting that just before the railways were first opened1 the great ,stephenson was urged not to say too much as to the supposed power of the locomotive1 in case the cause of railways might be damaged4 ,this was only some forty years ago1 and it shows us how times are changed1 for in the present day we consider thirty miles an hour anything but a fast train4 ,the history of the steam-engine is a subject on which so much has been written in books and magazines now before the public1 that what ,i am about to offer1 though pretending nothing new1 yet ,i hope may be looked upon as containing something useful as well as instructive1 both to the practical and the amateur mechanic4 ,i shall therefore1 in as small a compass as possible1 trace the steam-engine from its first and early stages up to its present perfect state as our grand motive power4 ,the first mention made of the vapour of water1 as formed by the action of heat upon it1 is found to be as far back as #abj ,b4,c41 when one ,hero of ,alexandria employed this vapour for the purpose of driving a machine4 ,it is a well-known fact that when water is brought up to a certain degree of heat1 called the boiling-point1 that it sends forth a vapour1 the elastic properties of which1 when in an open vessel1 are not perceived--as1 for instance1 in a common pan--yet if the vessel is closed or shut up at the top1 you will find that the vapour acquires such a degree of elastic force1 that1 if not allowed to escape by fair means1 it would soon make a way or vent for itself by bursting whatever vessel it was contained in4 ,steam is thus highly elastic1 but when separated from the fluid out of which it is generated1 it does not possess a greater elastic force than the same quantity of air4 ,if1 for example1 a vessel is filled with steam only at #bab1 it may be brought to a red heat without fear of bursting2 but if water is also in the vessel1 each additional quantity of heat causes a fresh quantity of steam to be generated1 which adds its elastic force to that of the steam already in the vessel1 till the constantly accumulating force at last bursts the vessel4 ,this elastic vapour is called steam1 and it is by this that that most beautiful machine1 the steam-engine1 is driven4 ,as you all know1 by this vapour or air--for it is invisible till it loses part of its heat--enormous power is obtained in a small compass1 and the labour of man reduced to nothing compared with former ages4 ,many men laboured to perfect machinery to be worked by this vapour of water1 and many came near the mark2 but it remained for the great ,watt1 at the ,soho ,works1 ,birmingham1 to bring the engine to its useful and working state1 for though discovered as a motive power #abj ,b4,c41 it was yet reserved for this truly great man to be what may be termed the inventor of the steam-engine4 ,in #abj ,b4,c41 ,hero of ,alexandria made a machine to be driven by steam4 ,it consisted of a hollow sphere into which the steam was admitted2 projecting from the sphere were two arms1 from which the steam escaped by three holes on the side of each arm opposite to that of the direction of its revolution1 which1 by removing the power from off the one part of each arm1 caused it to revolve in the direction opposite to that of the hole that allowed the steam to escape4 ,this kind of engine has been for some years in use by ,mr4 ,ruthven of ,edinburgh4 ,there are others who have followed very closely on ,hero's plan in more ways than one2 for instance1 it is the common ,barker's mill1 though with this difference1 that his mill is driven by water instead of steam3 ,avery1 also1 made a steam-engine almost exactly the same4 ,i may here1 perhaps1 just be allowed to mention what a little water and coal will produce1 as it will show at once from whence our power is derived4 ,a pint of water may be evaporated by two ounces of coal2 in its evaporation it swells to #baf gallons of steam1 with a mechanical force equal to raising a weight of thirty-seven tons one foot high4 ,a pound of coal in a locomotive will evaporate about five pints of water1 and in their evaporation these will exert a force equal to drawing two tons on a railway a distance of one mile in two minutes4 ,a train of eighty tons weight will take #bdj passengers and luggage from ,liverpool to ,birmingham and back1 each journey about four and a quarter hours2 this double journey of #aij miles being effected by the combustion of one and a half tons of coke1 worth about twenty-four shillings4 ,to perform the same work by common road would require twenty coaches1 and an establishment of #chjj horses1 with which the journey would be performed each way in about twelve hours1 stoppages included4 ,so much for the advantages of steam4 ,the ,romans are supposed to have had some knowledge of the power of steam4 ,among amusing anecdotes1 showing the knowledge the ancients had of steam1 it is told that ,anthemius1 the architect of ,saint ,sophia1 lived next door to ,zeno4 ,there existed a feud between them1 and to annoy his neighbour1 ,anthemius had some boilers placed in his house containing water1 with a flexible tube which he could pass through a hole in the wall under the floor of ,zeno's dwelling2 he then lit a fire1 which soon caused steam to pass through the tube in such a quantity as to make the floors to heave as if by an earthquake4 ,but to return4 ,we next come to ,blasco de ,garay 7,a4,d4 #aedc71 who proposed to propel a ship by the power of steam4 ,so much cold water seems to have been thrown on his engine1 that it must have condensed all his steam1 as little notice is taken of it except that he got no encouragement4 ,we find that it has also been used by some of the ancients in connection with their deities4 ,rusterich1 one of the ,teutonic gods1 which was found in an excavation1 proves how the priests deceived the people4 ,the head of this one was made of metal and contained a pot of water4 ,the mouth and another hole in the forehead being stopped by wooden plugs1 a fire of charcoal was lighted under this pot of water1 and at length the steam drove out the plugs with a great noise1 and the god was shrouded in a mist of steam which concealed him from his astonished worshippers4 ,in #afbi1 ,giovanni ,branca of ,loretto in ,italy1 an engineer and architect1 proposed to work mills and other machinery by steam blowing against vanes1 much in the same way as water does in turning a wheel4 ,the waste of steam in such a plan is so obvious1 that it is not to be wondered at that it did not produce any great results1 as we all know that the moment we let steam out of his case1 the case is all up with him1 and he dies a natural death4 ,he is a most delicate yet powerful agent1 and requires to be kept warm in all weathers--this fact does not seem to have struck ,mons4 ,branca when he let him out of his boiler4 ,the next person we come to1 and perhaps the first of any note1 is the ,marquis of ,worcester in #affc 7died #affg74 ,he was a man who seems1 as far as history tells us1 to have taken a great interest in furthering the advancement of steam4 ,he was not contented with one invention1 but published a book entitled ,a ,century of ,inventions1 and in this work he describes a means of raising water by the pressure of steam4 ,the ,marquis appears to have been a politician as well as an inventor1 as we find he was engaged on the side of the ,royalists in the ,civil ,wars of the ,revolution1 lost his fortune and went to ,ireland1 where he was imprisoned4 ,escaping to ,france1 from thence he returned to ,london as a secret agent of ,charles ,,ii41 but was detected and imprisoned in the ,tower1 where he remained till the ,restoration1 when he was set at liberty4 ,one day1 while in prison1 he observed the lid of the pot in which his dinner was being prepared lifted up by the vapour of the water boiling inside4 ,reflecting on this1 he turned his mind to the matter1 and thought that this vapour1 if rightly applied1 might be made a useful moving power4 ,he thus describes his invention in his #fhth ,article3 ,i have contrived an admirable way to drive up water by fire1 not by drawing or sucking it upwards1 thirty-two feet4 ,but this way hath no bounds1 if the vessels be strong enough4 ,he then goes on to say1 that having a way to make his vessels1 so that they are strengthened by the force within1 ,i have seen the water run like a constant stream forty feet high4 ,one vessel rarified by fire driveth forty of cold water1 and one being consumed1 another begins to force1 and refill with cold water1 and so on successively1 the fire being kept constant4 ,the engineman having only to turn two cocks1 so as to connect the steam with the one or the other vessel4 ,in this engine1 if it can be called an engine1 we see that the ,marquis had a good idea of the power of steam1 but he had none1 you will observe1 as to the action of the condensation which would immediately take place when the steam from the boiler was brought into contact with the cold water to be raised4 ,therefore this plan would be most expensive1 on account of the great loss of steam by condensation4 ,it was1 however1 quite able to produce the effect1 though only equal to raising #bj cubic feet of water1 or #abej lbs41 one foot high by one pound of coal1 or about the two-hundredth part of the effect of a good steam-engine4 ,after this1 of course1 it proved of no avail2 but still we may say that the ,marquis of ,worcester was among the first who tried to make1 and did do so1 steam a moving power4 ,our next is ,denys ,papin 7died #agaj71 a native of ,blois1 in ,france1 who was mathematical professor at ,marpurg4 ,to him is due the discovery of one of the qualities of steam--its condensation1 so as to produce a vacuum1 to the proper management of which our modern engines owe much of their efficacy4 ,papin seems to have been the first who conserved the idea of the cylinder and piston1 which he made to act on atmospheric principles--that is to say1 he took a cylinder with a piston moving up and down in it1 and found that by removing the air from under the piston in the cylinder1 that the pressure of the atmosphere would drive it down to the bottom of the cylinder3 this he performed by admitting steam1 and then condensing it rapidly1 so causing the required vacuum4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere is as near as may be #af lbs4 on every square inch of surface on the globe3 this is obviously the weight of the columns of air extending from that square inch of surface upwards to the top of the atmosphere4 ,this force is thus measured3 ,take a glass tube #cb inches long1 open at one end and closed at the other2 provide also a basin full of mercury2 let the tube be filled with mercury and inverted into the basin4 ,the mercury will then fall in the tube1 till it gets to that height which the atmosphere will sustain4 ,this is nothing more than the barometer used in all our houses4 ,if the action of the tube be equal to a square inch1 the weight of the column of mercury in the tube would be exactly equal to the weight of the atmosphere on each square inch of surface4 ,thus ,papin discovered a great step in the steam-engine1 though it was not much acted on for some years2 he was also the first who proposed to drive ships with paddles worked by steam4 ,we now come to ,thomas ,savory1 who got a patent in #afih for a method of condensing steam to form a vacuum4 ,savory describes his discovery in this way3--,having drank a flask of wine at a tavern1 he flung the empty flask on the fire1 and then called for a basin of water to wash his hands4 ,a little wine remained in the flask1 which of course soon boiled1 and it occurred to him to try what effect would be produced by putting the mouth of the flask into the cold water4 ,he did this1 and in a moment the cold water rushed up and filled the flask1 this being caused by the steam being condensed and leaving a vacuum1 which ,nature abhors1 and rather than permit this the water rushed up and took the place formerly occupied by the now condensed steam4 ,we see by this in how simple a way great ends are produced1 and in the age in which this happened1 the result may be indeed be said to have produced a great end4 ,the engine of ,savory was used for some years as a machine to raise water4 ,the principle of his engine was just as ,i have stated1 and consisted of two cases and other various parts1 and this engine possessed advantages over that of the ,marquis of ,worcester in sucking up the water as well as forcing4 ,savory's engine consisted of two steam vessels connected to a boiler by tubes2 a suction pipe1 or that pipe which leads from a pump of the present day to the well1 and communicating with each of the steam vessels by valves opening upwards2 a pipe going from these steam vessels to any required height to which the water is to be raised4 ,the steam vessels were connected to this pipe by other valves1 also opening upwards1 and by pipes4 ,over the steam vessels was placed a cistern1 which was kept filled with cold water4 ,from this proceeded a pipe with a stopcock4 ,this cistern was termed the condensing cistern1 and the pipe could be brought over each steam vessel alternately from the boiler4 ,now1 suppose the tubes to be filled with common air1 and the regulator placed so that one tube and the boiler are made to communicate1 and the other tube and the boiler closed1 steam will fill one of the steam vessels through one tube2 at first it will condense quickly1 but erelong the heat of the steam will impart its heat to the metal of the vessel1 and it will cease to condense4 ,mixed with the heated air1 it will acquire a greater force than the air outside the valve1 which it will force open1 and drive out the mixture of air and steam1 till all the air will have passed from the vessel1 and nothing but the vapour of water remain4 ,this done1 a cock is opened1 and the water from the cistern is allowed to flow over the outside of the steam vessel1 first having stopped the further supply of steam from it2 this produced the immediate condensation of the steam contained in it1 by the temperature being brought down again by the cold water1 and the condensation thus produced caused a vacuum inside the vessel4 ,the valve will then be kept closed by the atmosphere outside1 and the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the well or reservoir will open another valve1 force the water up the pipe1 till1 after one or two exhaustions--if ,i may so term it--it will at last reach the second vessel4 ,thus far the atmosphere has done all the work1 but at last the water fills the vessel1 and then comes the forcing point4 ,now the power of the steam itself is used to drive the water up the pipe4 ,the steam is again let into the vessel1 now filled in whole1 or at least in great part1 with water2 at first it will1 as before1 condense rapidly1 but soon the surface of the water will get heated1 and as hot water is lighter than cold1 it will keep on the surface1 and the pressure of the steam from the boiler will drive all the water from the vessel up the pipe4 ,when it is empty the cock is again opened1 and the steam1 which the vessel by this time only contains1 is again condensed1 and the same process which ,i have just described is again commenced and carried out1 thus making ,savory's engine a complete pump by the aid of the vapour of water as raised by fire4 ,savory had the honour of showing this engine to ,his ,majesty ,william ,,iii4 at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 and to the ,royal ,society4 ,he proposed the following uses1 which perhaps may as well be mentioned1 as they show how little was then known of the real value of the power of steam3--#a4 ,to raise water to drive mill-wheels--fancy erecting a steam engine now1 of say fifty horse-power1 to raise water to turn a wheel of say thirty2 #b4 ,to supply palaces and houses with water2 #c4 ,towns with water2 #d4 ,draining marshes2 #e4 ,ships2 #f4 ,draining mines4 ,there is one more thing ,i may mention as curious1 that though the steam he used must have been of a high pressure1 he did not use a safety-valve1 though it had been invented about the year #afha by ,papin4 ,the consumption of fuel was enormous in ,savory's engine1 as may easily be perceived from the great loss of steam by condensation4 ,nevertheless1 it was on the whole a good and a workable engine1 as we find the following said of it by ,mr4 ,farey3--,when comparison is made between ,captain ,savory's engine and those of his predecessors1 the result will be favourable to him as an inventor and practical engineer4 ,all the details of his invention are made out in a masterly style1 so as to make it a real workable engine4 ,his predecessors1 the ,marquis of ,worcester1 ,sir ,s4 ,morland1 ,papin1 and others1 only produced outlines which required to be filled up to make them workable4 ,i must not detain you much longer before ,i proceed to the great ,watt1 but ,i will just name ,newcomen1 who invented an engine with a cylinder1 and introduced a beam1 to the other end of which he fixed a pump rod like a common or garden pump4 ,he made the weight of the pump and beam to lift the piston1 and then let the steam enter below the piston and condensed it by a jet of water1 thus causing a vacuum1 when the pressure of the atmosphere drove the piston from the top to the bottom of the cylinder and lifted the pump rods in the usual way4 ,there were various cocks to be opened and shut in the working of this engine for the right admission of steam and water at the required moments1 a task which was performed by boys who were termed cock-boys4 ,i will now mention an instance which1 though in practice not to be imitated1 yet was one of those happy accidents which sometimes turn out for the best4 ,one of these boys1 like many1 more fond of play than work1 got tired of turning these cocks day by day1 and conceived the idea of making the engine do it for itself4 ,this idle boy--we will not call him good-for-nothing1 as he proved good for a great deal in one way--was named ,humphrey ,potter1 and one day he fixed strings to the beam1 which opened and shut the valves1 and so allowed him to play1 little thinking this was one of the greatest boons he could possibly have bestowed on the world at large1 for by so doing he rendered the steam-engine a self-acting machine4 ,we now come to a period which was destined to advance the cause of steam to a far greater extent--in fact1 the time which rendered the steam-engine the useful and valuable machine it now is4 ,this is the time of ,james ,watt4 ,this great man1 be it said to the credit of ,scotland1 was born in ,greenock1 on the ,clyde1 on the #aith ,january #agcf4 ,his grandfather was a farmer in ,aberdeenshire1 and was killed in one of the battles of ,montrose4 ,his father was a teacher of mathematics1 and was latterly chief magistrate of ,greenock4 ,james ,watt1 the celebrated man of whom ,i now speak1 was a very delicate boy1 so much so1 that he had to leave school on account of his health1 and was allowed to amuse himself as he liked4 ,this he did in a scientific way1 however1 as an aunt of his said to him one day3 ,do you know what you have been doing8 ,you have taken off and put on the lid of the teapot repeatedly2 you have been holding spoons and saucers over the steam1 and trying to catch the drops of water formed on them by it4 ,is it not a shame so to waste your time8 ,mrs4 ,muirhead1 his aunt1 was little aware that this was the first experiment in the way which afterwards immortalised her nephew4 ,in #agge ,watt was sent to ,london to a mathematical instrument maker1 but could not stay on account of his health1 and soon afterwards came back to ,glasgow4 ,he then got rooms in the ,college1 and was made mathematical instrument maker to the ,university1 and he afterwards opened a shop in the town4 ,he was but twenty-one years of age when he was appointed to this post in the ,college1 and his shop became the lounge of the clever and the scientific4 ,the first time that his attention was directed to the agency of steam as a power was in #agcd1 when a friend of his1 ,mr4 ,robinson1 who had some idea of steam carriages1 consulted him on the subject1--little is said of this1 however4 ,in #agfb ,watt tried some experiments on high-pressure steam1 and made a model to show how motion could be obtained from that power2 but did not pursue his experiments on account of the supposed danger of such pressure4 ,he next had a model of ,newcomen's engine1 which would not work well1 sent him to repair4 ,watt soon found out its faults1 and made it work as it should do4 ,this did not satisfy him1 and setting his active mind to work1 he found in the model that the steam which raised the piston had of course to be got rid of4 ,this1 as a natural consequence1 caused great loss of heat1 as the cylinder had to be cooled so as to condense the steam2 and this led him at last1 after various plans1 to adopt a separate vessel to condense this steam4 ,of course1 if you wish to save fuel1 it is necessary that the steam should enter a heated cylinder or other vessel1 or else all the steam is lost1--or in other words1 condensed1--that enters it1 until it has from its own heat imparted so much to the cylinder as to raise it to its own temperature1 when it will no longer condense1 and not till then does it begin to exert its elastic power to produce motion4 ,this was the great object gained by ,james ,watt1 when1 after various experiments1 he gave up the idea altogether of condensing steam in its own or working cylinder1 and then made use of a separate vessel1 now called the condenser4 ,the weight of steam is about #ahjj times less than water4 ,i may here perhaps mention also that water will boil at #ajj degrees ,fahr4 in vacuo1 whereas in atmosphere it takes #bab degrees to boil4 ,there is also a thing perhaps worth knowing to all who wish to get the most stock out of bones1 c41 that if they are boiled in a closed vessel1 that is to say1 under a pressure of steam1 a very large increase in quantity of the stock will be produced1 because the heat is increased4 ,a cubic inch of water1 evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure1 will be converted into a cubic foot of steam2 and a cubic inch of water1 evaporated as above1 gives a mechanical force equal to raising about a ton a foot high4 ,the next great improvement of ,watt1 in addition to the condenser1 is the air-pump1 the use and absolute necessity for which you will understand when ,i explain its action4 ,watt first used it for his atmospheric engine4 ,the piston of this engine was kept tight by a flow of oil and water on the top1 which tended to make the whole a troublesome and bad-working machine4 ,the cold atmosphere1 as the piston went down1 of course followed it and cooled the cylinder4 ,on the piston again rising1 some steam would of course be condensed and cause waste4 ,if the engine-room could be kept at the heat of boiling water1 this would not have been the case1 but the engineman who could live in this heat would also require to be invented1 and so this had to be given up4 ,watt's next and most important step was the one which brings us to talk of the steam-engine as it now is in the present day4 ,this important step was the idea1 of making the steam draw down the piston1 as well as help to drive it up2 in the first engines it was raised by the beam1 and steam used only to cause a vacuum1 so as to let the air drive it down4 ,all before this had been merely steps in advance1 like those of children1 who must walk before they can run2 so was it with the steam-engine4 ,it was uphill work for many years1 and the top of the hill cannot be said to have been readied till ,watt worked out this grand idea4 ,the first engine could only be called atmospheric2 now it was destined to become in reality a steam-engine4 ,time would fail were ,i to attempt to go into any details of all the experiments through which ,watt toiled to bring his ideas to perfection--enough to say that he did so2 and ,i trust you will be able1 through the description ,i will endeavour to give1 to understand how well his labour was bestowed1 and how beautiful the result has proved for the benefit of the world at large4 ,in #aggc1 ,watt removed to ,soho1 near ,birmingham1 where a part of the works was allotted to him to erect the machinery necessary to carry out his inventions on a grand scale4 ,we must now proceed to some of the useful points of the engine1 all ,i have before mentioned simply relating to the inventors and improvers2 but having brought it so far1 ,i may now1 ,i think1 proceed further4 ,the first use of the steam-engine was simply to raise water from mines1 and for long it was thought it could be used for nothing else2 so much so1 that it was at one time used to raise water to turn wheels and thus produce motion4 ,one of its first uses after it became a really useful machine was to propel ships1 though many a weary hour was spent to bring it to this point4 ,there is a very pretty monument on the ,clyde1 dedicated to ,mr4 ,bell1 who ,i believe was the first person who successfully brought steamers to work on its waters4 ,the first who used steam for ships was ,mr4 ,james ,taylor1 in conjunction with ,mr4 ,miller of ,dalswinton4 ,the danger of the fire-ship took such hold on people's minds that it was with great toil and difficulty they were persuaded to venture on the face of the waters in such dangerous and unseamanlike craft4 ,but go to ,glasgow ,bridge any day1 and you will see how time has overcome fear and prejudice1 for our ocean is covered with steamers of all sizes4 ,it is not many years ago since it was said that steamers could never reach ,america2 this has given way to proof1 and even ,australia has been reached by steam4 ,i know of a steamer building which could carry the whole population of this place and not be full2 she is #fhj feet or #bbf yards long1 and a large vessel would hang like a boat alongside her4 ,the first attempt at giving motion by steam to ships was of course only in one way--by a ratchet at the end of a beam1 at one moment driving and the next standing still4 ,this was on account of the engine being only in power one half of the stroke2 but by the double-acting engine being introduced1 and the steam acting both ways1 it became at last a steady mover 7without the aid of two or three cylinders1 as in the first engines1 one to take up the other as the power was given off71 by a ratchet on the end of a beam or else a chain4 ,this acted on the shaft which moved the paddles4 ,it is to ,watt that we are indebted for the crank and direct action1 so as to give a circular motion to the wheels4 ,we find in #ageb a ,mr4 ,champion of ,bristol applied the atmospheric engine to raise water to drive a number of wheels for working machinery in a brasswork1 in other words1 a foundry4 ,also1 in ,colebrokedale1 steam-engines were used to raise water that had passed over the wheel1 so as to save water4 ,all these plans have1 however1 now passed by1 like the water over the wheel1 and we now have the engine the prime mover--the double action of the steam on the piston1 this acting on the sway beam1 and the beam on the crank1 which1 by the assistance of the fly-wheel on land or fixed engines1 gives a uniform motion to the machine4 ,all these have now enabled us to apply the engine as our grand moving power4 ,one great and important point in the engine is the governor1 and the first modes of changing the steam from the top to the bottom of the cylinder were cumbrous1 till the excentric wheel was devised4 ,boilers also have to be attended to--these were at first rude and now would be useless4 ,they were unprovided with valves1 gauge-cocks1 or any other safety1 all of which are now so well understood that nothing but carelessness can cause a blow-up4 ,one of the greatest causes of danger is that of letting there be too little water in the boiler1 and thus allowing it to get red-hot1 when1 if you let in water1 such a volume of steam is generated that no valve will let it escape fast enough4 ,force or feed pumps are also required to keep the water in the boiler at a proper height1 which is ascertained by the gauge-cocks4 ,mercury gauges for low pressure act according to the pressure of the atmosphere2 high-pressure boilers of course require a different construction1 as the steam is greater in pressure than the air4 ,having got so far in my subject1 ,i think before concluding ,i must devote a short time in showing the first steps of the locomotive2 the more so1 as ,i am speaking to those who are so largely engaged in the daily working of that now beautifully perfect machine4 ,various and for a time unsuccessful experiments were made to bring out a machinery or travelling engine1 as it was first called4 ,a patent was taken by a ,mr4 ,trevethick for a locomotive to run on common roads1 and to a certain extent it did work4 ,an amusing anecdote is told of it4 ,in coming up to a toll-gate1 the gatekeeper1 almost frightened out of his seven senses1 opened the gate wide for the monster1 as he thought1 and on being asked what was to pay1 said ,na-na-na-na6 ,what have we got to pay8 was again asked4 ,no-noth-nothing to pay1 my dear ,mr4 ,devil2 do drive on as fast as you can6 ,this1 one of the first steam carriages1 reached ,london in safety1 and was exhibited in the square where the large station of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway now stands4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy took great interest in it1 and1 in writing to a friend1 said3 ,i shall hope soon to see ,english roads the haunts of ,captain ,trevethick's dragons4 ,the badness of roads1 however1 prevented its coming into general use4 ,trevethick in #ahjd constructed a locomotive for the ,merthyr and ,tydvil ,rail in ,south ,wales1 which succeeded in drawing ten tons at five miles an hour4 ,the boiler was of cast-iron1 with a one-cylinder engine1 spur gear and a fly-wheel on one side4 ,he sent the waste steam into the chimney1 and by this means was very nearly arriving at the blast-pipe1 afterwards the great and important discovery of ,george ,stephenson4 ,the jumping motion on the bad roads1 however1 caused it constantly to be dismounted1 and it was given up as a practical failure1 being sent to work a large pump at a mine4 ,trevethick was satisfied with a few experiments1 and then gave it up for what he thought more profitable speculations1 and no further advances were made in locomotives for some years4 ,an imaginary difficulty seems to have been among the obstacles to its progress4 ,this was the supposition that if a heavy weight were to be drawn1 the grip or bite of the wheels would not be sufficient1 but that they would turn round and leave the engines stationary1 hence ,trevethick made his wheels with cogs1 which of course tended to cause great jolts1 as well as being destructive to the cast-iron rails4 ,a ,mr4 ,blenkinsop of ,leeds patented in #ahaa a locomotive with a racked or toothed rail4 ,it was supported on four wheels1 but they did not drive the engine2 its two cylinders were connected to one wheel behind1 which was toothed and worked in the cog-rail1 and so drove the engine4 ,it began running on ,middleton ,coal ,rail to ,leeds1 three and a quarter miles1 on the #abth ,august #ahab1 and continued a great curiosity to strangers for some years4 ,in #ahaf the ,grand ,duke ,nicholas of ,russia saw this engine working with great interest and expressions of no slight admiration4 ,an engine then took thirty coal-waggons at three and a quarter miles in an hour4 ,we next come to ,messrs4 ,chapman of ,newcastle1 who in #ahab tried to overcome the supposed want of adhesion by a chain fixed at the ends of the line and wound round a grooved drum driven by the engine4 ,it was tried on the ,heaton ,rail near ,newcastle1 but was found to be so clumsy that it was soon abandoned4 ,the next was a remarkable contrivance--a mechanical traveller to go on legs4 ,it never got beyond its experimental state1 and unfortunately blew up1 killing several people4 ,all these plans show how lively an interest was then being taken in endeavouring to bring out a good working locomotive4 ,mr4 ,blackett1 however1 persevered hard to perfect a railway system1 and to work it by locomotives4 ,the ,wylam waggon-way1 one of the oldest in the ,north1 was made of wooden rails down to #ahjg1 and went to the shipping-place for coals on the ,tyne4 ,each chaldron-waggon was originally drawn by a horse with a man in charge1 only making two journeys in the one day and three on the following1 the man being allowed sevenpence for each journey4 ,this primitive railway passed before the cottage where ,george ,stephenson was born1 and was consequently one of the first sights his infant eyes beheld2 and little did his parents think what their child was destined to work out in his day for the advancement of railways4 ,mr4 ,blackett took up the wood and laid an iron plate-way in #ahjh1 and in #ahab he ordered an engine on ,trevetbick's principle4 ,it was a very awkward one1 had only one cylinder of six inches diameter1 with a fly-wheel2 the boiler was cast-iron1 and was described by the man who had charge of it as having lots of pumps1 cog-wheels1 and plugs4 ,it was placed on a wooden frame with four wheels1 and had a barrel of water on another carriage to serve as a tender4 ,it was at last got on the road1 but would not move an inch1 and her driver says3--,she flew all to pieces1 and it was the biggest wonder we were not all blown up4 ,mr4 ,blackett persevered1 and had another engine1 which did its work much better1 though it often broke down1 till at length the workmen declared it a perfect plague4 ,a good story is told of this engine by a traveller1 who1 not knowing of its existence1 said1 after an encounter with the ,newcastle monster working its great piston1 like a huge arm1 up and down1 and throwing out smoke and fire1 that he had just encountered a terrible deevil on the ,hight ,street road4 ,we now come to ,george ,stephenson1 who did for the locomotive what ,watt did for our other steam-engines4 ,his first engine had two vertical cylinders of eight inches diameter and two-feet stroke1 working by cross-heads2 the power was given off by spur-wheels2 it had no springs1 consequently it jolted very much on the then bad railways2 the wheels were all smooth1 as ,stephenson was sure the adhesion would be sufficient4 ,it began work on the #beth ,july #ahad1 went up a gradient of one in #dej1 and took eight waggons with #cj tons at four miles an hour4 ,it was by far the most successful engine that had yet been made4 ,the next and most valuable improvement of ,stephenson was the blast-pipe--by its means the slow combustion of the fire was at once overcome1 and steam obtained to any amount4 ,this pipe was the result of careful observation and great thought4 ,his next engine had horizontal connecting rods1 and was the type of the present perfect machine4 ,this truly great man did not rest here1 but time would fail1 as well as your patience1 if ,i were to proceed further4 ,enough to say1 that he afterwards established a manufactory at ,newcastle1 and time has shown the result and benefit it has proved to the whole world at large4 ,a short time before the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway was opened1 ,stephenson was laughed at because he said he thought he could go thirty miles an hour1 and was urged before the ,house of ,commons not to say so1 as he might be thought to be mad4 ,this ,i have from person who knew the circumstances4 ,nevertheless1 at the trial1 ,i believe the ,rocket did go at the rate of thirty miles an hour1 to the not small astonishment of the world1 and especially to the unbelievers in steam as a land agent4 ,the stipulation made was that trains were to be conveyed at the rate of twelve miles an hour4 ,in our present perfect engines1 the coke or fuel consumed per mile is about #ah lbs4 with a train of #ajj tons gross weight1 carrying #bej passengers4 ,a first-class carriage weighs #f tons #aj cwts42 a second-class1 #e tons #aj cwts41 each with passengers2 a ,pullman car weighs about #cj tons4 ,our steamers consume #e lbs4 of coal per horse-power in one hour4 ,and last1 not least1 one of the greatest improvements we have had in steam propulsion is the screw4 ,again1 ,i may also name the great advantage derived from steam by our farmers in thrashing out grain4 ,the engines principally used in farm-work are what are termed high-pressure1 or of the same class as the locomotive4 ,the great saving in cost in the first place1 the simplicity and ease of action in the second1 and the small quantity of water required to keep them in action1 are all reasons why they should be preferred4 ,the danger in the one1 that is1 the high-pressure1 over the condenser1 is very small1 and all that is required is common care to guard against accidents4 ,steam being a steady power1 is much to be preferred to water1 as by its constant and uniform action the tear and wear of machinery is much diminished1 and of course proportionate saving made in keeping up the mill or any other machinery4 ,having now1 to the best of my power1 so far as a single lecture will permit1 brought the steam-engine from #abj ,b4,c4 to the present time1 it only remains for me to say1 that it shows how actively the mind of man has been permitted to work to bring it to perfection by the direction of an all-wise ,providence1 who knows our necessities before we ask1 and our ignorance in asking4 ,a traveller by rail sees but little of the vast and difficult character of the works over which he is carried with such ease and comfort4 ,time is his great object4 ,no age of the world has conquered such difficulties as our engineers have had to deal with1 and the result is now before the eye of every thinking traveller4 ,our engineers were at first self-taught1 and many a self-taught man has had reason to rejoice in the time he spent in his education4 ,of these men we have examples in ,brindley1 who was at first a labourer and afterwards a millwright2 ,telford was a stone-mason2 ,rennie a farmer's son apprenticed to a millwright2 and ,george ,stephenson was a brakesman at a colliery4 ,perseverance with genius1 and a determination to overcome1 made them the great men they were4 ,that you may so persevere and strive is the earnest wish of him who has this evening had the great pleasure of giving you this lecture1 and who feels so greatly obliged to you for the very patient hearing you have given him4 ,,on ,,attraction4,b ,gravitation4--,attraction1 which may be illustrated by the effect a magnet has on a piece of iron1 may be viewed generally as an influence which two bodies1 say1 exert on each other1 under which1 though at a distance1 they tend to move towards each other till they come into contact4 ,the force by which a body has weight1 and1 when free1 falls to the ground1 is of this nature2 and it is called1 from gravis1 heavy1 the gravitating force of the earth1 because it causes weight1 and because1 though emanating in a small degree from the falling body1 it is mainly exerted by the earth itself4 ,it is under the action of gravity that a pendulum oscillates3 it is by that unseen influence it begins to sway alternately downward and upward as soon as it is moved to a side2 and it is only because it is withheld by the rod that the ball or bob keeps traversing the arc of a circle and does not fall straight to the earth4 ,all material substances1 however small1 and however light1 buoyant1 and ethereal they may seem1 are subject to this force3 the tiniest speck in a sunbeam and the most volatile vapour1 equally with the heaviest metal and the hugest block1 the particles of bodies as well as the bodies themselves4 ,the rising of a balloon in the air may seem an exception to this law2 but it is not so2 for the balloon rises1 not because the particles of the gas with which it is inflated are not acted upon by the earth's attraction1 but because the air outside being bulk for bulk heavier than the air inside1 its particles press in below the balloon and buoy it up1 until it reaches a stratum of the atmosphere where1 the pressure being less1 the air outside is no heavier than the air within--a fact which rather proves than disproves the universal action of gravitation2 because the greater weight of the air in the lower strata of the atmosphere is due to the pressure of the air in those above1 and the balloon ceases to ascend because it has reached a point where the air outside is the same weight as the air within1 and the weight in both cases is caused by the attraction of the earth4 ,and not only is the force of attraction universal1 it is the same for every particle2 for though this may seem to be contradicted by the fact that some bodies fall faster to the ground than others1 that fact is fully accounted for by the greater resistance which the air offers to the falling of lighter bodies than to the falling of heavier4 ,a particles of bodies1 and all bodies1 tend to fall with the same velocity1 and1 in fact1 all do2 for though1 for the reason just stated1 a feather will take longer to reach the ground than an ounce of lead1 an ounce of lead will fall as fast as a hundredweight4 ,and that it is the resistance of the air1 and not any diminution in the power of attraction1 which causes the feather to lag behind1 may be proved by experiment2 for if you let a feather and a coin drop together from the top of the exhausted receiver of an air-pump1 they will both be seen to descend at the same rate1 and reach the bottom at the same instant2 a fact which may be demonstrated more simply by placing the coin and feather free of each other in a paper cone1 and letting the cone fall with its apex downwards1 so as to break the air's resistance2 or by suspending a piece of gold-leaf in a bottle1 and letting the bottle drop--of course short of the ground--in which case the included leaf will be seen to have gone as fast and as far as the bottle4 ,it is to be especially noticed that attraction is no lopsided affair2 that it is mutual2 that1 while the larger body attracts the less1 the less also attracts and moves the larger in proportion2 and that1 indeed1 every body and every particle attracts every other1 far as well as near1 to the utmost verge of the universe of matter4 ,under it the moon maintains its place with reference to the earth1 the planets with reference to the sun1 and the solar system with reference to the stellar4 ,as for the moon1 it maintains its orbit and revolves round the earth under the action of two forces1 the one akin to that by which a ball is projected from the mouth of a cannon1 and the other the attraction of the earth1 which1 by its constant and equal operation1 bends its otherwise rectilineal track into a circular one1 as we might show if we could only project a ball with such a force as exactly to balance the power of gravity1 so that it would at no point in its course be drawn nearer the earth than at starting4 ,that the force we are considering pervades the solar system is demonstrable1 for it is on the supposition of it and the laws it is known to obey that all the calculations of astronomy--and they never miscarry--are grounded2 and it is by noticing disturbances in the otherwise regular movements of certain planets that astronomers have been led more than once to infer and discover the presence of some hitherto unknown body in the neighbourhood4 ,it was actually thus the planet ,neptune was discovered in #ahdf4 ,certain irregularities had been observed in the movements of ,uranus1 which could not be accounted for by the influence of any other bodies known to be near it2 and these irregularities1 being carefully watched and studied1 gradually led more than one astronomer first to the whereabouts1 and then to the vision of the disturbing planet4 ,notwithstanding what we said about the universality of this force1 and how it affects all forms of matter1 it may still appear as if the air were an exception4 ,but it is not so2 the air also gravitates4 ,the fact that it gravitates is proved in various ways4 ,first1 if it did not1 it would not accompany the earth in its movements round the sun2 the earth would sweep along into space1 and leave it behind it4 ,secondly1 if we place a bottle from which the air is exhausted in a balance and exactly poise it with a counter-weight1 and then open it and let in the air1 it will show at once that the air has weight or gravitates by immediately descending4 ,thirdly1 if we extend a piece of india-rubber over the end of a vessel and begin to withdraw the air from it1 we shall see the india-rubber sink in1 under the pressure of the air outside1 to fill up the space left vacant by the removal of the included air4 ,the fact that air gravitates we have already taken for granted in explaining the ascent of a balloon2 and the proofs now given are enough to show that the cause assumed is a real one4 ,the lighter gas rises and the heavier sinks by law of gravitation4 ,gravitation and ,cohesion4--,unlike the attraction of aggregation1 or cohesion1 which acts only between particles separated from each other by spaces that are imperceptible1 gravitation takes effect at distances which transcend conception1 but it diminishes in force as the distance increases4 ,the law according to which it does so is expressed thus2 its intensity decreases with the square of the distance2 that is to say1 at twice the original distance it is #a-dth2 at thrice1 #a-ith2 at four times1 #a-afth1 for #d1 #i1 #af are the squares respectively of #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,to take an instance1 a ball which weighs #add lb4 at the surface of the earth will weigh #a-dth of that1 or #cf lb41 when it is twice as far from the centre as it is at the surface2 and #a-ith1 or #af lb4 when it is thrice as far2 and #a-afth1 or #i lb4 when it is four times as far4 ,the attraction of cohesion1 on the other hand1 as we say1 acts only when the particles seem almost in contact1 and it ceases altogether when once1 by mechanical or other means1 the bond is broken1 in consequence of the particles being forced too near1 or sundered too far from1 one another4 ,one distinguishing difference between the attraction of gravitation and that of cohesion is1 that whereas the former is uniform1 the latter is variable2 that is1 under gravitation the attraction of any one particle to any other is the same1 but under cohesion1 some sets of particles are more forcibly drawn together than others4 ,for instance1 a particle of iron and a particle of cork gravitate equally1 but particles of iron and particles of cork among themselves do not cohere equally4 ,and it is just because those of the former cohere more than those of the latter1 that a piece of iron feels harder and weighs heavier than a piece of cork4 ,further1 the attraction of gravitation is unaffected by change in the condition of bodies1 while that of cohesion is4 ,it makes nothing to gravitation whether a piece of metal is as cold as ice1 or heated with a sevenfold heat4 ,not so to the power of cohesion2 withdraw heat1 and the particles under cohesion cling closer2 add it1 and both the spaces grow wider and the attraction feebler4 ,thus1 for example1 you may suspend a weight by a piece of copper-wire1 and the wire not break4 ,but apply heat to the wire1 and its cohesion will be lessened2 the force of gravitation will overpower it1 rupture the wire1 and cause the weight to fall4 ,cohesion4--,that the action of the attraction of cohesion depends on the contiguity of the particles in the cohering body1 may be shown by an illustration4 ,take a ball of lead1 divide it into two hemispheres1 smooth the surfaces of section1 then press them together1 and you will find it requires some force to separate them2 thus proving the dependence of cohesion on contiguity1 although the effect in this case may be due in some degree to the pressure of the atmosphere as well as the power of cohesion4 ,heat is the principal agent in inducing cohesion1 as well as in relaxing its energy2 for by means of it you can weld the hardest as well as the softest substances into one1 and two pieces of iron together1 no less than two pieces of wax4 ,it is possible1 indeed1 by heat to unite two sufficient waxed corks to one another1 so as to be able by means of the one to draw the other out of a bottle3 such1 in this case1 is the force of cohesion induced by heat4 ,the power of cohesion exists between the particles of liquids as well as those of solids1 the only difference being that in solids the particles are relatively fixed1 while in liquids they move freely about one another1 unless indeed when they are attracted to the surface of a solid--a fact we are familiar with when we dip our finger into a vessel of water4 ,the cohesive power of liquids is overcome by heat as well as that of solids1 only to a much greater degree1 for under it they assume a new form1 acquire new properties1 and expand immensely in volume4 ,they pass into the form of vapour1 occupy a thousand times larger area1 and possess an elasticity of compressibility and expansibility they were destitute of before4 ,there is a beautiful phenomenon which accompanies the expansion of ether under the influence of heat4 ,placed in a flask to which heat is applied1 the ether will go off in vapour2 and as the heat increases1 the vapour will gradually light up into a lovely flame4 ,the expansibility of air1 which is vapour in a permanent form1 can be shown by experiment4 ,if we tie up an empty or collapsed bladder1 and place it in a vessel over an air-pump1 we may see1 as we withdraw the air from the vessel1 and so diminish its pressure1 the bladder gradually expand and swell as it does under inflation4 ,the cohesive power of water is beautifully illustrated4 ,have a small barrel or bucket so constructed as to be fitted with gauze at the top2 immerse it exactly1 so that the water may form a film between the meshes1 and then open the tap at the bottom3 the water will not flow till the meshes at the top are broken by blowing on their surface4 ,the adhesion of the particles in a soap-bubble is another illustration1 no less beautiful1 as well as more familiar2 for the soap1 which might be supposed to be the cause of the phenomenon1 serves only to prevent the intrusion of dust between the particles1 but by no means to intensify their attractive power4 ,there are some liquids the adhesiveness of whose particles is so perfect as to bar out the access of air when we strew them on the surface of other liquids2 and on the ,continent it is not uncommon to protect wines against the action of the atmosphere by1 instead of corking the bottle1 simply pouring in a few drops of oil1 which1 being lighter than the wine1 floats on the surface4 ,it is parallel to the instance of the barrel with the gauze-wire top mentioned above1 that if we loosely plug a bottle full of liquid with a piece of cotton-wool1 and invert it1 the particles in contact with the wool will cohere so closely that the fluid will not be able to escape4 ,the adhesiveness of the particles of water to a solid surface can be exemplified by allowing one of the scales of a balance to float in water and leaving the other free2 the one in contact with the water will refuse to yield after we have placed even a tolerable weight in the other which is suspended in the air4 ,the power of cohesion is more rigorous in some bodies than others4 ,in some cases the body will rupture if it is interfered with ever so little2 in others1 the particles admit of a certain displacement1 and if the limits are not transgressed1 they return to their original position when the compressing or distending cause is removed4 ,this rallying power in the cohesive force is called ,elasticity1 and it exists in no small degree in glass4 ,the spaces between the particles can1 within limits1 be either lessened by compression or increased by distension1 and the particles retain their power of recovering and maintaining the relation they stood in before they were disturbed4 ,it is the power of cohesion or aggregation which resists any disturbance among the particles1 and which restores order among them when once disturbance has taken place4 ,and not only does nature resist directly any undue interference with the cohering force1 but tampering with it even slightly has often a certain deteriorating effect upon the physical properties of bodies4 ,a bell1 for instance1 loses its tone when heated1 because by that means its particles are disturbed2 though it recovers its tone-power as it cools1 and as the particles return to their places4 ,in organic bodies1 both during growth and decay1 the particles are more or less in flux2 but in feathers1 after their formation1 the attraction of aggregation remains constant1 and by means of it their particles continue fixed in their places1 not only with the life of the bird1 but long after4 ,nay1 you may even crumple them up1 and toss them away as worthless1 and yet if you expose them to the vapour of steam1 they will not only recover their form1 but they can be made to look as beautiful as ever4 ,chemical ,affinity4--,the attraction of the particles of bodies of different kinds to each other is often striking and curious2 as1 for instance1 those of salt to those of water4 ,the salt attracts the water1 and the water the salt1 till at last1 if there is a sufficient quantity of water1 all the salt is attracted particle by particle from itself1 and taken up and united to the water4 ,the salt is no longer visible to the eye1 and is said to be dissolved or in solution2 but this change of form is due to its affinity for the water1 and the resulting attraction of the one to the other4 ,the same phenomena are observed1 and they are due to the same cause1 in other solutions2 as when we infuse our tea or sweeten it with sugar4 ,the attraction of water1 or one of its elements rather1 for other substances1 sometimes shows itself in vehement forms4 ,when a piece of potassium1 for example1 is thrown into a vessel of water1 its attraction for the water is such1 and of the water for it1 that it instantly takes fire1 and the two blaze away1 particle violently seizing on particle until the elements of the water unite part for part with the metal4 ,it is the mutually attractive force that causes the heat and flame which accompany the combination2 and this force is most violently active in the union of dissimilar substances4 ,unions of a quieter kind1 though not less thorough1 occur even between solids when placed in contact4 ,for instance1 sulphate of soda and sulphate of ammonia1 when placed side by side1 will diliquesce1 and in liquid form unite into a new combination4 ,sulphuric acid1 when we mix it with water1 generates great heat2 and this is due to its attraction for the water4 ,sometimes two fluids unite together1 and1 in doing so1 pass from the liquid into the solid form2 as1 e4g41 sulphuric acid and chloride of calcium4 ,attraction of this nature is called chemical3 it takes effect between dissimilar particles1 and results in combinations with new properties4 ,it operates not only between solid and solid1 solid and liquid1 and liquid and liquid1 but between these and gases1 and gases with one another2 and these as well as those combine into new substances1 and evince in the act not a little violent commotion4 ,thus1 phosphorus catches fire in the atmosphere at a temperature of #adj degrees1 and it goes on rapidly combining with the oxygen1 burning with a dazzling white light1 and producing phosphoric acid4 ,indeed1 most metals have an affinity for the oxygen in the air1 and oxydise in it with more or less facility2 and a metal1 as such1 has more value than another according as it has less affinity for that element1 and is less liable to oxydise or rust in it4 ,this is one reason1 among others1 why gold is the most precious metal1 and the conventional representative of highest worth in things4 ,there are some metals1 such as lead1 for instance1 which oxydise readily1 but this process stops short at the surface in contact with the air1 and so forms a coating which prevents the metal from further oxydation2 so that here1 as in so many things else1 strength is connected with weakness4 ,electricity4--,this1 in the most elementary view of it1 is a more or less attractive or repellant force latent in bodies1 and which is capable of being roused into action by the application of friction4 ,it is excited in a rod of glass by rubbing it with silk1 and in a piece of sealing-wax by rubbing it with flannel1 though the effect is different when we apply first the one and then the other to the same body4 ,thus1 e4g41 if we apply the excited sealing-wax to a paper ring1 or a pith-ball1 hung by a silk thread from a horizontal glass rod1 it will1 after contact1 repel it2 and if1 thereafter1 we apply to it the excited glass rod1 it will attract it2 or if we first apply the excited glass rod to the paper ring1 or pith-ball1 it will1 after contact1 repel it2 and if thereafter we apply to it the excited sealing-wax1 it will attract it4 ,the reason is1 that when we once charge a body by contact with either kind1 it repels that kind1 and attracts the opposite2 if we charge it from the glass1 i4e41 with vitreous electricity1 it refuses to have more1 and is attracted to the sealing-wax2 and if we charge it from the sealing-wax1 i4e41 with resinous electricity1 it refuses to have more1 and is attracted to the glass-rod2 only it is to be observed that1 till the body is charged by either1 it has an equal attraction for both4 ,from all which it appears that kindred electricities repel1 and opposite attract1 each other4 ,two pieces of gold leaf suspended from a metal rod1 inserted at the top of a glass shade full of perfectly pure1 dry air1 will separate if we rub our foot on the carpet1 and touch the top of the rod with one of our fingers2 for the motion of the body1 as in walking1 always excites electricity1 and it is this which1 as it passes through the finger1 causes the phenomenon2 though the least sensation of damp in the glass would1 by instantly draining off the electricity1 defeat the experiment4 ,what happens in this case is1 that one kind of electricity passes from the finger to the leaves1 while another kind1 to make room for it1 passes from the leaf to the finger2 and the leaves separate because they are both more or less charged with the same kind of electricity1 and kindred electricities repel each other4 ,ribbons1 particularly of white silk1 when well washed1 are similarly susceptible of electrical excitation2 and they behave very much as the gold leaf does when they are rubbed sharply through a piece of flannel4 ,gutta-percha is another substance which1 when similarly treated1 is similarly affected4 ,this power is a very mysterious one1 and of a nature to perplex even the philosophic observer4 ,certain bodies1 such as the metals1 convey it1 and are called conductors2 certain others1 such as glass and porcelain1 arrest it1 and are called insulators4 ,it is for this reason that the wires of the telegraph are supported by a non-conductor1 for if not1 the electric current would pass into the earth by the first post and never reach its final destination4 ,glass being an insulator1 it was found that1 if a glass bottle was filled with water1 and then corked up with a cork1 through which a nail was passed so that the top of it touched the water1 it would receive and retain a charge as long as it was held in the hand2 and this observation led to an invention of some account in the subsequent applications of electricity1 known1 from the place of its conception1 as the ,leyden jar4 ,this is a glass jar1 the inside of which is coated with tinfoil1 and the outside as far as the neck1 and into which1 so as to touch the inside coating1 a brass rod with a knob at the top is inserted through a cork1 which closes its mouth4 ,by means of this1 in consequence of the isolation of the coatings by the glass1 electricity can1 in a dry atmosphere1 be condensed1 and stored up and husbanded till wanted4 ,a series of eggs1 arranged in contact and in line1 give occasion to a pretty experiment4 ,in consequence of the shells being non-conductors1 and the inside conducting1 it happens that a current of electricity1 applied to the first of the series1 will pass from one to another in a succession of crackling sparks1 in this way forcing itself through the obstructing walls4 ,this effect of electricity in making its way through non-conducting obstructions accounts for the explosion which ensues when a current of it comes in contact with a quantity of gunpowder2 as it also does for the fatal consequences which result when1 on its way from the atmosphere to the earth1 it rushes athwart any resisting organic or inorganic body4 ,magnetism4--,unlike electricity1 which acts with a shock and then expires1 magnetism is a constant quantity1 and constant in its action2 and it has this singular property1 that it can impart itself as a permanent force to bodies previously without it4 ,thus1 there being natural magnets and artificial1 we can1 by passing a piece of steel over a magnet1 turn it into a strong magnet itself2 although we can also1 when it is in the form of a horse-shoe1 by a half turn round and then rubbing it on the magnet1 take away what it has acquired1 and bring it back to its original state4 ,the magnetic property is very readily imparted 7by induction1 as it is called7 to soft iron1 but when the iron is removed from the magnetising body1 it parts with the virtue as fast as it acquired it4 ,to obtain a substance that will retain the power induced1 we must make some other election2 and hard steel is most serviceable for conversion into a permanent magnet4 ,the properties of the magnet are best observed in magnetised steel2 and when we proceed to test its magnetic power1 it will be found that it is most active at the extremities of the bar1 which are hence called its poles1 and hardly1 if at all1 at the centre2 that while both poles attract certain substances and repel others1 the one always points nearly north and the other nearly south when the bar is horizontally suspended2 and that1 when we break the bar into two or any number of pieces1 however small1 each part forms into a complete magnet with its virtue active at the poles1 which1 when suspended1 preserves its original direction2 so that of two particles one is1 in that case1 always north of the other2 nay1 it is probable that each of these has its north pole and its south1 as constant as those of the earth itself1 which1 too1 is a large magnet4 ,the magnet acts through media and at a distance1 as well as in contact2 and it has an especial attraction for iron1 the more so when the conducting medium is solid1 such as a table2 and so when the magnet is horizontally suspended1 or poised1 in the vicinity of iron1 its tendency to point north and south is seriously disturbed4 ,the disturbance of the bar1 or needle1 in such a case1 is called its deflection2 and it is corrected by so placing a piece of soft iron or another magnet in its neighbourhood as to neutralise the effect1 and leave said bar1 or needle1 free to obey the magnetism of the earth4 ,the needle1 it is to be remarked1 does not point due north and south1 neither1 when poised freely on its centre1 does it lie perfectly horizontal2 in our latitude it points at present #bj west of north1 which is called its declination1 and its north pole slopes downwards at an angle of #fh1 which is called its dip4 ,by holding a rod of iron1 or a poker1 for a length of time parallel to the direction of the needle1 so as to have the same declination and the same dip1 it will gradually assume and display magnetic virtue1 and this will ere long become fixed and powerful under a succession of vibratory shocks4 ,there is a beautiful experiment in which a needle1 when magnetised1 can be made to float on water1 when it adjusts itself to the magnetic meridian1 and will incline north and south the same as the needle of the compass4 ,the ,chemical ,action of ,electricity and ,magnetism4--,these agents possess powers which develop wonderfully in connection with chemical combination4 ,thus1 if we suspend a piece of iron in a vessel which contains oxygen gas1 and apply to the metal an electric current1 it will immediately begin to unite rapidly1 and form an oxide with oxygen1 emitting1 during the process1 intense heat and a bright flame4 ,zinc1 too1 when similarly acted on1 will ignite in the common atmosphere and burn away1 though with less intensity1 till it also is1 under the electric force1 reduced to an oxide4 ,it is presumed that many other chemical combinations take place because of the simultaneous joint development of electric agencies1 as in copper1 water1 and aquafortis1 nitrate of copper1 c4 ,so also it happens that1 when a plate of iron is for some time immersed in a copper solution1 it comes out at length covered over with a coating of copper4 ,and it is because there is electricity at work that a silver basin will be coated with copper when we pour into it a copper solution1 and at the same time place in it a rod of zinc1 so that it rests on the side and bottom1 though no coating will form at all when there is no rod present to excite the electric current4 ,the same phenomena will appear if we deposit a silver coin in the solution in question3 the coin will come out unaffected1 unless we excite affinity by means of a rod of iron4 ,it is under the action of an electric current that one metal is coated with another4 ,the metal1 copper say1 is steeped in a solution of the coating substance1 and connected by means of wires with a galvanic battery1 under the action of which the metal in solution unites with the surface of the plate immersed in it4 ,heat also is developed under magnetic influence1 and that often of great intensity4 ,thus1 if we connect the poles of a voltaic battery by means of a platinum wire1 heat will develop to such a degree that the platinum will almost instantaneously become red hot and emit a bright light1 and that along a wire of some considerable length4 ,a similar effect is noticeable when we substitute other metals1 such as silver or iron1 for platinum4 ,and the electric light1 which flashes out rays of sunlike brilliance1 is the result of placing a piece of compact charcoal between the separated but confronting poles of a powerful galvanic battery1 light1 developing more at the one pole and heat more at the other of the incandescent substance4 ,kindred1 though much milder1 results will show themselves under simpler1 though similar1 contrivances4 ,a flounder will jump and jerk about uneasily if we lay it upon a piece of tinfoil and place over it a thin plate of zinc1 and then connect the two with a bent metal rod2 which will happen to an eel also1 if we expose it to a gentle current from a battery4 ,by means of electric or magnetic action we can separate bodies chemically combined1 as well as unite them into chemical compounds2 as will appear if we place a piece of blotting paper upon tinfoil1 and this upon wool2 if we then spread above these two pieces of test-paper1 litmus and turmeric1 the one the test of acids1 and the other of alkalis1 and saturate both with ,glauber salt 7which is by itself neither an acid nor an alkali1 but a combination of the two71 and1 finally1 connect each by means of a piece of zinc with the poles of a battery1 the test-papers will immediately change colour1 as they do the one in the presence of an acid simply1 and the other of an alkali simply1 but never in a compound where these are neutralised2 thus proving that the compound has in this case been decomposed1 and its elements disintegrated one from another4 ,a very powerful magnet can be produced by coiling a wire round a bar of soft iron1 and attaching its extremities to the poles of a galvanic battery1 when it will be found that its strength will be proportioned to the strength of the current and the turns of the coil4 ,this is especially the case when the bar is bent into the form of a horse-shoe1 and the wires are insulated and coiled round its limbs4 ,the force communicated to a magnet of this kind1 which is often immense1 is the product of the chemical action which goes on in the battery1 and1 in a certain sense1 the measure of it4 ,how great that is we may judge when we consider that1 evanescent as it is in itself1 it has imparted a virtue which is both powerful and constant1 and ever at our service4 ,summary4--,thus1 then1 on a review of the whole1 we find all things are endowed with attractive power1 and that there is no particle which is not directly or indirectly related1 in manifold ways1 to the other particles of the universe4 ,there is1 first1 the universal attraction of gravitation1 under which every particle is1 by a fixed law1 drawn to every other within the sphere of existence4 ,there is1 secondly1 the attraction of cohesion or aggregation1 which acts at short distances1 and unites the otherwise loose atoms of bodies into coherent masses4 ,there is1 thirdly1 the power by which elements of different kinds combine into compounds with new and useful qualities1 known by the name of chemical affinity4 ,and1 lastly1 related to the action of affinity1 aiding in it and resulting from it1 there are those strange negative and positive1 attractive and repellant polar forces which appear in the phenomena of electricity and magnetism1 agencies of such potency and universal avail in modern civilisation4 ,on the permanency of such forces and their mutual play the universe rests1 and its wonderful history4 ,with the collapse of any of them it would cease to have any more a footing in space1 and all its elements would rush into instant confusion4 ,what a ,hand1 therefore1 that must be which holds them up1 and what a ,wisdom which guides their movements6 ,verily1 ,he that sends them forth and bids them work ,his will is greater than any one--greater than all of them together4 ,how insignificant1 then1 should we seem before ,him who rules them on the wide scale by commanding them1 while we can only rule them on the small by obeying them6 ,and yet how benignant must we regard ,him to be who both wields them ,himself for our benefit and subjects them to our intelligence and control6 ,,footnotes3 ,b ,this paper on ,attraction is the substance of a lecture which ,i composed on the basis of notes taken by me when4 ,i had the honour of attending the ,prince of ,wales at the course given1 on the same subject by the late ,professor ,faraday4 ,the ,professor1 having seen the resum ,i had written1 warmly commended the execution1 and generously accorded me his sanction to make any use of it1 whether for the purpose of a lecture or otherwise1 as might seem good to me4 ,it is on the ground of this sanction ,i feel warranted to print it here4 ,,the ,,oil ,,from ,,linseed4 ,various processes have for a long time been in use for the purpose of extracting the oils from different species of nuts and seeds1 a few of the more interesting of which are not unworthy of brief notice and description4 ,in ,ceylon1 where cocoa-nuts and oil-producing seeds abound1 the means employed by the natives in the last century for extracting the oils were of a most primitive character4 ,a few poles were fixed upright in the ground1 two horizontal bars attached to them1 between which a bag containing the pulp of the seed or nut was placed4 ,a lever was then applied to the horizontal bars1 which brought them together1 thus creating a pressure which1 by squeezing the bag1 gradually expressed the oil from the pulpy substance4 ,this rude machine was at that time of day one of the most approved for the purpose4 ,the system of pestle and mortar was also in use1 but as the process was necessarily very slow1 this method was seldom resorted to4 ,an improvement on this system was invented by a ,mr4 ,herbert1 whose design it had been to construct a powerful and efficient machine which should combine cheapness and simplicity4 ,it consisted of three pieces of wood1 viz41 an upright piece fixed in the ground1 from the lower and upper extremities of which there projected the two other pieces1 the top one attached to the joint of a long horizontal lever1 and the lower one to the joint of a vertical one4 ,the fixed upright post and the horizontal lever formed the press4 ,the bag of pulp being put between the upright one and the vertical1 the pressure was obtained by suspending a negro or a weight from the lever4 ,in another press of the same or a similar kind1 the bags were placed in a horizontal frame1 and a loose beam of wood pressed down on it by a lever4 ,another form of press had cambs and wedges2 also a modification of it by ,mr4 ,hall of ,dartford1 who applied the pressure by means of a steam-cylinder4 ,the cambs are arranged alternately1 so that one is filled while the other is being pressed4 ,this brief notice will suffice to give an idea of such machines as are wrought by lever pressure4 ,we pass on1 therefore1 to later inventions and improvements4 ,first1 ,the ,dutch or stamper press1 invented in ,holland2 second1 the screw2 and1 third1 the hydraulic3-- 7#a47 ,the stamper press is something like a beetling-machine1 in which wedges are driven in between the bags1 containing1 of course in a bruised condition1 the seed to be pressed4 7#b47 ,the screw press has an ordinary square-threaded screw1 and it acts in the same way as press for making cider or cheese4 7#c47 ,the hydraulic press4 ,here the pressure is produced by means of a piston driven up by the force of water1 the immense power of which is1 in great part1 due to its almost total incompressibility4 ,this is by far the most perfect form of press4 ,its power must be familiar to all who remember the lifting of the tubes of the ,britannia ,bridge1 and the launching of the ,great ,eastern4 ,an oil-mill is in form something like a flour-mill4 ,the operation begins at the top1 where the seed is passed through a flat screw or shaker and then through a pair of rollers1 which crush it4 ,these rollers are of unequal diameter1 the one being #d feet1 and the other #a foot2 but they are both of the same length1 #a foot #d inches1 and make fifty-six revolutions in a minute4 ,by this arrangement it is found the seed is both better bruised and faster than when1 as was formerly the case1 the rollers were of the same diameter4 ,a pair of rollers will crush #d-a_/b tons of seed in eleven hours1 a quantity enough to keep two sets of hydraulic presses going4 ,after the seed is crushed in this way1 it is passed under a pair of edge stones4 ,these stones weigh about seven tons1 are #g feet #f inches in diameter and #ag inches broad1 and make seventeen revolutions a minute4 ,if of good quality1 they will not require to be faced more than once in three years1 and they will last from fifteen to twenty4 ,they are fitted with two scrapers1 one for raking the seed between the stones1 the other for raking it off at the proper period4 ,one pair of stones will grind seed sufficient for two double hydraulic presses1 and the operation occupies about twenty-five minutes4 ,the seed is now crushed and ground1 but before it is passed on to the press it is transferred to the heating-kettle4 ,the heating-kettle is composed of two cylindrical castings1 one fitting loosely into the other1 so that a space is left between them for a free circulation of steam all round both the sides and bottom of the interior vessel4 ,the internal casting is again divided horizontally into two partitions1 one above the other therefore1 by two plates1 between which also there is a space left for the admission and circulation of steam2 and a communication is kept up between the upper compartment and the under by means of a stripping valve4 ,besides this1 there is a communication from the internal kettle through the external one1 and also a shaft passes between the two horizontal parts to give motion to the stirrer1 which revolves thirty-six times a minute4 ,a cover encloses the top1 and it is through this the vessel is charged4 ,the upper portion is filled first1 where the contents introduced are allowed to remain ten or fifteen minutes1 after which the valve is opened and the whole falls into the lower kettle1 where it is kept till wanted4 ,the seed is then taken away from the lower kettle by an opening1 and bestowed in bags of sufficient size to make a cake of #h lbs4 weight after the oil is pressed out of it4 ,indeed1 the compartments of the heating-kettle are of a size to contain enough to charge one side of a hydraulic press4 ,these1 therefore1 are so constructed as to render the operation continuous1 the upper one being discharged into the under as soon as its contents are withdrawn to the press4 ,the seed is heated to the temperature of #agj degrees ,fahr41 when it is drawn off and placed in the bags4 ,in another form of kettle the seed is heated on a hot hearth1 and on the top of the hearth is a loose ring1 within which a spindle revolves to stir the seed4 ,after the requisite temperature has been reached1 the ring is raised and the seed swept into the bags1 which are made of horse-hair4 ,there is great loss of heat in this method1 however1 as the seed is exposed to the atmosphere1 which of course cools it4 ,we now come to the final operation1 the mode of expressing the oil4 ,the screw press we do not need to describe1 as it consists simply of two plates1 brought together by a screw1 in the same way as the press used for squeezing apples in the manufacture of cider1 and the cheese press4 ,let us look therefore at the stamper press4 ,it consists of an iron box1 open at the top1 at each end of which are two plates1 capable of containing between them a bag of seed which shall yield a cake weighing #i lbs4 ,to one of the inner plates of the box is attached a wedge1 beside which is inserted another filling up1 and then the driving wedge is introduced2 and lastly1 another block is let in between this wedge and the other plate as soon as the bags have been placed vertically in the press-box4 ,a stamper of wood1 worked by cambs on a revolving shaft1 is allowed to fall about #a foot #aj inches1 at the rate of fifteen strokes a minute1 for about six minutes4 ,this stamper is #af feet long by #h inches square1 and falls on the head of the wedge1 and drives it in to a level at the top of the box4 ,another stamper is employed to drive down an inverted wedge1 so as to release the working one1 and enable the attendant to take out the cake4 ,a press of this kind will turn out only about #ab cwts4 of cake a day4 ,we come now to the hydraulic press4 ,this is certainly the most approved invention that has yet been adopted1 and it is simply a ,bramah press adjusted for the purpose4 ,it has been in use for about thirty years1 though it was1 of course1 at first less skilfully and scientifically constructed than it is now4 ,in one of the earliest of these presses1 the box which contains the seed runs on a tramway in order to facilitate its removal from the heating-kettle1 so that each time the bags have to be replenished the whole box has to be removed2 and this causes no inconsiderable loss both of power and time1 for it has1 when filled1 to be replaced on the ram and lifted bodily upwards in order to bring it flush with the top of the press1 which fits the press-box and acts as a point of resistance4 ,in this arrangement there are introduced only one press and one set of small pumps4 ,the next press we come to is ,blundell's1 which is admitted to be by far the most efficient in use to-day4 ,here there are two distinct presses1 or a double hydraulic press1 fed by two pumps1 one #b-a_/b inches and the other #a inch in diameter1 both connected with the separate cylinders by hydraulic tubing4 ,the stroke of these pumps is #e inches1 and they make thirty-six strokes a minute4 ,the larger pump is weighted to #gdj lbs4 on the square inch1 and the smaller to #eedj the square inch4 ,the diameter of the rams is #ab inches1 and the stroke #aj inches4 ,each press is fitted to receive four bags of seed1 and it produces #fd lbs4 of cake at each operation4 ,after the heated seed has been placed in the bags1 the attendant proceeds to fill one press1 and then he opens the valve between the large pump and the charged press1 which causes the ram to rise till there is a pressure of forty tons1 whereupon the safety-valve of the large pump opens1 and is kept so by a spring4 ,while this operation is going on1 the attendant is occupied with filling the second press2 which completed1 he opens the communication between the large pump and the second press1 taking care first to replace the safety-valve4 ,the ram of this press is then raised to the same height as the other1 after which the safety-valve rises a second time4 ,the attendant1 as he closes the valve which opens the communication between the large pump and the press1 at the same time opens the valve between the small pumps and the presses2 and the pressure1 amounting to about #cjj tons1 exerted by the small pump1 is allowed to remain on the rams for about seven minutes4 ,from which it appears that1 allowing three minutes for emptying and charging the press1 the process of expressing the oil takes only three minutes in all2 and it is done by this press in this brief time in the most effectual manner4 ,the oil1 as it is expressed1 passes through the canvas and hair bags to a cistern1 known as the spill-tank1 which is just large enough to contain the produce of one day's working4 ,the presses are worked by oil instead of water1 as it keeps both presses and pumps in better order4 ,each of them will produce #cf cwts4 of cake per day of eleven hours1 while the yield of oil is about #ad cwts4 ,the oil is pumped from the spill-tanks to larger ones1 capable of holding from #be to #ajj tons1 where it remains for some time in order to settle previously to being brought to the market4 ,i do not intend to enter into the relative merits of the various presses1 but content myself with having explained to you the manner in which the oil is produced4 ,before concluding1 it may be interesting to give you some idea of the vast extent of this manufacture4 ,it appears1 according to the official returns1 that in the year #ahda we imported #cfd1jjj quarters of seed4 ,,the ,,oil ,,from ,,linseed4 #ahdb #cfh1jjj #ahdg #dci1jjj #aheb #hjj1jjj #ahdc #dgj1jjj #ahdh #gii1jjj #ahec #a1jjj1jjj #ahdd #faf1jjj #ahdi #fbf1jjj #ahed #hbh1jjj #ahde #fff1jjj #ahej #ffh1jjj #ahee #geg1jjj #ahdf #ejf1jjj #ahea #fcj1jjj #ahef #a1ajj1jjj ,now if we take the last year's imports1 we shall find that the produce would amount to about #add1jjj tons' weight of oil-cake1 and above #ef1jjj tons of oil4 ,the cake is used for feeding cattle1 and the oil for burning1 lubricating1 painting1 c42 and a very large quantity is exported4 ,we find that to crush the seed imported in #ahef it required from #aej to #afj double hydraulic presses1 nearly #ajj of which were in ,hull4 ,this shows the extent of our commerce in the seed of flax1 to say nothing of its fibre2 and is one more instance of the great results which may be wrought out of little things4 ,what a beautiful illustration of the bounty of ,providence2 and what an encouragement to the ingenuity of man6 ,who knows what treasures may yet lie hidden in neglected fields1 or to what untold wealth the human family may one day fall heir8 ,,hodge-,,podge3 ,,or1 ,,what',s ,,intilt4 ,,written ,,nov4 #bj1 #ahge1 ,,at ,,stagenhoe ,,park4 ,the subject and treatment1 as well as title1 of this ,lecture are suggested by the answer of the hostess at a ,scottish inn to an ,english tourist1 who was inquisitive to know the composition of a dish which she offered him1 and which she called ,hodge-,podge4 ,there's water intilt1 she said1 there's mutton intilt1 there's pease intilt1 there's leeks intilt1 there's neeps intilt1 and sometimes somethings else intilt4 ,the analysis was an exhaustive one1 and the intelligence displayed by the landlady was every way worthy of the shrewdness indigenous to her country2 but her answer was not so lucid to her listener as to herself1 as appeared by his bewildered looks1 and his further half-despairing interrogatory4 ,but what is intilt8 said he1 impatiently striking in before she had well finished4 ,haven't ,i been tellin' ye what's intilt8 she replied4 ,and she began the enumeration again1 only with longer pause and greater emphasis at every step1 as if she were enlightening a slow apprehension1--,there's water intilt1 there's mutton intilt2 quietly and self-complacently adding1 as she finished1 ,ye surely ken now what's intilt4 ,whether her guest now understood her meaning1 or whether he had to succumb1 contented with his ignorance1 we are not informed2 but few of my readers need to be told that intilt is a ,scotch provincialism for into it1 and that the landlady meant by using it to signify that the particulars enumerated entered as constituents into her mysterious dish4 ,my aim is to discourse on the same constituents as they display their virtues and play their parts on a larger scale1 in a wider economy2 and when ,i have said my say1 ,i hope ,i may be able to lay claim to the credit of having spoken intelligibly and profitably1 though ,i must at the outset bespeak indulgence by promise of nothing more than the serving up of a dish of simple hodge-podge4 ,the question ,i put in a wider reference is the question of the ,englishman1 as expressed in the ,scotchwoman's dialect1 ,what's intilt8 and ,i assume that there enter into it1 as radically component parts1 at least the ingredients of this motley soup4 ,into the large hodge-podge of nature and terrestrial economics1 as into this small section of ,scotch cookery1 there enter the element of water1 the flesh of animals1 and the fruits of the earth1 as well as the processes by which these are brought to hand and rendered serviceable to life4 ,the ingredients of hodge-podge exist in rerum natura1 and the place they occupy and the function they fulfil in it are no less deserving of our inquisitive regard4 ,thus1 there is water in it1 without which there were no seas and no sailing of ships1 no rivers and no plying of mills1 no vapour and no power of steam1 no manufacture and no trade1 and not only no motion1 but no growth and no life4 ,there is mutton1 or beef1 in it1 and connected therewith the breeding and rearing of cattle1 the production of wool1 tallow1 and leather1 and the related manufactures and crafts4 ,there are turnips and carrots in it1 the latter of such value to the farmer that on one occasion a single crop of them sufficed to clear off a rent2 and the former of such consequence in the fattening of stock and the provision of animal food1 that a living economist divides society exhaustively into turnip-producing classes and turnip-consuming4 ,there are leeks and onions in it1 and these1 with the former1 suggest the art of the gardener1 and the wonderful processes by which harsh and fibrous products can be turned into pulpy and edible fruits4 ,and there are pease and barley in it1 and associated therewith the whole art of the husbandman in the tillage of the soil and the raising of cereals1 with the related processes of grinding the meal1 baking the bread1 preparing the malt1 brewing the beer1 and distilling the fiery life-blood at the heart4 ,now1 to discourse on all these1 as they deserve1 would be a task of no ordinary magnitude1 but the subject is an interesting one1 and to treat of it ever so cursorily might not unprofitably occupy a reflective moment or two4 ,water is the first topic it is laid upon me to talk about1 and ,i begin with it all the more readily because it suggests a sense of freshness1 and thoughts which may float our enterprise prosperously into port4 ,i4 ,water1 as already hinted1 is an element of vast account in the economy of nature1 and is a recreation to the heart and a delight to the eye of both man and beast4 ,to have a plentiful supply of it is one of the greatest blessings of ,god to the creature1 and to be able to bestow it wisely and employ it usefully is one of the most serviceable of human arts4 ,it is too valuable a servant to suffer to go idle1 and many are the offices it might do us1 if1 as it travels from the mountains to the sea-board1 we caught it in its course1 harnessed it to our chariot1 and guided it to our aim4 ,we should turn it to account every inch of its progress1 and compel it1 as it can1 to minister to our requirements by its irresistible energy4 ,its merely mechanical power is immense1 and this is due in great part to its incompressibility2 for it is in virtue of this quality alone we can1 by means of it1 achieve feats not otherwise feasible4 ,how else could we have raised to its sublime height that stupendous bridge which spans the ,menai ,straits1 and which is the wonder of the beholder1 as it is the boast of the designer8 ,it stands where it does by the help of some mechanism indeed1 but the true giant that lifted it on his shoulders and bore it to its airy elevation was the incompressible force of water1 a fluid which is1 strangely1 the simple product of the combination of two elastic transparent gases1 oxygen and hydrogen1 neither of which apart has the thew and sinew of its offspring4 ,nay1 it is this single element1 which1 acted on by heat or acting through machinery1 fetches and carries for us over the wide globe1 and is fast weaving into one living web the far-scattered interests of the world4 ,water was in primitive times utilised into a motive power by the help of a mechanism of rude design1 which yet is hardly out of date1 and might recently be seen in its original1 still more in modified form1 in certain back-quarters of civilisation4 ,a stream1 guided by a sluice1 was made to play upon four vertical paddle-blades1 attached to a shaft which they caused to revolve1 and which moved a millstone1 resting upon another through which it passed4 ,it was a primitive mill1 which superseded the still more primitive hand-mill1 or quern2 and ,i myself have seen it at work in the ,shetland ,islands1 and even the north of ,scotland1 though it is now done away with even there1 still more farther south1 and its place supplied and its work done by overshot and under-shot wheel-gear1 and improved machinery attached1 of less or more complexity4 ,one of the most recent improvements is the ,turbine1 a sort of ,barker's mill2 it is of great power1 small compass1 and acts under a good fall with a minimum expenditure of water-power4 ,passing from the consideration of water as a motive power in its natural state1 ,i ask you to notice briefly the gigantic force it can be made to develop under the action of heat4 ,in its normal form the power of water is due1 as ,i have said1 to its incompressibility2 in the state of vapour1 to which it is reduced by heat1 its power is due to the counter force of expansion4 ,it was when confined as a state prisoner in the ,tower of ,london that the ,marquis of ,worcester began to speculate on the possibilities of steam1 though he little dreamed of its more important applications1 and the incalculable services it might be made to render to the cause of humanity4 ,suddenly1 one day1 his musings in his solitude were interrupted by the rattling of the lid of a kettle1 which was boiling away on the fire beside him1 when1 being of a philosophic vein1 he commenced to inquire after the cause2 and he soon reasoned himself into the conclusion that the motive power lay in the tension of the vapour1 and that the maintenance of this must be due to successive additions of heat4 ,the thought was a seed sown in a fit soil1 for it led to experiments which confirmed the supposition1 and inaugurated others that have borne fruit1 as we see4 ,it was a great moment in the annals of discovery1 and from that time to this the genius of improvement has moved onward with unprecedented strides2 and this in the application of steam-power as well as the results1 stupendous as these last have been4 ,for as there is no department of industry that has not made immense advances since1 none on which steam has not directly or indirectly been brought to bear with effect2 so there has been no end to the ingenuity and ingenious devices by which steam has been coaxed into subjection to human use and made the pliant minister of the master1 man4 ,all these results follow as a natural consequence from the first discovery of its motive power by the ,marquis of ,worcester1 and the subsequent invention of ,james ,watt1 by which the force detected was rendered uniform1 instead of fitful and spasmodic1 as it had been before4 ,and yet1 important as was the discovery of the one1 and ingenious as is the invention of the other1 both are of slight account in the presence of the great fact of nature observed by the ,english nobleman and humoured by the ,scottish artisan4 ,the genie whom the one captured and the other tamed1 is the great magic worker1 apart from whose subtle strength their ingenuity had been wasted1 and had come to naught4 ,but here ,i must restrain my rovings1 and recall my purpose to descant on other points4 ,and indeed the uses of water are so numerous and varied that the subject might well engross a lecture by itself2 and ,i must needs therefore cut the matter short4 ,it is only ,hodge-,podge1 moreover1 ,i have undertaken to dish up before you1 and ,i must keep my word4 ,for1 fain as ,i am to dilate on the many economic virtues of water1 ,i must not forget that the pot contains other ingredients1 and that the dish ,i am serving out of it would yield but poor fare1 if it did not4 #b4 ,i come therefore to the next ingredient in the soup ,i am providing2 for1 as the housewife said1 there's mutton intilt1 and it is the most important ingredient in the mess4 ,but the animal which produces it1 like the kindred animals that produce the like1 serves other purposes as well1 and these no less essential to the exigency of the race2 and it is of them ,i propose to speak4 ,it is beside my design to enter on the domain of the sheep-breeder1 and attempt an account of the different kinds reared by the farmer2 enough to say that1 numerous as these are1 they are all fed and tended for the benefit of the human family1 and that they minister to the supply of the same human wants4 ,the child1 as it frolics on the lawn1 stops his gambols and steps gently aside to coax1 to caress his woolly-fleeced companion2 and the mother talks softly to her child of the innocent darlings1 and asks if they are not lovely creatures1 and beautiful to look at1 as they timidly wander from spot to spot1 and nibble the delicate pasture4 ,so it is to the lively fancy of childhood1 and so it is to the mother whose affections are naturally melted into softness in the presence of simplicity2 but when economic considerations arise1 and the question is one of service and value1 all such sentimental and aesthetic emotions pass out of court1 and only calculations of base utilitarianism fill the eye from horizon to horizon4 ,no doubt the creatures are lovely and beautiful to behold on the meadows and hill-sides of the landscape1 which they enliven and adorn2 but man must live as well as admire1 and unless by sacrifice of the sheep he must not only go without hodge-podge to his dinner1 but dispense with much else equally necessary to his life and welfare4 ,the cook requires the sacrifice1 that he may purvey for the tables of both gentle and semple2 the tallow-dealer requires the sacrifice1 that he may provide light for our homesteads1 and oil for our engines1 both stationary and locomotive2 and the wool-merchant and the currier insist on stripping the victim of his fleece1 and even flaying his skin1 before they can assure us of fit clothing and covering against cold and rain for our bodies and our belongings4 ,and what a wretched plight we should be in1 if the sheep1 or their like1 did not come to the rescue1 or the help they are fitted to render were not laid under contribution6 ,for not only might we be fated to go often dinnerless to bed1 and to live all our days in a body imperfectly nourished1 but our evenings would in many cases be spent without light1 and our journeys undertaken without comfort1 and our outer man left to battle at odds1 unshod and unprotected1 with the discomforts of the highway and the inclemency of the seasons4 ,of all the services rendered by the sheep to the race of man1 perhaps the most invaluable is that which is accorded in the gift of wool2 and it is for the sake of this alone that1 in many quarters1 whole flocks1 and even breeds1 are reared and tended1--so great is the demand for it1 and such the esteem in which it is held for the purpose of clothing the body and keeping it in warmth4 #c4 ,but1 again1 to advance a step further1 there are1 as the landlady of the inn remarked1 neeps intilt4 ,on this part of the subject1 that ,i may pass to the next topic on which ,i mean to speak1 and which is of wider range1 ,i intend to say little4 ,i have already referred to the important place assigned to this vegetable by a living economist as affording a basis for grouping society into two great classes4 ,to the farmer it is of equal1 and far more practical1 importance2 for it is1 by the manner of its cultivation1 a great means of clearing the land of weeds2 it is the chief support of sheep and cattle through the months of winter2 and it is one of the most valuable crops raised on ,british soil1 and of equal account in the agriculture of both ,england and ,scotland4 ,the culture of turnips on farms involves considerable expense indeed1 and is sometimes attended with loss1 and even failure2 but they are of inestimable value in cattle husbandry1 as without them our sheepfarms would soon be depopulated1 and the animals hardly outlive a winter4 ,one function they1 and the like1 fulfil in nature1 is turning inorganic matter into vegetable1 that the component elements may in this form be more readily assimilated into animal flesh and blood2 while their introduction as an article of farming is of great importance as rendering possible and feasible a regular rotation of crops4 #d4 ,but ,i must1 as ,i said1 hasten on to another ingredient of the dish we are compounding2 ,i refer to barley1 for that too1 as our gracious hostess would say1 is intilt4 ,from this single grain what virtues have been developed6 what mildness1 what soothing1 what nourishment1 and what strength6 ,what a source it is to us of comfort1 of enjoyment1 and of wealth6 ,there is barley-water1 for instance1 a beverage most harmless1 yet most soothing2 meet drink for the sick-room1 and specially promotive of the secretions in patients whose disease is inflammatory1 and who suffer from thirst4 ,then there is barley-bread1 extensively used in both ,england and ,scotland1 than which there is none more wholesome to the blood and more nourishing to the system2 the meal of which is of service too in the shape of a medical appliance1 and1 when so used1 acts with most beneficial effect4 ,but its strength is not so pronounced or decisive either in the form of an infusion or in that of bread1 much as in these forms it contributes to health and vigour3 it is not when it is put into the pot1 or when bruised by the miller1 that it comes out in the fulness of its might2 it is when it is immersed in water1 and subjected to heat1 and metamorphosed into malt4 ,in this form it can be converted into a beverage that is simple and healthful1 and1 when used aright1 conducive to strength of muscle and general vigour of life2 but when it has undergone a further process1 which ,i am about to describe1 it evolves a spirit so masterful that the weak would do well to withstand its seductiveness1 for only a strong head and a stout will dare with impunity to enter the lists with it1 and can hope to retire from the contest with the strength unshorn and a firm footstep4,c ,whisky1 which is what ,i now refer to as the highest outcome of the strength of barley1 is1 like hodge-podge1 of ,scotch incubation1 and deserves1 for country's sake and the fame it has1 some brief regard4 ,the process by which the grain is prepared may be described as follows4 ,the grain is first damped1 then spread out on a floor1 and finally a certain quantity of water and heat applied1 when it begins to germinate1 which it continues to do to a certain stage1 beyond which it is not allowed to pass4 ,at this moment a ,government official presents himself1 and exacts a duty of the manufacturer for the production of the malt1 the authorities shrewdly judging that they are entitled to levy off so valuable an article a modicum of tax4 ,the grain thus prepared is now in a state for further manufacture1 and it passes into the hands of the brewer or distiller1 to be converted into a more or less alcoholic drink4 ,first the brewer produces therefrom those excellent beverages called beer and porter1 and so contributes to our refreshment1 enjoyment1 and strength4 ,these beverages are1 in one shape or other1 nearly in universal demand1 and the money spent upon the consumption of ,bass and ,,xx almost passes belief4 ,they are exported into every zone of the world1 and consumed by every class4 ,and then the distiller takes the grain in the same form1 and1 by slow evaporation and subsequent condensation1 extracts the pure1 subtle1 and potent spirit we have referred to1 and which1 in more or less diluted form1 we call whisky1 or ,scotch drink4 ,and this article also1 in spite of cautions1 is in large demand and extensively exported1 though perhaps not so much is consumed among us as was fifty years ago4 ,it is not by any means so bad an article as it has a bad name2 for when of good quality1 and moderately indulged in1 it is perfectly wholesome2 only when the quality is bad1 or the indulgence excessive1 do evil results follow4 ,and indeed such are its merits when good1 that it is said dealers sometimes export it to ,france and other parts1 from which it is imported again to this country1 transfused into splendidly labelled brandy bottles1 and sold untransformed as best brandy6 ,little do we think1 when eating our quiet dinner at a ,scottish country inn1 what power and wealth are represented in the hodge-podge which belike forms one of the dishes1 and which1 by suggestion and in the style of the housewife1 we are now analysing4 ,as we disintegrate the mess1 and resolve it into its elements1 we may well bethink ourselves of the cost of our board on the planet1 and of the value of the articles we are daily consuming4 ,to help you to a clearer idea of this1 in regard to the article barley alone in the form of malt1 let me commend to your attention the following statistical statement3-- ,a ,parliamentary return of #ahgf shows that the quantity of malt charged with duty during the year was-- ,,bushels4 ,,duty4 ,england1 #ed1fee1bgd #g1dab1fba ,scotland1 #b1ibg1gfc #cif1bda ,ireland1 #c1cdf1fjf #dec1hhc ---------- ---------- ,total of ,united ,kingdom1 #fj1ibi1fcc #h1bfb1gdf ,the quantity of barley imported into the ,united ,kingdom during the year was equivalent to #b1gcf1dbe quarters4 ,see how great a fire a little spark1 hodge-podge1 kindleth6 ,so much for the quantity of malt produced1 and the revenue derived from it1 in a year in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,i have spoken of this malt as being convertible into a form which possesses1 among other virtues1 the power of quenching our thirst4 ,i wish it did not also quench our thirst for the knowledge we all ought to have of its production and really serviceable qualities2 that it would stimulate inquiry after such things1 and not smother it1 as it is too apt to do2 and1 in general1 prompt us to a wiser study of our social wants1 and the means at our command for further social improvement2 which we might prosecute with less and less recourse to the stimulant virtues of malt in such forms as whisky4 ,and this we may do1 if we limit our indulgence in it to the less potent form of it in beer1 which1 while it is calculated to quench man's bodily thirst1 is equally calculated to quicken his mental4 ,how much it contributes to allay the former1 and how many thirsty souls are refreshed by it1 we may estimate from the statistics of the sale of it furnished by a single firm in ,london4 ,i refer to the firm of the ,messrs4 ,foster1 ,brook ,street1 who are friends of my own1 and to whom ,i should be glad to refer all who may be in want of a wholesome beer1 for theirs is so good and genuine4 ,the ,messrs4 ,foster are among the most extensive bottlers and exporters in the country2 and ,i find from the information they have kindly supplied me1 that the beer bottled by them for export purposes during the year #ahgd was #fjjj butts1 of #ajh gallons each2 that their contracts for the supply of bottles during that period represented #be1jjj gross1 or #e1jdj1jjj bottles1 which1 if laid end to end1 would extend to about #ajjj miles2 and that their accounts with ,bass ,co4 alone for that term amounted to #aej1jjj4 ,all1 from the highest to the lowest1 drink beer in ,england2 and when unadulterated and taken in moderation1 it is one of the most healthful beverages of which the human being1 man or woman1 can partake4 ,though ,i have only partially gone over the ground contemplated at first1 ,i feel ,i must now draw to a conclusion1 which ,i am the less indisposed to do1 as ,i think in what ,i have said ,i have pretty fairly set before you the wonderful properties latent in a basin of hodge-podge4 ,for it is a habit of mine1 which ,i have sought to indulge on the present occasion1 to analyse every subject to which my attention is directed1 and in which ,i feel interest1 before ,i can make up my mind as to the proper significance and importance of the whole compound4 ,thus1 for instance1 set a dish of hodge-podge before me2 it does not satisfy me to be told that it is only a basin of broth1 and that it is wholesome fare2 ,i must1 as ,i have now been doing in a way1 resolve the compound into its elements1 see these in other and wider relations1 and refer them mentally to their rank and standing in the larger world of the economy of nature and of social existence4 ,i am always asking ,what's intilt8 and am never satisfied1 any more than the ,english tourist1 with a bare enumeration3 ,i must subject the factors included to rational inspection1 and watch their play and weigh their worth in connection with interests more general4 ,and if1 in the delivery of this lecture1 ,i have persuaded any one to regard common things in a similar light and from a similar interest1 ,i shall deem the time spent on it not altogether thrown away4 ,mind1 not water1 is the ultimate solvent in nature1 and everything1 when thrown into it1 will be found in the end to resolve itself into it1 or what in nature is of kin to it4 ,and if a ,latin poet could justify his interest in man by a reference to his own humanity1 so may we rest content with nature when we find that we and it are parts of each other4 ,it is well to learn to look on nothing as private1 but on everything as a part of a great whole1 of which we ourselves are units2 so shall we feel everywhere at home1 and a sense of kinship with the remote as well as near within the round of existence4 ,,footnotes3 ,c ,the ,highlanders are said to be able to offer it a stout defiance1 for they can stand an immense quantity2 and ,i have heard of an innkeeper in the north1 who1 when remonstrated with on account of his excessive drinking1 so far admitted the justice of the charge implied1 but pled that he could not be accused of undue indulgence the night before1 as1 whatever he might have drunk during the day1 he had1 after supper1 had only seventeen glasses6 ,,the ,,end4 ,,printed ,,by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,and ,,co4 ,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london4