,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #chh ,,new ,,york1 ,june #i1 #ahhc ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xv41 ,no4 #chh4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering4--,farcot's ,improved ,woolf ,compound ,engine4--#d figures4 ,the ,swallow1 a ,new ,vehicle4 ,boring an ,oil ,well4 ,a ,cement ,reservoir4--#b figures4 ,flying4 ,,ii4 ,,technology4--,iron and ,steel4--,by ,,barnard ,,samuelson4 ,the world's production of pig iron4--,wonderful uses and demands for iron and steel4--,progress of ,bessemer steel4--,latest improvements in iron making4--,honors and rewards to inventors4 --,growth of the ,siemens-,martin process4--,the future of iron and steel4--,relations between employers and workmen4 ,machine for ,grinding ,lithographic ,inks and ,colors4--#a figure4 ,a new ,evaporating apparatus4--#b figures4 ,photo ,plates4--,wet and ,dry4 ,gelatino ,bromide ,emulsion with ,bromide of ,zinc4 ,the ,removal of ,ammonia from ,crude ,gas4 ,,iii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,the ,hair1 its ,uses and its ,care4 ,the ,influence of ,effective ,breathing in ,delaying the ,physical ,changes ,incident to the ,decline of ,life1 and in the ,prevention of ,pneumonia4 ,consumption1 and ,diseases of ,women4--,by ,,david ,,wark4 ,m4,d4--,pneumonia4--,the true first stage of ,consumption4 ,the development of tubercular matter in the blood4--,the value of cod-liver oil in the prevention of consumption4--,the influence of normal breathing on the female generative organs--,showing how the breathing powers may be developed4--,the effects of adequate respiration in special cases4 ,vital ,discoveries in ,obstructed ,air and ,ventilation4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,the ,portrush ,electric ,railway1 ,ireland4--,by ,dr4 ,,edward ,,hopkinson4 ,the ,thomson-,houston ,electric ,lighting ,system4--#d figures4 ,a ,modification of the ,vibrating ,bell4--#b figures4 ,v4 ,,chemistry4--,acetate of ,lime4 ,reconversion of ,nitroglycerine into ,glycerine4 ,by ,c4,l4 ,,bloxam4 ,carbonic ,acid and ,bisulphide of ,carbon4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall4 ,,vi4 ,,agriculture ,,and ,,horticulture4--,propagation of ,maple ,trees4 ,dioscorea ,retusa4--,illustration4 ,ravages of a ,rare ,scolytid ,beetle in the ,sugar ,maples of ,northeastern ,new ,york4--,several figures4 ,the ,red ,spider4 #d figures4 ,japanese ,peppermint4 ,,vii4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,recent ,eruption of ,etna4 ,the ,heloderma ,horridum4--,illustration4 ,the ,kangaroo4 ,,viii4 ,,architecture4--,design for a ,villa4--,illustration4 ,,ix4 ,,biography4--,william ,spottiswoode4--,portrait4 ,x4 ,,miscellaneous4--,physics without ,apparatus4--,illustration4 ,the ,travels of the ,sun4 ,,farcot',s ,,improved ,,woolf ,,compound ,,engine4 ,in a preceding article1 we have described a ventilator which is in use at the ,decazeville coal mines1 and which is capable of furnishing1 per second1 #bj cubic meters of air whose pressure must be able to vary between #cj and #hj millimeters4 ,in order to actuate such an apparatus1 it was necessary to have a motor that was possessed of great elasticity1 and that nevertheless presented no complications incompatible with the application that was to be made of it4 ,in the ventilation of mines it has been demonstrated that the theoretic power in kilogrammes necessary to displace a certain number of cubic meters of air1 at a pressure expressed in millimeters of water1 is obtained by multiplying one number by the other4 ,applying this rule to the case of #bj cubic meters under a hydrostatic pressure of #cj millimeters1 we find3 #bj #cj #fjj kilogrammeters4 ,in the case of a pressure of #hj millimeters1 we have3 #bj #hj #a1fjj kilogrammeters4 ,if we admit a product of #ej per cent41 we shall have in the two cases1 for the power actually necessary3 #fjj ---- #a1bjj kilogrammeters1 or #af ,h4,p4 #j4je #a1fjj ----- #c1bjj kilogrammeters1 or #dc ,h4,p4 #j4je ,such are the limits within which the power of the motor should be able to vary4 ,after successively examining all the different systems of engines now in existence1 and finding none which1 in a plain form1 was capable of fulfilling the conditions imposed1 ,mr4 ,e4,d4 ,farcot decided to study out one for himself4 ,almost from the very beginning of his researches in this direction1 he adopted the ,woolf system1 which is one that permits of great variation in the expansion1 and one in which the steam under full pressure acts only upon the small piston4 ,there are many types of this engine in use1 all of which present marked defects4 ,in one of them1 the large cylinder is arranged directly over the small one so as to have but a single rod for the two pistons2 and the two cylinders have then one bottom in common1 which is furnished with a stuffing-box in which the rod moves4 ,with this arrangement we have but a single connecting rod and a single crank for the shaft2 but1 the stuffing-box not being accessible so that it can be kept in a clean state1 there occur after a time both leakages of steam and entrances of air4 ,mr4 ,farcot has further simplified this last named type by suppressing the intermediate partition1 and consequently the stuffing-box4 ,the engine thus becomes direct acting1 that is to say1 the steam acts first upon the lower surface of the small piston during its ascent1 and afterward expands in the large cylinder and exerts its pressure upon the upper surface of the large piston during its descent4 ,moreover1 the expansion may be begun in the small cylinder1 thanks to the use of a slide plate distributing valve1 devised by the elder ,farcot and slightly modified by the son4 ,as the volume comprised between the two pistons varies with the position of the latter1 annoying counter-pressures might result therefrom had not care been taken to put the chamber in communication with a reservoir of ten times greater capacity1 and which is formed by the interior of the frame4 ,this brings about an almost constant counter-pressure4 ,the type of motor under consideration1 which we represent in the accompanying plate1 is possessed of remarkable simplicity4 ,the number of parts is reduced to the extremest limits2 it works at high speed without perceptible wear2 it does not require those frequent repairs that many other cheap engines do2 and the expansion of the steam is utilized without occasioning violent shocks in the parts which transmit motion4 ,finally1 the plainness of the whole apparatus is perfectly in accordance with the uses for which it was devised4 ,illustration3 ,,farcot',s ,,improved ,,woolf ,,compound ,,engine4 ,details of ,construction4--,figs4 #a and #b represent the motor in vertical section made in the direction of two planes at right angles4 ,figs4 #c and #d are horizontal sections made respectively in the direction of the lines #a-b and #c-d4 ,the frame1 which is of cast iron and entirely hollow1 consists of two uprights1 ,b1 connected at their upper part by a sort of cap1 ,b1 which is cast in a piece with the two cylinders1 ,c and c4 ,the whole rests upon a base1 ,b1 which is itself bolted to the masonry foundation4 ,each of the uprights is provided internally with projecting pieces for receiving the guides between which slides the cross-head1 g1 of the piston rod4 ,the slides terminate in two lubricating cups designed for oiling the surfaces submitted to friction4 ,the cross-head carries two bearings1 g1 to which is jointed the forked extremity1 ,d1 of the connecting rod1 whose opposite extremity receives a strap that embraces the cranked end of the driving shaft1 ,a4 ,it will be remarked that the crank1 ,a1 and the bearings1 g1 are very long4 ,the end the inventor had in view in constructing them thus was to diminish friction4 ,to the shaft1 ,a1 are keyed the coupling disks1 ,q1 which are cast solid at a portion of their circumference situated at #ahj with respect to the parts1 ,a1 of the cranked shaft1 the object of this being to balance the latter as well as a portion of the connecting rod1 ,d4 ,the shaft1 ,a1 also receives the eccentric1 ,e1 of the slide valve1 the rod1 e1 of which is jointed to the slide valve rod through the intermedium of a cross-head1 e1 analogous to that of the pistons1 and which1 like the latter1 runs on guides held by the support1 b4 ,the two pistons1 p and ,p1 are mounted very simply on the rod1 ,t1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 and slide in cylinders1 c and ,c1 whose diameters are respectively equal to #bgj and #dgj millimeters4 ,the slide valve box1 ,f1 is bolted to the cap-piece1 ,b1 as seen in ,fig4 #d4 ,as for the slide valve1 t1 its arrangement may be distinguished in section in ,fig4 #b4 ,its eccentric is keyed at #agj so as to admit steam into the small cylinder during the entire travel1 which latter is #dgj mm4 ,to permit of the expansion beginning in the small cylinder1 ,mr4 ,farcot has added a sliding plate1 t1 which abuts at every stroke against the stops1 s4 ,these latter are affixed to the rod1 ,s1 whose lower extremity is threaded1 and which may be moved vertically1 as slightly as may be desired1 through the medium of the pinions1 ,s1 when the hand-wheel1 ,v1 is revolved4 ,a datum point1 v1 and a graduated socket1 v1 allow the position of the stops1 s1 and consequently the degree of expansion1 to be known4 ,steam is introduced into the small cylinder through the conduit1 i1 and its passage into the large one is effected through the conduit1 f4 ,the escape into the interior of the frame is effected1 after expansion1 through the horizontal conduit1 h4 ,the pipe1 ,h1 leads this exhaust steam to the open air4 ,the pipe1 ,i1 leads steam into the jacket1 ,c1 of the large cylinder1 this latter being provided in addition with a casing of wood1 ,c1 so as to completely prevent chilling4 ,the regulator1 ,r1 is after the ,bss pattern1 and is set in motion by a belt which runs over the pulleys1 a and a4 ,it is mounted upon a distributing box1 ,r1 to which steam is led from the boiler by the pipe1 r4 ,after traversing this box1 the steam enters the slide valve box through the pipe1 r1 its admission thereto being regulated by the hand-wheel1 ,r1 which likewise serves for stopping the engine4 ,the cocks1 x1 are fixed at the base of the uprights1 ,b1 for drawing from the frame the condensed water that has accumulated therein4 ,the lubricating apparatus1 ,v1 which communicates1 through the tube1 u1 with the steam port1 r1 permits oil to be sent to the large and small cylinders through the tubes1 u and u4 ,mr4 ,farcot has recently adapted this type of motor to the direct running of electric machines that are required to make #djj revolutions per minute4--,publication ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,at the recent meeting of the ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 ,london1 the president-elect 7,mr4 ,bernard ,samuelson1 ,m4,p471 delivered the following inaugural address3 ,,the ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,pig ,,iron4 ,he showed that the world's production of pig iron has increased in round numbers from #aj1ejj1jjj tons in #ahfi to #bj1ejj1jjj tons in #ahhb4 ,the blast furnaces of #ahfi produced on the average a little over #ahj tons per week1 with a temperature of blast scarcely exceeding #hjj ,fahr4 ,the consumption of coke per ton of iron varied from #be to #cj cwt4 ,to-day our blast furnaces produce on the average upward of #cjj tons per week4 ,the ,consett ,company have reached a production of #c1djj tons in four weeks1 or #hej tons per week1 and of #acd tons in one day from a single furnace4 ,from the ,united ,states we have authentic accounts of an average production of #a1abj tons per furnace per week having been attained1 and that even this great output has lately been considerably exceeded there4 ,both as to consumption of fuel and wear and tear1 per ton of iron produced1 these enormous outputs are attended with economy4 ,,heat ,,of ,,the ,,blast4 ,in the case of the ,consett furnace they were obtained although the heat of the blast was under #a1ajj ,fahr41 while heats of #a1ejj to #a1fjj are not uncommon at the present day in brick stoves1 thanks to the application of the regenerating principle of ex-president ,sir ,w4 ,siemens4 ,but an economy which promises to be of great importance is now sought in the recovery and useful application of those constituents of coal which1 in the coking process1 have hitherto been lost2 or1 as an alternative1 in a similar recovery in those cases in which the coal is charged in a raw state into the blast furnace1 as is the practice in ,scotland and elsewhere4 ,this recovery of the hydrocarbons and the nitrogen contained in the coal1 and their collection as tar and ammoniacal liquors1 and subsequent conversion into sulphate of ammonia as to the latter1 and into the various light and heavy paraffin oils and the residual pitch as to the former1 have now been carried on for a considerable time at two of the ,gartsherrie furnaces2 and they are already engaged in applying the necessary apparatus to eight more furnaces4 ,in the coke oven the recovery of these by-products--if that name can be properly applied to substances which yield the most brilliant colors1 the purest illuminants1 and the flesh-forming constituents supplied by the vegetable world--would appear at first sight to be simpler2 but it has presented its own peculiar difficulties2 the chief of which was1 or was believed to be1 a deterioration in the quality of what has hitherto been the principal1 but what may1 perhaps1 come to be regarded hereafter as the residual product1 namely1 the coke4 ,but the more recent experience of ,messrs4 ,pease1 at ,crook1 appears not to justify this opinion4 ,you will see on our table specimens of the coke produced in the ,carves-,simon oven1 yielding #ge to #gg per cent4 of coke from the ,pease's ,west coal1 which they have now had at work for several months4 ,twenty-five of these ovens are at work1 and the average yield of ammoniacal liquor per ton of coal has been #cj gallons of a strength of #g ,twaddell1 valued at #a;d4 per gallon at the ovens2 the quantity of tar per ton has been #g gallons1 valued at #c;d4 per gallon4 ,these products would therefore realize #ds4 #c;d4 per ton of coal4 ,of course the profit on the ton of coke is considerably more1 and to this has to be added the value of the additional weight of coke1 which in the ordinary beehive ovens from coal of the same quality is only #fj per cent4 or in beehive ovens having bottom flues about #ff per cent41 while in the ,carves ovens it is1 as ,i have said1 upward of #ge per cent4 ,against these figures there is a charge of #as4 #d;d4 per ton of coke for additional labor1 including all the labor in collecting the by-products2 the interest on the first cost of the plant1 which is considerable1 and probably some outlay for repairs in excess of that in the case of ordinary ovens1 has also to be charged4 ,mr4 ,jameson takes credit for the combustible gas1 which is used up in the ,carves ovens1 but which remains over in his process1 and is available1 though not nearly all consumed1 in raising steam for the various purposes of a colliery1 including1 no doubt1 before long1 the generation of electricity for its illumination4 ,it is right to state that prior to #ahgi ,mr4 ,henry ,aitken had applied bottom flues for taking off the oil and ammoniacal water to beehive ovens at the ,almond ,ironworks1 near ,falkirk4 ,he states that the largest quantity of oil obtained was eleven gallons1 the specific gravity varying from #j4ibe to #a4jjj1 and that the water contained a quantity of ammonia fully equal to #e lb4 of sulphate of ammonia to the ton of coal coked4 ,the residual permanent or non-condensed gases were allowed to issue from the end of the condenser pipe1 and were burnt for light in the engine-houses1 but it was intended to force them into the oven again above the level of the coke4 ,owing to the works being closed1 nothing has been done with these ovens for some years4 ,i may mention1 by the way1 that it is proposed to apply the principle of ,mr4 ,jameson's process to the recovery of oil and ammonia from the smouldering waste heaps at the pit-bank1 by the introduction into these of conduits resembling those which he applies to the bottom of the beehive oven4 ,there is every reason to expect that one or more of these various methods of utilizing valuable products which are at present lost will be carried to perfection1 and will tend to cheapen the cost at which iron can be produced1 and still further to increase its consumption for all the multifarious purposes to which it is applied4 ,,wonderful ,,uses ,,and ,,demand ,,for ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,but the world's annual production of #bj1jjj1jjj tons of pig iron is itself sufficiently startling1 and without attempting to present to you the statistics of all its various uses--for which1 in fact1 we do not possess the necessary materials--the increased consumption of more than #i1jjj1jjj tons since #ahfi becomes conceivable when we consider how some of the great works in which it is employed have been extending during that or even a shorter interval4 ,and of these ,i need only speak of the world's railways1 of which there were in #ahgb #aee1jjj miles1 and in #ahhb not less than #bfj1jjj1 but probably more nearly #bfe1jjj miles4 ,in the ,united ,states alone about #fj1jjj miles of railway have been built since #ahfi--the year1 ,i may remind you in passing1 in which the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,states of the ,union were first united by a railway2 while in our ,indian ,empire the communication between ,calcutta and ,bombay was not completed till the following year4 ,the substitution of iron and steel for wood in the construction of ships1 and the enormous increase in the tonnage of the world1 in spite of the economy arising from the employment of steamers in place of sailing ships1 is perhaps the element of increased consumption next in importance to that of railways4 ,i do not think that the materials are available for estimating with any accuracy the amount of this increase1 but ,i believe ,i am rather understating it if ,i take the consumption of iron and steel used last year throughout the world in shipbuilding as having required considerably more than #a1jjj1jjj tons of pig iron for its production1 and that this is not far short of four times the quantity used for the same purpose before #ahgj4 ,and so all the other great works in which iron and steel are employed have increased throughout the world4 ,it would be tedious to indicate them all4 ,among those which rank next in importance to the preceding1 ,i will only name the works for the distribution of water and gas1 which in this country and in the ,united ,states have been extended in a ratio far greater than that of the increase of the population1 and which1 since the conclusion of the ,franco-,german war1 and the consolidation of the ,german and ,italian ,states1 are now to be found in almost every ,european town of even secondary importance2 and bridges and piers1 in the construction of which iron has almost entirely superseded every other material4 ,it is difficult to imagine what would have been the state of the iron industry in this country if we had been called upon to supply our full proportion of the enormously increased demand for iron4 ,to meet that proportion1 the ,british production of pig iron should have been close on #aa1jjj1jjj tons in #ahhb1 a drain on our mineral resources which cannot be replaced1 and which1 especially if continued in the same ratio1 would have been anything but desirable4 ,fortunately1 as ,i am disposed to think1 other countries have contributed more than a proportionate amount to the increase in the world's demand2 and1 paradoxical as it may appear1 it is possible that1 to this country at least1 the encouragement given by protective duties to the production of iron abroad may have been a blessing in disguise4 ,,progress ,,of ,,bessemer ,,steel4 ,to speak of the enormous increase in the production of steel by the introduction of the ,bessemer process has become a commonplace on occasions like the present1 and yet ,i doubt whether its real dimensions are generally known or remembered4 ,in #ahfi the manufacture of ,bessemer steel had already acquired what was then looked upon as a considerable development in all the principal centers of metallurgical industry1 except the ,united ,states1 but including our own country1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,austria1 and the world's production in that year was #djj1jjj tons4 ,last year it was over #e1jjj1jjj tons1 and it has doubled in every steel-producing country during the last four years1 except in ,france1 where1 during this latter period1 the increase has not been much more than one-fourth4 ,what is almost as remarkable as the enormous increase in the production of ,bessemer steel is the great diminution in its cost4 ,in the years preceding #ahge1 the price of rails manufactured from ,bessemer ingots fluctuated between #aj and #ah per ton1 and ,i remember ,lord ,george ,hamilton when he was ,under-,secretary for ,india of ,lord ,beaconsfield's administration in #ahge or #ahgf1 congratulating himself on his good fortune in having been able to secure a quantity of steel rails for the ,indian government at #ac per ton4 ,within the last three years we have seen them sold under #d #ajs4 in this country1 and #e #ajs4 in ,germany and ,belgium4 ,,latest ,,improvements ,,in ,,iron ,,making4 ,this great reduction is the cumulative result of a number of concurrent improvements1 partly in the conversion of the iron1 and partly in the subsequent treatment of the ingot steel4 ,in most of the great steelworks the iron is no longer remelted1 but is transferred direct from the blast furnace to the converter1 a practice which originated at ,terre-,noire1 and was long considered in this country to be incompatible with uniformity in the quality of the steel produced4 ,the turn-out of the converter plant has been gradually increased in this country to more than four times that of fourteen years ago1 while the practice of the ,united ,states is stated by a recent visitor to have reached such an astounding figure that ,i am afraid to quote it without confirmation2 but the greatest economy arises no doubt in the labor and fuel employed in the mill4 ,cogging has taken the place of hammering4 ,even wash-heating will be1 if it is not already1 generally dispensed with by the soaking process of our colleague1 ,mr4 ,gjers1 which permits of the ingot1 as it leaves the pit1 being directly converted into a rail4 ,,steel ,,rails #aej ,,feet ,,long4 ,an extract from a letter addressed to me by our colleague1 ,mr4 ,e4,w4 ,richards1 will describe better than any words of mine the perfection at which steel rail mills have arrived4 ,he says1 ,our cogging rolls are #dh in4 diameter1 and the roughing and finishing rolls are #cj in4 diameter4 ,we roll rails #aej feet long as easily as they used to roll #ba feet4 ,our ingots are #ae inches square1 and weigh from #be to #cj cwts4 according to the weight of rail we have to roll4 ,these heavy ingots are all handled by machinery4 ,we convey them by small locomotives from the ,bessemer shop to the heating furnaces1 and by the same means from the heating furnaces to the cogging rolls4 ,so quickly are these ingots now handled that we have given up second heating altogether1 so that after one heat the ingot is cogged from #ae inches square down to #h inches square1 then at once passed on to the roughing and finishing rolls1 and finished in lengths1 as ,i have said before1 of #aej ft41 then cut at the hot saws to the lengths given in the specifications1 and varying from #ch ft4 to about #ba ft4 ,the #ch ft4 lengths are used by the ,italian ',meridionali' ,railway ,company1 and found to give very satisfactory results4 ,i need scarcely say that in a mill like this1 the expenditure of fuel and labor and the loss by waste caused by crop ends are reduced to a minimum4 ,,basic ,,steel4 ,the enormous production of steel has required the importation of large quantities of iron ore of pure quality from ,spain1 ,algeria1 and elsewhere1 into this country1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states2 and these supplies have contributed greatly to the reduction in the price of steel to which ,i have referred1 and what is1 perhaps1 of equal importance1 they have prevented the great fluctuations of price which formerly prevailed4 ,in #ahfi this trade was in its infancy1 and almost confined to the importation of the ,algerian ores of ,mokta el ,hadid into ,france1 while in #ahhb ,bilbao alone exported #c1gjj1jjj tons of hematite ores to various countries to which the exports from the south of ,spain1 ,algeria1 ,elba1 ,greece1 and other countries have to be added4 ,great ,britain alone imported #c1jjj1jjj tons of high class1 including manganiferous iron ores last year4 ,it is questionable whether the mines of pure iron existing in ,europe would long bear a drain so great and still increasing2 but happily the question no longer presses for an answer1 because the problem of obtaining first-class steel from inferior ores has been solved by the genius of our colleagues1 ,mr4 ,snelus and ,messrs4 ,thomas and ,gilchrist1 and by the practical skill and indomitable resolution of ,mr4 ,windsor ,richards4 ,it is no part of the duty of the ,institute to assign to each of these gentlemen his precise share in the development of the basic process4 ,whatever those shares may be1 ,i feel sure you will agree with your council as to the propriety of their having awarded a ,bessemer medal to two of these gentlemen--,messrs4 ,snelus and ,thomas--to ,mr4 ,snelus as the first who made pure steel from impure iron in a ,bessemer converter lined with basic materials2 to ,mr4 ,thomas1 who solved the same problem independently1 and so clearly demonstrated its practicability to ,mr4 ,richards by the trials at ,blaenavon1 as to have led that gentleman to devote all his energies and the great resources of the ,eston ,works to the task of making it what it now is1 a great commercial success4 ,all difficulties connected with the lining of the converter and in insuring a durability of the bottom1 nearly1 if not quite1 equal to that in the acid process1 appear now to have been successfully surmounted1 and ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,gilchrist that the present production of basic steel in this country and on the ,continent is already at the rate of considerably more than #ejj1jjj tons per annum1 and that works are now in course of construction which will increase this quantity to more than a million tons4 ,our members will have the opportunity of seeing the process at work during their visit to ,middlesbrough1 at the ,eston ,works of ,messrs4 ,bolckow1 ,vaughan ,co41 which are now producing #aej1jjj tons per annum of steel of the highest quality from the phosphoretic ,cleveland ores2 and also at the ,north-,eastern ,steel ,company's ,works4 ,i believe it is the intention of the latter company to make a pure1 soft steel suitable for plates1 for which1 according to the testimony of ,mons4 ,delafond1 of ,creuzot1 and others1 the basic steel is peculiarly suitable on account of its remarkable regularity4 ,i shall have the pleasure of presenting to ,mr4 ,snelus the medal which he has so well deserved4 ,,honors ,,and ,,rewards ,,to ,,inventors4 ,the presentation to ,mr4 ,thomas is deferred4 ,his arduous labors having affected his health1 he is at present in ,australia1 after having1 ,i am happy to say1 received great advantage from the voyage2 and his mother1 justly proud of his merits1 and appreciating fully the value of their recognition by the award which we have made1 has requested us not to present the medal by proxy1 but to await the return of her son1 in order that it may be handed to him in person4 ,but honors1 whether conferred by the ,crown1 by learned bodies1 or1 as in this case1 by the colleagues of the recipient1 though they stimulate invention1 are by themselves not always sufficient to encourage inventors to devote their labor to the improvements of manufactures or to induce capitalists to assist inventors in the prosecution of costly experiments2 and it is on this account that the protection of inventions by patent is a public advantage4 ,the members of our profession1 unlike some others1 have not been eager to apply for patents in the case of minor inventions2 on the contrary1 they have freely communicated to each other the experience as to improvement in detail which have resulted from their daily practice4 ,it has been well said that all the world is wiser than any one man in it1 and this free interchange of our various experiences has tended greatly to the advancement of our trade4 ,but new departures1 like the great invention of ,sir ,h4 ,bessemer1 and important improvements like the basic process1 require the protection of patents for their development4 ,,the ,,patent ,,laws4 ,the subject of the patent laws is1 therefore1 of interest to us1 as it is to other manufacturers4 ,you are aware that the ,government has introduced a bill for amending these laws4 ,if that bill should pass1 it will effect several important changes4 ,it will1 in the first place1 enable a poor man to obtain protection for an invention at a small cost2 secondly1 it will make it more difficult than at present for a merely pretended invention to obtain the protection and prestige of a patent2 thirdly1 it will promote the amalgamation of mutually interdependent inventions by the clause which compels patentees to grant licenses2 and1 lastly1 it will enable the ,government to enter into treaties with other powers for the international protection of inventions4 ,if you should be of opinion that these are objects deserving of your support1 ,i hope that you will induce your representatives in the ,house of ,commons to do all that is in their power to assist the ,government in passing them into law4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,siemens-,,martin ,,process4 ,the growth of the open hearth or what is known as the ,siemens-,martin process of making steel1 during the interval from #ahfi to the present time1 has been no less remarkable than that of the ,bessemer process2 for though it has not attained the enormous dimensions of the latter1 it has risen from smaller beginnings4 ,mr4 ,ramsbottom started a small open-hearth plant at the ,crewe ,works of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 in #ahfh1 for making railway tires1 and the ,landore ,works were begun by ,sir ,w4 ,siemens in the same year4 ,on the ,continent there were a few furnaces at the works of ,m4 ,emile ,martin1 at the ,firming ,works1 and at ,le ,creuzot4 ,none of these works1 ,i believe1 possessed furnaces before #ahgj1 capable of containing more than four-ton charges1 ordinarily worked off twice in twenty-four hours4 ,the ingots weighed about #f cwt41 and the largest steel casting made by this process1 of which ,i can find any account1 did not exceed #aj cwt4 ,at the present day1 we have furnaces of a capacity of from #ae to #be tons1 and by combining several furnaces1 single ingots weighing from #abj to #abe tons have been produced at ,le ,creuzot4 ,the world's production of open-hearth steel ingots for ship and boiler plates1 propeller shafts1 ordnance1 wheels and axles1 wire billets1 armor plates1 castings of various kinds1 and a multiplicity of other articles1 cannot have been less than from #hjj1jjj to #hej1jjj tons in #ahhb4 ,the process itself has followed two somewhat dissimilar lines4 ,in this country1 iron ores of a pure quality are dissolved in a bath of pig iron1 with the addition of only small quantities of scrap steel and iron4 ,at ,le ,creuzot large quantities of wrought iron are melted in the bath4 ,this iron is puddled in modified rotating ,danks furnaces containing a charge of a ton each4 ,the furnaces have a mid-rib dividing the product into two balls of #aj cwt41 which are shingled under a #aj-ton hammer4 ,the iron is of exceptional purity1 containing less than #j4ja per cent4 of phosphorus and sulphur4 ,i should add that the two rotating furnaces produce #ej tons of billets in twenty-four hours4 ,,present ,,production ,,of ,,wrought ,,iron4 ,meanwhile1 the world's production of wrought iron has not been stationary4 ,i cannot give very accurate figures1 as the statistics of some countries are incomplete1 while in others the output of puddled bar only1 and not that of finished iron1 has been ascertained4 ,the nearest estimate which ,i can arrive at is a production increased from about #e1jjj1jjj tons in #ahfi to somewhat over #h1jjj1jjj tons of finished iron in #ahhb2 an increase all the more remarkable when it is considered that at the present time iron rails have been almost entirely superseded by steel4 ,it is due1 no doubt1 in part to the extensive use of iron plates and angles in shipbuilding2 but1 apart from these1 and from bars for the manufacture of tin-plates1 the consumption has increased for the numberless purposes to which it is applied in the world's economy4 ,,progress ,,of ,,puddling4 ,there has been no striking improvement in the manufacture of puddled iron1 partly on account of the impression that it is doomed to be superseded by steel4 ,mechanical puddling has made but little progress1 and few of the attempts to economize fuel in the puddling furnace1 by the use of gas or otherwise1 have been successful4 ,i would1 however1 draw attention to the remarkable success which has attended the use of the ,bicheroux gas puddling and heating furnaces at the works of ,ougre1 near ,liege4 ,the works produce #bj1jjj tons of puddled bars per annum1 in fifteen double furnaces4 ,the consumption of coal per ton of ordinary puddled bar is under #aa cwt41 and per ton of fer fin grain 7puddled steel1 etc47 #af cwt4 ,the gas is produced from slack1 and the waste heat raises as much steam as that from an ordinary double furnace4 ,the consumption of pig iron per ton of puddled bar was rather less than #ba cwts4 for the year #ahhb2 and that of mine for fettling was #cc lb4 ,the repairs are said to be considerably less than in the ordinary furnaces1 and the puddlers earn from #be to #cj per cent4 more at the same tonnage rate4 ,i have already mentioned the large consumption1 reckoned in tons of pig iron1 of the materials for shipbuilding4 ,,gross ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel ,,ship ,,building4 ,it may be useful to add that the gross tonnage of iron vessels classed during #ahhb by the three societies of ,lloyd's1 the ,liverpool ,registry1 and the ,bureau ,veritas was #a1adb1jjj1 and of steel #adc1jjj tons1 and that the proportion of steel to iron vessels is increasing from year to year4 ,i am informed by our colleague1 ,mr4 ,pearce1 of ,messrs4 ,elder's firm1 that the largest vessel built by them in #ahfi was an iron steamer1 of #c1jfc tons gross1 with compound engines of #c1jjj horse power1 working at #fj lb4 pressure2 speed1 #ad knots4 ,a ,,gigantic ,,steamer4 ,the largest vessel now on the ways is the ,oregon1 of #g1djj tons gross1 and #ac1jjj horse power2 estimated speed1 #ah knots4 ,the superficial area of the largest plates in the former was #bb square feet2 that of the largest plate in the latter is #bjf square feet4 ,the ,oregon is an iron vessel1 but some of the largest vessels now being built by ,mr4 ,pearce's firm are of steel4 ,the information which ,i have obtained from ,messrs4 ,thomson1 of ,glasgow1 is especially emphatic as to the supersession of iron by steel in the construction of ships4 ,they say that large steel plates are as cheap as iron ones1 and that they have never had one bad plate or angle in steel4 ,this is confirmed by ,mr4 ,denny1 who says3 ,whenever our shipwrights or smiths have to turn out anything particularly difficult in shape1 and on which much 'work' has to be put1 they will get hold of a piece of steel if they can4 ,,remarkable ,,machinery ,,and ,,tools4 ,it will be readily understood that the rolls1 the hammers1 the machinery for punching1 drilling1 planing1 etc41 used in the manufacture and preparation of plates and angles for shipbuilding and armor plates are on a scale far different at the present date from what they were in #ahfi4 ,perhaps the most striking examples of powerful machinery for these purposes are the great ,creuzot hammer1 the falling mass of which has recently been increased to #ajj tons1 and the new planing machines at the ,cyclops ,works1 which weigh upward of #adj tons each1 for planing compound armor plates #ai in4 thick and weighing #eg tons4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,some of the eminent men who have preceded me in this chair have made their inaugural address the occasion for a forecast of the improvements in practice and the developments in area of the great industry in which we are engaged4 ,several of these forecasts have been verified by the results2 in other cases they have proved to be mistaken2 nor need this excite surprise4 ,i believe that few would have predicted1 when the consideration of the subject was somewhat unfortunately deferred through want of time at our ,paris meeting of #ahgh1 that the basic process would so speedily prove itself to be of such paramount value as we now know it to possess4 ,on the other hand1 the extinction of the old puddling process has long been the favorite topic of one of our most practical ex-presidents1 and ,i have shown you by figures that the process is not only not yet dead1 but that the manufacture of wrought iron is actually flourishing side by side with that of its younger brother1 steel4 ,how much longer this may continue to be the case it would not be easy to foretell1 but there can be little doubt that1 just as for rails steel has superseded iron as being cheaper and vastly more durable1 so it will be in regard to plates for constructive purposes1 and especially for shipbuilding4 ,it is now an ascertained fact that steel ships are as cheap1 ton for ton of carrying capacity1 as iron ones1 and it is probable that as the demand for1 and consequently the production of1 steel plates increases1 steel ships will become cheaper than those built of iron2 but1 what is more important1 they have been proved to be safer1 and no time can long elapse before this will tell on the premiums of insurance4 ,steel forgings also are superseding1 and must to an increasing extent1 supersede iron2 while it is probable that the former will in their turn be replaced for many purposes by the beautiful solid steel castings which are now being produced by the ,terre-,noire ,company in ,france1 the ,steel ,company of ,scotland1 and other manufacturers1 by the ,siemens-,martin process4 ,on this subject ,i believe ,mr4 ,parker can give us valuable information2 and on a cognate branch1 namely1 the production of steel castings from the ,bessemer converter1 an interesting paper will be submitted to us by ,mr4 ,allen at our present meeting4 ,i may here mention incidentally1 that ,i have of late had occasion to make trials on a considerable scale of edge tools made from ,bessemer steel1 which show that1 except perhaps in the case of the finest cutlery1 there is no longer any occasion to resort to the crucible for the production of this quality of steel4 ,,railway ,,demand ,,for ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,but it is in the further development of the world's railways that we must mainly look in the future1 as in the past1 for the support of our trade4 ,in ,india the railway between ,calcutta and ,bombay was only completed in #ahgj1 and at the present time1 with a population of #bej1jjj1jjj1 it has less than #aj1jjj miles of railway1 while the ,united ,states1 with only #ej1jjj1jjj1 possesses more than #ajj1jjj miles4 ,in other words1 the ,united ,states have fifty times as many miles of railway in relation to the population as ,india4 ,even ,russia in ,europe has #ad1jjj miles1 or1 in relation to its population1 nearly five times as great a mileage as our ,indian ,empire2 and the existing ,indian railways are so successful pecuniarily1 and give such promise of contributing to the wealth of the ,indian people--or perhaps it would be more just to say1 of rescuing them from their present state of poverty and depression--that it should be the aim of those who are responsible for the well-being of our great dependency to give to its railways the utmost and most rapid development4 ,as to the ,united ,states themselves1 ,i look upon their railways as a little more than the main arteries from which an indefinitely large circulating system will branch out4 ,besides these countries ,i need only allude to the ,dominion of ,canada1 whose vast territory bids fair to rival that of the ,united ,states in agricultural importance1 to our ,australian colonies1 to ,brazil1 and other countries in which railways are still comparatively in their infancy1 to show that1 quite apart from the renewal of existing lines1 the world's manufacture of rails has an enormous future before it4 ,,relations ,,between ,,employers ,,and ,,workmen4 ,i look on the excellent feeling which happily prevails between the employers and the workmen in our great industry as another of the most important elements of its future prosperity4 ,it confers honor on all concerned that by our ,boards of ,conciliation and ,arbitration1 ruinous strikes1 and even momentary suspensions of labor1 are avoided2 and still more that masters like our esteemed ,treasurer1 ,mr4 ,david ,dale1 should deserve1 and that large bodies of workmen should have the manliness and discernment to bestow on him1 the confidence implied in choosing him so frequently as an arbitrator4 ,i believe that similar friendly relations exist in some1 at any rate1 of the other great centers of the iron and steel industries1 and that although our methods may not be adapted to the habits of all1 there is no country in which some way does not exist1 or may not be found1 to avoid those contests which were so fatal to our prosperity in former days4 ,lastly ,i regard as one of the most hopeful signs of the future the increased estimate of the value of science entertained by our practical men4 ,in this respect we may claim with pride that the ,iron and ,steel ,institute has been the pioneer1 at any rate1 so far as this country is concerned4 ,but the conviction that the elements of science should be placed within the reach of those who occupy a humbler position in the industrial hierarchy than we do who are assembled here is rapidly spreading among us4 ,the iron manufacturers of ,westphalia have been the first to found an institution in which the intelligent and ambitious ironworker can qualify himself by study for a higher position1 and ,i hope when this ,institute visits ,middlesbrough in the autumn1 some progress will have been made in that locality toward the establishment of a similar school4 ,other districts will doubtless follow1 and the result will be1 to quote the words of ,sir ,w4 ,siemens on a late occasion1 that by the dissemination of science a higher spirit will take possession of our artisans2 that they will work with the object of obtaining higher results1 instead of only discussing questions of wages4 ,it is on the mutual co-operation in this spirit of all the workers of every grade in our great craft that we may build the hope--nay1 that we may even cherish the certain expectation--of placing it on even a higher eminence than that which it has already attained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,swallow1 ,a ,,new ,,vehicle4 ,the graceful vehicle shown in the accompanying cut is much used in ,poland and ,russia1 and we believe that it has already made its appearance at ,paris4 ,the builder is ,mr4 ,henri ,barycki1 of ,warsaw1 who has very skillfully utilized a few very curious mechanical principles in it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,swallow4 ,the driver's seat is fixed in the interior of a wide ring to which are fastened the shafts4 ,this ring revolves1 by the aid of three pulleys or small wheels1 within the large ring resting on the ground4 ,it will be seen that when the horse is drawing the vehicle1 the friction of this large wheel against the ground being greater than that of the concentric one within it1 the latter will revolve until the center of gravity of the whole is situated anew in a line vertical to the point at which it bears on the ground4 ,the result of such an arrangement is that the driver rolls on the large wheel just as he would do on the surface of an endless rail4 ,as may be conceived1 the tractive stress is1 as a consequence1 considerably diminished4 ,there are two side wheels which are connected by a flexible axle to the seat of the carriage1 but these have no other purpose than that of preventing the affair from turning to one side or the other4 ,the swallow1 for so it is named1 is made entirely of steel and wrought iron4 ,it is very easily kept clean2 the horse can be harnessed to it in three minutes2 and1 aside from its uses for pleasure1 it is capable of being utilized in numerous ways4--,la ,nature4 ,our excellent contemporary1 ,la ,nature1 is mistaken in its account of the above vehicle4 ,it is an ,american invention and was first published1 with engraving1 in the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,december #af1 #ahhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,boring ,,an ,,oil ,,well4 ,,how ,,the ,,hole ,,was ,,made ,,and ,,the ,,oil ,,brought ,,up4 ,a letter from ,bradford1 ,pa41 says3 ,the machinery used in boring one of these deep oil wells1 while simple enough in itself1 requires nice adjustment and skill in operating4 ,first comes the derrick1 sixty feet high1 crowned by a massive pulley4 ,the derrick is a most essential part of the mechanism1 and its shape and height are needed in handling the long rods1 piping1 casting1 and other fittings which have to be inserted perpendicularly4 ,the borer or drill used is not much different from the ordinary hand arm of the stone cutters1 and the blade is exactly the same1 but is of massive size1 three or four inches across1 about four feet long1 and weighing #ajj or #bjj pounds4 ,a long solid rod1 some thirty feet long1 three inches in diameter1 and called the stem1 is screwed on the drill4 ,this stem weighs almost a ton1 and its weight is the hammer relied on for driving the drill through dirt and rock4 ,next come the jars1 two long loose links of hardened iron playing along each other about a foot4 ,the object of the jars is to raise the drill with a shock1 so as to detach it when so tightly fixed that a steady pull would break the machinery4 ,the upper part of the two jars is solidly welded to another long rod called the sinker bar1 to the upper end of which1 in turn1 is attached the rope leading up to the derrick pulley1 and thence to a stationary steam engine4 ,in boring1 the stem and drill are raised a foot or two1 dropped1 then raised with a shock by the jars1 and the operation repeated4 ,if ,i may hazard a further illustration of the internal boring machinery of the well1 let the reader link loosely together the thumbs and forefingers of his two hands1 then bring his forearms into a straight line4 ,conceiving this line to be a perpendicular one1 the point of one elbow would represent the drill blade1 the adjacent forearm and hand the stem1 the linked finger the jars1 and the other hand and forearm the sinker bar1 with the derrick cord attached at a point represented by the second elbow4 ,by remembering the immense and concentrated weight of the upright drill and stem1 the tremendous force of even a short fall may be conceived4 ,the drill will bore many feet in a single day through solid rock1 and a few hours sometimes suffices to force it fifty feet through dirt or gravel4 ,when the debris accumulates too thickly around the drill1 the latter is drawn up rapidly4 ,the debris has previously been reduced to mud by keeping the drill surrounded by water4 ,a sand pump1 not unlike an ordinary syringe1 is then let down1 the mud sucked up1 lifted1 and then the drill sent down to begin its pounding anew4 ,great deftness and experience are needed to work the drill without breaking the jars or connected machinery1 and1 in case of accident1 there are grapples1 hooks1 knives1 and other devices without number1 to be used in recovering lost drills1 cutting the rope1 and other emergencies1 the briefest explanation of which would exceed the limits of this letter4 ,the exciting moment in boring a well is when a drill is penetrating the upper covering of sand rock which overlies the oil4 ,the force with which the compressed gas and petroleum rushes upward almost surpasses belief4 ,drill1 jars1 and sinker bar are sometimes shot out along with debris1 oil1 and hissing gas4 ,sometimes this gas and oil take fire1 and last summer one of the wells thus ignited burned so fiercely that a number of days elapsed before the flames could be extinguished4 ,more often the tankage provided is insufficient1 and thousands of barrels escape4 ,two or three years ago1 at the height of the oil production of the ,bradford region1 #h1jjj barrels a day were thus running to waste4 ,but those halcyon days of ,bradford have gone forever4 ,although nineteen-twentieths of the wells sunk in this region struck oil and flowed freely1 most of them now flow sluggishly or have to be pumped two or three times a week4 ,piping and casing1 terms substantially identical1 and meaning the lining of the well with iron pipe several inches in the interior diameter1 complete the labor of boring4 ,the well1 if a good flowing one1 does all the rest of the work itself1 forcing the fluid into the local tanks1 whence it is distributed into the tanks of the pipe-line companies1 and is carried from them to the refineries4 ,the pipe lines now reach from the oil regions to the seaboard1 carrying the petroleum over hill and valley1 hundreds of miles to tide-water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,cement ,,reservoir4 ,the annexed figures represent1 on a scale of #a to #ej1 a plan and vertical section of a reservoir of beton1 #aa cubic meters in capacity1 designed for the storage of drinking water and for collecting the overflow of a canal4 ,the volume of beton employed in its construction was #j4i cubic meter per cubic meter of water to be stored4 ,the inner walls were covered with a layer of cement to insure of tightness4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cement ,,reservoir4 ,t is the inlet pipe1 with a diameter of #j4jh m4 ,t' is the distributing pipe1 and ,t is the waste pipe4--,annales des ,travaux ,publics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,machine ,,for ,,grinding ,,lithographic ,,inks ,,and ,,colors4 ,the grinding of the inks and colors that are employed in lithographing is a long and delicate operation1 which it has scarcely been possible up to the present time to perform satisfactorily otherwise than by hand1 because of the perfect mixture that it is necessary to obtain in the materials employed4 ,per contra1 this manual work1 while it has the advantage of giving a very homogeneous product1 offers the inconvenience of taking a long time and being costly4 ,the ,alauzet machine1 shown in the accompanying cut1 is designed to perform this work mechanically4 ,illustration3 ,,alauzet',s ,,machine ,,for ,,grinding ,,lithographic ,,inks4 ,the apparatus consists of a flat1 cast iron1 rectangular frame1 resting upon a wooden base which forms a closet4 ,in a longitudinal direction there is mounted on the machine a rectangular guide1 along which travel two iron slides in the shape of a reversed ,u1 which make part of two smaller carriers that are loaded with weights1 and to which are fixed cast-steel mullers4 ,at the center of the frame there is fixed a support which carries a train of gear wheels which is set in motion by a pulley and belt4 ,these wheels serve to communicate a backward and forward motion1 longitudinally1 to the mullers through the intermedium of a winch1 and a backward and forward motion transversely to two granite tables on which is placed the ink or color to be ground4 ,this last-named motion is effected by means of a bevel pinion which is keyed to the same axle as the large gear wheel1 and which actuates a heart wheel--this latter being adjusted in a horizontal frame which is itself connected to the cast iron plate into which the tables are set4 ,this machine1 which is #b meters in length by #a meter in width1 requires a one-third horse power to actuate it4 ,it weighs altogether about #hjj kilogrammes4--,annales ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,evaporating ,,apparatus4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,socit ,industrielle of ,elbeuf1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,quidet described an apparatus that he had1 with the aid of ,mr4 ,perr1 invented for evaporating juices4 ,in this new apparatus a happy application is made of those pipes with radiating disks that have for some time been advantageously employed for heating purposes4 ,in addition to this it is so constructed as to give the best of results as regards evaporation1 thanks to the lengthy travel that the current of steam makes in it4 ,illustration3 ,,perre ,,quidet',s ,,evaporating ,,apparatus4 ,it may be seen from an examination of the annexed cuts1 the apparatus consists essentially of a cylindrical reservoir1 in the interior of which revolves a system formed of seven pipes1 with radiating disks1 affixed to plate iron disks1 ,,ee4 ,the reservoir is mounted upon a cast-iron frame1 and is provided at its lower part with a cock1 ,b1 which permits of the liquid being drawn off when it has been sufficiently concentrated4 ,it is surmounted with a cover1 which is bolted to lateral flanges1 so that the two parts as a whole constitute a complete cylinder4 ,this shape1 however1 is not essential1 and the inventors reserve the right of giving it the arrangement that may be best adapted to the application that is to be made of it4 ,in the center of the apparatus there is a conduit whose diameter is greater than that of the pipes provided with radiators1 and which serves to cross-brace the two ends1 ,,ee1 which latter consist of iron boxes cast in a piece with the hollow shaft of the rotary system4 ,the steam enters through the pipe1 ,f1 traverses the first evaporating pipe1 then the second1 then the third1 and so on1 and continues to circulate in this manner till it finally reaches the last one1 which communicates with the exit1 ,g4 ,motion is transmitted to the evaporator by a gearing1 ,h1 which is keyed on the shaft1 and is actuated by a pinion1 ,l1 connected with an intermediate shaft which is provided with fast and loose pulleys4 ,the apparatus is very efficient in its action1 and this is due1 in the first place1 to the use of radiators1 which greatly increase the heating surface1 and second1 to the motion communicated to the evaporating parts4 ,in fact1 each of the pipes1 on issuing from the liquid to be concentrated1 carries upon its entire surface a pellicle which evaporates immediately4 ,the arrangement devised by ,messrs4 ,perr and ,quidet realizes1 then1 the best theoretic conditions for this sort of work1 to wit3 #a4 ,a large evaporating surface4 #b4 ,a very slight thickness of liquid4 #c4 ,a constant temperature of about from #ajj to #abj1 according to the internal pressure of the steam4 ,owing to such advantages1 this apparatus will find an application in numerous industries1 and will render them many services4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,flying4 ,to the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american3 ,your correspondent on this subject in the issue of ,april #ad cites an array of facts from which it would seem the proper conclusions should be inferred4 ,i think the whole difficulty arises from a confusion of terms1 and by this ,i mean a want of care to explain the unknown strictly in terms of the known2 and ,i think underlying this error is a misconception as to what an animal is1 and what animal strength is1 only of course with reference to this particular discussion1 i4e41 in so far only as they may be considered physical organisms having no reference to the intellectual or moral development1 all of which lies beyond the sphere of our discussion4 ,purely with reference to the development of physical strength1 which alone is under consideration1 any animal organism whatsoever must be considered simply in the light of a machine4 ,a compound machine having two parts1 first an arrangement of levers and points of application of power1 all of which is purely mechanical1 together with an arrangement of parts1 designed1 first1 to convert fuel or food into heat1 and1 secondly1 to transform heat into force1 which is purely a chemical change in the first instance1 and a transformation of energy in the second4 ,so much for the animal--man or beast--as a machine physically considered4 ,what then is animal strength considered in the same light8 ,the animal is not creative4 ,it can make nothing--it can only transform4 ,does it create any strength or force8 ,no4 ,the strength it puts forth or exerts is merely the outcome of this transformation1 which it is the office of the machine to perform4 ,what do we find transformed8 ,simply the energy1 or potential1 contained in the fuel or food we put into the machine4 ,its exact equivalent we find transformed to another form of energy1 known as animal strength1 which is simply heat within the system available for the working of its mechanical parts4 ,how1 then1 is this energy which exists in the shape of animal strength used and distributed8 ,this is the question the answer of which underlies this whole discussion as a principle4 ,it is distributed to the different parts of the machine in proportion to the relative amount of physical work that nature has made it the office of any particular part to perform4 ,let us see how it is with the bird machine4 ,in course of flight he is called upon to remain in the air1 which means that should he cease to make an effort to do this1 i4e41 should he cease to expend energy in doing it1 he would fall during the first second of time after ceasing to make the effort some sixteen feet toward the center of the earth4 ,but he remains in the air for hours and days at a time4 ,what is he1 then1 doing every second of that time8 ,he is overcoming the force of gravitation1 which is incessantly pulling him down4 ,that is1 every second he is doing an amount of work equal to his weight--say #aj lb4 multiplied by #af--say #afj lb4 approximately2 all this by beating the air with his wings4 ,now let us institute a slight comparison--and the work shall be performed by a man1 who climbs a mountain #aj1jjj feet high in #aj hours4 ,the man weighs #aej lb42 he climbs #aj1jjj feet2 #a1ejj1jjj foot pounds is1 then1 the work done4 ,he does it in #aj hours1 or #cf1jjj seconds1 which gives an amount of work of only #db foot pounds per second performed by his muscles of locomotion4 ,at the end of the ten hours the man is exhausted1 while the bird delights in further flight4 ,to what is this difference of condition due8 ,it is due simply to the difference in the machine2 but this1 you say1 is not explaining the unknown in terms of the known4 ,let us see1 then1 if we cannot do this4 ,in the two accounts of work done as above cited in the case of the man and the bird1 an amount of energy1 i4e41 heat of the system1 has been expended just proportional to the work done4 ,now while the bird has expended more energy in this particular work of locomotion than has the man1 we find the bird machine has done little else2 he has consumed but little of his available heat force in exercising his brain or the other functions of his system1 or in preserving the temperature of the body1 and but little of his animal heat1 which is his strength1 has been radiated into space4 ,in short1 we find the bird machine so devised by nature that a very large proportion of the available energy of the system can be used in working those parts contrived for locomotion1 and resist the force of gravity1 or1 what is the same thing1 nature has placed a greater relative portion of the whole furnace at the disposal of these parts than she has in man4 ,the breast muscles of the bird are so constructed as to burn a far greater proportional amount of the fuel from which all energy is derived than do the muscles of the rest of the body combined4 ,let us see how it is with the man who has climbed the mountain4 ,in this machine we find affairs in a very different state4 ,during his climbing he has been doing a vast amount of other work1 both internal and external4 ,his arms1 his whole muscular system1 in fact1 has been vigorously at work1 all drawing upon his total available energy4 ,his brain has been in constant and unremitted action1 as well as the other internal organs1 which require a greater proportional amount of energy than they did in the bird4 ,besides this1 he has been radiating his animal heat into space in a far greater amount4 ,all these parts must be supplied2 they cannot be neglected while the accumulated surplus is given to the machinery for locomotion or lifting4 ,this then is what constitutes what ,i call the difference in the machine1 which is purely one of organic development depending upon the functions nature has determined that the different organs shall perform4 ,as for the pterodactyl quoted in the last article1 ,i have only to remark that this discussion arose purely from a consideration of what was the best type of flying apparatus nature had given man to study1 and ,i claim that this prehistoric bird of geology does not come within this class4 ,for if it is not fully established that this species had become extinct long before the appearance of man on the globe1 it is at least certain that the man of that early day had not dreamt of flying and was presumably content if he could find other means to evade the pterodactyl's claw4 ,f4,j4,p41 ,u4,s4 ,army4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,portrush ,,electric ,,railway1 ,,ireland4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper recently read before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,edward ,,hopkinson4 ,in the summer of #ahha1 ,mr4 ,w4,a4 ,traill1 late of ,h4,m4 ,geological ,survey1 suggested to ,dr4 ,siemens that the line between ,portrush and ,bushmills1 for which ,parliamentary powers had been obtained1 would be suitable in many respects for electrical working1 especially as there was abundant water power available in the neighborhood4 ,dr4 ,siemens at once joined in the undertaking1 which has been carried out under his direction4 ,the line extends from ,portrush1 the terminus of the ,belfast and ,northern ,counties ,railway1 to ,bushmills in the ,bush valley1 a distance of six miles4 ,for about half a mile the line passes down the principal street of ,portrush1 and has an extension along the ,northern ,counties ,railway to the harbor4 ,for the rest of the distance1 the rails are laid on the sea side of the county road1 and the head of the rails being level with the ground1 a footpath is formed the whole distance1 separated from the road by a curbstone4 ,the line is single1 and has a gauge of three feet1 the standard of the existing narrow gauge lines in ,ulster4 ,the gradients are exceedingly heavy1 as will be seen from the diagram1 being in parts as steep as #a in #ce4 ,the curves are also in many cases very sharp1 having necessarily to follow the existing road4 ,there are five passing places1 in addition to the sidings at the termini and at the carriage depot4 ,at the ,bushmills end1 the line is laid for about #bjj yards along the street1 and ends in the marketplace of the town4 ,it is intended to connect it with an electrical railway from ,dervock1 for which ,parliamentary powers have already been obtained1 thus completing the connection with the narrow gauge system from ,ballymena to ,larne and ,cushendall4 ,about #a1ejj yards from the end of the line1 there is a waterfall on the river ,bush1 with an available head of #bd feet1 and an abundant supply of water at all seasons of the year4 ,turbines are now being erected1 and the necessary works executed for employing the fall for working the generating dynamo machines1 and the current will be conveyed by means of an underground cable to the end of the line4 ,of the application of the water power it is unnecessary to speak further1 as the works are not yet completed4 ,for the present1 the line is worked by a small steam-engine placed at the carriage depot at the ,portrush end4 ,the whole of the constructive works have been designed and carried out by ,mr4 ,traill1 assisted by ,mr4 ,e4,b4 ,price4 ,the system employed may be described as that of the separate conductor4 ,a rail of ,t-iron1 weighing #ai pounds to the yard1 is carried on wooden posts1 boiled in pitch1 and placed ten feet apart1 at a distance of #bb inches from the inside rail and #ag inches above the ground4 ,this rail comes close up against the fence on the side of the road1 thus forming an additional protection4 ,the conductor is connected by an underground cable to a single shunt-wound dynamo machine1 placed in the engine shed1 and worked by a small agricultural steam engine of about #be indicated horse power4 ,the current is conveyed from the conductor by means of two springs1 made of steel1 rigidly held by two steel bars placed one at each end of the car1 and projecting about six inches from the side4 ,since the conducting rail is iron1 while the brushes are steel1 the wear of the latter is exceedingly small4 ,in dry weather they require the rail to be slightly lubricated2 in wet weather the water on the surface of the iron provides all the lubrication required4 ,the double brushes1 placed at the extremities of the car1 enable it to bridge over the numerous gaps1 which necessarily interrupt the conductor to allow cart ways into the fields and commons adjoining the shore4 ,on the diagram the car is shown passing one of these gaps3 the front brush has broken contact1 but since the back brush is still touching the rail1 the current has not been broken4 ,before the back brush leaves the conductor1 the front brush will have again risen upon it1 so that the current is never interrupted4 ,there are two or three gaps too broad to be bridged in this way4 ,in these cases the driver will break the current before reaching the gap1 the momentum of the car carrying it the #aj or #ab yards it must travel without power4 ,the current is conveyed under the gaps by means of an insulated copper cable carried in wrought-iron pipes1 placed at a depth of #ah inches4 ,at the passing places1 which are situated on inclines1 the conductor takes the inside1 and the car ascending the hill also runs on the inside1 while the car descending the hill proceeds by gravity on the outside lines4 ,from the brushes the current is taken to a commutator worked by a lever1 which switches resistance frames placed under the car1 in or out1 as may be desired4 ,the same lever alters the position of the brushes on the commutator of the dynamo machine1 reversing the direction of rotation1 in the manner shown by the electrical hoist4 ,the current is not1 as it were1 turned full on suddenly1 but passes through the resistances1 which are afterward cut out in part or altogether1 according as the driver desires to run at part speed or full speed4 ,from the dynamo the current is conveyed through the axle boxes to the axles1 thence to the tires of the wheels1 and finally back by the rails1 which are uninsulated1 to the generating machine4 ,the conductor is laid in lengths of about #ba feet1 the lengths being connected by fish plates and also by a double copper loop securely soldered to the iron4 ,it is also necessary that the rails of the permanent way should be connected in a similar manner1 as the ordinary fish plates give a very uncertain electrical contact1 and the earth for large currents is altogether untrustworthy as a conductor1 though no doubt materially reducing the total resistance of the circuit4 ,the dynamo is placed in the center of the car1 beneath the floor1 and through intermediate spur gear drives by a steel chain on to one axle only4 ,the reversing levers1 and also the levers working the mechanical brakes1 are connected to both ends of the car1 so that the driver can always stand at the front and have uninterrupted view of the rails1 which is of course essential in the case of a line laid by the side of the public road4 ,the cars are first and third class1 some open and some covered1 and are constructed to hold twenty people1 exclusive of the driver4 ,at present1 only one is fitted with a dynamo1 but four more machines are now being constructed by ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros41 so that before the beginning of the heavy summer traffic five cars will be ready2 and since two of these will be fitted with machines capable of drawing a second car1 there will be an available rolling stock of seven cars4 ,it is not intended at present to work electrically the portion of the line in the town at ,portrush1 though this will probably be done hereafter2 and a portion1 at least1 of the mineral traffic will be left for the two steam-tramway engines which were obtained for the temporary working of the line pending the completion of the electrical arrangements4 ,let us now put in a form suitable for calculation the principles with which ,mr4 ,siemens has illustrated in a graphic form more convenient for the purposes of explanation1 and then show how these principles have been applied in the present case4 ,let ,l be the couple1 measured in foot-pounds1 which the dynamo must exert in order to drive the car1 and w the necessary angular velocity4 ,taking the tare of the car as #ej cwt41 including the weight of the machinery it carries1 and a load of twenty people as #cj cwt41 we have a gross weight of #d tons4 ,assume that the maximum required is that the car should carry this load at a speed of seven miles an hour1 on an incline of #a in #dj4 ,the resistance due to gravity may be taken as #ef lb4 per ton1 and the frictional resistance and that due to other causes1 say1 #ad lb4 per ton1 giving a total resistance of #bhj lb41 at a radius of #ad inches4 ,the angular velocity of the axle corresponding to a speed of seven miles an hour1 is #hd revolutions per minute4 ,hence ,l #cbg foot pounds1 and w 7#bpi #hd7 _/ #fj4 ,if the dynamo be wound directly on the axle1 it must be designed to exert the couple1 ,l1 corresponding to the maximum load1 when revolving at an angular velocity1 w1 the difference of potential between the terminals being the available ,e4,m4,f4 of the conductor1 and the current the maximum the armature will safely stand4 ,this will be the case in the ,charing-cross ,electrical ,railway4 ,but when the dynamo is connected by intermediate gear to the driving wheels only1 the product of ,l and w remains constant1 and the two factors may be varied4 ,in the present case ,l is diminished in the ratio of #g to #a1 and w consequently increased in the same ratio4 ,hence the dynamo1 with its maximum load1 must revolve at #ehh revolutions per minute1 and exert a couple of forty-seven foot-pounds4 ,let ,e be the potential of the conductor from which the current is drawn1 measured in volts1 ,c the current in amperes1 and ,e#a the ,e4,m4,f4 of the dynamo4 ,then ,e#a is proportional to the product of the angular velocity1 and a certain function of the current4 ,for a velocity omega1 let this function be denoted by f7,c74 ,if the characteristic of the dynamo can be drawn1 then f7,c7 is known4 ,we have then w ,e#a -------- f ,omega 7#a47 ,if ,r be the resistance in circuit by ,ohm's law1 ,e - ,e#a ,c -------- ,r w ,e ------- f7,c7 ,omega ---------------- ,r and therefore ,omega7,e - ,,cr7 7#b47 w ----------------- f7,c7 ,let a be the efficiency with which the motor transforms electrical into mechanical energy1 then-- ,power required ,l w a ,e#a ,c w a ,c ------- f7,c7 ,omega ,dividing by w1 a ,c f7,c7 ,l -------- 4 7#c47 ,omega ,it must be noted that ,l is here measured in electrical measure1 or1 adopting the unit given by ,dr4 ,siemens in the ,british ,association ,address1 in joules4 ,one joule equals approximately #j4gd foot pound4 ,equation #c gives at once an analytical proof of the second principle stated above1 that for a given motor the current depends upon the couple1 and upon it alone4 ,equation #b shows that with a given load the speed depends upon ,e1 the electromotive force of the main1 and ,r the resistance in circuit4 ,it shows also the effect of putting into the circuit the resistance frames placed beneath the car4 ,if ,r be increased1 until ,,cr is equal to ,e1 then w vanishes1 and the car remains at rest4 ,if ,r be still further increased1 ,ohm's law applies1 and the current diminishes4 ,hence suitable resistances are1 first1 a high resistance for diminishing the current1 and consequently1 the sparking at making and breaking of of the circuit2 and1 secondly1 one or more low resistances for varying the speed of the car4 ,if the form of f7,c7 be known1 as is the case with a ,siemens machine1 equations #b and #c can be completely solved for w and ,c1 giving the current and speed in terms of ,l1 ,e1 and ,r4 ,the expressions so obtained are not without interest1 and agree with the results of experiment4 ,it may be observed that an arc light presents the converse case to a motor4 ,the ,e4,m4,f4 of the arc is approximately constant1 whatever the intensity of the current passing between the carbons2 and the current depends entirely on the resistance in circuit4 ,hence the instability of an arc produced by machines of low internal resistance1 unless compensated by considerable resistance in the leads4 ,the following experiment shows in a striking form the principles just considered3 ,an ,edison lamp is placed in parallel circuit with a small dynamo machine1 used as a motor4 ,the ,prony brake on the pulley of the dynamo is quite slack1 allowing it to revolve freely4 ,now let the lamp and dynamo be coupled to the generator running at full speed4 ,first1 the lamp glows1 in a moment it again becomes dark1 then1 as the dynamo gets up speed1 glows again4 ,if the brake be screwed up tight1 the lamp once more becomes dark4 ,the explanation is simple4 ,owing to the coefficient of self-induction of the dynamo machine being considerable1 it takes a finite time for the current to obtain an appreciable intensity1 but the lamp having no self-induction1 the current at once passes through it1 and causes it to glow4 ,secondly1 the electrical inertia of the dynamo being overcome1 it must draw a large current to produce the kinetic energy of rotation1 i4e41 to overcome its mechanical inertia2 the lamp is therefore practically short-circuited1 and ceases to glow4 ,when once the rotation has been established1 the current through the dynamo becomes very small1 having no work to do except to overcome the friction of the bearings1 hence the lamp again glows4 ,finally1 by screwing up the brake1 the current through the dynamo is increased1 and the lamp again short-circuited4 ,it has often been pointed out that reversal of the motor on the car would be a most effective brake4 ,this is certainly true2 but1 at the same time1 it is a brake that should not be used except in cases of emergency4 ,for this reason1 the dynamo revolving at a high speed1 the momentum of the current is very considerable2 hence1 owing to the self-induction of the machine1 a sudden reversal will tend to break down the insulation at any weak point of the machine4 ,the action is analogous to the spark produced by a ,ruhmkorff coil4 ,this was illustrated at ,portrush2 when the car was running perhaps fifteen miles an hour1 the current was suddenly reversed4 ,the car came to a standstill in little more than its own length1 but at the expense of breaking down the insulation of one of the wires of the magnet coils4 ,the way out of the difficulty is evidently at the moment of reversal to insert a high resistance to diminish the momentum of the current4 ,in determining the proper dimensions of a conductor for railway purposes1 ,sir ,william ,thomson's law should properly apply4 ,but on a line where the gradients and traffic are very irregular1 it is difficult to estimate the average current1 and the desirability of having the rail mechanically strong1 and of such low resistance that the potential shall not vary very materially throughout its length1 becomes more important than the economic considerations involved in ,sir ,william ,thomson's law4 ,at ,portrush the resistance of a mile1 including the return by earth and the ground rails1 is actually about #j4bc ohm4 ,if calculated from the section of the iron1 it would be #j4ae ohm1 the difference being accounted for by the resistance of the copper loops1 and occasional imperfect contacts4 ,the ,e4,m4,f4 at which the conductor is maintained is about #bbe volts1 which is well within the limit of perfect safety assigned by ,sir ,william ,thomson and ,dr4 ,siemens4 ,at the same time the shock received by touching the iron is sufficient to be unpleasant1 and hence is some protection against the conductor being tampered with4 ,consider a car requiring a given constant current2 evidently the maximum loss due to resistance will occur when the car is at the middle point of the line1 and will then be one-fourth of the total resistance of the line1 provided the two extremities are maintained by the generators at the same potential4 ,again1 by integration1 the mean resistance can be shown to be one-sixth of the resistance of the line4 ,applying these figures1 and assuming four cars are running1 requiring #d horse power each1 the loss due to resistance does not exceed #d per cent4 of the power developed on the cars2 or if one car only be running1 the loss is less than #a per cent4 ,but in actual practice at ,portrush even these estimates are too high1 as the generators are placed at the bottom of the hills1 and the middle portion of the line is more or less level1 hence the minimum current is required when the resistance is at its maximum value4 ,the insulation of the conductor has been a matter of considerable difficulty1 chiefly on account of the moistness of the climate4 ,an insulation has now1 however1 been obtained of from #ejj to #a1jjj ohms per mile1 according to the state of the weather1 by placing a cap of insulite between the wooden posts and ,t-iron4 ,hence the total leakage cannot exceed #b4e amperes1 representing a loss of three-fourths of a horse power1 or under #e per cent1 when four cars are running4 ,but apart from these figures1 we have materials for an actual comparison of the cost of working the line by electricity and steam4 ,the steam tramway engines1 temporarily employed at ,portrush1 are made by ,messrs4 ,wilkinson1 of ,wigan1 and are generally considered as satisfactory as any of the various tramway engines4 ,they have a pair of vertical cylinders1 #h inches diameter and one foot stroke1 and work at a boiler pressure of #abj lb41 the total weight of the engine being #g tons4 ,the electrical car with which the comparison is made has a dynamo weighing #ac cwt41 and the tare of the car is #eb cwt4 ,the steam-engines are capable of drawing a total load of about #ab tons up the hill1 excluding the weight of the engine2 the dynamo over six tons1 including its own weight2 hence1 weight for weight1 the dynamo will draw five times as much as the steam-engine4 ,finally1 compare the following estimates of cost4 ,from actual experience1 the steam-engine1 taking an average over a week1 costs-- s4 d4 ,driver's wages4 #a #aj #j ,cleaner's #j #ab #j ,coke1 #eh cwt4 at #bes4 per ton4 #c #ac #a ,oil1 #a gallon at #cs4 #a;d4 #j #c #a ,tallow1 #d lb4 at #f;d4 #j #b #j ,waste1 #h lb4 at #b;d4 #j #a #d ,depreciation1 #ae per cent4 on #gej4 #b #c #c ---------- ,total4 #h #d #i ,the distance run was #cab miles4 ,also1 from actual experience1 the electrical car1 drawing a second behind it1 and hence providing for the same number of passengers1 consumed #ah lb4 of coke per mile run4 ,hence1 calculating the cost in the same way1 for a distance run of #cab miles in a week-- s4 d4 ,wages of stoker of stationary engine4 #a #j #j ,coke1 #eb cwt4 at #bes4 per ton4 #b #ae #j ,oil1 #a gallon at #cs4 #a;d4 #j #c #a ,waste1 #d lb4 at #b;d4 #j #j #h ,depreciation on stationary engine1 #aj per cent4 on #cjj #aas4 #f;d4 ,depreciation of electrical apparatus1 #ae per cent4 #b #j #d on #ejj1 #a #hs4 #aj;d4 --------- ,total4 #e #ai #a ,a saving of over #be per cent4 ,the total mileage run is very small1 on account of the light traffic early in the year4 ,heavier traffic will tell very much in favor of the electric car1 as the loss due to leakage will be a much smaller proportion of the total power developed4 ,it will be observed that the cost of the tramway engines is very much in excess of what is usual on other lines1 but this is entirely accounted for by the high price of coke1 and the exceedingly difficult nature of the line to work1 on account of the curves and gradients4 ,these causes send up the cost of electrical working in the same ratio1 hence the comparison is valid as between the steam and electricity1 but it would be unsafe to compare the cost of either with horse-traction or wire-rope traction on other lines4 ,the same fuel was burnt in the stationary steam-engine and in the tramway engines1 and the same rolling stock used in both cases2 but1 otherwise1 the comparison was made under circumstances in favor of the tramway engine1 as the stationary steam-engine is by no means economical1 consuming at least #e lb4 of coke per horse-power hour1 and the experiments were made1 in the case of the electrical car1 over a length of line three miles long1 which included the worst hills and curves1 and one-half of the conductor was not provided with the insulite caps1 the leakage consequently being considerably larger than it will be eventually4 ,finally1 as regards the speed of the electrical car1 it is capable of running on the level at the rate of #ab miles per hour1 but as the line is technically a tramway1 the ,board of ,trade ,regulations do not allow the speed to exceed #aj miles an hour4 ,taking these data as to cost1 and remembering how this will be reduced when the water power is made available1 and remembering such considerations as the freedom from smoke and steam1 the diminished wear and tear of the permanent way1 and the advantage of having each car independent1 it may be said that there is a future for electrical railways4 ,we must not conclude without expressing our best thanks to ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros4 for having kindly placed all this apparatus at our disposal to-night1 and allowing us to publish the results of experiments made at their works4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,thomson-,,houston ,,electric ,,lighting ,,system4 ,the generator is known as the ,thomson spherical1 on account of the nearly spherical form of its armature1 and differs radically from all others in all essential portions1 viz41 its field magnets1 armature1 and winding thereof1 and in its commutator2 both in principle and construction1 and1 besides1 it is provided with an automatic regulator1 an attachment not applied to other generators4 ,the annexed view of the complete machine will convey an idea of the general appearance and disposition of its parts4 ,the revolving armature which generates the electrical current is made internally of a hollow shell of soft iron secured to the central portion of the shaft between the bearings1 and is wound externally with a copper conducting wire1 constituting three coils or helices surrounding the armature1 which coils are1 however1 permanently joined1 and in reality act as a single three-branched wire4 ,this wire1 being wound on the exterior of the armature1 is fully exposed to the powerful magnetic influence of the field poles1 which inclose the armature almost completely4 ,the armature will thus be seen to be thoroughly incased and protected1 at the same time that all the wire upon it is subject to a powerful action of the surrounding magnets1 resulting in an economy in the generation of current in its coils4 ,the form of the armature being spherical1 very little power is lost by air friction1 and no injury can occur from increased speed developing centrifugal force4 ,the field magnets1 which surround the armature1 are cast iron shells1 wound outside with many convolutions of insulated copper wire1 and are joined externally by iron bars to convey the magnetism4 ,these outer bars serve also as a most efficient protection to the wire and armature of the machine during transportation or otherwise4 ,objects cannot fall upon or rest upon the wire coils and injure them4 ,the coils of wire upon the field magnets surround not only the iron poles or shells1 but are situated also so as to surround likewise the revolving armature1 and increase the effect produced in it by direct induction and magnetism4 ,this feature is not used in any other generator1 nor does any other make use of a spherical armature4 ,the shaft is mounted in babbitted bearings of ample size1 sustained by a handsome frame therefor1 and is of steel1 finely turned and perfectly true4 ,the shaft and armature together are balanced with the utmost care1 and run without buzz or rumble4 ,the armature wire is kept cool by an active circulation of air over its whole surface during revolution4 ,the commutator1 or portion from which the currents developed in the armature are carried out for use1 is a beautiful piece of mechanism4 ,it is mounted upon the end of the shaft1 and has attached to it the wires1 three only1 coming from the armature wire through the tubular shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thomson ,,spherical4 ,the commutator is peculiar1 consisting of only three segments of a copper ring1 while in the simplest of other continuous current generators several times that number exist1 and frequently #abj6 segments are to be found4 ,these three segments are made so as to be removable in a moment for cleaning or replacement4 ,they are mounted upon a metal support1 and are surrounded on all sides by a free air space1 and cannot1 therefore1 lose their insulated condition4 ,this feature of air insulation is peculiar to this system1 and is very important as a factor in the durability of the commutator4 ,besides this1 the commutator is sustained by supports carried in flanges upon the shaft1 which flanges1 as an additional safeguard1 are coated all over with hard rubber1 one of the finest known insulators4 ,it may be stated1 without fear of contradiction1 that no other commutator made is so thoroughly insulated and protected4 ,the three commutator segments virtually constitute a single copper ring1 mounted in free air1 and cut into three equal pieces by slots across its face4 ,four slit copper springs1 called commutator brushes or collectors1 are allowed to bear lightly upon the commutator when it revolves1 and serve to take up the current and convey it to the circuit4 ,these commutator brushes are carried by movable supports1 and their position is automatically regulated so as to control the strength of the developed current--a feature not found in other systems4 ,this feature1 as well as the fact that the commutator can be oiled to prevent wear1 saves attendance and greatly increases the durability of the wearing surfaces1 while the commutator brushes are maintained in the position of best adjustment4 ,the commutator and brushes1 in consequence1 after weeks of running1 show scarcely any wear4 ,,the ,,automatic ,,current ,,regulator4 ,this consists of a peculiar magnet attached to the frame of the generator1 and the movable armature of which has connections to the supports of the commutator brushes for controlling their position4 ,the regulator magnet is so formed as to give a uniform attraction upon its armature in different positions4 ,in ,thomson's improved form this is accomplished in a novel manner by making the pole of the magnet paraboloidal in form1 and making an opening in the movable armature to encircle said pole4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,current ,,regulator ,the armature is hung on pivots so as to be free to move only toward and from the regulating magnet on changes in the current traversing the latter1 and being connected to the commutator brushes1 automatically adjusts their position4 ,by this means the power of the generator is adapted to run any number of lights within its limit of capacity1 or may be short circuited purposely or by accident without difficulty arising therefrom2 and a number of instances have occurred where the injurious effects of a short circuit accidentally formed have been entirely obviated by the presence of the regulator4 ,in one instance four generators1 in series representing over forty lights' capacity1 were accidentally short circuited1 and no injury or even noticeable action took place except a quick movement of the regulators in adapting themselves to the new conditions4 ,had this accident occurred to generators unprovided with regulators1 great injury or possible destruction of the apparatus would have resulted4 ,it is important to a full understanding of the regulation1 to state that its action is independent of resistances introduced1 that it saves power and carbons in proportion to lights extinguished1 and that it compensates for speed variations above the minimum speed4 ,the manner of its action is to control the generation of current at the source in the armature1 and it does so by combining certain electrical actions so as to obtain a differential effect1 such that when small force of current only is required it alone is furnished1 and when the maximum force is needed the same shall be forthcoming4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,controller ,,magnet4 ,on the larger generators we combine with the regulator magnet above described an exceedingly sensitive controller magnet governing the regulation1 and by whose accuracy the smallest variations of current are counteracted1 and the operation of the generator rendered perfect4 ,the controller magnet is contained in a box placed on the wall or other support near the generator1 and consists of a delicate double axial magnet controlling the admission of current to the regulator1 upon the generator1 and its action is exceedingly simple and effective4 ,so perfect is the action that in a circuit of twenty-five to thirty lights1 lights may be removed or put out in rapid succession without apparently affecting those that remain4 ,besides1 we have been enabled to put out even eight or ten lights together instantly1 while the remainder burn as before4 ,the features above set forth are peculiar to the ,thomson-,houston system1 and have been thoroughly covered by patents1 and cannot therefore be adopted into other systems4 ,,the ,,thomson ,,arc ,,lamp4 ,this lamp is essentially a series lamp2 that is1 any number of them can be put on one circuit wire1 but a single lamp1 used alone1 burns equally well4 ,it consists of a metal frame supporting at the bottom the holder for the globe and lower carbon1 which is insulated from the frame4 ,the annexed figure of the plain lamp will convey an understanding of its general appearance4 ,the upper carbon is fed downward by the mechanism contained in the box above1 and is carried by a vertical round rod called the carbon holding rod4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thomson ,,arc ,,lamp4 ,in the regulating box of the lamp there exists a simple mechanism1 the result of careful study and experiment to discover the best and simplest combination of appliances1 which would obviate the necessity for the use of clockwork or dash-pots1 from which fluids might be accidentally spilled1 for obtaining a gradual feeding of the carbon as fast as it is consumed in producing the light1 and at the same time to maintain the arc or space between the carbons in burning1 of such extent as to give a steady1 noiseless light1 of greatest possible economy4 ,the lamp1 once adjusted1 does not require any readjustment1 and1 in fact1 is built in such a manner as to avoid the presence of adjusting devices in it4 ,the lamp also contains an automatic safety device for preserving the continuity of the circuit in case of accidental injury to the feeding mechanism or the carbons of the lamps4 ,this is quite important when a considerable number of lights are operated upon one circuit wire1 as a break in the circuit1 due to a defective lamp1 would result in the extinguishment of all the lights4 ,with the safety device mentioned1 such a break does not occur1 but the flow of current is preserved through the faulty lamp4 ,by an exceedingly simple device upon the carbon holding rod1 the lamps are extinguished when the carbons are burned out1 and injury by burning the holders completely avoided4 ,the system is based upon the joint inventions of ,elihu ,thomson and ,edwin ,j4 ,houston1 for generators1 regulators1 and electric lamps1 and also the patents of ,elihu ,thomson1 in generators1 regulators1 and electric lamps2 all of which are now operated and controlled by the ,thomson-,houston ,electric ,co41 #aca ,devonshire ,street1 ,boston1 ,mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,vibrating ,,bell4 ,one of the causes which gives rise to induction in the telephone lines running along the ,belgian railroads is that there are so many electric bells in the stations4 ,mr4 ,lippens proposes as a remedy for the trouble a slight modification of the vibrating bell of his invention so as to exclude from the line the extra currents from the bell4 ,in one of the styles 7,fig4 #a7 a spring1 ,r1 is attached at ,t to a fixed metallic rod1 and presses against the rod1 ,t4 ,the current enters through the terminal1 ,b1 traverses the bobbins1 passes through ,t1 through the spring1 through ,t1 and makes its exit through the other terminal4 ,the armature is attracted1 and the point1 ,p1 fixed thereto draws back the spring from the rod1 ,t1 and interrupts the current2 but1 at the moment at which the point touches the spring1 and before the latter has been detached from the rod1 ,t1 the electro-magnet becomes included in a short circuit1 and the line current1 instead of passing through the bobbins for a very short time1 passes through the wire1 ,t1 the armature1 and the rod1 ,t1 so that the extra current is no longer sent into the line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,in another style 7,fig4 #b7 the current is not interrupted at all1 but enters through the terminal1 ,b1 traverses the bobbins1 and goes through ,c to the terminal1 ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,as soon as the armature is attracted1 the spring1 ,r1 which is fixed to it presses against the fixed metallic rod1 ,t1 and thus gives the electricity a shorter travel than it would take by preference4 ,the current ceases1 then1 to pass through the bobbins1 demagnetization occurs1 and the spring that holds the armature separates anew4 ,the current now passes for a second time into the bobbins and produces a new action1 and so on4 ,there is no longer1 then1 any interruption of the current1 and the motions of the hammer are brought about by the change in direction of the current1 which alternately traverses and leaves the bobbins4 ,in a communication that he has addressed to us on the subject of these bells1 ,mr4 ,lippens adds a few details in regard to the mode of applying the ground pile to micro-telephone stations4 ,being given any two stations1 he puts into the ground at the first a copper plate1 and at the second a zinc one1 and connects the two by a line wire provided with two vibrating bells and two telephone apparatus4 ,the earth current suffices to actuate the bells1 but1 in order to effect a call1 the inventor is obliged to run them continuously and to interrupt them at the moment at which he wishes to communicate4 ,the correspondent is then notified through the cessation of noise in the bells1 and the two call-apparatus are thrown out of the circuit by the play of the commutator1 and are replaced by the micro-telephone apparatus4 ,it is certainly impracticable to allow vibrating bells to ring continuously in this manner4 ,the ground pile would1 at the most1 be only admissible in cases where the call1 having to be made from only one of the stations1 might be effected by a closing of the circuit4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the advantage of lighting vessels by electricity was shown when the steamer ,carolina1 of the old ,bay ,line between ,baltimore and ,norfolk1 ran into the ,british steamship ,riversdale in a dense fog off ,cedar ,point1 on ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,the electric lights of the ,carolina were extinguished only in the damaged part of the boat1 and her officers think that if she had been lighted in any other way1 a conflagration would have followed the collision4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photo ,,plates--,,wet ,,and ,,dry4 ,dr4 ,eder has recently published1 in the ,correspondenz1 the first of a series of articles embodying the results of his more recent work on gelatino bromide2 and we now reproduce the substance of the article in a somewhat abstracted form4 ,the sensitiveness of a wet plate continues to be used as a rough and ready standard of comparison2 and1 notwithstanding the fact that it is physically impossible to exactly compare the sensitiveness of a wet plate with that of a gelatino bromide film1 it is convenient to refer to wet plates as some kind of a rough standard4 ,experiments have shown that a gelatine plate which gives the number #aj on the ,warnerke sensitometer1 may be regarded as approximately corresponding to the average wet plate2 and setting out from this point1 the following table has been constructed3 ,sensitometer ,sensitiveness1 expressed in terms number4 of a ,wet ,plate4 #aj #a #aa #a-a_/c #ab #a-c_/d #ac #b-a_/c #ad #c #ae #d #af #e #ag #g #ah #i #ai #ab #bj #af #ba #ba #bb #bg #bc #cf #bd #dh #be #fc ,the nature of the developer used has1 of course1 some influence on the sensitiveness of the plates2 but in the above cases it is assumed that oxalate developer1 without any addition1 is used2 or pyro41 to which ammonia is added at intervals of about thirty seconds1 so as to produce a slight tendency to fog2 the time of development being from three to four minutes4 ,the numbers are supposed to be read after fixation1 the plate being held against the sky4 ,schumann's statement that a gelatino bromide plate is less sensitive when developed at #cj ,c4 than when developed at #e1 is contested2 the more recent investigations of ,dr4 ,eder serving to demonstrate that a developer at a moderate high temperature acts very much more rapidly than when the temperature is low2 but when a sufficient time is allowed for each developer to thoroughly penetrate the film1 the difference becomes less apparent4 ,here are examples3 ,a4--,oxalate ,developer4 ,temperature of developer #d-h ,c4 #af-ag ,c4 #bf-bh ,c4 ,time of development #a min4 #c ,w4 #h ,w4 #ac ,w4 #b min4 #i ,w4 #aj ,w4 #ae ,w4 ,b4--,pyrogallic ,developer4 ,temperature of developer #a-b ,c4 #bf-bh ,c4 ,time of development min4 #f ,w4 #aj ,w4 #c min4 #ad ,w4 #ae ,w4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,intensifier ,,for ,,wet ,,plates4 ,by ,,major ,,waterhouse4 ,the collodion process is still preferred for reproducing black and white designs1 drawings1 engravings1 etc41 where very dense negatives are desirable4 ,the fixed and washed plate is put in a bath of bromide of copper 7ten per cent4 solution72 the film whitens immediately1 and when the color is even all over1 the plate is taken out and plunged into a bath of the ordinary ferrous oxalate developer4 ,it takes a dark olive tint1 which is very non-actinic1 the shadows meanwhile remaining very clear4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gelatino ,,bromide ,,emulsion ,,with ,,bromide ,,of ,,zinc4 ,by this time of the year ,i have no doubt many1 both amateur and professional photographers1 are either contemplating or are actually at work making their stock of plates for the coming season1 and it is to be hoped that we shall have more favorable weather than we had last year4 ,some four or five years since ,i tried using bromide of zinc instead of the ordinary salts1 namely1 bromide of ammonium or potassium4 ,i only made one batch of plates at the time1 which possessed several important features ,i considered an advantage1 and ,i think well worth while following out4 ,i do not think it can be denied that ordinary gelatine plates1 if exposed in a weak light1 fall very short of the results obtained with wet collodion when compared side by side1 gelatine being almost useless under these conditions1 and there is a decided gain in the result in this respect if the emulsion be made with zinc bromide4 ,in using bromide of zinc there is a slight difficulty to overcome1 but it can be overcome1 as ,i have succeeded in making a perfect emulsion4 ,it will1 ,i have no doubt1 be remembered that ,mr4 ,l4 ,warnerke was the first to call attention to this salt in the days of collodion emulsion2 and ,i think he claimed for an emulsion prepared with it that the image would stand more forcing without fogging to gain any amount of intensity4 ,this was said of a collodion emulsion1 and ,i also find that it is the same when used in a gelatine emulsion4 ,i have heard a great many say1 when speaking about the intensity of gelatine plates1 that they can get any amount of intensity4 ,i grant that in a studio where the operator has full command over the lighting of his subject by means of blinds1 but it is not so in the field1 especially when the light is dull4 ,i have seen thousands of negatives1 and as a rule ,i have found want of intensity has been the fault1 and generally through the light4 ,now if we can find a remedy for this1 it will be a step in advance4 ,what ,i claim for bromide of zinc is that a rapid plate can be made with it1 and any degree of intensity can be readily obtained with a very small proportion of pyrogallic acid in the developer4 ,the cry as always is to use plenty of pyrogallic acid and you can get any amount of intensity4 ,i remember1 in the early days of gelatine1 as much as six grains being recommended1 and ,i have myself1 under extraordinary circumstances1 used as much as ten grains to the ounce2 but ,i think it is now1 to a certain extent1 a thing of the past4 ,with the plates to which ,i refer1 ,i found that ,i only required to use for a #g #e plate one grain of pyrogallic acid in about three ounces of developer to get full density without the slightest difficulty4 ,if the ordinary quantity were used far too much density was obtained1 and the plate ruined beyond recovery2 but with so small a quantity of pyro4 the plate was not so much stained as with a larger quantity1 and the negative took far less time to develop on account of the intensity being so readily obtained4 ,in making a gelatine emulsion with zinc it must be decidedly acid or it fogs4 ,i prefer nitric acid for the purpose4 ,i also found that some samples of the bromide behaved in a very peculiar way4 ,all went on well until it came to the washing1 when the bromide of silver washed out slowly1 rendering the washing water slightly milky2 this continued until the whole of the bromide of silver was discharged from the gelatine1 and the latter rendered perfectly transparent as in the first instance4 ,i remember a gentleman mentioning at one of the meetings of the ,south ,london ,photographic ,society that he was troubled in the same way as ,i was at that time4 ,i think if a few experiments were made in this direction with the zinc salt and worked out1 it would be a great advantage4--,wm4 ,brooks1 in ,br4 ,jour4 of ,photo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,design ,,for ,a ,,villa4 ,the villa of which we give a perspective drawing is intended as a country residence1 being designed in a quiet and picturesque style of domestic ,gothic1 frequently met with in old country houses4 ,it is proposed to face the external walls with red ,suffolk bricks and ,corsham ,down stone dressings1 the chimneys to be finished with moulded bricks4 ,the attic gables1 etc41 would be half-timbered in oak1 and the roof covered with red ,fareham tiles laid on felt4 ,internally1 the hall and corridors are to be laid with tiles2 the wood finishing on ground floor to be of walnut1 and on first floor of pitch pine4 ,the ground floor contains drawing-room1 #bc ft4 by #af ft41 with octagonal recess in angle 7which also forms a feature in the elevation71 and door leading to conservatory4 ,the morning-room1 #af ft4 by #af ft41 also leads into conservatory4 ,dining-room1 #bj ft4 by #af ft41 with serving door leading from kitchen4 ,the hall and principal staircase are conveniently situated in the main part of the house1 with doors leading to the several rooms1 and entrances to garden4 ,the domestic offices1 though conveniently placed1 are entirely cut off from the main portion of the house by a door leading from the hall4 ,in the basement there is ample cellar accommodation for wine or other purposes4 ,the first floor contains four bed-rooms1 two dressing-rooms1 bath-room1 w4c41 etc4 ,the attic floor1 reached by the servants' staircase1 contains two servants' bed-rooms1 day and night nurseries1 and box and store rooms4 ,the estimated cost is #c1hjj4 ,the design is by ,mr4 ,charles ,c4 ,bradley1 of #hb ,wellesley ,road1 ,croydon4--,building ,times4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,architecture--,,design ,,for ,a ,,villa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,william ,,spottiswoode4 ,william ,spottiswoode1 ,president of the ,royal ,society1 was born in ,london1 ,jan4 #aa1 #ahbe4 ,he belongs to an ancient ,scottish family1 many members of which have risen to distinction in ,scotland and also in the ,new ,world4 ,in #ahde he took a first class in mathematics1 and he afterward won the junior 7#ahdf7 and the senior 7#ahdg7 university mathematical scholarships4 ,he returned to ,oxford for a term or two1 and gave a course of lectures in ,balliol ,college on ,geometry of ,three ,dimensions--a favorite subject of his4 ,he was examiner in the mathematical schools in #aheg-eh4 ,on leaving ,oxford1 he immediately1 we believe1 took an active part in the working management of the business of the ,queen's printers1 about this time resigned to him by his father1 ,andrew ,spottiswoode1 brother of the ,laird of ,spottiswoode4 ,the business has largely developed under his hands4 ,other subjects than mathematics have occupied his attention3 at an early age he studied languages1 as well ,oriental as ,european4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,spottiswoode4 ,as treasurer and president1 he has been continuously on the ,council of the ,royal ,society for a great many years1 and through his exceptional gifts as an administrator he has rendered it invaluable services4 ,he has rendered similar services to the ,british ,association1 to the ,london ,mathematical ,society1 and to the ,royal ,institution4 ,we have permission to make the following extract from a letter written by a friend of many years' standing3 ,in the councils 7of the various societies7 he has always been distinguished by his sound judgment and his deep sympathy with their purest and highest aims4 ,there never was a trace of partisanship in his action1 or of narrowness in his sympathies4 ,on the contrary1 every one engaged in thoroughly scientific work has felt that he had a warm supporter in ,spottiswoode1 on whose opportune aid he might surely count4 ,the same breadth of sympathy and generosity of sentiment has marked also his relations to those more entirely dependent upon him4 ,the workmen in his large establishment all feel that they have in him a true and trustworthy friend4 ,he has always identified himself with their educational and social well-being4 ,we give here a list of some of the offices ,mr4 ,spottiswoode has held1 and of the honors that have been bestowed upon him3 ,treasurer of the ,british ,association from #ahfa to #ahgd1 of the ,royal ,institution from #ahfe to #ahgc1 and of the ,royal ,society from #ahga to #ahgh4 ,in #ahga he succeeded ,dr4 ,bence ,jones as ,honorary ,secretary to the ,royal ,institution4 ,president of ,section ,a1 #ahfe2 of the ,british ,association1 #ahgh2 of the ,london ,mathematical ,society1 #ahgj to #ahgb2 of the ,royal ,society1 #ahgi1 which office he still holds4 ,correspondent of the ,institut 7,acadmie des ,sciences71 ,march #bg1 #ahgf4 ,he is also ,,ll4,d4 of the ,universities of ,cambridge1 ,dublin1 and ,edinburgh1 ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford1 and ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,in addition to these honors he has many other literary and scientific distinctions4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,acetate ,,of ,,lime4 ,i have made a series of experiments with regard to finding a reliable method of estimating the acetic acid in commercial acetate of lime1 and find the following gives the best results3 ,the sample is finely ground and about #f grms4 weighed into a half-liter flask1 dissolved in water1 and diluted to the containing mark4 #ajj c4c4 of this solution are distilled with #gj grms4 of strong phosphoric acid nearly to dryness1 and #ej c4c4 of water are added to the residue in the retort and distilled till the distillate gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver1 titrate the distillates with standard caustic soda1 evaporate to dryness in a platinum dish1 and ignite the residue before the blow pipe1 which converts the phosphate of soda 7formed by a little phosphoric acid carried over in the distillation7 into the insoluble pyrophosphate and the acetate of soda into ,na,h,o2 dissolve in water1 and titrate with standard ,h#b,,so#d1 which gives the amount of soda combined with the acetic acid in the original sample4 ,in a number of samples analyzed they were found to vary hardly anything4--,c4 ,h4 ,slaytor1 in ,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,removal ,,of ,,ammonia ,,from ,,crude ,,gas4 ,in connection with the many plans now brought forward to utilize the ammonia in the gases escaping from coke ovens and blast furnaces1 it may be of interest to refer to a process brought out some years ago in connection with illuminating gas manufacture by ,messrs4 ,bolton ,wanklyn1 and adapted by them1 we understand1 to the metallurgical branches also4 ,when bone ash or any other substance containing phosphate of lime is treated with sulphuric acid1 the products formed are superphosphate of lime and hydrated sulphate of lime2 this mixture is known as superphosphate of lime1 in commerce1 and is the substance used in this process4 ,this substance is capable of absorbing carbonic acid and ammonia from foul gas4 ,the complete action can only take place in the presence of a certain proportion of carbonic acid1 so that the process is not so successful with well-scrubbed illuminating gas4 ,the superphosphate is converted into carbonate of lime1 while the ammonia combines with the phosphoric acid to form phosphate of ammonia2 the hydrated sulphate of lime is also acted upon1 and forms carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia2 so that1 presuming the action to be complete1 and the material to be thoroughly saturated with carbonic acid and ammonia from the foul gas1 the result is a mixture of carbonate of lime and phosphate and sulphate of ammonia4 ,under these circumstances1 the mixture absorbs one equivalent of carbonic acid for every four equivalents of ammonia2 therefore1 if the superphosphate process be substituted for the ordinary washers and scrubbers1 a large proportion of the carbonic acid and also the whole of the sulphureted hydrogen is left in the gas1 and must be dealt with in other ways4 ,this superphosphate process has been at work at the ,south ,metropolitan ,gas ,works1 ,old ,kent ,road1 for nearly two years4 ,in practice it is usual to water the superphosphate before use with ammoniacal liquor1 and it is used in dry purifiers1 in layers about eight inches thick4 ,this process has been thoroughly investigated at the ,munich ,gas ,works1 by ,drs4 ,bunte and ,schilling1 and the report made by these gentlemen proves its practical efficiency1 and therefore the question of its advantage1 as compared with washing and scrubbing1 is based chiefly upon financial considerations4 ,it is evident that in foreign parts1 or in any place where there is a difficulty in disposing of the ammonia1 the obtaining of the same in a dry form offers several advantages as compared with having it as a weak solution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,reconversion ,,of ,,nitro-,,glycerin ,,into ,,glycerin4 ,by ,c4,l4 ,,bloxam4 ,the following experiments on this subject appear to possess some interest at the present moment3 #a4 ,nitro-glycerin was shaken with methylated alcohol1 which dissolves it readily1 and the solution was mixed with an alcoholic solution of ,,khs 7prepared by dissolving ,,kho in methylated spirit1 and saturating with ,h#b,s gas74 ,considerable rise of temperature took place1 the liquid became red1 a large quantity of sulphur separated1 and the nitro-glycerin was entirely decomposed4 #b4 ,nitro-glycerin was shaken with a strong aqueous solution of commercial ,k#b,s4 ,the same changes were observed as in #a1 but the rise of temperature was not so great1 and the liquid became opaque very suddenly when the decomposition of the nitro-glycerin was completed4 #c4 ,the ordinary yellow solution of ammonium sulphide used in the laboratory had the same effect as the ,k#b,s4 ,in this case the mixture was evaporated to dryness on the steam bath1 when bubbles of gas were evolved1 due to the decomposition of the ammonium nitrite4 ,the pasty mass of sulphur was treated with alcohol1 which extracted the glycerin1 subsequently recovered by evaporation4 ,another portion of the mixture of nitro-glycerin with ammonium sulphide was treated with excess of ,pb,c,o#c and a little lead acetate1 filtered1 and the ammonium nitrite detected in the solution4 ,these qualitative results would be expressed by the equation-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,no7#c,,nh#d;,,hs ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c,,nh#d,,no#b ,s#c1 which is similar to that for the action of potassium hydrosulphide upon gun-cotton4 #d4 ,flowers of sulphur and slaked lime were boiled with water1 till a bright orange solution was obtained4 ,this was filtered1 and some nitro-glycerin powered into it4 ,the reduction took place much more slowly than in the other cases1 and more agitation was required1 because the nitro-glycerin became coated with sulphur4 ,in a few minutes1 the reduction appearing to be complete1 the separated sulphur was filtered off4 ,the filtrate was clear1 and the sulphur bore hammering without the slightest indication of nitro-glycerin4 ,this would be the cheapest method of decomposing nitro-glycerin4 ,perhaps the calcium sulphide of tank-waste1 obtainable from the alkali works1 might answer the purpose4--,chemical ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,and ,,bisulphide ,,of ,,carbon4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper read before the ,royal ,society1 ,april #e1 #ahhc4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,chemists are ever on the alert to notice analogies and resemblances in the atomic structure of different bodies4 ,they long ago indicated points of resemblance between bisulphide of carbon and carbonic acid4 ,in the case of the latter we have one atom of carbon united to two of oxygen1 and in the case of the former one atom of carbon united to two of sulphur4 ,attempts have been made to push the analogy still further by the discovery of a compound of carbon and sulphur analogous to carbonic oxide1 but hitherto1 ,i believe1 without success4 ,i have now to note a resemblance of some interest to the physicist1 and of a more settled character than any hitherto observed4 ,when1 by means of an electric current1 a metal is volatilized and subjected to spectrum analysis1 the reversal of the bright band of the incandescent vapor is commonly observed4 ,this is known to be due to the absorption of the rays emitted by the vapor by the partially cooled envelope of its own substance which surrounds it4 ,the effect is the same in kind as the absorption by cold carbonic acid of the heat emitted by a carbonic oxide flame4 ,for most sources of radiation carbonic acid is one of the most transparent of gases2 for the radiation from the hot carbonic acid produced in the carbonic oxide flame it is the most opaque of all4 ,again1 for all ordinary sources of radiant heat1 bisulphide of carbon1 both in the liquid and vaporous form1 is one of the most diathermanous bodies ever known4 ,i thought it worth while to try whether a body reputed to be analogous to carbonic acid1 and so pervious to most kinds of heat1 would show any change of deportment when presented to the radiation from hot carbonic acid4 ,does the analogy between the two substances extend to the vibrating periods of their atoms8 ,if it does1 then the bisulphide1 like the carbonic acid1 will abandon its usually transparent character1 and play the part of an opaque body when presented to the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame4 ,this proved to be the case4 ,of the radiation from hydrogen1 a thin layer of bisulphide transmits #ij per cent41 absorbing only #aj4 ,for the radiation from carbonic acid1 the same layer of bisulphide transmits only #be per cent41 #ge per cent4 being absorbed4 ,for this source of rays1 indeed1 the bisulphide transcends1 as an absorbent1 many substances which1 for all other sources1 far transcend it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,hair1 ,,its ,,use ,,and ,,its ,,care4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of a paper read before the ,pennsylvania ,state ,medical ,society1 at ,norristown1 ,may #aj1 #ahhc4--,n4,y4 ,med4 ,jour4 ,by ,,john ,v4 ,,shoemaker1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,physician to the ,philadelphia ,hospital for ,skin ,diseases4 ,the object of this paper is to briefly describe the hair and its important functions1 and to suggest the proper manner of preserving it in a healthy state4 ,i know full well that much has been written upon this useful part of the human economy1 but the constant increase of bald heads and beardless faces1 notwithstanding all our modern advancement in the application of remedies to the cure of disease1 prompts me to point out to you the many ways of retaining1 without medication1 the hair1 which is a defense1 ornamentation1 and adornment to the human body4 ,dr4 ,shoemaker here gave an interesting history of the growth and development of the hair and its uses1 which we are compelled to omit4 ,then1 proceeding1 he said3 ,now1 the hair1 which fulfills such an important function in the adornment and health of the body1 requires both constitutional and local care to keep it in its normal1 healthy state4 ,when ,i say constitutional care1 ,i mean that the various organs of the body that assist in nourishing and sustaining the hair-forming apparatus should1 by judicious diet1 exercise1 and attention to the nervous system1 be kept healthy and sound1 in order that they in turn may assist in preserving the hairs in a vigorous condition4 ,in the first place1 that essential material1 food1 which is necessary to supply the waste and repair of all animal life1 should be selected1 given1 or used according to good judgment and experience4 ,thus1 mothers should feed their infants at regular intervals according to their age1 and not permit them to constantly pull at the breast or the bottle until the little stomach becomes gorged with food1 and some alimentary disorder supervenes1 often setting up a rash and interfering with the growth and development of the hair4 ,it is likewise important1 in case the baby must be artificially fed1 to select good nutritious food as near as possible like the mother's--cow's milk1 properly prepared1 being the only recognized substitute4 ,care and discretion should likewise be taken by parents and nurses1 after the infant has developed into childhood1 to give simple1 substantial1 and varied food at regular periods of the day1 and not in such quantities as to overload the stomach4 ,children need active nutrition to develop them into robust and healthy men and women2 and it is from neglect of these important laws of health1 and in allowing improper food1 that very often bring their results in scald head1 ring-worm1 and scrofula1 that leave their stamp in the poor development of the hair4 ,with the advent of youth and the advance of years1 food should be selected and partaken of according to the judgment and experience of its acceptable and wholesome action on the consumer4 ,the meals should also be taken at regular intervals4 ,at least four hours should be left between them for the act of digestion and the proper rest of the stomach4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 when the voice of nature has been stifled1 when judgment and experience have been set aside1 that mischief follows2 when the stomach is teased and fretted with overloading1 and the food gulped down without being masticated1 gastric and intestinal derangement supervenes1 which is one of the most prolific sources of the early decay and fall of the hair4 ,the nervous system1 which is one of the most important portions of the human structure1 and which controls circulation1 secretion1 and nutrition1 often by being impaired1 plays a prominent part in the production of baldness4 ,thus1 it has been demonstrated by modern investigation that the nerves of nutrition1 by their defective action1 are often the cause of thinning and loss of hair4 ,the nutritive action of a part is known to suddenly fail1 the hair-forming apparatus ceases to act1 the skin changes from a peculiar healthy hue to a white and shining appearance1 and often loses at the same time its sensibility2 the hairs drop out until very few remain1 or the part becomes entirely bald4 ,it is the overtaxing of the physical powers1 excessive brain work1 the exacting demands made by parents and teachers upon children's mental faculties1 the loss of sleep1 incessant cares1 anxiety1 grief1 excitement1 the sudden depression and exaltation of spirits1 irregular and hastily bolted meals1 the lack of rest and recreation1 the abuse of tobacco1 spirits1 tea1 coffee1 and drugs of all forms1 that are fruitful sources of this defective action of the nerves of nutrition1 and consequent general thinning and loss of hair4 ,the hair1 particularly of the head1 should also receive marked local attention4 ,in reference to the use of coverings for it1 ,i know of no better rules than those which ,i laid down in my chapter on clothing in ,household ,practice of ,medicine 7vol4 i41 p4 #bah1 ,william ,wood ,co41 ,new ,york71 in which ,i state that the head is the only part of the body so protected by nature as to need no artificial covering4 ,the stiff hats so extensively worn by men produce more or less injury4 ,premature baldness most frequently first attacks that part of the head where pressure is made by the hat4 ,it is1 indeed1 a pity that custom has so rigidly decreed that men and women must not appear out of doors with heads uncovered4 ,it would be far better for the hair if to be bare-headed were the rule1 and to wear a hat the exception4 ,since we can not change our social regulations in this respect1 we should endeavor to render them as harmless as possible4 ,the forms of hats that are least injurious are3 for ,winter1 soft hats of light weight1 having an open structure1 or pierced with numerous holes2 for ,summer1 light straws1 also of open structure4 ,as regards the head-covering of women1 the fashions have been for several years favorable to proper form4 ,the bonnet and hat have become quite small1 and cover but little of the head4 ,this beneficial condition1 however1 is in part counterbalanced by the weight of false curls1 switches1 puffs1 etc41 by the aid of which women dress the head4 ,these1 by interfering with evaporation of the secretions1 prevent proper regulations of the temperature of the scalp1 and likewise lead to the retention of a certain amount of excrementitious matter1 both of which are prolific sources of rapid thinning and loss of hair in women4 ,false hair has likewise sometimes been the means of introducing parasites1 which give rise to obstinate affections of the scalp4 ,cleanliness of the entire surface of the skin should next demand attention1 and that should be done by using water as the medium of ablution4 ,it is a well-known physiological law that it is necessary1 in order to enable the skin to carry on its healthful action1 to have washed off with water the constant cast of scales which become mingled with the unctuous and saline products1 together with particles of dirt which coat over the pores1 and thus interfere with the development of the hairs4 ,water for ablution can be of any temperature that may be acceptable and agreeable1 according to the custom and condition of the bather's health4 ,many chemical substances can be combined with water to cleanse these effete productions from the skin4 ,soap is the most efficacious of all for cleanliness1 health1 and the avoidance of disease4 ,soap combines better with water to render these unctuous products miscible1 and readily removes them thoroughly from the skin4 ,the best variety of soap to use is the pure white soap1 which cannot be so easily adulterated by coloring material1 or disguised by some perfume or medicinal substance4 ,ablution with soap and water should be performed once or twice a week at least1 particularly to the head and beard1 in order to keep open the hair tubes so that they may take in oxygen1 give out carbon1 carry on their nutrition1 and maintain the hairs in a fine1 polished1 and healthy condition4 ,in using water to the scalp and beard1 care should be taken not to use soap-water too frequently1 as it often causes irritation of the glands1 and leads to the formation of scurf4 ,it is equally important to avoid using on the head1 the daily shower-bath1 which1 by its sudden1 rapid1 and heavy fall1 excites local irritation1 and1 as a result1 loss of hair quickly follows4 ,in case the health demands the shower-bath1 the hair should be protected by a bathing cap4 ,the most acceptable time to wash the hair1 to those not accustomed to doing it with their morning bath1 is just before retiring1 in order to avoid going into the open air or getting into a draught and taking cold4 ,after washing1 the hair should be briskly rubbed with rough towels1 the ,turkish towel heated being particularly serviceable4 ,those who are delicate or sick1 and fear taking cold or being chilled from the wet or damp hairs1 should rub into the scalp a little bay rum1 alcohol1 or oil1 a short time after the parts have been well chafed with towels4 ,the oil is particularly serviceable at this period1 as it is better absorbed1 and at the same time overcomes any dryness of the skin which often follows washing4 ,it might be well to add in this connection that ,i have frequently been consulted1 by those taking salt-water baths1 as to the care of the hair during and after the bath4 ,if the bather is in good health1 and the hair is normal1 the bather can go into the surf and remain at least fifteen minutes1 and on coming out should rub the hair thoroughly dry with towels4 ,ladies should permit it remain loose while doing so1 after which it can be advantageously dressed4 ,it is1 however1 often injurious to both men and women having some wasting of the hair to go into the surf without properly protecting the head2 the sea water has not1 as is often thought1 a tonic action on the scalp2 on the contrary1 it often excites irritation and general thinning4 ,again1 it is most decidedly injurious to the hair for persons to remain in the surf one or two hours1 the hair wet1 and the head unprotected from the rays of the sun4 ,this latter class of bathers1 and those who hurriedly dress the hair wet1 which soon becomes mouldy and emits a disagreeable odor1 are frequent sufferers from general loss and thinning of the hair4 ,an agreeable and efficient adjunct after ablution1 which ,i have already referred to1 is oil4 ,oil has not only a cleansing action upon the scalp1 but it also overcomes any rough or uneven state of the hair1 and gives it a soft and glossy appearance4 ,the oil of ergot is particularly serviceable in fulfilling these indications1 and1 at the same time1 by its soothing and slight astringent action upon the glands1 will arrest the formation of scurf4 ,in using oil1 the animal and vegetable oils should always be preferred1 as mineral oils1 especially the petroleum products1 have a very poor affinity for animal tissues4 ,pomatum is largely used by many in place of oil1 as it remains on the surface and gives a full appearance to the hairs1 thus hiding1 sometimes1 the thinness of the hair4 ,it will do no harm or no special good if it contains pure grease1 wax1 harmless perfume1 and coloring matter1 but it is often highly adulterated1 or1 the fat in it decomposing1 sets up irritation on the part to which it is applied4 ,i therefore always advise against its use4 ,the comb and brush are also agents of the toilet by which the hair is kept clean1 vigorous1 and healthy4 ,the comb should be of flexible gum1 with large1 broad1 blunt1 round1 and coarse teeth1 having plenty of elasticity4 ,it should be used to remove from the hairs any scurf or dirt that may have become entangled in them1 to separate the hairs and prevent them from becoming matted and twisted together4 ,the fine-tooth comb1 made with the teeth much closer together1 can be used in place of the regular toilet comb just named when the hair is filled with very fine particles of scurf1 dirt1 or when parasites and their eggs infest the hairs4 ,it should1 however1 always be borne in mind that combs are only for the hair1 and not for the scalp or the skin1 which is too often torn and dug up by carelessly and roughly pulling these valuable and important articles of toilet through the skin as well as the hair4 ,the brush with moderately stiff whalebone bristles may be passed gently over the hair several times during the day1 to brush out the dust and the dandruff1 and to keep the hair smooth1 soft1 and clean2 rough and hard brushing the hair with brushes having very stiff bristles in them1 especially the metal or wire bristles1 is of no service1 but often irritates the parts and causes the hair to fall out4 ,dr4 ,shoemaker then denounced the use of the so-called electric brush1 saying its use was injurious1 as also was the effort to remove dandruff by the aid of the comb and brush4 ,continuing1 he remarked3 ,and now the question arises1 ,should the hair be periodically cut8 ,it may be that cutting and shaving may for the time increase the action of the growth1 but it has no permanent effect either upon the hair-bulb or the hair sac1 and will not in any way add to the life of the hair4 ,on the contrary1 cutting and shaving will cause the hair to grow longer for the time being1 but in the end will inevitably shorten its term of life by exhausting the nutritive action of the hair-forming apparatus4 ,when the hairs are frequently cut1 they will usually become coarser1 often losing the beautiful gloss of the fine and delicate hairs4 ,the pigment will likewise change--brown1 for instance1 becoming chestnut1 and black changing to a dark brown4 ,in addition1 the ends of very many will be split and ragged1 presenting a brush like appearance4 ,if the hairs appear stunted in their growth upon portions of the scalp or beard1 or gray hairs crop up here and there1 the method of clipping off the ends of the short hairs1 of plucking out the ragged1 withered1 and gray hairs1 will allow them to grow stronger1 longer1 and thicker4 ,mothers1 in rearing their children1 should not cut their hair at certain periods of the year 7during the superstitious time of full moon71 in order to increase its length and luxuriance as they bloom into womanhood1 and manhood4 ,this habit of cutting the hair of children brings evil in place of good1 and is also condemned by the distinguished worker in this department1 ,professor ,kaposi1 of ,vienna1 who states that it is well known that the hair of women who possess luxuriant locks from the time of girlhood never again attains its original length after having once been cut4 ,pincus has made the same observation by frequent experiment1 and he adds that there is a general opinion that frequent cutting of the hair increases its length2 but the effect is different from that generally supposed4 ,thus1 upon one occasion he states that he cut off circles of hair an inch in diameter on the heads of healthy men1 and from week to week compared the intensity of growth of the shorn place with the rest of the hair4 ,the result was surprising to this close and careful observer1 as he found in some cases the numbers were equal1 but generally the growth became slower after cutting1 and he has never observed an increase in rapidity4 ,i might also add that ,i believe many beardless faces and bald heads in middle and advancing age are often due to constant cutting and shaving in early life4 ,the young girls and boys seen daily upon our streets with their closely cropped heads1 and the young men with their clean-shaven faces1 are1 year by year1 by this fashion1 having their hair-forming apparatus overstrained4 ,i also must condemn the modern practice of curling and crimping1 the use of bandoline1 powders1 and all varieties of gum solutions1 sharp hair-pins1 long-pointed metal ornaments and hair combs1 the wearing of chignons1 false plaits1 curls1 and frizzes1 as the latter are liable to cause headaches and tend to congestion4 ,likewise ,i protest against the use of castor-oil and the various mixtures extolled as the best hair-tonics1 restoratives1 vegetable hair-dyes1 or depilatories1 as they are highly injurious instead of beneficial1 the majority of hair-dyes being largely composed of lead salts4 ,but1 should your patients wish to hide their gray hairs1 probably the best hair-dye that can be used safely is pyrogallic acid or walnut juice1 the hairs being first washed with an alkaline solution to get rid of the grease4 ,nitrate of silver is also a good and safe hair-dye1 but its application should be done by one experienced in its use4 ,the judicious use of these hair-dyes will give the hair above the surface of the skin a brownish-black appearance1 the intensity of the color of which depends upon the strength of the solution4 ,but hair-dyeing for premature grayness should be avoided1 as the diseased condition may be averted by the proper remedies4 ,never permit the hair to be bleached for the purpose of obtaining the fashionable golden hue1 as the arsenical solution generally used is highly dangerous2 but1 if your patients must have their hair of a golden color1 insist upon their hairdresser using the peroxide of hydrogen1 which is less dangerous than the preparation first mentioned4 ,perhaps one of the most pernicious compounds used for the hair at the present day is that which is sold in the shops as a depilatory4 ,it is usually a mixture of quicklime and arsenic1 and is wrongly used and recommended at this time by many physicians to remove hairy moles and an excessive growth of hair upon ladies' faces4 ,its application excites inflammation of the skin2 and1 while it removes the hair from the surface for a time1 it often leaves a scar1 or makes the part rough1 congested1 and deformed4 ,in the meantime1 the hair will grow after a short period stronger1 coarser1 and changed in color1 which will even more disfigure the person's countenance4 ,with the present scientific knowledge of the application of electrolysis1 hairs can be removed from the face of ladies or children1 or in any improper situation1 in the most harmless manner without using such obnoxious and injurious compounds as depilatories4 ,in conclusion1 let me add that1 if the hair becomes altered in texture1 or falls out gradually or suddenly1 or changes in color1 a disease of the hair1 either locally or generally1 has set in1 and the hair1 and perhaps the constitution1 now needs1 as in any other disease1 the constant care of the physician4 ,a general remedy for this or that hair disease that may develop will not answer1 as hair diseases1 like other affections1 have no one remedy which will overcome wasting1 thinning1 or loss of color4 ,patients reasoning upon this belief1 frequently apply to me for a remedy to restore their hair to its full vigor or give them back its color4 ,i always reply that ,i have no such remedy4 ,the general health1 as well as the scalp and hairs1 must be examined carefully1 particularly the latter1 with the lens and microscope4 ,all changes must be watched1 and the treatment varied from time to time according to the indications4 ,no one remedy can1 therefore1 under any circumstances1 suit1 as the remedy used to-day may be changed at the next or succeeding visit4 ,no remedy for the hair will be necessary if the foregoing advice be followed which ,i have just narrated1 and which is the result of some seven years of labor and experience4 ,the proper consideration and putting into practice of these suggestions will most certainly secure to the rising generation fewer bald heads and more luxuriant hair than is possessed at the present day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concluded from ,,supplement ,no4 #chg1 page #fagi4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,effective ,,breathing ,,in ,,delaying ,,the ,,physical ,,changes ,,incident ,,to ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,life1 ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,prevention ,,of ,,pneumonia1 ,,consumption1 ,,and ,,diseases ,,of ,,women4 ,by ,,david ,,wark1 ,m4,d41 #i ,east #abth ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,,pneumonia4 ,during the past winter inflammation of the lungs has destroyed the lives of many persons who1 although they were in most cases past the meridian of life1 yet still apparently enjoyed vigorous health1 and1 ,i have little doubt1 would still have been alive and well had the preventive means here laid down against the occurrence of the disease from which they perished been effectively practiced at the proper time4 ,the most important anatomical change occurring during the progress of pneumonia is the solidification of a larger or smaller part of one or both lungs by the deposit in the terminal bronchial tubes and in the air cells of a substance by which the spongy lungs are rendered as solid and heavy as a piece of liver4 ,the access of the respired air to the solidified part being totally prevented1 life is inevitably destroyed if a sufficiently large portion of the lungs be invaded4 ,this deposit succeeds the first or congestive stage1 and it occurs with great rapidity2 an entire lobe of the lung may be rendered perfectly solid by the exudation from the blood of fully two pounds of solid matter in the short space of twelve hours or even less4 ,the rapidity with which the lungs become solidified amply accounts for the promptly fatal results that often attend attacks of acute pneumonia4 ,if recovery takes place1 the foreign matter by which the lung tissue has been solidified is perfectly absorbed and the diseased portion is found to be quite uninjured4 ,the only natural method by which the blood can be freed from the presence of foreign matter is by the oxidation--the burning--of such impure matters2 the results being carbonic acid gas that escapes by the lungs and certain materials that are eliminated chiefly by the kidneys4 ,but when these blood impurities exist in the vital fluid in unusually large quantities1 or if the respiratory capacity be inadequate1 the natural internal crematory operations are a partial failure4 ,but nature will not tolerate the presence of such impurities in the vital fluid2 if they cannot be eliminated by natural means they must by unnatural means2 therefore such material is very frequently deposited in various parts of the body1 the point of deposit being often determined by some local disturbance or irritation4 ,for instance1 if a person whose blood is in fairly good condition takes a cold that settles on his lungs1 he either recovers of it spontaneously or is readily cured by means of some cough mixture2 but if his blood be loaded with tubercular matter1 the latter is extremely liable to be deposited in his lungs2 the cough that was excited in the first place by a simple cold becomes worse and persistent1 in a few months his lungs show signs of disorganization1 and he has consumption of the acute or chronic type1 as the case may be4 ,on the other hand1 if the impure matter by which the blood is loaded be of the kind that causes the pulmonary solidifications of pneumonia1 the latter disease is very likely to be developed if a cold on the lungs be caught4 ,the liability of any individual to attacks of acute pneumonia is therefore determined very largely by the presence or absence in his blood of the matter already alluded to4 ,if his blood be free from it1 no cold1 however severe1 is competent to originate the disease4 ,there can be no question but that good living and sedentary habits have a strong tendency to befoul the blood2 the former renders effective respiration all the more necessary for the removal from the blood of whatever nutritive matter has been taken beyond the needs of the system1 and the latter inevitably diminishes the respiratory motions to the lowest point consistent with physical comfort4 ,from these conditions originates the active predisposing cause of pneumonia1 to which we have already alluded4 ,the disease is more fatal in the very young and in the aged2 the mortality seems to bear a direct ratio to the respiratory capacity2 in young subjects the breathing powers have not been fully developed like the other physical capacities1 while in the old the respiratory volume has been diminished by the stiffening of the chest walls and of the lungs by the senile changes already detailed4 ,there can be no question but that protection from cold and judicious attention to the health generally1 by suitable exercise and diet1 has a powerful tendency to prevent that overloaded condition of the blood to which ,i believe acute pneumonia to be chiefly due2 still ,i have no doubt but that the most active preventive measure that can be adopted is keeping up the respiratory capacity to the full requirements of the system1 a precaution which is specially necessary to ease-loving and high-living gentlemen who are past the prime of life4 ,i am of the opinion that if such persons would cultivate their breathing powers by the simple means here recommended1 their liability to pneumonia would be notably reduced4 ,,the ,,true ,,first ,,stage ,,of ,,consumption4 ,the progress of tubercular consumption has been divided by pathologists into three stages4 ,the first stage being that in which a deposit of tubercular matter occurs in the lung tissue1 the second is entered on when the tubercles soften1 and the third when they have melted down1 been expectorated1 and cavities have formed4 ,but the real beginning of this most insidious and justly dreaded disease not infrequently antedates for a long time1 often for several years1 the deposit of any tubercular matter4 ,during all this time an expert examiner can detect the slight but very significant changes already taking place in the pulmonary organs4 ,physicians determine the condition of the lungs chiefly through the sounds elicited by percussion of the chest walls by the end of the middle finger1 or a small rubber hammer adapted to the purpose1 and by those produced by the respired air rushing in to and out of the bronchial tubes and air vesicles4 ,the percussion sounds yielded by the chest during what has been aptly called the pre-tubercular stage do not differ from those elicited in health1 because it is only when some morbid matter exists in the lungs that the percussion note is altered1 therefore negative results only are obtained in the real first stage by this mode of examination4 ,but important information can be obtained by interrogating the sounds due to the inspired air rushing into and distending the air vesicles4 ,when the lungs are perfectly healthy1 these are breezy and almost musical4 ,during the pre-tubercular stage they become drier and harsher2 qualities of evil omen that continue to increase as time passes1 if properly directed means be not adopted to correct the evil2 but so far none of the symptoms that indicate the slightest deposit of tubercle can be detected1 but the breathing capacity of such persons is never up to the full requirements of the system4 ,the reader is referred to the table already given1 which exhibits the decline of the breathing capacity of persons suffering from consumption in its several stages4 ,when the disease has made such decided progress that tubercles are already deposited in the lungs in sufficient quantity to give rise to the physical signs by which their presence is proved1 this carefully compiled table shows that the diminution of the vital capacity already amounts to one-third of that considered by ,dr4 ,hutchinson to be necessary to the maintenance of health4 ,during the pre-tubercular stage the breathing capacity rarely falls so much as #cc per cent4 below the healthy standard1 but it is never up to the normal vital volume4 ,this fact is most significant1 especially when it occurs in an individual whose relatives have succumbed to this disease2 but it rarely attracts sufficient attention from such persons as to induce them to have their breathing capacity measured1 much less to take effective measures to bring and keep it up to the healthy standard4 ,so long as there are1 to them1 no tangible symptoms of approaching mischief1 and they feel fairly well1 they act as if they thought that all men were mortal but themselves4 ,yet it is from among persons who have an inherited but latent tendency to tubercular disease1 and whose lung power is below par1 that the great army of consumptives who die every year is recruited4 ,it is very difficult to induce persons who ought to be interested in this matter to take effective measures for their future safety when the terrible symptoms accompanying the last stages of the disease often fail to shake the sufferer's confident expectation of recovery2 and we sometimes see them engaged in laying plans for the future when death is imminent4 ,i regret deeply to be obliged to make these statements1 because ,i am convinced that if the suggestions laid down in this work were generally reduced to practice by those who have reason to dread the development of tubercular disease1 many valuable lives would be saved4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,tubercular ,,matter ,,in ,,the ,,blood4 ,during the digestive processes the starchy1 saccharine1 and albuminoid elements of food are dissolved1 and the fatty matters are emulsified4 ,a uniform milky solution is thus formed1 which is rapidly absorbed into the general circulation2 some of it passes directly through the walls of the vessels into the blood1 and some is taken up by the lacteals and reaches the vital fluid by traversing the complicated series of tubes known as the absorbent system1 and the numerous glands connected with it4 ,the chief function of the starchy and fatty food elements is to keep up the physical temperature1 by being submitted to oxidation in the organism2 therefore it is not necessary that they should experience any vitalizing change1 but are fitted to discharge their duties in the vital domain by simply undergoing the solution that fits them for absorption4 ,but the materials intended to enter into the composition of the body must be developed into living blood1 in order to be fitted to become part and parcel of the organs by which power is evolved1 and through the use of which we see1 hear1 feel1 think1 and move4 ,this wonderful process begins and is carried forward in the absorbent system1 which has been described by ,dr4 ,carpenter as a great blood-making gland4 ,but the vital transformation is not completed until the nutritive materials have been submitted to the action of the liver1 and afterward to the influence of oxygen in the capillaries of the lungs4 ,the food that was eaten a few hours before is thus converted into rich scarlet arterial blood1 if every part of the complex vitalizing processes has been properly conducted4 ,but the influence of oxygen is requisite1 not only to complete the vitalization of the embryo blood in the lungs1 it is an absolutely essential element in every step of the vitalizing process in the absorbents4 ,the average quantity of food required to sustain an ordinary man in health and strength1 ,i have previously stated1 is about two pounds avoirdupois daily1 and an equal weight of oxygen is necessary to the integrity of the vitalizing processes undergone by the food1 and to maintain the physical temperature4 ,when the requisite supply of oxygen is reduced1 the extrication of heat within the system is promptly diminished1 but the vitalization of digested food is unfavorably affected much more slowly1 but with equal certainty4 ,if the quota of oxygen existing in the arterial blood of the vessels whose duty it is to supply the vital fluid to the absorbent system1 be inadequate to enable these operations to go on properly1 the life-giving processes must necessarily be imperfectly accomplished4 ,under these circumstances the digested material is imperfectly vitalized1 and is therefore inadequately fitted to be used in building up and repairing the living body4 ,but its course in the system cannot be delayed1 much less stopped4 ,the blood possesses a definite constitution1 which cannot be materially altered without the rapid development of grave1 perhaps fatal consequences4 ,the nutritive matters received into the blood must be given up by it to the tissues for their repair1 whether such materials are well or ill fitted for the vital purposes4 ,dr4 ,b4,w4 ,carpenter1 of ,london1 the celebrated physiologist1 makes the following pertinent statements on this subject1 which ,i condense from his great work on physiology3 ,we frequently find an imperfectly organizable product1 known by the designation of tubercular matter1 taking the place of the normal elements of tissue1 both in the ordinary process of nutrition1 and still more when inflammation is set up4 ,from the examination of the blood of tuberculous subjects it appears that1 although the bulk of the coagulum obtained by stirring or beating is usually greater than that of healthy blood1 yet this coagulum is not composed or well elaborated fibriae1 for it is soft and loose1 and contains an unusually large number of colorless blood corpuscles1 while the red corpuscles form an abnormally small proportion of it4 ,we can understand1 therefore1 that such a constant deficiency in capacity for organization must unfavorably affect the ordinary nutritive processes2 and that there will be a liability to the deposit of imperfectly vitalized matter1 instead of the normal elements of tissue1 even without any inflammation4 ,such appears to be the history of the formation of tubercles in the lungs and other organs4 ,when it occurs as a kind of metamorphosis of the ordinary nutritive processes and in this manner1 it may proceed insidiously for a long period1 so that a large part of the tissue of the lungs shall be replaced by tubercular deposit without any other sign than an increasing difficulty of respiration4 ,these views are strongly corroborated by the following facts3 ,in making post mortem examinations of persons who have died of consumption1 tubercles of different kinds are found in the same subject2 some of these1 having been deposited during what is called the first stage of the disease before the breathing powers were much impaired1 bear evident traces of organization in the form of cells and fibers more or less obvious1 these being sometimes almost as perfectly formed as living matter1 at least on the superficial part of the deposit1 which is in immediate contact with the living structures around4 ,this variety of tubercle has a tendency to contract and remain in the lungs without doing much injury4 ,but as the disease progressed1 and the breathing capacity progressively diminished1 tubercular matter occurs1 evincing less and less organization1 showing a tendency to break down and cause inflammation in the surrounding lung tissue1 until at last we find crude yellow tubercles that have become softened1 and formed cavities almost as soon as they were deposited4 ,some cases of chronic consumption pass in a few months through the various stages from the deposit of the first tubercle to a fatal termination4 ,the progress of the disease is determined largely by the nature of the tubercular matter at the time it is deposited4 ,the variety of matter which has been partially vitalized commonly exists in small quantity1 has a strong tendency to maintain its semi-organized condition unchanged by time1 and rarely causes inflammation4 ,a small or moderate quantity of this sort of tubercle exists in the lungs of many persons1 in whom it produces no tangible symptoms1 and who are therefore quite unconscious of its presence2 and even when it does exist in sufficient quantity to develop the symptoms of lung disorder1 the progress of the disease is slow1 often continuing for many years4 ,it constitutes a variety of consumption which is specially amenable to proper treatment4 ,on the other hand1 the soft1 yellow1 cheesy1 tubercular matter1 which is totally destitute of any vitality1 is too often deposited in large quantities1 acts on the adjacent lung tissue as an active irritant1 causes inflammation1 undergoes softening1 forms cavities1 defies treatment1 and rapidly hurries the sufferers to a premature grave4 ,these facts1 taken in connection with the immunity from lung diseases enjoyed by those whose respiratory capacity is well developed and properly used1 as well as the beneficial effects that are promptly secured in the favorable varieties of consumption by any important increase in the vital volume1 ,i believe fully justify the statement that tubercles are the results of defective nutrition directly traceable to inadequate respiratory capacity1 either congenital or acquired--in other words1 tubercles are composed of particles of food which have failed to acquire sufficient life while undergoing the vital processes1 because the person in whom they occur habitually breathed too little fresh air4 ,persons who possess what is called the scrofulous constitution are specially liable to the occurrence of tubercular matter when their respiration is defective1 or they are exposed to any other influences that favor its development in the organism4 ,but habitually defective respiration1 or the breathing of an atmosphere containing too little oxygen1 which practically amounts to the same thing1 has a very powerful tendency in the same direction1 in persons who are apparently as free from scrofulous taint as any human being can be4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,cod-,,liver ,,oil ,,in ,,the ,,prevention ,,of ,,consumption4 ,there is a broad but not commonly recognized distinction between what constitutes a medicine and a food4 ,all the materials that normally enter into the composition of the living body1 and are necessary to the maintenance of health and strength1 may be property classed as foods1 whether they be obtained from the animal1 vegetable1 or mineral kingdoms2 thus the iron1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 lime1 potash1 etc41 required by the system usually exist in and are organically combined with the various foods in common use1 and they are perhaps quite as essential to the physical well-being as albuminoid1 fatty1 and saccharine matters4 ,when the system is suffering from lack of any of the above mentioned chemicals1 their administration is to be regarded as the giving of nutritive substances1 although they be prescribed by a physician in divided doses and procured from a pharmacist4 ,on the other hand1 a medicine is any substance that does not naturally enter into the composition of the body1 but which has the power1 when skillfully used1 to modify the physical processes so that physiological disorder--disease1 shall be replaced by physiological harmony--health4 ,belladonna1 hyoscyamus1 opium1 etc41 are familiar examples of medicaments4 ,therefore a food is any substance that is capable of directly contributing to the nutrition of the body1 and medicine is a substance competent1 under proper conditions1 to secure the same results indirectly4 ,viewed in the light of the above definition1 cod-liver oil is to be regarded as a very valuable food1 as well as a most effective remedy both for the prevention and cure of consumption4 ,i have previously stated that food is divided by physiologists into three great classes4 ,the albuminoids are used to build up the organism1 while the fatty and saccharine are burned in the body to keep it warm4 ,although these are the chief functions devolving on the above mentioned food elements1 yet they are mutually interdependent on each other for the proper performance of their several offices4 ,thus the albuminoids cannot undergo the wonderful vitalizing process necessary to fit them to enter into and form part of the living body1 except an adequate quantity of fatty matter be present to assist in the vital transformation4 ,on the other hand1 the assistance of the albuminoids is equally necessary to enable the fatty and saccharine foods to maintain the internal heat of the body4 ,of all fatty matters1 whether derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom1 none possesses the property of stimulating and perfecting the nutritive processes in so high a degree as cod-liver oil2 it is more readily emulsified and fitted for absorption by the pancreatic secretion during intestinal digestion than any other fatty matter of which we have any knowledge4 ,the beneficial effects of its use have been proved in myriads of cases of confirmed consumption1 and if it were used for prolonged periods by persons who are losing weight1 and whose breathing capacity is too little1 along with effective cultivation of the latter function1 many persons would escape this disease who now succumb to it4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,normal ,,breathing ,,on ,,the ,,female ,,generative ,,organs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the body is divided into three separate stories by two partitions4 ,the diaphragm1 ,a1 separates the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen4 ,the partition1 ,d1 forms a floor for the digestive cavity1 ,f1 and a roof for the pelvis2 the pelvic cavity is occupied mainly by the generative organs4 ,the upper part of the uterus is firmly fixed to the partition1 ,d1 by which the pelvis is covered4 ,now1 the diaphragm1 ,a1 and the external respiratory muscles are in ceaseless motion performing the act of breathing4 ,the diaphragm acts like the piston of a pump1 both on the lungs above1 and on the contents of the abdominal and pelvic cavities below4 ,when it rises from ,b to ,a1 it diminishes the size of the thoracic cavity1 compresses the lungs1 and assists in the expiratory part of breathing2 at the same time it acts through the contents of the abdominal cavity on the pelvic roof1 ,d1 to which the uterus is attached1 and raises it from ,d to ,c4 ,when the diaphragm contracts1 it descends from ,a to ,b1 increases the size of the thoracic cavity1 inflates the lungs1 promotes the inspiratory part of breathing1 pushes the walls of the chest and abdomen outward from ,f to ,e1 and lowers the pelvic roof at the same time the uterus sinks from ,c to ,d4 ,when the effect of these respiratory motions is not diminished by muscular debility1 rigidity of the thoracic walls1 or by unsuitable clothing1 they have so direct an effect on the pelvic contents that the uterus and its appendages make two distinct motions every time a woman breathes4 ,when the diaphragm rises and the breath is expelled1 the womb is elevated from one inch to one inch and a half1 because the roof of the pelvis1 to which it is attached1 is lifted about this distance1 because of gentle suction from above4 ,the uterus and its appendages are thus kept in constant motion1 up and down1 chiefly by action of the muscles by which breathing is carried on4 ,several influences combine to maintain the circulation of the blood4 ,the pumping action of the heart and the affinity of the blood for the walls of the capillary vessels require to be assisted by the motion both of the body as a whole and of its parts in order to keep the circulation flowing equably through every tissue4 ,therefore muscular action and the resulting bodily motion play a very important part in maintaining the general and local blood circulation4 ,during the contraction of a muscle1 the blood current flowing through it is1 for the time being1 retarded1 but when relaxation occurs the blood flows into its vessels more freely than if no momentary cessation had taken place4 ,when the body or any of its parts is deprived of motion1 the blood circulation stagnates1 and the nutrition1 general or local1 as the case may be1 promptly becomes impaired4 ,this is specially true of the uterus4 ,gentle but constant motion is absolutely essential to keep up a healthy uterine blood circulation4 ,nature has provided for the automatic performance of all the ceaseless internal motions that are necessary to the continuance of life and the preservation of health2 thus the heart beats1 the respiratory muscles act1 the stomach executes a churning motion during gastric digestion1 the intestines pass on their contents by worm-like contractions1 automatically without our supervision and without causing fatigue1 being under the control of the sympathetic system of nerves chiefly4 ,it is equally true1 but not so well recognized1 that the previously described motions that are committed to the pelvic organs from the respiratory apparatus are absolutely necessary to the continued health of the uterus and its appendages4 ,but the womb is not under the control of the voluntary muscles1 therefore it cannot be directly moved by them1 nor are its necessary motions influenced by the sympathetic system of nerves as are the heart1 stomach1 and intestines1 etc41 but it is fortunately under the indirect but positive control of involuntary muscles that never1 as long as breathing continues1 cease their work4 ,nature has thus made ample provision to keep the uterus in automatic motion4 ,as before stated1 the natural ceaseless heavings of the lungs1 chest1 and diaphragm1 aided by the muscles inclosing the abdomen1 have the duty assigned them of communicating automatic motion to the uterus and the other contents of the pelvis4 ,when the diaphragm descends from ,a to ,b1 and the lungs are filled with air1 the uterus sinks in the pelvic cavity in obedience to the downward pressure from above1 as before stated2 the circulation through the uterus is then for a moment retarded1 but the next instant1 when the lungs are emptied of air and the diaphragm rises1 the blood flows forward more freely than if it had not been momentarily obstructed4 ,ample provision has thus been made to maintain a healthy circulation through the uterus4 ,the uterine motions ,i have described are fully adequate for the purposes indicated4 ,but when the natural stimulus of motion is withheld1 the circulation becomes sluggish causing congestion1 which may develop into inflammation4 ,under these conditions the uterus gradually becomes displaced1 falling backward1 forward or downward as the case may be4 ,the blood vessels by which the uterus is supplied thus have their caliber diminished by bending2 the circulation through them is retarded just as the flow of water in a rubber tube is obstructed by a kink4 ,a very good idea of what occurs in the uterus under the conditions just described may be obtained by winding a string around the fingers4 ,as the coats of the arteries are thick1 and the pressure exerted by the ligature has less power to prevent the arterial blood flowing outward past the string to the end of the finger than it has to prevent the return of the venous blood toward the heart1 therefore the part beyond the ligature soon becomes congested1 the blood stagnating in the capillaries4 ,if the ligature be sufficiently tight and kept on long enough1 mortification will take place1 but if the circulation be only moderately obstructed1 the congestion will continue until ulceration occurs4 ,a similar condition is developed in the uterus when the necessary natural stimulus of motion fails to be communicated to it or when it is so far out of its proper place that the circulation through it is obstructed4 ,i believe the above described condition to be a most potent but inadequately recognized cause of the various forms of uterine diseases that distress so many women4 ,,showing ,,how ,,the ,,breathing ,,powers ,,may ,,be ,,developed4 ,when the circumference of the chest bears a due proportion to the size of the body generally2 when its walls and the lungs possess a suitable degree of elasticity2 when the strength of the respiratory muscles is adequate to their work1 and no undue opposition is offered to the breathing motions by the clothing--then the vital volume is always up to the full requirements of the system4 ,but when one or all of these are lacking in any important degree1 the breathing capacity is proportionately diminished4 ,if the testimony of the spirometer be corroborated by the impaired physical condition of the individual1 its correction should be sought in part at least by enlarging the chest1 increasing the elasticity of its walls and of the lungs1 and by augmenting the strength of the respiratory muscles4 ,these results may commonly be secured by diligent and persevering use of the following exercises3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,a trapeze1 ,fig4 #b1 should be suspended from the ceiling1 so that the bar shall be six inches above the head of the person who is to use it2 the toes should be placed under straps nailed to the floor to keep them in position4 ,then if the bar be grasped and the body thrown forward1 the trapeze1 the arms1 and the body will form the segment of a circle4 ,the exercise is taken by causing the body to describe a complete circle in the manner indicated in the cut4 ,little muscular effort is required if the motion be rapid1 because the momentum is sufficient to carry the body around2 but if the rotation be slow1 more exertion is required4 ,this movement is specially adapted to the breathing powers of weak persons1 yet the most vigorous can readily get from it all the exercise their chest and lungs require4 ,by means of these exercises the chest is gently but effectively expanded in every direction and the elasticity of its walls promoted1 the air cells are expanded1 and the lungs are rendered more permeable to the respired air1 and the strength of the respiratory muscles is developed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #c illustrates an exercise for the chest that is taken without any apparatus other than an ordinary doorway4 ,the exerciser should stand in the position indicated in the engraving1 and then step forward with each foot alternately as far as possible without stretching the chest too severely4 ,the longer the step the more vigorous the exercise will be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #d shows an exercise taken between two chairs2 the position indicated in the cut having been assumed1 the chest is then slowly lowered and raised three to six times4 ,this exercise is adapted to strong persons only4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,adequate ,,respiration ,,in ,,special ,,cases4 ,when the nutrition of the body is promoted by effective respiration1 and waste matters are promptly removed1 the chances that tubercle will be developed in persons who are predisposed thereto are reduced to a minimum4 ,better materials are furnished by the nutritive processes to renew the tissues1 so that the occurrence of those degenerations that result in various fatal affections1 peculiar to the decline of life1 are rendered much less probable or are prevented altogether1 and the chances that death shall take place by old age is increased4 ,the system possesses much greater resisting power against the influence of malaria and the poisons that give rise to typhoid fever1 scarlatina1 diphtheria1 measles1 etc4 ,when the motions of a woman's respiratory organs are normal and are properly communicated to the pelvic organs1 she enjoys the greatest possible immunity attainable against the development of any diseases peculiar to the sex4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vital ,,discoveries ,,in ,,obstructed ,,air ,,and ,,ventilation4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read by ,wm4 ,c4 ,conant before the ,polytechnic ,association of the ,american ,institute1 ,new ,york1 ,may #aj1 #ahhc4 ,i suppose that we all consider ourselves to be sufficiently impressed with the importance of ventilation4 ,if ,i should stop here to declaim against foul exhalations1 or to dwell upon the virtues of fresh air1 you might feel inclined to interrupt me by saying1 ,oh1 we know all about that6 ,if you have anything practical to advance1 come to the point4 ,gentlemen1 ,i beg your pardon1 but ,i must say that the great fact concerning ventilation1 as yet1 is that its strongest advocates are not conscious of one-half the seriousness of the subject2 and the second fact is that the supposed means of ventilation prescribed by science fail to secure it4 ,this1 then1 is my point to-night--the supreme necessity1 still urgent1 and universally urgent1 for a reformation of the breath of life4 ,i believe in a promised time when the days of a man's life shall again be as the days of a tree4 ,and next to the abolition of vice and sin1 ,i believe that the very grandest factor of such result must be an entire disuse of obstructed air for the lungs4 ,i propose to bring forward some evidence of the necessity1 and likewise of the possibility1 of a reform so radical and sweeping as this4 ,the subject is too wide for the occasion4 ,i shall be able to read only extracts from what ,i have prepared1 in the few minutes that you can give with patience to my unpracticed lecturing4 ,the best prescription that doctors have to give 7when we are not too far gone to take it7 is to live out of doors4 ,why is this8 ,why is life out of doors proverbially synonymous with robust health8 ,why is it that a superior vitality1 and a singular exemption from disease1 notoriously distinguish dwellers in the open air1 by land or sea8 ,without disparaging the virtues of exercise or of bracing temperature1 indispensable as these are for the recuperation of enfeebled constitutions1 we must admit that among the native and settled inhabitants of the open air high health is the rule in warm climates as well as in cold1 and with the very laziest mortals that bask in the sun1 or loaf in the woods4 ,the fact is that simple vegetative health seems to be nearly independent of all other external conditions but that of a pure natural diet for the lungs4 ,man in nature seems to thrive as spontaneously as plants1 by the free grace of air1 earth1 and sun4 ,on the other hand1 the very diseases from which houses are supposed to defend us--that most numerous class resulting from colds--are the special scourge of the lives that are most carefully shielded from their commonly supposed cause--exposure to the open air4 ,those diseases diminish1 and entirely disappear1 just so far as exposure in the pure and freely moving air becomes complete and habitual4 ,soldiers1 inured to camp life1 catch cold if they once sleep in a house2 and1 generally speaking1 the inhabitants of the free air contract colds only by exposure to confined exhalations from their own or other bodies1 within the walls of houses4 ,the explanation of this is plain and simple3 ,carbonic acid detained within four walls accumulates in place of the breath of life--oxygen--and narcotizes the excretory function of the skin4 ,the moment that this great and continual vent of waste and impurity from the system is obstructed1 internal derangement ensues in every direction4 ,all hands1 so to speak1 are strained to extra duty to discharge the noxious accumulation4 ,the lungs labor to discharge the load thrown back upon them1 with hastened respiration1 increased combustion1 and feverish heat4 ,the pores of the mucous membrane in the nose1 throat1 alimentary canal1 or bronchial passages1 are forced by an aggravated discharge 7or catarrh71 and this congestive and inflammatory pressure is a fever also4 ,there is nothing of cold about it except as an auxiliary and antecedent1 in cases where an external chill has struck upon nerves already half paralyzed by the universal narcotic--carbonic acid--which house dwellers may be said to smoke perpetually4 ,so much for nerve-poison2 but blood-poisoning is a still more terrible characteristic of house-protected existence4 ,it is now the almost universal opinion of the medical profession that the whole class of malarial and zymotic diseases that make such frightful progress and havoc in the most civilized communities1 are due to living germs with which the exhalations of organic waste and decay are everywhere loaded in inconceivable numbers4 ,they are known to multiply themselves many times over1 every two or three hours4 ,they swarm into the blood by millions1 through all the absorbents1 especially those of the lungs1 that drink the atmosphere in which they are suffered to linger and propagate4 ,mr4 ,dancer1 the eminent microscopist1 counted in a sample from such an atmosphere a number of organized germs equivalent to #c1gjj1jjj in the volume of air hourly inhaled by one person4 ,that is over #fj1jjj germs per minute1 and about #b1jjj in every breath4 ,in the blood1 they still propagate1 and feed1 and grow1 consuming its oxygen1 thus defeating its purification1 and turning that stream of otherwise healthful and invigorating nutrition into a stream of effete and corrupt matter--a sewer rather than a river of life--or at best an impoverished and impure supply for the support of existence4 ,the same pestilential but invisible hosts of bacteria1 mustered and bred in the close filthiness of ,oriental cities1 and jungles1 swarm out as ,asiatic cholera on the wings of the wind1 sweeping the wide world with havoc4 ,settled on the tropical shores of the ,eastern ,atlantic1 they lie in wait for their victims in the sluggish and terrible coast fever4 ,on the western coast of the same ocean1 perhaps from some cause connected with oceanic or atmospheric currents1 they make devastating irruptions inland1 as yellow fever1 in every direction where the walls of their enclosure are low enough to be freely passed4 ,these1 let us remember1 are all essentially the same organic poison that is engendered wherever life and death are plying their perpetual game2 and this1 like ,cleopatra's worm1 will do its kind in the veins of man1 wherever obstructions1 natural or artificial1 temporary or permanent1 interfere with its prompt diffusion in the vastness of the general atmosphere4 ,our house of life stands generously open1 for every inmate bad to come and go through the absorbent1 unquestioned1 except in the stomach1 where the tangible poisons have to go by the act of swallowing and where they are often challenged and ejected4 ,it seems at first thought very strange that we are not so well protected by natural instinct or sensibility from the subtle poisons of the atmosphere as from those that can affect us only by the voluntary act of swallowing4 ,the obvious explanation1 however1 of this apparent neglect is that ,nature protects us in general from gaseous poisons by her own system of ventilation2 and if1 when we devise houses1 necessarily excluding that system1 we fail to devise also a sufficient substitute for it1 the consequences of such negligence are as fairly due as when we swallow tangible poison4 ,i have hitherto referred only to the dispersion of poisonous exhalations1 as if the best and most necessary thing the atmosphere can do for us were to dilute the dose to a comparatively harmless potency4 ,but this is now known to be not the true remedial process with respect to the zymotic germs4 ,the most wonderful achievement of recent investigation reveals a philosophy of both bane and antidote that astonishes us with its simplicity as much as with its efficiency4 ,at the moment when humanity stands aghast at the announcement that germs are not destroyed by disinfectants1 comes the counter discovery that they are rendered harmless by oxygen4 ,it seems that it makes no difference1 really1 of what sort or from what source are the bacteria that we take into the blood4 ,the only material difference to us depends on the sort of atmosphere in which their hourly generations are bred4 ,for example1 the bacteria developed in confined air1 from a simple infusion of hay1 are found by experiment to be as capable of generating that most terrible of blood poisoners1 the malignant pustule1 as are the bacteria taken from the pustule itself4 ,on the other hand1 the bacteria from the malignant pustule itself1 after propagating for a few hours in pure and free air1 become a perfectly harmless race1 and are actually injected into the blood with impunity4 ,the explanation of the strange discovery is this--note its extreme simplicity--bacteria bred in copious oxygen perish for want of it as soon as they enter the blood vessels2 whereas those inured to an unventilated atmosphere for a few generations1 which means only a few hours1 are prepared to thrive and propagate infinitely within our veins2 and that is the whole mystery of blood poisoning and zymotic diseases4 ,taken in connection with the narcotic or nerve-poisoning power of carbonic acid 7to which all the classes of diseases resulting from colds are due71 we have also in this simple but grand discovery the whole mystery of the question with which we set out--why free air is health1 and why sickness is a purely domestic product4 ,the restitution of natural health to mankind demands only1 but demands absolutely1 the constant diffusion in copious and continuous floods of atmospheric oxygen1 of the nerve-poisoning carbonic acid of combustion 7organic and inorganic71 and of the blood-poisoning bacteria of organic decomposition4 ,we find1 then1 as a matter both of experience and of philosophy1 that life or death1 in the main and in the long run1 turns on the single pivot of atmospheric movement or obstruction4 ,the resistance of mere rising ground or dense vegetation to a free movement of the air from low-lying levels performs an obstructive office similar to that of the walls and roofs of houses1 and with like effect4 ,the invariable condition of unhealthy seasons and days is a state of rarefaction and stagnation of the atmosphere1 when the poison-freighted vapor cannot be lifted and dispersed1 and every one complains of the sultry1 close1 muggy 7meaning murky7 feeling of the air4 ,few reflect1 when fretted by the boisterous winds of ,march1 upon the vital office they perform in dispersing and sanitating the bacteria-laden exhalations let loose by the first warmth from the soaked soil and the macerated deposits of the former year4 ,the passing air1 then1 that we breathe so lightly1 is on other business1 and carries a load we little think of1 and that is not to be trifled with4 ,this grand carrier of nature1 on business of life or death1 must not be detained1 must not be hindered6 or they who interfere with the business by restraining walls and roofs will take the consequences4 ,it is a good deal like stopping a bullet1 except as to consciousness and suddenness of effect4 ,that men live at all in their obstructed and therefore poison-loaded atmosphere1 is a proof of the wonderful efficiency of the protective economy of ,nature within us2 so wonderful1 indeed1 that few can believe the fact of living to be consistent with the real existence of such a deadly environment as science pretends to reveal4 ,it is a common impression1 therefore1 that actual results fail to justify the alarm sounded by sanitarians4 ,hence the necessity for calling attention at the outset to an ample and manifest equivalent for the deadly dose of confined exhalations taken daily by all civilized men4 ,we perceive that that dose is not lost1 like the ,humboldt ,river1 in a sink1 but reappears1 like the wide-sown grass1 in a perennial and universal crop of diseases1 almost numberless and ever increasing in number1 peculiar to house-dwellers4 ,the trail of these plagues stops nowhere else2 it leads straight to the imprisoned atmosphere in our artificial inclosures1 and there it ends4 ,that marvelous protective economy of ,nature within us1 to which we have referred1 is no perpetual guaranty against the consequences of our negligence2 it is only a limited reprieve1 to afford space for repentance2 and unless we hasten to improve the day of grace1 the suspended sentence comes down1 upon us at last with force the more accumulated by delay4 ,now1 therefore1 the grand problem of sanitary science 7almost untouched1 almost unrecognized7 proves to be no other and no less than this3 ,what can be done to remedy the obstructive nature of an inclosure1 so that its gaseous contents shall move off1 and be replaced by pure air1 as freely1 as rapidly1 and as incessantly1 as in the open atmosphere8 ,it happens to be the most necessary preliminary in approaching this problem1 to show how not to do it1 for that1 respectfully be it spoken1 is what we have hitherto practiced1 as results abundantly prove4 ,fallacies1 both vulgar and scientific1 obstruct our way4 ,a fundamental fallacy respects the very nature of the work1 which is supposed to be to get in fresh air4 ,in point of fact1 this care is both unnecessary and comparatively useless4 ,take care of the bad air1 and the fresh air will take care of itself4 ,only make room for it1 and you cannot keep it out4 ,on the other hand1 unless you first make room for it1 you cannot keep it in2 pump it in and blow it in as you may1 you only blow it through1 as the ,jordan flows comparatively uncontaminated through the ,dead ,sea4 ,this is a law of fluids that must be kept in view4 ,the pure air is quite as ready to get out as to get in2 while the air loaded with poisonous vapors is as sluggish as a gorged serpent1 and will not budge but on compulsion4 ,such compulsion the grand system of wind suction1 actuated by the sun1 supplies on the scale of the universe2 and this we must imitate and adapt for our more limited purposes4 ,it would seem as if we need not pause to notice so shallow though common a notion as that which usually comes in right here1 namely1 that confined air will move off somehow of itself1 if you give it liberty2 being supposed to be much like a cat in a bag1 wanting only a hole to make its escape4 ,air is ponderable matter--as much so as lead--and equally requires force of some kind to set it or keep it in motion4 ,but applied philosophy itself relies on a fallacious1 or1 at best1 inadequate source of motive power for ventilation4 ,it gravely prescribes ventilating flues and even holes1 and promises us that the warmed air within the house will rise through these flues and holes1 carrying its impurities away with it1 from the pressure of the cooler and denser air without4 ,but we very well know that the best of flues and chimneys will draw only by favor of lively fires or clear weather4 ,they fail us utterly when most needed1 in warm and murky weather1 when the barometer is low1 and the thin atmosphere drops1 down its damp and dirty contents1 burying us to the chimney tops in a pestilent congregation of vapors4 ,nevertheless1 so far as ,i can discover1 these holes and flues1 at best a little fire at the bottom of the latter1 are the sole and all-sufficient expedients of science and architecture for ventilation to this day1 in spite of their total failure in experience4 ,i can find nothing in standard treatises or examples from philosophers or architects1 beyond a theoretical calculation on so much expansion of air from so many units of heat1 and hence so much ascensional force inferred in the ventilating flue--a result which never comes to pass1 yet none the less continues to be cheerfully relied on4 ,unfortunately for the facts1 they contradict the philosophy1 and are only to be ignored with silent contempt4 ,a ,french ,academician's report on the ventilation of a large public building1 lately reprinted by the ,smithsonian ,institution1 states with absolute assurance and exactness the cubic feet of air changed per minute1 with the precise volume and velocity of its ascension1 by burning a peck of coal at the bottom of the trunk flue4 ,no mention is made of the anemometer or any other gauge of the result asserted1 and we are left to the suspicion that it is merely a matter of theoretical inference1 as usual2 for every one who has had any acquaintance with practical tests in these matters knows that no such movement of air ever takes place under such conditions1 unless by exceptional favor of the weather4 ,i have seen a tall steam boiler chimney induce through a four inch pipe a suction strong enough to exhaust the air from a large room as fast as perfect ventilation would require4 ,but this1 it is well known1 requires four hundred or five hundred degrees of heat in the chimney4 ,i never saw an ordinary domestic fire of coals produce any noticeable ventilating suction1 without the use of a blower1 urging the combustion to fury1 and ,i presume nobody else ever did4 ,but1 while nobody ever saw an active suction of air produced by the mere heat of a still or unexcited fire--unless the quantity of heat were on a very large scale--everybody has seen a roaring current sucked through the narrowed throat of a chimney or a stove by a blazing handful of shavings1 paper1 or straw4 ,it is very remarkable1 when you come to think of it1 that the burning of an insignificant piece of paper1 with less heat in it1 perhaps1 than a pea of anthracite1 will cause a rush of air that a bushel of anthracite cannot in the least degree imitate4 ,it is not only a curious but a most important fact4 ,in short1 it is the cardinal fact on which ventilation practically turns4 ,but what is the nature of it8 ,there are three factors in the phenomenon4 ,in the first place1 the mechanical peculiarity of flame1 or gas in the moment of combustion1 as compared with a gas like air merely heated1 is an almost explosive velocity of ascent4 ,the physical peculiarity from which this results is the intensity of its heat--commonly stated at #b1jjj degrees1 as to our common illuminating gas--acting instantaneously throughout its mass1 just as in gunpowder4 ,the gas goes up the flue in its own flash1 like the ignited charge in the barrel of a gun3 the burning coals can only send1 and by a leisurely messenger1 namely1 the moderately heated gases1 and contiguous air1 that rise only by the gravitation or pressure of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,and yet it is not the small flame itself that roars in the chimney but the rush of air induced by it4 ,the semi-explosion of flame is but for an instant1 though constantly renewed1 and its explosive impulse cannot carry its light products of combustion very far through stationary and resistant air4 ,it is the induction of air carried with it by such semi-explosive impulse 7under proper mechanical conditions7 that is strange to our observation and understanding1 and is the second factor in the phenomenon we are accounting for and preparing to utilize4 ,the process1 as it actually is1 may be clearly exhibited by a very simple means4 ,let anyone take a tube1 say an inch in diameter--a roll of paper will do as well as anything--and1 applying it closely to his mouth1 try the whole force of his lungs through it upon any light object4 ,the amount of effect will be found surprisingly small2 and unless the tube is a short one1 it will be so far absorbed by friction and atmospheric resistance as to be almost imperceptible4 ,then let him hold the same tube near to the mouth1 but not in contact1 and repeat the experiment4 ,with the best adjustment1 the effect may be described as tenfold or fifty-fold1 or almost any fold--the effect of the simple blowing being merely nominal as compared with the induced current added by blowing into the tube instead of in it4 ,the blast enters the free and open orifice with all the contiguous air which its surface friction and the vacuum of its movement can involve in its rolling vortex4 ,while the entrance is thus crowded with pressure1 the exit is free2 and the result at the exit is a blast of well sustained velocity and magnified volume2 ready itself to repeat the miracle on a still larger scale if provided with the apparatus for doing so4 ,to test this1 now place a second and larger tube in such position as to prolong the first in a straight line1 but with a slight interval between the meeting ends2 so that the blast1 as magnified in volume in entering the first tube1 may enter in like manner the second tube and be magnified again4 ,with correct adjustments this experiment will prove more surprising than the first4 ,put on a third and still larger tube in the same way1 and still larger surprise will meet a still larger volume and force of blast1 like a stiff breeze set in motion by the puny effort of a single expiration4 ,of course1 the prime impulse must bear a certain proportion to the result2 and the inductive or tractional friction of the initial blast1 of flame or breath1 will be used up at length unless re-enforced4 ,in ventilating practice1 there is such re-enforcement1 from an excess of gravity in the cooler atmosphere outside the flue in which the flame is operating with its heat as well as its ascensional traction2 so that there has been found no limit to the extensions and fresh inductions that may be added to the first or trunk flue1 with increase rather than diminution of power at every point4 ,but the terms on which such extensions must be made have been referred to in our illustration1 and must be accurately ascertained and observed4 ,they constitute what is1 in effect1 the third factor in the phenomenon of a roaring draught1 and also1 therefore1 ineffective ventilation4 ,that is1 the entering or induced current of air must always find its channel of progress and exit certain correct degrees larger than the opening by which it entered4 ,every one knows that a stove or chimney wide open admits of but little suction in connection with even the blaze of paper or shavings4 ,the mobility of air seems almost preternatural1 when the proper conditions for setting a current in motion are supplied4 ,but without a current established1 it is surprising in turn to find how obstinately and elusively immovable it can be4 ,it is like tossing a feather2 or trying to drive a swarm of flies2 dodging and evading every impulse applied4 ,but1 given a flue1 to define and conduct a stream2 an upright flue1 to take advantage of the slighter gravity of the warmed air within it2 and a flue contracted at the inlet and expanded as it rises1 so as to free1 diffuse1 and lighten the column of air1 toward the exit2 then1 initiate an induced current of air at the inlet1 by the injection of a jet of gas in the state of semi-explosive action called flame2 the pressure pushing upward from the crowded entrance finds easier way and less resistance the farther it goes in the expanding flue2 the warmth and reduced gravity of the stream comes in as an auxiliary in overcoming friction and any exceptional obstruction in the state of the atmosphere2 and now1 as the ball is once set rolling1 with a little aid instead of resistance from gravitation1 its initial impulse all the while sustained by the gas jet1 and friction reduced to a very small incident--there is nothing to prevent the current rolling on with accelerated velocity 7within the limitations imposed by increasing friction7 and rolling on forever4 ,i might1 if ,i had time1 add a curious consideration of the law of vortex motion in elastic fluids1 demonstrated by ,helmholtz1 which relieves the motion of such fluids from friction1 as wheels facilitate the movement of a solid2 and which also sucks into the rolling vortex the contiguous air1 thus entraining it1 as we have seen1 so much more effectively than could be done by a direct and rigid current1 like a jet of water1 for instance4 ,a wheel set in motion on an almost frictionless bearing of metalline1 runs without perceptible abatement of velocity1 until one begins to involuntarily question whether it will ever stop4 ,in the all but free winds that roll with minimized friction in the higher atmosphere1 there seems to be a self-moving force2 so persistent is simple momentum in a mass so infinitesimally obstructed and so infinitely wheeled4 ,an active current of air in a ventilating flue is only less perfect in the same conditions2 and so it is quite conceivable1 and not incredible1 that such a current may be gradually established and thenceforward permanently maintained by a small motor flame barely more than enough to overbalance the minimized friction4 ,this is not a supposed or theoretically inferred fact1 like the facts of ventilation sometimes alleged by theorists4 ,on the contrary1 the theory ,i have offered is merely an attempt to explain facts that ,i have witnessed and that anyone can verify with the anemometer4 ,but the theory by no means covers the art and mystery of ventilation2 for ventilation is truly an art as well as a mystery4 ,the art lies in a consummate experience of the sizes1 proportions1 and forms of flues1 their inlets1 expansions1 and exits1 with many other incidental adaptations necessary1 in order to insure under all circumstances the regular exhaustion of any specific volume of air required1 per minute4 ,and this art has by one man been achieved4 ,it would be a double injustice if ,i should neglect from any motive to inform my audience to whom ,i am indebted for what ,i know about ventilation practically1 and even for the knowledge that there is any such fact as a practicable ventilation of houses2 one who is no theorist1 but who has felt his way experimentally with his own hands1 for a lifetime1 to a practical mastery of the art to which ,i have attempted to fit a theory2 every one present who is well informed on this subject must have anticipated already in mind the name of ,henry ,a4 ,gouge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,recent ,,eruption ,,of ,,etna4 ,on the morning of the #bjth of ,march1 a long series of earthquakes spread alarm throughout all the cities and numerous villages that are scattered over the sides of ,mt4 ,etna4 ,the shocks followed each other at intervals of a few minutes2 dull subterranean rumblings were heard2 and a catastrophe was seen to be impending4 ,toward evening the ground cracked at the lower part of the south side of the mountain1 at the limit of the cultivated zone1 and at four kilometers to the north of the village of ,nicolosi4 ,there formed on the earth a large number of very wide fissures1 through which escaped great volumes of steam and gases which enveloped the mountain in a thick haze2 and toward night1 a very bright red light1 which1 seen from ,catania1 seemed to come out in great waves from the foot of the mountain1 announced the coming of the lava4 ,illustration3 ,,eruption ,,of ,,mount ,,etna1 ,,march #bb1 #ahhc4 ,eleven eruptions occurred during the night1 and shot into the air fiery scori which1 in a short time1 formed three hillocks from forty to fifty meters in height4 ,the jet of scori was accompanied with strong detonations1 and the oscillations of the ground were of such violence that the bells in the villages of ,nicolosi and ,pedara rang of themselves4 ,the general consternation was the greater in that the locality in which the eruptive phenomena were manifesting themselves was nearly the same as that which formed the theater of the celebrated eruption of #affi4 ,this locality overlooks an inclined plane which is given up to cultivation1 and in which are scattered1 at a short distance from the place of the eruption1 twelve villages having a total population of #bj1jjj inhabitants4 ,on the second day the character1 of the eruption had become of a very alarming character4 ,new fissures showed themselves up to the vicinity of ,nicolosi1 and the lava flowed in great waves over the circumjacent lands4 ,this seemed to indicate a lengthy eruption2 but1 to the surprise of those interested in volcanic phenomena1 on the third day the eruptive movement began to decrease1 and1 during the night1 stopped entirely4 ,this was a very fortunate circumstance1 for this eruption would have caused immense damages4 ,it cannot be disguised1 however1 that the eruptive attendants of this conflagration remain under conditions such as to constitute a permanent danger for the neighboring villages4 ,it has happened1 in fact1 that in consequence of the quick cessation of the eruption1 those secondary phenomena through which nature usually provides a solid closing of the parasitic craters have not occurred4 ,so it is probable that when a new eruption takes place it will be at the same point at which manifested itself the one that has just abated4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,physics ,,without ,,apparatus4 ,take an ordinary wine bottle and place it in front of and within a few inches of a lighted candle4 ,blow against the bottle with your mouth at about four or six inches distant from it and in a line with the flame4 ,very curiously1 notwithstanding the presence of the bottle and its interception of the current of air1 the candle will be immediately extinguished as if there were no obstacle in the way4 ,this phenomenon is readily understood when we reflect that the bottle receives the current of air on its polished surface and divides it into two1 one of which is guided to the right and the other to the left4 ,these two currents1 after separating and driving back the surrounding air1 meet again at the very spot at which the flame is situated1 and extinguish the candle4 ,illustration3 ,,mode ,,of ,,extinguishing ,a ,,candle ,,placed ,,behind ,a ,,bottle4 ,it is evident that the experiment can be reproduced by putting the candle behind a stove pipe1 a cylinder of glass or metal1 a cylindrical tin box1 or any other object of the same form with a diameter greater than that of a bottle1 but not having a rough or angular surface1 since the latter would cause the current to be lost in the surrounding air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,travels ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,some recent discussions of the constitution of the sun have turned in part upon what is known as the sun's proper motion in space4 ,this is one of the most surprising and interesting things that science has ever brought to light1 and yet it is something of which comparatively few persons have any knowledge4 ,it is customary to look upon the sun as if it were the center of the universe1 an immovable fiery globe around which the earth and other planets revolve while it remains fixed in one place4 ,nothing could be further from the truth4 ,the sun is1 in fact1 the most wonderful of travelers4 ,he is flying through space at the rate of not less than a hundred and sixty millions of miles in a year1 and the earth and her sister planets are his fellow voyagers1 which1 obeying his overpowering attraction1 circle about him as he advances4 ,in other words1 if we could take up a position in open space in advance of the sun1 we should see him rushing toward us at the rate of some #dej1jjj miles a day1 chased by his whole family of shining worlds and the vast swarms of meteoric bodies which obey his attraction4 ,the general direction of this motion of the solar system has been known since the time of ,sir ,william ,herschel4 ,it is toward the constellation ,hercules1 which1 at this season1 may be seen in the northeastern sky at #i o'clock in the evening4 ,as the line of this motion makes an angle of fifty odd degrees with the plane of the earth's orbit1 it follows that the earth is not like a horse at a windlass1 circling around the sun forever in one beaten path1 but like a ship belonging to a fleet whose leader is continually pushing its prow into unexplored waters4 ,the path of the earth through space is spiral1 so that it is all the time advancing into new regions along with the sun4 ,she is on a boundless voyage of discovery1 and her human crew are born and die in widely separated tracts of space4 ,think of the distance over which the travels of the sun have borne the earth only since the beginning of human history6 ,six thousand years ago the earth and sun were about a million millions of miles further from the stars in ,hercules than they are to-day4 ,columbus and his contemporaries lived when the earth was in a region of the universe more than sixty thousand millions of miles from the place where it is now1 so that since his time the whole human race has been making a voyage through space1 in comparison with which his longest voyage was as the footstep of a fly4 ,thus the great events in the history of the world may be said to have occurred in different parts of the universe4 ,an almost inconceivable distance separates the spot which the earth occupied in the time of ,alexander from that which it occupied when ,csar invaded ,gaul4 ,the sun and the earth have wandered so far from their birthplace that the mind staggers in the attempt to guess at the stupendous distance which now probably separates them from it4 ,it may be that the motion of the solar system is orbital and that our sun and many of the stars1 his fellow suns1 are revolving around some common center1 but if so1 no means has yet been devised of detecting the form or dimensions of his orbit4 ,so far as we can see1 the sun is moving in a straight line4 ,since space is believed to be filled with some sort of ethereal medium1 curious consequences are seen to follow from the motions that have been described4 ,a solid globe like the earth rushing at great speed through such a medium will encounter some resistance4 ,if the medium be exceedingly rare1 as it must be in fact1 the resistance will be correspondingly small1 but still there will be resistance4 ,if the sun stood still1 the earth1 owing to the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit1 around the sun1 would encounter the resistance of the ether principally on its northern hemisphere from summer to winter1 and on its southern hemisphere from winter to summer4 ,but in consequence of the motion of the sun shared by the earth1 this law of distribution is changed1 and from summer to winter the earth plows through the ether with its north pole foremost1 while from winter to summer1 although the resistance of the ether is encountered more evenly by the two hemispheres1 yet it is still felt principally in the northern hemisphere1 and the south pole remains practically protected4 ,it follows that the southern hemisphere1 and particularly the south polar regions are more or less completely sheltered the whole year around4 ,it might then be supposed that the impact of the particles of the ether shouldered aside by the earth in its swift flight and the compression produced in front of the advancing globe would tend to raise the temperature of the northern hemisphere as compared with the southern hemisphere1 while the south pole1 being more or less directly in the wake of the earth1 and in a region of rarefaction of the ether1 would constantly possess a remarkably low temperature4 ,now1 it is known that the south polar regions are more covered with ice and snow than those of the north1 and that the temperature there the year around is lower4 ,whether this difference is owing to the effects of the earth's journey through the ether1 is a question4 ,the sun1 too1 moves with his northern hemisphere foremost1 and it is worthy of remark that it has been suspected that the northern hemisphere of the sun radiates more heat than the southern4 ,but whatever effect it may or may not have upon the meteorological condition of the earth1 the fact that the solar system is thus voyaging through space is in itself exceedingly interesting4 ,not the wildest traveler's dream presents to the imagination such a voyage as this on which every inhabitant of the earth is bound4 ,a glance at a star map shows that the direction in which we are going is carrying us toward a region of the heavens exceedingly rich in stars1 many1 and perhaps most1 of which are greater suns than ours4 ,there can be little doubt that when the sun arrives in the neighborhood of those stars1 he will be surrounded by celestial scenery very different from and much more brilliant than that of the region of space in which he now is4 ,the inhabitants of the globe at that distant period will certainly behold new and far more glorious heavens1 though the earth may be unchanged4--,n4,y4 ,sun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,propagation ,,of ,,maple ,,trees4 ,i do not presume that all people over three score years of age are so entirely ignorant as ,i am1 but probably there are some4 ,i have lived more than sixty years almost in the woods1 and ,i never observed1 and never heard any other person speak of1 the blooming1 seeding1 and maturing of the water maple4 ,i have a beautiful low of water maple shade trees along the street in front of my house4 ,in ,march1 #ahhb1 ,i observed that they were in bloom1 and many bees were swarming about them4 ,after the bees left them ,i noticed the seed 7specimens inclosed of this spring's growth7 in millions4 ,as the leaves put out in ,april the little knife blade seeds fell off1 so thick as to almost cover the ground4 ,my grandson picked up three or four hatfuls1 and ,i sent the seed to my farm and had them drilled in like wheat1 when ,i planted corn4 ,the result is ,i have from #cjj to #ejj beautiful maples from #f inches to three feet high4 ,i noticed the blooms again this spring1 but a cold snap killed the blooms1 and only now and then can ,i find a seed4 ,i had a sugar tree in my yard1 which bloomed and bore seed which did not fall off through the summer4 ,my yard now has as many little sugar trees as it has leaves of blue grass4 ,it strikes me that the gathering and planting of maple seed is the best way to wood the prairies of the ,west and the worn-out lands of the ,eastern and ,middle ,states4 ,the tree is valuable for shade and for timber1 and is as rapid in growth as any tree within my knowledge4 ,i noticed some trees of this sort yesterday which are from #b to #c feet in diameter4 ,the lumber from such timber makes beautiful furniture4 ,this is intended only for those who have been as non-observant as myself1 and not the wise1 who are always posted4 ,franklin1 ,tenn4 ,j4,b4,m4 ,the seeds inclosed were the samaras of ,acer rubrum1 called the soft maple in many localities1 and red maple in others4 ,we have seen trees only three or four inches in diameter full of blossoms4 ,this is one of the earliest trees to bloom in spring1 and the pretty winged samaras soon mature and fall4 ,the sugar maple1 ,acer saccharinum1 blossoms later1 and the seeds are persistent till autumn1 and lie on the ground all winter before germinating4 ,the lumber from this latter is more valuable than soft maple1 being harder1 heavier1 and taking a better polish4 ,soft maple makes an ox-yoke which is durable and not heavy4 ,in early times a decoction of the bark was frequently used for making a black ink4--,country ,gentleman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dioscorea ,,retusa4 ,illustration3 ,,flowering ,,spray ,,of ,,dioscorea ,,retusa4 ,one of the most elegant plants one can have in a greenhouse is this twiner1 a native of ,south ,africa4 ,it has slender stems clothed with distinctly veined leaves1 and produces a profusion of creamy white fragrant flowers in pendulous clusters1 as shown in the annexed engraving1 for which we are indebted to ,messrs ,veitch of ,chelsea1 who distributed the plant a few years ago4 ,on several occasions ,messrs ,veitch have exhibited it trained parasol fashion and covered abundantly with elegant drooping clusters of flowers1 and as such it has been much admired4 ,when planted out in a warmish greenhouse and allowed to twine at will around an upright pillar1 it is seen to the best advantage1 and1 though not showy1 makes a pleasing contrast with other gayly tinted flowers4 ,it is so unlike any other ornamental plant in cultivation1 that it ought to become more widely known than it appears to be at present4--,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ravages ,,of ,a ,,rare ,,scolytid ,,beetle ,,in ,,the ,,sugar ,,maples ,,of ,,northeastern ,,new ,,york4 ,about the first of last ,august 7#ahhb7 ,i noticed that a large percentage of the undergrowth of the sugar maple 7,acer saccharinum7 in ,lewis ,county1 ,northeastern ,new ,york1 seemed to be dying ,the leaves drooped and withered1 and finally shriveled and dried1 but still clung to the branches4 ,the majority of the plants affected were bushes a centimeter or two in thickness1 and averaging from one to two meters in height1 though a few exceeded these dimensions4 ,on attempting to pull them up they uniformly1 and almost without exception1 broke off at the level of the ground1 leaving the root undisturbed4 ,a glance at the broken end sufficed to reveal the mystery1 for it was perforated1 both vertically and horizontally1 by the tubular excavations of a little ,scolytid beetle which1 in most instances1 was found still engaged in his work of destruction4 ,at this time the wood immediately above the part actually invaded by the insect was still sound1 but a couple of months later it was generally found to be rotten4 ,during ,september and ,october ,i dug up and examined a large number of apparently healthy young maples of about the size of those already mentioned1 and was somewhat surprised to discover that fully ten per cent4 of them were infested with the same beetles1 though the excavations had not as yet been sufficiently extensive to affect the outward appearance of the bush4 ,they must all die during the coming winter1 and next spring will show that1 in ,lewis ,county alone1 hundreds of thousands of young sugar maples perished from the ravages of this ,scolytid during the summer of #ahhb4 ,dr4 ,george ,h ,horn1 of ,philadelphia1 to whom ,i sent specimens for identification1 writes me that the beetle is ,corthylus punctatissimus1 ,zim1 and that nothing is known of its habits4 ,i take pleasure1 therefore1 in contributing the present account1 meager as it is1 of its operations1 and have illustrated it with a few rough sketches that are all of the natural size1 excepting those of the insects themselves1 which are magnified about nine diameters4 ,the hole which constitutes the entrance to the excavation is1 without exception1 at or very near the surface of the ground1 and is invariably beneath the layer of dead and decaying leaves that everywhere covers the soil in our ,northern deciduous forests4 ,each burrow consists of a primary1 more or less horizontal1 circular canal1 that passes completely around the bush1 but does not perforate into the entrance hole1 for it generally takes a slightly spiral course1 so that when back to the starting point it falls either a little above1 or a little below it--commonly the latter 7see ,figs4 #a and #b74 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #a and #b--,mines of ,corthylus punctatissimus4 ,it follows the periphery so closely that the outer layer of growing wood1 separating it from the bark1 does not average #j4be mm4 in thickness1 and yet ,i have never known it to cut entirely through this1 so as to lie in contact with the bark4 ,from this primary circular excavation issue1 at right angles1 and generally in both directions 7up and down71 a varying number of straight tubes1 parallel to the axis of the plant 7see ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c74 ,they average five or six millimeters in length1 and commonly terminate blindly1 a mature beetle being usually found in the end of each4 ,sometimes1 but rarely1 one or more of those vertical excavations is found to extend farther1 and1 bending at a right angle1 to take a turn around the circumference of the bush1 thus constituting a second horizontal circular canal from which1 as from the primary one1 a varying number of short vertical tubes branch off4 ,and in very exceptional cases these excavations extend still deeper1 and there may be three1 or even four1 more or less complete circular canals4 ,such an unusual state of things exists in the specimen from which ,fig #c is taken4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #c and #d--,mines of ,corthylus punctatissimus4 ,it will be seen that with few exceptions1 the most important of which is shown in ,fig #d1 all the excavations 7including both the horizontal canals and their vertical off shoots7 are made in the sap-wood immediately under the bark1 and not in the hard and comparatively dry central portion4 ,this is1 doubtless1 because the outer layers of the wood are softer and more juicy1 and therefore more easily cut1 besides containing more nutriment and being1 doubt less1 better relished than the drier interior4 ,this beetle does not bore1 like some insects1 but devours bodily all the wood that is removed in making its burrows4 ,the depth of each vertical tube may be taken as an index to the length of time the animal has been at work1 and the number of these tubes generally tells how many inhabit each bush1 for as a general rule each individual makes but one hole1 and is commonly found at the bottom of it4 ,all of the excavations are black inside4 ,the beetle is sub-cylindric in outline1 and very small1 measuring but #c4e mm in length4 ,its color is a dark chestnut brown1 some specimens being almost black4 ,its head is bent down under the thorax1 and cannot be seen from above 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,illustration3 ,,fig #e4--;,corthylus punctatissimus4 ,should this species become abundant and widely dispersed1 it could but exercise a disastrous influence upon the maple forests of the future--,g4 ,hart ,merriam1 ,m ,d1 in ,american ,naturalist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,red ,,spider4 7,tetranyehus telarius47 ,the red spider is not correctly speaking an insect1 though it is commonly spoken of as such1 neither is it a spider1 as its name would imply1 but an acarus or mite4 ,whether its name is correct or not1 it is a most destructive and troublesome pest wherever it makes its presence felt1 it by no means confines itself to one or only a few kinds of plants1 as many insects do1 but it is very indiscriminate in its choice of food1 and it attacks both plants grown under glass and those in the open air4 ,when these pests are present in large numbers1 the leaves on which they feed soon present a sickly yellow or scorched appearance1 for the supply of sap is drawn off by myriads of these little mites1 which congregate on the under sides of the leaves1 where they live in a very delicate web1 which they spin1 and multiply very rapidly2 this web and the excrement of the red spider soon choke up the pores of the leaves1 which1 deprived of their proper amount of sap1 and unable to procure the carbon from the atmosphere which they so much need1 are soon in a sorry plight4 ,however promiscuous these mites may be in their choice of food plants--melons1 cucumbers1 kidney beans1 hops1 vines1 apple1 pear1 plum1 peach trees1 limes1 roses1 laurustinus1 cactuses1 clover1 ferns1 orchids1 and various stove and greenhouse plants being their particular favorites--they are by no means insensible to the difference between dryness and moisture4 ,to the latter they have a most decided objection1 and it is only in warm and dry situations that they give much trouble1 and it is nearly always in dry seasons that plants1 etc41 out of doors suffer most from these pests4 ,fruit trees grown against walls are particularly liable to be attacked1 since from their position the air round them is generally warm and dry1 and the cracks and boles in the walls are favorite places for the red spider to shelter in1 so that extra care should be taken to prevent them from being infested1 this may best be effected by syringing the trees well night and morning with plain water1 directing the water particularly to the under sides of the leaves1 so as1 if possible1 to wash off the spiders and their webs4 ,if the trees be already attacked1 adding soft soap and sulphur to the water will destroy them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--,red ,spider 7magnified74 ,a #a4 ,ditto 7natural size74 #b4 ,underside of head4 #c4 ,foot4 #d4 ,spinneret4 ,sulphur is one of the most efficient agents known for killing them1 but it will not1 however1 mix properly with water in its ordinary form1 but should be teated according to the following recipe3 ,boil together in four gallons of water #a lb4 of flowers of sulphur and #b lb4 of fresh lime1 and add #a lb4 of soft soap1 and1 before using1 #c gallons more of water1 or mix #d oz of sulphate of lime with half that weight of soft soap1 and1 when well mixed1 add #a gallon of hot water4 ,use when cool enough to bear your hand in it4 ,any insecticide containing sulphur is useful4 ,the walls should be well washed with some insecticide of this kind4 ,old walls in which the pointing is bad and the bricks full of nail holes1 etc41 are very difficult to keep free from red spider4 ,they should be painted over with a strong solution of soot water mixed with clay to form a paint4 ,to a gallon of this paint add #a lb4 of flowers of sulphur and #b oz of soft soap4 ,this mixture should be thoroughly rubbed with a brush into every crack and crevice of the walls1 and if applied regularly every year would probably prevent the trees from being badly attacked4 ,as the red spider passes the winter under some shelter1 frequently choosing stones1 rubbish1 etc41 near the roots of the trees1 keeping the ground near the trees clean and well cultivated will tend greatly to diminish their numbers4 ,in vineries one of the best ways of destroying these creatures is to paint the hot water pipes with one part of fresh lime and two parts of flowers of sulphur mixed into a paint4 ,if a flue is painted in this way1 great care should be taken that the sulphur does not burn1 or much damage may be done1 as the flues may become much hotter than hot water pipes4 ,during the earlier stages of growth keep the atmosphere moist and impregnated with ammonia by a layer of fresh stable litter1 or by painting the hot water pipes with guano made into a paint1 as long as the air in the house is kept moist there is not much danger of a bad attack4 ,as soon as the leaves are off1 the canes should be dressed with the recipe already given for painting the walls1 and two inches or so of the surface soil removed and replaced with fresh and all the wood and iron work of the house well scrubbed4 ,if carnations are attacked1 tying up some flowers of sulphur in a muslin bag and sulphuring the plants liberally1 and washing them well in three days' time has been recommended4 ,tobacco water and tobacco smoke will also kill these pests1 but as neither tobacco nor sulphuring the hot water pipes can always be resorted to with safety in houses1 by far the better way is to keep a sharp look out for this pest1 and as soon as a plant is found to be attacked to at once clean it with an insecticide which it is known the plant will bear1 and by this means prevent other plants from being infested4 ,these little mites breed with astonishing rapidity1 so that great care should be exercised in at once stopping an attack4 ,a lady friend of mine had some castor oil plants growing in pots in a window which were badly attacked1 and found that some lady-birds soon made short work of the mites and cleared the plants4 ,the red spider lays its eggs among the threads of the web which it weaves over the under sides of the leaves2 the eggs are round and white2 the young spiders are hatched in about a week1 and they very much resemble their parents in general appearance1 but they have only three pairs of legs instead of four at first1 and they do not acquire the fourth pair until they have changed their skins several times2 they are1 of course1 much smaller in size1 but are1 however1 in proportion just as destructive as the older ones4 ,they obtain the juices of the leaves by eating through the skin with their mandibles1 and then thrusting in their probosces or suckers 7,fig4 #b71 through which they draw out the juices4 ,these little creatures are so transparent1 that it is very difficult to make out all the details of their mouths accurately4 ,the females are very fertile1 and breed with great rapidity under favorable circumstances all the year round4 ,the red spiders1 as ,i have already stated1 are not real spiders1 but belong to the family ,acarina or mites1 a family included in the same class 7the arachnida7 as the true spiders1 from which they may be easily distinguished by the want of any apparent division between the head and thorax and body2 in the true spiders the head and thorax are united together and form one piece1 to which the body is joined by a slender waist4 ,the arachnid are followed by the myriapoda 7centipedes1 etc471 and these by the insecti or true insects4 ,the red spiders belong to the kind of mites called spinning mites1 to distinguish them from those which do not form a web of any kind4 ,it is not quite certain at present whether there is only one or more species of red spider2 but this is immaterial to the horticulturist1 as their habits and the means for their destruction are the same4 ,the red spider 7,tetranychus telarius--,fig4 #a7 is very minute1 not measuring more than the sixtieth of an inch in length when full grown2 their color is very variable1 some individuals being nearly white1 others greenish1 or various shades of orange1 and red4 ,this variation in color probably depends somewhat on their age or food--the red ones are generally supposed to be the most mature4 ,the head is furnished with a pair of pointed mandibles1 between which is a pointed beak or sucker 7,fig4 #b74 ,the legs are eight in number2 the two front pairs project forward and the other two backward2 they are covered with long stiff hairs2 the extremities of the feet are provided with long bent hairs1 which are each terminated by a knob4 ,the legs and feet appear to be only used in drawing out the threads and weaving the web4 ,the thread is secreted by a nipple or spinneret 7,fig4 #d7 situated near the apex of the body on the under side4 ,the upper surface of the body is sparingly covered with long stiff hairs4--,g4,s4,s41 in ,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,heloderma ,,horridum4 ,the discussion of the curious lizard found in our ,western ,territories and in ,mexico1 and variously known as the ,montana alligator1 the ,gila monster1 and the ,mexican heloderma1 is becoming decidedly interesting4 ,as noted in a recent issue of the ,,scientific ,,american1 a live specimen was sent last summer to ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 and by him presented to the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,at first it was handled as any other lizard would be1 without special fear of its bite1 although its mouth is well armed with teeth4 ,subsequent investigation has convinced its keepers that the creature is not a fit subject for careless handling2 that its native reputation is justified by fact2 and that it is an exception to all known lizards1 in that its teeth are poison fangs comparable with those of venomous serpents4 ,speaking of the ,mexican reputation of the lizard1 in a recent issue of ,knowledge1 ,dr4 ,andrew ,wilson1 whose opinion will be respected by all naturalists1 says that without direct evidence of such a statement no man of science1 basing his knowledge of lizard nature on the exact knowledge to hand1 would have hesitated in rejecting the story as1 at least1 improbable4 ,yet it is clear that the stories of the ,new ,world may have had an actual basis of fact2 for the ,heloderma horridum has been1 beyond doubt1 proved to be poisonous in as high a degree as a cobra or a rattlesnake4 ,at first the lizard was freely handled by those in charge at ,regent's ,park1 and being a lizard1 was regarded as harmless4 ,it was certainly dull and inactive1 a result probably due to its long voyage and to the want of food4 ,thanks1 however1 to the examination of ,dr4 ,gunther1 of the ,british ,museum1 and to actual experiment1 we now know that ,heloderma will require in future to be classed among the deadly enemies of other animals4 ,examining its mouth1 ,dr4 ,gunther found that its teeth formed a literal series of poison fangs4 ,each tooth1 apparently1 possesses a poison gland2 and lizards1 it may be added1 are plentifully supplied with these organs as a rule4 ,experimenting upon the virulence of the poison1 ,heloderma was made to bite a frog and a guinea pig4 ,the frog died in one minute1 and the guinea-pig in three4 ,the virus required to produce these effects must be of singularly acute and powerful nature4 ,it is to be hoped that no case of human misadventure at the teeth of ,heloderma may happen4 ,there can be no question1 judging from the analogy of serpent-bite1 that the poison of the lizard would affect man4 ,illustration3 ,,heloderma ,,horridum1 ,,or ,,gila ,,monster ,in an article in the ,london ,field1 ,mr4 ,w4,b4 ,tegetmeier states that this remarkable lizard was first described in the ,isis1 in #ahbi1 by the ,german naturalist ,wiegmann1 who gave it the name it bears1 and noted the ophidian character of its teeth4 ,in the ,comptes ,rendus of #ahge1 ,m4,f4 ,sumichrast gave a much more detailed account of the habits and mode of life of this animal1 and forwarded specimens in alcohol to ,paris1 where they were dissected and carefully described4 ,the results of these investigations have been published in the third part of the ,mission ,scientifique an ,mexique1 which1 being devoted to reptiles1 has been edited by ,messrs4 ,aug4 ,dumeril and ,becourt4 ,the heloderm1 according to ,m4,f4 ,sumichrast1 inhabits the hot zone of ,mexico--that intervening between the high mountains and the ,pacific in the districts bordering the ,gulf of ,tehuantepec4 ,it is found only where the climate is dry and hot2 and on the moister eastern slopes of the mountain chain that receive the damp winds from the ,gulf of ,mexico it is entirely unknown4 ,of its habits but little is known1 as it appears to be1 like many lizards1 nocturnal1 or seminocturnal1 in its movements1 and1 moreover1 it is viewed with extreme dread by the natives1 who regard it as equally poisonous with the most venomous serpents4 ,it is obviously1 however1 a terrestrial animal1 as it has not a swimming tail flattened from side to side1 nor the climbing feet that so characteristically mark arboreal lizards4 ,sumichrast further states that the animal has a strong nauseous smell1 and that when irritated it secretes a large quantity of gluey saliva4 ,in order to test its supposed poisonous property1 he caused a young one to bite a pullet under the wing4 ,in a few minutes the adjacent parts became violet in color1 convulsions ensued1 from which the bird partially recovered1 but it died at the expiration of twelve hours4 ,a large cat was also caused to be bitten in the foot by the same heloderm2 it was not killed1 but the limb became swollen1 and the cat continued mewing for several hours1 as if in extreme pain4 ,the dead specimens sent to ,europe have been carefully examined as to the character of the teeth4 ,sections of these have been made1 which demonstrate the existence of a canal in each1 totally distinct from and anterior to the pulp cavity2 but the soft parts had not been examined with sufficient care to determine the existence or non-existence of any poison gland in immediate connection with these perforated teeth until ,dr4 ,gunther's observations were made1 as described by ,dr4 ,wilson4 ,hitherto1 as noted in a previous article1 ,american naturalists have regarded the heloderm as quite harmless--an opinion well sustained by the judgment of many persons in ,arizona and other parts of the ,west by whom the reptile has been kept as an interesting though ugly pet4 ,while the ,indians and native ,mexicans believe the creature to be venomous1 we have never heard an instance in which the bite of it has proved fatal4 ,a correspondent of the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,c4,e4,j41 writing from ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah1 under date of ,september #h1 says1 after referring to the article on the heloderm in our issue of ,august #bf3 ,having resided in the southern part of this ,territory for seventeen years1 where the mercury often reaches #aaj or more in the shade1 and handled a number of these 'monsters1' ,i can say that ,i never yet knew anybody or anything to have perished from their bite4 ,we have often had two or three of them tied in the door-yard by a hind leg1 and the children have freely played around them--picking them up by the nape of the neck and watching them snap off a small bit from the end of a stick when poked at them4 ,we have fed them raw egg and milk2 the latter they take with great relish4 ,at one time a small canine came too near the mouth of our alligator 7mountain alligator1 we call them71 when it instantly caught the pup by the under jaw and held on as only it could 7they have a powerful jaw71 nor would it release its hold until choked near to death1 which was done by taking it behind the bony framework of the head1 between the thumb and finger1 and pressing hard4 ,the pup did considerable howling for half an hour1 by which time the jaw was much swollen1 remaining so for two or three days1 after which it was all right again4 ,by this ,i could only conclude that the animal was but slightly poisonous4 ,i never knew of a human being having been bitten by one4 ,my sister kept one about the house for several weeks1 and fed it from her hands and with a spoon4 ,the specimens have generally been sent 7through the ,deseret ,museum7 to colleges and museums in the ,east4 ,the ,indians have a great fear that these animals produce at will good or bad weather1 and will not molest them4 ,many times they have come to see them1 and told us that we should let them go or they would talk to the storm spirit and send wind and water and fire upon us4 ,an old ,indian ,i once talked with told me of another who was bitten on the hand1 and said it swelled up the arm badly1 but he recovered4 ,from some reason we never find specimens less than #ab or #ad inches long1 ,i never saw a young one4 ,there is a nice stuffed specimen1 #ah inches long1 in our museum here4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock's specimen1 shown in the engraving herewith1 for which we are indebted to the ,london ,field1 is about #ai inches in length4 ,its general color is a creamy buff1 with dark brown markings4 ,the forepart of the head and muzzle is entirely dark1 the upper eyelid being indicated by a light stripe4 ,the entire body is covered with circular warts4 ,it is fed upon eggs1 which it eats greedily4 ,it would be interesting to know whether the northern specimens1 if venomous at all1 are as fully equipped with poison bags and fangs as ,dr4 ,gunther finds the ,mexican specimen to be4 ,some of our ,western or ,mexican readers may be able to make comparative tests4 ,meantime it would be prudent to limit the use of the monster as a children's pet4 ,the foregoing appeared in the ,,scientific ,,american of ,oct4 #g1 #ahhb4 ,we are now indebted to a correspondent1 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,y4 ,beach1 of the ,grand ,view ,mine1 ,grant ,county1 ,southern ,arizona1 for a fine specimen of this singular reptile1 just received alive4 ,the example sent to us is about twenty inches long1 and answers very well to the description of the monster and the engraving above given4 ,in the course of an hour after opening the box in which the reptile had been confined during its eight days' journey by rail1 it became very much at home1 stretching and crawling about our office floor with much apparent satisfaction4 ,our correspondent is located in the mountains1 some nine miles distant from the ,gila ,river4 ,he states that the reptile he sends was found in one of the shops pertaining to the mine1 which had been left unoccupied for a week or so4 ,apropos to the foregoing1 we have received the following letter from another correspondent in ,arizona3 ,to the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american3 ,my attention has been called to an article in your issue of ,oct4 #g1 #ahhb1 relating to the ,heloderma horridum1 or commonly known as the ,gila ,monster4 ,during a residence of ten years in ,arizona ,i have had many opportunities of learning the habits of these reptiles1 and ,i am satisfied their bite will produce serious effects1 if not death1 of the human race4 ,i know of one instance where a gentleman of my acquaintance by the name of ,bostick1 at the ,tiga ,top mining camp1 in ,arizona1 was bitten on the fingers1 and suffered all the symptoms of poison from snake bite4 ,he was confined to his bed for six weeks and subsequently died4 ,i am of the opinion his death was in part caused by the effects of the poison of the ,gila ,monster4 ,the ,hualzar ,indians are very much afraid of them1 and one ,i showed the picture to of the ,monster in your paper remarked1 ,chinamuck1 which in ,hualzar language means very bad4 ,he said if an ,indian is bitten1 he sometimes dies4 ,i have seen them nearly two feet in length4 ,never1 to my knowledge1 are they kept as pets in our portion of ,arizona4 ,they live on mice and other small animals1 and when aggravated can jump several times their length4 ,w4,e4 ,,day1 ,m4,d4 ,huckberry1 ,mahone ,co41 ,ar4 ,t41 ,april1 #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,kangaroo4 ,to the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american3 ,in page #fi of your issue of #c;d of ,february1 #ahhc1 ,i notice among the ,challenger ,notes of ,professor ,mosely the statement that ,among stockmen1 and even some well educated people in ,australia1 there is a conviction that the young kangaroo grows out as a sort of bud on the teat of the mother within the pouch4 ,some eighteen months ago ,i noticed a paragraph wherein some learned professor was reported to have set at rest the contested point as to whether the kangaroo come into being in the same manner as the calves of the cow and other mammals1 or whether the young grows1 as alleged1 upon the teat of its dam within the pouch4 ,the learned professor in question asserted that it did not so grow upon the teat2 but1 with all due respect to the professor's claim to credibility on other matters1 ,i must in this instance take the liberty of stating that he is in error4 ,the young kangaroo actually oozes out1 if ,i may use such an expression1 from the teat4 ,strange as the statement may seem1 it is a fact that the first indication of life on the part of the kangaroo offspring is a very slight eruption1 in size not larger than an ordinary pin head4 ,this growth gradually resolves itself into the form of the marsupial1 and is not detached until close upon the expiring of of the fourth month4 ,it is carried by the mother during that period1 and thenceforth exists partially at least on herbage4 ,indeed1 from the fourth till the seventh month it is almost constantly in the pouch1 only coming out occasionally toward the close of evening to crop the grass4 ,i had at one time in my possession a specimen of the kangaroo germ which ,i cut from off the teat1 complete in form1 whose entire weight was less than an ounce2 and1 at the same time1 ,i had a kangaroo in my possession which measured seven feet six inches from the top of the ears to the extremity of the tail4 ,your readers would doubtless feel interested with a few particulars as to my life among the kangaroos in a genuine kangaroo country4 ,i have read somewhere about the exceeding beauty of the eyes of the gazelle2 how noted hunters have alleged that their nature so softened on looking into the animal's eyes that they 7the hunters7 had no heart to destroy the creature4 ,now1 ,i have never seen a gazelle1 and so cannot indulge in comparisons2 but if their eyes are more beautiful than those of a middle-aged kangaroo1 they may indeed be all that huntsmen say of them4 ,with respect to the old kangaroos1 their eyes and face are simply atrocious in their repulsive ugliness4 ,nothing in nature could surpass the affection which the female kangaroo manifests for her young4 ,there is something absolutely touching in the anxious solicitude displayed by the dam while the young ones are at play4 ,on the least alarm the youngster instantly ensconces himself in the pouch of his gentle mother1 and should he1 in the exuberance of his joy1 thrust his head out from his place of refuge1 it is instantly thrust back by his dam4 ,i have1 on several occasions1 by hard riding1 pressed a doe to dire extremity1 and it has only been when hope had entirely forsaken her1 or when her capture was inevitable1 that she has reluctantly thrown out the fawn4 ,their method of warfare has often reminded me of the style of two practiced pugilists1 the aim of each being to firmly gripe his opponent by the shoulder1 upon accomplishing which1 the long hind leg1 with its horny blade projecting from its toe1 comes into formidable play4 ,it is lifted and drawn downward with a rapid movement1 and one or other of the combatants soon shows the entrails laid bare1 which is usually the grand finale4 ,the sparring that takes place between the marsupials while trying to get the advantageous gripe is marvelous--,i had almost said scientific2 for the style and rapidity of the animals' movements might excite the admiration of the ,tipton ,slasher4 ,strangely enough1 these animals have their social distinctions almost as well defined as in the case of the human species4 ,thus1 one herd will not1 on any consideration1 associate with another2 each tribe has its rendezvous for morning and evening reunions1 and each its leader or king1 who is the first to raise an alarm on the approach of danger1 and the first to lead the way1 whether in ignominious retreat1 confronting a recognized foe1 or standing at bay4 ,these leaders are generally extremely cunning1 one old stager with whom ,i was intimately acquainted having baffled all attempts to effect its capture for more than ten months4 ,i got him at last by a stratagem4 ,he had a knack of always keeping near a flock of sheep1 and on the approach of the dogs dodged among them4 ,by this means he had always succeeded in effecting his escape1 and more than that1 this noble savage had actually drowned several of our best dogs1 for1 if at any time a dog came upon him at a distance from the sheep flocks1 he would make for a neighboring swamp1 on nearing which he has been known to turn round upon the pursuing dog1 seize him1 and carry him for some distance right into the swamp1 and then thrust the dog's head under water1 holding him there till he was drowned4 ,it was amusing to see how some of our old knowing warrior dogs gave him best when they noticed that he was approaching a flock of sheep1 well remembering1 from former experience1 that it was of no use trying to get him on that occasion1 and that when near the water the attempt at his capture was both dangerous and impracticable4 ,if you take a new and inexperienced dog into your hunt after an old man1 he invariably gets his throat ripped up1 or is otherwise maltreated until well used to the sport4 ,after a dog has had one season's experience he becomes a warrior1 and it is a wonderfully clever kangaroo that can scratch him after he has attained that position4 ,the young recruit1 if we may so speak of a dog who has never had any practice1 is over-impetuous1 rushing into the treacherous embraces of the close hugger somewhat unadvisedly1 and is fortunate if he escapes with his life as a penalty for his rashness4 ,the dog of experience always gripes his marsupial adversary by the butt end of the tail1 close to the rump1 or at its juncture with the spinal vertebr4 ,once the dog has thrown his kangaroo1 he makes for the throat1 which he gripes firmly1 while at the same time he is careful to keep his own body as far as he conveniently can from the quarry's dangerous hind quarters4 ,in this position dog and kangaroo work round and round for some time until one or the other of the combatants is exhausted4 ,it is noteworthy that the kangaroo will only make use of its sharp teeth in cases of the direst extremity4 ,on such occasions1 however1 it must be conceded that the bite is one of a most formidable character--one not to be any means underrated or despised4 ,should those few incidents prove of sufficient interest in your estimation1 ,i may state that ,i shall willingly1 at some future time1 forward you particulars of the ways peculiar of the emirs1 bandicoots1 wombats1 opossums1 and other remarkable animals1 the observance of which formed almost my sole amusement during a rather lengthy sojourn in the bush of ,south ,australia4 ,,septimus ,,frearson4 ,adelaide1 ,s4,a41 ,april1 #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,japanese ,,peppermint4 ,in more than one periodical the botanical name of this plant has been given as ,mentha arvensis1 var4 purpurascens4 ,it will be well1 therefore1 to point out that this is an error before the statement is further copied and the mistake perpetuated4 ,the plant has green foliage1 with not a trace of purple1 and less deserves the name purpurascens than the true peppermint 7,mentha piperita71 of which a purplish leaved form is well known4 ,the mistake probably arose in the first place in a printer's error4 ,the history is as follows3 ,for some years past a large quantity of a substance called menthol has been imported into this country1 and extensively used as a topical application for the relief of neuralgia1 and in some instances as an antiseptic4 ,this substance in appearance closely resembles ,epsom salts1 and consists of crystals deposited in the oil of peppermint distilled from the ,japanese peppermint plant4 ,this oil1 when separated from the crystals1 is now largely used to flavor cheap peppermint lozenges1 being less expensive than the ,english oil4 ,the crystals deposit naturally in the oil upon keeping1 but the ,japanese extract the whole of it by submitting the oil several times in succession to a low temperature1 when all the menthol crystallizes out from the oil and falls to the bottom of the vessel4 ,the source of the ,japanese peppermint oil has been stated to be ,mentha arvensis1 var4 javanica4 ,on examining several specimens of this plant in our national herbaria ,i found that the leaves tasted like those of the common garden mint 7,mentha viridis71 and not at all like peppermint1 and that therefore the oil and menthol could not possibly be derived from this plant4 ,i then asked my friend1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,christy1 who takes great interest in medicinal plants1 to endeavor to get specimens from ,japan of the plant yielding the oil4 ,after many vain attempts1 he at last succeeded in obtaining live plants4 ,these were cultivated in his garden at ,malvern ,house1 ,sydenham1 and when they flowered ,i examined the plant and found that it differed from other forms of ,m4 arvensis in the taste1 in the acuminate segments of the calyx of the flower1 and in the longer leaf stalks2 the leaves also taper more toward the base4 ,dr4 ,franchet1 the greatest living authority on ,japanese plants1 to whom ,i sent specimens1 confirmed my opinion as to the variety deserving a special name1 and ,m4 ,malinvaud1 a well known authority on mints1 suggested the name piperascens1 which ,i adopted1 calling the plant ,mentha arvensis1 var4 piperascens4 ,specimens of the plant kindly lent by ,mr4 ,christy for the purpose were exhibited by me at an evening meeting of the ,linnan ,society1 and by a printer's error in the report of the remarks then made1 the name of the plant appeared in print as ,mentha arvensis1 var4 purpurascens4 ,i trust that the present note1 through the medium of ,the ,garden1 will prevent the perpetuation of this error4 ,this is the more important1 as ,i hope that the plant will come into cultivation in this country4 ,it is a robust plant of rapid growth1 as easily cultivated as the ,english peppermint1 and seems to require less moisture1 and is therefore capable of cultivation in a great variety of localities4 ,the increasing demand for menthol1 which can only be procured in small quantities from the ,english peppermint1 and the high price of ,english peppermint oil1 lead to the hope that instead of importing menthol from ,japan1 it will be prepared in this country from the ,japanese plant4 ,with the appliances of more advanced civilization1 it ought to be possible for the oil and menthol to be made in this country at less price than the ,japanese products now cost4 ,at the present time large quantities of cheap peppermint oil are imported into this country from the ,united ,states1 and ,chinese oil is imported into ,bombay for use in the ,government medical stores4 ,there is no reason why this should be the case if the ,japanese plant were cultivated in this country4 ,in ,ireland1 where labor is cheap and the climate moist1 this crop might afford a valuable source of income to enterprising cultivators4 ,it may be interesting to note here that the plant used in ,china closely resembles the ,japanese one1 differing chiefly in the narrower and more glabrous leaves4 ,i have therefore named it ,mentha arvensis f4 glabrata1 from specimens sent to me from ,hong ,kong1 by ,mr4 ,c4 ,ford1 the director of the ,botanic ,gardens there4 ,e4,m4 ,,holmes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gladiolus4 ,the gladiolus is easily raised from seeds1 which should be sown in early spring in pots of rich soil placed in heat1 the pots being kept near the glass after they begin to grow1 and the plants being gradually hardened to permit their being placed out of doors in a sheltered spot for the summer4 ,in ,october they will have ripened off1 and must be taken out of the soil and stored in paper bags in a dry room secure from frost4 ,they will have made little bulbs1 from the size of a hazel nut downward1 according to their vigor4 ,in the subsequent spring they should be planted like the old bulbs1 and the larger ones will flower during the season1 while the smaller specimens must be again harvested and planted out as above described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a 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