,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,9 ! orig9al book1 que/ions appe>$ at ! bottom ( ea* page4 ,^! que/ions h be5 compil$ at ! end ( ! text4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ,class ,book2 ,design$ = ! ,in/ruction ( ,y\? 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,con/itutional ,gov]nm5t & ! ,rights & ,duties ( ,citiz5s4 ,by ,&rew ,w4 ,"y1 ,au?or ( ,sci5ce ( ,gov]nm5t1 ,fir/ ,lessons 9 ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ,am]ican ,/atesman1 ,citiz5's ,manual ( ,gov]nm5t & ,law4 ,,new-,,york3 ,j4 ,c4 ,,d]by ,n4 ,c4 ,,mill]1 #e ,,spruce ,,/reet1 ,,tribune ,,build+s4 #ahfe4 ,ent]$1 accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahei1 by ,&rew ,w4 ,"y1 9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! ,nor!rn ,di/rict ( ,new ,york4 ,preface4 ,! utility ( ! diffusion ( political k among a p ex]cis+ ! "r ( self-gov]nm5t1 is univ]sally admitt$4 ,! =m ( gov]nm5t e/abli%$ by ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?\gh well adapt$ to promote ! g5]al welf>e1 is highly complicat$2 & ! k requisite to adm9i/] x successfully c n be acquir$ )\t mu* /udy4 ,f ! fact t a l>ge portion ( ! ,am]ican p are greatly defici5t 9 ?is k1 we may ju/ly conclude t x w nev] become g5]al1 until x %all h be5 made an object ( s*ool in/ruction4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! gov]nm5t ( ?is great & rapidly increas+ republic1 w1 9 a few ye>s1 devolve ^u ^? :o are n[ receiv+ in/ruction 9 ! public s*ools4 ,yet ?\s&s annually complete _! s*ool education1 :o h nev] devot$ any "t to ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( ! gov]nm5t 9 :i* !y are soon to take a "p--:o become inve/$ ) political p[] )\t ! prep>ation necess>y to ex]cise x ) discretion4 ,! s*ools are reg>d$ z ! nurs]ies ( our future /atesm54 ,!y %>e l>gely 9 ! b\nty ( ! /ate2 yet few ( !m r5d] 9 return ev5 ! rudim5ts ( political sci5ce to ^? :o are to become h] legislators1 & gov]nors1 & judges4 ,n only 9 ! common s*ools g5]ally1 b 9 a l>ge portion ( ! high s*ools & sem9>ies1 ?is sci5ce is n includ$ 9 ! c\rse ( in/ruction4 ,to _m ( ! mo/ enlight5$ fri5ds ( education & ( our free in/itutions1 x has long be5 a matt] ( surprise z well z regret1 t ^? to :om ! educational int]e/s ( ! /ates are m imm$iately intru/$1 %\ld s long h treat$ ! /udy 9 "q z ( m9or importance1 or h suff]$ x to be exclud$ by /udies ( f> less practical utility4 ,! ,reg5ts ( ! ,univ]sity ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york h repeat$ly notic$ ! neglect ( ?is /udy 9 ! academies & sem9>ies subject to _! visitation2 & !y m5tion x z a rem>kable fact1 t 9 _m ( !m pref]5ce is giv5 to ! /udy ( ! ,grecian & ,roman antiquities4 ,!y say3 ,! con/itutions1 laws1 mann]s1 & cu/oms ( anci5t ,greece & ,rome are made subjects ( regul> /udy1 qu>t] aft] qu>t]1 :ile our own con/itutional jurisprud5ce1 & ! e day occurr+ pr9ciples ( our civil jurisprud5ce1 are n admitt$ z a "p ( ! academic c\rse6 ,to p]sons :o are to engage 9 any ( ! indu/rial or pr(essional pursuits1 a prep>atory c\rse ( tra9+ or discipl9e is deem$ indisp5sable to success4 ,yet _m assume ! weighty responsibilities ( freem51 & all[ _! sons to d ! same1 ) sc>cely any k ( a freeman's duties4 ,on ! intellig5t ex]cise ( political p[]1 ! public prosp]ity & ! security ( our lib]ties ma9ly dep5d4 ,e p]son1 !re=e1 :o is entitl$ to ! rights ( a citiz51 is ju/ly held responsible = ! prop] p]=mance ( 8 political duties4 ,& any c\rse ( popul> in/ruction :i* fails to imp>t a k ( our sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 mu/ be mat]ially defective4 ,) a view to supply ?is defici5cy1 ! au?or1 _m ye>s s9ce1 prep>$ 8 ,introduction to ! ,sci5ce ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,?is "w soon atta9$ consid]able popul>ity1 bo? z a class book 9 s*ools1 & z a book = private read+ & ref]5ce = adults4 ,n be+ deem$1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly elem5t>y = ! *ildr5 & y\? 9 mo/ ( our common s*ools1 ano!r "w1 entitl$1 ,fir/ ,lessons 9 ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 0 writt5 to meet ! capacities ( y\ng] or less advanc$ s*ol>s ?an ^? = :om ! previ\s "w 0 design$4 ,! favorable reception ( ^! works by ! public1 & ! assurances ( _! usefulness to ?\s&s :o h /udi$ !m1 are to ! au?or a s\rce ( high gratification1 & an ample rew>d = _m ye>s ( ardu\s labor4 ,! value ( ^! works has1 h[ev]1 be5 9 a measure impair$ by *anges 9 ! gov]nm5t & laws s9ce ! "t ( _! fir/ publication4 ,! latt]1 especially1 desc5d+ s m9utely into ! details ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate = :i* alone x is int5d$1 requires frequ5t revisions4 ,x has occurr$ to ! au?or t a new "w1 m p]man5t 9 ! "* ( its matt]1 & adapt$ = use 9 all ! /ates1 is dem&$ to supply ! defici5cy 9 ! pres5t c\rse ( education4 ,/imulat$ by a desire to be> "s "p 9 lay+ a solid f\ndation = our republican in/itutions1 & enc\rag$ by ! success ( 8 =m] labors 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( education1 he has1 aft] a susp5sion ( sev]al ye>s1 resum$ 8 ef=ts 9 ?is ent]prise1 9 ! hope t1 ) ! cooep]ation ( tea*]s1 & ^? hav+ (ficial sup]vision ( ! s*ools1 x may be c>ri$ =w>d to an e>ly consummation2 :5 ! pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t %all be made a subject ( regul> /udy 9 ! s*ools1 & ! elem5ts ( a s\nd political education %all be accessible to ! mass ( ,am]ican y\?4 ,& he flatt]s himself1 t ! att5tion he has giv5 to ?is subject has enabl$ him to prep>e a "w adapt$1 9 a good degree1 to meet ! exi/+ want ( ! s*ools4 ,_m words & phrases1 z !y occur 9 ! c\rse ( ! "w1 h be5 def9$2 & an attempt has be5 made to expla9 ! sev]al subjects 9 su* a mann] z to r5d] !m intelligible to y\?4 ,! object :i* x is ! purpose ( ?is "w to aid 9 effect+1 claims ! e>ne/ att5tion ( p>5ts4 ,e fa!r1 at lea/1 is b\nd to see t 8 sons h ! means ( acquir+ a good political education4 ,he c n innoc5tly suff] !m to pass f "u 8 gu>dian%ip unprep>$ to dis*>ge _! political duties4 ,! /udy ( ?is "w %\ld n be conf9$ to male pupils4 ,x has long be5 consid]$ a /rik+ defect 9 our sy/em ( education1 t females are n m g5]ally in/ruct$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( civil gov]nm5t1 & 9 matt]s ( bus9ess4 ,al?\gh !y take no active "p 9 public affairs1 ! k "h comm5d$ w\ld enable !m to ex]t a f> m p[]ful & salut>y influ5ce ^u our national "* & de/9y4 ,z wives1 mo!rs1 tea*]s1 & especially z c\nselors ( ! o!r sex1 !y c\ld apply ?is k to valuable purposes4 ,& ! "q is submitt$1 :e!r x w\ld n contribute m to _! usefulness ?an "s ( ^? accompli%m5ts :i* =m s l>ge a "p ( a mod]n female education1 & :i* are usually lo/ amid/ ! c>es ( m>ri$ life4 ,to pres]ve & transmit ! bless+s ( con/itutional lib]ty1 we ne$ a heal?ful patriotism4 ,b a g5u9e love ( c\ntry is h>dly to be expect$ :]e !re is n a prop] appreciation ( our political in/itutions1 :i* give x its preem95ce among nations4 ,& h[ c !y be duly appreciat$ if !y are n und]/ood8 ,x has be5 "o ( ! objects ( ! writ] to br+ to view ! *ief excell5cies ( our sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 & ?us to lay1 9 ! m9ds ( y\?1 ! basis ( an enlight5$ & cons]vative patriotism4 ,t ?is "w1 z an elem5t>y treatise on civil gov]nm5t1 is n susceptible ( improvem5t1 is n pret5d$4 ,su* z x is1 x is submitt$ to ! judgm5t ( a c&id public4 ,if x %all prove 9 any consid]able degree useful1 ! au?or's highe/ expectations w h be5 realiz$4 ,to ,tea*]s4 ,to ! m]itori\s1 ?\gh (t5 und]valu$ labors ( ! in/ructors ( ,am]ican y\?1 is our c\ntry greatly indebt$ = ! successful work+ ( its sy/em ( free gov]nm5t2 & ^u ! labors ( _! successors re/1 9 an equal degree1 all well-f\nd$ hopes ( its future political prosp]ity4 ,! g5]al introduction & pr(itable /udy ( ?is "w1 dep5d mu* ^u a he>ty & active cooep]ation ( tea*]s 9 ! ent]prise :i* x is int5d$ to promote4 ,f all :o desire to make !mselves 9 ! highe/ degree useful 9 _! pr(ession1 su* cooep]ation is confid5tly anticipat$4 ,! advantage ( in/ruct+ a class 9 civil gov]nm5t1 is n conf9$ to ! pupils4 ,! tea*] w f9d ! ex]cise bo? int]e/+ & pr(itable to himself4 ,al?\gh pa9s h be5 tak5 to adapt ! "w to ! capacities ( y\?1 ! def9ition ( _m t]ms & phrases1 & ! fur!r explanation ( _m subjects1 h necess>ily be5 left to be suppli$ by tea*]s4 ,! /udy & inve/igation :i* may 9 "s cases be requir$ to qualify !m = ! task1 w be amply rew>d$ by _! own advancem5t 9 political k4 ,no intellig5t tea*]1 x is presum$1 w object to ! introduction ( ?is /udy1 on ! gr\nd t !re is n suffici5t "t or room = an additional ex]cise4 ,useful z all ! bran*es n[ taught may be ju/ly deem$1 all ( !m are n1 z is a k ( gov]nm5t1 indisp5sable to ! security ( our lib]ties4 ,! latt] is ( f> great] importance to an ,am]ican citiz51 ?an a k ( "s portions ( ari?metic & ! high] ma!matics2 & 9 ! op9ion ( "s di/+ui%$ educators ! "t n[ devot$ to ^!1 9 _m s*ools1 is suffici5t to acquire a tol]able political education4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t ?is /udy ne$ n exclude1 or ess5tially int]f]e )1 any ( ! /udies pursu$ 9 ! s*ools g5]ally4 ,by ! m advanc$ s*ol>s 9 ! common s*ools1 ! "w may be us$ z a read+ book1 & ?us a two-fold advantage be ga9$ f its use4 ,to assi/ ! m inexp]i5c$ tea*]s 9 conduct+ ! ex]cise1 a few que/ions h be5 app5d$ to ! *apt]s4 ,que/ions may be add$ by ! tea*]s at pleasure1 or to su* ext5t z may be ?\ght necess>y4 ,& x is believ$ ! recitations may be made m pr(itable to pupils1 by requir+ !m1 s f> z may be1 to give answ]s 9 _! own words4 ,to "s ( ! pr9t$ que/ions1 no answ]s are furni%$ by ! *apt]s & sections ref]r$ to1 b may be f\nd 9 ! ,synopsis ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions1 or o!r p>ts ( ! "w4 ,occasionally que/ions h be5 ins]t$ to :i* no "p ( ! "w furni%es ! answ]s4 ,cont5ts ,pr9ciples ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,mank9d fitt$ = ,society1 & = ,civil ,gov]nm5t & ,laws ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,rights & ,lib]ty1 def9$ ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,laws def9$ ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,diff]5t ,=ms ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,mon>*y2 ,ari/ocracy2 ,democracy2 ,republic ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,! ,nature & ,objects ( a ,con/itution1 & ! mann] 9 :i* x is made ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,qualifications ( ,electors2 or1 by :om ,political ,p[] is ex]cis$ 9 ! ,/ates ( ?is ,union ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,elections ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,division ( ! ,p[]s ( ,gov]nm5t ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,/ates ,legislatures--h[ con/itut$ ,*apt] ,x4 ,meet+s & ,organization ( ! ,legislature ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,mann] ( ,enact+ ,laws ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,executive ,dep>tm5t4 ,gov]nor & ,lieut5ant ,gov]nor ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,assi/ant ,executive ,/ate ,(fic]s ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,c\nties & ,c\nty ,(fic]s4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ,c\nty ,(fic]s ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,t[ns & ,t[n ,(fic]s4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ,t[n ,(fic]s ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,incorporation & ,gov]nm5t ( ,cities1 ,villages1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,judicial ,dep>tm5t4 ,ju/ices' ,c\rts ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,trial by ,jury2 ,execution2 ,atta*m5t2 ,appeals2 ,arre/ ( ,(f5d]s ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,c\rts o!r ?an ,ju/ices' ,c\rts2 ,gr& & ,petit ,juries1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,*anc]y or ,equity ,c\rts2 ,probate ,c\rts2 ,c\rt ( ,impea*m5t ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,assessm5t & ,collection ( ,taxes ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,education4 ,s*ool ,funds2 ,s*ools1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,canals & ,railroads ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,banks & ,insurance ,companies ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,! ,militia ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,causes ( ! ,revolution ,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,nature ( ! ,union "u ! ,conf$]ation ,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,nature ( ! ,union "u ! ,con/itution ,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,legislative ,dep>tm5t4 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,! ,s5ate ,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,p[] ( ,congress to lay ,taxes1 ,duties1 c42 ,p[] to ,borr[ ,money ,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,p[] to ,regulate ,comm]ce4 ,comm]ce ) ,=eign ,nations ,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,p[] to ,regulate ,comm]ce1 cont9u$4 ,navigation2 ,comm]ce among ! ,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian ,tribes ,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 ,relation to ,naturalization2 ,bankruptcy2 ,co9+ ,money2 ,weights & ,measures2 ,puni%m5t ( ,c\nt]feit+ ,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 ,relation to ,po/-,(fices2 ,copy-,rights & ,pat5ts2 ,inf]ior ,c\rts ,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 ,relation to ,piracy & ,(f5ses aga9/ ! ,law ( ,nations2 ,w>2 ,m>que & ,reprisal2 ,public ,def5se2 ,di/rict ( ,columbia2 ,impli$ ,p[]s ,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,prohibitions on ,congress ,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,prohibition on ! ,/ates ,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,executive ,dep>tm5t4 ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t2 _! ,election1 ,qualifications1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xl4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ! ,presid5t2 ,treaties2 ,public ,m9i/]s2 ,appo9tm5ts & ,removals ,*apt] ,,xli4 ,auxili>y ,executive ,dep>tm5ts4 ,dep>tm5ts ( ,/ate1 ( ! ,treasury1 ( ! ,int]ior1 ( ,w>1 ( ! ,navy1 ( ! ,po/-,(fice2 ,attorney ,g5]al ,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,judicial ,dep>tm5t4 ,di/rict ,c\rts2 ,circuit ,c\rts2 ,supreme ,c\rt ,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,treason ,def9$1 its ,puni%m5t ,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,/ate ,records2 ,privileges ( ,citiz5s2 ,fugitives2 ,admission ( ,new ,/ates2 ,p[] ov] ,t]ritory2 ,gu>anty ( ,republican ,gov]nm5t ,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,provision = ,am5dm5ts2 ,assumptions ( ,public ,debt2 ,supremacy ( ! ,con/itution1 c42 ,oa?s & ,te/s2 ,ratification ( ! ,con/itution ,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution ,common & ,/atutory ,law4 ,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,rights ( ,p]sons4 ,p]sonal ,security2 ,p]sonal ,lib]ty2 ,religi\s ,lib]ty2 ,lib]ty ( ,spee*1 & ( ! ,press2 ,"r ( ,prop]ty ,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,dome/ic ,relations4 ,husb& & ,wife ,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,dome/ic ,relations1 cont9u$4 ,p>5t & ,*ild2 ,gu>dian & ,w>d2 ,m9ors2 ,ma/]s1 ,appr5tices1 & ,s]vants ,*apt] ,l4 ,rights ( ,prop]ty4 ,h[ ,title to ,prop]ty is acquir$2 ,wills & ,te/am5ts2 ,title to ,prop]ty by ,desc5t ,*apt] ,,li4 ,de$s & ,mortgages ,*apt] ,,lii4 ,incorporeal ,h]$itam5ts1 ,"r ( ,way2 ,aquatic ,rights1 c4 ,*apt] ,,liii4 ,leases4 ,e/ates = ,life2 ,e/ates = ,ye>s2 ,e/ates at ,w2 ,e/ates by ,suff]ance2 ,r5t1 c4 ,*apt] ,,liv4 ,contracts 9 ,g5]al ,*apt] ,,lv4 ,contracts ( ,sale ,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,fraudul5t ,sales2 ,assignm5ts2 ,gifts1 c4 ,*apt] ,,lvii4 ,bailm5t ,*apt] ,,lviii4 ,pr9cipal & ,ag5t1 or ,factor2 ,brok]2 ,li51 c4 ,*apt] ,,lix4 ,p>tn]%ip ,*apt] ,,lx4 ,promissory ,notes ,*apt] ,,lxi4 ,bills ( ,ex*ange2 ,int]e/2 ,usury ,*apt] ,,lxii4 ,crimes & ,misdemeanors ,law ( ,nations4 ,*apt] ,,lxiii4 ,orig9 & ,progress ( ! ,law ( ,nations2 ! ,natural1 ,cu/om>y1 & ,conv5tional ,laws ( ,nations ,*apt] ,,lxiv4 ,! ,jurisdiction ( ,nations2 _! mutual ,rights & ,obligations2 ! ,rights ( ,embassadors1 ,m9i/]s1 c4 ,*apt] ,,lxv4 ,(f5sive & ,def5sive ,w>2 j ,causes ( ,w>2 ,reprisals2 ,alliances 9 ,w> ,*apt] ,,lxvi4 ,decl>ation ( ,w>2 its ,effect ^u ! ,p]son & ,prop]ty ( ! ,enemy's ,subjects2 ,/ratagems 9 ,w>2 ,private]+ ,*apt] ,,lxvii4 ,rights & ,duties ( ,neutral ,nations2 ,contrab& ,goods2 ,blockade2 ,"r ( ,se>*2 ,safe ,conducts & ,passports2 ,truces2 ,treaties ( ,peace ,synopsis ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions4 ,ma9e ,new ,hamp%ire ,v]mont ,massa*usetts ,rhode ,isl& ,connecticut ,new ,york ,new ,j]sey ,p5nsylvania ,delaw>e ,m>yl& ,virg9ia ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,s\? ,c>ol9a ,georgia ,florida ,alabama ,mississippi ,l\isiana ,texas ,arkansas ,miss\ri ,t5nessee ,k5tucky ,ohio ,indiana ,ill9ois ,mi*igan ,wiscons9 ,i[a ,cali=nia ,m9nesota ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t ,class ,book4 ,pr9ciples ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,mank9d fitt$ = ,society1 & = ,civil ,gov]nm5t & ,laws4 ,sec4#a4 ,mank9d are social be+s4 ,!y are by nature fitt$ = society4 ,by ?is we mean t !y are naturally dispos$ to associate ) ea* o!r4 ,inde$1 su* is _! nature1 t !y c\ld n be happy )\t su* association4 ,h5ce we conclude t ! ,creator has design$ m5 = society4 ,x c n1 !re=e1 be true1 z "s say1 t ! savage /ate is ! natural /ate ( man4 ,sec4#b4 ,man is s =m$ t he is dep5d5t ^u 8 fell[ m54 ,he has n ! natural /r5g? ( o!r animals4 ,he ne$s ! assi/ance ( creatures l himself to protect & pres]ve 8 own be+4 ,we c h>dly imag9e h[ a p]son c\ld procure ! necess>ies ( life )\t su* assi/ance4 ,b m5 h ! gifts ( reason & spee*4 ,by conv]sation !y are enabl$ to improve _! reason & increase _! k1 & to f9d me?ods ( supply+ _! wants1 & ( improv+ _! social condition4 ,sec4#c4 ,b1 al?\gh m5 ne$ ! assi/ance ( ea* o!r1 !y are s =m$ t ea* mu/ h ! c>e ( himself4 ,if e man 7 f$ & clo!d f a common /ore1 provid$ by ! labor ( all1 _m1 dep5d+ ^u ! labor ( o!rs1 w\ld be less indu/ri\s ?an !y n[ are4 ,by ! pres5t arrangem5t 9 society1 :i* obliges e man to provide = 8 own wants1 m is e>n$1 a great] numb] are c>$ =1 & ! g5]al welf>e is bett] promot$ ?an w\ld be done if ea* labor$ = ! b5efit ( all4 ,sec4#d4 ,f ?is arrangem5t comes ! "r ( prop]ty4 ,if ea* man's e>n+s %\ld g into a common /ock = ! use ( all1 !re w\ld be no?+ t any "o c\ld call 8 own4 ,b if ea* is to provide = himself1 he mu/ h a "r to use & enjoy ! fruits ( 8 own labor4 ,sec4#e4 ,b all m5 9 society h ! same rights4 ,!re=e1 9 labor+ to supply our wants1 & to gratify our desires1 we c n rightfully d s any fur!r ?an is consi/5t ) ! rights ( o!rs4 ,h5ce we see ! necessity ( "s e/abli%$ rules = secur+ to e memb] ( society ! free enjoym5t ( :at ju/ly belongs to him1 & = regulat+ 8 conduct t[>d 8 fell[-memb]s4 ,sec4#f4 ,^! rules = regulat+ ! social actions ( m51 are call$ laws4 ,law1 9 a g5]al s5se1 is a rule ( action1 & is appli$ to all k9ds ( action4 ,b 9 its limit$ & prop] s5se1 x d5otes ! rules ( human action prescrib+ :at m5 are to d1 & =bidd+ :at !y are n to d4 ,sec4#g4 ,we h se5 t man is fitt$ = society1 & t laws are necess>y to gov]n ! conduct ( m5 9 ! social /ate4 ,we see also t mank9d are fitt$ by nature = gov]nm5t & laws4 ,man is also a moral be+4 ,! ^w moral has v>i\s significations4 ,sometimes x means only virtu\s1 or j2 z1 a moral man2 t is1 a man ( moral "*1 or :o lives a moral life2 by :i* is meant t ! conduct ( ! man is j & "r4 ,sec4#h4 ,b 9 a wid] s5se1 ! ^w moral relates to ! social actions ( m51 bo? "r & wrong4 ,?us1 9 speak+ ( ! "* ( a man1 we say1 8 morals are good1 or 8 morals are bad4 ,& ( an action1 we say1 x is morally "r1 or x is morally wrong4 ,man's hav+ a moral nature implies t he has a s5se ( "r & wrong1 or at lea/ ! p[] or faculty ( acquir+ x2 &1 be+ a moral ag5t1 he is acc\ntable = 8 actions4 ,sec4#i4 ,?us we h se5 t m5 are social1 reasonable1 & moral be+s4 ,!y h p[] to disc]n _! own wants & ! wants ( _! fell[ m52 to p]ceive :at is "r & :at is wrong2 & to "k t !y ought to d :at is "r & to =be> to d :at is wrong4 ,_! reason enables !m to und]/& ! mean+ ( laws1 & to discov] :at laws are necess>y to regulate ! social actions ( m54 ,h5ce we conclude t !y are fitt$ & design$ = society1 & = gov]nm5t & law4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! y\nge/ read] probably kn[s1 t 9 speak+ ( society1 we d n ref] to any ( ^? associations usually call$ societies1 b to civil society1 compos$ ( ! p ( a /ate or nation4 ,a nation1 or /ate1 is a l>ge numb] ( p]sons unit$ "u "s =m ( gov]nm5t2 z1 ! ,fr5* nation2 ! ,briti% nation2 or ! /ate ( ,new-,york2 ! /ate ( ,virg9ia4 ,sometimes x signifies ! rul+ or gov]n+ p[] ( a /ate or nation1 z1 ! /ate has provid$ = educat+ its citiz5s1 & = support+ ! poor4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! object ( ! p 9 =m+ a /ate association1 or1 z is sometimes said1 ( ent]+ into civil society1 is to promote _! mutual safety & happ9ess4 ,9 unit+ = ?is purpose1 !y agree to be gov]n$ by c]ta9 e/abli%$ rules & pr9ciples2 & ! gov]n+ ( ! p ( a /ate or nation accord+ to ^! rules1 is call$ civil gov]nm5t4 ,! ^w gov]nm5t also signifies ! rules & pr9ciples !mselves by :i* ! p are gov]n$2 & sometimes ! p]sons :o adm9i/] ! gov]nm5t--t is ^? :o make ! laws ( a /ate & c>ry !m into effect--are call$ ! gov]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,rights & ,lib]ty1 def9$4 ,sec4#a4 ,we h spok5 ( ! rights ( m51 & ( laws z design$ to secure to m5 ! free enjoym5t ( _! rights4 ,b a m p>ticul> def9ition ( rights & laws w be useful to "y p]sons j comm5c+ ! /udy ( civil gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#b4 ,a "r means own]%ip1 or ! j claim or lawful title :i* a p]son has to any?+4 ,:at we h acquir$ by hone/ labor1 or o!r lawful means1 is rightfully our own2 & we are ju/ly entitl$ to ! free use & enjoym5t ( x4 ,we h a "r also to be free 9 our actions4 ,we may g :]e we please1 & d :at ev] we ?9k necess>y = our own safety & happ9ess2 provid$ we d n trespass ^u ! rights ( o!rs2 = x mu/ be rememb]$ t o!rs h ! same rights z ourselves4 ,sec4#c4 ,! rights "h m5tion$ are natural rights4 ,!y are s call$ because !y are ours by nature or by bir?2 & !y c n be ju/ly tak5 f u or ali5at$4 ,h5ce !y are also call$ inali5able4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 =feit !m by "s (f5se or crime4 ,if1 = example1 a man is f9$ = break+ a law1 he loses 8 "r to ! money he is oblig$ to pay4 ,by /eal+1 he =feits 8 lib]ty1 & may be ju/ly imprison$4 ,by committ+ murd]1 he =feits 8 "r to life1 & may be hang$4 ,sec4#d4 ,rights are also call$ p]sonal1 political1 civil1 & religi\s4 ,p]sonal rights1 or ! rights ( p]sons1 are rights belong+ to p]sons z individuals1 & consi/ ( ! "r ( p]sonal security1 or ! "r to be secure f injury to our bodies1 or p]sons1 or our good names2 ! "r ( p]sonal lib]ty1 or ! lib]ty ( mov+1 act+1 or speak+ )\t unju/ re/ra9t2 & ! "r ( prop]ty1 or ! "r to acquire & enjoy prop]ty4 ,! t]ms rights ( p]son & rights ( p]sons1 or p]sonal rights1 h n ! same mean+4 ,! rights ( p]son1 z ! t]m is g5]ally us$1 does n include ! "r ( prop]ty2 p]sonal rights include bo? ! "r ( prop]ty & ! rights ( p]son4 ,sec4#e4 ,political rights are ^? :i* belong to ! p 9 _! political capacity4 ,! ^w political1 9 a g5]al s5se1 relates to gov]nm5t4 ,! :ole body ( ! p unit$ "u "o gov]nm5t1 is call$ ! political body1 or body politic4 ,! "r ( ! p to *oose & e/abli% = !mselves a =m ( gov]nm5t1 or con/itution1 & ! "r to elect p]sons to make & execute ! laws1 are political rights4 ,! "r ( vot+ at elections is !re=e a political "r4 ,sec4#f4 ,civil rights are ^? :i* are secur$ to ! citiz5s by ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,"s make no di/9ction betwe5 civil rights & political rights4 ,9 a prop] s5se--t 9 :i* ! t]ms are "h us$--!re is ?is diff]5ce3 political rights are ^? secur$ by ! political or fundam5tal law1 call$ ! con/itution2 civil rights are m prop]ly ^? :i* are secur$ by ! civil or municipal laws4 ,! diff]5ce w m cle>ly appe> f ! def9ition else:]e giv5 ( ! political & civil laws4 7,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,sec4#e1 #f47 ,sec4#g4 ,religi\s rights consi/ 9 ! "r ( a man to make kn[n & ma9ta9 8 religi\s op9ions1 & to wor%ip ,god 9 t way & mann] :i* he believes 9 8 consci5ce to be mo/ acceptable to 8 ,mak]4 ,?is "r is call$ also ! "r ( consci5ce4 ,b 9 ex]cis+ ?is "r1 a man may n abuse x by violat+ ! rights ( o!rs1 or di/urb+ ! peace & ord] ( society4 ,sec4#h4 ,n[1 al?\gh human rights are ?us divid$ into classes & diff]5tly def9$1 !y are all natural rights4 ,x is g5]ally held 9 ?is c\ntry z a tru?1 t all m5 are creat$ equal2 t is1 born ) ! same rights4 ,& if m51 z social & moral be+s1 are fitt$ by nature & design$ = gov]nm5t & laws1 we conclude t _! political1 civil1 & religi\s rights1 & all o!r rights to :i* !y are entitl$ by ! law ( nature1 are natural rights4 ,sec4#i4 ,lib]ty is ! be+ free to ex]cise & enjoy our rights1 & is call$ natural1 political1 civil1 or religi\s1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> class ( rights ref]r$ to4 ,?us ! ex]cise ( rights gu>anti$ by ! con/itution or political law1 is call$ political lib]ty4 ,! free enjoym5t ( rights secur$ by ! civil or municipal laws1 is call$ civil lib]ty4 ,& fre$om ( religi\s op9ion & wor%ip is call$ religi\s lib]ty4 ,sec4#aj4 ,h5ce lib]ty itself is a natural "r4 ,! words "r & lib]ty1 h[ev]1 h n ! same mean+4 ,we may h a "r to a ?+ :5 we h n ! lib]ty ( us+ x4 ,john has a p5cil :i* is ju/ly 8 own2 b ,james takes x f him by =ce4 ,john's lib]ty to enjoy ! use ( 8 p5cil is lo/1 b 8 "r to x rema9s4 ,james has no "r to ! use ( ! p5cil1 ?\gh he enjoys ! use ( x4 ,sec4#aa4 ,?is example s]ves also to expla9 fur!r ! use ( ! diff]5t t]ms appli$ to rights & lib]ty4 ,john's "r to 8 p5cil1 be+ gu>anti$ to him by ! laws ( civil society1 is a civil "r4 ,x is ) equal propriety call$ a natural "r1 because1 by ! law ( nature1 he has a "r to ! use ( 8 p5cil4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,laws1 def9$4 ,sec4#a4 ,law has be5 briefly def9$4 7,*ap4 #a4 ,sec4#f47 ,z 9 ! case ( rights & lib]ty1 laws are di/+ui%$ by diff]5t names2 z1 ! law ( nature1 or natural law2 ! moral law2 ! law ( revelation1 or reveal$ law2 ! political law2 ! civil or municipal law4 ,sec4#b4 ,! law ( nature1 is ( ! highe/ possible au?ority1 be+ e/abli%$ by ! supreme ,lawgiv] himself4 ,x is call$ ! law ( nature1 because x is "r 9 itself--"r 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 & ought to be obey$1 ?\gh no positive comm& _h ev] be5 giv5 to m54 ,x is a p]fect rule ( "r = all moral & social be+s4 ,x is t et]nal rule ( "r to :i* ,god himself con=ms4 ,sec4#c4 ,! law ( nature1 z a rule ( human action1 arises out ( man's relation to 8 ,mak] & to 8 fell[ m54 ,z a creature1 he mu/ be subject to ! laws ( 8 ,creator1 on :om he is dep5d5t4 ,he is also 9 a measure dep5d5t ^u 8 fell[ be+s4 ,all be+ creat$ equal1 ea* is b\nd by ! pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice to r5d] to o!rs t assi/ance :i* is necess>y to make !m z happy z himself1 or :i* !y ju/ly owe to him 9 return4 ,sec4#d4 ,! moral law is t :i* prescribes to m5 _! duties to ,god & to ea* o!r4 ,z a rule ( human conduct !re=e1 x corresponds exactly to ! law ( nature4 ,! moral law is briefly express$ 9 ! decalogue or t5 comm&m5ts1 & is /ill m briefly summ$ up 9 ! two great comm&m5ts1 to love ,god ) all our he>t & to love our neighbor z ourselves4 ,god be+ its au?or1 x is call$ ! div9e law2 &1 be+ f\nd 9 ! ,holy ,scriptures1 9 :i* 8 w is reveal$ to mank9d1 x is call$ ! reveal$ law1 or law ( revelation4 ,sec4#e4 ,political law1 z has be5 obs]v$1 is t sy/em or =m ( fundam5tal rules1 call$ ! con/itution1 by :i* ! p 9 _! political capacity1 or z a body politic1 agree to be gov]n$4 ,! nature ( ?is law w m cle>ly appe> f a m p>ticul> def9ition ( con/itution1 & f a description ( ! mann] 9 :i* a con/itution is made4 7,*ap4 ,v47 ,sec4#f4 ,! ^w municipal 0 us$ by ! ,romans to designate t :i* relat$ to a municipium1 :i* 0 a free t[n1 or city4 ,! rights ( a citiz5 ( su* free city or t[n 7 call$ municipal rights1 & its (fic]s 7 call$ municipal (fic]s4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ! ^w is n only us$ 9 ?is limit$ s5se1 b is ext5d$ to :at p]ta9s to a /ate4 ,h5ce ! body ( laws :i* prescribe ! duties ( ! citiz5s ( a /ate1 are call$ ! municipal or civil law4 ,& ! t]m is us$ to di/+ui% ! laws made by ! legislature1 or law-mak+ p[] ( ! /ate1 f ! con/itution1 or political law1 adopt$ by ! p 9 _! political capacity4 ,sec4#g4 ,if1 z has be5 said1 ! laws ( ! ,creator =m a p]fect rule ( conduct = all mank9d1 & ought 9 all cases to be obey$1 !n all human law ought to agree ) ! div9e law4 ,if a human law is contr>y to ! div9e law1 or if x requires u to disobey ! comm&s ( ,god1 x is n b9d+1 & %\ld n be obey$4 ,s ! ,scriptures tea*4 ,!y speak approv+ly ( m5 :o disobey$ human au?ority1 & :o gave z ! reason1 t x 0 _! duty to obey ,god r ?an m52 & !y furni% _m examples ( good m5 :o submitt$ to sev]e puni%m5t1 ev5 to dea?1 r ?an d :at !y knew to be contr>y to ! div9e w4 ,sec4#h4 ,b al?\gh ! div9e w z reveal$ 9 ! ,scriptures1 is a p]fect rule or law = all mank9d1 & al?\gh human laws ought to con=m to ! div9e law1 yet x w\ld be impossible to gov]n ! p ( a /ate by t law alone4 ,! div9e law is broad1 & compreh5ds rules to tea* m5 _! :ole duty2 b x does n specify e p>ticul> act ( duty4 ,mu* ( x consi/s ( g5]al pr9ciples to :i* p>ticul> acts mu/ be made to con=m4 ,x requires m5 to deal ju/ly ) ea* o!r2 b m5 d n always agree z to :at is "r4 ,human laws1 !re=e1 become necess>y to decl>e :at %all be consid]$ j & "r betwe5 man & man4 ,sec4#i4 ,x may be obs]v$1 fur!r1 t all ! div9e precepts c\ld n be c>ri$ into effect 9 civil gov]nm5t4 ,!y are spiritual1 & rea* to ! ?\ghts & int5ts ( ! he>t4 ,!y require u to love our ,creator supremely1 & our neighbor z ourselves2 9 o!r words1 to d to o!rs z we w\ld t !y %\ld d to u4 ,b z ! omnisci5t ,god only kn[s :5 m5 fail 9 ^! duties1 no human au?ority c\ld en=ce su* a law4 ,human laws1 !re=e1 h respect *iefly to ! outw>d acts ( m51 & are design$ to regulate _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r4 ,sec4#aj4 ,al?\gh ! laws ( ! /ate c n compel m5 to fulfill ! great law ( love1 x is nev]!less morally b9d+ ^u all4 ,a p]fectly holy ,creator c\ld consi/5tly require ( 8 moral & acc\ntable creatures no?+ less ?an supreme love to himself1 & equal love to "o ano!r4 ,?is1 z has be5 rem>k$1 is 9 accordance ) ! law ( nature1 :i* is "r 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 7,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,sec4#b1 #c47 ,sec4#aa4 ,:ile ! div9e law accords p]fectly ) ! pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice1 ! giv+ ( x to mank9d manife/s ! wisdom & b5evol5ce ( ! supreme ,lawgiv]4 ,man is s =m$1 t x is = 8 highe/ happ9ess /rictly to obey ?is law4 ,! g5]\s man1 9 reliev+ ! wants ( o!rs1 contributes to 8 own happ9ess4 ,! boy :o divides an apple ) 8 fell[1 is m happy ?an he w\ld be if he reta9$ ! :ole to himself4 ,x is g5]ally true1 t1 9 p]=m+ acts ( k9dness & *>ity to o!rs1 we mo/ effectually promote our own happ9ess1 & feel ! say+ to be true1 ,x is m bless$ to give ?an to receive4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,diff]5t ,=ms ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,mon>*y2 ,ari/ocracy2 ,democracy2 ,republic4 ,sec4#a4 ,gov]nm5ts h exi/$ 9 a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,! e>lie/ gov]nm5ts ( :i* we h any k1 are ! patri>*al4 ,patri>*1 f ! ,greek1 pat]1 fa!r1 & arkos1 *ief1 or head1 means ! fa!r & rul] ( a family4 ,?is k9d ( gov]nm5t prevail$ 9 ! e>ly ages ( ! _w1 & 9 a /ate ( society 9 :i* ! p dwelt toge!r 9 families or tribes1 & 7 n yet =m$ into /ates or nations4 ,! patri>*al gov]nm5t exi/$ be=e ! flood1 & = a long p]iod aft]w>d4 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 & ,jacob1 ! fa!rs ( ! ,hebrew race1 z also ! sons ( ,jacob1 ! heads ( ! twelve tribes1 7 call$ patri>*s4 ,sec4#b4 ,aft] _! dep>ture f ,egypt1 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,hebrews 0 a !ocracy4 ,?is ^w is f !os1 ,god1 & kratos1 p[]1 & signifies a gov]nm5t by ! imm$iate direction ( ,god4 ,! laws by :i* !y 7 gov]n$ 7 giv5 to !m on ,m\nt ,s9ai by ,god himself1 _! lead] & k+4 ,?is !ocratic =m ( gov]nm5t1 ) "s *anges1 exi/$ until ! com+ ( ! ,messiah4 ,sec4#c4 ,b ! =ms ( gov]nm5t :i* h mo/ prevail$1 are designat$ by ! t]ms1 mon>*y1 ari/ocracy1 & democracy1 or republic4 ,^! words sev]ally indicate by :at p]sons1 & 9 :at mann]1 ! gov]n+ p[] ( a /ate is ex]cis$4 ,?is p[] is usually call$ ! sov]eign1 or supreme p[]4 ,:]e k+s rule1 !y are call$ sov]eign2 & :]e ! p[] is 9 ! h&s ( ! p1 ! p are sov]eign4 ,9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1 h[ev]1 entire sov]eignty1 or supreme p[]1 exi/s only :]e p[] is ex]cis$ by "o man1 or a s+le body ( m51 uncontroll$ or unre/ra9$ by laws or by any o!r p[]4 ,b 9 a m g5]al s5se1 x is t p[] 9 a /ate :i* is sup]ior to all o!r p[]s )9 ! same4 ,sec4#d4 ,a =m ( gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! supreme p[] is 9 ! h&s ( "o p]son1 is call$ a mon>*y4 ,! ^w mon>* is f two ,greek words1 monos sole or only1 & arkos1 a *ief2 & is a g5]al "n = a s+le rul]1 :e!r he is call$ k+1 emp]or1 or pr9ce4 ,a gov]nm5t 9 :i* all p[] resides 9 or proce$s f "o p]son1 is an absolute mon>*y4 ,if ! p[] ( ! mon>* is re/ra9$ by laws or by "s o!r p[]1 x is call$ a limit$ mon>*y4 ,sec4#e4 ,a mon>*y is call$ h]$it>y 9 :i* ! ?rone passes f fa!r to son1 or f ! mon>* to 8 successor1 by inh]itance4 ,on ! dea? ( a sov]eign1 ! elde/ son is usually heir to ! cr[n2 or if !re is no son1 x falls to ! daught]1 or "s o!r relative4 ,a mon>*y is elective1 :]e1 on ! dea? ( ! rul]1 8 successor is appo9t$ by an election4 ,a few su* mon>*ies h exi/$4 ,sec4#f4 ,an absolute mon>*y is sometimes call$ despotism4 ,! ^w despot is f ! ,greek1 & means ma/]1 or "l4 ,x has ne>ly ! same mean+ z tyrant1 :i* also is f ! ,greek1 & signifies k+4 ,^! words at fir/ meant simply a s+le rul]4 ,!y are n[ appli$1 = ! mo/ "p1 to rul]s :o ex]cise au?ority ov] _! subjects ) sev]ity4 ,9 an absolute despotism1 ! mon>* has entire control ov] 8 subjects4 ,!y h no law b ! w ( ! rul]1 :o has at comm& a l>ge =ce ( arm$ m5 to keep 8 p 9 subjection4 ,! gov]nm5ts ( ,russia & ,turkey are highly despotic4 ,sec4#g4 ,an ari/ocracy is a =m ( gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! p[] is ex]cis$ by a privileg$ ord] ( m51 di/+ui%$ = _! rank & weal?4 ,! ^w ari/ocracy is f ! ,greek ^w ari/os1 be/1 & kratos1 p[]1 or krateo1 to gov]n2 & means a gov]nm5t ( ! be/4 ,x is also us$ = ! nobility ( a c\ntry "u a mon>*ical gov]nm5t4 ,nobles are p]sons ( rank above ! common p1 & be> "s title ( honor4 ,! titles ( ! ,engli% nobility are ^? ( duke1 m>quis1 e>l1 visc\nt1 & b>on4 ,^! titles are h]$it>y1 be+ d]iv$ f bir?4 ,9 "s cases !y are conf]r$ ^u p]sons by ! k+4 ,sec4#h4 ,a democracy is a gov]nm5t ( ! p2 ! ^w democracy be+ f ! ,greek demos1 ! p1 & krateo1 to gov]n4 ,9 a gov]nm5t purely democratic1 ! great body ( freem5 meet 9 "o assembly to make & execute ! laws4 ,!re 7 "s su* gov]nm5ts 9 anci5t ,greece2 b !y necess>ily compris$ small t]ritories1 sc>cely m ?an a s+le t[n4 ,! freem5 ( a /ate c\ld n all meet 9 a s+le assembly4 ,sec4#i4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh a gov]nm5t ( ! p1 is n "o ( ! k9d j describ$2 x is a republic4 ,a republic is a gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! p[] to enact & execute ! laws is ex]cis$ by repres5tatives1 :o are p]sons elect$ by ! p to act = !m4 ,yet1 z n only ! election ( repres5tatives1 b ! adoption ( ! con/itution or =m ( gov]nm5t itself is ! act ( ! p2 & z1 !re=e1 all p[] comes f ! p1 ! gov]nm5t is also democratic2 & is prop]ly call$ a democratic republic1 or a repres5tative democracy4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a republic is sometimes also call$ a commonweal?4 ,common signifies g5]al1 & is appli$ to :at belongs to or is us$ by ! p g5]ally4 ,weal means welf>e or happ9ess4 ,weal? also 0 =m]ly sometimes us$ = weal4 ,h5ce commonweal? means /rictly ! common good1 or ! common happ9ess4 ,9 a g5]al s5se x signifies a /ate2 b x is prop]ly appli$ to a free /ate1 "o 9 :i* ! p enjoy common rights & privileges4 ,h5ce e /ate 9 ! union is a commonweal? or republic4 ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,! ,nature & ,objects ( a ,con/itution1 & ! ,mann] 9 :i* x is made4 ,sec4#a4 ,( all ! diff]5t =ms ( gov]nm5t :i* h exi/$1 a republican gov]nm5t1 on ! plan ( t :i* has be5 e/abli%$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 is believ$ to be be/ adapt$ to secure ! lib]ties ( a p1 & to promote ! g5]al welf>e4 ,"u ! reign ( a wise & virtu\s rul]1 ! rights ( p]son & prop]ty may be fully enjoy$1 & ! p may be 9 a good degree prosp]\s4 ,b ! requisite virtue & wisdom h seldom be5 f\nd 9 any "o man or a few m54 ,& exp]i5ce has prov$ t ! objects ( civil gov]nm5t may be be/ secur$ by a writt5 con/itution f\nd$ ^u ! w or cons5t ( ! p4 ,sec4#b4 ,! ^w con/itute is f ! ,lat91 & signifies to set1 to fix1 to e/abli%4 ,con/itution1 :5 us$ 9 a political s5se1 means ! e/abli%$ =m ( gov]nm5t ( a /ate4 ,9 a free gov]nm5t1 l ours1 x is prop]ly call$ ! political law1 be+ e/abli%$ by ! p z a body politic1 or political body4 7,*ap4 ,,iii1 ,sec4#e47 ,x is also call$ ! fundam5tal law1 because x is ! f\ndation ( all o!r laws ( ! /ate1 :i* are enact$ by ! legislature = regulat+ int]c\rse betwe5 ! citiz5s1 & are call$ ! municipal or civil law1 & mu/ con=m to ! fundam5tal1 or political law4 ,sec4#c4 ,a con/itution is 9 ! nature ( an agreem5t betwe5 a :ole community or body politic & ea* ( its memb]s4 ,?is agreem5t or contract implies1 t ea* "o b9ds himself to ! :ole1 & ! :ole b9d !mselves to ea* "o1 t all %all be gov]n$ by c]ta9 laws & regulations = ! common good4 ,sec4#d4 ,! nature ( a con/itution w fur!r appe> f ! mann] 9 :i* x is made4 ,x is evid5t t a p1 9 e/abli%+ a con/itution1 mu/ h "s "r or au?ority to act 9 ! bus9ess4 ,:5ce ?is "r is d]iv$1 we w n n[ /op to inquire4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 some:]e p[] to enact a law au?oriz+ ! p to make a con/itution & prescrib+ ! mann] 9 :i* x is to be made4 ,sec4#e4 ,9 =m+ a con/itution1 ! p mu/ act collectively4 ,b _! numb] is too l>ge to meet 9 a s+le assembly4 ,!re=e !y *oose a small numb] to act = !m4 ,"o or m are *os5 9 ea* c\nty1 or small] di/rict1 & are call$ delegates4 ,a delegate is a p]son appo9t$ by ano!r ) p[] to transact bus9ess z 8 repres5tative4 ,! assembly compos$ ( ! delegates s elect$1 is call$ conv5tion2 a "n giv5 to mo/ public meet+s o!r ?an legislative assemblies4 ,delegate & repres5tative are words ( ne>ly ! same mean+4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 usually designates a p]son *os5 to assi/ 9 mak+ ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,sec4#f4 ,! rules agre$ ^u by ! conv5tion z a basis ( gov]nm5t1 are arrang$ 9 prop] =m4 ,! sev]al portions relat+ to ! diff]5t subjects are call$ articles1 & numb]$2 & ! articles are divid$ into sections1 :i* also are numb]$4 ,b :at has be5 ?us prep>$ by ! conv5tion is n yet a con/itution4 ,x is only a draft ( "o1 & c n become a con/itution )\t ! cons5t ( ! p to be giv5 at an election4 ,if a majority ( ! p]sons vot+ at su* election vote 9 favor ( ! propos$ con/itution1 x is adopt$1 & becomes ! con/itution ( ! /ate4 ,sec4#g4 ,"o ( ! mo/ valuable rights ( ! p "u a free gov]nm5t1 is ! "r to h a con/itution ( _! own *oice4 ,inde$ x is 9 ?is "r t _! fre$om pr9cipally consi/s4 ,x is by ! con/itution t _! rights are secur$4 ,all ! p jo9 9 e/abli%+ ! con/itution2 b !y d n all unite 9 mak+ & execut+ ! laws2 9 o!r words1 !y d n !mselves adm9i/] ! gov]nm5t2 ?is is done by _! repres5tatives4 ,b if ^! %\ld enact unju/ & oppressive laws2 ! p1 hav+ by _! con/itution res]v$ ! "r to displace !m1 may d s by elect+ o!rs 9 _! /ead4 ,sec4#h4 ,9 an absolute mon>*y ! p h no political rights--! "r to e/abli% a =m ( gov]nm5t = !mselves1 & ! "r to elect ^? :o are to make & adm9i/] ! laws4 ,! mon>* has entire control ov] 8 subjects4 ,he c take _! lives & prop]ty :5 he pleases4 ,8 w is _! law2 & he has at comm& a l>ge =ce ( arm$ m5 to keep 8 p 9 subjection4 ,sec4#i4 ,9 a limit$ mon>*y1 ! p h "s political rights4 ,su* a mon>*y is ,great ,brita94 ,! k+ or sov]eign is 9 a measure re/ra9$ by laws2 & he c n make laws alone4 ,! laws are fram$ & agre$ to by p>liam5t1 & mu/ be approv$ by ! k+ or que54 ,p>liam5t consi/s ( two bodies ( m51 ! h\se ( lords & ! h\se ( commons4 ,! memb]s ( ! latt] are elect$ by ! p1 :o1 9 su* election1 ex]cise a political "r4 ,sec4#aj4 ,b ! political "r ( e/abli%+ a con/itution or =m ( gov]nm5t1 is n enjoy$ by ! p ( t c\ntry4 ,!y h no writt5 in/rum5t1 l ours1 call$ con/itution1 adopt$ by ! p4 ,:at is !re call$ ! con/itution1 is ! aggregate or sum ( laws1 pr9ciples1 & cu/oms1 :i* h be5 =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies4 ,!re is !re=e no re/ra9t ^u ! p[] ( p>liam5t2 h5ce no law :i* may be enact$ is contr>y to ! con/itution2 & ! p h n ! same security aga9/ ! enactm5t ( unju/ laws z ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,qualifications ( ,electors2 or1 by :om ,political ,p[] is ex]cis$ 9 ! ,/ates ( ?is ,union4 ,sec4#a4 ,"o ( ! fir/ provisions usually ins]t$ 9 a con/itution ( a free /ate1 is t :i* decl>es :o %all be all[$ to take a "p 9 ! gov]nm5t2 t is1 to :om ! political p[] %all be intru/$4 ,z ?is p[] is ex]cis$ by vot+ at elections1 ! con/itution v prop]ly prescribes ! qualifications ( electors1 or1 9 o!r words1 decl>es :at %all be necess>y to entitle a man to ! "r ( vot+1 or ! "r ( suffrage4 ,:51 !re=e1 we speak ( ! p politically1 we mean ^? only :o are qualifi$ electors4 ,sec4#b4 ,to be compet5t to ex]cise ! "r ( suffrage1 a p]son mu/ be a freeman1 or1 z we sometimes say1 he %\ld be 8 own ma/]4 ,:ile "u ! control ( a p>5t or gu>dian1 he might be con/ra9$ to act contr>y to 8 own judgm5t4 ,all our /ate con/itutions1 !re=e1 give ?is "r only to free male citiz5s ( ! age ( tw5ty-"o ye>s & upw>ds2 tw5ty-"o ye>s be+ ! age at :i* "y m5 become free to act = !mselves4 ,sec4#c4 ,b ev5 if ?is fre$om 7 obta9$ at an e>li] age1 x w\ld n be exp$i5t to be/[ ?is "r ^u p]sons s "y4 ,!y h n ! necess>y k & judgm5t to act ) discretion4 ,"s are compet5t at an e>li] age2 b a con/itution c make no di/9ction betwe5 citiz5s4 ,x has !re=e1 9 accordance ) ! g5]al op9ion1 fix$ ! "t at ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 :5 m5 %all be deem$ capable ( ex]cis+ ! rights & p]=m+ ! duties ( freem54 ,sec4#d4 ,t a man may vote und]/&+ly1 he mu/ h resid$ long en\gh 9 ! /ate to h become acqua9t$ ) its gov]nm5t & laws1 & to h le>n$ ! "* & qualifications ( ! p]sons = :om he votes4 ,/ate con/itutions !re=e require1 t electors %all h resid$ 9 ! /ate = a specifi$ p]iod ( "t1 v>y+1 h[ev]1 9 ! diff]5t /ates f ?ree mon?s to two ye>s4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 !y mu/ also h resid$ = "s mon?s 9 ! c\nty or di/rict1 & be resid5ts ( ! t[n 9 :i* !y (f] to vote4 ,sec4#e4 ,b 9 giv+ ! "r ( suffrage to all free male citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 x is n giv5 to e man1 because all m5 ( t age are n citiz5s4 ,p]sons born 9 =eign c\ntries & resid+ "h are ali5s1 & are n entitl$ to ! political rights ( p]sons born 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,!y are presum$ to h too little k ( our gov]nm5t1 & to feel too little int]e/ 9 public affairs1 on _! fir/ com+ hi!r1 to be duly qualifi$ = ! ex]cise ( political p[]4 ,laws1 h[ev]1 h be5 enact$ = naturaliz+ ali5s aft] !y %all h resid$ "h long en\gh to become acqua9t$ ) & atta*$ to our gov]nm5t4 ,by naturalization !y become citiz5s1 entitl$ to all ! privileges ( native or natural born citiz5s1 7,*ap4 ,,xxxiv1 ,sec4#c1 #d47 ,sec4#f4 ,! con/itutions ( mo/ ( ! /ates conf] ! rights ( an elector on :ite male citiz5s only4 ,ma9e1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 & ,rhode ,isl&1 are ! only /ates 9 :i* color$ m5 h ! same electoral rights z :ite citiz5s4 ,9 ,new ,york1 m5 ( color own+ a freehold e/ate 7an e/ate 9 l&s7 ( ! value ( #bej1 are qualifi$ vot]s4 ,sec4#g4 ,x is provid$ also 9 /ate con/itutions1 t electors committ+ infam\s crimes are disfran*is$4 ,fran*ise is a "r or privilege enjoy$ by ! citiz5s ( a /ate4 ,h5ce ! "r ( vot+ at elections is call$ ! elective fran*ise2 & an elector1 :5 depriv$ ( ?is privilege1 is disfran*is$4 ,an infam\s crime is "o :i* is puni%able by imprisonm5t 9 a /ate prison4 ,m5 guilty ( high crimes are deem$ unfit to be intru/$ ) s important a duty z t ( elect+ ! p]sons :o are to make & execute ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,x is provid$1 h[ev]1 t if su* p]sons are p>don$ be=e ! expiration ( ! t]m = :i* !y 7 s5t5c$ to be imprison$1 _! =feit$ rights are re/or$4 ,sec4#h4 ,by ! e>lie/ con/itutions ( _m ( ! old /ates1 electors 7 requir$ to own prop]ty1 or to h paid r5ts or taxes1 to a c]ta9 am\nt4 ,9 ! election ( ! high] (fic]s1 freehold]s only 7 entitl$ to vote4 ,a freehold] is an own] ( real e/ate1 7prop]ty 9 l&s17 :i* he holds 9 8 own "r1 & may transmit to 8 heirs4 ,9 ! con/itutions ( ! new] /ates1 prop]ty has n be5 made a qualification ( an elector2 & 9 ! am5d$ con/itutions ( ! old /ates ?is re/riction ^u ! elective fran*ise has be5 remov$1 until x has ne>ly ceas$ to exi/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is n[ enjoy$ by all :ite male freem51 ) few exceptions1 9 almo/ e /ate ( ! ,union4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,elections4 ,sec4#a4 ,= ! conv5i5t ex]cise ( political p[]1 z well z = ! purposes ( gov]nm5t g5]ally1 ! t]ritory ( a /ate is divid$ into di/ricts ( small ext5t4 ,x has be5 rem>k$1 t ! p ( a /ate1 be+ too num]\s to meet 9 "o assembly to make laws & transact ! public bus9ess1 elect a small numb] to repres5t !m4 ,b to elect ^! repres5tatives & o!r (fic]s1 & to adopt ! con/itution1 or fundam5tal law ( ! /ate1 are political duties1 :i* mu/ be p]=m$ by ! p 9 p]son1 & 9 a collective capacity4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( small t]ritorial divisions1 9 :i* ! p may assemble = political purposes4 ,sec4#b4 ,a /ate is divid$ into c\nties1 & ^! are divid$ into t[ns or t[n%ips4 ,! p ( e c\nty & e t[n h p[] to manage _! local conc]ns4 ,! corporate p[]s ( c\nties & t[ns1 & ! election & ! p[]s & duties ( c\nty & t[n (fic]s1 w be giv5 9 subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,sec4#c4 ,! electors ( ! /ate meet e ye> 9 _! respective t[ns = ! election ( (fic]s4 ,meet+s = elect+ t[n (fic]s are1 9 a majority ( ! /ates1 held 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ye>4 ,mo/ (fic]s elect$ by ! p1 o!r ?an t[n (fic]s1 are *os5 at ! g5]al /ate election1 :i*1 9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 is held 9 ,octob] or ,novemb]4 ,sec4#d4 ,elections are conduct$ by p]sons designat$ by law1 or *os5 by ! electors ( ! t[n = t purpose4 ,x is _! duty to pres]ve ord]1 & to see t ! bus9ess is prop]ly done4 ,!y are usually call$ judges ( elections1 or inspectors ( elections4 ,p]sons also1 7usually two17 s]ve z cl]ks4 ,ea* cl]k keeps a li/ ( ! names ( ! p]sons vot+1 :i* is call$ a poll-li/4 ,poll1 :i* is said to be a ,saxon ^w1 signifies head1 & has come to mean p]son4 ,?us1 s mu* a head means s mu* = e p]son ,by a fur!r *ange x has be5 made to signify an election1 because ! p]sons !re vot+ are numb]$4 ,h5ce1 go+ to ! polls has obta9$ ! same mean+ z go+ to an election4 ,sec4#e4 ,:5 ! inspectors are ready to receive votes1 "o ( !m makes x kn[n by proclaim+ ) a l\d voice1 t ! polls are n[ op54 ,! inspectors receive f ea* vot] a ballot1 :i* is a piece ( pap] conta9+ ! names ( ! p]sons vot$ =1 & ! title ( ! (fice to :i* ea* ( !m is to be elect$4 ,ballot1 f ! ,fr5*1 means a little ball1 & is us$ 9 vot+4 ,ballots are ( diff]5t colors2 ^? ( "o color signify+ an affirmative vote1 or yes2 ^? ( ano!r color a negative vote1 or no4 ,f ?is has come ! application ( ! ^w ballot to ! writt5 or pr9t$ ticket n[ us$ 9 vot+4 ,sec4#f4 ,if no objection is made to an elector's vot+1 ! ballot is put into ! box1 & ! cl]ks ent] 8 "n on ! poll-li/4 ,if ! inspectors suspect t a p]son (f]+ to vote is n a qualifi$ elector1 !y may "q him ^u 8 oa? 9 respect to 8 qualifications z to age1 ! t]m ( 8 resid5ce 9 ! /ate & c\nty1 & citiz5%ip4 ,any by/&] also may "q 8 "r to vote4 ,?is is call$ *all5g+4 ,a p]son ?us *all5g$ is n all[$ to vote until ! *all5ge is )drawn1 or 8 qualifications are ei!r prov$ by ! te/imony ( o!r p]sons1 or sworn to by himself4 ,sec4#g4 ,9 a few /ates1 ! vot]s are regi/]$4 ,a li/ is kept ( ! names ( all :o h1 ^u exam9ation1 be5 asc]ta9$ to be qualifi$ electors2 & ^? only ^: names are on ! regi/] are all[$ to vote4 ,?us _m int]ruptions to vot+ by ! exam9ation ( vot]s at ! polls1 & mu* illegal vot+1 are prev5t$4 ,vot]s 9 "s /ates are also requir$ to take :at is call$ ! elector's oa?1 9 :i* !y promise to be true & fai?ful to ! /ate & its gov]nm5t1 & to ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & to give _! votes z !y %all judge w conduce to ! be/ good ( ! same4 ,sec4#h4 ,aft] ! polls are clos$1 ! box is op5$1 & ! ballots are c\nt$4 ,if ! numb] ( ballots agrees ) ! numb] ( names on ! poll-li/s1 x is presum$ no mi/ake has be5 made1 ei!r 9 vot+ or 9 keep+ ! li/s4 ,if ! election is "o = ! *oos+ ( t[n (fic]s1 x is !re det]m9$ :o are elect$1 & _! election is publicly decl>$4 ,sec4#i4 ,! election ( c\nty & /ate (fic]s c n be det]m9$ by ! t[n canvass]s4 ,a /atem5t ( ! votes giv5 9 ea* t[n = ! p]sons vot$ =1 is s5t to ! c\nty canvass]s1 :o1 f ! returns ( votes f all ! t[ns1 det]m9e & decl>e ! election ( ! (fic]s *os5 = ! c\nty4 ,to det]m9e ! election ( /ate (fic]s1 & ( su* o!rs z are elect$ = di/ricts compris+ m ?an "o c\nty1 a /atem5t ( ! votes giv5 = ! sev]al c&idates1 is s5t by ! sev]al bo>ds ( c\nty canvass]s to ! /ate canvass]s1 :o1 f ! returns ( votes f ! sev]al c\nties1 det]m9e ! election ( ! /ate (fic]s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,9 a few /ates1 vot+ at elections is done viva voce4 ,^! words mean by ^w ( m\?4 ,9 vot+ 9 ?is mann]1 ! elector speaks ! "n ( ! p]son = :om he votes4 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 p]sons are elect$ by a plurality ( votes4 ,an election by plurality is :5 ! p]son elect$ has receiv$ a high] numb] ( votes ?an any o!r1 ?\gh su* numb] be less ?an a majority ( all ! votes giv54 ,suppose1 = example1 ?ree c&idates receive #ajjj votes3 ,"o receives #dej2 ano!r1 #cjj2 ! ?ird1 #bej votes4 ,! fir/1 hav+ ! highe/ numb]1 ?\gh n a majority1 is elect$4 ,9 ! ,new ,engl&1 or ea/]n /ates1 a majority1 t is1 m ?an "o-half ( all ! votes giv51 is necess>y to ! election ( _m ( ! high] (fic]s4 ,! lea/ numb] ( votes out ( #ajjj1 by :i* a p]son c be elect$ by ?is rule1 is #eja4 ,sec4#ab4 ,ei!r ( ^! modes is liable to objection4 ,:5 a simple plurality effects an election1 #a1jjj votes may be s divid$ ^u ?ree c&idates z to elect "o by #ccd votes2 or ( f\r c&idates1 "o may be elect$ by #bea votes1 & aga9/ ! wi%es ( ne>ly ?ree-f\r?s ( ! electors4 ,an objection to ! o!r mode is1 t if no p]son receives a majority ( all ! votes1 ano!r election mu/ be held4 ,num]\s trials h1 9 "s in/ances1 be5 necess>y to effect a *oice2 & ! p ( a di/rict h rema9$ = a "t )\t a repres5tative 9 ! /ate or national legislature4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,division ( ! ,p[]s ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,hav+ %[n ! nature ( a con/itution & ! mann] 9 :i* x is made & adopt$1 x w next be %[n h[ ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t "u a /ate con/itution are divid$4 ,z ! excell5ce ( a =m ( gov]nm5t consi/s mu* 9 a prop] sep>ation & di/ribution ( p[]1 ?is subject des]ves special att5tion4 ,sec4#b4 ,we notice fir/ ! sep>ation ( ! political & civil p[]s4 ,! words political & civil are (t5 us$ z hav+ ! same mean+4 ,?us1 speak+ ( ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t & laws ( a c\ntry1 we use ! g5]al t]m1 political in/itutions1 or civil in/itutions2 ei!r ( :i* is deem$ correct4 ,b ^! words h also a p>ticul> signification1 z has already be5 %[n 9 ! di/9ction made 9 prec$+ *apt]s betwe5 political rights & civil rights1 & betwe5 ! political law & ! municipal or civil laws4 7,*ap4 ,,ii1 & ,,iii47 ,h5ce x appe>s1 t :at we mean by political p[] is ! p[] ex]cis$ by ! p 9 _! political capacity1 9 adopt+ _! con/itution & elect+ ! (fic]s ( ! gov]nm5t2 & t1 by ! civil p[] is meant ! p[] ex]cis$ by ^! (fic]s 9 adm9i/]+ ! gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#c4 ,9 an absolute gov]nm5t1 no su* di/9ction exi/s2 all p[] is c5t]$ 9 ! supreme rul]4 ,!re is no political law b9d+ on him4 ,be+ himself re/ra9$ by no positive laws or regulations t h be5 adopt$ by ! p1 or t may be alt]$ by !m1 ! p h no political rights4 ,9 a mix$ gov]nm5t1 or limit$ mon>*y1 political p[] is ex]cis$ to "s ext5t4 ,al?\gh !re is no writt5 con/itution adopt$ by ! p1 z 9 a republic1 ! memb]s ( "o bran* ( ! law-mak+ p[] are elect$ by ! p4 ,9 su* election !y are said to ex]cise political p[]4 ,sec4#d4 ,we notice next ! division ( ! civil p[]4 ,?is p[]1 9 well con/ruct$ gov]nm5ts1 is divid$ into ?ree dep>tm5ts1 ! legislative1 ! executive1 & ! judicial4 ,! legislative dep>tm5t is t by :i* ! laws ( ! /ate are made4 ,! legislature is compos$ ( two bodies1 ! memb]s ( :i* are elect$ by ! p4 ,9 limit$ mon>*ies :]e "o bran* ( ! legislature is elective1 ! o!r is an ari/ocratic body1 compos$ ( m5 ( weal? & dignity1 z ! ,briti% h\se ( lords4 ,sec4#e4 ,! executive dep>tm5t is intru/$ ) ! p[] ( execut+1 or c>ry+ into effect1 ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,!re is 9 ?is dep>tm5t a gov]nor1 assi/$ by a numb] ( o!r (fic]s1 "s ( :om are elect$ by ! p2 o!rs are appo9t$ 9 su* mann] z ! con/itution or laws prescribe4 ,! p[]s & duties ( ! gov]nor ( a /ate w be m p>ticul>ly describ$ 9 ano!r place4 ,sec4#f4 ,! judicial dep>tm5t is t by :i* ju/ice is adm9i/]$ to ! citiz5s4 ,x embraces ! sev]al c\rts ( ! /ate4 ,all judges & ju/ices ( ! peace are judicial (fic]s2 & !y h p[]1 & x is _! bus9ess to judge ( & apply ! law 9 cases br\ght be=e !m = trial4 ,a m p>ticul> description ( ! p[]s & duties ( judicial (fic]s1 & ! mann] ( conduct+ trials 9 c\rts ( ju/ice1 w be giv5 else:]e4 7,*ap4 ,,xvii-,,xx47 ,sec4#g4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n ! propriety ( divid+ ! civil p[] into ^! ?ree dep>tm5ts1 & ( conf9+ ! (fic]s ( ea* dep>tm5t to ! p[]s & duties belong+ to ! same4 ,^? :o make ! laws %\ld n ex]cise ! p[] ( execut+ !m2 nor %\ld !y :o ei!r make or execute ! laws sit 9 judgm5t ov] ^? :o are br\ght be=e !m = trial4 ,a gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! diff]5t p[]s ( mak+1 execut+1 & apply+ ! laws %\ld be unit$ 9 a s+le body ( m51 h[ev] num]\s1 w\ld be little bett] ?an an absolute despotism4 ,sec4#h4 ,aga91 ! legislative dep>tm5t ( ! civil p[] is divid$4 ,"u all our /ate con/itutions1 ! legislature consi/s ( two bran*es1 bo? ( :i* mu/ agree to a propos$ measure be=e x becomes a law2 & 9 _m ( ! /ates1 x mu/ also be approv$ by ! gov]nor4 ,?is is mak+ ! *ief executive (fic] a ?ird bran* ( ! law-mak+ p[]2 & is n 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( keep+ ! sev]al dep>tm5ts ( ! civil p[] sep>ate & di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,! reason = ?is dep>ture f ! g5]al pr9ciple m5tion$1 w be /at$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 7,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,sec4#af47 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,/ate ,legislatures--h[ con/itut$4 ,sec4#a4 ,! legislature ( e /ate 9 ! union is compos$ ( two h\ses--a s5ate & a h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,! latt]1 or1 z x is sometimes call$1 ! l[] h\se1 9 ! /ates ( ,new ,york1 ,wiscons91 & ,cali=nia1 is call$ ! assembly2 9 ,m>yl& & ,virg9ia1 ! h\se ( delegates2 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ! h\se ( commons2 & 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ! g5]al assembly4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 ! two h\ses toge!r are call$ g5]al assembly4 ,sec4#b4 ,! s5ate1 z well z ! o!r h\se1 is a repres5tative body2 its memb]s be+ elect$ by ! p to repres5t !m4 ,:y1 !n1 is only "o ( ! two bran*es call$ ! h\se ( repres5tatives8 ,p]haps = ?is reason3 ,"u ! gov]nm5ts ( ! colonies1 :ile yet subject to ,great ,britian1 !re 0 b "o repres5tative assembly4 ,! o!r bran* ( ! legislature 0 call$ a c\ncil1 consi/+ ( a small numb] ( m5 :o 7 appo9t$ by ! k+4 ,aft] ! colonies became free & indep5d5t /ates1 a s5ate 0 sub/itut$ = ! old c\ncil1 & al?\gh x is an elective body1 ! o!r h\se1 be+ mu* m num]\s1 is call$1 by way ( di/9ction1 ! h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,sec4#c4 ,s5ators are *os5 annually 9 ! six ,new ,engl& /ates1 namely1 ,ma9e1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,rhode ,isl&1 & ,connecticut4 ,9 ! o!r /ates !y are elect$ = t]ms ( two1 ?ree1 or f\r ye>s4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates 9 :i* s5ators are elect$ = long] t]ms ?an "o ye>1 !y are n all elect$ at ! same "t4 ,!y are divid$ into classes2 & ^? ( "o class g out ( (fice "o ye>1 & ^? ( ano!r class ano!r ye>2 s t only a "p ( ! s5ators are elect$ e ye>1 or e two1 or ?ree1 or f\r ye>s4 ,sec4#d4 ,! s5ate1 z di/+ui%$ f ! h\se ( repres5tatives1 is sometimes call$ ! upp] h\se4 ,x 0 design$ to be a m select body1 compos$ ( m5 *os5 ) ref]5ce to _! sup]ior ability1 or _! great] exp]i5ce 9 public affairs4 ,sec4#e4 ,s5ators are diff]5tly apportion$ 9 diff]5t /ates4 ,9 "s /ates !y are apportion$ among ! sev]al c\nties1 s t ! numb] to be elect$ 9 ea* c\nty %all be 9 proportion to ! numb] ( its inhabitants4 ,9 o!rs !y are elect$ by di/ricts1 equal 9 numb] to ! numb] ( s5ators to be *os5 9 ! /ate1 & a s5ator is elect$ 9 ea* di/rict4 ,! di/ricts are to conta91 z ne>ly z may be1 an equal numb] ( inhabitants2 & sometimes !y comprise sev]al c\nties4 ,sec4#f4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties 9 proportion to ! population 9 ea*4 ,9 "s /ates !y are elect$ 9 di/ricts ( equal population1 c\nties be+ sometimes divid$ 9 ! =mation ( di/ricts4 ,9 ! ,new ,engl& /ates1 repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! t[ns4 ,9 ab\t "o-half ( ! /ates1 !y are elect$ annually2 9 ! o!rs1 7includ+-mo/ ( ! s\!rn & we/]n /ates17 !y are elect$ e two ye>s4 ,sec4#g4 ,! diff]5t modes ( apportion+ memb]s ( ! legislature h 9 view ! same object--equal repres5tation2 t is1 giv+ a memb] to ! same numb] ( inhabitants 9 "o c\nty or di/rict z to an equal numb] 9 ano!r4 ,b 9 "s c\nties ! population increases m rapidly ?an 9 o!rs4 ,! repres5tation !n becomes unequal1 be+ no long] 9 proportion to population4 ,sec4#h4 ,9 ord] to keep ! repres5tation ?r\gh\t ! /ate z ne>ly equal z possible2 9 o!r words1 to secure to ! p ( e c\nty or di/rict _! j proportion ( ! repres5tatives1 ! con/itution requires t1 at /at$ times1 ! p ( ! /ate %all be numb]$1 & a new apportionm5t ( s5ators & repres5tatives be made among ! sev]al c\nties accord+ to ! numb] ( inhabitants 9 ea* c\nty2 or if ! /ate is "o 9 :i* memb]s ( ! legislature are *os5 9 di/ricts1 a new division ( ! /ate is made into di/ricts4 ,sec4#i4 ,b ! p]iods ( "t betwe5 ! enum]ations ( ! p1 are n ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,9 "s /ates ! enum]ations are made e t5 ye>s2 9 o!rs1 %ort] p]iods h be5 fix$1 f eight d[n to f\r ye>s4 ,?is enum]ation or numb]+ ( ! p is call$ tak+ ! c5sus4 ,c5sus is f ! ,lat91 & 0 us$ by ! anci5t ,romans to signify a decl>ation or /atem5t made be=e ! c5sors by ! citiz5s1 conta9+ an enum]ation or regi/] ( !mselves1 _! wives1 *ildr51 s]vants1 & _! prop]ty & its valuation4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh ! c5sus sometimes includes a simil> regi/]1 ! ^w usually means simply an enum]ation ( ! p4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! con/itution also prescribes ! qualifications ( s5ators & repres5tatives4 ,if1 z qualifications = an elector1 full age1 citiz5%ip1 & a consid]able t]m ( resid5ce 9 ! /ate & c\nty1 are prop]ly requir$1 z we h se51 7,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,sec4#b-e17 !y mu/ be at lea/ equally necess>y = ^? :o make ! laws4 ,9 no /ate1 !re=e1 are any b qualifi$ electors eligible to ! (fice ( s5ator or repres5tative4 ,9 "s /ates1 great] age & long] resid5ce are requir$2 & 9 "s1 ! age & t]m ( resid5ce h be5 /ill fur!r increas$ 9 ! case ( s5ators4 ,! prop]ty qualification =m]ly necess>y = memb]s ( ! legislature1 z well z = vot]s1 has be5 almo/ entirely aboli%$4 7,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,sec4#h47 ,sec4#aa4 ,if a memb] ( ! legislature dies1 or resigns 8 (fice be=e ! expiration ( ! t]m = :i* he 0 *os51 ! vacancy is fill$ by ! election ( ano!r p]son at ! next g5]al election1 or at a special election call$ = t purpose1 or 9 su* o!r mann] z ! con/itution may provide4 ,b a p]son *os5 to fill a vacancy1 holds ! (fice only = ! rema9d] ( ! t]m ( him ^: place he 0 *os5 to supply4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,meet+s & ,organization ( ! ,legislature4 ,sec4#a4 ,! legislature meets z (t5 z ! con/itution requires1 to enact su* laws z may be necess>y to promote ! public welf>e1 & to p]=m su* o!r duties z are assign$ to x by ! con/itution & ! laws4 ,9 ab\t half ( ! /ates1 sessions are held annually2 9 ! o!rs bi5nially1 or once 9 two ye>s4 ,a legislative session includes ! daily meet+s ( a legislature f ! "t ( its fir/ assembl+1 to ! day ( f9al adj\rnm5t4 ,?us we say ! session comm5c$ 9 ,janu>y & end$ 9 ,m>*4 ,! ^w session has ref]5ce also to a s+le sitt+1 f ! h\r at :i* ! memb]s assemble on any day1 to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t on ! same day4 ,?us we say1 ! legislature holds a daily session ( f\r h\rs2 or1 x holds two sessions a day1 z ! case may be4 ,sec4#b4 ,meet+s ( ! legislature are held at a place p]man5tly fix$ by ! con/itution2 at :i* place ! pr9cipal /ate (fic]s keep _! (fices4 ,h5ce x is call$ ! seat ( gov]nm5t1 or p]haps m frequ5tly1 ! capital ( ! /ate4 ,capital is f ! ,lat9 caput1 ! head1 & has come to mean *ief1 or ! highe/4 ,a capital city is !re=e ! *ief city ( a /ate or k+dom4 ,b ! ^w capital1 appli$ to a city1 n[ g5]ally indicates ! seat ( gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#c4 ,:5 ! two h\ses h assembl$ 9 _! respective *amb]s1 "s p]son designat$ = t purpose adm9i/]s to ! memb]s ( ea* h\se ! oa? ( (fice1 9 :i* !y solemnly swe> 7or affirm17 t !y w support ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! con/itution ( ! /ate1 & fai?fully dis*>ge ! duties ( _! (fice4 ,sec4#d4 ,ea* h\se !n proce$s to organize = bus9ess1 by appo9t+ prop] (fic]s1 & det]m9+ ! "r ( memb]s to seats 9 ! h\se4 ,9 organiz+ a legislative body1 ! fir/ ?+ done is ! election ( a presid+ (fic]1 or *airman1 :o is usually call$ speak]4 ,! lieut5ant-gov]nor1 9 /ates 9 :i* !re is "o1 presides 9 ! s5ate1 & is call$ presid5t ( ! s5ate4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! presid+ (fic]1 a tempor>y speak] or presid5t is *os51 :o is call$ speak] or presid5t pro tempore1 commonly abbreviat$1 pro tem41 :i* is a ,lat9 phrase1 mean+ = ! "t4 ,sec4#e4 ,! duty ( ! p]son presid+ is to keep ord]1 & to see t ! bus9ess ( ! h\se is conduct$ accord+ to c]ta9 e/abli%$ rules4 ,:5 a vote is to be tak51 he puts ! "q1 :i* is done by reque/+ all :o are 9 favor ( a propos$ measure1 to say aye1 & ^? oppos$ to say no4 ,&1 :5 a vote has be5 tak51 he decl>es ! "q to be c>ri$ or lo/4 ,?is "p ( a speak]'s bus9ess is simil> to t ( ! *airman ( an ord9>y public meet+4 ,sec4#f4 ,! o!r (fic]s *os5 by ea* h\se are1 a cl]k to keep a record or j\rnal ( its proce$+s2 to take *>ge ( pap]s1 & to read su* z are to be read to ! h\se2 & to d su* o!r ?+s z may be requir$ ( him2 a s]geant-at-arms1 to arre/ memb]s & o!r p]sons guilty ( disord]ly conduct1 to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s1 & to d o!r bus9ess ( a l nature3 also "o or m door-keep]s4 ,! (fic]s m5tion$ 9 ?is section are n *os5 f ! memb]s ( ! h\se4 ,sec4#g4 ,! con/itution does n prescribe to ei!r h\se ! ord] ( bus9ess1 or ! p>ticul> mann] 9 :i* x %all be done2 b au?orizes ea* h\se to det]m9e = itself ! rules ( its proce$+s4 ,b !re are sundry ?+s :i* x expressly enjo9s4 ,x det]m9es :at portion ( ! memb]s %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess4 ,quorum is ! ,lat9 ( ! ,engli% words1 ( :om1 & has /rangely come to signify ! numb] or portion ( any body ( m5 :o h p[] to act = ! :ole4 ,?us ) ref]5ce to a legislative body consi/+ ( a c]ta9 numb] ( memb]s1 in/ead ( say+1 ,a majority quorum %all h p[] to act2 or1 ,a majority ( :om %all h p[] to act1 our con/itutions g5]ally say1 ,a majority %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess4 ,9 "s /ates1 m ?an a b>e majority is requir$ = a quorum4 ,sec4#h4 ,con/itutions g5]ally require also t ! proce$+s ( legislative bodies %all be op5 to public inspection4 ,! doors may be clos$ aga9/ spectators only :5 ! public good %all require secrecy4 ,& t ! p may be fully in=m$ ( :at is done1 ea* h\se is requir$ to keep & publi% a j\rnal ( its proce$+s4 ,sec4#i4 ,provision is also made1 ei!r by ! con/itution or by laws aga9/ injury or int]ruption to ! bus9ess ( ! legislature4 ,memb]s may n1 by any prosecution at law1 except = crimes & misdemeanors1 be h9d]$ dur+ _! att5dance at ! sessions ( ! legislature1 nor 9 go+ to or return+ f ! same4 ,ea* h\se may compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s4 ,x may = good cause expel a memb]1 & puni%1 n only its memb]s & (fic]s1 b o!r p]sons1 = disord]ly conduct1 or = ob/ruct+ its proce$+s4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,mann] ( ,enact+ ,laws4 ,sec4#a4 ,:5 ! two h\ses are duly organiz$ & ready = bus9ess1 ! gov]nor s5ds to bo? h\ses a writt5 communication call$ message1 9 :i*1 z ! con/itution requires1 he gives to ! legislature in=mation ( ! condition ( ! affairs ( ! /ate1 & recomm5ds su* measures z he judges necess>y & exp$i5t4 ,! message is read to ea* h\se by its cl]k4 ,sec4#b4 ,b ! measures to :i* ! gov]nor calls ! att5tion ( ! legislature1 are b a small portion ( ^? :i* are consid]$ & act$ ^u4 ,_m are introduc$ by individual memb]s4 ,o!rs are br\ght into notice by ! petitions ( ! p 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! /ate4 ,petition g5]ally signifies a reque/ or pray]4 ,z "h us$1 x means a writt5 reque/ to ! legislature = "s favor--g5]ally = a law grant+ "s b5efit or relief to ! petition]s4 ,petitions are s5t to memb]s1 usually to ^? :o repres5t ! c\nties or di/ricts 9 :i* ! petition]s live1 & are by ^! memb]s pres5t$ to ! h\se4 ,sec4#c4 ,n[ x is evid5t1 t a prop] consid]ation ( ! num]\s subjects press$ ^u ! att5tion ( ! legislature--"s ( !m ( v great importance--mu/ require mu* labor4 ,if ! necess>y inve/igation ( s _m subjects %\ld occupy ! "t ( ! :ole h\se1 !re w\ld n be "t en\gh to act ^u "o-half ( !m4 ,!re=e1 9 ord] to dispat* bus9ess1 ! labor ( ! h\se mu/ be divid$1 t ! inve/igation ( all ! diff]5t subjects may be go+ on at ! same "t4 ,sec4#d4 ,h5ce arises ! practice :i* prevails 9 all legislative bodies1 ( ! appo9tm5t ( committees4 ,z soon z may be1 aft] a h\se is organiz$1 committees are appo9t$ on all subjects usually act$ on 9 ! legislature4 ,a legislative committee is g5]ally compos$ ( ?ree1 five1 or sev5 memb]s1 :o exam9e ! subjects ref]r$ to !m1 & report ! result ( _! exam9ation to ! h\se4 ,committees are appo9t$ by ! presid+ (fic] ( ea* h\se4 ,occasionally1 ?\gh v r>ely1 !y are elect$ by ! h\se itself4 ,sec4#e4 ,"s or all ( ! foll[+ committees are appo9t$ 9 e legislature3 a committee on f9ance1 or ! funds1 income1 & o!r money matt]s ( ! /ate1 sometimes call$ ! committee ( ways & means2 a committee on agriculture2 a committee on manufactures2 committees on ! incorporation ( cities & villages2 on banks & insurance companies2 on railroads2 on canals2 on education2 on elections2 on public pr9t+1 besides _m o!rs4 ,s num]\s are ^! subjects1 t 9 con/itut+ ! committees1 e memb] may be put on "s committee4 ,sec4#f4 ,all matt]s relat+ to ^! subjects ( a g5]al nature1 :i* arise dur+ ! session1 are ref]r$ to _! appropriate committees4 ,?us1 a "q or proposition relat+ to banks1 is ref]r$ to ! committee on banks2 matt]s relat+ to rail-roads1 are ref]r$ to ! committee on rail-roads2 ^? relat+ to s*ools1 are ref]r$ to ! committee on education1 c4 ,z ^! committees cont9ue dur+ ! session1 !y are call$ /&+ committees4 ,:5 a "q arises hav+ no relation to any subject on :i* !re is a /&+ committee1 x is usually ref]r$ to a special or select committee appo9t$ to consid] ?is p>ticul> matt]4 ,sec4#g4 ,committees meet 9 private rooms1 dur+ h\rs :5 ! h\se is n 9 session2 & any p]son wi%+ to be he>d 9 favor ( or aga9/ a propos$ measure1 may appe> be=e ! committee hav+ x 9 *>ge4 ,hav+ duly consid]$ ! subject1 ! committee reports to ! h\se ! in=mation x has obta9$1 ) ! op9ion :e!r ! measure ought or ought n to become a law4 ,measures report$ aga9/ by committees1 seldom receive any fur!r notice f ! h\se4 ,sec4#h4 ,f :at has be5 said1 ! utility ( committees is readily se54 ,al?\gh no propos$ measure c become a law unless act$ on & approv$ by ! two h\ses1 its necessity may be inquir$ into1 & ! in=mation necess>y to enable ! h\se to act und]/&+ly ^u ! "q1 may be obta9$1 z well by a few memb]s z by ! :ole h\se4 ,by ! daily exam9ation ( s _m subjects 9 committee1 a l>ge am\nt ( bus9ess is soon prep>$ = ! h\se to act ^u1 & mu* ( its "t is sav$4 ,sec4#i4 ,if a committee reports favorably ^u a subject1 x usually br+s 9 a bill ) its report4 ,a bill is ! =m or draft ( a law4 ,n all bills1 h[ev]1 are report$ by committees4 ,any memb] ( ! h\se desir+ ! passage ( a law1 may give notice t he w1 on "s future day1 ask leave ( ! h\se to introduce a bill = t purpose2 & if1 at ! "t specifi$1 ! h\se %all grant leave1 he may introduce ! bill4 ,b at lea/ "o day's previ\s notice mu/ be giv5 ( 8 int5tion to ask leave1 be=e x c be grant$4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! diff]5t /eps 9 ! progress ( a bill1 or ! diff]5t =ms ( action ?r\gh :i* x has to pass1 are num]\s4 ,a m9ute description ( !m 9 a "w design$ *iefly = y\?1 w sc>cely be expect$4 ,a ?or\gh k ( ! proce$+s ( legislative assemblies1 c be practically b5eficial1 9 aft] life1 to b few ( ^? :o %all /udy ?is elem5t>y treatise4 ,^? :o %all h]eaft] h occasion = ?is k1 w f9d works adapt$ to a m mature age1 9 :i* ! subject is fully treat$4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a bill1 be=e x is pass$1 mu/ be read ?ree times2 b x may n be read twice on any "o day )\t unanim\s cons5t1 t is1 ! cons5t ( ! :ole h\se2 or1 z is believ$ to be ! rule 9 "s bodies1 ! cons5t ( ?ree-f\r?s1 or two-?irds ( ! h\se4 ,9 "s legislatures1 ! rule all[s ! fir/ & second read+s to be on ! same day4 ,a bill is n to be am5d$ until x %all h be5 twice read4 ,nor is x usual = x to be oppos$ until !n2 b x may be oppos$ & reject$ at ! fir/ read+4 ,sec4#ab4 ,aft] a bill has be5 twice read1 & fully debat$ & am5d$1 x is propos$ to be read on a future day ! ?ird "t4 ,if ! "q on ord]+ ! bill to a ?ird read+ is n c>ri$1 ! bill is lo/1 unless reviv$ by a vote ( ! h\se to reconsid]4 ,b if ! "q to read ! ?ird "t is c>ri$1 ! bill is accord+ly read on a future day1 & ! "q tak5 on its f9al passage4 ,sec4#ac4 ,:5 ! f9al vote is to be tak51 ! speak] puts ! "q3 ,%all ! bill pass8 ,if a majority ( ! memb]s pres5t vote 9 ! affirmative1 7! speak] also vot+17 ! bill is pass$2 if a majority vote 9 ! negative1 ! bill is lo/4 ,also if ! ayes & noes are equal1 x is lo/1 because !re is n a majority 9 its favor4 ,9 a s5ate :]e a lieut5ant-gov]nor presides1 n be+ prop]ly a memb]1 he does n vote1 except :5 ! ayes & noes are equal2 9 :i* case !re is said to be a tie2 & he det]m9es ! "q by 8 vote1 :i* is call$ ! ca/+ vote4 ,9 "s /ates1 on ! f9al passage ( a bill1 a b>e majority ( ! memb]s pres5t is n suffici5t to pass x1 9 case any memb]s are abs5t4 ,! con/itutions ( ^? /ates require ! votes ( a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se4 ,sec4#ad4 ,:5 a bill has pass$ "o h\se x is s5t to ! o!r1 :]e x mu/ pass ?r\gh ! same =ms ( action2 t is1 x mu/ be ref]r$ to a committee2 report$ by ! committee to ! h\se2 & be read ?ree times be=e a vote is tak5 on its passage4 ,?is vote hav+ be5 tak51 ! bill is return$ to ! h\se f :i* x 0 receiv$4 ,if x has be5 am5d$1 ! am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by ! fir/ h\se1 or ! second mu/ rec$e f _! am5dm5ts1 or ! am5dm5ts mu/ be s modifi$ z to secure ! approval ( bo? h\ses1 be=e ! bill c become a law4 ,sec4#ae4 ,"s "y read] may inquire :y a bill %\ld take s long & sl[ a c\rse ?r\gh two diff]5t h\ses2 & :y "o body ( repres5tatives is n suffici5t4 ,! object is to secure ! enactm5t ( good laws4 ,not)/&+ bills g ?r\gh ! h&s ( a committee & ?ree diff]5t read+s 9 ! h\se2 yet ?r\gh undue ha/e1 wrong in=mation1 or f o!r causes1 a h\se may1 & (t5 does1 commit s]i\s errors4 ,legislatures are !re=e divid$ into two bran*es2 & a bill hav+ pass$ "o h\se is s5t to ! o!r :]e ! mi/akes ( ! =m] may be correct$1 or ! bill :olly reject$4 ,sec4#af4 ,b 9 _m ( ! /ates1 a bill1 :5 pass$ by bo? h\ses1 is n yet a law4 ,z ! two h\ses may concur 9 adopt+ an unwise measure1 an additional safegu>d is provid$ aga9/ ! enactm5t ( bad laws1 by requir+ all bills to be s5t to ! gov]nor = exam9ation & approval4 ,if he approves a bill1 he signs x1 & x is a law2 if he does n sign x1 x is n a law4 ,9 refus+ to sign a bill1 he is said to negative1 or veto ! bill4 ,veto1 ,lat91 means1 ,i =bid4 ,sec4#ag4 ,b no gov]nor has full p[] to prev5t ! passage ( a law4 ,if he does n approve a bill1 he mu/ return x to ! h\se 9 :i* x orig9at$1 /at+ 8 objections to x2 & if x %all be aga9 pass$ by bo? h\ses1 x w be a law )\t ! gov]nor's ass5t ,b 9 su* cases great] majorities are g5]ally requir$ to pass a law4 ,9 "s /ates1 a majority ( two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t is necess>y2 9 o!rs1 a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$4 ,9 a few /ates1 only ! same majorities are requir$ to pass a bill aga9/ ! veto z 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,or if ! gov]nor does n return a bill )9 a c]ta9 numb] ( days1 x becomes a law )\t 8 signature1 or )\t be+ consid]$ a second "t4 ,9 "s /ates1 bills are n s5t to ! gov]nor1 b are laws :5 pass$ by bo? h\ses & sign$ by _! presid+ (fic]s4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,executive ,dep>tm5t4 ,gov]nor & ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor4 ,sec4#a4 ,! *ief executive p[] ( a /ate is1 by ! con/itution1 ve/$ 9 a gov]nor4 ,! gov]nor is *os5 by ! p at ! g5]al election2 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a by ! legislature4 ,! t]m ( (fice is n ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,9 ! six ,new ,engl& /ates1 ! gov]nors are *os5 annually2 9 ! o!r /ates1 = ! diff]5t t]ms ( two1 ?ree1 & f\r ye>s4 ,sec4#b4 ,! qualifications = ! (fice ( gov]nor are also diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t /ates4 ,to be eligible to ! (fice ( gov]nor1 a p]son mu/ h be5 = a c]ta9 numb] ( ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & = a t]m ( ye>s prec$+ 8 election a resid5t ( ! /ate4 ,he mu/ also be above a c]ta9 age1 :i*1 9 a majority ( ! /ates1 is at lea/ ?irty ye>s2 & 9 "s /ates he mu/ be a freehold]4 ,sec4#c4 ,! p[]s & duties ( a gov]nor are num]\s4 ,he communicates by message to ! legislature1 at e session1 in=mation ( ! condition ( ! /ate ( its affairs g5]ally1 & recomm5ds su* measures z he judges necess>y & exp$i5t4 ,he is to take c>e t ! laws be fai?fully execut$1 & to transact all necess>y bus9ess ) ! (fic]s ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,he may conv5e ! legislature on extraord9>y occasions3 t is1 if1 at a "t :5 ! legislature is n 9 session1 a matt] %\ld arise requir+ imm$iate att5tion1 ! gov]nor may call a special meet+ ( ! legislature1 or z x is usually t]m$1 an extra session4 ,sec4#d4 ,a gov]nor has p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 &1 9 "s /ates1 ( treason4 ,to reprieve is to po/pone or delay = a "t ! execution ( ! s5t5ce ( dea? ^u a crim9al4 ,to p>don is to annul ! s5t5ce by =giv+ ! (f5se & releas+ ! (f5d]4 ,a gov]nor may also commute a s5t5ce2 :i* is to ex*ange "o p5alty or puni%m5t = ano!r ( less sev]ity2 z1 :5 a p]son s5t5c$ to suff] dea?1 is ord]$ to be imprison$4 ,sec4#e4 ,! gov]nor has p[] also1 9 "s ( ! /ates1 ) ! cons5t ( ! s5ate1 to appo9t ! high] (fic]s ( ! militia ( ! /ate1 & ! high] civil (fic]s 9 ! executive & judicial dep>tm5ts4 ,9 a few ( ! /ates1 !re are executive c\ncils ^: advice & cons5t are requir$ 9 su* cases4 ,9 mak+ su* appo9tm5ts1 ! gov]nor nom9ates1 t is1 he names to ! s5ate1 9 writ+1 ! p]sons to be appo9t$4 ,if a majority ( ! s5ators cons5t1 ! p]sons s nom9at$ are appo9t$4 ,_m o!r duties are by ! con/itution devolv$ ^u ! gov]nor4 ,sec4#f4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor has few duties to p]=m4 ,he presides 9 ! s5ate1 9 :i* he has only a ca/+ vote4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york1 he s]ves 9 "s ( ! bo>ds ( executive (fic]s4 ,9 ne>ly "o-half ( ! /ates ! (fice ( lieut5ant-gov]nor does n exi/4 ,! *ief object ( elect+ ?is (fic] seems to be to provide a suitable p]son to fill ! vacancy 9 ! (fice ( gov]nor 9 case ! latt] %\ld die1 resign1 be remov$1 or o!rwise become incompet5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,:5 ! lieut5ant-gov]nor acts z gov]nor1 ! s5ate *ooses f its own numb] a presid5t4 ,if ! (fices ( bo? ! gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor %\ld become vacant1 ! presid5t ( ! s5ate mu/ act z gov]nor4 ,if !re %\ld be nei!r a gov]nor1 a lieut5ant-gov]nor1 nor a presid5t or speak] ( ! s5ate1 !n1 ! speak] ( ! h\se ( repres5tatives w\ld become ! act+ gov]nor4 ,?is is believ$ to be ! rule = supply+ vacancies 9 mo/ if n all ( ! /ates4 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,assi/ant ,executive ,/ate ,(fic]s4 ,sec4#a4 ,among ! executive (fic]s :o assi/ 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! gov]nm5t1 !re are 9 e /ate1 "s or all ( ! foll[+3 a secret>y ( /ate1 a controll] or auditor1 a treasur]1 an attorney-g5]al1 a surveyor-g5]al4 ,! mode ( _! appo9tm5t & ! t]ms ( _! respective (fices1 are prescrib$ by ! con/itution or by law4 ,9 "s /ates !y are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate2 9 o!rs by ! legislature2 & 9 o!rs !y are elect$ by ! p4 ,!y keep _! (fices at ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! /ate4 ,sec4#b4 ,! secret>y ( /ate keeps a record ( ! (ficial acts & proce$+s ( ! legislature & ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 & has ! c>e ( ! books1 records1 de$s ( ! /ate1 p>*m5ts1 ! laws enact$ by ! legislature1 & all o!r pap]s & docum5ts requir$ by law to be kept 9 8 (fice4 ,he causes ! laws pass$ by ! legislature to be publi%$ 9 "o or m newspap]s1 z direct$ by law2 & also to be pr9t$ & b\nd 9 a volume1 & di/ribut$ among ! /ate (fic]s = _! use1 & among ! c\nty & t[n cl]ks1 to be kept 9 _! (fices = ! use ( ! p :o wi% to exam9e ! laws4 ,also "o or m copies are ex*ang$ ) ea* ( ! o!r /ates = copies ( _! laws to be kept 9 ! /ate libr>y4 ,v>i\s o!r duties are p]=m$ by ! secret>y4 ,sec4#c4 ,! /ate auditor1 9 "s /ates call$ controll]1 manages ! f9ancial conc]ns ( ! /ate2 t is1 ! bus9ess relat+ to ! money1 debts1 l& & o!r prop]ty ( ! /ate4 ,he exam9es & adju/s acc\nts & claims aga9/ ! /ate1 & sup]9t5ds ! collection ( moneys due ! /ate4 ,:5 money is to be paid out ( ! treasury1 he draws a w>rant 7a writt5 ord]17 on ! treasur] = ! money1 & keeps a regul> acc\nt ) ! treasur] ( all moneys receiv$ into & paid out ( ! treasury4 ,& he reports to ! legislature or o!r prop] (fic]s1 a /atem5t ( ! funds ( ! /ate1 & ( its income & exp5ditures dur+ ea* ye>4 ,sec4#d4 ,! treasur] has *>ge ( all ! public moneys t are paid into ! treasury1 & pays out ! same z direct$ by law2 & he keeps an accurate acc\nt ( su* moneys1 specify+ ! names ( ! p]sons f :om !y are receiv$1 to :om paid1 & = :at purposes4 ,he also exhibits annually a /atem5t ( moneys receiv$ & paid out by him dur+ ! ye>1 & ( ! balance 9 ! treasury4 ,sec4#e4 ,auditors1 treasur]s1 & o!r (fic]s intru/$ ) ! c>e & managem5t ( money or o!r prop]ty1 are g5]ally requir$1 be=e !y ent] on ! duties ( _! (fices1 to give bonds1 9 sums ( c]ta9 am\nt specifi$ 9 ! law1 ) suffici5t sureties1 = ! fai?ful p]=mance ( _! duties4 ,! sureties are p]sons :o b9d !mselves to pay ! /ate all damages aris+ f neglect ( duty on ! "p ( ! (fic]s1 n exce$+ ! sum m5tion$ 9 ! bond4 ,sec4#f4 ,! attorney-g5]al is a p]son le>n$ 9 ! law1 appo9t$ to act = ! /ate 9 law-suits 9 :i* ! /ate is a p>ty4 ,he prosecutes p]sons indebt$ to ! /ate1 & causes to be br\ght to trial p]sons *>g$ ) c]ta9 crimes4 ,he also gives 8 op9ion on que/ions ( law submitt$ to him by ! gov]nor1 ! legislature1 & ! executive (fic]s4 ,9 "s /ates !re is no attorney-g5]al4 ,9 su* /ates prosecutions 9 behalf ( ! /ate are conduct$ by ! /ate's attorney = ea* c\nty4 ,sec4#g4 ,! surveyor-g5]al sup]9t5ds ! survey+ ( ! l&s belong+ to ! /ate4 ,he keeps 9 8 (fice maps ( ! /ate1 describ+ ! b\nds ( ! c\nties & t[n%ips2 & :5 disputes arise respect+ ! b\nd>ies1 he causes surveys to be made1 if necess>y1 to asc]ta9 su* b\nds4 ,he p]=ms c]ta9 o!r duties ( a simil> nature4 ,9 _m ( ! /ates !re is no surveyor-g5]al1 ! duties ( t (fice be+ done by a c\nty surveyor 9 ea* c\nty4 ,sec4#h4 ,!re is also1 9 _m ( ! /ates1 a sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 call$ 9 "s /ates1 sup]9t5d5t ( public in/ruction1 ^: pr9cipal duties are describ$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 7,*ap4 ,,xxii1 ,sec4#aj47 ,sec4#i4 ,!re is also a pr9t] to ! /ate1 or /ate pr9t]1 ^: bus9ess x is to pr9t ! j\rnal1 bills1 reports1 & o!r pap]s & docum5ts ( ! two h\ses ( ! legislature1 & all ! laws pass$ at ea* session4 ,/ate pr9t]s are ei!r *os5 by ! legislature1 or employ$ by p]sons au?oriz$ to make contracts = ! public pr9t+2 or ! pr9t+ is let to ! l[e/ bidd]4 ,sec4#aj4 ,!re are o!r (fic]s employ$ by ! /ate1 among :om are ! foll[+3 a /ate libr>ian1 :o has *>ge ( ! /ate libr>y1 consi/+ ( books conta9+ matt] ( a public nature1 su* z ! laws ( all ! /ates1 & ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) a l>ge collection ( miscellane\s books2 p]sons hav+ ! c>e ( ! public build+s & o!r prop]ty ( ! /ate2 sup]9t5d5ts ( /ate prisons1 lunatic asylums1 & o!r /ate in/itutions1 ^: duties are indicat$ by _! titles1 & ne$ no p>ticul> description4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,c\nties ind ,c\nty ,(fic]s4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ,c\nty ,(fic]s4 ,sec4#a4 ,"s ( ! purposes = :i* a /ate is divid$ into small di/ricts h be5 m5tion$4 7,*ap4 ,,vii1 ,sec4#a47 ,!re are o!r reasons1 equally important1 = ^! t]ritorial divisions4 ,laws = ! :ole /ate are made by ! legislature2 b c]ta9 regulations may be necess>y = ! p 9 "s p>ts ( ! /ate :i* are n ne$$ 9 o!rs1 & :i* ! p ( ^! places c bett] make = !mselves4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! gov]nor & 8 assi/ant executive /ate (fic]s to execute or c>ry into effect ! laws ( ! /ate2 b !y c\ld n see ?is done 9 e place1 or 9 e m9ute portion ( ! /ate4 ,aga91 = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? :o may be oblig$ to g to law to obta9 r$ress = injuries1 c\rts ( ju/ice mu/ be e/abli%$ ne> ! resid5ce ( e citiz54 ,sec4#b4 ,b 9 ord] to c>ry out ^! objects1 a /ate mu/ be divid$ into small di/ricts ) fix$ b\nd>ies1 t x may be kn[n :at p]sons come "u c]ta9 regulations1 & ov] :om ^! local (fic]s are to ex]cise au?ority4 ,! smalle/ t]ritorial divisions ( a /ate are call$ t[n%ips1 or t[ns1 :i* conta9 g5]ally f tw5ty-five to "o hundr$ squ>e miles1 & :i*1 if 9 a squ>e =m1 w\ld be f five to t5 miles squ>e4 ,b = c]ta9 purposes l>g] di/ricts ?an t[n%ips h be5 f\nd necess>y4 ,^! are =m$ by ! union ( sev]al t[n%ips1 & are call$ c\nties4 ,^! divisions are ! same z ^? ( ,engl&1 ! c\ntry f :i* ! colonies 7n[ /ates7 7 *iefly settl$4 ,sec4#c4 ,c\nties 9 ,engl& 7 =m]ly di/ricts gov]n$ by c\nts or e>ls2 f :i* comes ! "n ( c\nty4 ,a c\nty 0 also call$ %ire2 & an (fic] 0 appo9t$ by ! c\nt or e>l to p]=m c]ta9 acts 9 ! pr9cipal t[n 9 ! c\nty1 :i* 0 call$ %ire t[n1 & ! (fic] 0 call$ %ire-reeve1 or %]iff1 ^: p[]s & duties 7 simil> to ^? ( ! %]iff ( a c\nty 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! %ire t[n is t 9 :i* ! c\rt-h\se & o!r c\nty build+s are situate1 & :]e ! pr9cipal (fic]s ( ! c\nty transact _! bus9ess4 ,9 a few c\nties !re are two t[ns 9 :i* ! c\rts are held alt]nately4 ,h5ce ea* division is call$ a half-%ire4 ,sec4#d4 ,c\nties & t[ns are bodies politic1 or bodies corporate4 ,corporate is f ! ,lat91 corpus1 :i* means body4 ,a corporation1 or body politic1 is an association ( p]sons au?oriz$ by law to transact bus9ess "u a common "n1 & z a s+le p]son4 ,! laws ( ! /ate give su* au?ority to ! inhabitants ( c\nties & t[ns4 ,! p ( a t[n or c\nty h p[]1 to "s ext5t1 to manage _! own int]nal affairs1 & to make rules & regulations = _! gov]nm5t2 & !y may buy1 hold1 & sell prop]ty1 & sue & be su$1 z an individual4 ,simil> p[]s are giv5 to rail-road1 bank+1 insurance1 & o!r incorporat$ companies4 ,b !re is 9 "s respects a diff]5ce betwe5 ^! corporations & ^? :i* are creat$ = purposes ( gov]nm5t1 z /ates1 c\nties1 t[ns1 cities1 & villages1 :i* w be notic$ 9 ano!r place4 7,*ap4 ,,xvi47 ,sec4#e4 ,z a c\nty possesses v>i\s corporate p[]s1 !re mu/ be among its (fic]s "s 9 ^: "n ^! p[]s are to be ex]cis$4 ,9 "s /ates !re is a bo>d ( c\nty commission]s1 7usually ?ree17 :o ex]cise corporate p[]s4 ,9 a few1 ^! p[]s are ex]cis$ by & 9 ! "n ( ! bo>d ( sup]visors1 :i* is compos$ ( ! sup]visors ( ! sev]al t[ns 9 ! c\nty1 ( :om !re is "o sup]visor 9 ea* t[n4 ,^! bo>ds1 or su* (fic]s 9 o!r /ates z ex]cise ^! p[]s1 h g5]ally ! p[] also to exam9e & settle ! acc\nts aga9/ ! c\nty1 & to make ord]s & contracts 9 relation to ! build+ or repair+ ( ! c\rt-h\se1 jail1 & o!r c\nty build+s2 & to p]=m su* o!r acts z ! laws require4 ,sec4#f4 ,!re is 9 ea* c\nty a treasur] to receive & pay out ! moneys requir$ to be collect$ & paid out 9 ! c\nty4 ,!re is also1 9 "s /ates1 a c\nty auditor to exam9e & adju/ ! acc\nts & debts ( ! c\nty1 & to p]=m c]ta9 o!r duties4 ,! bus9ess ( c\nty treasur]s & auditors 9 _! respective c\nties1 is ( ! same nature z t ( /ate auditors & treasur]s4 ,9 /ates 9 :i* !re is no c\nty auditor1 ! duties ( auditor are p]=m$ by ! treasur]1 & "s o!r c\nty (fic] or (fic]s4 ,sec4#g4 ,!re is also 9 ea* c\nty a regi/] or record]1 :o records 9 books provid$ = t purpose1 all de$s1 mortgages1 & o!r in/rum5ts ( writ+ requir$ by law to be record$4 ,9 ,new ,york1 & p]haps 9 "s o!r /ates1 ! bus9ess ( a regi/] or record] is done by a c\nty cl]k1 :o is also cl]k ( ! sev]al c\rts held 9 ! c\nty1 & ( c]ta9 bo>ds ( c\nty (fic]s4 ,9 "s /ates1 de$s1 mortgages1 & o!r writt5 in/rum5ts1 are record$ by ! t[n cl]ks ( ! sev]al t[ns4 ,sec4#h4 ,ano!r c\nty (fic] is a %]iff1 ^: duty x is to att5d all ! c\rts held 9 ! c\nty2 to execute all w>rants1 writs1 & o!r process direct$ to him by ! c\rts2 to appreh5d p]sons *>g$ ) crime2 & to take *>ge ( ! jail & ( ! prison]s !re94 ,x is 8 duty1 also1 to pres]ve ! public peace2 & he may cause all p]sons :o break ! public peace )9 8 k or view1 to give bonds1 ) sureties1 = keep+ ! peace1 & = appe>+ at ! next c\rt to be held 9 ! c\nty1 & to commit !m to jail if !y refuse to give su* bonds4 ,a %]iff is assi/$ by deputies4 ,sec4#i4 ,!re are 9 ea* c\nty "o or m coron]s1 ^: pr9cipal duty is1 to inquire into ! cause ( ! dea? ( p]sons :o h di$ by viol5ce1 or sudd5ly1 & by means unkn[n4 ,notice ( ! dea? ( a p]son hav+ s di$ is giv5 to a coron]1 :o goes to ! place ( su* dead p]son4 ,a jury is summon$ to att5d ! exam9ation2 witnesses are exam9$2 & ! jury give _! op9ion 9 writ+ z to ! cause & mann] ( ! dea?4 ,su* inquiry is call$ a coron]'s inque/4 ,9 "o or two /ates1 ! (fice ( coron]1 x is believ$1 does n exi/2 9 :i* case ! inque/ is held by a ju/ice ( ! peace1 or "s o!r (fic]4 ,sec4#aj4 ,an attorney1 elect$ or appo9t$ = t purpose1 att5ds all c\rts 9 :i* p]sons are tri$ 9 ! c\nty = crimes committ$ !re91 & conducts ! prosecutions 9 ! trial ( ! (f5d]s4 ,9 /ates :]e !re is no attorney-g5]al = ! /ate1 ! prosecut+ attorney = ea* c\nty s]ves 9 ?is capacity1 9 trials 9 :i* ! /ate is a p>ty4 ,z all crimes & brea*es ( ! peace are consid]$ z committ$ aga9/ ! /ate1 & prosecut$ 9 its "n1 ?is attorney is sometimes call$ /ate's attorney4 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 "s /ates !re is a c\nty-surveyor1 ^: duties )9 8 c\nty are simil> 9 _! nature to ^? ( a /ate surveyor-g5]al4 ,sec4#ab4 ,c\nty (fic]s are g5]ally elect$ by ! p ( ! c\nty4 ,"s ( !m are1 9 "s ( ! /ates1 appo9t$ by "s au?ority prescrib$ by ! con/itution or laws ( ! /ate4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,t[ns & ,t[n ,(fic]s4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ,t[n ,(fic]s4 ,sec4#a4 ,! di/ricts ( t]ritory into :i* c\nties are divid$1 are1 9 "s /ates1 call$ t[ns4 ,9 o!rs !y are call$1 & p]haps m prop]ly1 t[n%ips2 & ! "n ( t[n is giv5 to an incorporat$ village1 or a city4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 9 ?is "w1 apply to ^! t]ritorial divisions ! %ort] "n ( t[ns1 z !y are call$ 9 mo/ ( ! old /ates4 ,sec4#b4 ,! electors ( ! sev]al t[ns meet once a ye> = ! election ( t[n (fic]s1 & = c]ta9 o!r bus9ess purposes4 ,! electors ( a t[n h p[]1 at _! annual t[n meet+s1 to ord] money to be rais$ = ! support ( ! poor1 = ! build+ & repair+ ( bridges1 & = o!r t[n purposes2 to make regulations conc]n+ f5ces2 to fix ! comp5sation ( t[n (fic]s 9 c]ta9 cases2 & to p]=m su* o!r duties z come )9 ! usual p[]s ( t[ns4 ,! p[]s ( t[ns1 h[ev]1 are n precisely ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,sec4#c4 ,among ! t[n (fic]s elect$ at t[n meet+s1 are ! foll[+2 n all ( !m1 h[ev]1 are elect$ 9 any "o /ate3 ,"o or m p]sons :o h ! g5]al ov]sight & direction ( t[n affairs1 call$ by "s "n correspond+ to ! nature ( _! duties2 a t[n cl]k2 "o or m assessors2 ju/ices ( ! peace2 ov]se]s ( highways2 ov]se]s ( ! poor2 s*ool (fic]s2 con/ables2 a collector ( taxes2 a treasur]2 f5ce-view]s2 p\nd-keep]s1 c4 ,9 "s /ates !re are also seal]s ( weights & measures2 p]sons to measure & inspect wood1 lumb]1 b>k1 & o!r commodities4 ,sec4#d4 ,! (fic]s fir/ m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 are1 9 ! ,new ,engl& /ates1 call$ selectm51 ( :om !re are at lea/ ?ree1 & may 9 no /ate be m ?an n9e1 9 ea* t[n4 ,9 a few /ates !y are call$ tru/ees ( t[n%ips1 & are ?ree 9 numb]4 ,9 a few o!r /ates1 !re is 9 ea* t[n "o su* (fic]1 call$ sup]visor4 ,! p[]s & duties ( ^! (fic]s are m num]\s 9 "s /ates ?an 9 o!rs4 ,!y h p[] to lay out roads1 & lay out & alt] road di/ricts2 to d c]ta9 acts relat+ to roads1 bridges1 taxes1 common s*ools1 ! support ( ! poor1 c42 & to exam9e & settle all dem&s aga9/ ! t[n4 ,9 "s ( ! /ates1 "s ( ^! duties are p]=m$ by o!r (fic]s4 ,sec4#e4 ,! t[n-cl]k keeps ! records1 books1 & pap]s ( ! t[n4 ,he records 9 a book ! proce$+s ( t[n meet+s1 ! names ( ! p]sons elect$1 & su* o!r pap]s z are requir$ by law to be record$4 ,9 "s /ates1 de$s & o!r conveyances are requir$ to be record$ by ! cl]ks ( t[ns4 ,= a description ( ! duties ( assessors & ju/ices ( ! peace1 see ,assessm5t & ,collection ( ,taxes1 & ,ju/ices' ,c\rts4 ,sec4#f4 ,= ! repair+ ( highways1 a t[n is divid$ by ! prop] (fic]s into z _m road di/ricts z may be judg$ conv5i5t2 & a p]son resid+ 9 ea* di/rict is *os51 call$ ov]se] or sup]visor1 or surveyor ( highways1 ^: duty x is to see t ! roads are repair$ & kept 9 ord] 9 8 di/rict4 ,9 "s /ates a tax is laid & collect$ = ?is purpose2 & ea* p]son assess$ may p]=m labor or furni% mat]ials to ! am\nt ( 8 tax4 ,9 o!r /ates1 road taxes are assess$ ^u ! citiz5s 9 days' labor1 accord+ to ! value ( _! prop]ty2 e man1 h[ev]1 be+ fir/ assess$ "o day = 8 head1 :i* is call$ a poll-tax4 ,p]sons n wi%+ to labor1 may pay an equival5t 9 money1 :i* is call$ commut+4 ,sec4#g4 ,ov]se]s ( ! poor provide = ! support ( ! poor belong+ to ! t[n :o ne$ relief1 & h no ne> relations :o are able to support !m4 ,9 "s /ates !re is 9 ea* c\nty a poor-h\se1 to :i* ! poor ( ! sev]al t[ns are s5t to be provid$ =2 ! exp5se to be *>g$ to ! t[ns to :i* su* poor p]sons belong$4 ,sec4#h4 ,! pr9cipal duties ( a con/able are1 to s]ve all processes issu$ by ju/ices ( ! peace 9 suits at law = collect+ debts1 & = arre/+ p]sons *>g$ ) crimes4 ,! bus9ess ( a con/able 9 execut+ ! ord]s ( a ju/ice ( ! peace1 is simil> to t ( a %]iff 9 relation to ! c\nty c\rts4 ,sec4#i4 ,! t[n treasur] receives all moneys belong+ to ! t[n1 & pays !m out z !y may be want$ = t[n-purposes2 & acc\nts ye>ly to ! prop] (fic]s4 ,! (fice ( t[n treasur] does n exi/ 9 all ! /ates4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! duties ( f5ce-view]s relate *iefly to ! settl+ ( disputes betwe5 ! own]s ( adjo9+ l&s conc]n+ division f5ces1 ! exam9+ or view+ ( f5ces :5 damage has be5 done by trespass+ animals2 & ! e/imat+ ( damages 9 su* cases4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! t[n seal] keeps correct copies ( ! /&>d ( weights & measures e/abli%$ by ! /ate4 ,/&>d copies are furni%$ by ! /ate seal] to ea* c\nty seal]1 at ! exp5se ( ! c\nty1 & ! c\nty seal] furni%es ea* t[n seal] a copy at ! exp5se ( ! t[n4 ,! t[n seal] comp>es ! weights & measures br\ght to him ) ! copy 9 8 possession1 & sees t !y are made to agree ) x1 & seals & m>ks !m4 ,a p]son sell+ by a weight or measure t does n agree ) ! /&>d1 is liable to ! pur*as] = damages--g5]ally to sev]al times ! am\nt ( ! injury4 ,= a p>ticul> description ( ! duties ( t[n (fic]s1 ref]5ce mu/ be _h to ! laws ( ! sev]al /ates4 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,incorporation & ,gov]nm5t ( ,cities1 ,villages1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,cities & incorporat$ villages h gov]nm5ts peculi> to !mselves4 ,places conta9+ a l>ge & close population ne$ a diff]5t gov]nm5t f t ( ord9>y t[ns or t[n%ips4 ,_m ( ! laws regulat+ ! affairs ( t[ns ?9ly inhabit$1 are n suit$ to a place :]e _m ?\s& p]sons are closely settl$4 ,besides1 ! electors 9 su* a place w\ld be too num]\s to meet 9 a s+le assembly = ! election ( (fic]s or ! transaction ( o!r public bus9ess4 ,sec4#b4 ,:5ev]1 !re=e1 ! inhabitants ( any place become s num]\s z to require a city gov]nm5t1 !y petition ! legislature = a law incorporat+ !m into a city4 ,! law or act ( incorporation is usually call$ a *>t]4 ,! ^w *>t] is f ! ,lat9 *>ta1 :i* means pap]4 ,! in/rum5ts ( writ+ by :i* k+s or o!r sov]eign p[]s grant$ rights & privileges to individuals or corporations1 7 writt5 on pap] or p>*m5t1 & call$ *>t]s4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 x is commonly us$ to designate an act ( ! legislature conf]r+ privileges & p[]s ^u cities1 villages1 & o!r corporations4 ,sec4#c4 ,! *ief executive (fic] ( a city is a mayor4 ,a city is divid$ into w>ds ( conv5i5t size1 9 ea* ( :i* are *os5 "o or m ald]m51 7usually two17 & su* o!r (fic]s z are nam$ 9 ! *>t]4 ,! mayor & ald]m5 con/itute ! common c\ncil1 :i* is a k9d ( legislature1 hav+ ! p[] to pass su* laws1 7commonly call$ ord9ances17 & to make su* ord]s & regulations1 z ! gov]nm5t ( ! city requires4 ,! mayor presides 9 meet+s ( ! common c\ncil1 & p]=ms also c]ta9 judicial & o!r duties4 ,!re are also elect$ 9 ! sev]al w>ds1 assessors1 con/ables1 collectors1 & o!r necess>y (fic]s1 ^: duties 9 _! respective w>ds are simil> to ^? ( l nam$ (fic]s 9 c\ntry t[ns1 or t[n%ips4 ,sec4#d4 ,! inhabitants ( cities1 h[ev]1 are n :olly gov]n$ by laws made by ! common c\ncil4 ,mo/ ( ! laws enact$ by ! legislature are ( g5]al application1 & h ! same effect 9 cities z else:]e4 ,?us ! laws ( ! /ate require1 t taxes %all be assess$ & levi$ ^u ! prop]ty ( ! citiz5s ( ! /ate to defray ! public exp5ses2 & ! p ( ! cities are requir$ to pay _! j proportion ( ! same2 b ! city au?orities lay & collect additional taxes = city purposes4 ,sec4#e4 ,9 cities !re are also c\rts ( ju/ice o!r ?an ^? :i* are e/abli%$ by ! con/itution or g5]al laws ( ! /ate4 ,!re is a c\rt = ! trial ( p]sons guilty ( di/urb+ ! peace1 & ( su* o!r m9or (f5ses z are usually puni%able by imprisonm5t 9 ! c\nty jail1 call$ police c\rt4 ,x is held by a police ju/ice1 elect$ by ! p1 or appo9t$ 9 su* mann] z ! law prescribes4 ,9 "s ( ! l>g] cities1 !re are c\rts ( civil z well z crim9al jurisdiction1 diff]+ f ^? :i* are common to c\nties g5]ally4 ,sec4#f4 ,! gov]nm5t ( incorporat$ villages is n 9 all respects l t ( cities4 ,! *ief executive (fic] ( su* a village is1 9 "s /ates1 call$ presid5t4 ,! village is n divid$ into w>ds2 ! numb] ( its inhabitants be+ too small to require su* division4 ,in/ead ( a bo>d ( ald]m51 !re is a bo>d ( tru/ees or directors1 :o ex]cise simil> p[]s4 ,! presid5t ( a village is g5]ally *os5 by ! tru/ees f _! own numb]4 ,9 "s /ates1 incorporat$ villages are call$ t[ns2 & _! *ief executive (fic] is call$ mayor4 ,sec4#g4 ,! necessity & effect ( incorporat+ a village may n yet cle>ly appe> to e read]4 ,let u illu/rate4 ,by a g5]al law ( ! /ate1 or by a vote ( ! electors ( a t[n%ip 9 pursuance ( su* law1 cattle may run at l>ge 9 ! highways4 ,?is might be to _m p]sons 9 a village1 a great annoyance1 :i* c be prev5t$ or abat$ only by conf9+ ! cattle4 ,or1 sidewalks may ne$ to be made4 ,or1 x may be deem$ necess>y to provide means = ext+ui%+ fires1 by pur*as+ fire-eng9es & organiz+ fire companies4 ,9 an un9corporat$ village !re is no p[] to compel ! citiz5s to d ^! ?+s4 ,^?1 !re=e1 :o desire t ! citiz5s %\ld h p[] to make all ne$ful regulations = ! gov]nm5t ( ! village1 petition ! legislature = an act ( incorporation grant+ ! necess>y p[]s4 ,sec4#h4 ,! con/itutions ( "s /ates require ! legislature to pass a g5]al law prescrib+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! p ( any village may =m !mselves into a corporation1 ) ! necess>y p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 ) out a special law = t purpose4 ,sec4#i4 ,besides ^! t]ritorial corporations = purposes ( gov]nm5t1 z c\nties1 t[ns1 cities1 c41 !re are incorporat$ companies = c>ry+ on bus9ess ( v>i\s k9ds1 z turnpike & rail-road companies1 & companies = ! purposes ( bank+1 insurance1 manufactur+1 c4 ,^! k9ds ( bus9ess1 to be c>ri$ on successfully1 sometimes require a l>g] am\nt ( money ?an "o man possesses4 ,a numb] ( p]sons1 !re=e1 unite _! capital "u an act ( incorporation grant+ !m p[] to manage _! bus9ess :i* !y c\ld n h 9 an ord9>y bus9ess p>tn]%ip4 ,besides1 a common p>tn]%ip mu/ end on ! dea? ( any "o ( ! p>tn]s2 b an incorporat$ company is n ?us affect$ by ! dea? ( its memb]s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,x is 9 ! nature ( corporations to h a p]petual exi/5ce4 ,a corporation may live aft] ! p]sons :o fir/ compos$ x are all dead2 = ^? :o come aft] !m h ! same p[]s & privileges4 ,a t[n or city incorporat$ a hundr$ ye>s ago1 is ! same t[n or city /ill1 al?\gh none ( its fir/ inhabitants are liv+4 ,s a railroad or bank+ corporation may exi/ aft] ! dea? ( _m1 or ev5 all ( ! orig9al corporators4 ,sec4#aa4 ,b !re are c]ta9 p>ticul>s 9 :i* all corporations are n ! same4 ,a /ate has be5 def9$ to be a body politic1 or corporation4 7,*ap4 ,i4 ,sec4#aj2 ,,iii1 ,sec4#e47 ,b x diff]s f o!r gov]nm5t corporations1 z c\nties1 t[ns1 cities1 c41 9 ?is3 ! latt] are =m$ by acts ( ! legislature2 b a /ate is =m$ by ! p 9 _! political capacity 9 e/abli%+ ! con/itution4 ,sec4#ab4 ,aga91 all ^! gov]nm5t corporations diff] f incorporat$ bus9ess companies4 ,9 =m+ a t[n or city1 _m p]sons are br\ght into ! corporation aga9/ _! wi%es or cons5t2 because1 9 gov]nm5ts1 all :o live )9 c]ta9 prescrib$ b\nds mu/ come "u ! same laws2 b ( an incorporat$ bus9ess association1 z ( a common bus9ess p>tn]%ip1 none become memb]s b by _! own act or *oice4 ,!re is ano!r diff]5ce3 ,! latt] are :at are call$ /ock companies2 & al?\gh !y may be cont9u$ aft] ! dea? ( ! fir/ corporators1 ^? :o aft]w>d come into ! association1 d s by becom+ own]s ( ! capital /ock ( ^? :o prec$$ !m4 ,?is latt] diff]5ce w m cle>ly appe> f ! m p>ticul> description1 else:]e giv51 ( ! incorporat$ companies1 & ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! /ock is transf]r$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxiii1 ,sec4#aa--ae47 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,judicial ,dep>tm5t4 ,ju/ices' ,c\rts4 ,sec4#a4 ,hav+ se5 h[ ! legislative & executive dep>tm5ts ( a /ate gov]nm5t are con/itut$1 & h[ ! laws are made & execut$1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! local affairs ( c\nties & t[ns are conduct$1 & ! p[]s & duties ( _! respective (fic]s2 we proce$ to describe ! judicial dep>tm5t1 ! p[]s & duties ( judicial (fic]s1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ju/ice is adm9i/]$4 ,sec4#b4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! legislature to det]m9e :at acts %all be deem$ public (f5ses1 or crimes1 & to make laws = secur+ ju/ice to ! citiz5s 9 _! deal+s & g5]al int]c\rse ) ea* o!r2 b to judge ( & apply ! laws2 t is1 to det]m9e :at ! law is & :e!r x has be5 brok51 & to fix ! j measure ( damage or ( puni%m5t1 & to ord] su* decision to be c>ri$ into effect1 are duties :i*1 z has be5 obs]v$1 h be5 wisely assign$ to a sep>ate & di/9ct dep>tm5t4 7,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,sec4#g47 ,sec4#c4 ,a gov]nm5t )\t "s p[] to decide disputes1 to aw>d ju/ice1 & to puni% crime accord+ to ! laws ( ! /ate1 w\ld n be complete4 ,to all[ e man to be 8 own judge 9 cases ( suppos$ injury1 & to r$ress 8 own wrongs1 w\ld endang] ! rights ( o!rs4 ,ju/ice is be/ secur$ to ! citiz5s by e/abli%+ c\rts = ! r$ress ( injuries & ! puni%m5t ( crimes2 & t no p]son may suff] unju/ly1 x is provid$ t e p]son *>g$ ) crime or any o!r wrong1 is entitl$ to a fair & imp>tial trial4 ,sec4#d4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( p]sons :o may be compell$ to seek relief at law1 c\rts are e/abli%$ 9 e t[n4 ,^! are c\rts ( ! l[e/ grade1 & are call$ ju/ices' c\rts1 be+ held by ju/ices ( ! peace :o are1 9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 elect$ by ! p ( ! sev]al t[ns4 ,!y are call$ ! l[e/ c\rts1 because !y h jurisdiction only 9 cases 9 :i* ! smalle/ sums or damages are claim$1 or 9 :i* only ! l[e/ (f5ses are tri$4 ,! ^w jurisdiction is f ! ,lat9 jus1 law1 or juris1 ( ! law1 & dictio1 a pron\nc+ or speak+4 ,h5ce ! jurisdiction ( a c\rt means its p[] to pron\nce ! law4 ,sec4#e4 ,al?\gh ju/ices ( ! peace are g5]ally elect$ 9 ! t[ns1 _! jurisdiction ext5ds ov] ! c\nty2 t is1 !y h p[] to try causes aris+ 9 any "p ( ! c\nty1 or betwe5 citiz5s resid+ 9 o!r t[ns4 ,! jurisdiction ( ju/ices ( ! peace is g5]ally prescrib$ by law4 ,! law prescribes ! sum t may be su$ =1 or ! am\nt ( damage t may be recov]$ 9 a ju/ice's c\rt1 & ! grade ( (f5ses t may be tri$ 9 x4 ,9 "s /ates ju/ices ( ! peace may try suits only 9 :i* ! sum 9 controv]sy does n exce$ #ej2 b 9 mo/ ( !m1 ! jurisdiction ( a ju/ice ext5ds1 x is believ$1 to sums ( #ajj or m4 ,sec4#f4 ,causes1 9 :i* money is claim$ = damage or = debt1 are call$ civil causes2 ^? = ! trial ( p]sons *>g$ ) crime1 or "s misdemeanor1 are call$ crim9al causes4 ,all crimes1 /rictly speak+1 are misdemeanors4 ,9 common usage1 h[ev]1 ! ^w misdemeanor d5otes a small] (f5se1 su* z is usually puni%able by f9e1 or by imprisonm5t 9 a c\nty jail1 & n 9 a /ate prison4 ,causes1 actions1 & suits1 are words ( simil> mean+ 9 law language1 be+ g5]ally us$ to signify prosecutions at law1 or lawsuits4 ,! p>ty t sues is call$ pla9tiff2 ! p>ty su$ is ! def5dant4 ,sec4#g4 ,prosecutions at law are conduct$ 9 ne>ly ! same mann] 9 ! diff]5t /ates4 ,! foll[+ is a sket* ( ! proce$+s 9 an ord9>y civil suit 9 a ju/ice's c\rt3 ,! ju/ice1 at ! reque/ ( ! pla9tiff1 issues a summons1 :i* is a writ or precept address$ to a con/able ( ! t[n1 9 "s /ates to any con/able ( ! c\nty1 comm&+ him to summon ! def5dant to appe> be=e ! ju/ice on a day & at an h\r specifi$1 to answ] ! pla9tiff 7nam+ him7 9 a suit1 ! nature ( :i* is /at$ 9 ! summons4 ,sec4#h4 ,! con/able s]ves ! summons by read+ x or /at+ ! sub/ance ( x to ! def5dant2 & if reque/$1 gives him a copy ( x4 ,if he does n f9d ! def5dant1 he leaves a copy at 8 place ( resid5ce ) "s "o ( ! family ( prop] age4 ,at or be=e ! "t nam$ = trial1 ! con/able returns to ! ju/ice ! summons ) an indorsem5t /at+ ! day on :i* x 0 s]v$1 & :e!r s]v$ p]sonally or by copy4 ,if s]v$ by copy1 & ! def5dant does n appe> at ! "t nam$ = trial1 a new summons is issu$1 z ! practice is 9 "s /ates--p]haps all ( !m2 & ! trial may n proce$ unless a summons has be5 p]sonally s]v$4 ,sec4#i4 ,! p>ties may appe> 9 p]son1 or by attorney4 ,an attorney is any p]son lawfully appo9t$ to transact bus9ess = ano!r2 h5ce ! ^w attorney does n always mean an attorney at law1 or lawy]1 :o is prop]ly an (fic] ( a c\rt ( law4 ,:5 ! p>ties h appe>$ & answ]$ to _! names1 !y make _! plead+s2 t is1 ! plantiff decl>es = :at he br+s 8 suit2 & ! def5dant /ates ! nature ( :at he has to (fset aga9/ ! dem& ( ! pla9tiff1 or d5ies ! dem& altoge!r4 ,^! acts ( ! p>ties are call$ jo9+ issue4 ,sec4#aj4 ,if ! p>ties are ready = trial1 ! ju/ice proce$s to try ! issue4 ,if ! witnesses h n be5 subpo5$ & are n 9 att5dance1 ! cause is adj\rn$ to a future day2 & ! ju/ice1 at ! reque/ ( ei!r p>ty1 issues a subpo5a1 :i* is a writ comm&+ p]sons to att5d 9 c\rt z witnesses4 ,! witnesses on bo? sides are exam9$ by ! ju/ice1 :o decides accord+ to law & equity1 z ! "r ( ! case may appe>1 9 :i* he is said to give judgm5t4 ,to ! am\nt ( ! judgm5t1 :e!r aga9/ ! pla9tiff or ! def5dant1 are add$ ! co/s2 = x is consid]$ to be j t ! p>ty 9 default %all pay ! exp5se ( ! suit4 ,! co/s consi/ ( ! fees or comp5sation to be paid ! ju/ice1 con/able & witnesses = _! s]vices4 ,sec4#aa4 ,if a def5dant does n appe> at ! "t ( trial1 ! ju/ice may proce$ to try ! cause1 & decide ^u ! te/imony ( ! pla9tiff's witnesses4 ,if a pla9tiff does n answ] or appe> :5 8 "n is call$ 9 c\rt1 ! ju/ice ent]s judgm5t ( nonsuit4 ,a pla9tiff may1 at any "t be=e judgm5t is r5d]$1 discont9ue or )draw 8 action1 9 :i* case also judgm5t ( nonsuit is giv54 ,9 cases ( nonsuit1 & also :5 no cause ( action is f\nd1 judgm5t is r5d]$ aga9/ ! plantiff = ! co/s4 ,sec4#ab4 ,a debtor may avoid ! exp5se ( a lawsuit by confess+ judgm5t4 ,! p>ties g be=e a ju/ice1 & ! debtor ackn[l$ges or confesses ! claim ( ! cr$itor1 & cons5ts t ! ju/ice ent] judgm5t accord+ly4 ,9 "s /ates1 ! confession & cons5t mu/ be 9 writ+1 & sign$ by ! debtor4 ,! am\nt = :i* judgm5t may be confess$ is limit$ by law1 b is1 9 "s /ates at lea/1 & p]haps 9 mo/ if n all ( !m1 l>g] ?an ! sum to :i* ! jurisdiction ( a ju/ice is limit$ 9 ord9>y suits4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,trial by ,jury2 ,execution2 ,atta*m5t2 ,appeals2 ,arre/ ( ,(f5d]s4 ,sec4#a4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice 9 c\rts ( law is n left entirely to ! ju/ices & judges4 ,p>ties may n always h suffici5t confid5ce 9 ! ability1 hone/y1 & imp>tiality ( ! ju/ice by :om a suit is to be tri$1 to intru/ _! int]e/s to 8 judgm5t4 ,!re=e ! con/itutions ( all ! /ates gu>anty to e p]son ! "r ( trial by a jury4 ,?is "r has be5 enjoy$ 9 ,engl& _m c5turies4 ,x 0 e/abli%$ "h by our ance/ors1 :o 7 pr9cipally f t c\ntry4 ,sec4#b4 ,a jury is a numb] ( m5 qualifi$ & select$ z ! law prescribes1 & sworn to try a matt] ( fact1 & to decl>e ! tru? on ! evid5ce giv5 9 ! case4 ,?is decl>+ ( ! tru? is call$ a v]dict1 :i* is f ! ,lat9 v]um dictum1 a true decl>ation or say+4 ,a jury 9 a ju/ice's c\rt consi/s 9 mo/ or all ( ! /ates1 z is believ$1 ( six m52 9 ! high] c\rts1 ( twelve m51 :o are g5]ally requir$ to be freehold]s4 ,! mann] ( select+ ! jurors is n ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,sec4#c4 ,aft] issue has be5 jo9$1 & be=e te/imony has be5 he>d1 ei!r p>ty may dem& t ! cause be tri$ by a jury4 ,:]eupon ! ju/ice issues a v5ire1 :i* is a writ or precept direct+ a con/able to summon ! requir$ numb] ( duly qualifi$ m5 to appe> be=e ! ju/ice1 to make a jury to try ! cause4 ,sec4#d4 ,! te/imony & argum5ts on bo? sides hav+ be5 he>d1 ! jurors are put "u ! *>ge ( ! con/able1 :o is sworn to keep !m 9 "s conv5i5t place1 )\t meat or dr9k1 except su* z ! ju/ice may ord]1 until !y %all h agre$ on _! v]dict1 or h be5 dis*>g$ by ! ju/ice2 & n to all[ any p]son to speak to !m dur+ su* "t1 nor to speak to !m himself1 except by ord] ( ! ju/ice1 unless to ask !m :e!r !y h agre$ on _! v]dict4 ,sec4#e4 ,all ! jurors mu/ agree 9 a v]dict2 & :5 s agre$1 !y return 9 *>ge ( ! con/able1 &1 9 op5 c\rt1 deliv] _! v]dict to ! ju/ice1 :o ent]s judgm5t accord+ to ! f9d+ ( ! jury4 ,if ! jurors1 aft] hav+ be5 out a reasonable "t1 d n all agree ^u a v]dict1 ! ju/ice may dis*>ge !m1 & issue a new v5ire1 unless ! p>ties cons5t to submit ! cause to ! ju/ice4 ,sec4#f4 ,if a judgm5t is n paid )9 ! "t prescrib$ by law1 ! ju/ice issues an execution1 :i* is a precept direct+ a con/able to collect ! am\nt ( ! judgm5t2 & au?oriz+ him to take & sell ! goods & *attels ( ! debtor1 & to make 8 returns to ! ju/ice )9 ! "t requir$4 ,goods & *attels are p]sonal or movable prop]ty1 or prop]ty o!r ?an freehold1 or real e/ate4 ,if ! money c n be collect$1 ! execution is return$ z n satisfi$4 ,if a con/able does n fai?fully obey ! directions conta9$ 9 ! execution1 he & 8 sureties become liable to pay ! judgm5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,laws h be5 pass$ 9 all ! /ates = ! b5efit ( poor m51 :o are all[$ to reta91 = ! use & com=t ( !mselves & _! families1 c]ta9 articles ( p]sonal prop]ty1 :i* may n be sold on execution2 su* z necess>y h\sehold furniture1 app>el1 b$s1 tools & implem5ts ( trade1 c4 ,! practice :i* =m]ly prevail$1 ( imprison+ debtors :o 7 unable to satisfy executions1 has be5 aboli%$1 except = f9es & p5alties4 ,sec4#h4 ,! =ego+ description ( ! proce$+s ( a ju/ice's c\rt is t ( a prosecution 9 ord9>y cases4 ,b !re are o!r modes ( prosecution 9 c]ta9 cases1 "o ( :i* is by atta*m5t4 ,an atta*m5t is a writ direct+ ! prop]ty ( a debtor to be tak51 & kept till a trial c be _h1 & judgm5t obta9$4 ,?is mode ( proce$+ is adopt$ :5 ! pla9tiff has reason to believe t a debtor conceals himself to avoid be+ prosecut$ by summons1 or is ab\t to remove 8 prop]ty or himself f ! c\nty1 or int5ds 9 "s o!r way to defraud 8 cr$itors4 ,sec4#i4 ,9 case ( an abs5t or conceal$ debtor1 ! con/able1 7z is suppos$ to be ! common practice17 leaves a copy ( ! atta*m5t1 ) an inv5tory or li/ ( ! articles ( prop]ty atta*$1 at ! def5dant's la/ place ( abode1 or1 if he _h none 9 ! c\nty1 ! copy & inv5tory are to be left ) ! p]son 9 ^: possession ! prop]ty is f\nd4 ,if ! def5dant does n appe> on ! day ( trial1 ! pla9tiff may proce$ to prove 8 dem& & take judgm5t4 ,an execution is !n issu$ aga9/ ! prop]ty atta*$4 ,sec4#aj4 ,if ei!r p>ty is dissatisfi$ ) a judgm5t r5d]$ 9 a ju/ice's c\rt1 he may appeal to a high] c\rt = trial1 or = a review ( ! judgm5t4 ,! p>ty appeal+ is call$ appellant2 ! adv]se p>ty is ! appellee or respond5t4 ,sec4#aa4 ,an important "p ( ! duties ( a ju/ice ( ! peace relates to ! arre/ & trial ( p]sons *>g$ ) crimes & misdemeanors4 ,al?\gh !y h n p[] to try high (f5ses usually call$ crimes1 !y may ord] ! appreh5sion ( p]sons *>g$ ) su* (f5ses1 & cause !m to be committ$ = trial4 ,sec4#ab4 ,a p]son kn[+ or suspect+ ano!r to h committ$ an (f5se1 may make compla9t to a judge or ju/ice ( ! peace1 :o exam9es ! compla9ant on oa?1 & witnesses1 if any appe>2 & if he is satisfi$ t an (f5se has be5 committ$1 he issues a w>rant1 direct+ ! p]son accus$ to be br\ght be=e him4 ,! compla9ant & witnesses = ! prosecution1 & next ! prison] & 8 witnesses1 are exam9$4 ,if ! (f5se is "o ( :i* ! magi/rate has jurisdiction1 he may proce$ to try ! prison]1 :o1 x w be recollect$1 is entitl$ to be tri$ by a jury4 ,sec4#ac4 ,if ! (f5se is "o :i* ! magi/rate has n p[] to try1 he b9ds ! prosecutor or compla9ant & all mat]ial witnesses to appe> & te/ify aga9/ ! prison] at ! next c\rt hav+ p[] to indict & try him4 ,& if ! (f5se is "o = :i* ! prison] may be bail$1 ! magi/rate takes bail = 8 appe>ance at c\rt4 ,if ! (f5se is n bailable1 or if no satisfactory bail is (f]$1 ! magi/rate ord]s him to be committ$ to jail to await 8 trial4 ,b1 z w be se5 h]eaft]1 he mu/ be indict$ by a gr& jury be=e he c be tri$4 7,*ap4 ,,xix41 ,sec4#g-i47 ,& 7 !re no dang] ( an (f5d]'s escape be=e he c\ld be br\ght to trial1 8 previ\s arre/ & exam9ation might be unnecess>y4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! obligation or bond giv5 by a prosecutor & witnesses = _! appe>ance at c\rt1 is sometimes call$ a recognizance4 ,!y b9d !mselves1 ) sureties1 to =feit & pay a c]ta9 sum ( money 9 case ( _! non-appe>ance4 ,a simil> bond or recognizance is giv5 9 case ( bail4 ,! p]son accus$ b9ds himself1 ) sureties1 9 su* sum z ! ju/ice requires1 :i* is to be paid if he %all n appe> = trial4 ,! ^w bail is f a ,fr5* ^w mean+ to deliv]1 or to release4 ,h5ce1 ! ju/ice bails1 sets free1 or deliv]s to 8 sureties1 ! p>ty arre/$4 ,also ! sureties are said to bail a p]son :5 !y procure 8 lib]ation4 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,c\rts o!r ?an ,ju/ices' ,c\rts2 ,gr& & ,petit ,juries1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! c\rt next high] ?an a ju/ice's c\rt1 is a c\rt held 9 ea* c\nty1 g5]ally call$ a c\nty c\rt1 or c\rt ( common pleas4 ,?is c\rt is usually held by a c\nty judge elect$ by ! electors ( ! c\nty 9 mo/ ( ! /ates2 9 "s1 appo9t$ by ! legislature2 & 9 o!rs1 by ! gov]nor1 ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! s5ate4 ,9 a few ( ! /ates ?is c\rt consi/s ( m ?an "o judge4 ,9 "s /ates1 c\nty c\rts are held by judges ( ! circuit c\rts4 ,sec4#b4 ,9 ?is c\rt are tri$ civil causes 9 :i* are claim$ sums ( great] am\nt ?an a ju/ice ( ! peace has jurisdiction (1 & crim9al causes 9 :i* are *>g$ ! l[] crimes committ$ 9 ! c\nty4 ,also causes remov$ by appeal f a ju/ice's c\rt are tri$ 9 ?is c\rt2 9 :i* cases x is said to h appellate jurisdiction4 ,c\rts are also said to h orig9al jurisdiction2 :i* means t suits may orig9ate or comm5ce 9 su* c\rts4 ,sec4#c4 ,!re is 9 e /ate at lea/ "o c\rt1 & 9 mo/ ( ! /ates !re are two or m c\rts ( high] grade ?an a c\nty c\rt4 ,!y are call$ 9 ! diff]5t /ates by diff]5t names2 z circuit c\rt1 sup]ior c\rt1 supreme c\rt1 & c\rt ( appeals4 ,a circuit c\rt probably obta9s its "n ?us3 ,a /ate is divid$ into judicial di/ricts1 9 ea* ( :i* "o or m judges are elect$1 :o g ar\nd hold+ a c\rt once a ye> or (t5] 9 ea* ( ! c\nties compos+ a judicial di/rict4 ,?is c\rt usually has bo? orig9al & appellate jurisdiction2 x be+ a "p ( its bus9ess to try appeals f ! c\nty c\rts4 ,x also tries su* ( ! high] crimes z a c\nty c\rt has n ! p[] to try4 ,c\rts 9 :i* crimes are tri$ are sometimes call$ c\rts ( oy] & t]m9]4 ,sec4#d4 ,e c\nty c\rt1 & e circuit hav+ l jurisdiction1 has a jury to try issues ( fact1 & a gr& jury4 ,an issue ( fact is :5 ! fact z to ! indebt$ness or ! guilt ( ! p>ty *>g$ is to be det]m9$ f ! te/imony4 ,an issue ( law is "o 9 :i* x is to be det]m9$ :at is ! law 9 ! case1 :i* is done by ! judge in/ead ( ! jury4 ,! jury by :i* issues ( fact are tri$1 z di/+ui%$ f a gr& jury1 is call$ a petty or petit jury4 ,x consi/s ( twelve m51 all ( :om mu/ agree 9 a v]dict4 ,sec4#e4 ,! mann] ( select+ gr& & petit jurors is prescrib$ by law4 ,a numb] ( judici\s m5 9 ea* t[n are select$ by "s p]son or p]sons lawfully au?oriz$2 & ! names ( ! m5 s select$ are writt5 on sep>ate pieces ( pap]1 & put into a box 9 ea* t[n1 & kept by ! t[n cl]k2 or z is ! practice 9 "s /ates1 ! names ( ! m5 designat$ z jurors 9 ! sev]al t[ns are s5t to ! c\nty cl]k1 & by him kept 9 a box4 ,previ\s to ! sitt+ ( ! c\rt1 ! requisite numb] is drawn out ! box2 & ! m5 ^: names are drawn1 are summon$ to att5d z jurors4 ,sec4#f4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( a gr& jury to inquire conc]n+ crimes & misdemeanors committ$ 9 ! c\nty2 & if !re appe> j gr\nds ( accusation aga9/ any p]son1 !y make to ! c\rt a pres5tm5t or =mal *>ge aga9/ him1 ^u :i* he is to be put ^u trial4 ,! numb] ( gr& jurors is n always ! same4 ,9 "s /ates !re may n be m ?an tw5ty-?ree nor less ?an twelve4 ,x is n requir$ t !y %all all agree 9 ord] to put a p]son ^u trial4 ,sec4#g4 ,on ! op5+ ( ! c\rt1 ! gr& jurors are sworn to make a true pres5tm5t ( all ?+s giv5 !m 9 *>ge4 ,! judge !n gives !m a *>ge1 & appo9ts "o ( !m =eman2 & ! jurors retire to a private ap>tm5t to att5d to _! duties4 ,!y he> all compla9ts br\ght be=e !m aga9/ p]sons = crimes & brea*es ( ! peace1 & exam9e witnesses :o appe> to te/ify2 & :5 x is reque/$1 !y h ! assi/ance & advice ( ! /ate's attorney2 or z he is call$ 9 "s /ates1 ! di/rict attorney1 or prosecut+ attorney4 ,if !y ?9k any p]son compla9$ ( ought to be tri$1 !y draw up a writ+1 9 :i* !y *>ge him ) ! (f5se ( :i* !y ?9k him guilty4 ,?is is call$ an indictm5t4 ,x is sign$ by ! =eman1 indors$ a true bill1 & c>ri$ by ! jury into c\rt4 ,if ! p]son accus$ has n be=e be5 arre/$1 he may n[ be arre/$1 & put ^u trial4 7,see ,*ap4 ,,xviii1 ,sec4#ab-ad47 ,sec4#h4 ,z gr& juries d n try crimes1 b m]ely make inquiry into !m1 "s may n readily p]ceive ! necessity ( su* juries4 ,innoc5t p]sons might be subject$ to great inconv5i5ce & exp5se 9 def5d+ !mselves 9 c\rt aga9/ ! sl&]\s reports or false accusations ( evil m9d$ p]sons4 ,x is to prev5t ?is t gr& juries are in/itut$1 :o make c>eful exam9ations into ! cases br\ght be=e !m1 & d n (t5 *>ge p]sons ) crime unless !re is a /rong probability ( _! be+ f\nd guilty on trial4 ,sec4#i4 ,s important 0 ! in/itution ( gr& juries consid]$1 t ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to :i* ! con/itutions & laws ( ! /ates mu/ con=m1 0 made to provide1 t no p]son %all be held to answ] = a capital or o!r infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or indictm5t ( a gr& jury1 except 9 c]ta9 cases4 7,con4 ,u4,s41 ,am5d4 ,art4 ,v4 ,= ! def9ition ( infam\s crime1 see ,*ap4 ,,vi41 ,sec4#g47 ,sec4#aj4 ,x is ! op9ion ( _m t ?is requirem5t ( a previ\s indictm5t by a gr& jury has ref]5ce only to ! c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & t ! /ates may disp5se ) x4 ,h5ce1 ef=ts are n[ mak+ 9 "s /ates to aboli% gr& juries4 ,x is suppos$ t an exam9ation at all times be=e a ju/ice or a judge1 :5 ! prison] c be pres5t ) 8 witnesses1 is m likely to protect him aga9/ be+ unnecess>ily subject$ to ! tr\ble & exp5se ( a trial1 ?an be=e a gr& jury1 :]e compla9ts are (t5 made by malici\s p]sons1 & su/a9$ by ! te/imony ( p>tial or corrupt witnesses4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! supreme c\rt is g5]ally ! next high]1 & 9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 ! highe/ /ate c\rt4 ,?is c\rt diff]s some:at 9 ! diff]5t /ates1 bo? 9 ! mann] ( its =mation & 9 its jurisdiction4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 to h1 9 ! /ates g5]ally1 bo? orig9al & appellate jurisdiction1 civil & crim9al4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york & a few o!r /ates1 !re is "o high] c\rt1 call$ c\rt ( appeals1 :i* has appellate p[] only4 ,its bus9ess is to review cases f ! supreme c\rt4 ,sec4#ab4 ,suits 9 ! c\nty1 circuit1 & supreme c\rts1 are comm5c$ by a writ1 79 "s /ates a summons or a decl>ation17 :i* is s]v$ by ! %]iff ( ! c\nty 9 :i* ! suit is to be tri$4 ,he also s]ves w>rants & executions issu$ by ^! c\rts4 ,a %]iff is to ^! c\rts :at a con/able is to a ju/ice's c\rt4 ,8 p[]s & duties h be5 else:]e describ$4 7,*ap4 ,,xiv41 ,sec4#h47 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,*anc]y or ,equity ,c\rts2 ,probate ,c\rts2 ,c\rt ( ,impea*m5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,x might be suppos$1 t 9 in/itut+ ! c\rts :i* h be5 describ$1 all necess>y provision _h be5 made = secur+ ju/ice to ! citiz5s4 ,b _m cases arise 9 :i* ju/ice & equity c n be obta9$ 9 ^! c\rts4 ,to af=d relief 9 su* cases1 a c\rt has be5 e/abli%$ call$ a c\rt ( equity1 or c\rt ( *anc]y4 ,:at (t5 r5d]s x impossible to get ju/ice 9 ord9>y c\rts ( law1 is ! want ( witnesses2 b 9 a c\rt ( equity ! p>ties may !mselves be put on oa?4 ,sec4#b4 ,a debtor1 to avoid ! paym5t ( 8 debts1 may conceal 8 prop]ty or 8 money2 b ?is c\rt may compel him to disclose & give up ! same to satisfy an execution2 & x may prev5t p]sons indebt$ to him f mak+ paym5t to him4 ,a p]son refus+ to fulfill a contract may1 9 c\rts ( common law1 only be su$ = damage2 b ?is c\rt may 9 c]ta9 cases compel him to fulfill ! contract itself4 ,x may also re/ra9 individuals & corporations f committ+ fraudul5t acts1 & prev5t p]sons f committ+ wa/es on l& & c]ta9 o!r injuries1 until ! "r at law c be tri$4 ,sec4#c4 ,c\rts ( *anc]y 7 e/abli%$1 x is believ$1 9 a majority ( ! old /ates4 ,b sep>ate & di/9ct organizations call$ *anc]y c\rts1 n[ exi/ 9 b a few /ates2 ! p[] to try suits 9 equity hav+ be5 giv5 to ! judges ( ! common law c\rts4 ,sec4#d4 ,suits 9 equity are n comm5c$ z suits at law4 ,! pla9tiff prep>es a bill ( compla9t1 ! facts /at$ 9 :i* are sworn to by himself4 ,! bill1 :i* conta9s a petition or pray] t ! def5dant may be summon$ to make answ] on oa?1 is fil$ ) ! cl]k ( ! c\rt1 :o issues a subpo5a comm&+ ! def5dant to appe> be=e ! c\rt on a day nam$4 ,a trial may be _h on ! compla9t & answ] alone2 or witnesses may be introduc$ by ! p>ties4 ,! case is argu$ by c\nsel1 & a decree is pron\nc$ by ! c\rt1 :i* ! c\rt has p[] to c>ry into effect4 ,sec4#e4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( c\rts :i* are 9 _! nature diff]5t f ord9>y law c\rts1 & are call$ probate c\rts4 ,!re is 9 e c\nty a probate c\rt held by a judge ( probate1 ^: duties relate to ! prov+ ( wills & ! settl+ ( ! e/ates ( p]sons deceas$4 ,a w is a writ+ 9 :i* a p]son gives directions conc]n+ ! disposal ( 8 prop]ty aft] 8 dea?4 ,! ,lat9 ^w probatus means pro(2 f :i* probate has come to be appli$ to ! prov+ ( a w4 7,see ,wills & ,te/am5ts47 ,9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york ! judge ( ?is c\rt is call$ surrogate1 & ! c\rt is call$ surrogate's c\rt4 ,sec4#f4 ,!re is /ill ano!r c\rt 9 e /ate1 :i* is n a common law c\rt4 ,x is ! c\rt ( impea*m5t4 ,! "n is appli$ to ! s5ate :5 sitt+ on a trial ( impea*m5t4 ,an impea*m5t is a *>ge or accusation aga9/ a public (fic] = corrupt conduct 9 8 (fice2 z if a gov]nor1 = money (f]$ him1 %\ld approve & sign a law2 or a judge %\ld1 = money or f "s o!r selfi% or p]sonal motive1 give a wrong judgm5t4 ,! con/itution gives to ! h\se ( repres5tatives ! p[] to impea*1 & to ! s5ate ! p[] to try ! p]sons impea*$4 ,?is practice has come f ,great ,brita91 :]e ! impea*m5t is made by ! h\se ( commons1 & ! h\se ( lords is ! high c\rt ( impea*m5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives1 9 a case ( impea*m5t1 acts 9 ne>ly ! same mann] z a gr& jury 9 a c\rt ( law4 ,a compla9t is made to ! h\se2 & if1 ^u exam9ation1 !re appe> to a majority ( ! memb]s pres5t suffici5t gr\nds = ! *>ge1 an accusation 9 writ+ is prep>$1 call$ articles ( impea*m5t1 & deliv]$ to ! s5ate4 ,9 "s /ates1 a majority ( ! memb]s elect$ is necess>y to impea*4 ,! presid5t ( ! s5ate ord]s ! c\rt to be summon$4 ,! accus$ is br\ght be=e ! c\rt to answ] to ! *>ge1 & has c\nsel assign$ him4 ,! s5ators are sworn truly to try & det]m9e ! impea*m5t accord+ to evid5ce2 & a day is fix$ = trial4 ,sec4#h4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives usually *oose f _! numb] a committee ( manag]s to conduct ! trial1 ! proce$+s 9 :i* are ! same z 9 law c\rts4 ,! s5ators retire & delib]ate z jurors 9 su* c\rts4 ,two-?irds ( ! s5ators--9 "s /ates two-?irds ( all ! s5ators elect$--mu/ concur 9 ord] to convict ! p]son accus$4 ,if a p]son is convict$1 ! c\rt may remove him f (fice1 or disqualify him to hold any (fice 9 ! /ate1 = a "t1 or = life2 or may bo? remove & disqualify him4 ,?is c\rt c pron\nce no o!r s5t5ce4 ,b if ! act committ$ is a crime1 ! (f5d] may also be indict$1 tri$1 & puni%$ 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice4 ,sec4#i4 ,judicial (fic]s may also be remov$ by ! gov]nor on address ( ! legislature4 ,if a judge is suspect$ ( corrupt conduct 9 8 (fice1 or ( be+ incompet5t to dis*>ge its duties1 compla9t is made to ! legislature1 & ! p>ty compla9$ ( is notifi$1 & an opportunity is giv5 him ( be+ he>d 9 8 def5se4 ,if bo? bran*es1 by ! requir$ majorities1 concur 9 ! op9ion t he ought to be remov$1 !y address ! gov]nor1 sett+ =? _! reasons = ! removal4 ,if ! gov]nor consid]s ! reasons suffici5t1 ! (fic] is remov$4 ,?is mode ( removal does n exi/ 9 all ! /ates4 ,9 ,new ,york1 & p]haps 9 a few o!r /ates1 ! legislature makes ! removal )\t ! concurr5ce ( ! gov]nor2 & 9 t /ate "s ( ! l[] judicial (fic]s may be remov$ by ! s5ate on ! recomm5dation ( ! gov]nor4 ,9 a few /ates1 judges are n removable by impea*m5t4 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,assessm5t & ,collection ( ,taxes4 ,sec4#a4 ,e gov]nm5t mu/ h ! p[] ( provid+ means = its support4 ,! money :i* is ne$$ to pay ! exp5ses ( adm9i/]+ ! gov]nm5t1 if ! /ate has no p]man5t s\rce ( rev5ue1 or income1 mu/ be rais$ by taxation4 ,a tax is a rate or sum ( money assess$ ^u ! p]son or prop]ty ( a citiz5 = ! use ( ! /ate4 ,:5 assess$ ^u ! p]son1 x is call$ a poll-tax1 or capitation tax1 be+ a c]ta9 sum on e poll1 or head4 ,b z p]sons ought g5]ally to contribute to ! public exp5ses accord+ to _! ability1 taxes are m j & equal :5 laid ^u ! prop]ty ( ! citiz5s4 ,few poll-taxes are levi$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,sec4#b4 ,!re are c]ta9 k9ds ( prop]ty :i* are exempt f taxation2 su* z ! corporate prop]ty ( ! /ate1 ( c\nties1 & ( t[ns1 includ+ ! build+s 9 :i* ! public bus9ess is done1 ! prisons1 jails1 asylums1 c41 & ! l&s atta*$ to !m2 s*ool-h\ses & meet+-h\ses1 ) ! l&s atta*$2 bury+-gr\nds1 & ! prop]ty ( lit]>y & *>itable in/itutions4 ,b ! prop]ty ( bus9ess corporations1 z rail-road1 bank+1 insurance1 manufactur+1 & o!r /ock companies1 l t ( individuals1 is liable to taxation4 ,real e/ate1 or real prop]ty1 is l& ) ! build+s & o!r articles erect$ or gr[+ !reon4 ,p]sonal e/ate1 or p]sonal prop]ty1 consi/s ( movables1 z goods1 *attels1 money1 & debts due f solv5t debtors4 ,sec4#c4 ,z ! prop]ty ( e p]son is to be assess$ 9 proportion to its value1 x is necess>y1 fir/1 to make a correct valuation ( all ! taxable prop]ty4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! assessor or assessors pass ?r\gh ! t[n1 & make a li/ ( ! names ( all ! taxable inhabitants1 & ! e/imat$ value ( ! prop]ty1 real & p]sonal1 ( ea*2 & returns ( ! same are made to ! prop] c\nty (fic]s1 :o cause ! tax-li/ = ea* t[n to be made out1 & ord] ! taxes to be collect$4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 "s /ates1 p]sons liable to taxation are !mselves requir$ to furni% li/s ( all _! taxable prop]ty1 pr9t$ blank li/s hav+ be5 previ\sly di/ribut$ among !m = ?is purpose4 ,to secure an accurate valuation1 ! assessors1 7call$ also li/]s17 may require p]sons to make oa? t !y h made a true /atem5t ( _! prop]ty & its value4 ,9 /ates :]e ! polls ( ! tax-pay]s are assess$1 ^! also are set d[n 9 ! li/s at su* sums z ! law directs to be affix$ to ea* poll4 ,sec4#e4 ,be=e a tax-li/ c be made out1 x mu/ be kn[n :at am\nt is to be collect$ 9 ea* t[n4 ,?is am\nt is made up ( ?ree p>ts3 ,fir/1 ! sum want$ to pay ! exp5ses ( ! t[n = ! prec$+ ye>2 secondly1 ! t[n's %>e ( ! c\nty exp5ses2 & ?irdly1 its proportional %>e ( ! exp5ses ( ! /ate gov]nm5t1 or ( :at is to be rais$ = /ate purposes4 ,sec4#f4 ,! apportionm5t ( ! am\nt ( ! /ate & c\nty exp5ses among ! sev]al t[ns1 is made accord+ to ! am\nt ( prop]ty 9 ea* z valu$ by ! assessors4 ,! /ate auditor or controll]1 hav+ receiv$ f ! sev]al c\nties returns ( ! value ( ! prop]ty 9 ea* c\nty1 is enabl$ to det]m9e its quota ( ! am\nt to be rais$ = /ate purposes4 ,to ea* c\nty's %>e ( ! /ate exp5ses is add$ ! sum to be rais$ 9 ! c\nty = c\nty purposes2 & ! am\nt is apportion$ among ! t[ns 9 proportion to ! value ( ! assess$ prop]ty ( ea*4 ,!n add+ to ea* t[n's %>e ( ! am\nt ( ! /ate & c\nty exp5ses1 ! am\nt to be rais$ = t[n purposes1 gives ! sum to be collect$ 9 ! t[n4 ,sec4#g4 ,hav+ ?us asc]ta9$ ! sum to be rais$ 9 ea* t[n1 ! (fic]s ^: duty x is1 cause a tax-li/ to be made out1 9 :i* ! am\nt ( ea* p]son's tax is set opposite 8 "n & ! e/imat$ value ( 8 prop]ty4 ,! tax-li/ ( ea* t[n1 c]tifi$ & sign$ by ! prop] p]sons1 is put into ! h&s ( ! collector1 ) a w>rant ord]+ ! same to be collect$4 ,sec4#h4 ,! money collect$ = c\nty & /ate purposes is paid to ! c\nty treasur]1 :o pays to ! /ate treasur] ! am\nt rais$ 9 ! c\nty = /ate exp5ses1 & reta9s ! rema9d] to be exp5d$ 9 ! c\nty4 ,! money collect$ = t[n purposes is paid to su* p]sons 9 ! t[n z are by law au?oriz$ to receive ! same4 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,education4 ,s*ool ,funds2 ,s*ools1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! prop] object ( gov]nm5t is to promote ! welf>e & happ9ess ( its citiz5s4 ,= ?is purpose1 x mu/ provide = mak+ & prop]ly adm9i/]+ laws to protect ! p 9 ! enjoym5t ( life & ! fruits ( _! labor4 ,b x %\ld g fur!r1 & make express provision = improv+ ! condition ( ! p1 especially ! less =tunate portions ( !m4 ,sec4#b4 ,! prosp]ity ( a /ate or nation dep5ds ess5tially ^u ! education ( its citiz5s4 ,?is is se5 by comp>+ ! condition ( ! p ( ?is c\ntry ) ! condition ( ! p ( ^? c\ntries :]e ! b5efits ( education are n enjoy$4 ,ignorance t5ds to make m5 idle1 vici\s1 & mis]able4 ,on ! o!r h&1 le>n+ is n only a means ( enjoym5t 9 itself1 b ( improv+ ! social condition ( a p4 ,sec4#c4 ,aga91 a free gov]nm5t is bett] adapt$ ?an any o!r to promote ! welf>e ( a nation4 ,b if ! p are n prop]ly educat$1 !y are incapable ( self-gov]nm5t4 ,& z _m p]sons are unable to pay = ! tuition ( _! *ildr51 ! safety ( ! gov]nm5t itself requires ! e/abli%m5t ( a sy/em ( education1 by :i* ! great body ( ! p may be fitt$ to dis*>ge _! social & political duties4 ,! /ates h accord+ly in/itut$ s*ool sy/ems = ! in/ruction ( *ildr5 & y\? ( all classes at ! public exp5se4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 ! s*ools are support$ only 9 "p1 9 a few ( !m :olly1 at ! exp5se ( ! /ates4 ,"s /ates h provid$ funds1 ! income ( :i* is annually appli$ to ?is object4 ,fund g5]ally signifies ! money or capital /ock employ$ 9 c>ry+ on trade or any o!r bus9ess op]ation4 ,/ate funds are ! moneys & o!r prop]ty ( ! /ate :i* are set ap>t = pay+ ! exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t1 or = ! con/ruction ( canals1 roads1 & o!r public improvem5ts4 ,! int]e/ ( ^! funds1 & ! income f o!r s\rces1 are call$ ! rev5ue4 ,sec4#e4 ,9 "s /ates1 s*ool funds are creat$ by appropriat+ ! public l&s1 :i* are l&s own$ by ! /ate z a body corporate4 ,! proce$s ( ^! l&s1 f sales or r5ts1 con/itute a "p or ! :ole ( ! s*ool fund1 ! int]e/ ( :i* is annually appli$ to ! support ( s*ools4 ,if ! income f ! s*ool fund is insuffici5t = ?is purpose1 ! defici5cy may1 z is done 9 "s /ates1 be suppli$1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 by taxation1 or f ! /ate treasury4 ,sec4#f4 ,_m ( ! new /ates h l>ge s*ool funds4 ,at an e>ly p]iod1 :ile mo/ ( ! t]ritory f :i* ^! /ates h be5 =m$ 0 yet ! prop]ty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & un9habit$1 ,congress pass$ an act by :i* a p>ticul> section ( l& 7numb] sixte57 9 e t[n%ip is res]v$ = ! support ( s*ools !re94 ,by ?is act1 "o ?irty-six? "p ( ! l&s )9 ea* ( ^! /ates has be5 ?us appropriat$1 besides small] portions grant$ = ! b5efit ( a univ]sity 9 ea* /ate4 ,^! l&s are 9 ! *>ge ( prop] (fic]s1 :o dispose ( !m1 & apply ! proce$s z ! law directs4 ,sec4#g4 ,! s*ool funds ( _m ( ! /ates h be5 l>gely increas$ by c]ta9 moneys receiv$ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #ahcg1 !re _h accumulat$ 9 ! national treasury ab\t ?irty millions ( doll>s ov] & above :at 0 ne$$ = ! support ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,by an act ( congress1 ?is surplus rev5ue 0 di/ribut$ among ! /ates !n exi/+1 to be kept by !m until call$ = by congress4 ,al?\gh congress res]v$ ! "r to recall ! money1 x 0 presum$ t x w\ld nev] be dem&$4 ,t x nev] w be1 is n[ almo/ c]ta94 ,_m ( ! /ates h appropriat$ l>ge portions ( _! respective %>es = s*ool purposes4 ,f its hav+ be5 said to be only deposit$ ) ! /ates1 ?is fund is sometimes call$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates deposit fund4 ,sec4#h4 ,s*ool moneys com+ f ! /ate treasury1 or /ate fund1 are usually apportion$ among ! sev]al t[ns ( ! /ate2 & ea* t[n's %>e ( su* moneys1 toge!r ) :at may come to ! t[n by taxation or f its s*ool l&s1 is divid$ among ! sev]al di/ricts accord+ to ! numb] ( *ildr5 betwe5 c]ta9 ages 9 ea* di/rict1 or 9 su* o!r mann] z may be direct$ by law4 ,if ! moneys ?us receiv$ are insuffici5t to pay ! wages ( tea*]s1 a rate bill is made out 9 ea* di/rict = ! defici5cy1 & collect$ f ! p]sons ^: *ildr5 h be5 taught 9 ! s*ools4 ,sec4#i4 ,! t[ns1 or t[n%ips1 are divid$ into di/ricts ( suitable size = s*ools1 :i* are call$ di/rict s*ools4 ,f _! be+ support$ by a common fund1 & design$ = ! common b5efit1 or f ! l[] or m common bran*es be+ taught 9 !m1 !y are also call$ common s*ools4 ,"o or m tru/ees or directors are *os5 9 ea* di/rict to manage its affairs2 a cl]k to notify meet+s & record ! proce$+s ( ! same2 & a collector to collect taxes = build+ & repair+ s*ool-h\ses1 & all rate bills = ! paym5t ( tea*]s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! highe/ s*ool (fic] is ! /ate sup]9t5d5t ( common s*ools1 or1 z he is sometimes call$1 sup]9t5d5t ( public in/ruction4 ,! sup]9t5d5t collects in=mation relat+ to ! s*ools2 ! numb] ( *ildr5 resid+ 9 ea* di/rict1 & ! numb] taught2 ! am\nt paid = tuition2 ! numb] ( s*ool-h\ses1 & ! am\nt ye>ly exp5d$ 9 erect+ s*ool-h\ses2 & o!r matt]s conc]n+ ! op]ation & effects ( ! common s*ool sy/em4 ,if !re is no o!r (fic] ^: duty x is1 ! sup]9t5d5t also apportions ! money aris+ f ! /ate funds among ! sev]al c\nties4 ,he reports to ! legislature at e session ! in=mation he has collect$1 & sugge/s su* improvem5ts 9 ! s*ool sy/em z he ?9ks ought to be made4 ,sec4#aa4 ,!re is 9 e c\nty an (fic] :o receives f ! /ate sup]9t5d5t ! money apportion$ to ! c\nty1 & apportions ! same among ! t[ns2 reports to ! /ate sup]9t5d5t ! numb] ( *ildr5 9 ! c\nty2 & p]=ms su* o!r duties z ! law requires4 ,9 "s /ates1 !re is no su* c\nty (fic]2 b ! money is apportion$ by ! /ate sup]9t5d5t among ! t[ns2 & ! reports f ! t[ns are made directly to ! /ate sup]9t5d5t4 ,sec4#ab4 ,9 ! t[ns are (fic]s ^: duties are to exam9e tea*]s1 visit s*ools1 apportion ! s*ool moneys among ! di/ricts1 & to collect ! li/s ( ! numb] ( *ildr5 9 ! sev]al di/ricts1 ) su* o!r in=mation z ! law requires1 & report ! same to ! c\nty (fic]1 or1 if !re is none1 to ! /ate sup]9t5d5t4 ,9 "s /ates1 !re is 9 ea* c\nty an (fic] or a bo>d ( (fic]s1 = exam9+ tea*]s1 & p]=m+ c]ta9 o!r duties relat+ to ! s*ools ( ! c\nty4 ,sec4#ac4 ,academies & colleges also receive aid f ! /ate1 to a limit$ ext5t4 ,a di/9ct fund is creat$ 9 "s /ates = _! b5efit2 9 o!rs1 !y are aid$ by special appropriations f ! /ate treasury4 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,canals & ,rail-,roads4 ,sec4#a4 ,9 c>ry+ out ! purposes ( gov]nm5t1 provision ought also to be made to secure to ! p ! means ( obta9+ a suitable rew>d = _! indu/ry1 & to r5d] ! labor ( all1 z ne>ly z may be1 equally pr(itable4 ,sec4#b4 ,! p ( "s /ates d n possess ! same advantage z ^? ( o!rs2 nor d all ! p ( ! same /ate enjoy equal advantages4 ,^? :o reside at a great di/ance f m>ket1 or f navigable wat]s & good roads1 are n s well rew>d$ = _! labor z ^? :o reside ne> !m1 because ( ! great] co/ ( ! transportation1 bo? ( :at !y h to sell1 & ( ! goods !y buy4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( good roads1 canals1 or o!r means ( facilitat+ trade betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! /ate4 ,sec4#c4 ,among ! works int5d$ to effect ?is object1 canals are p]haps ! mo/ useful1 & are to be pref]r$ :]ev] _! con/ruction is practicable4 ,canals are sometimes con/ruct$ by incorporat$ companies2 b g5]ally ^! works1 especially ^? ( great magnitude1 are made by ! /ate1 & are ! prop]ty ( ! /ate4 ,al?\gh !re are "s /ates 9 :i* are no canals ( ?is k9d1 x may be int]e/+ to "y p]sons g5]ally to "k h[ s important a /ate "w is made4 ,sec4#d4 ,to raise ! money necess>y to make a canal1 ! legislature might levy a g5]al tax ^u ! prop]ty ( ! citiz5s4 ,b ?is w\ld n be exp$i5t or j2 because1 fir/1 ! paym5t ( s l>ge a sum by ! p )9 ! "t 9 :i* x w\ld be desirable to complete ! "w1 w\ld be inconv5i5t & burd5some2 & secondly1 ! exp5se mu/ fall alike ^u ! p ( all p>ts ( ! /ate3 :]eas1 ^? resid+ mo/ remotely f ! l9e ( ! "w1 w\ld d]ive f x little or no b5efit4 ,sec4#e4 ,:51 !re=e1 a great ent]prise ( ?is k9d is und]tak5 by a /ate1 ! law au?oriz+ ! "w usually provides a fund1 ! income ( :i* is to be appli$ to ?is object4 ,?is fund consi/s ( su* l&s1 prop]ty1 & moneys z ! legislature may grant = ?is purpose4 ,funds 7 ?us con/itut$ 9 "s ( ! we/]n /ates1 to :i* funds congress made grants ( ! public l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ly+ )9 ^? /ates4 ,sec4#f4 ,^! funds1 h[ev]1 furni% b a "p1 "s ( !m b a small portion ( ! money necess>y to complete ! "w2 & "s /ates und]tak+ public improvem5ts may n h ! l&s or o!r prop]ty to con/itute su* a fund4 ,! /ate !re=e borr[s ! money = a long t]m ( ye>s1 & dep5ds ^u ! income ( ! canal fund & ! tolls to be collect$ on ! canals1 = ! repaym5t ( ! money borr[$4 ,%\ld ! rev5ues ( ! canal & ( ! canal fund be insuffici5t1 ! defici5cy may be suppli$ by taxation4 ,sec4#g4 ,! bus9ess ( borr[+ ! money is done on ! "p ( ! /ate1 by p]sons duly au?oriz$1 :o give = ! money borr[$ ! bonds ( ! /ate1 :i* are writt5 promises to pay ! money at ! times specifi$1 ) int]e/ at ! rate agre$ on2 ! int]e/ g5]ally to be paid semi-annually4 ,^! bonds are usually giv5 9 sums ( #a1jjj ea*1 or less4 ,! debts ( a /ate ?us contract$ by issu+ bonds1 are call$ /ate /ocks1 z ! capital1 or /ock requir$ to con/ruct a /ate "w is obta9$ by ! sale ( its bonds4 ,^! bonds1 l ! c]tificates ( /ock 9 a rail-road or o!r corporate bus9ess company1 are transf]able1 & may be b\ght & sold z promissory notes1 & con/itute an important article ( trade4 ,sec4#h4 ,^! /ocks are tak5 by m5 :o h l>ge sums ( money to l5d1 & :o consid] ! /ate a responsible debtor2 because1 if x has no o!r suffici5t means ( pay+ its bonds1 ! legislature has p[] to raise ! money by taxation4 ,mo/ ( ! /ates h contract$ debts 9 ?is mann] = v>i\s purposes4 ,/ate /ocks are pur*as$ & held n only by capitali/s 9 ?is c\ntry1 b by _m 9 ,europe4 ,sec4#i4 ,(fic]s are appo9t$ to manage ! canal fund1 & o!rs to sup]9t5d ! canals4 ,!re are also (fic]s1 call$ canal collectors1 at suitable di/ances along ! canals1 to collect ! tolls1 :i* are *>ges paid by ! ma/]s or own]s ( boats = ! use ( ! canal4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! /ates ( ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 & "s o!r we/]n /ates1 h prosecut$ ! canal ent]prise on a l>ge scale4 ,al?\gh l>ge debts h be5 contract$ = ! con/ruction ( canals 9 ^! /ates1 ! b5efits d]iv$ f !m m ?an comp5sate = ! va/ exp5se ( _! con/ruction4 ,sec4#aa4 ,rail-roads1 al?\gh !y are ( public utility1 are n prop]ly public works1 be+ con/ruct$ by companies incorporat$ = t purpose4 ,! necessity = an act ( incorporation is readily se54 ,rail-roads pass ?r\gh ! l&s ( private individuals2 & )\t ! au?ority ( law1 ! l& ( no p]son c be tak5 = su* purpose2 nor c a law au?orize x to be tak51 unless ! "w is "o ( g5]al advantage2 nor ev5 9 su* case1 )\t comp5sation to ! own] = 8 l&2 = x is decl>$ by ! /ate con/itutions1 t private prop]ty %all n be tak5 = public use )\t j comp5sation4 ,sec4#ab4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! legislature deem a propos$ railroad to be ( public utility1 !y pass an act to incorporate a company ) ! requisite p[]s to con/ruct ! road1 on mak+ comp5sation = ! l&1 ! value ( :i* is to be e/imat$ 9 su* mann] z ! law prescribes4 ,! law also prescribes ! mann] 9 :i* ! affairs ( ! road are to be conduct$4 ,sec4#ac4 ,! am\nt ( capital to be employ$ by ! company1 is m5tion$ 9 ! act ( incorporation1 or *>t]1 & is rais$ 9 ?is way3 ,! am\nt ( ! capital1 or /ock1 is divid$ into %>es ( #ajj1 or less4 ,p]sons wi%+ to inve/ money 9 ! road1 subscribe ! numb] ( %>es !y w respectively take4 ,:5 all ! %>es are ?us sold & ! money is paid 91 ! company is ready to proce$ to ! con/ruction ( ! road4 ,! own]s ( ^! %>es are call$ /ockhold]s1 :o *oose f among !mselves su* numb] ( directors z ! *>t] au?orizes4 ,! directors elect f _! numb] a presid5t4 ,sec4#ad4 ,p]sons buy+ %>es receive c]tificates sign$ by ! prop] (fic]s1 /at+ ! numb] ( %>es = :i* ea* c]tificate is giv54 ,! hold]s ( ^! c]tificates1 if !y wi% to make o!r use ( ! money !y h inve/$ 9 ! bus9ess1 may sell _! /ock to o!rs1 to :om !y pass _! c]tificates1 :i* are evid5ce ( ! am\nt ( /ock pur*as$4 ,?us ^! c]tificates are b\ght & sold z promissory notes4 ,sec4#ae4 ,/ockhold]s dep5d1 = ! reimbursem5t ( _! capital1 ^u ! money to be receiv$ = ! transportation ( pass5g]s & freight4 ,su* portion ( ! income ( ! road z rema9s aft] pay+ all exp5ses ( runn+ & repairs1 is divid$ semi-annually among ! /ockhold]s4 ,h5ce ! sums ?us divid$ are call$ divid5ds4 ,! e>n+s ( "s roads are s l>ge z to make ! inve/m5t a pr(itable "o2 s t ! hold] ( %>es is enabl$ to sell !m at an advance4 ,:5 %>es 9 ! /ock ( any in/itution are sold at _! nom9al value1 ! price nam$ 9 ! c]tificates1 ! /ock is said to be at p>4 ,:5 !y are sold = m or less ?an _! nom9al value1 !y are said to be above or bel[ p>4 ,9 l>ge comm]cial cities1 z ,new ,york1 ,bo/on1 ,philadelphia1 & o!rs1 ! pur*ase & sale ( /ate /ocks1 & /ocks 9 rail-roads1 banks1 c41 is a regul> & ext5sive bus9ess ( capitali/s4 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,banks & ,insurance ,companies4 ,sec4#a4 ,banks1 we are told1 7 fir/ in/itut$ 9 ,italy1 :]e c]ta9 ,jews assembl$1 seat$ on b5*es1 ready to l5d money1 & to ex*ange money & bills2 & banco be+ ! ,italian "n = b5*1 banks took _! title f ?is ^w4 ,! fir/ banks are said to h be5 only places :]e money 0 laid up or deposit$ = safe-keep+4 ,b banks at ! pres5t day are n us$ = deposit+ alone4 ,sec4#b4 ,banks 9 ?is c\ntry c be e/abli%$ only by au?ority ( law4 ,!y are incorporat$ by an act ( ! legislature4 ,! capital /ock is rais$ by ! sale ( %>es1 & issue ( c]tificates1 z 9 ! case ( rail-roads4 7,*ap4 ,,xxiii41 ,sec4#ac47 ,! /ockhold]s elect ( _! numb] 7usually7 ?irte5 directors1 :o *oose "o ( !mselves z presid5t4 ,! presid5t & directors *oose a ca%i] & cl]ks4 ,sec4#c4 ,m]*ants & o!rs 9 comm]cial places1 deposit 9 banks1 = safe-keep+1 ! money !y receive 9 ! c\rse ( bus9ess1 & !n draw x out on _! writt5 ord]s z !y h occasion to use x4 ,an ord] ( ?is k9d is call$ a *eck4 ,sec4#d4 ,p]sons deposit+ money only once1 or v seldom1 & int5d+ to draw = ! same at once1 usually receive f ! ca%i] a c]tificate ( deposit1 :i* /ates ! "n ( ! depositor1 ! sum deposit$1 & to ^: ord] x is to be paid4 ,= ! use ( money deposit$ = any consid]able p]iod1 banks agree to pay int]e/1 usually less1 h[ev]1 ?an ! rate e/abli%$ by law4 ,c]tificates ( deposit may1 by indorsem5t1 be made transf]able z promissory notes & o!r negotiable pap]1 7,*ap4 ,,lx41 ,sec4#b17 & are (t5 remitt$1 in/ead ( money1 to di/ant places1 :]e1 by pres5t+ !m at a bank1 !y may1 = a trifl+ comp5sation1 be conv]t$ into money4 ,sec4#e4 ,a mat]ial "p ( ! bus9ess ( banks is to assi/ m]*ants & o!rs 9 transmitt+ money to di/ant places4 ,?us3 ,a1 9 ,new ,york1 wi%+ to s5d #a1jjj to ,b1 9 ,philadelphia1 puts ! money into a bank 9 ,new ,york1 takes = x an ord]1 call$ draft1 on a bank 9 ,philadelphia1 = t am\nt1 to be paid to ,b4 ,! draft is s5t by mail to ,b1 :o pres5ts 8 draft at ! bank1 & receives ! money2 & ! bank *>ges ! am\nt to ! ,new ,york bank4 ,sec4#f4 ,b p]sons unacqua9t$ ) comm]cial bus9ess1 especially "y p]sons1 may n "k h[ ! bank 9 ,philadelphia is to be repaid4 ,9 ! c\rse ( trade betwe5 ! two cities1 bus9ess m5 are con/antly remitt+ money bo? ways ?r\gh ! banks1 :i* ?us receive ! money & draw ^u ea* o!r4 ,?us millions ( doll>s may be annually transmitt$ betwe5 ! two cities1 )\t any exp5se except ! small *>ge ( ! banks = do+ ! bus9ess1 & )\t ! risk ( loss by accid5t or robb]y :i* att5ds ! conveyance ( money 9 p]son4 ,sec4#g4 ,banks also l5d money4 ,! borr[] gives a note = ! sum want$1 sign$ by himself1 & indors$ by "o or m o!rs z sureties4 ,! ca%i] pays ! money = ! note1 reta9+ out ( x ! int]e/ on ! sum l5t1 in/ead ( wait+ = x until ! note becomes due4 ,?is is call$ disc\nt+ a note4 ,sec4#h4 ,! bills ( banks pass z money4 ,a bank bill or note is a promise ( ! bank to pay ! be>] a c]ta9 sum on dem&1 sign$ by ! presid5t & ca%i]4 ,x passes z money1 because ! bank is b\nd to pay x 9 specie if x is dem&$4 ,pay+ notes ?us is r$eem+ !m4 ,:5 a bank is unable to r$eem all its bills1 x is said to h fail$1 or to be brok52 & ! bill hold]s suff] loss1 unless "s security has be5 provid$4 ,?is has be5 done 9 "s /ates by mak+ ! /ockhold]s individually liable = ! r$emption ( ! bills2 t is1 ! prop]ty own$ by !m z individuals may be tak5 & sold on execution = t purpose4 ,su* security1 h[ev]1 has nev] be5 g5]ally provid$4 ,sec4#i4 ,b a sy/em ( bank+1 sometimes call$ free bank+1 has m rec5tly be5 adopt$ 9 "s /ates4 ,x is s call$1 because ! bus9ess ( bank+ is ?r[n op5 to all by a g5]al law4 ,any p]son1 or any numb] ( p]sons1 may1 by comply+ ) ! provisions ( ?is g5]al law1 e/abli% a bank )\t a special law = ?is purpose4 ,h5ce x is also call$ ! g5]al bank+ sy/em4 ,sec4#aj4 ,p]sons1 be=e comm5c+ bus9ess "u ?is law1 mu/ put into ! h&s ( ! prop] /ate (fic]s ample securities = ! r$emption ( _! bills2 & !y may n issue bills to a great] am\nt ?an ! am\nt ( _! securities4 ,^! securities mu/ consi/ ( approv$ /ate /ocks1 or ,unit$ ,/ates /ocks1 or p>tly ( public /ocks1 & p>tly ( real e/ate4 ,:5 a bank fails1 ! l&s & /ocks held 9 pl$ge by ! /ate are sold1 & ! avails are appli$ to ! r$emption ( ! bills4 ,?is sy/em ( bank+ seems to be gr[+ into public favor4 ,sec4#aa4 ,insurance companies also are au?oriz$ by law4 ,_! bus9ess is to insure p]sons aga9/ loss by fire4 ,! corporators1 on be+ paid a small sum1 consi/+ g5]ally ( a c]ta9 p]c5tage on ! am\nt = :i* ! prop]ty is insur$1 promise to pay su* am\nt if ! prop]ty %all be de/roy$ by fire4 ,!re are companies also = insur+ vessels at sea2 & life insurance companies1 t agree to pay1 9 case ( ! dea? ( ! p]son insur$1 a c]ta9 sum = ! b5efit ( 8 family1 or ( "s o!r p]son nam$ 9 ! policy4 ,! ^w policy z "h us$1 means ! writ+ conta9+ ! t]ms or conditions on :i* ! company agrees to indemnify ! p]son insur$ 9 case ( loss4 ,! money paid to obta9 insurance1 is call$ premium4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! pr(its ( ! /ockhold]s consi/ ( ! excess ( money receiv$ = premiums ov] ! am\nt paid out = losses4 ,?us1 if a company has issu$ #b1jjj policies1 ea* cov]+ prop]ty ( an av]age am\nt ( #a1jjj1 ! am\nt ( risk is #b1jjj1jjj2 & if ! rate ( insurance is "o p] c5t41 ! am\nt receiv$ 9 premiums is #bj1jjj4 ,h5ce1 if none ( ! #b1jjj build+s is burn$ )9 ! "t ! insurance is to run1 ! #bj1jjj are ga9$4 ,if t5 ( !m %\ld be burn$1 !re w\ld /ill be a ga9 ( #aj1jjj4 ,if tw5ty %\ld be de/roy$1 !re w\ld be no ga91 b an actual loss to ! am\nt ( ! exp5ses ( ! conc]n4 ,sec4#ac4 ,b f ! av]age numb] & am\nt ( losses annually = _m ye>s1 companies are enabl$ s to fix ! rates ( insurance z to give ! /ockhold]s a fair pr(it on _! capital4 ,! rates are n ! same on all k9ds ( prop]ty2 a high] p] c5tage is *>g$ on t :i* is deem$ haz>d\s1 or m expos$ to fire1 ?an on t :i* is less expos$4 ,! pr(its on ! bus9ess ( ! company1 or ! divid5ds1 z !y are call$1 are annually or semi-annually divid$ among ! /ockhold]s1 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( _! respective %>es4 ,sec4#ad4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( insurance companies1 :i* diff] mat]ially f ! /ock companies describ$ 9 ! prec$+ sections4 ,!y are mutual insurance companies4 ,!y are s call$ because ! memb]s unite 9 insur+ ea* o!r4 ,e p]son hav+ 8 prop]ty insur$ by su* a company is a memb] ( x4 ,he has 8 build+s & ! prop]ty 9 !m valu$2 & pays a c]ta9 rate p] c5t4 on su* valuation4 ,a fund is ?us rais$ out ( :i* any memb] suff]+ loss by fire is paid ! am\nt = :i* ! prop]ty 0 insur$4 ,:5 ! fund is exhau/$1 x is aga9 suppli$ by a tax assess$ ^u ! memb]s 9 proportion to ! am\nts = :i* !y are respectively insur$4 ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,! ,militia4 ,sec4#a4 ,x is ! practice ( gov]nm5ts to keep _! respective c\ntries prep>$ to def5d !mselves aga9/ =eign enemies4 ,= ?is purpose all m5 liable to d milit>y duty are enroll$1 & are requir$ to meet on c]ta9 days e ye> = in/ruction 9 ! art ( w>1 9 ord] to be ready = actual s]vice :5ev] x %all be requir$4 ,! body ( soldi]s ?us enroll$ are call$ ! militia4 ,!re are o!r words :i* are sometimes appli$ to bodies ( soldi]s2 z infantry1 :i* means ! soldi]s or troops :o s]ve on foot2 cavalry1 ! troops on horses2 artill]y1 ^? :o manage ! cannon & o!r heavy weapons ( w>4 ,b all troops are compreh5d$ 9 ! g5]al t]m1 militia4 ,sec4#b4 ,! militia ( a /ate1 or a portion ( !m1 may also be ne$$ to aid 9 execut+ ! laws ( ! /ate1 & 9 suppress+ insurrection or rebellion4 ,an insurrection is a ris+ aga9/ ! public au?ority1 or ! attempt ( p]sons to prev5t ! execution ( a law4 ,rebellion g5]ally means ne>ly ! same z insurrection2 b m prop]ly x signifies a revolt1 or an attempt to ov]?r[ ! gov]nm5t to e/abli% a diff]5t "o4 ,z x is ! duty ( an executive to see ! laws execut$1 p[] is giv5 by ! con/itution to ! gov]nor to call out a suffici5t milit>y =ce = ?is purpose4 ,sec4#c4 ,all able-bodi$ :ite male citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 betwe5 ! ages ( eighte5 & =ty-five ye>s1 are liable to p]=m milit>y s]vice 9 ! /ates 9 :i* !y reside1 except su* z are exempt by ! laws ( ! /ates & ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,p]sons exempt by ! laws ( ! /ates are g5]ally ! foll[+3 ,m9i/]s ( ! gospel2 commission$ (fic]s ( ! militia hav+ s]v$ a c]ta9 numb] ( ye>s2 memb]s ( uni=m$ companies hav+ s]v$ = a specifi$ "t2 memb]s ( fire companies2 c]ta9 public (fic]s :ile 9 (fice2 & 9 "s /ates tea*]s & /ud5ts ( colleges1 academies1 & common s*ools2 & a few o!rs4 ,sec4#d4 ,p]sons exempt by ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are ! vice-presid5t1 ! subord9ate executive & all ! judicial (fic]s ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 memb]s ( congress & its (fic]s2 cu/om-h\se (fic]s & _! cl]ks2 po/-(fic]s & driv]s ( mail /ages2 f]rym5 employ$ at f]ries on po/-roads2 pilots & m>9]s4 ,sec4#e4 ,by ! con/itutions ( ! sev]al /ates1 ! gov]nors are made ! comm&]s-9-*ief ( ! militia ( _! respective /ates2 & by ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! presid5t is made comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & also ( ! militia ( ! /ates :5 call$ out into actual s]vice4 ,x has already be5 rem>k$1 7,sec4#b17 t ! milit>y =ce ( ! /ate is at ! comm& ( ! executive to protect ! gov]nm5t & its citiz5s4 ,s ! presid5t 0 ?\ght ! prop] p]son to h comm& ( ! public =ces1 to execute ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to repel invasion1 & to c>ry on w>4 ,h5ce ! gov]nors & ! presid5t are n among ! public (fic]s :o are exempt f milit>y duty4 ,sec4#f4 ,p]sons :o1 hav+ be5 duly notifi$1 refuse to appe> at milit>y p>ades1 or1 appe>+ )\t be+ equipp$ z ! law directs1 are tri$ by a milit>y c\rt1 call$ c\rt m>tial1 consi/+ usually ( ?ree milit>y (fic]s1 or ( su* o!r p]sons z may be appo9t$ accord+ to ! law ( ! /ate4 ,if ! p]sons tri$ d n %[ good cause = _! del9qu5cy1 !y are f9$ 9 su* sums z ! law prescribes4 ,9 c]ta9 cases c\rts may consi/ ( m ?an ?ree memb]s4 ,sec4#g4 ,! highe/ militia (fic]1 except ! gov]nor1 is ! adjutant-g5]al ( ! /ate2 :o keeps a li/ ( all ! high] commission$ (fic]s1 conta9+ ! dates ( _! commissions1 _! rank1 ! corps 7pron\nc$ core7 !y belong to1 ! division1 brigade1 & regim5t1 & _! places ( resid5ce4 ,he di/ributes all ord]s f ! comm&]-9-*ief 7! gov]nor17 to ! sev]al divisions2 att5ds public reviews :]e ! comm&]-9-*ief reviews ! militia2 & obeys all ord]s f him relative to c>ry+ into execution ! sy/em ( milit>y discipl9e e/abli%$ by law4 ,sec4#h4 ,!re is also 9 "s /ates a commiss>y-g5]al1 :o has ! c>e ( ! ars5als & magaz9es1 & ! articles deposit$ 9 !m4 ,an ars5al is a build+ 9 :i* are kept cannon1 muskets1 p[d]1 balls1 & o!r w>like /ores2 all ( :i* are to be kept 9 repair & ready = use4 ,sec4#i4 ,!re are p]sons :o1 believ+ all w>s to be wrong1 c n consci5ti\sly d milit>y s]vice4 ,z x is ! object ( our gov]nm5t to secure to e p]son ! lib]ty ( consci5ce z well z o!r rights1 ! con/itutions ( _m ( ! /ates provide1 t ^? :o are av]se to be>+ arms1 may be excus$ by pay+ annually a sum ( money in/ead ( r5d]+ ! s]vice4 ,b x may well be d\bt$ :e!r compell+ a man to pay ! money is n itself a violation ( ! "r ( consci5ce4 ,_m p]sons conceive x to be no less morally wrong to commute = ! s]vice ?an to p]=m x4 ,9 "s /ates1 all p]sons belong+ to ! society ( ,fri5ds1 usually call$ ,quak]s1 are exempt )\t ! paym5t ( an equival5t 9 money4 ,sec4#aj4 ,9 ! /ates ( ,new ,york & ,ohio1 ! rank & file ( ! militia are n requir$ to tra9 9 "t ( peace4 ,p]sons liable to p]=m milit>y s]vice1 except ^? connect$ ) ! uni=m$ companies1 are enroll$ 9 ! militia2 b in/ead ( do+ duty1 !y pay annually a small tax1 :i* is 9 ,new ,york fifty c5ts1 & 9 ,ohio fifty c5ts1 or a day's highway labor4 ,sec4#aa4 ,laws aboli%+ tra9+s & mu/]s ( ! great body ( ! militia1 are1 x is believ$1 gr[+ into favor1 & = ^! among o!r reasons3 ,fir/1 ! militia sy/em produces no mat]ial improvem5t 9 discipl9e2 secondly1 ! exp5diture ( "t & money 9 ^! useless ex]cises1 & = arms & equipm5ts1 are burd5some to _m citiz5s2 & ?irdly1 !re is no probability ( an occasion requir+ a l>ge portion ( ! militia to be s sudd5ly call$ into s]vice z to all[ no "t = prep>ation4 ,volunte] companies l ^? kept up & discipl9$ 9 ! /ates above nam$1 & ! /&+ army ( ! nation1 are deem$ suffici5t = any supposable em]g5cy4 ,sec4#ab4 ,happily ! practice ( settl+ disputes betwe5 nations by w>1 is becom+ less popul> 9 civiliz$ & ,*ri/ian communities4 ,w> is a dreadful evil1 & ought to be disc\rag$1 &1 if possible1 avoid$4 ,7 gov]nm5ts s dispos$1 !y might 9 mo/ cases settle _! diff]5ces z individuals d1 by submitt+ !m to ! judgm5t ( a ?ird p>ty4 ,if ! love ( milit>y honor 7 less enc\rag$1 & ! pr9ciples ( peace duly inculcat$1 ! "t w\ld be ha/5$ :5 nations %all le>n w> no m4 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,causes ( ! ,revolution4 ,sec4#a4 ,! plan ( gov]nm5t 9 ?is c\ntry is peculi>4 ,to a p]son previ\sly unacqua9t$ ) our political in/itutions1 x might seem /range1 aft] hav+ read ! =ego+ description ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 to be told t !re is /ill ano!r & a diff]5t gov]nm5t to :i* ! p are subject4 ,h[ ! p ( m ?an ?irty /ates1 all hav+ complete & di/9ct gov]nm5ts1 c at ! same "t be subject to ano!r gov]nm5t1 also complete 9 all its p>ts1 he w\ld n imm$iately und]/&4 ,he w\ld n "k :at is meant by ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,h[ ! /ates1 all hav+ gov]nm5ts ( _! own1 c be unit$ 9 "o gov]nm5t1 he w\ld n readily p]ceive4 ,sec4#b4 ,we %all !re=e proce$ to a description ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 f :i* w appe> ! relation betwe5 t gov]nm5t & ! /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,x w also appe> t ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 ea* ( :i* has 9 itself a great deal ( ma*9]y1 all move 9 h>mony ) ! great political ma*9e--! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is easy to see t a k ( ^! gov]nm5ts is important to ! p :o live "u !m1 z e freeman ex]cises a "p ( ! gov]n+ p[]1 bo? 9 ! gov]nm5t ( 8 own /ate1 & 9 ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#c4 ,to assi/ ! read] 9 und]/&+ ! con/itution & gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we %all fir/ give a sket* ( ! gov]nm5ts :i* prec$$1 & ( ! pr9cipal causes :i* l$ to ! revolution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ?is c\ntry4 ,mo/ ( ! y\? :o are ( suffici5t age to /udy ?is "w1 probably "k t our pres5t =ms ( gov]nm5t 7 n e/abli%$ by ! e>ly settl]s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! fir/ inhabitants 7 coloni/s4 ,a colony is a settlem5t ( p]sons 9 a di/ant place or c\ntry1 :o rema9 subject to ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate or c\ntry f :i* !y remov$4 ,! ,am]ican colonies :i* h become ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 7 *iefly settl$ f ,great ,brita91 & 7 "u h] jurisdiction4 ,sec4#d4 ,! political rights & privileges enjoy$ by ! coloni/s z ,briti% subjects1 7 v limit$1 & 7 conf]r$ by ! *>t]s ( ! k+4 ,! p _h n !n1 z n[1 con/itutions ( _! own *oice4 ,!re 7 colonial gov]nm5ts2 b !y 7 su* z ! k+ 0 pleas$ to e/abli%1 & might be *ang$ at 8 pleasure4 ,^! gov]nm5ts 7 9 =m some:at simil> to t ( our /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,!re 0 :at might be call$ a legislature2 also an executive or gov]nor2 & !re 7 judges4 ,sec4#e4 ,b ( ! (fic]s ( ^! dep>tm5ts ( ! gov]nm5t1 only ! memb]s ( "o bran* ( ! law-mak+ p[] 7 elect$ by ! p4 ,! o!r bran* 0 compos$ ( a small numb] ( m51 call$ a c\ncil2 b !y 7 appo9t$ by ! k+ & subject to 8 control1 z 0 also ! gov]nor1 :o _h ! p[] ( an absolute negative or veto to any propos$ law4 ,& laws aft] hav+ receiv$ ! ass5t ( ! gov]nor1 mu/ be s5t to ,engl& & approv$ by ! k+1 be=e !y c\ld g into effect4 ,sec4#f4 ,h5ce we see t ! coloni/s _h no security = ! passage ( su* laws z !y want$4 ,& ! consequ5ce 01 t !y 7 (t5 d5i$ good & :olesome laws1 by ! refusal ( ! k+ to sanction !m4 ,n only s2 _m laws enact$ by p>liam5t 7 v unju/ & oppressive4 ,! object ( ^! laws 0 to secure to ,great ,brita9 alone ! trade ( ! colonies4 ,"o law decl>$ t no goods %\ld be import$ by ! coloni/s b 9 ,engli% vessels2 if br\ght 9 o!r vessels1 bo? ! goods & vessels 7 to be =feit$ to ! ,briti% gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,ano!r law requir$ su* articles z ,engl& want$1 to be transport$ to t c\ntry & o!r c\ntries belong+ to ,great ,brita94 ,! coloni/s 7 p]mitt$ to %ip to =eign m>kets su* products only z ,engli% m]*ants did n want4 ,!y 7 prohibit$ f sell+ abroad any wool1 y>n1 or wool5 manufactur$ goods4 ,?is 0 done to keep ! m>kets op5 = ,briti% wool & manufactures4 ,ano!r law decl>$ t no iron w>es ( any k9d %\ld be manufactur$ "h4 ,?us 0 x attempt$ to suppress manufactures 9 ! colonies4 ,sec4#h4 ,h5ce we see t x 0 ! policy ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t to compel ! coloni/s to buy ( ,engl& all ! goods !y want$ :i* !y did n !mselves produce1 & to sell to ,engl& ! surplus productions ( ! colonies4 ,= ?is purpose1 heavy duties 7 laid ^u goods import$ into ! colonies f o!r c\ntries ?an ,great ,brita9 & h] possessions4 ,^! duties 7 taxes levi$ ^u goods br\ght into ! colonies f abroad1 & 7 collect$ by (fic]s "h f ! p]sons import+ ! goods4 ,sec4#i4 ,! foll[+ facts w expla9 to ! "y read] m cle>ly ! nature & effects ( ^! duties3 ,! coloni/s trad$ ) ! ,we/ ,india isl&s1 "s ( :i* belong$ to ,great ,brita91 "s to ,france1 & "s to ,spa94 ,to secure ! :ole trade1 ! ,briti% gov]nm5t impos$ high duties ^u ! molasses1 sug> & o!r articles import$ into ! colonies f ! ,fr5* & ,spani% isl&s4 ,! p ( ! colonies c\ld !re=e avoid ! paym5t ( ^! duties only by import+ ! above m5tion$ goods f ! ,briti% isl&s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,n satisfi$ ) ^! acts1 p>liam5t claim$ ! "r to tax ! colonies1 9 all cases :atsoev]2 & an act 0 pass$ accord+ly1 lay+ duties ^u all tea1 glass1 pap]1 c41 import$ into ! colonies2 & ! money ?us collect$ 0 put into ! ,briti% treasury4 ,! coloni/s petition$ ! k+ & p>liam5t to repeal ^! obnoxi\s laws2 b _! petitions 7 d5i$4 ,hav+ giv5 up all hope ( relief1 congress1 :i* 0 a body ( delegates f ! sev]al colonies1 decl>$ ! colonies to be free & indep5d5t /ates1 no long] subject to ! gov]nm5t ( ,great ,brita94 ,?is decl>ation 0 ma9ta9$ by a w> :i* la/$ ab\t sev5 ye>s1 :5 ,great ,brita9 gave up ! conte/1 & ackn[l$g$ ! indep5d5ce ( ! /ates2 & ! revolution 0 accompli%$4 ,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,nature ( ! ,union "u ! ,conf$]ation4 ,sec4#a4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #aggd1 ! colonies unit$ 9 ! plan ( a congress1 to be compos$ ( delegates *os5 9 all ! colonies1 = ! purpose ( consult+ on ! common good & ( adopt+ measures ( resi/ance to ! claims ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t4 ,! fir/ great cont95tal congress met on ! #d? ( ,septemb]1 #aggd4 ,ano!r congress assembl$ 9 ,may1 #agge4 ,?is congress adopt$ sundry measures hav+ ref]5ce to w>1 & f9ally made ! decl>ation ( indep5d5ce1 ,july #d?1 #aggf4 ,! cont95tal congress1 ! memb]s ( :i* 7 *os5 by ! /ate legislatures1 conduct$ ! affairs ( ! nation until ne> ! close ( ! w>4 ,sec4#b4 ,) a view to a p]man5t union ( ! colonies "u a g5]al gov]nm5t1 ! congress1 9 ,novemb]1 #aggg1 agre$ ^u a frame ( gov]nm5t1 conta9$ 9 c]ta9 articles1 call$1 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & p]petual ,union betwe5 ! ,/ates4 ,^! articles 7 to g into effect :5 !y %\ld h receiv$ ! ass5t ( all ! /ates4 ,b z ! cons5t ( ! la/ /ate 7,m>yl&7 0 n obta9$ until ,m>*1 #agha1 !y w5t into op]ation only ab\t two ye>s be=e ! close ( ! w>4 ,sec4#c4 ,z a plan ( national gov]nm5t1 ! conf$]ation 0 soon f\nd to be v defective4 ,! union =m$ "u x 0 a v imp]fect "o4 ,hav+ be5 fram$ 9 "t ( w>1 x _h respect to ! op]ations ( w> r ?an to a /ate ( peace4 ,al?\gh x answ]$ "s good purpose 9 c>ry+ on ! w>1 x 0 n well adapt$ ov5 to ! condition ( ! c\ntry !n exi/+4 ,its defects appe>$ almo/ z soon z x w5t into effect2 & aft] ! return ( peace1 x 0 f\nd t ! union1 in/ead ( be+ /r5g!n$ & p]petuat$ by x1 c\ld be pres]v$ only by a radical *ange 9 ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#d4 ,! lead+ defect ( ! conf$]ation 0 its weakness4 ,congress c\ld d little m ?an to recomm5d measures4 ,z x c\ld n legislate directly ^u p]sons1 its measures 7 to be c>ri$ into effect by ! /ates2 b ! /ates 7 n 9 all cases will+1 & "s ( !m did at times refuse to d s1 & congress c\ld n compel !m4 ,x belong$ to congress to det]m9e ! numb] ( troops & ! sums ( money necess>y to c>ry on ! w>1 & to call on ea* /ate to raise its %>e2 b congress c\ld n en=ce its dem&s4 ,x borr[$ money 9 its own "n1 b x _h n ! means ( pay+ x4 ,x _h no p[] to lay & collect taxes2 ?is p[] 0 res]v$ to ! /ates4 ,sec4#e4 ,h5ce we see t congress 0 dep5d5t = e ?+ ^u ! good w ( ?irte5 indep5d5t /ates4 ,x is a wond] t a gov]nm5t ( su* inh]5t weakness %\ld br+ ! w> to a successful issue4 ,x 0 a s5se ( dang] f abroad1 r ?an any p[] 9 ! gov]nm5t1 t induc$ a suffici5t compliance ) ! ord9ances ( congress to a*ieve ! indep5d5ce ( ! /ates4 ,sec4#f4 ,on ! re/oration ( peace1 new difficulties arose4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! want ( p[] 9 congress to lay & collect taxes = w> purposes4 ,money 0 n[ want$ to dis*>ge ! public debt1 & to pay ! curr5t exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t2 yet congress _h no p[] to raise x1 ei!r by a direct tax ^u ! p]sons or prop]ty ( ! citiz5s1 or indirectly by duties on goods import$1 z at pres5t "u ! con/itution4 ,! p[] to lay & collect duties 0 ) ! /ates2 b x 0 ( little use s long z ea* /ate c\ld impose su* duties z x *ose4 ,! /ates be+ unable to agree ^u a uni=m rate ( duties1 ! goods w\ld be import$ into /ates :i* levi$ ! l[e/ duties4 ,x 0 exp$i5t1 if x _h be5 possible1 to borr[ m money on ! cr$it ( ! union1 z ! heavy debt contract$ dur+ ! w> rema9$ unpaid1 & congress _h no means ( pay+ x4 ,sec4#g4 ,b ! inability to raise money 0 n ! only difficulty t att5d$ ! want ( p[] by congress to lay duties4 ,?is p[] 0 necess>y also to regulate ! =eign trade4 ,we h already rem>k$1 t x 0 ! policy ( ,great ,brita9 be=e ! revolution to secure 9 ! colonies a m>ket = h] manufactures4 7,*ap4 ,,xxvi47 ,n only s2 %e _h by h] navigation acts1 = m ?an a hundr$ ye>s1 impos$ heavy duties ^u =eign vessels com+ into h] ports1 9 ord] to secure ! c>ry+ trade to h] own %ipp+4 ,9 addition to ?is1 %e also levi$ high duties ^u ! produce ( ! /ates s5t to pay = ! goods we 7 oblig$ to buy ( h]1 our own p n hav+ z yet ! means1 nor hav+ _h "t1 to e/abli% manufactories1 & to manufacture = !mselves4 ,sec4#h4 ,ano!r ( ! num]\s tr\bles :i* arose f ?is imp]fect union 0 ! want ( peace & h>mony betwe5 ! /ates4 ,laws 7 enact$ 9 "s /ates ) a view to _! own int]e/s1 :i* op]at$ injuri\sly ^u o!r /ates4 ,?is induc$ ! latt] /ates to retaliate1 by pass+ laws p>tial to !mselves & injuri\s to ! =m]4 ,! /ates soon became disaffect$ t[>d ea* o!r2 & _! mutual jeal\sies & rivalries & animosities at l5g? became s great z to cause fe>s t "s ( ! /ates w\ld become involv$ 9 w> among !mselves1 & t ! union w\ld be brok5 up4 ,sec4#i4 ,9 ! hope ( rem$y+ ! difficulty la/ m5tion$1 an attempt 0 made to procure ! ins]tion1 into ! articles ( conf$]ation1 ( a provision giv+ to congress ! p[] to regulate trade2 b ! attempt fail$4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #aghf1 ! legislature ( ,virg9ia propos$ a conv5tion ( commission]s f all ! /ates1 to take into consid]ation ! situation & trade ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! necessity ( a uni=m sy/em ( comm]cial regulations4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a meet+ 0 accord+ly held at ,annapolis1 9 ,septemb]1 #aghf2 b z commission]s f only five /ates att5d$1 viz41 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,delaw>e1 & ,virg9ia1 ! commission]s deem$ x unadvisable to proce$ to bus9ess relat+ to an object 9 :i* all ! /ates 7 conc]n$2 b !y unit$ 9 a report to ! sev]al /ates & to congress1 9 :i* !y recomm5d$ ! call+ ( a g5]al conv5tion ( delegates f all ! /ates1 to meet 9 ,philadelphia on ! #b;d ,monday ( ,may1 #aghg1 ) a view n only to ! regulation ( comm]ce1 b to su* o!r am5dm5ts ( ! articles ( conf$]ation z 7 necess>y to r5d] !m adequate to ! exig5cies ( ! union4 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is recomm5dation1 congress1 9 ,febru>y1 #aghg1 pass$ a resolution = assembl+ a conv5tion4 ,all ! /ates1 except ,rhode ,isl&1 appo9t$ delegates1 :o met pursuant to appo9tm5t2 & fram$ ! pres5t con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y also recomm5d$ x to be laid by congress be=e ! sev]al /ates1 to be by !m consid]$ & ratifi$ 9 conv5tions ( repres5tatives ( ! p4 ,conv5tions 7 accord+ly call$ = ?is purpose 9 all ! /ates1 except ,rhode ,isl&1 & ! con/itution 0 ratifi$ by all ( !m 9 :i* conv5tions _h be5 call$1 except ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! con/itution 0 to g into effect if ratifi$ by n9e /ates4 ,! n9? /ate1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 s5t its ratification to congress 9 ,july1 #aghh2 & measures 7 tak5 by congress to put ! new con/itution into op]ation4 ,ratifications 7 receiv$ f ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,rhode ,isl& ! ye> aft] ! organization ( ! new gov]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,nature ( ! ,union "u ! ,con/itution4 ,sec4#a4 ,hav+ giv51 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 a sket* ( ! union "u ! conf$]ation1 we %all next %[ ! nature ( ! union "u ! pres5t con/itution1 comm5c+ ) a brief comp>ison ( ! lead+ features ( ! two sy/ems ( gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#b4 ,! =m] union 0 a m]e conf$]acy4 ,a conf$]acy is a league1 a f$]al compact4 ,! ^w f$]al is f ! ,lat9 fadus1 a league1 or alliance4 ,h5ce a conf$]acy is a comb9ation or union ( two or m p>ties1 :e!r p]sons or /ates1 = _! mutual b5efit & assi/ance4 ,& let x be "h p>ticul>ly not$1 t ?is union 0 a union ( /ates1 z /ates4 ,! articles ( conf$]ation 7 fram$ by congress1 ^: memb]s 7 appo9t$ by ! /ate legislatures1 &1 :5 fram$1 7 submitt$ to ! /ate legislatures = ratification4 ,sec4#c4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! union "u ! con/itution is a union1 n ( ! /ates1 z su*1 b ( ! p ( ! /ates4 ,?us x is express$ 9 ! preamble to ! con/itution3 ,we1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect union1 444 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,& ! con/itution 0 submitt$ = ratification1 n to ! /ate legislatures1 b to conv5tions ^: memb]s 7 elect$ by ! p = t purpose4 ,sec4#d4 ,! /ates "u ! conf$]ation 7 indep5d5t1 n only ( ea* o!r1 b ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,true1 !y agre$1 = _! common def5se & mutual welf>e1 to d c]ta9 ?+s2 & c]ta9 o!r ?+s !y agre$ n to d1 b delegat$ to congress ! p[] to d !m2 b1 z we h se51 congress _h n ! p[] to compel ! /ates to obey its requisitions4 ,by ! con/itution1 ! /ates h giv5 up a great] portion ( _! sov]eignty to ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 :i* has p[]1 9 c]ta9 cases1 to control ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 & to en=ce its laws ^u !m & ^u individuals4 ,sec4#e4 ,aga91 "u ! conf$]ation1 z 9 conf$]acies g5]ally1 ! /ates 7 equal4 ,!y 7 entitl$ to an equal numb] ( delegates 9 ! congress1 9 :i* !y vot$ by /ates1 ea* /ate hav+ "o vote2 t is1 if a majority ( ! delegates ( a /ate vot$ 9 favor ( or aga9/ a propos$ measure1 ! vote ( ! /ate 0 s c\nt$2 & a proposition hav+ 9 its favor a majority ( ! /ates1 0 c>ri$4 ,e /ate 0 entitl$ to sev5 delegates2 b !re mu/ be at lea/ two delegates pres5t & vot+1 9 ord] to give a /ate vote2 & if an equal numb] ( ! delegates ( a /ate vot$ = & aga9/ a proposition1 ! /ate 0 said to be divid$1 & to h no vote4 ,sec4#f4 ,"u ! con/itution !re are two bran*es ( congress1 9 "o ( :i* ! numb] ( repres5tatives ( ea* /ate is 9 proportion to its population2 9 ! o!r1 7! s5ate17 ! /ates are equally repres5t$1 on ! pr9ciple ( ! conf$]ation1 ?\gh by two s5ators only4 ,b ! vote 9 bo? is tak51 n by /ates z "u ! conf$]ation1 b p] capita1 t is1 by ! head or poll1 ! vote ( ea* memb] c\nt+ "o4 ,sec4#g4 ,! articles ( conf$]ation 7 fram$ by congress1 ! memb]s ( :i* 7 appo9t$ by ! /ate legislatures2 & ! articles1 :5 fram$1 7 submitt$ = ratification to ! /ate legislatures4 ,! con/itution 0 fram$ by a conv5tion ( delegates f ! /ates appo9t$ = t purpose2 & 0 ratifi$1 n by ! /ate legislatures1 b by /ate conv5tions ^: memb]s 7 elect$ by ! p ( ! sev]al /ates4 ,sec4#h4 ,! =m] union1 z has be5 rem>k$1 0 a m]e ,conf$]acy1 compos$ ( indep5d5t /ates1 & unit$ simply = purposes ( def5se & _! mutual safety4 ,9 mo/ respects !y _h no m political connection ?an s _m diff]5t nations4 ,! p ( a /ate 7 n1 prop]ly speak+1 citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b only citiz5s ( ! /ate 9 :i* !y liv$4 ,b by ! con/itution1 ! p ( ! /ates 7 incorporat$ into a nation2 & a citiz5 ( a /ate is also a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! conf$]ation1 al?\gh sometimes call$ ! national gov]nm5t1 0 n really su*1 nor 0 x g5]ally s reg>d$1 z appe>s f ! proce$+s ( ! conv5tion t fram$ ! con/itution4 ,sec4#i4 ,among ! e>lie/ proce$+s ( ! conv5tion 0 ! (f]+ ( a resolution1 decl>+ t a national gov]nm5t ought to be =m$1 consi/+ ( legislative1 judici>y1 & executive4 ,?is resolution 0 /rongly oppos$ by a l>ge portion ( ! delegates1 because x propos$ to e/abli% a national gov]nm5t4 ,!y 7 9 favor ( cont9u+ ! conf$]ation ) a slight enl>gem5t ( ! p[]s ( congress1 s z to give t body ! p[] to lay & collect taxes1 & to regulate comm]ce4 ,b ! fri5ds ( a national gov]nm5t prevail$2 & we h n[ a complete gov]nm5t1 consi/+ ( ! ?ree dep>tm5ts1 legislative1 executive1 & judicial4 ,sec4#aj4 ,"u ! conf$]ation1 !re 0 no executive to execute ! ord9ances ( congress2 nor a national judici>y1 ! /ate c\rts be+ us$ = all judicial purposes4 ,!re 0 only a legislature2 & t consi/$ ( a s+le body1 call$ ! congress1 appo9t$ by ! /ate legislatures1 & hav+ sc>cely p[] en\gh to entitle x to ! "n ( legislature4 ,sec4#aa4 ,b1 al?\gh ! pres5t gov]nm5t1 ) ^! ?ree dep>tm5ts ( p[]1 & controll+1 9 matt]s ( g5]al conc]n1 ! action ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts & ( individuals1 is prop]ly a national gov]nm5t2 yet x is n :olly su*1 b p>tly national & p>tly f$]al2 "s ( ! f$]al features ( ! conf$]ation hav+ be5 reta9$ 9 ! con/itution1 z w appe> on a fur!r exam9ation ( ?is in/rum5t4 ,h5ce ! union is /ill call$1 ) propriety1 ! f$]al union1 & ! gov]nm5t ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,legislative ,dep>tm5t4 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,sec4#a4 ,! fir/ article ( ! con/itution describes ! mann] 9 :i* ! legislature is =m$1 & prescribes its pr9cipal p[]s4 ,x decl>es1 ,all legislative p[]s h]e9 grant$ %all be ve/$ 9 a congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,memb]s ( ! old congress 7 appo9t$ by ! /ate legislatures = "o ye>1 & might be recall$ by !m at any "t4 ,repres5tatives are n[ *os5 = two ye>s4 ,x 0 ?\ght t a s+le session 0 too %ort a t]m = m5 9 g5]al to acquire ! k & exp]i5ce necess>y to a "r p]=mance ( ! responsible duties ( a repres5tative4 ,besides1 measures are (t5 left unf9i%$ at ! close ( a session2 & ^? :o h once exam9$ _! m]its & dem]its1 c dispose ( !m m promptly ?an new memb]s4 ,sec4#b4 ,! same clause decl>es t ! electors 9 ea* /ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! /ate legislature4 ,! qualifications ( electors 7 v>i\s 9 ! diff]5t /ates4 7,*ap4 ,,vi1 ,sec4#h47 ,9 "s ( !m1 own]s ( prop]ty1 or tax-pay]s1 9 o!rs1 freehold]s only1 7 vot]s4 ,9 "s1 only ! latt] vot$ = ! high] (fic]s2 9 a few1 suffrage 0 almo/ univ]sal4 ,x 0 presum$ t no /ate w\ld object to its own rule = elect+ ! popul> bran* ( its legislature4 ,x is prop] t a repres5tative %\ld be *os5 directly by ^? ^: wants he is to make kn[n1 & ^: rights he is to gu>d4 ,sec4#c4 ,a repres5tative mu/1 at ! "t ( 8 election1 h atta9$ ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s2 & h be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & he mu/ be an inhabitant ( ! /ate 9 :i* he is *os54 ,few "y m51 on atta9+ ! age ( majority1 h ! k1 or exp]i5ce1 or wisdom1 :i* is requisite to qualify !m = ! responsible duties ( a repres5tative4 ,nor is x to be presum$ t an ali51 at ! e>lie/ p]iod at :i* he may become a naturaliz$ citiz51 w\ld be suffici5tly famili> ) our in/itutions & ! wants ( our p to be a compet5t repres5tative4 ,sec4#d4 ,! next clause prescribes ! rule ( apportionm5t4 ,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al /ates1 accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$ by add+ to ! :ole numb] ( free p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1 ?ree-fif?s ( all o!r p]sons4 ,to ! y\ng] class ( read]s1 ?is "p ( ! clause ne$s explanation4 ,sec4#e4 ,! conv5tion f\nd x v difficult to agree ^u a rule ( apportionm5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! /ates1 z w be recollect$1 7 entitl$ to an equal numb] ( delegates 9 ! old congress2 & ea* /ate _h "o vote4 ,b z ea* memb] ( ! h\se ( repres5tatives 0 to h a vote1 ! small /ates oppos$ a repres5tation accord+ to numb]s1 :ile ! l>ge /ates z /r5u\sly insi/$ ^u x4 ,sec4#f4 ,9 ! next place1 ! slavehold+ /ates claim$ a repres5tation accord+ to numb]s includ+ slaves2 ! non-slavehold+ /ates insi/$ on a repres5tation accord+ to ! numb] ( free p]sons4 ,x may "h be obs]v$1 t slav]y !n exi/$ 9 all ! /ates except ,massa*usetts2 b z ! slaves 7 s few 9 ! nor!rn /ates1 9 :i* slav]y has be5 s9ce aboli%$1 ! latt] are g5]ally spok5 ( z if !y 7 at t "t non-slavehold+ /ates4 ,! controv]sy on ?is po9t rose s high1 & ! p>ties 7 = a long "t s unyield+1 t fe>s 7 ent]ta9$ ( a sudd5 dissolution ( ! conv5tion4 ,sec4#g4 ,x became evid5t t ! "q c\ld be settl$ only by compromise4 ,! nor!rn /ates cons5t$ t 9 asc]ta9+ ! numb] ( p]sons to be tak5 z ! basis ( apportionm5t1 ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves %\ld be add$ to ! numb] ( free p]sons4 ,& z ^! /ates _h oppos$ ! computation ( any slaves 9 fix+ a rule ( apportionm5t1 on ! gr\nd t slaves are prop]ty1 & t no prop]ty 9 ^! /ates entitl$ its own]s to repres5tation1 ! s\!rn /ates cons5t$1 on _! "p1 t direct taxes %\ld be apportion$ on ! same basis z repres5tatives4 ,sec4#h4 ,to illu/rate ?is rule by an example3 ,suppose a /ate to conta9 #fjj1jjj free p]sons1 & #ejj1jjj slaves4 ,add+ ?ree-fif?s ( ! numb] ( slaves1 7#cjj1jjj7 to ! numb] ( free p]sons1 gives #ijj1jjj z ! numb] ( ! repres5tative population3 & ! /ate w\ld be entitl$ to ?ree repres5tatives = e two t a /ate w\ld h :i* conta9$ #fjj1jjj free inhabitants & no slaves4 ,s 9 apportion+ taxes accord+ to population1 ! /ate 9 ! case we h suppos$1 w\ld h to raise ?ree doll>s = e two t x w\ld raise if no slaves 7 c\nt$4 ,sec4#i4 ,b ! advantages ( ?is arrangem5t are m unequal ?an may at fir/ sight appe>1 or ?an 0 anticipat$ by ! fram]s ( ! con/itution4 ,! b5efits are *iefly on ! side ( ! slavehold+ /ates4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 two-fif?s ( a l>ge class ( prop]ty 9 ^! /ates is exempt f taxation1 :ile all ! prop]ty 9 ! free /ates is liable to taxation4 ,( ?is ! fram]s 7 aw>e4 ,b !y did n =esee ! fact1 t ! lay+ ( direct taxes w\ld be unnecess>y1 & t ! slave /ates w\ld consequ5tly escape taxation = _! slaves4 ,only ?ree direct taxes h be5 laid2 & x is n probable t ano!r w become necess>y2 ! treasury be+ suppli$ f o!r s\rces1 *iefly by duties on imports4 ,sec4#aj4 ,n[1 al?\gh no?+ is ga9$ by ! slave /ates1 nor is any?+ lo/ by ! free /ates1 by ! exemption ( ! two-fif?s ( ! slaves f taxation1 s9ce direct taxes are unnecess>y2 !re is a great ga9 to ! slave /ates1 :i* h betwe5 ?irty & =ty repres5tatives = :at _! laws hold to be prop]ty to all int5ts & purposes :atsoev]1 = :i* ! free /ates h no?+ 9 return4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! con/itution does n limit ! h\se to any def9ite numb] ( repres5tatives2 x only decl>es t ! numb] %all n exce$ "o = e #cj1jjj inhabitants4 ,x requires an enum]ation ( ! inhabitants e t5 ye>s2 & ! next congress !reaft] det]m9es ! ratio ( repres5tation & ! numb] ( repres5tatives1 & apportions !m among ! /ates4 ,! ^w ratio signifies rate1 or proportion4 ,x "h means ! numb] or portion ( ! inhabitants entitl$ to a repres5tative4 ,sec4#ab4 ,b z a repres5tative = e #cj1jjj inhabitants1 aft] ! population became v num]\s1 w\ld h made ! h\se too l>ge to transact bus9ess ) due dispat*1 & w\ld h unnecess>ily increas$ ! public exp5se1 ! ratio ( repres5tation has f "t to "t be5 increas$4 ,b to :atev] numb] ! ratio may be rais$1 ! con/itution expressly decl>es1 t ea* /ate %all h at lea/ "o repres5tative4 ,nei!r ,delaw>e nor ,florida _h1 9 #ahej1 a population equal to ! pres5t ratio2 & )\t ! above con/itutional provision1 ^! /ates w\ld h be5 depriv$ ( a repres5tation 9 ! h\se1 unless congress _h adopt$ a small] ratio4 ,sec4#ac4 ,x w be se5 by ref]5ce to ! con/itution1 t ! numb] ( repres5tatives 0 = ! "t fix$ at sixty-five4 ,aft] ! fir/ c5sus1 tak5 9 #agij1 ! ratio 0 fix$ at #cc1jjj1 :i* gave ! h\se #ajf memb]s4 ,aft] ! c5sus ( #ahjj1 ! same ratio 0 adopt$1 & ! numb] ( memb]s 0 #adb4 ,aft] #ahaj1 ! ratio 0 #ce1jjj2 numb] ( memb]s #ahb4 ,aft] #ahbj1 ! ratio 0 #dj1jjj2 numb] ( memb]s #bac4 ,aft] #ahcj1 ! ratio 0 #dg1gjj2 numb] ( memb]s #bdj4 ,aft] #ahdj1 ! ratio 0 #gj1fhj2 numb] ( memb]s #bcc4 ,aft] #ahej1 ! ratio 0 #ic1jjj & a fraction1 mak+ ! numb] ( memb]s #bcc1 ( :i* ,cali=nia _h "o2 b 9 view ( h] rapid increase 9 population1 %e 0 all[$ an additional memb]1 mak+1 9 all1 #bcd4 ,m9nesota has s9ce be5 admitt$ into ! ,union 7#aheh7 ) two memb]s1 & ,oregon 7#ahei7 ) "o memb]4 ,sec4#ad4 ,repres5tatives are *os5 by di/ricts4 ,ea* /ate is divid$ by ! legislature into z _m di/ricts z !re are repres5tatives to be elect$ 9 ! /ate2 & "o repres5tative is *os5 9 ea* di/rict4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 repres5tatives are *os5 at ! g5]al /ate election2 9 ! o!rs1 !re are special elections = *oos+ repres5tatives4 ,sec4#ae4 ,by an act ( congress1 e t]ritory belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 :i* a gov]nm5t has be5 e/abli%$1 is entitl$ to s5d a delegate to congress1 :o has a "r to take a "p 9 ! debates ( ! h\se1 b n ! "r ( vot+4 ,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,! ,s5ate4 ,sec4#a4 ,! s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* /ate2 *os5 by ! legislature !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 7,art4 ,i1 sec4 #c47 ,! conv5tion readily agre$ ^u divid+ congress into two bran*es2 b1 z has be5 obs]v$1 x 0 difficult to settle ! mode ( repres5tation4 ,! delegates f ! l>ge /ates insi/$ ^u a repres5tation 9 proportion to numb]s1 9 ! s5ate z well z 9 ! h\se2 & ! small /ates cont5d$ = equality 9 bo? bran*es4 ,! debate 0 long & animat$2 & x became app>5t t1 z 9 ! case ( slave repres5tation 9 ! h\se1 !re mu/ be a compromise4 ,?is 0 at l5g? effect$2 ! small /ates cons5t+ to a proportional repres5tation 9 ! h\se1 & ! l>ge /ates to an equal repres5tation 9 ! s5ate4 ,sec4#b4 ,x has be5 rem>k$1 t ! f$]ative pr9ciple ( ! old sy/em has be5 to "s ext5t reta9$ 9 ! con/itution4 ,bo? ! equality ( repres5tation 9 ! s5ate1 & ! election ( s5ators by ! /ate legislatures1 are 9 /rict con=mity ) ! plan ( ! conf$]ation1 & ( simple conf$]acies g5]ally4 ,diff]5t modes ( elect+ s5ators 7 propos$2 b ! "o adopt$ by ! conv5tion seems pref]able to any o!r4 ,sec4#c4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 9 "o p>ticul>1 a mat]ial diff]5ce betwe5 ! plan ( ! old congress & t ( ! s5ate4 ,x is 9 ! mann] ( vot+4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! vote 0 tak5 by /ates1 ea* /ate hav+ b "o vote2 7,*ap4 ,,xxviii1 ,sec4#e17 9 ! latt]1 ! s5ators vote sep>ately1 ! vote ( ea* s5ator c\nt+ "o1 z 9 ! h\se2 & a "q is decid$ by ! unit$ votes ( a majority ( ! memb]s1 & n by ! vote ( a majority ( ! /ates4 ,nor is ! vote ( a /ate lo/ if b "o ( its s5ators is pres5t1 z =m]ly4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! two s5ators vote on diff]5t sides ( a "q1 ! effect is ! same z :51 9 ! old congress1 ! memb]s f a /ate 7 equally divid$4 ,sec4#d4 ,!re 7 also v>i\s op9ions z to ! prop] t]m ( (fice ( s5ators4 ,t]ms 7 propos$ diff]+ 9 l5g? f ?ree to n9e ye>s2 & a proposition 0 ev5 made by "o di/+ui%$ memb] to make ! t]m cont9ue dur+ good behavior1 :i* is practically = life4 ,!re appe> to be s\nd objections bo? to long & %ort t]ms4 ,x is urg$ by ^? 9 favor ( ! latt]1 t an (fic] elect$ = a %ort t]m1 especially if he desires a reelection1 w h a /rong inducem5t to please & fai?fully s]ve ^? :o are to elect or appo9t him4 ,sec4#e4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 :ile !y admit t %ort t]ms t5d to insure responsibility on ! "p ( a repres5tative1 consid] ?is argum5t m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by ! objections to :i* a %ort t]m is liable4 ,look+ to a reelection1 he may act ) a view to 8 popul>ity r ?an to ! public good4 ,aga91 ! (t5] a legislature is *ang$1 ! m *angeable & unc]ta9 w be ! laws4 ,m5 hav+ inve/$ _! capital 9 a bus9ess ent]prise1 & made a successful beg9n+ "u exi/+ laws1 may be ru9$ by a sudd5 & unexpect$ *ange ( gov]nm5tal policy4 ,sec4#f4 ,9 view ( ^! objections to bo? long & %ort t]ms1 a m$ium t]m ( six ye>s 0 adopt$4 ,?is 0 believ$ to be %ort en\gh to keep up 9 a s5ator a feel+ ( responsibility1 & yet long en\gh to insure 8 act+ indep5d5tly & ) a reg>d to ! g5]al int]e/s ( ! nation4 ,al?\gh a bad s5ator may occasionally be kept too long 9 (fice by a six ye>s' t]m1 cases also occur 9 :i* ! act ( a s5ator1 especially 9 "t ( public excitem5t1 is /rongly condemn$1 b ^u calm & mature reflection meets ! public approbation4 ,sec4#g4 ,! next clause ( ! ?ird section provides = ! gradual *ange ( ! s5ate4 ,"o-?ird ( ! s5ators g out ( (fice e two ye>s4 ,9 favor ( ?is arrangem5t are two important consid]ations4 ,fir/1 x secures to ! public at all times ! b5efit ( ! exp]i5ce ( at lea/ two-?irds ( ! body4 ,:]eas1 if ! t]ms ( all ! s5ators expir$ at once1 _! places might be suppli$ ma9ly by new memb]s )\t ! requisite k & exp]i5ce4 ,secondly1 :ile a long t]m is int5d$ to gu>d aga9/ ! too frequ5t *anges 9 ! laws1 x may also prev5t1 = too long a "t1 ! am5dm5t or ! repeal ( bad laws4 ,su* am5dm5t or repeal may be ha/5$ by ! election ( new memb]s 9 ! place ( ! "o-?ird :o retire e two ye>s4 ,sec4#h4 ,vacancies :i* happ5 9 ! repres5tation ( any /ate 9 ! s5ate dur+ ! recess ( its legislature1 may be fill$ by ! gov]nor until ! next meet+ ( ! legislature4 ,)\t ?is provision1 ei!r ! legislature mu/ be assembl$ imm$iately to fill ! vacancy1 or ! /ate mu/ rema9 9 "p1 or p]haps :olly unrepres5t$ 9 ! s5ate1 until ! next regul> session ( ! legislature4 ,sec4#i4 ,b an appo9tm5t may n be made by an executive be=e ! vacancy actually happ5s4 ,9 #ahbe1 ! t]m ( a s5ator 0 ab\t to expire dur+ ! recess ( ! legislature ( 8 /ate1 :i* _h fail$ at its previ\s session to appo9t a successor4 ,z a special session ( ! s5ate 0 to be held imm$iately aft] ! expiration ( ! s5ator's t]m1 ! gov]nor1 a few days be=e ! t]m expir$1 9 anticipation ( ! vacancy1 reappo9t$ ! s5ator4 ,b ! s5ate decid$ t1 z ! appo9tm5t _h be5 made be=e ! vacancy happ5$1 ! s5ator 0 n entitl$ to a seat4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! next clause prescribes ! qualifications ( s5ators4 ,a s5ator mu/ h atta9$ ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & he mu/1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( ! /ate = :i* he is *os54 ,z _m ( ! duties ( a s5ator require m k1 exp]i5ce1 & /ability ( "* ?an ^? ( a repres5tative1 great] age & long] citiz5%ip are requir$4 ,! nature ( ^! duties w be notic$ 9 subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! sev5? section ( ! fir/ article provides = ! passage ( bills negativ$1 or veto$1 by ! presid5t4 ,bills return$ by him ) 8 objections1 become laws :5 pass$ by majorities ( two-?irds ( bo? h\ses2 t is1 by two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4 ,!y also become laws if n return$ by him )9 t5 days 7,sundays except$7 aft] !y h be5 pres5t$ to him1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by ! adj\rnm5t ( congress4 ,sec4#ab4 ,we h pass$ ov] sev]al sections & clauses ( ?is article )\t rem>k4 ,mo/ ( !m are simil> to "s 9 ! /ate con/itutions1 :i* we h notic$2 & ! propriety ( o!rs is s readily p]ceiv$1 t any comm5t ^u !m is deem$ unnecess>y4 ,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,p[] ( ,congress to lay ,taxes1 ,duties1 c42 ,p[] to ,borr[ ,money4 ,sec4#a4 ,hav+ %[n h[ ! legislative dep>tm5t ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t is con/itut$1 we proce$ to consid] its p[]s4 ,x is ?\ght prop]1 h[ev]1 fir/ to notice "o important *>act]i/ic ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 9 :i* x diff]s f ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 & ! k ( :i* is necess>y to a "r und]/&+ ( ! p[]s ( ! /ate & national gov]nm5ts respectively4 ,sec4#b4 ,! g5]al gov]nm5t is a gov]nm5t ( delegat$ p[]s2 t is1 p[]s :i* h be5 intru/$ or delegat$ to x by ! /ates1 or ! p ( ! /ates4 ,hav+ d]iv$ its p[]s f ! /ates1 or ! p1 x has su* p[]s only z h be5 conf]r$ by ! con/itution4 ,h5ce x is call$ a gov]nm5t ( limit$ p[]s4 ,! /ates1 on ! o!r h&1 exi/+ be=e ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 & possess+ entire sov]eignty or supreme p[]1 may ex]cise all p[]s :i* !y h n surr5d]$ to ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,9 o!r words1 _! p[]s are unlimit$1 except s f> z !y h p>t$ ) any ( _! orig9al p[]s4 ,sec4#c4 ,mo/ ( ! p[]s ( congress are enum]at$ 9 ! eigh? section ( ! fir/ article ( ! con/itution4 ,! fir/ 9 ! li/ is 9 ^! words3 ,congress %all h p[] to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s1 & excises1 to pay ! debts & provide = ! common def5se & g5]al welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all duties1 impo/s1 & excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,u4 ,/ates4 ,sec4#d4 ,we h already notic$ ! want ( su* a p[] 9 ! old congress4 ,! debt :i* _h be5 contract$ to c>ry on ! w> rema9$ unpaid2 & congress1 z we h se51 _h no p[] to raise money ei!r to pay debts or to defray ! curr5t exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t4 7,*ap4 ,,xxvii3 ,sec4#d1 #f47 ,x c\ld nei!r raise money by direct taxation2 t is1 by tax+ ! p]sons & prop]ty ( ! citiz5s1 nor by indirect taxation1 :i* is by duties4 ,sec4#e4 ,duties1 or cu/oms1 are taxes on goods import$ f1 or export$ to1 a =eign c\ntry4 ,impo/s are taxes on import$ goods only4 ,duties on exports1 h[ev]1 be+ deem$ inexp$i5t1 are n laid by our gov]nm5t4 ,an excise is a tax nei!r on imports nor exports1 b on articles produc$ & consum$ 9 ! c\ntry1 & on lic5ses to deal 9 c]ta9 commodities4 ,! money paid = lic5se to sell spiritu\s liquors is an excise tax4 ,sec4#f4 ,duties are specific & ad valorem4 ,a specific duty is a specifi$ sum ( money *>g$ ^u e y>d1 p\nd1 or gallon ( any commodity4 ,?us1 a duty ( t5 c5ts on a p\nd ( tea1 or ( "o doll> on a y>d ( clo?1 or ( fifty c5ts on a gallon ( w9e1 is a specific duty4 ,ad valorem is a ,lat9 phrase1 signify+ accord+ to ! value4 ,an ad valorem duty is a c]ta9 p] c5tage on ! value or price4 ,?us1 ?irty p] c5t1 on a y>d ( clo? co/+ two doll>s1 is sixty c5ts2 on a y>d co/+ ?ree doll>s1 n9ety c5ts2 ! sum *>g$ be+ v>i$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! price or value4 ,sec4#g4 ,! p[] to lay duties is v prop]ly qualifi$ by ! provision t all duties %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is 0 int5d$ to prev5t ! giv+ ( unju/ pref]5ce to any "o or m /ates ov] o!rs4 ,)\t ?is re/riction ^u ! ex]cise ( ?is p[]1 ! repres5tatives ( a "p ( ! /ates might comb9e1 & by lay+ high] duties ^u goods import$ into o!r /ates1 ?an ^u ^? import$ into _! own1 might turn ! trade *iefly into ! latt]4 ,or !y might 9 lay+ duties on exports1 impose high duties ^u ! productions ( o!r /ates1 & l[ duties1 or none at all1 ^u ! products ( _! own4 ,sec4#h4 ,al?\gh ,congress has p[] to lay direct taxes1 x has seldom be5 ex]cis$4 ,! duties on =eign goods & on ! vessels 9 :i* !y 7 import$1 h be5 f\nd suffici5t = ! paym5t ( ! public debt1 & = o!r gov]nm5t purposes4 ,! national debt 9 #agia 0 ab\t #ge1jjj1jjj1 &1 9 #ahjd1 _h ris5 to #hf1jjj1jjj2 yet *iefly by duties 0 ?is debt r$uc$ ne>ly "o-half by ! ye> #ahab4 ,by ! w> :i* comm5c$ t ye>1 ! debt 0 aga9 increas$1 be+ 9 #ahaf1 #abg1jjj1jjj4 ,9 #ahce1 ?is l>ge debt _h be51 9 ! mann] /at$1 entirely ext+ui%$4 ,sec4#i4 ,! next p[] m5tion$ is ! p[] to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,al?\gh ,congress may1 "u ! p[] to lay taxes & duties1 raise money to any ext5t1 a l>ge am\nt may sometimes be want$ be=e x c be rais$ f ! regul> income or rev5ue ( ! nation1 or ev5 be=e x c\ld be rais$ by a direct tax1 :i* w\ld be burd5some to ! p4 ,h5ce ! utility ( ! p[] to borr[ money until x c be reimburs$ f ! national rev5ues4 ,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,p[] ( ,congress to ,regulate ,comm]ce4 ,comm]ce ) ,=eign ,nations4 ,sec4#a4 ,next 9 ! li/ ( p[]s is ! p[] to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations1 & among ! sev]al /ates1 & ) ! ,indian tribes4 ,! ne$ ( no p[] "u ! conf$]ation 0 m deeply felt ?an ! p[] to regulate =eign trade4 ,x 0 ! want ( ?is p[]1 z we h se51 :i* 0 ! m imm$iate cause ( call+ ! conv5tion t fram$ ! con/itution4 7,*ap4 ,,xxvii3 ,sec4#g-aa47 ,! necessity ( ?is p[] arose ma9ly f ! policy ( ,great ,brita91 by :i* %e _h secur$ to h]self undue advantages 9 h] =eign comm]ce1 especially 9 h] trade ) ?is c\ntry4 ,sec4#b4 ,dur+ ! w> ( ! revolution1 ! direct trade ) ,great ,brita9 0 int]rupt$4 ,b :5 peace 0 re/or$1 our m>kets 7 aga9 op5 to ,briti% goods & vessels1 :ile ^u ,am]ican produce & ,am]ican vessels ent]+ ,briti% ports1 heavy duties 7 levi$4 ,to enable "s "y read]s m cle>ly to und]/& ! objects & ! unequal op]ation ( ! policy ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 ! subject may ne$ "s fur!r illu/ration4 ,sec4#c4 ,"o object 01 to secure a m>ket at home = ! products ( agricultural labor4 ,h[ ?is is done by tax+ =eign products1 w appe> f ! foll[+ example3 ,suppose ! m>ket value ( a bu%el ( :eat 9 ,great ,brita9 to be "o doll> a bu%el1 & ! co/ ( rais+ ! article "h & c>ry+ x to t m>ket to be ! same4 ,if n[ a duty ( #dj c5ts a bu%el is laid ^u :eat f abroad1 ! ,engli% consum]1 in/ead ( buy+ x ) ?is duty add$1 w buy ( ! ,engli% produc]4 ,b m :eat is produc$ "h ?an !re is a m>ket =2 & ! ,am]ican f>m] mu/ f9d a m>ket abroad4 ,b 9 ord] to sell x 9 ! ,engli% m>ket1 he mu/ pay #dj c5ts on e bu%el to ! ,briti% gov]nm5t2 or1 :i* is ! same ?+ 9 effect1 he mu/ sell x = #dj c5ts a bu%el less ?an its value to ! ,briti% pur*as]1 :o pays ! duty to t gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#d4 ,n[1 z mu* less ,am]ican :eat w be s5t to ,great ,brita9 ?an if x 7 free f duty1 a bett] m>ket is secur$ to ! ,engli% f>m]4 ,besides ?is1 ( ! value ( e bu%el :i* ,great ,brita9 may please to admit1 or :i* ! p ( o!r c\ntries maybe oblig$ to sell to h]1 #dj p] c5t1 is paid into h] treasury4 ,?us by "o op]ation1 are two b5efits secur$1 namely1 ! rew>d ( agricultural labor at home1 & ! rais+ ( rev5ue4 ,s by ! duties impos$ ^u =eign vessels ent]+ h] ports1 ! national rev5ue 0 to "s ext5t increas$1 & great advantages 7 secur$ to h] citiz5s engag$ 9 ! c>ry+ trade4 ,sec4#e4 ,! p ( ?is c\ntry be+ ne>ly all employ$ 9 agriculture1 & consequ5tly dep5d5t ^u =eign m>kets = ! sale ( ! surplus products ( _! labor1 !y 7 oblig$ to submit to ! paym5t ( ^! duties4 ,& n possess+ at t "t ! means ( manufactur+ to any consid]able ext5t = !mselves1 goods 9 l>ge quantities came 9 f ,great ,brita91 = :i* !y mu/ pay 9 produce heavily burd5$ ) duties1 or ) money obta9$ = ! produce subject to ^! heavy duties4 ,sec4#f4 ,to remove ! inequality 9 ! trade betwe5 ! two c\ntries1 x 0 ?\ght necess>y to retaliate ^u ,great ,brita9 by subject+ h] goods & vessels com+ into our ports to ! paym5t ( duties simil> to ^? impos$ on our produce & vessels 9 h] ports4 ,b ! p[] to lay duties 0 ) ! /ates2 &1 z we h se51 ! /ates c\ld n agree ^u any effectual sy/em2 =1 9 ord] to make any sy/em effectual1 ! duties mu/ be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sec4#g4 ,x 0 int5d$1 9 regulat+ trade1 to r5d] our own c\ntry less dep5d5t ^u =eign nations = manufactur$ goods1 by enc\rag+ dome/ic or home manufactures by duties on goods import$4 ,duties laid = ?is purpose are call$ protective duties1 be+ design$ to protect our manufactur]s aga9/ loss f ! competition ( =eign]s4 ,! nature & op]ation ( a protective duty may be ?us illu/rat$3 ,sec4#h4 ,suppose =eign broadclo? ( a c]ta9 quality is sold 9 ?is c\ntry = #b4ej a y>d1 & clo? ( ! same quality manufactur$ "h c n be af=d$ = less ?an #c a y>d4 ,!re w\ld n[ be no enc\ragem5t to any "o to engage 9 ! manufacture ( su* clo?2 because 9 ord] to sell x1 he mu/ r$uce ! price to t ( ! =eign article1 :i* w\ld subject him to a loss ( fifty c5ts a y>d4 ,let n[ a duty ( #a a y>d be laid ^u ! =eign clo?1 & ! price w\ld be #c4ej1 & pref]5ce w\ld be giv5 to ! dome/ic article1 unless ! import] %\ld r$uce ! price ( 8 =eign clo? to #c2 9 :i* case1 x is to be presum$1 ab\t an equal quantity ( ea* w\ld be consum$1 & ! duty ( #a a y>d on ! =eign clo? w\ld g into ! ,unit$ ,/ates' treasury4 ,sec4#i4 ,! same objects may1 to "s ext5t1 be effect$ by ! fir/ m5tion$ p[]1 to lay taxes1 duties1 c4 ,9 lay+ duties = rev5ue1 t is1 rais+ money to pay ! debts & o!r exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t1 congress may lay ! duties ^u ^? k9ds ( goods :i* x wi%es to protect2 & ?us indirectly bo? enc\rage dome/ic indu/ry & regulate comm]ce4 ,f ?is x appe>s t ! ?ree objects m5tion$ may be accompli%$ "u ! grant ( ei!r "o ( ! two g5]al p[]s1 to lay duties1 & to regulate comm]ce4 ,sec4#aj4 ,:y1 !n1 x may be ask$1 7 bo? ^! p[]s ins]t$ 9 ! con/itution8 ,! fir/ expressly au?orizes ! lay+ ( duties only to raise money = pay+ debts & gov]nm5t exp5ses2 & protection & ! regulation ( comm]ce c only be effect$ indirectly4 ,h5ce1 if our arrangem5ts ) =eign nations %\ld be su* z to r5d] x unnecess>y to lay duties to regulate comm]ce1 or enc\rage dome/ic indu/ry1 money c\ld n be rais$ )\t ! express p[] to lay taxes1 duties1 c4 ,& su* might be ! /ate ( ?+s1 t rates ( duties suffici5t = rev5ue w\ld be insuffici5t = ! purposes ( protection & regulat+ trade4 ,!re=e1 bo? p[]s are prop]ly grant$ to congress4 ,sec4#aa4 ,aga91 x may be ask$1 if =eign goods )\t duty c be _h at l[] prices ?an dome/ic1 :y is x n bett] = u to buy !m ?an to =ce ! manufacture & sale ( our own at high] prices8 &1 if !re is no o!r way ( rais+ money1 :y n d x by direct taxation8 ,suppose1 = example1 z 9 a prec$+ section1 7,sec4#h17 ! price ( =eign clo? to be #b4ej a y>d1 = :i* ! f>m] has to pay 9 :eat1 or 9 ca% receiv$ = x4 ,b z ! :eat has to be %ipp$ to a =eign m>ket1 ! m]*ant :o takes x 9 ex*ange = ! clo?1 or ! ca% pur*as]1 d$ucts f ! =eign m>ket price ! co/ ( transportation & ! =eign duty1 :i*1 toge!r1 let u suppose to be fifty c5ts a bu%el1 or "o-half ( ! =eign m>ket price4 ,a y>d ( clo? w\ld !n co/ five bu%els ( :eat4 ,sec4#ab4 ,let u n[ suppose a dome/ic article at #c a y>d to take ! place ( ! =eign4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! labor]s =m]ly employ$ 9 agriculture1 are n[ engag$ 9 build+ factories & 9 manufactur+4 ,^!1 in/ead ( be+ produc]s1 h become only consum]s ( ! :eat ( ! f>m]s1 :o n[ h a m>ket at home1 ?us sav+ ! duties & ! co/ ( transportation4 ,z !re are n[ few] produc]s1 ! price ( :eat w\ld probably be n less ?an #a a bu%el4 ,!re=e a y>d ( dome/ic clo? w\ld co/ only ?ree bu%els ( :eat1 in/ead ( five paid = ! =eign clo?4 ,& z !re w\ld be a correspond+ rise 9 ! price ( labor1 m clo? at #c a y>d c\ld be b\ght = ! avails ( a day's labor ?an =m]ly4 ,sec4#ac4 ,! protection ( dome/ic indu/ry receiv$ ! e>ly att5tion ( congress4 ,! second law pass$ by ! fir/ congress "u ! con/itution1 au?oriz$ duties to be laid on goods1 w>es1 & m]*&ises import$2 & among ! objects ( ! law express$ 9 a preamble "o 0 ! enc\ragem5t & protection ( dome/ic manufactures4 ,= a long "t1 h[ev]1 little 0 done 9 ! way ( protection4 ,! pr9cipal nations ( ,europe1 ,engl& includ$1 became involv$ 9 w>4 ,a l>ge portion ( _! labor+ population hav+ be5 call$ f agricultural pursuits into ! armies1 a =eign dem& 0 creat$ = ,am]ican produce2 & we 7 enabl$ to supply ourselves at less disadvantage ) =eign manufactures4 ,sec4#ad4 ,b aft] peace _h be5 re/or$ 9 ,europe1 & p _h return$ to _! usual employm5ts1 ! =eign dem& = our bread/uffs ne>ly ceas$2 & l>ge quantities ( =eign goods 7 aga9 import$1 = :i* our p 7 unable to pay4 ,congress n[ f\nd x necess>y to ex]cise1 to a great] ext5t1 its p[] to regulate trade1 by disc\rag+ importations1 & enc\rag+ dome/ic manufactures1 &1 9 #ahaf1 comm5c$ an effective sy/em ( protection4 ,laws h f "t to "t be5 pass$ to favor manufactures f cotton1 wool1 iron1 & o!r mat]ials2 & manufactur+ is n[ c>ri$ on ext5sively 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,by ?us draw+ a l>ge portion ( ! p into manufactur+ & me*anical employm5ts1 a m>ket has be5 creat$ at home = m gra91 meat1 & o!r agricultural products1 ?an is requir$ to supply all =eign dem&4 ,sec4#ae4 ,! laws relat+ to =eign comm]ce prescribe ! mann] ( collect+ ! rev5ue4 ,!re is 9 e port ( entry a collector ( cu/oms1 :o sup]9t5ds ! collection ( duties4 ,:5 a vessel arrives x is submitt$1 ) ! c>go & all pap]s & invoices1 to ! inspection ( ! prop] (fic]s2 & ! goods subject to duty are weigh$ & measur$1 & ! duties e/imat$ accord+ to law4 ,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,p[] to regulate ,comm]ce1 cont9u$4 ,navigation2 ,comm]ce among ! ,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian ,tribes4 ,sec4#a4 ,9 regulat+ =eign comm]ce1 congress has also pass$ navigation laws4 ,navigation is ! art ( conduct+ %ips & o!r vessels4 ,x has ref]5ce also to ! rules to be obs]v$ by own]s & ma/]s engag$ 9 ! %ipp+ trade4 ,we h notic$ ! navigation acts ( ,great ,brita9 by :i* %e built up h] %ipp+ int]e/2 7,*ap4 ,,xxvii1 ,sec4#g17 & we h /at$ t "o object ( ! p[] to regulate comm]ce 0 to c\nt]vail ! effects ( ^? acts ^u our %ipp+4 ,sec4#b4 ,to enc\rage & promote dome/ic navigation1 an act 0 pass$ by ! fir/ congress conf]r+ special privileges ^u vessels built & own$ by citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is 0 done by lay+ duties on tunnage4 ,tunnage means ! cont5t ( a %ip1 or ! burd5 t x w c>ry1 :i* is asc]ta9$ by measurem5t1 #db cubic feet be+ all[$ to a tun4 ,?is act impos$ a duty ( fifty c5ts a tun on =eign vessels1 & ^u our own a duty ( only six c5ts a tun4 ,z su* a law discrim9ates1 or makes a di/9ction or diff]5ce betwe5 dome/ic & =eign vessels1 ^! duties are also call$ discrim9at+ duties4 ,sec4#c4 ,by ! aid ( ^! protective duties1 slightly *ang$ f "t to "t1 our %ipp+ int]e/ acquir$ great /r5g?4 ,b ! necessity ( discrim9at+ duties no long] exi/s4 ,by ! /ipulations ( exi/+ treaties betwe5 ! pr9cipal comm]cial nations1 ea* is to admit into h] ports ! vessels ( ! o!rs on equal t]ms ) h] own4 ,our gov]nm5t hav+ become a p>ty to ?is agreem5t1 discrim9at+ tunnage duties h be5 aboli%$4 ,sec4#d4 ,! regi/ry1 h[ev]1 ( vessels ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & o!r regulations conc]n+ !m1 are = ! mo/ "p cont9u$4 ,a vessel is measur$ by a surveyor to asc]ta9 h] tunnage1 & ! collector records or regi/]s 9 a book h] "n1 ! port to :i* %e belongs1 h] burd5 or tunnage1 & ! "n ( ! place 9 :i* %e 0 built1 & gives to ! own] or comm&] a c]tificate ( su* regi/ry4 ,sec4#e4 ,! ma/] ( a vessel dep>t+ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b\nd to a =eign port1 mu/ deliv] to ! collector ( ! di/rict1 a manife/1 :i* is an invoice1 or acc\nt ( ! p>ticul>s ( a c>go ( goods1 & ( _! prices or value4 ,?is /atem5t is subscrib$ by ! ma/]1 & sworn by him to be true4 ,! collector !n grants a cle>ance1 = ! vessel1 :i* is a c]tificate /at+ t ! comm&] has cle>$ 8 vessel accord+ to law4 ,sec4#f4 ,vessels ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates go+ to =eign c\ntries1 are1 at ! reque/ ( ! ma/]s1 furni%$ ) passports4 ,a passport is a writ+ f ! prop] au?ority ( a /ate or k+dom1 grant+ p]mission to pass f place to place1 or to navigate "s sea )\t h9d]ance or mole/ation4 ,x conta9s ! "n ( ! vessel & t ( h] ma/]1 h] tunnage1 & ! numb] ( h] crew1 c]tify+ t %e belongs to ! subjects ( a p>ticul> /ate1 & requir+ all p]sons at peace ) t /ate1 to suff] h] to proce$ on h] voyage )\t int]ruption4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! =m ( a passport is prep>$ by ! secret>y ( /ate1 & approv$ by ! presid5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,! navigation laws also provide = ! safety ( pass5g]s & ! crews ( vessels1 limit+ ! numb] ( pass5g]s on pass5g] vessels1 & prescrib+ ! quantity ( wat] & c]ta9 k9ds ( provisions :i* m]*ant vessels are requir$ to h = ea* p]son on bo>d4 ,!y also decl>e :at p]sons may be employ$ on bo>d1 & h[ funds %all be provid$ = sick & disabl$ seam54 ,sec4#h4 ,"u ! p[] to regulate comm]ce1 congress has also pass$ laws relat+ to qu>ant9es4 ,! ^w qu>ant9e1 f ! ,lat9 qu>ant9a1 signifies ! space ( =ty days4 ,orig9ally vessels suspect$ ( hav+ contagi\s sickness on bo>d1 or ( be+ infect$ ) malignant1 contagi\s disease1 7 =bidd51 = =ty days1 to h int]c\rse ) ! place or port at :i* !y arriv$4 ,! p]iod = :i* %ips are n[ deta9$ is n def9$1 b is fix$ by ! prop] (fic]s at _! discretion1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,qu>ant9es are requir$ by ! heal? laws ( ! /ates2 & by ! laws ( congress1 vessels are to be subject to ! heal? laws ( ! /ate at ^: ports !y arrive4 ,sec4#i4 ,9 connection ) ! p[] to regulate =eign comm]ce1 p[] is giv5 to regulate comm]ce among ! sev]al /ates1 or int]nal comm]ce4 ,we h notic$ ! difficulties :i* att5d$ ! diff]5t comm]cial regulations ( ! /ates1 & ! necessity ( a uni=m sy/em1 :i* c\ld be _h only by giv+ congress alone ! p[] to regulate comm]ce4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxi41 ,sec4#g47 ,)\t ! p[] to regulate int]nal comm]ce1 congress c\ld n give effect to ! p[] to regulate =eign comm]ce4 ,"o /ate might impose unju/ & oppressive duties ^u goods import$ or export$ ?r\gh x by ano!r /ate4 ,b 9 ! h&s ( congress1 ! p[] to regulate int]nal z well z =eign comm]ce1 secures to all ! /ates ! b5efits ( a free & un9t]rupt$ trade4 ,sec4#aj4 ,9 grant+ to congress ! p[] to regulate comm]ce ) ! ,indian tribes1 x 0 int5d$ to less5 ! dang]s ( w>4 ,murd]s & w> _h be5 provok$ by ! improp] conduct ( "s ( ! /ates4 ,x 0 believ$1 t1 by a uni=m policy1 difficulties w\ld be m likely to be prev5t$2 & t if !y %\ld occur1 !y w\ld be m likely to be amicably settl$ by ! g5]al gov]nm5t ?an by a /ate1 :i*1 be+ an int]e/$ p>ty1 w\ld be m liable to misjudge ! matt] 9 dispute1 & m rigid 9 dem&+ satisfaction = injuries1 z well z m sev]e 9 r$ress+ !m4 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 relation to ,naturalization2 ,bankruptcy2 ,co9+ ,money2 ,weights & ,measures2 ,puni%m5t ( ,c\nt]feit+4 ,sec4#a4 ,! next clause grants to congress ! p[] to e/abli% a uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,we h already notic$ "s ( ! disqualifications ( ali5s4 7,*ap4 ,,vi1 ,sec4#e47 ,by ! common law ( ,engl& & ?is c\ntry1 ali5s 7 n only politically disqualifi$1 b !y c\ld n 9 _! own "n lawfully hold & sell real e/ate4 ,to admit ali5s to all ! rights & privileges ( citiz5s imm$iately on _! arrival 9 ?is c\ntry1 & be=e !y %all h acquir$ a k ( our gov]nm5t & laws1 & ( ! duties ( citiz5s1 w\ld be exp$i5t4 ,educat$ "u mon>*ical gov]nm5ts1 _m ( !m1 x is to be presum$1 h little respect = our republican in/itutions1 or at mo/ b an imp]fect k ( !m4 ,sec4#b4 ,b to d5y =eign]s ! rights ( citiz5s aft] !y %all h acquir$ a fix$ resid5ce "h1 & a k ( _! civil & political duties1 w\ld be illib]al & unju/4 ,provision has !re=e be5 made = remov+ _! disqualifications1 or = naturaliz+ !m2 t is1 = inve/+ !m ) ! rights & privileges ( natural born citiz5s4 ,b if diff]5t rules 7 e/abli%$ by ! diff]5t /ates1 a p]son1 hav+ become naturaliz$ 9 "o /ate1 w\ld1 on remov+ into ano!r /ate1 be depriv$ ( ! rights ( citiz5%ip1 until he %\ld h be5 naturaliz$ by ! laws ( su* /ate4 ,besides1 by ! con/itution1 a p]son1 on becom+ a citiz5 ( any /ate1 is a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & entitl$ to ! privileges ( a citiz5 9 any o!r /ate4 7,art4 ,,iv41 ,sec4#b47 ,z1 !re=e1 !re %\ld be "o uni=m rule1 ! p[] ( naturalization is prop]ly giv5 to congress4 ,sec4#c4 ,an ali51 to become a citiz51 mu/ decl>e on oa? be=e a /ate c\rt or a circuit c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or be=e a cl]k ( ei!r ( said c\rts1 aft] hav+ resid$ ?ree ye>s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t x is 8 int5tion to become a citiz51 & to r5\nce 8 allegiance to all =eign gov]nm5ts1 & p>ticul>ly t "u :i* he =m]ly liv$1 & t he w support ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!n aft] two ye>s1 ! c\rt1 if satisfi$ t he has resid$ five ye>s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & "o ye> 9 ! /ate 9 :i* ! c\rt is held1 & t dur+ t "t he has behav$ z a man ( good moral "*1 & is atta*$ to ! pr9ciples ( ! con/itution1 may admit him z a citiz54 ,sec4#d4 ,an ali5 m9or :o has resid$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates at lea/ ?ree ye>s be=e he 0 tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 may1 at any "t aft] t age & five ye>s' resid5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be admitt$ z a citiz51 )\t hav+ previ\sly decl>$ 8 int5tion to become a citiz54 ,also ! m9or *ildr5 ( a naturaliz$ citiz51 if dwell+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! "t ( 8 naturalization1 become citiz5s4 ,sec4#e4 ,a bankrupt is an insolv5t debtor2 t is1 a p]son :o is unable to pay all 8 j debts4 ,a bankrupt law is a law :i*1 ^u an insolv5t's giv+ up all 8 prop]ty to 8 cr$itors1 dis*>ges him f ! paym5t ( 8 debts4 ,su* laws are design$ = ! b5efit ( hone/ & un=tunate debtors1 :o1 by hav+ ! enjoym5t ( _! future e>n+s secur$ to !m1 are enc\rag$ to engage anew 9 indu/rial pursuits4 ,b ^! laws1 int5d$ = ! b5efit ( ! un=tunate poor1 h enabl$ di%one/ & fraudul5t debtors to procure a release f _! debts4 ,sec4#f4 ,exp]i5ce _h %[n ! propriety ( intru/+ to congress ! p[] to make ^! laws4 ,! dissimil> & conflict+ laws ( ! diff]5t /ates1 & ! entire want ( !m 9 o!rs1 _h caus$ great inconv5i5ce4 ,a debtor1 ?\gh dis*>g$ f debt by ! laws ( "o /ate1 0 liable to be prosecut$ on remov+ into ano!r /ate4 ,important z su* laws 7 deem$1 !re is no exi/+ law on ! subject4 ,a bankrupt law 0 pass$ 9 ,april1 #ahjj1 & repeal$ 9 ,decemb]1 #ahjc4 ,ano!r 0 pass$ 9 #ahda1 :i* 0 ( /ill %ort] duration4 ,sec4#g4 ,! next p[] m5tion$ is ! p[] to co9 money & regulate ! value !re(4 ,z a consequ5ce ( giv+ ?is p[] to ,congress1 we h a uni=m curr5cy ?r\gh\t ! union4 ,we h also1 in/ead ( ! awkw>d sy/em ( reckon+ by p\nds1 %ill+s1 & p5ce1 ! m conv5i5t decimal mode ( calculation by doll>s & c5ts4 ,! old sy/em 0 r5d]$ ! m inconv5i5t by ! diff]5ce 9 ! value ( a p\nd1 %ill+1 & p5ny 9 ! diff]5t /ates4 ,a m]*ant 9 a ,new ,engl& /ate1 buy+ goods 9 ,new ,york or ,philadelphia1 mu/1 9 ord] to put prices ^u !m1 r$uce ! curr5cy ( ! /ate 9 :i* he b\ght !m to ,new ,engl& curr5cy4 ,?us1 ! co/ ( an article be+ 9 ,new ,york two %ill+s & f\r p5ce a p\nd1 w\ld be 9 ,connecticut "o %ill+ & n9e p5ce4 ,"o %ill+ & six p5ce 9 ,new ,york w\ld be 9 any ,new ,engl& /ate "o %ill+ & a p5ny & a half4 ,sec4#h4 ,! place :]e money is co9$ is call$ m9t4 ,! pr9cipal m9t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! fir/ t 0 e/abli%$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 is at ,philadelphia4 ,! bus9ess ( co9+ is "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( a director4 ,"u him are a treasur]1 an assay]1 a *ief co9]1 an engrav]1 & a melt] & ref9]4 ,! gold & silv]1 be=e x is co9$1 is call$ bullion4 ,!re is a bran* m9t 9 ,new ,orleans1 "o at ,*>lotte1 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 "o at ,dahlonega1 9 ,georgia1 "o 9 ,cali=nia1 & "o 9 ! city ( ,new ,york4 ,at ! place la/ m5tion$1 gold is assay$1 b n co9$4 ,sec4#i4 ,! clause conta9+ ! p[] la/ quot$1 gives p[] also to fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( trade betwe5 ! /ates1 ! /&>d ( weights & measures %\ld be ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,)\t su* uni=mity1 comm]ce among ! /ates w\ld meet ) emb>rassm5ts sc>cely less ?an ^? exp]i5c$ f ! want ( a uni=m curr5cy4 ,to effect ! desir$ object1 ?is p[] 0 giv5 to congress4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! next p[] 9 ! li/ is ! p[] to provide = ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+ ! securities & curr5t co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,by securities "h are meant bonds & o!r evid5ces ( debt4 ,z ! g5]al gov]nm5t has ! p[] to borr[ money & to co9 money1 x is prop] t x %\ld also h ! p[] to provide = puni%+ ^? :o =ge its writt5 obligations = ! paym5t ( ! money borr[$1 & :o c\nt]feit its co94 ,^! (f5ses are tri$ 9 ! c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 relation to ,po/-,(fices1 ,copy-,rights1 & ,pat5ts1 & ,inf]ior ,c\rts4 ,sec4#a4 ,congress has p[] to e/abli% po/-(fices & po/-roads4 ,! po/-(fice dep>tm5t1 f ! facilities :i* x af=ds = ! circulation ( intellig5ce & ! transaction ( bus9ess1 is an in/itution ( incalculable value to ! union4 ,x is impossible to conceive all ! difficulties :i* w\ld att5d ! ex]cise ( ?is p[] by ! diff]5t /ates4 ,a uni=m sy/em ( regulations is indisp5sable to ! effici5cy ( ?is dep>tm5t1 & c\ld be secur$ only by plac+ ?is p[] 9 ! h&s ( congress4 ,sec4#b4 ,congress has p[] to promote ! progress ( sci5ce & ! useful arts1 by secur+1 = limit$ times1 to au?ors & inv5tors1 ! exclusive "r to _! respective writ+s & discov]ies4 ,useful sci5ces & arts are promot$ by new books & new inv5tions4 ,b if e man _h ! "r to pr9t & sell e book or writ+1 )\t comp5sation to ! au?or1 !re w\ld be little to enc\rage m5 ( ability to sp5d1 z is (t5 done1 ye>s ( labor 9 prep>+ new & useful works4 ,nor w\ld m5 ( g5ius be likely to sp5d _! "t & money 9 inv5t+ & con/ruct+ exp5sive ma*9]y1 if o!rs _h an equal "r to make & sell ! same4 ,9 pursuance ( ! p[] "h giv51 congress has enact$ laws = ! b5efit ( au?ors & inv5tors4 ,sec4#c4 ,! exclusive "r ( an au?or to ! b5efits ( ! sale ( 8 books or writ+s1 is call$ copy-"r1 & is obta9$ ?us3 ,! au?or s5ds a pr9t$ copy ( ! title ( 8 book to ! cl]k ( ! di/rict c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! au?or resides4 ,! cl]k records ! title 9 a book1 = :i* he receives fifty c5ts1 & gives ! au?or1 "u ! seal ( ! c\rt1 a copy ( ! record1 = :i* also he receives fifty c5ts4 ,sec4#d4 ,! au?or mu/ also1 )9 ?ree mon?s aft] ! fir/ publication ( ! "w1 deliv] a copy ( ! same to ! cl]k ( ! di/rict c\rt4 ,& he mu/ cause to be pr9t$ on ! title page or page imm$iately foll[+1 ( e copy ( ! book1 words %[+ t ! law has be5 compli$ )4 ,?is secures to ! au?or ! sole "r to pr9t & sell 8 "w = tw5ty-eight ye>s1 at ! expiration ( :i* "t1 he may h 8 "r cont9u$ = f\rte5 ye>s long]1 by aga9 comply+ ) ! requirem5ts ( ! law z be=e1 provid$ x be done )9 six mon?s be=e ! expiration ( ! fir/ t]m1 & a copy ( ! record publi%$ 9 a newspap] = ! space ( f\r weeks4 ,sec4#e4 ,pat5ts = new inv5tions are obta9$ at ! pat5t (fice at ! seat ( gov]nm5t4 ,?is (fice is connect$ ) ! dep>tm5t ( ! int]ior4 7,*ap4 ,,xli1 ,sec4#g47 ,! commission] ( pat5ts sup]9t5ds ! grant+ ( pat5ts "u ! direction ( ! secret>y ( ! int]ior4 ,to secure an exclusive "r to an inv5tion1 ! inv5tor mu/ deliv] to ! commission] ( pat5ts1 a writt5 description ( 8 inv5tion1 & specify ! improvem5t :i* he claims z 8 own discov]y2 & he mu/ make oa? t he believes he is ! discov]] !re(4 ,sec4#f4 ,be=e ! petition ( an inv5tor is consid]$1 he mu/ pay ! sum ( ?irty doll>s4 ,if ! commission]1 ^u exam9ation1 does n f9d t ! inv5tion _h be5 be=e discov]$1 he issues a pat5t !re=4 ,pat5ts are grant$ = ! t]m ( f\rte5 ye>s1 & may be r5ew$ = a fur!r t]m ( sev5 ye>s1 if ! inv5tor has n be5 able to obta9 a reasonable pr(it f 8 inv5tion4 ,sec4#g4 ,congress has p[] to con/itute tribunals inf]ior to ! supreme c\rt4 ,z ! fir/ section ( ! ?ird article ( ! con/itution1 9 provid+ = a national judici>y1 au?orizes congress to orda9 & e/abli% su* inf]ior c\rts1 ! ins]tion ( ! p[] 9 ?is place seems to h be5 unnecess>y1 7,*ap4 ,,xlii1 ,sec4#a47 ,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,p[]s ( ,congress 9 relation to ,piracy & ,(f5ses aga9/ ! ,law ( ,nations2 ,w>2 ,m>que & ,reprisal1 ,public ,def5se1 ,di/rict ( ,columbia2 ,impli$ ,p[]s4 ,sec4#a4 ,! next clause grants to congress ! p[] to def9e & puni% piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas1 & (f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations4 ,piracy is commonly def9$ to be =cible robb]y or depr$ation ^u ! high seas4 ,b ! t]m felony 0 n exactly def9$ by ! laws ( ,engl&1 :5ce ! common law ( ?is c\ntry 0 d]iv$2 consequ5tly its mean+ 0 n ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,x 0 sometimes appli$ to capital (f5ses only2 at o!r times1 to all crimes above misdemeanors4 ,= ! sake ( uni=mity1 ! p[] to def9e ^! (f5ses is giv5 to congress3 & z ! /ates h no jurisdiction beyond _! own limits1 x is prop] t congress %\ld h ! p[] to puni% z well z def9e crimes committ$ on ! high seas4 ,sec4#b4 ,nor 7 (f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations m cle>ly def9$3 !re=e ! p[] to def9e ^! are ) equal propriety giv5 to congress4 ,z our citiz5s are reg>d$ by =eign nations z citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & n z citiz5s ( _! respective /ates2 & z ! g5]al gov]nm5t alone is responsible to =eign nations = injuries committ$ on ! high seas by citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?is p[] is ve/$ 9 congress4 ,sec4#c4 ,congress is also prop]ly intru/$ ) ! p[] to decl>e w>2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal2 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]4 ,x is v evid5t t a s+le /ate ought n to be all[$ to make w>4 ,z ! p ( all ! /ates become involv$ 9 ! evils ( w>1 ! p[] to decl>e x is ju/ly giv5 to ! repres5tatives ( ! :ole nation4 ,9 mon>*ical gov]nm5ts ?is p[] is ex]cis$ by ! k+1 or supreme rul]4 ,b s important a p[] %\ld n be intru/$ to a s+le individual4 ,! fram]s ( ! con/itution h wisely intru/$ x to ! repres5tatives ( ^? :o h to be> ! burd5s ( ! w>4 ,sec4#d4 ,m>que means pass+ ! fronti] or limits ( a c\ntry2 reprisal1 tak+ 9 return4 ,lett]s ( m>que & reprisal au?orize p]sons injur$ by citiz5s or subjects ( ano!r nation to seize ! bodies or goods ( any ( ! citiz5s ( su* nation1 & deta9 !m until satisfaction %all be made4 ,to p]mit an individual to act z judge 9 8 own case 9 r$ress+ 8 private wrongs w\ld increase ! dang]s ( w>4 ,sec4#e4 ,nor %\ld a /ate be p]mitt$ to au?orize its citiz5s to make reprisals2 =1 al?\gh su* au?ority is design$ to enable ! citiz5s ( "o c\ntry to obta9 r$ress = injuries committ$ by ^? ( ano!r1 )\t a resort to w>1 ! t5d5cy ( reprisals is to provoke r ?an to prev5t w>2 & z ! :ole nation becomes involv$ 9 a w>1 ! p[] to au?orize reprisals prop]ly belongs to ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,inde$ x is n cle> t su* lic5se ought ev] to be giv54 ,x does n appe> /rictly j to capture ! bodies or goods ( un(f5d+ p]sons1 especially be=e w> has be5 decl>$ betwe5 ! two c\ntries4 ,b if ! p[] to grant su* lic5se is ev] to be ex]cis$1 x ought to be ve/$ 9 congress4 ,sec4#f4 ,z congress has ! p[] to decl>e w>1 x ought to h p[] to make rules conc]n+ ! prop]ty captur$ 9 "t ( w>4 ,! g5]al practice is to di/ribute ! proce$s ( ! prop]ty among ! captors z a rew>d = brav]y & a /imulus to ex]tion4 ,b pro( mu/ be made 9 a c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t ! prop]ty 0 tak5 f ! enemy1 be=e x is condemn$ by ! c\rt z a prize4 ,sec4#g4 ,! next five clauses provide = ! security & def5se ( ! nation4 ,! p[] to decl>e w> w\ld be ( little use 9 ! h&s ( congress1 )\t p[] ov] ! army1 navy & militia4 ,?is _h be5 prov$ by exp]i5ce ,congress _h p[] "u ! conf$]ation to decl>e w>2 b1 z we h se51 x c\ld n raise troops1 nor compel ! /ates to raise !m4 ,to gu>d aga9/ simil> difficulties 9 future1 p[] to control ! public =ces 0 plac$ :]e x c be promptly & effectively ex]cis$4 ,sec4#h4 ,! next p[] ( congress is1 to ex]cise exclusive legislation ov] su* di/rict1 n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e1 z may1 by cession ( p>ticul> /ates1 & ! acceptance ( congress1 become ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if ! seat ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t 7 )9 ! jurisdiction ( a /ate1 congress & o!r public (fic]s w\ld be dep5d5t on ! /ate au?ority = protection 9 ! dis*>ge ( _! duties4 ,to gu>d ! public bus9ess m effectually aga9/ ! dang] ( int]ruption1 complete & exclusive p[] at ! seat ( gov]nm5t is giv5 to congress4 ,! old congress _h once1 ne> ! close ( ! ,revolution1 be5 treat$ ) insult & abuse :ile sitt+ at ,philadelphia2 & ! executive au?ority ( ,p5nsylvania hav+ fail$ to af=d protection1 congress adj\rn$ to ,pr9ceton 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,sec4#i4 ,x appe>s t ! cession ( ?is t]ritory to ! g5]al gov]nm5t _h n yet be5 made2 b x 0 9 contemplation by ! /ates ( ,virg9ia & ,m>yl& to c$e x4 ,x is call$ ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia4 ,its inhabitants are subject to ! laws ( congress4 ,t "p ( ! di/rict :i* 0 c$$ by ,virg9ia1 0 9 #ahdf1 retroc$$ by congress to t /ate4 ,to congress is giv51 ) equal propriety1 exclusive au?ority ov] all places pur*as$ = ! erection ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 dock-y>ds1 & o!r ne$ful build+s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! la/ p[] grant$ 9 ?is section1 is ! p[] to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fic] !re(4 ,z x 0 impossible to enum]ate 9 ! con/itution e p>ticul> act :i* congress might f9d x necess>y to p]=m1 c]ta9 p[]s 7 expressly grant$2 & to ^! p[]s 0 add$ ?is g5]al grant ( p[] to pass laws = c>ry+ !m into effect4 ,sec4#aa4 ,x is ! op9ion ( em95t /atesm5 t ?is clause conf]s no additional p[]4 ,!y hold t ! p[] !re9 grant$ is necess>ily impli$ or includ$ 9 ! =ego+ p[]s4 ,= example3 ,! p[] to regulate comm]ce includes ! p[] to cause ! con/ruction ( break-wat]s & light-h\ses1 ! removal ( ob/ructions f navigable riv]s1 & ! improvem5t ( h>bors2 = 9 regulat+ & facilitat+ comm]ce1 ^! works & improvem5ts are absolutely necess>y4 ,s ! p[] to e/abli% po/-(fices implies ! p[] to puni% p]sons = robb+ ! mail4 ,! doctr9e is1 t :]ev] a g5]al p[] to d a ?+ is giv51 e p>ticul> p[] = do+ x is includ$4 ,h5ce x is inf]r$ t congress w\ld h _h ! p[] to pass ! laws "h au?oriz$1 ?\gh no express p[] = t purpose _h be5 giv54 ,sec4#ab4 ,besides ! long li/ ( p[]s conta9$ 9 ! eigh? section ( ! fir/ article ( ! con/itution1 & consid]$ 9 prec$+ *apt]s1 !re are sundry o!r p[]s ( congress 9 subsequ5t articles1 :i* w be notic$ 9 _! ord]4 ,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,prohibitions on ,congress4 ,sec4#a4 ,:ile ! con/itution conf]s on congress all ! p[]s deem$ necess>y to be ex]cis$ = ! g5]al welf>e1 x imposes on congress c]ta9 re/rictions1 ! mo/ ( :i* are conta9$ 9 ! next section4 7,art4 ,i1 sec4 #i47 ,! fir/ prohibition is 9 ^! words3 ,! migration or importation ( su* p]sons z any ( ! /ates1 n[ exi/+1 %all ?9k prop] to admit1 %all n be prohibit$ by ! congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight2 b a tax or duty may be impos$ on su* importation1 n exce$+ t5 doll>s = ea* p]son4 ,sec4#b4 ,x is g5]ally kn[n t1 f an e>ly p]iod1 slaves _h be5 import$ into ! colonies f ,africa4 ,at ! "t :5 ! con/itution 0 =m$1 laws prohibit+ ! =eign slave trade _h be5 pass$ 9 all ! /ates except ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,georgia4 ,! delegates f ^! /ates 9 ! conv5tion insi/$ on hav+ ! privilege ( import+ slaves secur$1 by )hold+ f congress ! p[] to prohibit ! importation4 ,a majority ( ! conv5tion 7 9 favor ( leav+ congress free to prohibit ! trade at any "t4 ,b z x 0 d\btful :e!r ^! /ates w\ld 9 su* case acc$e to ! con/itution2 & z x 0 desirable to br+ z _m /ates z possible into ! union2 x 0 at l5g? agre$ t ! trade %\ld be left op51 & free to all ! /ates *oos+ to cont9ue x1 until #ahjh1 7tw5ty ye>s27 congress be+ all[$1 h[ev]1 to lay a duty or tax ( t5 doll>s on e slave import$4 ,sec4#c4 ,x has ev] be5 a cause ( wond] & regret to _m1 t ! traffic 9 human be+s %\ld h be5 p]mitt$ by ! con/itution1 ev5 = ! mo/ limit$ p]iod4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a gratify+ fact1 t congress ex]cis$ its p[] = t]m9at+ ! =eign slave trade1 at ! e>lie/ possible p]iod4 ,a law 0 pass$ 9 #ahjg1 to g into effect 9 ,janu>y1 #ahjh1 mak+ x unlawful1 "u sev]e p5alties1 to import slaves into ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & 9 #ahbj1 ! ,african slave trade 0 by law decl>$ piracy1 & made puni%able by dea?4 ,sec4#d4 ,! next clause is1 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all n be susp5d$1 unless :51 9 cases ( rebellion or invasion1 ! public safety may require x4 ,habeas corpus1 7,lat917 signifies1 h ! body4 ,a p]son depriv$ ( 8 lib]ty1 may1 be=e ! f9al judgm5t ( a c\rt is pron\nc$ aga9/ him1 petition a c\rt or judge1 :o issues a writ comm&+ ! p>ty imprison+ or deta9+ him1 to produce 8 body & ! cause ( 8 det5tion be=e ! judge or c\rt4 ,if ! imprisonm5t or det5tion is f\nd to be illegal1 or )\t suffici5t cause1 ! prison] is set at lib]ty4 ,sec4#e4 ,! next clause decl>es1 ,no bill ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto law %all be pass$4 ,a bill ( atta9d] is an act ( ! legislature by :i* ! puni%m5t ( dea? is inflict$ ^u a p]son = "s crime1 )\t any trial4 ,if x inflicts a mild] puni%m5t1 x is usually call$ a bill ( pa9s & p5alties4 ,su* laws are inconsi/5t ) ! pr9ciples ( republican gov]nm5t1 & are !re=e prop]ly prohibit$4 ,sec4#f4 ,an ex po/ facto law is lit]ally a law made aft] an act is done1 or :i* has effect ^u an act aft] x is done4 ,b x "h means a law t makes puni%able z a crime1 an act :i* 0 n crim9al :5 done4 ,a law is also an ex po/ facto law t increases ! puni%m5t ( a crime aft] x has be5 committ$4 ,if1 = example1 a law %\ld be pass$ by :i* a p]son1 hav+ previ\sly kill$ ano!r 9 lawfully def5d+ 8 own life1 %\ld be made to suff] dea?1 x w\ld be an ex po/ facto law1 because kill+ 9 self-def5se1 be=e ! passage ( ! law1 0 n puni%able z a crime4 ,su* also w\ld be a law t %\ld require all p]sons n[ *>g$ ) /eal+1 to be imprison$ = life1 if f\nd guilty2 because ! crime1 :5 committ$1 0 puni%able by a %ort] imprisonm5t4 ,sec4#g4 ,! next prohibition is1 ,no capitation or o!r direct tax %all be laid1 unless 9 proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation h]e9 be=e direct$ to be tak54 ,! words capitation & capital are f ! ,lat9 caput1 ! head1 or poll4 ,h5ce a capitation-tax or a poll-tax1 is a tax ^u ea* head or p]son4 7,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,sec4#d47 ,! above clause means1 t poll-taxes1 if laid1 mu/ be laid 9 con=mity to article #a/1 section #b;d1 clause #c;d1 ( ! con/itution1 :i* requires ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves to be c\nt$ 9 apportion+ taxes among ! /ates accord+ to population4 ,sec4#h4 ,! next prohibition is1 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on articles export$ f any /ate4 ,probably no law = tax+ exports c\ld be devis$ :i* w\ld op]ate equally ^u ! int]e/s ( ! diff]5t /ates4 ,or "s /ates ! pr9cipal product is cotton1 rice1 or tobacco2 ( o!rs1 gra92 & ( o!rs1 manufactures2 & "s ( ^! products might n be> ! same rates ( duties z o!rs4 ,b ?\gh x 7 possible to devise a plan :i* w\ld be equal 9 its op]ation1 a majority ( ! repres5tatives might be oppos$ to x4 ,! repres5tatives ( ! gra9 produc+1 & ^? ( ! plant+ /ates1 might comb9e 9 impos+ excessive taxes ^u ! productions ( ! manufactur+ /ates4 ,or ! manufactur+ & ! gra9 produc+ /ates might1 ) ! same int5t1 comb9e aga9/ ! plant+ /ates4 ,sec4#i4 ,z x 0 ! purpose ( ! fram]s ( ! con/itution to make taxation1 z ne>ly z possible1 equal 9 ! diff]5t /ates1 by uni=m duties2 & z e necess>y object ( indirect taxation may be atta9$ by duties on imports2 duties on exports are prop]ly prohibit$4 ,& to secure to all ! /ates fre$om & equality 9 trade1 x is expressly provid$ 9 ! same clause1 t no pref]5ce %all be giv51 by any regulation ( comm]ce or rev5ue1 to ! ports ( "o /ate ov] ^? ( ano!r2 nor %all vessels b\nd to or f "o /ate be oblig$ to ent]1 cle>1 or pay duties 9 ano!r4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! next clause provides t no money %all be drawn f ! treasury1 b 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law4 ,?is places ! public money beyond ! rea* or control ( ! executive or any o!r (fic]1 & secures x 9 ! h&s ( ! repres5tatives ( ! p4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is provision1 congress1 at e session1 passes laws specify+ ! objects = :i* money is to be appropriat$4 ,! latt] "p ( ! clause requires1 t a regul> /atem5t & acc\nt ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( all public money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4 ,& x is by law made ! duty ( ! secret>y ( ! treasury to make to congress annually su* /atem5t1 :i* is publi%$ by ord] ( congress2 s t ! p may "k = :at purposes ! public money is exp5d$4 ,sec4#aa4 ,x is next decl>$1 t no title ( nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,al?\gh ! b>e titles ( "l1 duke1 c41 :i* are conf]r$ ^u citiz5s 9 mon>*ical gov]nm5ts1 c\ld n add to ! political p[] ( any p]son "u our con/itution2 yet1 z x is desirable t !re %\ld be equality ( rank z well z ( political rights1 x is prop] t congress %\ld be prohibit$ f creat+ titles ( nobility4 ,& to gu>d public (fic]s aga9/ be+ corrupt$ by =eign influ5ce1 !y are =bidd5 to accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title ( any k9d :atev]1 f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate4 ,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,prohibitions on ! ,/ates4 ,sec4#a4 ,! next section conta9s re/rictions on ! p[]s ( ! /ates4 ,no /ate %all ent] into any treaty1 alliance1 or conf$]ation4 ,= ! def9ition ( treaty & ! mann] 9 :i* a treaty is made1 see ,*apt] ,,xl3 ,sec4#c-e4 ,an alliance is a union betwe5 two or m nations1 by a treaty1 or contract1 = _! mutual b5efit4 ,conf$]ation & alliance1 h ne>ly ! same mean+4 ,if ! /ates1 sep>ately1 7 all[$ to make treaties or =m alliances ) =eign p[]s1 ! rights & int]e/s ( "o /ate might be injur$ by ! treaties made by ano!r /ate4 ,z ! /ates unit$ con/itute b "o nation1 x is obvi\s t ! p[] to treat ) o!r nations prop]ly belongs to ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,if ! /ates also _h ! p[]1 !y might c\nt]act ! policy ( ! national gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#b4 ,nor may a /ate grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal4 ,if1 z has be5 %[n1 ?is p[] is prop]ly giv5 to congress1 x c\ld n be safely intru/$ to ! /ates4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvi1 ,sec4#e47 ,sec4#c4 ,! p[] to co9 money is also prohibit$ to ! /ates4 ,x 0 giv5 to ! g5]al gov]nm5t to secure a uni=m curr5cy4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxiv1 ,sec4#g47 ,b ?is object w\ld n be likely to be atta9$1 if ! p[] to co9 money 7 ex]cis$ by ! /ates4 ,sec4#d4 ,a /ate may n emit bills ( cr$it4 ,bills ( cr$it1 to a va/ am\nt1 7 issu$ by ! /ates dur+ ! w>1 & = "s "t !reaft]4 ,!y 7 9 ! nature ( promissory notes1 issu$ by ! au?ority ( ! /ate1 & on ! cr$it ( ! /ate1 & put 9 circulation by ! cont95tal congress & ! /ates z money4 ,?is pap] money1 hav+ no funds set ap>t to r$eem x1 became almo/ wor?less4 ,bank bills issu$ ^u ! cr$it ( private individuals1 d n come "u ! prohibition4 ,x is also held t ! prohibition does n apply to ! notes or bills ( a /ate bank1 drawn on ! cr$it ( a p>ticul> fund set ap>t = t purpose4 ,sec4#e4 ,no /ate %all make any ?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts4 ,t5d] signifies an (f]1 or to (f]4 ,9 law1 x is an (f] ( some?+ 9 paym5t ( a debt1 or ! ?+ itself :i* is (f]$ 9 paym5t4 ,"s ( ! /ates _h decl>$ _! irr$eemable pap] money a lawful t5d]4 ,b pap] money & prop]ty ( all k9ds are cont9ually liable to fluctuation 9 value1 & might subject ^? :o %\ld be compell$ to receive x to great inconv5i5ce & loss4 ,b al?\gh no p]son is oblig$ to take 9 paym5t any ?+ b co91 bank bills are by common cons5t tak5 9 ! c\rse ( bus9ess & 9 paym5t ( debts1 because !y may be conv]t$ into specie by pres5t+ !m at ! bank by :i* !y are issu$4 ,sec4#f4 ,nor may a /ate pass any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1 or law impair+ ! obligation ( contracts4 ,bills ( atta9d] & ex po/ laws h be5 def9$ & consid]$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvii1 ,sec4#e47 ,if ^! laws are 9 _! nature wrong1 ! /ates z well z congress %\ld be prohibit$ f pass+ !m4 ,n less unju/ are laws impair+ ! obligation ( contracts4 ,laws t %\ld weak5 ! =ce ( contracts1 or t w\ld release m5 f _! obligations1 w\ld be contr>y to ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice1 & de/roy all security to ! rights ( prop]ty4 ,sec4#g4 ,z bankrupt laws release debtors f ! paym5t ( _! debts1 & consequ5tly impair ! obligation ( contracts1 ! "q has aris5 :e!r ! /ates h p[] to pass insolv5t or bankrupt laws4 ,f decisions ( ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* is ! highe/ judicial au?ority1 x appe>s1 t a /ate may n pass a bankrupt law dis*>g+ a debtor f ! obligation ( a contract made be=e su* law 0 pass$4 ,b x 0 n to be consid]$ a law impair+ ! obligation ( a contract1 if x exi/$ be=e ! contract 0 made2 because ! p>ties1 :o are presum$ to "k t su* law exi/s1 may gu>d !mselves aga9/ loss4 ,sec4#h4 ,! la/ ?+ prohibit$ 9 ?is clause1 is1 to grant any title ( nobility4 ,?is is =bidd5 to ! /ates = ! same reason z x is prohibit$ to congress4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvii1 ,sec4#aa47 ,sec4#i4 ,! fir/ prohibition to ! /ates 9 ! next clause is to lay any impo/s or duties on imports or exports1 except :at may be absolutely necess>y = execut+ _! inspection laws4 ,! objections to ! p[] ( ! /ates to lay duties h be5 consid]$4 ,!y are f\nd$ ^u ! same reasons z h be5 giv5 = intru/+ congress ) ?is p[]2 "o ( :i* is to secure uni=mity ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxii1 ,sec4#f47 ,& z congress is prop]ly prohibit$ f lay+ duties on exports1 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvi1 ,sec4#h1 #i17 !re c be no good reason = all[+ x to be done by ! /ates4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! exception all[+ a /ate to lay duties necess>y to execute its inspection laws 0 deem$ prop]4 ,laws are pass$ by ! /ates = ! inspection or exam9ation ( fl\r & meat 9 b>rels1 lea!r1 & sundry o!r commodities 9 comm]cial cities1 to asc]ta9 _! quality & quantity1 & to be m>k$ accord+ly4 ,by ?is means ! /ates are enabl$ to improve ! quality ( articles produc$ by ! labor ( ! c\ntry1 & ! articles are bett] fitt$ = sale1 z ! pur*as] is !reby gu>d$ aga9/ deception4 ,a small tax is laid ^u ! goods inspect$1 to pay = _! inspection4 ,b1 le/ ! /ates %\ld c>ry ?is p[] s f> z to injure o!r /ates1 ^! laws are to be subject to ! revision & control ( congress4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! la/ re/rictions ^u ! p[] ( ! /ates conta9$ 9 ?is section1 are3 ,no /ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( congress1 lay any duty ( tunnage2 keep troops or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace2 ent] into any agreem5t or compact ) any o!r /ate1 or ) a =eign p[]2 or engage 9 w>1 unless actually invad$1 or 9 su* imm95t dang] z w n admit ( delay4 ,"s ( ! prohibitions "h enum]at$ h be5 notic$ 9 ?is & prec$+ *apt]s2 & ! reasons ( ! o!rs are s obvi\s z to r5d] any rem>ks ^u !m unnecess>y4 ,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,executive ,dep>tm5t4 ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t2 _! ,election1 ,qualifications1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! second article ( ! con/itution relates to ! executive dep>tm5t4 ,( ! necessity ( a sep>ate & di/9ct p[] to execute ! laws1 we h already spok54 7,*ap4 ,,viii1 ,sec4#g47 ,"u ! conf$]ation1 z w be recollect$1 !re 0 no national executive4 ,?is defect has be5 suppli$ by ! con/itution4 ,! executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r ye>s1 &1 toge!r ) ! vice-presid5t1 *os5 = ! same t]m1 be elect$ z foll[s4 7,art4 #b1 ,sec4#a47 ,sec4#b4 ,9 reg>d to ! organization & p[]s ( ! executive dep>tm5t1 !re 0 a great div]sity ( op9ion4 ,ought ! *ief executive p[] to be ve/$ 9 "o p]son1 or a numb] ( p]sons8 ,laws %\ld be execut$ ) promptness & en]gy4 ,?is is m likely to be done by "o man ?an by a numb]4 ,if sev]al 7 associat$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ?is p[]1 disagreem5t & discord w\ld be likely to happ51 & to cause frequ5t & injuri\s delays4 ,unity be+ deem$ favorable to en]getic & prompt action1 ! *ief executive p[] ( ! nation 0 giv5 to a s+le p]son4 ,sec4#c4 ,secondly1 z to ! duration ( ! (fice4 ,mu* ( :at has be5 said 9 relation to ! t]m ( (fice ( s5ators1 w apply to t ( presid5t4 7,*ap4 ,,xxx1 ,sec4#d-f47 ,8 t]m ( (fice %\ld n be s %ort z to induce him to act m ) a view to 8 re-election ?an to ! public good2 yet x %\ld be %ort en\gh to make him feel 8 responsibility4 ,& x %\ld be long en\gh to insure a due degree ( indep5d5ce1 & to enable him to c>ry out 8 sy/em ( public policy4 ,! t]m ( f\r ye>s 0 accord+ly adopt$4 ,sec4#d4 ,?irdly1 ! mode ( election4 ,among ! v>i\s modes propos$1 ! "o adopt$ 0 t ( elect+ ! presid5t by electors *os5 9 ! sev]al /ates = t purpose2 ! numb] ( ! electors *os5 9 ea* /ate to be equal to ! numb] ( its s5ators & repres5tatives 9 congress4 ,a mat]ial alt]ation 9 ! mode ( election has be5 made s9ce ! adoption ( ! con/itution1 z w be se5 by exam9+ ! two modes4 7,art4 #b1 ,sec4#a2 & ,art4 #ab ( ,am5dm5ts47 ,?is am5dm5t does n *ange ! mann] ( *oos+ ! electors1 b ! mann] ( *oos+ ! presid5t by ! electors4 ,sec4#e4 ,! con/itution does n prescribe ! mann] 9 :i* ! electors %all be appo9t$ or *os52 x only decl>es t ea* /ate %all appo9t !m 9 su* mann] z ! legislature !re( %all direct4 ,no uni=m mode 0 adopt$ by ! diff]5t /ates4 ,9 "s /ates ! electors 7 appo9t$ by ! legislature2 9 o!rs1 by ! p4 ,at pres5t ! latt] mode prevails 9 all ! /ates except ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 :]e presid5tial electors are /ill *os5 by ! legislature4 ,sec4#f4 ,! electors are1 by ! laws ( ! sev]al /ates1 *os5 by g5]al ticket4 ,! names ( two m51 correspond+ to ! numb] ( s5ators to :i* a /ate is entitl$ 9 congress1 toge!r ) ! names ( z _m o!rs z !re are repres5tatives ( ! /ate 9 ! l[] h\se ( congress1 "o to reside 9 ea* congressional di/rict1 are all plac$ on ! same ballot2 s t e vot] votes = ! :ole numb] ( presid5tial electors to be *os5 9 ! /ate4 ,&1 by a law ( congress1 ! electors are requir$ to be *os5 9 all ! /ates on ! same day1 :i* is ! ,tuesday next aft] ! fir/ ,monday ( ,novemb]4 ,sec4#g4 ,! electors s *os5 are requir$ by a law ( congress1 to meet 9 _! respective /ates on ! fir/ ,w$nesday ( ,decemb]1 & vote = presid5t & vice-presid5t2 & to make & sign ?ree c]tificates ( all ! votes giv5 by !m1 & seal up ! same4 ,"o ( ^! is to be s5t by a p]son duly appo9t$ by !m1 to ! presid5t ( ! s5ate at ! seat ( gov]nm5t1 be=e ! fir/ ( ,janu>y next ensu+2 ano!r is to be =w>d$ by mail1 also direct$ to ! presid5t ( ! s5ate2 & ! ?ird is to be deliv]$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates judge ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! electors are assembl$4 ,sec4#h4 ,on ! second ,w$nesday ( ,febru>y1 ! presid5t ( ! s5ate1 9 pres5ce ( all ! s5ators & repres5tatives1 op5s ! c]tificates f all ! /ates1 & ! votes are c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ a majority ( all ! electoral votes = presid5t is elect$4 ,if no p]son has a majority ( all ! electoral votes1 ! h\se ( repres5tatives mu/ *oose ! presid5t f ^? c&idates1 n exce$+ ?ree1 :o _h ! highe/ numb]s ( ! electoral votes4 ,b 9 s do+1 ! memb]s d n all vote toge!r2 b ^? ( ea* /ate vote by !mselves2 & ! c&idate :o receives ! votes ( a majority ( ! repres5tatives ( a /ate1 has b "o presid5tial vote = su* majority2 & ! p]son :o receives ! votes ( a majority ( ! /ates1 is elect$4 ,?us 9 ! election ( presid5t by ! h\se ( repres5tatives1 vot+ is done by /ates1 z 0 done 9 pass+ laws by ! old congress4 7,*ap4 ,,xxviii1 ,sec4#e47 ,sec4#i4 ,!re h be5 two elections by ! h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,! second 0 #ahbe4 ,! votes ( ! electoral colleges 7assemblies7 _h 9 ,decemb]1 #ahbd1 be5 divid$ ^u f\r c&idates4 ,&rew ,jackson _h receiv$ #ii electoral votes2 ,john ,qu9cy ,adams1 #hd2 ,william ,h4 ,craw=d1 #da2 & ,h5ry ,clay1 #cg4 ,nei!r hav+ receiv$ a majority ( all ! electoral votes1 ! election devolv$ ^u ! h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,( ! ?ree c&idates :o _h receiv$ ! highe/ numb]s ( ! electoral votes1 ,mr4 ,adams receiv$ 9 ! h\se ( repres5tatives ! votes ( ?irte5 /ates2 ,g54 ,jackson1 ! votes ( sev5 /ates2 & ,mr4 ,craw=d1 ! votes ( f\r /ates4 ,mr4 ,adams hav+ receiv$ ! votes ( a majority ( all ! /ates1 he 0 elect$4 ,sec4#aj4 ,by ! #ab? article ( am5dm5ts1 if !re is no election ( vice-presid5t by a majority ( ! electors1 !n1 f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/1 ! s5ate %all *oose ! vice-presid5t4 ,two-?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( s5ators %all con/itute a quorum = su* election2 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,sec4#aa4 ,to be eligible to ! (fice ( presid5t or vice-presid5t1 a p]son mu/ be a natural born citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?irty-five ye>s ( age1 & mu/ h be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! reasons = requir+ long t]ms ( citiz5%ip & resid5ce1 & mature age & exp]i5ce1 9 ! case ( s5ators1 apply ) equal =ce 9 ! case ( presid5t4 ,sec4#ab4 ,9 case ( a vacancy 9 ! (fice ( presid5t1 ! vice-presid5t becomes ! presid5t4 ,! p[] ( mak+ fur!r provision = supply+ vacancies is1 by ! con/itution1 giv5 to congress4 7,art4 #b1 ,sec4#a47 ,congress has accord+ly enact$1 t1 :5 !re is nei!r presid5t nor vice-presid5t1 ! presid5t pro tempore %all act z presid5t2 & if !re %\ld be none1 ! speak] ( ! h\se ( repres5tatives w\ld assume ! duties ( ! (fice4 ,sec4#ac4 ,! same section decl>es t ! sal>y ( ! presid5t %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ ! "t = :i* he %all h be5 elect$4 ,x w\ld be improp] to all[ congress to r$uce 8 sal>y at pleasure4 ,?is w\ld make ! executive dep5d5t ^u ! legislature = 8 support4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if 8 comp5sation c\ld be increas$ dur+ 8 (ficial t]m1 he might be tempt$ to use undue influ5ce to procure a ne$less increase ( 8 sal>y4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! presid5tial t]m comm5ces ! #d? ( ,m>* next aft] ! election1 & ends ! #c;d day ( ,m>* f\r ye>s !reaft]4 ,ea* successive congress also comm5ces & ends its t]m e two ye>s1 on ! same days ( t mon?2 & x is call$ a new congress1 al?\gh only "o-?ird ( ! s5ators g out ( (fice :5 a congress is said to expire1 & are succe$$ by new ones :5 ! next congress is said to comm5ce its (ficial t]m4 ,*apt] ,,xl4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ! ,presid5t2 ,treaties2 ,public ,m9i/]s2 ,appo9tm5ts & ,removals4 ,sec4#a4 ,! p[]s & duties ( ! presid5t are next giv54 ,! presid5t %all be comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al /ates :5 call$ into ! actual s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 7,art4 #b1 ,sec4#b47 ,"s ( ! reasons = giv+ to ! executive ! comm& ( ! public =ces1 h be5 giv54 7,*ap4 ,,xxv1 ,sec4#b1 #e47 ,x has also be5 obs]v$1 t a prompt & effectual execution ( ! laws is be/ secur$ by intru/+ ?is p[] to a s+le individual4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxviii1 ,sec4#b47 ,! con/itution1 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4#h1 clauses #ab-af17 give congress p[] ov] ! army1 navy1 & militia1 & to provide = call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( ! union1 suppress insurrections1 & repel invasions4 ,z ?is p[] is to be ex]cis$ ^u sudd5 em]g5cies1 congress has by law au?oriz$ ! presid5t to call out ! militia = ^! purposes4 ,& z ! direction ( ! public =ces is a p[] ( an executive nature1 x is intru/$ to ! executive4 ,sec4#b4 ,! presid5t has also p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons = (f5ses aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4 ,! same p[] is ex]cis$ by ! gov]nors ( ! sev]al /ates4 7,*ap4 ,,xii1 ,sec4#d47 ,?r\gh p>tial or false te/imony1 or ! mi/akes ( judges or juries1 an innoc5t p]son may be convict$ ( crime2 or facts may subsequ5tly come to light %[+ ! (f5se to be "o ( less aggravation ?an appe>$ on ! trial4 ,!re %\ld !re=e be some:]e a p[] to remit ! puni%m5t1 or to mitigate ! s5t5ce1 or po/pone its execution1 z ! case may seem to require2 & by no o!r p]son or p]sons1 x is presum$1 w\ld ?is p[] be m judici\sly ex]cis$ ?an by ! executive4 ,sec4#c4 ,! presid5t has p[]1 by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! s5ate1 to make treaties1 to appo9t embassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 judges ( ! supreme c\rt1 & o!r (fic]s1 provid$ two-?irds ( ! s5ators concur4 ,a treaty is an agreem5t or contract betwe5 two or m nations1 = regulat+ trade1 or = re/or+ or pres]v+ peace4 ,?is p[] ought !re=e to be 9 ! national gov]nm5t4 ,9 mon>*ical gov]nm5ts x belongs to ! k+4 ,to confide s important a tru/ to ! presid5t alone1 w\ld be imprud5t4 ,to associate ! h\se ( repres5tatives ) ! presid5t & s5ate1 z 9 mak+ laws1 w\ld r5d] x impossible to act ) ! decision1 secrecy1 & dispat*1 :i* are sometimes necess>y 9 mak+ treaties4 ,sec4#d4 ,z ! treaty-mak+ p[] appe>s to be 9 its nature nei!r :olly executive nor :olly legislative1 b to p>take ( ! nature ( bo?1 a "p ( ! legislature is prop]ly associat$ ) ! presid5t4 ,z ! s5ate1 be+ less num]\s ?an ! h\se1 is capable ( act+ m promptly z well z m easily conv5$ & at less exp5se1 t body is m prop]ly unit$ ) ! executive 9 ! ex]cise ( ?is p[]4 ,& x is equally prop] t ! p[] to appo9t embassadors & o!rs by :om treaties are negotiat$1 %\ld be plac$ 9 ! same h&s4 ,sec4#e4 ,treaties are negotiat$2 t is1 ! provisions or t]ms are arrang$ & agre$ ^u1 by ! ag5ts ( ! two gov]nm5ts2 & a copy ( ! articles ( agreem5t is s5t to ea* gov]nm5t to be approv$ & confirm$1 or1 z x is usually express$1 to be ratifi$4 ,bo? gov]nm5ts mu/ ratify1 or ! treaty fails4 ,treaties are ratifi$1 on ! "p ( our gov]nm5t1 by ! presid5t & s5ate4 ,?is is :at is meant by _! mak+ treaties4 ,! p]sons by :om treaties are negotiat$ are sometimes appo9t$ by _! gov]nm5ts = t special purpose2 b ! bus9ess is p]haps m frequ5tly done by ! p]man5t repres5tatives or m9i/]s ( ! respective gov]nm5ts4 ,sec4#f4 ,ea* ( ! pr9cipal civiliz$ nations has "s (fic] at home :o acts z ag5t 9 negotiat+ treaties & transact+ bus9ess ) =eign gov]nm5ts1 & has also a repres5tative at ! seat ( ea* =eign gov]nm5t = ?is purpose1 & = keep+ 8 gov]nm5t1 appris$ ( :at is done abroad4 ,our gov]nm5t has a m9i/] 9 ,great ,brita91 "o 9 ,russia1 "o 9 ,france1 "o 9 ,spa91 & "o 9 ea* ( ! o!r pr9cipal comm]cial nations2 & ea* ( ^! nations has a m9i/] resid+ at ! city ( ,wa%+ton1 ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! (fic] ( our gov]nm5t :o corresponds ) =eign m9i/]s "h1 & ) our m9i/]s abroad1 is ! secret>y ( /ate4 ,! negotiation ( treaties at home ) ! m9i/]s ( =eign gov]nm5ts resid+ "h1 is done by him4 ,sec4#g4 ,repres5tatives at =eign c\rts h diff]5t names or titles3 embassadors1 envoys1 m9i/]s1 & *>ges des affaires4 ,an embassador :o is intru/$ ) ! ord9>y bus9ess ( a m9i/] at a =eign c\rt1 is call$ an embassador 9 ord9>y4 ,an embassador extraord9>y is a p]son s5t on a p>ticul> occasion1 :o returns z soon z ! bus9ess on :i* he 0 s5t is done4 ,he is sometimes call$ envoy2 & :5 he has p[] to act z he may deem exp$i5t1 he is call$ envoy pl5ipot5ti>y2 ! latt] ^w signify+ full p[]4 ,an ord9>y embassador or m9i/] resides abroad1 & acts 9 ob$i5ce to in/ructions s5t him f "t to "t4 ,sec4#h4 ,ag5ts or repres5tatives s5t by our gov]nm5t to reside at =eign c\rts1 are call$ m9i/]s4 ,=m]ly ^? s5t to ! less important c\ntries1 7 call$ *>ges des affaires1 :o are m9i/]s ( a l[] grade4 ,! "n1 usually writt5 *>ges d'affaires1 is ,fr5*1 & is pron\nc$ %>-zha-daf-fair1 acc5t$ on ! fir/ & la/ syllables4 ,x means a p]son hav+ *>ge ( ! affairs ( 8 nation4 ,x is n at pres5t appli$ to any ( our repres5tatives abroad1 all be+ call$ by ! common "n ( m9i/]4 ,sec4#i4 ,consuls are ag5ts ( inf]ior grade4 ,!y reside 9 =eign seaports4 ,_! bus9ess is to aid _! respective gov]nm5ts 9 _! comm]cial transactions ) ! c\ntries 9 :i* !y reside1 & to protect ! rights1 comm]ce1 m]*ants1 & seam5 ( _! own nation4 ,h5ce mu* ( _! bus9ess is ) ma/]s ( vessels1 & ) m]*ants4 ,!y also dispose ( ! p]sonal e/ate ( citiz5s ( _! own nation :o die )9 _! consulates1 leav+ no repres5tative or p>tn] 9 trade to take c>e ( _! effects4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! appo9tm5t ( judges ( ! supreme c\rt by ! presid5t & s5ate1 seems to be prop]4 ,_! election by ! p1 mo/ ( :om c\ld h little or no k ( ! p]sons :o %\ld be *os51 w\ld be injudici\s4 ,besides1 ! mass ( ! vot]s are n s compet5t to judge ( ! qualifications necess>y = s important a judicial (fice1 z ^? to :om ! con/itution has giv5 ! p[] ( appo9tm5t4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! p[] ( appo9t+ ! head (fic]s ( ! sev]al executive dep>tm5ts1 is ) equal propriety giv5 to ! presid5t & s5ate4 ,z ! presid5t is 9 a measure responsible = ! acts ( 8 subord9ates :o conduct ! bus9ess ( ^! dep>tm5ts1 & z1 )\t _! cooep]ation1 he c\ld sc>cely c>ry out 8 own measures1 x is prop] t he %\ld h ! "r ( select+ !m2 & by be+ requir$ to submit 8 *oice to ! body ( s5ators = _! approval1 a suffici5t safegu>d is provid$ aga9/ ! appo9tm5t ( unwor?y or incompet5t m54 ,sec4#ab4 ,! presid5t %all h p[] to fill up all vacancies t may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all expire at ! end ( ! next session4 7,art4 #b1 sec4 #b1 clause #c47 ,)\t su* a p[] some:]e1 ! public int]e/s w\ld (t5 suff] s]i\s injury be=e ! s5ate %\ld aga9 be 9 session to act ^u a nom9ation by ! presid5t4 ,z x is 8 duty to see t ! bus9ess ( ! executive (fices is fai?fully done1 he seems to be ! prop] p]son to make su* tempor>y appo9tm5t4 ,sec4#ac4 ,! p[]s & duties ( ! presid5t enum]at$ 9 ! next section ( ! con/itution1 are all necess>y to insure a successful adm9i/ration ( ! gov]nm5t2 & !y are s cle>ly ( an executive nature1 t !y c\ld n ) any degree ( propriety h be5 devolv$ ^u any o!r (fic] or dep>tm5t ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! la/ section ( ?is article ( ! con/itution enum]ates ! p]sons liable to be remov$ f (fice by impea*m5t1 & ! (f5ses = :i* !y are ?us removable4 ,z 9 ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 s 9 ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 impea*m5ts are made by ! h\se ( repres5tatives1 & tri$ by ! s5ate4 7,*ap4 ,,xx1 ,sec4#f-h2 ,cons4 ,u4,s41 art4 ,i1 ,sec4#b1 #c47 ,*apt] ,,xli4 ,auxili>y ,executive ,dep>tm5ts4 ,dep>tm5ts ( ,/ate1 ( ! ,treasury1 ( ! ,int]ior1 ( ,w>1 ( ! ,navy1 ( ! ,po/-,(fice2 ,attorney-,g5]al4 ,sec4#a4 ,! great am\nt & v>iety ( ! executive bus9ess ( ! nation1 requires ! division ( ?is dep>tm5t into sev]al subord9ate dep>tm5ts1 & ! di/ribution among !m ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( public bus9ess4 ,at ! head ( ea* ( ^! dep>tm5ts is a *ief (fic]4 ,^! *ief (fic]s1 sometimes call$ heads ( dep>tm5ts1 ) ! attorney g5]al1 be+ private advisors or c\nselors ( ! presid5t1 are call$ ! cab9et4 ,!y are appo9t$ by ! presid5t & s5ate4 ,sec4#b4 ,by ! fir/ congress "u ! con/itution1 7 e/abli%$ ! /ate1 treasury1 & w> dep>tm5ts1 ^: head (fic]s1 call$ secret>ies1 & ! attorney-g5]al1 con/itut$ ! fir/ cab9et4 ,9 #agih1 ! navy dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$4 ,dur+ presid5t ,jackson's t]m ( (fice1 ! po/ma/]-g5]al 0 made a cab9et (fic]4 ,& ! e/abli%m5t1 9 #ahdi1 ( ! dep>tm5t ( ! int]ior1 add$ to ! cab9et ! sev5? memb]4 ,sec4#c4 ,! secret>y ( /ate p]=ms su* duties z are committ$ to him by ! presid5t relat+ to =eign int]c\rse4 ,"s ( ^! duties h be5 m5tion$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxix1 ,sec4#f47 ,he conducts all our diplomatic correspond5ce1 be+ ! (ficial organ ( communication ) ! m9i/]s ( =eign gov]nm5ts s5t to ?is c\ntry1 & ) our m9i/]s abroad4 ,diplomacy signifies ! rules & cu/oms :i* gov]n ! int]c\rse ( nations ?r\gh _! m9i/]s or ag5ts2 also ! managem5t ( ! bus9ess ( a nation by its m9i/] at a =eign c\rt4 ,& su* m9i/]1 especially if he manages ) ability & skill1 is call$ a diplomati/4 ,sec4#d4 ,! secret>y ( /ate keeps ! seal ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & he makes out1 records1 & seals all civil commissions to (fic]s appo9t$ by ! presid5t & s5ate1 or by ! presid5t4 ,8 duties 9 relation to ! publi%+ & di/ribut+ ! laws1 & c]ta9 o!r matt]s1 are simil> to ! duties ( a secret>y ( /ate ( a /ate gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#e4 ,! secret>y ( ! treasury has *>ge ( ! f9ances ( ! nation4 ,he sup]9t5ds ! collection ( ! rev5ue1 & p]=ms c]ta9 o!r duties ( ! nature ( ! controll] or auditor ( a /ate4 7,*ap4 ,,xiii1 ,sec4#c47 ,he lays be=e congress annually a report ( ! f9ances1 conta9+ a /atem5t ( ! public rev5ue & exp5diture dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 ! value ( ! imports & exports1 & e/imates ( ! rev5ue & exp5ditures = succe$+ ye>s1 & plans = improv+ ! rev5ues4 ,he also makes annually a /atem5t ( appropriations ( money1 & ( sums rema9+1 9 ! treasury4 ,sec4#f4 ,! va/ am\nt ( bus9ess 9 ?is dep>tm5t requires a great numb] ( assi/ants2 among :om are sev]al controll]s & auditors ( acc\nts2 a treasur]1 a regi/]1 :o keeps ! acc\nts ( goods import$ & export$1 & ( ! %ipp+ employ$ 9 our =eign trade2 a solicitor2 a record]2 & num]\s cl]ks4 ,sec4#g4 ,! secret>y ( ! int]ior sup]9t5ds ! bus9ess relat+ to ! public l&s1 public build+s1 ! lead m9es & o!r m9es ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,indian affairs1 pat5ts1 & p5sions4 ,a p5sion is a ye>ly all[ance to a p]son by ! gov]nm5t = pa/ s]vices4 ,9 ?is c\ntry p5sions are grant$ = s]vices 9 w>4 ,!y 7 at fir/ all[$ only to su* z _h be5 disabl$ 9 ! w> ( ! revolution & 9 ! w> ( #ahab2 & subsequ5tly to all :o _h s]v$ at lea/ six mon?s 9 ! revolution>y w>1 & to _! wid[s dur+ _! lives4 ,^? disabl$ 9 ! late w> ) ,mexico h also be5 add$ to ! p5sion li/4 ,& by rec5t acts ( congress1 b\nties ( l&s 7 to be all[$ to all ! surviv+ soldi]s ( ! w> ( #ahab1 :o _h s]v$ "o mon? !re94 ,sec4#h4 ,! secret>y ( w> p]=ms duties relat+ to milit>y commissions1 or to ! l& =ces & w>like /ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! /&+ army ( ! nation consi/s at pres5t ( ab\t #ae1jjj m51 :o are di/ribut$ among ! sev]al milit>y /ations1 arm$ & ready = s]vice4 ,he reports annually a /atem5t ( ! exp5diture & application ( moneys drawn f ! treasury = 8 dep>tm5t1 & makes su* sugge/ions relative to its condition z he ?9ks prop]4 ,he is assi/$ by subord9ate (fic]s & cl]ks4 ,sec4#i4 ,! secret>y ( ! navy executes ! ord]s ( ! presid5t = procur+ naval /ores & mat]ials1 & = equipp+ & employ+ vessels ( w>1 & p]=ms su* o!r duties p]ta9+ to ! naval e/abli%m5t z are requir$ ( him4 ,?ree (fic]s are appo9t$ by ! presid5t & s5ate1 :o con/itute a bo>d ( commission]s = ! navy1 & dis*>ge ! m9i/]ial duties ( ! (fice ( ! secret>y1 & furni% e/imates ( ! exp5ditures ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! po/ma/]-g5]al e/abli%es po/-(fices1 appo9ts po/ma/]s & o!r p]sons employ$ 9 ! g5]al po/-(fice1 & provides = c>ry+ ! mails4 ,he is assi/$ by ?ree assi/ant po/-ma/]s-g5]al1 an auditor ( ! po/-(fice treasury1 to audit & settle ! acc\nts ( ! dep>tm5t1 & to sup]9t5d ! collection ( ! debts due ! dep>tm5t4 ,! bus9ess ( ?is dep>tm5t requires a l>ge numb] ( cl]ks4 ,he reports annually all contracts made = ! transportation ( ! mail1 & a /atem5t ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,sec4#aa4 ,po/ma/]s keep an acc\nt ( all lett]s s5t f & receiv$ at _! respective (fices1 /at+ ! names ( ! (fices f :i* lett]s are receiv$1 & ( ^? to :i* lett]s are s5t1 & :e!r !y are po/ paid or s5t free4 ,po/ma/]s1 at /at$ p]iods1 79 mo/ places qu>t]ly17 adv]tise all lett]s rema9+ 9 _! (fices2 & !y s5d qu>t]ly to ! g5]al po/-(fice acc\nts ( lett]s s5t & receiv$1 & ( moneys receiv$ = po/age1 & ( ^? paid out on ord]s ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,lett]s also :i* h la9 9 _! (fices dur+ ! "t = :i* !y 7 requir$ to be adv]tis$1 are s5t z dead lett]s to ! g5]al po/-(fice1 :]e !y are op5$2 & su* z conta9 money or o!r valuable matt] are return$ by mail to ! writ]s4 ,sec4#ab4 ,po/ma/]s are all[$ = _! s]vices a commission on ! am\nt ( po/age receiv$ by !m qu>t]ly4 ,^? at ^: (fices ! sums receiv$ are small1 are all[$ a great] p] c5tage ?an ^? :]e ! receipts are l>ge4 ,?us1 ! commission at pres5t 7#ahei7 is1 on ! fir/ #ajj receiv$1 sixty p] c5t42 on ! next #cjj1 fifty p] c5t42 on ! next #b1jjj1 =ty p] c5t42 on all ov] #b1djj1 fifte5 p] c5t4 ,/amp$ lett]s are consid]$ z paid 9 ca%4 ,on newspap] po/ages1 fifty p] c5t1 on all sums1 l>ge or small4 ,if a po/ma/]'s commission exce$s #b1jjj a ye>1 besides ! exp5ses ( ! (fice1 ! excess is paid to ! g5]al po/ (fice4 ,po/ma/]s may also receive = pigeon-holes or boxes1 n exce$+ #b1jjj1 ! excess1 if any1 to be paid to ! g5]al po/-(fice4 ,po/ma/]s ^: comp5sation am\nts to #a1jjj or m 9 a ye>1 are appo9t$ by ! presid5t & s5ate4 ,sec4#ac4 ,po/ma/]s ^: commission on po/ages has be5 less ?an #bjj dur+ ! prec$+ ye>1 may receive & s5d1 free ( po/age1 lett]s on _! own private bus9ess1 weigh+ n m ?an half an ounce4 ,& memb]s ( congress1 dur+ _! t]m ( (fice1 & until ! fir/ ( ,decemb] aft] its expiration1 may s5d & receive lett]s & packages weigh+ n m ?an two ounces1 & all public docum5ts free4 ,a p]son to be entitl$ to s5d matt] free1 mu/ write on ! outside 8 "n & ! title ( 8 (fice4 ,?is is call$ frank+4 ,civil (fic]s at ! seat ( gov]nm5t also may frank matt] relat+ to ! bus9ess ( _! (fices1 by m>k+ x outside1 (ficial bus9ess4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! attorney-g5]al att5ds to all suits 9 ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a p>ty or is conc]n$1 & gives 8 op9ions on que/ions ( law :5 reque/$ by ! presid5t or heads ( dep>tm5ts4 ,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,judicial ,dep>tm5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,we come n[ to ! ?ird article ( ! con/itution4 ,! fir/ two sections provide = ! organization1 & prescribe ! p[]s1 ( ! c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! want ( a national judici>y 0 a mat]ial defect ( ! conf$]ation4 ,dep5d5ce ^u ! /ate c\rts to en=ce ! laws ( ! union1 subject$ ! gov]nm5t to great inconv5i5ce & emb>rassm5t4 ,a gov]nm5t t has a legislature & an executive1 %\ld also h a judici>y to judge ( & int]pret ! laws4 ,! con/itution decl>es t ! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o supreme c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ! congress may orda9 & e/abli%4 ,"u ! au?ority "h giv51 congress pass$ ! judici>y act ( #aghi1 by :i* ! sev]al c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 e/abli%$4 ,sec4#b4 ,! same section decl>es1 ,! judges ( bo? ! supreme & inf]ior c\rts %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavior4 ,9 no o!r dep>tm5t ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t are (fices held = s long a t]m1 :i* is virtually = life1 unless remov$ on impea*m5t1 or = inability4 ,to insure a correct & imp>tial adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ! judges %\ld be indep5d5t4 ,if !y c\ld be displac$ at ! pleasure ( ! appo9t+ p[]1 or by frequ5t elections1 !y might be tempt$ to con=m _! op9ions & decisions to ! wi%es ( ^? on :om !y 7 dep5d5t = cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,! object ( ! fram]s 0 to remove !m z f> z possible f p>ty influ5ce4 ,sec4#c4 ,x is fur!r provid$1 ) a view to ! indep5d5ce ( ! judges1 t _! comp5sation %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,sal>ies are fix$ by congress4 ,to give congress p[] ov] ! purse ( an (fic]1 is to give x p[] ov] 8 w4 ,dep5d5ce ^u ! legislature w\ld be z great an evil z dep5d5ce ^u ! appo9t+ p[]4 ,besides1 m5 g5]ally select$ = high judicial (fices are em95t lawy]s1 pursu+ a lucrative pr(essional bus9ess2 &1 )\t a lib]al sal>y1 m5 ( ! greate/ ability w\ld n accept ^! (fices2 or if 9 (fice1 an ess5tial r$uction ( _! comp5sation might induce !m to resign _! (fices4 ,sec4#d4 ,! next section enum]ates ! cases to be tri$ 9 ^! c\rts4 ,x is evid5t f _! nature t /ate c\rts are n ! prop] tribunals to try !m4 ,also all violations ( ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are tri$ 9 ! national c\rts4 ,?us1 ! c\nt]feit+ ( ,unit$ ,/ates co91 murd] & o!r crimes committ$ on ! sea1 beyond ! jurisdiction ( a /ate1 smuggl+ goods1 t is1 secretly import+ dutiable goods )\t pay+ ! duties1 infr+em5ts ( pat5t rights1 c41 are prosecut$ 9 c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sec4#e4 ,! ?ird clause ( ?is section decl>es1 t ! trial ( all crimes1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by jury2 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! same /ate :]e ! said crimes %all h be5 committ$4 ,?is is int5d$ to secure ! trial ( ! accus$ among 8 fri5ds & acqua9tances1 & ne> ! resid5ce ( 8 witnesses1 ^: att5dance 9 a di/ant /ate c\ld n be _h )\t great inconv5i5ce & exp5se1 :i* might deprive him ( ! b5efit ( an important witness4 ,sec4#f4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( national c\rts3 ! supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 & di/rict c\rts4 ,e /ate con/itutes at lea/ "o di/rict4 ,! l>g] /ates are divid$ into two or m di/ricts4 ,9 ea* di/rict is a di/rict judge1 :o holds a c\rt f\r times a ye>4 ,!re are also 9 ea* di/rict1 a di/rict attorney1 to conduct suits on ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & a m>%al1 ^: bus9ess is simil> to t ( a %]iff4 ,?is c\rt tries ! m common civil cases1 aris+ "u ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! l[] crimes aga9/ ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 committ$ on l& & sea4 ,?is c\rt has 9 "s cases a jury4 ,sec4#g4 ,!re are n9e circuits1 ea* embrac+ sev]al /ates4 ,9 ea* circuit is a ju/ice or a judge1 :o holds a c\rt 9 8 circuit twice a ye>4 ,! di/rict judge ( ! di/rict 9 :i* a circuit c\rt is held1 sits ) ! circuit judge 9 hold+ a circuit c\rt4 ,?is c\rt tries causes betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t /ates1 betwe5 ali5s & citiz5s1 & ^? 9 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates are a p>ty4 ,x also tries "s cases 9 appeal f ! di/rict c\rts4 ,x tries matt]s relat+ to affairs on ! high seas1 & all felonies puni%able ) dea?4 ,x has a gr& & a petit jury4 ,sec4#h4 ,! supreme c\rt is compos$ ( ! n9e judges ( ! circuit c\rts1 "o ( :om is *ief-ju/ice1 ! o!rs are call$ associate ju/ices4 ,x holds "o session annually at ! seat ( gov]nm5t1 comm5c+ 9 ,janu>y or ,febru>y1 & cont9u+ ab\t two mon?s4 ,x w be se5 f ?is section ( ! con/itution1 t ?is c\rt has orig9al jurisdiction 9 b few cases4 ,its pr9cipal bus9ess is to rejudge cases br\ght up f ! circuit c\rts4 ,sec4#i4 ,an important object ( a supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is to secure a correct & uni=m int]pretation ( ! con/itution & laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,/ate laws & decisions ( /ate c\rts1 are sometimes made :i* are suppos$ to be repugnant to ! con/itution & laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:at may be pron\nc$ con/itutional 9 "o /ate1 may be decl>$ uncon/itutional 9 ano!r4 ,!re=e x is provid$ t :5 an act or judgm5t 9 a case tri$ 9 ! highe/ or la/ c\rt 9 a /ate is deem$ inconsi/5t ) ! con/itution or laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 su* case may be remov$ to ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: decision gov]ns ! judgm5t ( all inf]ior c\rts ?r\gh\t ! union4 ,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,treason1 def9$2 its ,puni%m5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,! con/itution def9es treason1 z foll[s3 ,treason aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9 levy+ w> aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _! enemies1 giv+ !m aid & com=t4 ,art4 #c1 sec4 #c4 ,a pron5ess to con/rue less aggravat$ crimes into acts ( treason1 made x prop] t ! con/itution %\ld def9e ! crime4 ,! t]m levy+ w> has ! s5se "h :i* x 0 und]/ood to h 9 ! ,engli% /atute1 f :i* x 0 adopt$4 ,an assemblage ( m5 = a treasonable purpose1 su* z w> aga9/ ! gov]nm5t1 or a revolution ( any ( its t]ritories1 & 9 a condition to make su* w>1 con/itutes a levy+ ( w>4 ,sec4#b4 ,w> c be levi$ only by ! employm5t ( =ce2 troops mu/ be embodi$2 m5 mu/ be op5ly rais$2 b !re may be treason )\t arms1 or )\t ! application ( =ce to ! object4 ,:5 w> is levi$1 all :o p]=m a "p1 h[ev] remote f ! sc5e ( action1 be+ leagu$ 9 ! conspiracy1 commit treason4 ,b a m]e conspiracy to levy w> is n treason4 ,a secret1 un>m$ meet+ ( conspirators1 n 9 =ce1 nor 9 w>like =m1 ?\gh met = a treasonable purpose1 is n treason2 b ^! (f5ses are high misdemeanors4 ,sec4#c4 ,! con/itution also prescribes ! pro( necess>y = ! conviction ( treason4 ,no p]son %all be convict$ ( treason1 unless on ! te/imony ( two witnesses to ! same ov]t act1 or on confession 9 op5 c\rt4 ,no evid5ce less ?an ?is %\ld be consid]$ suffici5t to convict a p]son ( a crime = :i* he is to suff] dea?4 ,sec4#d4 ,congress %all h p[] to decl>e ! puni%m5t ( treason4 ,art4 #c1 sec4 #c4 ,by ! common law1 ! puni%m5t ( treason 0 ( a savage & disgraceful nature4 ,! (f5d] 0 drawn to ! gall[s on a hurdle2 hang$ by ! neck & cut d[n alive2 8 entrails tak5 out & burn$ :ile he 0 yet alive2 8 head cut (f2 & 8 body qu>t]$4 ,congress1 9 pursuance ( ! p[] "h grant$1 has v prop]ly aboli%$ ?is b>b>\s practice1 & conf9$ ! puni%m5t to simple dea? by hang+4 ,sec4#e4 ,b ! same clause provides1 t no atta9d] ( treason %all "w corruption ( blood1 or =feiture1 except dur+ ! life ( ! p]son atta9t$4 ,atta9d] lit]ally signifies a /a9+1 or r5d]+ impure2 b x "h means a conviction & judgm5t 9 c\rt aga9/ ! (f5d]4 ,by ! common law1 ! s5t5ce ( dea? = treason 0 made to affect ! blood ( ! traitor2 s t he c\ld nei!r inh]it prop]ty nor transmit x to heirs2 b 8 e/ate 0 =feit$4 ,?is practice1 s unju/ to ! innoc5t relatives ( an (f5d]1 is prop]ly aboli%$ by ! con/itution2 & congress has decl>$ t no conviction or judgm5t %all "w corruption ( blood1 or any =feiture ( e/ate4 ,s t :ile ?is law cont9ues1 !re is no =feiture1 ev5 dur+ ! life ( ! p]son atta9t$4 ,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,/ate ,records2 ,privilege ( ,citiz5s2 ,fugitives2 ,admission ( ,new ,/ates2 ,p[] ov] ,t]ritory2 ,gu>anty ( ,republican ,gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea* /ate to ! public acts1 records1 & judicial proce$+s ( e o!r /ate4 ,& ! congress may1 by g5]al laws1 prescribe ! mann] 9 :i* su* acts1 records1 & proce$+s %all be prov$ & ! effect !re(4 ,art4 #d1 sec4 #a4 ,)\t ?is provision1 a p]son aga9/ :om a judgm5t has be5 obta9$1 might remove ) 8 prop]ty into ano!r /ate1 :]e ! prop]ty c\ld n be tak5 on execution )\t a new trial & judgm5t2 :i*1 at s great a di/ance f ! resid5ce ( ! cr$itor & 8 witnesses1 w\ld be v difficult & exp5sive1 & p]haps impossible4 ,n[1 ! proce$+s ( ! c\rt 9 :i* a judgm5t is obta9$1 if s5t to ! place :]e ! debtor resides1 h ! same effect z 9 ! /ate 9 :i* su* proce$+s 7 tak54 ,sec4#b4 ,!re are sev]al o!r cases :i* ?is provision is int5d$ to meet4 ,b1 z is se51 ! effect ( ^! acts1 records1 & judicial proce$+s1 & ! mann] ( prov+ !m are to be prescrib$ by congress4 ,9 pursuance ( ! p[] "h grant$1 congress has enact$1 t a c]tificate "u seal ( ! cl]k ( a c\rt ( record1 transmitt$ to any /ate ( ! union1 %all !re be deem$ evid5ce ( ! facts !re9 /at$4 ,b if ! ?+ c]tifi$ is a judicial proce$+1 su* seal$ c]tificate mu/ be accompani$ by ! c]tificate ( ! presid+ judge or ju/ice1 t ! atte/ation ( ! cl]k is 9 due =m4 ,acts ( a /ate legislature1 to be entitl$ to cr$it 9 ano!r /ate1 mu/ h ! seal ( ! /ate affix$ to !m4 ,sec4#c4 ,! next section ( ?is article provides1 t ! citiz5s ( ea* /ate %all be entitl$ to all ! immunities & privileges ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al /ates4 ,?is means t ! citiz5s ( any /ate go+ into o!r /ates1 %all n1 by ! laws ( ^? /ates1 be depriv$ ( any ( ! privileges ( citiz5s2 b %all be entitl$ to ! privileges :i* are enjoy$ by p]sons ( ! same description 9 ! /ates to :i* !y remove4 ,)\t su* a provision1 any /ate might d5y to citiz5s com+ into x f o!r /ates1 ! "r to buy & hold real e/ate1 or to become vot]s1 or to enjoy equal privileges 9 trade or bus9ess4 ,a /ate may1 h[ev]1 prescribe a c]ta9 t]m ( resid5ce !re9 z a qualification = vot+ at elections4 ,sec4#d4 ,! next clause ( ?is section provides = appreh5d+ a p]son *>g$ ) crime1 :o %all flee f ju/ice & be f\nd 9 ano!r /ate4 ,! gov]nor ( ! /ate f :i* su* p]son has fl$1 s5ds a requisition to ! gov]nor ( ! /ate 9 :i* he is f\nd1 dem&+ 8 deliv]y to ! prop] (fic]s1 to be convey$ back = trial4 ,)\t su* au?ority to appreh5d crim9als1 !y might escape ju/ice by tak+ %elt] 9 ano!r /ate4 ,sec4#e4 ,9 ! same section x is provid$1 t no p]son held to s]vice or labor 9 "o /ate1 "u ! laws !re(1 escap+ into ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any law or regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su* s]vice or labor1 b %all be deliv]$ up on claim ( ! p>ty to :om su* s]vice or labor may be due4 ,?is clause 0 int5d$ = ! b5efit ( ! slavehold+ /ates4 ,by ! common law1 a slave escap+ into a non-slavehold+ /ate became free4 ,z x 0 presum$ t o!r nor!rn /ates w\ld foll[ ,massa*usetts 9 aboli%+ slav]y1 ! s\!rn /ates want$ "s provision to enable !m to reclaim _! fugitive slaves4 ,sec4#f4 ,! mann] 9 :i* slaves are to be reclaim$1 is prescrib$ by an act ( congress4 ,! own] ( a runaway slave1 f9d+ him 9 a free /ate1 arre/s him & br+s him be=e a magi/rate2 & if he proves 8 title to ! slave to ! satisfaction ( ! magi/rate1 ! slave is deliv]$ to ! own] or claimant4 ,free color$ p]sons h sometimes be5 arre/$1 &1 on false te/imony1 deliv]$ to claimants1 tak5 to slave /ates & held z slaves4 ,h5ce ! op9ion prevails ext5sively t a p]son claim$ z a slave %\ld be entitl$ to trial by a jury2 & t ! fact ( 8 be+ a slave %\ld be prov$ to ! satisfaction ( a jury be=e 8 deliv]y to a claimant4 ,_m p]sons1 believ+ fre$om to be ! natural "r ( all m51 hold t all laws = return+ fugitive slaves are wrong1 & ought n to be obey$4 ,sec4#g4 ,! fir/ clause ( ! next section provides1 t new /ates may be admitt$ into ?is union1 & requires ! cons5t ( congress & ( ! /ates conc]n$1 to ! =mation ( new /ates f old ones4 ,a provision ( ?is k9d 0 deem$ necess>y 9 view ( ! l>ge ext5t ( vacant l&s )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! inconv5i5t size ( "s ( ! /ates !n exi/+4 ,! t]ritory nor?-we/ ( ! ,ohio riv] _h be5 c$$ to ! g5]al gov]nm5t by ! /ates claim+ ! same2 & a t]ritorial gov]nm5t _h already be5 e/abli%$ !re9 by ! celebrat$ ord9ance ( #aghg4 ,f ?is t]ritory h s9ce be5 =m$ & admitt$1 ! /ates ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan & ,wiscons94 ,sec4#h4 ,s\? ( ! ,ohio riv] also 0 a l>ge tract1 pr9cipally unsettl$1 )9 ! *>t]$ limits ( ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia1 ext5d+ we/ to ! ,mississippi riv]1 f :i*1 x 0 presum$1 new /ates w\ld be =m$4 ,ju/ice1 h[ev]1 to ^! /ates1 z well z to o!rs 9 all future "t1 requir$ ! g5]al provision above m5tion$1 t no /ate %\ld be divid$ )\t ! cons5t ( its legislature & ( congress4 ,sec4#i4 ,! next clause au?orizes congress to dispose ( & make all ne$ful rules & regulations respect+ ! t]ritory & o!r prop]ty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if ! g5]al gov]nm5t has p[] to acquire t]ritory1 x mu/ h ! "r to ex]cise au?ority ov] x4 ,?is express grant e/abli%es beyond d\bt a p[] :i* _h be5 que/ion$ "u ! conf$]ation4 ,9 pursuance ( ! p[] "h grant$1 congress has made rules & regulations = gov]n+ ! p ( diff]5t portions ( su* t]ritory previ\sly to _! admission z /ates into ! union4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! next section decl>es1 t ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>anty to e /ate 9 ?is union a republican =m ( gov]nm5t2 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ invasion1 & on ! application ( ! legislature1 or ( ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$17 aga9/ dome/ic viol5ce4 ,art4 #d1 sec4 #d4 ,! propriety ( a p[] to prev5t a /ate f *ang+ its gov]nm5t to any o!r ?an a republican =m1 is evid5t4 ,x is equally prop] t a /ate1 :5 invad$ by a =eign enemy1 or 9 case ( an insurrection )9 its own bord]s1 %\ld h protection & aid f ! g5]al gov]nm5t2 especially z ! /ates h surr5d]$ to x ! "r to keep troops or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace4 7,art4 #a1 sec4 #aj47 ,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,provision = ,am5dm5ts2 ,assumption ( ,public ,debts2 ,supremacy ( ! ,con/itution1 c42 ,oa?s & ,te/s2 ,ratification ( ! ,con/itution4 ,sec4#a4 ,! #e? article provides = am5d+ ! con/itution4 ,x prescribes two diff]5t modes = propos+ am5dm5ts1 & two modes ( ratify+ !m4 ,am5dm5ts may be propos$ by two-?irds ( bo? h\ses ( congress2 or1 on ! application or reque/ ( two-?irds ( ! /ates1 congress %all call a conv5tion = propos+ am5dm5ts4 ,propos$ 9 ei!r ( ^! modes1 am5dm5ts1 to become valid z p>ts ( ! con/itution1 mu/ be ratifi$ by ! legislatures ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! /ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s ( !m2 ! mode ( ratification1 :e!r by ! legislatures or by conv5tions1 to be propos$ by congress4 ,sec4#b4 ,z ! be/ human gov]nm5t is imp]fect1 & z all ! future wants & necessities ( a p c n be =ese5 & provid$ =1 x is obvi\s t e con/itution %\ld conta9 "s provision = its am5dm5t4 ,b if am5dm5ts c\ld be made :5ev] desir$ by a b>e majority ( ! /ates1 ! /r5g? & effici5cy ( ! con/itution might be greatly impair$ by frequ5t alt]ations4 ,x is !re=e wisely provid$1 t a m]e proposition to am5d _c be made b by a majority ( at lea/ two-?irds ( congress1 or ( ! legislatures ( at lea/ ( two-?irds ( ! /ates2 & t su* proposition mu/ be ratifi$ by a /ill l>g] majority 7?ree-f\r?s7 ( ! /ates4 ,x 0 ?\ght bett] to submit occasionally to "s tempor>y inconv5i5ce1 ?an to indulge 9 frequ5t am5dm5ts ( ! con/itution4 ,sec4#c4 ,! #f? article ackn[l$ges ! obligation ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t to pay all debts contract$ be=e ! adoption ( ! con/itution4 ,z has be5 obs]v$1 congress _h borr[$ money = ! paym5t ( :i* x 0 unable to provide2 & "o object ( a *ange ( gov]nm5t 0 to make provision = fulfill+ ! engagem5ts ( ! nation4 ,?is clause1 x is said1 0 also int5d$ to allay ! fe>s ( public cr$itors1 :o appreh5d$ t a *ange 9 ! gov]nm5t w\ld release ! nation f its obligations4 ,sec4#d4 ,! next clause decl>es1 ,?is con/itution1 & ! laws made 9 pursuance !re(1 & all treaties made "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be ! supreme law ( ! l&1 & ! judges 9 e /ate %all be b\nd !reby1 any ?+ 9 ! con/itution or laws ( any /ate to ! contr>y not)/&+4 ,if all /ate au?orities 7 n b\nd by ! con/itution & laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 no?+ w\ld h be5 ga9$ by ! union4 ,if ! laws & treaties made by ! g5]al gov]nm5t c\ld be disreg>d$ or nullifi$ by any p[] 9 a /ate1 :y 0 p[] to make !m giv5 to ! g5]al gov]nm5t8 ,sec4#e4 ,! la/ clause ( ! #d? article requires c]ta9 (fic]s1 bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! sev]al /ates to be b\nd by oa? or affirmation to support ?is con/itution4 ,b9d+ ! consci5ce ( public (fic]s by oa? or solemn affirmation1 has ev] be5 consid]$ necess>y to secure a fai?ful p]=mance ( _! duties4 ,!y are g5]ally requir$ to swe> n only to support ! con/itution1 b also to dis*>ge ! duties ( _! (fices to ! be/ ( _! ability4 ,sec4#f4 ,! same clause decl>es t no religi\s te/ %all ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any (fice or public tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,te/ "h means an oa? or a decl>ation 9 favor ( or aga9/ c]ta9 religi\s op9ions1 z a qualification = (fice4 ,9 ,engl&1 all (fic]s1 civil & milit>y1 7 =m]ly oblig$ to make a decl>ation aga9/ transub/antiation1 & to ass5t to ! doctr9es & con=m to ! rules ( ! e/abli%$ *ur*4 ,desir\s ( secur+ to e citiz5 ! full enjoym5t ( religi\s lib]ty1 ! introduction ( te/s 0 prohibit$ by ! con/itution4 ,sec4#g4 ,! #g? & la/ article decl>es3 ,! ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e /ates %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is con/itution betwe5 ! /ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,! imm$iate ratification ( ! con/itution by all ! /ates 0 h>dly to be expect$2 a unanim\s ratification1 !re=e1 0 n requir$4 ,b a union ( less ?an n9e /ates 0 deem$ inexp$i5t4 ,! fram]s conclud$ _! labors on ! #ag? ( ,septemb]1 #aghg2 & 9 ,july1 #aghh1 ! ratification ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ! n9? /ate1 0 receiv$ by congress4 ,sec4#h4 ,! dates ( ! ratifications ( ! sev]al /ates are z foll[s3 ,delaw>e1 ,decemb] #g1 #aghg2 ,p5nsylvania1 ,decemb] #ab1 #aghg2 ,new ,j]sey1 ,decemb] #ah1 #aghg2 ,georgia1 ,janu>y #b1 #aghh2 ,connecticut1 ,janu>y #i1 #aghh2 ,massa*usetts1 ,febru>y #f1 #aghh2 ,m>yl&1 ,april #bh1 #aghh2 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,may #bc1 #aghh2 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,june #ba1 #aghh2 ,virg9ia1 ,june #bf1 #aghh2 ,new ,york1 ,july #bf1 #aghh2 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,novemb] #ba1 #aghi2 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,may #bi1 #agij4 ,! two la/ nam$ /ates did n acc$e to ! con/itution until aft] proce$+s "u x _h comm5c$4 ,! ratification ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a 0 receiv$ by congress 9 ,janu>y1 #agij2 t ( ,rhode ,isl& 9 ,june foll[+4 ,sec4#i4 ,! fir/ ,w$nesday ( ,janu>y1 #aghi1 0 appo9t$ by congress = *oos+ electors ( presid5t 9 ! sev]al /ates1 & ! fir/ ,w$nesday ( ,febru>y = ! electors to meet 9 _! respective /ates to elect ! presid5t4 ,g54 ,wa%+ton 0 unanim\sly elect$1 & on ! #cj? ( ,april 0 inaugurat$ presid5t4 ,proce$+s "u ! con/itution1 h[ev]1 _h comm5c$ on ! #d? ( ,m>* prec$+4 ,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution4 ,sec4#a4 ,x is rem>kable t1 dur+ a p]iod ( sev5ty ye>s1 ! con/itution has receiv$ s few alt]ations4 ,al?\gh twelve articles ( am5dm5t1 s call$1 h be5 adopt$1 only two1 7! #aa? & #ab?17 h 9 any mann] or degree *ang$ any ( its orig9al provisions4 ,mo/ ( !m1 x w be se51 are m]ely decl>atory & re/rictive4 ,z ! pr9ciples :i* !y decl>e 7 s g5]ally ackn[l$g$1 & z ! g5]al gov]nm5t 0 a gov]nm5t ( limit$ p[]s1 hav+ su* only z 7 expressly au?oriz$ by ! con/itution1 ! fram]s deem$ ^! decl>ations & re/rictions unnecess>y4 ,b z sev]al ( ! /ate conv5tions _h1 at ! "t ( adopt+ ! con/itution1 express$ a desire t decl>ations & gu>anties ( c]ta9 rights %\ld be add$1 9 ord] to prev5t miscon/ruction & abuse1 ! fir/ congress1 at its fir/ session1 propos$ twelve am5dm5ts1 t5 ( :i* 7 ratifi$ by ! requisite numb] ( /ates4 ,virg9ia1 ! la/ /ate necess>y to make up su* numb]1 ratifi$ ,decemb] #ae1 #agia4 ,sec4#b4 ,fre$om 9 matt]s ( religion1 fre$om ( spee* & ( ! press1 & ! "r to petition ! gov]nm5t = ! r$ress ( grievances1 gu>anti$ 9 ! fir/ article1 are rights s ess5tial to civil lib]ty1 & s evid5tly j1 t x c h>dly be presum$ t congress w\ld ev] h pass$ laws directly violat+ ^! rights1 ev5 ?\gh su* laws _h n be5 prohibit$4 ,sec4#c4 ,! second article gu>anties ! "r ( p to be> arms4 ,)\t ?is "r1 ambiti\s m5 might1 by ! aid ( ! regul> army1 ov]?r[ ! lib]ties ( ! p1 & usurp ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,sec4#d4 ,! ?ird article decl>es1 t no soldi] %all1 9 "t ( peace1 be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se )\t ! cons5t ( ! own]1 nor 9 "t ( w>1 b 9 a mann] to be prescrib$ by law4 ,x is a pr9ciple ( ! common law1 t a man's h\se is 8 own ca/le4 ,among ! grievances enum]at$ 9 ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 0 "o = qu>t]+ l>ge bodies ( arm$ troops among ! p ( ! colonies4 ,to secure ! p aga9/ intrusions ( ?is k9d1 is ! object ( ?is prohibition4 ,sec4#e4 ,! f\r? article gu>anties ! "r ( ! p to be secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s1 & effects1 aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures4 ,b !re c\ld be no su* security1 if e man c\ld1 on m]e pret5se or suspicion ( injury1 obta9 a w>rant = arre/+ 8 neighbor or se>*+ 8 premises & seiz+ 8 prop]ty4 ,innoc5t m5 w\ld (t5 be subject$ to mu* tr\ble & p]plexity2 & unju/ suspicions w\ld be ?r[n ^u _! *>act]s4 ,x is prop]1 !re=e1 t a magi/rate %all n issue a w>rant1 unless x %all be made to appe>1 by ! oa? ( ! applicant or ( "s o!r p]son t !re is probable cause4 ,sec4#f4 ,! rights gu>anti$ by ! fif? article are common law rights1 & f\nd$ ^u j pr9ciples4 ,we h else:]e /at$ ! object ( gr& juries1 & notic$ ! op9ion ( "s1 t ?is object is suffici5tly secur$ by ! exam9ation be=e ! magi/rate2 &1 consequ5tly1 t gr& juries are unnecess>y4 7,see ,*ap4 ,,xix1 ,sec4#h-aj47 ,b :ile ?is article cont9ues to be a "p ( ! con/itution1 gr& juries 9 c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c n be disp5s$ )4 ,x is q prop]1 z is provid$ 9 ?is article1 t1 aft] a fair & imp>tial trial & an acquittal1 a p]son %\ld n be tri$ a second "t4 ,! provisions ( ! next article 7#f?7 are also necess>y to secure ! same object--! rights ( lib]ty & life to e citiz54 ,sec4#g4 ,! sev5? article ( am5dm5t secures1 9 c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$ tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury4 ,by suits at common law are meant ^? tri$ 9 ! ord9>y c\rts1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? tri$ 9 c\rts ( equity & c\rts ( admiralty4 ,?is article fur!r decl>es1 t no fact tri$ by a jury %all be o!rwise reexam9$ 9 any c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4 ,t is1 if a fact tri$ by a jury 9 a l[] c\rt1 is c>ri$ up to a high] c\rt = reexam9ation1 su* reexam9ation or new trial %all also be by jury4 ,sec4#h4 ,excessive bail %all n be requir$1 nor excessive f9es impos$1 nor unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4 ,am5d4 art4 #h4 ,! object ( bail & ! mann] 9 :i* x is giv51 h be5 /at$4 7,*ap4 ,,xviii47 ,)\t ! above re/riction1 ! sum might be fix$ s high z to prev5t p]sons accus$ ( crime f procur+ ! necess>y sureties2 :]eby innoc5t p]sons might be subject$ to long imprisonm5t be=e ! "t ( trial4 ,x is !re=e prop]ly left to ! c\rt to fix ! sum1 :i* %\ld correspond to ! aggravation ( ! (f5se4 ,c\rts h ! same discretion z to ! measure ( puni%m5t to be inflict$ 9 ea* p>ticul> case ( crime4 ,sec4#i4 ,! n9? am5dm5t is1 ,! enum]ation 9 ! con/itution ( c]ta9 rights1 %all n be con/ru$ to d5y or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4 ,!re 7 p]sons :o fe>$ t1 because ! con/itution m5tion$ c]ta9 rights z belong+ to ! p1 ^? n m5tion$ might be consid]$ z hav+ be5 surr5d]$ to ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,?is article 0 !re=e ins]t$ to prev5t su* a miscon/ruction ( ! con/itution4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! t5? am5dm5t is simil> to ! prec$+4 ,! p[]s n delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! /ates are res]v$ to ! /ates respectively1 or to ! p4 ,9 o!r words ! p[]s :i* ! con/itution has n giv5 to ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 nor prohibit$ ! /ates f ex]cis+1 ! /ates or ! p h res]v$ to !mselves4 ,s cle> is x1 t !y reta9 all p[] :i* !y h n 9 words p>t$ )1 t x seems /range to _m t ! ins]tion ( su* a provision %\ld ev] h be5 ?\ght necess>y4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! elev5? am5dm5t 0 propos$ at ! fir/ session ( ! ?ird congress1 ,m>* #e1 #agid1 & its ratification by ! con/itutional numb] ( /ates 0 ann\nc$ to congress by ! presid5t 9 a message dat$ ,janu>y #h1 #agih4 ,?is article prohibits a c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f try+ any suit 9 law or equity comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! /ates by citiz5s ( ano!r /ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign /ate4 ,?is is int5d$ to prev5t a /ate f be+ su$ 9 an orig9al suit1 by a private p]son1 ! citiz5 ( ano!r /ate4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! twelf? & la/ am5dm5t effects a *ange 9 ! mode ( elect+ ! presid5t & vice-presid5t1 & has be5 consid]$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxix1 ,sec4#d47 ,?is am5dm5t 0 propos$ at ! fir/ session ( ! eigh? congress1 ,decemb] #ab1 #ahjc1 & 0 adopt$ by ! requisite numb] ( /ates 9 #ahjd1 accord+ to a public notice by ! secret>y ( /ate1 dat$ ! #be? ( ,septemb] ( ! same ye>4 ,common & ,/atutory ,law4 ,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,rights ( ,p]sons4 ,p]sonal ,security2 ,p]sonal ,lib]ty2 ,religi\s ,lib]ty2 ,lib]ty ( ,spee*1 & ( ! ,press2 ,"r ( ,prop]ty4 ,sec4#a4 ,hav+ tak5 a g5]al view ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts & ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & se5 h[ wisely !y are adapt$ to promote ! g5]al welf>e & secure ! bless+s ( lib]ty2 we proce$ to give a dige/ ( ! laws :i* m p>ticul>ly def9e ! rights & prescribe ! duties ( citiz5s1 or by :i* _! social & civil int]c\rse is to be regulat$4 ,^! laws1 x w be recollect$1 we h else:]e call$ ! municipal or civil laws1 z di/+ui%$ f ! political or fundam5tal law ( ! /ate4 7,*ap4 ,,iii1 ,sec4#f47 ,sec4#b4 ,^! laws are ( two k9ds1 ! writt5 or /atute law1 & ! unwritt5 or common law4 ,/atute laws are ^? :i* are enact$ by ! legislature1 & record$ 9 writ+1 & are usually collect$ & publi%$ 9 books4 ,! ^w /atute is f ! ,lat9 /atuo1 to set1 fix1 or e/abli%4 ,sec4#c4 ,! common law is n a code ( writt5 laws enact$ by a legislature1 b consi/s ( rules ( action :i* h become b9d+ f long usage & e/abli%$ cu/om4 ,x is said to be f\nd$ 9 reason & ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice4 ,! common law ( ,engl& 0 br\ght ov] by our ance/ors1 & e/abli%$ "h be=e ! revolution4 ,"s ( ! /ates1 9 _! con/itutions1 adopt$ aft] ! revolution1 decl>$ x to be ! law ( _! respective /ates2 & x has cont9u$ to be law 9 all ! /ates1 & is /ill s consid]$1 except su* p>ts z h be5 alt]$ or repeal$ by con/itutional or legislative enactm5ts1 or by usage4 ,sec4#d4 ,! mo/ valuable rights protect$ by law are ! rights ( p]sonal security & p]sonal lib]ty4 ,! "r ( p]sonal security is ! "r to be secure f injury to our p]sons or good names4 ,by p]sonal lib]ty is meant ! fre$om ( our bodies or p]sons f re/ra9t or conf9em5t4 ,provisions gu>anty+ ^! rights h be5 incorporat$ into our national con/itution1 & ! con/itutions ( ! sev]al /ates4 ,sec4#e4 ,! "r ( p]sonal security is also protect$ by ! law1 by :i* a man1 on %[+ reasonable cause ( dang] ( p]sonal injury1 may require 8 adv]s>y to be b\nd ) sureties to keep ! peace4 ,& = viol5ce committ$1 ! (f5d] may be prosecut$ 9 behalf ( ! /ate & puni%$1 & is liable also to ! p>ty aggriev$ 9 a civil suit = damages4 ,sec4#f4 ,?is "r is fur!r protect$ by ! law :i* p]mits a man to ex]cise ! natural "r ( self-def5se4 ,9 def5d+ 8 p]son 9 case ( a feloni\s assault1 he may lawfully take ! life ( 8 assailant4 ,?is is by law pron\nc$ ju/ifiable homicide1 & is all[$ also 9 def5se ( "o's prop]ty aga9/ feloni\s & viol5t injury4 ,b homicide 7man-kill+7 is n ju/ifiable 9 case ( a private injury1 nor ^u ! pret5se ( necessity :5 ! p>ty is n free f fault 9 br++ t necessity ^u himself4 ,sec4#g4 ,! "r to be secure 9 our good names1 :i* is includ$ 9 ! "r ( p]sonal security1 is protect$ by ! law aga9/ sl&] & libel4 ,a sl&] is a false & malici\s report or /atem5t t5d+ to injure ano!r 9 8 reputation or bus9ess1 & :i*1 if true1 w\ld r5d] him unwor?y ( confid5ce or employm5t2 or x is ! malici\sly *>g+ ( ano!r ) any?+ by :i* he su/a9s special injury4 ,! sl&] ( a p]son by words spok51 is a civil injury1 t is1 an injury = :i* r$ress is to be obta9$ 9 a civil suit = damages4 ,sec4#h4 ,a sl&] writt5 or pr9t$1 is call$ libel4 ,a libel is a malici\s publication 9 pr9t or writ+1 signs or pictures1 t5d+ to expose a p]son to public hatr$1 contempt1 or ridicule4 ,& x is consid]$ 9 law a publication ( su* defamatory writ+1 ?\gh communicat$ to a s+le p]son4 ,a sl&] writt5 or pr9t$ is likely to h a wid] circulation1 to make a deep] impression1 & to become m injuri\s4 ,a p]son may !re=e be liable 9 damages = words 9 pr9t or writ+1 = :i* he w\ld n be liable if m]ely spok54 ,9 case ( libel1 a p]son is n only liable to a private suit = damages1 b may be indict$ & tri$ z = o!r public (f5ses4 ,sec4#i4 ,x is a pr9ciple ( ,engli% common law1 t 9 a crim9al action = libel x is immat]ial :e!r ! matt] ( x is true or false2 & a p]son prosecut$ = libel is n all[$1 9 ju/ification1 to prove to ! jury ! tru? ( 8 /atem5t1 s9ce ! provocation1 n ! falsity1 is to be puni%$4 ,&1 :e!r true or false1 ! libel\s publication is equally dang]\s to ! public peace1 & is presum$ to h be5 made ) malici\s int5t4 ,sec4#aj4 ,x is held--& p]haps x is ! prevail+ op9ion--t 9 a civil action = damages1 a libel mu/ be false z well z sc&al\s1 &1 consequ5tly1 t ! tru? may be plead$ 9 ju/ification4 ,?is po9t1 h[ev]1 is n fully settl$4 ,! reason = ?is di/9ction betwe5 cases ( public & private prosecution1 x is n easy to p]ceive4 ,if x is j to inquire into ! good or bad int5tions ( ! publi%] 9 "o case1 x w\ld seem to be equally s 9 ! o!r4 ,sec4#aa4 ,b ! common law has be5 mat]ially modifi$ & relax$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates x is provid$ by _! con/itutions or by law1 t ! tru? may be giv5 9 evid5ce1 & if x %all appe> to ! jury t ! matt] *>g$ z libel\s is true1 & 0 publi%$ ) good motives & = ju/ifiable ends1 ! p>ty %all be acquitt$4 ,z x may sometimes be prop] to speak or publi% an unfavorable tru? conc]n+ o!rs1 ! pr9ciple ( ! above provision w\ld seem to be f\nd$ 9 ju/ice4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,v]mont1 & p]haps 9 a few o!r /ates1 if ! p>ty prosecut$ proves ! tru? ( 8 /atem5t 9 any case1 he is acquitt$4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! "r ( p]sonal lib]ty is secur$ by express provision ( ! national con/itution1 :i* gu>anties to e citiz5 ! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus4 7,cons4 ,u4,s4 art4 #a1 sec4 #i47 ,! nature ( ?is writ has be5 expla9$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvi1 ,sec4#d47 ,! same provision has be5 ins]t$ 9 ! /ate con/itutions4 ,?is 0 a common law privilege1 indep5d5tly ( any con/itutional enactm5t4 ,! pr9cipal object ( ! provision seems to be to take f congress & ! /ate legislatures ! p[] to aboli% ?is privilege1 or ev5 to susp5d x = any "t1 or 9 any case1 except ! p>ticul> cases m5tion$4 ,sec4#ac4 ,fre$om ( religi\s op9ion & wor%ip1 or lib]ty ( consci5ce1 is a valuable p]sonal "r1 includ$ 9 ! t]m1 p]sonal lib]ty1 & is effectually secur$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! c\ntry ( our ance/ors1 !re is a *ur* e/abli%$ & support$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,?is is sometimes call$ union ( *ur* & /ate4 ,! ,am]ican p1 f _! love ( religi\s fre$om1 h1 9 _! con/itutions1 expressly prohibit$ congress f mak+ laws respect+ ! e/abli%m5t ( religion1 or prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(4 7,am5d4 art4 #a47 ,& ! /ate con/itutions h adopt$ simil> provisions4 ,sec4#ad4 ,ano!r important p]sonal "r compreh5d$ 9 ! t]m p]sonal lib]ty1 & gu>anti$ 9 ! same article ( ! national con/itution1 & 9 ! /ate con/itutions1 is ! lib]ty ( spee* & ( ! press4 ,"s ( ! mon>*ical gov]nm5ts ( ,europe prohibit$ ! p f speak+ aga9/ ! sov]eign or 8 gov]nm5t4 ,books & pap]s c\ld n be publi%$ until !y _h be5 exam9$ & approv$4 ,! p]sons au?oriz$ to exam9e ! manuscripts1 7 call$ c5sors4 ,h5ce ! expression sometimes he>d1 c5sor%ip ( ! press4 ,to secure ! lib]ty ( speak+ & publi%+ _! s5tim5ts freely up on all subjects1 ! p ( ?is c\ntry h made express provision 9 _! con/itutions2 :i*1 h[ev]1 :ile !y prop]ly gu>anty ?is "r1 leave m5 responsible = its abuse1 & liable to prosecution = sl&] or libel4 7,sec4#g1 #h47 ,sec4#ae4 ,! "r ( prop]ty is ! "r to acquire prop]ty1 & to be free 9 ! use & enjoym5t ( x4 ,to protect m5 9 ! enjoym5t ( ?is "r1 is "o ( ! pr9cipal objects ( con/itutions & laws4 ,! rights ( prop]ty w con/itute ! subject matt] ( sev]al subsequ5t *apt]s ( ?is dige/ ( common & /atutory law4 7,*ap4 ,l1 & onw>d47 ,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,dome/ic ,relations4 ,husb& & ,wife4 ,sec4#a4 ,to r5d] a m>riage contract lawful1 ! p>ties mu/ be ( suffici5t age1 call$ ! age ( cons5t2 :i*1 by ! common law ( ! l&1 is f\rte5 ye>s 9 males1 & twelve 9 females4 ,9 "s /ates ! age ( cons5t has be5 alt]$ by /atute4 ,9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,mi*igan1 x has be5 rais$ to eighte5 ye>s 9 males1 & f\rte5 9 females2 9 ,ill9ois to sev5te5 & f\rte52 9 ,wiscons91 to eighte5 & fifte54 ,sec4#b4 ,! p>ties mu/ also h suffici5t und]/&+ to transact ! ord9>y bus9ess ( life4 ,idiots & lunatics _c legally contract m>riage4 ,p]sons mu/ also act freely4 ,if ! cons5t ( ei!r p>ty has be5 obta9$ by =ce or fraud1 ! m>riage may be decl>$ void4 ,! p>ties mu/ n be ne>ly relat$4 ,! degrees ( relation%ip at :i* !y are =bidd5 to m>ry are 9 "s /ates fix$ by law2 b ! laws ( ^! /ates on ! subject are n uni=m4 ,"s /ates h =bidd5 m>riages :i* come )9 :at is call$ ! ,levitical degrees2 b ^! degrees h receiv$ diff]5t int]pretations4 ,accord+ to ! int]pretation ( "s1 ! relation ( uncle & niece & aunt & nephew1 come )9 ?is rule4 ,sec4#c4 ,no p]son c lawfully rem>ry :o has a wife or husb& liv+4 ,su* second m>riage is1 by ! common law1 null & void4 ,9 "s ( ! /ates1 p]haps 9 mo/ ( !m1 x is decl>$ polygamy1 & a /ate prison (f5se1 except 9 c]ta9 cases2 z :5 ! husb& or wife ( ! p>ty :o rem>ries has be5 long abs5t1 & ! p>ty re-m>ry+ does n "k ! o!r to h be5 liv+ )9 ! "t2 or :5 ! =m] husb& or wife ( ! p>ty rem>ry+ has be5 s5t5c$ to imprisonm5t = life2 or :5 ! =m] m>riage has be5 lawfully annull$ or dissolv$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a m>riage has be5 annull$ or dissolv$ = ! cause ( adult]y1 ! crim9al p>ty is1 9 "s /ates at lea/1 n all[$ to rem>ry4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 "s ( ! cases except$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 ! second m>riage is m]ely excusable4 ,al?\gh ! p>ty to su* m>riage is exempt f ! p5alty1 yet if ! =m] wife or husb& is liv+1 ?\gh ! fact is unkn[n1 & no divorce has be5 duly ann\nc$1 or ! fir/ m>riage has n be5 duly annull$2 ! second m>riage is void4 ,:]e !re is no /atute regulation1 ! common law gov]ns1 :i* is1 t no?+ b dea?1 or a decree ( a compet5t c\rt1 c dissolve ! m>riage tie4 ,sec4#e4 ,! mann] 9 :i* m>riages are to be solemniz$1 & by :om1 & ! mann] 9 :i* m>riage lic5ses are to be obta9$1 or notices ( m>riage publi%$1 7:i* are requir$ 9 "s /ates17 are prescrib$ by ! laws ( ! /ates 9 :i* su* regulations exi/4 ,m>riages may usually be solemniz$ by m9i/]s ( ! gospel1 judges1 ju/ices ( ! peace1 & c]ta9 o!r (fic]s4 ,b by ! common law1 a m>riage is r5d]$ valid by a simple cons5t ( ! p>ties decl>$ be=e witnesses1 or subsequ5tly ackn[l$g$2 or su* cons5t may be inf]r$ f cont9ual cohabitation & reputation z husb& & wife4 ,sec4#f4 ,9 law1 ! husb& & wife are reg>d$ z "o p]son4 ,by ! common law1 ! husb&1 by m>riage1 acquires a "r to ! prop]ty ( ! wife :i* %e _h be=e m>riage1 & :i* %e may acquire aft] m>riage4 ,to h] p]sonal prop]ty1 includ+ debts due h] by bond1 note1 or o!rwise1 he has an absolute "r1 & may use & dispose ( ! same z he pleases4 ,h] *attels real1 h[ev]1 :i* are leases ( l& = ye>s1 ?\gh p]sonal prop]ty1 he c n dispose ( by w2 & if he makes no disposition ( !m dur+ 8 life "t1 & %e outlives him1 %e takes !m 9 h] own "r4 ,if he survives 8 wife1 he acquires an absolute "r to !m4 ,sec4#g4 ,b to ! real e/ate ( ! wife1 ! husb& does n acquire an absolute "r4 ,he has only a "r to ! use1 r5ts1 & pr(its !re( dur+ 8 life1 if he %all die be=e 8 wife2 & 9 t ev5t %e takes ! e/ate aga9 9 h] own "r4 ,if ! wife dies fir/1 & !re are no *ildr51 h] heirs imm$iately take ! e/ate4 ,if !re are *ildr5 liv+1 ! husb& holds ! e/ate = life1 & on 8 dea? x goes to ! wife or h] heirs4 ,sec4#h4 ,b ?is rule ( ! common law :i* gives to ! husb& ! possession & disposal ( ! prop]ty ( ! wife1 has be5 repeal$ by special enactm5ts 9 mo/ ( ! /ates4 ,by ^! /ate laws1 ! real & p]sonal prop]ty ( ! wife own$ by h] be=e m>riage1 or convey$ to h] by any o!r p]son ?an h] husb& aft] m>riage1 ) ! r5ts & pr(its ( su* prop]ty1 is decl>$ to be h] own1 & at h] disposal1 & n liable = ! debts ( h] husb&1 except 9 a few cases specifi$ 9 ! law ( ea* /ate4 ,9 "s ( ^! /ates1 al?\gh ! prop]ty ( ! wife is n liable = ! husb&'s debts1 he has ! control & managem5t1 & ! r5ts & pr(its ( x4 ,sec4#i4 ,z ! husb&1 by common law1 acquires1 by m>riage1 an int]e/ 9 ! prop]ty ( 8 wife1 he becomes liable = h] debts contract$ be=e m>riage2 b if !y are n recov]$ ( him dur+ cov]ture1 he is dis*>g$ ,cov]ture1 9 law1 is ! /ate ( a m>ri$ woman1 consid]$ z "u cov]1 or "u ! p[] ( h] husb&4 ,"s ( ! /ates :i* h aboli%$ ! common law "r ( ! husb& to ! prop]ty ( ! wife acquir$ be=e m>riage1 h also aboli%$ ! common law obligation ( ! husb& to pay ! debts ( ! wife contract$ be=e m>riage2 h] prop]ty alone be+ liable = su* debts4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! husb& is b\nd to ma9ta9 8 wife1 & is liable = debts :i* %e may contract = necess>ies1 b = no?+ m4 ,if he refuses to provide = h] wants1 or if1 ?r\gh o!r ill treatm5t or fault on 8 "p1 !y become sep>ate1 he is liable to fulfill h] contracts = necess>ies1 ev5 ?\gh he has =bidd5 p]sons to tru/ h]4 ,if !y "p by cons5t1 & he secures to h] a sep>ate ma9t5ance1 & pays x accord+ to agreem5t1 he is n liable1 ev5 = necess>ies4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! husb& & wife c n be witnesses = or aga9/ ea* o!r2 b any decl>ations made by a wife :5 act+ z ag5t = h] husb&1 may be admitt$ 9 evid5ce aga9/ him4 ,9 a few /ates1 laws h be5 propos$1 &1 x is believ$1 9 "s !y h be5 pass$1 remov+1 to "s ext5t1 ?is re/riction ^u ! "r ( a husb& or wife to ! te/imony ( ! o!r4 ,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,dome/ic ,relations1 cont9u$4 ,p>5t & ,*ild2 ,gu>dian & ,w>d2 ,m9ors2 ,ma/]s1 ,appr5tices1 & ,s]vants4 ,sec4#a4 ,p>5ts1 z ! natural gu>dians ( _! *ildr51 are oblig$ to provide = _! support & education dur+ _! m9ority1 or :ile !y are "u tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age4 ,at tw5ty-"o !y atta9 ! age ( majority1 :5 !y are said to be ( age4 ,"u ?is age !y are1 9 law1 infants1 or m9ors4 ,! fa!r1 if he is able1 is b\nd to support 8 m9or *ildr51 ev5 if !y h prop]ty ( _! own2 b 9 su* case ! "m is n s b\nd4 ,b a husb& is n oblig$ to ma9ta9 ! *ild ( 8 wife by a =m] husb&4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he takes ! *ild into 8 family1 he is responsible = its ma9t5ance & education :ile x lives ) him4 ,sec4#b4 ,a fa!r may be liable = necess>ies sold to a *ild4 ,b to be s liable1 x mu/ be prov$ t ! contract = ! articles 0 made by 8 actual au?ority1 or ! circum/ances mu/ be suffici5t to imply au?ority2 or t neglect to provide = ! *ild1 or "s o!r fault on ! "p ( ! fa!r1 r5d]$ assi/ance to ! *ild necess>y4 ,be+ b\nd to provide = 8 *ildr51 ! fa!r has a "r to _! labor or s]vice2 & he may recov] _! wages f any p]son employ+ !m )\t 8 cons5t4 ,sec4#c4 ,9 g5]al1 a m9or _c b9d himself by contract4 ,if he lives ) 8 fa!r or gu>dian1 by :om he is prop]ly suppli$1 he c n b9d himself ev5 = necess>ies4 ,b if1 on contract+ a debt1 he agrees to pay x aft] he %all h become ( age1 he w !n become liable4 ,if a m9or has no fa!r or o!r gu>dian1 8 contracts = necess>ies are b9d+ ^u him4 ,sec4#d4 ,if a m9or takes an e/ate & agrees to pay r5t1 he w be liable = its paym5t aft] he %all h become ( age4 ,if he receives r5ts1 he c n dem& !m aga9 :5 ( age4 ,if he pays money on a contract1 & enjoys ! b5efit ( ! contract & !n avoids x :5 he comes ( age1 he c n recov] back ! consid]ation paid4 ,& if he avoids an execut$ contract :5 he comes ( age1 on ! gr\nds ( infancy1 he mu/ re/ore ! consid]ation4 ,sec4#e4 ,m9ors are answ]able = crimes1 & may be indict$ & tri$1 &1 on conviction1 be f9$ & imprison$4 ,!y are responsible also = acts ( fraud4 ,_! age & ! peculi> circum/ances 9 :i* !y 7 plac$1 might be su* z to exempt !m f liability2 b 9 cases ( gross & palpable fraud committ$ by m9ors :o h arriv$ at ! age ( discretion1 !y w\ld be b\nd by a contract4 ,sec4#f4 ,9 g5]al1 male infants & unm>ri$ females "u eighte5 ye>s1 may1 ( _! own free w1 b9d !mselves1 9 writ+1 to s]ve z appr5tices & s]vants1 9 any trade or employm5t2 males until ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 & females until ! age ( eighte5 ye>s1 or = a %ort] "t4 ,b ! m9or mu/ h ! cons5t ( ! fa!r2 or if ! fa!r is dead1 or disqualifi$ by law1 or neglects to provide = 8 family1 cons5t mu/ be _h ( ! "m2 or1 if ! "m is dead or disqualifi$1 !n ( ! gu>dian4 ,sec4#g4 ,paup] *ildr5 may be b\nd out by ! (fic]s hav+ *>ge ( ! poor4 ,& ! laws ( _m ( ! /ates1 p]haps ( mo/ or all ( !m1 v prop]ly require1 t a p]son1 to :om a poor *ild is b\nd1 %all agree to cause su* *ild to be taught to read & write1 &1 if a male1 to be also in/ruct$ 9 ! g5]al rules ( ari?metic4 ,sec4#h4 ,ma/]s h a "r to correct _! appr5tices ) mod]ation = neglig5ce & misbehavior2 & !y may recov] damage at law ( _! appr5tices = willful abs5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ma/] may be prosecut$ = ill usage to 8 appr5tice1 & = a brea* ( 8 cov5ant4 ,a ma/] is liable to pay = necess>ies = 8 appr5tice1 & = m$ical att5dance1 b he is n s liable 9 ! case ( a hir$ s]vant4 ,sec4#i4 ,:5 an appr5tice becomes immoral & disob$i5t1 an inve/igation ( ! matt] may be _h by ! prop] au?orities2 & = good cause ! ind5ture may be annull$1 & ! p>ties dis*>g$ f _! obligations4 ,^u ! dea? ( a ma/]1 an appr5tice%ip is dissolv$4 ,sec4#aj4 ,!re is1 x is believ$1 no /atute law 9 any /ate1 p>ticul>ly def9+ ! rights & obligations ( hir$ s]vants & ! p]sons employ+ !m4 ,bo? are oblig$ to fulfill _! agreem5t4 ,if a hir$ s]vant leaves ! s]vice ( 8 employ]1 )\t good cause1 be=e he has work$ out ! "t = :i* he 0 hir$1 he _c recov] 8 wages4 ,& = immoral conduct1 willful disob$i5ce1 or habitual neglect1 he may be dismiss$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ill usage1 or any failure on ! "p ( ! employ] to fulfill 8 engagem5t1 releases ! labor] f 8 s]vice4 ,sec4#aa4 ,h[ f> a ma/] is answ]able = ! acts ( 8 hir$ s]vant1 is n cle>4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! ma/] is b\nd = contracts made1 & liable = injuries done1 by a s]vant actually engag$ 9 ! bus9ess ( 8 ma/]1 :e!r ! injury proce$s f neglig5ce or f want ( skill4 ,b = an injury done by a willful act ( ! s]vant1 x is consid]$ t ! ma/] is n liable4 ,if ! s]vant employs ano!r to d 8 bus9ess1 ! ma/] is liable = ! injury done by ! p]son s employ$4 ,b a s]vant is acc\ntable to 8 ma/] = a brea* ( tru/1 or = neglig5ce 9 bus9ess1 or = injur+ ano!r p]son 9 8 ma/]'s bus9ess4 ,*apt] ,l4 ,"r ( ,prop]ty4 ,h[ ,title to prop]ty is acquir$2 ,wills & ,te/am5ts ,title to ,prop]ty by ,desc5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,e citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is capable ( hold+ l&s1 or real e/ate1 & ( tak+ !m by devise1 desc5t1 or pur*ase1 & ( sell+ & convey+ away su* e/ate4 ,ali5s1 by common law1 h n ?is p[]4 ,9 _m ( ! /ates1 h[ev]1 ?is disability has be5 remov$ by /atute4 ,on decl>+ _! int5tion to become citiz5s1 & comply+ ) c]ta9 regulations1 ali5s acquire ! "r to take & hold real e/ate to !mselves & _! heirs4 ,b !y may hold & dispose ( p]sonal prop]ty )\t any special enactm5t4 ,sec4#b4 ,to devise prop]ty is to give or bequea? x by w4 ,a w is a writt5 in/rum5t 9 :i* a p]son decl>es 8 w conc]n+ ! disposal ( 8 prop]ty aft] 8 dea?4 ,x is also call$ te/am5t4 ,?is ^w is f ! ,lat9 te/is1 mean+ witness4 ,h5ce ! ^w has come to be appli$ to ?is in/rum5t1 :i* is ! witness or pro( ( a p]son's w4 ,a p]son mak+ a w is call$ te/ator2 "o :o dies )\t mak+ a w or te/am5t1 is call$ inte/ate4 ,sec4#c4 ,all p]sons ( full age & s\nd m9d1 except m>ri$ wom51 may give & bequea? real & p]sonal e/ate by a la/ w & te/am5t4 ,9 _m ( ! /ates1 p]sonal e/ate may be will$ at an e>li] age4 ,9 a few /ates1 females at eighte5 may make a w ( real & p]sonal e/ate4 ,9 a few /ates1 p]sonal e/ate may be will$ v]bally1 if ! w is )9 a specifi$ "t r$uc$ to writ+1 & subscrib$ by dis9t]e/$ witnesses4 ,9 ,ohio su* w mu/ be writt5 )9 t5 days aft] ! speak+ ( ! te/am5t>y words4 ,a w ( ?is k9d is call$ a nuncupative w4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 laws h be5 enact$1 all[+ m>ri$ wom5 to hold1 9 _! own exclusive "r1 all ! prop]ty1 real & p]sonal1 :i* !y own$ at ! "t ( m>riage1 & :i* !y may acquire aft] m>riage4 7,*ap4 ,,xlviii1 ,sec4#h47 ,) ! "r ( possession is also giv51 x is presum$1 ! p[] ( dispos+ ( ! prop]ty by w4 ,sec4#e4 ,a w devis+ real e/ate mu/ be subscrib$ by at lea/ two1 9 "s slates ?ree1 att5d+ witnesses1 9 ^: pres5ce ! te/ator mu/ subscribe ! w1 or ackn[l$ge t he subscrib$ x1 & decl>e x to be 8 la/ w & te/am5t4 ,if ! te/ator is unable to sign 8 w1 ano!r p]son may write ! te/ator's "n by 8 direction2 b he %\ld sign 8 own "n z witness to ! w4 ,sec4#f4 ,a te/ator may revoke or alt] 8 w by a lat] w or writ+1 execut$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,b ! second w1 to revoke ! =m]1 mu/ conta9 words expressly revok+ x1 or direct+ a diff]5t disposal ( ! prop]ty4 ,a w may also be revok$ by a sale ( ! prop]ty4 ,& any alt]ation ( ! e/ate or int]e/ ( ! te/ator 9 l&s devis$1 is held to be an impli$ revocation ( ! w4 ,l&s pur*as$ aft] a w has be5 made1 are n convey$ by x4 ,z a g5]al rule1 a w is also revok$ by ! subsequ5t m>riage ( ! te/ator & bir? ( a *ild1 unless ! wife & *ild h be5 o!rwise provid$ =4 ,! w ( an unm>ri$ woman is revok$ by h] m>riage4 ,sec4#g4 ,by ! /atutes ( "s /ates1 a *ild born aft] ! dea? ( ! te/ator1 or born 9 8 lifetime & aft] ! mak+ ( ! w1 inh]its a %>e ( ! e/ate1 z if ! fa!r _h di$ inte/ate4 ,9 "s o!r /ates1 ! /atute goes fur!r1 & gives ! same relief to all ! *ildr5 :o are n provid$ = 9 ! w1 & :o h n _h _! portion 9 ! p>5t's lifetime4 ,sec4#h4 ,a codicil is an addition or a supplem5t to a w1 & mu/ be execut$ ) ! same solemnity4 ,x is no revocation ( a w1 except 9 ! precise degree 9 :i* x is inconsi/5t ) x4 ,sec4#i4 ,aft] ! dea? ( a te/ator1 ! w is br\ght be=e ! c\rt ( probate to be prov$4 7,*ap4 ,,xx1 ,sec4#e47 ,:5 a w has be5 duly prov$ & all[$1 ! c\rt issues lett]s te/am5t>y to ! executor4 ,an executor is a p]son nam$ 9 ! w ( a te/ator to c>ry ! w into effect4 ,lett]s te/am5t>y give him ! p[] to act 9 settl+ ! e/ate ( ! deceas$4 ,if he refuses to act1 or is n lawfully qualifi$1 ! c\rt appo9ts a p]son1 :o1 9 t case1 is call$ adm9i/rator2 & ! c\rt issues lett]s ( adm9i/ration ) ! w annex$4 ,lett]s ( adm9i/ration are also issu$ 9 case ( a p]son dy+ inte/ate4 ,!y give to ! adm9i/rator ! requisite au?ority to settle ! e/ate4 ,sec4#aj4 ,tak+ prop]ty by desc5t1 is ! receiv+ ( x f an ance/or or o!r relative dy+ inte/ate4 ,if a p]son dies )\t mak+ a w1 8 prop]ty falls1 or desc5ds to 8 lawful heirs4 ,! ord] or rule ( desc5t is n uni=m 9 ?is c\ntry1 be+ det]m9$1 to a great ext5t1 by ! laws ( ! /ates4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! real e/ate ( an inte/ate desc5ds1 fir/ to 8 l9eal desc5dants1 t is1 p]sons desc5d+ 9 a direct l9e1 z f p>5ts to *ildr51 & f *ildr5 to gr&-*ildr54 ,! l9eal desc5dants mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! inte/ate1 h[ev] di/ant ! relation may be1 takes ! e/ate4 ,sec4#aa4 ,if any *ildr5 ( an inte/ate are dead1 & any are liv+1 ! inh]itance desc5ds to ! *ildr5 liv+1 & to ! desc5dants ( ! *ildr5 dead1 s t ea* *ild liv+ %all receive su* %>e z he w\ld receive if all 7 liv+1 & ! *ildr5 ( ^? :o are dead su* %>e z ! p>5ts w\ld receive if liv+4 ,?us1 suppose an inte/ate _h ?ree sons1 "o ( :om is dead1 b has left *ildr54 ,9 ?is case1 ea* ( ! sons liv+ w\ld %>e "o-?ird ( ! prop]ty1 & ! *ildr5 ( ! deceas$ son ! rema9+ ?ird4 ,sec4#ab4 ,b if ! *ildr5 are all dead1 & !re are gr&-*ildr5 liv+1 ! gr&-*ildr5 %>e equally1 ?\gh n an equal numb] are *ildr5 ( ea* p>5t4 ,if1 = example1 an inte/ate dies leav+ no *ildr51 b hav+ _h two sons1 "o ( :om _h left ?ree *ildr51 & ! o!r two1 ! five %>e equally 9 ! e/ate4 ,! laws ( ,rhode ,isl&1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,t5nessee1 ,l\isiana1 & ,alabama1 unless rec5tly alt]$1 are exceptions to ?is rule4 ,9 ^! /ates1 & p]haps 9 a few o!rs1 ?\gh ! *ildr5 ( ! inte/ate are all dead1 ! gr&-*ildr5 d n %>e equally1 b ^? ( ea* /ock1 or family1 take ! portion :i* _! p>5t w\ld h tak5 if liv+4 ,sec4#ac4 ,! ord] ( desc5t is s diff]5t 9 ! /ates1 especially :5 !re are no l9eal desc5dants ( an inte/ate1 t x c be asc]ta9$ only by ref]5ce to ! laws ( ea* /ate4 ,z a g5]al rule1 real e/ate passes1 7#a47 to ! l9eal desc5dants2 7#b47 to ! fa!r2 7#c47 to ! "m2 7#d47 to ! collat]al or side relatives1 z bro!rs1 si/]s1 nephews1 nieces1 c4 ,b ev5 to ?is g5]al rule !re are exceptions 9 ! laws ( "s /ates4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! rule ( desc5t giv5 9 ! prec$+ sections1 x w be se51 relates to real1 & n to p]sonal e/ate4 ,! rule 9 reg>d to real e/ate1 & t relat+ to p]sonal e/ate1 are g5]ally some:at diff]5t 9 ! same /ate4 ,*apt] ,,li4 ,de$s & ,mortgages4 ,sec4#a4 ,9 :atev] mann] a p]son acquires possession ( real e/ate1 :e!r by devise1 desc5t1 pur*ase1 or gift1 evid5ce ( possession consi/s1 usually1 9 a de$1 :i* is a writt5 in/rum5t convey+ real e/ate to an heir1 a pur*as]1 or a donee4 ,a de$ ( l& sold1 conta9s ! names ( ! sell] & ! pur*as]1 ! consid]ation1 or sum paid = x1 & a description ( x2 & 9 express words grants & conveys all ! int]e/ ( ! sell] or grantor to ! pur*as] & 8 heirs =ev]3 & ! sell] affixes 8 "n & seal to ! in/rum5t1 usually 9 ! pres5ce ( "o or m subscrib+ witnesses4 ,sec4#b4 ,b a de$ ?us execut$ does n give to ! pur*as] sure possession ( ! l&1 until x has be5 duly record$ 9 ! (fice ( ! prop] record+ (fic] ( ! c\nty 9 :i* ! l& lies2 or 9 ! (fice ( ! t[n cl]k1 9 ^? /ates 9 :i* conveyances are requir$ to be !re record$4 ,if ! l& %\ld be convey$ by ! sell] to a subsequ5t pur*as] :o %\ld get 8 de$ fir/ on record1 su* pur*as] w\ld hold ! l&1 unless1 be=e pur*as+1 he _h _h notice ( a sale & de$ to a prior pur*as]4 ,sec4#c4 ,9 "s /ates1 a reasonable "t is all[$ a pur*as] to get 8 de$ record$ be=e he loses 8 "r ( possession by ! e>li] record+ ( ano!r's de$4 ,9 "s o!r /ates1 ! "t is fix$ by law1 & v>ies 9 ^! diff]5t /ates f fifte5 days to two ye>s4 ,b a de$1 ?\gh n record$ 9 season to secure ! title aga9/ a second pur*as]1 or ?\gh n record$ at all1 is good aga9/ ! sellor or grantor2 & ! dispossess$ pur*as] has a lawful claim aga9/ him = ! value ( ! l&4 ,sec4#d4 ,a record] or regi/] may n record a conveyance ( l& )\t pro( t x 0 execut$ by ! p]son nam$ 9 x z ! mak] or grantor4 ,?is pro( consi/s1 usually1 9 a c]tificate ( a prop] (fic]1 on ! back or m>g9 ( ! de$1 /at+ t ! p]son s nam$ appe>$ be=e him1 &1 be+ duly sworn1 ackn[l$g$ t he 0 ! p]son :o _h execut$ ! de$4 ,9 e /ate1 judges ( c\rts & ju/ices ( ! peace1 mayors ( cities & ald]m51 not>ies public1 or "s ( ^! (fic]s1 & commission]s ( de$s appo9t$ = t special purpose may take ackn[l$gm5ts4 ,9 ,new ,york & a few o!r /ates1 ! ackn[l$gm5t may be disp5s$ )1 & ! execution ( ! de$ may be prov$ by ! subscrib+ witnesses4 ,de$s duly ackn[l$g$1 are1 ) ! ackn[l$gm5ts1 copi$ by ! record]1 ^w = ^w1 9 books provid$ = t purpose4 ,sec4#e4 ,z a p]son c n give a good title unless he has "o himself1 ! sell] or grantor cov5ants & agrees t he is seiz$ ( ! premises 9 fee-simple1 7mean+ t he is ! absolute own]17 & t he w w>rant & def5d ! premises 9 ! quiet & peaceable possession ( ! pur*as] & 8 heirs =ev]4 ,h5ce su* de$ is call$ a w>ranty de$1 ,= def9ition ( fee & fee-simple1 see ,*ap4 ,,liii1 ,sec4#a4 ,a quit-claim de$ m]ely conveys ! int]e/ or claim ( ! grantor4 ,x conta9s no w>ranty ( title aga9/ any o!r claimant4 ,sec4#f4 ,a mortgage is a grant ( l& z security = ! paym5t ( money1 on condition t1 if ! money %all be paid accord+ to contract1 ! grant %all be void4 ,:5 only a "p ( ! pur*ase money is paid on receiv+ a de$1 ! pur*as] usually executes a mortgage to ! sell]1 pl$g+ ! l& z security = ! rema9d] ( ! pur*ase money4 ,& if ! money %all n be paid z agre$1 ! l& may be sold2 b if sold = m ?an ! am\nt due1 ! ov]plus is to be paid to ! mortgag]4 ,sec4#g ,to effect a full conveyance ( real e/ate1 a wife mu/ jo9 ) h] husb& by sign+ ! de$ ) him2 or1 9 case ( ! husb&'s dea? 9 h] lifetime1 %e w\ld be entitl$1 = life1 to ! use ( "o-?ird ( ! e/ate4 ,?is int]e/ ( a wid[ 9 ! e/ate ( a deceas$ husb&1 is call$ d[]4 ,x is necess>y also = ! wife to ackn[l$ge1 be=e ! (fic] tak+ ! ackn[l$gm5t1 & ap>t f h] husb&1 t %e sign$ ! de$ freely1 & )\t compulsion ( h] husb&4 ,9 "s /ates1 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ! wife out ( ! pres5ce ( h] husb& is n requir$4 ,*apt] ,,lii4 ,incorporeal ,h]$itam5ts4 ,"r ( ,way2 ,aquatic ,rights1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! t]m incorporeal h]$itam5ts may1 to "s read]s1 ne$ explanation4 ,a h]$itam5t is a ?+ capable ( be+ inh]it$4 ,l&1 & all ?+s atta*$ to x by ! c\rse ( nature or ! h&s ( m51 z trees1 h]bage1 wat]1 build+s1 c41 :i* are compreh5d$ 9 ! t]m real e/ate1 are corporeal h]$itam5ts4 ,incorporeal h]$itam5ts are inh]itable rights :i* gr[ out ( corporeal inh]itances1 or :i* consi/ 9 _! enjoym5t2 z ! "r ( pa/ur+ a common2 a "r ( passage ov] ! l& ( ano!r2 a "r to ! use ( wat]s1 sometimes call$ aquatic rights1 c4 ,sec4#b4 ,a "r ( way is a "r ( private passage ov] ano!r man's gr\nd4 ,?is "r is sometimes grant$ by ! own] ( ! soil2 & to make x a freehold "r1 x mu/ be creat$ by de$1 ?\gh x be only an easem5t ^u ! l& ( ano!r1 & n an int]e/ 9 ! l& itself4 ,an easem5t is1 9 g5]al1 an accommodation4 ,9 law1 x is any privilege or conv5i5ce :i* "o has ( ano!r1 by grant or o!rwise1 z a "r ( way1 c4 ,by ! grant ( an easem5t1 ! grantee acquires no o!r "r ?an :at is necess>y to ! fair enjoym5t ( ! privilege4 ,sec4#c4 ,if x is a m]e p]sonal "r1 x c be enjoy$ only by ! own] ( ! "r1 & :5 he dies1 ! "r dies ) him4 ,b a "r ( way belong+ to an e/ate may be convey$ :5 ! l& is sold4 ,?us1 if a man owns lot ,a & lot ,b1 & he us$ a way f lot ,a1 ov] lot ,b1 to a mill1 or to a riv]2 & if he sells lot ,a ) all ways & easem5ts1 ! grantee w h ! same privilege ( pass+ ov] lot ,b z ! grantor _h4 ,sec4#d4 ,a "r ( way may arise f necessity4 ,if a man sells a "p ( 8 l&1 & !re is no o!r way to ! rema9+ "p1 he is entitl$ to a "r ( way to x ov] ! l& sold4 ,& if a man sells l& :olly surr\nd$ by 8 own l&1 ! pur*as] is entitl$ to a "r ( way to x ov] ! o!r's gr\nd1 ev5 ?\gh no su* "r is res]v$4 ,! "r ( way passes to ! pur*as]1 z necess>ily incid5t to ! grant1 or includ$ 9 x4 ,sec4#e4 ,a man hav+ lic5se to conduct lead pipes ?r\gh ! l& ( ano!r1 may ent] on ! l&1 & dig !re91 to m5d ! pipes4 ,! g5]al rule is1 t :5 ! use ( a ?+ is grant$1 e ?+ is grant$ :i* is necess>y to ! enjoym5t ( its use4 ,sec4#f4 ,a p]son has a tempor>y "r ( way ov] l& adjo9+ a public highway1 if ! highway is out ( repair1 or is ob/ruct$ by sn[1 a flood1 or o!rwise4 ,b ! "r ( go+ ^u adjo9+ l&s does n apply to private ways4 ,a p]son hav+ a "r to a private way ov] ano!r's l&1 has no "r to g ^u adjo9+ l&1 ev5 ?\gh ! private way is impassable4 ,sec4#g4 ,a "r ( way sometimes arises by prescription2 :i* is ! "r or title to a ?+ d]iv$ f long use & enjoym5t4 ,su* is ! "r :i*1 by common law1 a man acquires to l& :i* has be5 peaceably held by himself1 or by himself & prec$+ own]s1 = tw5ty ye>s4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ occupancy 0 obta9$ )\t grant1 ! long free use ( ! l& is1 9 law1 equival5t to a grant1 & implies a valid title4 ,9 "s /ates1 %ort] p]iods h be5 fix$ by /atute 9 :i* a "r by prescription may be obta9$4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,ohio1 ! p]iod is fix$ at tw5ty-"o ye>s4 ,sec4#h4 ,! own]s ( l& adjo9+ highways1 h a "r to ! soil to ! c5tre ( ! road3 ! public h only a "r ( passage :ile ! road is cont9u$4 ,! own]s ( ! soil may ma9ta9 a suit aga9/ any p]son :o encroa*es ^u ! road1 or digs up ! soil1 or cuts d[n trees gr[+ on ! side ( ! road4 ,!y may c>ry wat] 9 pipes "u x1 & h e use ( x t does n int]f]e ) ! rights ( ! public4 ,sec4#i4 ,e proprietor ( l&s adjo9+ a /ream1 has naturally an equal "r to ! use ( ! wat] t fl[s 9 ! /ream adjac5t to 8 l&s1 z x 0 wont to run4 ,ea* may use ! wat] :ile x runs ^u 8 own l&2 b he c n unreasonably deta9 x1 or give x ano!r direction2 & he mu/ return x to its ord9>y *annel :5 x leaves 8 e/ate4 ,he c n1 by dams or any ob/ruction1 cause ! wat] injuri\sly to ov]fl[ ! gr\nds ( ! neighbor above him1 nor s use or apply x z mat]ially to injure 8 neighbor bel[ him4 ,sec4#aj4 ,b ?is "r to ! use ( wat]s1 z an easem5t to ! l&1 may be acquir$ & lo/1 or enl>g$ & abridg$1 by prescription4 ,a man may dim9i% ! quantity ( ! wat]1 or corrupt its quality1 by ! ex]cise ( c]ta9 trades2 & by su* use ( ! wat] = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 he is 9 law presum$ to h acquir$ x by grant3 & ?is presumption is ! f\ndation ( 8 "r by prescription4 ,! "t ( su* use & enjoym5t ( wat] necess>y to e/abli% su* "r is tw5ty ye>s1 except 9 /ates 9 :i* a diff]5t p]iod is fix$ by /atute4 7,sec4#g47 ,sec4#aa4 ,x is a g5]al & e/abli%$ doctr9e1 t an exclusive & un9t]rupt$ enjoym5t ( wat]1 or ( light1 or ( any o!r easem5t1 9 any p>ticul> way1 = tw5ty ye>s1 or = any o!r p]iod :i* 9 any p>ticul> /ate is ! e/abli%$ p]iod ( limitation1 is a suffici5t enjoym5t to raise a presumption ( title z aga9/ ! "r ( any o!r p]son4 ,! enjoym5t is deem$ to h be5 un9t]rupt$1 :e!r x has be5 cont9u$ f ance/or to heir1 & f sell] to buy]2 or :e!r ! use has be5 enjoy$ dur+ ! entire p]iod by "o p]son4 ,sec4#ab4 ,z a "r may be acquir$ by use1 s x may be lo/ by disuse2 & z an enjoym5t = tw5ty ye>s1 or su* o!r p]iod z is prescrib$ by /atute1 is necess>y to e/abli% a "r2 an absolute discont9uance ( ! use = su* p]iod w raise ! presumption t ! "r has be5 releas$ or ext+ui%$4 ,?us a title to l& may pass f its actual own] by non-occupancy = ! p]iod above /at$2 & a title to x may be acquir$ by an undi/urb$ occupant :o %all hold x 9 peaceable & un9t]rupt$ possession = ! same p]iod4 ,*apt] ,,liii4 ,leases3--,e/ates = ,life2 ,e/ates = ,ye>s2 ,e/ates at ,w2 ,e/ates by ,suff]ance2 ,r5t1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,real e/ate1 ! title to :i* is convey$ by de$1 z di/+ui%$ f o!r e/ates 9 l&1 is call$ an e/ate ( inh]itance4 ,an e/ate ( inh]itance1 t is1 an e/ate 9 l&s t may be transmitt$ by ! own] to 8 heirs1 is a fee4 ,no e/ate is deem$ a fee unless x may cont9ue =ev]4 ,:5 x is a pure & absolute inh]itance1 cle> ( any qualification or condition1 x is call$ a fee-simple4 ,sec4#b4 ,an int]e/ 9 l&s :i* is to cont9ue = a limit$ p]iod1 is usually convey$ by a writt5 in/rum5t call$ lease4 ,to lease1 means to let2 b g5]ally to grant ! tempor>y possession ( real e/ate to ano!r = r5t or rew>d4 ,sometimes ! ^w demise is us$ = ease4 ,! l&lord1 or p]son lett+ ! e/ate1 is call$ lessor2 & ! t5ant1 or p]son to :om ! l& is leas$1 is call$ lessee4 ,leases = a t]m long] ?an "o ye>1 are usually requir$ to be seal$1 & 9 "s /ates1 prov$ & record$ also1 z de$s & mortgages4 ,sec4#c4 ,^! limit$ int]e/s 9 l& are divid$ into e/ates = life1 e/ates = ye>s1 e/ates at w1 & e/ates by suff]ance4 ,an e/ate = life is an e/ate convey$ to a p]son = ! t]m ( 8 natural life4 ,life e/ates held by lease1 h[ev]1 are n common 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,ano!r k9d ( life e/ate is t :i* is acquir$1 n by ! acts ( ! p>ties1 z by lease1 b by ! op]ation ( law4 ,su* is ! "r ( a husb& to ! real e/ate ( 8 wife acquir$ by h] be=e or aft] m>riage4 ,su* also is ! "r ( d[]4 7,*ap4 ,,xlviii1 ,sec4#f1 #g4 ,*ap4 ,,li1 ,sec4#g47 ,sec4#d4 ,an e/ate = ye>s is a "r to ! possession & pr(its ( l& = a det]m9ate p]iod1 = comp5sation1 call$ r5t2 & x is deem$ an e/ate = ye>s1 ?\gh ! numb] ( ye>s %\ld exce$ ! ord9>y limit ( human life4 ,& if a lease %\ld be = a less "t ?an a ye>1 ! lessee w\ld be rank$ among t5ants = ye>s4 ,lett+ l& ^u %>es = a s+le crop is n consid]$ a lease2 & possession rema9s 9 ! own]4 ,sec4#e4 ,a lessee = ye>s may assign ov] 8 :ole int]e/ to ano!r1 unless re/ra9$ by agreem5t n to assign )\t leave ( ! lessor4 ,& he may und]let = any less numb] ( ye>s ?an he himself holds2 b he is himself liable to ! l&lord4 ,sec4#f4 ,a t5ant = ye>s1 ^: lease expires aft] ! l& is s[n or plant$1 & be=e h>ve/1 is n entitl$ to ! crop1 if ! lease is = a c]ta9 p]iod2 =1 kn[+ t 8 lease w\ld expire be=e h>ve/ "t1 he might h avoid$ ! loss ( 8 labor4 ,b if ! lease = ye>s dep5ds ^u an unc]ta9 ev5t1 ! occurr+ ( :i* w\ld t]m9ate ! lease be=e ! expiration ( ! t]m1 ! t5ant w\ld be entitl$ to ! crop1 if !re 7 "t to reap :at has be5 s[n1 9 case he %\ld live4 ,x is believ$ t1 9 a few /ates1 ! t5ant has a "r to ! crop f gra9 s[n 9 ! autumn be=e ! expiration ( ! lease1 & cut ! next summ] aft] its expiration4 ,sec4#g4 ,:]e !re is an express agreem5t to pay r5t1 ! t5ant c n avoid paym5t ev5 if ! premises are de/roy$ by fire or flood1 or if he is 9 any o!r mann] depriv$ ( _! enjoym5t & use1 ev5 )\t any default on 8 "p4 ,h5ce1 if l& %\ld be leas$ ) a flock ( %eep1 & ! %eep %\ld die1 ! full r5t mu/ be paid4 ,b if ! l& %\ld be recov]$ f ! t5ant by a p]son hav+ a bett] title ?an t d]iv$ f 8 l&lord1 he is n liable = r5t aft] 8 use ( ! l& has ceas$4 ,sec4#h4 ,a t5ant c n make repairs at ! exp5se ( ! l&lord1 or d$uct ! co/ ( !m out ( ! r5t1 unless by special agreem5t4 ,b if ! premises1 f want ( repair1 h become unsafe or useless1 ! t5ant f ye> to ye> may quit )\t notice2 & he w\ld n be liable = r5t aft] ! use _h ceas$ to be b5eficial4 ,sec4#i4 ,:5 r5t is due1 paym5t may be made or t5d]$ ^u ! premises2 & if no place ( paym5t has be5 agre$ on1 a p]sonal t5d] (f ! l& is also good4 ,z to ! "t ( paym5t1 :]e !re is no special agreem5t to ! contr>y1 r5t is due ye>ly1 half-ye>ly1 or qu>t]ly1 accord+ to ! usage ( ! c\ntry4 ,:]e !re is no p>ticul> usage1 ! r5t is due at ! end ( ! ye>4 ,sec4#aj4 ,an e/ate at w is :]e l& is let to ano!r1 to hold at ! w ( ! lessor4 ,t5ancies at w1 /rictly su*1 are n common4 ,su* e/ates1 :5 no c]ta9 t]m is agre$ on1 are con/ru$ to be t5ancies f ye> to ye>1 & ea* p>ty is b\nd to give reasonable notice ( an int5tion to t]m9ate ! lease4 ,if ! t5ant holds ov] aft] ! expiration ( a lease = ye>s1 ei!r by express cons5t1 or "u circum/ances imply+ cons5t1 x is held to be evid5ce ( a new contract )\t any def9ite p]iod1 & is con/ru$ to be a t5ancy f ye> to ye>3 & 9 ^? /ates :]e ! old ,engli% rule prevails1 six mon?s' notice mu/ be giv5 ! t5ant to quit4 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at turns leases = unc]ta9 t]ms into leases f ye> to ye>1 is ! l&lord's res]v+ annual r5t4 ,a t5ant plac$ on l& )\t any t]ms prescrib$ or r5t res]v$1 is /rictly a t5ant at w2 & x has be5 held t su* t5ant is n entitl$ to notice to quit2 b ! g5]al rule n[ seems to be1 t ev5 9 su* case ! six mon?s' notice is necess>y2 or1 z 9 "s /ates1 a reasonable notice4 ,sec4#ab4 ,an e/ate at suff]ance is t :i* is acquir$ by a t5ant :o has come into lawful possession ( l&1 b :o holds ov] by wrong aft] 8 int]e/ has ceas$4 ,he is n entitl$ to notice to quit2 & :]e !re is no special /atute1 he is n liable = r5t2 & ! l&lord may ent]1 & remove ! t5ant & 8 goods ) su* g5tle =ce z may be necess>y4 ,if undue =ce is us$1 ! l&lord w\ld be liable to an action = =cible entry & deta9]4 ,*apt] ,,liv4 ,contracts 9 ,g5]al4 ,sec4#a4 ,a contract is an agreem5t betwe5 two or m p]sons1 by :i* ! p>ties agree to d1 or n to d1 a p>ticul> ?+4 ,contracts are executory1 :5 ! /ipulations rema9 to be execut$1 or :5 "o p>ty agrees to sell & deliv]1 at a future "t1 = a /ipulat$ price1 & ! o!r agrees to accept & pay4 ,contracts are express1 :5 ! p>ties contract 9 express words1 or by writ+2 impli$1 :5 an act has be5 done :i* %[s t ! p>ties mu/ h int5d$ to contract2 z1 :5 a p]son employs ano!r to d "s s]vice1 x is presum$ t ! p>ty employ+ int5d$ to pay = ! labor p]=m$4 ,sec4#b4 ,contracts are also di/+ui%$ z specialties & simple contracts4 ,a specialty is a contract "u seal2 z a de$1 or a bond4 ,b we %all "h consid] *iefly t common class ( contracts call$ simple contracts1 or contracts by p>ol4 ,p>ol signifies by ^w ( m\?4 ,appli$ to contracts1 h[ev]1 x n only means v]bal contracts1 b includes writt5 contracts n "u seal4 ,bo? are simple contracts2 ! di/9ction betwe5 !m is 9 ! mode ( pro(4 ,! mutual und]/&+ ( ! p>ties to a v]bal contract may be prov$ by p>ol evid5ce4 ,b z ! real int5tion ( p>ties is m likely to be express$ 9 a writt5 contract1 ! rule ( law is1 t p>ol evid5ce may n be admitt$ to contradict or v>y ! t]ms ( a writt5 in/rum5t4 ,x may h[ev] be admitt$ to expla9 :at is d\btful1 or to supply "s defici5cy4 ,sec4#c4 ,to make a valid contract1 ! p>ties mu/ be capable ( contract+4 ,!y mu/ be ( s\nd m9d4 ,h5ce idiots & lunatics are g5]ally incompet5t to make contracts4 ,contracts by lunatics & idiots are n necess>ily void1 b only voidable2 ! validity or invalidity dep5d+ ^u facts to be prov$4 ,to avoid a contract on ! gr\nd ( m5tal imbecility1 x mu/ be prov$ t ! p>ty contract+ 0 at ! "t incompet5t4 ,b if a g5]al d]angem5t is once e/abli%$ or conc$$1 ! p]son is presum$ to be incompet5t2 & ! p>ty seek+ to en=ce ! contract mu/ prove ! o!r to h be5 sane4 ,! g5]al rule 9 ! case ( idiots is1 t if ! p>ty is incapable ( act+ 9 ! ord9>y affairs ( life1 or 9 ! p>ticul> contract1 8 idiocy w annul ! contract4 ,sec4#d4 ,drunk>ds also are incompet5t to contract :ile 9 a /ate ( intoxication1 provid$ ! drunk5ness is su* z to deprive !m ( reason = a "t1 & create impot5ce ( m9d4 ,b = absolute necess>ies1 if ! drunk>d consumes !m dur+ 8 drunk5ness1 or keeps !m aft] becom+ sob]1 he is liable4 ,intoxication only r5d]s a contract voidable1 n void1 z ! p>ty intoxicat$ may adopt x on recov]+ 8 und]/&+4 ,sec4#e4 ,ano!r requisition to a valid contract1 is ! mutual ass5t ( ! p>ties4 ,a m]e (f] by "o p>ty n ass5t$ to or accept$ by ! o!r1 con/itutes no contract4 ,ass5t mu/ also be giv5 freely4 ,a contract ent]$ into "u duress1 or compulsion1 is n b9d+2 z :]e ass5t is extort$ by ?reats ( p]sonal injury4 ,ass5t mu/ also be giv5 ) a k ( facts4 ,a contract made "u an injuri\s mi/ake1 or ignorance ( a mat]ial fact1 may be avoid$1 ev5 ?\gh ! fact is n fraudul5tly conceal$4 ,b a mi/ake made ?r\gh ignorance ( ! law1 w n r5d] a contract void4 ,sec4#f4 ,a valuable consid]ation also is necess>y to a valid contract4 ,a consid]ation is :at is giv5 or done1 or to be giv5 or done1 z ! cause or reason = :i* a p]son ent]s into an agreem5t4 ,?us1 ! money giv5 or (f]$1 = :i* a man agrees to p]=m c]ta9 labor1 is ! consid]ation ( ! agreem5t4 ,s ! money or o!r ?+ = :i* a promissory note is giv51 is ! consid]ation4 ,a valuable consid]ation is any ?+ t is ei!r a b5efit to ! p>ty promis+1 or "s tr\ble or injury to ! p>ty to :om ! promise is made4 ,sec4#g4 ,mutual promises are suffici5t consid]ations to make a contract b9d+2 b !y mu/ be made at ! same "t4 ,su* promises support ea* o!r4 ,! promise ( "o p>ty con/itutes a suffici5t consid]ation = a promise by ! o!r p>ty4 ,9 case ! p>ties are di/ant f ea* o!r1 if ! proposition is made 9 writ+ & s5t by mail1 & a lett] ( acceptance is writt5 & put 9 ! mail1 ! contract is complete1 unless1 be=e mail+ ! lett] ( acceptance1 a second lett] has be5 receiv$ conta9+ a retraction ( ! proposal4 ,sec4#h4 ,promises :i* are :olly gratuit\s are void2 because1 be+ nei!r a b5efit to ! promis]1 nor an injury to ! promisee1 !y are n reg>d$ 9 law z a valuable consid]ation4 ,h5ce1 subscriptions to public works & *>itable1 lit]>y1 & religi\s in/itutions1 if !y are m]ely gratuit\s1 c n be collect$1 unless !y h op]at$ to induce o!rs to advance money1 make engagem5ts1 or d o!r acts to _! own injury4 ,sec4#i4 ,z gratuit\s promises are void = want ( consid]ation1 s m]ely gratuit\s s]vices1 z volunt>ily assi/+ to save prop]ty f fire1 or secur+ bea/s f\nd /ray+1 or pay+ ano!r's debts )\t reque/1 af=d no consid]ation ^u :i* paym5t = _! value c be lawfully claim$2 !re be+ no promise ( comp5sation4 ,b if a p]son kn[+ly p]mits ano!r to d c]ta9 "w1 z pl[+ 8 field1 or hoe+ 8 corn1 al?\gh ! "w may h be5 comm5c$ )\t 8 ord] or reque/1 8 cons5t w be reg>d$ 9 law z an impli$ promise to pay = ! value ( ! labor1 unless ! circum/ances ( ! case are su* z to =bid ! presumption4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a consid]ation mu/ also be possible1 & 9 accordance ) law1 s\nd policy1 & good morals4 ,a contract f\nd$ ^u an impossible consid]ation is void4 ,no man c be lawfully b\nd to d :at is n 9 ! p[] ( man to d4 ,b x is o!rwise1 if ! ?+ to be done is only at ! "t impossible 9 fact1 b n impossible 9 its nature4 ,h5ce1 inability f sickness to fulfill an agreem5t1 or ! impossibility ( procur+ an article ( a c]ta9 k9d or quality :i* a p]son has agre$ to deliv]1 w\ld n exempt him f liability 9 damages = ! non-p]=mance ( 8 contract4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a contract1 ! consid]ation ( :i* is illegal or immoral1 may be avoid$ by ei!r p>ty4 ,a man c n be held to an agreem5t to d acts =bidd5 by ! law ( ,god or by ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,b if an illegal contract has be5 execut$2 9 o!r words1 if ! wrong has be5 done1 ! p>ty 9 ! wrong c n r5\nce ! contract2 = ! g5]al rule is1 t no man c take advantage ( 8 own wrong2 & ! innoc5t p>ty alone has ! privilege ( avoid+ ! contract4 ,if bo? p>ties are guilty1 nei!r c1 9 ord9>y cases1 obta9 relief on a contract t has be5 execut$4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! rule t a consid]ation is necess>y to a valid contract applies to all contracts & engagem5ts n "u seal1 except bills ( ex*ange & negotiable notes aft] !y h pass$ into ! h&s ( an innoc5t indorsee4 7,see ,promissory ,notes47 ,9 contracts "u seal1 a consid]ation is necess>ily impli$ 9 ! solemnity ( ! in/rum5t4 ,sec4#ac4 ,x is decl>$ by ! ,engli% /atute ( frauds1 :i* prevails g5]ally 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t an agreem5t :i* is n to be p]=m$ )9 "o ye> f ! "t ( mak+ x1 %all n be valid1 unless su* agreem5t1 or "s memor&um or note !re(1 is 9 writ+1 & sign$ by ! p>ty to be *>g$4 ,! /atutes ( "s ( ! /ates h adopt$ ?is provision ( ! ,engli% /atute1 & require fur!r1 t a special promise to answ] = ! debt1 default1 or misdo+ ( ano!r p]son1 & an agreem5t or promise ^u consid]ation ( m>riage1 7except mutual promises to m>ry17 %all likewise be void )\t su* writ+1 9 :i* ! consid]ation %all be express$4 ,*apt] ,,lv4 ,contracts ( ,sale4 ,sec4#a4 ,a ,sale is a transf] ( ! title to prop]ty to ano!r p]son = a c]ta9 price2 or ! ex*ange ( a commodity = its equival5t value 9 money4 ,! ex*ange ( "o commodity = ano!r1 is b>t]4 ,unless ! absolute title is convey$1 ! contract is m]ely a mortgage4 ,! same g5]al pr9ciples ( law :i* apply to contracts 9 g5]al1 are applicable to contracts ( sale1 viz43 ! compet5cy ( ! p>ties to contract2 ! suffici5cy ( ! consid]ation2 its legality & morality2 ! ass5t ( ! p>ties2 & ! abs5ce ( fraud4 ,sec4#b4 ,to make a sale valid1 ! ?+ to be sold mu/ h an actual or a possible exi/5ce1 & be capable ( deliv]y4 ,?us1 if ,a sells a horse or c]ta9 goods to ,b2 & if1 at ! "t ( ! sale1 ! horse is dead1 or ! good8 are de/roy$2 ! sale is void4 ,if ! goods are p>tially de/roy$1 ! buy] may ei!r take !m at a proportionate r$uction ( ! price1 or ab&on ! contract4 ,sec4#c4 ,b1 al?\gh ! ?+ to be sold has no actual & pres5t exi/5ce2 yet if its future exi/5ce is possible1 & if x is ! product or increase ( some?+ to :i* ! sell] has a pres5t "r1 x is ! subject ( sale4 ,?us1 a man may sell ! wool t may gr[ on 8 %eep1 ! fruit t may gr[ on 8 trees1 or ! future increase ( 8 cattle4 ,b he _c sell ! products ( ! %eep or cattle :i* he may h]eaft] buy4 ,a man may1 h[ev]1 agree to procure goods :i* he has n1 & to furni% at a future "t1 = a c]ta9 price2 & 8 contract w be good2 ?\gh ?is is n /rictly a sale1 b an agreem5t to sell4 ,sec4#d4 ,!re c be no sale )\t a price2 & ! price mu/ be fix$ & def9ite1 or susceptible ( be+ asc]ta9$ by ref]5ce to "s crit]ion prescrib$ 9 ! contract1 s z to r5d] any fur!r negotiation ( ! p>ties unnecess>y4 ,?us1 a man may agree to pay :at %all be ! m>ket price at a p>ticul> "t1 or a price to be fix$ by a ?ird p]son4 ,! price mu/ also be payable 9 money or its negotiable repres5tative1 z notes or bills4 ,"o article giv5 = ano!r is m]ely b>t]4 ,! same pr9ciples ( law1 h[ev]1 gov]n 9 bo? cases4 ,sec4#e4 ,!re mu/ be a mutual cons5t ( ! p>ties1 & ! contract is b9d+ :5 a proposition made by "o p>ty is accept$ by ! o!r4 ,! negotiation may be c>ri$ on by lett]1 z be=e /at$4 7,*ap4 ,,liv1 ,sec4#g47 ,sec4#f4 ,9 contracts ( sale :i* are n p]fect$ at once by paym5t & deliv]y1 c]ta9 =malities are to be obs]v$4 ,^! =ms g5]ally are prescrib$ by :at is call$ ! ,engli% /atute ( frauds1 :i* requires1 7#a47 t ! buy] %all accept & receive "p ( ! goods sold2 or 7#b47 give some?+ 9 e>ne/ to b9d ! b>ga91 or 9 "p paym5t2 or 7#c47 t "s note or memor&um 9 writ+ ( ! b>ga9 %all be made & sign$ by ! p>ty to be *>g$1 or by 8 au?oriz$ ag5t4 ,^! provisions1 h[ev]1 apply only to cases 9 :i* ! price ( ! goods sold is t5 p\nds /]l+1 or m4 ,! same rule prevails g5]ally 9 ?is c\ntry1 ) slight v>iations 9 "s /ates4 ,! price ( ! goods sold1 9 cases to :i* ! provisions ( t /atute apply1 is fix$ by law 9 _m ( ! /ates1 & v>ies f #cj to #bjj4 ,sec4#g4 ,to complete a contract ( sale1 & pass ! title to ! prop]ty to ! buy]1 !re mu/ be a deliv]y ( ! goods sold4 ,:5 ! goods are su* z _c be manually or imm$iately deliv]$1 or are n 9 ! actual cu/ody ( ! sell]1 ! law does n require an actual deliv]y4 ,b !y mu/ be plac$ 9 ! p[] ( ! pur*as]2 or !re mu/ be su* acts & decl>ations ( ! p>ties z imply a *ange ( own]%ip4 ,:5 ! "r ( prop]ty has be5 transf]r$ to ! buy]1 :e!r by an actual or only a con/ructive deliv]y1 he imm$iately assumes ! risk ( ! goods2 s t if !y %all be aft]w>d injur$ or de/roy$1 he mu/ be> ! loss4 ,sec4#h4 ,:5 no?+ is said at ! sale z to ! "t ( deliv]y1 or ! "t ( paym5t1 ! buy] is entitl$ to ! goods on paym5t or t5d] ( ! price1 & n o!r wise2 =1 ?\gh he acquires ! "r ( prop]ty by ! contract ( sale1 he does n acquire ! "r ( possession1 until he pays or t5d]s ! price4 ,b if ! sell] deliv]s ! goods absolutely1 & )\t fraudul5t contrivance on ! "p ( ! buy]1 ! buy] w hold possession ( !m4 ,sec4#i4 ,b :5 goods are sold on cr$it1 & no?+ is said z to ! "t ( deliv]y1 ! buy] is imm$iately entitl$ to ! possession4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x is asc]ta9$1 be=e ! buy] obta9s possession ( ! goods1 t he is insolv5t1 or s emb>rass$ z to disable him f meet+ ! dem&s ( 8 cr$itors1 ! sell] may /op ! goods z a security = ! price4 ,b if !y are /opp$ )\t good cause1 or ?r\gh mis9=mation1 ! buy] is entitl$ to ! goods1 & to damages :i* he may h su/a9$ 9 consequ5ce ( _! /oppage4 ,sec4#aj4 ,9 ! sale ( a *attel1 if ! sell] has possession ( ! article1 & sells x z 8 own1 he is und]/ood to w>rant ! title4 ,a fair price implies a w>ranty ( title2 & ! pur*as] may h satisfaction f ! sell]1 if he sells goods z 8 own1 & ! title proves defici5t4 ,b if ! possession is at ! "t 9 ano!r1 & !re is no cov5ant or w>ranty ( title1 ! p>ty buys at 8 p]il4 ,x is ?\ght1 h[ev]1 if ! sell] affirms t ! prop]ty is 8 own1 he w>rants ! title1 ?\gh x is n 9 8 possession4 ,sec4#aa4 ,) reg>d to ! quality ( ! ?+1 ! sell] is n b\nd to make good any defici5cy1 except "u special circum/ances1 unless be expressly w>rant$ ! goods to be s\nd & good1 or unless he made a fraudul5t repres5tation or concealm5t conc]n+ !m4 ,! rule is1 if !re is no express w>ranty by ! sell]1 nor fraud on 8 "p1 & if ! article is equally op5 to ! inspection ( bo? p>ties1 ! buy] :o exam9es ! article = himself1 mu/ abide by all losses aris+ f lat5t defects equally unkn[n to bo? p>ties4 ,sec4#ab4 ,b ?is rule does n reasonably apply to cases 9 :i* ! pur*as] has ord]$ goods ( a c]ta9 "*1 or 9 :i* goods ( a c]ta9 describ$ quality are (f]$ = sale1 &1 :5 deliv]$1 !y d n answ] ! description4 ,!re be+ no opportunity ( exam9+ !m1 !re is an impli$ w>ranty ( ! quality4 ,an int5tional concealm5t or suppression ( a mat]ial fact1 :5 bo? p>ties h n equal access to means ( in=mation1 is unfair deal+1 & r5d]s ! contract void4 ,sec4#ac4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ea* p>ty is b\nd to communicate to ! o!r 8 k ( mat]ial facts1 provid$ he kn[s ! o!r to be ignorant ( !m1 & !y are n op5 & nak$1 or equally )9 ! rea* ( 8 obs]vation4 ,surely ! moral law & fair deal+ require1 9 all cases1 a full disclosure ( all defects )9 ! k ( ! contract+ p>ties4 ,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,fraudul5t ,sales2 ,assignm5ts2 ,gifts1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! title to prop]ty is sometimes transf]r$ ) fraudul5t int5t4 ,a debtor1 to place 8 prop]ty beyond ! rea* ( 8 cr$itors1 sells or assigns x to o!rs by way ( mortgage1 "u ! false pret5se ( secur+ ! paym5t ( a debt2 ! prop]ty to rema9 9 ! possession & use ( ! assignor4 ,sec4#b4 ,any agreem5t :i* op]ates z a fraud ^u ?ird p]sons1 is void4 ,x is a rule ( common law1 t all de$s ( gift1 & all transf]s ( goods & *attels made by any p]son to secure !m = 8 future use1 %all be void z aga9/ cr$itors2 & t if prop]ty assign$ or sold rema9s ) ! sell] or assignor1 ! transaction is to be presum$ fraudul5t4 ,b :e!r su* conveyance ( goods is only prima facie 7at fir/ view7 evid5ce ( fraud1 :i* ! v5dee or assignee may rebut by prov+ ! sale or assignm5t to h be5 made hone/ly & 9 good fai?2 or :e!r ! transaction is fraudul5t 9 po9t ( law1 & void1 is a "q ^u :i* ! decisions ( ! c\rts 9 ,engl& z well z ^? 9 ?is c\ntry diff]1 & :i*1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z n conclusively settl$4 ,sec4#c4 ,"s h made a di/9ction betwe5 bills ( sale & assignm5ts t are absolute & ^? t are conditional4 ,! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has affirm$ ! doctr9e t an absolute & unconditional bill ( sale or conveyance1 :5 ! prop]ty is reta9$ 9 possession1 is ( itself conclusive evid5ce ( fraud2 9 o!r words1 x is presum$ to be fraud 9 po9t ( law1 :atev] x may be 9 fact4 ,x has be5 held by ! same c\rt1 t a conveyance ) a condition t ! prop]ty is to rema9 ) ! v5dor until ! condition %all be p]=m$1 or a conveyance 9 ! nature ( a mortgage or security1 express+ an agreem5t betwe5 ! p>ties1 t ! mortgag] %all reta9 possession1 is valid4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 "s /ates1 ! doctr9e e/abli%$ by ! c\rts is1 t a cont9uance ( possession is only prima facie evid5ce ( fraud2 9 :i* case ! mortgagee or assignee is all[$ to %[ by pro(1 t ! conveyance 0 made 9 good fai? & = a valuable consid]ation4 ,9 o!r /ates1 ! /rict rule prevails1 t1 )\t a *ange ( possession1 ! transaction is fraudul5t 9 law2 9 :i* case ! assignee1 or p]son claim+ ! prop]ty "u ! assignm5t1 is n p]mitt$ to %[ t1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! transaction 0 bona fide1 79 good fai?47 ,sec4#e4 ,! rule t holds e conveyance to be fraudul5t unless ! prop]ty imm$iately *anges h&s1 (t5 op]ates to inconv5i5ce & ev5 injury ( hone/ debtors4 ,a debtor may be oblig$ to "p ) prop]ty1 h[ev] conv5i5t or ne$ful its pres5t use may be to him1 :51 b = ?is /r+5t rule ( law1 he might borr[ ! money to pay a debt1 or procure a po/ponem5t ( paym5t1 & reta9 ! use ( ! prop]ty pl$g$4 ,sec4#f4 ,9 _m ( ! /ates1 ?is p]plex+ "q has be5 settl$ by /atute4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,new-,york1 ! law expressly decl>es1 t a sale or an assignm5t )\t imm$iate deliv]y & a *ange ( possession1 %all be presum$ to be fraudul5t & void z aga9/ cr$itors1 unless ! p>ty claim+ ! prop]ty "u ! assignm5t %all make x appe> t ! same 0 made 9 good fai?1 & )\t any attempt to defraud4 ,laws m or less simil> to ?is1 & secur+ to ! assignor ! use ( ! mortgag$ prop]ty1 are believ$ to exi/ 9 a majority ( ! /ates4 ,! in/rum5ts convey+ ! prop]ty are usually call$ *attel mortgages1 & are requir$ to be record$ z de$s2 9 ,new-,york1 & p]haps a few o!r /ates1 only fil$ 9 ! t[n or c\nty cl]k's (fice4 ,sec4#g4 ,9 ! sale ( p]sonal prop]ty1 ?\gh !re %\ld be a judgm5t aga9/ ! v5dor1 & ! pur*as] %\ld h notice ( x1 t fact w\ld n ( itself r5d] ! sale fraudul5t4 ,b if ! pur*as]1 kn[+ ( ! judgm5t1 pur*ases ) ! view or purpose to defeat ! cr$itor's execution1 ! transaction is fraudul5t4 ,! "q ( fraud dep5ds ^u ! motive4 ,sec4#h4 ,assignm5ts are sometimes made by debtors = ! b5efit ( _! cr$itors4 ,a p]son deeply indebt$1 or 9 emb>rass$ circum/ances1 assigns 8 prop]ty1 9 tru/1 to "o or m p]sons1 :o are to dispose ( x1 & to apply ! avails to ! paym5t ( 8 cr$itors1 or a "p ( !m2 = ! law does n =bid a debtor's giv+ a pref]5ce to "o or m cr$itors ov] o!rs1 provid$ ! assignm5t is = a suffici5t consid]ation4 ,a debtor may directly assign or transf] all 8 prop]ty to a s+le cr$itor1 & ! assignm5t be valid2 b if ! value ( ! prop]ty is manife/ly excessive1 & disproportionate to ! debt :i* x is int5d$ to cov]1 ! o!r cr$itors h a "r to ! surplus4 ,sec4#i4 ,:5 an emb>rass$ debtor agrees to pay 8 cr$itors a c]ta9 proportion ( _! claims 9 consid]ation ( a dis*>ge ( _! dem&s1 if he privately agrees to give a bett] or fur!r security to "o ?an to o!rs1 ! contract is void2 because ! condition ^u :i* !y agree to dis*>ge ! debtor is1 t !y %all %>e equally4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a gift1 or conveyance f\nd$ m]ely ^u a consid]ation ( affection1 or blood1 or consangu9ity1 may be set aside by cr$itors1 if ! grantor 0 9 emb>rass$ circum/ances :5 he made x2 = a man is b\nd1 bo? legally & morally1 to pay 8 debts be=e giv+ away 8 prop]ty4 ,b if he is indebt$ to only a small am\nt 9 proportion to ! value ( 8 prop]ty1 & :olly unemb>rass$1 ! gift is n r5d]$ voidable by 8 indebt$ness1 ev5 ?\gh he %\ld aft]w>ds become insolv5t4 ,*apt] ,,lvii4 ,bailm5t4 ,sec4#a4 ,! ^w bailm5t is f bail1 ,fr5*1 to deliv]4 7,*ap4 ,,xviii1 ,sec4#ad47 ,bailm5t1 9 law1 is a deliv]y ( goods1 9 tru/1 ^u agreem5t t ! tru/ %all be execut$1 & ! goods re/or$ by ! bailee1 :5 ! purpose ( ! bailm5t %all h be51 answ]$4 ,sec4#b4 ,a p]son :o receives goods to be kept & return$ )\t rew>d1 mu/ keep !m ) reasonable c>e1 or1 if !y receive injury1 he w be liable = ! damage3 9 o!r words1 he is responsible only = gross neglect4 ,gross neglect is a want ( t c>e :i* e man ( common s5se takes ( 8 own prop]ty4 ,a deposit>y1 :o is a p]son ) :om goods are deposit$1 has no "r to use ! goods intru/$ to him4 ,sec4#c4 ,a m&at>y1 or "o :o und]takes to d an act = ano!r )\t recomp5se1 9 respect to ! ?+ bail$ to him1 is responsible = gross neglect1 if he und]takes & does ! "w amiss2 b x is ?\ght t = agree+ to d1 & n und]tak+ or do+ at all1 he is n liable = damage4 ,sec4#d4 ,! borr[] ( an article1 z a horse1 c>riage1 or book1 )\t rew>d1 is liable = damage 9 case ( slight neglect4 ,b if ! article is appli$ only to ! use = :i* x is borr[$1 is us$ c>efully by ! borr[] only1 & return$ )9 ! "t = :i* x 0 borr[$1 he is n liable4 ,sec4#e4 ,prop]ty tak5 9 pl$ge z security = a debt or an engagem5t1 mu/ be kept ) ord9>y c>e2 9 o!r words1 ! pawnee is answ]able only = ord9>y neglect2 & if ! goods %\ld !n be lo/ or de/roy$1 ! pawn] is /ill liable = ! debt4 ,if ! pawnee d]ives any pr(it f ! use ( ! prop]ty1 he mu/ apply ! pr(its1 aft] d$uct+ necess>y exp5ses1 t[>d ! debt4 ,sec4#f4 ,ano!r k9d ( bailm5t is ! hir+ ( prop]ty = a rew>d4 ,if an article is injur$ or de/roy$ )\t any fault on ! "p ( ! hir]1 ! loss falls on ! own]1 = ! risk is ) him4 ,sec4#g4 ,if "w or c>e is to be be/[$ = a recomp5se on ! ?+ deliv]$1 ! workman is liable = ord9>y neglect2 & ! "w mu/ be p]=m$ ) prop] skill1 or he is answ]able = damage4 ,if a tailor receives clo? to be made into a coat1 he is b\nd to d x 9 a workmanlike mann]4 ,sec4#h4 ,innkeep]s are 9 g5]al responsible = all injuries to ! goods & baggage ( _! gue/s1 ev5 = !fts4 ,b = loss caus$ by unavoidable accid5t1 or by sup]ior =ce1 z robb]y1 !y are n liable4 ,sec4#i4 ,a p]son :o c>ries goods = hire 9 a p>ticul> case1 & n z a common c>ri]1 is answ]able only = ord9>y neglect1 unless he expressly takes ! risk ( a common c>ri]4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a common c>ri] is "o :o c>ries goods = hire z a common bus9ess1 :e!r by l& or by wat]1 & is responsible to ! own] ( ! goods1 ev5 if robb$ ( !m4 ,he is 9 ! nature ( an insur]1 & is answ]able = all losses1 except 9 cases ( ! act ( ,god1 z by lightn+1 /orms1 floods1 c4 & public enemies1 z 9 "t ( w>4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a common c>ri] is b\nd to receive f any p]son pay+ or t5d]+ ! freight *>ges1 su* goods z he is accu/om$ to c>ry1 & z are (f]$ = ! place to :i* he c>ries4 ,b he may refuse to receive !m if he is full1 or if !y are dang]\s to be c>ri$1 or = o!r good reasons4 ,he may refuse to take !m unless ! *>ges are paid2 b if he agrees to take paym5t at ! end ( ! r\te1 he may reta9 !m !re until ! freight is paid4 ,a c>ri] mu/ deliv] freight 9 a reasonable "t2 b he is n liable = loss by ! freez+ ( a riv] or canal dur+ 8 voyage1 if he has us$ due dilig5ce4 ,sec4#ab4 ,proprietors ( a /age coa* d n w>rant ! safety ( pass5g]s z common c>ri]s2 & !y are n responsible = m]e accid5ts to ! p]sons ( ! pass5g]s1 b only = ! want ( due c>e4 ,slight fault1 unskillfulness1 or neglig5ce1 ei!r z to ! suffici5cy ( ! c>riage1 or to ! driv+ ( x1 may r5d] ! own] responsible 9 damages = injury to pass5g]s4 ,b z public c>ri]s1 !y are answ]able = ! loss ( a box or p>cel ( goods1 ?\gh ignorant ( its cont5ts1 unless ! own] fraudul5tly conceals ! value or nature ( ! article1 or deludes ! c>ri] by treat+ x z ( little or no value4 ,public c>ri]s are responsible = ! baggage ( _! pass5g]s1 ?\gh !y adv]tise x z be+ at ! risk ( ! own]s4 ,*apt] ,,lviii4 ,pr9cipal & ,ag5t1 or ,factor2 ,brok]2 ,li51 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,an ag5t1 or factor1 is a p]son intru/$ ) ! managem5t ( ! bus9ess ( ano!r1 :o is call$ pr9cipal4 ,! words ag5t & factor bo? signify a deputy1 a sub/itute1 or a p]son act+ = ano!r2 b ag5t seems to be ! m compreh5sive t]m1 be+ appli$ to "o :o is intru/$ by ano!r ) any k9d ( bus9ess2 factor m prop]ly d5otes an ag5t employ$ by m]*ants resid+ 9 o!r places to buy & sell1 & transact c]ta9 o!r bus9ess on _! acc\nt4 ,a factor1 f 8 be+ commission$ or au?oriz$ to act = 8 pr9cipal1 & especially if all[$ a commission1 or a c]ta9 rate p] c5t1 ( ! value ( ! goods b\ght or sold1 is call$ a commission m]*ant4 ,sec4#b4 ,if a factor advances money on prop]ty intru/$ to him1 he c hold x until ! money %all be refund$1 & all *>ges paid4 ,if ! actual own] ( ! prop]ty is unkn[n to ! factor1 ! p]son 9 ^: "n ! goods 7 %ipp$1 is to be deem$ ! own]4 ,sec4#c4 ,! "r ( a factor to hold prop]ty aga9/ ! own] 9 satisfaction ( a dem&1 is call$ li52 & ! factor may sell ! goods to satisfy 8 claim2 b he mu/ pay ! surplus1 if any1 to ! pr9cipal or own]4 ,a factor c n pl$ge goods intru/$ to him = sale1 z security = 8 own debts4 ,if he disposes ( m]*&ise intru/$ or consign$ to him1 & applies ! avails to 8 own use1 ) int5t to defraud ! own]1 he may be puni%$ by f9e & imprisonm5t4 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ f>1 9 ord9>y bus9ess1 a pr9cipal is b\nd by ! acts ( an ag5t1 x is n easy to det]m9e4 ,z a g5]al rule ! acts ( a g5]al ag5t2 t is1 "o :o ei!r transacts all k9ds ( bus9ess = 8 employ]1 or :o does all acts connect$ ) a p>ticul> bus9ess or transaction1 or :i* relate to "s p>ticul> dep>tm5t ( bus9ess1 b9d 8 pr9cipal1 s long z he keeps )9 ! g5]al scope ( 8 au?ority1 ?\gh he may 9 "s special cases act contr>y to 8 private in/ructions4 ,b an ag5t employ$ = a p>ticul> purpose1 if he goes beyond ! limits ( 8 p[]1 does n b9d 8 pr9cipal4 ,sec4#e4 ,an ag5t is b\nd1 9 ord9>y cases1 to obs]ve ! in/ructions ( 8 pr9cipal1 ev5 ?\gh an act contr>y to su* in/ructions %\ld be int5d$ = ! b5efit ( ! pr9cipal4 ,! ag5t mu/ be>1 p]sonally1 all losses gr[+ out ( a non-compliance ) 8 ord]s2 & ! pr(it accru+ !refrom goes to ! b5efit ( ! pr9cipal4 ,an ag5t1 h[ev]1 is excus$ f a /rict compliance ) 8 ord]s1 if1 aft] receiv+ !m1 "s sudd5 & un=ese5 em]g5cy has aris51 9 consequ5ce ( :i* su* compliance w\ld op]ate z an injury to ! pr9cipal1 & fru/rate 8 int5tion4 ,sec4#f4 ,:5 an ag5t receives no in/ructions1 he mu/ con=m to ! usage ( trade1 or to ! cu/om applicable to ! p>ticul> ag5cy2 & any deviation !refrom1 unless ju/ifi$ by ! necessity ( ! case1 r5d]s him solely liable = any loss or injury result+ f x4 ,sec4#g4 ,an ag5t is b\nd to ex]cise ord9>y dilig5ce & reasonable skill2 & he is responsible only = ! want !re(4 ,ord9>y dilig5ce is t :i* p]sons ( common prud5ce use 9 conduct+ _! own affairs4 ,reasonable skill is t usually possess$ by p]sons ( common capacity employ$ 9 ! same bus9ess4 ,sec4#h4 ,if an ag5t exce$ ! limits ( 8 au?ority1 he becomes p]sonally responsible to ! p]son ) :om he deals1 if ! limitations ( 8 au?ority are unkn[n to su* p]son4 ,he is 9 l m>9] responsible1 if he makes a contract 9 8 own "n2 or if he does n disclose ! "n ( ! pr9cipal1 s z to enable ! p>ty ) :om he deals to h rec\rse to ! pr9cipal 9 case ! ag5t _h au?ority to b9d him4 ,& if ! ag5t ev5 buys 9 8 own "n1 b = ! pr9cipal1 & )\t disclos+ 8 "n1 ! pr9cipal also is b\nd1 provid$ ! goods come to 8 use4 ,also if ! pr9cipal is "u age1 or a lunatic1 or o!rwise incompet5t to contract1 ! ag5t is liable4 ,sec4#i4 ,a brok] is an ag5t employ$ to negotiate sales betwe5 p>ties = a comp5sation 9 ! =m ( a commission1 :i* is commonly call$ brok]age4 ,8 bus9ess consi/s *iefly 9 negotiat+ ex*anges2 or 9 buy+ & sell+ /ocks1 goods1 %ips1 or c>goes2 or 9 procur+ insurances & settl+ losses2 & z he conf9es himself to "o or ! o!r ( ^! bran*es1 he is call$ an ex*ange brok]1 /ock brok]1 insurance brok]1 c4 ,a brok] diff]s f a factor4 ,he has n ! cu/ody ( ! goods ( 8 pr9cipal4 ,he is m]ely emp[]$ to effect ! contract ( sale2 & :5 ?is is done1 8 ag5cy ends4 ,if a brok] executes 8 duties 9 su* a mann] t no b5efit results f !m1 or is guilty ( gross misconduct 9 sell+ goods1 he is n entitl$ to a commission or comp5sation4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a li51 z ! claim ( a factor ^u goods intru/$ to him = sale1 has be5 notic$4 7,sec4#c47 ,! "r ( li5 ext5ds to o!rs ?an factors4 ,x is int5d$ also = ! b5efit ( manufactur]s1 me*anics1 & o!r p]sons c>ry+ on bus9ess = ! accommodation ( ! public4 ,a tailor has a li5 ^u ! g>m5t made f ano!r's clo? until he is paid = ! mak+2 a %oemak] ^u ! %oes made f ano!r's lea!r2 a blacksmi? ^u ! horse he has %od2 an innkeep] ^u ! horse or goods ( 8 gue/2 & common c>ri]s ^u ! goods !y transport4 ,b !y _c hold ! prop]ty = any o!r debt2 nor c !y sell x to satisfy _! claim4 ,:5ev] a p]son all[s prop]ty to g out ( 8 possession1 he loses 8 li54 ,*apt] ,,lix4 ,p>tn]%ip4 ,sec4#a4 ,a p>tn]%ip is an association =m$ by contract betwe5 two or m p]sons1 = jo9+ _! money1 labor1 or skill1 9 lawful bus9ess1 ! pr(its to be divid$ & ! loss to be borne by ! p>tn]s 9 c]ta9 proportions4 ,x is a p>tn]%ip if "o furni%es ! funds & ! o!r p]=ms ! labor2 or if1 :5 no money is necess>y1 ea* agrees to d 8 %>e ( ! labor4 ,a p>tn]%ip or association ( ?is k9d is d5om9at$ a firm1 or h\se4 ,sec4#b4 ,! act ( any "o ( ! firm is consid]$ ! act ( all1 & b9ds all2 & ei!r ( !m is liable = all ! debts4 ,b if a bill or note is drawn by "o p>tn] 9 8 own "n only1 )\t appe>+ to be on p>tn]%ip acc\nt1 he alone is b\nd1 ?\gh x 7 made = a p>tn]%ip purpose4 ,a p>tn] buy+ goods on 8 own acc\nt = 8 individual use1 is alone liable2 b if !y aft]w>d g to ! use ( ! p>tn]%ip1 all become responsible4 ,sec4#c4 ,sometimes a p]son agrees to receive1 by way ( r5t1 a portion ( ! pr(its ( a f>m1 a tav]n1 or a manufactory2 or an ag5t or a cl]k receives a %>e ( ! pr(its = 8 labor4 ,b z !re is 9 ^! cases no p>tn]%ip1 ! p]sons :o buy ! /ock & hire ! labor are alone responsible4 ,sec4#d4 ,all ! p>tn]s mu/ unite 9 su+ & be+ su$4 ,"o :o %\ld conceal 8 "n s z n to be kn[n :5 ! debt is contract$1 may be su$ :5 discov]$ to be a p>tn]1 if he %>es 9 ! pr(its ( ! trade4 ,sec4#e4 ,a p>tn] _c sell 8 int]e/ to ano!r p]son1 :o is to take 8 place 9 ! p>tn]%ip1 )\t ! cons5t ( all ! p>tn]s3 nor c a p>tn]1 )\t su* cons5t1 )draw :5 he pleases1 & dissolve ! p>tn]%ip1 except 9 cases 9 :i* ! p>tn]%ip is )\t any def9ite t]m4 ,a p>tn]%ip is dissolv$ by ! dea?1 insanity1 bankruptcy1 or o!r inability ( "o ( ! p>ties4 ,sec4#f4 ,:5 a p>tn]%ip is dissolv$ by ! )drawal ( any ( ! p>tn]s1 notice ( dissolution ought to be duly publi%$1 or a firm may be b\nd by a contract made by "o p>tn] 9 ! usual c\rse ( bus9ess & 9 ! "n ( ! firm1 ) a p]son :o contract$ on ! fai? ( ! p>tn]%ip1 & :o _h no notice ( ! dissolution4 ,! same notice is necess>y to protect a retir+ p>tn] f cont9u$ responsibility4 ,& ev5 if due notice is giv51 yet1 if he will+ly suff]s 8 "n to cont9ue 9 ! firm1 or 9 ! title ( ! firm ov] ! door ( ! %op or /ore1 he may 9 c]ta9 cases be liable4 ,sec4#g4 ,9 "s ( ! /ates1 a p>tn]%ip may be =m$ by a numb] ( p]sons1 "s ( :om are to be responsible only to a limit$ am\nt2 & _! names are n to be us$ 9 ! firm4 ,be=e a p>tn]%ip ( ?is k9d c d bus9ess1 a writ+ & c]tificate sign$ by ! p>ties /at+ ! t]ms ( p>tn]%ip1 & ! am\nt = :i* ! special p>tn]s 7z !y are call$7 are to be responsible mu/ be record$4 ,! t]ms ( p>tn]%ip mu/ also be publi%$ 9 a newspap]4 ,sec4#h4 ,9 ^! limit$ p>tn]%ips1 z !y are t]m$1 ! special p>tn]s are liable only to ! am\nt /at$ 9 ! t]ms ( p>tn]%ip4 ,! o!r p>tn]s1 call$ g5]al p>tn]s1 ^: names only are us$1 & :o transact ! bus9ess1 are liable = all ! debts contract$1 z 9 ord9>y p>tn]%ips4 ,if su* p>tn]%ip is to be dissolv$ by act ( ! p>ties be=e ! expiration ( ! t]m = :i* x is =m$1 notice ( dissolution mu/ be fil$ & record$1 & publi%$ 9 a newspap]4 ,su* is ! law 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york2 & x is presum$ to agree1 9 its mo/ ess5tial provisions1 ) ! laws ( ! o!r /ates 9 :i* ^! p>tn]%ips are au?oriz$4 ,*apt] ,,lx4 ,promissory ,notes4 ,sec4#a4 ,a promissory note is a writt5 promise to pay a specifi$ sum at a c]ta9 "t1 to a p]son nam$1 or to 8 ord]1 or to ! be>]4 ,a common =m ( a note is ! foll[+3 #ajj4 ,albany1 ,june #i1 #ahei4 ,?ree mon?s aft] date1 ,i promise to pay to ,james ,smi?1 or be>]1 "o hundr$ doll>s1 value receiv$4 ,john ,br[n4 ,sec4#b4 ,a note ?us payable to ,smi? or be>]1 or to him or 8 ord]1 is call$ negotiable1 because x may be sold or transf]r$ to any o!r p]son1 :o has ! same p[] to sue = & collect ! money1 z ,smi?1 ! orig9al promisee4 ,if x 7 made payable to ,smi? or ord]1 he mu/ indorse x by writ+ 8 "n on ! back ( x1 be=e x w\ld pass z a negotiable note4 ,! indorsem5t is consid]$ z ! ord] ( ,smi? to ! mak] to pay x to any o!r p]son4 ,b1 ?\gh n negotiable1 x might be transf]r$2 b ! hold] mu/ sue 9 ! "n ( ,smi?1 & ,br[n might (fset any dem&s :i* he has aga9/ ,smi?4 ,sec4#c4 ,an indorsem5t1 made by writ+ ! "n only on ! back ( a note1 is call$ a blank indorsem5t4 ,a full indorsem5t is "o :i* po9ts out ! p]son to :om ! note is to be paid4 ,a blank indorsem5t may be fill$ up at any "t by ! hold]4 ,= example3 ,a note is payable to ,john ,jay or ord]1 or to ! ord] ( ,john ,jay1 :o indorses x 9 blank :i* makes x payable to any o!r hold]4 ,n[ if any hold] or indorsee wi%es x paid to any p>ticul> p]son1 he fills up ! blank by writ+ a reque/ to t effect above ! "n ( ! indors]1 ?us3 ,pay to ,george ,bruce1 or ,pay to ,george ,bruce or ord]2 :o1 aga91 may by indorsem5t ord] x paid to "s p>ticul> p]son4 ,or1 if he %\ld indorse x 9 blank1 or ord] x paid to ! be>]1 x w\ld aga9 pass1 z at fir/1 by m]e deliv]y4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 common bus9ess transactions 9 ! c\ntry1 notes int5d$ to be negotiable are usually made payable to be>]1 z 9 ! =m giv54 7,sec4#a47 ,! "y read]1 or o!r p]son inexp]i5c$ 9 bus9ess1 may n "k :y !y are n always s writt54 ,! mak+ ( a note payable to ord] protects ! hold] or own] 9 case ! note %\ld be lo/4 ,take1 = example1 ! note suppos$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 indors$ 9 blank4 ,suppose ! own] resides 9 ,buffalo1 & ! mak] 9 ,detroit4 ,! own] writes ov] ! "n ( ,john ,jay1 ,pay to ,george ,bruce1 also resid+ 9 ,detroit1 to :om x is s5t by mail1 to be by him pres5t$ to ! mak] = paym5t4 ,& %\ld ! note by accid5t or fraud fall into ! h&s ( ano!r1 x be+ payable to ,bruce only1 or to 8 ord]1 ! p>ties are protect$ f loss4 ,sec4#e4 ,z a contract is n b9d+ )\t a valuable consid]ation1 7,*ap4 ,,liv1 ,sec4#f17 ! words value receiv$ are ins]t$ 9 notes1 z evid5ce ( su* consid]ation4 ,b :]e !re is no /atute requir+ ! ins]tion ( ^! words1 a note is good )\t !m4 ,:e!r !y are ins]t$ or n1 ! note is presum$ to h be5 giv5 = a valuable consid]ation2 & ! mak]1 to avoid 8 obligation to pay x1 mu/ make x appe> t no value 0 receiv$4 ,sec4#f4 ,a note made by two or m p]sons may be jo9t or jo9t or sev]al4 ,:5 x is writt51 ,we promise to pay1 x is only a jo9t note1 & all mu/ be su$ toge!r4 ,if writt51 ,we jo9tly & sev]ally promise to pay1 !y may be su$ ei!r jo9tly or sep>ately4 ,also if writt5 ,i promise to pay1 x is treat$ z a jo9t & sev]al note4 ,a note writt51 ,we promise1 & sign$1 ,a4 ,b41 pr9cipal1 & ,c4 ,d41 security1 is ! jo9t note ( bo?2 & if writt51 ,i promise1 & sign$ 9 ! same mann]1 x is ! jo9t & sev]al note ( bo?4 ,sec4#g4 ,any p]son hav+ 9 possession a negotiable note1 ?\gh a m]e ag5t1 is deem$ ! true own]1 & may sue x 9 8 own "n1 )\t %[+ title4 ,! bona fide hold] c recov] ^u ! pap]1 ?\gh x came to him f a p]son :o _h /ol5 or robb$ x f ! true own]2 provid$ he took x innoc5tly 9 ! c\rse ( trade = a valuable consid]ation be=e x 0 due1 & ) due caution4 ,b if suspicion is ca/ ^u ! title ( ! hold]1 by %[+ t ! in/rum5t has got into circulation by =ce or fraud1 !n ! hold] mu/ %[ ! consid]ation he gave = x4 ,sec4#h4 ,ord9>ily1 a p]son c n convey to ano!r a valid title to prop]ty :i* is n lawfully 8 own2 & h5ce ! pur*as] ( /ol5 goods mu/ give !m up to ! lawful own]4 ,! exception to ?is rule1 9 ! case ( promissory notes1 seems to be f\nd$ 9 reason & good policy4 ,! use ( negotiable pap] 9 comm]cial transactions is ( great public conv5i5ce2 & x is prop] t1 = ! sake ( trade1 protection %\ld be giv5 to ! hold] ( su* pap] :o receives x fairly 9 ! way ( bus9ess1 ?\gh x has be5 paid1 if he receiv$ x be=e x fell due4 ,sec4#i4 ,b x is equally mat]ial = ! int]e/s ( trade1 t ! own] %\ld h due protection4 ,h5ce if a p]son takes a note f a /rang] )\t inquir+ h[ he came by x2 or does n take x 9 ! usual c\rse ( bus9ess1 or = "s responsibility incurr$ on ! cr$it ( ! note1 he takes x at 8 p]il4 ,b ! own]1 9 ord] to place 8 "r to relief beyond "q1 ought to use dilig5ce 9 appris+ ! public ( ! loss ( ! note4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a p]son buy+ a note aft] x has become due1 takes x at 8 p]il4 ,al?\gh ! hold] may sue x 9 8 own "n1 ! mak] may (fset any dem&s :i* he _h aga9/ ! promisee be=e x 0 transf]r$1 z 9 ! case ( notes n negotiable4 7,sec4#b47 ,b :5 notes 9 :i* no day ( paym5t is express$ comes "u ?is rule1 is a "q to be det]m9$ by circum/ances4 ,9 ,new ,j]sey & ,p5nsylvania1 ! words )\t defalcation or disc\nt1 or words to t effect1 mu/ be ins]t$ 9 notes1 or !y may be met by (fsets z notes t are b\ght aft] due4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a note made payable 9 "s commodity is n negotiable4 ,if x is n paid accord+ to ! conditions !re9 express$1 ! mak] becomes liable to pay 9 ca%4 ,b 9 ei!r case1 if x passes to a ?ird p]son1 he c sue x only 9 ! "n ( ! promisee or payee2 & x may be met by (fsets z o!r notes n negotiable1 7,sec4#b17 & notes b\ght aft] due4 7,sec4#aj47 ,sec4#ab4 ,notes payable on dem&1 or 9 :i* no "t ( paym5t is m5tion$1 are due imm$iately1 & no dem& ( paym5t is necess>y4 ,b a note payable at sight1 or at a specifi$ "t aft] sight1 mu/ be pres5t$ = paym5t be=e x c be su$4 ,if ! words ) int]e/ are omitt$1 int]e/ comm5ces at ! "t ! note becomes due4 ,if payable on dem&1 x w draw int]e/ f ! "t :5 paym5t is dem&$4 ,sec4#ac4 ,aft] ! day on :i* a note is made payable1 ! mak] has ?ree days 9 :i* to make paym5t1 :i* are call$ days ( grace4 ,h5ce1 a note payable on ! fir/ day ( ! mon? is n due & suable until ! f\r?4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! la/ day ( grace falls on ,sunday1 or ! f\r? ( ,july1 or any o!r day recogniz$ by law z a holiday1 or day ( public re/1 ! la/ day ( grace w\ld be a day e>li]4 ,if ! f\r? ( ,july or any o!r holiday %\ld come on ,saturday1 ! note w\ld be due on ,friday4 ,or if su* day %\ld fall on ,monday1 ! la/ day ( grace w\ld be ,saturday4 ,sec4#ad4 ,to hold ! indors] ( a note responsible1 paym5t mu/ be dem&$ ( ! mak] on ! la/ day ( grace4 ,z to ! "t ( day :5 ! dem& %\ld be made1 x is consid]$ t ! mak] is entitl$ to ! late/ conv5i5t "t )9 ! cu/om>y bus9ess h\rs ( ! place :]e ! note is pres5t$4 ,sec4#ae4 ,if paym5t has be5 dem&$ & refus$1 notice !re( mu/ be giv5 to ! indors]2 & "o entire day is all[$ ! hold] to give ! notice4 ,if ! dem& is made on ,saturday1 x is suffici5t to give notice on ,monday4 ,if ! indors] resides 9 ! same t[n1 he may be notifi$ p]sonally by ! hold]1 or by a mess5g] s5t to 8 dwell+-h\se1 :]e notice may be giv5 p]sonally1 or left 9 a way likely to br+ x to 8 k4 ,if ! p>ties reside 9 diff]5t t[ns1 notice may be s5t by mail2 9 :i* case1 ! notice mu/ be put into ! po/-(fice1 z e>ly z ! next day aft] ! la/ day ( grace1 s z to be =w>d$ z soon z possible !reaft]3 or notice may be s5t by a private conveyance or a special mess5g]4 ,sec4#af4 ,if1 9 consequ5ce ( ! removal ( ! mak] be=e ! note becomes due1 or f any o!r cause1 8 resid5ce is unkn[n1 ! hold] mu/ make endeavors to f9d x1 & make ! dem& !re2 ?\gh1 if he has remov$ out ( ! /ate1 x is suffici5t to pres5t ! note at 8 =m] place ( resid5ce4 ,if ! mak] has abscond$1 t w1 z a g5]al rule1 excuse ! dem&4 ,sec4#ag4 ,notes1 on be+ transf]r$1 are gu>anti$ by indorsem5t4 ,if a p]son simply writes 8 "n on ! back1 he is liable z indors] only4 ,if he gu>antees ! paym5t ( ! note1 he is g5]ally consid]$ liable z an orig9al promisor4 ,if he gu>anties ! note good1 or collectable1 ! mak]1 & ! indors]s also1 if any1 mu/ be su$1 be=e ! gu>antor is liable4 ,/rict notice to a gu>antor is n requir$ to b9d him1 z 9 ! case ( an indors]4 ,b to hold him liable 9 case imm$iate notice is n giv51 or ! note is n imm$iately su$1 x mu/ be %[n t he has n suff]$ injury f want ( notice1 or t ! note 0 n collectable ( ! mak] or indors]s :5 due4 ,b ! k9d ( liability incurr$1 :e!r t ( indors]1 orig9al promisor1 or surety1 by indors+ a note or gu>anty+ paym5t1 is n ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,!re are sundry o!r po9ts 9 ! law relat+ to promissory notes1 on :i* ! /atutes & judicial decisions are n uni=m 9 all ! /ates4 ,*apt] ,,lxi4 ,bills ( ,ex*ange2 ,int]e/2 ,usury4 ,sec4#a4 ,a bill ( ex*ange is a writt5 ord] or reque/ to a p]son 9 a di/ant place1 to pay a ?ird p]son a c]ta9 sum ( money4 ,! foll[+ is a common =m3 #a1jjj4 ,new-,york1 ,augu/ #aj1 #ahei4 ,tw5ty days aft] date1 7or at sight1 or t5 days aft] sight17 pay to ! ord] ( ,john ,/iles1 "o ?\s& doll>s1 value receiv$1 & *>ge ! same to acc\nt ( ,to ,george ,scott1 ,?omas ,jones4 ,new ,orleans1 ,la4 ,sec4#b4 ,bills drawn on p]sons 9 =eign c\ntries1 are call$ =eign bills ( ex*ange2 ^? drawn on p]sons 9 di/ant places 9 our own c\ntry1 are call$ inl& bills ( ex*ange4 ,to p]sons 9 m]cantile bus9ess !y are ( great conv5i5ce1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+ example ( _! nature & op]ation4 ,sec4#c4 ,a1 9 ,new-,york1 has #a1jjj due him f ,b1 9 ,new ,orleans4 ,a draws an ord] on ,b = t sum1 & ,c1 :o is go+ to ,new ,orleans1 pays ,a ! money1 takes ! ord]1 & receives 8 money aga9 ( ,b4 ,?us ,a is accommodat$ by receiv+ 8 debt aga9/ ,b1 & ,o has avoid$ ! risk ( c>ry+ ! money f place to place4 ,a1 :o draws ! ord]1 or bill1 is call$ ! draw]4 ,b1 to :om x is address$1 is ! drawee2 ,c1 to :om x is made payable1 is ! payee4 ,z ! bill is payable to ,c1 or 8 ord]1 he may1 by indorsm5t1 direct ! bill to be paid to ,d2 9 :i* case ,c becomes ! indors]1 & ,d1 to :om ! bill is indors$1 is call$ ! indorsee or hold]4 ,sec4#d4 ,if1 :5 a bill is pres5t$ to ! drawee1 he agrees to pay x1 he is said to accept ! bill1 & writes 8 acceptance ^u x4 ,an acceptance may1 h[ev]1 be by p>ol4 ,! acceptor ( a bill is ! pr9cipal debtor2 ! draw]1 ! surety4 ,! acceptor is b\nd1 ?\gh he accept$ )\t consid]ation1 & = ! sole accommodation ( ! draw]4 ,b paym5t mu/ be dem&$ on ! la/ day ( grace2 &1 if refus$1 notice ( non-paym5t mu/ be giv5 to ! draw]1 z 9 ! case ( an indors$ promissory note4 7,*ap4 ,,lx1 ,sec4#ae47 ,sec4#e4 ,no precise "t is fix$ by law at :i* bills payable at sight or a c]ta9 numb] ( days aft] sight1 mu/ be pres5t$ to ! drawee = acceptance2 ?\gh an unreasonable delay might dis*>ge ! draw]4 ,a bill payable on a c]ta9 day aft] date1 ne$ n be pres5t$ be=e ! day ( paym5t1 b if pres5t$ be=e due1 & acceptance is refus$1 x is di%onor$2 & notice mu/ be giv5 imm$iately to ! draw]4 ,if a bill has be5 accept$1 paym5t mu/ be dem&$ ( ! acceptor1 :5 ! bill falls due2 & if no place is appo9t$ = paym5t1 ! dem& mu/ be made at 8 h\se or resid5ce1 or ^u him p]sonally4 ,sec4#f4 ,a *eck ^u a bank1 7,*ap4 ,,xxiv1 ,sec4#c17 is ano!r k9d ( negotiable pap]4 ,x p>takes m ( ! nature ( a bill ( ex*ange ?an ( a promissory note4 ,x is n a direct promise to pay2 b x is an und]tak+1 by ! draw]1 t ! drawee %all accept & pay2 & ! draw] is answ]able only :5 ! drawee fails to pay4 ,a *eck payable to be>] passes by deliv]y2 & ! be>] may sue on x z on an inl& bill ( ex*ange4 ,sec4#g4 ,:5 a =eign bill ( ex*ange is to be pres5t$ = acceptance or paym5t1 dem& is usually made by a not>y public2 & 9 case ( refusal1 8 c]tificate ( ! pres5tm5t ( ! bill & ( ! refusal1 is legal pro( ( ! fact 9 any c\rt4 ,?is c]tificate is call$ prote/1 :i* means1 = pro(4 ,a prote/ may be not$ on ! day ( ! dem&2 ?\gh x may be drawn up 9 =m at a future p]iod4 ,not>ies are appo9t$ 9 all t[ns & cities ( comm]cial importance4 ,sec4#h4 ,a prote/ ( an inl& bill ( ex*ange is n g5]ally deem$ necess>y 9 ?is c\ntry2 ?\gh x is ! practice to h bills1 drawn 9 "o /ate on p]sons 9 ano!r1 prote/$ by a not>y4 ,no prote/ is legal evid5ce 9 c\rt1 except 9 ! case ( a =eign bill4 ,yet x is exp$i5t1 9 _m cases ( inl& bills1 to employ not>ies :5 evid5ce is to be pres]v$1 because !y are easily f\nd :5 want$ z witnesses4 ,9 "s /ates1 bills drawn 9 "o /ate & payable 9 ano!r1 are deem$ =eign bills2 & _! prote/ z su* is requir$4 ,notes payable at banks are also prote/$ = non-paym5t4 ,sec4#i4 ,int]e/ is a premium paid = ! use ( money1 or a pr(it p] c5t1 receiv$ = money l5t1 or on an unpaid dem&4 ,?us a p]son l5ds #a1jjj to ano!r p]son1 :o pays = ! use ( x six p] c5t1 a ye>1 or #f = e hundr$1 z int]e/4 ,! rate ( int]e/ is fix$ by a law ( ! /ate4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! e/abli%$ lawful rates ( int]e/ 9 ! sev]al /ates are z foll[s3 ,six p] c5t1 9 all b ! foll[+3 ,9 ,new-,york1 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1 sev5 p] c5t42 9 ,alabama & ,texas eight p] c5t42 9 ,l\isiana1 five p] c5t42 bank int]e/ six2 9 ,cali=nia1 t5 p] c5t4 ,b !re may be tak5 by special agreem5t1 9 ,florida & ,l\isiana1 eight p] c5t42 9 ,mississippi1 ,arkansas1 ,ohio1 ,miss\ri1 ,i[a1 t52 9 ,texas & ,wiscons91 twelve2 9 ,m9nesota & ,cali=nia1 any rate4 ,9 ,ill9ois & ,mi*igan1 = money loan$1 x may be t54 ,9 ,mississippi1 = ! bona fide use ( money eight p] c5t4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a rate ( int]e/ beyond t :i* is e/abli%$ by law1 is usury4 ,n only c no m be collect$ on any contract or obligation ?an ! legal rate1 b 9 mo/ ( ! /ates !re is "s =feiture = tak+ usuri\s int]e/4 ,9 a few1 ! obligation is void1 & ! paym5t ( no "p ( ! debt c be en=c$ by law2 9 o!rs1 twice or ?rice ! excess above ! lawful int]e/ is =feit$2 & 9 "s1 only ! excess paid c be recov]$4 ,*apt] ,,lxii4 ,crimes & ,misdemeanors4 ,sec4#a4 ,! /atutes ( ea* /ate def9e ! crimes ( :i* its laws take cognizance4 ,! def9itions giv5 9 ?is *apt]1 agree sub/antially1 x is presum$1 ) ^? ( simil> crimes 9 e /ate 9 ! union4 ,! /atutes also prescribe ! p5alties1 :i* are n precisely ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,nor is !re 9 any /ate an equal measure ( puni%m5t inflict$ 9 all cases = ! same (f5se4 ,! laws usually decl>e ! longe/ & ! %orte/ t]ms ( imprisonm5t1 & ! highe/ & l[e/ f9es1 leav+ ! exact measure ( puni%m5t1 except = crimes puni%able by dea?1 to ! discretion ( ! judges1 to be fix$ accord+ to ! aggravation ( ! (f5se4 ,sec4#b4 ,! laws ( ! sev]al /ates diff] 9 respect to ! numb] ( crimes made puni%able by dea?4 ,9 "s /ates ! p5alty ( dea? is annex$ to ! crime ( murd] only4 ,treason is puni%able by dea?2 b z ?is (f5se is def9$ & made puni%able by ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 n all ! /ates take cognizance ( x4 ,if committ$ 9 su* /ates1 x is tri$ 9 ! c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ,new ,york1 murd]1 treason1 & arson 9 ! fir/ degree1 are puni%able by dea?4 ,few /ates make m ?an ^! crimes ?us puni%able4 ,9 two or ?ree /ates1 ! p5alty ( dea? has be5 aboli%$1 & imprisonm5t = life sub/itut$4 ,sec4#c4 ,crimes puni%able by dea?1 are call$ capital crimes1 & _! puni%m5t is call$ capital puni%m5t4 ,! ^w capital is f ! ,lat9 caput1 :i* means head2 & s has come to signify ! highe/ or pr9cipal4 ,h5ce1 probably1 ! application ( ! ^w capital to ! pr9cipal crimes receiv+ ! highe/ puni%m5t1 :i* 0 =m]ly practic$ ext5sively 9 o!r c\ntries by behead+ or decapitat+ ! crim9als4 ,sec4#d4 ,treason is def9$ by /atute to be1 levy+ w> 9 any /ate aga9/ ! p ( ! /ate2 or a comb9ation ( two or m p]sons1 attempt+ by =ce to usurp or ov]turn ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate2 or 9 adh]+ to enemies ( ! /ate :ile sep>ately engag$ 9 w> ) a =eign enemy1 & giv+ !m aid & com=t4 ,sec4#e4 ,murd] is ! kill+ ( a p]son delib]ately & malici\sly1 & ) int5t to effect dea?2 or kill+ a p]son 9 committ+ "s o!r crime1 ?\gh n ) a design to effect dea?2 or 9 kill+ a p]son purposely & )\t previ\s delib]ation4 ,! less aggravat$ cases ( murd]1 are 9 "s /ates di/+ui%$ z murd] 9 ! second degree1 & puni%$ by imprisonm5t = a long t]m1 or = life4 ,sec4#f4 ,manslaught] is kill+ a p]son ei!r ^u a sudd5 qu>rel1 or un9t5tionally :ile committ+ "s unlawful act4 ,! /atutes ( ,new ,york def9e f\r diff]5t degrees ( manslaught]4 ,sec4#g4 ,arson is malici\sly burn+ any dwell+-h\se1 %op1 b>n1 or any o!r build+1 ! prop]ty ( ano!r4 ,arson 9 ! fir/ degree1 :i* is burn+ an inhabit$ dwell+ 9 ! night "t1 is 9 "s /ates puni%able ) dea?4 ,sec4#h4 ,homicide signifies mankill+4 ,x is ( ?ree k9ds3 feloni\s1 ju/ifiable1 & excusable4 ,:5 feloni\s1 x is ei!r murd] or manslaught]4 ,ju/ifiable homicide is t :i* is committ$ 9 ! necess>y def5se ( "o's p]son1 h\se1 or goods1 or ( ! p]son ( ano!r :5 9 dang] ( injury2 or t :i* is committ$ 9 lawfully attempt+ to take a p]son = felony committ$1 or to suppress a riot1 or to keep ! peace4 ,excusable homicide is ! kill+ ( a p]son by accid5t1 or :ile lawfully employ$1 )\t any design to d wrong4 ,9 ! two la/ cases !re is no puni%m5t4 ,sec4#i4 ,int5tionally maim+ ano!r by cutt+ out or disabl+ ! tongue or any o!r memb] or limb2 inveigl+ or kidnapp+2 decoy+ & tak+ away *ildr52 expos+ *ildr5 9 ! /reet to ab&on !m2 committ+ or attempt+ an assault ) int5t to kill1 or to commit any o!r felony1 or 9 resi/+ ! execution ( a legal process2 adm9i/]+ poison )\t produc+ dea?2 poison+ any well or spr+ ( wat]2 are all felonies1 & puni%able z su*4 ,sec4#aj4 ,burgl>y is malici\sly & =cibly break+ into & ent]+ 9 ! night "t1 any dwell+-h\se or o!r build+1 ) int5t to commit a crime4 ,break+ into & ent]+ a h\se by day1 is consid]$ a m9or degree ( burgl>y4 ,sec4#aa4 ,=g]y consi/s 9 falsely mak+1 c\nt]feit+1 or alt]+ any in/rum5t ( writ+1 ) int5t to defraud4 ,! ^w c\nt]feit+ is g5]ally appli$ to mak+ false co9 or bank notes1 or 9 pass+ !m2 or 9 hav+ 9 possession any engrav$ plate1 or bills unsign$1 :i* are int5d$ to be us$ = ^! purposes4 ,sec4#ab4 ,robb]y is ! tak+ ( p]sonal prop]ty f ano!r 9 8 pres5ce & aga9/ 8 w1 by viol5ce1 or by putt+ him 9 fe> ( imm$iate injury to 8 p]son4 ,kn[+ly to s5d or deliv]1 or to make = ! purpose ( be+ s5t1 a lett] or writ+1 ?reat5+ to accuse any "o ( crime1 or to d him "s injury1 ) int5t to extort or ga9 f him any money or prop]ty1 is consid]$ an attempt to rob1 = :i* ! (f5d] may be imprison$4 ,sec4#ac4 ,embezzlem5t is fraudul5tly putt+ to "o's own use :at is intru/$ to him by ano!r4 ,to buy or receive prop]ty kn[+ x to h be5 embezzl$1 is to be guilty ( ! same (f5se4 ,embezzl+ is usually puni%able 9 ! same mann] z l>c5y ( ! same am\nt4 ,sec4#ad4 ,l>c5y is !ft or /eal+4 ,! /eal+ ( prop]ty above a c]ta9 am\nt 9 value is call$ gr& l>c5y1 & is a /ate prison (f5se4 ,if ! value ( ! prop]ty /ol5 is ( less am\nt1 ! (f5se is call$ petit l>c5y1 & is puni%$ by f9e or imprisonm5t 9 jail or bo?4 ,sec4#ae4 ,p]jury is willfully swe>+ or affirm+ falsely to any mat]ial matt]1 ^u an oa? legally adm9i/]$4 ,subornation ( p]jury is procur+ ano!r to swe> falsely2 puni%able z p]jury4 ,sec4#af4 ,brib]y is promis+ or giv+ a rew>d to a public (fic]1 to influ5ce 8 op9ion1 vote or judgm5t4 ,a p]son accept+ su* bribe1 is puni%able 9 ! same mann]1 & =feits 8 (fice1 &1 9 "s /ates1 may nev] hold ano!r public tru/4 ,?is (f5se is n 9 all ! /ates puni%able by imprisonm5t 9 ! /ate prison4 ,sec4#ag4 ,duel+ is a combat betwe5 two p]sons ) deadly weapons4 ,kill+ ano!r 9 a duel is murd]1 & puni%able ) dea?4 ,if dea? does n ensue1 imprisonm5t4 ,*all5g+1 or accept+ a *all5ge to fight1 or to be pres5t z a second1 imprisonm5t4 ,duel+ is n a puni%able (f5se 9 e /ate4 ,sec4#ah4 ,aid+ or attempt+ to aid a prison] committ$ = felony1 to escape f conf9em5t1 or =cibly rescu+ a prison] *>g$ ) crime1 f ! cu/ody ( a public (fic]1 is a crime4 ,if ! (f5se = :i* ! prison] is committ$ is less ?an felony1 ! puni%m5t is imprisonm5t 9 jail1 or f9e1 or bo?4 ,sec4#ai4 ,bigamy is ! crime ( hav+ two or m wives1 & is also call$ polygamy4 ,b bigamy lit]ally signifies hav+ two wives1 & polygamy any numb] m ?an "o4 ,^! words1 9 law1 are appli$ also to wom5 hav+ two or m husb&s4 ,a p]son hav+ a lawful husb& or wife liv+1 & m>ry+ ano!r p]son1 is guilty ( bigamy4 ,an unm>ri$ p]son1 also1 :o %all m>ry ! husb& or wife ( ano!r1 is puni%able 9 l mann]4 ,sec4#bj4 ,ince/ is ! m>ry+ or cohabit+ toge!r z husb& & wife1 ( p]sons relat$ to ea* o!r )9 c]ta9 degrees4 ,sec4#ba4 ,op5+ a grave & remov+ a dead body = any unlawful purpose1 or pur*as+ su* body kn[+ x to h be5 unlawfully dis9t]r$1 is a crime4 ,?is (f5se is 9 "s /ates puni%able by imprisonm5t 9 a c\nty jail1 or by f9e1 & n 9 a /ate prison4 ,sec4#bb4 ,p]sons sometimes advise or are kn[+ to ! commission ( felonies1 b are n actually engag$ 9 committ+ !m4 ,su* are accessories4 ,he :o advises or comm&s ano!r to commit a felony1 is call$ an accessory be=e ! fact1 & is puni%$ 9 ! same mann] z ! pr9cipal4 ,if he conceals ! (f5d] aft] ! (f5se has be5 committ$1 or gives him any aid to prev5t 8 be+ br\ght to puni%m5t1 he is an accessory aft] ! fact1 & may be imprison$ or f9$4 ,sec4#bc4 ,assault & ,batt]y is unlawfully to assault or ?reat51 or to /rike or w\nd ano!r4 ,besides be+ liable to f9e & imprisonm5t1 ! (f5d] is liable also to ! p>ty injur$ = damages4 ,sec4#bd4 ,a riot is ! assembl+ toge!r ( ?ree or m p]sons1 ) int5t =cibly to injure ! p]son or prop]ty ( ano!r1 or to break ! peace2 or agree+ ) ea* o!r to d su* unlawful act1 & mak+ any movem5t or prep>ation !re=1 ?\gh lawfully assembl$4 ,:5 riot\s p]sons are ?us assembl$1 & are proce$+ to commit (f5ses1 any judge1 ju/ice1 %]iff1 or o!r m9i/]ial (fic]1 may 9 ! "n ( ! /ate1 comm& !m to disp]se4 ,if !y refuse1 ! peace (fic]s are requir$ to call ^u all p]sons ne> to aid 9 tak+ ! riot]s into cu/ody4 ,p]sons refus+ to assi/ may be f9$4 ,sec4#be4 ,a %]iff or o!r (fic] volunt>ily suff]+ a prison] *>g$ ) or convict$ ( an (f5se1 to escape1 f 8 cu/ody1 is guilty ( a misdemeanor4 ,to rescue a prison] ?us *>g$ or convict$1 is puni%able 9 a simil> mann]4 ,x is also a misdemeanor to assi/ a crim9al1 ) a view to effect 8 escape1 ?\gh he does n escape f jail4 ,sec4#bf4 ,a p]son tak+ ^u himself to act z a public (fic]1 & tak+ or keep+ a p]son 9 cu/ody unlawfully or )\t au?ority1 is false imprisonm5t2 = :i* ! (f5d] may be f9$ or imprison$4 ,sec4#bg4 ,! (f5ses m5tion$ 9 ! la/ f\r sections1 be+ ( a l[] grade ?an ^? def9$ 9 ! prec$+ sections1 & n be+ puni%able 9 a /ate prison1 are usually call$ misdemeanors1 & are puni%able by f9e or imprisonm5t 9 a c\nty jail4 ,!re are num]\s o!r misdemeanors & immoralities1 z pr(ane curs+ & swe>+1 bett+ & gam+1 horse rac+1 di/urb+ religi\s meet+s1 sabba?-break+1 trespasses & injury to prop]ty1 & _m disord]ly practices1 all ( :i* are puni%able 9 a l mann]4 ,law ( ,nations4 ,*apt] ,,lxiii4 ,orig9 & ,progress ( ! ,law ( ,nations2 ! ,natural1 ,cu/om>y1 & ,conv5tional ,laws ( ,nations4 ,sec4#a4 ,! law ( nations consi/s ( ^? rules by :i* int]c\rse betwe5 nations is regulat$4 ,9 its pres5t improv$ /ate1 ! law ( nations has n long exi/$4 ,anci5t nations 7 little gov]n$ by ! pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice4 ,little respect 0 paid by "o nation to ! p]sons & prop]ty ( ! citiz5s ( ano!r4 ,robb]y on l& & sea 0 n only tol]at$1 b e/eem$ honorable2 & prison]s ( w> 7 ei!r put to dea?1 or r$uc$ to slav]y4 ,by ?is rule ( national law1 comm]ce 0 de/roy$1 & p]petual enmity kept up betwe5 nations4 ,sec4#b4 ,)9 ! la/ ?ree or f\r c5turies1 ess5tial improvem5t 9 ! law ( nations has be5 made4 ,by ! light ( sci5ce & ,*ri/ianity1 ! rights & obligations ( nations h come to be bett] und]/ood1 & m g5]ally reg>d$4 ,comm]ce also has done mu* to improve ! law1 by %[+ t ! true int]e/s ( a nation are promot$ by peace & fri5dly int]c\rse4 ,sec4#c4 ,h5ce we f9d ! nations ( ,europe & ,am]ica recogniz+ ! same rules ( int]national law4 ,& z ! light & p[] ( ,*ri/ianity %all increase1 ! law ( nations w und]go /ill fur!r improvem5ts4 ,& x is to be hop$1 t1 z "o ( ^! improvem5ts1 ! practice ( settl+ national disputes by w> w be aboli%$1 & ! m rational & humane c\rse be adopt$1 ( ref]r+ difficulties :i* ! p>ties are incapable ( adju/+1 to "s dis9t]e/$ p[] = adjudication4 ,sec4#d4 ,!re are1 9 e nation or /ate1 c\rts ( ju/ice to try & puni% (f5d]s2 b !re is no tribunal be=e :i* "o nation c be br\ght to answ] = ! violation ( ! rights ( ano!r4 ,e nation1 h[ev] small & weak1 is indep5d5t ( e o!r4 ,!re=e1 :5 injuries are committ$ by "o ^u ano!r1 ! (f5d$ p>ty1 unless x *ooses quietly to endure ! wrong mu/ seek r$ress1 ei!r by appeal+ to ! s5se ( ju/ice ( ! p>ty (f5d+1 or by a resort to =ce4 ,sec4#e4 ,e nation has a "r to e/abli% su* gov]nm5t z x ?9ks prop]2 & no o!r nation has a "r to int]f]e ) its int]nal policy4 ,to ?is rule1 h[ev]1 "s writ]s make an exception4 ,!y hold t ! natural "r ( a /ate to provide = its own safety1 gives x ! "r to int]f]e :]e its security is s]i\sly endang]$ by ! int]nal transactions ( ano!r /ate4 ,b x is admitt$ t su* cases are s v r>e1 t x w\ld be dang]\s to r$uce !m to a rule4 ,sec4#f4 ,s cases seldom arise 9 :i* "o nation has a "r to assi/ ! subjects ( ano!r 9 ov]turn+ or *ang+ _! gov]nm5t4 ,x is g5]ally agre$1 t su* assi/ance may be af=d$ consi/5tly ) ! law ( nations1 9 extreme cases2 z :5 ! tyranny ( a gov]nm5t becomes s oppressive1 z to compel ! p to rise 9 _! def5se1 & call = assi/ance4 ,:5 ! subjects ( any gov]nm5t h c>ri$ _! revolt s f> z to h e/abli%$ a new /ate1 & to give reasonable evid5ce ( _! ability to ma9ta9 a gov]nm5t1 ! "r ( assi/ance is unque/ionable4 ,b x is n cle> t1 prior to ?is /ate ( progress 9 a revolution1 ! "r to int]pose w\ld be ju/ifiable4 ,sec4#g4 ,!re is a s5se1 h[ev]1 9 :i* nations are n :olly indep5d5t4 ,mank9d 9 ! social /ate1 z we h se51 are dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r = assi/ance4 7,*ap4 ,i1 ,sec4#b47 ,su* is1 9 a measure1 ! mutual dep5d5ce ( nations4 ,al?\gh ! p ( e nation h )9 !mselves ! means ( ma9ta9+ _! individual & national exi/5ce1 _! prosp]ity & happ9ess are greatly promot$ by comm]ce ) o!r nations4 ,& z laws are necess>y to gov]n ! conduct ( ! individual citiz5s ( a /ate1 s c]ta9 rules are necess>y to regulate ! int]c\rse ( nations4 ,sec4#h4 ,x has be5 obs]v$1 also1 t ! law ( nature is a p]fect rule = all moral & social be+s1 & ought to be univ]sally obey$4 ,equally b9d+ is ?is law ^u nations4 ,x requires ea* nation to respect ! rights ( all o!rs1 & to d = !m :at _! necessities dem&1 & :at x is capable ( do+1 consi/5tly ) ! duties x owes to itself4 ,& ! g5]al good ( mank9d is z really promot$ by ! application ( ?is law to ! affairs ( nations1 z by its application to ! affairs ( individuals4 ,sec4#i4 ,! law ( nature appli$ to nations or /ates z moral p]sons1 is call$ ! natural law ( nations4 ,x is also call$ ! necess>y law ( nations1 because nations are morally b\nd to obs]ve x2 & sometimes ! int]nal law ( nations1 f its be+ b9d+ on ! consci5ce4 ,sec4#aj4 ,al?\gh ! law ( nature1 z express$ 9 ! law ( revelation1 is a correct rule ( human conduct2 yet1 z mu* ( ?is law consi/s ( g5]al pr9ciples f :i* p>ticul> duties c n always be d$uc$1 positive human enactm5ts are necess>y to def9e ! law ( nature & revelation4 ,s an important "p ( ! law ( nations necess>ily consi/s ( positive in/itutions4 ,h5ce "s writ]s h divid$ int]national law "u ^! two pr9cipal heads3 ! natural law ( nations1 & ! positive4 ,sec4#aa4 ,! positive law ( nations is f\nd$ on usage or cu/om & agreem5t1 & may be consid]$ z prop]ly divid$ into ! cu/om>y law ( nations1 & ! conv5tional4 ,! cu/om>y law ( nations consi/s ( c]ta9 maxims1 or is f\nd$ on cu/oms & usages :i* h be5 long obs]v$ & tacitly cons5t$ to by nations1 & h !reby become b9d+ ^u all :o h adopt$ !m1 s f> z _! obs]vance does n require a violation ( ! law ( nature4 ,sec4#ab4 ,a conv5tional law ( nations is "o t has be5 e/abli%$ by a treaty or league4 ,! ^w conv5tion usually signifies an assembly ( p]sons met = "s b5evol5t1 political1 or ecclesia/ical purpose4 ,x also signifies a treaty1 or agreem5t betwe5 nations2 & su* agreem5t or contract1 ?\gh made )\t a =mal meet+1 is deem$ conv5tional4 ,sec4#ac4 ,z ! law ( nature is liable to miscon/ruction1 & z ! law ( usage or cu/om is vague & unc]ta91 conv5tional law1 because m def9ite1 has be5 f\nd to af=d great] security to ! rights ( comm]ce4 ,h5ce ! practice1 n[ s common among nations1 ( regulat+ _! int]c\rse by negotiation4 ,by treaties1 ! rights ( ! contract+ p>ties are plac$ beyond dispute4 ,sec4#ad4 ,b x may be said1 if ea* nation is indep5d5t ( e o!r1 & if !re is no con/itut$ au?ority to en=ce ! fulfillm5t ( treaty /ipulations1 ! rights gu>anti$ by treaties are /ill insecure4 ,b few gov]nm5ts are s devoid ( a s5se ( honor z1 by a palpable violation ( treaty obligations1 to incur ! odium & condemnation ( all mank9d4 ,self-respect & ! fe> ( provok+ a w>1 h g5]ally prov$ suffici5t inc5tives to ! obs]vance ( treaties4 ,sec4#ae4 ,! obligations ( nations are sometimes call$ imp]fect4 ,a p]fect obligation is "o t c be en=c$--"o t exi/s :]e !re is a "r to compel ! p>ty on :om ! obligation re/s to fulfill x4 ,an imp]fect obligation gives only ! "r to dem& ! fulfillm5t1 leav+ ! p>ty pl$g$ to judge :at 8 duty requires1 & to d z he *ooses1 )\t be+ con/ra9$ by ano!r to d o!rwise4 ,*apt] ,,lxiv4 ,! ,jurisdiction ( ,nations2 _! mutual ,rights & ,obligations2 ! ,rights ( ,embassadors1 ,m9i/]s1 c4 ,sec4#a4 ,! seas are reg>d$ z ! common highway ( nations4 ,! ma9 ocean1 = navigation & fi%+1 is op5 to all mank9d4 ,e /ate1 h[ev]1 has jurisdiction at sea ov] its own subjects 9 its own public & private vessels4 ,! p]sons on bo>d su* vessels are protect$ & gov]n$ by ! laws ( ! c\ntry to :i* !y belong1 & may be puni%$ by ^! laws = (f5ses committ$ on bo>d ( its public vessels 9 =eign ports4 ,sec4#b4 ,! "q h[ f> a nation has jurisdiction ov] ! seas adjo9+ its l&s1 is n cle>ly settl$4 ,x appe>s to be g5]ally conc$$1 t a nation has a "r ( exclusive dom9ion ov] navigable riv]s fl[+ ?r\gh its t]ritory2 ! h>bors1 bays1 gulfs1 & arms ( ! sea2 & su* ext5t ( sea adjo9+ its t]ritories z is necess>y to ! safety ( ! nation1 :i* is consid]$ by "s to be z f> z a cannon %ot w rea*1 or ab\t a m>9e league4 ,sec4#c4 ,x is ! duty ( a nation 9 "t ( peace1 to all[ ! p ( o!r /ates a passage ov] its l&s & wat]s1 s f> z x c be p]mitt$ )\t inconv5i5ce1 & ) safety to its own citiz5s4 ,( ?is ! nation is to be its own judge4 ,! "r ( passage is only an imp]fect "r1 because ! obligation to grant ! "r is an imp]fect obligation4 7,*ap4 ,,lxiii1 ,sec4#ae47 ,sec4#d4 ,9 g5]al1 x is ! duty ( a nation to all[ =eign]s to ent] & settle 9 ! c\ntry4 ,on be+ admitt$ into a /ate1 ! /ate becomes pl$g$ = _! protection1 & !y become subject to its laws2 & 9 consid]ation ( ! protection !y receive1 !y are oblig$ to aid 9 def5d+ x1 & 9 support+ its gov]nm5t1 ev5 be=e !y are admitt$ to all ! rights ( citiz5s4 ,sec4#e4 ,b no /ate is b\nd to %elt] crim9als flee+ into x f a =eign /ate4 ,!y c be tri$ only 9 ! /ate ^: laws !y h violat$4 ,x is !re=e ! duty ( ! gov]nm5t to surr5d] a fugitive on dem& ( ! prop] au?orities ( ! /ate f :i* he fl$1 if1 aft] due exam9ation by a civil magi/rate1 !re %all appe> suffici5t gr\nds = ! *>ge4 ,! surr5d] ( crim9als is sometimes provid$ = 9 treaties4 ,sec4#f4 ,! rule :i* makes =eign]s am5able to ! laws ( ! /ate 9 :i* !y remove1 does n apply to embassadors4 ,!y are n responsible to ! laws ( ! c\ntry to :i* !y are s5t1 ev5 :5 guilty ( crime4 ,:5 _! conduct is dang]\s to ! gov]nm5t & its citiz5s1 all t c be done is1 ei!r to deprive !m ( lib]ty by conf9em5t1 or to s5d !m home & dem& _! puni%m5t4 ,z e nation has a "r to treat & communicate ) all o!rs1 x ought n to be depriv$ ( ! s]vices ( its repres5tative4 ,h5ce1 ! p]sons & prop]ty ( all public m9i/]s are held sacr$ & inviolable4 ,sec4#g4 ,embassadors are entitl$ to ! same protection 9 ! c\ntries ?r\gh :i* !y pass 9 go+ to1 & return+ f ! gov]nm5t to :i* !y are s5t4 ,& to insure !m a safe passage1 "s gov]nm5ts h giv5 !m passports to be %[n if requir$4 ,a passport is a writt5 lic5se f ! au?ority ( a /ate grant+ p]mission or safe conduct = "o to pass ?r\gh its t]ritory4 ,passports1 ?\gh nam$ 9 our law1 are n kn[n 9 practice1 be+ deem$ unnecess>y4 ,sec4#h4 ,if a m9i/] at a =eign c\rt treats ! sov]eign ) disrespect1 ! fact is sometimes communicat$ to ! gov]nm5t t s5t him1 ) a reque/ = 8 recall4 ,or1 if ! (f5se is a m s]i\s "o1 ! (f5d$ sov]eign refuses int]c\rse ) him :ile 8 ma/]'s answ] is await$4 ,or1 if ! case is an aggravat$ "o1 he expels him f ! c\ntry4 ,sec4#i4 ,m9i/]s at =eign gov]nm5ts1 9 _! negotiations or bus9ess correspond5ce ) ^? gov]nm5ts1 sometimes consid] !mselves ill treat$1 & _! own nation di%onor$1 & take _! leave & return home2 or ! m9i/] in=ms 8 sov]eign1 :o ei!r recalls him1 or takes su* o!r measure z he ?9ks ! honor & int]e/ ( 8 nation dem&4 ,sec4#aj4 ,! peculi> condition ( a c\ntry1 ! nature ( ! bus9ess ^u :i* an embassador is s5t1 or ! p]sonal "* ( ! embassador1 may be su* z to ju/ify a gov]nm5t 9 refus+ to receive him4 ,b to pres]ve ! fri5dly relations ( ! two c\ntries1 satisfactory explanations ought to be made1 or good reasons (f]$ = ! refusal4 ,sec4#aa4 ,a m9i/] c n b9d 8 sov]eign to any treaty or agreem5t1 conclusively1 "u ! au?ority ( an ord9>y cr$5tial1 or lett] ( attorney4 ,he c n d s )\t a special p[]1 conta9+ express au?ority s to b9d 8 pr9cipal4 ,m9i/]s act "u secret in/ructions :i* !y are n b\nd to disclose4 ,ev5 ! treaties sign$ by pl5ipot5ti>ies1 7a ^w signify+ full p[]17 are1 accord+ to pres5t usage1 ( no =ce1 until ratifi$ by _! gov]nm5ts4 ,sec4#ab4 ,consuls are n entitl$ to ! privilege enjoy$ by m9i/]s1 b are subject to ! laws ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* !y reside4 ,_! pr9cipal duties h be5 describ$4 7,*ap4 ,,xl1 ,sec4#i47 ,! (fice ( consul has be5 f\nd to be "o ( great utility2 h5ce1 e trad+ nation has a consul 9 e consid]able comm]cial port 9 ! _w4 ,z 9 ! case ( m9i/]s1 consuls c>ry a c]tificate ( _! appo9tm5t1 & mu/ be ackn[l$g$ z consuls by ! gov]nm5t ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* !y reside1 be=e !y c p]=m any duties p]ta9+ to _! (fice4 ,*apt] ,,lxv4 ,(f5sive & ,def5sive ,w>2 j ,causes & ,objects ( ,w>2 ,reprisals2 ,alliances 9 ,w>4 ,sec4#a4 ,w>s are (f5sive & def5sive4 ,! use ( =ce to obta9 ju/ice = injuries done1 is (f5sive w>4 ,! mak+ use ( =ce aga9/ any p[] t attacks a nation or its privileges1 is def5sive w>4 ,a w> may be def5sive 9 its pr9ciples1 ?\gh (f5sive 9 its op]ation4 ,= example3 "o nation is prep>+ to invade ano!r2 b be=e ! ?reat5$ invasion takes place1 ! latt] attacks ! =m] z ! be/ mode ( repell+ ! invasion4 ,9 ?is case1 ! p>ty mak+ ! attack acts on ! def5sive4 7,sec4#aj47 ,! cont5d+ p>ties are call$ bellig]5ts4 ,! ^w bellig]5t is f ! ,lat9 bellum1 w>1 & g]o1 to wage or c>ry on4 ,nations t take no "p 9 ! conte/1 are call$ neutrals4 ,sec4#b4 ,w> ought nev] to be und]tak5 )\t ! mo/ cog5t reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re mu/ be a "r to make w>1 & j gr\nds = mak+ x4 ,nations h no "r to employ =ce any fur!r ?an is necess>y = _! own def5se1 & = ! ma9t5ance ( _! rights4 ,secondly1 x %\ld be made f prop] motives1 ! good ( ! /ate1 & ! safety & common advantage ( ! citiz5s4 ,h5ce1 !re may be1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 j cause ( w>1 :5 x w\ld be inexp$i5t to involve ! nation 9 su* a calamity4 ,sec4#c4 ,! num]\s objects ( a lawful w> may be r$uc$ to ^! ?ree3 7#a47 ,to recov] :at belongs to u1 or to obta9 satisfaction = injuries4 7#b47 ,to provide = our future safety by puni%+ ! (f5d]4 7#c47 ,to def5d or protect ourselves f injury by repell+ unju/ attacks4 ,! fir/ & second are objects ( an (f5sive w>2 ! ?ird is t ( a def5sive w>4 ,sec4#d4 ,injury to an individual citiz5 ( a /ate1 by ! subjects ( ano!r /ate1 is deem$ a j cause ( w>1 if ! p]sons (f5d+1 or ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate to :i* !y belong1 d n make rep>ation = ! injury2 = e nation is responsible = ! good behavior ( its subjects4 ,b1 al?\gh ?is w\ld1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 af=d ju/ifiable cause ( w>1 nei!r ! honor nor ! true int]e/ ( a nation requires t w> %\ld always be made = s slight a cause4 ,sec4#e4 ,g5]ally1 ! injury s\ght to be r$ress$ %\ld be s]i\s1 & satisfaction be dem&$ & refus$1 be=e rec\rse %\ld be _h to arms4 ,:]e !re is a "q ( "r betwe5 ! p>ties1 ! gov]nm5t mak+ w> %\ld h no reasonable d\bt ( ! ju/ice ( its claim4 ,& ev5 :5 no su* d\bt exi/s1 x w\ld be ! duty ( su* gov]nm5t to prev5t a w>1 if possible1 by proposals ( compromise4 ,x is believ$ t w> ought 9 no case to be made1 until attempts h be5 made to effect an adju/m5t ( difficulties by compromise1 or by (f]s to submit !m = arbitration4 ,sec4#f4 ,"o ( ! means by :i* satisfaction is s\ght )\t mak+ w>1 is t ( reprisals4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvi1 ,sec4#d1 #e47 ,if a nation has tak5 :at belongs to ano!r1 or refuses to pay a debt1 or to make satisfaction = an injury1 ! (f5d$ nation seizes some?+ belong+ to ! =m] or to h] citiz5s1 & reta9s x1 or applies x to h] own advantage1 till %e obta9s satisfaction3 & :5 !re %all be no long] any hope ( satisfaction1 ! effects ?us seiz$ are confiscat$4 ,to confiscate is to adjudge prop]ty to be =feit$1 & to appropriate x to ! use & b5efit ( ! /ate4 ,b z ! loss 9 ?is case w\ld fall ^u un(f5d+ citiz5s1 x is ! duty ( _! gov]nm5t to grant !m indemnity4 ,sec4#g4 ,b to ju/ify reprisals by ! law ( nations1 ! gr\nds ^u :i* !y are au?oriz$ mu/ be j & well asc]ta9$4 ,if ! "r ( ! p>ty dem&+ satisfaction is d\btful1 he mu/ fir/ dem& an equitable exam9ation ( 8 claim1 & next be able to %[ t ju/ice has be5 refus$1 be=e he c ju/ly take ! matt] into 8 own h&s4 ,he has no "r to di/urb ! peace & safety ( nations on a d\btful pret5sion4 ,b if ! o!r p>ty refuses to h ! matt] br\ght to ! pro(1 or to acc$e to any proposition to t]m9ate ! dispute 9 a peaceable mann]1 reprisals become lawful4 ,sec4#h4 ,by treaties ( alliance1 nations sometimes agree to assi/ ea* o!r 9 case ( w> ) a ?ird p[]4 ,x is a "q n cle>ly settl$1 :e!r ! gov]nm5t t is to af=d ! aid is b\nd to d s :5 x deems ! w> to be unju/4 ,! reasonable conclusion seems to be1 t1 9 cases simply d\btful1 ! ju/ice ( ! w> is to be presum$2 & ! gov]nm5t pl$g+ its aid is b\nd to fulfill its engagem5t4 ,! contr>y doctr9e w\ld furni% a nation ) too ready a pretext = violat+ its pl$ge4 ,9 cases only ( ! cle>e/ inju/ice on ! "p ( its ally1 c a nation rightfully avoid a positive engagem5t to af=d assi/ance4 ,sec4#i4 ,b :5 ! object ( ! w> is hopeless1 or :5 ! /ate "u su* engagem5t w\ld1 by furni%+ ! assi/ance1 endang] its own safety1 x is n b\nd to r5d] ! aid4 ,b ! dang] mu/ n be slight1 remote1 or unc]ta94 ,none b extreme cases w\ld af=d suffici5t cause = )hold+ ! promis$ assi/ance4 ,sec4#aj4 ,:5 ! alliance is def5sive1 ! treaty b9ds ea* p>ty to assi/ ! o!r only :5 engag$ 9 a def5sive w>1 & unju/ly attack$4 ,by ! conv5tional law ( nations1 ! gov]nm5t t fir/ decl>es1 or actually beg9s ! w>1 is consid]$ z mak+ (f5sive w>2 & ?\gh x %\ld n be ! fir/ actually to apply =ce1 yet if x fir/ r5d]s ! application ( =ce necess>y1 x is ! aggressor2 & ! o!r p>ty1 ?\gh ! fir/ to apply =ce1 is engag$ 9 a def5sive w>4 7,sec4#a47 ,*apt] ,,lxvi4 ,decl>ation ( ,w>2 its ,effect ^u ! ,p]son & ,prop]ty ( ! ,enemy's subjects2 ,/ratagems 9 ,w>2 ,private]+4 ,sec4#a4 ,:5 a nation has resolv$ on mak+ w>1 x is usual to ann\nce ! fact by a public decl>ation4 ,9 mon>*ical gov]nm5ts1 ! p[] to decl>e w>1 :i* ( c\rse includes ! "r ( det]m9+ ! "q :e!r x %all be made1 is ve/$ 9 ! k+4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?is p[] is1 by ! con/itution1 giv5 to ! repres5tatives ( ! p1 = reasons else:]e /at$4 7,*ap4 ,,xxxvi1 ,sec4#c47 ,sec4#b4 ,x 0 usual1 =m]ly1 to communicate a decl>ation ( w> to ! enemy4 ,accord+ to mod]n practice1 a =mal decl>ation to ! enemy is n requir$4 ,any manife/o or pap] f an (ficial s\rce1 ann\nc+ t ! c\ntry is 9 a /ate ( w>1 is consid]$ suffici5t4 ,! recall+ ( a m9i/] has alone be5 reg>d$ z a ho/ile act1 & foll[$ by w>1 )\t any o!r decl>ation4 ,b su* cases h n be5 frequ5t4 ,"u ord9>y circum/ances1 ! recall ( a m9i/] is n an (f5sive act4 ,sec4#c4 ,! gov]nm5t ( a /ate acts = & 9 behalf ( all its citiz5s2 & its acts are b9d+ ^u all4 ,h5ce1 :5 w> is decl>$1 x is n m]ely a w> betwe5 ! two gov]nm5ts2 all ! subjects ( ! gov]nm5t decl>+ x become enemies to all ! subjects ( t aga9/ :i* x is decl>$4 ,sec4#d4 ,:e!r1 on ! occurr5ce ( a w> 9 any /ate1 ! subjects ( ! enemy f\nd )9 ! /ate may be deta9$ z prison]s ( w>1 & _! movable prop]ty confiscat$2 or :e!r !y are entitl$ to a reasonable "t to retire ) _! effects1 is a "q ^u :i* writ]s ( public law are n agre$4 ,few civiliz$ nations1 at ! pres5t day1 w\ld d5y su* p]sons a reasonable "t to retire ) _! prop]ty4 ,( h\ses & l&s1 all admit t only ! income is subject to confiscation4 ,! privilege spok5 (1 in/ead ( be+ left to unc]ta9ty1 is n[1 ) great propriety1 g5]ally secur$ by treaty4 ,sec4#e4 ,:5 w> is decl>$1 all int]c\rse betwe5 ! two c\ntries at once ceases4 ,all trade betwe5 ! citiz5s1 directly or indirectly1 is /rictly =bidd52 & all contracts ) ! enemy made dur+ ! w> are void4 ,sec4#f4 ,al?\gh a /ate ( w> makes all ! subjects ( "o nation enemies ( all ^? ( ! o!r1 !y _c lawfully engage 9 (f5sive ho/ilities )\t p]mission ( _! gov]nm5t4 ,if !y h no writt5 commission z evid5ce ( su* p]mission1 & if !y %\ld be tak5 by ! enemy1 !y w\ld n be entitl$ to ! usual mild treatm5t :i* o!r prison]s ( w> receive1 b might be treat$ )\t m]cy z lawless robb]s & b&itti4 ,sec4#g4 ,z ! object ( a j w> is to obta9 ju/ice1 a nation1 :5 x has decl>$ w>1 has a "r to use all necess>y means1 & no o!r1 = atta9+ t end4 ,a j w> gives ! "r to take ! life ( ! enemy2 b !re are limits to ?is "r4 ,if an enemy submits1 & lays d[n 8 arms1 we c n ju/ly take 8 life4 ,& ju/ice & humanity =bid t wom51 *ildr51 feeble old m51 & sick p]sons1 :o make no resi/ance1 %\ld be maltreat$4 ,sec4#h4 ,prison]s ( w> are n to be treat$ ) cruelty4 ,!y may be conf9$1 & ev5 fett]$1 if !re is reason to appreh5d t !y w rise aga9/ _! captors1 or make _! escape4 ,prison]s ( w> are deta9$ to prev5t _! return+ to jo9 ! enemy1 or to obta9 f _! gov]nm5t a j satisfaction z ! price ( _! lib]ty4 ,prison]s may be kept till ! end ( ! w>4 ,!n1 or at any "t dur+ ! w>1 ! gov]nm5t may ex*ange !m = its own soldi]s tak5 prison] by ! enemy2 or a ransom may be requir$ = _! release4 ,x is ! duty ( ! gov]nm5t to procure1 at its own exp5se1 ! release ( its citiz5s4 ,sec4#i4 ,ravag+ a c\ntry1 burn+ private dwell+s1 or o!rwise wantonly de/roy+ prop]ty1 is n ju/ifiable1 except 9 cases ( absolute necessity4 ,b all =tresses1 ramp>ts1 & ! l1 be+ appropriat$ to ! purposes ( w>1 may be de/roy$4 ,sec4#aj4 ,/ratagems & deceit to obta9 advantage ( an enemy1 are1 to "s ext5t1 ju/ifi$ by ! law ( nations2 b 9 g5]al !y are di%onorable & wrong4 ,sec4#aa4 ,spies are sometimes s5t among an enemy1 to discov] ! /ate ( 8 affairs1 to pry into 8 designs1 & c>ry back in=mation4 ,?is is a di%onorable (fice2 spies1 if detect$1 are condemn$ to dea?4 ,sec4#ab4 ,! rights ( a nation 9 w> at sea are ess5tially diff]5t f ^? 9 w> ^u l&4 ,! object ( a m>itime w> is to de/roy ! comm]ce & navigation ( ! enemy1 ) a view ( weak5+ 8 naval p[]4 ,to ?is end1 ! capture or de/ruction ( private prop]ty is necess>y1 & is ju/ifi$ by ! law ( nations4 ,h5ce1 = ! purpose ( attack z well z def5se1 e nation ( consid]able p[] or comm]cial importance1 keeps a navy1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( w> vessels1 ready = s]vice4 ,sec4#ac4 ,besides ^! national %ips ( w>1 !re are arm$ vessels own$ by private citiz5s1 & call$ private]s4 ,_! own]s receive f ! gov]nm5t a commission to g on ! seas1 & to capture any vessel ( ! enemy1 :e!r x is own$ by ! gov]nm5t or by private citiz5s1 or :e!r x is arm$ or n4 ,& to enc\rage private]+1 ! gov]nm5t all[s ! own] & crew ( a private] to keep ! prop]ty captur$ z _! own4 ,sec4#ad4 ,to prev5t ! abuse ( ?is "r1 ! own]s are requir$ to give security1 t ! cruise %all be conduct$ accord+ to in/ructions & ! usages ( w>2 t ! rights ( neutral nations %all n be violat$2 & t ! captur$ prop]ty %all be br\ght 9 = adjudication4 ,sec4#ae4 ,:5 a prize is br\ght into a port1 ! captors make a writ+1 call$ libel1 /at+ ! facts ( ! capture1 & pray+ t ! prop]ty may be condemn$2 & ?is pap] is fil$ 9 ! prop] c\rt4 ,if x %all be made to appe> t ! prop]ty 0 tak5 f ! enemy1 ! c\rt condemns ! prop]ty z prize1 :i* is !n sold1 & ! proce$s are di/ribut$ among ! captors4 ,sec4#af4 ,all prizes1 :e!r tak5 by a public or private arm$ vessel1 prim>ily belong to ! sov]eign2 & no p]son has any int]e/ 9 a prize1 except :at he receives f ! /ate3 & due pro( mu/ 9 all cases be made be=e ! prop] c\rt1 t ! seizure 0 lawfully made4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 prizes are prov$ & condemn$ 9 a di/rict c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i*1 :5 sitt+ t purpose1 is call$ a prize c\rt4 ,*apt] ,,lxvii4 ,rights & ,duties ( ,neutral ,nations2 ,contrab& ,goods2 ,blockade2 ,"r ( ,se>*2 ,safe ,conducts & ,passports2 ,truces2 ,treaties ( ,peace4 ,sec4#a4 ,a neutral nation is b\nd to obs]ve a /rict imp>tiality t[>d ! p>ties at w>4 ,if %e %\ld aid "o p>ty to ! injury ( ! o!r1 %e w\ld be liable to be h]self treat$ z an enemy4 ,a loan ( money to "o ( ! bellig]5ts1 or supply+ him ) o!r means ( c>ry+ on a w>1 if done ) ! view ( aid+ him 9 ! w>1 w\ld be a violation ( neutrality4 ,b an engagem5t made 9 "t ( peace to furni% a nation a c]ta9 numb] ( %ips1 or troops1 or o!r articles ( w>1 may aft]w>d1 9 "t ( w>1 be fulfill$4 ,sec4#b4 ,a nation is n b\nd1 h[ev]1 on ! occurr5ce ( a w>1 to *ange its cu/om>y trade1 & to cease supply+ a bellig]5t ) articles ( trade :i* su* bellig]5t 0 wont to receive f h]1 al?\gh ! goods may af=d him ! means ( c>ry+ on ! w>4 ,s if a nation has be5 accu/om$ to l5d money to ano!r = int]e/1 & ! latt] %\ld become engag$ 9 w> ) a ?ird p[]1 ! neutral w\ld n break h] neutrality if %e %\ld cont9ue to l5d h] money4 ,! wrong 9 any case lies 9 ! int5tion to aid "o to ! detrim5t ( ! o!r4 ,sec4#c4 ,?is rule1 x is believ$1 is univ]sally admitt$ 9 cases ( bellig]5ts go+ !mselves to a neutral c\ntry to make _! pur*ases4 ,b :e!r a neutral nation is at full lib]ty to c>ry ! goods 9 ! cases m5tion$1 is n s c]ta94 ,a nation 9 a j w> has a "r to deprive h] enemy ( ! means ( resi/+ or injur+ h]1 & !re=e may lawfully int]cept e ?+ ( a w>like nature :i* a neutral is c>ry+ to su* enemy4 ,sec4#d4 ,articles :i* a neutral nation is n all[$ to c>ry to an enemy1 are call$ contrab& goods4 ,:at ^! are1 x is impossible to say ) precision1 z "s articles may 9 c]ta9 cases be lawfully c>ri$1 :i* w\ld be ju/ly prohibit$ "u o!r circum/ances4 ,among ! articles usually contrab&1 are arms1 ammunition1 mat]ials = %ip-build+1 naval /ores1 horses1 & sometimes ev5 provisions4 ,sec4#e4 ,contrab& goods1 :5 asc]ta9$ to be su*1 are confiscat$ to ! captors z lawful prize4 ,=m]ly ! vessel also 0 liable to be condemn$ & confiscat$2 b ! mod]n practice1 x is said1 exempts ! %ip1 unless x belongs to ! own] ( ! contrab& articles1 or ! c>ry+ ( !m is connect$ ) aggravat+ circum/ances4 ,sec4#f4 ,"o ( ! rights ( a bellig]5t nation :i* a neutral is b\nd to reg>d1 is ! "r ( blockade4 ,blockade is a block+ up4 ,a w> blockade is ! /ation+ ( %ips ( w> at ! entrance ( an enemy's ports1 to prev5t all vessels f com+ out or go+ 94 ,! object ( a blockade is to h9d] supplies ( arms1 ammunition1 & provisions f ent]+1 ) a view to compel a surr5d] by hung] & want1 )\t an attack4 ,a neutral vessel attempt+ to ent] or dep>t1 becomes liable to be seiz$ & condemn$4 ,t[ns & =tresses also may be %ut up by po/+ troops at ! av5ues4 ,sec4#g4 ,a simple decree or ord] decl>+ a c]ta9 coa/ or c\ntry 9 a /ate ( blockade1 does n con/itute a blockade4 ,a =ce mu/ be /ation$ !re1 compet5t to ma9ta9 ! blockade1 & to make x dang]\s to ent]4 ,& x is necess>y t ! neutral %\ld h due notice ( ! blockade1 9 ord] to subject 8 prop]ty to condemnation & =feiture4 ,accord+ to mod]n usage1 if a place is blockad$ by sea only1 trade ) x by a neutral nation may be c>ri$ on by inl& communication4 ,& a neutral vessel1 load$ be=e ! blockade 0 e/abli%$1 has a "r to leave ! port ) h] c>go4 ,sec4#h4 ,to prev5t ! conveyance ( contrab& goods1 ! law ( nations gives a bellig]5t nation ! "r ( se>*2 t is1 ! "r1 9 "t ( w>1 to se>* neutral vessels1 to asc]ta9 _! "*1 & :at articles are on bo>d4 ,a neutral vessel refus+ to be se>*$ by a lawful cruis]1 w\ld !reby r5d] h]self liable to condemnation z a prize4 ,private m]*ant vessels only are subject to se>*2 ! "r does n ext5d to public %ips ( w>4 ,sec4#i4 ,! prop]ty ( an enemy f\nd on bo>d ( a neutral vessel1 may be seiz$1 if ! vessel is beyond ! limits ( ! jurisdiction ( ! nation to :i* %e belongs2 b ! vessel is n confiscat$2 & ! ma/] is entitl$ to freight = ! c>riage ( ! goods4 ,! prop]ty ( neutrals f\nd 9 an enemy's vessels1 is to be re/or$ to ! own]s4 ,sec4#aj4 ,a neutral is =bidd5 by ! law & practice ( nations1 to p]mit a bellig]5t to arm & equip vessels ( w> )9 h] =ts4 ,nor may ! citiz5s ( a nation fit out any vessel1 or enli/1 to g beyond ! limits ( _! own c\ntry to assi/ any p 9 w> aga9/ ano!r ) :om !y are at peace4 ,sec4#aa4 ,x is sometimes agre$ to susp5d ho/ilities = a "t4 ,if ! agreem5t is only = a %ort p]iod1 = ! purpose ( bury+ ! dead aft] battle1 or = a p>ley betwe5 ! ho/ile g5]als2 or if x reg>ds only "s p>ticul> place1 x is call$ a cessation or susp5sion ( arms2 if = a consid]able "t1 & especially if g5]al1 x is call$ a truce4 ,by a p>tial truce1 ho/ilities are susp5d$ 9 c]ta9 places1 z betwe5 a t[n & ! g5]al besieg+ x2 & g5]als h p[] to make su* truces4 ,by a g5]al truce1 ho/ilities are to cease g5]ally1 & 9 all places1 & are made by ! gov]nm5ts or sov]eigns4 ,su* truces af=d opportunities = nations to settle _! disputes by negotiation4 ,sec4#ab4 ,a truce b9ds ! contract+ p>ties f ! "t x is made2 b individuals ( ! nation are n responsible = its violation be=e !y h _h due notice ( x4 ,& = all prizes tak5 aft] ! "t ( its comm5cem5t1 ! gov]nm5t is b\nd to make re/itution4 ,dur+ ! cessation ( ho/ilities1 ea* p>ty may1 )9 8 own t]ritories1 cont9ue 8 prep>ations = w>1 )\t be+ *>g$ ) a brea* ( good fai?4 ,sec4#ac4 ,w> is g5]ally t]m9at$1 & peace secur$1 by treaties ( peace4 ,! mann] ( mak+ treaties has be5 describ$4 7,*ap4 ,,xl1 ,sec4#e47 ,a treaty ( peace puts an end to ! w>1 & leaves ! contract+ p>ties no "r to take up arms = ! same cause4 ,sec4#ad4 ,! p>ties to a treaty ( peace are b\nd by x f ! "t ( its conclusion1 :i* is ! day on :i* x is sign$2 b1 z 9 ! case ( a truce1 p]sons are n held responsible = any ho/ile acts committ$ be=e ! treaty 0 kn[n2 & _! gov]nm5t is b\nd to ord] & en=ce ! re/itution ( prop]ty captur$ subsequ5tly to ! conclusion ( ! treaty4 ,sec4#ae4 ,w> is sometimes t]m9at$ by m$iation4 ,a fri5d to bo? p>ties1 desir\s ( /opp+ ! de/ruction ( human life1 k9dly endeavors to reconcile ! p>ties4 ,! fri5dly sov]eign :o ?us int]poses1 is call$ m$iator4 ,_m desolat+ w>s might h be5 e>ly arre/$ 9 ?is way1 or :olly prev5t$1 _h !re always be5 among fri5dly p[]s a disposition to reconcile cont5d+ nations4 ,synopsis ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions4 ,ma9e4 ,! ,di/rict ( ,ma9e1 =m]ly belong+ to ! /ate ( ,massa*usetts1 adopt$ 9 conv5tion1 ,octob] #bi1 #ahai1 ! pres5t con/itution1 & 0 admitt$ into ! ,union z a /ate1 ,m>* #ae1 #ahbj4 ,! con/itution has receiv$ sev]al alt]ations4 ,electors4 ,all male citiz5s1 hav+ _h a resid5ce 9 ! /ate ?ree mon?s1 except paup]s1 p]sons "u gu>dian%ip1 & ,indians n tax$4 ,legislature4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives consi/s ( "o hundr$ & fifty-"o memb]s1 apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to population2 & ! numb] apportion$ to ea* c\nty are apportion$ among ! t[ns accord+ to ! population4 ,a repres5tative mu/ h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates five ye>s1 resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 & 9 ! t[n or di/rict he is *os5 to repres5t1 ?ree mon?s4 ,s5ate1 n less ?an tw5ty1 nor m ?an ?irty-"o memb]s1 elect$ 9 di/ricts by majority4 ,if a s5ator is n elect$ by ! electors1 ! h\se & ! s5ators elect$ *oose "o f ! two c&idates hav+ ! highe/ numb]s ( votes4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s1 o!rwise qualifi$ z repres5tatives4 ,a majority con/itutes a quorum4 ,bills veto$ by ! gov]nor become laws :5 re-pass$ by two-?irds majorities4 ,also bills become laws if n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 five days1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t1 9 :i* case !y w become laws unless return$ )9 ?ree days aft] ! next meet+4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ annually1 by majority4 ,if no p]son has a majority1 ! h\se1 f ^? vot$ = 7n exce$+ f\r7 hav+ ! highe/ numb]s ( votes1 elects two1 ( :om ! s5ate elects a gov]nor4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s1 a native citiz51 resid5t ( ! /ate five ye>s4 ,an executive c\ncil ( sev51 *os5 annually by ! legislature on jo9t ballot4 ,p[] ( appo9tm5t is ex]cis$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,secret>y ( /ate1 treasur]1 & attorney-g5]al1 are *os5 annually by jo9t ballot ( bo? h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme judicial c\rt1 & su* o!r c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%4 ,judges ( ! judicial c\rt are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil = sev5 ye>s2 judges & regi/]s ( probate are elect$ 9 ! c\nties = f\r ye>s4 ,(fic]s may be remov$ by impea*m5t1 & by ! gov]nor & c\ncil on address ( bo? h\ses ( ! legislature4 ,am5dm5ts to ! con/itution may be propos$ by two-?irds ( bo? bran*es1 & ratifi$ by ! electors at ! next annual election4 ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 adopt$ 9 #aghd2 ! pres5t "o 9 #agib1 & has be5 am5d$4 ,electors4 ,all male citiz5s1 except paup]s & p]sons excus$ f pay+ taxes at _! own reque/1 resid5t 9 ! /ate six mon?s1 & 9 ! t[n ?ree mon?s4 ,legislature--call$ g5]al c\rt4 ,s5ate1 twelve memb]s1 elect$ annually 9 s+le di/ricts2 ?irty ye>s ( age2 inhabitants ( ! /ate sev5 ye>s1 & inhabitants ( _! respective di/ricts4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! t[ns accord+ to ratable male polls1 7male tax-pay]s27 /ate resid5ce1 two ye>s4 ,s5ators & repres5tatives mu/ be ( ! ,prote/ant religion4 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,bills pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities--also become laws if n return$ )9 five days1 unless ! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ annually by majority4 ,if no p]son has a majority1 ! two h\ses elect "o ( ! two highe/4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 inhabitant ( ! /ate1 sev5 ye>s1 & a ,prote/ant4 ,c\ncil ( five1 "o 9 ea* di/rict1 elect$ annually by majority4 ,p[] ( appo9tm5t & ( p>don ex]cis$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,secret>y ( /ate1 treasur]1 & commiss>y-g5]al appo9t$ by jo9t ballot ( bo? h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,judicial (fic]s are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil2 ju/ices ( ! peace = five ye>s1 judges ( ! high] c\rts dur+ good behavior4 ,judges disqualifi$ at sev5ty ye>s ( age4 ,attorney-g5]al1 solicitors1 %]iffs1 coron]s1 regi/]s ( probate1 & naval & ! high] militia (fic]s1 are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil4 ,c\nty treasur]s & regi/]s ( de$s are elect$ 9 ! c\nties4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,! s5se ( ! p is tak5 e sev5 ye>s2 & if a majority favor a revision1 ! legislature calls a conv5tion2 & any alt]ations propos$ by ! conv5tion mu/ be approv$ by two-?irds ( ! qualifi$ electors :o vote !reon4 ,v]mont4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! ,union 9 #agia1 ) a con/itution =m$ 9 #aggg2 ! pres5t "o 0 adopt$ 9 #agic1 & has be5 sev]al times am5d$4 ,electors4 ,citiz5s hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 ( quiet & peaceable behavior1 are entitl$ to all ! privileges ( freem51 by tak+ an oa? t1 9 giv+ _! votes1 !y w s d x z !y believe w conduce to ! be/ good ( ! /ate4 ,legislature4 ,s5ate1 ?irty memb]s1 elect$ annually2 apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to population1 ea* c\nty to h at lea/ "o s5ator2 age1 ?irty ye>s2 freem5 ( ! c\nty4 ,repres5tatives are elect$ 9 t[ns1 ea* t[n be+ entitl$ to at lea/ "o repres5tative2 resid5t ( ! /ate two ye>s1 ( ! t[n "o ye>4 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,= rais+ a tax1 two-?irds ( ! memb]s elect$ mu/ be pres5t4 ,bills veto$ by ! gov]nor may be aga9 pass$ by simple majorities4 ,bills n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 five days become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ annually by majority4 ,if no p]son has a majority1 ! legislature *ooses "o ( ! ?ree highe/4 ,resid5t ( ! /ate f\r ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 *os5 by ! two h\ses2 a treasur]1 elect$ z gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt & c\nty c\rts2 ! judges *os5 annually by ! s5ate & h\se2 ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ 9 ! t[ns2 judges ( probate 9 di/ricts2 assi/ant judges ( c\nty c\rts1 %]iffs1 high bailiffs1 & /ate's attorneys1 9 _! respective c\nties4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,a c\ncil ( ?irte5 c5sors1 *os5 e sev5 ye>s1 exam9es into ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts1 & h p[] to call a conv5tion to am5d ! con/itution4 ,massa*usetts4 ,! con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 =m$ 9 #aghj4 ,x has be5 sev]al times am5d$4 ,electors4 ,e male citiz51 except paup]s & p]sons "u gu>dian%ip1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! t[n or di/rict six mon?s2 & hav+ paid a tax )9 two ye>s1 or is legally exempt f taxation4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al c\rt4 ,s5ate1 =ty memb]s1 *os5 9 di/ricts1 & apportion$ accord+ to population2 resid5ts ( ! /ate five ye>s1 & inhabitants ( ! di/ricts !y repres5t4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! t[ns & cities4 ,e t[n or city conta9+ #a1bjj inhabitants1 is entitl$ to "o1 & an additional "o = e #b1djj additional inhabitants4 ,resid5ce "o ye> 9 ! t[ns !y repres5t4 ,bills pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities--or become laws if n return$ )9 five days1 unless ! legislature by adj\rnm5t1 prev5t _! return4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is *os5 annually1 by majority4 ,if no c&idate has a majority1 ! h\se elects two ( ^? vot$ =1 7n exce$+ f\r17 hav+ ! highe/ numb]s ( votes1 ( :i* two ! s5ate elects a gov]nor4 ,he mu/ h resid$ 9 ! /ate sev5 ye>s1 & decl>e himself to be ( ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,a c\ncil ( n9e1 elect$ annually by jo9t ballot ( ! two h\ses1 act ) ! gov]nor 9 p>dons & appo9tm5ts1 & 9 direct+ ! affairs ( /ate g5]ally4 ,c\nselors mu/ h resid$ 9 ! /ate five ye>s4 ,! secret>y1 treasur]1 receiv]-g5]al1 commiss>y-g5]al1 not>ies public1 & naval (fic]s1 are *os5 annually by ! legislature4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme judicial c\rt & a c\rt ( common pleas1 held 9 e c\nty ( ! /ate1 & c\rts held by ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,all judicial (fic]s are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & c\ncil2 ju/ices ( ! high] c\rts dur+ good behavior1 ju/ices ( ! peace = sev5 ye>s4 ,! =m] are removable by ! gov]nor & c\ncil1 or address ( ! legislature4 ,! attorney-g5]al1 ! solicitor-g5]al1 %]iffs1 coron]s1 & regi/]s ( probate1 are appo9t$ z ju/ices4 ,am5dm5ts agre$ to by a majority ( ! s5ators & two-?irds ( ! repres5tatives at two successive sessions1 are submitt$ to ! qualifi$ vot]s ( ! /ate = ratification4 ,rhode ,isl&4 ,a *>t] grant$ 9 #affc1 by ,*>les ,,ii1 to ! ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations1 cont9u$1 ) "s modifications1 ! basis ( gov]nm5t ( ?is /ate1 until #ahdb1 :5 ! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$4 ,electors4 ,e male native citiz51 resid5t 9 ! /ate two ye>s1 9 ! t[n or city six mon?s1 & hav+ )9 a ye> paid a tax ( #a1 or has done milit>y duty4 ,also e naturaliz$ citiz51 resid5t 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! t[n or city six mon?s1 own+ real e/ate wor? #acd above all incumbrances1 or :i* r5ts = #g a ye>4 ,vot]s 9 ?is /ate mu/ be regi/]$ 9 ! t[n cl]k's (fice1 at lea/ sev5 days be=e !y (f] _! votes4 ,legislature /yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives1 n to exce$ sev5ty-two1 are apportion$ among ! t[ns1 no t[n to h m ?an "o-six? ( ! :ole h\se4 ,! s5ate consi/s ( ! lieut5ant-gov]nor & "o s5ator f ea* t[n or city4 ,! gov]nor1 & 9 8 abs5ce1 ! lieut5ant-gov]nor1 presides 9 ! s5ate1 & 9 gr& committee1 7! two h\ses unit$47 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,bills :5 pass$ by bo? h\ses are laws4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor are elect$ annually by majority4 ,if no c&idate has a majority1 ! two h\ses 9 jo9t assembly 7gr& committee7 elect f ! two hav+ ! highe/ numb]s ( votes4 ,a secret>y1 an attorney-g5]al1 & a g5]al treasur]1 are elect$ 9 ! same mann] z ! gov]nor4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature %all e/abli%4 ,judges ( ! supreme c\rt are elect$ by ! two h\ses 9 gr& committee4 ,! judges hold _! (fices until _! places %all be decl>$ vacant by ! g5]al assembly4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by two successive legislatures1 7a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se vot+ 9 _! favor17 & approv$ by ?ree-fif?s ( ! electors ( ! /ate vot+ !reon4 ,connecticut4 ,?is /ate 0 gov]n$ "u a *>t] grant$ by ,*>les ,,ii1 9 #affb1 until #ahah1 :5 ! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$4 ,?is con/itution has receiv$ num]\s am5dm5ts4 ,electors4 ,e :ite male citiz51 :o has resid$ 9 ! /ate a ye>1 & 9 ! t[n six mon?s1 :o su/a9s a good moral "*1 & is able to read any section ( ! con/itution ( ! /ate & ( ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! t[ns accord+ to population4 ,any elector is eligible to ei!r h\se4 ,s5ators1 n less ?an eighte51 nor m ?an tw5ty-f\r1 are *os5 9 di/ricts1 ! numb] ( :i* is n to be less ?an eight1 nor m ?an tw5ty-f\r4 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,bills reject$ by ! gov]nor may be aga9 pass$ by a majority ( ea* h\se4 ,bills become laws also if n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 ?ree days1 unless ! legislature soon] adj\rn4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor are elect$ annually4 ,any qualifi$ elector ?irty ye>s ( age is eligible4 ,election by majority4 ,9 case ( a failure to elect1 ! g5]al assembly *ooses a gov]nor f ! two hav+ ! highe/ numb]s ( votes4 ,a treasur]1 a secret>y1 & a controll] ( public acc\nts1 are elect$ z ! gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a %]iff is elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = ?ree ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 a sup]ior c\rt1 & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature %all e/abli%4 ,! judges are appo9t$ by ! g5]al assembly2 ! judges ( ! supreme & sup]ior c\rts = eight ye>s2 removable by ! gov]nor on address ( two-?irds ( ea* h\se4 ,judges ( probate are *os5 annually by ! electors 9 di/ricts2 ju/ices ( ! peace 9 ! t[ns4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by a majority ( ! h\se ( repres5tatives1 approv$ by two-?irds ( bo? h\ses ( ! next legislature & a majority ( ! electors at an election4 ,new ,york4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 =m$ 9 #aggg2 ! second 9 #ahba1 & adopt$ 9 #ahbb2 ! pres5t 0 =m$ & adopt$ 9 #ahdf4 ,electors4 ,e :ite male citiz51 resid5t 9 ! /ate a ye>1 & 9 ! c\nty f\r mon?s1 & ?irty days 9 ! di/rict :i* ! p]son vot$ = is to repres5t4 ,naturaliz$ p]sons mu/ h be5 admitt$ z citiz5s t5 days be=e vot+4 ,color$ m5 mu/ h resid$ 9 ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 own a freehold ( #bej 9 value ov] incumbrances1 & h paid a tax !reon4 ,legislature4 ,s5ate1 ?irty-two memb]s elect$ 9 s+le di/ricts = two ye>s4 ,assembly1 "o hundr$ & tw5ty-eight memb]s1 apportion$ among ! c\nties4 ,c\nties entitl$ to m ?an "o memb] are divid$ into di/ricts & a memb] is elect$ 9 ea* di/rict4 ,a c5sus is tak51 & a new apportionm5t made e t5 ye>s4 ,a majority is a quorum to d bus9ess4 ,! f9al passage ( bills requires a majority ( all ! memb]s4 ,bills may be pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities4 ,!y become laws if n return$ )9 t5 days1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 a citiz51 ?irty ye>s ( age2 a resid5t ( ! /ate five ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,judici>y4 ,a c\rt ( appeals1 a supreme c\rt1 c\nty c\rts1 & c\rts held by ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,!re are eight judicial di/ricts1 9 ea* ( :i* f\r ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt are elect$ = eight ye>s1 two ( !m e two ye>s4 ,! c\rt ( appeals is compos$ ( eight judges1 f\r ( :om are elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate = eight ye>s1 "o e two ye>s1 & ! o!r f\r are ( ! class ( ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt ^: t]m has mo/ ne>ly expir$4 ,9 ea* c\nty are held circuit c\rts & special t]ms ( ! supreme c\rt1 by "o or m ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt4 ,g5]al t]ms ( ! supreme c\rt are held 9 ! sev]al di/ricts by ?ree or m ( ! ju/ices4 ,a c\nty c\rt is held by a c\nty judge elect$ = f\r ye>s1 :o is also surrogate1 call$ 9 o!r /ates1 judge ( probate4 ,9 c\nties hav+ m ?an #dj1jjj inhabitants1 a sep>ate (fic] may be *os5 z surrogate4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ 9 ! sev]al t[ns = f\r ye>s4 ,judges ( ! c\rt ( appeals & ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt may be remov$ by ! legislature2 c\nty judges by ! s5ate on recomm5dation ( ! gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a controll]1 a treasur]1 an attorney-g5]al1 & a /ate eng9e] & surveyor1 are *os5 = two ye>s2 ?ree canal commission]s & ?ree inspectors ( /ate prisons1 = ?ree ye>s1 "o ( ea* e ye>4 ,%]iffs1 cl]ks ( c\nties1 coron]s1 & di/rict attorneys1 are elect$ = ?ree ye>s 9 ! sev]al c\nties4 ,%]iffs are ineligible = ! next ?ree ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ receive ! sanction ( two successive legislatures1 & ( a majority ( ! electors vot+ !reon at an election4 ,new ,j]sey4 ,new ,j]sey1 z a colony1 adopt$ a con/itution 9 #aggf1 "u :i* ! /ate 0 gov]n$ until ! pres5t con/itution1 fram$ 9 #ahdd1 0 adopt$4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate a ye>1 & 9 ! c\nty five mon?s4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & g5]al assembly4 ,! s5ate consi/s ( "o s5ator f ea* c\nty1 elect$ = ?ree ye>s2 "o-?ird ( ! s5ators elect$ e ye>4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate f\r ye>s1 & 9 ! c\nty "o ye>4 ,memb]s ( ! g5]al assembly1 n to exce$ sixty1 are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to population4 ,resid5ce 9 ! /ate two ye>s1 9 ! c\nty "o ye>4 ,a majority is a quorum4 ,! f9al passage ( bills requires a majority ( ! memb]s elect$4 ,! same majorities may pass bills disapprov$ by ! gov]nor4 ,bills become laws if n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 five days1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = ?ree ye>s1 & is ineligible = ! next ?ree ye>s4 ,he mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 tw5ty ye>s a citiz51 sev5 ye>s a resid5t ( ! /ate4 ,! p>don+ p[] is ex]cis$ by ! gov]nor 9 conjunction ) ! *ancellor & ! judges ( ! c\rt ( errors & appeals4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,! /ate treasur]1 & ! keep] & inspectors ( ! /ate prison are appo9t$ annually by jo9t assembly ( ! two h\ses4 ,! secret>y ( /ate1 attorney-g5]al1 & prosecutors ( ! pleas1 are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate1 = five ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a c\rt ( errors & appeals2 a c\rt ( *anc]y2 a pr]ogative c\rt2 a supreme c\rt2 circuit c\rts2 & inf]ior c\rts4 ,! c\rt ( errors & appeals consi/s ( ! *ancellor1 ! ju/ice ( ! supreme c\rt1 & six judges1 or a majority ( !m4 ,! c\rt ( *anc]y consi/s ( ! *ancellor1 :o is also ! ord9>y1 or surrogate-g5]al1 & judge ( ! pr]ogative c\rt1 to :i* appeals are made f ! orphans' c\rt4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( a *ief ju/ice & f\r associates4 ,! circuit c\rts are held 9 e c\nty by "o or m ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt1 or a judge appo9t$ = t purpose4 ,*ancellor & ju/ices ( ! supreme c\rt hold = sev5 ye>s2 judges ( ! c\rt ( errors & appeals = six ye>s2 & all are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate4 ,! inf]ior c\rt ( common pleas %all n h m ?an five judges1 "o to be appo9t$ e ye> by ! s5ate & assembly4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 f two to five1 are elect$ 9 ea* t[n%ip & city w>d1 = five ye>s4 ,%]iffs & coron]s are elect$ annually 9 _! respective c\nties1 & may be re-elect$ until !y %all h s]v$ ?ree ye>s2 aft] :i* !y are ineligible = ?ree ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by two successive legislatures1 a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se concurr+1 & be ratifi$ by ! electors at an election held = t purpose4 ,am5dm5ts1 7if m ?an "o17 mu/ be submitt$ sep>ately2 & n (t5] ?an once 9 five ye>s4 ,p5nsylvania4 ,a ,con/itution 0 adopt$ 9 #aggf2 ano!r 9 #agij2 ! pres5t "o 9 #ahch4 ,electors4 ,:ite freem51 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! election di/rict t5 days1 & paid a tax )9 two ye>s2 if betwe5 tw5ty-"o & tw5ty-two ye>s1 !y ne$ n h paid ! tax4 ,an elector hav+ remov$ f ! /ate & return$1 may vote aft] six mon?s resid5ce 9 ! /ate1 & t5 days 9 ! di/rict1 & ! paym5t ( taxes4 ,legislature--call$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are *os5 annually1 & apportion$ e sev5 ye>s among ! c\nties accord+ to ! numb] ( taxable inhabitants2 numb] n less ?an sixty1 nor m ?an "o hundr$4 ,age1 tw5ty-"o2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 "o 9 ! di/rict4 ,s5ators are *os5 = ?ree ye>s1 7"o-?ird e ye>17 9 di/ricts1 n m ?an two 9 any di/rict1 unless ! taxable inhabitants 9 any city or c\nty entitle x to elect m2 b no city or c\nty may elect m ?an f\r4 ,! :ole numb] may n be less ?an "o-f\r? nor great] ?an "o-?ird ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives4 ,tw5ty-five ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 f\r ye>s2 di/rict1 "o ye>4 ,quorum1 a majority ( ea* h\se4 ,bills pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities4 ,bills n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 t5 days1 become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = ?ree ye>s1 & may n hold ! (fice m ?an six ye>s 9 n9e ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 a citiz5 & inhabitant ( ! /ate1 sev5 ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y is appo9t$ by ! gov]nor dur+ pleasure4 ,a treasur] is *os5 annually by jo9t assembly4 ,judici>y4 ,supreme c\rt1 ! judges elect$ = fifte5 ye>s2 c\rts ( oy] & t]m9] & g5]al jail deliv]y 9 ! c\nties1 held by judges ( ! supreme c\rt & c\rt ( common pleas2 a c\rt ( common pleas 9 ea* judicial di/rict1 :i* may n include m ?an five c\nties1 ! presid+ judge to hold 8 (fice = t5 ye>s1 ! associates = five ye>s2 a c\rt ( qu>t] sessions & orphans' c\rt = ea* c\nty1 held by judges ( ! common pleas2 a regi/]'s c\rt = ea* c\nty1 compos$ ( ! regi/] ( wills & judges ( ! common pleas2 & c\rts held 9 ! sev]al t[n%ips1 w>ds1 & bor\ghs1 by ju/ices ( ! peace or ald]m5 elect$ by ! vot]s !re91 = five ye>s4 ,judges ( ! supreme c\rt are elect$ by ! p ( ! /ate at l>ge2 o!rs are *os5 9 ! di/ricts or c\nties ov] :i* !y preside4 ,%]iffs & coron]s are elect$ 9 _! c\nties = ?ree ye>s4 ,%]iffs may n be twice *os5 9 any t]m ( six ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by majorities ( all ! memb]s ( two successive legislatures1 & ratifi$ by a majority ( ! electors vot+ !reon4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be vot$ on sep>ately2 & none may be submitt$ to ! electors (t5] ?an once 9 five ye>s4 ,delaw>e4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 adopt$ 9 #aggf2 ! pres5t1 9 #ahca1 & has be5 am5d$4 ,electors4 ,:ite males tw5ty-two ye>s ( age1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! c\nty "o mon?1 & )9 two ye>s paid a c\nty tax assess$ at lea/ six mon?s be=e ! election4 ,if tw5ty-"o1 & "u tw5ty-two ye>s ( age1 !y may vote )\t hav+ paid any tax4 ,legislature--call$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are *os5 9 c\nties = two ye>s2 mu/ be tw5ty-f\r ye>s ( age2 h be5 citiz5s & inhabitants ( ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 ( ! c\nty "o ye>4 ,s5ators are elect$ 9 ! c\nties = f\r ye>s2 ! numb] n to be great] ?an "o-half1 nor less ?an "o-?ird ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives4 ,a s5ator mu/ be tw5ty-sev5 ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 & an inhabitant ( ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 ( ! c\nty1 "o ye>2 & possess a freehold e/ate 9 ! c\nty ( two hundr$ acres ( l&1 or real & p]sonal prop]ty1 or ei!r1 wor? ,l#a1jjj1 at lea/4 ,a majority ( ea* h\se is a quorum4 ,bills are n submitt$ to ! gov]nor4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is n eligible a second "t4 ,?irty ye>s ( age2 a citiz5 & inhabitant ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates twelve ye>s1 ( ! /ate1 six ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor dur+ 8 cont9uance 9 (fice2 a /ate treasur]1 bi5nially1 by a concurr5t vote ( ! two h\ses4 ,by ?is mode ( election1 ! two h\ses d n meet & vote jo9tly1 b !y vote sep>ately1 z 9 pass+ laws4 ,judici>y4 ,five judges appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 ( :om "o is *ancellor1 & holds ! c\rt ( *anc]y4 ,( ! o!r f\r1 "o is *ief-ju/ice1 & ! o!r ?ree are associate ju/ices1 ( :om "o resides 9 ea* c\nty4 ,! sup]ior c\rt1 & ! c\rt ( g5]al sessions ( ! peace & jail deliv]y1 consi/ ( ! *ief-ju/ice & two associates4 ,! c\rt ( oy] & t]m9] consi/s ( all ! judges except ! *ancellor4 ,! c\rt ( errors & appeals issues writs ( error to ! sup]ior c\rt1 receives appeals f ! c\rt ( *anc]y1 & det]m9es f9ally all matt]s 9 error 9 ! judgm5ts & proce$+s ( ! sup]ior c\rt2 & :5 ?us act+1 x consi/s ( ! *ancellor & two ( ! o!r judges4 ,9 o!r cases1 x is diff]5tly con/itut$4 ,! orphans' c\rt 9 ea* c\nty is held by ! *ancellor & ! associate judge resid+ 9 ! c\nty4 ,! regi/]'s c\rt 9 ea* c\nty is held by ! regi/] ( ! c\nty4 ,judges ( ! c\rts are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor dur+ good behavior2 & !y may be remov$ by him on ! address ( two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ea* bran* ( ! g5]al assembly4 ,9 pursuance ( ! p[] ve/$ 9 ! legislature to e/abli% inf]ior c\rts1 a c\rt ( common pleas is e/abli%$ 9 ea* c\nty4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace 9 ea* c\nty are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor = sev5 ye>s1 & may be remov$ z ! judges4 ,! attorney-g5]al1 regi/]s1 & pro?onot>ies are appo9t$ = five ye>s1 removable 9 l mann]4 ,! %]iff & ! coron] ( ea* c\nty are elect$ by ! citiz5s !re(2 b ! legislature may ve/ _! appo9tm5t 9 ! gov]nor4 ,! %]iff may n be *os5 twice 9 any t]m ( six ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by two-?irds ( ea* h\se1 ) ! approbation ( ! gov]nor1 & ratifi$ by ?ree-f\r?s ( ea* bran* ( ! next g5]al assembly4 ,or1 a conv5tion to am5d may be call$ by ! legislature1 9 pursuance ( ! s5se ( ! p express$ at a previ\s election4 ,m>yl&4 ,! con/itution ( ?is /ate adopt$ 9 #aggf1 cont9u$ until #ahea1 :5 ! pres5t "o 0 adopt$4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ a ye> 9 ! /ate1 & six mon?s 9 ! c\nty4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 five ye>s1 a resid5t ( ! /ate five ye>s1 & = ?ree ye>s a resid5t ( ! di/rict f :i* he is elect$4 ,9 case ( vacancy1 ! g5]al assembly elects a resid5t ( ! same di/rict = ! residue ( ! t]m4 ,if ! vacancy happ5s dur+ ! recess ( ! legislature1 ! presid5t ( ! s5ate s]ves until ! next session4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate is appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate dur+ ! (ficial t]m ( ! gov]nor4 ,a controll] ( ! treasury is elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate = two ye>s2 & a treasur] & a /ate libr>ian are *os5 by ! legislature on jo9t ballot at ea* session4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & a h\se ( delegates1 /yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,s5ators1 "o f ea* c\nty & ! city ( ,baltimore1 are elect$ = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s2 resid5ce1 ?ree ye>s 9 ! /ate1 "o 9 ! c\nty4 ,delegates are eligible at tw5ty-"o2 o!rwise qualifi$ z s5ators2 elect$ = two ye>s1 apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to population2 ! city ( ,baltimore to h f\r m delegates ?an ! mo/ popul\s c\nty1 & no c\nty to h less ?an two delegates2 ! :ole numb] n to be m ?an eighty1 nor less ?an sixty-five4 ,a majority con/itutes a quorum4 ,bills mu/ pass by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$2 & :5 s pass$ & seal$ ) ! great seal1 ! gov]nor is requir$ to sign !m 9 ! pres5ce ( ! presid+ (fic]s & *ief cl]ks ( bo? h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,a c\rt ( appeals1 consi/+ ( f\r judges1 "o ( :om is elect$ 9 ea* judicial di/rict = t5 ye>s4 ,"o is designat$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate z *ief-ju/ice4 ,!y mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age1 & h be5 citiz5s ( ! /ate five ye>s4 ,!y are disqualifi$ at sev5ty4 ,!re are eight judicial circuits1 9 ea* ( :i*1 except ! fif?1 is elect$ a judge1 = t5 ye>s1 :o holds circuit c\rts 9 ! c\nties )9 8 circuit4 ,!re are1 9 ! city ( ,baltimore1 c\rts peculi> to t city4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace & con/ables1 are elect$ = two ye>s 9 ea* w>d ( ! city ( ,baltimore1 & 9 ea* election di/rict 9 ! sev]al c\nties4 ,a %]iff & a /ate's attorney are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty & ! city ( ,baltimore1 ! =m] = two1 & ! latt] = f\r ye>s4 ,%]iffs are ineligible = ! next two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts may be made only by a conv5tion1 call$ by ! legislature 9 pursuance ( a vote ( ! p to be tak5 aft] ea* ,unit$ ,/ates c5sus4 ,virg9ia4 ,a con/itution 0 adopt$ 9 #agaf2 ano!r 9 #ahcj2 ! pres5t 9 #ahea4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate two ye>s1 & 9 ! c\nty1 city or t[n :]e !y (f] to vote1 "o ye>4 ,votes are giv5 op5ly1 or viva voce4 ,dumb p]sons only vote by ballot4 ,legislature4 ,s5ate & h\se ( delegates4 ,delegates1 "o hundr$ & fifty-two 9 numb]1 are elect$ bi5nially1 & apportion$ among ! sev]al c\nties & election di/ricts accord+ to population4 ,! s5ate consi/s ( fifty memb]s1 elect$ 9 s+le di/ricts = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,apportionm5ts are made e t5 ye>s4 ,delegates are eligible at ! age ( tw5ty-"o ye>s2 s5ators at ! age ( tw5ty-five4 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,bills to become laws1 d n require ! gov]nor's approval4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligible = ! next t]m4 ,he mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age1 a native citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & h be5 a citiz5 ( ! /ate five ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a treasur]1 & an auditor ( public acc\nts1 are elect$ = two ye>s 9 jo9t assembly2 an attorney g5]al is elect$ = f\r ye>s by ! p at e election = gov]nor4 ,judici>y4 ,! /ate is divid$ into tw5ty-"o judicial circuits1 t5 di/ricts1 & five sections1 9 ea* ( :i* division1 "o judge is elect$ by ! p2 ! circuit judges = eight ye>s1 ! judges ( ! supreme c\rt ( appeals = twelve ye>s4 ,a circuit judge holds circuit c\rts 9 ! sev]al c\nties compos+ 8 di/rict4 ,! judges ( ! circuits con/itut+ a section1 & ! judge ( ! supreme c\rt ( appeals = t section1 hold di/rict c\rts 9 su* section4 ,! supreme c\rt ( appeals consi/s ( ! five judges elect$ 9 ! sections1 & ?ree ( :om may hold a c\rt4 ,judges may be remov$ by ! legislature4 ,a c\nty c\rt is held mon?ly 9 ea* c\nty1 by n less ?an ?ree1 nor m ?an five ju/ices ( ! peace1 except :5 ! law requires a great] numb]4 ,ea* c\nty is divid$ into di/ricts1 9 ea* ( :i* f\r ju/ices are elect$ = f\r ye>s4 ,! ju/ices s elect$ *oose "o ( _! own body z presid+ ju/ice ( ! c\nty c\rt4 ,9 ea* c\nty are elect$1 a cl]k ( ! c\nty c\rt & a surveyor1 = six ye>s2 an attorney = f\r ye>s2 a %]iff = two ye>s3 & con/ables & ov]se]s ( ! poor z may be prescrib$ by law4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,! con/itution does n provide = its am5dm5t4 ,! la/ two con/itutions 7 fram$ by conv5tions au?oriz$ by acts ( ! legislature1 & ratifi$ by ! electors4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,?is /ate adopt$ a con/itution 9 #aggf1 :i* 0 am5d$ 9 #ahce4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & a h\se ( commons1 call$ ! g5]al assembly4 ,! s5ate consi/s ( fifty memb]s1 *os5 bi5nially1 9 s+le di/ricts1 :i* are laid (f 9 proportion to ! av]age am\nt ( taxes paid by ! citiz5s dur+ ! five ye>s prec$+4 ,s5ators mu/ h resid$ )9 _! respective di/ricts a ye>1 & possess n less ?an ?ree hundr$ acres ( l&4 ,! h\se ( commons is compos$ ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty memb]s1 *os5 bi5nially1 & apportion$ among ! c\nties1 accord+ to population1 ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves be+ add$ to ! numb] ( free p]sons4 ,!y mu/ h resid$ a ye> 9 ! c\nties !y repres5t1 & possess "o hundr$ & tw5ty acres ( l&4 ,bills pass$ by bo? h\ses become laws )\t be+ pres5t$ to ! gov]nor4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor is elect$ e two ye>s1 & is eligible only f\r ye>s 9 any t]m ( six ye>s4 ,he mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 mu/ h be5 a resid5t ( ! /ate five ye>s1 & mu/ h 9 ! /ate a freehold ( ! value ( ,l#a1jjj4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,!re is a c\ncil ( sev5 p]sons to advise ! gov]nor2 a secret>y ( /ate1 & a treasur]1 all *os5 by jo9t vote ( ! two h\ses at ea* session1 = two ye>s2 & an attorney-g5]al = f\r ye>s1 unless = c]ta9 reasons ! t]m %all be alt]$4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 sup]ior c\rts1 c\rts ( admiralty1 & ju/ices' c\rts4 ,! judges are appo9t$ by ! g5]al assembly1 & hold dur+ good behavior4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 )9 _! respective c\nties1 are recomm5d$ to ! gov]nor by ! repres5tatives ( ! g5]al assembly4 ,!y are commission$ by ! gov]nor1 & hold dur+ good behavior4 ,electors4 ,:ite freem51 inhabitants ( ! /ate "o ye>1 :o h paid taxes4 ,vot]s = s5ators are requir$ also to own a freehold ( fifty acres4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,a conv5tion may be call$ by a majority ( two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ea* h\se ( ! g5]al assembly4 ,or1 am5dm5ts may be propos$ by majorities ( ?ree-fif?s ( all ! memb]s ( bo? h\ses2 & !y take effect :5 agre$ to by two-?irds majorities ( ! :ole repres5tation 9 ! next assembly1 & ratifi$ by ! qualifi$ vot]s ( ! /ate4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 =m$ 9 #agge2 ! pres5t 9 #agij4 ,its pr9cipal am5dm5ts 7 made 9 #ahjh4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & a h\se ( repres5tatives1 /yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,! h\se consi/s ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty-f\r memb]s1 elect$ = two ye>s 9 di/ricts1 & apportion$ accord+ to ! numb] ( :ite inhabitants & ! am\nt ( taxes paid !re94 ,resid5ce 9 ! /ate ?ree ye>s3 & if a resid5t ( ! election di/rict1 a freehold ( five hundr$ acres ( l& & t5 negroes1 or a real e/ate wor? ,l#aej /]l+1 cle> ( debt2 if a non-resid5t ( ! di/rict1 a cle> freehold ( ,l#ejj /]l+4 ,s5ators1 =ty-five1 elect$ by di/ricts1 = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 ea* di/rict1 except "o1 hav+ "o s5ator4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s1 /ate resid5ce1 five ye>s4 ,if a resid5t 9 ! di/rict1 a cle> freehold ( ,l#cjj /]l+2 if a non-resid5t1 a freehold 9 ! di/rict ( ,l#a1jjj4 ,bills pass$ by bo? h\ses are laws )\t be+ pres5t$ to ! gov]nor4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor are *os5 by ! legislature = two ye>s4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s3 /ate resid5ce1 t5 ye>s2 a cle> freehold 9 ! /ate ( ,l#a1ejj /]l+4 ,a gov]nor is ineligible = ! next f\r ye>s4 ,commission]s ( ! treasury1 secret>y ( /ate1 & surveyor-g5]al1 are elect$ by jo9t ballot ( bo? h\ses = f\r ye>s1 & ineligible = ! next f\r ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,su* sup]ior & inf]ior c\rts ( law & equity z ! legislature may e/abli%4 ,! judges are appo9t$ by ! legislature dur+ good behavior4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 resid5t 9 ! /ate two ye>s1 & own+ a freehold ( #ej acres ( l&1 or a t[n lot1 :i* he has own$ six mon?s2 or1 n hav+ su* freehold1 or t[n lot1 resid5t 9 ! election di/rict six mon?s1 & hav+ paid a tax ! prec$+ ye> ( ?ree %ill+s /]l+4 ,am5dm5ts may be made by a conv5tion call$ by two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( bo? bran*es4 ,alt]ations may also be made by l majorities ( two successive legislatures4 ,georgia4 ,! fir/ con/itution 0 =m$ 9 #aggg2 ! second 9 #aghe2 ! pres5t 9 #agih1 & am5d$ 9 #ahci1 & #ahdd4 ,legislature4 ,s5ate & h\se1 toge!r /yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,! memb]s ( bo? h\ses are elect$ bi5nially4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to population1 includ+ ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves4 ,age1 tw5ty-"o ye>s2 citiz5%ip1 sev5 ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 ?ree ye>s2 c\nty1 "o ye>4 ,s5ators are elect$ 9 di/ricts4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s2 citiz5%ip1 n9e ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 ?ree ye>s2 di/rict1 "o ye>4 ,bills are pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities4 ,bills n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 five days are laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates twelve ye>s1 ( ! /ate1 six ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,secret>y ( /ate1 treasur]1 & surveyor-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt = ! correction ( errors1 to consi/ ( ?ree judges *os5 by ! legislature = six ye>s1 "o e two ye>s2 a sup]ior c\rt1 ^: judges are elect$ 9 _! sev]al circuits = f\r ye>s2 inf]ior c\rts1 "o 9 ea* c\nty1 consi/+ ( five judges1 elect$ by ! p2 c\rts held by ju/ices ( ! peace elect$ = f\r ye>s4 ,%]iffs are elect$ = two ye>s1 b may n be twice elect$ 9 f\r ye>s4 ,electors1 :ite male citiz5s & inhabitants ( ! /ate1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! c\nty six mon?s1 & paid all ! taxes requir$ ( !m1 & :i* !y _h an opportunity ( pay+ ! prec$+ ye>4 ,am5dm5ts may be made by two successive legislatures1 two-?irds ( bo? h\ses concurr+4 ,florida4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union ) its pres5t con/itution1 by act ( congress1 ,m>* #c1 #ahde4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligible = ! next t]m4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 citiz5%ip2 /ate resid5ce five ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 elect$ by ! p = f\r ye>s2 a treasur] & a controll] ( public acc\nts = two ye>s4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & a h\se ( repres5tatives1 /yl$1 ! g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to ! numb] ( free :ites & ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves2 ! numb] n to exce$ sixty4 ,!y are elect$ bi5nially4 ,age1 tw5ty-"o2 citiz5%ip2 /ate resid5ce1 two ye>s2 c\nty1 "o ye>4 ,s5ators are elect$ 9 di/ricts1 at lea/ "o 9 ea* di/rict1 = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 ! numb] to be n less ?an "o-f\r?1 nor m ?an "o-half ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s2 o!r qualifications ! same z ^? ( repres5tatives4 ,bills become laws aga9/ ! veto by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 c\rts ( *anc]y1 circuit c\rts1 & ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( ?ree judges elect$ by ! p = six ye>s4 ,! /ate is divid$ into f\r circuits1 & a judge elect$ 9 ea* judicial circuit = six ye>s1 :o presides 9 ! c\rts held 9 8 circuit4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace = ea* c\nty are appo9t$ or elect$1 z ! g5]al assembly may direct4 ,an attorney-g5]al is *os5 by jo9t vote ( ! two h\ses1 = f\r ye>s4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 resid5ts ( ! /ate two ye>s1 ( ! c\nty1 six mon?s2 enroll$ 9 ! militia1 unless by law exempt$ f s]v+4 ,! g5]al assembly is requir$ to provide = regi/]+ ! qualifi$ electors ( ea* c\nty4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,a conv5tion may be call$ by ! g5]al assembly1 two-?irds ( ea* h\se concurr+4 ,alt]ations may be made by l majorities ( two successive legislatures4 ,alabama4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #ahai1 ) its pres5t con/itution4 ,legislature--call$ ! g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to ! free :ite population2 *os5 bi5nially2 mu/ be tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 resid5ts ( ! /ate two ye>s1 & ( ! c\nty1 city or t[n !y repres5t1 "o ye>4 ,s5ators are *os5 9 s+le di/ricts = f\r ye>s1 "o-half ( !m e two ye>s2 mu/ be tw5ty-sev5 ye>s ( age2 resid5ce ! same z repres5tatives4 ,! numb] ( repres5tatives may n exce$ "o hundr$2 ! numb] ( s5ators may n exce$ ?irty-?ree4 ,bills negotiat$ by ! gov]nor1 may be pass$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$4 ,if n return$ )9 five days1 veto$ bills become laws unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! c\nty1 city1 or t[n1 ?ree mon?s4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s1 & eligible f\r ye>s 9 any t]m ( six ye>s4 ,he mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age1 a native citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & h be5 a resid5t ( ! /ate f\r ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate is *os5 bi5nially1 & a treasur] & a controll] ( public acc\nts are *os5 annually1 by jo9t vote ( bo? h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt2 circuit c\rts to be held 9 ea* c\nty2 & inf]ior c\rts ( law & equity1 to be e/abli%$ by ! g5]al assembly4 ,judges ( ! supreme c\rt1 & *ancellors are *os5 by ! legislature = six ye>s2 judges ( ! circuit & inf]ior c\rts by ! p = ! same t]m4 ,a compet5t numb] ( ju/ices ( ! peace1 & a %]iff1 are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty4 ,an attorney-g5]al = ! /ate1 & ! requisite numb] ( solicitors are elect$ by jo9t vote ( ! g5]al assembly1 = f\r ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by "o legislature1 approv$ by ! electors at ! next election = repres5tatives1 & ratifi$ by ! next legislature2 two-?irds majorities be+ requir$ 9 bo? cases4 ,mississippi4 ,9 #ahag1 ?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union ) a con/itution adopt$ ! same ye>4 ,! pres5t con/itution 0 =m$ 9 #ahcb4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 resid5ts ( ! /ate "o ye>1 ( ! c\nty1 f\r mon?s4 ,an elector :o happ5s to be 9 any c\nty1 city1 or t[n1 o!r ?an t ( 8 resid5ce1 or :o may h remov$ to any su* place )9 f\r mon?s prec$+ an election1 may vote = su* (fic]s z he c\ld h vot$ = 9 ! c\nty ( 8 resid5ce1 or f :i* he remov$4 ,legislature4 ,repres5tatives1 n less ?an ?irty-six1 nor m ?an "o hundr$1 are elect$ = two ye>s 9 ! sev]al c\nties1 among :i* !y are apportion$ accord+ to ! numb] ( :ite inhabitants4 ,!y mu/ h be5 resid5ts ( ! /ate two ye>s1 "o ( ! c\nty4 ,s5ators1 n less ?an "o-f\r?1 nor m ?an "o-?ird ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives1 are elect$ by di/ricts = f\r ye>s4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 f\r ye>s2 di/rict "o ye>4 ,bills are pass$ aga9/ ! veto by two-?irds majorities4 ,bills mu/ be return$ )9 six days1 or !y become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,judici>y4 ,a high c\rt ( errors & appeals1 consi/+ ( ?ree judges1 "o 9 ea* di/rict1 elect$ = six ye>s2 a circuit c\rt to be held 9 ea* c\nty at lea/ twice a ye>1 ! judges to be elect$ 9 _! respective judicial di/ricts = f\r ye>s2 a sup]ior c\rt ( *anc]y1 ! *ancellor to be elect$ by ! electors ( ! :ole /ate = six ye>s2 a c\rt ( probate 9 ea* c\nty1 ! judge to be elect$ = two ye>s2 a compet5t numb] ( ju/ices ( ! peace & con/ables1 *os5 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s4 ,o!r inf]ior c\rts may be e/abli%$ by ! legislature4 ,an attorney-g5]al is *os5 by ! electors ( ! /ate1 & a compet5t numb] ( di/rict-attorneys 9 _! respective di/ricts4 ,a %]iff & "o or m coron]s are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 tw5ty ye>s1 a resid5t ( ! /ate five ye>s2 & may n hold ! (fice m ?an f\r ye>s 9 six4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a treasur]1 & an auditor ( public acc\nts1 are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by two-?irds ( bo? bran*es ( ! legislature1 & ratifi$ by ! p at ! next election4 ,l\isiana4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #ahab1 ) a con/itution =m$ ! same ye>4 ,9 #ahde1 a second1 & 9 #aheb ! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! sev]al p>i%es1 7correspond+ to c\nties 9 o!r /ates17 & are elect$ = two ye>s2 ! numb] n to exce$ "o hundr$1 nor to be less ?an sev5ty4 ,s5ators1 9 numb] ?irty-two1 are apportion$ among ! di/ricts accord+ to population1 & are elect$ = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,e qualifi$ elector is eligible to a seat 9 ei!r h\se4 ,veto$ bills are pass$ by majorities ( two-?irds ( all ! memb]s4 ,!y become laws if n return$ )9 t5 days1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t2 9 :i* case !y w become laws if n s5t back )9 ?ree days aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! next session4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligible ! next f\r4 ,age1 tw5ty-eight ye>s2 citiz5%ip1 & resid5ce 9 ! /ate f\r ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate & a treasur] are elect$ by ! electors1 ! =m] = f\r ye>s1 ! latt] = two ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%1 & ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,! supreme c\rt is compos$ ( a *ief-ju/ice & f\r associate ju/ices2 ! =m] elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate at l>ge1 ! latt] 9 _! respective di/ricts4 ,!y are elect$ = t5 ye>s1 "o ( ! five e two ye>s4 ,judges ( ! inf]ior c\rts are elect$ 9 _! respective p>i%es or di/ricts4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ = two ye>s by ! electors 9 ea* p>i%1 di/rict1 or w>d4 ,an attorney-g5]al & a requisite numb] ( di/rict-attorneys1 are elect$ = f\r ye>s2 ! =m] by ! electors ( ! :ole /ate1 ! latt] 9 _! respective di/ricts4 ,a %]iff & a coron] are elect$ 9 ea* p>i% = two ye>s4 ,electors4 ,:ite males1 hav+ be5 citiz5s two ye>s1 resid5ts ( ! /ate "o ye>1 & ( ! p>i% six mon?s4 ,an elector remov+ f "o p>i% to ano!r1 may vote 9 ! =m] until he %all h become a vot] 9 ! latt]4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ea* h\se1 & ratifi$ by a majority ( ! electors vot+ !reon at ! next g5]al election4 ,texas4 ,texas1 =m]ly a "p ( ,mexico1 decl>$ itself indep5d5t 9 #ahce4 ,by a jo9t resolution ( congress1 approv$ ,decemb] #bi1 #ahde1 ?is indep5d5t republic 0 admitt$ z a /ate into ! union4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 & ! la/ six mon?s 9 ! di/rict1 city1 or t[n 9 :i* !y (f] to vote4 ,if an elector happ5s to be 9 any o!r c\nty )9 8 di/rict1 he may !re vote = any di/rict (fic]2 & he may vote any :]e 9 ! /ate = /ate (fic]s4 ,legislature4 ,repres5tatives1 n less ?an =ty-five1 nor m ?an n9ety1 are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to ! free population1 & are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,!y mu/ h be5 resid5ts ( ! /ate two ye>s1 ( ! c\nty1 city1 or t[n !y repres5t1 "o ye>4 ,s5ators1 no less ?an n9ete51 nor m ?an ?irty-?ree1 are elect$ 9 di/ricts = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 inhabitants ( ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 ( ! di/rict "o ye>4 ,bills negativ$ by ! gov]nor become laws :5 pass$ by two-?irds ( bo? h\ses2 bills n return$ )9 five days become laws4 ,two-?irds ( ea* h\se con/itutes a quorum4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 di/rict c\rts1 & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( a *ief-ju/ice & two associates1 & has appellate jurisdiction *iefly4 ,x holds sessions once a ye> 9 n m ?an ?ree places 9 ! /ate4 ,di/rict c\rts are held by ! judge ( ea* judicial di/rict at "o place 9 ea* c\nty at lea/ twice a ye>4 ,! judges ( bo? ! supreme & di/rict c\rts are elect$ by ! p = six ye>s4 ,a conv5i5t numb] ( ju/ices ( ! peace1 "o %]iff1 "o coron]1 & a suffici5t numb] ( con/ables1 are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s4 ,! %]iff is eligible only f\r ye>s 9 six4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 is eligible f\r ye>s 9 e six4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 ?ree ye>s2 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or a citiz5 ( ! /ate ( ,texas at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ! con/itution4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a treasur]1 a controll] ( public acc\nts1 & an attorney-g5]al are elect$ by ! p = two ye>s4 ,a secret>y ( /ate is appo9t$ by ! gov]nor & s5ate1 to hold dur+ ! (ficial t]m ( ! gov]nor4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by two-?irds majorities ( ! legislature1 approv$ by ! electors1 & ratifi$ by majorities ( two-?irds ( ! next legislature4 ,arkansas4 ,9 #ahcf1 ?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union ) its pres5t con/itution1 :i* 0 slightly am5d$ 9 #ahde4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 resid5ts ( ! /ate six mon?s1 & actual resid5ts ( ! c\nty4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives1 n m ?an "o hundr$1 nor less ?an fifty-f\r1 are apportion$ among ! c\nties accord+ to ! numb] ( free :ite male inhabitants1 & are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s2 resid5ts ( ! c\nties !y repres5t4 ,s5ators are *os5 9 s+le di/ricts = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 ! numb] to be n less ?an sev5te51 nor m ?an ?irty-?ree4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s1 inhabitants ( ! /ate "o ye>1 & actual resid5ts ( ! di/rict !y repres5t4 ,g5]al elections are viva voce1 until o!rwise direct$ by law4 ,bills are pass$ aga9/ ! veto by majorities ( all ! memb]s4 ,bills n return$ )9 ?ree days become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligble m ?an eight 9 twelve ye>s4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate f\r ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate = f\r ye>s1 & an auditor & a treasur] = two ye>s1 are elect$ by a jo9t vote ( bo? h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 c\nty c\rts1 & ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,! supreme c\rt is compos$ ( ?ree judges1 elect$ by ! legislature = eight ye>s2 "o e f\r ye>s1 "o e six1 & "o e eight ye>s4 ,9 ea* circuit a judge is elect$ by ! legislature = f\r ye>s4 ,!re is 9 ea* c\nty a c\nty c\rt held by ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,ju/ices are elect$ 9 ! t[n%ips = two ye>s4 ,an attorney ( /ate is elect$ 9 ea* judicial di/rict = two ye>s4 ,a %]iff1 a coron]1 a treasur] & a c\nty-surveyor1 are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts may be made by two successive legislatures1 by two-?irds majorities4 ,miss\ri4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #ahba4 ,! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$ 9 #ahbj1 & has be5 sev]al times am5d$4 ,legislature--/yl$ ! g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties on ! basis ( ! :ite population1 & are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,age1 tw5ty-f\r ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 two ye>s2 c\nty or di/rict "o ye>2 paym5t ( /ate or c\nty tax4 ,s5ators1 n to be less ?an tw5ty-five1 nor m ?an ?irty-?ree1 are *os5 9 s+le di/ricts = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate1 f\r ye>s2 9 ! di/rict1 "o ye>2 paym5t ( a /ate or c\nty tax4 ,sessions ( ! legislature are limit$ to sixty days4 ,bills veto$ by ! gov]nor mu/ be pass$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s to become laws4 ,bills n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 f\r days become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 9 ! c\nty or di/rict ?ree mon?s4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligible ! next f\r2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t5 ye>s1 & ( ! /ate five ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 an auditor ( public acc\nts1 a treasur]1 an attorney-g5]al1 & a regi/] ( l&s1 are elect$ by ! p = f\r ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 ju/ices ( ! peace1 & su* o!r tribunals z ! g5]al assembly %all e/abli%4 ,! ?ree judges ( ! supreme c\rt are elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate = six ye>s4 ,a judge 9 ea* ( ! circuits is elect$ by ! electors !re( = six ye>s4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ 9 ! t[n%ips4 ,am5dm5ts may be propos$ e f\r? ye> by a majority ( ! :ole ( ea* h\se2 & !y take effect :5 ratifi$ by ! electors ( ! /ate4 ,t5nessee4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union ) its fir/ con/itution 9 #agif4 ,! pres5t "o 0 =m$ 9 #ahce4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are apportion$ among ! c\nties or di/ricts accord+ to ! numb] ( qualifi$ vot]s 9 ea*1 & are n to exce$ sev5ty-five until ! population ( ! /ate %all be #a1ejj1jjj1 & may nev] exce$ n9ety-n9e4 ,!y mu/ be citiz5s ( ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 & resid5ts ( ! c\nty !y repres5t "o ye>4 ,s5ators are apportion$ z repres5tatives2 ! numb] n to exce$ "o-?ird ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 9 o!r respects qualifi$ z repres5tatives4 ,bo? are elect$ bi5nially4 ,bills pass$ by bo? h\ses are laws )\t hav+ be5 pres5t$ to ! gov]nor4 ,quorum1 two-?irds ( ea* h\se4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 & may n hold ! (fice m ?an six 9 any t]m ( eight ye>s4 ,he mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age1 & h be5 a citiz5 ( ! /ate sev5 ye>s4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate = f\r ye>s1 & a treasur] = two ye>s1 are *os5 by jo9t vote ( ! g5]al assembly4 ,electors4 ,:ite males hav+ be5 citiz5s ( ! c\nty six mon?s2 also male p]sons ( color1 tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 :o are compet5t witnesses 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice aga9/ a :ite man4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%1 & ju/ices' c\rts4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( ?ree judges1 "o 9 ea* ( ! gr& divisions ( ! /ate1 elect$ = twelve ye>s4 ,judges ( inf]ior c\rts are elect$ = eight ye>s4 ,= ! election ( ju/ices ( ! peace1 ea* c\nty is divid$ into di/ricts ( conv5i5t size1 9 ea* ( :i* are elect$ two ju/ices & "o con/able4 ,a di/rict conta9+ a c\nty t[n1 may elect ?ree ju/ices & two con/ables4 ,attorneys = ! /ate are elect$ by jo9t assembly = six ye>s4 ,9 ea* c\nty are elect$ "o %]iff1 & "o tru/ee = two ye>s2 & "o regi/] = f\r ye>s4 ,! ju/ices ( ! peace ( ea* c\nty elect "o coron] & "o rang] = two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$1 approv$ by two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ! next legislature1 & ratifi$ by ! p4 ,k5tucky4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 adopt$ 9 #agij2 & ! /ate 0 admitt$ ) ! same 9 #agib4 ,ano!r 0 adopt$ 9 #agii2 & ! pres5t 9 #ahej4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives consi/s ( "o hundr$ memb]s1 elect$ = two ye>s2 apportion$ among ! c\nties 9 proportion to ! qualifi$ vot]s4 ,age1 tw5ty-f\r ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 two ye>s2 c\nty1 "o ye>4 ,:5 a city or t[n has a suffici5t numb] ( vot]s1 x may elect "o or m repres5tatives4 ,s5ate1 ?irty-eight memb]s1 "o elect$ 9 ea* di/rict = f\r ye>s2 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate six ye>s1 9 ! di/rict1 "o ye>4 ,bills veto$ by ! gov]nor1 if aga9 pass$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$1 are laws2 also if n return$ by him )9 t5 days1 unless ! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t2 9 :i* case !y become laws1 unless s5t back )9 ?ree days aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! next session4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is ineligible ! next f\r4 ,age1 ?irty-five ye>s2 resid5ce 9 ! /ate six ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a treasur] = two ye>s2 & an auditor ( public acc\nts1 a regi/] ( ! l&-(fice1 & an attorney-g5]al = f\r ye>s1 are *os5 by ! electors4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 /yl$ c\rt ( appeals1 consi/+ ( f\r judges1 "o to be elect$ 9 ea* di/rict = eight ye>s1 9 su* rotation t "o may be elect$ e two ye>s4 ,%\ld ! numb] be *ang$1 ! pr9ciple ( elect+ "o e two ye>s is to be pres]v$4 ,a circuit c\rt to be held 9 ea* c\nty by a di/rict judge1 "o to be elect$ 9 ea* ( ! twelve judicial di/ricts1 = six ye>s4 ,! numb] ( di/ricts may be increas$1 b may n exce$ sixte5 until ! population %all exce$ #a1ejj1jjj4 ,a c\nty c\rt 9 ea* c\nty1 consi/+ ( a presid+ judge & two associates1 elect$ = f\r ye>s4 ,o!r inf]ior c\rts may be e/abli%$ by law4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace 9 ea* c\nty are elect$ 9 di/ricts1 two 9 ea* di/rict = f\r ye>s1 & a con/able = f\r ye>s4 ,a /ate's attorney = ea* judicial di/rict2 a %]iff 9 ea* c\nty1 = two ye>s1 & sev]al o!r c\nty (fic]s4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate two ye>s2 9 ! c\nty1 t[n1 or city1 "o ye>2 & 9 ! prec9ct 9 :i* !y (f] to vote1 sixty days4 ,am5dm5ts by conv5tions only are provid$ =4 ,no conv5tion may be call$ by ! legislature1 until a majority ( all ! vot]s ( ! /ate %all h vot$ at two successive elections 9 favor ( call+ a conv5tion4 ,ohio4 ,! fir/ con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 adopt$ 9 #ahjb1 prep>atory to h] admission into ! union2 ! pres5t "o1 9 #ahea4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,s5ators & repres5tatives are elect$ bi5nially 9 _! respective c\nties or di/ricts1 9 :i* !y mu/ h resid$ a ye>4 ,! ratio ( repres5tation 9 ! h\se is asc]ta9$ by divid+ ! :ole population ( ! /ate by ! numb] "o hundr$2 ! quoti5t be+ ! ratio = ! next t5 ye>s4 ,! ratio = a s5ator is asc]ta9$ by divid+ ! :ole population by ?irty-five4 ,s5ators are elect$ 9 di/ricts4 ,! repres5tation ( fractions ( population is provid$ =4 ,bills are n submitt$ to ! gov]nor4 ,quorum1 n less ?an a majority4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor1 a lieut5ant-gov]nor1 a secret>y ( /ate1 a treasur]1 & an attorney-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s2 & an auditor = f\r ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt consi/+ ( five judges *os5 by ! electors ( ! /ate at l>ge = five ye>s1 "o1 e ye>4 ,! numb] may be alt]$ by law4 ,a di/rict c\rt 9 ea* ( ! n9e common pleas di/ricts1 compos$ ( a supreme c\rt judge & ! judges ( ! c\rt ( common pleas ( ! respective di/ricts1 & held 9 ea* c\nty )9 a di/rict1 or 9 at lea/ ?ree places 9 ea* di/rict4 ,"o or m ( ^! judges hold a c\rt ( common pleas 9 e c\nty 9 ! di/rict4 ,a c\nty probate judge is elect$ = ?ree ye>s4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 a compet5t numb]1 are elect$ 9 ea* t[n%ip = ?ree ye>s4 ,a %]iff is elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s1 b may hold only f\r ye>s 9 any p]iod ( six ye>s4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>1 & 9 ! c\nty1 t[n%ip1 or w>d1 su* "t z ! law %all prescribe4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by ?ree-fif?s ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se1 & ratifi$ by a majority ( ! vot]s :o vote !reon at an election4 ,or a majority ( two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ea* h\se may submit to ! electors ! "q ( call+ a conv5tion2 & if a majority ( ! electors vote = a conv5tion1 ! legislature %all provide = call+ ! same4 ,e tw5tie? ye>1 ! "q ( call+ a conv5tion is to be submitt$ to ! electors4 ,indiana4 ,?is /ate =m$ a con/itution & 0 admitt$ into ! union1 9 #ahaf4 ,! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$ 9 #ahea4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate six mon?s4 ,also =eign]s :o h resid$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates "o ye>1 9 ! /ate six mon?s1 & h decl>$ _! int5tion to become citiz5s4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,! numb] ( s5ators may n exce$ fifty2 ! numb] ( repres5tatives may n exce$ "o hundr$2 bo? to be *os5 9 _! respective c\nties or di/ricts1 s5ators = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 repres5tatives = two ye>s4 ,bo? are apportion$ accord+ to ! numb] ( :ite male inhabitants tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 e six ye>s4 ,!y mu/ h be5 citiz5s ( ! /ate two ye>s2 ( ! c\nty or di/rict1 "o ye>4 ,s5ators mu/ be tw5ty-five ye>s ( age4 ,quorum1 two-?irds4 ,bills mu/ be f9ally pass$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s elect$4 ,! same majorities enact a bill disapprov$ by ! gov]nor4 ,if he does n return a bill )9 ?ree days1 x is a law1 unless its return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t2 9 :i* case x w be a law1 unless he %all1 )9 five days aft] ! adj\rnm5t1 file ! bill1 ) 8 objections1 9 ! (fice ( ! secret>y ( /ate1 :o %all lay ! same be=e ! g5]al assembly at ! next session1 z if x _h be5 return$ by ! gov]nor4 ,bids may n be pres5t$ to ! gov]nor )9 two days previ\s to ! adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s2 & is eligible only f\r ye>s 9 eight4 ,age1 ?irty ye>s2 citiz5%ip1 five ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 five ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 an auditor1 & a treasur]1 are elect$ = two ye>s1 & are eligible f\r ye>s 9 six4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! g5]al assembly may e/abli%4 ,judges ( ! supreme c\rt1 n less ?an ?ree nor m ?an five1 "o 9 ea* di/rict1 are elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate at l>ge1 = six ye>s4 ,circuit c\rts consi/ ( a judge = ea* judicial circuit1 *os5 by ! electors !re(1 = six ye>s2 & a prosecut+ attorney = ! circuit1 = two ye>s4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ = f\r ye>s 9 ! t[n%ips4 ,!re are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty1 a cl]k ( ! circuit c\rt1 an auditor1 a record]1 a treasur]1 a %]iff1 a coron]1 & a surveyor2 ! fir/ ?ree = f\r ye>s2 ! o!rs = two ye>s4 ,! %]iff & treasur] are eligible only f\r ye>s 9 eight2 ! fir/ ?ree eight ye>s 9 twelve4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by two successive legislatures1 a majority ( all ! memb]s ( ea* h\se concurr+1 & ratifi$ by ! electors ( ! /ate4 ,ill9ois4 ,ill9ois 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #ahah4 ,! pres5t con/itution is dat$ ,augu/ #ca1 #ahdg4 ,legislature--/yl$ g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are elect$ = two ye>s2 mu/ be tw5ty-five ye>s ( age2 inhabitants ( ! /ate ?ree ye>s1 & ( ! c\nty or di/rict1 "o ye>2 & h paid a /ate or c\nty tax4 ,! numb] is nev] to exce$ "o hundr$4 ,! di/ricts are n limit$ to a s+le repres5tative4 ,! s5ate consi/s ( tw5ty-five memb]s1 elect$ 9 s+le di/ricts1 = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 inhabitants ( ! /ate five ye>s1 ( ! c\nty or di/rict1 "o ye>2 & h paid a c\nty or /ate tax4 ,apportionm5ts ( s5ators & repres5tatives are made aft] ea* c5sus1 tak5 9 #ahee1 & e t5 ye>s !reaft]4 ,quorum1 two-?irds4 ,bills pass$ aga9/ ! veto by a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se4 ,if n return$ )9 t5 days1 !y are laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t2 9 :i* case !y mu/ be return$ on ! fir/ day ( ! next legislative session1 or !y w be laws4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & is eligible f\r ye>s 9 eight4 ,age1 ?irty-five ye>s2 citiz5%ip1 f\rte5 ye>s2 /ate resid5ce1 t5 ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate & an auditor ( public acc\nts are elect$ = f\r ye>s1 & a treasur] = two ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt ( ?ree judges1 "o to be *os5 9 ea* ( ! ?ree gr& divisions1 = n9e ye>s1 "o e ?ree ye>s2 ! "o olde/ 9 commission to be *ief-ju/ice4 ,! legislature may provide = _! election by ! :ole /ate4 ,circuit judges are elect$ = six ye>s1 "o 9 ea* ( ! n9e judicial di/ricts1 ! numb] ( :i* may be increas$1 if necess>y4 ,a circuit c\rt is to be held two or m t]ms annually 9 ea* c\nty4 ,a judge ( ! c\nty c\rt is elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = f\r ye>s1 & has also probate jurisdiction4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty by di/ricts = f\r ye>s4 ,inf]ior local c\rts may be e/abli%$ 9 ! cities by ! legislature4 ,a /ate's attorney is elect$ 9 ea* judicial circuit1 = f\r ye>s2 or 9 ea* c\nty1 if ! legislature %all s direct4 ,9 ea* c\nty a cl]k ( ! circuit c\rt is elect$ = f\r ye>s & a %]iff = two ye>s1 :o is eligible only once 9 f\r ye>s2 a supreme c\rt cl]k by ! electors ( ea* gr& division4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>4 ,a poll or capitation-tax ( n less ?an fifty c5ts1 nor m ?an a doll>1 may1 9 case ( necessity1 be laid ^u e vot] "u sixty ye>s ( age4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be propos$ by two-?irds majorities ( all ! memb]s ( "o legislature1 approv$ by majorities ( all ! memb]s ( ! next legislature1 & ratifi$ by ! electors at ! next g5]al election4 ,or1 ! legislature1 by two-?irds majorities ( all ! memb]s1 may submit to ! p ! "q ( call+ a conv5tion2 & if a majority ( ! electors vot+ = repres5tatives %all vote = a conv5tion1 an act = call+ "o %all be pass$4 ,mi*igan4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #ahcf4 ,! pres5t con/itution 0 adopt$ 9 #ahej4 ,legislature4 ,! s5ate has ?irty-two memb]s1 elect$ 9 s+le di/ricts1 = two ye>s4 ,repres5tatives1 n less ?an sixty-f\r1 nor m ?an "o hundr$1 are elect$ also 9 s+le di/ricts1 = two ye>s4 ,an apportionm5t ( memb]s is made e t5 ye>s4 ,any qualifi$ elector hold+ no o!r (fice1 is eligible to ei!r h\se4 ,! f9al passage ( bills requires a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se4 ,majorities ( two-?irds ( all ! memb]s pass bills aga9/ ! veto4 ,bills n return$ )9 t5 days1 are laws unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,bills pass$ )9 ! la/ five days ( a session1 may be sign$ by ! gov]nor & fil$ by him 9 ! (fice ( ! secret>y ( /ate )9 five days aft] ! adj\rnm5t2 & ! same become laws4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s2 mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age2 h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates five ye>s1 & a resid5t ( ! /ate two ye>s4 ,a lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 a probate c\rt1 & ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,= six ye>s1 & until ! legislature %all o!rwise provide1 ! circuit judges are to be judges ( ! supreme c\rt4 ,aft] six ye>s1 a supreme c\rt may be organiz$1 consi/+ ( a *ief-ju/ice & ?ree associate ju/ices1 *os5 by ! electors = eight ye>s1 & s class$ t only "o ( !m %all g out ( (fice at a "t4 ,a circuit judge is elect$ 9 ea* ( ! eight judicial circuits = six ye>s4 ,! numb] ( circuits may be increas$4 ,! probate judge ( ea* c\nty is elect$ = f\r ye>s4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 n exce$+ f\r1 are elect$ 9 ea* t[n%ip1 = f\r ye>s4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate ?ree mon?s1 & 9 ! t[n%ip or w>d t5 days2 also =eign]s aft] a resid5ce ( two & a half ye>s 9 ! /ate1 & a decl>ation ( _! int5tion to become citiz5s2 & civiliz$ males ( ,indian desc5t4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a sup]9t5d5t ( public in/ruction1 a treasur]1 a commission] ( ! l&-(fice1 an auditor-g5]al1 & attorney-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,9 ea* c\nty are elect$ a %]iff1 a c\nty cl]k1 a c\nty treasur]1 a regi/] ( de$s1 & a prosecut+ attorney1 all = two ye>s4 ,! %]iff c hold only f\r ye>s 9 six4 ,! bo>d ( sup]visors may unite ! (fices ( cl]k & regi/] 9 "o (fice4 ,am5dm5ts are propos$ by two-?irds ( all ! memb]s ( ea* bran*1 & ratifi$ by a majority ( ! electors vot+ !reon at ! next g5]al election4 ,e sixte5? ye> ! "q ( a g5]al revision ( ! con/itution by a conv5tion %all be submitt$ to ! electors ( ! /ate4 ,wiscons94 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union by an act ( congress1 ,may #bi1 #ahdh4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 or =eign]s :o h decl>$ _! int5tion to become citiz5s1 hav+ resid$ 9 ! /ate "o ye>2 also civiliz$ p]sons ( ,indian desc5t1 n memb]s ( any tribe4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & an assembly4 ,memb]s ( ! assembly are elect$ annually2 ! numb] n to be less ?an fifty-f\r1 nor great] ?an "o hundr$4 ,! numb] ( s5ators may n be less ?an "o-f\r?1 nor great] ?an "o-?ird ( ! numb] ( memb]s ( assembly4 ,s5ators are *os5 = two ye>s1 half e ye>4 ,memb]s ( bo? h\ses are elect$ 9 s+le di/ricts1 apportion$ e five ye>s2 & mu/ h resid$ 9 ! /ate a ye>1 & be qualifi$ electors ( ! di/ricts4 ,bills are pass$ ov] ! veto by majorities ( two-?irds4 ,quorum1 a majority4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = two ye>s4 ,any citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & qualifi$ elector ( ! /ate1 is eligible to ! (fice ( gov]nor or lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a treasur]1 & an attorney-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,%]iffs1 coron]s1 regi/]s ( de$s1 & di/rict-attorneys1 are elect$ 9 c\nties1 = two ye>s4 ,%]iffs are ineligible = ! next two ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 c\rts ( probate1 & ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,inf]ior c\rts1 ) limit$ civil jurisdiction1 may be e/abli%$ by law 9 ! sev]al c\nties4 ,by ! con/itution1 ! judges ( ! circuit c\rts 7 to be judges ( ! supreme c\rt = five ye>s1 & until ! legislature %\ld o!rwise provide4 ,a sep>ate supreme c\rt may be organiz$1 to consi/ ( a *ief-ju/ice & two associate ju/ices elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate = six ye>s2 "o only to be elect$ at a "t4 ,! circuit judges also1 "o 9 ea* judicial circuit1 are elect$ = six ye>s4 ,! supreme c\rt %all hold at lea/ "o t]m annually at ! seat ( gov]nm5t1 & at su* o!r places z ! legislature may provide4 ,a circuit c\rt is to be held at lea/ twice a ye> 9 ea* c\nty4 ,a judge ( probate is *os5 9 ea* c\nty = two ye>s2 b ! (fice may be aboli%$1 & probate p[]s conf]r$ on inf]ior c\nty c\rts4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are elect$ 9 ! sev]al t[ns1 cities1 & villages1 = two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are to be approv$ by a majority ( ! :ole ( ea* h\se ( two successive legislatures1 & ratifi$ by ! p4 ,also ! legislature may submit to ! p ! "q ( call+ a conv5tion to revise or *ange ! con/itution4 ,i[a4 ,! /ate ( ,i[a 0 admitt$ into ! union by an act ( congress approv$ ,decemb] #bh1 #ahdf4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s1 resid5t 9 ! /ate six mon?s1 & 9 ! c\nty tw5ty days4 ,legislature4 ,! two h\ses are call$ ! g5]al assembly4 ,repres5tatives are elect$ 9 _! respective di/ricts = two ye>s2 _! numb] to be n less ?an ?irty-n9e1 nor exce$ sev5ty-two4 ,!y mu/ be inhabitants ( ! /ate "o ye>1 & resid5ts ( ! c\nty or di/rict ?irty days4 ,s5ators1 9 numb] n less ?an "o-?ird1 nor m ?an "o-half ( ! numb] ( repres5tatives1 are elect$ = f\r ye>s1 "o-half e two ye>s4 ,age1 tw5ty-f\r ye>s2 o!rwise qualifi$ z repres5tatives4 ,two-?irds majorities ( ! memb]s pres5t1 pass bills veto$ by ! gov]nor4 ,bills n return$ )9 ?ree days also become laws1 unless _! return is prev5t$ by adj\rnm5t4 ,executive4 ,! gov]nor is elect$ = f\r ye>s2 mu/ h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & a resid5t ( ! /ate1 two ye>s2 & mu/ be ?irty ye>s ( age4 ,no lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,9 case ( vacancy 9 ! (fice ( gov]nor1 ! (fice devolves ^u ! secret>y ( /ate until ! vacancy is fill$4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 an auditor ( public acc\nts1 & a treasur]1 are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 di/rict c\rts1 & su* inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( a *ief-ju/ice & two associates1 elect$ by jo9t vote ( ! two bran*es1 = six ye>s4 ,x has appellate jurisdiction only 9 all cases ( *anc]y1 & con/itutes a c\rt = ! correction ( errors at law4 ,ea* di/rict c\rt consi/s ( a judge elect$ by ! vot]s ( ! di/rict1 = five ye>s1 at ! t[n%ip elections4 ,a prosecut+ attorney & a cl]k ( ! di/rict c\rt1 are elect$ 9 ea* c\nty at ! g5]al election1 = two ye>s4 ,am5dm5ts are provid$ = only by a conv5tion4 ,! legislature may provide = a vote ( ! p1 & if a majority ( ! votes are 9 favor ( a conv5tion1 an election ( delegates is to be held )9 six mon?s4 ,cali=nia4 ,! con/itution ( ?is /ate 0 adopt$ ,novemb] #ac1 #ahdi2 & ! /ate 0 admitt$ by act ( congress1 ,septemb] #i1 #ahej4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :ite male citiz5s ( ,mexico hav+ elect$ to become citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ! treaty ( peace1 :o h resid$ 9 ! /ate six mon?s1 & 9 ! c\nty or di/rict ?irty days4 ,legislature4 ,s5ate & assembly4 ,memb]s ( assembly1 ! numb] to be n less ?an ?irty1 nor great] ?an eighty1 are *os5 annually by di/ricts4 ,s5ators1 n to be less ?an "o-?ird nor m ?an "o-half ( ! numb] ( memb]s ( assembly1 are elect$ by di/ricts = two ye>s1 "o-half e ye>4 ,memb]s ( bo? h\ses mu/ h resid$ 9 ! /ate two ye>s1 & 9 _! respective di/ricts "o ye>1 & be qualifi$ vot]s4 ,!y are apportion$ e five ye>s4 ,bills1 reject$ by ! gov]nor1 mu/ be pass$ by a majority ( two-?irds ( ea* h\se1 to become a law4 ,bills become laws if n return$ by ! gov]nor )9 t5 days1 unless ! legislature %all soon] adj\rn4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor & a lieut5ant-gov]nor are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,age1 tw5ty-five ye>s1 & two ye>s' resid5ce 9 ! /ate4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a controll]1 a treasur]1 an attorney-g5]al1 & a surveyor-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s1 by jo9t vote ( ! two h\ses4 ,judici>y4 ,a supreme c\rt1 di/rict c\rts1 c\nty c\rts1 ju/ices ( ! peace1 & su* municipal & o!r inf]ior c\rts z ! legislature may e/abli%4 ,! supreme c\rt consi/s ( ?ree judges elect$ by ! electors ( ! /ate = six ye>s1 "o e two ye>s2 ! s5ior ju/ice 9 commission to be *ief-ju/ice4 ,di/rict judges are elect$ 9 _! respective di/ricts = six ye>s4 ,a judge ( ! c\nty c\rt is elect$ 9 ea* c\nty = f\r ye>s1 & p]=ms also ! duties ( judge ( probate4 ,! numb] ( ju/ices ( ! peace elect$ 9 ea* c\nty1 city1 t[n1 or village1 is fix$ by law4 ,! election ( %]iffs1 coron]s1 c\nty cl]ks & c]ta9 o!r (fic]s1 is provid$ = by law4 ,am5dm5ts mu/ be agre$ to by majorities ( all ! memb]s ( ! two h\ses ( two successive legislatures1 & ratifi$ by ! p4 ,! legislature may1 by two-?irds majorities1 submit to ! p ! "q ( call+ a conv5tion = a g5]al revision ( ! con/itution4 ,m9nesota4 ,?is /ate 0 admitt$ into ! union 9 #aheh4 ,electors4 ,:ite male citiz5s hav+ resid$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates "o ye>1 & 9 ! /ate f\r mon?s4 ,also =eign]s :o h s resid$1 & decl>$ _! int5tion to become citiz5s2 & p]sons ( mix$ :ite & ,indian blood1 & ( ,indian blood1 "u c]ta9 regulations4 ,legislature4 ,a s5ate & a h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,! fir/ legislature consi/$ ( ?irty-sev5 s5ators & eighty repres5tatives4 ,executive4 ,a gov]nor & a lieut5ant-gov]nor are elect$ = two ye>s4 ,a secret>y ( /ate1 a treasur]1 & an attorney-g5]al1 are elect$ = two ye>s1 & a /ate auditor = ?ree ye>s4 ,judici>y4 ,! judicial p[] is ve/$ 9 a supreme c\rt1 di/rict c\rts1 c\rts ( probate1 ju/ices ( ! peace1 & su* o!r c\rts inf]ior to ! supreme c\rt1 z ! legislature may e/abli% by a two-?irds vote4 ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,we1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect union1 e/abli% ju/ice1 insure dome/ic tranquillity1 provide = ! common def5se1 promote ! g5]al welf>e1 & secure ! bless+s ( lib]ty to ourselves & our po/]ity1 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is ,con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,article ,i4 ,section4 ,all legislative p[]s h]e9 grant$ %all be ve/$ 9 a congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,sec4 #b4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives %all be compos$ ( memb]s *os5 e second ye>1 by ! p ( ! sev]al /ates2 & ! electors 9 ea* /ate %all h ! qualifications requi/e = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! /ate legislature4 ,no p]son %all be a repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 & be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t /ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54 ,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al /ates :i* may be includ$ )9 ?is union1 accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$ by add+ to ! :ole numb] ( free p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1 ?ree-fif?s ( all o!r p]sons4 ,! actual enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree ye>s aft] ! fir/ meet+ ( ! congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & )9 e subsequ5t t]m ( t5 ye>s1 9 su* mann] z !y %all by law direct4 ,! numb] ( repres5tatives %all n exce$ "o = e ?irty ?\s&1 b ea* /ate %all h at lea/ "o repres5tative2 & until su* enum]ation %all be made1 ! /ate ( ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$ to *oose ?ree2 ,massa*usetts1 eight2 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations1 "o2 ,connecticut1 five2 ,new ,york1 six2 ,new ,j]sey1 f\r2 ,p5nsylvania1 eight2 ,delaw>e1 "o2 ,m>yl&1 six2 ,virg9ia1 t52 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 five2 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 five2 & ,georgia1 ?ree4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any /ate1 ! executive au?ority !re( %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 ,! h\se ( repres5tatives %all *oose _! speak] & o!r (fic]s1 & %all h ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4 ,sec4 #c4 ,! s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* /ate1 *os5 by ! legislature !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 ,imm$iately aft] !y %all be assembl$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! fir/ election1 !y %all be divid$ z equally z may be1 into ?ree classes4 ,! seats ( ! s5ators ( ! fir/ class %all be vacat$ at ! expiration ( ! second ye>2 ( ! second class at ! expiration ( ! f\r? ye>2 & ( ! ?ird class at ! expiration ( ! six? ye>2 s t "o-?ird may be *os5 e second ye>2 & if vacancies happ51 by resignation or o!rwise1 dur+ ! recess ( ! legislature ( any /ate1 ! executive !re( may make tempor>y appo9tm5ts1 until ! next meet+ ( ! legislature1 :i* %all !n fill su* vacancies4 ,no p]son %all be a s5ator :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t /ate = :i* he %all be *os54 ,! vice-presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be presid5t ( ! s5ate1 b %all h no vote1 unless !y be equally divid$4 ,! s5ate %all *oose _! o!r (fic]s1 & also a presid5t pro tempore1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! vice-presid5t1 or :5 he %all ex]cise ! (fice ( presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try all impea*m5ts3 :5 sitt+ = t purpose1 !y %all be on oa? or affirmation4 ,:5 ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 ! *ief-ju/ice %all preside2 & no p]son %all be convict$ )\t ! concurr5ce ( two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4 ,judgm5t1 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all n ext5d fur!r ?an to removal f (fice1 & disqualification to hold & enjoy any (fice ( honor1 tru/1 or pr(it1 "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b ! p>ty convict$ %all1 nev]!less1 be liable & subject to indictm5t1 trial1 judgm5t & puni%m5t1 accord+ to law4 ,sec4 #d4 ,! times1 places & mann] ( hold+ elections = s5ators & repres5tatives1 %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* /ate by ! legislature !re(2 b ! congress may at any "t1 by law1 make or alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! places ( *oos+ s5ators4 ,! congress %all assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>2 & su* meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb]1 unless !y %all1 by law1 appo9t a diff]5t day4 ,sec4 #e4 ,ea* h\se %all be ! judge ( ! elections1 returns & qualifications ( its own memb]s2 & a majority ( ea* %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess2 b a small] numb] may adj\rn f day to day1 & may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s1 9 su* mann]1 & "u su* p5alties1 z ea* h\se may provide4 ,ea* h\se may det]m9e ! rules ( its proce$+s1 puni% its memb]s = disord]ly behavior1 &1 ) ! concurr5ce ( two-?irds1 expel a memb]4 ,ea* h\se %all keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s1 & f "t to "t publi% ! same1 except+ su* p>ts z may1 9 _! judgm5t1 require secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! memb]s ( ei!r h\se1 on any "q1 %all at ! desire ( "o-fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be ent]$ on ! j\rnal4 ,nei!r h\se1 dur+ ! session ( congress1 %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree days1 nor to any o!r place ?an t 9 :i* ! two h\ses %all be sitt+4 ,sec4 #f4 ,! s5ators & repres5tatives %all receive a comp5sation = _! s]vices1 to be asc]ta9$ by law1 & paid out ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all1 9 all cases1 except treason1 felony & brea* ( ! peace1 be privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! att5dance at ! session ( _! respective h\ses1 & 9 go+ to & return+ f ! same2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r h\se1 !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r place4 ,no s5ator or repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! "t = :i* he 0 elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil (fice "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all h be5 creat$1 or ! emolum5ts :]e( %all h be5 increas$ dur+ su* "t2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be a memb] ( ei!r h\se dur+ 8 cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,sec4 #g4 ,all bills = rais+ rev5ue %all orig9ate 9 ! h\se ( repres5tatives2 b ! s5ate may propose1 or concur )1 am5dm5ts1 z on o!r bills4 ,e bill :i* %all h pass$ ! h\se ( repres5tatives & ! s5ate1 %all1 be=e x become a law1 be pres5t$ to ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 if he approve1 he %all sign x2 b if n he %all return x1 ) 8 objections1 to t h\se 9 :i* x %all h orig9at$1 :o %all ent] ! objections at l>ge on _! j\rnal1 & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if aft] su* reconsid]ation1 two-?irds ( t h\se %all agree to pass ! bill1 x %all be s5t1 toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r h\se1 by :i* x %all likewise be reconsid]$1 &1 if approv$ by two-?irds ( t h\se1 x %all become a law4 ,b1 9 all su* cases1 ! votes ( bo? h\ses %all be det]m9$ by yeas & nays1 & ! names ( ! p]sons vot+ = & aga9/ ! bill %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( ea* h\se respectively4 ,if any bill %all n be return$ by ! presid5t )9 t5 days 7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5 pres5t$ to him1 ! same %all be a law1 9 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1 unless ! congress1 by _! adj\rnm5t1 prev5t its return1 9 :i* case x %all n be a law4 ,e ord]1 resolution1 or vote1 to :i* ! concurr5ce ( ! s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives may be necess>y1 7except on a "q ( adj\rnm5t17 %all be pres5t$ to ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & be=e ! same %all take effect1 %all be approv$ by him1 or1 be+ disapprov$ by him1 %all be repass$ by two-?irds ( ! s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives1 accord+ to ! rules & limitations prescrib$ 9 ! case ( a bill4 ,sec4 #h4 ,! congress %all h p[]3 ,to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s1 & excises to pay ! debts & provide = ! common def5se1 & g5]al welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all duties1 impo/s1 & excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations1 & among ! sev]al /ates1 & ) ! ,indian tribes3 ,to e/abli% a uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,to co9 money2 to regulate ! value !re(1 & ( =eign co92 & fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures3 ,to provide = ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+ ! securities & curr5t co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,to e/abli% po/ (fices & po/ roads3 ,to promote ! progress ( sci5ce & useful arts1 by secur+ = limit$ times1 to au?ors & inv5tors1 ! exclusive "r to _! respective writ+s & discov]ies3 ,to con/itute tribunals inf]ior to ! supreme c\rt3 ,to def9e & puni% piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas1 & (f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations3 ,to decl>e w>2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal2 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]3 ,to raise & support armies2 b no appropriation ( money to t use %all be = a long] t]m ?an two ye>s3 ,to provide & ma9ta9 a navy3 ,to make rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! l& & naval =ces3 ,to provide = call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( ! union1 suppress insurrections1 & repel invasions3 ,to provide = organiz+1 arm+ & discipl9+ ! militia1 & = gov]n+ su* "p ( !m z may be employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 res]v+ to ! /ates respectively1 ! appo9tm5t ( ! (fic]s1 & ! au?ority ( tra9+ ! militia1 accord+ to ! discipl9e prescrib$ by congress3 ,to ex]cise exclusive legislation 9 all cases :atsoev]1 ov] su* di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e7 z may1 by cession ( p>ticul> /ates1 & ! acceptance ( congress1 become ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to ex]cise l au?ority ov] all places pur*as$ by ! cons5t ( ! legislature ( ! /ate 9 :i* ! same %all be1 = ! erection ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 dock-y>ds1 & o!r ne$ful build+s3 ,&1 ,to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fic] !re(4 ,sec4 #i4 ,! migration or importation ( su* p]sons z any ( ! /ates n[ exi/+ %all ?9k prop] to admit1 %all n be prohibit$ by ! congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight2 b a tax or duty may be impos$ on su* importation1 n exce$+ t5 doll>s = su* p]son3 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all n be susp5d$ unless :51 9 cases ( rebellion or invasion1 ! public safety may require x4 ,no bill ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto law %all be pass$4 ,no capitation or o!r direct tax %all be laid1 unless 9 proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation h]e9be=e direct$ to be tak54 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on articles export$ f any /ate4 ,no pref]5ce %all be giv51 by any regulation ( comm]ce or rev5ue1 to ! ports ( "o /ate1 ov] ^? ( ano!r2 nor %all vessels b\nd to or f "o /ate be oblig$ to ent]1 cle>1 or pay duties 9 ano!r4 ,no money %all be drawn f ! treasury1 b 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law2 & a regul> /atem5t & acc\nt ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( all public money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4 ,no title ( nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u !m %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! congress1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title ( any k9d :atev]1 f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate4 ,sec4 #aj4 ,no /ate %all ent] into any treaty1 alliance1 or conf$]ation2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal2 co9 money2 emit bills ( cr$it2 make any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts2 pass any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1 or law impair+ ! obligation ( contracts2 or grant any title ( nobility4 ,no /ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! congress1 lay any impo/s or duties on imports or exports1 except :at may be absolutely necess>y = execut+ its inspection laws2 & ! net produce ( all duties & impo/s laid by any /ate on imports or exports1 %all be = ! use ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & all su* laws %all be subject to ! revision & control ( ! congress4 ,no /ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( congress1 lay any duty ( tonnage1 keep troops or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace1 ent] into any agreem5t or compact ) ano!r /ate1 or ) a =eign p[]1 or engage 9 w> unless actually invad$1 or 9 su* imm95t dang] z w n admit ( delay4 ,article ,,ii4 ,section #a4 ,! executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r ye>s1 &1 toge!r ) ! vice-presid5t1 *os5 = ! same t]m1 be elect$ z foll[s3 ,ea* /ate %all appo9t1 9 su* mann] z ! legislature !re( may direct1 a numb] ( electors equal to ! :ole numb] ( s5ators & repres5tatives to :i* ! /ate may be entitl$ 9 ! congress2 b no s5ator or repres5tative1 or p]son hold+ an (fice ( tru/ or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an elector4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective /ates1 & vote by ballot = two p]sons1 ( :om "o at lea/ %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same /ate ) !mselves4 ,& !y %all make a li/ ( all ! p]sons vot$ =1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i* li/ !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit1 seal$1 to ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! presid5t ( ! s5ate4 ,! presid5t ( ! s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes %all be ! presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if !re be m ?an "o :o h su* majority1 & h an equal numb] ( votes1 !n ! h\se ( repres5tatives %all imm$iately *oose by ballot "o ( !m = presid5t2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n1 f ! five highe/ on ! li/1 ! said h\se %all1 9 l mann]1 *oose ! presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by /ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* /ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds ( ! /ates1 & a majority ( ! /ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,9 e case1 aft] ! *oice ( ! presid5t1 ! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes ( ! electors1 %all be ! vice-presid5t4 ,b if !re %\ld rema9 two or m :o h equal votes1 ! s5ate %all *oose f !m1 by ballot1 ! vice-presid5t4 ,by ! #ab? article ( am5dm5t1 ! above clause has be5 repeal$4 ,! congress may det]m9e ! "t ( *oos+ ! electors1 & ! day on :i* !y %all give _! votes1 :i* day %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,no p]son1 except a natural born citiz51 or a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ?is con/itution1 %all be eligible to ! (fice ( presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son be eligible to t (fice :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty-five ye>s1 & be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 case ( ! removal ( ! presid5t f (fice1 or ( 8 dea?1 resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge ! p[]s & duties ( ! said (fice1 ! same %all devolve on ! vice-presid5t1 & ! congress may1 by law1 provide = ! case ( removal1 dea?1 resignation1 or inability1 bo? ( ! presid5t & vice-presid5t1 decl>+ :at (fic] %all !n act z presid5t2 & su* (fic] %all act accord+ly1 until ! disability be remov$1 or a presid5t %all be elect$4 ,! presid5t %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = 8 s]vices a comp5sation1 :i* %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ ! p]iod = :i* he %all h be5 elect$2 & he %all n receive1 )9 t p]iod1 any o!r emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m4 ,be=e he ent] on ! execution ( 8 (fice1 he %all take ! foll[+ oa? or affirmation3 ,i d solemnly swe> 7or affirm7 t ,i w fai?fully execute ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & w1 to ! be/ ( my ability1 pres]ve1 protect1 & def5d ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sec4 #b4 ,! presid5t %all be comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al /ates1 :5 call$ into ! actual s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he may require ! op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9 ea* ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 ^u any subject relat+ to ! duties ( _! respective (fices2 & he %all h p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons = (f5ses aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4 ,he %all h p[] by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! s5ate1 to make treaties1 provid$ two-?irds ( ! s5ators pres5t concur3 & he %all nom9ate1 & by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! s5ate1 %all appo9t ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 judges ( ! supreme c\rt1 & all o!r (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ^: appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise provid$ =1 & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by law3 b ! congress may1 by law1 ve/ ! appo9tm5t ( su* inf]ior (fic]s z !y ?9k prop]1 9 ! presid5t alone1 9 ! c\rts ( law1 or 9 ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 ,! presid5t %all h p[] to fill up all vacancies t may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all expire at ! end ( _! next session4 ,sec4 #c4 ,he %all f "t to "t give to ! congress in=mation ( ! /ate ( ! union2 & recomm5d to _! consid]ation su* measures z he %all judge necess>y & exp$i5t4 ,he may1 on extraord9>y occasions1 conv5e bo? h\ses1 or ei!r ( !m2 & 9 case ( disagreem5t betwe5 !m1 ) respect to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 he may adj\rn !m to su* "t z he %all ?9k prop]4 ,he %all receive ambassadors & o!r public m9i/]s4 ,he %all take c>e t ! laws be fai?fully execut$2 & %all commission all ! (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sec4 #d4 ,! presid5t1 vice-presid5t1 & all civil (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be remov$ f (fice on impea*m5t =1 & conviction (1 treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high crimes & misdemeanors4 ,article ,,iii4 ,section #a4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o supreme c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ! congress may1 f "t to "t1 orda9 & e/abli%4 ,! judges bo? ( ! supreme & inf]ior c\rts1 %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavior2 & %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = _! s]vices a comp5sation :i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,sec4 #b4 ,! judicial p[] %all ext5d to all cases 9 law & equity1 aris+ "u ?is con/itution1 ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1 "u _! au?ority2 to all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s1 & consuls2 to all cases ( admiralty & m>itime jurisdiction2 to controv]sies to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a p>ty1 to controv]sies betwe5 two or m /ates2 betwe5 a /ate & citiz5s ( ano!r /ate2 betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t /ates2 betwe5 citiz5s ( ! same /ate claim+ l&s "u grants ( diff]5t /ates2 & betwe5 a /ate1 or ! citiz5s !re(2 & =eign /ates1 citiz5s or subjects4 ,9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a /ate %all be a p>ty1 ! supreme c\rt %all h orig9al jurisdiction4 ,9 all ! o!r cases be=e m5tion$1 ! supreme c\rt %all h appellate jurisdiction1 bo? z to law & fact1 ) su* exceptions1 & "u su* regulations1 z ! congress %all make4 ,! trial ( all crimes1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by jury2 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! /ate :]e ! said crimes %all h be5 committ$2 b :5 n committ$ )9 any /ate1 ! trial %all be at su* place or places z ! congress may by law h direct$4 ,sec4 #c4 ,treason aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9 levy+ w> aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _! enemies1 giv+ !m aid & com=t4 ,no p]son %all be convict$ ( treason1 unless on ! te/imony ( two witnesses to ! same ov]t act1 or on confession 9 op5 c\rt4 ,! congress %all h p[] to decl>e ! puni%m5t ( treason2 b no atta9d] ( treason %all "w corruption ( blood1 or =feiture1 except dur+ ! life ( ! p]son atta9t$4 ,article ,,iv4 ,section #a4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv51 9 ea* /ate1 to ! public acts1 records1 & judicial proce$+s ( e o!r /ate4 ,& ! congress may1 by g5]al laws1 prescribe ! mann] 9 :i* su* acts1 records & proce$+s %all be prov$1 & ! effect !re(4 ,sec4 #b4 ,! citiz5s ( ea* /ate %all be entitl$ to all ! privileges & immunities ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al /ates4 ,a p]son *>g$ 9 any /ate ) treason1 felony1 or o!r crime1 :o %all flee f ju/ice1 & be f\nd 9 ano!r /ate1 %all1 on dem& ( ! executive au?ority ( ! /ate f :i* he fl$1 be deliv]$ up1 to be remov$ to ! /ate hav+ jurisdiction ( ! crime4 ,no p]son held to s]vice or labor 9 "o /ate1 "u ! laws !re(1 escap+ into ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any law or regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su* s]vice or labor2 b %all be deliv]$ up on claim ( ! p>ty to :om su* s]vice or labor may be due4 ,sec4 #c4 ,new /ates may be admitt$ by ! congress into ?is union2 b no new /ate %all be =m$ or erect$ )9 ! jurisdiction ( any o!r /ate1 nor any /ate be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m /ates1 or p>ts ( /ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! legislatures ( ! /ates conc]n$1 z well z ( ! congress4 ,! congress %all h p[] to dispose (1 & make all ne$ful rules & regulations respect+ ! t]ritory or o!r prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no?+ 9 ?is con/itution %all be s con/ru$ z to prejudice any claims ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or ( any p>ticul> /ate4 ,sec4 #d4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>anty to e /ate 9 ?is union1 a republican =m ( gov]nm5t2 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ invasion1 & on application ( ! legislature1 or ( ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$7 aga9/ dome/ic viol5ce4 ,article ,v4 ,! congress1 :5ev] two-?irds ( bo? h\ses %all deem x necess>y1 %all propose am5dm5ts to ?is con/itution1 or on ! application ( ! legislatures ( two-?irds ( ! sev]al /ates1 %all call a conv5tion = propos+ am5dm5ts2 :i*1 9 ei!r case1 %all be valid to all int5ts & purposes1 z "p ( ?is con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by ! legislatures ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sev]al /ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s !re(1 z ! "o or ! o!r mode ( ratification may be propos$ by ! congress3 ,provid$1 t no am5dm5t :i* may be made prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight1 %all 9 any mann] affect ! fir/ & f\r? clauses 9 ! n9? section ( ! fir/ article2 & t no /ate1 )\t its cons5t1 %all be depriv$ ( its equal suffrage 9 ! s5ate4 ,article ,,vi4 ,all debts contract$1 & engagem5ts ent]$ into1 be=e ! adoption ( ?is con/itution1 %all be z valid aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ?is con/itution1 z "u ! conf$]ation4 ,?is con/itution1 & ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* %all be made 9 pursuance !re(1 & all treaties made or :i* %all be made "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be ! supreme law ( ! l&1 & ! judges 9 e /ate %all be b\nd !reby1 any ?+ 9 ! con/itution or laws ( any /ate to ! contr>y not)/&+4 ,! s5ators & repres5tatives be=e m5tion$1 & ! memb]s ( ! sev]al legislatures1 & all executive & judicial (fic]s1 bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! sev]al /ates1 %all be b\nd1 by oa? or affirmation1 to support ?is con/itution2 b no religi\s te/ %all ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any (fice or public tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,article ,,vii4 ,! ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e /ates %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is con/itution betwe5 ! /ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,done 9 conv5tion1 by ! unanim\s cons5t ( ! /ates pres5t1 ! sev5te5? day ( ,septemb]1 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l "o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & eighty-sev51 & ( ! ,indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 ! twelf?4 ,9 witness :]e( we h h]eunto subscrib$ our names4 ,george ,wa%+ton1 ,presid5t1 & ,deputy f ,virg9ia4 ,new ,hamp%ire4--,john ,langdon1 ,ni*olas ,gilman4 ,massa*usetts4--,na?aniel ,gorham1 ,rufus ,k+4 ,connecticut4--,wm4 ,samuel ,johnson1 ,rog] ,%]man4 ,new-,york4--,alex&] ,hamilton4 ,new ,j]sey4--,william ,liv+/on1 ,david ,bre>ly1 ,william ,pat]son1 ,jona?an ,dayton4 ,p5nsylvania4--,b5jam9 ,frankl91 ,rob]t ,morris1 ,?omas ,fitzsimmons1 ,james ,wilson1 ,?omas ,miffl91 ,george ,clym]1 ,j>$ ,+]soll1 ,g\v]neur ,morris4 ,delaw>e4--,george ,read1 ,gunn+ ,b$=d1 ,jr41 ,john ,dick9son1 ,ri*>d ,bassett1 ,jacob ,broom4 ,m>yl&4--,james ,m',h5ry1 ,daniel ( ,/4 ,?omas ,j5if]1 ,daniel ,c>roll4 ,virg9ia4--,john ,blair1 ,james ,madison1 ,jr4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4--,william ,bl\nt1 ,ri*>d ,dobbs ,spaight1 ,hugh ,williamson4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4--,john ,rutl$ge1 ,*>les ,p9ckney1 ,pi]ce ,butl]1 ,*>les ,coteswor? ,p9ckney4 ,georgia4--,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldw94 ,atte/3 ,william ,jackson1 ,secret>y4 ,am5dm5ts4 ,article #a4 ,congress %all make no law respect+ an e/abli%m5t ( religion1 or prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(2 or abridg+ ! fre$om ( spee* or ( ! press2 or ! "r ( ! p peaceably to assemble1 & to petition ! gov]nm5t = a r$ress ( grievances4 ,art4 ,,ii4 ,a well regulat$ militia be+ necess>y to ! security ( a free /ate1 ! "r ( ! p to keep & be> arms %all n be infr+$4 ,art4 ,,iii4 ,no soldi] %all1 9 "t ( peace1 be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se )\t ! cons5t ( ! own]1 nor 9 a "t ( w>1 b 9 a mann] to be prescrib$ by law4 ,art4 ,,iv4 ,! "r ( ! p to be secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s & effects1 aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures1 %all n be violat$2 & no w>rant %all issue1 b ^u probable cause1 support$ by oa? or affirmation1 & p>ticul>ly describ+ ! place to be se>*$1 & ! p]son or ?+s to be seiz$4 ,art4 ,v4 ,no p]son %all be held to answ] = a capital or o!rwise infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or indictm5t ( a gr& jury1 except 9 cases aris+ 9 ! l& or naval =ces1 or 9 ! militia :5 9 actual s]vice1 9 "t ( w> or public dang]2 nor %all any p]son be subject1 = ! same (f5se1 to be twice put 9 jeop>dy ( life or limb1 nor %all be compell$1 9 any crim9al case1 to be a witness aga9/ himself2 nor be depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty or prop]ty1 )\t due process ( law2 nor %all private prop]ty be tak5 = public use1 )\t j comp5sation4 ,art4 ,,vi4 ,9 all crim9al prosecutions1 ! accus$ %all enjoy ! "r to a spe$y & public trial1 by an imp>tial jury ( ! /ate & di/rict :]e9 ! crime %all h be5 committ$1 :i* di/rict %all h be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$ by law1 & to be in=m$ ( ! nature & cause ( ! accusation2 to be confront$ ) ! witnesses aga9/ him2 to h compulsory process = obta9+ witnesses 9 8 favor1 & to h ! assi/ance ( c\nsel = 8 def5se4 ,art4 ,,vii4 ,9 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$ tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury %all be pres]v$1 & no fact tri$ by a jury %all be o!rwise reexam9$ 9 any c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4 ,art4 ,,viii4 ,excessive bail %all n be requir$1 nor excessive f9es impos$1 nor cruel & unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4 ,art4 ,,ix4 ,! enum]ation 9 ! con/itution ( c]ta9 rights1 %all n be con/ru$ to d5y or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4 ,art4 ,x4 ,! p[]s n delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by ! con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! /ates1 are res]v$ to ! /ates respectively1 or to ! p4 ,art4 ,,xi4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d to any suit 9 law or equity1 comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by citiz5s ( ano!r /ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign /ate4 ,art4 ,,xii4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective /ates & vote by ballot = presid5t & vice-presid5t1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same /ate ) !mselves2 !y %all "n 9 _! ballots ! p]son vot$ = z presid5t1 & 9 di/9ct ballots ! p]son vot$ = z vice-presid5t1 & !y %all make di/9ct li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z presid5t1 & ( all p]sons vot$ = z vice-presid5t1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i* li/s !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! presid5t ( ! s5ate2--! presid5t ( ! s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! s5ate & h\se ( repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$2--! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes = presid5t1 %all be ! presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h su* majority1 !n1 f ! p]sons hav+ ! highe/ numb]s1 n exce$+ ?ree1 on ! li/ ( ^? vot$ = z presid5t1 ! h\se ( repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1 by ballot1 ! presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by /ates1 ! repres5tatives f ea* /ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds ( ! /ates1 & a majority ( all ! /ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,& if ! h\se ( repres5tatives %all n *oose a presid5t :5ev] ! "r ( *oice %all devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r? day ( ,m>* next foll[+1 !n ! vice-presid5t %all act z presid5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dea? or o!r con/itutional disability ( ! presid5t4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes z vice-presid5t1 %all be ! vice-presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$1 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n1 f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/1 ! s5ate %all *oose ! vice-presid5t2 a quorum = ! purpose %all consi/ ( two-?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( s5ators1 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible to ! (fice ( presid5t %all be eligible to t ( vice-presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,index ,academies & colleges1 #hb ,accessories to crime1 #bbj ,actions at law1 def9$1 #fd h[ comm5c$1 #fd ,adjutant-g5]al1 #ib ,adm9i/rators1 duties (1 #agi ,admission ( /ates1 #aeh ,ag5t1 responsibilities (1 #bjb-bjd ,alabama1 con/itution (1 #bei ,ald]m51 duties (1 #fj ,ali5s1 p[] to pass laws = ! naturalization (1 #aba1 #abb disabilities (1 #aba ,alliance1 def9$1 #ace ,alliances1 :5 b9d+1 #bcj1 #bca by /ates1 prohibit$1 #ace ,am5dm5ts ( ! con/itution1 provision =1 #afj ,appeals ( suits1 #fh1 #fi ,appellant1 appellee1 def9$1 #fi ,apellate jurisdiction1 def9$1 #gj ,appo9tm5t1 p[] (1 7see ,gov]nor & ,presid5t47 ,appr5tices & s]vants1 #age1 #agf ,aquatic rights1 #ahc1 #ahe ,ari/ocracy1 def9$1 #be ,arkansas1 con/itution (1 #bfd ,army1 /&+1 #adi ,arre/ & exam9ation ( (f5d]s1 #fi ,ars5als1 use (1 #ib ,arson1 def9$1 #bag ,assault & batt]y1 #bbj ,assessm5t & collection ( taxes1 #gf-gh ,assessors1 duties (1 #gg ,assignm5ts1 #aig-aii ,assumption ( public debt1 #afj ,atta*m5t1 suit by1 #fh ,atta9d] ( treason1 #aee ,attorney1 def9$1 #fe ,attorney1 c\nty or /ate's1 #ea1 #ef ,attorney-g5]al1 /ate1 #ea ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aea ,auditor ( /ate1 #ea c\nty1 #fe ,auxili>y executive dep>tm5ts1 #adg-aea ,bail1 def9$1 h[ tak51 #fi1 #gj excessive1 =bidd51 #afe ,bailm5t1 #bjj-bjb ,ballot1 def9$1 #cc ,bankruptcy1 p[] to pass laws (1 #abd ,banks1 & _! op]ation1 #hf-hh ,bellig]5t1 def9$ #bbh ,bett+ & gam+1 #bba ,bigamy1 def9$1 #bai ,bill1 def9$1 #de ,bills1 passage (1 #de-dc ,bills ( atta9d]1 by congress1 prohibit$1 #acc by /ates1 prohibit$1 #acg ( cr$it1 def9$1 #acf passage (1 prohibit$1 #acf ( ex*ange1 #bac-bae ,blockade1 def9$1 #bcf ,body politic1 def9$1 #ai1 #ed ,brib]y1 def9$1 #bai ,brok] & brok]age1 #bjd1 #bje ,bullion1 def9$1 #abe ,burgl>y1 def9$1 #bah ,cab9et1 def9$1 #adg (fic]s (1 & _! p[]s & duties1 #adg ,cali=nia1 con/itution ( #bgg ,canals1 con/ruction (1 #hb-hd tolls on1 #hd ,canvass+ ( votes1 #cd ,capital1 def9$1 #da1 #baf ,capitation or poll-tax1 #gf1 #gg1 #acc ,c>ri]s ( goods1 liability (1 #bja1 #bjb ,causes1 crim9al & civil1 def9$1 #fd ,ca/+ vote1 :5 giv51 #df ,*all5g+ vot]s1 #cc ,*>ges d'affaires1 #ade ,*>t]1 def9$1 #ei ,*attel mortgages1 #aii ,cities1 villages1 c41 #ei-fb ,citiz5s1 privileges (1 9 ! sev]al /ates1 #aeg ,civil gov]nm5t1 def9$1 #ag mank9d fitt$ =1 #ag ,civil society1 #ag ,cle>ance ( vessels1 #abj ,codicil1 def9$1 #agi ,co9+ money1 p[] (1 #abd by /ates1 prohibit$1 #acf ,collection ( taxes1 #gf-gh ,colony1 def9$1 #ie ,colonies1 gov]nm5t (1 #ie ,comm]ce1 =eign1 regulation (1 #aad-aai ,comm]ce1 dome/ic1 p[] ( congress to regulate1 #aba1 #abb ) ,indians1 #abb ,commiss>y-g5]al1 #ib ,commission]s1 c\nty1 duties (1 #ed ,committees1 legislative1 #dd1 #de ,common c>ri]s1 responsibilities (1 #bja1 #bjb ,common c\ncil1 #fj ,common law1 def9$1 #afg ,commons1 h\se (1 #bi ,common s*ools1 s*ool funds1 c41 #gi-hb ,commonweal?1 def9$1 #bf ,conf$]acy1 def9$1 #aja ,conf$]ation1 :5 =m$1 #ig nature (1 #ih1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb ,confiscate1 def9$1 #bcj ,congress1 "u conf$]ation1 h[ con/itut$1 #ig1 #ajb ,congress "u con/itution1 h[ con/itut$1 #ajd-aji ,congress1 p[]s (1 7see ,p[]s ( ,congress17 ,c\nt]feit+1 def9$1 #bah ,unit$ ,/ates co91 p[] to puni%1 #abe ,connecticut1 con/itution (1 #bdd ,con/ables1 duties (1 #eh ,con/itution1 def9$1 #bg objects (1 #bg h[ =m$1 #bg1 #bh ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bha hi/ory (1 #ajj nature (1 #aja-ajd h[ am5d$1 #afj supremacy (1 #afa ratification (1 by ! /ates1 #afb am5dm5ts to1 #afc-aff ,consuls1 appo9tm5t (1 #add duties (1 #ade1 #bbg1 #bbh ,contrab& goods1 #bce1 #bcf ,contracts 9 g5]al1 #ahi-aic ,contracts ( sale1 #aic-aig ,contracts1 obligation (1 n to be impair$1 #acg ,controll]1 or auditor1 #ea ,conv5tion1 def9$1 #bh ,conv5tional law ( nations1 #bbd ,copy-rights & pat5ts1 p[] ( congress conc]n+1 #abf1 #abg ,coron]s1 duties (1 #ee ,corporation1 def9$1 #ed ,corporations1 h[ =m$1 #ei nature & p[]s (1 #ei-fb ,corruption ( blood1 #aee ,c\ncil1 legislative1 #ch ,c\nties1 orig9 (1 #ec1 #ed p[]s (1 #ed ,c\nty (fic]s duties (1 #ed-ff ,c\nty commission]s1 #ed ,c\rts1 ju/ices1 #fc-gj c\nty1 #gj common pleas1 #gj circuit1 #gj1 #ga oy] & t]m9]1 #ga supreme1 #gc ( appeals1 #gc ( *anc]y or equity1 #gc1 #gd ( probate1 #gd ( impea*m5t1 #ge1 #gf ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aea1 #aed m>tial1 #ib ,crime1 infam\s1 def9$1 #ca ,crimes & misdemeanors1 #baf-bba ,crim9al suits1 def9$1 #fd ,cu/oms1 duties1 c41 def9$1 #aac collection (1 #aai ,debt1 national1 at diff]5t p]iods1 #aad ,decl>ation ( w>1 #bca ,de$s & mortgages1 #aha-ahc ,delaw>e1 con/itution (1 #bej ,delegate1 def9$1 #bg ,democracy1 def9$1 #be1 #bf ,deposit fund1 ,u4,s41 #hj ,deposits 9 banks1 #hg ,deposit>y1 responsibility (1 #bjj ,desc5t ( prop]ty1 ( inte/ates1 #agi1 #ahj ,despotism1 def9$1 #be ,devise ( prop]ty1 #agg ,diplomacy1 def9$1 #adh ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 p[] ( congress ov]1 #acj ,divid5ds1 def9$1 #hf ,dome/ic relations1 laws regulat+1 #aga-agg ,d[]1 def9$1 & "r (1 #ahc ,drunk>ds1 contracts made by1 :5 b9d+1 #aia ,duel+1 def9$1 #bai ,duties1 impo/s & excises1 def9$1 #aac p[] ( congress to lay1 #aac ( tunnage1 /ates may n lay1 #abj protective1 by :at au?ority laid1 #aaf1 #aag ,easem5t1 def9$1 7see ,"r ( ,way17 #ahc ,education1 provision =1 c41 #gi ,elections1 "t (1 h[ conduct$1 c41 #cb-ce by plurality1 #cd-ce by majority1 #cd-ce ,electors1 qualifications (1 #bi-ca 7,see also ,synopsis ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions47 ,electors ( presid5t & vice-presid5t1 h[ *os51 #adj ,embassadors1 m9i/]s1 c1 #add1 #ade _! appo9tm5t & duties1 #add1 #ade ,embassadors1 rights & p[]s (1 #bbf1 #bbg ,embezzlem5t1 def9$1 #bah ,envoys1 7see ,embassadors47 ,escapes1 p]sons aid+ or p]mitt+1 puni%able1 #bbj ,excise1 def9$1 & p[] to lay1 #aab1 #aac ,execution1 issu+ & collection (1 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #fg1 #fh exemption f1 #fh ,executive dep>tm5t1 /ate1 #cf1 #dh-ej ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ach-adb (fic]s (1 _! appo9tm5t & duties1 #adg-aej ,executors1 p[]s & duties (1 #agi ,ex po/ facto laws1 passage (1 prohibit$1 #acc1acg ,factor or ag5t1 p[]s & responsibilities (1 #bjb1 #bjc ,false imprisonm5t1 def9$1 #bbj ,f$]al1 def9$1 #aja ,f5ce-view]s1 duties (1 #eh ,fee & fee-simple1 def9$1 #ahb1 #ahf ,felony1 p[] ( congress to def9e & puni%1 #abh ,florida1 con/itution (1 #beh ,=g]y1 def9$1 #bah ,fran*ise1 def9$1 #ca ,frank+ privilege1 to :om grant$1 #aea ,fraudul5t sales1 assignm5ts1 c41 #aig1 #bjj ,fre$om ( spee* & ( ! press1 gu>anti$1 #afc ,freehold1 freehold]1 def9$1 #ca ,fugitives f ju/ice1 provision = ! appreh5sion (1 #aeg f s]vice1 appreh5sion & return (1 #aeg1 #aeh ,fund1 def9$1 #gi ,funds1 v>i\s k9ds (1 #gi-ha ,georgia1 con/itution (1 #beg ,gov]nm5t1 civil1 def9$1 #ag diff]5t =ms (1 #bc-bf division ( p[]s (1 #ce-cg ,gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor1 election & duties (1 #dh-ej ,graves1 op5+ (1 puni%able1 #bai ,great ,brita91 gov]nm5t (1 #bh1 #bi ,habeas corpus1 privilege ( writ (1 gu>anti$1 #acb ,h]$itam5ts1 corporeal & incorporeal1 def9$1 #ahc ,highways1 sup]vision & ov]sight (1 #fh ,homicide1 v>i\s k9ds (1 def9$1 #bag ,husb& & wife1 laws regulat+ ! relation (1 #aga-agd ,idiots & lunatics1 contracts by1 :5 b9d+1 #aij ,ill9ois1 con/itution (1 #bgb ,impea*m5t1 trial (1 #ge ,impo/s1 duties1 & excises1 def9$1 #aac ,ince/1 def9$1 #bai ,incorporat$ companies1 #fa ,indep5d5ce ( ! /ates decl>$1 #ig ,indiana1 con/itution (1 #bgj ,indians1 p[] to regulate comm]ce )1 #abb ,indictm5ts1 h[ made1 #gg ,innkeep]s1 liability (1 #bja ,insurance companies1 #hi1 #ij ,insurrection & rebellion1 def9$1 #ij ,int]e/1 & rates (1 9 ! diff]5t /ates1 #bae ,inte/ates1 desc5t ( prop]ty (1 #agi1 #ahj ,i[a1 con/itution (1 #bgf ,issue1 jo9+ (1 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #fe ,issues ( fact & ( law1 def9$1 #ga ,jo9+ issue 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #fe ,judges1 appo9tm5t (1 9 ! /ates1 #gj h[ removable1 #gf 7,see also ,synopsis ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions47 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts1 appo9tm5t (1 #add1 #adf ,judgm5t1 r5d]+ (1 #fe concession & collection (1 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #fg1 #fh ,judicial dep>tm5t1 /ate1 #fc-gf ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aea-aed ,jurisdiction1 def9$1 #fd orig9al & appellate1 def9$1 #gj ,juries 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #ff1 #fg gr& & petit1 #ga ,jury1 "r ( trial by1 secur$1 #ff1 #afd1 #afe ,ju/ices' c\rts1 proce$+s (1 #fd-gj ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 jurisdiction (1 #fd ,k5tucky1 con/itution (1 #bfh ,l>c5y1 gr& & petit1 def9$1 #bah ,law1 def9$1 #af common & /atute1 def9$1 #afg ,laws necessity (1 #bb man fitt$ =1 #ag political1 civil1 municipal1 def9$1 #ba1 #bb mann] ( enact+1 #dc-dh ,laws ( nations1 def9$1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbd ,leases1 or e/ates = life1 = ye>s1 at w1 & by suff]ance1 r5t1 c41 #ahf-ahi ,legislatures1 /ate1 h[ =m$1 #cg-dj meet+s (1 #dj-dc organization & (fic]s (1 #da-dc ,lett]s te/am5t>y1 & by :om issu$1 #agi ( adm9i/ration1 & by :om issu$1 #agi ,libel & sl&]1 law conc]n+1 #afh1 #afi ,lib]ty1 def9$1 #bj1 #afg ( spee* & ( ! press1 secur$1 #afc ( consci5ce1 #ai1 #agj ,li51 law conc]n+1 #bjc1 #bje ,lieut5ant-gov]nor1 duties (1 #di ,lords1 h\se (1 #bi ,l\isiana1 con/itution (1 #bfb ,maim+1 def9$1 #bag ,ma9e1 con/itution (1 #bci ,man1 fitt$ = gov]nm5t & laws1 #af1 #ag ,m&at>y1 responsibility (1 #bjj ,manife/1 def9$1 #aba ,mank9d1 fitt$ = society1 #ae1 #ag ,manslaught]1 def9$1 #bag ,m>que & reprisal1 def9$1 #abi p[] to issue lett]s (1 #abi /ates may n issue1 #acf ,m>riage1 law conc]n+1 #aga ,m>yl&1 con/itution (1 #beb ,massa*usetts1 con/itution (1 #bdb ,ma/]s1 appr5tices1 & s]vants1 #age-agg ,mayor1 election & duties (1 #fj ,mi*igan1 con/itution (1 #bgc ,militia1 regulation (1 #ij-ib ,m9i/]s1 public1 _! appo9tm5t & duties1 #add1 #ade privilege & p[]s (1 #ade1 #bbg ,m9ors1 rights & liabilities (1 #age ,m9nesota1 con/itution (1 #bgh ,m9ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #abe ,misdemeanors1 def9$1 #fd1 #bba ,mississippi1 con/itution (1 #bfj ,miss\ri1 con/itution (1 #bfe ,mon>*y1 def9$1 #bd1 #be ,money1 p[] ( congress to borr[1 #aad p[] ( congress to co91 #abd co9+ (1 by /ates1 prohibit$1 #acf h[ borr[$1 #hd ,moral1 def9$1 #af law1 def9$1 #ba ,mortgages1 l&1 nature (1 #ahb *attel1 #aii ,murd]1 def9$1 #bag ,nation & /ate1 def9$1 #ag ,nations1 jurisdiction (1 #bbe rights & obligations (1 #bbf-bbh ,naturalization1 p[] to pass laws conc]n+1 #abb1 #abc ,navigation1 regulation (1 #aai-aba acts ( ,great ,brita91 #ii ,navy dep>tm5t1 :5 e/abli%$1 #adh ,negative1 or veto1 def9$1 #dg ,neutral nations1 rights & duties (1 #bbh1 #bcd-bcg ,new ,hamp%ire1 con/itution (1 #bdj ,new ,j]sey1 con/itution (1 #bdg ,new ,york1 con/itution (1 #bde ,new /ates1 p[] ( congress to admit1 #aeh ,nonsuit1 judgm5t (1 #ff ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 con/itution (1 #bee ,not>ies public1 duties (1 #bad ,notes1 promissory1 #bjg-bab ,oa?s ( (fice1 #afa te/1 =bidd51 #afa ,obligation ( contracts1 may n be impair$1 #acg ,obligations ( nations1 #bbe ,(f5d]s1 arre/ ( & exam9ation1 #fi ,(f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations1 p[] to def9e1 #abh ,ohio1 con/itution (1 #bfi ,ov]se]s ( highways1 duties (1 #eh ( poor1 duties (1 #eh ,p>don & reprieve1 p[] (1 #di1 #adc ,p>5t & *ild1 law conc]n+1 #agd1 #age ,p>liam5t1 h[ =m$1 #bi ,p>ol contracts1 def9$1 #aij ,p>tn]%ip1 law conc]n+1 #bje1 #bjg ,passports1 def9$1 #abj1 #aba ,pat5ts & copy-rights1 h[ secur$1 #abf1 #abg ,patri>*1 def9$1 #bc ,pawnee1 liability (1 #bja ,peace1 treaties (1 #bcg1 #bch ,p5nsylvania1 con/itution (1 #bdh ,p5sions1 milit>y1 #adi ,p]jury1 def9$1 #bai ,p]sonal e/ate1 def9$1 #gg ,piracies & felonies1 p[] ( congress conc]n+1 #abh ,plead+s1 9 ju/ices' c\rts1 #fe ,police c\rts & ju/ices1 #fj ,policy1 insurance1 def9$1 #hi ,political law1 def9$1 #ba1 #bg p[]1 by :om ex]cis$1 #bi-ca ,poll1 def9$1 #cb1 #cc ,poll-li/1 h[ & by :om kept1 #cb ,poll or capitation tax1 #gf1 #gg1 #acc ,polygamy1 def9$1 #bai ,poor1 ov]se]s (1 _! duties1 #eh ,po/ma/]-g5]al1 p[] & duties (1 #adi1 #aej ,po/ma/]s1 appo9tm5t & duties (1 #adi1 #aej comp5sation (1 #adi1 #aej ,po/-(fices & po/ roads1 p[] to e/abli%1 #abf ,p[] ( congress to lay & collect taxes1 c41 #aab-aad to borr[ money1 #aad to regulate comm]ce1 #aad-aai 9 relation to naturalization & bankruptcy1 #abb-abd to co9 money1 & regulate weights & measures1 #abd-abe to puni% c\nt]feit+1 #abe to e/abli% po/-(fices1 c41 #abf to secure pat5ts & copy-rights1 #abf1 #abg to def9e & puni% piracies1 felonies1 c41 #abh to decl>e w>1 #abh to issue lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 #abi to provide = ! national def5se1 g5]ally1 #abi1acj to legislate ov] ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 #acj to make all necess>y & prop] laws1 #acj1 #aca ,p[] ( congress to decl>e puni%m5t ( treason1 #aee to admit new /ates1 #aeh to dispose ( & regulate t]ritory & o!r public prop]ty1 #aei ,p[]s prohibit$ to congress1 7see prohibitions on congress47 ,premium1 def9$1 #hi ,prescription1 "r by1 #ahc1 #ahd ,presid5t & vice-presid5t1 h[ *os51 #aci-ada ,presid5t1 p[]s & duties (1 #adc-adg vacancy 9 (fice1 h[ fill$1 #adb p[] (1 to fill vacancies1 #adf ,pr9cipal & ag5t1 responsibility (1 #bjb1 #bje ,pr9t+1 public1 by :om & h[ done1 #eb ,private]+1 9 :at cases au?oriz$1 #bcc1 #bcd ,prizes 9 w>1 h[ dispos$ (1 #bcd ,prohibition on congress-- to aboli% ! slave trade1 #aca1 #acb to susp5d habeas corpus1 #acb1 #acc to pass bills ( atta9d]1 #acc to pass ex po/ facto laws1 #acc 9 relation to taxation & comm]ce1 #acc1 #acd to grant titles ( nobility1 #ace ,prohibition on ! /ates-- to =m treaties1 alliances1 c41 #ace to grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 #acf to co9 money1 #acf to emit bills ( cr$it1 #acf to make any?+ b co9 a t5d]1 #acf to impair ! obligation ( contracts1 #acg to pass bills ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto laws1 #acg to grant titles ( nobility1 #acg to lay duties1 #acg1 #ach ,promissory notes1 rules conc]n+1 #bjg-bab ,protective duties1 nature ( describ$1 #aaf1 #aag ,qu>ant9e regulations1 #aba ,quorum1 def9$1 #db ,rail-roads1 by :at au?ority & h[ made1 #hd1 #he ,ratification ( con/itution by /ates1 #afb ( treaties1 #add ,ratio ( repres5tation 9 congress1 h[ asc]ta9$1 c41 #aje1 #ajf ,real e/ate1 def9$1 #gg ( inte/ates1 desc5t (1 #agi1 #ahj ,rebellion1 def9$1 #ij1 #ia ,recognizance1 def9$1 #fi ,record] or regi/]1 c\nty1 duties (1 #ee ,records1 public1 prov+ & effect (1 #aef1 #aeg ,regi/ry ( vessels1 #abj ,religion1 fre$om 9 matt]s (1 secur$1 #afc ,repres5tative1 def9$1 #bg1 #bh ,repres5tatives1 /ate1 h[ apportion$ & elect$1 #cg-ci qualifications (1 #dj ,repres5tatives 9 congress1 h[ apportion$1 #aje qualifications (1 #ajd1 #aje ,reprieve & p>don1 def9$1 & p[] to grant1 #di1 #adc ,reprisals1 p[] to make1 =bidd5 to /ates1 #acf ,reprisals 9 w>1 #bbi1 #bcj ,republic1 def9$1 #bf ,republican gov]nm5t1 gu>anti$ to ! /ates1 #aei ,respond5t1 def9$1 #fi ,rev5ue1 def9$1 #hj national1 h[ rais$1 #aab-aad ,revolution1 causes (1 #id-ig ,rhode ,isl&1 con/itution (1 #bdc ,rights & lib]ty1 def9$1 #ah-bj ,rights ( p]son & prop]ty1 def9$1 #ah1 #ai1 #afg ,"r ( prop]ty1 h[ acquir$1 #af1 #agg ,"r by prescription1 #ahd-ahf ,"r ( way1 law conc]n+1 #ahc1 #ahd ,"r ( wat]s1 #ahc1 #ahe ,"r ( se>*1 #bcf ,riot1 def9$1 & h[ suppress$1 #bbj ,roads1 7see ,highways47 ,robb]y1 def9$1 #bah ,s*ool funds1 s*ools1 c41 #gi-hb ,seal] ( weights & measures1 duty (1 #ei ,secret>y ( /ate1 ( /ate gov]nm5t1 #ej ,secret>y ( /ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 duties (1 #adh ( ! treasury1 #adh ( ! int]ior1 #adi ( w>1 #adi ( ! navy1 #adi ,selectm51 duties (1 #eg ,s5ate1 /ate1 h[ con/itut$1 #ch-dj ,s5ators & repres5tatives1 qualifications (1 #dj 7,see ,/ate ,con/itutions47 ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h[ =m$1 #ajh1 #aji qualifications ( memb]s (1 #aaa vacancies 91 h[ fill$1 #aaj1 #aaa ,s]geant-at-arms1 appo9tm5t & duties (1 #db ,s]vants1 rights & liabilities (1 #agf1 #agg ,%]iff & %ire1 orig9 (1 #ec1 #ed p[]s & duties (1 #ee ,sl&] & libel1 law conc]n+1 #afh1 #afi ,slave trade1 n to be prohibit$ be=e #ahjh1 #aca1 #acb decl>$ piracy1 #acb ,society1 civil1 def9$1 #ag mank9d fitt$ =1 #ae-ag ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 con/itution (1 #bef ,sov]eignty1 def9$1 #bd ,speak] ( h\se & s5ate1 #da ,specialty1 def9$1 #bhc ,spies 9 w>1 #bcc ,/ate & nation1 def9$1 #ag ,/ate con/itutions1 synopsis (1 #bci-bhj ,/ate (fic]s1 executive1 #ej-eb ,/ate records1 effect & pro( (1 #aef1 #aeg ,/ate pr9t]1 appo9tm5t & bus9ess (1 #eb ,/atute law1 def9$1 #afg ,/ocks1 public1 def9$1 #hd ,/ratagems 9 w>1 #bcc ,subpo5a1 nature & s]vice (1 #fe ,summons1 suits comm5c$ by1 #fd-ff ,sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 duties (1 #eb1 #ha ,sup]visors1 bo>d (1 ( :om compos$1 #ed ( t[ns1 duties (1 #ed1 #eg ( highways1 duties (1 #eh ,surveyor ( c\nty1 #ef ,surveyor-g5]al1 duties (1 #eb ,swe>+1 pr(ane1 unlawful1 #bba ,synopsis ( ! /ate con/itutions1 #bci-bhj ,taxation1 p[] ( congress 9 relation to1 #aab-aad ,taxes1 assessm5t & collection (1 #gf-gh h[ apportion$ among ! /ates1 #ajf-ajg ,t5d]1 :at lawful1 #acf ,t5nessee1 con/itution (1 #bff ,te/am5t1 7see ,wills & ,te/am5ts47 ,texas1 con/itution (1 #bfc ,!ocracy1 def9$1 & gov]nm5t (1 #bd ,t[n cl]k1 duties (1 #eg ,t[n (fic]s1 election & duties (1 #ef-ei ,t[ns & t[n%ips1 organization & p[]s (1 #ec1 #ef ,treason aga9/ /ates1 def9$1 #bag p[] ( congress conc]n+1 #aee1 #aef atta9d] (1 #aee ,treasur]1 ( /ate1 duties (1 #ea ( c\nty1 #ed1 #ee ( t[ns1 #eh ,treaties1 h[ & by :om made1 #bdd by /ates prohibit$1 #ace ( peace1 #bcg1 #bch ,treaty1 def9$1 #add ,truces 9 w>1 #bcg ,tru/ees ( t[n%ips1 p[] & duties (1 #eg ,tunnage1 duties1 /ates prohibit$ to lay1 #aai1 #abj ,union1 nature ( !1 #aja-ajd ,usury1 def9$1 & =feiture 9 case (1 #bae ,vacancy1 9 legislature1 h[ fill$1 #dj 9 ,unit$ ,/ates s5ate1 h[ fill$1 #aaj1 #aaa ,v5ire issu+ (1 #fg ,v]dict1 def9$1 & h[ r5d]$1 #fg ,v]mont1 con/itution (1 #bda ,vessels1 regi/ry1 & measurem5t (1 #abj ,veto1 def9$1 #dg ,veto1 9 diff]5t /ates1 7see ,/ate ,con/itutions47 ,villages1 incorporation & gov]nm5t (1 #fa ,virg9ia1 con/itution (1 #bec ,viva voce1 vot+ by1 #cd ,vot]s1 qualifications (1 9 diff]5t /ates1 7see ,/ate ,con/itutions47 ,w>1 p[] ( congress to decl>e1 #abh (f5sive & def5sive1 #bbh1 #bca causes & objects (1 #bbh1 #bbi reprisals 91 #bbi1 #bcj alliances 91 #bcj1 #bca h[ decl>$1 #bca effect (1 on ! enemy's subjects1 #bcb /ratagems 91 #bcc private]+ & prizes1 #bcc1 #bcd truces 91 #bcg ,w>rant1 prosecution by1 #fi ,weights & measures1 #ei1 #abe ,wills & te/am5ts1 #agg1 #agi ,wiscons91 con/itution (1 #bge ,que/ions ,*apt] ,i4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! natural /ate ( mank9d8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at r5d]s !m mutually dep5d5t8 ,by :at means are !y enabl$ to supply _! wants8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y %\ld e man labor = himself8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at comes f ?is arrangem5t8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ are ! rights ( m5 secur$ to !m8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is law8 ,sec4#g4 ,= :at else ?an society are mank9d fitt$ by nature8 ,def9e moral4 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is impli$ 9 man's hav+ a moral nature8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at qualities or faculties 9 mank9d fit !m = gov]nm5t & law8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is a /ate or nation8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is ! object ( =m+ /ate associations8 ,:at is meant by civil gov]nm5t8 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,sec4#b4 ,def9e ! ^w "r4 ,may we d :atev] we please8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y are rights call$ natural8 ,:y inali5able8 ,h[ may !y be lo/8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are p]sonal rights8 ,def9e rights ( p]son & "r ( prop]ty4 ,/ate ! di/9ction betwe5 p]sonal rights & ! rights ( p]son4 ,sec4#e4 ,def9e political rights4 ,:at p>ticul> rights are political8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are civil rights8 ,sec4#g4 ,religi\s rights8 ,:at else are !y call$8 ,sec4#h4 ,"u :at g5]al t]m are ! diff]5t rights embrac$8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is lib]ty8 ,political1 civil1 & religi\s lib]ty8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r & lib]ty8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at does ?is example fur!r expla98 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e law4 ,by :at names are laws di/+ui%$8 ,sec4#b4 ,def9e ! law ( nature4 ,sec4#c4 ,f :at does ! law ( nature arise8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is meant by ! moral law8 ,sec4#e4 ,def9e political law4 ,sec4#f4 ,def9e municipal4 ,h[ are municipal or civil laws di/+ui%$ f political8 ,sec4#g4 ,ought ! div9e law 9 all cases to be obey$8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y !n are human laws necess>y8 ,sec4#i4 ,c y give any o!r reason8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at measure ( love is due to ! ,creator & our fell[ m5 respectively8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at are ! *>act]i/ics ( ?is law ( love8 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at 7 ! e>lie/ gov]nm5ts8 ,def9e patri>*4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at 0 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,hebrews call$8 ,def9e !ocracy4 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is sov]eign or supreme p[]8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is a mon>*y8 ,an absolute mon>*y8 ,a limit$ mon>*y8 ,sec4#e4 ,a h]$it>y mon>*y8 ,an elective mon>*y8 ,sec4#f4 ,a despotism8 ,def9e despot & tyrant4 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is an ari/ocracy8 ,def9e ! ^w ,sec4#h4 ,:at is a democracy8 ,def9e ! ^w4 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is a republic8 ,:]e9 d a democracy & a republic diff]8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is a commonweal?8 ,*apt] ,v4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! object ( civil gov]nm5t8 ,h[ is ?is object be/ secur$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is a con/itution8 ,by :at "n is x call$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is x's nature8 ,sec4#d4 ,by :at au?ority is a con/itution made8 ,sec4#e4 ,by :om is a con/itution =m$8 ,:at is ! assembly call$8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ is a con/itution adopt$8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ are ! rights ( ! p secur$ by a con/itution8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is ! condition ( ! p 9 an absolute mon>*y8 ,sec4#i4 ,describe briefly ! gov]nm5t ( ,great ,brita94 ,:at political rights h ! p8 ,sec4#aj4 ,( :at does ! con/itution ( ,great ,brita9 consi/8 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,sec4#a4 ,by :at are ! qualifications ( vot]s prescrib$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:o are freem58 ,sec4#c4 ,:y %\ld none b freem5 vote8 ,sec4#d4 ,:y is a t]m ( resid5ce requir$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:y are n ali5s imm$iately all[$ to vote8 ,sec4#f4 ,9 :at /ate d color$ m5 vote8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ are electors sometimes disfran*is$8 ,:at is an infam\s crime8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is said ( prop]ty z a qualification8 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,sec4#a4 ,= :at purpose is ! t]ritory ( a /ate divid$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are ! t]ritorial divisions ( a /ate call$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:5 are /ate elections g5]ally held8 ,sec4#d4 ,by :om are elections conduct$8 ,def9e poll4 ,sec4#e4 ,describe ! mann] ( vot+4 ,def9e ballot4 ,sec4#f4 ,:o may *all5ge vot]s8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ & :y are vot]s regi/]$8 ,are !y regi/]$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ is x det]m9$ :at p]sons are elect$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is viva voce vot+8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is an election by plurality8 ,by majority8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at objections are !re to ei!r ( ^! models8 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,sec4#a1 #b4 ,:at division ( p[] is fir/ m5tion$8 ,give ! di/9ction betwe5 ! political & civil p[]s4 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is said ( political p[] 9 absolute & mix$ gov]nm5ts8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ is ! civil p[] divid$8 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( ! legislature8 ,h[ is a legislature con/itut$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is ! executive dep>tm5t8 ,9 :om is ! p[] ve/$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( ! judicial dep>tm5t8 ,( :at does x consi/8 ,sec4#g4 ,c y give any reasons = ?is division ( ! civil p[]8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ is ! legislative p[] divid$8 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,sec4#a4 ,( :at bran*es is a legislature compos$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:y is only "o call$ h\se ( repres5tatives8 ,sec4#c4 ,= h[ long t]ms are s5ators *os58 ,h[ long 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,:y is ! s5ate call$ upp] h\se8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ are s5ators apportion$8 ,h[ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ are repres5tatives apportion$8 ,= :at t]ms elect$8 ,h[ apportion$1 & = :at t]m elect$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is ! g5]al object ( apportionm5t8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ 9 an equal repres5tation provid$ =8 ,sec4#i4 ,h[ (t5 are enum]ations made8 ,h[ (t5 9 ?is /ate8 ,def9e c5sus8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at are ! qualifications ( s5ators & repres5tatives 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#aa4 ,h[ are vacancies fill$ 9 ! s5ate8 ,*apt] ,x4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ (t5 d legislatures meet8 ,h[ (t5 9 ?is /ate8 ,:at is meant by session8 ,sec4#b4 ,:]e d legislatures meet8 ,:at is ! place call$8 ,sec4#c4 ,to :at are memb]s b\nd by _! oa? ( (fice8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are ! h\ses organiz$8 ,:at are ! presid+ (fic]s call$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at are _! g5]al duties8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at o!r (fic]s are *os58 & :at are _! duties8 ,sec4#g4 ,def9e quorum4 ,:at numb] is a quorum 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,are ! proce$+s ev] secret8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at provision is made to prev5t int]ruption8 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,sec4#a4 ,:5 is ! gov]nor's message communicat$8 ,:at does x conta98 ,sec4#b4 ,9 :at o!r way are measures introduc$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is done to exp$ite bus9ess8 ,h[ are committees appo9t$8 & :at d !y d8 ,sec4#e4 ,"n "s ( ! committees4 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are /&+ committees8 ,select committees8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ d committees dis*>ge _! duties8 ,sec4#h4 ,:]e9 does ! utility ( committees appe>8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is a bill8 ,sec4#aj4 ,by :om1 & h[1 are bills introduc$8 ,sec4#aa4 ,h[ (t5 mu/ a bill be read8 ,:5 is x am5d$8 ,sec4#ab4 ,aft] ! second read+ & am5dm5t1 :at foll[s8 ,sec4#ac4 ,describe ! proce$+s on ! f9al passage ( a bill4 ,sec4#ad4 ,h[ is x act$ on 9 ! o!r h\se8 ,sec4#ae4 ,:y is a legislature divid$ into two bran*es8 ,sec4#af4 ,:y are bills submitt$ to ! gov]nor = 8 approval8 ,def9e veto4 ,sec4#ag4 ,:at if a gov]nor refuses to sign a bill8 ,are bills pres5t$ to ! gov]nor 9 ?is /ate8 ,if s1 & he disapproves !m1 by :at majorities mu/ !y be aga9 pass$8 ,)9 h[ _m days is he to return bills 9 ?is /ate8 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,sec4#a4 ,= :at t]ms are gov]nors *os58 ,= :at t]m 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are ! qualifications = gov]nor 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at are 8 g5]al p[]s & duties8 ,sec4#d4 ,9 :at cases has he p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons8 ,def9e ^! words4 ,:at is commute8 ,sec4#e4 ,are any (fic]s 9 ?is /ate appo9t$ by ! gov]nor8 ,is !re a c\ncil8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are ! duties ( a lieut5ant-gov]nor8 ,is !re "o 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,:5 he acts z gov]nor1 :o takes ! *air ( ! s5ate8 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at assi/ant executive (fic]s are !re 9 ?is /ate8 ,are !y appo9t$ or elect$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y ( /ate8 ,sec4#c4 ,( an auditor or controll]8 ,sec4#d4 ,( a treasur]8 ,sec4#e4 ,( :at (fic]s are sureties requir$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are ! duties ( an attorney-g5]al8 ,is !re "o 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,! duties ( surveyor-g5]al8 ,is !re "o 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,a sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( /ate pr9t]8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at o!r /ate (fic]s are !re8 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,sec4#a4 ,= :at reasons is a /ate divid$ into c\nties & t[n%ips8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ l>ge are t[n%ips8 ,sec4#c4 ,f :at comes ! "n ( c\nty8 ,( %ire1 & %]iff8 ,sec4#d4 ,def9e corporation4 ,:at p[]s h t[n & c\nty corporations8 ,sec4#e4 ,9 :at (fic]s are ^! p[]s ve/$8 ,9 :om 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are ! duties ( a c\nty treasur]8 ,sec4#g4 ,( a regi/] or record]8 ,:]e are de$s1 c41 record$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at are a %]iff's duties8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( a coron]8 ,sec4#aj4 ,are !re /ate's attorneys 9 ! c\nties ( ?is /ate8 ,sec4#aa4 ,is !re a c\nty surveyor8 ,sec4#ab4 ,are c\nty (fic]s elect$ by ! p 9 ?is /ate8 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,sec4#a4 ,into :at are c\nties divid$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is done at ! annual t[n meet+s8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at (fic]s are elect$8 ,are all !re elect$ 9 ! t[ns ( ?is /ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are ^? (fic]s call$ :o direct t[n affairs8 ,:at 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at are ! duties ( a t[n cl]k8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at (fic]s 9 ?is /ate h ! c>e ( highways8 ,:at is a poll-tax8 ,sec4#g4 ,by :om are ! poor provid$ =8 ,are !re c\nty poor-h\ses 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,! duties ( con/ables8 ,sec4#i4 ,( treasur]8 ,are !re t[n treasur]s 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#aj4 ,! duties ( f5ce-view]s8 ,sec4#aa4 ,( t[n-seal]8 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,sec4#a4 ,:y is ! incorporation ( cities1 c41 necess>y8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ are city *>t]s obta9$8 ,def9e *>t]8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at are ! pr9cipal city (fic]s call$8 ,:at inf]ior (fic]s are elect$8 ,sec4#d4 ,are ! citiz5s gov]n$ :olly by _! own laws8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at crim9al c\rt is peculi> to cities8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are village (fic]s usually call$8 ,sec4#g4 ,illu/rate1 by example1 ! necessity ( a village incorporation8 ,sec4#h4 ,are corporations always =m$ by special laws8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is said ( incorporat$ companies8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is peculi> 9 ! nature ( corporations8 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 :at does a /ate diff] f o!r gov]nm5t corporations8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:]e9 d all gov]nm5t corporations diff] f incorporat$ bus9ess companies8 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( ! judicial dep>tm5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,if !re 7 no c\rts ( ju/ice1 :at w\ld be ! result8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are ! l[e/ c\rts call$8 ,:y8 ,def9e jurisdiction8 ,sec4#e4 ,to :at ext5t has a ju/ice jurisdiction8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are civil causes8 ,crim9al8 ,misdemeanors8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ is a suit 9 a ju/ice's c\rt comm5c$8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ is a summon s]v$8 ,sec4#i4 ,describe ! mann] ( jo9+ issue4 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ are witnesses procur$8 & h[ is ! issue tri$8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at if a def5dant or pla9tiff does n appe>8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ is judgm5t confess$8 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:y are juries in/itut$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is a jury8 ,a v]dict8 ,sec4#c4 ,a v5ire8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are jurors kept dur+ _! delib]ations8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is done if !y agree8 ,if !y disagree8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is an execution8 ,:at if x is n satisfi$8 ,sec4#g4 ,is all p]sonal prop]ty liable to be sold on execution8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is an atta*m5t8 ,9 :at cases is x us$8 ,sec4#i4 ,h[ is x s]v$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at if a p>ty is dissatisfi$ ) a judgm5t8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at p[] h ju/ices 9 cases ( crime8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ are (f5d]s arre/$ & exam9$8 ,sec4#ac4 ,h[ is ! prison] dispos$ ( if ! ju/ice c n try him8 ,sec4#ad4 ,def9e recognizance & bail8 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ are c\nty c\rts con/itut$8 ,h[ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at causes are tri$ 9 !m8 ,:at is appellate & :at orig9al jurisdiction8 ,sec4#c4 ,"n ! c\rts ( ?is /ate4 ,:at jurisdiction has a circuit c\rt8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at juries h c\nty & circuit c\rts8 ,:at is an issue ( fact8 ,an issue ( law8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ are ! jurors select$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( a gr& jury8 ,( :at numb] does x consi/ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,describe ! proce$+s ( a gr& jury4 ,:at is an indictm5t8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y are gr& juries in/itut$8 ,sec4#i4 ,by :at in/rum5t are gr& juries requir$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! op9ion ( "s on ?is subject8 ,sec4#aa4 ,is !re a supreme c\rt 9 ?is /ate8 ,describe x4 ,is !re a high] c\rt8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ are suits comm5c$ 9 c\nty & o!r high] c\rts8 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! object ( a c\rt ( *anc]y8 ,sec4#b4 ,m5tion "s ( its p[]s4 ,sec4#c4 ,are !re sep>ate & di/9ct *anc]y c\rts 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are suits comm5c$ & tri$ 9 ^! c\rts8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( a probate c\rt8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is a c\rt ( impea*m5t8 ,its bus9ess8 ,:at is an impea*m5t8 ,by :om made8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ is x done8 ,sec4#h4 ,describe ! mode ( trial4 ,:at foll[s conviction8 ,sec4#i4 ,by :at o!r modes are judicial (fic]s remov$8 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ is money rais$ = gov]nm5t purposes8 ,:at is a poll-tax8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at prop]ty is exempt f taxation8 ,:at is real1 & :at p]sonal prop]ty8 ,sec4#c4 ,by :om1 & h[1 is prop]ty valu$8 ,h[ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#e4 ,( :at ?ree items does ! tax consi/8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ is x asc]ta9$8 ,sec4#g4 ,:o 9 ?is /ate cause ! tax-li/ to be made out1 & ord] ! taxes to be collect$8 ,sec4#h4 ,to :om is ! money paid :5 collect$8 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! prop] object ( gov]nm5t8 ,h[ is x to be done8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is ! effect ( education ^u a p8 ,( ignorance8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y %\ld gov]nm5t provide ! means ( education8 ,sec4#d4 ,to :at ext5t is ?is done8 ,by :at means8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ is ! defici5cy 9 ! income ( ! s*ool fund suppli$8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[1 & to :at ext5t1 are s*ool funds provid$ 9 ! new /ates8 ,sec4#g4 ,9 :at way1 & to :at ext5t1 7 ! s*ool funds increas$ 9 #ahcg8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ are s*ool moneys f ! /ate treasury apportion$8 ,h[ is ! defici5cy 9 ! public moneys to pay tea*]s made up8 ,sec4#i4 ,:y are s*ools call$ di/rict s*ools1 & common s*ools8 ,:at (fic]s are elect$ 9 di/ricts8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! /ate sup]9t5d5t 9 ?is /ate call$8 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at o!r duty does ! gov]nm5t owe to ! citiz5s8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at portion ( ! p ( a /ate are mo/ favor$8 ,sec4#c4 ,by :om are canals made8 ,is !re su* a public "w 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,:y %\ld n ! money to make !m be rais$ by a g5]al tax8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ are funds sometimes provid$ = ?is purpose8 ,sec4#f4 ,= ! want ( su* funds1 h[ is ! money obta9$8 ,h[ is x to be repaid8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ is ! bus9ess ( borr[+ done8 ,:at are /ate /ocks8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at r5d]s ! pur*ase ( /ate /ocks a safe transaction8 ,sec4#i4 ,by :om are canal affairs manag$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at /ates are mo/ not$ = _! canals8 ,sec4#aa4 ,by :om are rail-roads usually con/ruct$8 ,:y is an act ( incorporation necess>y8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at does ! act provide8 ,sec4#ac4 ,h[ is ! capital1 or /ock1 rais$8 ,:at (fic]s are *os51 & by :om8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:at is ! nature ( ^! c]tificates ( /ock8 ,sec4#ae4 ,h[ d /ockhold]s expect to be refund$8 ,:at are divid5ds8 ,:5 are /ocks at p>8 ,:5 above or bel[ p>8 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:]e 7 ! fir/ banks8 & :5ce is ! "n d]iv$8 ,sec4#b4 ,by :at au?ority are our banks e/abli%$8 ,h[ is ! capital /ock rais$8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ d bus9ess m5 deposit & draw out _! money8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is a c]tificate ( deposit8 ,h[ is x made transf]able8 & conv]tible into money8 ,sec4#e4 ,describe ! mann] ( transmitt+ money ?r\gh banks4 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ are banks repaid8 ,:at is sav$ to bus9ess m5 by ?is mode ( remittance8 ,sec4#g4 ,describe ! op]ation ( l5d+ money by a bank4 ,sec4#h4 ,describe a bank bill4 ,:at if a bank is unable to r$eem its bills8 ,h[ are bill-hold]s secur$ aga9/ loss8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! nature ( ! free bank+ sy/em8 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ does ?is law provide = ! security ( bill-hold]s8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( insurance companies8 ,:at d !y insure8 ,def9e policy-premium4 ,sec4#ab4 ,( :at consi/ ! pr(its ( /ock insurance companies8 ,%[ ?is by an example4 ,sec4#ac4 ,h[ are companies enabl$ to fix prop] rates ( insurance8 ,is all prop]ty insur$ at ! same rate8 ,:y n8 ,sec4#ad4 ,describe ! "* ( mutual insurance companies4 ,h[ is money rais$ = pay+ losses8 ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at prep>ation is made = ! public def5se8 ,:at does ! ^w militia include8 ,sec4#b4 ,= :at o!r purpose may portions ( ! militia be want$8 ,def9e insurrection & rebellion4 ,sec4#c4 ,:o are liable to d milit>y s]vice8 ,:o are exempt by ! laws ( ! /ates g5]ally8 ,sec4#d4 ,:o by ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at milit>y au?ority h ! gov]nors & ! presid5t8 ,:y h !y ?is p[]8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ are p]sons dealt ) = non-att5dance & del9qu5cy at p>ades8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! adjutant-g5]al8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( a commiss>y-g5]al8 ,is !re "o 9 ?is /ate8 ,def9e ars5al4 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is done 9 ! case ( p]sons av]se to be>+ arms8 ,are any exempt 9 ?is /ate )\t commut+8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at regulations exi/ 9 ,new ,york & ,ohio8 ,sec4#aa4 ,= :at reasons is ! drill+ ( ! :ole militia deem$ unnecess>y8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at is y\r op9ion ( w>8 ,:at is a bett] way ( settl+ disputes betwe5 nations8 ,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is !re 9 our gov]nm5t t r5d]s a k ( x important to ! p8 ,sec4#c4 ,to :at c\ntry 7 ! ,am]ican colonies subject8 ,:at is a colony8 ,sec4#d4 ,:5ce did ! p d]ive _! rights & privileges8 ,:at 0 ! =m ( ! colonial gov]nm5ts8 ,sec4#e4 ,f :om did ! (fic]s d]ive _! p[]8 ,7 any elect$8 ,on ^: approval did ! laws f9ally dep5d8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at 0 ! effect ( ?is ^u ! coloni/s8 ,:at 0 ! object ( ! laws ( p>liam5t relat+ to ! colonies8 ,sec4#f1 #g4 ,:at did "s ( ^! laws require8 ,sec4#h4 ,by :at p>ticul> means did t gov]nm5t secure ! colonial trade8 ,def9e duty4 ,sec4#i4 ,expla9 ! nature & effect ( ^! duties4 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at "r did p>liam5t claim8 ,:at act 0 accord+ly pass$8 ,:at did ! coloni/s d8 ,:at 0 ! f9al result8 ,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:5 did ! fir/ cont95tal congress meet8 ,h[ 7 its memb]s *os58 ,:at great act did x d 9 #aggf8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at did x 9 ,novemb]1 #aggg8 ,:5 did ! conf$]ation g into effect8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ did ! union =m$ by x prove8 ,:at 0 ! probable cause ( its imp]fections8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at 0 its lead+ defect8 ,m5tion "s in/ances ( its weakness8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at probably aid$ 9 inducng compliance ) ! ord9ances ( congress8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at new difficulties arose aft] peace8 ,:at difficulty att5d$ ! lay+ ( duties by ! /ates8 ,sec4#g4 ,= :at o!r purpose did congress ne$ ! p[] to lay duties8 ,h[ _h ,great ,brita9 secur$ ! c>ry+ trade8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at o!r tr\ble arose f ?is imp]fect union8 ,sec4#i4 ,h[ 0 ?is difficulty s\ght to be rem$i$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at 0 ! result ( ! meet+ at ,annapolis8 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 :at did ! recomm5d+ ( a conv5tion result8 ,h[ 0 ! con/itution ratifi$ 9 ! /ates8 ,sec4#ab4 ,to give x effect1 h[ _m /ates mu/ ratify8 ,:5 7 ratifications receiv$ f ,rhode ,isl& & ,nor? ,c>ol9a8 ,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is a conf$]acy8 ,0 ! conf$]ation a union ( p8 or a union ( /ates8 ,f :at does ?is appe>8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is ! union "u ! con/itution8 ,:]e is ?is decl>$8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is said ( ! =m] indep5d5ce ( ! /ates8 ,:at p[] has ! g5]al gov]nm5t acquir$ by ! con/itution8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ did ! equality ( ! /ates 9 ! old congress appe>8 ,to h[ _m delegates 7 !y entitl$8 ,h[ did !y vote8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ are ! /ates n[ repres5t$8 ,h[ d repres5tatives vote8 ,sec4#g4 ,/ate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! bodies t fram$ & ratifi$ ! two in/rum5ts respectively4 ,sec4#h4 ,0 ! gov]nm5t "u ! conf$]ation prop]ly national8 ,h[ does x appe> t x 0 n8 ,:at *ange did ! con/itution effect8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at e>ly act ( ! con/itutional conv5tion %[s ! pres5t gov]nm5t to be national8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at dep>tm5ts ( p[] 7 want+ "u ! conf$]ation8 ,sec4#aa4 ,is ! pres5t gov]nm5t :olly national8 ,:y n8 ,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,sec4#a4 ,( :at does congress consi/8 ,= :at t]ms 7 memb]s ( ! old congress appo9t$8 ,:y has ! t]m ( a repres5tative be5 ext5d$ to two ye>s8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at qualifications are requir$ = vot+ = repres5tatives8 ,:at reasons 7 !re = ?is rule8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at are ! qualifications ( a repres5tative8 ,give ! reasons = ^! qualifications4 ,sec4#d4 ,give ! rule ( apportion+ repres5tatives & direct taxes4 ,sec4#e4 ,:at made x difficult to agree ^u a rule ( apportionm5t8 ,9 :at /ates did slav]y !n exi/8 ,"n ! pres5t slavehold+ /ates4 ,sec4#g4 ,^u :at t]ms 0 ! "q ( apportionm5t settl$8 ,sec4#h4 ,illu/rate ! rule by an example4 ,sec4#i4 ,h[ are ! slave /ates b5efit$ by ?is arrangem5t z to taxes8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at d !y ga9 z to repres5tation8 ,sec4#aa4 ,h[ is ! numb] ( repres5tatives limit$8 ,h[ (t5 is ! ratio ( repres5tation fix$8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:y has ! ratio be5 f "t to "t increas$8 ,h[ is a repres5tation secur$ to ! smalle/ /ates8 ,sec4#ac4 ,/ate ! ratio & ! numb] ( repres5tatives aft] ea* c5sus4 ,sec4#ad4 ,h[ is a /ate di/rict$ = *oos+ repres5tatives8 ,:5 are !y *os58 ,sec4#ae4 ,h[ are t]ritories repres5t$8 ,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ is ! s5ate con/itut$8 ,^u :at po9ts did ! conv5tion diff]8 ,h[ 0 ! matt] settl$8 ,sec4#b4 ,9 :at provision does ! f$]ative pr9ciple appe>8 ,sec4#c4 ,9 :at is !re a diff]5ce betwe5 ! old congress & ! s5ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at reasons are (f]$ 9 favor ( a %ort t]m ( (fice8 ,:at 9 favor ( a long t]m8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is said 9 favor ( ! pres5t t]m8 ,sec4#g4 ,:y 7 n ! t]ms ( all ! s5ators made to expire at once8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ are vacancies 9 ! (fice ( s5ator fill$8 ,sec4#i4 ,c an appo9tm5t be made be=e a vacancy actually happ5s8 ,/ate a case4 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at reasons are !re = ! requir$ qualifications ( s5ators z to age1 citiz5%ip1 & resid5ce 9 ! /ate8 ,sec4#aa4 ,h[ d bills become laws aft] !y h be5 veto$ by ! presid5t8 ,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at diff]5ce is "h notic$ betwe5 ! g5]al & /ate gov]nm5ts 9 respect to _! p[]s8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is ! fir/ 9 ! li/ ( p[]s giv5 to congress8 ,sec4#d4 ,= :at purpose 0 ?is p[] necess>y8 ,:at is direct & :at indirect taxation8 ,sec4#e4 ,def9e duties1 cu/oms1 impo/s1 & excises4 ,sec4#f4 ,def9e specific & ad valorem duties4 ,sec4#g4 ,:y are duties requir$ to be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,sec4#h4 ,by :at means 0 ! old national debt paid8 ,h[ l>ge 0 x at diff]5t p]iods8 ,sec4#i4 ,:y is ! p[] to borr[ money necess>y8 ,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,sec4#a4 ,f :at arose ! necessity ( ! p[] to regulate =eign comm]ce8 ,:at 0 ! ,briti% policy8 ,sec4#b4 ,9 :at consi/$ ! inequality ( trade betwe5 ! two c\ntries8 ,sec4#c4 ,%[1 by example1 h[ ,great ,brita9 secur$ a home m>ket = h] agricultural products4 ,sec4#d4 ,:at o!r b5efits did %e d]ive f h] policy8 ,sec4#e4 ,:y 7 we oblig$ to submit to ! paym5t ( ^! duties8 ,:y n manufacture = ourselves8 ,sec4#f4 ,:y did n our gov]nm5t retaliate by impos+ l duties ^u ,briti% goods & vessels8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at are duties design$ to enc\rage home manufactures call$8 ,sec4#h4 ,%[1 by example1 ! op]ation & effect ( a protective duty4 ,sec4#i4 ,by :at o!r p[] may ?is object be p>tially effect$8 ,%[ h[4 ,sec4#aj4 ,:y1 !n1 0 n "o ( ^! p[]s suffici5t8 ,sec4#aa4 ,%[1 by example1 :y ! free importation ( =eign goods & direct taxation are n deem$ ! bett] policy4 ,sec4#ac4 ,h[ e>ly1 & h[1 0 dome/ic indu/ry enc\rag$8 ,:at r5d]$ high duties = a "t unnecess>y8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:at aft]w>ds made x necess>y = congress to ex]cise m ext5sively its p[]s to regulate trade8 ,:5 did ! sy/em ( protection prop]ly comm5ce8 ,:]e has s9ce be5 ! pr9cipal m>ket = agricultural products8 ,sec4#ae4 ,:]e1 & by :om1 are ! duties or cu/oms collect$8 ,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is navigation8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is tunnage8 ,tunnage duties8 ,= :at purpose 7 ^! duties laid8 ,:y 7 !y call$ discrim9at+ duties8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at has be5 _! effect8 ,:at has caus$ _! discont9uance8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are vessels regi/]$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is a manife/8 ,a cle>ance8 ,sec4#f4 ,at ^: reque/ are passports furni%$ to vessels8 ,:at is a passport8 ,by :om giv58 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ is ! safety ( pass5g]s & crew provid$ =8 ,sec4#h4 ,def9e qu>ant9e4 ,:at has congress enact$ 9 relation to qu>ant9es8 ,sec4#i4 ,:y 0 p[] giv5 to congress to regulate int]nal comm]ce1 or comm]ce among ! /ates8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:y ! p[] to regulate comm]ce ) ! ,indian tribes8 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at 7 ! disqualifications ( ali5s by ! common law8 ,:y are ^! disqualifications deem$ prop]8 ,sec4#b4 ,:5 ought !y to be remov$8 ,:y %\ld ! rule ( naturalization be uni=m8 ,sec4#c4 ,describe ! mann] 9 :i* an ali5 is naturaliz$4 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ d ali5 m9ors become citiz5s8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is a bankrupt8 ,a bankrupt law8 ,:at is ! object ( su* laws8 ,sec4#f4 ,:y is ! p[] to pass !m giv5 to congress8 ,:y %\ld !y be uni=m8 ,sec4#g4 ,:y is ! p[] to co9 money & regulate its value giv5 to congress8 ,:at *ange 9 ! sy/em ( reckon+ has be5 effect$8 ,sec4#h4 ,at :at places is money co9$8 ,:at is bullion8 ,sec4#i4 ,:y is ! p[] to fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures ve/$ 9 congress8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:y has congress ! p[] to provide = puni%+ ! c\nt]feit+ ( ! securities & co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:y is ! p[] to e/abli% po/-(fices giv5 to congress8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ are useful arts & sci5ces promot$8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ does an au?or ( a "w proce$ 9 procur+ a copy-"r8 ,by :om1 & :]e1 is ! title record$8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at else mu/ ! au?or d8 ,= h[ _m ye>s is ! "r obta9$8 ,= :at t]m1 & h[1 may ! "r be cont9u$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:]e are pat5ts = inv5tions obta9$8 ,h[ does ! inv5tor proce$8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ mu* mu/ he pay be=e 8 petition is consid]$8 ,= :at t]m are pat5ts grant$8 ,= :at t]m may !y be r5ew$8 ,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e piracy & felony4 ,:y is ! p[] to def9e & puni% ^! crimes giv5 to congress8 ,sec4#b4 ,:y also ! p[] to def9e & puni% (f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y ! p[] to decl>e w>8 ,:o ex]cises ?is p[] 9 mon>*ies8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are lett]s ( m>que & reprisal8 ,:y %\ld n an individual r$ress 8 private wrongs8 ,sec4#e4 ,:y %\ld n ! /ates au?orize reprisals8 ,sec4#f4 ,:y has congress ! p[] to make rules conc]n+ captures8 ,h[ is captur$ prop]ty di/ribut$8 ,sec4#g4 ,:y is ! g5]al p[] to provide = ! national def5se intru/$ to congress8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y 0 giv5 to congress entire control ov] ! di/rict conta9+ ! seat ( gov]nm5t8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at di/rict is "h ref]r$ to8 ,ov] :at o!r places has congress exclusive au?ority8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! la/ p[] grant$ 9 ! li/ "h enum]at$8 ,:y is ?is g5]al grant ( p[] to make laws deem$ necess>y8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at op9ion is held by "s 9 reg>d to ?is p[]8 ,on :at reasons is ?is op9ion f\nd$8 ,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! fir/ prohibition on congress8 ,sec4#b4 ,to :at has ?is ref]5ce8 ,= :at reasons 0 ?is prohibition ass5t$ to8 ,sec4#c4 ,h m5 a natural "r to buy & sell ea* o!r8 ,:5 0 ! =eign slave trade prohibit$8 ,h[ is x n[ puni%able8 ,sec4#d4 ,def9e habeas corpus4 ,:at is ! privilege ( ?is writ8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is a bill ( atta9d]8 ,:5 is x a bill ( pa9s & p5alties8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is an ex po/ facto law8 ,give examples ( ex po/ facto laws4 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is a capitation tax8 ,to :at provision ( ! con/itution does ?is prohibition ref]8 ,:at does x mean8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y are duties on exports =bidd58 ,h[ might ! int]e/s ( ! diff]5t /ates be injuri\sly affect$ by tax+ exports8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at fur!r reasons are giv5 = ?is prohibition8 ,h[ is fre$om & equality 9 trade secur$ to ! /ates8 ,sec4#aj4 ,by :at provision is ! prop] disposal ( ! public moneys secur$8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:y is ! grant+ ( titles ( nobility =bidd58 ,h[ are public (fic]s gu>d$ aga9/ corruption f =eign influ5ce8 ,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is a treaty8 ,an alliance8 ,a conf$]ation8 ,:y are /ates =bidd5 to ent] into !m8 ,sec4#b4 ,:y %\ld n /ates issue lett]s ( m>que & reprisal8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y %\ld !y n co9 money8 ,sec4#d4 ,:y 7 !y =bidd5 to emit bills ( cr$it8 ,does ! prohibition ext5d to bank bills8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is meant by t5d]1 usually t]m$ lawful or legal t5d]8 ,:y %\ld co9 only be made t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts8 ,sec4#f4 ,:y is ! pass+ ( bills ( atta9d] & ex po/ facto laws by /ates =bidd58 ,:y are laws impair+ ! =ce ( contracts prohibit$8 ,sec4#g4 ,d insolv5t or bankrupt laws impair ! obligation ( contracts8 ,/ates h pass$ su* laws2 7 !y con/itutional8 ,h[ has ! "q be5 decid$8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y is ! grant+ ( titles =bidd5 to ! /ates8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at objections to ! g5]al p[] ( ! /ates to tax exports or imports8 ,:at exception is made to ! prohibition8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! object ( ?is exception8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at o!r re/rictions are !re ^u ! p[] ( ! /ates8 ,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,sec4#a4 ,9 :om is ! executive p[] ( ! nation ve/$8 ,sec4#b4 ,= :at reasons 0 ?is p[] giv5 to "o p]son only8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y 7 f\r ye>s agre$ on z ! (ficial t]m8 ,sec4#d4 ,by :om is ! presid5t elect$8 ,has ! mode ( election ev] be5 alt]$8 ,sec4#e4 ,by :at au?ority is ! mann] ( *oos+ ! electors prescrib$8 ,by :om are !y *os5 at pres5t8 ,sec4#f4 ,9 :at mann] are !y *os58 ,describe p>ticul>ly ! election by g5]al ticket4 ,:5 are electors *os58 ,sec4#g4 ,:]e & :5 d ! electors vote = presid5t8 ,h[1 :51 & to :om1 are c]tificates ( _! votes s5t8 ,sec4#h4 ,:51 :]e1 & by :om are ! votes c\nt$8 ,h[ is ! election det]m9$8 ,if no p]son has a majority ( all ! votes1 by :om is ! election made8 ,h[ d ! memb]s vote8 ,sec4#i4 ,describe ! election ( presid5t by ! h\se 9 #ahbe4 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ is ! vice-presid5t elect$ if !re is no *oice by ! electors8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at are ! qualifications ( ! presid5t & vice-presid5t8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ is a vacancy 9 ! (fice ( presid5t suppli$8 ,:at fur!r provision is made = supply+ vacancies8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:y may n ! sal>y ( a presid5t be increas$ or dim9i%$8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:5 does ! presid5tial t]m comm5ce & expire8 ,*apt] ,,xl4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at high milit>y (fice has ! presid5t8 ,:y is ! comm& ( ! public =ces intru/$ to him8 ,sec4#b4 ,= :at reasons ! p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at o!r p[]s has ! presid5t8 ,= :at purposes are treaties made8 ,:o ex]cises ?is p[] 9 mon>*ies8 ,:y is n ! h\se associat$ ) ! presid5t & s5ate8 ,sec4#d4 ,= :at reasons is ! s5ate pref]r$8 ,:o appo9t embassadors8 ,sec4#e4 ,by :om & h[ are treaties negotiat$8 ,by :om ratifi$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is "h m5tion$ z ! practice ( civiliz$ nations8 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y ( /ate 9 our int]c\rse ) =eign nations8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at titles h repres5tatives at =eign c\rts8 ,:o are embassadors 9 ord9>y & extraord9>y8 ,envoys8 ,envoys pl5ipot5ti>y8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at are our repres5tatives abroad call$8 ,:at are *>ges des affaires8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( consuls8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:y is ! appo9tm5t ( judges ( ! supreme c\rt giv5 to ! presid5t & s5ate8 ,sec4#aa4 ,= :at reason %\ld ! presid5t h ! "r to select ! heads ( ! dep>tm5ts8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at p[] has ! presid5t alone 9 fill+ vacancies8 ,:y is su* a p[] necess>y8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at o!r p[]s & duties ( ! presid5t are m5tion$ 9 ! con/itution8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:at (fic]s are removable by impea*m5t8 & = :at (f5ses8 ,*apt] ,,xli4 ,sec4#a4 ,among :at dep>tm5ts is ! executive bus9ess ( ! nation di/ribut$8 ,by :at names are ! head (fic]s call$8 ,h[ appo9t$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at dep>tm5ts did ! fir/ congress e/abli%8 ,:at (fic]s con/itut$ ! fir/ cab9et8 ,:5 7 ! heads ( ! navy1 po/-(fice1 & int]ior dep>tm5ts respectively add$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y ( /ate relat+ to =eign affairs8 ,def9e diplomacy & diplomati/4 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y 9 relation to home affairs8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y ( ! treasury8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at are 8 pr9cipal assi/ants8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! secret>y ( ! int]ior8 ,:at is a p5sion8 ,to :at classes ( p]sons are p5sions all[$8 ,to :om are b\nties ( l&s all[$8 ,sec4#h4 ,to :at d ! duties ( ! secret>y ( w> relate8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( ! secret>y ( ! navy8 & ( ! navy commission]s8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at are ! pr9cipal duties ( ! po/ma/] g5]al8 ,:o are 8 pr9cipal assi/ants8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( po/ma/]s 9 relation to keep+ acc\nts ( lett]s1 adv]tis+ lett]s1 & mak+ returns to ! g5]al po/-(fice8 ,:at are dead lett]s8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ are po/ma/]s paid = _! s]vices8 ,/ate ! rates ( commission4 ,to :at am\nt ( comp5sation are po/ma/]s limit$8 ,:at po/ma/]s are appo9t$ by ! presid5t & s5ate8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:o are entitl$ to ! frank+ privilege8 & to :at ext5t8 ,h[ is frank+ done8 ,:at gov]nm5t (fic]s frank matt] on (ficial bus9ess8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! attorney-g5]al8 ,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,sec4#a4 ,0 !re a national judici>y "u ! conf$]ation8 ,9 :at c\rts is ! judicial p[] ( ! ,u4,s4 ve/$8 ,sec4#b4 ,by :om1 & = :at t]m1 are ! judges appo9t$8 ,:y is ! t]m made s long8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ is ! indep5d5ce ( ! judges fur!r secur$8 ,:y %\ld congress n h p[] to r$uce _! sal>ies8 ,sec4#d4 ,cases ( :at nature are tri$ 9 ! national c\rts8 ,sec4#e4 ,:y is ! trial ( crimes to be held 9 ! /ate :]e committ$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:i* are ! l[e/ national c\rts8 ,h[ is a di/rict c\rt con/itut$8 ,:at cases does x try8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ _m circuits are !re8 ,h[ is a circuit c\rt con/itut$8 ,:at cases does x try8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ is ! supreme c\rt con/itut$8 ,:]e1 & :51 does x hold sessions8 ,:at is its pr9cipal bus9ess8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at important object is s c>$ by ! supreme c\rt8 ,h[ are /ate laws & ! decisions ( /ate c\rts affect$ by ! decisions ( ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:y 0 ! def9ition ( treason put into ! con/itution8 ,:at is levy+ w>8 ,sec4#b4 ,/ate m p>ticul>ly :at does & :at does n con/itute levy+ w> & treason8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at pro( is requir$ to convict ( treason8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ 0 treason puni%$ by ! common law8 ,h[ has congress made x puni%able8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is atta9d]8 ,its mean+ "h8 ,by ! common law1 h[ did ! s5t5ce ( dea? = treason affect ! traitor8 ,:at has congress decl>$ conc]n+ conviction = treason8 ,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! object ( ! provision conc]n+ /ate records8 ,sec4#b4 ,9 giv+ effect to ?is provision1 :at has congress enact$8 ,9 case ( a judicial proce$+1 :at is requir$8 ,:at 9 case ( an act ( a /ate legislature8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is meant by ! clause conc]n+ ! privileges ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al /ates8 ,)\t su* provision1 :at might a /ate d8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ is a fugitive f ju/ice arre/$ & return$ = trial8 ,sec4#e4 ,:o are meant by p]sons held to s]vice or labor1 escap+ into ano!r /ate8 ,:at provision ( ! common law induc$ ! adoption ( ?is clause8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ are fugitives f slav]y appreh5d$ & return$8 ,is ! law requir+ ! capture & return ( fugitive slaves1 9 y\r op9ion1 morally b9d+8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at induc$ ! provision = admitt+ new /ates8 ,:at /ates h be5 =m$ f ! nor?-we/]n t]ritory8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at unsettl$ tract 0 s\? ( ! ,ohio8 ,^: cons5t to ! division ( a /ate does ! con/itution require8 ,sec4#i4 ,9 ! "r to acquire t]ritory1 :at o!r "r is impli$8 ,_h ! old congress ?is p[]8 ,:at has congress done "u ! p[] "h grant$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ is a republican =m ( gov]nm5t secur$ to ! /ates8 ,h[ are !y to be protect$ aga9/ invasion & dome/ic viol5ce8 ,:at is meant by dome/ic viol5ce8 ,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ are con/itutional am5dm5ts propos$8 ,h[ ratifi$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at good is suppos$ to h result$ f s difficult a mode ( am5dm5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,= :at reasons 0 ! new gov]nm5t made to assume ! debts ( ! old8 ,sec4#d4 ,:y is ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! laws & treaties made "u x1 made b9d+ above all /ate au?ority8 ,sec4#e4 ,:y are public (fic]s b\nd by oa? to support ! con/itution1 & to dis*>ge _! duties fai?fully8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is a religi\s te/8 ,:at 0 x 9 ,engl&8 ,:y 0 x =bidd5 by ! con/itution8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at does ! la/ article decl>e8 ,:y 0 n ! ratification ( all ! /ates requir$8 ,:y 0 ! ratification ( s _m z n9e requir$8 ,sec4#h4 ,:5 did ?is /ate ratify8 ,:5 did ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,rhode ,isl& come into ! union8 ,sec4#i4 ,:5 7 electors ( presid5t *os58 ,:5 0 ! presid5t elect$1 & :5 inaugurat$8 ,:5 did proce$+s "u ! con/itution comm5ce8 ,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ _m articles ( am5dm5t are !re8 ,:at is ! nature ( mo/ ( !m8 ,:y !n 7 !y add$8 ,:5 7 ! fir/ t5 propos$ & ratifi$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is =bidd5 by ! fir/ am5dm5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at "r is gu>anti$ by ! second am5dm5t8 ,:y is ?is "r necess>y8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at does ! ?ird am5dm5t decl>e8 ,:at probably sugge/$ x8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at "r is gu>anti$ by ! f\r? article8 ,:at evil is x int5d$ to prev5t8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at rights does ! fif? article gu>anty8 ,c y give any reason :y a p]son fairly tri$ & acquitt$ %\ld n be tri$ aga98 ,:at does ! six? article require8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is secur$ by ! sev5? am5dm5t8 ,:at is meant by suits at common law8 ,:at are c\rts ( admiralty8 ,h[ is ! latt] "p ( ?is article expla9$8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at does ! eigh? article =bid8 ,:at evils 0 x design$ to prev5t8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! n9? article8 ,:at evil 0 x design$ to prev5t8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at does ! t5? am5dm5t decl>e8 ,expla9 x4 ,sec4#aa4 ,:5 0 ! elev5? article propos$ & ratifi$8 ,:at is x8 ,:at 0 x int5d$ to prev5t8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at does ! twelf? am5dm5t effect8 ,:5 0 x propos$ & ratifi$8 ,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ are ! municipal or civil laws di/+ui%$ f ! fundam5tal or political law8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are /atute laws8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is ! common law8 ,is x law 9 ?is c\ntry8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are ! rights ( p]son8 ,p]sonal security8 ,p]sonal lib]ty8 ,h[ are !y gu>anti$8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ may a man protect himself :5 9 dang] ( p]sonal injury8 ,:at rem$y = viol5ce committ$8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ f> may a man g 9 def5d+ himself or 8 prop]ty8 ,:at is su* kill+ call$8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ are we protect$ 9 our good names8 ,:at is sl&]8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is libel8 ,:i* is consid]$ ! great] injury8 ,= :i* is a p]son liable 9 bo? a civil & crim9al suit8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is ! rule ( ! common law 9 ! case ( a crim9al action = libel8 ,:at is ! reason = ?is pr9ciple8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at di/9ction d "s make betwe5 cases ( public & private prosecution = libel8 ,sec4#aa4 ,does ! common law /ill prevail 9 ?is c\ntry8 ,h[ has x be5 modifi$8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ is p]sonal lib]ty secur$8 ,:at is ! nature ( ! writ ( habeas corpus8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at is lib]ty ( consci5ce8 ,h[ is x secur$8 ,sec4#ad4 ,is ?is "r secur$ to ! same ext5t 9 ,engl&8 ,sec4#ae4 ,:at is meant by ! "r ( prop]ty8 ,by :at is x protect$8 ,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is meant by ! age ( cons5t8 ,at :at p]iods ( life is x fix$8 ,at :at 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at ?ree requisites to a lawful m>riage are next m5tion$8 ,sec4#c4 ,may a p]son rem>ry :o has a wife or husb& liv+8 ,:at is ! crime call$8 ,:at cases are except$8 ,sec4#d4 ,are ! m>riages 9 ^! except$ cases b9d+8 ,:at is ! common law on ! subject8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[1 & by :om are m>riages solemniz$8 ,:at regulations exi/ 9 "s /ates8 ,is a lic5se or a notice requir$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#f4 ,by common law1 :at "r to ! p]sonal prop]ty does ! husb& acquire by m>riage8 ,sec4#g4 ,does he acquire an absolute "r also to h] real e/ate8 ,h[ is 8 "r limit$8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ has ?is common law rule be5 *ang$8 ,c y tell :at ! law is 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#i4 ,by common law1 :at liability does a husb& incur by m>riage8 ,:at is cov]ture8 ,is ?is n[ ! law 9 all ! /ates8 ,is x 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ f> is a husb& b\nd = ! ma9t5ance ( 8 wife8 ,sec4#aa4 ,may !y be witnesses = ea* o!r8 ,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at are ! obligations ( p>5ts8 ,:at is ! age ( majority8 ,9 law1 :o are infants1 or m9ors8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ f>1 or 9 :at cases1 is a fa!r liable = ! contracts ( a *ild8 ,sec4#c4 ,c a m9or b9d himself by contract8 ,9 :at cases is he b\nd8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ 9 cases ( r5t8 ,h[ 9 cases ( contracts :i* he avoids :5 he comes ( age8 ,sec4#e4 ,are m9ors answ]able = crimes8 ,h[ 9 cases ( fraud8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at "r h !y to b9d !mselves z appr5tices & s]vants8 ,by ^: cons5t8 ,sec4#g4 ,:o may b9d paup] *ildr58 ,:at provision is made = _! education8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at are ! rights ( ! ma/] & appr5tice respectively8 ,sec4#i4 ,:5 may appr5tice%ips be dissolv$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ may a hir$ s]vant =feit 8 wages8 ,= :at may he be dismiss$8 ,= :at cause releas$ f 8 s]vice8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at are ! mutual liabilities ( ma/] & s]vant8 ,*apt] ,l4 ,sec4#a4 ,by :om1 & 9 :at ways1 may real e/ate be tak51 held1 & convey$8 ,h ali5s ?is "r8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is x to devise prop]ty8 ,:at is a or te/am58 ,def9e te/ator1 & inte/ate4 ,sec4#c4 ,:o may bequea? prop]ty8 ,:at special rights to bequea? prop]ty are giv5 9 "s /ates8 ,:at is a nuncupative w8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ has ! "r ( m>ri$ wom5 to bequea? prop]ty be5 ext5d$8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ is a w execut$8 ,sec4#f4 ,9 :at diff]5t ways may a w be revok$8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is ! effect ( ! subsequ5t bir? ( a *ild8 ,:at else h "s /ates provid$8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is a codicil8 ,its effect8 ,sec4#i4 ,h[ is a w prov$8 ,:at are lett]s te/am5t>y1 & lett]s ( adm9i/ration8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is meant by ! desc5t ( prop]ty8 ,is ! rule ( desc5t uni=m 9 ! /ates8 ,to :om1 g5]ally1 does x desc5d fir/8 ,sec4#aa4 ,if any *ildr5 ( ! inte/ate are dead1 h[ does x desc5d8 ,give an example4 ,sec4#ab4 ,if all ! *ildr5 are dead1 h[ d ! gr&-*ildr5 %>e8 ,is ?is /ate an exception to ! rule8 ,sec4#ac4 ,d real & p]sonal e/ate g5]ally come "u ! same rule8 ,*apt] ,,li4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is ! b5efit ( a de$ ( real e/ate8 ,:at is express$ 9 a de$8 ,h[ is x execut$8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is necess>y to secure possession to ! pur*as]8 ,:]e are conveyances record$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ long1 9 come /ates1 are fir/ pur*as]s secure be=e record+8 ,:at is ! law 9 ?is /ate8 ,:at claim does a pur*as] ?us dispossess$ /ill reta98 ,c y tell :y conveyances are requir$ to be record$ at all8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are de$s prov$8 ,be=e :om are ?oy ackn[l$g$8 ,h[ are !y record$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is meant by fee-simple8 ,:at does ! grantor 9 a w>ranty de$ b9d himself to d8 ,9 :at does su* de$ diff] f a quit-claim de$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is a mortgage8 ,h[ is ! balance ( ! pur*ase money usually secur$8 ,h[ is ! money rais$8 ,sec4#g4 ,:y does a wife jo9 ) h] husb& 9 a conveyance8 ,:at is ! int]e/ ?us reta9$ by a wid[ call$8 ,9 :at else mu/ a wife jo98 ,does a wife ackn[l$ge ap>t f h] husb& 9 ?is /ate8 ,*apt] ,,lii4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e corporeal & incorporeal h]$itam5ts4 ,:at are aquatic rights8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is a "r ( way8 ,h[ is ?is "r obta9$8 ,:at is an easem5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,9 :at case does a "r ( way pass ) ! l&8 ,give an example4 ,sec4#d4 ,9 :at cases does ?is "r arise f necessity8 ,sec4#e4 ,:5 ! use ( a ?+ is grant$1 :at is g5]ally grant$ ) x8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ is a tempor>y "r ( way acquir$8 ,does ! ob/ruction ( a private way give ! same "r8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is a "r by prescription8 ,h[ _m ye>s' peaceable use gives a p]son su* "r8 ,:at *ange 9 ?is t]m has be5 made 9 "s /ates8 ,:at is x 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at "r h ! public to ! soil ( a highway8 ,:o own ! soil8 ,:at "r & p[] conc]n+ x d !y reta98 ,sec4#i4 ,:at are ! rights ( ! own]s ( l&s adjo9+ a /ream8 ,h[ is ! use ( ! wat] re/rict$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,h[ may ! "r to ! use ( ! wat] be affect$ by prescription8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is ! g5]al & e/abli%$ doctr9e on ?is subject8 ,mu/ ! use be enjoy$ by "o p]son dur+ ! :ole p]iod to give a prescriptive "r8 ,*apt] ,,liii4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is an e/ate ( inh]itance8 ,a fee8 ,a fee-simple8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is ! writ+ :i* conveys an int]e/ 9 l&s = a limit$ p]iod call$8 ,:at means to lease8 ,def9e lessor & lessee4 ,:at l5ses mu/ be seal$8 ,sec4#c4 ,h[ are ^! limit$ int]e/s 9 l& divid$8 ,:at is an e/ate = life8 ,h[1 o!rwise ?an by lease1 are life e/ates acquir$8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is an e/ate = ye>s8 ,sec4#e4 ,may a lessee = ye>s und]let )\t ! lessor's leave8 ,= h[ long a "t8 ,sec4#f4 ,:o is entitl$ to ! gr[+ crop if ! lease expires be=e h>ve/8 ,9 :at case ! t5ant8 ,sec4#g4 ,does ! de/ruction ( r5t$ premises release ! t5ant f paym5t ( r5t8 ,9 :at case w\ld he n be liable8 ,sec4#h4 ,c a t5ant *>ge 8 l&lord = repairs8 ,:at may he d :5 ! premises h become unsafe or useless8 ,sec4#i4 ,:]e & :5 mu/ paym5t ( r5t be made or t5d]$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is an e/ate at w8 ,are su* e/ates common8 ,9 :at case are !y held to be t5ancies f ye> to ye>8 ,:at if a t5ant = ye>s hold ov] aft] 8 lease8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at turns leases f unc]ta9 t]ms into leases f ye> to ye>8 ,:o is /rictly a t5ant at w8 ,c he be dispossess$ )\t previ\s notice to quit8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at is an e/ate at suff]ance8 ,:at are ! rights ( a l&lord & a t5ant by suff]ance1 respectively8 ,*apt] ,,liv4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e contract4 ,:at is an executory contract8 ,an express contract8 ,an impli$ contract8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is a specialty8 ,a simple or p>ol contract8 ,def9e p>ol4 ,:at effect has p>ol evid5ce ^u writt5 contracts8 ,sec4#c4 ,:o are deem$ incapable ( contract+8 ,h[ are contracts made by su* p]sons void$8 ,h[ en=c$8 ,:at is ! g5]al rule8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is ! rule 9 reg>d to drunk>ds8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is m5tion$ z ! second requisition to a valid contract8 ,h[ mu/ ass5t be giv58 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is next m5tion$ z necess>y to a valid contract8 ,:at is a consid]ation8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is ! effect ( mutual promises8 ,h[ mu/ !y be made8 ,h[ :5 ! p>ties are di/ant8 ,sec4#h4 ,:y are gratuit\s promises void8 ,9 :at case are subscriptions b9d+8 ,sec4#i4 ,:y c n paym5t be lawfully claim$ = gratuit\s s]vices8 ,9 :at cases is a p]son b\nd to pay = unask$ labor8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at else is m5tion$ z necess>y to a valuable consid]ation8 ,:at k9d ( impossibility w n void a contract8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is said ( illegal & immoral consid]ations8 ,sec4#ab4 ,to :at k9d ( contracts does ! rule t a consid]ation is necess>y apply8 ,:y n to ^? "u seal8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at is decl>$ by ! ,engli% /atute ( frauds8 ,:at d "s /ates fur!r require8 ,*apt] ,,lv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is a sale8 ,:at g5]al pr9ciples apply to contracts ( sale8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at if a man contracts to sell :at has no exi/5ce8 ,give an example4 ,sec4#c4 ,c he sell :at may h a future exi/5ce8 ,give examples4 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is said ab\t price1 z ess5tial to a sale8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at ab\t ! mutual cons5t ( p>ties8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is to be done if ! goods are n imm$iately deliv]$8 ,bel[ :at price is ?is unnecess>y8 ,:at is ! sum fix$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is said ab\t deliv]y to complete a contract8 ,sec4#h4 ,:5 does ! buy] acquire ! "r ( prop]ty8 ,:5 ! "r ( possession8 ,sec4#i4 ,9 case ! goods are sold on cr$it1 :5 has ! buy] a "r to !m8 ,9 :at case has he n8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is said ab\t ! w>ranty ( title8 ,sec4#aa4 ,9 reg>d to quality1 :at8 ,sec4#ab4 ,to :at cases does n ?is rule apply8 ,is a sell] b\nd to disclose hidd5 defects8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at is ! g5]al rule8 ,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,sec4#a4 ,= :at purposes are fraudul5t sales made8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is "h /at$ to be a common law rule8 ,^u :at "q d ! c\rts diff]8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at di/9ction has be5 made betwe5 conditional & unconditional bills ( sale & assignm5ts8 ,sec4#d4 ,9 diff]5t /ates1 :at diff]5t rules prevail8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ does ! /rict rule sometimes op]ate to ! injury ( hone/ debtors8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ has ?is "q be5 settl$ 9 "s /ates8 ,:at are ^! in/rum5ts ( conveyance call$8 ,mu/ !y be record$ 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,9 :at case1 :5 !re is a judgm5t aga9/ ! sell]1 w\ld a sale ( p]sonal prop]ty be fraudul5t8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ are assignm5ts made = ! b5efit ( cr$itors8 ,may su* assignor pref] any ( 8 cr$itors8 ,sec4#i4 ,if he agrees to pay all a c]ta9 %>e1 & !n privately pref]s "s1 :at is ! effect8 ,sec4#aj4 ,9 :at cases are gifts valid aga9/ cr$itors8 ,*apt] ,,lvii4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e bailm5t4 ,sec4#b4 ,= :at is a bailee )\t rew>d responsible8 ,:at is a deposit>y8 ,sec4#c4 ,a m&at>y8 ,= :at is he responsible8 ,sec4#d4 ,= :at is a borr[] liable8 ,h[ is he re/rict$ 9 ! use ( ! article8 ,sec4#e4 ,9 ! case ( prop]ty pl$g$ z security = debt1 :at are ! liabilities8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at 9 case ( a hir$ article8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at if "w or c>e is to be be/[$ ^u a ?+ deliv]$8 ,sec4#h4 ,! liability ( innkeep]s8 ,sec4#i4 ,( p]sons c>ry+ goods = hire 9 a p>ticul> case8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is a common c>ri]8 ,to :at ext5t is he liable8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at are 8 rights & obligations z to receiv+ & c>ry+ goods8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at are ! liabilities ( proprietors ( /age coa*es z to pass5g]s8 ,:at z to ! c>ry+ ( goods & ! baggage ( pass5g]s8 ,*apt] ,,lviii4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e ag5t1 pr9cipal1 factor4 ,:at is a factor sometimes call$8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ is a factor secur$ = money advanc$ on prop]ty8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is ?is "r to hold prop]ty call$8 ,h[ is he re/rict$8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ f> is a pr9cipal b\nd by ! acts ( a g5]al ag5t8 ,:at is a g5]al ag5t8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ f> is an ag5t b\nd to 8 pr9cipal8 ,9 :at case may he dep>t f 8 in/ructions8 ,sec4#f4 ,by :at rule is he to be gov]n$8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at degree ( dilig5ce & skill mu/ he ex]cise8 ,:at is ord9>y dilig5ce8 ,reasonable skill8 ,sec4#h4 ,9 :at cases is an ag5t responsible to ! p]son ) :om he deals8 ,9 :at case is a pr9cipal liable = goods b\ght by an ag5t 9 8 own "n8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is a brok]8 ,8 ord9>y bus9ess8 ,9 :at does he diff] f a factor8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is a li58 ,= ^: b5efit is ! "r int5d$8 ,h[ _! "r re/rict$8 ,*apt] ,,lix4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e p>tn]%ip8 ,sec4#b4 ,9 :at cases does ! act ( "o p>tn] b9d all1 & 9 :at does x n8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at cases ( association are "h m5tion$ t are n p>tn]%ips8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ are !y to sue & be su$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at _c a p>tn] d )\t ! cons5t ( all8 ,:at may dissolve a p>tn]%ip at any "t8 ,sec4 ,sec4#f4 ,:y %\ld notice ( dissolution be publi%$ :5 any p>tn] )draws8 ,h[ else may he become liable8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ are limit$ p>tn]%ips =m$8 ,sec4#h4 ,= :at am\nt are ! special p>tn]s liable8 ,^: names are us$ ,= :at are ! g5]al p>tn]s liable8 ,if ! p>tn]%ip is to be dissolv$ by ! act ( ! p>ties1 :at is to be done8 ,*apt] ,,lx4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is a promissory note8 ,give a =m4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at is ! effect ( ins]t+ or be>]1 or1 or ord]8 ,if payable to ord]1 h[ is x made negotiable8 ,:y is a note call$ negotiable8 ,if n negotiable1 h[ is x to be su$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is a blank indorsem5t8 ,a full indorsem5t8 ,:at is sometimes done 9 case ( a blank indorsem5t8 ,sec4#d4 ,%[1 by example1 ! b5efit ( mak+ a note payable to ord] in/ead ( to be>]4 ,sec4#e4 ,:y are ! words value receiv$ ins]t$8 ,is a note )\t ^! words collectable8 ,sec4#f4 ,9 :at diff]5t ways may notes sign$ by two or m p]sons be writt51 to be jo9t1 or jo9t or sev]al8 ,sec4#g4 ,by ,:om may a negotiable note be su$8 ,9 :at case c a hold] ( a note recov] ^u x1 ?\gh he receiv$ x ( a p]son :o _h /ol5 x8 ,sec4#h4 ,to :at rule is ?is an exception8 ,:y is ?is exception8 ,sec4#i4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :at is requir$ to protect ! own]8 ,:at %\ld ! own] d8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is ! risk 9 buy+ a note aft] x has become due8 ,h[ is x :5 no day ( paym5t is express$8 ,:at regulation exi/s 9 ,new ,j]sey & ,p5nsylvania8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is ! law respect+ notes payable 9 "s commodity8 ,sec4#ab4 ,:5 d notes payable on dem&1 or 9 :i* no "t ( paym5t is m5tion$1 become due & suable8 ,notes payable at sight1 or aft] sight8 ,if ! words ) int]e/ are omitt$1 :5 does int]e/ comm5ce8 ,if payable on dem&1 :58 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at are days ( grace8 ,h[ d !y affect a note8 ,sec4#ad4 ,to b9d an indors]1 :5 mu/ paym5t be dem&$8 ,sec4#ae4 ,if paym5t is refus$1 h[ & :5 is ! indors] to be notifi$8 ,sec4#af4 ,9 case ! mak]'s resid5ce is unkn[n1 h[ is paym5t to be dem&$8 ,sec4#ag4 ,/ate ! effect ( ! diff]5t modes ( gu>anty+ notes4 ,*apt] ,,lxi4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at is a bill ( ex*ange8 ,give a =m4 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are =eign bills ( ex*ange8 ,inl&8 ,sec4#c4 ,give an example ( its op]ation & effect8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ is a bill accept$8 ,h[ is ! acceptor liable8 ,h[ is paym5t dem&$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:5 mu/ bills payable at sight1 or a c]ta9 day aft] sight1 or aft] date1 be pres5t$ = acceptance8 ,:5 pres5t$ = paym5t8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is ! nature ( a bank *eck8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is ! bus9ess ( a not>y public8 ,def9e prote/4 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is said ( prote/+ inl& bills ( ex*ange8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is int]e/8 ,sec4#aj4 ,give ! rates ( int]e/ 9 ! diff]5t /ates4 ,:at is x 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at is usury8 ,:at is ! =feiture = tak+ usury 9 ?is /ate8 ,*apt] ,,lxii4 ,sec4#a4 ,are ! p5alties = crimes ! same 9 all ! /ates8 ,is ! measure ( puni%m5t always ! same = ! same (f5se1 9 any /ate8 ,:o fixes ! measure ( puni%m5t8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at crimes are puni%able by dea? 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#c4 ,:y are crimes puni%able by dea? call$ capital crimes8 ,def9e capital4 ,sec4#d4 ,def9e treason4 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is murd]8 ,are !re diff]5t degrees ( murd] 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#f4 ,def9e manslaught]4 ,h[ _m degrees ( manslaught] 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is arson8 ,def9e arson 9 ! fir/ degree4 ,h[ is ?is degree puni%able 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is homicide8 ,:5 is x feloni\s8 ,:at is ju/ifiable & excusable homicide8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at is maim+8 ,kidnapp+8 ,:at o!r crimes are "h m5tion$ z felonies8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is burgl>y8 ,:y is ! crime deem$ great] :5 committ$ 9 ! night "t8 ,sec4#aa4 ,def9e =g]y & c\nt]feit+8 ,sec4#ab4 ,def9e robb]y1 & an attempt to rob4 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at is embezzlem5t8 ,h[ is x puni%able8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:at is l>c5y8 ,:at is gr&1 & :at is petit l>c5y8 ,sec4#ae4 ,:at is p]jury8 ,:at is subornation ( p]jury8 ,sec4#af4 ,def9e brib]y4 ,sec4#ag4 ,:at is duel+8 ,is duel+ murd] 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#ah4 ,is aid+ a prison] to escape a crime8 ,sec4#ai4 ,:at is bigamy8 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 bigamy & polygamy8 ,sec4#bj4 ,:at is ince/8 ,sec4#ba4 ,9 :at case is op5+ a grave a crime8 ,h[ is x puni%able 9 ?is /ate8 ,sec4#bb4 ,:o are accessories to crime8 ,sec4#bc4 ,def9e assault & batt]y4 ,sec4#bd4 ,:at is a riot8 ,h[ may riots be suppress$8 ,sec4#be4 ,:at grade ( (f5se is x = an (fic] to rescue a prison] or volunt>ily to suff] him to escape8 ,sec4#bf4 ,:at is false imprisonm5t8 ,sec4#bg4 ,:at grade ( (f5se are ! f\r (f5ses la/ nam$8 ,:at o!r misdemeanors are m5tion$ 9 ?is section8 ,c y "n any o!r8 ,*apt] ,,lxiii4 ,sec4#a4 ,( :at consi/s ! law ( nations8 ,:at 0 its e>ly "*8 ,sec4#b4 ,by :at means has x be5 improv$8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at p>ticul> fur!r improvem5t is desirable8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at is said ( ! indep5d5ce ( nations8 ,h[1 !n1 is r$ress = injuries obta9$8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at "r has a nation 9 respect to its gov]nm5t8 ,to ?is rule1 :at exception d "s make8 ,sec4#f4 ,9 :at cases may "o nation assi/ ano!r 9 *ang+ its gov]nm5t8 ,sec4#g4 ,9 :at respect are nations mutually dep5d5t8 ,sec4#h4 ,by :at law ought all nations to be gov]n$8 ,:at does ?is law require8 ,sec4#i4 ,by :at names is ?is law :5 appli$ to nations or /ates call$8 ,:y is x s call$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,= :at reasons d "s writ]s divide x into ! natural & positive laws ( nations8 ,sec4#aa4 ,def9e ! positive law ( nations4 ,h[ is x divid$8 ,def9e ! cu/om>y law ( nations4 ,sec4#ab4 ,:at is a conv5tional law ( nations8 ,def9e conv5tion4 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at is ! advantage ( conv5tional law8 ,sec4#ad4 ,by :at consid]ation is ! obs]vance ( treaties induc$8 ,sec4#ae4 ,:at is a p]fect obligation8 ,an imp]fect obligation8 ,:y are ! obligations ( nations call$ imp]fect8 ,*apt] ,,lxiv4 ,sec4#a4 ,:at rights h nations on ! seas8 ,by :at laws are p]sons at sea gov]n$8 ,sec4#b4 ,ov] :at wat]s fl[+ ?r\gh its t]ritory has a nation jurisdiction8 ,to :at di/ance on ! sea8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at "r h o!r nations to a passage ov] its l&s & wat]s8 ,:y is ?is an imp]fect "r8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are ! mutual rights & duties ( a /ate & =eign immigrants8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is its duty 9 respect to =eign crim9als8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is said ( ! responsibility ( embassadors8 ,= bad conduct1 h[ are !y puni%able8 ,:y are !y n am5able to ! laws ( ! =eign /ate8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at rights h !y 9 c\ntries ?r\gh :i* !y pass8 ,:at is a passport8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ are embassadors dealt ) = disrespectful conduct at a =eign c\rt8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at d m9i/]s d :5 !y are ill-treat$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,if a gov]nm5t1 = good cause1 refuses to receive a m9i/]1 :at is its duty8 ,sec4#aa4 ,:at p[] has a m9i/] 9 mak+ treaties8 ,sec4#ab4 ,to :at laws are consuls subject8 ,:at is _! bus9ess8 ,*apt] ,,lxv4 ,sec4#a4 ,def9e (f5sive & def5sive w>4 ,:at are ! cont5d+ p>ties call$8 ,:o are neutrals8 ,sec4#b4 ,:at are ! prop] *>act]i/ics ( a w>8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at are objects ( a lawful w>8 ,sec4#d4 ,:5 is a p]sonal injury to ! citiz5s ( "o /ate by ^? ( ano!r deem$ j cause ( w>8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at ought a gov]nm5t to d be=e resort+ to w> to r$ress injuries8 ,sec4#f4 ,h[ is satisfaction sometimes s\ght )\t mak+ w>8 ,h[ are reprisals made8 ,def9e confiscate4 ,sec4#g4 ,to ju/ify reprisals1 :at is necess>y8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ f> is a nation b\nd by a treaty ( alliance to assi/ ano!r 9 w>8 ,sec4#i4 ,9 :at cases is x n b\nd to r5d] ! aid8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at if ! alliance is def5sive8 ,is ! gov]nm5t t fir/ applies =ce always ! aggressor8 ,*apt] ,,lxvi4 ,sec4#a4 ,h[ is w> usually ann\nc$8 ,by :at au?ority8 ,sec4#b4 ,is a decl>ation communicat$ to ! enemy8 ,:at is deem$ suffici5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,:5 w> is decl>$1 :o are involv$ 9 x8 ,sec4#d4 ,h[ does w> 9 a /ate affect ! p]sons & prop]ty ( ! enemy's subjects f\nd )9 su* /ate8 ,sec4#e4 ,h[ is trade betwe5 ! two c\ntries affect$ by ! w>8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is necess>y to make (f5sive ho/ilities lawful8 ,9 :at case w\ld su* p]mission be b5eficial8 ,sec4#g4 ,h[ f> does a j w> give ! "r to take ! life ( ! enemy8 ,sec4#h4 ,h[ are prison]s ( w> to be treat$8 ,:at is said ab\t ! ex*ange & ransom ( prison]s8 ,sec4#i4 ,:at k9ds ( prop]ty may n1 & :at may1 be de/roy$8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at is said ( /ratagems8 ,sec4#aa4 ,( spies8 ,sec4#ab4 ,9 :at k9d ( w> is ! de/ruction ( private prop]ty lawful8 ,on :at gr\nd8 ,sec4#ac4 ,:at are private]s8 ,:at are _! own]s au?oriz$ to d8 ,h[ is private]+ enc\rag$8 ,sec4#ad4 ,h[ is ! abuse ( ?is "r prev5t$8 ,sec4#ae4 ,/ate ! proce$+s ( ! captors & ! c\rt1 9 cases ( capture8 ,sec4#af4 ,:o has ! prim>y "r to all prizes8 ,h[ d ! citiz5s get any int]e/ 9 !m8 ,*apt] ,,lxvii4 ,sec4#a4 ,to :at is a neutral nation b\nd8 ,:at k9d ( aid to an enemy is unlawful8 ,sec4#b4 ,h[ is ! trade ( a neutral affect$ by w>8 ,) :at may %e /ill supply a bellig]5t8 ,sec4#c4 ,:at is said ( ! "r ( a neutral to c>ry ! goods 9 su* cases8 ,sec4#d4 ,:at are prohibit$ articles call$8 ,:at goods are contrab&8 ,sec4#e4 ,:at is done ) contrab& goods8 ,9 :at cases is ! vessel also confiscat$8 ,sec4#f4 ,:at is a blockade8 ,its object8 ,h[ does x affect neutrals8 ,sec4#g4 ,:at is necess>y to a lawful blockade8 ,9 case a place is blockad$ by sea only1 h[ may trade be c>ri$ on ) x8 ,sec4#h4 ,:at is ! "r ( se>*8 ,:at vessels are subject to se>*8 ,sec4#i4 ,9 :at case is ! prop]ty ( an enemy 9 a neutral vessel liable to seizure8 ,:at is done ) ! prop]ty ( neutrals f\nd 9 an enemy's vessel8 ,sec4#aj4 ,:at may n a neutral p]mit 9 h] ports8 ,:at may n h] citiz5s d8 ,sec4#aa4 ,= :at purposes are ho/ilities sometimes susp5d$8 ,:5 is ! susp5sion call$ a susp5sion ( arms8 ,9 :at cases a truce8 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a p>tial & a g5]al truce8 ,sec4#ab4 ,h[ are ! contract+ p>ties & _! citiz5s affect$ by a truce8 ,sec4#ac4 ,h[ is peace g5]ally secur$8 ,sec4#ad4 ,:5 d treaties ( peace take effect betwe5 ! p>ties8 ,sec4#ae4 ,h[ is ! s]vice ( m$iation p]=m$8