,transcribers note3 ,mis-spelled words in the original left as is4 ,below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original3 ,table ,of ,contents - ,classification of ,plates bowels - should be bowls ,chapter ,,ii - ,,speed ,,of ,,the ,,lathe centrificial - should be centrifugal ,chapter ,,ix - ,,methods ,,of ,,fastening ,,stock epecially - should be especially ,chapter ,,xi - ,,spiral ,,turning modelling - should be modeling ,chapter ,,xi - ,,plates ,b-,v--#b-;b1 b midde - should be middle ,a ,,course ,,in ,,wood ,,turning ,by ,,archie ,s4 ,,milton ,,otto ,k4 ,,wohlers ,illustration3 ,,bruce ,,milwaukee 7,publishers ,stamp7 ,,the ,,bruce ,,publishing ,,company ,,milwaukee1 ,,wisconsin ,copyright #aiai ,archie ,s4 ,milton ,otto ,k4 ,wohlers ,,preface ,this book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by the writers1 and has been compiled in logical sequence4 ,stress is laid upon the proper use of tools1 and the problems are presented in such a way that each exercise1 or project1 depends somewhat on the one preceding4 ,it is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown should be made1 but that the instructor select only such as will give the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare them for other models following4 ,the related matter on the care of the lathe and tools1 the grinding of chisels1 the polishing of projects1 and the specific directions and cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the drawings1 make the book not only valuable for reference1 but also as a class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects4 ,the drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired4 ,at least two designs are shown for each model1 and these may be used as suggestions from which students1 with the aid of the instructor1 may work out their own designs4 ,the book has been divided into two parts3 7,a7 ,spindle ,turning1 and 7,b7 ,face-,plate ,turning4 ,the same order is followed in each part2 the related information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses4 ,part ,a takes up the following3 7,i7 ,exercises2 7,,ii7 ,models1 involving the same tool processes1 only in a somewhat different degree2 7,,iii7 ,oval ,turning1 explaining the use of two centers2 7,,iv7 ,duplicate ,turning1 where identical pieces are turned4 ,part ,b is arranged as follows3 7,i7 ,exercises2 7,,ii7 ,models1 which are an application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work2 7,,iii7 ,models1 which require chucking2 7,,iv7 ,assembling ,exercises1 involving spindle turning1 face-plate work and chucking2 7,v7 ,spiral ,turning1 showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe4 ,the ultimate aim of this book is to give1 through the exercises and problems1 a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control of his tools1 at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design which will lead to other ideas in designing problems4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,pages ,,chapter ,i4 ,introductory --,commercial and ,educational ,values of ,wood ,turning --,elements of ,success #i-aj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,lathe --,care of the ,lathe --,speed of the ,lathe --,method of ,figuring the ,diameter of ,pulleys --,rules for ,finding the ,speeds and ,sizes of ,pulleys --,points on ,setting ,up the ,lathe and ,shafting #aa-ad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,wood ,turning ,tools --,grinding and ,whetting ,turning ,tools --,the ,gouge --,the ,parting ,tool --,scraping ,tools #ae-ah ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,spindle ,turning --,centering ,stock --,clamping ,stock in the ,lathe --,adjusting the ,tool ,rest --,position of the ,operator at the ,lathe --,holding the ,tools --,use of the ,tools in ,spindle ,turning #ai-ba ,,chapter ,v4 ,tool ,processes in ,spindle ,turning --,the ,roughing ,cut --,the ,sizing ,cut --,the ,smoothing ,cut --,testing for ,smoothness --,measuring for ,length --,squaring ,ends --,cutting ,off --,shoulder ,cuts --,taper ,cuts --,v ,cuts-,concave ,cuts --,convex ,cuts --,combination ,cuts --,chisel ,handles --,mallets and ,handles --,vise ,handles #bb-cb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,oval ,turning --,tool ,operations #cc-cd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,duplicate ,turning --,use of ,measuring ,stick --,use of ,templets #ce ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,finishing and ,polishing --,ordinary ,cabinet ,finishing --,french ,polishing --,method of ,applying ,french ,polish #cf-ch ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,face-,plate and ,chuck ,turning --,methods of ,fastening ,stock --,small ,single ,screw ,face-,plate --,large ,surface ,screw ,face-,plate --,gluing to ,waste ,stock --,lathe ,adjustments --,position of ,tool ,rest #ci-dj ,,chapter ,x4 ,tool ,processes in ,face-,plate and ,chuck ,turning --,straight ,cuts --,roughing ,off ,corners --,calipering for ,diameter --,smoothing ,cut --,roughing ,cut on the ,face --,smoothing the ,face --,laying ,off ,measurements --,external ,shoulders --,internal ,shoulders --,taper ,cuts --,v ,cuts --,concave ,cuts --,convex ,cuts --,combination ,cuts --,use of ,scraping ,tools --,internal ,boring --,turning a ,sphere #da-dh ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,spiral ,turning --,single ,spiral1 ,straight ,shaft --,tapered ,shaft --,double ,spiral1 ,tapered ,shaft --,double ,spiral1 ,straight ,shaft --,double ,groove ,spiral1 ,straight ,shaft #di-ee ,,plates--,,spindle ,,turning4 ,straight ,cuts1 #eg ,shoulder ,cuts1 #ei-fe ,taper ,cuts1 #fg-gg ,v ,cuts1 #gi-ha ,concave ,cuts1 #hc-hg ,convex ,cuts1 #hi-ie ,combination ,cuts1 #ig-aja ,chisel ,handles1 #ajc-ajg ,cabinet ,file ,handle1 #aji ,scratch ,awl ,handle1 #aaa ,carving ,tool ,handle1 #aac ,turning ,chisel ,handle1 #aae ,mallets1 #aag-aai ,gavels1 #aba-abg ,darning ,eggs1 #abi-acc ,stocking ,darner1 #aca ,potato ,masher1 #ace ,rolling ,pins1 #aci-ada ,vise ,handle1 #adc ,screw ,driver ,handles1 #ade-adg ,pene ,hammer ,handle1 #adi ,claw ,hammer ,handle1 #aea ,indian ,clubs1 #aec-aee ,dumb ,bells1 #aeg-aei ,ten ,pins1 #afa ,,plates--,,chuck ,,turning4 ,straight ,cuts1 #afg-afi ,shoulder ,cuts1 #aga-agc ,taper ,cuts1 #age-agg ,v ,cuts1 #agi-aha ,concave ,cuts1 #ahc-ahe ,convex ,cuts1 #ahg-ahi ,combination ,cuts1 #aia-aie ,match ,boxes1 #aig-bja ,pin ,trays1 #bjc-bje ,hair ,pin ,receivers1 #bjg-bji ,hat ,pin ,receivers1 #baa-bac ,ornamental ,vases1 #bae-bai ,spinnet1 #bba ,towel ,rings1 #bbc-bbg ,card ,trays1 #bbi-bce ,picture ,frames1 #bcg-bdc ,nut ,bowls1 #bde-bea ,napkin ,rings1 #bec-beg ,jewel ,boxes1 #bei-bgc ,collar ,boxes1 #bge-bgi ,sphere1 #bha ,checker ,men1 #bhc ,candle ,sticks1 #bhe-bic ,shaving ,stands1 #bie-cja ,reading ,lamp ,stands1 #cjc-cjg ,pedestal1 #cji ,smokers' ,stands1 #caa-cac ,pin ,cushion and ,spoon ,holder1 #cae ,chess ,men1 #cag-cai ,pedestals1 #cba-cbe ,electric ,reading ,lamps1 #cbg-cce ,magazine ,holders1 #ccg-cci ,,classification ,,of ,,plates ,a4 ,,spindle ,,turning ,i4 ,exercises #a4 ,straight ,cuts1 a #b4 ,shoulder ,cuts1 a-b-c-d #c4 ,taper ,cuts1 a-b-c-d-e-f #d4 ,v ,cuts1 a-b #e4 ,concave ,cuts1 a-b-c #f4 ,convex ,cuts1 a-b-c-d #g4 ,combination ,cuts1 a-b-c ,,ii4 ,models #a4 ,chisel ,handles1 a-b-c-d-e-f-g #b4 ,mallets1 a-b #c4 ,gavels1 a-b-c-d #d4 ,stocking ,darners1 a-b-c #e4 ,potato ,mashers1 a-b #f4 ,rolling ,pins1 a-b #g4 ,vise ,handles1 a ,,iii4 ,oval ,turning #a4 ,screw-driver ,handles1 a-b #b4 ,hammer ,handles1 a-b ,,iv4 ,duplicate ,turning #a4 ,indian ,clubs1 a-b #b4 ,dumb-bells1 a-b #c4 ,tenpins1 a #d4 ,drawer ,pulls1 a-b ,b4 ,,face-,,plate ,,and ,,chuck ,,turning ,i4 ,exercises #a4 ,straight ,cuts1 a-b #b4 ,shoulder ,cuts1 a-b #c4 ,taper ,cuts1 a-b #d4 ,v ,cuts1 a-b #e4 ,concave ,cuts1 a-b #f4 ,convex ,cuts1 a-b #g4 ,combination ,cuts1 a-b-c ,,ii4 ,face-,plate ,models #a4 ,match ,boxes1 a-b-c #b4 ,pin ,trays1 a-b #c4 ,hair ,pin ,receivers1 a-b #d4 ,hat ,pin ,receivers1 a-b #e4 ,ornamental ,vases1 a-b-c #f4 ,spinnet1 7game7 a ,,iii4 ,chuck ,models #a4 ,towel ,rings1 a-b-c #b4 ,card ,trays1 a-b-c-d #c4 ,picture ,frames1 a-b-c-d #d4 ,nut ,bowels1 a-b-c-d #e4 ,napkin ,rings1 a-b-c #f4 ,jewel ,boxes1 a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h #g4 ,collar ,boxes1 a-b-c #h4 ,spheres1 a #i4 ,checker ,men1 a ,,iv4 ,assembling ,exercises #a4 ,candle ,sticks1 a-b-c-d-e #b4 ,shaving ,stands1 a-a-b-b #c4 ,reading ,lamp ,stands1 a-b-c #d4 ,pedestals1 a #e4 ,smoking ,stands1 a-b #f4 ,pin ,cushions and ,spool ,holder1 a #g4 ,chess ,men1 a-a ,v4 ,spiral ,turning #a4 ,pedestal1 7,single7 a-a1 7,double7 b #b4 ,reading ,lamps1 7,single7 a-a-a 7,double7 b-b #c4 ,magazine ,holder1 a-a ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a great many years4 ,it is used in various forms in making furniture and furniture parts1 building trim1 tool parts1 toys1 athletic paraphernalia and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use4 ,when properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types of instruction4 ,it appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual work1 as it embodies both the play and work elements4 ,it is very interesting and fascinating and1 in the hands of a skilled instructor1 is readily correlated with other work4 ,wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern making and machine shop work4 ,it brings into play the scientific element by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies4 ,in bringing the chisel into contact with the revolving surface1 the mathematical principle of the point of tangency is illustrated4 ,excellent tool technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every movement depends the success of the operator1 and any slight variation will spoil a piece of work4 ,this brings in a very close correlation of the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an opportunity for observing and thinking while at work4 ,when his tool makes a run he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position4 ,certain cuts must be fully mastered1 and it takes a good deal of experience and absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is possible to attempt skilful work4 ,if scraping is allowed the educational value of the work is lost4 ,in wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened1 and art and architecture can be correlated4 ,the pupil will see for himself the need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend together4 ,if properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture can be brought out in the making of the bead1 fillet1 scotia1 cove1 etc4 ,a feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands shaping materials into objects of pleasing form4 ,wood turning properly taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the beautiful4 ,the boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects which are characteristic in cheap commercial work1 made only to sell4 ,success in turning depends on the following3 #a4 ,care of lathe1 tools1 selection of materials4 #b4 ,study of the scientific elements of-- a4 ,revolving bodies4 b4 ,points of tangency4 c4 ,study of results by reasoning and observing4 #c4 ,development of technique and exactness4 #d4 ,correlation of mental and motor activities4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,lathe ,the sizes of turning lathes are given as #aj1 #ab1 etc4 ,these figures denote the diameter1 or size1 of the largest piece of work that can be turned on them4 ,the measurement is taken from the center point of the live center to the bed of the lathe 7usually #e or #f7 and is one-half the diameter of the entire circle4 ,the length of a lathe is determined by the length of a piece of work that can be turned4 ,this measurement is taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed4 ,fig4 #a shows a turning lathe with sixteen principal parts named4 ,the student should learn the names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular function of each4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,lathe ,the lathe should be oiled every day before starting4 ,at the end of the period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings1 after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to remove all surplus oil4 ,all tools should be wiped clean and put in their proper places4 ,if a student finds that his lathe is not running as it should1 he should first call the attention of the instructor to that fact before attempting to adjust it2 and then only such adjustments should be made as the instructor directs4 ,,speed ,,of ,,the ,,lathe ,the speed of the lathe should range from #bdjj to #cjjj revolutions per minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley4 ,at this speed stock up to #c in diameter can be turned with safety4 ,stock from #c to #f in diameter should be turned on the second or third step1 and all stock over #f on the last step4 ,the speed at which a lathe should run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind of material used4 ,pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners are taken off and the stock runs true4 ,at high speed the centrificial force on such pieces is very great1 causing the lathe to vibrate1 and there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus endangering the worker as well as those around him4 ,after the stock is running true the speed may be increased4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 - ,wood ,turning ,lathe ,,to ,,figure ,,the ,,diameter ,,of ,,pulleys ,suppose a motor runs #aejj ,r4,p4,m4 and is fitted with a #d pulley4 ,suppose also1 a main shaft should run #cjj ,r4,p4,m4 ,then1 #aejj 3 #cjj 33 x 3 #d2 ,or1 #cjjx #fjjj1 x #bj1 or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft4 ,suppose again that a line shaft runs #cjj ,r4,p4,m41 and a counter shaft #fjj ,r4,p4,m4 ,the counter shaft has a pulley #d in diameter4 ,the pulley on the line shaft must then have a diameter of #h4 #cjj 3 #fjj 33 #d 3 x2 ,or1 #cjjx #bdjj1 x #h ,suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs #fjj ,r4,p4,m42 a lathe spindle runs #bbjj ,r4,p4,m41 when connected with the small cone pulley which has a diameter of #c4 ,the large cone pulley has then a diameter of #aa4 #fjj 3 #bbjj 33 #c 3 x ,or1 #fjjx #ffjj2 x #aa ,,rules ,,for ,,finding ,,the ,,speeds ,,and ,,sizes ,,of ,,pulleys #a4 ,to find the diameter of the driving pulley3 ,multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driver4 7#bj x #cjj #fjjj2 #fjjj #aejj #d--;diameter of motor pulley47 #b4 ,to find the diameter of the driven pulley3 ,multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven4 7#d x #aejj #fjjj2 #fjjj #cjj #bj--;diameter of the driven pulley47 #c4 ,to find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley3 ,multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide by the diameter of the driven4 7#d x #aejj #fjjj2 #fjjj #bj #cjj--revolutions of driven pulley47 ,,points ,,on ,,setting ,,up ,,lathe ,,and ,,shafting ,the counter shaft should be about #g' above the lathe4 ,a distance of #f' from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient4 ,in setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both be level4 ,the counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft4 ,when the counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter shaft cone to the spindle cone2 the lathe should be adjusted so that the belt will track between the two cone pulleys4 ,the axis of the lathe must be parallel to that of the counter shaft4 ,the lathe1 however1 need not be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle as well as perpendicular4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,wood ,,turning ,,tools ,a wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools4 ,fig4 #b shows the general shape of these tools4 #a-a_/d ,gouge #c_/d ,gouge #a_/b ,gouge #a_/d ,gouge #a-a_/d ,skew #c_/d ,skew #a_/b ,skew #a_/d ,skew #a_/h ,parting ,tool #a_/b ,round ,nose #a_/d ,round ,nose #a_/b ,square ,nose #a_/d ,square ,nose #a_/b ,spear ,point #a_/b ,right ,skew #a_/b ,left ,skew ,slip ,stone with round edges #f ,outside ,calipers #f ,inside ,calipers #h ,dividers #ab ,rule #a_/b pt4 ,oil ,can ,bench ,brush ,,grinding ,,and ,,whetting ,,turning ,,tools ,skew ,chisel ,the skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides ,on this tool the cutting edge should form an angle of about #bj with one of the edges4 ,the skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left1 and therefore1 must be beveled on both sides4 ,the length of the bevel should equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is sharpened4 ,in grinding the bevel1 the chisel must be held so that the cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel4 ,the wheel should be about #f in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly hollow ground4 ,cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry emery4 ,otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel1 taking out the temper2 the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up4 ,care should be exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly hollow ground4 ,the rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with it4 ,rub first on one side and then on the other4 ,the wire edge is thus worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of the bevels4 ,the chisel is sharp when the edge1 which may be tested by drawing it over the thumb nail1 is smooth and will take hold evenly along its entire length4 ,if any wire edge remains it should be whetted again4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 - ,lathe ,tools ,gouge ,the gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape4 ,the tool is a combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge4 ,the bevel should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends to each side4 ,this is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary wood-working gouge4 ,in making shearing cuts the round nose permits the tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work4 ,the length of the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point where the sharpening begins4 ,the sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the average student4 ,the ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again4 ,in working out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning1 it is necessary that the handle be swung from one side to the other while1 at the same time1 the chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly4 ,it is sometimes necessary to allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the gouge4 ,this kind of grinding1 however1 does not leave the tool hollow ground as when the face of the wheel is used4 ,to complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip stone1 the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which are rounded4 ,the toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are brought into contact with the flat side of the stone4 ,as the sharpening proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge4 ,the rounded edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and forth until the rough edge disappears4 ,great care must be taken not to bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the stone1 as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or plane bit4 ,parting ,tool ,the parting tool is sharpened on both sides4 ,this tool differs from the ordinary chisel in that it is between #e_/h and #c_/d thick and only about #a_/h wide at the widest point1 which is in the center of its entire length4 ,the bevels must meet exactly at the center1 or the widest point1 and should make an angle of about #ej with each other4 ,if the bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear1 and the sides will rub against the revolving stock2 the tool will be burned and will thus lose its temper4 ,the bevel should be hollow ground slightly as then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting4 ,scraping ,tools ,the round nose1 square nose1 spear point1 right skew and left skew are scraping tools1 used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate work4 ,they are sharpened on one side only1 and the bevel is about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened4 ,these tools should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting4 ,scraping tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the wood almost at right angles4 ,after sharpening1 the edges of these tools may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not nearly to so great a degree4 ,this will help to keep the tool sharp for1 as the edge wears off1 the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent4 ,the chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not stand a great amount of turning over on the edge4 ,small pieces will be broken out1 unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more acute angle than was used in the whetting4 ,if a narrow burnisher is used1 pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and thus make the tool useless4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,spindle ,,turning ,spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead centers4 ,there are two methods in common use in wood turning3 first1 the scraping or pattern-makers' method2 and second1 the cutting method4 ,each has its advantages and disadvantages1 but it is necessary that both be learned in order to develop a well rounded turner4 ,care should be exercised1 however1 that each method be used in its proper place4 ,the first is slower1 harder on the cutting edge of tools1 and less skill is required to obtain accurate work2 the second is faster1 easier on the cutting edge of tools1 and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon the skill acquired4 ,as skill is the one thing most sought for in high school work1 the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all spindle turning and1 with but few exceptions1 for face-plate and chuck turning4 ,,to ,,center ,,stock ,if the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock4 ,the point of intersection locates the center4 ,,clamping ,,stock ,,in ,,the ,,lathe ,take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the spur deep into the wood4 ,never drive the wood onto the live center while in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such practice4 ,when extremely hard wood is being used1 it is a good practice to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the intersection1 thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely4 ,oil the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position1 and give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood4 ,then replace the live center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by a sudden push of the hand4 ,the tail stock is then moved about #a_/b to #a from the end of the piece to be turned1 having the tail spindle well back in the tail stock4 ,the tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed4 ,turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly4 ,work the cone pulley by hand at the same time1 so that the cup or dead center will be forced deeply into the wood1 so deeply that the live center will not continue to turn4 ,now turn the dead spindle back until the live spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,,adjusting ,,the ,,tool ,,rest ,horizontally the tool rest should be set about #a_/h from the farthest projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as the stock diminishes in size4 ,the vertical height varies slightly according to the height of the operator4 ,it is even with the center of the spindle for a short person2 #a_/h above for a medium person2 and #a_/d above for a tall person4 ,so long as the stock is in its square form the tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock from the machine4 ,also see that everything is clamped tight before starting the lathe4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,operator ,the operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body without changing the position of the feet4 ,it may be found convenient to turn slightly1 bringing the left side of the body a little closer to the lathe4 ,in no case1 however1 should the tools be brought in contact with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the body4 7,fig4 #c47 ,,holding ,,the ,,tools ,all tools should be held firmly but not rigidly4 ,the right hand should grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons3 first1 to give as much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the hands in case it should catch in the wood2 second1 a slight wavering of the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer up to the rest4 ,the left hand should act as a guide and should be held over the tool near the cutting edge4 ,the little finger and the back part of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a steady movement4 ,the left hand should not grasp the tool at any time4 7,fig4 #c47 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,tools ,,in ,,spindle ,,turning ,the correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of operations on the exercises in ,section ,a-,i4 ,,chapter ,v ,,tool ,,processes ,,in ,,spindle ,,turning ,exercise ,a-,i--#a-;a4 ,straight ,cuts #a4 ,,the ,,roughing ,,cut 7,,large ,,gouge74 ,,fig4 #d4 ,place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the cylinder4 ,the handle should be held well down4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a shearing cut instead of a scraping cut4 ,this rolling of the tool will also throw the chips from the operator4 ,then lift the handle slowly1 forcing the cutting edge deep enough into the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners1 at the end of the work which is being turned4 ,this cut is begun about #c_/d from the dead center end4 ,work back another #c_/d1 moving toward the live center and make a second cut1 and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is gone over4 ,this method of removing corners should always be followed to avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock1 with consequent danger to the worker4 ,the tool may then be worked from one end to the other1 getting a fairly-smooth1 regular surface1 slightly above the diameter required4 ,however1 do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end4 ,it is better to begin about #b from one end and work to the other1 and then reverse and work back4 ,the tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the cylinder1 with the cutting point always in advance of the handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 #b4 ,,the ,,sizing ,,cut 7,,small ,,gouge74 ,,fig4 #e4 ,set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder4 ,with a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about #a apart1 holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and measuring the cuts as they are made4 ,the scraping should continue until the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder4 ,it will be well while scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so that the nose has more clearance4 ,this will prevent the piece which is being turned from chattering or vibrating4 ,the calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder4 #c4 ,,the ,,smoothing ,,cut 7,,large ,,skew74 ,,fig4 #f4 ,lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the cylinder and at an angle of about #fj to the surface4 ,slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until the chisel begins to cut about #a_/d to #c_/h from the heel4 ,the first cut is begun from #a to #b from either end and is pushed toward the near end4 ,then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other end4 ,one should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the chisel will be torn from the hands4 ,the first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge1 and takes the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done4 ,then take the last cut and remove all traces of these1 leaving the cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end4 ,test the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 #d4 ,,testing ,,for ,,smoothness4 ,in testing for smoothness place the palm of the hand1 with the fingers extended straight1 lightly on the back of the cylinder opposite the tool rest4 ,this position will avoid any possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 #e4 ,,measuring ,,for ,,length 7,,rule ,,and ,,pencil74 ,,fig4 #g4 ,hold the back edge of the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder4 ,with a sharp pencil mark off the required length1 starting from the dead center end4 ,the first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder to insure cutting past the point of the dead center4 ,this will leave all surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed1 because1 if not enough stock is left at this end1 there is danger of striking the live center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the work4 ,in case several measurements are to be made1 as in some of the following exercises1 the rule should not be moved until all are marked4 ,this will insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times4 #f4 ,,squaring ,,ends 7,,small ,,skew ,,and ,,parting ,,tool74 ,,fig4 #h4 ,this operation is done with the toe or acute angle of the #a_/b or #a_/d skew chisel4 ,place the chisel square on the tool rest4 ,swing the handle out from the cylinder so that the grind1 which forms the cutting edge1 next to the stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder4 ,the heel of the chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give clearness4 ,raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the stock about #a_/h outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder4 ,swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half ,v4 ,this will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning4 ,continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about #c_/af in diameter4 ,the remaining #a_/h is then removed by taking very thin cuts 7about #a_/cb7 holding the chisel as first stated4 ,after each cut is made the end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel over the end of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,this is an easy cut after it is mastered1 but is one of the hardest to learn4 ,should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part other than the point to touch the cylinder1 a run or gashing of the wood will be caused4 ,in large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order to square the ends1 time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the parting tool to within #a_/h of the desired line1 leaving enough stock at the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on the ends4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,for this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to the cylinder4 ,lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood2 at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper tangency4 #g4 ,,cutting ,,off 7,,small ,,skew74 ,,fig4 #i4 ,after both ends have been squared cut away stock1 at both ends1 to leave just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends4 ,with the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in squaring the ends1 and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to catch it1 slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the live center end1 until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the operator's hand4 ,too much pressure should not be used in this operation or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut1 and will leave a ragged hole in the end4 ,the dead center end1 which has been scored heavily before cutting off at the live center1 is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat on the end of the cylinder4 ,the latter is revolved by hand until the stock is cut away4 ,exercise ,a-,i--#b-;a4 ,shoulder ,cuts #a4 ,turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required4 #b4 ,lay off measurements with rule and pencil4 #c4 ,with the gouge 7where space permits7 or the parting tool 7in narrow spaces7 rough out surplus stock1 keeping #a_/af away from the lines indicating shoulders4 #d4 ,caliper to the diameter of the second step4 #e4 ,the shoulders are cut down as described in ,squaring ,ends1 ,step #f1 ,straight ,cuts4 #f4 ,the new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the same manner as a cylinder2 except that in nearing the shoulder the chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel1 which is the only part that can be worked into the corner1 becomes the cutting point4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,in very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely as a cutting point4 ,in spaces between shoulders1 too narrow to permit the use of the skew chisel1 very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the cutting edge4 #g4 ,where several steps are required on the same cylinder1 each successive one is worked out as above described4 ,note3--,all preliminary steps in working stock to size1 laying of dimensions1 etc41 in preparation for the exercise in hand1 will be omitted in the following exercises3 ,exercise ,a-,i--#c-;a4 ,taper ,cuts ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,calipering for ,new ,diameters4 ,for all diameters on tapers the calipers should be set #a_/af larger than the desired measurement in order to avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper marks4 ,if the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder1 as in ,plate ,a-,i--#c-;a1 a parting tool should be used1 instead of a gouge1 to take off a very thin shoulder4 ,if the taper forms an internal angle as in ,plate ,a-,i--#c-;b1 a gouge is used as in ,step #b--,sizing ,cut--,plate ,a-,i--#a-;a4 ,in other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers4 ,in cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used1 much in the same manner as in ordinary cylinder work1 except that at the start of each cut the heel must be the cutting point4 ,this will avoid any chance of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond the starting point4 ,as soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above the heel4 ,all cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood4 ,in making the cut1 care should be taken to see that the chisel is not tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted4 ,should that be done a hollow1 or dished out1 taper is sure to be the result instead of a straight one4 ,exercise ,a-,i--#d-;a4 ,v ,cutting ,in cutting ,v's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is done with the heel4 ,place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder4 ,draw the chisel back and raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood1 thus scoring it4 ,this cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn4 ,this scoring should be at the exact center of the ,v cut4 ,swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the chisel so that the grind1 which forms the cutting edge1 is at an angle of about #de with the axis of the cylinder4 ,the handle is then raised at an angle of #de bringing the heel down to make a good cut4 ,the chisel is then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken4 ,these cuts are continued1 together with the center scoring1 until quite close to the pencil marks4 ,test the angle before the finishing cut is taken4 ,it will be found best to have the ,v slightly greater than #ij at the base until the final cut is made1 at which time it can be trued up4 ,the ,v should be tested with the square end of a rule4 ,the cylinder should not be in motion while testing4 ,when angles other than #de are cut1 the cutting edge of the chisel should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the cut desired4 ,a-,i--#e-;a4 ,concave ,cuts ,the concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at first owing to the fact that the grind1 which forms the cutting edge and which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start1 is on the under side of the tool and cannot be seen4 ,however1 as soon as the correct angle of the tool is located1 the cut will be found as easy as any4 ,concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the #a_/b or #c_/d4 ,place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above the wood4 ,the tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the cutting point1 which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center1 is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood4 ,as soon as the gouge has taken hold1 the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight lowering of the handle1 while at the same time it is rolled back toward its first position4 ,care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast or a perfect arc will not be cut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,by this triple action the grind1 which comes in contact with the surface of the curve1 forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle4 ,reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle4 ,the cutting should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other side4 ,repeat this operation until within about #a_/af of the required size4 ,at the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel well out on top of the cut4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as described before4 ,a finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been tested with a templet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a-,i--#f-;a4 ,convex ,cuts ,the convex cut1 or ,bead as it is usually called1 is generally considered the hardest cut to make4--,the cut is made with the heel of a small skew chisel1 usually the #a_/d or #a_/h4 ,after the cylinder has been marked off1 rough out all stock between the beads with a parting tool4 ,the base of the cuts is finished the same as described in ,plate ,a-,i--#a-;a1 for shoulder cutting4 ,with a sharp pencil mark the center of each bead to be made4 ,this line is the starting point for all cutting4 ,place the chisel on the rest1 with the cutting edge above the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to it4 ,draw the chisel back and raise the handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at the line indicating the center of the bead4 ,the chisel is then moved to the right 7if cutting the right side of the bead72 at the same time the chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,this cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached4 ,it is well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before reversing to the other side4 ,note3--,the same principles employed in this exercise are also used in working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles1 mallet handles1 etc4 ,the only exception is that in most cases the point of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in ordinary straight work4 ,a-,i--#g-;a--,combination ,cuts ,these exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the foregoing cuts4 ,the student here is given an opportunity of combining these cuts into one finished product4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,an analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of the various cuts should be made first1 second1 etc41 in order to produce the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool manipulation4 ,after the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill and accuracy1 he is ready to apply them in working out various models in ,section ,,ii4 ,a-,,ii--#a-;a4 ,chisel ,handles ,at this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should be turned at the dead center4 ,in the case of chisel handles the socket or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket4 ,after the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension desired1 the taper1 for the socket chisel1 should be turned first and fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used4 ,then the rest of the handle is worked out4 ,ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner4 ,a drive fit should be used for all ferrules4 ,a-,,ii--#b and #c4 ,mallets and ,gavels ,the biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to fit true4 ,this is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight4 ,turn the head to a cylinder #c_/af larger than the finished dimension4 ,then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible1 either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a vise4 ,the handle is then fitted into the head4 ,a snug fit is necessary4 ,if one side hangs or is lower than the other the centers are moved sufficiently to correct it4 ,the head is then turned to exact size and finished4 ,a-,,ii--#g4 ,vise ,handles4 ,turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions4 ,bore a hole through a #a-a_/d square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the spindle4 ,turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head4 ,this method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,oval ,,turning ,oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as well as interesting to the pupil4 ,it brings in the principle of the oval as used in ordinary shop practice2 7arcs from points on the major and minor axes74 ,for thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight1 while for long1 thin ones the off-centering is greater4 ,the measurements given on ,plates ,a-,,iii--#a-;a1 b and ,a-,,iii--#b-;a1 b will give a good idea of approximate distances to be used4 ,while the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning there is one notable difference4 ,the design must be worked out by eye1 because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made for depth of cuts4 ,to get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about #c longer than the model to be made4 ,the thickness of the stock should be about #a_/h greater than the major axis of the oval wanted4 ,the centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular lines are drawn from the sides1 passing through the points of the centers4 ,from the ends of one of these1 perpendicular lines are extended lengthwise of the stock 7on opposite sides7 meeting the corresponding perpendicular at the other end of the stock4 ,these lines form the ridge of the oval4 ,on the other perpendiculars1 the points for off-centering are laid off1 measuring the required distance on both sides of the center point4 ,with a #a_/h drill bore holes #a_/d deep at each of the off-centering points as well as the original center4 ,this will insure the lathe centers penetrating the stock at the proper point4 ,the stock is then placed in the lathe1 using two corresponding off-center points as centers4 ,with the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval1 excepting for a distance of about #a-a_/d at the ends4 ,the stock at the ends is necessary for the off-centering and1 if cut away1 will spoil the centering for the other side1 especially at the live center end4 ,the stock is then changed to the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line4 ,all measurements are then laid out and the design is cut1 changing the stock in the lathe when necessary4 ,care should be taken that the sharp ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the stock4 ,after the design has been finished1 the stock is centered on the true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object to remove the sharp corners4 ,the model is then sandpapered while the lathe is running very slowly4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,duplicate ,,turning ,under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles to complete the model or set of articles desired4 ,but it is not intended to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be made that way4 ,whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at this point may be applied effectively4 ,whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work dissimilar3 ,first1 inaccurate measuring both for length and points of new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves2 second1 a variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts4 ,the first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a measuring stick4 ,this stick should be made of any soft wood4 ,it should be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule4 ,on the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length1 shoulders1 beads1 concaves and all points where calipering for new diameters will be necessary4 ,insert at each point measured a small brad which has been sharpened at both ends1 leaving the end protrude about #a_/h4 ,care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance4 ,after the stock has been turned to the largest diameter1 the stick is held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are forced against the revolving cylinder1 thus scoring it4 ,this stick can be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements will always be the same4 ,to avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of the model to be made4 ,this templet can be made of any thin1 stiff material1 preferably light sheet iron4 ,in some cases it will be necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help facilitate the tool operations4 ,the use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved surfaces the same1 but will also check up on the various new diameters on the model4 ,the cylinder should never be in motion while the templet is being used4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,finishing ,,and ,,polishing ,to get a high and lasting polish on wood1 the work must be first sanded so as to be perfectly smooth4 ,in addition to this1 open grained wood1 such as oak1 must be properly filled with a wood filler4 ,if properly sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required1 and then worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new paper cuts4 ,remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting down stock when working to dimensions4 ,in using old sandpaper run the lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood1 especially on square or round fillets4 ,keep the edges of the work sharp and do not wear them round4 ,in using new sandpaper use a fine grit 7#jj or #j7 and move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly1 so that no scratches result on the surface of the work4 ,the work may be finished by one of two methods4 ,in the first method as in finishing ordinary cabinet work1 the pieces should be stained and filled4 ,in applying filler1 run the lathe at the slowest speed after the material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood4 ,if the highlights are to be brought out1 as in the case of oak1 stain and then give a light coat of shellac1 and apply the filler after the shellac is dry4 ,the shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the flakes of the oak darker1 and the pores of the wood fill in as before4 ,the pores become darker than the flakes1 and at the same time a smooth surface is produced4 ,after the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed or varnished4 ,the second method1 or ,french polishing1 is rather difficult to apply and requires a little skill4 ,a close grained wood1 like maple1 will be found more satisfactory for the beginner4 ,an open grained wood may be filled in the ordinary way1 or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the pores of the wood a combination of shellac1 rotten stone or pumice1 oil and alcohol4 ,rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for light wood4 ,the wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the first method4 ,the mixture of shellac1 rotten stone1 oil and alcohol1 is applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste1 wrapped in cheese cloth to keep it from sticking to the work4 ,it should be about #a-a_/b in diameter and #a_/b thick4 ,hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the pad4 ,the shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy4 ,the mouth of the shellac bottle should be about #a in diameter and should be dipped once4 ,do likewise with a bottle1 having a mouth #a_/b in diameter1 containing alcohol4 ,this should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to dilute the shellac4 ,then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over the pad evenly2 this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps the pad from sticking to the work4 ,a bottle may also be used for this4 ,for the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the work as needed4 ,when the mixture has been applied to the pad1 hold the pad against the work lightly at first1 until most of the moisture has been worked out of it1 and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost dry4 ,in putting on the first coat1 use more shellac and alcohol and just enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work4 ,however1 the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be squeezed out with the fingers4 ,when the pad is dry1 another mixture is applied1 and where open grained wood is used1 rotten stone1 or pumice stone1 is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to build up a smooth surface4 ,run the lathe at a low speed1 depending on the size of the piece that is being polished4 ,allow the first coat to dry before applying a second coat for1 if too much is put on at any one time1 the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull1 and it will form rings by piling up4 ,these rings may be worked out in two ways1 either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad4 ,if too much alcohol is used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been rubbed on4 ,if at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and form rings4 ,too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry4 ,if too much oil is used the polish will become dull after a day or two4 ,after the first coat has hardened apply the second1 but use less shellac and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking4 ,this may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading it over the pad4 ,the entire mixture should be so that only a dampness can be felt on the pad4 ,as the process goes on less oil and shellac are used4 ,all oil must be removed when applying the last coat1 or the piece will lose its polish4 ,all the pores should be filled1 and no rings should be on the finished work4 ,where a natural finish is desired1 apply a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be polished4 ,this will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying the first coat2 no oil need then be used in the first coat4 ,a great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class polish4 ,polishing can only be learned by experience4 ,correct your troubles in properly proportioning the mixture4 ,never use too much shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden1 thus causing rings2 or it will pull and catch to the pad1 thus forming bunches4 ,the purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent against putting it on the work too fast1 but care must be taken not to use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely4 ,the oil helps to distribute the shellac evenly1 but it must be removed when finishing the last coat1 or the polish will not remain4 ,it also helps to keep the pad from sticking to the work4 ,it is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by any method other than the one described4 ,for success it is essential to learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement of the pad4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,face-,,plate ,,and ,,chuck ,,turning ,face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from that taken up in previous chapters of this book4 ,if handled correctly1 it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder turning4 ,from the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and the models to be made are of much greater value4 ,aside from this1 trade methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial work can be given the student4 ,in some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can be employed1 but for the most part they are entirely different4 ,in order to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill and dexterity in handling tools1 it will be necessary to use the cutting method wherever possible4 ,in some instances that method will be impossible1 and the scraping method must be used4 ,,methods ,,of ,,fastening ,,stock ,all the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is held between the live and dead centers4 ,in face-plate and chuck turning the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by means of a face-plate1 or chuck1 that is fastened to a face-plate1 which is screwed onto the end of the live spindle4 ,there are three methods of fastening stock to the face-plate1 and it depends upon the nature of the exercise or model to be made which method is used4 #a4 ,,small ,,single ,,screw ,,face-,,plate4 ,for all work that does not require deep cutting in the center1 such as in towel rings1 picture frames1 etc41 the small face-plate with a single screw should be used4 ,note3--,should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose and turning1 it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper1 grit side out1 and place it between the face-plate and the stock4 #b4 ,,large ,,surface ,,screw ,,face-,,plate4 ,for all work that does not require deep cutting on the outside1 such as exercises1 jewel boxes1 etc41 as well as all large stock1 and all stock from which chucks are to be made1 the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used4 #c4 ,,gluing ,,to ,,waste ,,stock4 ,a block of scrap wood is fastened to a face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square4 ,the block from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the two4 ,to separate the model from the chuck1 after it is completed1 place a chisel on the waste stock1 #a_/af back of the glue joint at such a point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model1 and strike lightly with a mallet4 ,this will cause the paper to separate and the model to become free4 ,this method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the base is to be left straight4 ,it will also be found to save much stock when working with expensive woods4 ,,lathe ,,adjustments ,to get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be no end play in the spindle of the lathe4 ,the spindle should always be tested out1 and if any play is found1 should be adjusted before attempting any work4 ,it is almost impossible to make a true cut when such a condition obtains4 ,,position ,,of ,,tool ,,rest ,for all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as close to the stock as possible1 the same as in spindle turning1 regardless of the angle it may be set4 ,vertically1 the rest in most cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the center or cutting point of the tools used1 when held parallel to the bed of the lathe1 even with the center of the stock4 ,this last condition will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from large to small tools4 ,,chapter ,x ,,tool ,,processes ,,in ,,face-,,plate ,,and ,,chuck ,,turning ,b-,i--#a-;a4 ,straight ,cuts #a4 ,,roughing ,,off ,,corners4 7#c_/d ,,gouge47 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,the tool rest is set crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock4 ,place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down4 ,roll the gouge to the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular to the stock4 ,the point of contact should be slightly below the center or nose of the tool4 ,the handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or to the operator's right4 ,the gouge is then pushed forward into the stock and to the left1 making a shearing cut4 ,the cut should not be too heavy4 ,the starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block4--,this cut should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block4 ,to complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to change the tool rest to an angle of #de with the bed of the lathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,when hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw1 if one is to be had4 ,should this be done the preceding steps are omitted4 ,the tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block4 ,the lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are removed1 and then changed to first speed4 #b4 ,,calipering ,,for ,,diameter4 ,the true diameter is then calipered the same as in spindle work4 #c4 ,,smoothing ,,cut4 ,a smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same as in spindle work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 #d4 ,,roughing ,,cut ,,on ,,the ,,face4 7#c_/d ,,gouge47 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,the rest is now placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of the spindle4 ,place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced4 ,the nose of the gouge is the cutting point4 ,the handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the center4 ,a very thin shaving should be taken4 ,if the gouge is allowed to roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood4 #e4 ,,smoothing ,,the ,,face4 7,,small ,,skew ,,chisel47 ,,fig4 #af4 ,for all work up to #c in diameter1 the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel in the same manner as in squaring the ends of ,stock in cylinder work4 7,step #f--;,exercise ,a-,i--#a-;a1 ,straight ,cuts47 ,for larger work1 place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be surfaced4 ,the point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock1 using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished surface4 ,only a very thin cut should be taken at a time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,note3--,while this operation may be termed a scraping cut1 it will be found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held flat against the work as in other scraping cuts4 ,the surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face4 ,,laying ,,off ,,measurements ,in laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or dividers should be used4 ,set the compass or dividers to one-half the diameter of the circle wanted4 ,while one point is held at the exact center of the stock1 which is easily located while the stock is revolving1 the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock until a circle of the correct diameter is marked4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,should the center of the stock be cut away1 rendering this method impossible1 the following method may be used3 ,set the compass or dividers to the exact diameter wanted4 ,place one point in contact with the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is to be cut-away4 ,bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches the line first made4 ,if not1 move the first point until the two points track in the same line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the rest should be set at the exact center for measuring4 ,all measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and rule as in cylinder turning4 ,b-,i--#b-;a4 ,shoulder ,cuts #a4 ,,external ,,shoulders4 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the surplus stock at each successive shoulder is roughed out with a #c_/d gouge1 keeping well outside the finished measurements4 ,the gouge for this work is held in the same position as described in ,b-,i--#a-;a1 ,step #a1 for ,roughing ,off ,corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 #b4 ,for the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used1 and the process is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock4 ,both the vertical and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method4 ,fig1 #ai4 #c4 ,,internal ,,shoulders4 ,for internal shoulder cutting the same methods may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders1 but for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the scraping process4 7,see ,use of ,scraping ,tools47 ,b-,i--#c-;a4 ,taper ,cuts ,taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are used in the same manner as described in ,b-,i--#a-;a1 ,steps #d and #e4 ,after the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle desired1 a smoothing cut is taken with the skew4 ,care should be taken that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired4 ,b-,i--#d-;a4 ,v ,cuts ,v cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the same as that used in spindle turning4 ,exercise ,a-,i--#d-;a4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,b-,i--#e-;a4 ,concave ,cuts ,place the #c_/d gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of the lathe4 ,roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the cutting point4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,force the gouge forward into the wood4 ,as soon as the cut is started1 the handle is lowered and swung to the left2 7if cutting the left side of the concave7 at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its original position4 ,this movement brings the cutting point farther down on the lip and the grind1 resting on the side of the cut1 will force the gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,this cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to size4 ,the cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut is taken4 ,b-,i--#f-;a4 ,convex ,cuts ,rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool4 ,hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle1 parallel to the bed of the lathe1 to make the nose the cutting point4 ,swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to the bead at its highest point4 ,the gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right2 at the same time the handle is swung to the right2 keeping the grind tangent to the bead at the point of contact4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,this cut is continued until the base of the bead is reached4 ,b-,i--#g-;a4 ,combination ,cuts ,as in spindle turning1 a combination exercise should be given at this point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of working the various cuts just described into a finished product4 ,,use ,,of ,,scraping ,,tools ,when scraping is to be employed1 it should be done with only those tools that are made for that purpose1 i4e41 ,square ,nose1 ,round ,nose1 ,spear ,point1 ,right and ,left ,skew4 ,the handling of these tools will be found easy4 ,the only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use4 ,in general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a scraping tool1 for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the heavy strain required by such work4 ,should it be necessary1 however1 to use a skew chisel as a scraper1 the tool should be held so that the top grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use4 ,,internal ,,boring ,in roughing out the center for ,napkin ,rings1 ,jewel ,boxes1 etc41 the quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge4 ,place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe1 having the point even with the center of the stock4 ,force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth required4 ,if the hole is deeper than #a1 remove the tool often and clear out the shavings in order not to burn the point4 ,in order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center and a shearing cut is taken4 ,to obviate the danger of the tool catching1 all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the front4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,b-,,iii--#h-;a4 ,sphere ,after the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working between centers 7,steps #a to #d7 it is cut free from the waste stock and is centered in a chuck4 ,the chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain1 which will insure equal pressure on all sides4 ,equal pressure cannot be obtained if the ,chuck is cut in cross grain wood1 owing to the tendency of side grain to give more than the end grain4 ,the sphere should be forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding4 ,very thin cuts should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after each until true4 ,as the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting1 it will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at all times4 ,illustration3 ,mirror 7,see ,pages #bii-cja74 ,to remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it1 at the same time pull out on the sphere4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,spiral ,,turning ,spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by most schools in which wood turning is taught4 ,spiral work is seen in antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day4 ,it seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a complete turn1 for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the people of the present day value and cherish4 ,spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood4 ,it brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads1 etc42 and its form1 size and shape may be varied according to the taste of the individual4 ,as in threads so in spiral work we have single and double spirals1 and their form and proportion depend upon their use and application in furniture making4 ,a variation of the spiral may be made in several ways3 ,first1 by changing the number of turns of the spiral on a straight shaft2 second1 by running a spiral on a tapered shaft2 third1 by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself2 and fourth1 by making more than one spiral on a shaft4 ,it is uncommon to see ten or twelve spirals running around a single shaft4 ,some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in the work that is to follow4 ,,plates ,b-,v--#a-;a1 a4 ,,single ,,spiral4 ,,straight ,,shaft ,to work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows3 #a4 ,turn a cylinder #b-a_/d in diameter4 ,make the ends slightly larger in order that the design may be turned on each1 after the spiral has been worked out4 #b4 ,lay off spaces #b-a_/af apart on the cylinder while the spindle is turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts4 ,each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral4 ,a good proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder2 thus the diameter of the cylinder equals #b-a_/d and the width of the space #b-a_/af4 #c4 ,on the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines ,a-,a ,b-,b ,c-,c ,d-,d4 ,these lines should be #ij apart as shown in the top diagram 7,plate ,b-,v--#a-;a74 ,line ,d-,d is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in the top and middle diagrams4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 #d4 ,start on line ,a-,a at point ,x1 circle #a1 and draw a line connecting it with line ,b-,b on circle #a4 ,then connect ,b-,b on circle #a with ,c-,c on circle #b and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of the cylinder4 ,this line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram4 #e4 ,next begin on line ,c-,c at circle #a1 and draw a line connecting it with ,d-,d on circle #a then to line ,a-,a on circle #b1 and so on as before4 ,this spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is to be cut away4 ,this is not shown in the diagram because more or less confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the spiral4 #f4 ,begin on line ,c-,c at circle #a1 and saw to a depth of #c_/d4 ,saw the entire length of the cylinder leaving about #a-a_/b at the ends4 ,do not follow the line here1 but switch off gradually and follow circles #a and #ae1 so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not abruptly4 #g4 ,rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw cut4 ,then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral4 ,when properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd-;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 #h4 ,cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish4 ,,plates ,b-,v--#b-;a1 a1 a4 ,,single ,,spiral4 ,,tapered ,,shaft ,to lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in ,figs4 #bd and #bd;a proceed as follows3 #a4 ,select your wood and bore a hole through it4 ,plug the hole and center the piece in the lathe4 ,this insures getting the hole exactly in the center1 and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of the spiral proceeds4 ,a groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and glued together to form a hole through the stock4 #b4 ,turn a cylinder #b-a_/b in diameter1 tapering it to #a-a_/b at the one end2 this part should be #ab-a_/h long4 ,both ends should be left larger than #b-a_/b as the lower and upper designs must be cut here4 #c4 ,let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the layout 7,plate ,b-,v--#b-;a74 ,the number of circles will vary with the taper4 ,since seven turns are needed in the present spiral1 #bh circles will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram4 ,a good proportion to follow is to measure the diameter of the spindle at circle #b and lay off this distance from circle #a to circle #c4 ,then measure the diameter at circle #d and lay off this diameter from circle #c to circle #e and so on until all circles have been made4 ,then divide these large divisions into four equal parts4 #d4 ,draw four lines the entire length of the spindle1 each #ij apart as shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram4 ,the heavy circles of the same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral4 #e4 ,lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram4 ,begin on circle #a1 where the straight line crosses it1 draw to circle #a at the point where the next straight line crosses it1 then to #b--b--c--c and so on until the end is reached4 ,this forms the ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram #c4 ,next it may be more convenient to draw another line representing the groove4 ,in this case begin at point ,x in the middle diagram1 opposite the point where first started1 and continue in the preceding manner1 making this line parallel to the other line4 #f4 ,saw on the line last made1 being careful not to saw too deeply4 ,the depth must be #a_/d less than half the diameter of the spindle where the cut is made4 ,this saw cut forms the groove of the spiral4 ,the groove is then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife1 by working down the wood on both sides of the saw cut4 ,after the spirals have been roughed out1 a rasp is used to finish shaping them4 ,the work is then sandpapered smooth1 while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe4 #g4 ,cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish4 ,,plates ,b-,v--#b-;b1 b4 ,,double ,,spiral4 ,,tapered ,,shaft ,to work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in ,fig4 #be proceed as follows3 #a4 ,turn up the spindle in the usual manner4 ,since the base of the shaft is larger than the top1 the spiral must also be in proportion and lines ,a-,a1 ,b-,b1 ,c-,c1 ,d-,d1 and ,e-,e1 are drawn around the shaft4 ,to get the approximate spacing from circles ,a-,a to ,b-,b measure the diameter at ,a-,a plus about #c_/af and lay off from ,a-,a to ,b-,b4 ,then take the diameter of ,b-,b plus about #c_/af and lay off from ,a-,a to ,b-,b4 ,then take the diameter at ,b-,b plus about #c_/af and lay off from circle ,b-,b to ,c-,c and so on4 ,if the shaft is tapered more1 a different proportion must be used4 ,also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft three times1 a variation must be made in the number of circles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 #b4 ,if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice1 draw circles #a-a1 #b-b1 #c-c1 and #d-d and the spaces will grow proportionately smaller at the small end4 #c4 ,draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and #ij apart as shown in the midde figure in heavy lines 7,plate ,b-,v--#b-;b74 #d4 ,begin at ,a and draw a curved line to where the #ij line crosses circle #a-a4 ,from there extend the line to where the next #ij line crosses circle ,b-,b at point ,b4 ,continue in this manner until the other end of the shaft is reached4 ,begin at ,a and draw a line on the opposite side of the shaft4 ,these two lines running around and along the shaft form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the double spiral4 #e4 ,saw to the desired depth1 being #a_/d less than half the diameter at the point where cut4 ,with a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads4 ,it is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly4 7,see point #f in ,plates ,b-,v--#a-;a1 a47 ,smooth with a rasp and sandpaper while the lathe is revolving slowly4 #f4 ,cut the design on the ends and polish4 ,,plates ,b-,v--#c-;a1 a4 ,,double ,,groove ,,spiral4 ,,straight ,,shaft ,to work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder illustrated1 proceed as follows3 #a4 ,square up the stock to #a-c_/h4 ,center carefully and turn the design on both ends as shown1 in the upper diagram 7,plate ,b-,v--#c-;a74 ,turn the cylinder between the top and bottom1 making it #e-a_/b long and #a-c_/h in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 #b4 ,divide the cylinder into two equal parts4 ,each part represents one revolution of the spiral4 #c4 ,divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center diagrams 7,plate ,b-,v--#c-;a71 #a-a1 #b-b1 #c-c and so on4 ,the proportion of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of the cylinder4 #d4 ,draw lines ,a-,a1 ,b-,b1 ,c-,c1 and ,d-,d1 parallel to the axis of the cylinder #ij apart4 #e4 ,with a band #c_/af wide of any substantial material 7preferably a narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring7 begin on the line ,a-,a at circle #a1 and connect circle #a at line ,b-,b1 and then connect circle #b at ,c-,c1 and so on until the spiral is made the entire length4 ,mark on both sides of the #c_/af band so as to keep the spiral parallel4 #f4 ,next begin at the line ,c-,c where circle #a crosses it and connect from here to #a at ,b-,b4 ,proceed as in ,step #e1 as shown in the center diagram4 #g4 ,now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles #a and #e1 and deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not too abruptly4 ,refer to the lower diagram for this4 #h4 ,cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around1 as shown in the lower figure4 ,the wood should be cut out with a knife so as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands4 ,the portion cut out should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on the spindle4 ,place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit4 ,turn gradually and the sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up4 ,at the ends where the grooves are smaller1 use a smaller stick around which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand4 #i4 ,it is well to cut straight down1 about #a_/cb deep1 along the lines marking out the narrow bands4 ,then the wood will not be so likely to split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the bands4 #aj4 ,cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at both ends4 ,make the frame work for the sides and cane4 ,glue together and polish4 ,note3--,by making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a side a nice looking book stall may be made4 ,the proportions for the posts are the same as mentioned in ,step #c4 ,transcribers note3 ,there are #adb line art illustrations after this point in the book4 ,they are all provided in the illustrated ,,html edition of this book4