,,nitro-,,explosives ,illustration3 ,,danger ,,building ,,showing ,,protecting ,,mounds4 7,see page #f47 ,,nitro-,,explosives ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,concerning ,,the ,,properties1 ,,manufacture1 ,,and ,,analysis ,,of ,,nitrated ,,substances1 ,,including ,,the ,,fulminates1 ,,smokeless ,,powders1 ,,and ,,celluloid ,,by ,p4 ,,gerald ,,sanford1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,public ,analyst to the ,borough of ,penzance2 late ,consulting ,chemist to the ,cotton ,powder ,company ,limited2 and formerly ,resident ,chemist at the ,stowmarket ,works of the ,new ,explosives ,company ,limited1 and the ,hayle ,works of the ,national ,explosive ,company ,limited ,second ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged ,,preface4 ,in compiling the following treatise1 my aim has been to give a brief but thoroughly practical account of the properties1 manufacture1 and methods of analysis of the various nitro-explosives now so largely used for mining and blasting purposes and as propulsive agents2 and it is believed that the account given of the manufacture of nitro-glycerine and of the gelatine dynamites will be found more complete than in any similar work yet published in this country4 ,for many of the facts and figures contained in the chapter on ,smokeless ,powders ,i am indebted to 7amongst others7 the late ,mr ,j4,d4 ,dougall and ,messrs ,a4,c4 ,ponsonby and ,h4,m4 ,chapman1 ,f4,c4,s42 and for details with regard to ,roburite to ,messrs ,h4,a4 ,krohn and ,w4,j4 ,orsman1 ,f4,i4,c4 ,to these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due4 ,among the authorities which have been consulted in the general preparation of the work may be mentioned the ,journals of the ,chemical ,society1 the ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 the ,united ,states ,naval ,institute1 and the ,royal ,artillery ,institution4 ,i have also referred to several volumes of the periodical publication ,arms and ,explosives2 to various papers by ,sir ,frederick ,abel1 ,bart41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,general ,wardell1 ,r4,a41 on ,gun-,cotton2 to ,modern ,artillery1 by ,capt4 ,lloyd1 ,r4,n41 and ,a4,g4 ,hadcock1 ,r4,a42 to the late ,colonel ,cundill's ,dictionary of ,explosives2 as well as to the works of ,messrs ,eissler1 ,berthelot1 and others4 ,the illustrations have been prepared chiefly from my own drawings4 ,a few1 however1 have been taken 7by permission7 from the pages of ,arms and ,explosives1 or from other sources which are acknowledged in the text4 ,p4,g4,s4 ,,the ,,laboratory1 #bj ,,cullum ,,street1 ,e4,c4 ,may #ahif4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,in the preparation of the ,second ,edition of this work1 ,i have chiefly made use of the current technical journals1 especially of the ,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry4 ,the source of my information has in every case been acknowledged4 ,i am also indebted to several manufacturers of explosives for information respecting their special products--among others the ,new ,explosives ,company ,ltd42 ,messrs ,curtis's and ,harvey ,ltd42 ,the ,schultze ,gunpowder ,company ,ltd42 and ,mr ,w4,d4 ,borland1 ,f4,i4,c41 of the ,e4,c4 ,powder ,company ,ltd4 ,to my friend ,mr ,a4 ,stanley ,fox1 ,f4,c4,s41 of ,faversham1 my best thanks are also due for his help in many departments1 and his kindness in pointing out several references4 ,the chapter on ,smokeless ,powders has been considerably enlarged and 7as far as possible7 brought up to date2 but it has not always been possible to give the process of manufacture or even the composition1 as these details have not1 in several cases1 been made public4 ,p4 ,,gerald ,,sanford4 ,,london1 ,june #aijf4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,introduction4 ,the ,nitro-,explosives--,substances that have been ,nitrated--,the ,danger ,area-- ,systems of ,professors ,lodge1 ,zenger1 and ,melsens for the ,protection of ,buildings from ,lightning1 c4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,nitro-,,glycerine4 ,properties of ,nitro-,glycerine--,manufacture--,nitrat ion--,separation--,washing and ,filtering--,drying1 ,storing1 c4--,the ,waste ,acids--,their ,treatment-- ,nitric ,acid ,plants ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,nitro-,,cellulose1 ,c4 ,cellulose ,properties--,discovery of ,gun-,cotton--,properties of ,gun-,cotton-- ,varieties of ,soluble and ,insoluble ,gun-,cottons--,manufacture of ,gun-,cotton-- ,dipping and ,steeping,whirling ,out the ,acid--,washing1 ,boiling1 ,pulping1 ,compressing--,the ,waltham ,abbey ,process--,le ,bouchet ,process--,granulation of ,gun-,cotton--,collodion-,cotton--,manuf acture--,acid ,mixture ,used--,cotton ,used1 c4--,nitrated ,gun-,cotton--,tonite--,dangers in ,manufacture of ,gun-,cotton-- ,trench's ,fire-,extinguishing ,compound--,uses of ,collodion-,cotton--,celluloid-- ,manufacture1 c4--,nitro-,starch1 ,nitro-,jute1 and ,nitro-,mannite ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,dynamite4 ,kieselguhr ,dynamite--,classification of ,dynamites--,properties and ,efficiency of ,ordinary ,dynamite--,other forms of ,dynamite--,gelatine and ,gelatine ,dynamites1 ,suitable ,gun-,cotton for1 and ,treatment of--,other ,materials ,used--,composition of ,gelignite--,blasting ,gelatine--,gelatine ,dynamite--,absorbing ,materials--,wood ,pulp--,potassium ,nitrate1 c4-- ,manufacture1 c4--,apparatus ,used--,the ,properties of the ,gelatine ,compounds ,,chapter ,v4--,,nitro-,,benzol1 ,,roburite1 ,,bellite1 ,,picric ,,acid1 c4 ,explosives derived from ,benzene--,toluene and ,nitro-,benzene--,di- and ,tri-nitro-,benzene--,roburite3 ,properties and ,manufacture--,bellite3 ,properties1 c4--,securite--,tonite ,no4 #c4--,nitro-,toluene-- ,nitro-,naphthalene--,ammonite--,sprenge l's ,explosives--,picric ,acid-- ,picrates--,picric ,powders--,melinite--,abel's ,mixture--,brugre's ,powders-- ,the ,fulminates--,composition1 ,formula1 ,preparation1 ,danger of1 c4-- ,detonators3 ,sizes1 ,composition1 ,manufacture--,fuses1 c4 ,,the ,,fulminates4 ,composition1 ,formula1 ,preparation1 ,danger of1 c4--,detonators3 ,sizes1 ,composition1 ,manufacture--,fuses1 c4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,smokeless ,,powders ,,in ,,general4 ,cordite--,axite--,ballistite--,u4,s4 ,naval ,powder--,schultze's ,e4,c4 ,powder-- ,indurite--,vielle ,poudre--,walsrode and ,cooppal ,powders--,amberite-- ,troisdorf--,b4,n4 ,powder--,wetterin--,normal ,powder--,maximite--,picric ,acid ,powders1 c4 c4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,analysis ,,of ,,explosives4 ,kieselguhr ,dynamite--,gelatine ,compounds--,tonite--,cordite--,vaseline -- ,acetone--,scheme for ,analysis of ,explosives--,nitro-,cotton--,solubility ,test-- ,non-,nitrated ,cotton--,alkalinity--,ash and ,inorganic ,matter--,determination of ,nitrogen--,lung1 ,champion and ,pellet's1 ,schultze-,tieman1 and ,kjeldahl's ,methods--,celluloid--,picric ,acid and ,picrates--,resinous and ,tarry ,matters-- ,sulphuric ,acid and ,hydrochloric ,acid and ,oxalic ,acid--,nitric ,acid-- ,inorganic ,impurities--,general ,impurities and ,adulterations--,potassium ,picrate1 c4--,picrates of the ,alkaloids--,analysis of ,glycerine--,residue-- ,silver ,test--,nitration--,total ,acid ,equivalent--,neutrality--,free ,fatty ,acids--,combined ,fatty ,acids--,impurities--,oleic ,acid--,sodium ,chloride-- ,determination of ,glycerine--,waste ,acids--,sodium ,nitrate--,mercury ,fulminate--,cap ,composition--,table for ,correction of ,volumes of ,gases1 for ,temperature and ,pressure ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,firing ,,point ,,of ,,explosives1 ,,heat ,,tests1 ,c4 ,horsley's ,apparatus--,table of ,firing ,points--,the ,government ,heat ,test ,apparatus1 c41 for ,dynamites1 ,nitro-,glycerine1 ,nitro-,cotton1 and ,smokeless ,powders--,guttmann's ,heat ,test--,liquefaction and ,exudation ,tests-- ,page's ,regulator for ,heat ,test ,apparatus--,specific ,gravities of ,explosives--,will's ,test for ,nitro-,cellulose--,table of ,temperature of ,detonation1 ,sensitiveness1 c4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,relative ,,strength ,,of ,,explosives4 ,effectiveness of an ,explosive--,high and ,low ,explosives--,theoretical ,efficiency--,m4,m4 ,roux and ,sarrau's ,results--,abel and ,noble's--,nobel's ,ballistic ,test--,the ,mortar--,pressure or ,crusher ,gauge--,calculation ,volume of ,gas ,evolved1 c4--,lead ,cylinders--,the ,foot-,pounds ,machine--,noble's ,pressure ,gauge--,lieut4 ,walke's ,results--,calculation of ,pressure ,developed by ,dynamite and ,gun-,cotton--,mc,nab's and ,ristori's ,results of ,heat ,developed by the ,explosion of ,various ,explosives--,composition of some of the ,explosives in ,common ,use for ,blasting1 c4 ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,frontispiece--,danger ,building showing ,protecting ,mounds4 #a4 ,section of ,nitro-,glycerine ,conduit #b4 ,melsens ,system of ,lightning ,conductors #c4 ,french ,system #d;a #d;b4 ,english ,government ,system #e4 ,upper ,portion of ,nitrator for ,nitro-,glycerine #f4 ,small ,nitrator #g4 ,nathan's ,nitrator #h4 ,nitro-,glycerine ,separator #i4 ,nitro-,glycerine ,filtering ,apparatus #aj4 ,cotton-,waste ,drier #aa4 ,dipping ,tank #ab4 ,cooling ,pits #ac4 ,steeping ,pot for ,gun-,cotton #ad4 ,hydro-,extractor or ,centrifugal ,drier #ae;a #ae;b4 ,gun-,cotton ,beater #af;a4 ,poacher for ,pulping ,gun-,cotton #af;b4 ,plan of same #af;c4 ,another form of ,poacher #ag #ah4 ,compressed ,gun-,cotton #ai4 ,hydraulic ,press #bj4 ,thomson's ,apparatus--,elevation #ba4 ,elevation ,plan #bb4 ,trench's ,safety ,cartridge #bc4 ,vessel used in ,nitrating ,paper #bd4 ,cage ditto--,white ,schupphaus' ,apparatus #be4 ,do4 do4 do4 #bf #bg4 ,nitrating ,pot for ,celluloid #bh #bi4 ,plunge ,tank in ,plan and ,section #cj4 ,messrs ,werner1 ,pfleiderer ,perkins' ,mixing ,machine #ca4 ,m4 ',roberts' ,mixing ,machine for ,blasting ,gelatine #cb4 ,plan of same #cc4 ,cartridge ,machine for ,gelatines #cd4 ,cartridge fitted with ,fuse and ,detonator #ce4 ,gun-,cotton ,primer #cf4 ,electric ,firing ,apparatus #cg4 ,metal ,drum for ,winding ,cordite #ch4 ,ten-,stranding #ci4 ,curve showing relation between ,pressures of ,cordite and ,black ,powder1 by ,professor ,vivian ,lewes #dj4 ,marshall's ,apparatus for ,moisture in ,cordite #da4 ,lung's ,nitrometer #db4 ,modified do4 #dc4 ,horn's ,nitrometer #dd4 ,schultze-,tieman ,apparatus for ,determination of ,nitrogen in ,gun-,cotton #de4 ,decomposition ,flask for ,schultze-,tieman ,method #df4 ,abel's ,heat ,test ,apparatus #dg4 ,apparatus for ,separation of ,nitro-,glycerine from ,dynamite #dh4 ,test ,tube arranged for ,heat ,test #di4 ,page's ,regulator #ej4 ,do4 showing ,bye-,pass and ,cut-off ,arrangement #ea4 ,will's ,apparatus #eb #ec4 ,curves obtained #ed4 ,dynamite ,mortar #ee4 ,quinan's ,pressure ,gauge #ef4 ,steel ,punch and ,lead ,cylinder for ,use with ,pressure ,gauge #eg4 ,micrometer ,calipers for ,measuring ,thickness of ,lead ,cylinders #eh4 ,section of ,lead ,cylinders before and after ,explosion #ei4 ,noble's ,pressure ,gauge #fj4 ,crusher ,gauge ,,nitro-,,explosives4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,the ,nitro-,explosives--,substances that have been ,nitrated--,the ,danger ,area-- ,systems of ,professors ,lodge1 ,zenger1 and ,melsens for the ,protection of ,buildings from ,lightning1 c4 ,the manufacture of the various nitro-explosives has made great advances during late years1 and the various forms of nitro-compounds are gradually replacing the older forms of explosives1 both for blasting purposes and also for propulsive agents1 under the form of smokeless powders4 ,the nitro-explosives belong to the so-called ,high ,explosives1 and may be defined as any chemical compound possessed of explosive properties1 or capable of combining with metals to form an explosive compound1 which is produced by the chemical action of nitric acid1 either alone or mixed with sulphuric acid1 upon any carbonaceous substance1 whether such compound is mechanically mixed with other substances or not4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,definition given in ,order of ,council1 ,no4 #a1 ,explosives ,act1 #ahge4 ,the number of compounds and mixtures included under this definition is very large1 and they are of very different chemical composition4 ,among the substances that have been nitrated are3--,cellulose1 under various forms1 e4g41 cotton1 lignin1 c42 glycerine1 benzene1 starch1 jute1 sugar1 phenol1 wood1 straw1 and even such substances as treacle and horse-dung4 ,some of these are not made upon the large scale1 others are but little used4 ,those of most importance are nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose4 ,the former enters into the composition of all dynamites1 and several smokeless powders2 and the second includes gun-cotton1 collodion-cotton1 nitrated wood1 and the majority of the smokeless powders1 which consist generally of nitro-cotton1 nitro-lignin1 nitro-jute1 c4 c41 together with metallic nitrates1 or nitro-glycerine4 ,the nitro-explosives consist generally of some organic substance in which the ,,no#b group1 known as nitryl1 has been substituted in place of hydrogen4 ,thus in glycerine1 ,,oh ,c#c;,h#e,,oh1 ,,oh which is a tri-hydric alcohol1 and which occurs very widely distributed as the alcoholic or basic constituent of fats1 the hydrogen atoms are replaced by the ,,no#b group1 to form the highly explosive compound1 nitro-glycerine4 ,if one atom only is thus displaced1 the mono-nitrate is formed thus1 ,,ono#b ,c#c;,h#e,,oh2 ,,oh and if the three atoms are displaced1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,ono#b7c1 or the tri- nitrate1 is formed1 which is commercial nitro-glycerine4 ,another class1 the nitro-celluloses1 are formed from cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 which forms the groundwork of all vegetable tissues4 ,cellulose has some of the properties of the alcohols1 and forms ethereal salts when treated with nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,the hexa-nitrate1 or gun-cotton1 has the formula1 ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,ono#b7f2 and collodion-cotton1 pyroxylin1 c41 form the lower nitrates1 i4e41 the tetra- and penta-nitrates4 ,these last are soluble in various solvents1 such as ether-alcohol and nitro-glycerine1 in which the hexa-nitrate is insoluble4 ,they all dissolve1 however1 in acetone and acetic ether4 ,the solution of the soluble varieties in ether-alcohol is known as collodion1 which finds many applications in the arts4 ,the hydrocarbon benzene1 ,c#f;,h#f1 prepared from the light oil obtained from coal-tar1 when nitrated forms nitro-benzenes1 such as mono-nitro-benzene1 ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b1 and di-nitro-benzene1 ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7b1 in which one and two atoms are replaced by the ,,no#b group4 ,the latter of these compounds is used as an explosive1 and enters into the composition of such well-known explosives as roburite1 c4 ,the presence of nitro groups in a substance increases the difficulty of further nitration1 and in any case not more than three nitro groups can be introduced into an aromatic compound1 or the phenols4 ,all aromatic compounds with the general formula1 ,c#f;,h#d,x#b1 give1 however1 three series4 ,they are called ortho1 meta1 or para compounds1 depending upon the position of ,,no#b groups introduced4 ,certain regularities have been observed in the formation of nitro- compounds4 ,if1 for example1 a substance contains alkyl or hydroxyl groups1 large quantities of the para compound are obtained1 and very little of the ortho4 ,the substitution takes place1 however1 almost entirely in the meta position1 if a nitro1 carboxyl1 or aldehyde group be present4 ,ordinary phenol1 ,c#f;,h#e4,,oh1 gives para- and ortho-nitro-phenol2 toluene gives para- and ortho-nitro-toluene2 but nitro-benzene forms meta-di-nitro- benzene and benzoic acid1 meta-nitro-benzoic acid4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,organic ,chemistry1 ,prof4 ,hjelt4 ,translated by ,j4,b4 ,tingle1 ,ph4,d4 ,if the graphic formula of benzene be represented thus 7,no4 #a71 then the positions #a and #b represent the ortho1 #a and #c the meta1 and #a and #d the para compounds4 ,when the body phenol1 ,c#f;,h#e4,,oh1 is nitrated1 a compound is formed known as tri-nitro-phenol1 or picric acid1 ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh1 which is used very extensively as an explosive1 both as picric acid and in the form of picrates4 ,another nitro body that is used as an explosive is nitro-naphthalene1 ,c#aj;,h#f7,,no#b7b1 in roburite1 securite1 and other explosives of this class4 ,the hexa-nitro- mannite1 ,c#f;,h#h7,,ono#b7f1 is formed ,illustration3 ,no4 #a ,illustration3 ,,meta-,,dinitro-,,benzene ,no4#b by treating a substance known as mannite1 ,c#f;,h#h7,,oh7#f1 an alcohol formed by the lactic acid fermentation of sugar and closely related to the sugars1 with nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,it is a solid substance1 and very explosive2 it contains #ah4eh per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,nitro-starch has also been used for the manufacture of an explosive4 ,muhlhauer has described 7,ding4 ,poly4 ,jour41 #gc1 #acg-adc7 three nitric ethers of starch1 the tetra-nitro-starch1 ,c#ab;,h#af,o#f7,,ono#b7d1 the penta- and hexa-nitro-starch4 ,they are formed by acting upon potato starch dried at #ajj ,c4 with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids at a temperature of #bj to #be ,c4 ,rice starch has also been used in its production4 ,muhlhauer proposes to use this body as a smokeless powder1 and to nitrate it with the spent mixed acids from the manufacture of nitro- glycerine4 ,this substance contains from #aj4if to #aa4ji per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,it is a white substance1 very stable and soluble even in cold nitro-glycerine4 ,the explosive bodies formed by the nitration of jute have been studied by ,messrs ,cross and ,bevan4 and also by ,mhlhuer4 ,the former chemists give jute the formula ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#i1 and believe that its conversion into a nitro-compound takes place according to the equation-- ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#i #c;,,hno#c #c;,h#b,o ,c#ab;,h#ae,o7#f7,,no#c7c4 ,this is equivalent to a gain in weight of #dd per cent4 for the tri- nitrate1 and #eh per cent4 for the tetra-nitrate4 ,the formation of the tetra-nitrate appears to be the limit of nitration of jute fibre4 ,messrs ,cross and ,bevan say1 ,in other words1 if we represent the ligno-cellulose molecule by a ,c#ab formula1 it will contain four hydroxyl 7,,oh7 groups1 or two less than cellulose similarly represented4 ,it contains #aa4e per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,the jute nitrates resemble those of cellulose1 and are in all essential points nitrates of ligno-cellulose4 ,nitro-jute is used in the composition of the well-known ,cooppal ,smokeless ,powders4 ,cross and ,bevan are of opinion that there is no very obvious advantage in the use of lignified textile fibres as raw materials for explosive nitrates1 seeing that a number of raw materials containing cellulose 7chiefly as cotton7 can be obtained at from #aj to #be a ton1 and yield also #aej to #agj per cent4 of explosive material when nitrated 7whereas jute only gives #aed4d per cent471 and are in many ways superior to the products obtained from jute4 ,nitro-lignin1 or nitrated wood1 is1 however1 largely used in the composition of a good many of the smokeless powders1 such as ,schultze's1 the ,smokeless ,powder ,co4's products1 and others4 ,the ,danger ,area4--,that portion of the works that is devoted to the actual manufacture or mixing of explosive material is generally designated by the term danger area1 and the buildings erected upon it are spoken of as danger buildings4 ,the best material of which to construct these buildings is of wood1 as in the event of an explosion they will offer less resistance1 and will cause much less danger than brick or stone buildings4 ,when an explosion of nitro-glycerine or dynamite occurs in one of these buildings1 the sides are generally blown out1 and the roof is raised some considerable height1 and finally descends upon the blown-out sides4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the same explosion had occurred in a strong brick or stone building1 the walls of which would offer a much larger resistance1 large pieces of brickwork would probably have been thrown for a considerable distance1 and have caused serious damage to surrounding buildings4 ,it is also a very good plan to surround all danger buildings with mounds of sand or earth1 which should be covered with turf1 and of such a height as to be above the roof of the buildings that they are intended to protect 7see frontispiece74,a ,these mounds are of great value in confining the force of the explosion1 and the sides of the buildings being thrown against them are prevented from travelling any distance4 ,in gunpowder works it is not unusual to surround the danger buildings with trees or dense underwood instead of mounds4 ,this would be of no use in checking the force of explosion of the high explosives1 but has been found a very useful precaution in the case of gunpowder4 ,footnote ,a3 ,at the ,baelen ,factory1 ,belgium1 the danger buildings are erected on a novel plan4 ,they are circular in ground plan and lighted entirely from the roof by means of a patent glass having wire-netting in it1 and which it is claimed will not let a splinter fall1 even if badly cracked4 ,the mounds are then erected right up against the walls of the building1 exceeding them in height by several metres4 ,for this method of construction it is claimed that the force exerted by an explosion will expand itself in a vertical direction 7,report on ,visits to ,certain ,explosive ,factories1 ,h4,m4 ,inspectors1 #aije74 ,in ,great ,britain it is necessary that all danger buildings should be a specified distance apart2 a license also must be obtained4 ,the application for a license must give a plan 7drawn to scale7 of the proposed factory or magazine1 and the site1 its boundaries1 and surroundings1 and distance the building will be from any other buildings or works1 c41 also the character1 and construction of all the mounds1 and nature of the processes to be carried on in the factory or building4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,explosives ,act1 #ch ,vict4 ch4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,section ,,of ,,nitro-,,glycerine ,,conduit4 a1 lid2 b1 lead lining2 c1 cinders4 ,the selection of a site for the danger area requires some attention4 ,the purpose for which it is required1 that is1 the kind of explosive that it is intended to manufacture1 must be taken into consideration4 ,a perfectly level piece of ground might probably be quite suitable for the purpose of erecting a factory for the manufacture of gun-cotton or gunpowder1 and such materials1 but would be more or less unsuitable for the manufacture of nitro-glycerine1 where a number of buildings are required to be upon different levels1 in order to allow of the flow of the liquid nitro- glycerine from one building to another through a system of conduits4 ,these conduits 7,fig4 #a71 which are generally made of wood and lined with lead1 the space between the woodwork and the lead lining1 which is generally some #d or #e inches1 being filled with cinders1 connect the various buildings1 and should slope gently from one to the other4 ,it is also desirable that1 as far as possible1 they should be protected by earth-work banks1 in the same way as the danger buildings themselves4 ,they should also be provided with covers1 which should be whitewashed in hot weather4 ,a great deal of attention should be given to these conduits1 and they should be very frequently inspected4 ,whenever it is found that a portion of the lead lining requires repairing1 before cutting away the lead it should be very carefully washed1 for several feet on either side of the portion that it is intended to remove1 with a solution of caustic soda or potash dissolved in methylated spirit and water1 and afterwards with water alone4 ,this decomposes the nitro-glycerine forming glycerine and potassium nitrate4 ,it will be found that the mixed acids attack the lead rather quickly1 forming sulphate and nitrate of lead1 but chiefly the former4 ,it is on this account that it has been proposed to use pipes made of guttapercha1 but the great drawback to their use is that in the case of anything occurring inside the pipes1 such as the freezing of the nitro- glycerine in winter1 it is more difficult to find it out1 and the condition of the inside cannot be seen1 whereas in the case of wooden conduits it is an easy matter to lift the lids along the whole length of the conduit4 ,the buildings which require to be connected by conduits are of course those concerned with the manufacture of nitro-glycerine4 ,these buildings are--7#a7 ,the nitrating house2 7#b7 the separating house2 7#c7 the filter house2 7#d7 the secondary separator2 7#e7 the deposit of washings2 7#f7 the settling or precipitation house2 and each of these buildings must be on a level lower than the preceding one1 in order that the nitro-glycerine or acids may flow easily from one building to the next4 ,these buildings are1 as far as possible1 best placed together1 and away from the other danger buildings1 such as the cartridge huts and dynamite mixing houses1 but this is not essential4 ,all danger buildings should be protected by a lightning conductor1 or covered with barbed wire1 as suggested by ,professor ,sir ,oliver ,j4 ,lodge1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professors ,zenger1 of ,prague1 and ,melsens1 of ,brussels1 and everything possible should be done to keep them as cool as possible in the summer4 ,with this object they should be made double1 and the intervening space filled with cinders4 ,the roof also should be kept whitewashed1 and the windows painted over thinly with white paint4 ,a thermometer should be suspended in every house4 ,it is very essential that the floors of all these buildings should be washed every day before the work-people leave4 ,in case any nitro-glycerine is spilt upon the floors1 after sponging it up as far as possible1 the floor should be washed with an alcoholic solution of soda or potash to decompose the nitro-glycerine1 which it does according to the equation,a-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7c #c,,koh ,c#c;,h#h,o#c #c,,kno#c4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see also ,berthelot1 ,comptes ,rendus1 #aijj1 #acaab1 #eai- #eba4 ,every one employed in the buildings should wear list or sewn leather shoes1 which of course must be worn in the buildings only4 ,the various houses should be connected by paths laid with cinders1 or boarded with planks1 and any loose sand about the site of the works should be covered over with turf or cinders1 to prevent its blowing about and getting into the buildings4 ,it is also of importance that stand pipes should be placed about the works with a good pressure of water1 the necessary hose being kept in certain known places where they can be at once got at in the case of fire1 such as the danger area laboratory1 the foreman's office1 c4 ,it is also desirable that the above precautions against fire should be tested once a week4 ,with regard to the heating of the various buildings in the winter1 steam pipes only should be used1 and should be brought from a boiler-house outside the danger area1 and should be covered with kieselguhr or fossil meal and tarred canvas4 ,these pipes may be supported upon poles4 ,a stove of some kind should be placed in the corner of each building1 but it must be entirely covered in with woodwork1 and as small a length of steam pipes should be within the building as possible4 ,in the case of a factory where nitro-glycerine and dynamite are manufactured1 it is necessary that the work-people should wear different clothes upon the danger area than usual1 as they are apt to become impregnated with nitro-glycerine1 and thus not very desirable or safe to wear outside the works4 ,it is also necessary that these clothes should not contain any pockets1 as this lessens the chance of matches or steel implements being taken upon the danger area4 ,changing houses1 one for the men1 and another for the girls1 should also be provided4 ,the tools used upon the danger area should1 whenever the building is in use1 or contains explosives1 be made of phosphor bronze or brass1 and brass nails or wooden pegs should be used in the construction of all the buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,melsens ,,system ,,of ,,lightning ,,conductors4 ,lightning ,conductors4--,the ,explosive ,substances ,act1 #ch ,vict4 ch4 #ag1 clause #aj1 says1 ,every factory magazine and expense magazine in a factory1 and every danger building in a magazine1 shall have attached thereto a sufficient lightning conductor1 unless by reason of the construction by excavation or the position of such magazine or building1 or otherwise1 the ,secretary of ,state considers a conductor unnecessary1 and every danger building in a factory shall1 if so required by the ,secretary of ,state1 have attached thereto a sufficient lightning conductor4 ,the exact form of lightning conductor most suitable for explosive works and buildings has not yet been definitely settled4 ,lightning-rod engineers favour what is known as the ,melsens system1 due to ,professor ,melsens1 of ,brussels1 and ,professor ,zenger1 of ,prague1 but first suggested by the late ,professor ,clerk-,maxwell4 ,in a paper read before the ,british ,association1 ,clerk-,maxwell proposed to protect powder-magazines from the effects of lightning by completely surrounding or encasing them with sheet metal1 or a cage of metallic conductors4 ,there were1 however1 several objections to his system as he left it4 ,professor ,melsens,a has1 while using the idea1 made several important alterations4 ,he has multiplied the terminals1 the conductors1 and the earth-connections4 ,his terminals are very numerous1 and assume the form of an aigrette or brush with five or seven points1 the central point being a little higher than the rest1 which form with it an angle of #de4 ,he employs for the most part galvanised-iron wire4 ,he places all metallic bodies1 if they are of any considerable size1 in communication with the conducting system in such a manner as to form closed metallic circuits4 ,his system is illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 taken from ,arms and ,explosives4 ,footnote ,a3 ,belgian ,academy of ,science4 ,this system is a near approximation to ,j4,c4 ,maxwell's cage4 ,the system was really designed for the protection of powder-magazines or store buildings placed in very exposed situations4 ,zenger's system is identical with that of ,melsens1 and has been extensively tried by the ,austrian military authorities1 and ,colonel ,hess has reported upon the absolute safety of the system4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,french ,,system ,,of ,,lightning ,,conductors4 ,the ,french system of protecting powder-magazines is shown in ,fig4 #c1 where there are no brush terminals or aigrettes4 ,the ,french military authorities also protect magazines by erecting two or more lightning-rods on poles of sufficient height placed close to1 but not touching1 the walls of the magazine4 ,these conductors are joined below the foundations and earthed as usual4 ,in the instructions issued by the ,government1 it is stated that the lightning-rods placed upon powder-mills should be of such a height1 and so situated1 that no danger is incurred in igniting the powder-dust in the air by the lightning discharge at the pointed rod4 ,in such a case a fork or aigrette of five or more points should invariably be used in place of a single point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d;a4--,,government ,,system ,,of ,,lightning ,,conductors ,,for ,,large ,,buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d;b4--,,government ,,system ,,of ,,lightning ,,conductors ,,for ,,small ,,buildings4 ,in ,fig4 #d 7a and b7 is shown the ,government method for protecting buildings in which explosives are made or stored4 ,multiple points or aigrettes would be better4 ,lord ,kelvin and ,professor ,melsens favour points1 and it is generally admitted that lightning does not strike buildings at a single point1 but rather in a sheet2 hence1 in such cases1 or in the event of the globular form being assumed by the lightning1 the aigrette will constitute a much more effective protection than a single point4 ,as to the spacing of conductors1 they may1 even on the most important buildings1 be spaced at intervals of #ej feet4 ,there will then be no point on the building more than #be feet from the conductor4 ,this #be-;feet rule can be adhered to with advantage in all overground buildings for explosives4 ,underground magazines should1 whenever possible1 also be protected1 because1 although less exposed than overground buildings1 they frequently contain explosives packed in metal cases1 and hence would present a line of smaller electrical resistance than the surrounding earth would offer to the lightning4 ,the conductor should be arranged on the same system as for overground buildings1 but be applied to the surface of the ground over the magazines4 ,in all situations where several conductors are joined in one system1 the vertical conductors should be connected both at the top and near the ground line4 ,the angles and the prominent portions of a building being the most liable to be struck1 the conductors should be carried over and along these projections1 and therefore along the ridges of the roof4 ,the conductors should be connected to any outside metal on the roofs and walls1 and specially to the foot of rain-water pipes4 ,all the lightning conductors should be periodically tested1 to see that they are in working condition1 at least every three months1 according to ,mr ,richard ,anderson4 ,the object of the test is to determine the resistance of the earth-connection1 and to localise any defective joints or parts in the conductors4 ,the best system of testing the conductors is to balance the resistance of each of the earths against the remainder of the system1 from which the state of the earths may be inferred with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes4 ,captain ,bucknill1 ,r4,e41 has designed an instrument to test resistance which is based on the ,post ,office pattern resistance coil1 and is capable of testing to approximate accuracy up to #bjj ohms1 and to measure roughly up to #b1jjj ohms4 ,mr ,r4 ,anderson's apparatus is also very handy1 consisting of a case containing three ,leclanch cells1 and a galvanometer with a tangent scale and certain standard resistances4 ,some useful articles on the protection of buildings from lightning will be found in ,arms and ,explosives1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september #ahib1 and by ,mr ,anderson1 ,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahgh-hj4 ,nitro-,glycerine4--,one of the most powerful of modern explosive agents is nitro-glycerine4 ,it is the explosive contained in dynamite1 and forms the greater part of the various forms of blasting gelatines1 such as gelatine dynamite and gelignite1 both of which substances consist of a mixture of gun-cotton dissolved in nitro-glycerine1 with the addition of varying proportions of wood-pulp and saltpetre1 the latter substances acting as absorbing materials for the viscid gelatine4 ,nitro-glycerine is also largely used in the manufacture of smokeless powders1 such as cordite1 ballistite1 and several others4 ,nitro-glycerol1 or glycerol tri-nitrate1 was discovered by ,sobrero in the year #ahdg4 ,in a letter written to ,m4 ,pelouse1 he says1 when glycerol is poured into a mixture of sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of #a4hd1 and of nitric acid of a gravity of #a4e1 which has been cooled by a freezing mixture1 that an oily liquid is formed4 ,this liquid is nitro-glycerol1 or nitro-glycerine1 which for some years found no important use in the arts1 until the year #ahfc1 when ,alfred ,nobel first started a factory in ,stockholm for its manufacture upon a large scale2 but on account of some serious accidents taking place1 its use did not become general4 ,it was not until ,nobel conceived the idea 7in #ahff7 of absorbing the liquid in some absorbent earth1 and thus forming the material that is now known as dynamite1 that the use of nitro-glycerine as an explosive became general4 ,among those who improved the manufacture of nitro-glycerine was ,mowbray1 who1 by using pure glycerine and nitric acid free from nitrous acid1 made very great advances in the manufacture4 ,mowbray was probably the first to use compressed air for the purpose of keeping the liquids well agitated during the process of nitration1 which he conducted in earthenware pots1 each containing a charge of #ag lbs4 of the mixed acids and #b lbs4 of glycerol4 ,a few years later 7#ahgb71 ,,mm4 ,boutnny and ,faucher1 of ,vonges1,a proposed to prepare nitro-glycerine by mixing the sulphuric acid with the glycerine1 thus forming a sulpho-glyceric acid1 which was afterwards mixed with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,they claimed for this method of procedure that the final temperature is much lower4 ,the two mixtures are mixed in the proportions--,glycerine1 #ajj2 nitric acid1 #bhj2 and sulphuric acid1 #fjj4 ,they state that the rise of temperature upon mixing is limited from #aj to #ae ,c42 but this method requires a period of twenty-four hours to complete the nitration1 which1 considering the danger of keeping the nitro-glycerine in contact with the mixed acids for so long1 probably more than compensates for the somewhat doubtful advantage of being able to perform the nitration at such a low temperature4 ,the ,boutnny process was in operation for some time at ,pembrey ,burrows in ,wales1 but after a serious explosion the process was abandoned4 ,footnote ,a3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #ge2 and ,desortiaux1 ,trait sur la ,poudre1 #fhd-fhf4 ,nitro-glycerine is now generally made by adding the glycerine to a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids4 ,the sulphuric acid1 however1 takes no part in the reaction1 but is absolutely necessary to combine with the water that is formed by the decomposition1 and thus to keep up the strength of the nitric acid1 otherwise lower nitrates of glycerine would be formed that are soluble in water1 and which would be lost in the subsequent process of washing to which the nitro-compound is subjected1 in order to remove the excess of acids1 the retention of which in the nitro-glycerol is very dangerous4 ,nitro-glycerol1 which was formerly considered to be a nitro-substitution compound of glycerol1 was thought to be formed thus-- ,c#c;,h#h,o#c #c;,,hno#c ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#b7c,o#c #c;,h#b,o2 but more recent researches rather point to its being regarded as a nitric ether of glycerol1 or glycerine1 and to its being formed thus-- ,c#c;,h#h,o#c #c ,,hno#c ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7c #c;,h#b,o4 #ib #bbg ,,oh ,the formula of glycerine is ,c#c;,h#h,o#h1 or ,c#c;,h#e,,oh ,,oh ,,ono#b and that of the mono-nitrate of glycerine1 ,c#c;,h#e,,oh ,,oh ,,ono#b and of the tri-nitrate or 7nitro-glycerine71 ,c#c;,h#e,,ono#b ,,ono#b that is1 the three hydrogens of the semi-molecules of hydroxyl in the glycerine have been replaced by the ,,no#b group4 ,in the manufacture upon the large scale1 a mixture of three parts by weight of nitric acid and five parts of sulphuric acid are used4 ,from the above equation it will be seen that every #a lb4 of glycerol should give #b4dg lbs4 of nitro-glycerol 77#bbga7_/ib #b4dg71 but in practice the yield is only about #b lbs4 to #b4bb1 the loss being accounted for by the unavoidable formation of some of the lower nitrate1 which dissolves in water1 and is thus washed away1 and partly perhaps to the presence of a little water 7or other non-nitrable matter7 in the glycerine1 but chiefly to the former1 which is due to the acids having become too weak4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,nitro-,,glycerine4 ,properties of ,nitro-,glycerine--,manufacture of ,nitro-,glycerine--,nitration-- ,the ,nathan ,nitrator--,separation--,filtering and ,washing--,the ,waste ,acids-- ,treatment of the ,waste ,acid from the ,manufacture of ,nitro-,glycerine and ,gun-,cotton4 ,properties of ,nitro-,glycerine4--,nitro-glycerol is a heavy oily liquid of specific gravity #a4f at #ae ,c41 and when quite pure is colourless4 ,the commercial product is a pale straw yellow1 but varies much according to the purity of the materials used in its manufacture4 ,it is insoluble in water1 crystallises at #aj4e ,c41 but different commercial samples behave very differently in this respect1 and minute impurities prevent or delay crystallisation4 ,solid nitro-glycerol,a melts at about #ab ,c41 but requires to be exposed to this temperature for some time before melting4 ,the specific gravity of the solid form is #a4gce at #aj ,c42 it contracts one-twelfth of its volume in solidifying4 ,beckerheim,b gives the specific heat as #j4dbdh between the temperatures of #i4e and #i4h ,c41 and ,l4 de ,bruyn gives the boiling point as above #bjj4 ,footnote ,a3 ,di-nitro-mono chlorhydrin1 when added to nitro-glycerine up to #bj per cent41 is said to prevent its freezing4 ,footnote ,b3 ,isb41 ,chem4 ,tech41 #bb1 #dha-dhg4 #ahgf4 ,nitro-glycerine has a sweet taste1 and causes great depression and vertigo4 ,it is soluble in ether1 chloroform1 benzene1 glacial acetic acid1 and nitro-benzene1 in #a4ge part of methylated spirit1 very nearly insoluble in water1 and practically insoluble in carbon bisulphide4 ,its formula is ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7c1 and molecular weight #bbg4 ,when pure1 it may be kept any length of time without decomposition4 ,berthelot kept a sample for ten years1 and ,mr ,g4 ,m',roberts1 of the ,ardeer ,factory1 for nine years1 without their showing signs of decomposition2 but if it should contain the smallest trace of free acid1 decomposition is certain to be started before long4 ,this will generally show itself by the formation of little green spots in the gelatine compounds1 or a green ring upon the surface of liquid nitro-glycerine4 ,sunlight will often cause it to explode2 in fact1 a bucket containing some water that had been used to wash nitro-glycerine1 and had been left standing in the sun1 has in our experience been known to explode with considerable force4 ,nitro-glycerine when pure is quite stable at ordinary temperatures1 and samples have been kept for years without any trace of decomposition4 ,it is very susceptible to heat1 and even when quite pure will not stand a temperature of #ajj ,c4 for a longer period than a few hours1 without undergoing decomposition4 ,up to a temperature of #de ,c41 however1 properly made and purified nitro- glycerine will remain unchanged almost indefinitely4 ,the percentage composition of nitroglycerine is as follows3-- ,found4 ,theory for ,c#c;,h#e7,n#jb7c4 ,carbon #ae4fb #ae4hf per cent4 ,hydrogen #b4dj #b4bj ,nitrogen #ag4ij #ah4ej ,oxygen 444 #fc4dd ,the above analysis is by ,beckerheim4 ,sauer and ,adou give the nitrogen as #ah4ce to #aj4ed per cent4 by ,dumas' method2 but ,i have never found any difficulty in obtaining percentages as high as #ah4df by the use of ,lunge's nitrometer4 ,the decomposition products by explosion are shown by the following equation-- #b;,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7c #f;,,co#b #e;,h#b,o #f,n ,o2 that is1 it contains an excess of #c4eb per cent4 of oxygen above that required for complete combustion2 #ajj grms4 would be converted into-- ,carbonic ,acid 7,,co#b7 #eh4ae per cent4 ,water #ai4hc ,oxygen #c4eb per cent4 ,nitrogen #ah4ej ,the volume of gases produced at #j and #gfj mm41 calculated from the above1 is #gad litres per kilo1 the water being taken as gaseous4 ,nitro-glycerine is decomposed differently if it is ignited as dynamite 7i4e41 kieselguhr dynamite71 and if the gases are allowed to escape freely under a pressure nearly equal to that of the atmosphere4 ,sarrau and ,vieille obtained under these conditions1 for #ajj volumes of gas-- ,,no #dh4b per cent4 ,,co #ce4i ,,co#b #ab4g ,h #a4f per cent4 ,n #a4c ,,ch#d #j4c ,these conditions are similar to those under which a mining charge1 simply ignited by the cap1 burns away slowly under a low pressure 7i4e41 a miss fire74 ,in a recent communication1 ,p4,f4 ,chalon 7,engineering and ,mining ,journal1 #ahib7 says1 that in practice nitro-glycerine vapour1 carbon monoxide1 and nitrous oxide1 are also produced as the result of detonation1 but he attributes their formation to the use of a too feeble detonator4 ,nitro-glycerine explodes very violently by concussion4 ,it may be burned in an open vessel1 but if heated above #bej ,c4 it explodes4 ,professor ,c4,e4 ,munroe gives the firing point as #b,o#c-b,o#e ,c41 and ,l4 de ,bruyn,a states its boiling point as #ahe4 ,he used the apparatus devised by ,horsley4 ,the heat of formation of nitro-glycerine1 as deduced from the heat of combustion by ,m4 ,longuinine1 is #dcb calories for #a grm42 and the heat of combustion equals #a1egf cals4 for #a grm4 ,in the case of nitro-glycerine the heat of total combustion and the heat of complete decomposition are interchangeable terms1 since it contains an excess of oxygen4 ,according to ,dr ,w4,h4 ,perkin1 ,f4,r4,s41,b the magnetic rotation of nitro-gylcerine is #e1djg1 and that of tri-methylene nitrate1 #d4gfi 7diff4 4#fch74 ,dr ,perkin says3 ,had nitro-glycerine contained its nitrogen in any other combination with oxygen than as -,o-,,no#b1 as it might if its constitution had been represented as ,c#c;,h#b7,,no#b7c7,,oh7#c1 the rotation when compared with propyl nitrate 7#d4jhe7 would be abnormal4 ,footnote ,a3 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,june #ahif1 p4 #dga4 ,footnote ,b3 ,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 ,w4,h4 ,perkin1 #ahhi1 p4 #gbf4 ,the solubility of nitro-glycerine in various solvents has been investigated by ,a4,h4 ,elliot2 his results may be summarised as follows3-- ,solvent4 ,cold4 ,warm4 ,water ,insoluble ,slightly soluble ,alcohol1 absolute ,soluble ,soluble #ic #hj ,slowly soluble #ej ,insoluble ,slightly soluble ,methyl alcohol ,soluble ,soluble ,amyl ,ether1 ethylic acetic ,chloroform ,acetone ,sulphuric acid 7#a4hde7 ,nitric acid 7#a4djj7 ,slowly soluble ,hydrochloric acid 7#a4bjj7 ,insoluble1 decomposed ,slowly soluble ,acetic acid1 glacial ,soluble ,soluble ,carbolic acid ,astral oil ,insoluble ,insoluble ,olive ,soluble ,soluble ,stearine oil ,mineral jelly ,insoluble ,insoluble ,glycerine ,benzene ,soluble ,soluble ,nitro-benzene ,toluene ,carbon bi-sulphide ,insoluble ,slightly affected ,turpentine ,soluble ,petroleum naphtha1 #ga-gf ,b4 ,insoluble ,caustic soda 7#a3aj solution7 ,insoluble4 ,insoluble4 ,borax1 #e solution ,ammonia 74#ihj7 slightly affected4 ,ammonium sulph-hydrate ,insoluble1 sulphur ,decomposed4 separates ,iron sulphate solution ,slightly affected ,affected4 ,iron chloride 7#a4d grm4 ,fe ,slowly affected ,decomposed4 to #aj c4c4 ,n#b,o7 ,tin chloride ,slightly affected ,affected4 ,many attempts have been made to prepare nitro-glycerine explosives capable of withstanding comparatively low temperatures without freezing1 but no satisfactory solution of the problem has been found4 ,among the substances that have been proposed and used with more or less success1 are nitro- benzene1 nitro-toluene1 di-nitro-mono-chlorhydrine1 solid nitro derivatives of toluene1,a are stated to lower the freezing point of nitro-glycerine to -#bj;,c4 without altering its sensitiveness and stability4 ,the subject has been investigated by ,s4 ,nauckhoff1,b who states that nitroglycerine can be cooled to temperatures 7-#dj to -#ej ,c47 much below its true freezing point1 without solidifying1 by the addition of various substances4 ,when cooled by means of a mixture of solid carbon1 dioxide1 and ether1 it sets to a glassy mass1 without any perceptible crystallisation4 ,the mass when warmed to #j;,c4 first rapidly liquefies and then begins to crystallise4 ,the true freezing point of pure nitro- glycerine was found to be #ab4c;,c4 ,the technical product1 owing to the presence of di-nitro-glycerine1 freezes at #aj4e ,c4 ,according to ,raoult's law1 the lowering of the freezing point caused by m grms4 of a substance with the molecular weight ,m1 when dissolved in #ajj grms4 of the solvent1 is expressed by the formula3 ,delta ,e7m_/,m71 where ,e is a constant characteristic for the solvent in question4 ,the value of ,e for nitro- glycerine was found to be #gj4e when calculated1 according to ,van't ,hoff's formula1 from the melting point and the latent heat of fusion of the substance4 ,determinations of the lowering of the freezing point of nitro- glycerine by additions of benzene1 nitro-benzene1 di-nitro-benzene1 tri- nitro-benzene1 p4-nitro-toluene1 o4-nitro-toluene1 di-nitro-toluene1 naphthalene1 nitro-naphthalene1 di-nitro-naphthalene1 ethyl acetate1 ethyl nitrate1 and methyl alcohol1 gave results agreeing fairly well with ,raoult's formula1 except in the case of methyl alcohol1 for which the calculated lowering of the freezing point was greater than that observed1 probably owing to the formation of complex molecules in the solution4 ,the results show that1 in general1 the capacity of a substance to lower the freezing point of nitro-glycerine depends1 not upon its freezing point1 or its chemical composition or constitution1 but upon its molecular weight4 ,nauckhoff states that a suitable substance for dissolving in nitro- glycerine1 in order to lower the freezing point of the latter1 must have a relatively low molecular weight1 must not appreciably diminish the explosive power and stability of the explosive1 and must not be easily volatile at relatively high atmospheric temperatures2 it should1 if possible1 be a solvent of nitro-cellulose1 and in every case must not have a prejudicial influence on the gelatinisation of the nitro-cellulose4 ,footnote ,a3 ,eng4 ,pat4 #be1gig1 ,november #aijd4 ,footnote ,b3 ,z4 ,angew4 ,chem41 #aije1 #ah1 #aa-bb1 #ec-fj4 ,manufacture of ,nitro-,glycerine4--,nitro-glycerine is prepared upon the manufacturing scale by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids of great strength4 ,the mixed acids are contained in a lead vessel1 which is kept cool by a stream of water continually passing through worms in the interior of the nitrating vessel1 and the glycerine is gradually added in the form of a fine stream from above4 ,the manufacture can be divided into three distinct operations1 viz41 nitration1 separation1 and washing1 and it will be well to describe these operations in the above order4 ,nitration4--,the most essential condition of nitrating is the correct composition and strength of the mixed acids4 ,the best proportions have been found to be three parts by weight of nitric acid of a specific gravity #a4ebe to #a4ecj1 and containing as small a portion of the oxides of nitrogen as possible1 to five parts by weight of sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of #a4hdj at #ae ,c41 and about #ig per cent4 of mono- hydrate4 ,it is of the very greatest importance that the nitric acid should be as strong as possible4 ,nothing under a gravity of #a4eb should ever be used even to mix with stronger acid1 and the nitration will be proportional to the strength of the acid used1 provided the sulphuric acid is also strong enough4 ,it is also of great importance that the oxides of nitrogen should be low1 and that they should be kept down to as low as #a per cent41 or even lower4 ,it is also very desirable that the nitric acid should contain as little chlorine as possible4 ,the following is the analysis of a sample of nitric acid1 which gave very good results upon the commercial scale3--,specific gravity1 #a4ebe1 ,n#b,o#d1 #a4jc per cent42 nitric acid 7,,hno#c71 #ie4eh per cent4 ,the amount of real nitric acid 7mono-hydrate7 and the amount of nitric peroxide present in any sample should always be determined before it is used for nitrating purposes4 ,the specific gravity is not a sufficient guide to the strength of the acid1 as an acid having a high gravity1 due to some #c or #d per cent of nitric oxides in solution1 will give very poor nitration results4 ,a tenth normal solution of sodium hydroxide 7,na,o,h71 with phenol-phthalein as indicator1 will be found the most convenient method of determining the total acid present4 ,the following method will be found to be very rapid and reliable3--,weigh a #ajj c4c4 flask1 containing a few cubic centimetres of distilled water1 and then add from a pipette #a c4c4 of the nitric acid to be examined1 and reweigh 7this gives the weight of acid taken74 ,now make up to #ajj c4c4 at #ae ,c42 shake well1 and take out #aj c4c4 with a pipette2 drain into a small ,erlenmeyer flask1 and add a little of the phenol-phthalein solution1 and titrate with the tenth normal soda solution4 ,the nitric peroxide can be determined with a solution of potassium permanganate of ,n_/#aj strength1 thus3 ,take a small conical flask1 containing about #aj c4c4 of water1 and add from a burette #aj to #af c4c4 of the permanganate solution2 then add #b c4c4 of the acid to be tested1 and shake gently1 and continue to add permanganate solution as long as it is decolourised1 and until a faint pink colour is permanent4 ,example4 ,n_/#aj permanganate #c4af grms4 per litre1 #a c4c4 ,o4#jjdf grm4 ,n#b,o#d1 #b c4c4 of sample of acid specific gravity #a4eb #c4jd grms4 taken for analysis4 ,took #bj c4c4 permanganate solution1 ,o4#jjdf x #bj 4#jib grm4 ,n#b,o#d1 and 74#jib x #ajj7_/c4jd #c4jb per cent4 ,n#b,o#d4 ,the specific gravity should be taken with an hydrometer that gives the specific gravity directly1 or1 if preferred1 the #b c4c4 of acid may be weighed4 ,a very good method of rapidly determining the strength of the sulphuric acid is as follows3--,weigh out in a small weighing bottle1 as nearly as possible1 #b4de grms4 ,this is best done by running in #a4cc c4c4 of the acid 7#a4cc x #a4hd #b4ddg74 ,wash into a large ,erlenmeyer flask1 carefully washing out the bottle1 and also the stopper1 c4 ,add a drop of phenol- phthalein solution and titrate1 with a half normal solution of sodium hydrate 7use a #ajj c4c4 burette74 ,then if #b4de grms4 exactly have been taken1 the readings on the burette will equal percentages of ,h#b,,so#d 7mono-hydrate7 if not1 calculate thus3--#b4ddd grms4 weighed1 required #ie4d c4c4 ,na,o,h4 ,then-- #b4ddd 3 #ie4d 33 #b4de 3 x #ie4fd per cent4 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,it has been proposed to free nitric acid from the oxides of nitrogen by blowing compressed air through it1 and thus driving the gases in solution out4 ,the acid was contained in a closed lead tank1 from which the escaping fumes were conducted into the chimney shaft1 and on the bottom of which was a lead pipe1 bent in the form of a circle1 and pierced with holes1 through which the compressed air was made to pass2 but the process was not found to be of a very satisfactory nature1 and it is certainly better not to allow the formation of these compounds in the manufacture of the acid in the first instance4 ,another plan1 however1 is to heat the acid gently1 and thus drive out the nitrous gases4 ,both processes involve loss of nitric acid4 ,having obtained nitric and sulphuric acids as pure as possible1 the next operation is to mix them4 ,this is best done by weighing the carboys in which the acids are generally stored before the acids are drawn off into them from the condensers1 and keeping their weights constantly attached to them by means of a label4 ,it is then a simple matter to weigh off as many carboys of acid as may be required for any number of mixings1 and subtract the weights of the carboys4 ,the two acids should1 after being weighed1 be poured into a tank and mixed1 and subsequently allowed to flow into an acid egg or montjus1 to be afterwards forced up to the nitrating house in the danger area4 ,the montjus or acid egg is a strong cast-iron tank1 of either an egg shape1 or a cylinder with a round end4 ,if of the former shape1 it would lie on its side1 and upon the surface of the ground1 and would have a manhole at one end1 upon which a lid would be strongly bolted down2 but if of the latter shape1 the lid1 of course1 is upon the top1 and the montjus itself is let into the ground4 ,in either case1 the principle is the same4 ,one pipe1 made of stout lead1 goes to the bottom1 and another just inside to convey the compressed air1 the acids flowing away as the pressure is put on1 just as blowing down one tube of an ordinary wash- bottle forces the water up the other tube to the jet4 ,the pressure necessarily will1 of course1 vary immensely1 and will depend upon the height to which the acid has to be raised and the distance to be traversed4 ,the mixed acids having been forced up to the danger area1 and to a level higher than the position of the nitrating house1 should1 before being used1 be allowed to cool1 and leaden tanks of sufficient capacity to hold at least enough acid for four or five nitrations should be placed in a wooden house upon a level at least #f or #g feet above the nitrating house4 ,in this house also should be a smaller lead tank1 holding1 when filled to a certain mark1 just enough of the mixed acids for one nitration4 ,the object of this tank is1 that as soon as the man in charge knows that the last nitration is finished1 he refills this smaller tank 7which contains just enough of the mixed acids71 and allows its contents to flow down into the nitrating house and into the nitrator1 ready for the next nitration4 ,the nitration is usually conducted in a vessel constructed of lead1 some #d feet wide at the bottom1 and rather less at the top1 and about #d feet or so high4 ,the size1 of course1 depends upon the volume of the charge it is intended to nitrate at one operation1 but it is always better that the tank should be only two-thirds full4 ,a good charge is #af cwt4 of the mixed acids1 in the proportion of three to five2 that is1 #f cwt4 of nitric acid1 and #aj cwt4 of sulphuric acid1 and #bdg lbs4 of glycerine4 ,upon reference to the equation showing the formation of nitro-glycerine1 it will be seen that for every #a lb4 of glycerine #b4dg lbs4 of nitro- glycerine should be furnished1,a but in practice the yield is only a little over #b lbs41 the loss being accounted for by the unavoidable formation of some of the lower nitrate of glycerine 7the mono-nitrate71 which afterward dissolves in the washing waters4 ,the lead tank 7,fig4 #e7 is generally cased in woodwork1 with a platform in front for the man in charge of the nitrating to stand upon1 and whence to work the various taps4 ,the top of the tank is closed in with a dome of lead1 in which is a small glass window1 through which the progress of the nitrating operation can be watched4 ,from the top of this dome is a tube of lead which is carried up through the roof of the building4 ,it serves as a chimney to carry off the acid fumes which are given off during the nitration4 ,the interior of this tank contains at least three concentric spirals of at least #a-;inch lead pipe1 through which water can be made to flow during the whole operation of nitrating4 ,another lead pipe is carried through the dome of the tank1 as far as the bottom1 where it is bent round in the form of a circle4 ,through this pipe1 which is pierced with small holes1 about #a inch apart1 compressed air is forced at a pressure of about #fj lbs4 in order to keep the liquids in a state of constant agitation during the whole period of nitration4 ,there must also be a rather wide pipe1 of say #b inches internal diameter1 carried through the dome of the tank1 which will serve to carry the mixed acid to be used in the operation into the tank4 ,there is still another pipe to go through the dome1 viz41 one to carry the glycerine into the tank4 ,this need not be a large bore pipe1 as the glycerine is generally added to the mixed acids in a thin stream 7an injector is often used74 ,footnote ,a3 ,thus if #ib lbs4 glycerine give #bbg lbs4 nitro-glycerine1 7#bgg x #a7_/ib #b4dg lbs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,top ,,of ,,nitrator4 ,a1 ,fume ,pipe2 ,b1 ,water ,pipes for ,cooling2 ,c1 ,acid ,mixture ,pipe2 ,e1 ,compressed ,air2 ,g1 ,glycerine ,pipe and ,funnel2 ,t1 ,thermometer2 ,w1 ,window4 ,before the apparatus is ready for use1 it requires to have two thermometers fixed1 one long one to reach to the bottom of the tank1 and one short one just long enough to dip under the surface of the acids4 ,when the tank contains its charge1 the former gives the temperature of the bottom1 and the latter of the top of the mixture4 ,the glycerine should be contained in a small cistern1 fixed in some convenient spot upon the wall of the nitrating house1 and should have a pipe let in flush with the bottom1 and going through the dome of the nitrating apparatus4 ,it must of course be provided with a tap or stop-cock1 which should be placed just above the point where the pipe goes through the lead dome4 ,some method of measuring the quantity of glycerine used must be adopted4 ,a gauge-tube graduated in inches is a very good plan1 but it is essential that the graduations should be clearly visible to the operator upon the platform in front of the apparatus4 ,a large tap made of earthenware 7and covered with lead7 is fixed in the side of the nitrating tank just above the bottom1 to run off the charge after nitration4 ,this should be so arranged that the charge may be at option run down the conduit to the next house or discharged into a drowning tank1 which may sometimes be necessary in cases of decomposition4 ,the drowning tank is generally some #c or #d yards long and several feet deep1 lined with cement1 and placed close outside the building4 ,the apparatus having received a charge of mixed acids1 the water is started running through the pipes coiled inside the tank1 and a slight pressure of compressed air is turned on1,a to mix the acids up well before starting4 ,the nitration should not be commenced until the two thermometers register a temperature of #ah ,c4 ,the glycerine tap is then partially opened1 and the glycerine slowly admitted1 and the compressed air turned on full1 until the contents of the apparatus are in a state of very brisk agitation4 ,a pressure of about #dj lbs4 is about the minimum 7if #bdg lbs4 of glycerine and #af cwt4 of acids are in the tank74 ,if the glycerine tube is fitted with an injector1 it may be turned on almost at once4 ,the nitration will take about thirty minutes to complete1 but the compressed air and water should be kept on for an additional ten minutes after this1 to give time for all the glycerine to nitrate4 ,the temperature should be kept as low as possible 7not above #ah ,c474 ,footnote ,a3 ,at the ,halton ,factory1 ,germany1 cylinders of compressed carbon dioxide are connected with the air pipes so that in the event of a failure of the air supply the stirring can be continued with this gas if necessary4 ,the chief points to attend to during the progress of the nitration are-- #a4 ,the temperature registered by the two thermometers4 #b4 ,the colour of the nitrous fumes given off 7as seen through the little window in the dome of the apparatus74 #c4 ,the pressure of the compressed air as seen from a gauge fixed upon the air pipe just before it enters the apparatus4 #d4 ,the gauge showing the quantity of glycerine used4 ,the temperature1 as shown by either of the two thermometers1 should not be at any time higher than #be ,c4 ,if it rises much above this point1 the glycerine should be at once shut off1 and the pressure of air increased for some few minutes until the temperature falls1 and no more red fumes are given off4 ,the nitration being finished1 the large earthenware tap at the bottom of the tank is opened1 and the charge allowed to flow away down the conduit to the next building1 i4e41 to the separator4 ,the nitrating house is best built of wood1 and should have a close-boarded floor1 which should be kept scrupulously clean1 and free from grit and sand4 ,a wooden pail and a sponge should be kept in the house in order that the workman may at once clean up any mess that may be made1 and a small broom should be handy1 in order that any sand1 c41 may be at once removed4 ,it is a good plan for the nitrator to keep a book in which he records the time of starting each nitration1 the temperature at starting and at the finish1 the time occupied1 and the date and number of the charge1 as this enables the foreman of the danger area at any time to see how many charges have been nitrated1 and gives him other useful information conducive to safe working4 ,edward ,liebert has devised an improvement in the treatment of nitro-glycerine4 ,he adds ammonium sulphate or ammonium nitrate to the mixed acids during the operation of nitrating1 which he claims destroys the nitrous acid formed according to the equation-- 7,,nh#d7b,,so#d #b;,,hno#c ,h#b,,so#d #b,n#b #d;,h#b,o4 ,i am not aware that this modification of the process of nitration is in use at the present time4 ,the newly made charge of nitro-glycerine1 upon leaving the nitrating house1 flows away down the conduit1 either made of rubber pipes1 or better still1 of woodwork1 lined with lead and covered with lids made of wood 7in short lengths71 in order that by lifting them at any point the condition of the conduit can be examined1 as this is of the greatest importance1 and the conduit requires to be frequently washed out and the sulphate of lead removed4 ,this sulphate always contains nitro-glycerine1 and should therefore be burnt in some spot far removed from any danger building or magazine1 as it frequently explodes with considerable violence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,small ,,nitrator4 ,n1 ,tap for ,discharging2 ,p1 ,water ,pipes2 ,t1 ,thermometer2 ,w1 ,windows2 ,p'1 ,glycerine ,pipe4 ,in works where the manufacture of nitro-glycerine is of secondary importance1 and some explosive containing only perhaps #aj per cent4 of nitroglycerine is manufactured1 and where #ej or #ajj lbs4 of glycerine are nitrated at one time1 a very much smaller nitrating apparatus than the one that has been already described will be probably all that is required4 ,in this case the form of apparatus shown in ,fig4 #f will be found very satisfactory4 ,it should be made of stout lead 7all lead used for tanks1 c41 must be chemical lead71 and may be made to hold #ej or #ajj lbs4 as found most convenient4 ,this nitrator can very well be placed in the same house as the separator2 in fact1 where such a small quantity of nitro- glycerine is required1 the whole series of operations1 nitrating1 separation1 and washing1 c41 may very well be performed in the same building4 ,it will of course be necessary to place the nitrator on a higher level than the separator1 but this can easily be done by having platforms of different heights1 the nitration being performed upon the highest4 ,the construction of this nitrator is essentially the same as in the larger one1 the shape only being somewhat different4 ,two water coils will probably be enough1 and one thermometer4 ,it will not be necessary to cover this form in with woodwork4 ,the ,nathan ,nitrator4,a--,this nitrator is the patent of ,lt4 ,col4 ,f4,l4 ,nathan and ,messrs ,j4,m4 ,thomson and ,w4 ,rintoul of ,waltham ,abbey1 and will probably before long entirely supersede all the other forms of nitrator on account of its efficiency and economy of working4 ,with this nitrator it is possible to obtain from #b4ba to #b4bb parts of nitro-glycerine from every #a part of glycerine4 ,the apparatus is so arranged that the nitration of the glycerine1 the separation of nitro-glycerine produced1 as well as the operation of after-separation1 are carried out in one vessel4 ,the usual nitrating vessel is provided with an acid inlet pipe at the bottom1 and a glass separation cylinder with a lateral exit or overflow pipe at the top4 ,this cylinder is covered by a glass hood or bell jar during nitration to direct the escaping air and fumes into a fume pipe where the flow of the latter may be assisted by an air injector4 ,the lateral pipe in the separation cylinder is in connection with a funnel leading to the prewash tank4 ,the drawing 7,fig4 #g7 shows a vertical section of the apparatus2 a is the nitrating vessel of usual construction1 having at the bottom an acid inlet pipe with three branches1 one leading to the de-nitrating plant1 c leading to the drowning tank1 and d1 which extends upwards and has two branches1 e leading to the nitrating acids tank1 and f to the waste acid tank4 ,on the sloped bottom of the nitrating vessel a lies a coil g of perforated pipe for blowing air1 and there are in the vessel several coils h1 three shown in the drawing1 for circulation of cooling water4 ,at the top of the vessel there is a glass cylinder i1 having a lateral outlet j directed into the funnel mouth of a pipe k leading to the prewash tank4 ,over the cylinder i is a glass globe l1 into which opens a pipe m for leading off fumes which may be promoted by a compressed air jet from a pipe r operating as an injector4 ,into an opening of the glass dome l is inserted a vessel n1 which is connected by a flexible pipe p to the glycerine tank1 and from the bottom of n1 which is perforated and covered with a disc perforated with holes registering with those through the bottom1 this disc being connected by a stem with a knob q by which it can be turned so as to throttle or cut off passage of glycerine through the bottom4 s is a thermometer for indicating the temperature of the contents of the vessel4 ,footnote ,a3 ,eng4 ,pat4 #ae1ihc1 ,august #aija4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,nathan',s ,,nitrator ,,for ,,nitro-,,glycerine4 7a7 ,nitrating ,vessel2 7b7 to ,separating ,vessel2 7c7 to ,drowning ,tank2 7e7 ,nitrating ,acids enter 7f7 to the ,waste ,acids2 7g7 ,coils for ,compressed ,air2 7h7 ,pipes for ,cooling ,water2 7i7 ,glass ,cylinder2 7j7 ,outlet to k2 7k7 leading to ,prewash ,tank2 7l7 ,glass ,dome2 7m7 ,pipe to lead off for ,escape of ,fumes2 7n7 ,vessel2 7p7 ,pipe conveying ,glycerine2 7q7 ,knob to turn off ,glycerine2 7r7 ,compressed ,air ,jet2 7s7 ,thermometer4 ,in operating with this apparatus the nitrating acid is introduced into the nitrating vessel by opening the cock of the pipe e4 ,the glycerine is then run in by introducing n and opening the valve at its bottom1 the contents of the vessel being agitated by air blown through the perforations of the pipe g4 ,when the glycerine is all nitrated and the temperature has slightly fallen1 the circulation of the water through the coils h and the air-stirring are stopped1 and the glycerine supply vessel n is removed4 ,the nitro-glycerine as it separates from the acids is raised by introducing by the pipe f waste acid from a previous charge1 this displacing the nitro-glycerine upwards and causing it to flow by the outlet1 j and pipe k to the prewash tank4 ,when nearly all the nitro-glycerine has been separated in this manner the acids in the apparatus may be run off by the pipe b to an after separating vessel for further settling1 thus leaving the apparatus free for another nitration1 or the nitrating vessel itself may be used as an after separating bottle displacing the nitro-glycerine with waste acid as it rises to the top1 or skimming off in the usual manner4 ,when the separation of the nitro- glycerine is complete the waste acid is run off and denitrated as usual1 a portion of it being reserved for the displacement of the nitro-glycerine in a subsequent operation4 ,in a further patent 7,eng4 ,pat4 #c1jbj1 #aijc7 the authors propose with the object of preventing the formation and separation of nitro-glycerine in the waste acids1 after the nitro-glycerine initially formed in the nitrating vessel has been separated and removed1 to add a small quantity of water to the waste acids2 this is carried out as follows4 ,a relatively small quantity of water is added1 and this prevents all further separation of nitro-glycerine1 and at the same time the strength of the waste acids is so slightly reduced that their separation and re-concentration are not affected4 ,after-separation is thus done away with1 and the nitro- glycerine plant simplified and its output increased4 ,after nitration separation is commenced at a temperature such that when all the displacing acid has been added1 and the separation of the nitro-glycerine is complete1 the temperature of the contents of the nitrating vessel shall not be lower than #ae ,c4 ,a sufficient quantity of the displacing acid is then run off through the waste-acid cock to allow of the remaining acids being air-stirred without splashing over the top4 ,a small quantity of water1 from #b to #c per cent4 according to strength of acid2 if waste consists of sulphuric acid 7monohydrate71 #fb per cent42 nitric acid 7anhydrous71 #cc per cent4 and water #e per cent42 temperature #ae ,c41 then #b per cent4 of water is added2 if waste acids contain less than #d per cent4 of water of temperature lower than #ae ,c41 from #c to #e per cent4 of water may have to be added4 ,the water is added slowly through the separator cylinder1 and the contents of the nitrator air-stirred1 but not cooled1 the temperature being allowed to rise slowly and regularly as the water is added--usually about #c ,c4 for each per cent4 of water added4 ,when air-agitation has been stopped1 the acids are kept at rest for a short time1 in order to allow of any small quantity of initially formed nitro-glycerine adhering to the coils and sides of the vessel rising to the top4 ,when this has been separated by displacement1 the acids are ready for denitration1 or can be safely stored without further precaution4 ,separation4--,the nitro-glycerine1 together with the mixed acids1 flows from the nitrating house to the separating house1 which must be on a lower level than the former4 ,the separating house contains a large lead-lined tank1 closed in at the top with a wooden lid1 into which a lead pipe of large bore is fixed1 and which is carried up through the roof of the building1 and acts as a chimney to carry off any fumes4 ,a little glass window should be fixed in this pipe in order that the colour of the escaping fumes may be seen4 ,the conduit conveying the nitro-glycerine enters the building close under the roof1 and discharges its contents into the tank through the pipe ,g 7,fig4 #h74 ,the tank is only about two-thirds filled by the charge4 ,there is in the side of the tank a small window of thick plate glass1 which enables the workman to see the level of the charge1 and also to observe the progress of the separation1 which will take from thirty minutes to one hour4 ,the tank should be in connection with a drowning tank1 as the charge sometimes gets very dangerous in this building4 ,it must also be connected by a conduit with the filter house1 and also to the secondary separator by another conduit4 ,the tank should also be fitted with a compressed air pipe1 bent in the form of a loop4 ,it should lie upon the bottom of the vat4 ,the object of this is to mix up the charge in case it should get too hot through decomposition4 ,a thermometer should of course be fixed in the lid of the tank1 and its bulb should reach down to the middle of the nitro-glycerine 7which rests upon the surface of the mixed acids1 the specific gravity of the nitro-glycerine being #a4f1 and that of the waste acids #a4g2 the composition of the acids is now #aa per cent4 ,,hno#c1 #fg per cent4 ,h#b,,so#d1 and #bb per cent4 water71 and the temperature carefully watched4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,separator4 ,a1 ,compressed ,air ,pipes2 ,g1 ,nitro- glycerine enters from ,nitrator2 ,n1 ,nitro-glycerine to ,p2 ,l1 ,lantern ,window2 ,w1 ,window in ,side2 ,s1 ,waste ,acids to ,secondary ,separator2 ,t1 ,tap to remove last traces of ,nitro-glycerine2 ,p1 ,lead ,washing ,tank2 ,a1 ,compressed ,air2 ,w1 ,water ,pipe2 ,n1 ,nitro-glycerine from ,separator4 ,if nothing unusual occurs1 and it has not been necessary to bring the compressed air into use1 and so disturb the process of separation1 the waste acids may be run away from beneath the nitro-glycerine1 and allowed to flow away to the secondary separator1 where any further quantity of nitro-glycerine that they contain separates out after resting for some days4 ,the nitro-glycerine itself is run into a smaller tank in the same house1 where it is washed three or four times with its own bulk of water1 containing about #c lbs4 of carbonate of soda to neutralise the remaining acid4 ,this smaller tank should contain a lead pipe1 pierced and coiled upon the bottom1 through which compressed air may be passed1 in order to stir up the charge with the water and soda4 ,after this preliminary washing1 the nitro-glycerine is drawn off into indiarubber buckets1 and poured down the conduit to the filter house4 ,the wash waters may be sent down a conduit to another building1 in order to allow the small quantity of nitro-glycerine that has been retained in the water as minute globules to settle1 if thought worth the trouble of saving4 ,this1 of course1 will depend upon the usual out-turn of nitro-glycerine in a day1 and the general scale of operations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,filtering ,,and ,,washing ,,plant4 ,w1 ,lead ,washing ,tank2 ,,wp1 ,water ,pipe2 ,l1 ,lid2 ,s1 ,nitro-glycerine from ,separator2 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,filtering ,tanks2 ,b#b1 ,indiarubber ,bucket4 ,filtering and ,washing4--,the filter house 7,fig4 #i71 which must of course be again on a somewhat lower level than the separating house1 must be a considerably larger building than either the nitrating or separating houses1 as it is always necessary to be washing some five or six charges at the same time4 ,upon the arrival of the nitro-glycerine at this house1 it first flows into a lead-lined wooden tank 7,w71 containing a compressed air pipe1 just like the one in the small tank in the separating house4 ,this tank is half filled with water1 and the compressed air is turned on from half to a quarter of an hour after the introduction of the charge4 ,the water is then drawn off1 and fresh water added4 ,four or five washings are generally necessary4 ,the nitro-glycerine is then run into the next tank 7,a71 the top of which is on a level with the bottom of the first one4 ,across the top of this tank is stretched a frame of flannel1 through which the nitroglycerine has to filter4 ,this removes any solid matters1 such as dirt or scum4 ,upon leaving this tank1 it passes through a similar flannel frame across another tank 7,b71 and is finally drawn off by a tap in the bottom of the tank into rubber buckets4 ,the taps in these tanks are best made of vulcanite4 ,at this stage1 a sample should be taken to the laboratory and tested4 ,if the sample will not pass the tests1 which is often the case1 the charge must be rewashed for one hour1 or some other time1 according to the judgment of the chemist in charge4 ,in the case of an obstinate charge1 it is of much more avail to wash a large number of times with small quantities of water1 and for a short time1 than to use a lot of water and wash for half an hour4 ,plenty of compressed air should be used1 as the compound nitric ethers which are formed are thus got rid of4 ,as five or six charges are often in this house at one time1 it is necessary to have as many tanks arranged in tiers1 otherwise one or two refractory charges would stop the nitrating house and the rest of the nitro-glycerine plant4 ,the chief causes of the washed material not passing the heat test are1 either that the acids were not clean1 or they contained objectionable impurities1 or more frequently1 the quality of the glycerine used4 ,the glycerine used for making nitro-glycerine should conform to the following tests1 some of which1 however1 are of greater importance than others4 ,the glycerine should-- #a4 ,have minimum specific gravity at #ae ,c4 of #a4bfa4 #b4 ,should nitrify well4 #c4 ,separation should be sharp within half an hour1 without the separation of flocculent matter1 nor should any white flocculent matter 7due to fatty acids7 be formed when the nitrated glycerine is thrown into water and neutralised with carbonate of soda4 #d4 ,should be free from lime and chlorine1 and contain only traces of arsenic1 sulphuric acid1 c4 #e4 ,should not leave more than #j4be per cent4 of inorganic and organic residue together when evaporated in a platinum dish without ebullition 7about #afj ,c47 or partial decomposition4 #f4 ,silver test fair4 #g4 ,the glycerine1 when diluted one-half1 should give no deposit or separation of fatty acids when nitric peroxide gas is passed through it4 7,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #e are the most essential47 ,the white flocculent matter sometimes formed is a very great nuisance1 and any sample of glycerol which gives such a precipitate when tried in the laboratory should at once be rejected1 as it will give no end of trouble in the separating house1 and also in the filter house1 and it will be very difficult indeed to make the nitro-glycerine pass the heat test4 ,the out- turn of nitro-glycerine also will be very low4 ,the trouble will show itself chiefly in the separating operation4 ,very often #b or #c inches will rise to the surface or hang about in the nitro-glycerine1 and at the point of contact between it and the mixed acids1 and will afterwards be very difficult to get rid of by filtration4 ,the material appears to be partly an emulsion of the glycerine1 and partly due to fatty acids1 and as there appears to be no really satisfactory method of preventing its formation1 or of getting rid of it1 the better plan is not to use any glycerine for nitrating that has been found by experiment upon the laboratory scale to give this objectionable matter4 ,one of the most useful methods of testing the glycerine1 other than nitrating1 is to dilute the sample one-half with water1 and then to pass a current of nitric peroxide gas through it1 when a flocculent precipitate of eladic acid 7less soluble in glycerine than the original oleic acid7 will be formed4 ,nitrogen peroxide1 ,n#b,o#d1 is best obtained by heating dry lead nitrate 7see ,allen1 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis1 vol4 ii41 #cja74 ,when a sample of nitro-glycerine is brought to the laboratory from the filter house1 it should first be examined to see that it is not acid4,a ,a weak solution of ,congo red or methyl orange may be used4 ,if it appears to be decidedly alkaline1 it should be poured into a separating funnel1 and shaken with a little distilled water4 ,this should be repeated1 and the washings 7about #djj c4c47 run into a beaker1 a drop of ,congo red or methyl orange added1 and a drop or so of ,n_/#b hydrochloric acid added1 when it should give1 with two or three drops at most1 a blue colour with the ,congo red1 or pink with the methyl orange1 c4 ,the object of this test is to show that the nitro-glycerine is free from any excess of soda1 i4e41 that the soda has been properly washed out1 otherwise the heat test will show the sample to be better than it is4 ,the heat test must also be applied4 ,footnote ,a3 ,a4 ,leroux1 ,bul4 ,soc4 ,chim4 de ,bel41 xix41 ,august #aije1 contends that experience does not warrant the assumption that free acid is a source of danger in nitro-glycerine or nitro-cellulose2 free alkali1 he states1 promotes their decomposition4 ,upon leaving the filter house1 where it has been washed and filtered1 and has satisfactorily passed the heat test1 it is drawn off from the lowest tank in indiarubber buckets1 and poured down the conduit leading to the precipitating house1 where it is allowed to stand for a day1 or sometimes longer1 in order to allow the little water it still contains to rise to the surface4 ,in order to accomplish this1 it is sufficient to allow it to stand in covered-in tanks of a conical form1 and about #c or #d feet high4 ,in many works it is previously filtered through common salt1 which of course absorbs the last traces of water4 ,it is then of a pale yellow colour1 and should be quite clear1 and can be drawn off by means of a tap 7of vulcanite71 fixed at the bottom of the tanks1 into rubber buckets1 and is ready for use in the preparation of dynamite1 or any of the various forms of gelatine compounds1 smokeless powders1 c41 such as cordite1 ballistite1 and many others4 ,mikolajezak 7,chem4 ,zeit41 #aijd1 ,rep4 #agd7 states that he has prepared mono- and di-nitro-glycerine1 and believes that the latter compound will form a valuable basis for explosives1 as it is unfreezable4 ,it is stated to be an odourless1 unfreezable oil1 less sensitive to percussion1 friction1 and increase of temperature1 and to possess a greater solvent power for collodion-cotton than ordinary nitro-glycerine4 ,it can thus be used for the preparation of explosives of high stability1 which will maintain their plastic nature even in winter4 ,the di-nitro-glycerine is a solvent for tri-nitro-glycerine1 it can therefore be mixed with this substance1 in the various gelatine explosives in order to lower the freezing point4 ,the ,waste ,acids4--,the waste acids from the separating house1 from which the nitro-glycerine has been as completely separated as possible1 are run down the conduit to the secondary separator1 in order to recover the last traces of nitro-glycerine that they contain4 ,the composition of the waste acids is generally somewhat as follows3--,specific gravity1 #a4gjge at #ae ,c42 sulphuric acid1 #fg4b per cent42 nitric acid1 #aa4je per cent42 and water1 #ba4g per cent41 with perhaps as much as #b per cent4 of nitric oxide1 and of course varying quantities of nitro-glycerine1 which must be separated1 as it is impossible to run this liquid away 7unless it can be run into the sea7 or to recover the acids by distillation as long as it contains this substance4 ,the mixture1 therefore1 is generally run into large circular lead-lined tanks1 covered in1 and very much like the nitrating apparatus in construction1 that is1 they contain worms coiled round inside1 to allow of water being run through to keep the mixture cool1 and a compressed air pipe1 in order to agitate the mixture if necessary4 ,the top also should contain a window1 in order to allow of the interior being seen1 and should have a leaden chimney to carry off the fumes which may arise from decomposition4 ,it is also useful to have a glass tube of #c or #d inches in diameter substituted for about a foot of the lead chimney1 in order that the man on duty can at any time see the colour of the fumes arising from the liquid4 ,there should also be two thermometers1 one long one reaching to the bottom of the tank1 and one to just a few inches below the surface of the liquid4 ,the nitro-glycerine1 of course1 collects upon the surface1 and can be drawn off by a tap placed at a convenient height for the purpose4 ,the cover of the tank is generally conical1 and is joined to a glass cylinder1 which is cemented to the top of this lead cover1 and also to the lead chimney4 ,in this glass cylinder is a hole into which fits a ground glass stopper1 through which the nitro-glycerine can be drawn off4 ,there will probably never be more than an inch of nitro-glycerine at the most1 and seldom that4 ,it should be taken to the filter house and treated along with another charge4 ,the acids themselves may either be run to waste1 or better treated by some denitration plant4 ,this house probably requires more attention than any other in the danger area1 on account of the danger of the decomposition of the small quantities of nitro-glycerine1 which1 as it is mixed with such a large quantity of acids and water1 is very apt to become hot1 and decomposition1 which sets up in spots where a little globule of nitro-glycerine is floating1 surrounded by acids that gradually get hot1 gives off nitrous fumes1 and perhaps explodes1 and thus causes the sudden explosion of the whole4 ,the only way to prevent this is for the workman in charge to look at the thermometers frequently1 and at the colour of the escaping fumes1 and if he should notice a rise of temperature or any appearance of red fumes1 to turn on the water and air1 and stir up the mixture1 when probably the temperature will suddenly fall1 and the fumes cease to come off4 ,the cause of explosions in this building is either the non-attention of the workmen in charge1 or the bursting of one of the water pipes1 by which means1 of course1 the water1 finding its way into the acids1 causes a sudden rise of temperature4 ,if the latter of these two causes should occur1 the water should at once be shut off and the air turned on full1 but if it is seen that an explosion is likely to occur1 the tank should at once be emptied by allowing its contents to run away into a drowning tank placed close outside the house1 which should be about #d feet deep1 and some #af feet long by #f feet wide2 in fact1 large enough to hold a considerable quantity of water4 ,but this last course should only be resorted to as a last extremity1 as it is extremely troublesome to recover the small quantity of nitro-glycerine from the bottom of this tank1 which is generally a bricked and cemented excavation some few yards from the house4 ,it has been proposed to treat these waste acids1 containing nitro- glycerine1 in ,mr ,m4 ,prentice's nitric acid retort4 ,in this case they would be run into the retort1 together with nitrate of soda1 in a fine stream1 and the small quantity of nitro-glycerine1 coming into contact with the hot mixture already in the retort1 would probably be at once decomposed4 ,this process1 although not yet tried1 promises to be a success4 ,several processes have been used for the denitration of these acids4 ,treatment of the ,waste ,acid from the ,manufacture of ,nitro-,glycerine and ,gun-,cotton4--,the composition of these acids is as follows3-- ,nitro-glycerine and ,gun-cotton ,waste ,acid4 ,sulphuric acid #gj per cent4 #gh per cent4 ,nitric acid #aj #ab ,water #bj #aj ,the waste acid from the manufacture of gun-cotton is generally used direct for the manufacture of nitric acid1 as it contains a fairly large amount of sulphuric acid1 and the small amount of nitro-cellulose which it also generally contains decomposes gradually and without explosion in the retort4 ,nitric acid may be first distilled off1 the resulting sulphuric acid being then added to the equivalent amount of nitrate of soda4 ,nitric acid is then distilled over and condensed in the usual way4 ,very often1 however1 the waste acid is added direct to the charge of nitrate without previously eliminating the nitric acid4 ,the treatment of the waste acid from the manufacture of nitro-glycerine is somewhat different4 ,the small amount of nitro-glycerine in this acid must always be eliminated4 ,this is effected either by allowing the waste acid to stand for at least twenty- four hours in a big vessel with a conical top1 where all the nitro- glycerine which will have separated to the surface is removed by skimming2 or1 better still1 the watering down process of ,col4 ,nathan may be employed4 ,in ,nathan's nitrator every existing trace of nitro-glycerine is separated from the acids in a few hours after the nitration1 and any further formation of nitro-glycerine is prevented by adding about #b per cent4 of water to the waste acids1 which are kept agitated during the addition4 ,the waste acid1 now free from nitro-glycerine1 but which may still contain organic matter1 is denitrated by bringing it into contact with a jet of steam4 ,the waste acid is passed in a small stream down through a tower of acid-resisting stoneware 7volvic stone71 which is closely packed with earthenware1 and at the bottom of which is the steam jet4 ,decomposition proceeds as the acid meets the steam1 nitric and nitrous acids are disengaged and are passed out at the top of the tower through a pipe to a series of condensers and towers1 where the nitric acid is collected4 ,the nitrous acid may be converted into nitric acid by introducing a hot compressed air jet into the gases before they pass into the condensers4 ,weak sulphuric acid of sp4 gr4 #a4f collects in a saucer in which the tower stands1 and is then passed through a cooling worm4 ,the weak sulphuric acid1 now entirely free from nitric and nitrous acids1 may be concentrated to sp4 gr4 #a4hdb and #if per cent4 ,h#b,,so#d by any of the well-known processes1 e4g41 ,kessler1 ,webb1 ,benker1 ,delplace1 c41 and it may be used again in the manufacture of nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton4 ,two points in the manufacture of nitro-glycerine are of the greatest importance1 viz41 the purity of the glycerine used1 and the strength and purity of the acids used in the nitration4 ,with regard to the first of these1 great care should be taken1 and a complete analysis and thorough examination1 including a preliminary experimental nitration1 should always be instituted4 ,as regards the second1 the sulphuric acid should not only be strong 7#if per cent471 but as free from impurities as possible4 ,with the nitric acid1 which is generally made at the explosive works where it is used1 care must be taken that it is as strong as possible 7#ig per cent4 and upwards74 ,this can easily be obtained if the plant designed by ,mr ,oscar ,guttmann,a is used4 ,having worked ,mr ,guttmann's plant for some time1 ,i can testify as to its value and efficiency4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the ,manufacture of ,nitric ,acid1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,march #ahic4 ,another form of nitric acid plant1 which promises to be of considerable service to the manufacturer of nitric acid for the purpose of nitrating1 is the invention of the late ,mr ,manning ,prentice1 of ,stowmarket4 ,through the kindness of ,mr ,prentice1 ,i visited his works to see the plant in operation4 ,it consists of a still1 divided into compartments or chambers in such a manner that the fluid may pass continuously from one to the other4 ,the nitric acid being continuously separated by distillation1 the contents of each division vary--the first containing the full proportion of nitric acid1 and each succeeding one less of the nitric acid1 until from the overflow of the last one the bisulphate of soda flows away without any nitric acid4 ,the nitrate of soda is placed in weighed quantities in the hopper1 whence it passes to the feeder4 ,the feeder is a miniature horizontal pug-mill1 which receives the streams of sulphuric acid and of nitrate1 and after thoroughly mixing them1 delivers them into the still1 where1 under the influence of heat1 they rapidly become a homogeneous liquid1 from which nitric acid continuously distils4 ,mr ,prentice says3 ,i may point out that while the ordinary process of making nitric acid is one of fractional distillation by time1 mine is fractional distillation by space4 ,instead of the operation being always at the same point of space1 but differing by the successive points of time1 ,i arrange for the differences to take place at different points of space1 and these differences exist at one and the same points of time4 ,it is possible with this plant to produce the full product of nitric acid of a gravity of #a4ejj1 or to obtain the acid of varying strengths from the different still-heads4 ,one of these stills1 capable of producing about #d tons of nitric acid per week1 weighs less than #b tons4 ,it is claimed that there is by their use a saving of more than two-thirds in fuel1 and four- fifths in condensing plant4 ,further particulars and illustrations will be found in ,mr ,prentice's paper 7,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 #ahid1 p4 #cbc74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,nitro-,,cellulose1 c4 ,cellulose ,properties--,discovery of ,gun-,cotton--,properties of ,gun-,cotton-- ,varieties of ,soluble and ,insoluble ,gun-,cottons--,manufacture of ,gun-,cotton-- ,dipping and ,steeping--,whirling out the ,acid--,washing--,boiling--,pulping-- ,compressing--,the ,waltham ,abbey ,process--,le ,bouchet ,process--,granulation of ,gun-,cotton--,collodion-,cotton--,manuf acture--,acid ,mixture used--,cotton used1 c4--,nitrated ,gun-,cotton--,tonite--,dangers in ,manufacture of ,gun-,cotton-- ,trench's ,fire-,extinguishing ,compound--,uses of ,collodion-,cotton--,celluloid-- ,manufacture1 c4--,nitro-,starch1 ,nitro-,jute1 and ,nitro-,mannite4 ,the ,nitro-,celluloses4--,the substance known as cellulose forms the groundwork of vegetable tissues4 ,the cellulose of the woody parts of plants was at one time supposed to be a distinct body1 and was called lignine1 but they are now regarded as identical4 ,the formula of cellulose is 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#f7,x1 and it is generally assumed that the molecular formula must be represented by a multiple of the empirical formula1 ,c#ab;,h#bj,o#aj being often regarded as the minimum4 ,the assumption is based on the existence of a penta-nitrate and the insoluble and colloidal nature of cellulose4 ,green 7,zeit4 ,farb4 ,text4 ,ind41 #aijd1 #c1 #ig7 considers these reasons insufficient1 and prefers to employ the single formula ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e4 ,cellulose can be extracted in the pure state1 from young and tender portions of plants by first crushing them1 to rupture the cells1 and then extracting with dilute hydrochloric acid1 water1 alcohol1 and ether in succession1 until none of these solvents remove anything more4 ,fine paper or cotton wool yield very nearly pure cellulose by similar treatment4 ,cellulose is a colourless1 transparent mass1 absolutely insoluble in water1 alcohol1 or ether4 ,it is1 however1 soluble in a solution of cuprammoniac solution1 prepared from basic carbonate or hydrate of copper and aqueous ammonia4 ,the specific gravity of cellulose is #a4be to #a4de4 ,according to ,schulze1 its elementary composition is expressed by the percentage numbers3-- ,carbon #dd4j per cent4 #dd4b per cent4 ,hydrogen #f4c #f4d ,oxygen #di4g #di4d ,these numbers represent the composition of the ash free cellulose4 ,nearly all forms of cellulose1 however1 contain a small proportion of mineral matters1 and the union of these with the organic portion of the fibre or tissue is of such a nature that the ash left on ignition preserves the form of the original4 ,it is only in the growing point of certain young shoots that the cellulose tissue is free from mineral constituents 7,hofmeister74 ,cellulose is a very inert body4 ,cold concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to swell up1 and finally dissolves it1 forming a viscous solution4 ,hydrochloric acid has little or no action1 but nitric acid has1 and forms a series of bodies known as nitrates or nitro-celluloses4 ,cellulose has some of the properties of alcohols1 among them the power of forming ethereal salts with acids4 ,when cellulose in any form1 such as cotton1 is brought into contact with strong nitric acid at a low temperature1 a nitrate or nitro product1 containing nitryl1 or the ,,no#b group1 is produced4 ,the more or less complete replacement of the hydroxylic hydrogen by ,,no#b groups depends partly on the concentration of the nitric acid used1 partly on the duration of the action4 ,if the most concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids are employed1 and the action allowed to proceed for some considerable time1 the highest nitrate1 known as hexa-nitro- cellulose or gun-cotton1 ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,o4,,no#b7f1 will be formed2 but with weaker acids1 and a shorter exposure to their action1 the tetra and penta and lower nitrates will be formed4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,the paper by ,prof4 ,lunge1 ,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aija1 #bch1 #ebg-egi1 contains valuable information on this subject4 ,besides the nitrate1 ,a4 ,luck,a has proposed to use other esters of cellulose1 such as the acetate1 benzoate1 or butyrate4 ,it is found that cellulose acetate forms with nitro-glycerine a gelatinous body without requiring the addition of a solvent4 ,a sporting powder is proposed composed of #ge parts of cellulose nitrate 7#ac per cent4 ,n47 mixed with #ac parts of cellulose acetate4 ,footnote ,a3 ,eng4 ,pat4 #bd1ffb1 #bbnd ,november #ahih4 ,the discovery of gun-cotton is generally attributed to ,schnbein 7#ahdf71 but ,braconnot 7in #ahcb7 had previously nitrated starch1 and six years later ,pelouse prepared nitro-cotton and various other nitro bodies1 and ,dumas nitrated paper1 but ,schnbein was apparently the first chemist to use a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,many chemists1 such as ,piobert in ,france1 ,morin in ,russia1 and ,abel in ,england1 studied the subject2 but it was in ,austria1 under the auspices of ,baron ,von ,lenk1 that the greatest progress was made4 ,lenk used cotton in the form of yarn1 made up into hanks1 which he first washed in a solution of potash1 and then with water1 and after drying dipped them in the acids4 ,the acid mixture used consisted of #c parts by weight of sulphuric to #a part of nitric acid1 and were prepared some time before use4 ,the cotton was dipped one skein at a time1 stirred for a few minutes1 pressed out1 steeped1 and excess of acid removed by washing with water1 then with dilute potash1 and finally with water4 ,von ,lenk's process was used in ,england at ,faversham 7,messrs ,hall's ,works71 but was given up on account of an explosion 7#ahdg74 ,sir ,frederick ,abel1 working at ,stowmarket and ,waltham ,abbey1 introduced several very important improvements into the process1 the chief among these being pulping4 ,having traced the cause of its instability to the presence of substances caused by the action of the nitric acid on the resinous or fatty substances contained in the cotton fibre1 he succeeded in eliminating them1 by boiling the nitro-cotton in water1 and by a thorough washing1 after pulping the cotton in poachers4 ,although gun-cottons are generally spoken of as nitro-celluloses1 they are more correctly described as cellulose nitrates1 for unlike nitro bodies of other series1 they do not yield1 or have not yet done so1 amido bodies1 on reduction with nascent hydrogen4,a ,the equation of the formation of gun-cotton is as follows3-- #b7;,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7 #f;,,hno#c ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,no#c7f #f,,oh#b4 ,cellulose4 ,nitric ,acid4 ,gun-,cotton4 ,water4 ,the sulphuric acid used does not take part in the reaction1 but its presence is absolutely essential to combine with the water set free1 and thus to prevent the weakening of the nitric acid4 ,the acid mixture used at ,waltham ,abbey consists of #c parts by weight of sulphuric acid of #a4hd specific gravity1 and #a part of nitric acid of #a4eb specific gravity4 ,the same mixture is also used at ,stowmarket 7the ,new ,explosive ,company's ,works74 ,the use of weaker acids results in the formation of collodion- cotton and the lower nitrates generally4 ,footnote ,a3 ,cellulose1 by ,cross and ,bevan1 ed4 by ,w4,r4 ,hodgkinson1 p4 #i4 ,the nitrate which goes under the name of gun-cotton is generally supposed to be the hexa-nitrate1 and to contain #ad4ad per cent4 of nitrogen2 but a higher percentage than #ac4g has not been obtained from any sample4 ,it is almost impossible 7at any rate upon the manufacturing scale7 to make pure hexa-nitro-cellulose or gun-cotton2 it is certain to contain several per cents4 of the soluble forms1 i4e41 lower nitrates4 ,it often contains as much as #ae or #af per cent41 and only from #ac4jg;,a to #ac4f per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,footnote ,a3 ,mr ,j4,j4 ,sayers1 in evidence before the court in the ,cordite ,case1 says he found #ae4b and #af4a per cent4 soluble cotton1 and #ac4jg and #ac4jh per cent4 nitrogen in two samples of ,waltham ,abbey gun-cotton4 ,a whole series of nitrates of cellulose are supposed to exist1 the highest member being the hexa-nitrate1 and the lowest the mono-nitrate4 ,gun-cotton was at one time regarded as the tri-nitrate1 and collodion-cotton as the di-nitrate and mono-nitrate1 their respective formula being given as follows3-- ,mono-nitro-cellulose ,c#f;,h#i7,,no#b7,o#e #f4gfc per cent4 nitrogen4 ,di-nitro-cellulose ,c#f;,h#h7,,no#b7b,o#e #aa4aa ,tri-nitro-cellulose ,c#f;,h#g7,,no#b7c,o#e #ad4ad ,but gun-cotton is now regarded as the hexa-nitrate1 and collodion-cotton as a mixture of all the other nitrates4 ,in fact1 chemists are now more inclined to divide nitro-cellulose into the soluble and insoluble forms1 the reason being that it is quite easy to make a nitro-cellulose entirely soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol1 and yet containing as high a percentage of nitrogen as #ab4f2 whereas the di-nitrate,a should theoretically only contain #aa4aa per cent4 ,on the other hand1 it is not possible to make gun-cotton with a higher percentage of nitrogen than about #ac4g1 even when it does not contain any nitro-cotton that is soluble in ether-alcohol4,b ,the fact is that it is not at present possible to make a nitro-cellulose which shall be either entirely soluble or entirely insoluble1 or which will contain the theoretical content of nitrogen to suit any of the above formul for the cellulose nitrates4 ,prof4 ,g4 ,lunge gives the following list of nitration products of cellulose3-- ,footnote ,a3 ,the penta-nitrate ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#e7,,no#c7e #ab4ge per cent4 nitrogen4 ,footnote ,b3 ,in the ,cordite ,trial 7#ahid7 ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel said1 ,before #ahhh there was a broad distinction between soluble and insoluble nitro- cellulose1 collodion-cotton being soluble 7in ether-alcohol7 and gun-cotton insoluble4 ,sir ,h4,e4 ,roscoe1 ,that he had been unable to make a nitro-cotton with a higher nitrogen content than #ac4g4 ,and ,professor ,g4 ,lunge said1 ,gun-cotton always contained soluble cotton1 and vice versa4 ,these opinions were also generally confirmed by ,sir ,e4 ,frankland1 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes1 ,dr ,armstrong1 and others4 ,dodeca-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#bh,o#bj7,,no#b7ab #ad4af per cent4 nitrogen4 7 old tri-nitro-cellulose7 ,endeca-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#bi,o#bj7,,no#b7aa #ac4ej per cent4 nitrogen4 ,deca-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#cj,o#bj7,,no#b7aj #ab4gh per cent4 nitrogen4 ,ennea-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#ca,o#bj7,,no#b7i #aa4ih per cent4 nitrogen4 ,octo-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#cb,o#bj7,,no#b7h #aa4ac per cent4 nitrogen4 7 old di-nitro-cellulose7 ,hepta-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#cc,o#bj7,,no#b7g #aj4ai per cent4 nitrogen4 ,hexa-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#cd,o#bj7,,no#b7f #i4ag per cent4 nitrogen4 ,penta-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#ce,o#bj7,,no#b7e #h4jd per cent4 nitrogen4 ,tetra-nitro-cellulose ,c#bd;,h#cf,o#bj7,,no#b7d #f4gg per cent4 nitrogen4 7 old mono-nitro-cellulose7 ,it is not unlikely that a long series of nitrates exists4 ,it is at any rate certain that whatever strength of acids may be used1 and whatever temperature or other conditions may be present during the nitration1 that the product formed always consists of a mixture of the soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose4 ,theoretically #ajj parts of cotton by weight should produce #bah4d parts of gun-cotton1 but in practice the yield is a good deal less1 both in the case of gun-cotton or collodion-cotton4 ,in speaking of soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose1 it is their behaviour1 when treated with a solution consisting of #b parts ether and #a of alcohol1 that is referred to4 ,there is1 however1 another very important difference1 and that is their different solubility in nitro-glycerine4 ,the lower nitrates or soluble form is soluble in nitro-glycerine under the influence of heat1 a temperature of about #ej ,c4 being required4 ,at lower temperatures the dissolution is very imperfect indeed2 and after the materials have been left in contact for days1 the threads of the cotton can still be distinguished4 ,the insoluble form or gun-cotton is entirely insoluble in nitro-glycerine4 ,it can1 however1 be made to dissolve,a by the aid of acetone or acetic ether4 ,both or rather all the forms of nitro-cellulose can be dissolved in acetone or acetic ether4 ,they also dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid1 and the penta-nitrate in nitric acid at about #hj or #ij ,c4 ,footnote ,a3 ,or rather to form a transparent jelly4 ,the penta-nitrate may be obtained in a pure state by the following process1 devised by ,eder3--,the gun-cotton is dissolved in concentrated nitric acid at #ij ,c41 and reprecipitated by the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,after cooling to #j ,c41 and mixing with a larger volume of water1 the precipitated nitrate is washed with water1 then with alcohol1 dissolved in ether-alcohol1 and again precipitated with water1 when it is obtained pure4 ,this nitrate is soluble in ether-alcohol1 and slightly in acetic acid1 easily in acetone1 acetic ether1 and methyl-alcohol1 insoluble in alcohol4 ,strong potash 7,,koh7 solution converts into the di-nitrate ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#h7,,no#c7b4 ,the hexa-nitrate is not soluble in acetic acid or methyl-alcohol4 ,the lower nitrates known as the tetra- and tri-nitrates are formed together when cellulose is treated with a mixture of weak acids1 and allowed to remain in contact with them for a very short time 7twenty minutes74 ,they cannot be separated from one another1 as they all dissolve equally in ether-alcohol1 acetic ether1 acetic acid1 methyl-alcohol1 acetone1 amyl acetate1 c4 ,as far as the manufacture of explosive bodies is concerned1 the two forms of nitro-cellulose used and manufactured are gun-cotton or the hexa- nitrate 7once regarded as tri-nitro-cellulose71 which is also known as insoluble gun-cotton1 and the soluble form of gun-cotton1 which is also known as collodion1 and consists of a mixture of several of the lower nitrates4 ,it is probable that it chiefly consists1 however1 of the next highest nitrate to gun-cotton1 as the theoretical percentage of nitrogen for this body14 the penta-nitrate1 is #ab4ge per cent41 and analyses of commercial collodion-cotton1 entirely soluble in ether-alcohol1 often give as high a percentage as #ab4f4 ,we shall only describe the manufacture of the two forms known as soluble and insoluble1 and shall refer to them under their better known names of gun-cotton and collodion-cotton4 ,the following would1 however1 be the formul,a and percentage of nitrogen of the complete series3-- ,hexa-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,no#c7f #ad4ad per cent4 nitrogen4 ,penta-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#e7,,no#c7e #ab4ge per cent4 nitrogen4 ,tetra-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#af,o#f7,,no#c7d #aa4aa per cent4 nitrogen4 ,tri-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#ag,o#g7,,no#c7c #i4ac per cent4 nitrogen4 ,di-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#h7,,no#c7b #g4fe per cent4 nitrogen4 ,mono-nitrocellulose ,c#ab;,h#ai,o#i7,,no#c7 #c4hj per cent4 nitrogen4 ,footnote ,a3 ,berthelot takes ,c#bd;,h#dj,o#bj as the formula of cellulose2 and ,m4 ,vieille regards the highest nitrate as 7,c#bd;,h#ah7,,no#c;,h7#aa,o#i74 ,compt4 ,rend41 #ahhb1 p4 #acb4 ,properties of ,gun-,cotton4--,the absolute density of gun-cotton is #a4e4 ,when in lumps its apparent density is #j4a2 if twisted into thread1 #j4be2 when subjected1 in the form of pulp1 to hydraulic pressure1 #a4j to #a4d4 ,gun-cotton preserves the appearance of the cotton from which it is made4 ,it is1 however1 harsher to the touch2 it is only slightly hygroscopic 7dry gun-cotton absorbs #b per cent4 of moisture from the air74 ,it possesses the property of becoming electrified by friction4 ,it is soluble in acetic ether1 amyl acetate1 and acetone1 insoluble in water1 alcohol1 ether1 ether-alcohol1 methyl-alcohol1 c4 ,it is very explosive1 and is ignited by contact with an ignited body1 or by shock1 or when it is raised to a temperature of #agb ,c4 ,it burns with a yellowish flame1 almost without smoke1 and leaves little or no residue4 ,the volume of the gases formed is large1 and consists of carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 nitrogen1 and water gas4 ,compressed gun-cotton when ignited often explodes when previously heated to #ajj ,c4 ,gun-cotton kept at #hj to #ajj ,c4 decomposes slowly1 and sunlight causes it to undergo a slow decomposition4 ,it can1 however1 be preserved for years without undergoing any alteration4 ,it is very susceptible to explosions by influence4 ,for instance1 a torpedo1 even placed at a long distance1 may explode a line of torpedoes charged with gun-cotton4 ,the velocity of the propagation of the explosion in metallic tubes filled with pulverised gun-cotton has been found to be from #e1jjj to #f1jjj mms4 per second in tin tubes1 and #d1jjj in leaden tubes 7,sebert74 ,gun-cotton loosely exposed in the open air burns eight times as quickly as powder 7,piobert74 ,a thin disc of gun-cotton may be fired into from a rifle without explosion2 but if the thickness of the disc be increased1 an explosion may occur4 ,the effect of gun-cotton in mines is very nearly the same as that of dynamite for equal weights4 ,it requires1 however1 a stronger detonator1 and it gives rise to a larger quantity of carbonic oxide gas4 ,gun-cotton should be neutral to litmus1 and should stand the ,government heat test--temperature of #aej ,f4 for fifteen minutes 7see page #bdi74 ,in the ,french ,navy gun-cotton is submitted to a heat test of #fe ,c4 7 #adi ,f47 for eleven minutes4 ,it should contain as small a percentage of soluble nitro-cotton and of non-nitrated cotton as possible4 ,the products of perfectly detonated gun-cotton may be expressed by the following equation3-- #b;,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,no#c7f #ah;,,co #f;,,co#b #ad;,h#b,o #ab,n4 ,it does not therefore contain sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of its carbon4 ,it is for this reason that when used for mining purposes a nitrate is generally added to supply this defect 7as1 for instance1 in tonite74 ,it tends also to prevent the evolution of the poisonous gas1 carbonic oxide4 ,the success of the various gelatine explosives is due to this fact1 viz41 that the nitro-glycerine has an excess of oxygen1 and the nitro-cotton too little1 and thus the two explosives help one another4 ,in practice the gases resulting from the explosion of gun-cotton are-- ,carbonic oxide1 #bh4ee2 carbonic acid1 #ai4aa2 marsh gas 7,,ch#d71 #aa4ag2 nitric oxide1 #h4hc2 nitrogen1 #h4ef2 water vapour1 #ba4ic per cent4 ,the late ,mr ,e4,o4 ,brown1 of ,woolwich ,arsenal1 discovered that perfectly wet and uninflammable compressed gun-cotton could be easily detonated by the detonation of a priming charge of the dry material in contact with it4 ,this rendered the use of gun-cotton very much safer for use as a military or mining explosive4 ,as a mining explosive1 however1 gun-cotton is now chiefly used under the form of tonite1 which is a mixture of half gun-cotton and half barium nitrate4 ,this material is sometimes spoken of as nitrated gun-cotton4 ,the weight of gun-cotton required to produce an equal effect either in heavy ordnance or in small arms is to the weight of gunpowder in the proportion of #a to #c1 i4e41 an equal weight of gun-cotton would produce three times the effect of gunpowder4 ,its rapidity of combustion1 however1 requires to be modified for use in firearms4 ,hence the lower nitrates are generally used1 or such compounds as nitro-lignose1 nitrated wood1 c41 are used4 ,the initial pressure produced by the explosion of gun-cotton is very large1 equal to #ah1ace atmospheres1 and #h1gdj kilogrammes per square centimetre for #a kilo41 the heat liberated being #a1jge calories 7water liquid71 or #iig4g cals4 7water gaseous71 but the quantity of heat liberated changes with the equation of decomposition4 ,according to ,berthelot1,a the heat of formation of collodion-cotton is #fif cals4 for #a1jec grms41 or #ffa cals4 for #a kilo4 ,the heat liberated in the total combustion of gun-cotton by free oxygen at constant pressure is #b1fcc cals4 for #a1adc grms41 or for #a kilo4 gun-cotton #b1cjb cals4 7water liquid71 or #b1agg cals4 7water gaseous74 ,the heat of decomposition of gun- cotton in a closed vessel1 found by experiment at a low density of charge 7#j4jbc71 amounts to #a1jga cals4 for #a kilo4 of the substance1 dry and free from ash4 ,to obtain the maximum effect of gun-cotton it must be used in a compressed state1 for the initial pressures are thereby increased4 ,wet gun-cotton s much less sensitive to shock than dry4 ,paraffin also reduces its liability to explode1 so also does camphor4 ,footnote ,a3 ,explosives and their ,power1 trans4 by ,hake and ,m',nab4 ,the substance known as celluloid1 a variety of nitro-cellulose nearly corresponding to the formula ,c#bd;,h#bd7,,no#c;,h7#h,o#ab1 to which camphor and various inert substances are added1 so as to render it non-sensitive to shock1 may be worked with tools1 and turned in the lathe in the same manner as ivory1 instead of which material celluloid is now largely used for such articles as knife handles1 combs1 c4 ,celluloid is very plastic when heated towards #aej ,c41 and tends to become very sensitive to shock1 and in large quantities might become explosive during a fire1 owing to the general heating of the mass1 and the consequent evaporation of the camphor4 ,when kept in the air bath at #ace ,c41 celluloid decomposes quickly4 ,in an experiment 7made by ,m4 ,berthelot7 in a closed vessel at #ace ,c41 and the density of the charge being #j4d1 it ended in exploding1 developing a pressure of #c1jjj kilos4 ,a large package of celluloid combs also exploded in the guard's van on one of the ,german railways a few years ago4 ,although it is not an explosive under ordinary circumstances1 or even with a powerful detonator1 considerable care should be exercised in its manufacture4 ,the ,manufacture of ,gun-,cotton4--,the method used for the manufacture of gun-cotton is that of ,abel 7,spec4 ,no4 #aajb1 #bj4 #d4 #fe74 ,it was worked out chiefly at ,stowmarket,a and ,waltham ,abbey1,b but has in the course of time undergone several alterations4 ,these modifications have taken place1 however1 chiefly upon the ,continent1 and relate more to the apparatus and machinery used than to any alteration in the process itself4 ,the form of cellulose used is cotton-waste1,c which consists of the clippings and waste material from cotton mills4 ,after it has been cleaned and purified from grease1 oil1 and other fatty substances by treatment with alkaline solutions1 it is carefully picked over1 and every piece of coloured cotton rag or string carefully removed4 ,the next operation to which it is submitted has for its object the opening up of the material4 ,for this purpose it is put through a carding machine1 and afterwards through a cutting machine1 whereby it is reduced to a state suitable for its subsequent treatment with acids1 that is1 it has been cut into short lengths1 and the fibres opened up and separated from one another4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the ,new ,explosive ,co4 ,works4 ,footnote ,b3 ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory4 ,footnote ,c3 ,costs from #aj to #be a ton4 ,in his description of the ,preparation of ,cotton-waste for the ,manufacture of ,smokeless ,powder1 ,a4 ,hertzog states that the ,german military authorities require a cotton which when thrown into water sinks in two minutes2 when nitrated1 does not disintegrate2 when treated with ether1 yields only #j4i per cent4 of fat2 and containing only traces of chlorine1 lime1 magnesia1 iron1 sulphuric acid1 and phosphoric acid4 ,if the cotton is very greasy1 it must be first boiled with soda-lye under pressure1 washed1 bleached with chlorine1 washed1 treated with sulphuric acid or ,h,cl1 again washed1 centrifugated1 and dried2 if very greasy indeed a preliminary treatment with lime-water is desirable4 ,see also ,inspection of ,cotton-,waste for ,use in the ,manufacture of ,gun-cotton1 by ,c4,e4 ,munro1 ,jour4 ,am4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahie1 #ag1 #ghc4 ,drying the ,cotton4--,this operation is performed in either of two ways4 ,the cotton may either be placed upon shelves in a drying house1 through which a current of hot air circulates1 or dried in steam-jacketed cylinders4 ,it is very essential that the cotton should be as dry as possible before dipping in the acids1 especially if a wholly insoluble nitro-cellulose is to be obtained4 ,after drying it should not contain more than #j4e per cent4 of moisture1 and less than this if possible4 ,the more general method of drying the cotton is in steam-jacketed tubes1 i4e41 double cylinders of iron1 some #e feet long and #a-a_/b foot wide4 ,the cotton is placed in the central chamber 7,fig4 #aj71 while steam is made to circulate in the surrounding jacket1 and keeps the whole cylinder at a high temperature 7steam pipes may be coiled round the outside of an iron tube1 and will answer equally well74 ,by means of a pipe which communicates with a compressed air reservoir1 a current of air enters at the bottom1 and finds its way up through the cotton1 and helps to remove the moisture that it contains4 ,the raw cotton generally contains about #aj per cent4 of moisture and should be dried until it contains only #a_/b per cent4 or less4 ,for this it will generally have to remain in the drying cylinder for about five hours4 ,at the end of that time a sample should be taken from the top of the cylinder1 and dried in the water oven 7#ajj ,c4,a7 for an hour to an hour and a half1 and re-weighed1 and the moisture then remaining in it calculated4 ,footnote ,a3 ,it is dried at #ahj ,c4 at ,waltham ,abbey1 in a specially constructed drying chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,cotton ,,drier4 ,it is very convenient to have a large copper water oven1 containing a lot of small separate compartments1 large enough to hold about a handful of the cotton1 and each compartment numbered1 and corresponding to one of the drying cylinders4 ,the whole apparatus should be fixed against the wall of the laboratory1 and may be heated by bringing a small steam pipe from the boiler-house4 ,it is useful to have a series of copper trays1 about #c inches by #f inches1 numbered to correspond to the divisions in the steam oven1 and exactly fitting them4 ,these trays can then be taken by a boy to the drying cylinders1 and a handful of the cotton from each placed in them1 and afterwards brought to the laboratory and weighed 7a boy can do this very well71 placed in their respective divisions of the oven1 and left for one to one and a half hours1 and re-weighed4 ,when the cotton is found to be dry the bottom of the drying cylinder is removed1 and the cotton pushed out from the top by means of a piece of flat wood fixed on a broom-handle4 ,it is then packed away in galvanised- iron air-tight cases1 and is ready for the next operation4 ,at some works the cotton is dried upon shelves in a drying house through which hot air circulates1 the shelves being of canvas or of brass wire netting4 ,the hot air must pass under the shelves and through the cotton1 or the process will be a very slow one4 ,dipping and ,steeping4--,the dry cotton has now to be nitrated4 ,this is done by dipping it into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,the acids used must be strong1 that is1 the nitric acid must be at least of a gravity of #a4ec to #a4eb1 and should contain as little nitric oxide as possible4 ,the sulphuric acid must have a specific gravity of #a4hd at #ae ,c41 and contain about #ig per cent4 of the mono-hydrate 7,h#b,,so#d74 ,in fact1 the strongest acids obtainable should be used when the product required is gun-cotton1 i4e41 the highest nitrate4 ,the sulphuric acid takes no part in the chemical reaction involved1 but is necessary in order to combine with the water that is liberated in the reaction1 and thus to maintain the strength of the nitric acid4 ,the reaction which takes place is the following3-- #b7;,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7 #f;,,hno#c ,c#ab;,h#ad7,,no#c7f #f ,h#b,o4 #cbd #cgh #eid #ajh4 ,cellulose4 ,gun-,cotton4 ,theoretically1,a therefore1 #a part of cellulose should form #a4h part of gun-cotton4 ,practically1 however1 this is never obtained1 and #a4f lb4 from #a lb4 of cellulose is very good working4 ,the mixture of acids used is generally #a to #c1 or #be per cent4 nitric acid to #ge per cent4 sulphuric acid4 ,footnote ,a3 7#eid x #a7_/cbd #a4hc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,tank ,,for ,,dipping ,,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,the ,,cooling ,,pits4 ,the dipping is done in cast-iron tanks 7,fig4 #aa71 a series of which is arranged in a row1 and cooled by a stream of cold water flowing round them4 ,the tanks hold about #ab gallons1 and the cotton is dipped in portions of #a lb4 at a time4 ,it is thrown into the acids1 and the workman moves it about for about three minutes with an iron rabble4 ,at the end of that time he lifts it up on to an iron grating1 just above the acids1 fixed at the back of the tank1 where by means of a movable lever he gently squeezes it1 until it contains about ten times its weight of acids 7the #a lb4 weighs #aj lbs474 ,it is then transferred to earthenware pots to steep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,cotton ,,steeping ,,pot4 ,steeping4--,the nitrated cotton1 when withdrawn from the dipping tanks1 and still containing an excess of acids1 is put into earthenware pots of the shape shown in ,figs4 #ab and #ac4 ,the lid is put on1 and the pots placed in rows in large cooling pits1 about a foot deep1 through which a stream of water is constantly flowing4 ,these pits form the floor of the steeping house4 ,the cotton remains in these pots for a period of forty-eight hours1 and must be kept cool4 ,between #ah and #ai ,c4 is the highest temperature desirable1 but the cooler the pots are kept the better4 ,at the end of forty-eight hours the chemical reaction is complete1 and the cotton is or should be wholly converted into nitro-cellulose2 that is1 there should be no unnitrated cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,hydro-,,extractor4 ,whirling ,out the ,acid4--,the next operation is to remove the excess of acid4 ,this is done by placing the contents of two or three or more pots into a centrifugal hydro-extractor 7,fig4 #ad71 making #a1jjj to #a1ejj revolutions per minute4 ,the hydro-extractor consists of a machine with both an inner cylinder and an outer one1 both revolving in concert and driving outwardly the liquid to the chamber1 from which it runs away by a discharge pipe4 ,the wet cotton is placed around the inner cone4 ,the cotton1 when dry1 is removed1 and at once thrown into a large tank of water1 and the waste acids are collected in a tank4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,care must be taken in hot weather that the gun-cotton does not fire1 as it does sometimes1 directly the workman goes to remove it after the machine is stopped4 ,it occurs more often in damp weather4 ,dr ,schpphaus1 of ,brooklyn1 ,u4,s4,a41 proposes to treat the waste acids from the nitration of cellulose by adding to them sulphuric anhydride and nitric acid4 ,the sulphuric anhydride added converts the water liberated from the cellulose into sulphuric acid4 ,washing4--,the cotton has now to be carefully washed4 ,this is done in a large wooden tank filled with water4 ,if1 however1 a river or canal runs through the works1 a series of wooden tanks1 the sides and bottoms of which are pierced with holes1 so as to allow of the free circulation of water1 should be sunk into a wooden platform that overhangs the surface of the river in such a way that the tanks are immersed in the water1 and of course always full4 ,during the time that the cotton is in the water a workman turns it over constantly with a wooden paddle4 ,a stream of water1 in the form of a cascade1 should be allowed to fall into these tanks4 ,the cotton may then be thrown on to this stream of water1 which1 falling some height1 at once carries the cotton beneath the surface of the water4 ,this proceeding is necessary because the cotton still retains a large excess of strong acids1 and when mixed with water gives rise to considerable heat1 especially if mixed slowly with water4 ,after the cotton has been well washed1 it is again wrung out in a centrifugal machine1 and afterwards allowed to steep in water for some time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae;a4--,,the ,,beater ,,for ,,gun-,,cotton4 ,boiling4--,the washed cotton is put into large iron boilers with plenty of water1 and boiled for some time at #ajj ,c4 ,in some works lead-lined tanks are used1 into which a steam pipe is led4 ,the soluble impurities of unstable character1 to which ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel traced the liability of gun- cotton to instability1 are thereby removed4 ,these impurities consist of the products formed by the action of nitric acid on the fatty and resinous substances contained in the cotton fibres4 ,the water in the tanks should be every now and again renewed1 and after the first few boilings the water should be tested with litmus paper until they are no longer found to be acid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae;b4--,,wheel ,,of ,,beater4 ,pulping4--,the idea of pulping is also due to ,abel4 ,by its means a very much more uniform material is obtained4 ,the process is carried out in an apparatus known as a ,beater or ,hollander 7,fig4 #ae1 a1 b74 ,it consists of a kind of wooden tank some #b or #c feet deep of an oblong shape1 in which a wheel carrying a series of knives is made to revolve1 the floor of the tank being sloped up so as to almost touch the revolving wheels4 ,this part of the floor1 known as the craw1 is a solid piece of oak1 and a box of knives is fixed into it1 against which the knives in the revolving wheel are pressed4 ,the beater is divided into two parts--the working side1 in which the cotton is cut and torn between the knife edges in the revolving cylinder and those in the box2 and the running side1 into which the cotton passes after passing under the cylinder4 ,the wheel is generally boxed in to prevent the cotton from being thrown out during its revolution4 ,the cotton is thus in constant motion1 continually travelling round1 and passing between the knives in the revolving cylinder and those in the box fixed in the wooden block beneath it4 ,the beater is kept full of water1 and the cotton is gradually reduced to a condition of pulp4 ,the wheel revolves at the rate of #ajj to #aej times a minute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af;a4--,,poacher ,,for ,,washing ,,gun-,,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af;b4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,poacher4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af;c4--,,another ,,form ,,of ,,poacher4 ,when the gun-cotton is judged to be sufficiently fine1 the contents of the beater are run into another very similar piece of machinery1 known as the poacher 7,fig4 #af1 a1 b1 c71 in which the gun-cotton is continuously agitated together with a large quantity of water1 which can be easily run off and replaced as often as required4 ,when the material is first run into the poacher from the beater1 the water with which it is then mixed is first run away and clean water added4 ,the paddle wheel is then set in motion1 and at intervals fresh water is added4 ,there is a strainer at the bottom of the poacher which enables the water to be drawn off without disturbing the cotton pulp4 ,after the gun-cotton has been in the poacher for some time1 a sample should be taken by holding a rather large mesh sieve in the current for a minute or so4 ,the pulp will thus partly pass through and partly be caught upon the sieve1 and an average sample will be thus obtained4 ,the sample is squeezed out by hand1 bottled1 and taken to the laboratory to be tested by the heat test for purity4 ,it first1 however1 requires to be dried4 ,this is best done by placing the sample between coarse filter paper1 and then putting it under a hand-screw press1 where it can be subjected to a tolerably severe pressure for about three minutes4 ,it is then rubbed up very finely with the hands1 and placed upon a paper tray1 about #f inches by #d-a_/b inches1 which is then placed inside a water oven upon a shelf of coarse wire gauze1 the temperature of the oven being kept as near as possible to #abj ,f4 7#di ,c471 the gauze shelves in the oven being kept about #c inches apart4 ,the sample is allowed to remain at rest for fifteen minutes in the oven1 the door of which is left wide open4 ,after the lapse of fifteen minutes the tray is removed and exposed to the air of the laboratory 7away from acid fumes7 for two hours1 the sample being at some point within that time rubbed upon the tray with the hand1 in order to reduce it to a fine and uniform state of division4 ,twenty grains 7#a4bif grm47 are used for the test4 7,see ,heat ,test1 page #bdi47 ,if the gun-cotton sample removed from the poacher stands the heat test satisfactorily1 the machine is stopped1 and the water drained off4 ,the cotton is allowed some little time to drain1 and is then dug out by means of wooden spades1 and is then ready for pressing4 ,the poachers hold about #b1jjj lbs4 of material1 and as this represents the products of many hundred distinct nitrating operations1 a very uniform mixture is obtained4 ,two per cent4 of carbonate of soda is sometimes added1 but it is not really necessary if the cotton has been properly washed4 ,compressing ,gun-,cotton4--,the gun-cotton1 in the state in which it is removed from the poacher1 contains from #bh to #cj per cent4 of water4 ,in order to remove this1 the cotton has to be compressed by hydraulic power4 ,the dry compressed gun-cotton is packed in boxes containing #b1ejj lbs4 of dry material4 ,in order to ascertain how much of the wet cotton must be put into the press1 it is necessary to determine the percentage of water4 ,this may be done by drying #b1jjj grains upon a paper tray 7previously dried at #ajj ,c47 in the water oven at #ajj ,c4 for three hours1 and re-weighing and calculating the percentage of water4 ,it is then easy to calculate how much of the wet gun-cotton must be placed in the hopper of the press in order to obtain a block of compressed cotton of the required weight4 ,various forms of presses are used1 and gun-cotton is sent out either as solid blocks1 compressed discs1 or in the form of an almost dry powder1 in zinc- lined1 air-tight cases4 ,the discs are often soaked in water after compression until they have absorbed #be per cent4 of moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,old ,,method4 #ajj ,,pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,new ,,method4 ,,one ,,solid ,,block4 ,at the ,new ,explosives ,company's ,stowmarket ,works large solid blocks of gun-cotton are pressed up under a new process1 whereby blocks of gun- cotton1 for use in submarine mines or in torpedo warheads1 are produced4 ,large charges of compressed gun-cotton have hitherto been built up from a number of suitably shaped charges of small dimensions 7,fig4 #ag71 as it has been impossible to compress large charges in a proper manner4 ,the formation of large-sized blocks of gun-cotton was the invention of ,mr ,a4 ,hollings4 ,prior to the introduction of this method1 #h or #i lbs4 had been the limit of weight for a block4 ,this process has been perfected at the ,stowmarket factory1 where blocks varying from the armour-piercing shell charge of a few ounces up to blocks of compressed gun-cotton mechanically true1 weighing #d to #e cwts4 for torpedoes or submarine mines1 are now produced4 ,at the same time the new process ensures a uniform density throughout the block1 and permits of any required density1 from #a4d downwards1 being attained2 it is also possible exactly to regulate the percentage of moisture1 and to ensure its uniform distribution4 ,the maximum percentage of moisture depends1 of course1 upon the density4 ,by the methods of compression gun-cotton blocks hitherto employed1 blocks of a greater thickness than #b inches1 or of a greater weight than #i lbs41 could not be made1 but with the new process blocks of any shape1 size1 thickness1 or weight that is likely to be required can be made readily and safely4 ,the advantages which are claimed for the process may be enumerated as follows3--7#a47 ,there is no space wasted1 as in the case with built-up charges1 through slightly imperfect contact between the individual blocks1 and thus either a heavier charge--i4e41 about #ae per cent4 more gun- cotton--can be got into the same space1 or less space will be occupied by a charge of a given weight4 7#b47 ,the metallic cases for solid charges may be much lighter than for those built-up1 since with the former their function is merely to prevent the loss of moisture from wet gun-cotton1 or to prevent the absorption of moisture by dry gun-cotton4 ,they can thus be made lighter1 as the solid charge inside will prevent deformation during transport4 ,with built-up charges the case must be strong enough to prevent damage1 either to itself or to the charge it contains4 ,for many uses a metal case1 however light1 may be discarded1 and one of a thin waterproof material substituted4 7#c47 ,the uniform density of charges made by this process is very favourable to the complete and effective detonation of the entire mass1 and to the presence of the uniform amount of moisture in every part of the charge4 7#d47 ,any required density1 from the maximum downwards1 may be obtained with ease1 and any required amount of moisture left in the charge4 ,these points are of great importance in cases where1 like torpedo charges1 it is essential to have the centre of gravity of the charge in a predetermined position both vertically and longitudinally1 and the charge so fixed in its containing case that the centre of gravity cannot shift4 ,the difficulty of ensuring this with a large torpedo charge built up from a number of discs and segments is well known4 ,even with plain cylindrical or prismatic charges a marked saving in the process of production is effected by this new system4 ,the charges being in one block they are more easily handled for the usual periodical examination1 and they do not break or chafe at the edges1 as in the case of discs and cubes in built-up charges4 ,a general view of the press is given in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the gun-cotton in a container is placed on a cradle fixed at an angle to the press4 ,the mould is swivelled round1 and the charge pushed into it with a rammer1 and it is then swivelled back into position4 ,the mould is made up of a number of wedge pieces which close circumferentially on the enclosed mass1 which is also subjected to end pressure4 ,holes are provided for the escape of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,a #d-;,,cwt4 ,,block ,,of ,,gun-,,cotton ,,being ,,taken ,,from ,,hydraulic ,,press4 ,the ,waltham ,abbey ,process4--,at the ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory1 ,waltham ,abbey1 the manufacture of gun-cotton has been carried out for many years4 ,the process used differs but little from that used at ,stowmarket4 ,the cotton used is of a good quality1 it is sorted and picked over to remove foreign matters1 c41 and is then cut up by a kind of guillotine into #b-;inch lengths4 ,it is then dried in the following manner4 ,the cotton is placed upon an endless band1 which conducts it to the stove1 or drying closet1 a chamber heated by means of hot air and steam traps to about #ahj ,f42 it falls upon a second endless band1 placed below the first2 it travels back again the whole length of the stove1 and so on until delivered into a receptacle at the bottom of the farther end1 where it is kept dry until required for use4 ,the speed at which the cotton travels is #f feet per minute1 and as the length of the band travelled amounts to #abf feet1 the operation of drying takes twenty-one minutes4 ,one and a quarter lb4 are weighed out and placed in a tin box2 a truck1 fitted to receive a number of these boxes1 carries it along a tramway to a cool room1 where it is allowed to cool4 ,dipping4--,mixed acids are used in the proportion of #a to #c1 specific gravity nitric acid #a4eb1 and sulphuric acid #a4hd4 ,the dipping tank is made of cast iron1 and holds #bbj lbs4 of mixed acids1 and is surrounded on three sides by a water space in order to keep it cool4 ,the mixed acids are stored in iron tanks behind the dipping tanks1 and are allowed to cool before use4 ,during the nitration1 the temperature of the mixed acids is kept at #gj ,f41 and the cotton is dipped in quantities of #a-a_/b lb4 at a time4 ,it is put into a tin shoot at the back of the dipping tank1 and raked into the acids by means of a rabble4 ,it remains in the acids for five or six minutes1 and is then removed to a grating at the back1 pressed and removed4 ,after each charge of cotton is removed from the tank1 about #ad lbs4 of fresh mixed acids are added1 to replace amount removed by charge4 ,the charge now weighs1 with the acids retained by it1 #ae lbs42 it is now placed in the pots1 and left to steep for at least twenty-four hours1 the temperature being kept as low as possible1 to prevent the formation of soluble cotton1 and also prevent firing4 ,the proportion of soluble formed is likely to be higher in hot weather than cold4 ,the pots must be covered to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air1 or the accidental entrance of water1 which would cause decomposition1 and consequent fuming off1 through the heat generated by the action of the water upon the strong acids4 ,the excess of acids is now extracted by means of hydro-extractors1 as at ,stowmarket4 ,they are worked at #a1bjj revolutions per minute1 and whirled for five minutes 7#aj-a_/b lbs4 of waste acids are removed from each charge dipped74 ,the charge is then washed in a very similar manner to that previously described1 and again wrung out in a centrifugal extractor 7#a1bjj revolutions per minute74 ,the gun-cotton is now boiled by means of steam in wooden tanks for eight hours2 it is then again wrung out in the extractors for three minutes1 boiled for eight hours more1 and again wrung out2 it is then sent to the beater and afterwards to the poacher4 ,the poachers hold #a1ejj gals4 each1 or #ah cwt4 of cotton4 ,the cotton remains six hours in the poachers4 ,before moulding1 #ejj gals4 of water are run into the poacher1 and #ejj gals4 of lime water containing #i lbs4 of whiting and #i gals4 of a caustic soda solution4 ,this mixture is of such a strength that it is calculated to leave in the finished gun-cotton from #a to #b per cent4 of alkaline matter4 ,by means of vacuum pressure1 the pulp is now drawn off and up into the stuff chest--a large cylindrical iron tank1 sufficiently elevated on iron standards to allow room for the small gauge tanks and moulding apparatus below4 ,it holds the contents of one poacher 7#ah cwt471 and is provided with revolving arms to keep the pulp stirred up1 so that it may be uniformly suspended in water4 ,recently a new process1 invented by ,j4,m4 and ,w4,t4 ,thomson 7,eng4 ,pat4 ,no4 #h1bgh1 #aijc71 has been introduced at the ,waltham ,abbey ,factory4 ,the object of this invention is the removal of the acids of nitration from the nitrated material after the action has been completed1 and without the aid of moving machinery1 such as presses1 rollers1 centrifugals1 and the like4 ,the invention consists in the manufacture of nitrated celluloses by removing the acids from the nitrated cellulose directly by displacement without the employment of either pressure or vacuum or mechanical appliances of any kind1 and at the same time securing the minimum dilution of the acids4 ,it was found that if water was carefully run on to the surface of the acids in which the nitro-cellulose is immersed1 and the acids be slowly drawn off at the bottom of the vessel1 the water displaces the acid from the interstices of the nitro-cellulose without any undesirable rise in temperature1 and with very little dilution of the acids4 ,by this process almost the whole of the acid is recovered in a condition suitable for concentration1 and the amount of water required for preliminary washing is very greatly reduced4 ,the apparatus which is used for the purpose consists of a cylindrical or rectangular vessel constructed with a perforated false bottom and a cock at its lowest point for running off the liquid4 ,means are also provided to enable the displacing water to be run quietly on to the surface of the nitrating acids4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,in a further patent 7,eng4 ,pat4 #g1bfi1 #aijc1 ,f4,l4 ,natham71 ,j4,m4 ,thomson and ,w4,t4 ,thomson propose by use of alcohol to replace the water1 used in washing nitro-cellulose1 and afterward to remove the alcohol by pressing and centrifuging4 ,the apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #b,o1 side elevation1 and in ,fig4 #ba a plan of the nitrating vessel and its accessories is given4 ,in ,fig4 #bj is shown in sectional elevation one of the trough devices for enabling liquids to be added to those in the nitrating vessel without substantial disturbance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,sectional ,,elevation ,,of ,,thomson',s ,,apparatus1 a1 ,tank2 b1 ,false ,bottom2 c1 ,bottom2 c'1 ,ribs2 d1 ,draining ,outlet2 e1 ,grid2 f1 ,troughs1 with ,aprons g2 h1 ,pipe1 with ,branches h'1 leading to ,troughs1 f2 k'1 ,outlet ,pipe of the ,sulphuric ,acid ,tank k2 l1 ,water ,supply ,pipe2 m1 ,pipe to supply of ,nitrating ,acids2 o1 ,perforations of ,trough f2 p1 ,cock to remove ,acid4 ,in carrying out this invention a rectangular lead-lined or earthenware tank a is employed1 having a false bottom b1 supported by ribs c'1 over the real bottom c1 which slopes down to a draining outlet pipe d1 provided with a perforated grid or plate e1 adapted to prevent choking of the outlet4 ,suitably supported near the top of the vessel a are provided two troughs1 f having depending aprons g1 a pipe h has two branches h'1 leading to the troughs1 f4 ,this pipe h is adapted to be connected by a rubber pipe either to the outlet pipe k' of the sulphuric acid tank k or the water supply pipe l4 ,the nitrating acids are supplied through the pipe m4 ,a charge of mixed nitrating acids is introduced into the vessel a say up to the level n1 and the dry cellulose thrown into the acids in small quantities at a time1 being pushed under the surface in the usual way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,plan ,,of ,,thomson',s ,,apparatus1 a1 ,tank2 b1 ,false ,bottom2 c'1 ,ribs2 e1 ,grid2 f1 ,troughs2 g1 ,aprons2 h and h'1 ,pipes to ,troughs f2 k1 ,sulphuric ,acid ,tank2 m1 ,pipe to ,nitrating ,acids ,tank2 o1 ,perforations of ,troughs2 p1 ,cock to remove ,acid4 ,a thin layer1 say half an inch1 of a suitable liquid1 preferably sulphuric acid1 of a gravity not exceeding that of the waste acid to be produced1 is run carefully on the top of the acids by means of the troughs f1 which are perforated as shown at o1 so that the sulphuric acid runs down the aprons g1 and floats on the nitrating acids4 ,the whole is then allowed to stand till nitration has been completed4 ,water is then supplied to the troughs by way of the pipes l1 h1 and h'1 and is allowed to float very gently over the surface of the sulphuric acid1 and when a sufficient layer has been formed1 the cock p at the bottom of the apparatus is opened1 and the acid slowly drawn off1 water being supplied to maintain the level constant4 ,it is found that the rate of displacement of the acids is a factor which exerts a considerable influence on the properties of the resulting nitro-cellulose1 and affords a means of regulating the temperature of displacement4 ,a rate of displacement which has been found suitable is about two inches in depth of the vessel per hour when treating highly nitrated celluloses1 but this rate may1 in some cases1 be considerably increased4 ,the flow of water at the top of the apparatus is regulated so that a constant level is maintained4 ,by this means the water gradually and entirely displaces the acids from the interstices of the nitro-cellulose1 the line of separation between the acids and the water being fairly sharply defined throughout4 ,the flow of water is continued until that issuing at the bottom is found to be free from all trace of acid4 ,the purification of the nitro-cellulose is then proceeded with as usual1 either in the same vessel or another4 ,in the process above described1 the object of the introduction of a small layer of sulphuric acid is mainly to prevent the fuming which would otherwise take place1 and is not essential1 as it is found it can be omitted without any deleterious effect4 ,in order to use the mixed acids in the most economical manner1 the waste acid from a previous operation may be used for a first nitration of the cellulose2 being afterwards displaced with fresh acids which carry the nitration to the required degree before they are in turn displaced by water4 ,the apparatus may be used merely for the removal of the acid1 in which case the nitration is carried out in other vessels in the usual way1 and the nitro-cellulose removed to the displacement apparatus where it is just covered with waste acid1 and the displacement then proceeded with as above described4 ,in some cases the process is carried out in an ordinary nitrating centrifugal1 using the latter to effect preliminary drying after acid extraction4 ,this gives a great advantage over the usual method of working ordinary centrifugal nitrating apparatus1 because the acid being removed before the centrifugal is run1 practically all danger of firing therein disappears1 and a greater proportion of the waste acid is recovered4 ,in some cases the acids and water may be supplied by perforated pipes1 lying along the edges of the nitrating vessel1 and these edges may1 if desired1 be themselves made inclined1 like the sides of the troughs f4 ,in the case of effecting nitration in centrifugals as above1 the displacing sulphuric acid and water may thus be supplied round the edges of the machines1 or removal troughs such as f may be used4 ,it will be obvious that any inert liquid of suitable specific gravity may be used instead of sulphuric acid1 as a separation layer4 ,moulding4--,by means of the small measuring tank above referred to1 the gun-cotton pulp is drawn off from the stuff chest1 and run into moulds of the shapes and sizes required4 ,thence a large proportion of the water is drawn off by means of tubes connected with the vacuum engine1 the moulds having bottoms of fine wire gauze1 in order to prevent the pulp from passing through4 ,hydraulic pressure of about #cd lbs4 on the square inch is then applied1 which has the effect of compressing the pulp into a state in which it has sufficient consistency to enable it to be handled with care1 and also expels a portion of the remaining water4 ,compressing4--,the moulded gun-cotton is now taken to the press house1 which is situated at some distance from the rest of the factory4 ,here the moulds are subjected to powerful hydraulic pressure1 from #e to #f tons per square inch1 and is compressed to one-third of its previous bulk4 ,the slabs or discs thus formed are kept under pressure for a short time1 not exceeding a minute and a half1 to give the requisite density4 ,it should1 when removed1 be compact1 and just sink in water1 and should perceptibly yield to the pressure of the fingers4 ,there are perforations in the press blocks1 to allow of the escape of gases1 if formed1 by reason of sufficient heat being generated4 ,the men working the press are placed under cover1 behind strong rope mantlets having eye tubes which command a view of the press4 ,packing4--,the finished slabs and discs are dipped into a solution of soda and carbolic acid1 and packed in special wood metal-lined cases4 ,when it is to be sent abroad1 the metal lining1 which is made of tinned copper1 is soldered down1 but both the outer wooden and inner metal cases are fitted with air-tight screw-plugs1 so that when necessary water can be added without unfastening the cases4 ,reworked gun-cotton does not make such good discs as new pulped gun- cotton1 probably because the fibrous tenacity of the gun-cotton has been destroyed by the amount of pressure it has previously undergone1 so that when repulped it resembles fine dust1 and a long time is required to press it into any prescribed form4 ,it is generally boiled for eight hours to open up the fibre and remove alkali1 then broken up by hand with wooden mallets1 pulped1 and then used with fresh gun-cotton in the proportion of #a to #e parts4 ,manufacture at ,le ,bouchet4--,at ,le ,bouchet gun-cotton was made thus3--#bjj grms4 of cotton were steeped for an hour in #b litres of a mixture of #a volume concentrated nitric and #b volumes sulphuric acid4 ,the cotton was then removed and pressed1 whereby #g_/ajths of the waste acids was recovered4 ,after this it was washed for one to one and a half hours in running water1 strongly pressed again2 allowed to lie for twenty-four hours in wood-ash lye2 then well washed in running water2 pressed1 and finally dried on a wide linen sheet1 through which was forced air heated to #fj ,c4 ,the average yield from #ajj parts of cotton was #afe parts of gun- cotton4 ,the strong pressings of the gun-cotton1 while still impregnated with acids1 caused subsequent washings to be difficult and laborious4 ,granulation of ,gun-,cotton4--,gun-cotton is often required in the granulated form for use either alone or with some form of smokeless powder4 ,this is done under the patent of ,sir ,frederick ,abel in the following manner3--,the gun-cotton from the poacher is placed in a centrifugal machine1 very similar to the hydro-extractors before mentioned1 and used for wringing out the acids4 ,in this machine it loses water until it only contains #cc per cent41 and is at the same time reduced to a more or less fibrous state4 ,it is then taken to the granulating room1 where it is first passed through sieves or perforations1 which break up the mass into little pieces like shot4 ,the material is then transferred to a revolving drum made of wood or stout leather1 which is kept constantly revolving for some time4 ,the material is occasionally sprinkled with water4 ,the drum in turning1 of course1 carries the granules partially round with it1 but the action of gravity causes them to descend constantly to the lowest point1 and thus to roll over one another continually4 ,the speed of the drum must not be too rapid4 ,none of the granules must be carried round by centrifugal force1 but it must be fast enough to carry them some little distance up the side of the drum4 ,after removal from the drum the granules are dried upon shelves in the drying house4 ,gun-cotton is also dissolved in acetone or acetic ether until it has taken the form of a jelly4 ,it is then rolled into thin sheets1 and when dry cut up into little squares4 ,in the manufacture of smokeless powders from nitro-cellulose1 nitro-lignine1 c41 the various substances are mixed with the gun-cotton or collodion-cotton before granulating4 ,collodion-,cotton4--,in the manufacture of collodion or soluble cotton the finer qualities of cotton-waste are used and the acids used in the dipping tanks are much weaker4 ,the manufacture of collodion-cotton has become of more importance than gun-cotton1 by reason of its use for the manufacture of the various forms of gelatine1 such as gelatine dynamite1 gelignite1 forcite1 c41 and also on account of its extensive use in the manufacture of many of the smokeless powders4 ,it is also used for the manufacture of collodion1 which is a solution of collodion-cotton in ether-alcohol2 for the preparation of celluloid1 and many other purposes4 ,it is less explosive than gun-cotton1 and consists of the lower nitrates of cellulose4 ,it is soluble in nitro-glycerine1 and in a mixture of #b parts of ether and #a of alcohol2 also in acetone1 acetic ether1 and other solvents4 ,,mm4 ,mnard and ,domonte were the first to prepare a soluble gun- cotton1 and its investigation was carried on by ,bchamp1 who showed that its properties and composition were different to those of gun-cotton4 ,manufacture4--,the cotton used is cotton-waste4,a ,it is thought by some that ,egyptian cotton is preferable1 and especially long fibre varieties4 ,the strength of the acids used is1 however1 of more importance than the quality of the cotton4 ,the percentage composition of the acid mixture which gives the best results is as follows3--,nitric acid1 #bc per cent42 sulphuric acid1 #ff per cent42 and water1 #aa per cent2 and has a specific gravity of #a4gab 7about74 ,it can be made by mixing sulphuric acid of specific gravity #a4hd with nitric acid of specific gravity #a4cfh in the proportions of #ff per cent4 and #cd per cent4 respectively4 7,the production of the penta-nitro-cellulose is aimed at if the collodion-cotton is for use as an explosive47 ,if the acids are much weaker than this1 or potassium nitrate and sulphuric acid is used1 the lower nitrates will be formed4 ,the product1 while being entirely soluble in ether-alcohol or nitro-glycerine1 will have a low nitrogen content1 whereas a material with as high a nitrogen as #ab or #ab4f is to be aimed at4 ,footnote ,a3 ,raw cotton is often used4 ,the cotton should not be allowed to remain in the dipping tanks for more than five minutes1 and the acid mixture should be kept at a temperature of #bh ,c4 or thereabouts2 and the cotton should be removed after a few minutes1 and should not be pressed out1 as in the case of gun-cotton1 but at once transferred to the pots and allowed to steep for forty-eight hours4 7,some prefer twenty-four hours1 but there is more chance in this case of the product containing non-nitrated cellulose47 ,when the nitration is complete1 the collodion-cotton is removed from the pots1 and treated in exactly the same manner as described under gun-cotton4 ,the produce should be entirely soluble in ether-alcohol and nitro-glycerine1 and contain as near #ab4g per cent4 of nitrogen as possible4 ,the theoretical nitrogen is for the penta-nitro-cellulose #ab4ge per cent4 ,this will1 however1 seldom if ever be obtained4 ,the following are some of the results ,i have obtained from different samples3-- ,nitrogen4 7#a47 7#b47 7#c47 ,german make #aa4fd #aa4dh #aa4di per cent4 ,stowmarket #ab4eg #ab4fj #aa4bb ,walsrode #aa4fa #ab4jg #aa4ii ,faversham #ab4ad #aa4gj #aa4fj and the following was the analysis of a sample 7,no4 #a7 of ,german-made collodion-cotton1 which made very good blasting gelatine3-- ,soluble cotton 7collodion7 #ii4aah per cent4 ,nitrogen #aa4fd per cent4 ,gun-cotton #j4fdb ,non-nitrated cotton #j4bdj ,total ash #j4be ,it should contain as little non-nitrated or unconverted cotton and as little gun-cotton as possible1 as they are both insoluble in nitro- glycerol4 ,the quality and composition of any sample of collodion-cotton can be quickly inferred by determining the percentage of nitrogen by means of the nitrometer and the use of the solubility test4,a ,a high nitrogen content coupled with a high solubility is the end to be aimed at2 a high nitrogen with a low solubility shows the presence of gun-cotton1 and a low nitrogen1 together with a low solubility1 the presence of unnitrated cotton4 ,where complete solubility is essential and the percentage of nitrogen less important1 ,dr ,lunge recommends nitration with a mixture of equal parts of sulphuric and nitric acids containing from #ai to #bj per cent4 of water4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,analysis of ,explosives4 ,mr ,t4,r4 ,france claims to have invented some improvements in the manufacture of soluble nitro-cellulose4 ,his object has been to produce an article as uniform as possible4 ,his explanation of the imperfect action of the acids is that1 however uniform the mixed acids may be in strength and proportions1 and however carefully the operations of nitrating1 c41 may be conducted1 there are variable elements found in different samples of cotton4 ,the cotton fibre has for its protection a glazed surface4 ,it is tubular and cellular in structure1 and contains a natural semi-fluid substance composed of oil or gum1 which varies in nature according to the nature of the soil upon which the cotton is grown4 ,the tubes of the fibre seem to be open at one end only when the fibre is of normal length4 ,when1 therefore1 the cotton is subjected to the action of the mixed acids1 the line of least resistance seems to be taken by them1 viz41 the insides of the tubes constituting the fibre of the cotton1 into which they are taken by capillary attraction1 and are subject to change as they progress1 and to the increased resistance from the oil or gum1 c41 in their progress1 and therefore to modified action1 the result of which is slower and slower action1 or chemical change4 ,he also thinks it is possible that the power of capillary attraction is balanced in the tubes by air contained therein1 after a little1 sufficiently so to prevent the acids from taking full effect4 ,to get over this1 ,mr ,france uses his cotton in a fine state1 almost dust1 in fact1 and then nitrates in the usual mixture of acids at #dj to #ij ,f41 the excess of acids being removed by pressure4 ,he says he does not find it necessary to wash this fine cotton dust in an alkaline solution previous to nitration4 ,his mixed acids consist of #h parts ,,hno#c #db ,b41 and #ab parts ,h#b,,so#d #ff ,b41 and he stirs in the dipping tank for fifteen minutes1 the temperature being #ej ,f4 to #ajj ,f41 the temperature preferred being #ge ,f4 ,nitrated ,gun-,cotton4--,the nitrates that are or have been mixed with gun-cotton in order to supply oxygen are potassium nitrate1 ammonium nitrate1 and barium nitrate 7tonite74 ,the total combustion of gun-cotton by potassium nitrate corresponds to the equation3-- #aj;,c#bd;,h#ah7,,no#c;,h7#aa,o#i #hb,,kno#c #aii;,,co#b #da,k#b;,,co#c #ade;,h#b,o #if,n#b1 or #hbh grms4 of nitrate for #a1adc grms4 of gun-cotton1 or #db per cent4 nitrate and #eh per cent4 gun-cotton4 ,the explosive made at ,faversham by the ,cotton ,powder ,company1 and known as tonite ,no4 #a1 consists of very nearly half gun-cotton and half barium nitrate4 ,the relations by weight of total combustion would be #ea4f of gun-cotton to #dh4d of barium nitrate4 ,the average composition of tonite ,i have found by analysis to be #ea per cent4 gun-cotton to #di per cent4 barium nitrate4 ,the heat liberated is practically the same as for an equivalent weight of ,,kno#c2 but the barium nitrate mixture weighs #b1bbc grms4 instead of #a1iga grms41 or one-eighth more4 ,the advantage in mixing a nitrate with gun-cotton is that it supplies oxygen1 and by converting all the carbon into carbonic acid1 prevents the formation of the poisonous gas carbonic oxide 7,,co74 ,the nitrates of potassium and barium are also used admixed with nitro- cellulose in several of the sporting smokeless powders4 ,the ,manufacture of ,tonite4--,the explosive tonite was patented by ,messrs ,trench1 ,faure1 and ,mackie1 and is manufactured at ,faversham and ,melling at the works of the ,cotton ,powder ,company1 and at ,san ,francisco by the ,tonite ,powder ,company4 ,it consists of finely divided and macerated gun-cotton incorporated with finely ground nitrate of barium which has been carefully recrystallised4 ,it is made by acting upon carbonate of barium,a with nitric acid4 ,the wet and perfectly purified1 finely pulped gun-cotton is intimately mixed up between edge runners with about the same weight of nitrate1 and the mixing and grinding continued until the whole has become an intimately mixed paste4 ,this paste is then compressed into cartridges1 formed with a recess at one end for the purpose of inserting the detonator4 ,the whole is then covered with paraffined paper4 ,footnote ,a3 ,witherite1 ,ba,c,o#c #b;,,hno#c ,ba7,,no#c7b ,,co#b ,h#b,o4 ,the tonite ,no4 #b consisted of gun-cotton1 nitrates of potash and soda1 charcoal and sulphur4 ,tonite ,no4 #c;,a is composed as follows3--,gun-cotton1 #ai per cent42 di-nitro-benzol1 #ac per cent42 and barium nitrate1 #fh per cent4 or similar proportions4 ,it is a yellowish colour1 and being slower in its explosive action1 is better adapted for blasting soft rock4 ,footnote ,a3 ,tonite ,no4 #a was patented by ,messrs ,trench1 ,faure1 and ,mackie1 and tonite ,nos4 #b and #c by ,trench alone4 ,tonite is extensively used in torpedoes and for submarine blasting1 also for quarries1 c4 ,large quantities were used in the construction of the ,manchester ,ship ,canal4 ,among its advantages are1 that the ,english railways will take tonite on the same footing as gunpowder2 it is a very dense material2 if wetted it can easily be dried in the sun2 it very readily explodes by the use of a proper detonator2 while it burns very slowly and without the least danger2 the cartridges being waterproofed1 it can be employed in wet bore holes1 and it can be tamped with water2 and finally1 as it contains sufficient oxygen to oxidise the carbon1 no carbonic oxide 7,,co7 gas is formed1 i4e41 its detonation is perfect4 ,it is a very safe explosive to use1 being little susceptible to either blows or friction4 ,not long ago1 a committee1 composed of ,prof4 ,p4 ,bedson1 ,drs ,drummond and ,hume1 ,mr ,t4 ,bell1 one of ,h4,m4 ,inspectors of ,coal ,mines1 and others1 in considering the problem whether the fumes produced by the combustion of tonite were injurious to health1 carried out a series of experiments in coal mines for this purpose4 ,the air at the intake was analysed1 also the air of the return1 and the smoky air in the vicinity of the shot holes4 ,the cartridge was surrounded by the flame-extinguishing mixture1 and packed in a brown paper bag4 ,during the first experiment nineteen shots were fired 7 #f4bi lbs4 tonite74 ,the return air showed only a trace of carbonic oxide gas 7,,co74 ,at the second experiment thirteen shots were fired 7 #d4dj lbs4 tonite71 and analysis of the air of the return showed that ,,co was present in traces only1 whilst the fumes contained only #a4i to #d4h parts per #aj1jjj4 ,dangers in connection with the ,manufacture of ,guncotton1 c4--,of all the nitro compounds1 the least dangerous to manufacture are gun-cotton and collodion-cotton4 ,the fact that the ,stowmarket ,factory is within five minutes' walk of the town shows how safe the manufacture of this explosive is regarded4 ,with the exception of the nitration and the compression into blocks or discs1 the whole process is worked with a large excess of water1 and the probability of an explosion is thus reduced to a minimum4 ,among the precautions that should1 however1 be taken1 are--first1 the careful extraction of the resinous and soluble substances from the cotton before nitration1 as it was shown many years ago by ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel that the instability of the gun-cotton first manufactured in ,england and ,austria was chiefly due to these compounds4 ,they are generally removed by boiling the cotton in a soda solution4 ,the actual nitration of cotton is not a dangerous operation1 but the operations of wringing in the hydro-extractors1 and washing the nitro- cotton after it leaves the first centrifugal machine1 are somewhat so4 ,great care should be taken that the wrung-out nitro-cotton at once comes in contact with a large excess of water1 i4e41 is at once immersed entirely in the water1 since at this stage it is especially liable to decomposition1 which1 once started1 is very difficult to stop4 ,the warmer the mixture and the less water it contains1 the more liable it is to decomposition2 hence it is that on warm and damp days the centrifugal machines are most likely to fire4 ,the commencement of decomposition may be at once detected by the evolution of red fumes4 ,directly the gun-cotton is immersed in the large quantity of water in the beater and poacher it is safe4 ,in order that the final product may be stable and have good keeping qualities1 it is necessary that it should be washed completely free from acid4 ,the treatment in the beater and poacher1 by causing the material to assume the state of a fine pulp1 in contact with a large quantity of water1 does a good deal to get rid of the free acid1 but the boiling process is absolutely necessary4 ,it has been proposed to neutralise the free acid with a dilute solution of ammonia2 and ,dr ,c4,o4 ,weber has published some experiments bearing upon this treatment4 ,he found that after treatment with ammonia1 pyroxyline assumed a slightly yellowish tinge1 which was a sure sign of alkalinity4 ,it was then removed from the water1 and roughly dried between folds of filter paper1 and afterwards dried in an oven at #gj ,c4 ,after three hours1 however1 an explosion took place1 which entirely destroyed the strong copper oven in which the nitro- cotton 7about one oz47 had been drying4 ,the explosion was in some respects remarkable4 ,the pyroxyline was the di-nitro-cellulose 7or possibly the penta-nitro871 and the temperature was below the igniting point of this material 7#dj ,c4 would have been a better temperature74 ,dr ,weber determined the ignition point of his di-nitro-cellulose1 and found it to be #aid to #aih ,c41 and he is therefore of opinion that the explosion was due to the treatment of the partially washed material with ammonia4 ,a certain quantity of ammonium nitrate was probably formed1 and subsequently dried upon the nitro-cellulose1 in a state of very fine subdivision4 ,the faintest trace of acid would then be sufficient to bring about the explosive ignition of the ammonium nitrate4 ,the drying of gun-cotton or collodion-cotton is also a somewhat dangerous operation4 ,a temperature of #dj ,c4 7#ajd ,f47 should not be exceeded1 and thermometers should be placed in the nitro-cotton1 and the temperature frequently observed4 ,an electric alarm thermometer is also a useful adjunct to the cotton drying house4 ,great care must also be taken that there are no exposed hot-water pipes or stoves in the drying house1 as the fine gun-cotton dust produced by the turning or moving of the material upon the shelves would settle upon such pipes or stoves1 and becoming hot1 would be very sensitive to the least friction4 ,the floor also should be covered with linoleum or indiarubber4 ,when hot currents of air are made to pass over the surface of gun-cotton1 the gun-cotton becomes electrified4 ,it is important1 therefore1 to provide some means to carry it away4 ,mr ,w4,f4 ,reid1 ,f4,i4,c41 was the first to use metal frames1 carriers1 and sieves1 upon which is secured the cloth holding the gun-cotton1 and to earth them4 ,the compression of gun-cotton into blocks1 discs1 c41 is also attended with considerable risk4 ,mr ,o4 ,guttmann1 in an interesting paper upon ,the ,dangers in the ,manufacture of ,explosives 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,no4 #c1 vol4 xi41 #ahib71 says3 ,the compression of gun-cotton into cartridges requires far more care than that of gunpowder1 as this is done in a warm state1 and gun-cotton even when cold1 is more sensitive than gunpowder4 ,when coming out of the centrifugal machines1 the gun-cotton should always pass first through a sieve1 in order to detect nails or matches which may by chance have got into it4 ,what has been said as to gunpowder presses applies still more to those for gun-cotton1 although the latter are always hydraulic presses4 ,generally the pistons fit the mould perfectly1 that is to say1 they make aspiration like the piston of a pump4 ,but there is no metal as yet known which for any length of time will stand the constant friction of compression1 and after some time the mould will be wider in that part where the greatest compression takes place4 ,the best metal for this purpose has proved to be a special steel made by ,krupp1 but this also is only relatively better2 for pistons ,i prefer hard cast iron4 ,if the position of the moulds and pistons is not exactly the same in all cases1 what the ,germans call ',ecken' 7,english 'binding'7 will take place1 viz41 the mould will stand obliquely to the piston1 and a dangerous friction will result4 ,of course1 it is necessary to protect the man working the hydraulic valves during compression4 ,at ,waltham ,abbey they have a curtain made of ship's hawsers1 which is at the same time elastic and resistant4 ,mr ,guttmann has found that a partition wall #ab inches thick1 made of #b-;inch planks1 and filled with ground cinders1 gives very effective protection4 ,a door in this partition enables the workman to get to the press1 and a conical tube penetrates the wall1 enabling the man to see the whole work from a safe standpoint4 ,the roof1 or one side of the building1 should be of glass1 so as to give the explosion a direction4 ,trench's ,fire-extinguishing ,compound is manufactured by the ,cotton ,powder ,company at ,faversham1 and is the invention of ,mr ,george ,trench1 ,f4,c4,s41 the manager of the ,company4 ,the object of the invention is to surround the cartridges of tonite1 when used in coal mines1 with a fire- extinguishing compound4 ,if a charge of tonite1 dynamite1 or gelatine dynamite is put inside a few ounces of this mixture1 and then fired1 not the least trace of flame can be observed1 and experiments appear to show that there is no flame at all4 ,the compound consists of sawdust impregnated with a mixture of alum and chlorides of sodium and ammonia4 ,fig4 #bb shows the manner of placing the tonite cartridge in the paper bag1 and surrounding it with the fire-extinguishing compound1 aa4 ,the attachment of the fuse and detonator is also shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,trench',s ,,fire-,,extinguishing ,,cartridge4 ,the following report 7taken from the ,faversham ,news1 #bbnd ,oct4 #ahhg7 of experiments conducted in the presence of several scientific and mining men will show its value3--,a large wrought-iron tank1 of #de cubic feet capacity1 had been sunk level with the ground in the middle of the yard2 to this tank the gas had been laid on1 for a purpose that will be explained later on4 ,the charges were fired by means of electricity1 a small dynamo firing machine being placed from #cj to #dj yards away from the 'mine4' ,operations were commenced by the top of the tank being covered over and plastered down in order to make it air-tight2 then a sufficient quantity of coal gas was placed in it to make it highly inflammable and explosive1 the quantity being ascertained by a meter which had been fixed specially for the purpose4 ,whilst the gas was being injected the cartridge was prepared4 ,the first experiment was to try whether a small charge of tonite--fired without the patent extinguisher--would ignite the gas4 ,the gas having been turned on1 a miner's lamp was placed in the tank1 but this was extinguished before the full quantity of gas had gone through the meter4 ,however1 the gas being in1 the charge of #a-a_/d oz4 tonite was placed in the mine1 the detonator was connected by means of long wires to the dynamo machine1 and the word was given to fire4 ,with a tremendous report1 and a flash of fire1 the covering of the mine flew in all directions1 clearly showing that the gas had exploded4 ,the next cartridge 7a similar charge7 was prepared with the patent compound4 ,first of all a brown paper case of about #b inches diameter was taken1 and one of the tonite cartridges was placed in the centre of it1 the intervening space between the charge and-the case being packed with the fire-extinguishing compound4 ,the mine having had another supply of gas injected1 the protected cartridge was placed inside and fired4 ,the result was astonishing1 the explosion not being nearly so loud1 whilst there was not the least flash of fire4 ,protected and unprotected charges were fired at intervals1 gas being turned into the tank on each occasion4 ,charges of tonite varying from #a to #f oz4 were also used with the compound4 ,the report was trifling1 whilst no flash could be seen4 ,uses of ,collodion-,cotton4--,the collodion or soluble gun-cotton is used for a variety of purposes4 ,the chief use is1 however1 for the manufacture of the various explosive gelatine compounds1 of which blasting gelatine is the type4 ,it is also very extensively used in the manufacture of smokeless powders1 both military and sporting--in fact1 very few of them do not contain it4 ,in some1 however1 nitro-lignose or nitrated wood is used instead4 ,this1 however1 is chemically the same thing1 viz41 nitro- cellulose1 the cellulose being derived from the wood fibre4 ,it is more used in this connection than the higher nitrate gun-cotton4 ,another use to which it has been applied very extensively1 of recent years1 is in the manufacture of celluloid4 ,it is used in photography for the preparation of the films on the sensitised plates1 and many other purposes4 ,dissolved in a solution of two parts ether and one of alcohol1 it forms the solution known as collodion1 used for a variety of purposes1 such as a varnish1 as a paint for signals2 in surgery1 for uniting the edges of wounds4 ,quite lately1 ,mr ,alfred ,nobel1 the well-known inventor of dynamite1 has patented the use of nitro-cellulose1 hydro- or oxy-cellulose1 as an artificial substitute for indiarubber4 ,for this purpose it is dissolved in a suitable non-volatile or slightly volatile solvent1 such as nitro- naphthalene1 di-nitro-benzene1 nitro-toluene1 or its homologues2 products are obtained varying from a gelatinous consistency to the hardness of ebonite4 ,the proportions will vary from about #bj per cent4 of nitro- cellulose in the finished product1 forming a soft rubber1 to #ej per cent4 nitrating celluloid1 and the solvent chosen will depend on the use to which the rubber substitute is to be put1 the liquids giving a more elastic substance1 whilst mixtures of solids and liquids may be employed when the product is to be used at high temperatures4 ,by means of rollers steam heated1 the incorporation may be accomplished without the aid of a volatile liquid1 or the nitro-cellulose may be employed wet1 the water being removed after solution4 ,it is advisable to use the cellulose nitrated only just enough to render it suitable1 in order to reduce the inflammability of the finished product4 ,mr ,w4 ,allen1 ,m4,p41 of ,gateshead1 proposed to use celluloid for cartridge cases1 and thus to lighten ammunition1 and prevent jambing1 for the case will be resolved into gases along with the powder4 ,extractors will also be done away with4 ,celluloid is an intimate mechanical mixture of pyroxyline 7gun-cotton or collodion-cotton7 with camphor1 first made by ,hyatt1 of ,newark1 ,u4,s4,a41 and obtained by adding the pyroxyline to melted camphor1 or by strongly compressing the two substances together1 or by dissolving the constituents in an appropriate solvent1 e4g41 alcohol or ether1 and evaporating to dryness4 ,a combination of the two latter methods1 i4e41 partial solution1 with pressure1 is now usually adapted4 ,the pyroxyline employed is generally the tetra- and penta-nitrated cellulose1 the hexa-nitrate 7gun-cotton7 being but seldom used on account of its explosive properties4 ,care is taken to prevent the formation of the hexa-nitrate by immersing the cellulose in only moderately strong nitric acid1 or in a warm mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,the paper1 either in small pieces or in sheets1 is immersed for about twenty-five minutes in a mixture of #b parts of nitric acid and #e parts of sulphuric acid1 at a temperature of about #cj ,c41 after which the nitrated cellulose is thoroughly washed with water to remove the last traces of free acid1 pressed1 and whilst still moist1 mixed with the camphor4 ,in the process of ,trebouillet and ,de ,besancele1 the cellulose1 which may be in the form of paper1 cotton1 or linen1 is twice nitrated--first in the acid mixture employed in a previous operation2 and secondly1 in a fresh mixture of #c parts sulphuric acid of #a4hc specific gravity1 and #b parts concentrated nitric acid containing nitrous acid4 ,after each nitration the mass is subjected to pressure1 and is then carefully washed with water1 to which1 at the last1 a small quantity of ammonia or caustic soda is added to remove the final traces of acid4 ,the impregnation of the pyroxyline with the camphor is effected in a variety of ways4 ,the usual proportion of the constituents is #b parts pyroxyline and #a part camphor4 ,in ,trebouillet and ,de ,besancele's process1 #ajj parts of pyroxyline are intimately mixed with from #dj to #ej parts camphor1 and moulded together by strong pressure in a hot press1 and afterwards dried by exposure to air1 desiccated by calcium chloride or sulphuric acid4 ,the usual method is1 however1 to dissolve the camphor in the least possible quantity of alcohol1 and sprinkle the solution over the dry pyroxyline1 which is then covered with a second layer of pyroxyline1 and the whole again treated with the camphor solution1 the addition of pyroxyline and camphor solution being repeated alternately until the requisite amount of celluloid mixture is obtained4 ,the mass1 which sinks together in transparent lumps1 is worked for about an hour between cold iron rollers1 and then for the same period between rollers which can be gently heated by steam4 ,the layer of celluloid surrounding the rollers is then cut away and again pressed1 the resulting cake1 which is now about #a cm4 thick1 being cut into plates of about #gj cm4 long and #cj cm4 broad4 ,these are placed one above the other1 and strongly pressed together by hydraulic pressure at a temperature of about #gj for twenty-four hours4 ,the thick cakes are once more cut into plates of the desired thickness1 and placed in a chamber heated from #cj to #dj for eight to fourteen days1 whereby they become thoroughly dry1 and are readily made into various articles either by being moulded while warm under pressure1 cut1 or turned4 ,occasionally other liquids1 e4g41 ether and wood spirit1 are used in place of alcohol as solvents for the camphor4 ,celluloid readily colours1 and can be marbled for manufacturing purposes1 c4 ,it is highly inflammable and not explosive even under pressure1 and may be worked under the hammer or between rollers without risk4 ,it softens in boiling water1 and may be moulded or pressed4 ,its specific gravity varies slightly with its composition and with the degree of pressure it has received4 ,it is usually #a4ce4 ,it appears to be merely a mixture of its components1 since by treatment with appropriate solvents the camphor may be readily extracted1 and on heating the pyroxyline burns away while the camphor volatilises4 ,the manufacture of pyroxyline for the purpose of making celluloid has very much increased during recent years1 and with this increase of production improved methods of manufacture have been invented4 ,a series of interesting papers upon the manufacture of pyroxyline has been published by ,mr ,walter ,d4 ,field1 of ,new ,york1 in the ,journal of the ,american ,chemical ,society,a from which the following particulars are taken3-- ,footnote ,a3 ,vol4 xv41 ,no4 #c1 #ahic2 ,vol4 xvi41 ,no4 #g1 #ahid2 ,vol4 xvi41 ,no4 #h1 #ahid4 ,figs4 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 and #bc are taken from ,mr ,field's paper4 ,selection of the ,fibre4--,cotton fibre1 wood fibre1 and flax fibre in the form of raw cotton1 scoured cotton1 paper1 and rags are most generally used1 and give the best results4 ,as the fibres differ greatly in their structure1 they require different methods of nitrating4 ,the cotton fibre is a flattened hollow ribbon or collapsed cylindrical tube1 twisted a number of times1 and closed at one end to form a point4 ,the central canal is large1 and runs nearly to the apex of the fibre4 ,its side walls are membraneous1 and are readily penetrated by the mixed acids1 and consequently the highest nitration results4 ,in the flax fibre the walls are comparatively thick1 the central canal small2 hence it is to be presumed that the nitration must proceed more slowly than in the case of cotton4 ,the ,new ,zealand flax gives the most perfectly soluble nitrates of any of the flaxes4 ,cotton gives a glutinous collodion1 and calico a fluid collodion4 ,one of the largest manufacturers of pyroxyline in the ,states uses the ,memphis ,star brand of cotton4 ,this is an upland cotton1 and its fibres are very soft1 moist1 and elastic4 ,its colour is light creamy white1 and is retained after nitration4 ,the staple is short1 and the twist inferior to other grades1 the straight ribbon-like filaments being quite numerous4 ,this cotton is used carded1 but not scoured4 ,this brand of cotton contains a large quantity of half and three-quarter ripe fibre1 which is extremely thin and transparent1 distributed throughout the bulk of the cotton 7,monie41 ,cotton ,fibre1 #fg74 ,mr ,field says1 ,this is a significant fact when it is known that from this cotton an extremely soluble pyroxyline can be produced4 ,pyroxyline of an inferior grade as regards colour only can be produced from the cotton wastes of the trade4 ,they must be scoured before they are fit for nitrating4 ,paper made from the pulps of sulphite and sulphate processes is capable of yielding a very soluble pyroxyline4 ,it can be nitrated at high temperatures and still yield good results4 ,tissue paper made from flax fibre is also used after being cut into squares4 ,mowbray 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #ddc1 #aje1 #crd ,december #ahij7 says that a pure cotton tissue paper less than #a_/ejj inch in thickness1 thin as it is1 takes on a glutinous or colloid surface1 and thus requires some thirty minutes to enable the nitration to take place4 ,with a thicker paper only the surface would be nitrated4 ,he therefore uses a fibre that has been saturated with a solution of nitrate of soda1 and afterwards dried slowly1 claiming that the salt crystallises in the fibre1 or enters by the action termed osmose1 and opens up the fibre to the action of the acid4 ,this process would only be useful when the cotton is to be nitrated at a low temperature4 ,at a high temperature it would be unnecessary4 ,dietz and ,wayne 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #acc1 #ifi7 use ramie1 rheca1 or ,china grass for producing a soluble pyroxyline4 ,that made from ramie is always of uniform strength and solubility1 and requires a smaller quantity of solvent to dissolve it than that made from cotton4 ,mr ,field's experience1 however1 is entirely contrary to this statement4 ,such is the influence of the physical form of the fibre on the process of nitration1 that when flax fibre and cotton fibre are nitrated with acid mixtures of exactly the same strength1 and at the same temperature1 the solution of the first is glutinous or thick1 and the second fluid or thin4 ,by simply nitrating at a higher temperature than the cotton1 the flax will yield a pyroxyline giving an equally fluid collodion4 ,the presence of chlorine in the fibre must be carefully avoided1 as such a fibre will yield an acid product which cannot be washed neutral4 ,the fibre must be dry before nitration2 and this is best done1 according to ,mr ,field1 by using the form of drier used in drying wool4 ,nitration of the ,fibre4--,mixed cotton and flax fibre in the form of paper1 from #b_/ajjj to #c_/ajjj inch thick1 and cut into #a-;inch squares1 is nitrated by the ,celluloid ,manufacturing ,company1 and the same paper1 left in long strips1 #a inch wide1 is used for nitration by the ,xylonite ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,north ,adams1 ,mass4 7,u4,s4,a474 ,the ,celluloid ,company introduce the cut paper into the mixed acids by means of a hollow1 rapidly revolving tube1 flared at the lower end1 and immersed in the mixed acids4 ,the centrifugal force of the revolving tube throws the paper towards the sides of the vessel1 leaving the centre of the vessel ready for fresh paper4 ,the ,xylonite ,company simply cut the paper into long strips1 and introduce it into the mixed acids by means of forks4 ,the arrangement used by this ,company for holding the mixed acids is a cylindrical vessel divided into a number of sections1 the whole revolving like a turntable1 thus allowing the workman to nitrate successively each lot of paper at a given point4 ,this ,company did not remove the acid from the paper after its immersion1 but plunged it immediately into the water1 thus losing a large proportion of the waste acid4 ,the ,celluloid ,company1 by using the paper in smaller pieces1 and more paper to a pound of acid1 and wringing the mixed acid from the paper before immersion in water1 had a better process of nitration4 ,other manufacturers use earthenware vessels1 and glass or steel rods1 hooked at one end1 having small pieces of rubber hose pulled over the other end to prevent the hand from slipping4 ,the form of vessel in general use is that given in ,fig4 #bc4 ,it is large enough to nitrate #a lb4 of cotton at a time4 ,the hook at one end of the rod enables the workman to pull the pyroxyline apart1 and thus ensures saturation of the fibre4 ,in the winter the room in which the nitrating is done must be kept at a temperature of about #gj ,f4 in order to secure equality in the batches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,vessel ,,for ,,nitrating ,,cotton ,,or ,,paper4 ,the nitrating apparatus of ,white and ,schupphaus 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #dah1 #bcg1 #hi7 ,mr ,field considers to be both novel and excellent4 ,the cage 7,fig4 #bd71 with its central perforated cylinder 7,fig4 #be71 is intended to ensure the rapid and perfect saturation of the tissue paper used for nitrating4 ,the patentees say that no stirring is required with their apparatus4 ,this1 says ,mr ,field1 might be true when paper is used1 or even cotton1 when the temperature of nitration is from #cj to #ce ,c41 but would not be true if the temperature were raised to #ej to #ee ,c4 ,the process is as follows3-- ,the paper is nitrated in the cage 7,fig4 #be71 the bottom of which is formed by the flanged plate ,c1 fastened to the bottom of the internal cylinder ,b4 ,after nitration the cage is carried to a wringer1 which forms the basket1 and the acids removed4 ,finally1 the cage is taken to a plunge tank1 where the paper is removed from the cage by simply pulling out the central perforated cylinder ,b4 ,fig4 #bf shows the nitrating pot1 with its automatic cover4 ,the plunge tank is shown in plan and section in ,figs4 #bh and #bi4 ,this apparatus is suitable for the nitration of cotton fibre in bulk at high or low temperatures4 ,other methods that have been patented are ,mowbray's 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #dcd1 #bhg71 in which it is proposed to nitrate paper in continuous lengths1 and ,hyatt's 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #baj1 #faa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,central ,,perforated ,,cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,the ,,cage4 ,,white ,,and ,,schupphaus' ,,nitrating ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,celluloid ,,nitrating ,,pot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,another ,,view4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #bh1 #bi4--,,plunge ,,tank1 ,,in ,,plan ,,and ,,section4 ,the ,acid ,mixture4--,various formul have been published for producing soluble nitro-cellulose4 ,in many instances1 although the observations were correct for the single experiment1 a dozen experiments would have produced a dozen different products4 ,the composition of the acids used depends upon the substance to be nitrated1 and the temperature at which the nitration will be worked4 ,practically there are three formul in general use--the one used by the celluloid manufacturers2 another in which the cotton is nitrated at high temperatures2 and a third in which the temperature of the immersion is low1 and the time of nitration about six hours4 ,of the three1 the best method is the last one1 or the one in which the cotton is immersed at a low temperature1 and then the reaction allowed to proceed in pots holding from #e to #aj lbs4 of cotton4 ,the formula used by the celluloid manufacturers for the production of the low form of nitrated product which they use is3-- ,sulphuric acid #ff parts by weight4 ,nitric acid #ag ,water #ag ,temperature of immersion1 #cj ,c4 ,time1 twenty to thirty minutes4 ,the cellulose is used in the form of tissue paper #b_/ajjj inch thick1 #a lb4 to #ajj of acid mixture4 ,the nitro-cellulose produced by this formula is very insoluble in the compound ethers and other solvents of pyroxyline1 and is seemingly only converted or gelatinised by the action of the solvent4 ,the next formula produces a mixture of tetra-and penta-nitro- celluloses hardly soluble in methyl-alcohol 7free from acetone71 but very soluble in anhydrous compound ethers1 ketones1 and aldehydes3-- ,nitric acid1 sp4 gr4 #a4dce #h lbs4 ,sulphuric acid1 sp4 gr4 #a4hc #ae-c_/d lbs4 ,cotton #ad oz4 ,temperature of nitration1 #fj ,c4 ,time of immersion1 forty-five minutes4 ,the #fj of temperature is developed by mixing the acids together4 ,the cotton is allowed to remain in the acid until it feels short to the rod4 ,the following table1 due to ,mr ,w4,d4 ,field1 shows very plainly the great variation in the time of the immersion and the temperature by seemingly very slight causes4 ,it extends over fourteen working days1 during which time it rained four days4 ,the formula used is that given above1 except that the specific gravity of the nitric acid is somewhat lower4 ,the product obtained differs only from that produced by using nitric acid of specific gravity #a4dc in being soluble in methyl-alcohol4 ,from #cj to #ce lbs4 of pyroxyline were produced in each of the fourteen days4 ,a careful examination of this table will prove very instructive4 ,the increase in yield varies from #ca per cent4 to nothing1 and the loss runs as high as #aj per cent41 yet care was taken to make the product uniform in quality4 ,on the days it rained there was a loss1 with the exception of the fourth day1 when there was neither a loss nor a gain4 ,on the days it was partly clear1 as just before or after rain1 the table shows a loss in product4 ,we can explain this fact by reason of the moisture-absorbing qualities of the cotton4 ,on the rainy days it would absorb the moisture from the air until1 when immersed in the acids1 they were weakened1 and the fibre dissolved more or less in weakened acid1 producing what is known as burning in the batch4 ,it will also be noticed that on days which show a loss1 the time of the immersion was correspondingly short1 as on the a loss1 the time of the immersion was correspondingly short1 as on the tenth1 twelfth1 and seventh days4 ,specific ,gravity4 ,time4 ,h#b,s#jd4;,,hno#c4;,hours4,minutes4,hou rs4,minutes4 #a4 ,clear #a4hch #a4dbdi 444 #bj #d 444 #b4 #a4hcg #a4dbdi 444 #bj #b 444 #c4 ,cloudy #a4hcg #a4dbbf 444 #de #b 444 #d4 ,rain #a4hcg #a4dbj 444 #bj #a #bj #e4 ,clear #a4hcgg #a4db #a #ae #b 444 #f4 ,rainy #a4hcia #a4dbb 444 #ce #a #dj #g4 ,cloudy #a4hce #a4dbbf 444 #bj 444 #ce #h4 ,clear #a4hce #a4dbb 444 #ce #a #aj #i4 ,partly ,clear #a4hbd #a4dbga 444 #bj #a 444 #aj4 #a4hc #a4dbga 444 #aj 444 #be #aa4 ,cloudy #a4hcb #a4dbe 444 #aj 444 #ej #ab4 ,rainy #a4hbb #a4dbe 444 #aj 444 #bj #ac4 ,partly ,c,lear #a4hcgh #a4dbeg 444 #fj #a #dj #ad4 ,cloudy #a4hcg #a4dbeg #a #ef #d #dj ,temp41 ,deg4 ,c4 ,percentage ,from ,to ,increase4 ,loss4 #a4 ,clear #eg #fb #ca 444 #b4 #fj #fb #ah 444 #c4 ,cloudy #fj #fb #g 444 #d4 ,rain #fj #fc #j #j #e4 ,clear #eh #fb #ae 444 #f4 ,rainy #eh #fb 444 #b #g4 ,cloudy #fb #fe 444 #aj #h4 ,clear #fj #fb #e 444 #i4 ,partly ,clear #ej #fj 444 #c #aj4 #eh #fj 444 #aj #aa4 ,cloudy #eh #fj #h 444 #ab4 ,rainy #eh #fj 444 #aj #ac4 ,partly ,c,lear #ej #eh #bj 444 #ad4 ,cloudy #ej #fj #af 444 ,the lesson this table teaches is1 that it is almost impossible to nitrate cellulose in small quantities1 and get uniform results1 when the nitration is carried on at high temperatures4 ,as regards the solubility of pyroxyline1 ,parks found that nitro-benzene1 aniline1 glacial acetic acid1 and camphor1 dissolved in the more volatile solvents methyl-alcohol and alcohol-ether1 were much the best solvents for producing a plastic1 as they are less volatile1 and develop greater solvent action under the influence of heat4 ,nitro-benzene gives a solution that is granular2 it seems to merely convert the pyroxyline1 and not to dissolve it2 but on the addition of alcohol1 a solution is at once obtained1 and the granular appearance disappears1 and the solution becomes homogeneous4 ,the acid mixture and the method of nitrating have much to do with the action of the various solvents1 so also has the presence of water4 ,dr ,schupphaus found that propyl and isobutyl alcohols with camphor were active solvents1 and the ketones1 palmitone1 and stearone in alcohol solution1 also alpha- and beta-naphthol1 with alcohol and anthraquinone 7diphenylene diketone7 in alcoholic solution1 and also iso-valeric aldehyde and its derivatives1 amyliden-dimethyl and amyliden-diethyl ethers4 ,august ,sayer 7,u4,s4,p41 ,no4 #dgj1dea7 finds diethyl-ketone1 dibutyl-ketone1 di-pentyl-ketone1 and the mixed ketones1,a methyl-ethyl1 methyl-propyl1 methyl-butyl1 methyl-amyl1 and ethyl-butyl ketones are active solvents of pyroxyline2 and ,paget finds that although methyl-amyl oxide is a solvent1 that ethyl-amyl oxide is not4 ,footnote ,a3 ,ketones are derived from the fatty acids by the substitution of the hydroxyl of the latter by a monad positive radical4 ,they thus resemble aldehydes in constitution4 ,the best-known ketone is acetone ,,ch#c;,,co4,,ch#c4 ,mixed ketones are obtained by distilling together salts of two different fatty acids4 ,thus potassic butyrate and potassic acetate form propyl-methyl-ketone-- ,c7,c#b;,h#e7;,h#b ,,co4,,ch#c ,the solvents of pyroxyline can be divided into general classes--,first1 those which are solvents without the aid of heat or solution in alcohol2 second1 those that are solvents when dissolved in alcohol4 ,these solvents are those which also develop a solvent action when heated to their melting point in combination with pyroxyline4 ,mr ,w4,d4 ,field groups the solvents of pyroxyline into classes thus3 ,two of the monohydric alcohols2 compound ethers of the fatty acids with monohydric alcohols1 aldehydes2 simple and mixed ketones of the fatty acid series4 ,these four classes include the greater number of the solvents of pyroxyline4 ,those not included are as follows3--,amyl-nitrate and nitrite1 methylene-di-methyl ether1 ethidene-diethyl ether1 amyl-chloracetate1 nitro-benzene and di-nitro-benzene1 coumarin1 camphor1 glacial acetic acid1 and mono-1 di-1 and tri-acetin4 ,richard ,hale uses the following solvent3--,amyl-acetate1 #d volumes2 petroleum naphtha1 #d volumes2 methyl-alcohol1 #b volumes2 pyroxyline1 #d to #e ounces to the gallon of solvent4 ,hale used petroleum naphtha to hasten the drying qualities of the varnish1 so that it would set on the article to be varnished before it had a chance to run off4 ,it is1 however1 the non-hygroscopic character of the solvent that makes the varnish successful4 ,this formula is very largely used for the production of pyroxyline varnish1 which is used for varnishing pens1 pencils1 c41 also brass-work and silver-ware4 ,the body known as oxy-cellulose,a is formed by the action of nitric acid upon cellulose when boiled with it4 ,the quantity formed is about #cj per cent4 of cellulose acted upon4 ,when washed free from acid1 it gelatinises4 ,it is then soluble in dilute alkalies1 and can be reprecipitated from solution by alcohol1 acids1 or saline solutions4 ,messrs ,cross and ,bevan assign to it the formula ,c#ah;,h#bf,o#af4 ,it dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid1 and with nitric acid forms a nitro body of the formula ,c#ah;,h#bc,o#afc7,,no#b71 which is prepared as follows3--,the gelatinous oxy-cellulose is washed with strong nitric acid until free from water1 and is then diffused through a mixture of equal volumes of strong sulphuric and nitric acids1 in which it quickly dissolves4 ,the solution1 after standing for about an hour1 is poured in a fine stream into a large volume of water1 by which the nitro body is precipitated as a white flocculent mass4 ,the product1 after drying at #aaj ,c41 was found upon analysis to contain #f4dh per cent4 nitrogen4 ,footnote ,a3 ,on the ,oxidation of ,cellulose1 by ,c4,f4 ,cross and ,e4,j4 ,bevan1 ,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahhc1 p4 #bb4 ,,miscellaneous ,,nitro-,,explosives4 ,nitro-,starch4--,it is only recently that1 by means of the process introduced by the ,actiengesellschaft ,dynamit ,nobel1 it has been possible to make this explosive upon the manufacturing scale4 ,nitro-starch has been known since #ahhc1 when ,braconnot discovered it1 and called it xyloidine4 ,its formula is ,c#f;,h#h,o#c7,,no#c7b1 but ,dr ,otto ,mhlhusen has lately succeeded in preparing higher nitrated compounds1 viz43-- 7a47 ,c#f;,h#g-a_/b,o#b-a_/b7,,no#c7b-a_/b4 7b47 ,c#f;,h#g,o#d7,,no#c7c4 ,or doubling the molecule of starch3-- ,nitrogen4 i4 ,tetra-nitro-starch ,c#ab;,h#af,o#f7,,ono#b7d #aa4aa per cent4 ii4 ,penta-nitro-starch ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#e7,,ono#b7e #ab4ge iii4 ,hexa-nitro-starch ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,ono#b7f #ad4ad ,he regards them as true ethers 7esters7 of nitric acid4 ,thus on treatment with sulphuric acid1 these compounds yield ,,no#c;,h1 the residue ,o4,,no#b thus appearing to be replaced by the sulphuric acid residue4 ,on treatment with a solution of ferrous chloride1 nitric oxide and soluble starch are regenerated4 ,on shaking with sulphuric acid over mercury1 all the nitrogen is split off as ,,no4 ,tetra-nitro-starch is prepared upon the large scale as follows3--,a quantity of potato-starch is taken and exposed in some suitable desiccating apparatus at a temperature of #ajj ,c4 until all the moisture which it contains is completely driven off4 ,it is then reduced to a fine powder by grinding1 and dissolved in nitric acid of specific gravity #a4eja4 ,the vessel in which this solution is accomplished is made of lead1 and must be provided with two jackets1 cooled by means of water4 ,it should further be fitted with a screw-agitator1 in order to keep the nitric acid circulating freely4 ,the charge of starch is introduced through an opening in the cover of this digesting vessel1 and the proportions of acid to starch are #aj kilogrammes of starch to #ajj kilos4 of acid4 ,the temperature is kept within the limits #bj to #be ,c4 ,when the solution of the starch is complete1 the liquid is conducted into a precipitating apparatus1 which is also provided with a cooling jacket1 for the purpose of regulating the temperature4 ,the bottom of this vessel is double and perforated1 and here is placed a layer of gun-cotton to act as a filter4 ,this vessel is filled with spent nitro-sulphuric acid obtained as a waste product from the nitro-glycerine manufactory1 and the solution of starch in nitric acid is sprayed into it through an injector worked by compressed air1 whereby the nitro-starch is thrown down in the form of a fine-grained powdery precipitate4 ,in order to precipitate #ajj kilos4 of the acid solution of starch1 it is necessary to employ #ejj kilos4 of spent nitro-sulphuric acid4 ,as it is precipitated the nitro-starch collects on the gun-cotton filter1 and the acid liquor is run off through a tap placed beneath the perforated double bottom of the vessel1 and of course below the filter pad4 ,the precipitated starch is further cleansed from acid by repeated washings and by pressure1 until all trace of acidity has been eliminated1 and the substance exhibits a neutral reaction4 ,the next step is to treat the nitro-starch with a #e per cent4 solution of soda1 in contact with which it is allowed to stand for at least twenty-four hours4 ,the product is then ground up until a sort of milk or emulsion is obtained1 and lastly treated with a solution of aniline1 so that when pressed into cake1 it contains about #cc per cent4 of water1 and #a per cent4 of aniline4 ,dr ,mhlhusen1 working on these lines in the laboratory1 prepared nitro- starch which contained #aj4if and #aa4ji per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,when in the state of powder it is snow-white in colour2 it becomes electrified when rubbed2 it is very stable1 and soluble even in the cold in nitro- glycerine4 ,he has also prepared a tetra-nitro-starch containing #aj4eh and #aj4ej per cent4 of nitrogen1 by pouring water into a solution of starch in nitric acid which had stood for several days4 ,the substance thus produced in the laboratory had all the properties of that prepared by the other process4 ,the production of penta-nitro-starch is effected by adding #bj grms4 of rice-starch--previously dried at a temperature of #ajj;,c41 in order to eliminate all moisture--to a mixture of #ajj grms4 of nitric acid1 specific gravity #a4eja1 and #cjj grms4 of sulphuric acid1 specific gravity #a4h 7some tetra-nitro-starch is also formed at the same time74 ,after standing in contact with these mixed acids for one hour the starch has undergone a change1 and the mass may now be discharged into a large quantity of water1 and then washed1 first with water1 and finally with an aqueous solution of soda4 ,the yield in ,dr ,mhlhusen's experiments was #adg4e per cent4 ,the substance thus formed is now heated with ether-alcohol1 the ether is distilled off1 and the penta-nitro-starch appears as a precipitate1 whilst the tetra-nitro-starch1 which is formed simultaneously1 remains in solution in the alcohol4 ,as obtained by this process1 it contained #ab4gf and #ab4ih per cent4 nitrogen1 whilst the soluble tetra-nitro-starch contained #aj4de per cent4 ,hexa-nitro-starch is the product chiefly formed when #dj grms4 of dry starch are treated with #djj grms4 of nitric acid1 specific gravity #a4eja1 and allowed to stand in contact for twenty-four hours2 #bjj grms4 of this mixture are then poured into #fjj c4c4 of sulphuric acid of #ff ,b4 ,the result of this manipulation is a white precipitate1 which contains #ac4eb-ac4bc and #ac4bb per cent4 nitrogen2 and consists1 therefore1 of a mixture of penta- and hexa-nitro-starch4 ,the experiments undertaken with these substances demonstrated that those prepared by precipitating the nitro-starch with strong sulphuric acid were less stable in character or properties than those which were precipitated by water or weak sulphuric acid4 ,dr ,mhlhusen is of opinion that possibly in the former case a sulpho-group may be formed1 which in small quantity may occasion this instability4 ,the following table shows the behaviour of these substances prepared in different ways and under various conditions3-- ,,samples4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,ignition-point #age ,c4 #agj ,c4 #aeb ,c4 #aba ,c4 #aee ,c4 ,stability ,stable ,stable ,unstable,unstable,unstable ,per cent4 of ,n4 #aa4jb #aj4ed #ab4hg #ab4ei #ac4eb #if per cent4 alcohol ,sol4 ,sol4 ,insol4 ,insol4 ,insol4 ,ether ,insol4 ,insol4 ,insol4 ,insol4 ,insol4 ,ether-alcohol ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,acetic ,ether ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,sol4 ,these samples were prepared as follows3-- ,a4 ,from #a part nitric acid and #b parts sulphuric acid 7containing #gj per cent4 ,h#b,o74 ,b4 ,from #a part nitric acid and water4 ,c4 ,from #a part nitric and #c parts ,h#b,,so#d 7con474 ,d4 ,from #a part nitric and #c4e parts con4 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,e4 ,from #a part nitric and #c parts con4 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,dr ,mhlhusen is of opinion that these compounds may be turned to practical account in the production of good smokeless powder4 ,he recommends the following proportions and method4 ,six grms4 of nitro-jute and #b grms4 of nitro-starch are mixed together1 and moistened with acetic ether4 ,these ingredients are then worked together into a uniform mass1 and dried at a temperature ranging between the limits #ej to #fj ,c4 ,he has himself prepared such a smokeless powder1 which proved to contain #aa4ed per cent4 of nitrogen1 and was very stable4 ,further details of ,dr ,mhlhusen's work upon nitro-starch can be found in ,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal1 paper ,die hhren ,salpetersurether der ,strke1 #ahib1 ,band #bhd1 s4 #acg-adc1 and a ,bibliography up to #ahib in ,arms and ,explosives1 ,december #ahib4 ,m4 ,berthelot gives the heat of formation of nitro-starch as #hab cals4 for #a grm41 and the heat of total combustion as equal to #gjf4e cals4 for #bjg grms41 or for #a grm4 #c1dac cals4 ,the heat of decomposition could only be calculated if the products of decomposition were given1 but they have not as yet been studied1 and the quantity of oxygen contained in the compound is far from being sufficient for its complete combustion4 ,berthelot and ,vieille found the average velocities for nitro-starch powder1 density of charge about #a4b1 in a tin tube #d mm4 external diameter1 to be1 in two experiments1 #e1bbb m4 and #e1fgd m4 ,in a tin tube #e4e mm4 external diameter1 the velocity was #e1hae m41 and in lead tube #e1jjf m4 7density #a4a to #a4b74 ,the starch powder is hygroscopic1 and is insoluble in water and alcohol4 ,when dry it is very explosive1 and takes fire at about #cej ,f4 ,mr ,alfred ,nobel has taken out a patent 7,eng4 ,pat4 ,no4 #f1efj1 #hh7 for the use of nitro-starch4 ,his invention relates to the treatment of nitro- starch and nitro-dextrine1 for the purpose of producing an explosive powder1 to be used in place of gunpowder4 ,he incorporates these materials with nitro-cellulose1 and dissolves the whole in acetone1 which is afterwards distilled off4 ,a perfect incorporation of the ingredients is thus brought about4 ,nitro-,jute4--,it is obtained by treating jute with nitric acid4 ,its properties have been studied by ,messrs ,cross and ,bevan 7,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahhi1 #aii71 and by ,mhlhusen4 ,the latter used for its nitration an acid mixture composed of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids1 which was allowed to act upon the jute for some time4 ,he found that with long exposure1 i4e41 from three to four hours in the acids1 there was a disintegrating of the fibre-bundles1 and the nitration was attended by secondary decomposition and conversion into products soluble in the acid mixture4 ,cross and ,bevan's work upon this subject leads them to conclude that the highest yield of nitrate is represented by an increase of weight of #ea per cent4 ,they give jute the empirical formula ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#i 7,c #dg per cent4 ,h #f per cent41 and ,o #dg per cent471 and believe its conversion into a nitro compound to take place thus3-- ,c#ab;,h#ah,o #c;,,hno#c ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#f7,,no#c7c #c;,h#b,o4 ,this is equivalent to a gain in weight of #dd per cent4 for the tri- nitrate1 and of #eh per cent4 for the tetra-nitrate4 ,the formation of the tetra-nitrate appears to be the limit of nitration of jute-fibre4 ,in other words1 if we represent the ligno-cellulose molecule by a ,c#ab formula1 it will contain four hydroxyl 7,,oh7 groups1 or two less than cellulose similarly represented4 ,the following are their nitration results3-- ,acids used4--,i4 ,,hno#c sp4 gr4 #a4dc1 and ,h#b,,so#d #a4hd equal parts4 ,,ii4 #a vol4 ,,hno#c7a4e71 #a vol4 ,h#b,,so#d7a4hd74 ,,iii4 #a vol4 ,,hno#c7a4e71 #ge vols4 ,h#b,,so#d7a4hd74 ,i4 #add4d2 ,,ii4 #aec4c2 ,,iii4 #aed4d grms42 #ajj grms4 of fibre being used in all three cases4 ,duration of exposure1 thirty minutes at #ah ,c4 ,the nitrogen was determined in the products1 and equalled #aj4e per cent4 ,theory for ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#f7,,no#c7c #i4e per cent4 and for ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#f7,,no#c7d #aa4e per cent4 ,these nitrates resemble those of cellulose1 and are in all essential points nitrates of ligno- cellulose4 ,mhlhusen obtained a much lower yield1 and probably1 as pointed out by ,cross and ,bevan1 a secondary decomposition took place1 and his products1 therefore1 probably approximate to the derivatives of cellulose rather than to those of ligno-cellulose1 the more oxidisable1 non-cellulose1 or lignone constituents having been decomposed4 ,in fact1 he regards his product as cellulose penta-nitrate 7,c#ab;,h#af,o#e7,,ono#b7e74 ,the ,chemiker ,zeitung1 xxi41 p4 #afc1 contains a further paper by ,mhlhusen on the explosive nitro-jute4 ,after purifying the jute-fibre by boiling it with a #a per cent4 solution of sodium carbonate1 and washing with water1 he treated #a part of the purified jute with #ae parts of nitro-sulphuric acid1 and obtained the following results with different proportions of nitric to sulphuric acids3-- ,yield ,ignition ,nitrogen4 per cent4 ,point4 ,experiment ,i4-- #a4 ,,hno#c #a4 ,h#b,,so#d #abi4e #agj ,c4 #aa4if ,,ii4 #b4 #acb4b #afg ,c4 #ab4ae ,,iii4 #c4 #ace4h #afi ,c4 #aa4ia ,an experiment made with fine carded jute and the same mixture of acids as in ,no4 ,,ii4 gave #ade4d per cent4 nitro-jute1 which ignited at #aib ,c41 and contained #ab per cent4 nitrogen4 ,this explosive is not at present manufactured upon the large scale1 and ,messrs ,cross and ,bevan are of opinion that there is no very obvious advantage in the use of lignified textile fibre as raw materials for explosive nitrates1 seeing that a large number of raw materials containing cellulose 7chiefly as cotton7 can be obtained at a cheaper rate1 and yield also #aej to #agj per cent4 of explosive material when nitrated1 and are in many ways superior to the products obtained hitherto from jute4 ,nitro-mannite is formed by the action of nitric acid on mannite1 a hex-acid alcohol closely related to sugar4 ,it occurs abundantly in manna1 which is the partly dried sap of the manna-ash 7,fraxinus ornus74 ,it is formed in the lactic acid fermentation of sugar1 and by the action of nascent hydrogen on glucose and cellulose1 or on invert sugar4 ,its formula is ,c#f;,h#h7,,oh7#f and that of nitro-mannite ,c#f;,h#h7,,no#c7f4 ,mannite crystallises in needles or rhombic prisms1 which are soluble in water and alcohol1 and have a sweet taste4 ,nitro-mannite forms white needle-shaped crystals1 insoluble in water1 but soluble in ether or alcohol4 ,when rapidly heated1 they ignite at about #cgd ,f41 and explode at about #eij ,f4 ,it is more susceptible to friction and percussion than nitro-glycerine1 and unless pure it is liable to spontaneous decomposition4 ,it is considered as the nitric ether of the hexatomic alcohol mannite4 ,it is formed by the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids upon mannite-- ,c#f;,h#h7,,oh7#f #f;,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#h7,,no#c7f #f;,h#b,o4 ,its products of explosion are as shown in the following equation3-- ,c#f;,h#h7,,oh7#f #f;,,co#b #d;,h#b,o #c,n#b ,o#b4 ,its percentage composition is as follows3--,carbon1 #ae4i per cent42 hydrogen1 #a4h per cent42 nitrogen1 #ah4f per cent42 and oxygen1 #fc4g per cent4 ,its melting point is #aab to #aac ,c41 and it solidifies at #ic4 ,when carefully prepared and purified by recrystallisation from alcohol1 and kept protected from sunlight1 it can be kept for several years without alteration4 ,nitro-mannite is more dangerous than nitro-glycerine1 as it is more sensitive to shock4 ,it is intermediate in its shattering properties between nitro-glycerine and fulminate of mercury4 ,it explodes by the shock of copper on iron or copper1 and even of porcelain on porcelain1 provided the latter shock be violent4 ,its heat of formation from its elements is #aef4a calories4 ,it is not manufactured upon the commercial scale4 ,besides the nitro compounds already described1 there are many others1 but they are of little importance1 and are none of them made upon the large scale4 ,among such substances are nitro-coal1 which is made by the action of nitric acid on coal2 nitro-colle1 a product which results from the action of nitric acid on isinglass or gelatine1 soaked in water4 ,it is then treated with the usual acids4 ,another method is to place strong glue in cold water until it has absorbed the maximum amount of the latter4 ,the mixture is solidified by the addition of nitric acid1 nitrated in the usual way1 and well washed4 ,abel's ,glyoxiline is only nitrated gun-cotton impregnated with nitro- glycerine4 ,nitro-lignine is only nitro-cellulose made from wood instead of cotton2 and nitro-straw is also only nitro-cellulose4 ,the explosive known as ,keil's ,explosive contains nitro-glucose4 ,nitro-molasses1 which is a liquid product1 has also been proposed1 and nitro-saccharose1 the product obtained by the nitration of sugar4 ,it is a white1 sandy1 explosive substance1 soluble in alcohol and ether4 ,when made from cane sugar1 it does not crystallise2 but if made from milk sugar1 it does4 ,it has been used in percussion caps1 being stronger and quicker than nitro-glycerine4 ,it is1 however1 very sensitive and very hygroscopic1 and very prone to decomposition4 ,nitro-tar1 made from crude tar-oil1 by nitration with nitric acid of a specific gravity of #a4ec to #a4ed4 ,nitro-toluol is used1 mixed with nitro-glycerine4 ,this list1 however1 does not exhaust the various substances that have been nitrated and proposed as explosives4 ,even such unlikely substances as horse dung have been experimented with4 ,none of them are very much used1 and very few of them are made upon the manufacturing scale4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,dynamite ,,and ,,gelatines4 ,kieselguhr ,dynamite--,classification of ,dynamites--,properties and ,efficiency of ,ordinary ,dynamite--,other ,forms of ,dynamite--,gelatine and ,gelatine ,dynamites1 ,suitable ,gun-,cotton for1 and ,treatment of--,other ,materials used--,composition of ,gelignite--,blasting ,gelatine--,gelatine ,dynamite--,absorbing ,materials--,wood ,pulp--,potassium ,nitrate1 c4-- ,manufacture and ,apparatus used1 and ,properties of ,gelatine ,dynamites-- ,cordite--,composition and ,manufacture4 ,dynamite4--,dynamite consists of nitro-glycerine either absorbed by some porous material1 or mixed with some other substance or substances which are either explosives or merely inert materials4 ,among the porous substances used is kieselguhr1 a silicious earth which consists chiefly of the skeletons of various species of diatoms4 ,this earth occurs in beds chiefly in ,hanover1 ,sweden1 and ,scotland4 ,the best quality for the purpose of manufacturing dynamite is that which contains the largest quantity of the long tubular bacillari1 and less of the round and lancet-shaped forms1 such as pleurosigmata and diclyoch1 as the tube-shaped diatoms absorb the nitro-glycerine better1 and it becomes packed into the centre of the silicious skeleton of the diatoms1 the skeleton acting as a kind of tamping1 and increasing the intensity of the explosion4 ,dynamites are classified by the late ,colonel ,cundill1 ,r4,a41 in his ,dictionary of ,explosives as follows3-- #a4 ,dynamites with an inert base1 acting merely as an absorbent4 #b4 ,dynamites with an active base1 i4e41 an explosive base4 ,no4 #b may be again divided into three minor classes1 which contain as base-- 7a47 ,charcoal4 7b47 ,gunpowder or other nitrate1 or chlorate mixture4 7c47 ,gun-cotton or other nitro compound 7nitro-benzol1 c474 ,the first of these1 viz41 charcoal1 was one of the first absorbents for nitro-glycerine ever used2 the second is represented by the well-known ,atlas powder2 and the last includes the well-known and largely used gelatine compounds1 viz41 gelignite and gelatine dynamite1 and also tonite ,no4 #c1 c4 ,in the year #ahfg ,nobel produced dynamite by absorbing the nitro-glycerine in an inert substance1 forming a plastic mass4 ,in his patent he says3 ,this invention relates to the use of nitro-glycerine in an altered condition1 which renders it far more practical and safe for use4 ,the altered condition of the nitro-glycerine is effected by causing it to be absorbed in porous unexplosive substances1 such as charcoal1 silica1 paper1 or similar materials1 whereby it is converted into a powder1 which ,i call dynamite1 or ,nobel's safety powder4 ,by the absorption of the nitro- glycerine in some porous substance it acquires the property of being in a high degree insensible to shocks1 and it can also be burned over a fire without exploding4 ,ordinary dynamite consists of a mixture of #ge per cent4 of nitro-glycerine and #be per cent4 of kieselguhr4 ,the guhr as imported 7,messrs ,a4 ,haake ,co4 are the chief importers7 contains from #bj to #cj per cent4 of water and organic matter4 ,the water may be very easily estimated by drying a weighed quantity in a platinum crucible at #ajj ,c4 for some time and re-weighing1 and the organic matter by igniting the residue strongly over a ,bunsen burner4 ,before the guhr can be used for making dynamite it must be calcined1 in order not only to get rid of moisture1 but also the organic matter4 ,a good guhr should absorb four times its weight of nitro-glycerine1 and should then form a comparatively dry mixture4 ,it should be pale pink1 red brown1 or white4 ,the pink is generally preferred1 and it should be as free as possible from grit of all kinds1 quartz particles1 c41 and should have a smooth feeling when rubbed between the finger and thumb1 and should show a large quantity of diatoms when viewed under the microscope4 ,the following was the analysis of a dried sample of kieselguhr3--,silica1 #id4cj2 magnesia1 #b4aj2 oxide of iron and alumina1 #a4c2 organic matter1 #j4dj2 moisture1 #a4ij per cent4 ,the guhr is generally dried in a reverberatory muffle furnace4 ,it is spread out on the bottom to the thickness of #c or #d inches1 and should every now and then be turned over and raked about with an iron rabble or hoe4 ,the temperature should be sufficiently high to make the guhr red hot1 or the organic matter will not be burnt off4 ,the time occupied in calcining will depend of course upon the quality of the guhr being operated upon4 ,those containing a high percentage of water and organic matter will of course take longer than those that do not4 ,a sample of the calcined guhr should not contain more than #j4e per cent4 of moisture and organic matter together4 ,after the guhr is dry it requires to be sifted and crushed4 ,the crushing is done by passing it between iron rollers fixed at the bottom of a cone or hopper1 and revolving at a moderate speed4 ,beneath the rollers a fine sieve should be placed1 through which the guhr must be made to pass4 ,the kieselguhr having been dried1 crushed1 and sifted1 should be packed away in bags1 and care should be taken that it does not again absorb moisture1 as if it contains anything above about five-tenths per cent4 of water it will cause the dynamite made with it to exude4 ,the guhr thus prepared is taken up to the danger area1 and mixed with nitro-glycerine4 ,the nitro-glycerine used should be quite free from water1 and clear1 and should have been standing for a day or two in the precipitating house4 ,the guhr and nitro-glycerine are mixed in lead tanks 7about #a-a_/b foot deep1 and #b to #c feet long71 in the proportions of #ge of the nitro-glycerine to #be of the guhr1 unless the guhr is found to be too absorbent1 which will cause the dynamite to be too dry and to crumble4 ,in this case a small quantity of barium sulphate1 say about #a per cent41 should be added to the guhr4 ,this will lessen its absorbing powers1 or a highly absorptive sample of guhr may be mixed with one of less absorptive power1 in the proportions found by experiment to be the best suited to make a fairly moist dynamite1 but one that will not exude4 ,the mixing itself is generally performed in a separate house4 ,in a series of lead-lined tanks the guhr is weighed1 placed in a tank1 and the nitro- glycerine poured on to it4 ,the nitro-glycerine may be weighed out in indiarubber buckets4 ,the whole is then mixed by hand1 and well rubbed between the hands1 and afterwards passed through a sieve4 ,at this stage the dynamite should be dry and powdery1 and of a uniform colour4 ,it is now ready to be made up into cartridges1 and should be taken over to the cartridge huts4 ,these are small buildings surrounded with mounds1 and contain a single cartridge machine4 ,each hut requires three girls--one to work the press1 and two to wrap up the cartridges4 ,the cartridge press consists of a short cylinder of the diameter of the cartridge that it is intended to make4 ,into this cylinder a piston1 pointed with ivory or lignum vit wood1 works up and down from a spring worked by a lever4 ,round the upper edge of the cylinder is fastened a canvas bag1 into which the powdery dynamite is placed by means of a wooden scoop1 and the descending piston forces the dynamite down the cylinder and out of the open end1 where the compressed dynamite can be broken off at convenient lengths4 ,the whole machine should be made of gun-metal1 and should be upright against the wall of the building4 ,the two girls1 who sit at tables placed on each side of the press1 wrap the cartridges in parchment paper4 ,from these huts the cartridges are collected by boys every ten minutes or a quarter of an hour1 and taken to the packing room1 where they are packed in #e-lb4 cardboard boxes1 which are then further packed in deal boxes lined with indiarubber1 and fastened down air tight4 ,the wooden lids are then nailed down with brass or zinc nails1 and a label pasted on the outside giving the weight and description of the contents4 ,the boxes should then be removed to the magazines4 ,it is well to take a certain number of cartridges from the packing house at different times during the day1 say three or four samples1 and to test them by the heat test4 ,a sample cut from a cartridge1 about #a inch long1 should be placed under a glass shade1 together with water 7a large desiccator1 in fact71 and left for some days4 ,a good dynamite should not1 under these conditions1 show any signs of exudation1 even after weeks4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,for analysis of dynamite1 see chapter on ,analysis1 and author's article in ,chem4 ,news1 #bcrd ,september #ahib4 ,properties of ,kieselguhr ,dynamite4--,one cubic foot of dynamite weighs #gf lbs4 #d oz4 ,the specific gravity of #ge per cent4 dynamite is1 however1 #a4ej4 ,it is a red or grey colour1 and rather greasy to the touch4 ,it is much less sensitive to shock than nitro-glycerine1 but explodes occasionally with the shock of a rifle bullet1 or when struck4 ,the addition of a few per cent4 of camphor will considerably diminish its explosive qualities to such an extent that it can be made non-explosive except to a very strong fulminate detonator4 ,the direct contact of water disintegrates dynamite1 separating the nitro-glycerine1 hence great caution is necessary in using it in wet places4 ,it freezes at about #dj ,fahr4 7#d ,c471 and remains frozen at temperatures considerably exceeding that point4 ,when frozen1 it is comparatively useless as an explosive agent1 and must be thawed with care4 ,this is best done by placing the cartridges in a warming pan1 which consists of a tin can1 with double sides and bottom1 into which hot water 7#acj ,fahr47 can be poured4 ,the dynamite will require to be left in for some considerable time before it becomes soft4 ,on no account must it be placed on a hot stove or near a fire1 as many serious accidents have occurred in this way4 ,frozen dynamite is a hard mass1 with altered properties1 and requires #a4e grm4 of fulminate instead of #j4e grm4 to explode it4 ,thawing may also cause exudation of the nitro-glycerine1 which is much more sensitive to shock1 and if accidentally struck with an iron tool1 may explode4 ,it is a dangerous thing to cut a frozen cartridge with a knife4 ,ramming is even more dangerous2 in fact it is not only dangerous1 but wasteful1 to use dynamite when in a frozen state4 ,dynamite explodes at a temperature of #cfj ,fahr41 and is very sensitive to friction when hot4 ,in hot countries it should never be exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,it should1 however1 not be kept in a damp or moist place1 as this is liable to cause exudation4 ,sunlight1 if direct1 can cause a slow decomposition1 as with all nitro and nitric compounds4 ,electric sparks ignite1 without exploding it1 at least when operating in the open air4 ,dynamite1 when made with neutral nitro-glycerine1 appears to keep indefinitely4 ,sodium or calcium carbonate to the extent of #a per cent4 is often added to dynamite to ensure its being neutral4 ,if it has commenced to undergo change1 however1 it rapidly becomes acid1 and sometimes explodes spontaneously1 especially if contained in resisting envelopes4 ,nevertheless1 neutral and well-made dynamite has been kept for years in a magazine without loss of its explosive force4 ,if water is brought into contact with it1 the nitro-glycerine is gradually displaced from the silica 7guhr74 ,this action tends to render all wet dynamite dangerous4 ,it has been observed that a dynamite made with wood sawdust can be moistened and then dried without marked alteration1 and from #ae to #bj per cent4 of water may be added to cellulose dynamite without depriving it of the power of exploding by strong detonator 7this is similar to wet gun-cotton74 ,it is1 however1 rendered much less sensitive to shock4 ,with regard to the power of ,no4 #a dynamite1 experiments made in lead cylinders give the relative value of ,no4 #a dynamite1 #a4j2 blasting gelatine1 #a4d2 and nitro-glycerine1 #a4d4 ,the heat liberated by the sudden explosion of dynamite is the same as its heat of combustion1,a and proportionate to the weight of nitro-glycerine contained in the mixture4 ,the gases formed are carbonic acid1 water1 nitrogen1 and oxygen4 ,footnote ,a3 ,berthelot1 ,explosives and their ,power4 ,the explosive wave 7of ,berthelot7 for dynamite is about #e1jjj metres per second4 ,at this rate the explosion of a cartridge a foot long would only occupy #a_/bdjjj part of a second1 while a ton of dynamite cartridges about #g_/h diameter1 laid end to end1 and measuring one mile in length1 would be exploded in one-quarter of a second by detonating a cartridge at either end4,a ,mr ,c4 ,napier ,hake1 ,f4,i4,c41 the ,inspector of ,explosives for the ,victorian ,government1 in his paper1 ,notes on ,explosives1 says3 ,the theoretical efficiency of an explosive cannot in practice be realised in useful work for several reasons1 as for instance in blasting rock-- #a4 ,incomplete combustion4 #b4 ,compression and chemical changes induced in surrounding material4 #c4 ,energy expended in cracking and heating of the material which is not displaced4 #d4 ,the escape of gas through the blast-hole and the fissures caused by the explosion4 ,the useful work consists partly in displacing the shattered masses4 ,the proportion of useful work obtainable has been variously estimated at from #ad to #cc per cent4 of the theoretical maximum potential4 ,footnote ,a3 ,c4,n4 ,hake1 ,notes on ,explosives1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahhi4 ,among the various forms of dynamite that are manufactured is carbo- dynamite1 the invention of ,messrs ,walter ,f4 ,reid and ,w4,d4 ,borland4 ,the base is nitro-glycerine1 and the absorbent is carbon in the form of burnt cork4 ,it is as cheap as ordinary dynamite1 and has greater explosive force1 seeing that #ij per cent4 of the mixture is pure nitro-glycerine1 and the absorbent itself is highly combustible4 ,it is also claimed that if this dynamite becomes wet1 no exudation takes place4 ,atlas powder is a dynamite1 chiefly manufactured in ,america at the ,repanno ,chemical ,works1 ,philadelphia4 ,it is a composition of nitro-glycerine1 wood-pulp1 nitrate of soda1 and carbonate of magnesia4 ,this was the explosive used in the outrages committed in ,london1 by the so-called dynamiters4 ,different varieties contain from #bj to #ge per cent4 of nitro-glycerine4 ,the ,rhenish dynamite1 considerably used in the mines of ,cornwall1 is composed of #gj parts of a solution of #b to #c per cent4 of naphthalene in nitro-glycerine1 #c parts of chalk1 #g parts of sulphate of barium1 and #bj of kieselguhr4 ,kieselguhr dynamites are being largely given up in favour of gelatine explosives4 ,the late ,colonel ,cundill1 in his ,dictionary of ,explosives1 gives a list of about #abe kinds of dynamites4 ,many of these1 however1 are not manufactured4 ,among the best known after the ordinary ,no4 #a dynamite are forcite1 ammonia dynamite1 litho-fracteur1 rendock1 ,atlas powder1 giant powder1 and the various explosive gelatines4 ,they all contain nitro- glycerine1 mixed with a variety of other substances1 such as absorbent earths1 wood-pulp1 nitro-cotton1 carbon in some form or other1 nitro- benzol1 paraffin1 sulphur1 nitrates1 or chlorates1 c4 c4 ,blasting ,gelatine and ,gelatine ,dynamite4--,the gelatine explosives chiefly in use are known under the names of blasting gelatine1 gelatine dynamite1 and gelignite4 ,they all consist of the variety of nitro- cellulose known as collodion-cotton1 i4e41 a mixture of the penta- and tetra-nitrates dissolved in nitro-glycerine1 and made up with various proportions of wood-pulp1 and some nitrate1 or other material of a similar nature4 ,as the gun-cotton contains too little oxygen for complete combustion1 and the nitro-glycerine an excess1 a mixture of the two substances is very beneficial4 ,blasting gelatine consists of collodion-cotton and nitro-glycerine without any other substance1 and was patented by ,mr ,alfred ,nobel in #ahge4 ,it is a clear1 semi-transparent1 jelly-like substance1 of a specific gravity of #a4e to #a4ee1 slightly elastic1 resembling indiarubber1 and generally consists of #ib per cent4 to #ic per cent4 of nitro-glycerine1 and #g to #h per cent4 of nitro-cotton4 ,the cotton from which it is made should be of good quality4 ,the following is the analysis of a sample of nitro-cellulose which made very good gelatine3- ,soluble cotton #ii4aah per cent4 ,gun-cotton #j4fdb ,non-nitrated cotton #j4bdj ,nitrogen #aa4fd ,total ash #j4be ,the soluble cotton1 which is a mixture of the tetra- and penta-nitrates1 is soluble in ether-alcohol1 and also in nitro-glycerine1 and many other solvents1 whereas the hexa-nitrate 7gun-cotton71 ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,ono#b7f1 is not soluble in the above liquids1 although it is soluble in acetone or acetic ether4 ,it is very essential1 therefore1 that the nitro-cotton used in the manufacture of the gelatine explosives should be as free as possible from gun-cotton1 otherwise little lumps of undissolved nitro-cotton will be left in the finished gelatine4 ,the non-nitrated or unconverted cotton should also be very low1 in fact considerably under #a_/b per cent4 ,the nitro-cotton and the nitro-glycerine used should always be tested before use by the heat test1 because if they do not separately stand this test1 it cannot be expected that the gelatine made from them will do so4 ,it often occurs1 however1 that although both the ingredients stand this test separately before being mixed1 that after the process of manufacture one or other or both fail to do so4 ,the nitro-cotton most suitable for gelatine making is that which has been finely pulped4 ,if it is not already fine enough1 it must be passed through a fine brass wire sieve4 ,it will be found that it requires to be rubbed through by hand1 and will not go through at all if in the least degree damp4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to dry it first4 ,the percentage of nitrogen in the nitrated cotton should be over #aa per cent4 ,it should be as free as possible from sand or grit1 and should give but little ash upon ignition1 not more than #j4be per cent4 ,the cotton1 which is generally packed wet in zinc-lined wooden boxes1 will require to be dried1 as it is very essential indeed that none of the materials used in the manufacture of gelatine should contain more than the slightest trace of water4 ,if they do1 the gelatine subsequently made from them will most certainly exude1 and become dangerous and comparatively valueless4 ,it will also be much more difficult to make the nitro-cotton dissolve in the nitro-glycerine if either contains water4 ,in order to find out how long any sample of cotton requires to be dried1 a sample should be taken from the centre of several boxes1 well mixed1 and about #a1jjj grms4 spread out on a paper tray1 weighed1 and the whole then placed in the water oven at #ajj ,c41 and dried for an hour or so1 and again weighed1 and the percentage of moisture calculated from the loss in weight4 ,this will be a guide to the time that the cotton will probably require to be in the drying house4 ,samples generally contain from #bj to #cj per cent4 of water4 ,after drying for a period of forty-eight hours1 a sample should be again dried in the oven at #ajj ,c41 and the moisture determined1 and so on at intervals until the bulk of the cotton is found to be dry1 i4e41 to contain from #j4be to #j4e per cent4 of moisture4 ,it is then ready to be sifted4 ,during the process of removing to the sifting house and the sifting itself1 the cotton should be exposed to the air as little as possible1 as dry nitro-cotton absorbs as much as #b per cent4 of moisture from the air at ordinary temperatures and average dryness4 ,the drying house usually consists of a wooden building1 the inside of which is fitted with shelves1 or rather framework to contain drawers1 made of wood1 with brass or copper wire netting bottoms4 ,a current of hot air is made to pass through the shelves and over the surface of the cotton1 which is spread out upon them to the depth of about #b inches4 ,this current of air can be obtained in any way that may be found convenient1 such as by means of a fan or ,root's blower1 the air being passed over hot bricks1 or hot-water pipes before entering the building4 ,the cotton should also be occasionally turned over by hand in order that a fresh surface may be continually exposed to the action of the hot air4 ,the building itself may be heated by means of hot-water pipes1 but on no account should any of the pipes be exposed4 ,they should all be most carefully covered over with wood-work1 because when the dry nitro-cotton is moved1 as in turning it over1 very fine particles get into the air1 and gradually settling on the pipes1 window ledges1 c41 may become very hot1 when the slightest friction might cause explosion4 ,it is on this account that this house should be very carefully swept out every day4 ,it is also very desirable that the floor of this house should be covered with oilcloth or linoleum1 as being soft1 it lessens the friction4 ,list shoes should always be worn in this building1 and a thermometer hung up somewhere about the centre of the house1 and one should also be kept in one of the trays to give the temperature of the cotton1 especially the bottom of the trays4 ,the one nearest to the hot air inlet should be selected4 ,if the temperature of the house is kept at about #dj ,c4 it will be quite high enough4 ,the building must of course be properly ventilated1 and it will be found very useful to have the walls made double1 and the intervening space filled with cinders1 and the roof covered with felt1 as this helps to prevent the loss of heat through radiation1 and to preserve a uniform temperature1 which is very desirable4 ,the dry cotton thus obtained1 if not already fine enough1 should be sifted through a brass sieve1 and packed away ready for use in zinc air-tight cases1 or in indiarubber bags4 ,the various gelatine compounds1 gelignite1 gelatine dynamite1 and blasting gelatine1 are manufactured in exactly the same way4 ,the forms known as gelatine dynamite differ from blasting gelatine in containing certain proportions of wood-pulp and potassium nitrate1 c4 ,the following are analyses of some typical samples of the three compounds3-- ,gelatine ,blasting ,gelignite4 ,dynamite4 ,gelatine4 ,nitro-glycerine #fj4ead #ga4abh #ib4id per cent4 ,nitro-cellulose #d4hhh #g4fcb #g4jf ,wood-pulp #g4agh #d4bei 444 ,potassium nitrate #bg4dbj #af4gbj 444 ,water 444 #j4bfa 444 ,the gelignite and gelatine dynamites consist1 therefore1 of blasting gelatine1 thickened up with a mixture of absorbing materials4 ,although the blasting gelatine is weight for weight more powerful1 it is more difficult to make than either of the other two compounds1 it being somewhat difficult to make it stand the exudation and melting tests4 ,the higher percentage of nitro-cotton1 too1 makes it expensive4 ,when the dry nitro-cotton1 which has been carefully weighed out in the proportions necessary either for blasting gelatine or any of the other gelatine explosives1 is brought to the gelatine making house1 it is placed in a lead-lined trough1 and the necessary quantity of pure dry nitro- glycerine poured upon it4 ,the whole is then well stirred up1 and kept at a temperature of from #dj to #de ,c4 ,it should not be allowed to go much above #dj ,c42 but higher temperatures may be used if the nitro-cotton is very obstinate1,a and will not dissolve4 ,great caution must1 however1 be observed in this case4 ,the mixture should be constantly worked about by the workman with a wooden paddle for at least half an hour4 ,at a temperature of #dj to #de the nitro-glycerine acts upon the nitro-cotton and forms a jelly4 ,without heat the gelatinisation is very imperfect indeed1 and at temperatures under #dj ,c4 takes place very slowly4 ,footnote ,a3 ,generally due to the nitro-cotton being damp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,werner1 ,,pfleiderer1 ,,perkins' ,,mixing ,,machine4 ,the limit of temperature is #ej ,c4 or thereabouts4 ,beyond this the jelly should never be allowed to go1 and to #ej only under exceptional circumstances4 ,the tank in which the jelly is made is double-lined1 in order to allow of the passage of hot water between its inner and outer linings4 ,a series of such tanks are generally built in a wooden framework1 and the double linings are made to communicate1 so that the hot water can flow from one to the other consecutively4 ,the temperature of the water should be about #fj ,c4 if it is intended to gelatinise at #de ,c41 and about #hj if at #ej ,c42 but this point must1 of course1 be found by experiment for the particular plant used4 ,an arrangement should be made to enable the workman to at once cut off the supply of hot water and pass cold water through the tanks in case the explosive becomes too hot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,mr ,m',,roberts' ,,mixer ,,for ,,gelatine ,,explosives4 ,the best way to keep the temperature of the water constant is to have a large tank of water raised upon a platform1 some #e or #f feet high1 outside the building1 which is automatically supplied with water1 and into which steam is turned4 ,a thermometer stuck through a piece of cork and floated upon the surface of the tank will give the means of regulating the temperature4 ,when the jelly in the tanks has become semi-transparent and the cotton has entirely dissolved1 the mixture should be transferred to the mixing machine4 ,the mixing machines are specially designed for this work1 and are built in iron1 with steel or bronze kneading- and mixing-blades1 according to requirements4 ,a suitable machine for the purpose is that known as the ,nito-,universal ,incorporator1 shown in ,fig4 #cj1 which has been specially constructed by ,messrs ,werner1 ,pfleiderer1 ,perkins1 ,ltd41 after many years' experience in the mixing of explosive materials1 and is now almost exclusively adopted in both ,government and private factories4 ,mr ,george ,m',roberts',a mixing machine1 however1 which is shown in ,fig4 #ca1 is still used in some factories for dynamite jelly4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahij1 #bfg4 ,if it is intended to make gelignite1 or gelatine dynamite1 it is at this point that the proper proportions of wood-pulp,a and potassium nitrate should be added1 and the whole well mixed for at least half an hour1 until the various ingredients are thoroughly incorporated4 ,footnote ,a3 ,most of the wood-pulp used in ,england is obtained from pine-trees1 but poplar1 lime1 birch1 and beech wood are also used4 ,it is chiefly imported as wood-pulp4 ,the pulp is prepared as follows3--,the bark and roots are first removed1 and the logs then sawn into boards1 from which the knots are removed4 ,the pieces of wood are afterwards put through a machine which breaks them up into small pieces about an inch long1 which are then crushed between rollers4 ,these fragments are finally boiled with a solution of sodium bisulphite1 under a pressure of about #ij lbs4 per square inch1 the duration of the boiling being from ten to twelve hours4 ,sulphurous acid has also been used4 ,pine-wood yields about #de per cent4 and birch about #dj per cent4 of pulp when treated by this process4 ,the pulp is afterwards bleached and washed1 c4 ,birch4 ,beech4 ,lime4 ,pine4 ,poplar4 ,cellulose #ee4eb #de4dg #ec4ji #ef4ii #fb4gg per cent4 ,resin #a4ad #j4da #c4ic #j4ig #a4cg ,aqueous extract #b4fe #b4dg #c4ef #a4bf #b4hh ,water #ab4dh #ab4eg #aj4aj #ac4hg #ab4aj ,lignine #bh4ba #ci4ad #bi4cb #bf4ia #bj4hh ,the following analysis of woods is by ,dr ,h4 ,mller3--,these mixing machines can either be turned by hand1 or a shaft can be brought into the house and the machine worked by means of a belt at twenty to thirty revolutions per minute4 ,the bearings should be kept constantly greased and examined1 and the explosive mixture carefully excluded4 ,when the gelatine mixture has been thoroughly incorporated1 and neither particles of nitrate or wood meal can be detected in the mass1 it should be transferred to wooden boxes and carried away to the cartridge-making machines to be worked up into cartridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,box ,,containing ,,the ,,explosive1 ,,in ,m',,roberts' ,,machine4 ,the application of heat in the manufacture of the jelly from collodion- cotton and nitro-glycerine is absolutely necessary1 unless some other solvent is used besides the nitro-glycerine1 such as acetone1 acetic ether1 methyl1 or ethyl-alcohol4 7,they are all too expensive1 with the exception of acetone and methyl-alcohol1 for use upon the large scale47 ,these liquids not only dissolve the nitro-cellulose in the cold1 but render the resulting gelatine compound less sensitive to concussion1 and reduce its quickness of explosion 7as in cordite74 ,they also lower the temperature at which the nitro-glycerine becomes congealed1 i4e41 they lower the freezing point,a of the resulting gelatine4 ,footnote ,a3 ,it has been proposed to mix dynamite with amyl alcohol for this purpose4 ,di-nitro-mono-chlorhydrine has also been proposed4 ,the finished gelatine paste1 upon entering the cartridge huts1 is at once transferred to the cartridge-making machine1 which is very like an ordinary sausage-making machine,a 7,fig4 #cc74 ,the whole thing must be made of gun-metal or brass1 and it consists of a conical case containing a shaft and screw4 ,the revolutions of the shaft cause the thread of the screw to push forward the gelatine introduced by the hopper on the top to the nozzle1 the apex of the cone-shaped case1 from whence the gelatine issues as a continuous rope4 ,the nozzle is of course of a diameter according to the size of cartridge required4 ,footnote ,a3 ,g4 ,m',roberts1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #cast ,march #ahij1 p4 #bff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,cartridge-,,making ,,machine ,,for ,,gelatine ,,explosives4 ,the issuing gelatine can of course be cut off at any length4 ,this is best done with a piece of hard wood planed down to a cutting edge1 i4e41 wedge-shaped4 ,mr ,trench has devised a kind of brass frame1 into which the gelatine issuing from the nozzle of the cartridge machine is forced1 finding its way along a series of grooves4 ,when the frame is full1 a wooden frame1 which is hinged to one end of the bottom frame1 and fitted with a series of brass knives1 is shut down1 thereby cutting the gelatine up into lengths of about #d inches4 ,it is essential that the cartridge machines should have no metallic contacts inside4 ,the bearing for the screw shaft must be fixed outside the cone containing the gelatine4 ,one of these machines can convert from #e to #aj cwt4 of gelatine into cartridges per diem1 depending upon the diameter of the cartridges made4 ,after being cut up into lengths of about #c inches1 the gelatine is rolled up in cartridge paper4 ,waterproof paper is generally used4 ,the cartridges are then packed away in cardboard boxes1 which are again packed in deal boxes lined with indiarubber1 and screwed down air tight1 brass screws or zinc or brass nails being used for the purpose4 ,these boxes are sent to the magazines4 ,before the boxes are fastened down a cartridge or so should be removed and tested by the heat test1 the liquefaction test1 and the test for liability to exudation4 7,appendix1 p4 #f1 ,explosives ,act1 #ahge47 ,a cartridge also should be stored in the magazine in case of any subsequent dispute after the bulk of the material has left the factory4 ,the object of the liquefaction test is to ensure that the gelatine shall be able to withstand a fairly high temperature 7such as it might encounter in a ship's hold7 without melting or running together4 ,the test is carried out as follows3--,a cylinder of the gelatine dynamite is cut from the cartridge of a length equal to its diameter4 ,the edges must be sharp4 ,this cylinder is to be placed on end on a flat surface 7such as paper71 and secured by a pin through the centre1 and exposed for #add consecutive hours to a temperature of #he to #ij ,f41 and during such time the cylinder should not diminish in height by more than one-fourth of an inch1 and the cut edges should remain sharp4 ,there should also be no stain of nitroglycerine upon the paper4 ,the exudation test consists in freezing and thawing the gelatine three times in succession4 ,under these conditions there should be no exudation of nitro-glycerine4 ,all the materials used in the manufacture of gelatine explosives should be subjected to analytical examination before use1 as success largely depends upon the purity of the raw materials4 ,the wood-pulp1 for instance1 must be examined for acidity4 ,properties of the ,gelatine ,compounds4--,blasting gelatine is generally composed of #ic to #ie parts nitro-glycerine1 and #e to #g parts of nitro- cellulose1 but the relative proportions of explosive base and nitro- glycerine1 c41 in the various forms of the gelatine explosives do not always correspond to those necessary for total combustion1 either because an incomplete combustion gives rise to a greater volume of gas1 or because the rapidity of decomposition and the law of expansion varies according to the relative proportions and the conditions of application4 ,the various additions to blasting gelatine generally have the effect of lowering the strength by reducing the amount of nitro-glycerine1 but this is sometimes done in order to change a shattering agent into a propulsive force4 ,if this process be carried too far1 we of course lose the advantages due to the presence of nitro-glycerine4 ,there is therefore a limit to these additions4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,mica is said to increase the rapidity of explosion when mixed with gelatine4 ,the homogeneousness and stability of the mixture are of the highest importance4 ,it is highly essential that the nitro-glycerine should be completely absorbed by the substances with which it is mixed1 and that it should not subsequently exude when subjected to heat or damp4 ,it is also important that there should be no excess of nitro-glycerine1 as this may diminish instead of augment the strength1 owing to a difference in the mode of the propagation of the explosive wave in the liquid1 and in the mixture4 ,nitro-glycerine at its freezing point has a tendency to separate from its absorbing material1 in fact to exude4 ,when frozen1 too1 it requires a more powerful detonation to explode it1 but it is less sensitive to shock4 ,the specific gravity of blasting gelatine is #a4e 7i4e41 nearly equal to that of nitro-glycerol72 that of gun-cotton 7dry7 is #a4j4 ,blasting gelatine burns in the air when unconfined without explosion1 at least in small quantities and when not previously heated1 but it is rather uncertain in this respect4 ,it can be kept at a moderately high temperature 7#gj ,c47 without decomposition4 ,at higher temperatures the nitro-glycerine will partially evaporate4 ,when slowly heated1 it explodes at #bjd ,c4 ,if1 however1 it contains as much as #aj per cent4 of camphor1 it burns without exploding4 ,according to ,berthelot1,a gelatine composed of #ia4f per cent4 nitro-glycerine and #h4d per cent4 of nitro-cellulose1 which are the proportions corresponding to total combustion1 produces by explosion #agg;,,co#b #adc;,h#b,o #h,n#b4 ,footnote ,a3 ,berthelot1 ,explosives and their ,powers4 ,he takes ,c#bd;,h#bb7,,no#c;,h7#i,o#aa as the formula of the nitro- cellulose1 and #ea;,c#c;,h#b7,,no#c;,h7#c ,c#bd;,h#bb7,,no#c;,h7#i,o#aa as the formula of the gelatine itself1 its equivalent weight being #ab1cfj grms4 ,the heat liberated by its explosion is equal to #ai1cha calories1 or for #a kilo4 #a1ece calories4 ,volume of gases reduced temperature equals #h1iej litres4 ,the relative value,a of blasting gelatine to nitro- glycerine is as #a4d to #a4de1 kieselguhr dynamite being taken as #a4j4 ,footnote ,a3 ,roux and ,sarran4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,nitro-,,benzol1 ,,roburite1 ,,bellite1 ,,picric ,,acid1 c4 ,explosives derived from ,benzene--,toluene and ,nitro-,benzene--,di- and ,tri-nitro-,benzene--,roburite3 ,properties and ,manufacture--,bellite3 ,properties1 c4--,securite--,tonite ,no4 #c4--,nitro-,toluene-- ,nitro-,naphthalene--,ammonite--,sprenge l's ,explosives--,picric ,acid-- ,picrates--,picric ,powders--,melinite--,abel's ,mixture--,brugre's ,powders-- ,the ,fulminates--,composition1 ,formula1 ,preparation1 ,danger of1 c4-- ,detonators3 ,sizes1 ,composition1 ,manufacture--,fuses1 c4 ,the ,explosives derived from ,benzene4--,there is a large class of explosives made from the nitrated hydro-carbons--benzene1 ,c#f;,h#f2 toluene1 ,c#g;,h#h2 naphthalene1 ,c#aj;,h#h2 and also from phenol 7or carbolic acid71 ,c#f;,h#e,,oh4 ,the benzene hydro-carbons are generally colourless liquids1 insoluble in water1 but soluble in alcohol and ether4 ,they generally distil without decomposition4 ,they burn with a smoky flame1 and have an ethereal odour4 ,they are easily nitrated and sulphurated2 mono1 di1 and tri derivatives are readily prepared1 according to the strength of the acids used4 ,it is only the ,h-atoms of the benzene nucleus which enter into reaction4 ,benzene was discovered by ,faraday in #ahbe1 and detected in coal-tar by ,hofmann in #ahde4 ,it can be obtained from that portion of coal-tar which boils at #hj to #he by fractionating or freezing4,a ,the ordinary benzene of commerce contains thiophene 7,c#d;,h#d,s71 from which it may be freed by shaking with sulphuric acid4 ,its boiling point is #gi ,c42 specific gravity at #j equals #j4i4 ,it burns with a luminous smoky flame1 and is a good solvent for fats1 resins1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 c4 ,toluene was discovered in #ahcg1 and is prepared from coal-tar4 ,it boils at #aaj ,c41 and is still liquid at #bh ,c4 ,footnote ,a3 ,it may be prepared chemically pure by distilling a mixture of benzoic acid and lime4 ,the mono-1 chloro-1 bromo-1 and iodo-benzenes are colourless liquids of peculiar odour4 ,di-chloro-1 di-bromo-benzenes1 tri- and hexa-chloro- and bromo-benzenes1 are also known2 and mono-chloro-1 ,c#f;,h#d;,cl7,,ch#c71 and bromo-toluenes1 together with di derivatives in the ortho1 meta1 and para modifications4 ,the nitro-benzenes and toluenes are used as explosives4 ,the following summary is taken from ,dr ,a4 ,bernthsen's ,organic ,chemistry3-- ,,summary4 ,c#f;,h#e7,n#jb7 ,nitro-benzene4 ,liq4 ,b4,pt4 #bjf ,c4 ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7b ,ortho-1 meta-1 and para- di-nitro-benzenes4 ,solid4 ,m4,p4 #aah1 #ij1 and #agb ,c4 ,c#f;,h#c7,,no#c7c ,s4-,tri-nitro-benzene4 ,solid4 ,m4,p4 #aba ,c4 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,ch#c7,,no#b ,ortho-1 meta-1 and para- nitro-toluenes4 ,b4,p4 #bah1 #bcj1 and #bcd ,c1 ,para compound solid4 ,c#f;,h#c7;,,ch#c7b,,no#b ,nitro-xylene4 ,liquid4 ,c#f;,h#b7;,,ch#c7c,,no#b ,nitro-mesitylene4 ,solid4 ,c#f;,h#c7;,,ch#c77,,no#b7b ,di-nitro-toluenes4 ,c#f;,h#d;,cl7,,no#b7 ,nitro-chloro-benzenes4 ,c#f;,br#d7,,no#b7b ,tetra-bromo-di-nitrobenzene4 ,the nitro compounds are mostly pale yellow liquids1 which distil unchanged1 and volatilise with water vapour1 or colourless or pale yellow needles or prisms4 ,some of them1 however1 are of an intense yellow colour4 ,many of them explode upon being heated4 ,they are heavier than water1 and insoluble in it1 but mostly soluble in alcohol1 ether1 and glacial acetic acid4 ,nitro-benzene1 ,c#f;,h#e7,,no#b71 was discovered in #ahcd by ,mitscherlich4 ,it is a yellow liquid1 with a melting point of #c ,c4 ,it has an intense odour of bitter almonds4 ,it solidifies in the cold4 ,in di-nitro-benzene1 the two nitro groups may be in the meta1 ortho1 or para position1 the meta position being the most general 7see fig41 page #d74 ,by recrystallising from alcohol1 pure meta-di-nitro-benzene may be obtained in long colourless needles4 ,the ortho compound crystallises in tables1 and the para in needles4 ,they are both colourless4 ,when toluene is nitrated1 the para and ortho are chiefly formed1 and a very little of the meta compound4 ,nitro ,compounds of ,benzene and ,toluene4--,the preparation of the nitro derivatives of the hydrocarbons of the benzene series is very simple4 ,it is only necessary to bring the hydrocarbon into contact with strong nitric acid1 when the reaction takes place1 and one or more of the hydrogen atoms of the hydrocarbon are replaced by the nitryl group 7,,no#b74 ,thus by the action of nitric acid on benzene 7or benzol71 mono-nitro-benzene is formed3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#e4,,no#b ,h#b,o4 ,mono-nitro-benzene4 ,by the action of another molecule of nitric acid1 the di-nitro-benzene is formed3-- ,c#f;,h#e4,,no#b ,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7b ,h#b,o4 ,di-nitro-benzene4 ,these nitro bodies are not acids1 nor are they ethereal salts of nitrous acid1 as nitro-glycerine is of glycerine4 ,they are regarded as formed from nitric acid by the replacement of hydroxyl by benzene radicals4 ,mono-nitro ,benzene is made by treating benzene with concentrated nitric acid1 or a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,the latter1 as in the case of the nitration of glycerine1 takes no part in the reaction1 but only prevents the dilution of the nitric acid by the water formed in the reaction4 ,small quantities may be made thus3--,take #aej c4c4 of ,h#b,,so#d and #ge c4c4 ,,hno#c1 or #a part nitric to #b parts sulphuric acid1 and put in a beaker standing in cold water2 then add #ae to #bj c4c4 of benzene1 drop by drop1 waiting between each addition for the completion of the reaction1 and shake well during the operation4 ,when finished1 pour contents of beaker into about a litre of cold water2 the nitro-benzol will sink to the bottom4 ,decant the water1 and wash the nitro-benzol two or three times in a separating funnel with water4 ,finally1 dry the product by adding a little granulated calcium chloride1 and allowing to stand for some little time1 it may then be distilled4 ,nitro-benzene is a heavy oily liquid which boils at #bje ,c41 has a specific gravity of #a4b1 and an odour like that of oil of bitter almonds4 ,in the arts it is chiefly used in the preparation of aniline4 ,di-nitro ,benzene is a product of the further action of nitric acid on benzene or nitro-benzene4 ,it crystallises in long fine needles or thin rhombic plates1 and melts at #hi4i ,c4 ,it can be made thus3--,the acid mixture used consists of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids1 say #ej c4c4 of each1 and without cooling add very slowly #aj c4c4 of benzene from a pipette4 ,after the action is over1 boil the mixture for a short time1 then pour into about half a litre of water1 filter off the crystals thus produced1 press between layers of filter paper1 and crystallise from alcohol4 ,di-nitro-benzene1 or meta-di-nitro-benzene1 as it is sometimes called1 enters into the composition of several explosives1 such as tonite ,no4 #c1 roburite1 securite1 bellite4 ,nitro-benzene is manufactured upon the large scale as follows3--,along a bench a row of glass flasks1 containing #a gallon each 7#a to #b lbs4 benzene71 are placed1 and the acids added in small portions at a time1 the workmen commencing with the first1 and adding a small quantity to each in turn1 until the nitration was complete4 ,this process was a dangerous one1 and is now obsolete4 ,the first nitro-benzene made commercially in ,england1 by ,messrs ,simpson1 ,maule1 and ,nicholson1 of ,kennington1 in #ahef1 was by this process4 ,now1 however1 vertical iron cylinders1 made of cast-iron1 are used for the nitrating operation4 ,they are about #d feet in diameter and #d feet deep1 and a series are generally arranged in a row1 at a convenient height from the ground1 beneath a line of shafting4 ,each cylinder is covered with a cast-iron lid having a raised rim all round4 ,a central orifice gives passage to a vertical shaft1 and two or more other conveniently arranged openings allow the benzene and the mixed acids to flow in4 ,each of these openings is surrounded with a deep rim1 so that the whole top of the cylinder can be flooded with water some inches in depth1 without any of it running into the interior of the nitrator4 ,the lid overhangs the cylinder somewhat1 and in the outer rim a number of shot- holes or tubes allow the water to flow down all over the outside of the cylinder into a shallow cast-iron dish1 in which it stands4 ,by means of a good supply of cold water1 the top1 sides1 and bottom of the whole apparatus is thus cooled and continually flooded4 ,the agitator consists of cast-iron arms keyed to a vertical shaft1 with fixed arms or dash-plates secured to the sides of the cylinder4 ,the shaft has a mitre wheel keyed on the top1 which works into a corresponding wheel on the horizontal shafting running along the top of the converters4 ,this latter is secured to a clutch2 and there is a feather on the shaft1 so that any one of the converters can if necessary be put either in or out of gear4 ,this arrangement is necessary1 as riggers or belts of leather1 cotton1 or indiarubber will not stand the atmosphere of the nitro-benzole house4 ,above and close to each nitrator stands its acid store tank1 of iron or stoneware4 ,the building in which the nitration is carried out should consist of one story1 have a light roof1 walls of hard brick1 and a concrete floor of #i to #ab inches thick1 and covered with pitch1 to protect its surface from the action of the acids4 ,the floor should be inclined to a drain1 to save any nitro-benzol spilt4 ,fire hydrants should be placed at convenient places1 and it should be possible to at once fill the building with steam4 ,a #b-;inch pipe1 with a cock outside the building1 is advisable4 ,the building should also be as far as possible isolated4 ,the acids are mixed beforehand1 and allowed to cool before use4 ,the nitric acid used has a specific gravity of #a4chh1 and should be as free as possible from the lower oxides of nitrogen4 ,the sulphuric acid has a specific gravity of #a4hde1 and contains from #ie to #if per cent4 of mono- hydrate4 ,a good mixture is #ajj parts of nitric to #adj parts of sulphuric acid1 and #gh parts of benzene2 or #abh parts ,,hno#c1 #agi of ,h#b,,so#d1 and #ajj of benzene 7,c#f;,h#f74 ,the benzene having been introduced into the cylinder1 the water is turned on and the apparatus cooled1 the agitators are set running1 and the acid cock turned on so as to allow it to flow in a very thin stream into the nitrator4 ,should it be necessary to check the machinery even for a moment1 the stream of acid must be stopped and the agitation continued for some time1 as the action proceeds with such vigour that if the benzene being nitrated comes to rest and acid continues to flow1 local heating occurs1 and the mixture may inflame4 ,accidents from this cause have been not infrequent4 ,the operation requires between eight to ten hours1 agitation and cooling being kept up all the time4 ,when all the acid is added the water is shut off1 and the temperature allowed to rise a little1 to about #ajj ,c4 ,when it ceases to rise the agitators are thrown out of gear1 and the mixture allowed some hours to cool and settle4 ,the acid is then drawn off1 and the nitro-benzene is well washed with water1 and sometimes distilled with wet steam1 to recover a little unconverted benzene and a trace of paraffin 7about 4#e per cent4 together74 ,at many ,english works1 #ajj to #bjj gallons1 or #hjj to #a1gfj lbs41 are nitrated at a time1 and toluene is often used instead of benzene1 especially if the nitro-benzene is for use as essence of myrbane4 ,the waste acids1 specific gravity #a4f to #a4g1 contain a little nitro-benzene in solution and some oxalic acid4 ,they are concentrated in cast-iron pots and used over again4 ,di-nitro ,benzene is obtained by treating a charge of the hydrocarbon benzene with double the quantity of mixed acids in two operations1 or rather in two stages1 the second lot of acid being run in directly after the first4 ,the cooling water is then shut off1 and the temperature allowed to rise rapidly1 or nitro-benzene already manufactured is taken and again nitrated with acids4 ,a large quantity of acid fumes come off1 and some of the nitro- and di-nitro-benzol produced comes off at the high temperature which is attained1 and a good condensing apparatus of stoneware must be used to prevent loss4 ,the product is separated from the acids1 washed with cold water and then with hot4 ,it is slightly soluble in water1 so that the washing waters must be kept and used over again4 ,finally it is allowed to settle1 and run while still warm into iron trays1 in which it solidifies in masses #b or #d inches thick4 ,it should not contain any nitro-benzol1 nor soil a piece of paper when laid on it1 should be well crystallised1 fairly hard1 and almost odourless4 ,the chief product is meta-di-nitro-benzene1 melting point #hi4h1 but ortho-di-nitro-benzene1 melting point #aah1 and para-di-nitro1 melting point #agb1 are also produced4 ,the melting point of the commercial product is between #he to #hg ,c4 ,di-nitro-toluene is made in a similar manner4 ,the tri-nitro-benzene can only be made by using a very large excess of the mixed acids4 ,nitro- benzene1 when reduced with iron1 zinc1 or tin1 and hydrochloric acids1 forms aniline4 ,roburite4--,this explosive is the invention of a ,german chemist1 ,dr ,carl ,roth 7,english patent #bfg;,a1 #ahhg71 and is now manufactured in ,england1 at ,gathurst1 near ,wigan4 ,it consists of two component parts1 non-explosive in themselves 7,sprengel's principle71 but which1 when mixed1 form a powerful explosive4 ,the two substances are ammonium nitrate and chlorinated di-nitro-benzol4 ,nitro-naphthalene is also used4 ,nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonium are allowed to be mixed with it4 ,the advantages claimed for the introduction of chlorine into the nitro compound are that chlorine exerts a loosening effect upon the ,,no#b groups1 and enables the compound to burn more rapidly than when the nitro groups alone are present4 ,the formula of chloro-di-nitro-benzol is ,c#f;,h#c;,cl7,,no#b7b4 ,the theoretical percentage of nitrogen1 therefore1 is #ac4hb1 and of chlorine #ag4ec4 ,dr ,roth states that1 from experiments he has made1 the dynamic effect is considerably increased by the introduction of chlorine into the nitro compound4 ,roburite burns quickly1 and is not sensitive to shock2 it must be used dry2 it cannot be made to explode by concussion1 pressure1 friction1 fire1 or lightning2 it does not freeze2 it does not give off deleterious fumes1 and it is to all intents and purposes flameless2 and when properly tamped and fired by electricity1 can be safely used in fiery mines1 neither fine dust nor gases being ignited by it4 ,the action is rending and not pulverising4 ,compared to gunpowder1 it is more powerful in a ratio ranging from #b-a_/b to #d to #a1 according to the substance acted upon4 ,it is largely used in blasting1 pit sinking1 quarrying1 c41 but especially in coal mining4 ,according to ,dr ,roth1 the following is the equation of its decomposition3-- ,c#f;,h#c;,cl7,,no#b7b #i;,,hn#d,,no#c #f;,,co#b #bj,n ,h,cl4 ,in appearance roburite is a brownish yellow powder1 with the characteristic smell of nitro-benzol4 ,its specific gravity is #a4dj4 ,the ,company's statement that the fumes of roburite were harmless having been questioned by the miners of the ,garswood ,coal and ,iron ,works ,colliery1 a scientific committee was appointed by the management and the men jointly for the purpose of settling the question4 ,the members of this committee were ,dr ,n4 ,hannah1 ,dr ,d4,j4 ,mouncey1 and ,professor ,h4,b4 ,dixon1 ,f4,r4,s41 of ,owens ,college4 ,after a protracted investigation1 a long and technical report was issued1 completely vindicating the innocuousness of roburite when properly used4 ,in the words of ,the ,iron and ,coal ,trades' ,review 7,may #bd1 #ahhi71 ,the verdict1 though not on every point in favour of the use in all circumstances of roburite in coal mines1 is yet of so pronounced a character in its favour as an explosive that it is impossible to resist the conclusion that the claims put forward on its behalf rest on solid grounds4 ,roburite was also one of the explosives investigated by the committee appointed in ,september #ahhi by the ,durham ,coalowners' and ,miners' ,associations1 for the purpose of determining whether the fumes produced by certain explosives are injurious to health4 ,both owners and workmen were represented on the committee1 which elected ,mr ,t4 ,bell1 ,h4,m4 ,inspector of ,mines1 as its chairman1 with ,professor ,p4,p4 ,bedson and ,drs ,drummond and ,hume as professional advisers4 ,the problem considered was whether the fumes produced by the combustion of certain explosives1 one of which was roburite1 were injurious to health4 ,the trial comprised the chemical analysis of the air at the intake1 and of the vitiated air during the firing of the shots at the return1 and also of the smoky air in the vicinity of the shot-holes4 ,five pounds and a half of roburite were used in twenty-three shots4 ,it had been asserted that the fumes from this explosive contained carbon-monoxide1 ,,co1 but no trace of this gas could be discovered after the explosion4 ,on another occasion1 however1 when #d4g lbs4 of roburite were exploded in twenty-three shots1 the air at the return showed traces of ,,co gas to the extent of 4#jdb to 4#jai per cent4 ,the medical report which ,drs ,hume and ,drummond presented to the committee shows that they investigated every case of suspected illness produced by exposure to fumes1 and they could find no evidence of acute illness being caused4 ,they say1 ,no case of acute illness has1 throughout the inquiry1 been brought to our knowledge1 and we are led to the conclusion that such cases have not occurred4 ,manufacture4--,as now made1 roburite is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and chlorinated di-nitro-benzol4 ,the nitrate of ammonia is first dried and ground1 and then heated in a closed steam-jacketed vessel to a temperature of #hj ,c41 and the melted organic compound is added1 and the whole stirred until an intimate mixture is obtained4 ,on cooling1 the yellow powder is ready for use1 and is stored in straight canisters or made up into cartridges4 ,owing to the deliquescent nature of the nitrate of ammonia1 the finished explosive must be kept out of contact with the air1 and for this reason the cartridges are waterproofed by dipping them in melted wax4 ,roburite is made in ,germany1 at ,witten1 ,westphalia2 and also at the ,english ,company's extensive works at ,gathurst1 near ,wigan1 which have been at work now for some eighteen years1 having started in #ahhh4 ,these works are of considerable extent1 covering #cj acres of ground1 and are equal to an output of #aj tons a day4 ,a canal runs through the centre1 separating the chemical from the explosive portions of the works1 and the ,lancashire and ,yorkshire ,railway runs up to the doors4 ,besides sending large quantities of roburite itself abroad1 the ,company also export to the various colonies the two components1 as manufactured in the chemical works1 and which separately are quite non-explosive1 and which1 having arrived at their destination1 can be easily mixed in the proper proportions4 ,among the special advantages claimed for roburite are3--,first1 that it is impossible to explode a cartridge by percussion1 fire1 or electric sparks4 ,if a cartridge or layer be struck with a heavy hammer1 the portion struck is decomposed1 owing to the large amount of heat developed by the blow4 ,the remaining explosive is not in the least affected1 and no detonation whatever takes place4 ,if roburite be mixed with gunpowder1 and the gunpowder fired1 the explosion simply scatters the roburite without affecting it in the least4 ,in fact1 the only way to explode roburite is to detonate it by means of a cap of fulminate1 containing at least #a gramme of fulminate of mercury4 ,secondly1 its great safety for use in coal mines4 ,roburite has the great advantage of exploding by detonation at a very low temperature1 indeed so low that a very slight amount of tamping is required when fired in the most explosive mixture of air and coal gas possible1 and not at all in a mixture of air and coal dust--a condition in which the use of gunpowder is highly dangerous4 ,mr ,w4,j4 ,orsman1 ,f4,i4,c41 in a paper read at the ,university ,college1 ,nottingham1 in #ahic1 gives the temperature of detonation of roburite as below #b1ajj ,c41 and of ammonium nitrate as #a1acj ,c41 whereas that of blasting gelatine is as much as #c1bbj ,c4 ,with regard to the composition of the fumes formed by the explosion of roburite1 ,mr ,orsman says3 ,with certain safety explosives--roburite1 for instance--an excess of the oxidising material is added1 namely1 nitrate of ammonia2 but in this case the excess of oxygen here causes a diminution of temperature1 as the nitrate of ammonia on being decomposed absorbs heat4 ,this excess of oxygen effectually prevents the formation of carbon monoxide 7,,co7 and the oxides of nitrogen4 ,the following table 7,a71 also from ,mr ,orsman's paper1 gives the composition of five prominent explosives1 and shows the composition of the gases formed on explosion4 ,the gases were collected after detonating #aj grms4 of each in a closed strong steel cylinder1 having an internal diameter of #e inches4 ,with respect to the influence of ammonium nitrate in lowering the temperature of explosion of the various substances to which it is added1 it was found by a ,french ,commission that1 when dry and finely powdered1 ammonium nitrate succeeds in depreciating the heat of decomposition without reducing the power of the explosive below a useful limit4 ,the following table 7,b7 shows the composition of the explosives examined1 and the temperatures which accompanied their explosion4 ,a ,composition of ,gases4 ,volume ,explosive4 of ,gas formed4,,co#b4 ,,co4 ,,ch#d ,n4 ,h4 ,per ,per ,per ,per c4c4 cent4 cent4cent4 cent4 ,gunpowder-- ,nitre #ge parts ,sulphur #aj '' #b1bad #ea4c #c4e #c4e #da4g ,charcoal #ae '' ,gelignite-- ,nitro-glycerine #ef4e parts ,nitro-cotton #c4e '' #d1ihj #be #g 444 #fg ,wood-meal #h4j '' ,,kno#c #cb4j '' ,tonite-- ,nitro-,cotton #c1gej #cj #h 444 #fb ,barium nitrate ,roburite-- ,ammonium nitrate1 #hf parts ,di-nitro-chloro-benzol #ad '' #d1ghj #cb 444 444 #fh ,carbonite ,nitro-glycerine #be parts ,wood-meal #dj '' #b1ajj #ai #ae #bf 444 ,potas4 nitrate #cd '' ,b ,original ,percentage ,final ,explosive4 ,temperature ,,nh#d4,,no#c ,temperature ,co-efficient4 added4 ,co-efficient4 ,nitro-glycerine #c1bjj 444 444 ,blasting gelatine 7#h per cent4 gun-cotton7 #c1jij #hh #a1dic ,dynamite 7#be per cent4 silica7 #b1idj #hj #a1dfh ,gun-cotton1 #a #b1fej 444 444 #b1jfj #ij4e #a1dej ,ammonium nitrate #a1acj 444 444 ,bellite is the patent of ,mr ,carl ,lamm1 ,managing ,director of the ,rtebro ,explosive ,company1 of ,stockholm1 and is licensed for manufacture in ,england4 ,it consists of a mixture of nitrate of ammonia with di- or tri-nitro-benzol1 it has a specific gravity of #a4b to #a4d in its granulated state1 and #a litre weighs #hjj to #hge grms4 ,heated in an open vessel1 bellite loses its consistency at #ij ,c41 but does not commence to separate before a temperature of #bjj ,c4 is reached1 when it evaporates without exploding4 ,if heated suddenly1 it burns with a sooty flame1 somewhat like tar1 but if the source of heat is removed1 it will cease burning1 and assume a caramel-like structure4 ,it absorbs very little moisture from the air after it has been pressed1 and if the operation has been performed while the explosive is hot1 the subsequent increase of weight is only #b per cent4 ,when subjected to the most powerful blow with a steel hammer upon an iron plate1 it neither explodes nor ignites4 ,a rifle bullet fired into it at #ej yards' distance will not explode it4 ,granulated bellite explodes fully by the aid of fulminating mercury4 ,fifteen grms4 of bellite fired by means of fulminate1 projected a shot from an ordinary mortar1 weighing #ij lbs41 a distance of #ge yards1 #ae grms4 of gunpowder1 under the same conditions1 throwing it only #ab yards4 ,a weight of #g-a_/b lbs4 falling #ade centimetres failed to explode #a grm4 of bellite4 ,various experiments and trials have been made with this explosive by ,professor ,p4,t4 ,cleve1 ,m4,p4,f4 ,chalon1 ,c4,n4 ,hake1 and by a committee of officers of the ,swedish ,royal ,artillery4 ,it is claimed that it is a very powerful and extremely safe explosive2 that it cannot be made to explode by friction1 shock1 or pressure1 nor by electricity1 fire1 lightning1 c41 and that it is specially adapted for use in coal mines1 c42 that it can only be exploded by means of a fulminate detonator1 and is perfectly safe to handle and manufacture2 that it does not freeze1 can be used as a filling for shells1 and lastly1 can be cheaply manufactured4 ,securite consists of #bf parts of meta-di-nitro-benzol and #gd parts of ammonium nitrate4 ,it is a yellow powder1 with an odour of nitro-benzol4 ,it was licensed in #ahhf4 ,it sometimes contains tri-nitro-benzol1 and tri-nitro-naphthalene4 ,the equation of its combustion is given as ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7b #aj7,,nh#d,,no#c7 #f;,,co#b #bb;,h#b,o #aa,n#b and1 like bellite and roburite1 it is claimed to be perfectly safe to use in the presence of fire damp and coal dust4,a ,the variety known as ,flameless ,securite consists of a mixture of nitrate and oxalate of ammonia and di-nitro-benzol4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see paper by ,s4,b4 ,coxon1 ,north of ,eng4 ,inst4 ,mining and ,mech4 ,eng41 #aa1 #b1 #hg4 ,kinetite4--,a few years ago an explosive called ,kinetite,a was introduced1 but is not manufactured in ,england4 ,it was the patent of ,messrs ,petry and ,fallenstein1 and consisted of nitro-benzol1 thickened or gelatinised by the addition of some collodion-cotton1 incorporated with finely ground chlorate of potash and precipitated sulphide of antimony4 ,an analysis gave the following percentages3-- ,nitro-benzol1 #ai4d per cent4 ,chlorate of potash1 #gf4i per cent4 ,sulphide of antimony nitro-cotton1 #c4g per cent4 ,footnote ,a3 ,v4 ,watson ,smith1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,january #ahhg4 ,it requires a very high temperature to ignite it1 and cannot1 under ordinary circumstances1 when unconfined1 be exploded by the application of heat4 ,it is little affected by immersion in water1 unless prolonged1 when the chlorate dissolves out1 leaving a practical inexplosive residue4,a ,it was found to be very sensitive to combined friction and percussion1 and to be readily ignited by a glancing blow of wood upon wood4 ,it was also deficient in chemical stability1 and has been known to ignite spontaneously both in the laboratory and in a magazine4 ,it is an orange- coloured plastic mass1 and smells of nitro-benzol4 ,footnote ,a3 ,col4 ,cundill1 ,r4,a41 ,dict4 of ,explosives1 says3 ,if1 however1 it be exposed to moist and dry air alternately1 the chlorate crystallises out on the surfaces1 and renders the explosive very sensitive4 ,tonite ,no4 #c contains #aj to #ad per cent4 of nitro-benzol 7see ,tonite74 ,trench's ,flameless ,explosive contains #aj per cent4 of di-nitro-benzol1 together with #he per cent4 of nitrate of ammonia1 and #e per cent4 of a mixture of alum1 and the chlorides of sodium and ammonia4 ,tri-nitro-,toluene4--,toluene1 ,c#g;,h#h1 now chiefly obtained from coal- tar1 was formerly obtained by the dry distillation of tolu-balsam4 ,it may be regarded as methyl-benzene1 or benzene in which one hydrogen is replaced by methyl 7,,ch#c71 thus 7,c#f;,h#e;,,ch#c71 or as phenyl- methane1 or methane in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the radical phenyl 7,c#f;,h#e71 thus 7,,ch#c;,c#f;,h#e74 ,toluene is a colourless liquid1 boiling at #aaj ,c41 has a specific gravity of 4#hhbd at #j ,c41 and an aromatic odour4 ,tri-nitro-toluene is formed by the action of nitric acid on toluene4 ,according to ,hussermann1 it is more advantageous to start with the ortho-para-di-nitro-toluene1 which is prepared by allowing a mixture of #ge parts of #ia to #ib per cent4 nitric acid and #aej parts of #ie to #if per cent4 sulphuric acid to run in a thin stream into #ajj parts of para-nitro-toluene1 while the latter is kept at a temperature between #fj to #fe ,c41 and continually stirred4 ,when the acid has all been run in1 this mixture is heated for half an hour to #hj ,c41 and allowed to stand till cold4 ,the excess of nitric acid is then removed4 ,the residue after this treatment is a homogeneous crystalline mass of ortho-para-di-nitro- toluene1 of which the solidifying point is #fi4e ,c4 ,to convert this mass into tri-nitro derivative1 it is dissolved by gently heating it with four times its weight of sulphuric acid 7#ie to #if per cent471 and it is then mixed with #a-a_/b times its weight of nitric acid 7#ij to #ib per cent471 the mixture being kept cool4 ,afterwards it is digested at #ij to #ie ,c41 with occasional stirring1 until the evolution of gas ceases4 ,this takes place in about four or five hours4 ,the operation is now stopped1 the product allowed to cool1 and the excess of nitric acid separated from it4 ,the residue is then washed with hot water and very dilute soda solution1 and allowed to solidify without purification4 ,the solidifying point is #gj ,c41 and the mass is then white1 with a radiating crystalline structure4 ,bright sparkling crystals1 melting at #ha4e ,c4 may1 however1 be obtained by recrystallisation from hot alcohol4 ,the yield is from #ajj parts di-nitro-toluene1 #aej parts of the tri-nitro derivative4 ,hussermann states also that #a3b3d3f tri-nitro- toluene can be obtained from ordinary commercial di-nitro-toluene melting at #fj to #fd ,c42 but when this is used1 greater precautions must be exercised1 for the reactions are more violent4 ,moreover1 #aj per cent4 more nitric acid is required1 and the yield is #aj per cent4 less4 ,he also draws attention to the slight solubility of tri-nitro-toluene in hot water1 and to the fact that it is decomposed by dilute alkalies and alkaline carbonates--facts which must be borne in mind in washing the substance4 ,this material is neither difficult nor dangerous to make4 ,it behaves as a very stable substance when exposed to the air under varying conditions of temperature 7-#aj to #ej ,c47 for several months4 ,it cannot be exploded by flame1 nor by heating it in an open vessel4 ,it is only slightly decomposed by strong percussion on an anvil4 ,a fulminate detonator produces the best explosive effect with tri-nitro-toluene4 ,it can be used in conjunction with ammonium nitrate1 but such admixture weakens the explosive power2 but even then it is stated to be stronger than an equivalent mixture of di-nitro-benzene and ammonium nitrate4 ,mowbray patented a mixture of #c parts nitro-toluol to #g of nitro-glycerine1 also in the proportions of #a to #c1 which he states to be a very safe explosive4 ,faversham ,powder4--,one of the explosives on the permitted list 7coal mines7 is extensively used1 and is manufactured by the ,cotton ,powder ,co4 ,ltd4 at ,faversham4 ,it is composed of tri-nitro-toluol #aa parts1 ammonium nitrate #ic parts1 and moisture #a part4 ,this explosive must be used only when contained in a case of an alloy of lead1 tin1 zinc1 and antimony thoroughly waterproof2 it must be used only with a detonator or electric detonator of not less strength than that known as ,no4 #f4 ,nitro-,naphthalene4--,nitro-naphthalene is formed by the action of nitric acid on naphthalene 7,c#aj;,h#h74 ,its formula is ,c#aj;,h#g,,no#b1 and it forms yellow needles1 melting at #fa ,c42 and of di-nitro-naphthalene 7,c#aj;,h#f7,,no#b7b71 melting point #baf ,c4 ,there are also tri-nitro and tetra-nitro and alpha and beta derivatives of nitro-naphthalene4 ,it is the di-nitro-naphthalene that is chiefly used in explosives4 ,it is contained in roburite1 securite1 romit1 ,volney's powder1 c4 ,fehven has patented an explosive consisting of #aj parts of nitro-naphthalene mixed with the crude ingredients of gunpowder as follows3--,nitro-naphthalene1 #aj parts2 saltpetre1 #ge parts2 charcoal1 #ab4e parts2 and sulphur1 #ab4e parts4 ,he states that he obtains a mono-nitro-naphthalene1 containing a small proportion of di-nitro-naphthalene1 by digesting #a part of naphthalene1 with or without heat1 in #d parts of nitric acid 7specific gravity #a4dj7 for five days4 ,quite lately a patent has been taken out for a mixture of nitro- naphthalene or di-nitro-benzene with ammonium nitrate1 and consists in using a solvent for one or other or both of the ingredients1 effected in a wet state1 and then evaporating off the solvent1 care being taken not to melt the hydrocarbon4 ,in this way a more intimate mixture is ensured between the particles of the components1 and the explosive thus prepared can be fired by a small detonator1 viz41 by #j4ed grms4 of fulminate4 ,favier's explosive also contains mono-nitro-naphthalene 7#h4e parts71 together with #ia4e parts of nitrate of ammonia4 ,this explosive is made in ,england by the ,miners' ,safety ,explosive ,co4 ,a variety of roburite contains chloro-nitro-naphthalene4 ,romit consists of #ajj parts ammonium nitrate and #g parts potassium chlorate mixed with a solution of #a part nitro- naphthalene and #b parts rectified paraffin oil4 ,ammonite4--,this explosive was originally made at ,vilvorde in ,belgium1 under the title of the ,favier ,explosive1 consisting of a compressed hollow cylinder composed of #ia4e per cent4 of nitrate of ammonia1 and #h4e per cent4 of mono-nitro-naphthalene filled inside with loose powder of the same composition4 ,the cartridges were wrapped in paper saturated with paraffin-wax1 and afterwards dipped in hot paraffin to secure their being water-tight4 ,the ,miners' ,safety ,explosives ,co41 when making this explosive at their factory at ,stanford-le-,hope1 ,essex1 abandoned after a short trial the above composition1 and substituted di-nitro-naphthalene #aa4e per cent4 for the mono-nitro-naphthalene1 and used thin lead envelopes filled with loose powder slightly pressed in1 in place of the compressed cylinders containing loose powder4 ,the process of manufacture is shortly as follows3--#acb-c_/d lbs4 of thoroughly dried nitrate of ammonium is placed in a mill pan1 heated at the bottom with live steam1 and ground for about twenty minutes until it becomes so dry that a slight dust follows the rollers2 then #ag-a_/b lbs4 of thoroughly dry di-nitro-naphthalene is added1 and the grinding continued for about ten minutes4 ,cold water is then circulated through the bottom of the pan until the material appears of a lightish colour and falls to powder4 7,while the pan is hot the whole mass looks slightly plastic and of a darker colour than when cold47 ,a slide in the bottom of the pan is then withdrawn1 the whole mass working out until the pan is empty2 it is now removed to the sifting machine1 brushed through a wire sieve of about #ab holes to the inch1 and is then ready for filling into cartridges4 ,the hard core is returned from the sifting machine and turned into one of the pans a few minutes before the charge is withdrawn4 ,the ammonite is filled into the metallic cartridges by means of an archimedian screw working through a brass tube1 pushing off the cartridges as the explosive is fed into them against a slight back pressure2 a cover is screwed on1 and they then go to the dipping room1 where they are dipped in hot wax to seal the ends2 they are then packed in boxes of #e lbs4 each and are ready for delivery4 ,the di-nitro-naphthalene is made at the factory4 ,mono-nitro-naphthalene is first made as follows3--#ab parts of commercial nitrate of soda are ground to a fine powder1 and further ground with the addition of #ae parts of refined naphthalene until thoroughly incorporated2 it is then placed in an earthenware pan1 and #cj parts of sulphuric acid of #ff ,b4 added1 #b parts at a time1 during forty-eight hours 7the rate of adding ,h#b,,so#d depends on the condition of the charge1 and keeping it in a fluid state71 with frequent agitation1 day and night1 during the first three or four days1 afterwards three or four times a day4 ,in all fourteen days are occupied in the nitration process4 ,it is then strained through an earthenware strainer1 washed with warm water1 drained1 and dried4 ,for the purpose of producing this material in a granulated condition1 which is found more convenient for drying1 and further nitrification1 it is placed in a tub1 and live steam passed through1 until brought up to the boiling point 7the tub should be about half full71 cold water is then run in whilst violently agitating the contents until the naphthalene solidifies2 it can then be easily drained and dried4 ,for the further treatment to make di-nitro-naphthalene1 #ah parts of nitro-naphthalene are placed in an earthenware pan1 together with #ci parts of sulphuric acid of #ff ,b41 then #ae parts of nitric acid of #dj ,b4 are added1 in small quantities at a time1 stirring the mixture continually4 ,this adding of nitric acid is controlled by the fuming1 which should be kept down as much as possible4 ,the operation takes ten to twelve days1 when #ajj times the above quantities1 taken in kilogrammes1 are taken4 ,at the end of the nitration the di-nitro-naphthalene is removed to earthenware strainers1 allowed to drain1 washed with hot water and soda until all acid is removed1 washed with water and dried4 ,the di-nitro- naphthalene gives some trouble in washing1 as some acid is held in the crystals which is liable to make its appearance when crushed4 ,to avoid this it should be ground and washed with carbonate of soda before drying2 an excess of carbonate of soda should not1 however1 be used4 ,electronite4--,this is a high explosive designed to afford safety in coal getting4 ,this important end has been attained by using such ingredients1 and so proportioning them1 as will ensure on detonation a degree of heat insufficient under the conditions of a blown-out shot1 to ignite fire damp or coal dust4 ,it is of the nitrate of ammonium class of permitted explosives4 ,it contains about #ge per cent4 of nitrate of ammonium1 with the addition of nitrate of barium1 wood meal1 and starch4 ,the gases resulting from detonation are chiefly water in the gaseous form1 nitrogen1 and a little carbon dioxide4 ,it is granulated with the object of preventing missfires from ramming1 to which nitrate of ammonium explosives are somewhat susceptible4 ,this explosive underwent some exhaustive experiments at the experimental station near ,wigan in #ahie1 when #h oz4 or #ab oz4 charges were fired unstemmed into an admixture of coal dust and #aj per cent4 of gas1 without any ignition taking place4 ,it is manufactured by ,messrs ,curtis's ,harvey ,ltd4 at their factory1 ,tonbridge1 ,kent4 ,sprengel's ,explosives4--,this is a large class of explosives4 ,the essential principle of them all is the admixture of an oxidising with a combustible agent at the time of1 or just before1 being required for use1 the constituents of the mixture being very often non-explosive bodies4 ,this type of explosive is due to the late ,dr ,herman ,sprengel1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,following up the idea that an explosion is a sudden combustion1 he submitted a variety of mixtures of oxidising and combustible agents to the violent shock of a detonator of fulminate4 ,these mixtures were made in such proportions that the mutual oxidation or de-oxidation should be theoretically complete4 ,among them are the following3-- #a4 ,one chemical equivalent of nitro-benzene to equivalents of nitric acid4 #b4 ,five equivalents of picric acid to #ac equivalents of nitric acid4 #c4 ,eighty-seven equivalents of nitro-naphthalene to #dac equivalents of nitric acid4 #d4 ,porous cakes1 or lumps of chlorate of potash1 exploded violently with bisulphide of carbon1 nitro-benzol1 carbonic acid1 sulphur1 benzene1 and mixtures of these substances4 ,no4 #a covers the explosive known as ,hellhoffite1 and ,no4 #b is really oxonite1 and ,no4 #d resembles rack-a-rock1 an explosive invented by ,mr ,s4,r4 ,divine1 and consisting of a mixture of chlorate of potash and nitro- benzol4 ,roburite1 bellite1 and securite should perhaps be regarded as belonging to the ,sprengel class of explosives1 otherwise this class is not manufactured or used in ,england4 ,the principal members are known as ,hellhoffite1 consisting of a mixture of nitro-petroleum or nitro-tar oils and nitric acid1 or of meta-di-nitro-benzol and nitric acid2 ,oxonite1 consisting of picric and nitric acids2 and ,panclastite1 a name given to various mixtures1 proposed by ,m4 ,turpin1 such as liquid nitric peroxide1 with bisulphide of carbon1 benzol1 petroleum1 ether1 or mineral oils4 ,picric ,acid1 ,tri-nitro-,phenol1 or ,carbazotic ,acid4--,picric acid1 or a tri-nitro-phenol 7,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh7#b3d3f1 is produced by the action of nitric acid on many organic substances1 such as phenol1 indigo1 wool1 aniline1 resins1 c4 ,at one time a yellow gum from ,botany ,bay 7,xanthorrhoea hastilis7 was chiefly used4 ,one part of phenol 7carbolic acid71 ,c#f;,h#e,,oh1 is added to #c parts of strong fuming nitric acid1 slightly warmed1 and when the violence of the reaction has subsided1 boiled till nitrous fumes are no longer evolved4 ,the resinous mass thus produced is boiled with water1 the resulting picric acid is converted into a sodium salt by a solution of sodium carbonate1 which throws down sodium picrate in crystals4 ,phenol-sulphuric acid is now1 however1 more generally used1 and the apparatus employed for producing it closely resembles that used in making nitro-benzol4 ,it is also made commercially by melting carbolic acid1 and mixing it with strong sulphuric acid1 then diluting the sulpho- carbolic,a acid with water1 and afterwards running it slowly into a stone tank containing nitric acid4 ,this is allowed to cool1 where the crude picric acid crystallises out1 and the acid liquid 7which contains practically no picric acid1 but only sulphuric acid1 with some nitric acid7 being poured down the drains4 ,the crude picric acid is then dissolved in water by the aid of steam1 and allowed to cool when most of the picric acid recrystallises4 ,the mother liquor is transferred to a tank and treated with sulphuric acid1 when a further crop of picric acid crystals is obtained4 ,the crystals of picric acid are further purified by recrystallisation1 drained1 and dried at #ajj ,f4 on glazed earthenware trays by the aid of steam4 ,it can also be obtained by the action of nitric acid on ortho-nitro-phenol1 para-nitro-phenol1 and di-nitro-phenol 7#b3d and #b3f71 but not from meta-nitro-phenol1 a fact which indicates its constitution4,b ,footnote ,a3 ,o4 and p4 phenolsulphonic acids4 ,c#c;,h#d7,,oh74,,so#c;,h #c;,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh ,h#b,,so#d #b;,h#b,o4 7,picric acid74 ,footnote ,b3 ,carey ,lea1 ,amer4 ,jour4 ,sci41 7ii471 xxxii4 #ahj4 ,picric acid crystallises in yellow shining prisms or lamin having an intensely bitter taste1 and is poisonous4 ,it melts at #abb4e ,c41 sublimes when cautiously heated1 dissolves sparingly in cold water1 more easily in hot water1 still more in alcohol4 ,it stains the skin an intense yellow colour1 and is used as a dye for wool and silk4 ,it is a strong acid1 forming well crystallised yellow salts1 which detonate violently when heated1 some of them also by percussion4 ,the potassium salt1 ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,ok1 crystallises in long needles very slightly soluble in water4 ,the sodium1 ammonium1 and barium salts are1 however1 easily soluble in water4 ,picric acid1 when heated1 burns with a luminous and smoky flame1 and may be burnt away in large quantity without explosion2 but the mere contact of certain metallic oxides1 with picric acid1 in the presence of heat1 develops powerful explosives1 which are capable of acting as detonators to an indefinite amount of the acid1 wet or dry1 which is within reach of their detonative influence4 ,the formula of picric acid is ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c ,,oh4 which shows its formation from phenol 7,c#f;,h#e,,oh471 three hydrogen atoms being displaced by the ,,no#b group4 ,the equation of its formation from phenol is as follows3-- ,c#f;,h#e4,,oh #c;,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh #c;,h#b,o4 ,according to ,berthelot1 its heat of formation from its elements equals #di4a calories1 and its heat of total combustion by free oxygen is equal to #fah4d cals4 ,it hardly contains more than half the oxygen necessary for its complete combustion4 #b;,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh ,o#aj #ab;,,co#b #c;,h#b #c,n#b4 ,the percentage composition of picric acid is--,nitrogen1 #ah4cd2 oxygen1 #di4bb2 hydrogen1 #a4jj2 and carbon1 #ca4dd1 equal to #fj4bf per cent4 of ,,no#b4 ,the products of decomposition are carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 and the heat liberated1 according to ,berthelot1 would be #acj4f cals41 or #egj cals4 per kilogramme4 ,the reduced volume of the gases would be #aij litres per equivalent1 or #hbi litres per kilogramme4 ,to obtain a total combustion of picric acid it is necessary to mix with it an oxidising agent1 such as a nitrate1 chlorate1 c4 ,it has been proposed to mix picric acid 7#aj parts7 with sodium nitrate 7#aj parts7 and potassium bichromate 7#h4c parts74 ,these proportions would furnish a third of oxygen in excess of the necessary proportion4 ,picric acid was not considered to be an explosive1 properly so called1 for a long time after its discovery1 but the disastrous accident which occurred at ,manchester 7vide ,gov4 ,rep4 ,no4 ,,lxxxi41 by ,colonel 7now ,sir ,v4,d47 ,majendie1 ,c4,b471 and some experiments made by ,dr ,dupr and ,colonel ,majendie to ascertain the cause of the accident1 conclusively proved that this view was wrong4 ,the experiments of ,berthelot 7,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,chim4 de ,paris1 xlix41 p4 #def7 on the explosive decomposition of picric acid are also deserving of attention in this connection4 ,if a small quantity of picric acid be heated in a moderate fire1 in a crucible1 or even in an open test tube1 it will melt 7at #abj ,c4 commercial acid71 then give off vapours which catch fire upon contact with air1 and burn with a sooty flame1 without exploding4 ,if the burning liquid be poured out upon a cold slab1 it will soon go out4 ,a small quantity carefully heated in a tube1 closed at one end1 can even be completely volatilised without apparent decomposition4 ,it is thus obvious that picric acid is much less explosive than the nitric ethers1 such as nitro-glycerol and nitro-cellulose1 and very considerably less explosive than the nitrogen compounds and fulminates4 ,it would1 however1 be quite erroneous to assume that picric acid cannot explode when simply heated4 ,on the contrary1 ,berthelot has proved that this is not the case4 ,if a glass tube be heated to redness1 and a minute quantity of picric acid crystals be then thrown in1 it will explode with a curious characteristic noise4 ,if the quantity be increased so that the temperature of the tube is materially reduced1 no explosion will take place at once1 but the substance will volatilise and then explode1 though with much less violence than before1 in the upper part of the tube4 ,finally1 if the amount of picric acid be still further increased under these conditions1 it will undergo partial decomposition and volatilise1 but will not even deflagrate4 ,nitro-benzene1 di-nitrobenzene1 and mono-1 di-1 and tri-nitro-naphthalenes behave similarly4 ,the manner in which picric acid will decompose is thus dependent upon the initial temperature of the decomposition1 and if the surrounding material absorb heat as fast as it is produced by the decomposition1 there will be no explosion and no deflagration4 ,if1 however1 the absorption is not sufficient to prevent deflagration1 this may so increase the temperature of the surrounding materials that the deflagration will then end in explosion4 ,thus1 if an explosion were started in an isolated spot1 it would extend throughout the mass1 and give rise to a general explosion4 ,in the manufacture of picric acid the first obvious and most necessary precaution is to isolate the substance from other chemicals with which it might accidentally come into contact4 ,if pure materials only are used1 the manufacture presents no danger4 ,the finished material1 however1 must be carefully kept from contact with nitrates1 chlorates1 or oxides4 ,if only a little bit of lime or plaster become accidentally mixed with it1 it may become highly dangerous4 ,a local explosion may occur which might have the effect of causing the explosion of the whole mass4 ,picric acid can be fired by a detonator1 #e-;grain fulminate1 and ,m4 ,turpin patented the use of picric acid1 unmixed with any other substance1 in #ahhe4 ,the detonation of a small quantity of dry picric acid is sufficient to detonate a much larger quantity containing as much as #ag per cent4 of water4 ,it is chiefly due to ,french chemists 7and to ,dr ,sprengel7 that picric acid has come to the front as an explosive4 ,melinite1,a a substance used by the ,french ,government for filling shells1 was due to ,m4 ,turpin1 and is supposed to be little else than fused picric acid mixed with gun-cotton dissolved in some solvent 7acetone or ether-alcohol74 ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel has also proposed to use picric acid1 mixed with nitrate of potash 7#c parts7 and picrate of ammonia 7#b parts7 as a filling for shells4 ,this substance requires a violent blow and strong confinement to explode it4 ,i am not aware1 however1 that it has ever been officially adopted in this country4 ,messrs ,dsignolles and ,brugre have introduced military powders1 consisting of mixtures of potassium and ammonium picrates with nitrate of potassium4 ,m4 ,dsignolles introduced three kinds of picrate powders1 composed as follows3-- ,for ,torpedoes ,for ,guns4 ,for ,small and ,shells4 ,ordinary4 ,heavy4 ,arms4 ,picrate of ,potash #ee-ej #af4d- #i4f #i #bh4f-bb4i ,saltpetre #de-ej #gd4d-gi4g #hj #fe4j-fi4d ,charcoal 444 #i4b-aj4g #aa #f4d- #g4g ,they were made much like ordinary gunpowder1 #f to #ad per cent4 of moisture being added when being milled4 ,the advantages claimed over gunpowder are greater strength1 and consequently greater ballistic or disruptive effect1 comparative absence of smoke1 and freedom from injurious action on the bores of guns1 owing to the absence of sulphur4 ,brugre's powder is composed of ammonium picrate and nitre1 the proportions being #ed per cent4 picrate of ammonia and #df per cent4 potassic nitrate4 ,it is stable1 safe to manufacture and handle1 but expensive4 ,it gives good results in the ,chassept rifle1 very little smoke1 and its residue is small1 and consists of carbonate of potash4 ,it is stated that #b4f grms4 used in a rifle gave an effect equal to #e4e grms4 of ordinary gunpowder4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the ,british ,lydite and the ,japanese ,shimose are said to be identical with ,melinite4 ,turpin has patented various mixtures of picric acid1 with gum-arabic1 oils1 fats1 collodion jelly1 c4 ,when the last-named substance is diluted in the proportion of from #c to #e per cent4 in a mixture of ether and alcohol1 he states that the blocks of picric acid moulded with it will explode in a closed chamber with a priming of from #a to #c grammes of fulminate4 ,he also casts picric acid into projectiles1 the cast acid having a density of about #a4f4 ,in this state it resists the shock produced by the firing of a cannon1 when contained in a projectile1 having an initial velocity of #fjj metres4 ,it is made in the following way3--,the acid is fused in a vessel provided with a false bottom1 heated to #acj to #ade ,c4 by a current of steam under pressure1 or simply by the circulation under the false bottom of a liquid1 such as oil1 chloride of zinc1 glycerine1 c41 heated to the same temperature4 ,the melted picric acid is run into moulds of a form corresponding to that of the blocks required1 or it may be run into projectiles1 which should be heated to a temperature of about #ajj ,c41 in order to prevent too rapid solidification4 ,when cresylic acid 7or cresol1 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,ch#c7,,oh47 is acted upon by nitric acid it produces a series of nitro compounds very similar to those formed by nitric acids on phenol1 such as sodium di-nitro-cresylate1 known in the arts as victoria yellow4 ,naphthol1 a phenol-like body obtained from naphthalene1 under the same conditions1 produces sodium di-nitro- naphthalic acid1 ,c#aj;,h#f7,,no#b7b,o4 ,the explosive known as roburite contains chloro-nitro-naphthalene1 and romit1 a ,swedish explosive1 nitro-naphthalene4 ,tri-nitro-cresol1 ,c#g;,h#d7,,no#b7c,,oh4--,a body very similar to tri- nitro-phenol1 crystallises in yellow needles1 slightly soluble in cold water1 rather more so in boiling water1 alcohol1 and ether4 ,it melts at about #ajj ,c4 ,in ,france it is known as ,cresilite1 and mixed with melinite1 is used for charging shells4 ,by neutralising a boiling saturated solution of tri-nitro-cresol with ammonia1 a double salt of ammonium and nitro-cresol crystallises out upon cooling1 which is similar to ammonium picrate4 ,this salt is known as ,ecrasite1 and has been used in ,austria for charging shells4 ,it is a bright yellow solid1 greasy to the touch1 melts at #ajj ,c41 is unaffected by moisture1 heat1 or cold1 ignites when brought into contact with an incandescent body or open flame1 burning harmlessly away unless strongly confined1 and is insensitive to friction or concussion4 ,it is claimed to possess double the strength of dynamite1 and requires a special detonator 7not less than #b grms4 of fulminate7 to provoke its full force4 ,notwithstanding the excellent properties attributed to this explosive1 ,lieut4 ,w4 ,walke 7,lectures on ,explosives1 p4 #aha7 says1 ,several imperfectly explained and unexpected explosions have occurred in loading shells with this substance1 and have prevented its general adoption up to the present time4 ,the ,fulminates4--,the fulminates are salts of fulminic acid1 ,c#b,n#b,o#b;,h#b4 ,their constitution is not very well understood4 ,dr ,e4 ,divers1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,mr ,kawakita 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 #ahhd1 pp4 #ac-ai71 give the formul of mercury and silver fulminates as ,,oc ,n ,ag,o,c ,n _/ ,hg ,o and ,o _/ _/ -,c ,n ,ag,c ,n whereas ,dr ,h4,e4 ,armstrong1 ,f4,r4,s41 would prefer to write the formula of fulminic acid ,,on4,c4,,oh4 ,c7,n4,,oh71 and ,a4,f4 ,holleman 7,berichte1 v4 xxvi41 p4 #adjc71 assigns to mercury fulminate the formula ,c3,n4,o ,hg ,c3,n4,o1 and ,r4 ,schol 7,ber41 v4 xxiii41 p4 #ceje71 ,c3,,no ,hg4 ,c3,,no ,they are very generally regarded as iso-nitroso compounds4 ,the principal compound of fulminic acid is the mercury salt commonly known as fulminating mercury4 ,it is prepared by dissolving mercury in nitric acid1 and then adding alcohol to the solution1 #a part of mercury and #ab parts of nitric acid of specific gravity #a4cf1 and #e-a_/b parts of #ij per cent4 alcohol being used4 ,as soon as the mixture is in violent reaction1 #f parts more of alcohol are added slowly to moderate the action4 ,at first the mixture blackens from the separation of mercury1 but this soon vanishes1 and is succeeded by crystalline flocks of mercury fulminate which fall to the bottom of the vessel4 ,during the reaction1 large quantities of volatile oxidation products of alcohol1 such as aldehyde1 ethylic nitrate1 c41 are evolved from the boiling liquid1 whilst others1 such as glycollic acid1 remain in solution4 ,the mercury fulminate is then crystallised from hot water4 ,it forms white silky1 delicate needles1 which are with difficulty soluble in cold water4 ,in the dry state it is extremely explosive1 detonating on heating1 or by friction or percussion1 as also on contact with concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,the reaction that takes place upon its decomposition is as follows3-- ,c#b,n#b,o#b;,hg ,hg #b;,,co ,n#b 7#bhd7 ,according to this equation #a grm4 of the fulminate should yield #bce4h c4c4 7 #ff4if litres for #bhd grms474 ,berthelot and ,vicille have obtained a yield of #bcd4b c4c41 equal to #ff4g litres for one equivalent #bhd grms4 ,dry fulminate explodes violently when struck1 compressed1 or touched with sulphuric acid1 or as an incandescent body4 ,if heated slowly1 it explodes at #aeb ,c41 or if heated rapidly1 at #ahg ,c4 ,it is often used mixed with potassium chlorate in detonators4 ,the reaction which takes place in this case is #c;,c#b,n#b,o#b;,hg #b,k,cl,o#c #c;,hg #f;,,co#b #c,n#b #b,k,cl4 ,on adding copper or zinc to a hot saturated solution of the salt1 fulminate of copper or zinc is formed4 ,the copper salt forms highly explosive green crystals4 ,there is also a double fulminate of copper of ammonia1 and of copper and potassium4 ,silver fulminite1 ,c#b,n#b,o#b;,ag#b1 is prepared in a similar manner to the mercury salt4 ,it separates in fine white needles1 which dissolve in #cf parts of boiling water1 and are with difficulty soluble in cold water4 ,at above #ajj ,c41 or on the weakest blow1 it explodes with fearful violence4 ,even when covered with water it is more sensitive than the mercury salt4 ,it forms a very sensitive double salt with ammonia and several other metals4 ,with hydrogen it forms the acid fulminate of silver4 ,it is used in crackers and bon-bons1 and other toy fireworks1 in minute quantities4 ,gay ,lussac found it to be composed as follows3--,carbon1 #g4ib per cent42 nitrogen1 #i4bd per cent42 silver1 #gb4ai per cent42 oxygen1 #aj4fe per cent42 and he assigned to it the formula1 ,c#b,n#b;,ag#b,o#b4 ,laurent and ,gerhardt give it the formula1 ,c#b,n7,,no#b7;,ag#b1 and thus suppose it to contain nitryl1 ,,no#b4 ,on adding potassium chloride to a boiling solution of argentic fulminate1 as long as a precipitate of argentic chloride forms1 there is obtained on evaporation brilliant white plates1 of a very explosive nature1 of potassic argentic fulminate1 ,c7,,no#b7,k,ag4,,cn1 from whose aqueous solution nitric acid precipitates a white powder of hydric argentic fulminate1 ,c7,,no#b7;,h,ag4,,cn4 ,all attempts to prepare fulminic acid1 or nitro-aceto- nitrile1 ,c7,,no#b7;,h#b;,,cn1 from the fulminates have failed4 ,there is a fulminate of gold1 which is a violently explosive buff precipitate1 formed when ammonia is added to ter-chloride of gold1 and fulminate of platinum1 a black precipitate formed by the addition of ammonia to a solution of oxide platinum1 in dilute sulphuric acid4 ,fulminating silver is a compound obtained by the action of ammonia on oxide of silver4 ,it is a very violent explosive4 ,pure mercury fulminate may be kept an indefinite length of time4 ,water does not affect it4 ,it explodes at #ahg ,c41 and on contact with an ignited body4 ,it is very sensitive to shock and friction1 even that of wood upon wood4 ,it is used for discharging bullets in saloon rifles4 ,its inflammation is so sudden that it scatters black powder on which it is placed without igniting it1 but it is sufficient to place it in an envelope1 however weak1 for ignition to take place1 and the more resisting the envelope the more violent is the shock1 a circumstance that plays an important part in caps and detonators4 ,the presence of #cj per cent4 of water prevents decomposition1 #aj per cent4 prevents explosion4 ,this is1 however1 only true for small quantities1 and does not apply to silver fulminate1 which explodes under water by friction4 ,moist fulminates slowly decompose on contact with the oxidisable metals4 ,the 7reduced7 volume of gases obtained from #a kilo4 is according to ,berthelot1 #bce4f litres4 ,the equation of its decomposition is ,c#b;,hg,n#b,o#b #b;,,co ,n#b ,hg4 ,fulminate of mercury is manufactured upon the large scale by two methods4 ,one of these1 commonly known as the ,german method1 is conducted as follows3--,one part of mercury is dissolved in #ab parts of nitric acid of a specific gravity of #a4cge1 and to this solution #af4e parts of absolute alcohol are added by degrees1 and heat is then slowly applied to the mixture until the dense fumes first formed have disappeared1 and when the action has become more violent some more alcohol is added1 equal in volume to that which has already been added4 ,this is added very gradually4 ,the product obtained1 which is mercury fulminate1 is #aab per cent4 of the mercury employed4 ,another method is to dissolve #aj parts of mercury in #ajj parts of nitric acid of a gravity of #a4d1 and when the solution has reached a temperature of #ed ,c1 to pour it slowly through a glass funnel into #hc parts of alcohol4 ,when the effervescence ceases1 it is filtered through paper filters1 washed1 and dried over hot water1 at a temperature not exceeding #ajj ,c4 ,the fulminate is then carefully packed in paper boxes1 or in corked bottles4 ,the product obtained by this process is #acj per cent4 of the mercury taken4 ,this process is the safest1 and at the same time the cheapest4 ,fulminate should be kept1 if possible1 in a damp state4 ,commercial fulminate is often adulterated with chlorate of potash4 ,detonators1 or caps1 are metallic capsules1 usually of copper1 and resemble very long percussion caps4 ,the explosive is pure fulminate of mercury1 or a mixture of that substance with nitrate or chlorate of potash1 gun-powder1 or sulphur4 ,the following is a common cap mixture3-- #ajj parts of fulminate of mercury and #ej parts of potassium nitrate1 or #ajj parts of fulminate and #fj parts of meal powder4 ,silver fulminate is also sometimes used in caps4 ,there are eight sizes made1 which vary in dimensions and in amount of explosive contained4 ,they are further distinguished as singles1 doubles1 trebles1 c41 according to their number4 ,colonel ,cundill1 ,r4,a4 7,dict4 of ,explosives71 gives the following list3-- ,no4 #a contains #cjj grms4 of explosive per #ajjj4 #b #djj #c #edj #d #fej #e #hjj #f #a1jjj #g #a1ejj #h #b1jjj ,trebles are generally used for ordinary dynamite1 #e1 #f1 or #g for gun-cotton1 blasting gelatine1 roburite1 c4 ,in the ,british service percussion caps1 fuses1 c41 are formed of #f parts by weight of fulminate of mercury1 #f of chlorate of potash1 and #d of sulphide of antimony2 time fuses of #d parts of fulminate1 #f of potassium chlorate1 #d of sulphide of antimony1 the mixture being damped with a varnish consisting of #fde grains of shellac dissolved in a pint of methylated spirit4 ,abel's fuse 7,no4 #a7 consists of a mixture of sulphide of copper1 phosphide of copper1 chlorate of potash1 and ,no4 #b of a mixture of gun-cotton and gun-powder4 ,they are detonated by means of a platinum wire heated to redness by means of an electric current4 ,bain's fuse mixture is a mixture of subphosphide of copper1 sulphide of antimony1 and chlorate of potash4 ,in the manufacture of percussion caps and detonators the copper blanks are cut from copper strips and stamped to the required shape4 ,the blanks are then placed in a gun-metal plate1 with the concave side uppermost--a tool composed of a plate of gun-metal1 in which are inserted a number of copper points1 each of the same length1 and so spaced apart as to exactly fit each point into a cap when inverted over a plate containing the blanks4 ,the points are dipped into a vessel containing the cap composition1 which has been previously moistened with methylated spirit4 ,it is then removed and placed over the blanks1 and a slight blow serves to deposit a small portion of the cap mixture into each cap4 ,a similar tool is then dipped into shellac varnish1 removed and placed over the caps1 when a drop of varnish from each of the copper points falls into the caps1 which are then allowed to dry4 ,this is a very safe and efficacious method of working4 ,at the works of the ,cotton-,powder ,company ,limited1 at ,faversham1 the fulminate is mixed wet with a very finely ground mixture of gun-cotton and chlorate of potash1 in about the proportions of #f parts fulminate1 #a part gun-cotton1 and #a part chlorate4 ,the water in which the fulminate is usually stored is first drained off1 and replaced by displacement by methyl-alcohol4 ,while the fulminate is moist with alcohol1 the gun-cotton and chlorate mixture is added1 and well mixed with it4 ,this mixture is then distributed in the detonators standing in a frame1 and each detonator is put separately into a machine for the purpose of pressing the paste into the detonator shell4 ,at the eleventh annual meeting of the representatives of the ,bavarian chemical industries at ,regensburg1 attention was drawn to the unhealthy nature of the process of charging percussion caps4 ,numerous miniature explosions occur1 and the air becomes laden with mercurial vapours1 which exercise a deleterious influence upon the health of the operatives4 ,there is equally just cause for apprehension in respect to the poisonous gases which are evolved during the solution of mercury in nitric acid1 and especially during the subsequent treatment with alcohol4 ,many methods have been proposed for dealing with the waste products arising during the manufacture and manipulation of fulminate of mercury1 but according to ,kmmerer1 only one of comparatively recent introduction appears to be at all satisfactory4 ,it is based upon the fact that mercuric fulminate1 when heated with a large volume of water under high pressure1 splits up into metallic mercury and non-explosive mercurial compounds of unknown composition4 ,in mixing the various ingredients with mercury fulminate to form cap mixtures1 they should not be too dry2 in fact1 they are generally more or less wet1 and mixed in small quantities at a time1 in a special house1 the floors of which are covered with carpet1 and the tables with felt4 ,felt shoes are also worn by the workpeople employed4 ,all the tools and apparatus used must be kept very clean2 for granulating1 hair sieves are used1 and the granulated mixture is afterwards dried on light frames1 with canvas trays the bottoms of which are covered with thin paper1 and the frames fitted with indiarubber cushions1 to reduce any jars they may receive4 ,the windows of the building should be painted white to keep out the rays of the sun4 ,mr ,h4 ,maxim1 of ,new ,york1 has lately patented a composition for detonators for use with high explosives1 which can also be thrown from ordnance in considerable quantities with safety4 ,the composition is prepared as follows3--,nitro-glycerine is thickened with pyroxyline to the consistency of raw rubber4 ,this is done by employing about #ge to #he per cent4 of nitro-glycerine1 and #ae to #be per cent4 of pyroxyline1 according to the stiffness or elasticity of the compound desired4 ,some solvent that dissolves the nitro-cotton is also used4 ,the product thus formed is a kind of blasting gelatine1 and should be in a pasty condition1 in order that it may be mixed with fulminate of mercury4 ,the solvent used is acetone1 and the quantity of fulminate is between #ge to #he per cent4 of the entire compound4 ,if desired1 the compound can be made less sensitive to shocks by giving it a spongy consistency by agitating it with air while it is still in a syrupy condition4 ,the nitro-glycerine1 especially in this latter case1 may be omitted4 ,in some cases1 when it is desirable to add a deterring medium1 nitro-benzene or some suitable gum is added4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,the ,,charge4 ,the method of preparing a blasting charge is as follows3--,a piece of ,bickford fuse of the required length is cut clean and is inserted into a detonator until it reaches the fulminate4 ,the upper portion of the detonator is then squeezed round the fuse with a pair of nippers4 ,the object of this is not only to secure that the full power of the detonator may be developed1 but also to fix the fuse in the cap 7,fig4 #cd74 ,when the detonator1 c41 is to be used under water1 or in a damp situation1 grease or tallow should be placed round the junction of the cap with the fuse1 in order to make a water-tight joint4 ,a cartridge is then opened and a hole made in its upper end1 and the detonator pushed in nearly up to the top4 ,gun-cotton or tonite cartridges generally have a hole already made in the end of the charge4 ,small charges of dry gun-cotton1 known as primers1 are generally used to explode wet gun-cotton4 ,the detonators 7which are often fired by electrical means7 are placed inside these primers 7,fig4 #ce74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,primer4 ,one of the forms of electric exploders used is shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,this apparatus is made by ,messrs ,john ,davis ,son1 and is simply a small hand dynamo1 capable of producing a current of electricity of high tension4 ,this firm are also makers of various forms of low tension exploders4 ,a charge having been prepared1 as in ,fig4 #cd1 insert into the bore-hole one or more cartridges as judged necessary1 and squeeze each one down separately with a wooden rammer1 so as to leave no space round the charge1 and above this insert the cartridge containing the fuse and detonator4 ,now fill up the rest of the bore-hole with sand1 gravel1 water1 or other tamping4 ,with gelatine dynamites a firm tamping may be used1 but with ordinary dynamite loose sand is better4 ,the charge is now ready for firing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,electric ,,exploder4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,smokeless ,,powders4 ,smokeless ,powder in ,general--,cordite--,axite--,ballistite- -,u4,s4 ,naval ,powder--,schultze's ,e4,g4 ,powder--,indurite--,vielle ,poudre--,rifleite-- ,cannonite--,walsrode--,cooppal ,powders--,amberite--,troisdorf--,maximi te-- ,picric ,acid ,powders1 c41 c4 ,the progress made in recent years in the manufacture of smokeless powders has been very great4 ,with a few exceptions1 nearly all these powders are nitro compounds1 and chiefly consist of some form of nitro-cellulose1 either in the form of nitro-cotton or nitro-lignine2 or else contain1 in addition to the above1 nitro-glycerine1 with very often some such substance as camphor1 which is used to reduce the sensitiveness of the explosive4 ,other nitro bodies that are used1 or have been proposed1 are nitro-starch1 nitro-jute1 nitrated paper1 nitro-benzene1 di-nitro-benzene1 mixed with a large number of other chemical substances1 such as nitrates1 chlorates1 c4 ,and lastly1 there are the picrate powders1 consisting of picric acid1 either alone or mixed with other substances4 ,the various smokeless powders may be roughly divided into military and sporting powders4 ,but this classification is very rough2 because although some of the better known purely military powders are not suited for use in sporting guns1 nearly all the manufacturers of sporting powders also manufacture a special variety of their particular explosive1 fitted for use in modern rifles or machine guns1 and occasionally1 it is claimed1 for big guns also4 ,of the purely military powders1 the best known are cordite1 ballistite1 and the ,french ,b4,n4 powder1 the ,german smokeless 7which contains nitro- glycerine and nitro-cotton72 and among the general powders1 two varieties of which are manufactured either for rifles or sporting guns1 ,schultze's1 the ,e4,c4 ,powders1 ,walsrode powder1 cannonite1 ,cooppal powder1 amberite1 c41 c4 ,cordite1 the smokeless powder adopted by the ,british ,government1 is the patent of the late ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel and ,sir ,james ,dewar1 and is somewhat similar to blasting gelatine4 ,it is chiefly manufactured at the ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory at ,waltham ,abbey1 but also at two or three private factories1 including those of the ,national ,explosives ,company ,limited1 the ,new ,explosives ,company ,limited1 the ,cotton-,powder ,company ,limited1 ,messrs ,kynock's1 c4 ,as first manufactured it consisted of gun-cotton #cg per cent41 nitro-glycerine #eh per cent41 and vaseline #e per cent41 but the modified cordite now made consists of #fe per cent4 gun-cotton1 #cj per cent4 of nitro-glycerine1 and #e per cent4 of vaseline4 ,the gun-cotton used is composed chiefly of the hexa-nitrate1,a which is not soluble in nitro- glycerine4 ,it is therefore necessary to use some solvent such as acetone1 in order to form the jelly with nitro-glycerine4 ,the process of manufacture of cordite is very similar1 as far as the chemical part of the process is concerned1 to that of blasting gelatine1 with the exception that some solvent for the gun-cotton1 other than nitro-glycerine has to be used4 ,both the nitro-glycerine and the gun-cotton employed must be as dry as possible1 and the latter should not contain more than 4#f per cent4 of mineral matter and not more than #aj per cent4 of soluble nitro-cellulose1 and a nitrogen content of not less than #ab4e per cent4 ,the dry gun-cotton 7about #a per cent4 of moisture7 is placed in an incorporating tank1 which consists of a brass-lined box1 some of the acetone is added1 and the machine 7,fig4 #bi71 is started2 after some time the rest of the acetone is added 7#bj per cent4 in all7 and the paste kneaded for three and a half hours4 ,at the end of this time the ,vaseline is added1 and the kneading continued for a further three and a half hours4 ,the kneading machine 7,fig4 #bi7 consists of a trough1 composed of two halves of a cylinder1 in each of which is a shaft which carries a revolving blade4 ,these blades revolve in opposite directions1 and one makes about half the number of revolutions of the other4 ,as the blades very nearly touch the bottom of the trough1 any material brought into the machine is divided into two parts1 kneaded against the bottom1 then pushed along the blade1 turned over1 and completely mixed4 ,during kneading the acetone gradually penetrates the mixture1 and dissolves both the nitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine1 and a uniform dough is obtained which gradually assumes a buff colour4 ,during kneading the mass becomes heated1 and therefore cold water is passed through the jacket of the machine to prevent heating the mixture above the normal temperature1 and consequent evaporation of the acetone4 ,the top of the machine is closed in with a glass door1 in order to prevent as far as possible the evaporation of the solvent4 ,when the various ingredients are formed into a homogeneous mass1 the mixture is taken to the press house1 where in the form of a plastic mass it is placed in cylindrical moulds4 ,the mould is inserted in a specially designed press1 and the cordite paste forced through a die with one or more holes4 ,the paste is pressed out by hydraulic pressure1 and the long cord is wound on a metal drum 7,fig4 #ch71 or cut into lengths2 in either case the cordite is now sent to the drying houses1 and dried at a temperature of about #ajj ,f4 from three to fourteen days1 the time varying with the size4 ,this operation drives off the acetone1 and any moisture the cordite may still contain1 and its diameter decreases somewhat4 ,in case of the finer cordite1 such as the rifle cordite1 the next operation is blending4 ,this process consists in mounting ten of the metal drums on a reeling machine similar to those used for yarns1 and winding the ten cords on to one drum4 ,this operation is known as ten-stranding4 ,furthermore1 six ten-stranded reels are afterwards wound upon one1 and the sixty-stranded reel is then ready to be sent away1 ,this is done in order to obtain a uniform blending of the material4 ,with cordite of a larger diameter1 the cord is cut into lengths of #ab inches4 ,every lot of cordite from each manufacturer has a consecutive number1 numbers representing the size and one or more initial letters to identify the manufacturer4 ,these regulations do not apply to the ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory1 ,waltham ,abbey4 ,the finished cordite resembles a cord of gutta-percha1 and its colour varies from light to dark brown4 ,it should not look black or shrivelled1 and should always possess sufficient elasticity to return to its original form after slight bending4 ,cordite is practically smokeless4 ,on explosion a very thin vapour is produced1 which is dissipated rapidly4 ,this smokelessness can be understood from the fact that the products of combustion are nearly all non-condensible gases1 and contain no solid products of combustion which would cause smoke4 ,for the same muzzle velocity a smaller charge of cordite than gunpowder is required owing to the greater amount of gas produced4 ,cordite is very slow in burning compared to gunpowder4 ,for firing blank cartridges cordite chips containing no vaseline is used4 ,the rate at which cordite explodes depends in a measure upon the diameter of the cords1 and the pressure developed upon its mechanical state4 ,the sizes of cordite used are given by ,colonel ,barker1 ,r4,a41 as follows3-- ,for the 4#cjc rifle 4#jcge inch diameter4 #ab ,pr4 ,b4,l4 gun 4#je 4#jge #d4g-;inch ,q4,f4 gun 4#ajj #f-;inch ,q4,f4 gun 4#cjj heavy guns 4#dj to 4#ej ,for rifles the cordite is used in bundles of sixty strands1 in field-guns in lengths of #aa to #ab inches1 and the thicker cordite is cut up into #ad-;inch lengths4 ,colonel ,barker says that the effect of heat upon cordite is not greater as regards its shooting qualities than upon black powder1 and in speaking of the effect that cordite has upon the guns in which it is used 7,r4,a4 ,inst47 said that they had at ,waltham ,abbey a #d4g-;inch ,q4,f4 gun that had fired #dj rounds of black powder1 and #bdi rounds of cordite 7#eh per cent4 nitro-glycerine7 and was still in excellent condition1 and showed very little sign of action1 and also a #ab-lb4 ,b4,l4 gun that had been much used and was in no wise injured4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the gun-cotton used contains #ab per cent4 of soluble gun-cotton1 and a nitrogen content of not less than #ab4h to #ac4a per cent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg ,scale1 #a inch #a foot4 ,single ,strand ,reel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,ten-,,stranding4 ,in some experiments made by ,captain ,sir ,a4 ,noble1,a with the old cordite containing #eh per cent4 nitro-glycerine1 a charge of #e lbs4 #aj oz4 of cordite of #j4b inch diameter was fired4 ,the mean chamber crusher gauge pressure was #ac4c tons per square inch 7maximum #ac4f1 minimum #ab4i71 or a mean of #b1jbg atmospheres 7max4 #b1jgj1 min4 #a1igj74 ,the muzzle velocity was #b1adf foot seconds1 and the muzzle energy #a1dcg foot tons4 ,a gramme of cordite generated #gjj c4c4 of permanent gases at #j ,c4 and #gfj mm4 pressure4 ,the quantity of heat developed was #a1bfj gramme units4 ,in the case of cordite1 as also with ballistite1 a considerable quantity of aqueous vapour has to be added to the permanent gases formed4 ,a similar trial1 in which #ab lbs4 of ordinary pebble powder was used1 gave a pressure of #ae4i tons per square inch1 or a mean of #b1dbd atmospheres4 ,it gave a #de-lb4 projectile a mean muzzle velocity of #a1hci foot seconds1 thus developing a muzzle energy of #a1jee foot tons4 ,a gramme of this powder at #j ,c4 and #gfj mm4 generates #bhj c4c4 of permanent gases1 and develops #gbj grm4 units of heat4 ,footnote ,a3 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 vol4 lii41 ,no4 #cae4 ,in a series of experiments conducted by the ,war ,office ,chemical ,committee on ,explosives in #ahia1 it was conclusively shown that considerable quantities of cordite may be burnt away without explosion4 ,a number of wooden cases1 containing #ejj to #fjj lbs4 each of cordite1 were placed upon a large bonfire of wood1 and burned for over a quarter of an hour without explosion4 ,at ,woolwich in #ahib a brown paper packet containing ten cordite cartridges was fired into with a rifle 74#cjc7 loaded with cordite1 without the explosion of a single one of them1 which shows its insensibility to shock4 ,with respect to the action of cordite upon guns1 ,sir ,a4 ,noble points out that the erosion caused is of a totally different kind to that of black powder4 ,the surface of the barrel in the case of cordite appears to be washed away smoothly by the gases1 and not pitted and eaten into as with black powder4 ,the erosion also extends over a shorter length of surface1 and in small arms it is said to be no greater than in the case of black powder4 ,sir ,a4 ,noble says in this connection3 ,it is almost unnecessary to explain that freedom from rapid erosion is of very high importance in view of the rapid deterioration of the bores of large guns when fired with charges developing very high energies4 ,as might perhaps be anticipated from the higher heat of ballistite1 its erosive power is slightly greater than that of cordite1 while the erosive power of cordite is again slightly greater than that of brown prismatic4 ,amide powder1 on the other hand1 possesses the peculiarity of eroding very much less than any other powder with which ,i have experimented1 its erosive power being only one-fourth of that of the other powders enumerated4 ,,table ,,giving ,,some ,,of ,,sir4 ,a4 ,,noble',s ,,experiments4 ,,velocities ,,obtained4 ,in a #dj ,in a #ej ,in a #ge ,in a #ajj ,cal4 ,gun4 ,cal4 ,gun4 ,cal4 ,gun4 ,cal4 ,gun4 ,foot ,secs4,foot ,secs4,foot ,sees4,foot ,secs4 ,with cordite #j4d in4 diam4 #b1gid #b1idj #c1aff #c1bhf #j4c #b1dfi #b1fai #b1haa #b1ije ballistite #j4c in4 cubes #b1daf #b1ecg #b1gac #b1hjf ,french ,b4,n4 for #f-;inch guns #b1bdi #b1cfj #b1ecf #b1faf prismatic amide #b1bah #b1cdb #b1eaa #b1egd ,,energies ,,represented ,,by ,,above ,,velocities4 ,foot ,tons4,foot ,tons4,foot ,tons4,foot ,tons4 ,cordite #j4d inch #e1dac #e1iid #f1iej #g1dgh ,ballistite #j4c inch cubes #d1bbg #d1ged #e1dgi #e1heb ,french ,b4,n4 #d1jdg #d1dfc #e1ajd #e1dfj ,prismatic amide #c1ejg #c1hfb #d4dfj #d1gde ,and again1 in speaking of his own experiments1 he says3 ,one #d4g-;inch gun has fired #a1bai rounds1 and another #iec1 all with full charges of cordite1 while a #f-;inch gun has fired #ehh rounds with full charges1 of which #cee were cordite4 ,in the whole of these guns1 so far as ,i can judge1 the erosion is certainly not greater than with ordinary powder1 and differs from it remarkably in appearance4 ,with ordinary powder a gun1 when much eroded1 is deeply furrowed 7these furrows having a great tendency to develop into cracks71 and presents much the appearance in miniature of a very roughly ploughed field4 ,with cordite1 on the contrary1 the surface appears to be pretty smoothly swept away1 while the length of the surface eroded is considerably less4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,comparative ,,pressure ,,curves ,,of ,,cordite ,,and ,,black ,,powder4 a1 ,charge1 #dh lbs4 powder2 b1 charge1 #ac lbs4 #d oz4 cordite2 c1 charge1 #ac lbs4 #d oz4 powder4 ,weight of projectile1 #ajj lbs4 in #f-;inch gun4 ,m4,v4 ,cordite #aifj feet seconds4 ,the pressures given by cordite compared with those given by black powder in the #f-;inch gun will be seen upon reference to ,fig4 #ci1 which is taken from ,professor ,v4,b4 ,lewes's paper1 read before the ,society of ,arts2 and due to ,dr ,w4 ,anderson1 ,f4,r4,s41 the ,director-,general of ,ordnance ,factories4 ,it has been found that the erosive effect is in direct proportion to the nitro-glycerine present4 ,the cordite ,m4,d41 which contains only #cj per cent4 nitro-glycerine1 gives only about half the erosive effect of the old service cordite4 ,with regard to the heating effect of cordite and cordite ,m4,d4 on a rifle1 ,mr ,t4,w4 ,jones made some experiments4 ,he fired fifty rounds of 4#cjc cartridges in fifteen minutes in the service rifle4 ,cordite raised the temperature of the rifle #bgj ,f41 and cordite ,m4,d4 #afj ,f4 only4 ,with regard to the effect of heat upon cordite1 there is some difference of opinion4 ,dr ,w4 ,anderson1 ,f4,r4,s41 says that there is no doubt that the effect of heat upon cordite is greater than upon black powder4 ,at a temperature of #aaj ,f4 the cordite used in the #d4g-;inch gun is considerably affected as regards pressure4 ,colonel ,barker1 ,r4,a41 in reply to a question raised by ,colonel ,trench1 ,r4,a4 7at the ,royal ,artillery ,institution71 concerning the shooting qualities of cordite heated to a temperature of #aaj ,f41 said3 ,heating cordite and firing it hot undoubtedly does disturb its shooting qualities1 but as far as we can see1 not much more than gunpowder4 ,i fear that we must always expect abnormal results with heated propellants1 either gunpowder or cordite2 and when fired hot1 the increase in pressure and velocities will depend upon the heat above the normal or average temperature at which firing takes place4 ,colonel ,barker also1 in referring to experiments that had been made in foreign climates1 said3 ,climatic trials have been carried out all over the world1 and they have so far proved eminently satisfactory4 ,the ,arctic cold of the winter in ,canada1 with the temperature below zero1 and the tropical sun of ,india1 have as yet failed to shake the stability of the composition1 or abnormally injure its shooting qualities4 ,dr ,anderson is of opinion that cordite should not be stored in naval magazines near to the boilers4 ,professor ,vivian ,b4 ,lewes1 in his recent ,cantor ,lectures before the ,society of ,arts1 suggests that the magazines of warships should be water- jacketed1 and maintained at a temperature that does not rise above #ajj ,f4 ,axite4--,this powder is manufactured by ,messrs ,kynock ,limited1 at their works at ,witton1 ,birmingham4 ,the main constituents of cordite are retained although the proportions are altered2 ingredients are added which impart properties not possessed by cordite1 and the methods of its manufacture have been modified4 ,the form has also been altered4 ,axite is made in the form of a ribbon1 the cross section being similar in shape to a double- headed rail4 ,it is claimed for this powder1 that it does not corrode the barrel in the way cordite does1 that with equal pressure it gives greatly increased velocity1 and therefore flatter trajectory4 ,that the effect of temperature on the pressure and velocity with axite is only half that with cordite4 ,that the maximum flame temperature of axite is considerably less than that of cordite1 and the erosive effect is therefore considerably less4 ,that the deposit left in the barrel after firing axite cartridges reduces the friction between the bullet and the barrel4 ,it is therefore practicable to use axite cartridges giving higher velocities than can be employed with cordite1 as with such velocities the latter would nickel the barrel by excessive friction4 ,it is also claimed that the accuracy is greatly increased4 ,the following results have been obtained with this same time1 and under the same conditions3-- ,axite ,cartridges with #bjj-;grain bullets4 ,velocity #b1gbf ,f4,s4 ,pressure #bj4ie tons4 ,axite ,cartridges with #bae-;grain bullets4 ,velocity #b1dih ,f4,s4 ,pressure #ai4bd tons4 ,axite ,service ,cartridges4 ,velocity #b1agi ,f4,s4 ,pressure #ae4gf tons4 ,cordite ,service ,cartridges4 ,velocity #b1jaj ,f4,s4 ,pressure #ae4fg tons4 ,five rounds from the ,service axite and ,service cordite were placed in an oven and heated to a temperature of #aaj ,f4 for one hour1 and were then fired for pressure4 ,the following results were obtained3-- ,axite4 ,cordite4 ,before heating #ae4gf tons per sq4 in4 #ae4fg tons per sq4 in4 ,after #af4gc #ag4ba ,increase 4#ig #f4a #a4ed #i4h ,average ,velocities-- ,before heating #b1aej ,f4,s4 #b1jcj ,f4,s4 ,after #b1ahj #b1jij ,increase #cj ,f4,s4 #a-a_/b #fj4j ,f4,s4 #c ,in order to show the accuracy given by axite1 seven rounds were fired from a machine rest at a target fixed at #ajj yards from a rifle4 ,six of the seven shots could be covered by a penny piece1 the other being just outside4 ,in order to ascertain the relative heat imparted to a rifle by the explosion of axite and cordite1 ten rounds each of axite and cordite cartridges were fired from a 4#cjc rifle1 at intervals of ten seconds1 the temperature of the rifle barrel being taken before and after each series3-- ,,the ,,rise ,,in ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,rifle ,,barrel ,with axite was #ga ,f4 ,with cordite was #hi ,f4 ,difference in favour of axite #ah ,f4 #bj4b ,the lubricating action of axite is shown by the fact that a series of cordite cartridges fired from a 4#cjc rifle in the ordinary way1 followed by a second series1 the barrel being lubricated between each shot by firing an axite cartridge alternately with the cordite cartridge4 ,the mean velocity of the first series of cordite cartridges was #a1igd ft4 per second2 the mean velocity of the second series was #b1jga ft4 per second2 the increased velocity due to the lubricating effect of axite therefore was #ig ft4 per second4 ,this powder1 it is evident1 has very many very excellent qualities1 and considerable advantages over cordite4 ,it is understood that axite is at present under the consideration of the ,british ,government for use as the ,service powder4 ,ballistite4--,nobel's powder1 known as ballistite1 originally consisted of a camphorated blasting gelatine1 and was made of #aj parts of camphor in #ajj parts of nitro-glycerine1 to which #bjj parts of benzol were then added1 and #ej parts of nitro-cotton 7soluble7 were then steeped in this mixture1 which was then heated to evaporate off the benzol1 and the resulting compound afterwards passed between steam-heated rollers1 and formed into sheets1 which were then finally cut up into small squares or other shapes as convenient4 ,the camphor contained in this substance was1 however1 found to be a disadvantage1 and its use discontinued4 ,the composition is now #ej per cent4 of soluble nitro-cotton and #ej per cent4 of nitro-glycerine4 ,as nitro-glycerine will not dissolve its own weight of nitro-cotton 7even the soluble variety71 benzol is used as a solvent1 but is afterwards removed from the finished product1 just as the acetone is removed from cordite4 ,about #a per cent4 of diphenylamine is added for the purpose of increasing its stability4 ,the colour of ballistite is a darkish brown4 ,it burns in layers when ignited1 and emits sparks4 ,the size of the cubes into which it is cut is a #j4b-;inch cube4 ,its density is #a4f4 ,it is also1 by means of a special machine1 prepared in the form of sheets1 after being mixed in a wooden trough fitted with double zinc plates1 and subjected to the heating process by means of hot-water pipes4 ,it is passed between hot rollers1 and rolled into sheets1 which are afterwards put through a cutting machine and granulated4 ,sir ,a4 ,nobel's experiments,a with this powder gave the following results3--,the charge used was #e lbs4 #h oz41 the size of the cubes being #j4b inch4 ,the mean crusher-gauge pressure was #ad4c tons per square inch 7maximum1 #b1baj2 minimum1 #b1adb71 and average pressure #b1ahj atmospheres4 ,the muzzle velocity was #b1adj foot seconds1 and the muzzle energy #a1dbi foot tons4 ,a gramme of ballistite generates #fae c4c4 of permanent gases1 and gives rise to #a1cfe grm4 units of heat4 ,ballistite is manufactured at ,ardeer in ,scotland1 at ,chilworth in ,surrey1 and also in ,italy1 under the name of ,filite1 which is in the form of cords instead of cubes4 ,the ballistite made in ,germany contained more nitro-cellulose1 and the finished powder was coated with graphite4 ,its use has been discontinued as the ,service powder in ,germany1 but it is still the ,service powder in ,italy4 ,footnote ,a3 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 vol4 lii41 p4 #cae4 ,u4,s4 ,naval ,smokeless ,powder4--,this powder is manufactured at the ,u4,s4 ,naval ,torpedo ,station for use in guns of all calibres in the ,u4,s4 ,navy4 ,it is a nitro-cellulose powder1 a mixture of insoluble and soluble nitro- cellulose together with the nitrates of barium and potassium1 and a small percentage of calcium carbonate4 ,the proportions in the case of the powder for the #f-;inch rapid-fire gun are as follows3--,mixed nitro-cellulose 7soluble and insoluble7 #hj parts1 barium nitrate #ae parts1 potassium nitrate #d parts1 and calcium carbonate #a part4 ,the percentage of nitrogen contained in the insoluble nitro-cellulose must be #ac4cjj4ae1 and in the soluble #aa4fjj4ae1 and the mean nitration strength of the mixture must be #ab4ge per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,the solvent used in making the powder is a mixture of ether 7sp4 gr4 #j4gbj7 #b parts1 and alcohol 7#ie per cent4 by volume7 #a part4 ,the process of manufacture is briefly as follows3,a--,the soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose are dried separately at a temperature from #ch to #da ,c41 until they do not contain more than #j4a per cent4 of moisture4 ,the calcium carbonate is also finely pulverised and dried1 and is added to the mixed nitro-celluloses after they have been sifted through a #af-mesh sieve4 ,the nitrates are next weighed out and dissolved in hot water1 and to this solution is added the mixture of nitro-celluloses and calcium carbonate with constant stirring until the entire mass becomes a homogeneous paste4 ,this pasty mass is next spread upon trays and re-dried at a temperature between #ch and #dh ,c41 and when thoroughly dry it is transferred to the kneading machine4 ,the ether- alcohol mixture is now added1 and the process of kneading begun4 ,it has been found by experiment that the amount of solvent required to secure thorough incorporation is about #ejj c4c4 to each #ejj grms4 of dried paste4 ,to prevent loss of solvent due to evaporation1 the kneading machine is made vapour light4 ,the mixing or kneading is continued until the resulting greyish-yellow paste is absolutely homogeneous so far as can be detected by the eye1 which requires from three to four hours4 ,the paste is next treated in a preliminary press 7known as the block press and is actuated by hydraulic power71 where it is pressed into a cylindrical mass of uniform density and of such dimensions as to fit it for the final or powder press4 ,the cylindrical masses from the block press are transferred to the final press1 whence they are forced out of a die under a pressure of about #ejj lbs4 per square inch4 ,as it emerges from the final press the powder is in the form of a ribbon or sheet1 the width and thickness of which is determined by the dimensions of the powder chamber of the gun in which the powder is to be used4 ,on the inner surface of the die are ribs extending in the direction of the powder as it emerges from the press1 the object of these ribs being to score the sheets or ribbons in the direction of their length1 so that the powder will yield uniformly to the pressure of the gases generated in the gun during the combustion of the charge4 ,the ribbon or sheet is next cut into pieces of a width and length corresponding to the chamber of the gun for which it is intended1 the general rule being that the thickness of the grain 7when perfectly dry7 shall be fifteen one-thousandths 74#jae7 of the calibre of the gun1 and the length equal to the length to fit the powder chamber4 ,thus1 in case of the #f-;inch rapid-fire gun the thickness of the grain 7or sheet7 is #j4ji of an inch and the length #cb inches4 ,the sheets are next thoroughly dried1 first between sheets of porous blotting-paper under moderate pressure and at a temperature between #ae ,c4 and #ba4e ,c4 for three days1 and then exposed to free circulation of the air at about #ba4e ,c4 for seven days1 and finally subjected for a week or longer to a temperature not exceeding #ch ,c4 until they cease to lose weight4 ,footnote ,a3 ,lieut4 ,w4 ,walke1 ,lectures on ,explosives1 p4 #ccj4 ,the sheets1 when thoroughly dried1 are of a uniform yellowish-grey colour1 and of the characteristic colloidal consistency2 they possess a perfectly smooth surface1 and are free from internal blisters or cracks4 ,the temperature of ignition of the finished powder should not be below #agb ,c41 and when subjected to the heat or stability test1 it is required to resist exposure to a temperature of #ga ,c4 for thirty minutes without causing discoloration of the test paper4 ,w4,a4 ,powder4--,this powder is made by the ,american ,smokeless ,powder ,company1 and it was proposed for use in the ,united ,states ,army and ,navy4 ,it is made in several grades according to the ballistic conditions required4 ,it consists of insoluble gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine1 together with metallic nitrates and an organic substance used as a deterrent or regulator4 ,the details of its manufacture are very similar to those of cordite1 with the exception that the nitro-glycerine is dissolved in a portion of the acetone1 before it is added to the gun-cotton4 ,the powder is pressed into solid threads1 or tubular cords or cylinders1 according to the calibre of the gun in which the powder is to be used4 ,as the threads emerge from the press they are received upon a canvas belt1 which passes over steam-heated pipes1 and deposited in wire baskets4 ,the larger cords or cylinders are cut into the proper lengths and exposed upon trays in the drying-house4 ,the powder for small arms is granulated by cutting the threads into short cylinders1 which are subsequently tumbled1 dusted1 and1 if not perfectly dry1 again placed upon trays in the drying- house4 ,before being sent away from the factory1 from five to ten lots of #ejj lbs4 each are mixed in a blending machine1 in order to obtain greater uniformity4 ,the colour of the ,w4,a4 powder is very light grey1 the grains are very uniform in size1 dry and hard4 ,the powder for larger guns is of a yellowish colour1 almost translucent1 and almost as hard as vulcanite4 ,the powder is said to be unaffected by atmospheric or climatic conditions1 to be stable1 and to have given excellent ballistic results2 it is not sensitive to the impact of bullets1 and when ignited burns quietly1 unless strongly confined4 ,turning now to the smokeless powders1 in which the chief ingredient is nitro-cellulose in some form 7either gun-cotton or nitro-lignine1 c471 one of the first of these was ,prentice's gun-cotton1 which consisted of nitrated paper #ae parts1 mixed with #he parts of unconverted cellulose4 ,it was rolled into a cylinder4 ,another was ,punshon's gun-cotton powder1 which consisted of gun-cotton soaked in a solution of sugar1 and then mixed with a nitrate1 such as sodium or potassium nitrate4 ,barium nitrate was afterwards used1 and the material was granulated1 and consisted of nitrated gun-cotton4 ,the explosive known as tonite1 made at ,faversham1 was at first intended for use as a gunpowder1 but is now only used for blasting4 ,the ,schultze ,powder4--,one of the earliest of the successful powders introduced into this country was ,schultze's powder1 the invention of ,colonel ,schultze1 of the ,prussian ,artillery1 and is now manufactured by the ,schultze ,gunpowder ,company ,limited1 of ,london4 ,the composition of this powder1 as given in the ,dictionary of ,explosives by the late ,colonel ,cundall1 is as follows3-- ,soluble nitro-lignine #ad4hc per cent4 ,insoluble #bc4cf ,lignine 7unconverted7 #ac4ad ,nitrates of ,k and ,ba #cb4ce ,paraffin #c4fe ,matters soluble in alcohol #j4aa ,moisture #b4ef ,this powder was the first to solve the difficulty of making a smokeless1 or nearly smokeless powder which could be used with safety and success in small arms4 ,previously1 gun-cotton had been tried in various forms1 and in nearly every instance disaster to the weapon had followed1 owing to the difficulty of taming the combustion to a safe degree4 ,but about #ahff ,colonel ,schultze produced1 as the result of experiments1 a nitrated wood fibre which gave great promise of being more pliable and more easily regulated in its burning than gun-cotton1 and this was at once introduced into ,england1 and the ,schultze ,gunpowder ,company ,limited was formed to commence its manufacture1 which it did in the year #ahfh4 ,during the years from its first appearance1 ,schultze gunpowder has passed through various modifications4 ,it was first made in a small cubical grain formed by cutting the actual fibre of timber transversely1 and then breaking this veneer into cubes4 ,later on improvements were introduced1 and the wood fibre so produced was crushed to a fine degree1 and then reformed into small irregular grains4 ,again1 an advance was made in the form of the wood fibre used1 the fibre being broken down by the action of chemicals under high temperature1 and so producing an extremely pure form of woody fibre4 ,the next improvement was to render the grains of the powder practically waterproof and less affected by the atmospheric influences of moisture and dryness1 and the last improvement to the process was that of hardening the grains by means of a solvent of nitro-lignine1 so as to do away with the dust that was often formed from the rubbing of the grains during transit4 ,minor modifications have from time to time also been made1 in order to meet the gradual alteration which has taken place during this long period in the manufacture of sporting guns and cartridge cases to be used with this powder1 but through all its evolution this ,company has adhered to the first idea of using woody fibre in preference to cotton as the basis of their smokeless powder1 as experience has confirmed the original opinion that a powder can be thus made less sensitive to occasional differences in loading1 and more satisfactory all round than when made from the cotton base4 ,the powder has always been regulated so that bulk for bulk it occupies the same measure as the best black powder1 and as regards its weight1 just one half of that of black4 ,the process of manufacture of this powder is briefly as follows3-- ,wood of clean growth is treated by the well-known sulphite process for producing pure woody fibre1 which is very carefully purified1 and this1 after drying1 is steeped in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids1 to render it a nitro-compound and the explosive base of the powder4 ,this nitro compound is carefully purified until it stands the very high purity requirements of the ,home ,office1 and is then ground with oxygen-bearing salts1 c41 and the whole is formed into little irregular-shaped grains of the desired size1 which grains are dried and hardened by steeping in a suitable solvent for the nitro compound1 and after finally drying1 sifting1 c41 the powder is stored in magazines for several months before it is issued4 ,when issued1 a very large blend is made of many tons weight1 which ensures absolute uniformity in the material4 ,there is in ,england a standard load adopted by every one for testing a sporting powder2 this charge is #db grains of powder and #a-a_/h oz4 ,no4 #f shot--this shot fired from a #ab-;bore gun1 patterns being taken at #dj yards1 the velocity at any required distance4 ,the standard muzzle velocity of ,schultze gunpowder is #a1bbj feet per second4 ,the mean #dj yards ditto is #hge feet per second4 ,the mean #bj yards ditto is #a1jej feet per second4 ,the internal pressure not to exceed #c4e tons4 ,this ,company also manufactures a new form of powder1 known as ,imperial ,schultze4 ,it is a powder somewhat lighter in gravity2 #cc grains occupies the bulk charge1 as compared with the #db grains of the old4 ,it follows in its composition much the lines of the older powder1 but it is quite free from smoke1 and leaves no residue whatever4 ,the ,e4,g4 ,powder4--,this is one of the oldest of the nitro powders4 ,it was invented by ,reid and ,johnson in #ahhb4 ,it is now manufactured by the ,e4,g4 ,powder ,company ,limited1 at their factory near ,dartford1 ,kent1 and in ,america by the ,anglo-,american ,e4,g4 ,powder ,company1 at ,new ,jersey4 ,the basis of this powder is a fine form of cellulose1 derived from cotton1 carefully purified1 and freed from all foreign substances1 and carefully nitrated4 ,its manufacture is somewhat as follows3--,pure nitro-cotton1 in the form of a fine powder1 is rotated in a drum1 sprinkled with water1 and the drum rotated until the nitro-cotton has taken the form of grains4 ,the grains are then dried and moistened with ether-alcohol1 whereby the moisture is gelatinised1 and afterwards coloured with aurine1 which gives them an orange colour4 ,they are then dried and put through a sieve1 in order to separate the grains which may have stuck together during the gelatinising process4 ,since its introduction soon after #ahha1 ,e4,g4 powder has undergone considerable modifications1 and is now a distinctly different product from a practical point of view4 ,it is now and has been since #ahig what is known as a #cc-;grain powder1 that is to say1 the old standard charge of #c drams by measure for a #ab-;bore gun weighs #cc grains1 as compared with #db grains for the original ,e4,g4 and other nitro powders4 ,this improvement was effected by a reduction of the barium nitrate and the use of nitro- cellulose of a higher degree of nitration1 and also more gelatinisation in manufacture4 ,the granules are very hard1 and resist moisture to an extent hitherto unattainable by any bulk powder4 ,irregularities of pressure in loading have also a minimum effect by reason of the hardness of the grains4 ,the colouring matter used is aurine1 and the small quantity of nitrate used is the barium salt4 ,the powder is standardised for pressure velocity with ,bouleng chronograph1,a pattern and gravimetric density by elaborate daily tests1 and is continually subjected to severe trials for stability under various conditions of storage1 the result being that it may be kept for what in practice amount to indefinite periods of time1 either in cartridges or in bulk without any alteration being feared4 ,the ,e4,c4 powders are used in sporting guns4 ,no4 #a and ,no4 #b ,e4,c4 are not at present manufactured1 ,e4,c4 ,no4 #c having taken their place entirely4 ,since #ahij these powders have been manufactured under the ,borland-,johnson patents1 these improved powders being for some time known as the ,j4,b4 powders4 ,the ,e4,c4 ,no4 #a was superseded by the ,e4,c4 ,no4 #b1 made under the ,borland-,johnson patents1 and this in its turn by the ,e4,c4 ,no4 #c 7in #ahig74 ,footnote ,a3 ,invented in #ahfi by ,major ,le ,bouleng1 ,belgian ,artillery4 ,it is intended to record the mean velocity between any two points1 and from its simplicity and accuracy is largely employed4 ,other forms have been invented by ,capt4 ,brger1 ,french ,artillerie de la ,marine1 and ,capt4 ,holden1 ,r4,a4 ,indurite is the invention of ,professor ,c4,e4 ,munroe1 of the ,u4,s4 ,naval ,torpedo ,station4 ,it is made from insoluble nitro-cotton1 treated in a particular manner by steam1 and mixed with nitro-benzene4 ,the ,dupont powder is very similar to ,indurite4 ,m4,e4 ,leonard1 of the ,united ,states1 invented a powder consisting of #ge parts of nitro-glycerine1 #be parts of gun-cotton1 #e parts of lycopodium powder1 and #d parts of urea crystals dissolved in acetone4 ,the ,french smokeless powder1 ,vielle poudre 7poudre ,b71 used in the ,lebel rifle1 is a mixture of nitro-cellulose and tannin1 mixed with barium and potassium nitrates4 ,it gives a very feeble report1 and very little bluish smoke4 ,the ,nobel ,company is said to be perfecting a smokeless powder in which the chief ingredients are nitro-amido- and tri- nitro-benzene4 ,c4,o4 ,lundholm has patented 7,u4,s4 ,pat1 #gja1eia1 #aija7 a smokeless powder containing nitro-glycerine #cj1 nitro-cellulose #fj1 diamyl phthalate #aj 7or diamyl phthalate #e1 and mineral jelly #e74 ,the diamyl phthalate is added1 with or without the mineral jelly to nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose4 ,walsrode ,powder4--,the smokeless powder known as ,walsrode powder consists of absolutely pure gelatinised nitro-cellulose1 grained by a chemical not a mechanical process1 consequently the grains do not need facing with gelatine to prevent their breaking up1 as is the case with many nitro powders4 ,for this same reason1 as well as from the method of getting rid of the solvent used1 the ,walsrode has no tendency whatever to absorb moisture4 ,in fact1 it can lie in water for several days1 and when taken out and dried again at a moderate temperature will be found as good as before4 ,nor is it influenced by heat1 whether dry or damp1 and it can be stored for years without being in the least affected4 ,it is claimed also that it heats the barrels of guns much less than black powder1 and does not injure them4 ,the standard charge is #cj grains1 and it is claimed that with this charge ,walsrode powder will prove second to none4 ,a large cap is necessary1 as the grains of this powder are very hard1 and require a large flame to properly ignite them4 ,in loading cartridges for sporting purposes1 an extra felt wad is required to compensate for the small space occupied by the charge2 but for military use the powder can be left quite loose4 ,the gas pressure of this powder is low 7in several military rifles only one- half that of other nitros71 and the recoil consequently small2 and it is claimed that with the slight increase of the charge 7from #bi to #cj grs47 both penetration and initial velocity will be largely increased1 whilst the gas pressure and recoil will not be greater4 ,this powder was used at ,bisley1 at the ,national ,rifle ,association's ,meeting1 with satisfactory results4 ,it is made by the ,walsrode ,smokeless and ,waterproof ,gunpowder ,company4 ,the nitro-cotton is gelatinised by means of acetic ether1 and the skin produced retards burning4 ,the nitro-cotton is mixed with acetic ether1 and when the gelatinisation has taken place1 the plastic mass is forced through holes in a metal plate into strips1 which are then cut up into pieces the size of grains4 ,the ,m4,h4 ,walsrode powder is a leaflet powder1 light in colour1 about #dj grains of which give a muzzle velocity of #a1cej feet and a pressure of #c tons4 ,it is1 like the other ,walsrode powders1 waterproof and heat-proof4 ,cooppal ,powder is manufactured by ,messrs ,cooppal ,co4 at their extensive powder works in ,belgium4 ,it consists of nitro-jute or nitro- cotton1 with or without nitrates1 treated with a solvent to form a gelatinised mass4 ,there are a great many varieties of this powder4 ,one kind is in the form of little squares2 another1 for use in ,hotchkiss guns1 is formed into #c-millimetre cubes1 and is black4 ,other varieties are coloured with aniline dyes of different colours4 ,amberite is a nitro-cellulose powder of the #db-;grain type of sporting gunpowders1 and is manufactured by ,messrs ,curtis's ,harvey ,limited1 at their ,smokeless ,powder ,factory1 ,tonbridge1 ,kent4 ,it consists of a mixture of nitro-cellulose1 paraffin1 barium1 nitrate1 and some other ingredients4 ,it is claimed for this powder that it combines hard shooting with safety1 great penetration1 and moderate strain on the gun4 ,it is hard and tough in grain1 and may be loaded like black powder1 and subjected to hard friction without breaking into powder1 that it is smokeless1 and leaves no residue in the gun4 ,the charge for #ab bores is #db grains by weight1 and #a-a_/h oz4 or #a-a_/af oz4 shot4 ,the powders known as cannonite,a and ruby powder1 also manufactured by ,messrs ,curtis's ,harvey ,limited1 are analogous products having the same general characteristics4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for further details of cannonite1 see ,first ,edition1 p4 #aha4 ,smokeless ,diamond1 also manufactured by the above mentioned firm1 is a nitro-cellulose powder of the #cc-;grain type of sporting gunpowders4 ,it was invented by ,mr ,h4,m4 ,chapman4 ,the manufacture of ,smokeless ,diamond1 as carried out at ,tonbridge1 is shortly as follows3--,the gun-cotton1 which is the chief ingredient of this powder1 is first stoved1 then mixed with certain compounds which act as moderators1 and after the solvents are added1 is worked up into a homogeneous plastic condition4 ,it then undergoes the processes of granulation1 sifting1 dusting1 drying1 and glazing4 ,in order to ensure uniformity several batches are blended together1 and stored for some time before being issued for use4 ,it is claimed for this powder that it is quick of ignition1 the quickness being probably due to the peculiar structure of the grains which1 when looked at under the microscope1 have the appearance of coke4 ,the charge for a #ab bore is #cc grains and #a-a_/af oz4 shot1 which gives a velocity of #a1jej feet per second1 and a pressure of #c tons per square inch4 ,greiner's ,powder consists of nitro-cellulose1 nitro-benzol1 graphite1 and lampblack4 ,b4,n4 ,powder4--,this powder is of a light grey or drab colour1 perfectly opaque1 and rough to the touch4 ,it consists of a mixture1 nitro-cellulose and the nitrates of barium and potassium4 ,its composition is as follows3-- ,insoluble nitro-cellulose #bi4ac parts ,soluble nitro-cellulose #da4ca ,barium nitrate #ai4jj ,potassium nitrate #g4ig ,sodium carbonate #b4jc ,volatile matter #a4dc ,this powder is a modification of the ,poudre ,b41 or ,vieille's powder invented for use in the ,lebel rifle1 and which consisted of a mixture of the nitro-celluloses with paraffin4 ,von ,foster's ,powder contains nothing but pure gelatinised nitro- cellulose1 together with a small quantity of carbonate of lime4 ,the ,german ,troisdorf ,powder is a mixture of gelatinised nitro-cellulose1 with or without nitrates4 ,maximite is the invention of ,mr ,hudson ,maxim1 and is a nitro-compound1 the base being gun-cotton4 ,the exact composition and method of manufacture are1 however1 kept secret4 ,it is made by the ,columbia ,powder ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,new ,york1 and in two forms--one for use as a smokeless rifle powder1 and the other for blasting purposes4 ,wetteren ,powder4--,this powder was manufactured at the ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory at ,wetteren1 and used in the ,belgian service4 ,originally it was a mixture of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose1 with amyl acetate as solvent4 ,its composition has1 however1 been altered from time to time4 ,one variety consists chiefly of nitro-cellulose1 with amyl acetate as solvent4 ,it is of a dark brown colour1 and of the consistency of indiarubber4 ,it is rolled into sheets and finally granulated4 ,henrite is a nitro-cellulose powder4 ,normal ,powder4--,the ,swedish powder known as ,normal ,smokeless ,powder1 and manufactured by the ,swedish ,powder ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,landskrona1 ,sweden1 and used for some years past in the ,swiss ,army1 is made in four forms4 ,for field guns of #h4d calibre1 it is used in the form of cylindrical grains of a yellow colour1 of a diameter of 4#h to 4#i mm4 and density of 4#gij--;about #hdj grains of it go to one gun4 ,for rifles1 it is used in the form of grey squares1 density 4#gej1 and #a grm4 equals about #a1jad grains4 ,one hundred rounds of this powder1 fired in eighteen minutes1 raised the temperature of the gun barrel #bhd ,f4 ,a nitro- glycerine powder1 fired under the same conditions1 gave a temperature of #dfd ,f4 ,this powder is said to keep well--a sample kept #c-a_/b years gave as good results as when first made--is easy to make1 very stable1 ignites easily1 not very sensitive to shock or friction1 is very light1 c4 ,eight hundred rounds fired from a heavy gun produced no injury to the interior of the weapon4 ,samples kept for eleven months in the moist atmosphere of a cellar1 when fired gave a muzzle velocity of #a1dej ft4 secs4 and pressure of #a1cab atmospheres1 and the moisture was found to have risen from #a4b to #a4f per cent4 ,after twenty-three months in the damp it contained #b per cent4 moisture1 gave a muzzle velocity of #a1dgh ft4 sees41 and pressure of #a1cef atmospheres4 ,in a #g4e millimetre rifle1 #ac4h grm4 bullet1 and charge of #b grms41 it gives a muzzle velocity of #b1jce ft4 secs4 and a pressure of #b1bjj atmospheres4 ,in the #h4d cm4 field-gun1 with charge of #fjj grms41 and projectile of #f4g kilogrammes1 muzzle velocity was equal to #a1fdj ft4 secs4 and pressure #a1gej4 ,a sample of the powder for use in the 4#cjc ,m4 rifle1 lately analysed by the author1 gave the following result3-- ,gun-cotton #if4ba per cent4 ,soluble cotton #a4hj ,non-nitrated cotton trace4 ,resin and other matters #a4ii #ajj4jj ,the various forms of powder invented and manufactured by ,mr ,c4,f4 ,hengst are chiefly composed of nitrated straw that has been finely pulped4 ,the straw is treated first with acids and afterwards with alkalies1 and the result is a firm fibrous substance which is granulated4 ,it is claimed that this powder is entirely smokeless and flameless1 that it does not foul the gun nor heat the barrel1 and is at the same time #aej per cent4 stronger than black powder4 ,the ,german ,troisdorf powder consists of nitro-cellulose that has been gelatinised together with a nitrate4 ,kolf's powder is also gelatinised with nitro-cellulose4 ,the powders invented by ,mr ,e4,j4 ,ryves contain nitro- glycerine1 nitro-cotton1 castor-oil1 paper-pulp1 and carbonate of magnesia4 ,maxim powder contains both soluble and insoluble nitro- cellulose1 nitro-glycerine1 and carbonate of soda4 ,the smokeless powder made by the ,dynamite ,actiengesellschaft ,nobel consists of nitro-starch #gj to #ii parts1 and of di- or tri-nitro-benzene #a to #cj parts4 ,an ,american wood powder1 known as ,bracket's ,sporting ,powder1 consists of soluble and insoluble nitro-lignine1 mixed with charred lignine1 humus1 and nitrate of soda4 ,mr ,f4,h4 ,snyder1 of ,new ,york1 is the inventor of a shell powder known as the ,snyder ,explosive1 consisting of #id per cent4 nitro-glycerine1 #f per cent4 of soluble nitro-cotton1 and camphor1 which is said to be safe in use4 ,experiments were made with it in a #f-;inch rifled gun1 fired at a target #bbj yards away1 composed of twelve #a-;inch steel plates welded together1 and backed with #ab-;inch and #ad-;inch oak beams1 and weighing #bj tons4 ,the shots entirely destroyed it4 ,the charge of explosive used was #aj lbs4 in each shell4 ,comparative ,tests of ,black and ,nitro ,powders1 from ,american ,field4-- ,the results given in table below were obtained at the ,german ,shooting ,association's grounds at ,coepenick1 ,berlin4 ,penetration was calculated by placing frames1 each holding five cards of #a millimetre in thickness 7equals 4#jcicg inch71 and #c inches apart1 in a bee-line1 at distances of #bj inches4 ,velocity1 pattern1 and penetration were taken at #dj yards from the muzzle of a #ab-;gauge choke-bore double-barrel gun4 ,gas pressure was taken by a special apparatus4 ,all shells were loaded with #a-a_/h oz4 of ,no4 #c shot1 equal to #abj pellets1 and the number given below represents the average number in the #cj-;inch pattern4 ,the number of sheets passed through gives the average penetration4 ,one atmosphere equals pressure equal to #a kilogramme 7#b4b lbs47 on the square centimetre1 hence #a1jjj atmospheres equal #b1bjj lbs4 on the square centimetre4 ,the ,e4,c41 ,schultze1 and ,walsrode powders were loaded in ,elcy's special shells1 #b-a_/b inches long4 ,the averages were taken from a large number of shots1 and the same series of shots fired under precisely the same conditions4 ,gas ,pressure4 ,velocity4 ,pattern4 ,penetration4 ,atmospheres4 ,metres4 ,sheets4 ,fine-grained black powder1 standard charge #ead4b #bhj #gh4f #ff #ai4,o ,coarse-grained black powder1 standard charge #dgc4d #bha4d #gh4b #fe #ai4d ,schultze powder1 #db grains #iba4j #bij4j #fd4b #ed #bj4b ,schultze powder1 #de grains #ajeb4h #cje4h #eb4b #db #bj4f ,e4,g4 smokeless1 #db grains #ibj4b #bih4d #ha4d #fg #ah4h ,walsrode1 #bi grains #ehf4d #bhj4f #hc4j #fi #ai4j ,barometer1 #gfj mm4 ,thermometer1 #cj ,c4 ,hydrometer #fe4 ,wind1 ,s4,w4 ,picric ,powders4--,the chief of these is ,melinite1 the composition of which is not known with certainty4 ,it is believed to be melted picric acid together with gun-cotton dissolved in acetone or ether-alcohol4 ,walke gives the following proportions--#cj parts of tri-nitro-cellulose dissolved in #de parts of ether-alcohol 7#b to #a71 and #gj parts of fused and pulverised picric acid4 ,the ether-alcohol mixture is allowed to evaporate spontaneously1 and the resulting cake granulated4 ,the ,french claim1 however1 that the original invention has been so modified and perfected that the melinite of to-day cannot be recognised in the earlier product4 ,melinite has a yellow colour1 is almost without crystalline appearance1 and when ignited by a flame or heated wire1 it burns with a reddish-yellow flame1 giving off copious volumes of black smoke4 ,melinite as at present used is said to be a perfectly safe explosive1 both as regards manufacture1 handling1 and storage4 ,lyddite1,a the picric acid explosive used in the ,british service1 is supposed to be identical with the original melinite1 but its composition has not been made public4 ,footnote ,a3 ,schimose1 the ,japanese powder1 is stated to be identical with ,lyddite and ,melinite 7,chem4 ,centr41 #aijf1 #a1 #aaif74 ,picrates are more often used than picric acid itself in powders4 ,one of the best known is ,brugre's ,powder1 which is a mixture of #ed parts of picrate of ammonia and #de parts of saltpetre4 ,it is stable and safe to manufacture4 ,it has been used in the ,chassept rifle with good results1 gives little smoke1 and a small residue only of carbonate of potash4 ,the next in importance is ,designolle's ,powder1 made at ,bouchon1 consisting of picrate of potash1 saltpetre1 and charcoal4 ,it was made in three varieties1 viz41 for rifles1 big guns1 and torpedoes and shells4 ,these powders are made much in the same way as gunpowder4 ,the advantages claimed for them over gunpowder are1 greater strength1 comparative absence of smoke1 and freedom from injurious action on the bores of guns4 ,emmensite is the invention of ,dr ,stephen ,emmens1 of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,emmens crystals are produced by treating picric acid with fuming nitric acid of specific gravity of #a4eb4 ,the acid dissolves with the evolution of red fumes4 ,the liquid1 when cooled1 deposits crystals1 stated to be different to picric acid1 and lustrous flakes4 ,these flakes1 when heated in water1 separate into two new bodies4 ,one of these enters into solution and forms crystals unlike the first1 while the other body remains undissolved4 ,the acid crystals are used mixed with a nitrate4 ,emmensite has been subjected to experiment by the direction of the ,u4,s4 ,secretary for ,war1 and found satisfactory4 ,a sample of ,emmensite1 in the form of a coarse powder1 was first tried in a pistol1 and proved superior in propelling power to ordinary gunpowder4 ,when tested against explosive gelatine1 it did very good work in shattering iron plates4 ,it is claimed for this explosive that it enjoys the distinction of being the only high explosive which may be used both for firearms and blasting4 ,this view is supported by the trials made by the ,american ,war ,office authorities1 and shows ,emmensite to be a useful explosive both for blasting and as a smokeless powder4 ,its explosive power1 as tested1 is #bhc tons per square inch1 and its specific gravity is #a4h4 ,abel proposed to use picric acid for filling shells4 ,his ,picric ,powder consisted of #c parts of saltpetre1 and #b of picrate of ammonia4 ,victorite consists of chlorate of potash1 picric acid1 and olive oil1 and with occasionally some charcoal4 ,it has the form of a coarse yellowish grey powder1 and leaves an oily stain on paper1 and it is very sensitive to friction and percussion4 ,the composition is as follows3--,k,cl,o#c #hj parts2 picric acid1 #aaj parts2 saltpetre1 #aj parts2 charcoal1 #e parts4 ,it is not manufactured in ,england4 ,tschiner's ,powder is very similar to ,victorite in composition1 but contains resin4 ,a list of the chief picric powders will be found in the late ,colonel ,j4,p4 ,cundill1 ,r4,a4's ,dictionary of ,explosives4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,explosives4 ,kieselguhr ,dynamite--,gelatine ,compounds--,tonite--,cordite--,vaseline -- ,acetone--,scheme for ,analysis of ,explosives--,nitro-,cotton--,solubility ,test-- ,non-,nitrated ,cotton--,alkalinity--,ash and ,inorganic ,matter--,determination of ,nitrogen--,lung1 ,champion and ,pellet's1 ,schultze-,tieman1 and ,kjeldahl's ,methods--,celluloid--,picric ,acid and ,picrates--,resinous and ,tarry ,matters-- ,sulphuric ,acid and ,hydrochloric ,acid and ,oxalic ,acid--,nitric ,acid-- ,inorganic ,impurities--,general ,impurities and ,adulterations--,potassium ,picrate1 c4--,picrates of the ,alkaloids--,analysis of ,glycerine--,residue-- ,silver ,test--,nitration--,total ,acid ,equivalent--,neutrality--,free ,fatty ,acids--,combined ,fatty ,acids--,impurities--,oleic ,acid--,sodium ,chloride-- ,determination of ,glycerine--,waste ,acids--,sodium ,nitrate--,mercury ,fulminate--,cap ,composition--,table for ,correction of ,volumes of ,gases1 for ,temperature and ,pressure ,kieselguhr ,dynamite4--,the material generally consists of #ge per cent4 of nitro-glycerine and #be per cent4 of the infusorial earth kieselguhr4 ,the analysis is very simple1 and may be conducted as follows3--,weigh out about #aj grms4 of the substance1 and place over calcium chloride in a desiccator for some six to eight days1 and then re-weigh4 ,the loss of weight gives the moisture4 ,this will generally be very small1 probably never more than #a per cent41 and usually less4 ,mr ,james ,o4 ,handy1 in order to save time1 proposes to dry dynamite in the following manner4 ,he places #a grm4 of the material in a porcelain crucible #a inch in diameter4 ,the crucible is then supported at the bottom of an extra wide-mouthed bottle of about #fjj c4c4 capacity4 ,air1 which has been dried by bubbling through strong sulphuric acid1 is now drawn over the surface of the sample for three hours by means of an ordinary aspirator4 ,the air should pass approximately at the rate of #aj c4c4 per second4 ,the tube by which the dry air enters the bottle extends to within #a inch of the crucible containing the dynamite4 ,an empty safety bottle is connected with the inlet1 and another with the outlet of the wide-mouthed bottle4 ,the first guards against the mechanical carrying over by the air current of sulphuric acid from the acid bottle into the sample1 whilst the second prevents spasmodic outbursts of water from the exhaust from reaching the sample4 ,the method also gave satisfactory results with nitro-glycerine4 ,the dry substance may now be wrapped in filter paper1 the whole weighed1 and the nitro-glycerine extracted in the ,soxhlet apparatus with ether4 ,the ether should be distilled over at least twenty-four times4 ,i have found1 however1 that much quicker1 and quite as accurate1 results may be obtained by leaving the dynamite in contact with ether in a small ,erlenmeyer flask for twenty-four hours--leaving it overnight is better-- and decanting1 and again allowing the substance to remain in contact with a little fresh ether for an hour1 and finally filtering through a weighed filter1 drying at #ajj ,c41 and weighing4 ,this gives the weight of the kieselguhr4 ,the nitro-glycerine must be obtained by difference1 as it is quite useless to evaporate down the ethereal solution to obtain it1 as it is itself volatile to a very considerable extent at the temperature of evaporation of the ether1 and the result1 therefore1 will always be much too low4 ,the dry guhr can1 of course1 be examined1 either qualitatively or quantitatively1 for other mineral salts1 such as carbonate of soda1 c4 ,an actual analysis of dynamite ,no4 #a made by the author at ,hayle gave-- ,moisture1 #j4ib per cent42 kieselguhr1 #bf4ae per cent42 and nitro- glycerine1 #gb4ic per cent41 the last being obtained by difference4 ,nitro-,glycerine4--,it is sometimes desired to test an explosive substance for nitro-glycerine4 ,if an oily liquid is oozing from the substance1 soak a drop of it in filter paper4 ,if it is nitro-glycerine it will make a greasy spot4 ,if the paper is now placed upon an iron anvil1 and struck with an iron hammer1 it will explode with a sharp report1 if lighted it burns with a yellowish to greenish flame1 emitting a crackling sound1 and placed upon an iron plate and heated from beneath1 it explodes sharply4 ,if a few drops of nitro-glycerine are placed in a test tube1 and shaken up with methyl-alcohol 7previously tested with distilled water1 to see that it produces no turbidity71 and filtered1 on the addition of distilled water1 the solution will become milky1 and the nitro-glycerine will separate out1 and finally collect at the bottom of the tube4 ,if to a solution of a trace of nitro-glycerine in methyl-alcohol1 a few drops of a solution1 composed of #a volume of aniline1 and #dj volumes sulphuric acid 7#a4hd7 be added1 a deep purple colour will be produced4 ,this colour changes to green upon the addition of water4 ,if it is necessary to determine the nitro-glycerine quantitatively in an explosive1 the scheme on page #bac may be followed4 ,ether is the best solvent to use4 ,nitrogen should be determined in the nitrometer4 ,gelatine ,compounds4--,the simplest of these compounds is1 of course1 blasting gelatine1 as it consists of nothing but nitro-cotton and nitro- glycerine1 the nitro-cellulose being dissolved in the glycerine to form a clear jelly1 the usual proportions being about #ib per cent4 of nitro- glycerine to #h per cent4 nitro-cotton1 but the cotton is found as high as #aj per cent4 in some gelatines4 ,gelatine dynamite and gelignite are blasting gelatines1 with varying proportions of wood-pulp and saltpetre 7,,kno#c7 mixed with a thin blasting gelatine4 ,the method of analysis is as follows3--,weigh out #aj grms4 of the substance1 previously cut up into small pieces with a platinum spatula1 and place over calcium chloride in a desiccator for some days4 ,reweigh4 ,the loss equals moisture4 ,this is generally very small4 ,or ,handy's method may be used4 ,the dried sample is then transferred to a small thistle-headed funnel which has been cut off from its stem1 and the opening plugged with a little glass wool1 and round the top rim of which a piece of fine platinum wire has been fastened1 in order that it may afterwards be easily removed from the ,soxhlet tube4 ,the weight of this funnel and the glass wool must be accurately known4 ,it is then transferred to the ,soxhlet tube and exhausted with ether1 which dissolves out the nitro-glycerine4 ,the weighed residue must afterwards be treated in a flask with ether-alcohol to dissolve out the nitro-cotton4 ,but the more expeditious method1 and one quite as accurate1 is to transfer the dried gelatine to a conical ,erlenmeyer flask of about #ejj c4c4 capacity1 and add #bej c4c4 of a mixture of ether-alcohol 7#b ether to #a alcohol71 and allow to stand overnight4 ,sometimes a further addition of ether-alcohol is necessary4 ,it is always better to add another #cjj c4c41 and leave for twenty minutes or so after the solution has been filtered off4 ,the undissolved portion1 which consists of wood-pulp1 potassium nitrate1 and other salts1 is filtered off through a linen or paper filter1 dried and weighed4 ,solution4--,the ether-alcohol solution contains the nitro-cotton and the nitro-glycerine in solution4,a ,to this solution add excess of chloroform 7about #ajj c4c4 will be required71 when the nitro-cellulose will be precipitated in a gelatinous form4 ,this should be filtered off through a linen filter1 and allowed to drain4 ,it is useless to attempt to use a filter pump1 as it generally causes it to set solid4 ,the precipitated cotton should then be redissolved in ether-alcohol1 and again precipitated with chloroform 7#bj c4c4 of ether-alcohol should be used74 ,this precaution is absolutely necessary1 if the substance has been treated with ether- alcohol at first instead of ether only1 otherwise the results will be much too high1 owing to the gelatinous precipitate retaining very considerable quantities of nitro-glycerine4 ,the precipitate is then allowed to drain as completely as possible1 and finally allowed to dry in the air bath at #dj ,c41 until it is easily detached from the linen filter by the aid of a spatula1 and is then transferred to a weighed watch-glass1 replaced in the oven1 and dried at #dj ,c4 until constant in weight4 ,the weight found1 calculated upon the #aj grms4 taken1 gives the percentage of nitro- cellulose4 ,footnote ,a3 ,if the substance has been treated with ether alone in the ,soxhlet1 the nitro-glycerine will of course be dissolved out first1 and the ether-alcohol solution will only contain the nitro-cellulose4 ,the ,residue left after treating the gelatine with ether-alcohol is1 in the case of blasting gelatine1 very small1 and will probably consist of nothing but carbonate of soda4 ,it should be dried at #ajj ,c4 and weighed1 but in the case of either gelignite or gelatine dynamite this residue should be transferred to a beaker and boiled with distilled water1 and the water decanted some eight or ten times1 and the residue finally transferred to a tarred filter and washed for some time with hot water4 ,the residue left upon the filter is wood-pulp4 ,this is dried at #ajj ,c4 until constant1 and weighed4 ,the solution and washings from the wood are evaporated down in a platinum dish1 and dried at #ajj ,c4 ,it will consist of the potassium nitrate1 and any other mineral salts1 such as carbonate of soda1 which should always be tested for by adding a few drops of nitric acid and a little water to the residue1 and again evaporating to dryness and re-weighing4 ,from the difference in weight the soda can be calculated1 sodium nitrate having been formed4 ,thus-- ,na#b;,,co#c #b;,,hno#c #b,na,n,o#c ,,co#b ,h#b,o4 ,mol4 wt4 #ajf #agj 7#agj - #ajf #fd7 and x 7#ajf x d7_/#fd where x equals grms4 of sodium carbonate in residue1 and d equals the difference in weight of residue1 before and after treatment with nitric acid4 ,the nitro-glycerine is best found by difference1 but if desired the solutions from the precipitation of the nitro-cellulose may be evaporated down upon the water bath at #cj to #dj ,c41 and finally dried over ,ca,cl#b until no smell of ether or chloroform can be detected1 and the nitro- glycerine weighed4 ,it will1 however1 always be much too low4 ,an actual analysis of a sample of gelatine dynamite gave the following result3-- ,nitrocellulose 7collodion7 #c4hai per cent4 ,nitro-glycerine #ff4fia ,wood-pulp #af4bij ,,kno#c #ab4hij ,na#b;,,co#c ,nil4 ,water #j4cdj ,this sample was probably intended to contain #cj per cent4 of absorbing material to #gj per cent4 of explosive substances4 ,many dynamites contain other substances than the above1 such as paraffin1 resin1 sulphur1 wood1 coal-dust1 charcoal1 also mineral salts1 such as carbonate of magnesia1 chlorate of potash1 c4 ,in these cases the above-described methods must of course be considerably modified4 ,paraffin1 resin1 and most of the sulphur will be found in the ether solution if present4 ,the solution should be evaporated 7and in this case the explosive should in the first case be treated with ether only1 and not ether-alcohol71 and the residue weighed1 and then treated on the water bath with a solution of caustic soda4 ,the resin goes into solution1 and is separated by decantation from the residue1 and precipitated by hydrochloric acid1 and collected on a tarred filter 7dried at #ajj ,c471 and dried at #ajj ,c4 and weighed4 ,the nitro- glycerine residue is treated with strong alcohol1 decanted1 and the residue of paraffin and sulphur washed with alcohol1 dried1 and weighed4 ,to separate the paraffin from the sulphur the residue is heated with a solution of ammonium sulphide4 ,after cooling the paraffin collects as a crust upon the surface of the liquid1 and by pricking a small hole through it with a glass rod the liquid underneath can be poured off1 and the paraffin then washed with water1 dried1 and weighed4 ,sulphur is found by difference4 ,mr ,f4,w4 ,smith 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aija1 #bc #h1 #ehe-ehi7 determines the sulphur in dynamite gelatine as follows3--,about #b grms4 are warmed in a #ajj c4c4 silver crucible on the water bath with an alcoholic solution of sodium hydroxide1 and where the nitro-glycerine is decomposed1 the liquid is evaporated to dryness4 ,the residue is fused with #dj grms4 of ,,koh and #e grms4 of potassium nitrate1 the mass dissolved in dilute acetic acid and filtered1 and the sulphates precipitated in the usual way4 ,if camphor is present1 it can be extracted with bisulphide of carbon after the material has been treated with ether-alcohol4 ,in that case the sulphur1 paraffin1 and resin will also be dissolved4 ,the camphor being easily volatile1 can be separated by evaporation4 ,let the weight of the extract1 freed from ether-alcohol before treatment with bisulphide of carbon1 equal ,a1 and the weight of extract after treatment with ,,cs#b and evaporation of the same equal ,b2 and weight of the residue which is left after evaporation of the ,,cs#b and the camphor in solution equal ,c1 the percentage of camphor will be ,a - ,b - ,c4 ,the residue ,c may contain traces of nitro-glycerine1 resin1 or sulphur4 ,camphor may be separated from nitro-glycerine by means of ,,cs#b4 ,if the solution of camphor in nitro-glycerine be shaken with ,,cs#b1 the camphor and a little of the nitro-glycerine will dissolve4 ,the bisulphide solution is decanted1 or poured into a separating funnel and separated from the nitro-glycerine4 ,the two solutions are then heated on the water bath to #bj ,c4 and then to #fj ,c41 and afterwards in a vacuum over ,ca,cl#b until the ,,cs#b has evaporated from them4 ,the camphor evaporates1 and leaves the small quantity of nitro-glycerine which had been dissolved with it4 ,the other portion is the nitro-glycerine1 now free from ,,cs#b4 ,the two are weighed and their weights added together1 and equals the nitro- glycerine present4 ,there is a loss of nitro-glycerine1 it being partly evaporated along with the ,,cs#b4 ,captain ,hess has shown that it is equal to about #a4be per cent4 ,this quantity should therefore be added to that found by analysis4 ,morton ,liebschutz1 in a paper in the ,moniteur ,scientifique for ,january #ahic1 very rightly observes that the variety of dynamites manufactured is very great1 all of them having a special composition which1 good or bad1 is sometimes of so complicated a nature that the determination of their elements is difficult4 ,the determination of nitro-glycerine in simple dynamite ,no4 #a is easy2 but not so when the dynamite contains substances soluble in ether1 such as sulphur1 resin1 paraffin1 and naphthalene4 ,after detailing at length the methods he employs1 he concludes with the observation that the knowledge of the use of acetic acid--in which nitro-glycerine dissolves--for the determination of nitro-glycerine may be serviceable4 ,mr ,f4,w4 ,smith,a gives the following indirect method of determining nitro-glycerine in gelatine dynamite1 c4 ,about #ae grms4 of the sample are extracted with chloroform in a ,soxhlet apparatus1 and the loss in weight determined4 ,in a second portion the moisture is determined4 ,a third portion of about #b grms4 is macerated with ether in a small beaker1 the ethereal extract filtered1 and the process of extraction repeated three or four times4 ,the united filtrates are allowed to evaporate spontaneously1 and the residue warmed gently on the water bath with #e c4c4 of ammonium sulphide solution1 and #aj c4c4 of alcohol until the nitro-glycerine is decomposed1 after which about #bej c4c4 of water and sufficient hydrochloric acid to render the liquid strongly acid1 are added1 and the liquid filtered4 ,the precipitate is washed free from acid1 and then washed through the filter with strong alcohol and chloroform into a weighed platinum dish1 which is dried to constant weight at #ej ,c4 ,the contents of the dish are now transferred to a silver crucible1 and the sulphur determined4 ,this amount of sulphur1 deducted from the weight of the contents of the platinum dish1 gives the quantity of substances soluble in chloroform with the exception of the nitro-glycerine1 moisture1 and sulphur4 ,the amount of the former substances plus the moisture and sulphur1 deducted from the total loss on extraction with chloroform1 gives the quantity of nitro-glycerine4 ,nitro-benzene may be detected1 according to ,j4 ,marpurgo1 in the following manner3--,in a porcelain basin are placed two drops of liquid phenol1 three drops of water1 and a fragment of potash as large as a pea4 ,the mixture is boiled1 and the aqueous solution to be tested then added4 ,on prolonged boiling nitro-benzene produces at the edge of the liquid a crimson ring1 which on the addition of a solution of bleaching powder turns emerald- green4 ,and nitro-glycerine in ether solution1 by placing a few drops of the suspected solution1 together with a drop or two of aniline1 upon a watch-glass1 evaporating off the ether1 and then adding a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid to the residue1 when1 if nitro-glycerine is present1 the ,h#b,,so#d will strike a crimson colour1 due to the action of the aniline sulphate upon the nitric acid liberated from the nitro- glycerine4 ,footnote ,a3 ,notes on the ,analysis of ,explosives1 ,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aija1 #bc #h1 #ehe-ehi4 ,tonite4--,the analysis of this explosive is a comparatively easy matter1 and can be performed as follows3--,weigh out #aj grms41 or a smaller quantity1 and boil with water in a beaker1 decanting the liquid four or five times1 and filter4 ,the aqueous solution will contain the nitrate of barium4 ,then put the residue on the filter1 and wash two or three times with boiling water4 ,evaporate the filtrate to dryness in a platinum dish4 ,dry and weigh4 ,this equals the ,ba7,,no#c7b4 ,if the sample is tonite ,no4 #c1 and contains di-nitro-benzol1 treat first with ether to dissolve out this substance4 ,filter into a dish1 and evaporate off the ether1 and weigh the di-nitro-benzol1 and afterwards treat residue with water as before4 ,the residue is dried and weighed1 and equals the gun-cotton present4 ,it should then be treated with a solution of ether-alcohol in a conical flask1 allowed to stand some three hours1 then filtered through a weighed filter paper1 dried at #dj ,c41 and weighed4 ,this will give the gun-cotton1 and the difference between this last weight and the previous one will give the collodion-cotton4 ,a portion of the residue containing both the gun- cotton and the soluble cotton can be tested in the nitrometer1 and the nitrogen determined4 ,cordite4--,this explosive consists of gun-cotton 7with a little collodion-cotton in it as impurity71 nitro-glycerine1 and vaseline--the proportions being given as #cj per cent4 nitro-glycerine1 #fe per cent4 gun- cotton1 and #e per cent4 vaseline4 ,its analysis is performed by a modification of the method given for gelatines4 ,five grms4 may be dissolved in ether-alcohol in a conical flask1 allowed to stand all night1 and then filtered through a linen filter4 ,the residue is washed with a little ether1 pressed1 and dried at #dj ,c41 and weighed4 ,it equals the gun-cotton4 ,the solution contains the nitro-glycerine1 soluble cotton1 and vaseline4 ,the cotton is precipitated with chloroform1 filtered off1 dried1 and weighed4 ,the two ether-alcohol solutions are mixed1 and carefully evaporated down in a platinum dish upon the water bath at a low temperature4 ,the residue is afterwards treated with strong #hj per cent4 acetic acid1 which dissolves out any nitro-glycerine left in it4 ,the nitro-glycerine is then obtained by difference1 or the method suggested to me privately by ,mr ,w4,j4 ,williams may be used4 ,the residue obtained by evaporation of the ether-alcohol solution1 after weighing1 is treated with alcoholic potash to decompose the nitro-glycerine1 water is added and the alcohol evaporated off4 ,some ether is then added1 and the mixture shaken1 and the ether separated and evaporated1 and the residue weighed as vaseline4 ,the moisture should1 however1 be determined by the method devised by ,mr ,arthur ,marshall1 ,f4,i4,c41 of the ,royal ,gunpowder ,works1 ,waltham ,abbey1 which is carried out as follows3--,the cordite or other explosive is prepared in the manner laid down for the ,abel heat test1 that is t say1 it is ground in a small mill1 and that portion is selected which passes through a sieve having holes of the size of ,no4 #h wire gauge1 but not through one with holes ,no4 #ad wire gauge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,marshall',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,moisture ,,in ,,cordite4 ,the form of apparatus used is shown in ,fig4 #dj4 ,it consists of an aluminium dish ,a1 having the dimensions shown1 and the glass cone ,b weighing not more than #cj grms4 ,five grms4 of the cordite are weighed into the aluminium dish ,a4 ,this is covered with the cone ,b1 and the whole is accurately weighed1 and is then placed upon a metal plate heated by steam from a water bath4 ,it is left upon the bath until all the moisture has been driven off1 then it is allowed to cool for about half-an-hour in a desiccator and is weighed4 ,the loss in weight gives accurately the moisture of the sample4 ,for cordite of the original composition1 one hour's heating is sufficient to entirely drive off the moisture2 for modified cordite containing #fe per cent4 of gun-cotton1 two hours is enough1 provided that there be not more than #a4c per cent4 of moisture present4 ,if the proportion of nitro-glycerine be higher1 a longer heating is necessary4 ,the aluminium dish must not be shallower than shown in the figure1 for if the distance between the substance and the edge of the glass cone be less than half an inch1 some nitro-glycerine will be lost4 ,again1 the sample must not be ground finer than stated1 else some of the moisture will be lost in the grinding and sieving operations1 and the result will be too low4 ,in order to be able to drive off all the moisture in the times mentioned1 it is essential that the glass cone shall not fit too closely on the aluminium dish1 consequently the horizontal ledge round the top of the dish should be bent1 so as to render it slightly untrue1 and leave a clearance of about #j4jb inch in some places4 ,if these few simple precautions be taken1 the method will be found to be very accurate4 ,duplicate determinations do not differ more than #j4ja per cent4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,determination of ,moisture in ,nitro-glycerine ,explosives1 by ,a4 ,marshall1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,feb4 #bi1 #aijd1 p4 #aed4 ,the ,vaseline 7,c#af;,h#cd71 or petroleum jelly1 used has a flash-point of #djj ,f4 ,it must not contain more than #j4b per cent4 volatile matter when heated for #ab hours on the water bath1 and should have a specific gravity of #j4hg at #ajj ,f41 and a melting point of #hf ,f4 ,it is obtained during the distillation of petroleum1 and consists mainly of the portions distilling above #bjj ,c4 ,it boils at about #bgh ,c4 ,acetone 7,,ch#c;,,co4,,ch#c71 or dimethyl ketone1 is formed when iso-propyl alcohol is oxidised with potassium bichromate and sulphuric4 ,it is also produced in considerable quantities during the dry distillation of wood1 and many other organic compounds4 ,crude wood spirit1 which has been freed from acetic acid1 consists in the main of a mixture of acetone and methyl- alcohol4 ,the two substances may be roughly separated by the addition of calcium chloride1 which combines with the methyl-alcohol4 ,on subsequent distillation crude acetone passes over1 and may be purified by conversion into the bisulphite compound4 ,acetone is usually prepared1 however1 by the dry distillation of crude calcium or barium acetate4 7,,ch#c4;,,coo7#b;,ca ,,ch#c4;,,co4,,ch#c ,ca,c,o#c4 ,the distillate is fractionated1 and the portion1 boiling between #ej and #fj ,c41 mixed with strong solution of sodium bisulphite4 ,the crystalline cake of acetone sodium bisulphite1 which separates on standing1 is well pressed1 to free it from impurities1 decomposed by distillation with dilute sodium carbonate1 and the aqueous distillate of pure acetone dehydrated over calcium chloride4 ,acetone is a colourless1 mobile liquid of sp4 gr4 4#gib at #bj ,c41 it boils at #ef4e ,c41 has a peculiar1 pleasant1 ethereal odour1 and is mixible with water1 alcohol1 and ether in all proportions4 ,the acetone used in the manufacture of cordite should conform to the following specification3-- ,,specification ,,for ,,acetone4 #a4 ,the acetone to be not more than #j4hjb specific gravity at #fj ,f4 ,when mixed with distilled water it must show no turbidity1 and must leave no residue on evaporation at #bab ,f4 ,on distillation1 four-fifths by volume of the quantity taken must distil over at a temperature not exceeding #ach ,f4 ,the residual matter left after this distillation must not contain1 besides acetone1 any ingredient that is not a bye-product incidental to the manufacture of acetone4 #b4 ,one c4c4 of #j4aj per cent4 solution in distilled water of pure permanganate of potash1 added to #ajj c4c4 of the acetone1 must retain its distinctive colour for not less than #cj minutes4 ,this test should be made at a temperature of #fj ,f4 #c4 ,the acetone tested by the following method must not show more than #j4jje per cent4 of acid1 calculated to acetic acid3-- ,to #ej c4c4 of the sample diluted with #ej c4c4 of distilled water1 with #b c4c4 of phenol-phthalein solution 7#a gramme to #a1jjj c4c4 of #ej per cent4 alcohol7 added as an indicator1 add from a burette ,n_/#ajj sodium hydrate solution 7#a c4c4 #j4jjjf gramme acetic acid71 and calculate to acetic acid in the usual manner4 ,the water used for the dilution of the acetone must be carefully tested for acidity1 and the pipettes used for measuring should not be blown out1 as it would be possible thus to neutralise nearly #b c4c4 of the soda solution4 ,the presence of water in a sample of acetone may be detected by ,schweitzer and ,lungwitz's method 7,chem4 ,zeit41 #ahie1 xix41 p4 #achd71 which consists in shaking together equal volumes of acetone and petroleum ether 7boiling point1 #dj to #fj ,c471 when if present a separation of the liquid in layers will take place4 ,estimation of ,acetone4--,kebler 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahig1 #ai1 #caf- #cbj7 has improved ,squibb's modification of ,robineau and ,rollins' method4 ,the following solutions are required3-- 7#a47 ,a #f per cent4 solution of hydrochloric acid4 7#b47 ,a decinormal solution of sodium thiosulphate4 7#c47 ,alkaline potassium iodide solution prepared by dissolving #bej grms4 of potassium iodide in water1 made up to a litre2 dissolving #beg grms4 of sodium hydroxide 7by alcohol7 in water1 likewise made up to a litre4 ,after allowing the latter to stand1 #hjj c4c4 of the clear solution are added to the litre of ,,ki4 7#d47 ,sodium hypochlorite solution3 #ajj grms4 of bleaching powder 7#ce per cent47 are mixed with #djj c4c4 of water3 to this is added a hot solution of #abj grms4 of crystallised sodium carbonate in #djj c4c4 of water4 ,after cooling1 the clear liquid is decanted1 the remainder filtered1 and the filtrate made up to a litre2 to each litre is added #be c4c4 of sodium hydroxide solution 7sp4 gr4 #a4bi74 7#e47 ,an aqueous solution of the acetone1 containing #a or #b per cent4 of acetone4 7#f47 ,bicarbonated starch solution prepared by treating #j4abe grm4 of starch with #e c4c4 of cold water1 then adding #bj c4c4 of boiling water1 boiling a few minutes1 cooling1 and adding #b grms4 of sodium bicarbonate4 ,to #bj c4c4 of the potassium iodide solution are added #aj c4c4 of the diluted aqueous acetone1 an excess of the sodium hypochlorite solution is then run in from a burette and well shaken for a minute4 ,the mixture is then acidified with the hydrochloric acid solution1 and while agitated1 an excess of sodium thiosulphate solution is added1 the mixture being afterwards allowed to stand a few minutes4 ,the starch indicator is then added1 and the excess of thiosulphate re-titrated4 ,the relation of the sodium hypochlorite solution to the sodium thiosulphate being known1 the percentage of acetone can be readily calculated4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,the ,testing of ,acetone1 ,conroy1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #cast ,march #aijj1 vol4 xix4 ,dr ,s4,j4,m4 ,auld has recently 7,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 ,feb4 #ae1 #aijf1 vol4 xxv47 worked out a volumetric method for the estimation of acetone1 depending on the formation of bromoform1 and its subsequent hydrolysis with alcoholic potash4 ,the hydrolysis is probably expressed thus-- #c;,c,h,br#c #i,,koh ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #c;,,co ,c#b;,h#d #i,k,br #g;,h#b,o as it has been shown by ,hermann and ,long that exactly #c volumes of carbon monoxide to #a of ethylene are evolved4 ,the residual potassium bromide is estimated by means of standard silver nitrate solution4 ,bromoform is specially suitable for this purpose for several reasons4 ,it is very readily formed by the action of bromine and potash on acetone1 and although very volatile in steam1 it is not liable to loss due to its own evaporation4 ,further1 its high molecular weight and large percentage of bromine conduce to accurate results1 #eh grms4 of acetone being responsible for the formation of #ceg grms4 of ,k,br4 ,the method of carrying out the analysis is as follows3-- ,a known quantity of the solution to be tested1 containing acetone to the extent of #j4a to #j4b grm41 is pipetted into a #ejj c4c4 round-bottom flask1 diluted with a little water1 and mixed with #bj to #cj c4c4 of a #aj per cent4 solution of caustic potash4 ,the flask is connected with a long reflex condenser1 and is also fitted with a dropping funnel containing a solution of bromine in potassium bromide 7#bjj grms4 of ,br and #bej grms4 of ,k,br to #a litre of water74 ,the bromine solution is allowed to flow into the mixture until it has acquired a faint yellow tinge1 the flask and its contents being then heated on the water bath at about #gj ,c4 for half-an- hour4 ,bromine solution is added drop by drop until the slight coloration is permanent1 excess of bromine being got rid of by boiling for a minute or two with a little more caustic potash4 ,the mixture is then distilled until the distillate is free from bromoform1 halogen being tested for in the usual manner4 ,water is added to the contents of the flask if necessary4 ,it may be here observed that no acetone can be detected in the distillate by means of the mercuric oxide test1 and free bromine is also absent4 ,the condenser having been washed out with a little alcohol1 in order to remove any traces of bromoform which may have collected1 the distillate and washings are mixed with #ej c4c4 of alcohol and sufficient solid caustic potash to make an approximately #aj per cent4 solution4 ,the mixture is then heated on the water bath under a reflux condenser until the bromoform is completely decomposed4 ,this generally occupies about three-quarters of an hour4 ,the liquid is allowed to cool1 evaporated to smaller bulk if necessary1 and exactly neutralised with dilute nitric acid4 ,it is then diluted with water to #ejj c4c41 and an aliquot part titrated with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution1 using potassium chromate as indicator2 #bdj parts of bromine correspond to #eh parts of acetone4 ,the complete analysis can be performed in one and a half to two hours4 ,it is imperative that the bromine used should be pure1 as crude bromine frequently contains bromoform4 ,the method is suitable for the estimation of acetone in wood-spirit1 the spirit being diluted to #aj times its volume1 and #e c4c4 of this solution employed for the determination4 ,for example-- 7#a47 ,three c4c4 of a solution containing #i4fa per cent4 acetone gave #a4ghej grm4 ,k,br4 ,acetone found #i4ff per cent4 7#b47 ,ten c4c4 of a solution containing #j4if per cent4 acetone gave #j4ehdg grm4 ,k,br4 ,acetone found #j4ie per cent4 ,nitro-,cotton4--,the first thing upon opening a case of wet cotton1 or in receiving a sample from the poacher1 that requires to be determined is the percentage of water that it contains4 ,it is best done by weighing out about #a1jjj grms4 upon a paper tray1 which has been previously dried in the oven at #ajj ,c4 for some time1 and become constant in weight4 ,the trayful of cotton is then placed in a water oven1 kept at #ajj ,c41 and dried as long as it loses water4 ,the loss gives the percentage of water4 ,it varies from #bj to #cj per cent4 as a rule in wet cotton4 ,,outline ,,scheme ,,for ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,nitro-,,explosives ,exhaust dried substance with ,anhydrous ,ether in ,soxhlet's ,fat ,extraction ,apparatus4 ,solution--,divide into two parts ,a4 and ,b4 ,a4 ,allow ether to evaporate spontaneously4 ,dry residue in vacuo over ,h#b,,so#d and weigh4 ,equals nitro-glycerine1 resin1 camphor1 and paraffin4 ,the nitro-glycerine in this residue may be decomposed by heating with a solution of alcoholic potash4 ,water may then be added1 and the alcohol evaporated off on the water bath4 ,from this solution the resin may be precipitated by ,h,cl1 filtered off1 dried1 and weighed4 ,solution containing the paraffin is treated with ,am,s solution and heated4 ,on cooling the paraffin separates1 and may be separated4 ,residue may be shaken with ,,cs#b to remove camphor4 ,b4 ,add phenol-phthalein and titrate with alcoholic potash1 #a c4c4 normal ,,kho 4#ccj grm4 resin1 and add considerably more ,,kho4 ,evaporate1 dissolve residue in water1 shake with ether1 and separate4 ,ethereal ,solution evaporated leaves paraffin4 ,aqueous ,solution-- ,add bromide1 acidify with ,h,cl1 separate any resin and precipitate1 filtrate with ,ba,cl#b ,ba,s,o#d x 4#acgc ,sulphur4 ,residue-- ,dry1 weigh1 and exhaust with water preferably in ,soxhlet4 ,solution-- ,residue-- ,contains metallic ,dry1 weigh1 and agitate an aliquot part with nitrates1 chlorates1 with ,h#b,,so#d and ,hg in nitrometer4 ,if soluble carbonates1 nitro-cellulose is present1 treat remainder of the sum of which residue with ether-alcohol4 7except ,am,c,o#c7 can be determined by evaporating down at ,solution-- #ajj ,c4 to dryness ,evaporate and weigh4 ,residue consists of and weighing4 soluble nitro-cellulose4 ,nitrates can be determined by ,residue-- ,dry and weigh and determine hexa-nitro- cellulose in nitrometer1 if present4 ,exhaust remainder with acetic ether4 ,solution-- ,residue-- ,hexa-nitro-cellulose ,dry and weigh1 ignite 7,gun cotton74 and reweigh4 ,loss ,cellulose4 ,residue consists of sawdust1 charcoal1 coal1 chalk1 guhr1 or mineral matter1 c4 ,,note4--,camphor is found by difference4 ,sulphur is only partially soluble in ether4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to extract some of the original substance with water1 and treat residue with alcoholic ,,kho4 ,add bromide1 acidify1 and precipitate as ,ba,s,o4 ,the ,solubility ,test4--,the object of this test is to ascertain1 in the case of gun-cotton1 the percentage of soluble 7penta and lower nitrates7 cotton that it contains1 or in the case of soluble cotton1 the quantity of gun-cotton4 ,the method of procedure is as follows3--,five grms4 of the sample which has been previously dried at #ajj ,c41 and afterwards exposed to the air for two hours1 is transferred to a conical flask1 and #bej c4c4 ether-alcohol added 7#b ether to #a alcohol74 ,the flask is then corked and allowed to digest1 with repeated shaking1 for two or three hours4 ,the whole is then transferred to a linen filter1 and when the solution has passed through the filter1 is washed with a little ether1 and pressed in a hand-screw press between folds of filter paper4 ,the sample is then returned to the flask1 and the previous treatment repeated1 but it will be sufficient for it to digest for one hour the second time4 ,the filter is then again pressed first gently by hand1 then in the press1 and afterwards opened up and the ether allowed to evaporate4 ,the gun-cotton is then removed from the filter and transferred to a watch-glass1 and dried in the water oven at #ajj ,c4 ,when dry it is exposed to the air for two hours and weighed4 ,it equals the amount of gun-cotton and unconverted cotton in the #e grms4 ,the unconverted cotton must be determined in a separate #e grms4 and deducted4 ,the method of determining the soluble cotton now used in the ,government laboratories is as follows3--,fifty grains of the nitro-cotton are dissolved in #aej c4c4 of ether-alcohol1 and allowed to stand1 with frequent shakings1 in a #bjj c4c4 stoppered measure for six hours2 #ge c4c4 of the clear solution are then drawn off by the aid of a pipette and evaporated in a dish on the water bath1 and finally in the water oven at #abj ,f4 7#di ,c471 until constant in weight4 ,the weight found equals the quantity of soluble cotton in the #ge c4c41 which1 multiplied by #d1 equals the percentage1 thus3 ,suppose that #b4cj grains was the weight found1 then 7#b4c x #aej7_/ge #d4f in #ej #i4bj per cent4 ,a method for the determination of soluble nitro-cellulose in gun-cotton and smokeless powder has been published by ,k4,b4 ,quinan 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #bc #d1 #beh74 ,in this method about #a grm4 of the finely divided dry sample to be analysed is placed in an aluminium cup #a4i inch in diameter and #d-a_/h inch deep4 ,it is then covered and well stirred with #ej c4c4 of alcohol1 #ajj c4c4 of ether are then added1 and the mixture is stirred for several minutes4 ,after removing the stirrer1 the cup is lightly covered with an aluminium lid1 and is then placed in the steel cup of a centrifugal machine1 which is gradually got up to a speed of #b1jjj revolutions per minute1 the total centrifugal force at the position occupied by the cups 7which become horizontal when in rapid rotation7 is about #dej lbs4 ,they are rotated at the full speed for ten to twelve minutes1 and the machine is then gradually stopped4 ,by this time the whole of the insoluble matter will be at the bottom of the cup1 and the supernatant solution will be clear4 ,it is drawn off to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom 7without disturbing the sediment71 with the aid of a pipette4 ,care must be taken that the solution thus withdrawn is perfectly clear4 ,about #aj to #ae c4c4 of colloid solution and a film of insoluble matter remain at the bottom of the cup2 these are stirred up well1 the stirrer is rinsed with ether-alcohol1 about #ej c4c4 of fresh ether-alcohol are added2 the mixture is again treated in the centrifugal apparatus for about eight minutes2 the whole washing process is then repeated until all soluble matter has been removed4 ,this may require about seven or eight 7or for samples with much insoluble matter ten or twelve or more7 washings1 but as the extraction proceeds1 the period of rotation may be somewhat reduced4 ,after extraction is completed1 the insoluble matter is transferred to a ,gooch crucible with the usual asbestos pad1 dried at #ajj ,c41 and weighed4 ,the residue may1 if wished1 be dried and weighed in the aluminium cup1 but then it cannot be ignited4 ,the whole time for an analysis exclusive of that required for drying1 is from one to two hours--average time1 #a-a_/d hour4 ,the results are satisfactory both as to accuracy and rapidity4 ,acetone-soluble nitro-cellulose may be determined by the same method4 ,the ,unconverted or ,non-nitrated ,cotton4--,however well the cotton has been nitrated1 it is almost certain to contain a small quantity of non- nitrated or unconverted cotton4 ,this can be determined thus3--,five grms4 of the sample are boiled with a saturated solution of sodium sulphide1 and then allowed to stand for forty-eight hours1 and afterwards filtered or decanted1 and again boiled with fresh solutions of sulphide1 and again filtered1 washed first with dilute ,h,cl and then with water1 dried1 and weighed4 ,the residue is the cellulose that was not nitrated1 plus ash1 c4 ,it should be ignited1 and the weight of the ash deducted from the previous weight4 ,acetone1 and acetic-ether 7ethyl-acetate7 may also be used as solvents for the nitro-cellulose4 ,another process is to boil the gun-cotton1 c41 in a solution of sodium stannate made by adding caustic soda to a solution of stannous chloride1 until the precipitate first formed is just re-dissolved4 ,this solution dissolves the cellulose nitrates1 but does not affect the cellulose4 ,dr ,lung found the following process more satisfactory in the case of the more highly nitrated products3--,the reagent is an alcoholic solution of sodium-ethylate prepared by dissolving #b to #c grms4 of sodium in #ajj c4c4 of #ie per cent4 alcohol1 and mixing the filtered solution with #ajj c4c4 of acetone4 ,it has no effect upon cellulose1 but decomposes nitro-cellulose with the formation of a reddish brown compound1 which is soluble in water4 ,in the determination1 #e grms4 of gun-cotton are heated to #dj or #ej ,c4 on the water bath with #aej c4c4 of the reagent1 the liquid being shaken at intervals for twenty to thirty minutes2 or the mixture may be allowed to stand for a few hours at the ordinary temperature4 ,the brown-red solution is decanted from the undissolved residue1 and the latter washed with alcohol and with water1 by decantation1 and then on the filter with hot water1 to which a little hydrochloric acid is added for the final washings4 ,for ordinary work this cellulose is dried immediately and weighed1 but in exact determinations it is washed with alcohol1 again treated with #ej c4c4 of the reagent1 and separated and washed as before4 ,the cellulose thus obtained1 gives no trace of gas in the nitrometer1 and duplicate determinations agree within #j4a to #j4b per cent4 when the weight of unchanged cellulose amounts to about #j4b grm4 ,gun-cotton1 which is completely soluble in acetone1 contains only traces of cellulose1 and when as much as #j4he per cent4 is present it does not dissolve entirely4 ,this method is not applicable to the determination of cellulose in lower nitrated products1 and ,dr ,lung attributes this to the fact that these being prepared with less concentrated acid invariably contain oxy-cellulose4 ,alkalinity4--,five grms4 of the air-dried and very finely divided sample are taken from the centre of the slabs or discs1 and digested with about #bj c4c4 of ,n_/#b hydrochloric acid1 and diluted with water to about #bej c4c41 and shaken for about fifteen minutes4 ,the liquid is then decanted1 and washed with water until the washings no longer give an acid reaction4 ,the solution1 together with the washings1 are titrated with ,n_/#d sodium carbonate1 using litmus as indicator4 ,ash and ,inorganic ,matter4--,this is best determined by mixing #b or #c grms4 of the nitro-cotton in a platinum crucible with shavings of paraffin1 heating sufficiently to melt the paraffin1 and then allowing the contents of the crucible to catch fire and burn away quietly4 ,the temperature is then raised1 and the carbonaceous residue incinerated1 cooled1 weighed1 c41 and the percentage of ash calculated4 ,schjerning proceeds in the following way3--,he takes #e grms4 of the nitro-cotton in a large platinum crucible1 he then moistens it with a mixture of alcohol and ether1 in which paraffin has been dissolved to saturation1 and filtered and mixed with one-fourth of its volume of water4 ,some fragments of solid paraffin are then added1 and the ether set on fire4 ,whilst this is in progress the crucible is kept in an oblique position1 and is rotated so that the gun-cotton may absorb the paraffin uniformly4 ,the partially charred residue is now rubbed down with a rounded glass rod1 and the crucible is covered and heated for from fifteen to twenty minutes over the blow-pipe1 the lid being occasionally removed4 ,the residue is soon converted into ash1 which is weighed1 and then washed out into a porcelain basin and treated with hydrochloric acid heated to #ij ,c4 ,the oxide of iron1 alumina1 lime1 and magnesia are thus dissolved1 and the silica remains as insoluble residue4 ,the rest of the analysis is conducted according to the well-known methods of separation4 ,the percentage of ash as a whole is generally all that is required4 ,examination of ,nitrated ,celluloses with ,polarised ,light4--,dr ,g4 ,lung 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aija1 #bc #h1 #ebg7 has formed the following conclusions3--,the most highly nitrated products appear blue in polarised light1 but those containing between #ac4i and #ac4j per cent4 of nitrogen cannot be distinguished from each other by polarisation4 ,as the percentage of nitrogen rises1 the blue colour becomes less intense1 and here and there grey fibres can be observed1 though not in proportion to the increase in the nitrogen4 ,below #ab4d per cent4 of nitrogen1 the fibres show a grey lustre1 which usually appears yellow when the top light is cut off4 ,below #aj per cent4 of nitrogen1 the structure is invariably partially destroyed and no certain observations possible4 ,it is only possible to distinguish with certainty1 firstly any unchanged cellulose by its flashing up in variegated 7rainbow7 colours2 and secondly1 highly nitrated products 7from #ab4ge per cent4 ,n upwards71 by their flashing up less strongly in blue colours4 ,the purple transition stage in the fibres containing over #aa4bh per cent4 of ,n 7,chardonnet7 was not observed by ,dr ,lung4 ,determination of ,nitrogen by ,lung ,nitrometer4--,the determination of the percentage of nitrogen in a sample of gun-cotton or collodion is perhaps of more value1 and affords a better idea of its purity and composition1 than any of the foregoing methods of examination1 and taken in conjunction with the solubility test1 it will generally give the analyst a very fair idea of the composition of his sample4 ,if we regard gun-cotton as the hexa-nitro-cellulose1 the theoretical amount of nitrogen required for the formula is #ad4ad per cent41 and in the same way for collodion-cotton1 which consists of the lower nitrates1 chiefly1 however1 of the penta- nitrate1 the theoretical nitrogen is #ab4ge per cent41 so that if in a sample of nitro-cotton the nitrogen falls much lower than #ad per cent41 it probably contains considerable quantities of the lower nitrates1 and perhaps some non-nitrated cellulose as well 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7x1 which of course would also lower the percentage of nitrogen4 ,the most expeditious method of determining the nitrogen in these nitro bodies is by the use of ,lung's nitrometer 7,fig4 #da71 and the best way of working the process is as follows3--,weigh out with the greatest care #j4f grm4 of the previously dried substance in a small weighing bottle of about #ae c4c4 capacity1 and carefully add #aj c4c4 of concentrated sulphuric acid from a pipette1 and allow to stand until all the cotton is dissolved4 ,the nitrometer should be of a capacity #aej to #bjj c4c41 and should contain a bulb of #ajj c4c4 capacity at the top1 and should be fitted with a ,greiner and ,friederich's three-way tap4 ,when the nitro-cotton has entirely dissolved to a clear solution1 raise the pressure tube of the nitrometer so as to bring the mercury in the measuring tube close up to the tap4 ,open the tap in order to allow of the escape of any air bubbles1 and clean the surface of the mercury and the inside of the cup with a small piece of filter paper4 ,now close the tap1 and pour the solution of the nitro-cotton into the cup4 ,rinse out the bottle with #ae c4c4 of sulphuric acid1 contained in a pipette1 pouring a little of the acid over the stopper of the weighing bottle in case some of the solution may be on it4 ,now lower the pressure tube a little1 just enough to cause the solution to flow into the bulb of the measuring tube1 when the tap is slightly opened4 ,when the solution has run in almost to the end1 turn off the tap1 wash down the sides of the bottle1 and add to the cup of the nitrometer2 allow it to flow in as before1 and then wash down the sides of the cup with #aj c4c4 of sulphuric acid1 adding little by little1 and allowing each portion added to flow into the bulb of the nitrometer before adding the next portion4 ,great care is necessary to prevent air bubbles obtaining admission1 and if the pressure tube is lowered too far1 the acid will run with a rush and carry air along with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,ordinary ,,form ,,of ,,lung ,,nitrometer4 ,the solution being all in the measuring tube1 the pressure tube is again slightly raised1 and the tube containing the nitro-cotton solution shaken for ten minutes with considerable violence4 ,it is then replaced in the clamp1 and the pressure relieved by lowering the pressure tube1 and the whole apparatus allowed to stand for twenty minutes1 in order to allow the gas evolved to assume the temperature of the room4 ,a thermometer should be hung up close to the bulb of the measuring tube4 ,at the end of the twenty minutes1 the levels of the mercury in the pressure and measuring tubes are equalised1 and the final adjustment obtained by slightly opening the tap on the measuring tube 7very slightly71 after first adding a little sulphuric acid to the cup1 and observing whether the acid runs in or moves up4 ,this must be done with very great care4 ,when accurately adjusted1 it should move neither way4 ,now read off the volume of the ,,no gas in cubic centimetres from the measuring tube4 ,read also the thermometer suspended near the bulb1 and take the height of the barometer in millimetres4 ,the calculation is very simple4 ,,example--,,collodion-,,cotton4 #j4f;,a grm4 taken4 ,reading on measuring tube #aad4f c4c4 ,,no4 ,barometer-- #geh mm4 ,temperature--#ae ,c4 ,footnote ,a3 #j4e grm4 is enough in the case of gun-cotton4 ,since #a c4c4 ,,no #j4fbgb milligramme ,n1 and correcting for temperature and pressure by the formula #gfj x 7#a d#b7 7d 4#jjcffe71 for temperature #ae #hja4gh1;,a then 7#aad4f x #ajj x #gej x 4#fbgb7_/7hja4g x4 #f7 #aa4bb per cent4 nitrogen4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,table1 page #bdd4 ,the nitrogen in nitro-glycerine may of course be determined by the nitrometer1 but in this case it is better to take a much smaller quantity of the substance4 ,from #j4a to #j4b grm4 is quite sufficient4 ,this will give from #cj to #fj c4c4 of gas1 and therefore a measuring tube without a #ajj c4c4 bulb must be used4 ,,example4 #j4ajdh grm4 nitroglycerine taken gave #cb4e c4c4 ,,no4 ,barometer1 #gfa mm4 ,temperature1 #ae ,c4 ,therefore1 7#c4be x #ajj x #gfa x 4#fbgb7_/7hja4gh x4#ajdh7 #ah4df per cent4 ,n4 ,theory #ah4ej per cent4 ,professor ,lung has devised another form of nitrometer 7,fig4 #db71 very useful in the nitrogen determination in explosives4 ,it consists of a measuring tube1 which is widened out in the middle to a bulb1 and is graduated above and below into #a_/aj c4c4 ,the capacity of the whole apparatus is #acj c4c42 that of each portion of the tube being #cj c4c41 and of the bulb #gj c4c4 ,the upper portion of the graduated tube serves to measure small volumes of gas1 whilst larger volumes are read off on the lower part4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,some ,,new ,,forms ,,of ,,nitrometer4 ,f4,m4 ,horn 7,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,chemie1 #ahib1 p4 #ceh7 has devised a form of nitrometer 7,fig4 #dc7 which he has found especially useful in the examination of smokeless powders4 ,the tap ,h is provided with a wide bore through which a weighed quantity of the powder is dropped bodily into the bulb ,k4 ,from #d to #e c4c4 of sulphuric acid which has been heated to #cj ,c4 are then added through the funnel ,t1 the tap ,h being immediately closed4 ,when the powder has dissolved--a process which may be hastened by warming the bulb very carefully--the thick solution is drawn into the nitrometer tube ,n1 and the bulb rinsed several times with fresh acid1 after which operation the analysis is proceeded with in the usual way4 ,dr ,lung's method of using a separate nitrometer in which to measure the ,,no gas evolved to the one in which the reaction has taken place1 the gas being transferred from the one to the other by joining them by means of indiarubber tubing1 and then driving the gas over by raising the pressure tube of the one containing the gas1 the taps being open1 ,i have found to be a great improvement4 #a c4c4 ,,no gas at #j and #gfj mm4 ,equals #j4fbgb milligrammes 7,n7 nitrogen4 #a4cdc nitric oxide4 #b4hbj 7,,hno#c7 nitric acid4 #c4hje 7,na,n,o#c7 sodium nitrate4 #d4ebc 7,,kno#c7 potassium nitrate4 ,champion and ,pellet's ,method4--,this method is now very little used4 ,it is based upon the fact that when nitro-cellulose is boiled with ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid1 all the nitrogen is disengaged as nitric oxide 7,,no74 ,it is performed as follows3--,a vacuum is made in a flask1 fitted with a funnel tube1 with a glass stopper on the tube2 a delivery tube that can also be closed1 and which dips under a solution of caustic soda contained in a trough1 and the end placed under a graduated tube1 also full of caustic soda4 ,from #j4ab to #j4af grm4 cotton dissolved in #e to #f c4c4 of sulphuric acid is allowed to flow into the flask1 which contains the ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid1 and in which a vacuum has been formed by boiling1 and then closing the taps4 ,the solution is then heated1 the taps on the delivery tube opened1 and the end placed under the collecting tube1 and the ,,no evolved collected4 ,the ,,no gas is not evolved until the solution has become somewhat concentrated4 ,eder substituted a solution of ferrous sulphate in ,h,cl for ferrous chloride4 ,care must be taken that the flask used is strong enough to stand the pressure1 or it will burst4 ,the same chemists 7,compt4 ,rendus1 lxxxiii4 #gjg7 also devised the following method for determining the ,,no#b in nitro-glycerine3--,a known quantity of a solution of ferrous sulphate of previously ascertained reducing power is placed in a flask1 acidified with hydrochloric acid1 and its surface covered with a layer of petroleum oil4 ,about 4#e grm4 of the nitro-glycerine is then introduced1 and the flask heated on the water bath4 ,when the sample is completely decomposed1 the liquid is heated to boiling to remove nitric oxide1 and the excess of ferrous sulphate ascertained by titration with standard permanganate2 #ef of iron 7,fe7 oxidised by the sample correspond to #bc of ,,no#b in the sample of nitro-glycerine4 ,the ,schultze-,tieman ,method for determining nitrogen in nitro-explosives1 especially nitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine4--,the figure 7,no4 #dd7 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus4 ,i am indebted for the following description of the method of working it to my friend1 ,mr ,william ,bate1 of ,hayle4 ,to fill the apparatus with the soda solution1 the gas burette is put on the indiarubber stopper of basin ,w1 and firmly clamped down4 ,then the taps ,a and ,c are opened1 and ,b closed4 ,when the burette is filled with soda solution half-way up the funnel ,y1 ,a and ,c are closed1 and ,b opened4 ,the arrows show the inlet and outlet for the cooling water that is kept running through the water jacket round the nitrometer tube4 ,to collect the gas1 raise the nitrometer off the rubber stopper1 and place the gas tube from the decomposition apparatus in the glass dish ,w and under the opening of the nitrometer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,,schultze-,,tieman ,,apparatus4 ,for the estimation of nitrogen in nitro-cellulose take 4#e to 4#fe grm41 and place in the decomposition flask f 7,fig4 #de71 washing in with about #be c4c4 of water by alternately opening clips ,d and ,e4 ,the air in the flask is driven out by boiling1 whilst the air is shut off by the tube i dipping into the basin ,w1 which is filled with the soda lye1 and tube ,k is placed in the test tube ,r1 which contains a few c4c4 of water4 ,as soon as all the air is completely driven out1 clips ,d and ,e are closed1 and the gas jet is taken away4 7,this flask must be a strong one1 or it will burst47 ,into test tube ,r1 #be c4c4 of concentrated solution of protochloride of iron and #aj to #ae c4c4 concentrated hydrochloric acid are poured1 which are sucked up into the developing flask f by opening clip ,e1 air being carefully kept from entering4 ,the clip ,e is now closed1 and tube i is put underneath the burette1 and the development of ,,no gas is commenced by heating the contents of the flask f4 ,when the pressure of the gas in the flask has become greater than the pressure of the atmosphere1 the connecting tube begins to swell at i1 whereupon clip ,d is opened1 and the boiling continued with frequent shaking of the bulb1 until no more nitrous gas bubbles rise up into the soda lye1 the distilling over of the ,h,cl causes a crackling noise1 the clip ,d is closed1 and ,e opened4 ,the burette is again put hermetically on the indiarubber stopper in basin ,w1 and the apparatus is left to cool until the water discharged through ,p shows the same temperature as the water flowing through 7into the cooling jacket7 ,z4 ,if the level of the soda solution in the tube ,x is now put on exactly the same level as that in the burette by lowering or elevating the tube ,x as required1 the volume of ,,no obtained in c4c4 can be read off within #a_/aj c4c41 and the percentage of nitrogen calculated by the usual formula4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,decomposition ,flask for ,schultze-,tieman ,method4 ,the solution of protochloride of iron is obtained by dissolving iron nails1 c41 in concentrated ,h,cl1 the iron being in excess4 ,when the development of hydrogen ceases1 it is necessary to filter warm through a paper filter1 and acidify filtrate with a few drops of ,h,cl4 ,the soda solution used has a sp4 gr4 of #a4baj to #a4bfj2 equals #be to #cj ,b4 ,the nitro-cellulose is dried in quantities of #b grms4 at #gj ,c4 during eight to ten hours1 and then three hours in an exiccator over ,h#b,,so#d4 ,the results obtained with this apparatus are very accurate4 ,the reaction is founded upon that of ,,mm4 ,champion and ,pellet's method4 ,the ,kjeldahl ,method of ,determining ,nitrogen4--,this method1 which has been so largely used by analysts for the determination of nitrogen in organic bodies1 more especially perhaps in manures1 was proposed by ,j4 ,kjeldahl1,a of the ,carlsberg ,laboratory of ,copenhagen4 ,it was afterwards modified by ,jodlbauer1 of ,munich1,b and applied to the analysis of nitro- explosives by ,m4 ,chenel1 of the ,laboratoire ,centrale des ,poudres1 whose method of procedure is as follows3--#j4e grm4 of the finely powdered substance is digested in the cold with a solution of #a4b grm4 of phenol and #j4d grm4 phosphoric anhydride in #cj c4c4 of sulphuric acid4 ,the mixture is kept well shaken until the solution is complete4 ,from #c to #d grms4 of zinc-dust is then cautiously and gradually added1 the temperature of the mass being kept down until complete reduction has been effected4 ,finally1 #j4g grm4 of mercury is added1 and the process continued in the usual way1 according to ,kjeldahl2 that is1 the liquid is distilled until all the ammonia has passed over1 and is absorbed in the standard acid4 ,the distillate is then titrated with standard ammonia4 ,footnote ,a3 ,j4 ,kjeldahl1 ,zeitschrift ,anal4 ,chem41 #ahhc1 xxii41 p4 #cff4 ,footnote ,b3 ,jodlbauer1 ,chemisches ,centralblatt1 #ahhf1 pp4 #dcd-dhd4 ,see also ,arms and ,explosives1 #ahic1 p4 #hg4 ,the ,,no#b group is at the moment of solution fixed upon the phenol with the production of mono-nitro-phenol1 which is afterwards reduced by the action of the zinc-dust into the amido derivative4 ,during the subsequent combustion1 the nitrogen of the amido-phenol becomes fixed in the state of ammonia4 ,m4 ,chenel is perfectly satisfied with the results obtained1 but he points out that the success of the operation depends upon the complete conversion of the phenol into the mono-nitro derivatives4 ,this takes place whenever the organic compound forms a clear solution in the cold sulphuric acid mixture4 ,substances like collodion or gun-cotton must be very finely divided for successful treatment4 ,the following table shows some of the results obtained by ,m4 ,chenel3-- ,total ,nitrogen4 ,substances ,analysed4 ,calculated4 ,found4 ,saltpetre 7,,kno#c7 #ac4hf #ac4ia #ac4hb #ac4gc #ac4if ,ammonium nitrate #ce4jj #ce4ca #cd4ij #cd4if ,barium nitrate #aj4gb #aj4fg #aj4fb ,nitro-glycerol #ah4ej #ah4de ,di-nitro-benzol,a #af4fg #af4gh #af4eg ,para-nitro-phenol #aj4jg #aj4jc ,picric acid,a #ah4cd #ah4db #ah4dc ,ammonium picrate #bb4gf #bb4fc #bb4fg ,di-nitro-ortho-cresol #ad4ad #ad4aj #ac4ih ,tri-nitro-meta-cresol #ag4bh #ag4eg #ag4bg ,footnote ,a3 ,dr4 ,bernard ,dyer obtained #ah4ci per cent4 for picric acid and #af4ed per cent4 for di-nitro-benzol4--,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 ,aug4 #ahie4 ,when ,chenel endeavoured to apply ,jodlbauer's modification of ,kjeldahl's process to the examination of the tri- and tetra-nitrated naphthalenes1 he found that good results were not obtainable1 because these compounds do not dissolve completely in the cold sulphuric acid4 ,it may1 however1 be used if they are previously converted into the naphthylamines1 according to the plan proposed by ,d',aguiar and ,lautemann 7,bull4 ,soc4 ,chim41 vol4 iii41 new series1 p4 #bef74 ,this is rapidly effected as follows3--,twelve grms4 of iodine are gradually added to a solution of #b grms4 of phosphorus in about #ae or #bj c4c4 of bisulphide of carbon1 this solution being contained in a flask of #bej c4c4 capacity4 ,the flask and its contents are heated on the water bath at #ajj ,c4 with constant attention1 until the last traces of the carbon bisulphide have distilled away4 ,it is then cooled1 and the iodide of phosphorus is detached from the sides of the flask by shaking1 but not expelled4 ,the next step is to add about #j4e to #j4f grm4 of the substance that is to be analysed1 after which #h grms4 of water are introduced1 and the flask is agitated gently two or three times4 ,as soon as the reaction becomes lively1 the contents of the flask are well shaken4 ,it is usually finished about one minute after the addition of the water4 ,the flask is now cooled1 and #be c4c4 of sulphuric acid1 together with #j4g grm4 of mercury1 are gradually added2 hydriodic acid 7,,hi7 forms1 and the temperature of the flask must be raised sufficiently to expel it4 ,the remaining part of the operation is as in the ordinary ,kjeldahl process4 ,m4 ,chenel has found this process the best for the analysis of the nitro- naphthalenes1 and for impervious substances like collodion or gun-cotton4 ,personally1 ,i have never been able to obtain satisfactory results with this process in the analysis of nitro-cellulose1 and ,i am of opinion that the process does not possess any advantage over the nitrometer method1 at any rate for the analysis of gun-cotton4 ,table giving the ,percentages of ,nitrogen and ,oxide of ,nitrogen in ,various ,substances used in or as ,explosives3 ,name ,,formul ,,nitrogen ,,no#b per cent4 per cent4 ,nitroglycerine ,c#c;,h#e7,,ono#b7c #ah4ej #fj4gj ,hexa-nitro-cellulose ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,ono#b7f #ad4ad #df4db ,penta-nitro-cellulose ,c#f;,h#h,o#e7,,ono#b7e #aa4aa #cf4ej ,nitro-benzene ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b #aa4ch #cg4ci ,di-nitro-benzene ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7b #af4fg #ed4gg ,tri-nitro-benzene ,c#f;,h#c7,,no#b7c #ai4bd #fc4bb ,nitro-toluene ,c#g;,h#g,,no#b #aj4ba #cc4di ,nitro-naphthalene ,c#aj;,h#g,,no#b #h4ji #bf4ec ,di-nitro-naphthalene ,c#aj;,h#f7,,no#b7b #ab4hd #db4ab ,nitro-mannite ,c#f;,h#g7,,no#c7f #bc4ei #gg4cg ,nitro-starch ,c#f;,h#h,o#d7;,,hno#c7 #f4gf #bb4ah ,picric acid 7,tri-nitro-phenol7 ,c#f;,h#b,,oh7,,no#b7c #ah4cd #fj4ae ,chloro-nitro-benzene ,c#f;,h#c;,cl7,,no#b7b #ac4hb #de4dc ,ammonium nitrate ,,nh#d,,no#c #ce4jj ,sodium nitrate ,na,n,o#c #af4dg ,potassium nitrate ,,kno#c #ac4hf ,nitric acid ,,hno#c #bb4bb ,barium nitrate ,ba7,,no#c7b #aj4gb ,analysis of ,celluloid4--,the finely divided celluloid is well stirred1 by means of a platinum wire1 with concentrated sulphuric acid in the cup of a ,lung nitrometer1 and when dissolved the nitrogen determined in the solution in the usual way4 ,to prevent interference from camphor1 the following treatment is suggested by ,h4 ,zaunschirm 7,chem4 ,zeit41 xiv41 #ije74 ,dissolve a weighed quantity of the celluloid in a mixture of ether- alcohol1 mixed with a weighed quantity of washed and ignited asbestos1 or pumice-stone1 dry1 and disintegrate the mass1 and afterwards extract the camphor with chloroform1 dry1 and weigh3 then extract with absolute methyl-alcohol1 evaporate1 weigh1 and examine the nitro-cellulose in the nitrometer4 ,picric ,acid and ,picrates4--,picric acid is soluble in hot water1 and to the extent of #a part in #ajj in cold water1 also in ether1 chloroform1 glycerine1 #aj per cent4 soda solution1 alcohol1 amylic alcohol1 carbon bisulphide1 benzene1 and petroleum4 ,if a solution of picric acid be boiled with a strong solution of potassium cyanide1 a deep red liquid is produced1 owing to the formation of potassium iso-purpurate1 which crystallises in small reddish-brown plates with a beetle-green lustre4 ,this1 by reaction with ammonium chloride1 gives ammonium iso-purpurate 7,,nh#d;,c#h;,h#d,n#e,o#f71 or artificial murexide1 which dies silk and wool a beautiful red colour4 ,on adding barium chloride to either of the above salts1 a vermilion-red precipitate was formed1 consisting of barium iso-purpurate4 ,with ammonio-sulphate of copper1 solutions of picric acid give a bright green precipitate4 ,mr ,a4,h4 ,allen gives the following methods for the assay of commercial picric acid1 in his ,commercial ,organic ,analysis3-- ,resinous and ,tarry matters are not unfrequently present4 ,they are left insoluble on dissolving the sample in boiling water4 ,the separation is more perfect if the hot solution be exactly neutralised by caustic soda4 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,hydrochloric ,acid1 and ,oxalic ,acid1 and their salts are detected by adding to the filtered aqueous solution of the sample solutions of the picrates of barium1 silver1 and calcium4 ,these salts are readily made by boiling picric acid with the carbonates of the respective metals and filtering3 other soluble salts of these methods may be substituted for the picrates1 but they are less satisfactory4 ,nitric ,acid may be detected by the red fumes evolved on warming the sample with copper turnings4 ,inorganic ,impurities and ,picrates of ,potash and ,sodium1 c41 leave residues on cautious ignition4 ,general ,impurities and ,adulterations may be detected and determined by shaking #a grm4 of the sample of acid in a graduated tube with #be c4c4 of ether1 the pure acid dissolves1 while any oxalic acid1 nitrates1 picrates1 boric acid1 alum1 sugar1 c41 will be left insoluble1 and after removal of the ethereal liquid1 may be readily identified and determined4 ,for the detection and determination of water and of oxalic acid1 #ej c4c4 of warm benzene may be advantageously substituted for ether4 ,sugar may be separated from the other impurities by treating the residue insoluble in ether or benzene with rectified spirit1 in which sugar and boric acid alone will dissolve4 ,if boric acid be present1 the alcoholic solution will burn with a green flame4 ,mono- and di-nitrophenic acids lower the melting point 7#abb ,c74 ,their calcium salts are less soluble than the picrate1 and may be approximately separated from it by fractional crystallisation1 or by precipitating the hot saturated solution of the sample with excess of lime water4 ,picric acid may be determined by extracting the acidulated aqueous solution by agitation with ether or benzene1 and subsequently removing and evaporating off the solvent4 ,it may also be precipitated as the potassium salt4 ,potassium ,picrate ,,kc#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,o4 ,when a strong solution of picric acid is neutralised by carbonate of potash1 this salt is thrown down in yellow crystalline needles1 which require #bfj parts of cold or #ad parts of hot water for their solution4 ,in alcohol it is much less soluble4 ,ammonium ,picrate is more soluble in water than the above1 and sodium picrate is readily soluble in water1 but nearly insoluble in solution of sodium carbonate4 ,picrates of the ,alkaloids4--,picric acid forms insoluble salts with many of the alkaloids1 and picric acid may be determined in the following manner3--,to the solution of picric acid1 or a picrate1 add a solution of sulphate of cinchonine acidulated with ,h#b,,so#d4 ,the precipitated picrate of cinchonine ,c#bj;,h#bd,n#b,o7,c#f;,h#b,n#c,o#g7b is washed with cold water1 rinsed off the filter into a porcelain crucible or dish1 the water evaporated on the water bath1 and the residual salt weighed4 ,its weight1 multiplied by 4#fabc1 gives the quantity of picric acid in the sample taken4 ,analysis of ,glycerine4,a ,glycerine that is to be used for the manufacture of nitro-glycerine should have a minimum specific gravity of #a4bfa at #ae ,c4 ,this can be determined1 either by the aid of a ,sartorius specific gravity balance1 or by using an ordinary specific gravity bottle4 ,one of #aj or #be c4c4 capacity is very convenient4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see also ,sulman and ,berry1 ,analyst1 xi41 #ab-cd1 and ,allen's ,commercial ,organic ,analysis1 vol4 ii41 part i4 ,residue,a left upon evaporation should not be more than #j4be per cent4 ,to determine this1 take #be grms4 of the glycerine1 and evaporate it at a temperature of about #afj ,c4 in a platinum basin1 and finish in an air bath4 ,weigh until constant weight is obtained4 ,afterwards incinerate over a bunsen burner1 and weigh the ash4 ,footnote ,a3 ,organic matter up to 4#f per cent4 is not always prejudicial to the nitrating quantities of a glycerine4 ,silver ,test4 ,a portion of the sample of glycerine to be tested should be put in a small weighing bottle1 and a quarter of its bulk of ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution added to it1 then shake it1 and place in a dark cupboard for fifteen minutes4 ,it must be pronounced bad if it becomes black or dark brown within that time 7acrolein1 formic1 and butyric acids74 ,the ,german official test for glycerine for pharmaceutical purposes is much more stringent1 #a c4c4 of glycerine heated to boiling with #a c4c4 of ammonia solution and three drops of silver nitrate solution must give neither colour or precipitate within five minutes4 ,nitration4 ,fifty grms4 of the glycerine are poured from a beaker into a mixture of concentrated nitric acid 7specific gravity #a4ec7 and sulphuric acid 7#a4hd71 mixed in the proportions of #c ,,hno#c to #e ,h#b,,so#d 7about #djj c4c4 of mixed acids74 ,the mixed acids should be put into a rather large beaker1 and held in the right hand in a basin of water1 and the glycerine slowly poured into them from a smaller one held in the left4 ,a constant rotatory motion should be given to the beaker in which the nitration is performed4 ,when all the glycerine has been added1 and the mixture has been shaken for a few minutes longer1 it is poured into a separator1 and allowed to stand for some time4 ,it should1 if the glycerine is a good one1 have separated from the mixed acids in ten minutes1 and the line of demarcation between the nitro-glycerine and the acid should be clear and sharp1 neither should there be any white flocculent matter suspended in the liquid4 ,the excess of acids is now drawn off1 and the nitro-glycerine shaken once or twice with a warm solution of carbonate of soda1 and afterwards with water alone4 ,the nitro-glycerine is then drawn off into a weighed beaker1 the surface dried with a piece of filter paper1 and weighed2 #ajj parts of a good glycerine should yield about #bcj of nitro-glycerine4 ,a quicker method is to take only #aj c4c4 of the glycerine1 of which the specific gravity is already known1 nitrate as before1 and pour into a burette1 read off the volume of nitro-glycerine in c4c4 and multiply them by #a4f 7the specific gravity of nitro-glycerine71 thus3 #aj grms4 gave #ad4e c4c4 nitro-glycerine1 and #ad4e x #a4f #bc4b grms41 therefore #ajj would give #bcb grms4 nitro-glycerine4 ,the points to be noted in the nitration of a sample of glycerine are3 the separation should be sharp1 and within half an hour or less1 and there should be no white flocculent matter formed1 especially when the carbonate of soda solution is added4 ,total ,acid ,equivalent4 ,mr ,g4,e4 ,barton 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahie7 proposes to determine thus3 #ajj c4c4 of glycerine are diluted to #cjj c4c4 in a beaker1 a few drops of a #a per cent4 solution of phenolphthalein and #aj c4c4 of normal caustic soda solution are added2 after boiling1 the liquid is titrated with normal hydrochloric acid 7fatty acids are thus indicated and roughly determined74 ,neutrality4 ,the same chemist determines the neutrality of glycerine thus3 #ej c4c4 of glycerine mixed with #ajj c4c4 of water and a few drops of alcoholic phenolphthalein,a are titrated with hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide2 not more than #j4c c4c4 normal hydrochloric acid or normal soda solution should be required to render the sample neutral2 raw glycerines contain from 4#e to #a4j per cent4 of sodium carbonate4 ,footnote ,a3 ,sulman and ,berry prefer litmus as indicator4 ,determination of ,free ,fatty ,acids4 ,a weighed quantity of the glycerine is shaken up with some neutral ether in a separating funnel1 the glycerine allowed to settle1 drawn off1 and the ether washed with three separate lots of water4 ,the water must have been recently boiled1 and be quite free from ,,co#b4 ,all the free fatty acid is now in the ether1 and no other soluble acid4 ,a drop of phenolphthalein is now added1 a little water1 and the acidity determined by titration with deci-normal baryta solution1 and the baryta solution taken calculated as oleic acid4 ,combined ,fatty ,acid4 ,about #cj grms4 of the glycerine are placed in a flask1 and to it is added about half a grm4 of caustic soda in solution4 ,the mixture is heated for ten minutes at #aej ,c4 ,after cooling some pure ether is added to it1 and enough dilute ,h#b,,so#d to render it distinctly acid4 ,it is well shaken4 ,all the fatty acids go into the ether4 ,the aqueous solution is then removed1 and the ether well washed to remove all ,h#b,,so#d4 ,after the addition of phenolphthalein the acid is titrated1 and the amount used calculated into oleic acid4 ,from this total amount of fatty acids the free fatty acid is deducted1 and the quantity of combined fatty acids thus obtained4 ,impurities4 ,the following impurities may be found in bad samples of glycerine3--,lead1 arsenic1 lime1 chlorine1 sulphuric acid1 thio-sulphates1 sulphides1 cyanogen compounds1 organic acids 7especially oleic acid and fatty acids,a71 rosin products1 and other organic bodies4 ,it is also said to be adulterated with sugar and glucose dextrine4 ,traces of sulphuric acid and arsenic may be allowed1 also very small traces indeed of lime and chlorine4 ,footnote ,a3 ,these substances often cause trouble in nitrating1 white flocculent matter being formed during the process of washing4 ,the organic acids1 formic and butyric acids may be detected by heating a sample of the glycerine in a test tube with alcohol and sulphuric acid1 when1 if present1 compound ethers1 such as ethylic formate and butyrate1 the former smelling like peaches and the latter of pine-apple1 will be formed4 ,oleic ,acid1 if present in large quantity1 will come down upon diluting the sample with water1 but smaller quantities may be detected by passing a current of nitrogen peroxide1 ,n#b,o#d 7obtained by heating lead nitrate71 through the diluted sample1 when a white flocculent precipitate of elaidic acid1 which is less soluble than oleic acid1 will be thrown down4 ,by agitating glycerol with chloroform1 fatty acids1 rosin oil1 and some other impurities are dissolved1 while certain others form a turbid layer between the chloroform and the supernatant liquid4 ,on separating the chloroform and evaporating it to dryness1 a residue is obtained which may be further examined4 ,sodium ,chloride can be determined in #ajj c4c4 of the glycerine by adding a little water1 neutralised with sodium carbonate1 and then titrated with a deci-normal solution of silver nitrate1 using potassium chromate as indicator4 ,organic ,impurities of various kinds occur in crude glycerine1 and are mostly objectionable4 ,their sum may be determined with fair accuracy by ,sulman and ,berry's method3 #ej grms4 of the sample are diluted with twice its measure of water1 carefully neutralised with acetic acid1 and warmed to expel carbonic acid2 when cold1 a solution of basic lead acetate is added in slight but distinct excess1 and the mixture well agitated4 ,the formation of an abundant precipitate1 which rapidly subsides1 is an indication of considerable impurity in the sample4 ,to ascertain its amount1 the precipitate is first washed by decantation1 and then collected on a tared1 or preferably a double counter-poised filter1 where it is further washed1 dried at #ajj to #aje ,c41 and weighed4 ,the precipitate and filter paper are then ignited separately in porcelain1 at a low red heat1 the residues moistened with a few drops of nitric acid and reignited2 the weight of the lead oxide deducted from that of the original precipitate gives the weight of the organic matter precipitated by the lead4 ,raw glycerines contain from #j4e to #a4j per cent4 ,albuminous ,matters4 ,an approximate determination of the albuminous matters may be made by precipitating with basic lead acetate as already described1 and determining the nitrogen by the ,kjeldahl method2 the nitrogen multiplied by #f4be gives the amount of albuminous matter in the precipitate4 ,the ,determination of ,glycerine4 ,the acetin method of ,benedikt and ,canton depends upon the conversion of glycerine into triacetin1 and the saponification of the latter1 and reduces the estimation of glycerine to an acidmetric method4 ,about #a4e grm4 of crude glycerine is heated to boiling with #g grms4 of acetic anhydride1 and #c to #d grms4 of anhydrous sodium acetate1 under an upright condenser for one and a half hours4 ,after cooling1 #ej c4c4 of water are added1 and the mixture heated until all the triacetin has dissolved4 ,the liquid is then filtered into a large flask1 the residue on the filter is well washed with water1 the filtrate quite cooled1 phenolphthalein is added and the fluid exactly neutralised with a dilute 7#b to #c per cent47 solution of alkali4 ,twenty-five c4c4 of a #aj per cent4 caustic soda solution1 which must be accurately standardised upon normal acid1 are then pipetted into the liquid1 which is heated to boiling for ten minutes to saponify the triacetin1 and the excess of alkali is then titrated back with normal acid4 ,one c4c4 of normal acid corresponds to 4#jcjfg grm4 of glycerine4 ,precautions4--,the heating must be done with a reflux condenser1 the triacetin being somewhat volatile4 ,the sodium acetate used must be quite anhydrous1 or the conversion of the glycerine to triacetyl is imperfect4 ,triacetin in contact with water gradually decomposes4 ,after acetylation is complete1 therefore1 the operations must be conducted as rapidly as possible4 ,it is necessary to neutralise the free acetic acid very cautiously1 and with rapid agitation1 so that the alkali may not be locally in excess4 ,the ,lead ,oxide ,method4--,two grms4 of sample are mixed with about #dj grms4 of pure litharge1 and heated in an air bath to #acj ,c4 until the weight becomes constant1 care being taken that the litharge is free from such lead compounds and other substances as might injuriously affect the results1 and that the heating of the mixture takes place in an air bath free from carbonic acid4 ,the increase in weight in the litharge1 minus the weight of substance not volatilisable from #b grms4 of glycerine at #afj ,c41 multiplied by the factor #a4bdc1 is taken as the weight of glycerine in the #b grms4 of sample4 ,the glycerine must be fairly pure1 and free from resinous substances and ,,so#c1 to give good results by this process4 ,analysis of the ,waste ,acids from the ,manufacture of ,nitro-,glycerine or ,gun-,cotton4 ,determine the specific gravity by the specific gravity bottle or hydrometer1 and the oxides of nitrogen by the permanganate method described under nitro-glycerine4 ,now determine the total acidity of the mixture by means of a tenth normal solution of sodium hydrate1 and calculate it as nitric acid 7,,hno#c71 then determine the nitric acid by means of ,lung nitrometer1 and subtract percentage found from total acidity1 and calculate the difference into sulphuric acid1 thus3-- ,total acidity equals #ig4df per cent4--#aa4jg per cent4 ,,hno#c #hf4ci per cent41 then 7#hf4ci x #di7_/fc #fg4bj per cent4 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,then analysis of sample will be3-- ,sulphuric acid #fg4bj per cent4 ,nitric acid #aa4jg - ,specific gravity #a4gjge4 ,water #ab4gc ,this method is accurate enough for general use in the nitric acid factory4 ,the acid mixture may be taken by volume for determining nitric oxide in nitrometer4 ,two c4c4 is a convenient quantity in the above case1 then #b x #a4gjge 7specific gravity7 #c4dad grms4 taken1 gave #ade c4c4 ,,no 7barometer #gdh mm1 and temperature #ae;,c47 equals #acd4i c4c4 7corr47 and as #a c4c4 ,,no 4#jbhb grm4 ,,hno#c #ace x 4#jbhb 4#cgh grm4 #aa4jg per cent4 nitric acid4 ,sodium ,nitrate4 ,determine moisture and chlorine by the usual methods1 and the total1 ,na,n,o#c1 by means of nitrometer--#j4de grm4 is a very convenient quantity to work on 7gives about #abc c4c4 gas72 grind very fine1 and dissolve in a very little hot water in the cup of the nitrometer2 use about #ae c4c4 concentrated ,h#b,,so#d4 ,one cubic cent4 of ,,no equals 4#jjchje grm4 of ,na,n,o#c4 ,the insoluble matter1 both organic and inorganic1 should also be determined1 also sulphate of soda and lime tested for4 ,analysis of ,mercury ,fulminate 7,divers and ,kawakita's ,method74--,a weighed quantity of mercury fulminate is added to excess1 but measured quantity of fuming hydrochloric acid contained in a retort connected with a receiver holding water4 ,after heating for some time1 the contents of the retort and receiver are mixed and diluted1 and the mercury is precipitated by hydrogen sulphide4 ,by warming and exposure to the air in open vessels the hydrogen sulphide is for the most part dissipated4 ,the solution is then titrated with potassium hydroxide 7,,koh71 as well as another quantity of hydrochloric acid1 equal to that used with the fulminate4 ,as the mercury chloride is reconverted into hydrochloric acid by the hydrogen sulphide1 and as the hydroxylamine does not neutralise to litmus the hydrochloric acid combined with it1 there is an equal amount of hydrochloric acid free or available in the two solutions4 ,any excess of acid in the one which has received the fulminate will therefore be due to the formic acid generated from the fulminate4 ,dr4 ,divers and ,m4 ,kawakita1 working by this method1 have obtained #ca4ca per cent4 formic acid1 instead of #cb4dj required by theory4 7,jour4 ,chem4 ,soc41 p4 #ag1 #ahhd47 ,divers and ,kawakita proceed thus3 #b4cea grms4 dissolved1 as already described1 in ,h,cl1 and afterwards diluted1 gave mercury sulphide equal to #gj4dj per cent4 mercury4 ,the same solution1 after removal of mercury1 titrated by iodine for hydroxylamine1 gave nitrogen equal to #i4he per cent41 and when evaporated with hydroxyl ammonium chloride equal to #i4ee per cent4 ,a solution of #b4fffe grms4 fulminate in ,h,cl of known amount1 after removal of mercury by hydrogen sulphide1 gave by titration with potassium hydrate1 formic acid equal to #h4ag per cent4 of carbon4 ,collecting and comparing with calculation from formula we get-- ,calc4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,mercury #gj4db #gj4dj 444 444 ,nitrogen #i4hf #i4he #i4ee 444 ,carbon #h4de 444 444 #h4ag ,oxygen #aa4bg 444 444 444 #ajj4jj ,the ,analysis of ,cap ,composition4--,messrs ,f4,w4 ,jones and ,f4,a4 ,willcox 7,chem4 ,news1 ,dec4 #aa1 #ahif7 have proposed the following process for the analysis of this substance3--,cap composition usually consists of the ingredients--potassium chlorate1 antimony sulphide1 and mercury fulminate1 and to estimate these substances in the presence of each other by ordinary analytical methods is a difficult process4 ,since the separation of antimony sulphide and mercury fulminate in the presence of potassium chlorate necessitates the treatment of the mixture with hydrochloric acid1 and this produces an evolution of hydrogen sulphide from the sulphide1 and a consequent precipitation of sulphur2 and potassium chlorate cannot be separated from the other ingredients by treatment with water1 owing to the appreciable solubility of mercury fulminate in cold water4 ,in the course of some experiments on the solubility of mercury fulminate ,messrs ,jones and ,willcox observed that this body was readily soluble in acetone and other ethereal solvents when they were saturated with ammonia gas1 and that chlorate of potash and sulphide of antimony were insoluble in pure acetone saturated with ammonia2 these observations at once afforded a simple method of separating the three ingredients of cap composition4 ,by employing this solution of acetone and ammonia an analysis can be made in a comparatively short time1 and yields results of sufficient accuracy for all technical purposes4 ,the following are the details of the process3-- ,a tared filter paper is placed in a funnel to the neck of which has been fitted a piece of rubber tubing provided with a clip4 ,the paper is moistened with a solution of acetone and ammonia1 the cap composition is weighed off directly on to the filter paper and is then covered with the solution of acetone and ammonia and allowed to stand thirty-four hours4 ,it is then washed repeatedly with the same solution until the washings give no coloration with ammonium sulphide1 and afterwards washed with acetone until washings give no residue on evaporation dried and weighed4 ,the paper is again put in the funnel and washed with water until free from potassium chlorate1 dried and weighed4 ,if c weight of composition taken1 d filter paper1 a after first extraction1 b second extraction1 then cd-a weight of fulminate1 cd-a-b ,k,cl,o#c1 b-d sulphide of antimony4 ,the composition should be finely ground in an agate mortar4 ,the results of the analysis by this method of two mixtures of known composition are given below-- ,a ,b ,percentage ,percentage ,percentage ,percentage ,taken4 ,found4 ,taken4 ,found4 ,antimony ,sulphide #cf4dg #cf4be #cg4cd #cg4bb ,potassium ,chlorate #cc4be #cc4ga #df4jc #df4dc ,mercury ,fulminate #cj4bg #cj4jb #af4fa #af4cd ,dr4 ,h4,w4 ,brownsdon's 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 xxiv41 ,april #aije7 process is as follows3--,the cap composition is removed by squeezing the cap with pliers1 while held over a porcelain basin of about #bjj c4c4 capacity1 and removing the loosened foil and broken composition by means of a pointed wooden chip4 ,composition adhering to the shell or foil is loosened by alcohol1 and washed into the dish by means of alcohol in a small wash bottle4 ,the shell and foil are put to one side and subsequently weighed when dry4 ,the composition in the dish is broken down quite fine with a flat-headed glass rod1 and the alcohol evaporated on the water bath till the residue is moist1 but not quite dry1 #be c4c4 of water are then added1 and the composition well stirred from the bottom4 ,after the addition of #j4e grm4 of pure sodium1 thiosulphate1 the contents of the dish1 is well stirred for two and a half minutes4 ,one drop of methyl orange is then added1 and the solution titrated with ,n_/#bj sulphuric acid1 which has been standardised against weighings of #j4je-j4a grm4 fulminate to which #be c4c4 of water is added in a porcelain dish1 then #j4e grm4 of thiosulphate1 and after stirring for two and a half minutes1 titrated with ,n_/#bj sulphuric acid4 ,the small amount of antimony sulphide present does not interfere with the recognition of the end point4 ,after titration1 the solution is filtered through a small #e-a_/b cm4 filter paper1 which retains the antimony sulphide4 ,the filter paper containing the ,sb#b,s#c is well washed and then transferred to a large #f by #a test tube4 ,five c4c4 of strong hydrochloric acid are added1 and the contents of the tube boiled gently for a few seconds until the sulphide is dissolved and all the ,h#b,s driven off or decomposed3 #b-c c4c4 of a saturated solution of tartaric acid are added1 and the contents of the tube washed into a #bej c4c4 ,erlenmeyer flask4 ,the solution is then nearly neutralised with sodium carbonate1 excess of bi-carbonate added1 and after the addition of some starch solution titrated with ,n_/#bj iodine solution4 ,this method for small quantities of stibnite is both quick and accurate1 the error being about #j4jjjc grm4 ,sb#b,s#c at the outside4 ,the tendency of this method is to give slightly low figures for the fulminate1 but since these are uniform within a negligible error1 it does not affect the value of the results as a criterion of uniformity4 ,the following test results were obtained by ,dr ,brownsdon3-- ,fulminate ,taken4 ,fulminate ,found4 ,error4 ,grm4 ,grm4 ,grm4 #j4jjhf #j4jjhc -#j4jjjc #j4jjhb #j4jjha -#j4jjja #j4jjgd #j4jjga -#j4jjjc #j4jjfh #j4jjff -#j4jjjb ,stibnite ,taken4 ,sb#b,s#c1 ,found4 ,error4 ,grm4 ,grm4 ,grm4 #j4jjhe #j4jjhd -#j4jjja #j4jjih #j4jjii #j4jjja #j4jafj #j4jaeg -#j4jjjc #j4jjii #j4jajj #j4jjja ,,table ,,for ,,correction ,,of ,,volumes ,,of ,,gases ,,for ,,temperature1 ,,giving ,,the ,,divisor ,,for ,,the ,,formula4 ,v#a ,v x ,b_/7#gfj x 7#a dt77 7d #j4jjcffe7 #a dt from #j to #cj ,c4 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 #j4j #gej4jjj #a4g #gfd4gceb #c4d #gfi4dgjd 4#a #gfj4bghe 4#h #gfe4jacg 4#e #gfi4gdhi 4#b #gfj4eega 4#i #gfe4bibc 4#f #ggj4jbgd 4#c #gfj4hcef #b4j #gfe4egjh 4#g #ggj4cjfj 4#d #gfa4aadb 4#a #gfe4hdic 4#h #ggj4ehde 4#e #gfa4cibg 4#b #gff4abgi 4#i #ggj4hfca 4#f #gfa4fgab 4#c #gff4djfd #d4j #gga4adaf 4#g #gfa4idih 4#d #gff4fhej 4#a #gga4dbja 4#h #gfb4bbhc 4#e #gff4ifce 4#b #gga4fihg 4#i #gfb4ejfi 4#f #gfg4bdbj 4#c #gga4iggb #a4j #gfb4ghed 4#g #gfg4ebjf 4#d #ggb4beeh 4#a #gfc4jfci 4#h #gfg4giia 4#e #ggb4ecdc 4#b #gfc4cdbe 4#i #gfh4jggg 4#f #ggb4habh 4#c #gfc4fbaj #c4j #gfh4cefb 4#g #ggc4jiad 4#d #gfc4hiif 4#a #gfh4fcdg 4#h #ggc4cfii 4#e #gfd4agha 4#b #gfh4iacc 4#i #ggc4fdhe 4#f #gfd4deff 4#c #gfi4aiah #e4j #ggc4ibgj t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 #e4a #ggd4bjee 4#i #ghg4egee 4#g #hjj4ided 4#b #ggd4dhda #aj4j #ghg4hedj 4#h #hja4bbci 4#c #ggd4gfbf 4#a #ghh4acbe 4#i #hja4ejbe 4#d #gge4jdab 4#b #ghh4daaa #ae4j #hja4ghaj 4#e #gge4caig 4#c #ghh4fhif 4#a #hjb4jeie 4#f #gge4eihb 4#d #ghh4ifhb 4#b #hjb4ccha 4#g #gge4hgfh 4#e #ghi4bdfg 4#c #hjb4faff 4#h #ggf4aeec 4#f #ghi4ebeb 4#d #hjb4hieb 4#i #ggf4dcci 4#g #ghi4hjch 4#e #hjc4agcg #f4j #ggf4gabd 4#h #gij4jhbc 4#f #hjc4debb 4#a #ggf4iiji 4#i #gij4cfji 4#g #hjc4gcjh 4#b #ggg4bfie #aa4j #gij4fcid 4#h #hjd4jjic 4#c #ggg4edhj 4#a #gij4iagi 4#i #hjd4bhgi 4#d #ggg4hbff 4#b #gia4aife #af4j #hjd4effd 4#e #ggh4ajea 4#c #gia4dgej 4#a #hjd4hddi 4#f #ggh4chcf 4#d #gia4gecf 4#b #hje4abce 4#g #ggh4ffbb 4#e #gib4jcba 4#c #hje4djbj 4#h #ggh4idjg 4#f #gib4cajf 4#d #hje4fhjf 4#i #ggi4baic 4#g #gib4ehib 4#e #hje4ieia #g4j #ggi4digh 4#h #gib4hfgg 4#f #hjf4bcgf 4#a #ggi4ggfc 4#i #gic4adfc 4#g #hjf4eafb 4#b #ghj4jedi #ab4j #gic4dbdh 4#h #hjf4gidg 4#c #ghj4cccd 4#a #gic4gjcc 4#i #hjg4jgcc 4#d #ghj4fabj 4#b #gic4ihai #ag4j #hjg4ceah 4#e #ghj4hije 4#c #gid4bfjd 4#a #hjg4fcjc 4#f #gha4afij 4#d #gid4ecij 4#b #hjg4ijhi 4#g #gha4ddgf 4#e #gid4hage 4#c #hjh4ahgd 4#h #gha4gbfa 4#f #gie4jifj 4#d #hjh4dffj 4#i #ghb4jjdg 4#g #gie4cgdf 4#e #hjh4gdde #h4j #ghb4bhcb 4#h #gie4feca 4#f #hji4jbcj 4#a #ghb4efag 4#i #gie4icag 4#g #hji4cjaf 4#b #ghb4hdjc #ac4j #gif4bajb 4#h #hji4ehja 4#c #ghc4aahh 4#a #gif4dhhg 4#i #hji4hehg 4#d #ghc4cigd 4#b #gif4gfgc #ah4j #haj4acgb 4#e #ghc4fiei 4#c #gig4jdeh 4#a #haj4dage 4#f #ghc4iedd 4#d #gig4cbdd 4#b #haj4fidc 4#g #ghd4bccj 4#e #gig4fjbi 4#c #haj4igbh 4#h #ghd4eaae 4#f #gig4hhad 4#d #haa4bead 4#i #ghd4gija 4#g #gih4afjj 4#e #haa4ebii #i4j #ghe4jfhf 4#h #gih4dche 4#f #haa4hjhd 4#a #ghe4cdga 4#i #gih4gaga 4#g #hab4jhgj 4#b #ghe4fbeg #ad4j #gih4iief 4#h #hab4cfee 4#c #ghe4ijdb 4#a #gii4bgda 4#i #hab4fdda 4#d #ghf4ahbh 4#b #gii4eebg #ai4j #hab4ibbf 4#e #ghf4dfac 4#c #gii4hcab 4#a #hac4bjaa 4#f #ghf4gcih 4#d #hjj4ajih 4#b #hac4dgig 4#g #ghg4jahd 4#e #hjj4chhc 4#c #hac4gehb 4#h #ghg4bifi 4#f #hjj4fffh 4#d #had4jcfh t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 t4 #gfjx7#a;dt74 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 #ai4e #had4caec #bc4j #hbd4jfdb 4#e #hcc4haca 4#f #had4eich 4#a #hbd4cdbg 4#f #hcd4jiaf 4#g #had4hgbd 4#b #hbd4fbac 4#g #hcd4cgjb 4#h #hae4aejj 4#c #hbd4hiih 4#h #hcd4fdhg 4#i #hae4dibe 4#d #hbe4aghd 4#i #hcd4ibgc #bj4j #hae4gjhj 4#e #hbe4defi #bg4j #hce4bjeh 4#a #hae4ihfe 4#f #hbe4gced 4#a #hce4dhdc 4#b #haf4bfea 4#g #hbf4jadj 4#b #hce4gfbi 4#c #haf4edcf 4#h #hbf4bibe 4#c #hcf4jdad 4#d #haf4hbbb 4#i #hbf4egaa 4#d #hcf4cbjj 4#e #hag4ajjg #bd4j #hbf4hdif 4#e #hcf4eihe 4#f #hag4cgib 4#a #hbg4abha 4#f #hcf4hggj 4#g #hag4fegh 4#b #hbg4djfg 4#g #hcg4aeef 4#h #hag4icfc 4#c #hbg4fheb 4#h #hcg4dcda 4#i #hah4badi 4#d #hbg4ifch 4#i #hcg4gabg #ba4j #hah4dicd 4#e #hbh4bdbc #bh4j #hcg4iiab 4#a #hah4ggai 4#f #hbh4ebjh 4#a #hch4bfig 4#b #hai4jeje 4#g #hbh4giid 4#b #hch4edhc 4#c #hai4cbij 4#h #hbi4jggi 4#c #hch4hbfh 4#d #hai4fjgf 4#i #hbi4cefe 4#d #hci4ajed 4#e #hai4hhfa #be4j #hbi4fcej 4#e #hci4chci 4#f #hbj4afdf 4#a #hbi4iace 4#f #hci4ffbd 4#g #hbj4ddcb 4#b #hcj4aiba 4#g #hci4idaj 4#h #hbj4gbag 4#c #hcj4dgjf 4#h #hdj4baie 4#i #hba4jjjc 4#d #hcj4gdib 4#i #hdj4diha #bb4j #hba4bghh 4#e #hca4jbgg #bi4j #hdj4ggff 4#a #hba4eegc 4#f #hca4cjfb 4#a #hda4jeea 4#b #hba4hhei 4#g #hca4ehdh 4#b #hda4cccg 4#c #hbb4aadd 4#h #hca4hfcc 4#c #hda4fabb 4#d #hbb4cicj 4#i #hcb4adai 4#d #hda4hijh 4#e #hbb4fgae #bf4j #hcb4dbjd 4#e #hdb4afic 4#f #hbb4iejj 4#a #hcb4fihi 4#f #hdb4ddgh 4#g #hbc4bbhf 4#b #hcb4igge 4#g #hdb4gbfd 4#h #hbc4ejga 4#c #hcc4befj 4#h #hdc4jjdi 4#i #hbc4gheg 4#d #hcc4ecdf 4#i #hdc4bhce #cj4j #hdc4efbj ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,firing ,,point ,,of ,,explosives1 ,,heat ,,tests1 c4 ,horsley's ,apparatus--,table of ,firing points--,the ,government ,heat-,test ,apparatus for ,dynamites--,nitro-,glycerine1 ,nitro-,cotton1 and ,smokeless ,powders--,liquefaction and ,exudation ,tests--,page's ,regulator for ,heat-,test ,apparatus--,specific ,gravities of ,explosives--,table of ,temperature of ,detonation1 ,sensitiveness1 c4 ,the ,firing ,point of ,explosives4--,the firing point of an explosive may be determined as follows3--,a copper dish1 about #c inches deep1 and #f or more wide1 and fitted with a lid1 also of copper1 is required4 ,the lid contains several small holes1 into each of which is soldered a thick copper tube about #e mm4 in diameter1 and #c inches long1 with a rather larger one in the centre in which to place a thermometer4 ,the dish is filled with ,rose's metal1 or paraffin1 according to the probable temperature required4 ,the firing point is then taken thus3--,after putting a little piece of asbestos felt at the bottom of the centre tube1 the thermometer is inserted1 and a small quantity of the explosive to be tested is placed in the other holes2 the lid is then placed on the dish containing the melted paraffin or metal1 in such a way that the copper tubes dip below the surface of the liquid2 the temperature of the bath is now raised until the explosive fires1 and the temperature noted4 ,the initial temperature should also be noted4 ,,the ,,firing ,,point ,,of ,,various ,,explosives 7by ,c4 ,e4 ,munroe74 7,horsley's ,apparatus used47 ,c4 ,nitro-glycerine1 #e years old 7a single drop taken7 #bjc-bje ,gun-cotton 7compressed military cotton1 sp4 gr4 #a4e7 #aib-bja ,air-dried gun-cotton1 stored for #d years #agi-ahg ,ditto1 stored for #a year #ahg-ahi ,air-dried collodion-cotton1 long staple ,red ,island cotton1 #c years old #ahf-aia ,air-dried collodion1 #c years old1 stored wet #aig-aii ,hydro-nitro-cellulose #bja-bac ,kieselguhr dynamite1 ,no4 #a #aig-bjj ,explosive gelatine #bjc-bji ,mercury fulminate #age-aha ,gunpowder 7shell7 #bgh-bhg ,hill's picric powder 7shells7 ,been in store #aj years4 #bgc-bhc ,ditto 7musket7 ,composed of-- #bhb-bij ,ammonium picrate #db4ah ,potassium picrate #ec4gi ,charcoal 7alder7 #c4he #ii4hb ,forcite1 ,no4 #a #ahg-bjj ,atlas powder 7#ge ,,ng7 #age-ahe ,emmensite1 ,no4 #a ,sample had been stored in #afg-ahd magazine for some months in a wooden box4 ,no4 #b ,stored in tin case4 #afe-agg ,no4 #e #bje-bag ,c4 ,powder used in ,chassept rifle #aia ,by ,leygue ,champion4 ,french gunpowder #bie ,rifle powder 7picrate7 #ceh ,cannon #chj ,horsley's apparatus consists of an iron stand with a ring support1 holding a hemispherical iron vessel or bath in which solid paraffin is put4 ,above this is another movable support1 from which a thermometer is suspended1 and so adjusted that its bulb is immersed in the material contained in the iron vessel4 ,a thin copper cartridge-case1 #e_/h inch in diameter and #a-ae_/af inch long1 is suspended over the bath by means of a triangle1 so that the end of the case is just #a inch below the surface of the molten material4 ,on beginning the experiment of determining the firing point of any explosive1 the material in the bath is heated to just above the melting point2 the thermometer is inserted in it1 and a minute quantity of the explosive is placed in the bottom of the cartridge-case4 ,the initial temperature is noted1 and then the cartridge-case containing the explosive is inserted in the bath4 ,the temperature is quickly raised until the contents of the cartridge-case flash off or explode1 when the temperature is noted as the firing point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,heat ,,test ,,apparatus4 ,professor ,c4,e4 ,munroe1 of the ,u4,s4 ,torpedo ,station1 has determined the firing point of several explosives by means of this apparatus4 ,the ,government ,heat ,test 7,explosives ,act1 #ahge73 ,apparatus required4--,a water bath1 consisting of a spherical copper vessel 7a71 ,fig4 #df1 of about #h inches diameter1 and with an aperture of about #e inches2 the bath is filled with water to within a quarter of an inch of the edge4 ,it has a loose cover of sheet copper about #f inches in diameter 7b7 and rests on a tripod stand about #ad inches high 7c71 which is covered with coarse wire gauze 7e71 and is surrounded with a screen of thin sheet copper 7d74 ,within the latter is placed an argand burner 7f7 with glass chimney4 ,the cover 7b7 has four holes arranged1 as seen in ,fig4 ,,ii41 ,no4 #d to contain a ,page's,a or ,scheibler's regulator1 ,no4 #c the thermometer1 ,nos4 #a and #b the test tubes containing the explosive to be tested4 ,around the holes #a and #b on the under side of the cover are soldered three pieces of brass wire with points slightly converging 7,fig4 ,,iii472 these act as springs1 and allow the test tubes to be easily placed in position and removed4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 #ahgf1 i4 #bd4 ,f4,j4,m4 ,page4 ,test ,tubes1 from #e-a_/d to #e-a_/b inches long1 and of such a diameter that they will hold from #bj to #bb cubic centimetres of water when filled to a height of #e inches2 rather thick glass is preferable4 ,indiarubber stoppers1 fitting the test tubes1 and carrying an arrangement for holding the test papers1 viz41 a narrow glass tube passing through the centre of the stopper1 and terminating in a platinum wire hook4 ,a glass rod drawn out and the end turned up to form a hook is better4 ,the ,thermometer should have a range from #cj to #bab ,f41 or from #a to #ajj ,c4 ,a minute clock is useful4 ,test ,paper4--,the test paper is prepared as follows3--#de grains 7#b4i grms47 of white maize starch 7corn flour71 previously washed with cold water1 are added to #h-a_/b oz4 of water4 ,the mixture is stirred1 heated to boiling1 and kept gently boiling for ten minutes2 #ae grains 7#a grm47 of pure potassium iodide 7previously recrystallised from alcohol1 absolutely necessary7 are dissolved in #h-a_/b oz4 of distilled water4 ,the two solutions are thoroughly mixed and allowed to get cold4 ,strips or sheets of white ,english filter paper1 previously washed with water and re-dried1 are dipped into the solution thus prepared1 and allowed to remain in it for not less than ten seconds2 they are then allowed to drain and dry in a place free from laboratory fumes and dust4 ,the upper and lower margins of the strips or sheets are cut off1 and the paper is preserved in well- stoppered or corked bottles1 and in the dark4 ,the dimensions of the pieces of test paper used are about #d_/aj inch by #h_/aj inch 7#aj mm4 by #bj mm474,a ,footnote ,a3 ,when the paper is freshly prepared1 and as long as it remains in good condition1 a drop of diluted acetic acid put on the paper with a glass rod produces no coloration4 ,in process of time it will become brownish1 when treated with the acid1 especially if it has been exposed to sunlight4 ,it is then not fit for use4 ,in ,germany zinc-iodide starch paper is used1 which is considered to be more sensitive than potassium iodide4 ,standard ,tint ,paper4--,a solution of caramel in water is made of such concentration that when diluted one hundred times 7#aj c4c4 made up to #a litre7 the tint of this diluted solution equals the tint produced by the ,nessler test in #ajj c4c4 water containing 4#jjjjge grm4 of ammonia1 or 4#jjjbceje grm4 ,am,cl4 ,with this caramel solution lines are drawn on strips of white filter paper 7previously well washed with distilled water1 to remove traces of bleaching matter1 and dried7 by means of a quill pen4 ,when the marks thus produced are dry1 the paper is cut into pieces of the same size as the test paper previously described1 in such a way that each piece has a brown line across it near the middle of its length1 and only such strips are preserved in which the brown line has a breadth varying from #ab mm4 to #a mm4 7#a_/ej of an inch to #a_/be of an inch74 ,testing ,dynamite1 ,blasting ,gelatine1 and ,gelatine ,dynamite4--,nitro- glycerine preparations1 from which the nitro-glycerine can be extracted in the manner described below1 must satisfy the following test1 otherwise they will not be considered as manufactured with thoroughly purified nitro-glycerine1 viz41 fifteen minutes at #afj ,f4 7#gb ,c474 ,apparatus required4--,a funnel #b inches across 7d71 a cylindrical measure divided into grains 7e71 ,fig4 #dg4 ,mode of ,operation4--,about #cjj 7#ai4d grms47 to #djj grains 7#bf grms47 of dynamite 7b71 finely divided1 are placed in the funnel1 which is loosely plugged by freshly ignited asbestos 7a74 ,the surface is smoothed by means of a flat-headed glass rod or stopper1 and some clean washed and dried kieselguhr 7c7 is spread over it to the depth of about #a_/h inch4 ,water is then poured on from a wash bottle1 and when the first portion has been soaked up more is added2 this is repeated until sufficient nitro- glycerine has collected in the graduated measure 7e74 ,if any water should have passed through1 it must be removed from the nitro-glycerine by filter paper1 or the nitro-glycerine may be filtered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,separating ,,the ,nl,t,r,o-,,glycerine ,,from ,,dynamite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,test ,,tube ,,arranged ,,for ,,heat ,,test4 ,application of ,test4--,the thermometer is fixed so as to be inserted through the lid of the water bath into the water1 which is maintained at #afj ,f4 7#gb ,c471 to a depth of #b-c_/d inches4 ,fifty grains 7 #c4bi grms47 of nitro-glycerine to be tested are weighed into the test tube1 in such a way as not to soil the sides of the tube 7use a pipette74 ,a test paper is fixed on the hook of the glass rod1 so that when inserted into the tube it will be in a vertical position4 ,a sufficient amount of a mixture of half distilled water and half glycerine1 to moisten the upper half of the paper1 is now applied to the upper edge of the test paper by means of a glass rod or camel's hair pencil2 the cork carrying the rod and paper is fixed into the test tube1 and the position of the paper adjusted so that its lower edge is about half way down the tube2 the latter is then inserted through one of the holes in the cover to such a depth that the lower margin of the moistened part of the paper is about #e_/h inch above the surface cover4 ,the test is complete when the faint brown line1 which after a time makes its appearance at the line of boundary between the dry and moist part of the paper1 equals in tint the brown line of the standard tint paper4 ,blasting ,gelatine1 ,gelatine ,dynamite1 ,gelignite1 c4--,fifty grains 7 #c4bi grms47 of blasting gelatine are intimately mixed with #ajj grains 7 #f4e grms47 of ,french chalk4 ,this is done by carefully working the two materials together with a wooden pestle in a wooden mortar4 ,the mixture is then gradually introduced into the test tube1 with the aid of gentle tapping upon the table between the introduction of successive portions of the mixture into the tube1 so that when the tube contains all the mixture it shall be filled to the extent of #a-c_/d inch of its height4 ,the test paper is then inserted as above described for nitro-glycerine4 ,the sample tested must stand a temperature of #afj ,f4 for a period of ten minutes before producing a discoloration of the test paper corresponding in tint to the standard paper4 ,n4,b4--,non-gelatinised nitro-glycerine preparations1 from which the nitro-glycerine cannot be expelled by water1 are tested without any previous separation of the ingredients1 the temperature being as above #afj ,f41 and the time being seven minutes4 ,gun-,cotton1 ,schultze ,gunpowder1 ,e4,c4 ,powder1 c43 ,a4 ,compressed ,gun- ,cotton4--,sufficient material to serve for two or more tests is removed from the centre of the cartridge by gentle scraping1 and if necessary1 further reduced by rubbing between the fingers4 ,the fine powder thus produced is spread out in a thin layer upon a paper tray #f inches by #d-a_/b inches1 which is then placed inside a water oven1 kept as nearly as possible at #abj ,f4 7#di ,c474 ,the wire gauze shelves of the oven should be about #c inches apart4 ,the sample is allowed to remain at rest for fifteen minutes in the oven1 the door of which is left wide open4 ,after the lapse of fifteen minutes the tray is removed and exposed to the air of the room for two hours1 the sample being at some point within that time rubbed upon the tray with the hand1 in order to reduce it to a fine and uniform state of division4 ,the heat test is performed as before1 except that the temperature of the bath is kept at #agj ,f4 7#ff ,c471 and regulator set to maintain that temperature4 ,twenty grains 7#a4bif grm47 are used1 placed in the test tube1 gently pressed down until it occupies a space of as nearly as possible #a-e_/aj inch in the test tube of dimensions previously specified4 ,the fine cotton adhering to the sides of the tube can be removed by a clean cloth or silk handkerchief4 ,the paper is moistened by touching the upper edge with a drop of the #ej per cent4 glycerine solution1 the tube inserted in the bath to a depth of #b-a_/b inches1 measured from the cover1 the regulator and thermometer being inserted to the same depth4 ,the test paper is to be kept near the top of the test tube1 but clear of the cork1 until the tube has been immersed for about five minutes4 ,a ring of moisture will about this time be deposited upon the sides of the test tube1 a little above the cover of the bath4 ,the glass rod must then be lowered until the lower margin of the moistened part of the paper is on a level with the bottom of the ring of moisture in the tube4 ,the paper is now closely watched1 ,the test is complete when a very faint brown coloration makes its appearance at the line of boundary between the dry and moist parts of the paper4 ,it must stand the test for not less than ten minutes at #agj ,f4 7,the time is reckoned from the first insertion of the tube in the bath until the appearance of a discoloration of the test paper47 ,b4 ,schultze ,powder1 ,e4,c4 ,powder1 ,collodion-,cotton1 c4--,the sample is dried in the oven as above for fifteen minutes1 and exposed for two hours to the air4 ,the test as above for compressed gun-cotton is then applied4 ,c4 ,cordite must stand a temperature of #ahj ,f4 for fifteen minutes4 ,the sample is prepared as follows3--,pieces half an inch long are cut from one end of every stick selected for the test3 in the case of the thicker cordites1 each piece so cut is further subdivided into about four portions4 ,these cut pieces are then passed once through the mill1 the first portion of material which passes through being rejected on account of the possible presence of foreign matter from the mill4 ,the ground material is put on the top sieve of the nest of sieves1 and sifted4 ,that portion which has passed through the top sieve and been stopped by the second is taken for the test4 ,if the mill is properly set1 the greater portion of the ground material will be of the proper size4 ,if the volatile matter in the explosive exceeds #j4e per cent41 the sifted material should be dried at a temperature not exceeding #adj ,f1 until the proportion does not exceed #j4e per cent4 ,after each sample has been ground1 the mill must be taken to pieces and carefully cleaned4 ,the sieves used consist of a nest of two sieves with holes drilled in sheet copper4 ,the holes in the top sieve have a diameter #ad ,b4,w4,g41 those in the second #ba ,b4,w4,g4 ,if too hard for the mill1 the cordite may be softened by exposure to the vapour of acetone1,a or reduced1 to the necessary degree of subdivision by means of a sharp moderately-coarse rasp4 ,should it have become too soft in the acetone vapour for the mill1 it should be cut up into small pieces1 which may be brought to any desired degree of hardness by simple exposure to air4 ,explosives which consist partly of gelatinised collodion-cotton1 and partly of ungelatinised gun-cotton1 are best reduced to powder by a rasp1 or softened by exposure to mixed ether and alcohol vapour at a temperature of #dj ,f4 to #ajj ,f4 ,footnote ,a3 ,mr ,w4 ,cullen 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,jan4 #ca1 #aija7 says3-- ,undoubtedly the advent of the horny smokeless powders of modern times has made it a little difficult to give the test the same scope as it had when first introduced4 ,as a rule a simple explanation can be found for every apparently abnormal result1 and in the accidental retention of a portion of the solvent used in the manufacture1 will frequently be found an explanation of the trouble experienced4 ,ballistite4--,in the case of ballistite the treatment is the same1 except that when it is in a very finely granulated condition it need not be cut up4 ,guttmann's ,heat ,test4--,this test was proposed by ,mr ,oscar ,guttmann in a paper read before the ,society of ,chemical ,industry 7vol4 xvi41 #ahig71 in the place of the potassium iodide starch paper used in the ,abel test4 ,the filter paper used is wetted with a solution of diphenylamine,a in sulphuric acid4 ,the solution is prepared as follows3--,take #j4ajj grm4 of diphenylamine crystals1 put them in a wide-necked flask with a ground stopper1 add #ej c4c4 of dilute sulphuric acid 7#aj c4c4 of concentrated sulphuric acid to #dj c4c4 of water71 and put the flask in a water bath at between #ej and #ee ,c4 ,at this temperature the diphenylamine will melt1 and at once dissolve in the sulphuric acid1 when the flask should be taken out1 well shaken1 and allowed to cool4 ,after cooling1 add #ej c4c4 of ,price's double distilled glycerine1 shake well1 and keep the solution in a dark place4 ,the test has to be applied in the following way3--,the explosives that have to be tested are finely subdivided1 gun-cotton1 nitro-glycerine1 dynamite1 blasting gelatine1 c41 in the same way as at present directed by the ,home ,office regulations4 ,smokeless powders are all to be ground in a bell-shaped coffee mill as finely as possible1 and sifted as hitherto4 #a4e grm4 of the explosive 7from the second sieve in the case of smokeless powder7 is to be weighed off and put into a test tube as hitherto used4 ,strips of well-washed filter paper1 #be mm4 wide1 are to be hung on a hooked glass rod as usual4 ,a drop of the diphenylamine solution is taken up by means of a clean glass rod1 and the upper corners of the filter paper are touched with it1 so that when the two drops run together about a quarter of the filter paper is moist4 ,this is then put into the test tube1 and this again into the water bath1 which has been heated to #gj ,c4 ,the heat test reaction should not show in a shorter time than fifteen minutes4 ,it will begin by the moist part of the paper acquiring a greenish yellow colour1 and from this moment the paper should be carefully watched4 ,after one or two minutes a dark blue mark will suddenly appear on the dividing line between the wet and dry part of the filter paper1 and this is the point that should be taken4 ,footnote ,a3 ,dr ,g4 ,spica 7,rivista1 ,aug4 #ahig7 proposes to use hydrochloride of meta-phenylenediamine4 ,exudation and ,liquefaction ,test for ,blasting ,gelatine1 ,gelatine ,dynamite1 c4--,a cylinder of blasting gelatine1 c41 is to be cut from the cartridge to be tested1 the length of the cylinder to be equal to its diameter1 and the ends being cut flat4 ,the cylinder is to be placed on end on a flat surface without any wrapper1 and secured by a pin passing vertically through its centre4 ,in this condition the cylinder is to be exposed for #add consecutive hours 7six days and nights7 to a temperature ranging from #he to #ij ,f4 7inclusive71 and during such exposure the cylinder shall not diminish in height by more than one-fourth of its original height1 and the upper cut surface shall retain its flatness and the sharpness of its edge4 ,exudation ,test4--,there shall be no separation from the general mass of the blasting gelatine or gelatine dynamite of a substance of less consistency than the bulk of the remaining portion of the material under any conditions of storage1 transport1 or use1 or when the material is subjected three times in succession to alternate freezing and thawing1 or when subjected to the liquefaction test before described4 ,picric ,acid4--,the material shall contain not more than #j4c part of mineral or non-combustible matter in #ajj parts by weight of the material dried at #afj ,f4 ,it should not contain more than a minute trace of lead4 ,one hundred parts of the dry material shall not contain more than #j4c part of total 7free and combined7 sulphuric acid1 of which not more than #j4a part shall be free sulphuric acid4 ,its melting point should be between #bdh and #bec ,f4 ,ammonite1 ,bellite1 ,roburite1 and ,explosives of similar ,composition4-- ,these are required to stand the same heat test as compressed nitro-cellulose1 gun-cotton1 c4 ,chlorate ,mixtures4--,the material must not be too sensitive1 and must show no tendency to increase in sensitiveness in keeping4 ,it must contain nothing liable to reduce the chlorate4 ,chlorides calculated as potassium chloride must not exceed #j4be per cent4 ,the material must contain no free acid1 or substance liable to produce free acid4 ,explosives of this class containing nitro-compounds will be subject to the heat test4 ,page's ,regulator4--,the most convenient gas regulator to use in connection with the heat-test apparatus is the one invented by ,prof4 ,f4,j4,m4 ,page1 ,b4,sc4,a 7,fig4 #di74 ,it is not affected by variations of the barometric pressure1 and is simple and easy to fit up4 ,it consists of a thermometer with an elongated glass bulb #e_/h inch diameter and #c inches long4 ,the stem of the thermometer is #e inches long and #a_/h inch to #c_/af inch internal diameter4 ,one and a half inch from the top of the stem is fused in at right angles a piece of glass tube1 #a inch long1 of the same diameter as the stem1 so as to form a ,t4 ,a piece of glass tube 7,a71 about #g_/af inch external diameter and #a-a_/b inch long1 is fitted at one end with a short1 sound cork 7,c1 ,fig4 #ej74 ,through the centre of this cork a hole is bored1 so that the stem of the thermometer just fits into it4 ,the other end of this glass tube is closed by a tightly fitting cork1 preferably of indiarubber 7,i71 which is pierced by a fine bradawl through the centre4 ,into the hole thus made is forced a piece of fine glass tube 7,b7 #c inches long1 and small enough to fit loosely inside the stem of the thermometer4 ,footnote ,a3 ,chemical ,soc4 ,jour41 #ahgf1 i4 #bd4 ,the thermometer is filled by pouring in mercury through a small funnel until the level of the mercury 7when the thermometer is at the desired temperature7 is about #a-a_/b inch below the ,t4 ,the piece of glass tube ,a1 closed at its upper extremity by the cork ,i1 through which the fine glass tube ,b passes into the stem of the thermometer1 is now filled by means of the perforated cork at its lower extremity on the stem of the thermometer4 ,the gas supply tube is attached to the top of the tube ,a1 the burner to the ,t1 so that the gas passes in at the top1 down the fine tube ,b1 rises in the space between ,b and the inside wall of the stem of the thermometer1 and escapes by the ,t4 ,the regulator is set for any given temperature by pushing the cork ,c1 and consequently the tubes ,a and ,b1 which are firmly attached to it1 up or down the stem of the thermometer1 until the regulator just cuts off the gas at the desired temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,page',s ,,regulator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,page',s ,,gas ,,regulator1 ,,showing ,,bye-,,pass ,,and ,,cut-,,off ,,arrangement4 ,as soon as the temperature falls1 the mercury contracts1 and thus opens the end of the tube ,b4 ,the gas is thus turned on1 and the temperature rises until the regulator again cuts off the gas4 ,in order to prevent the possible extinction of the flame by the regulator1 the brass tube which carries the gas to the regulator is connected with the tube which brings the gas from the regulator to the burner by a small brass tap 7,fig4 #b74 ,this tap forms an adjustable bye-pass1 and thus a small flame can be kept burning1 even though the regulator be completely shut off4 ,it is obvious that the quantity of gas supplied through the bye-pass must always be less than that required to maintain the desired temperature4 ,this regulator1 placed in a beaker of water on a tripod1 will maintain the temperature of the water during four or five hours within #j4b ,c41 and an air bath during six weeks within #j4e ,c4 ,to sum up briefly the method of using the regulator3--,being filled with mercury to about #ab inch below the ,t1 attach the gas supply as in diagram 7,fig4 #b71 the brass tap being open1 and the tube ,b unclosed by the mercury4 ,allow the gas to completely expel the air in the apparatus4 ,push down the tube ,a so that the end of ,b is well under the surface of the mercury4 ,turn off the tap of the bye-pass until the smallest bead of flame is visible4 ,raise ,a and ,b1 and allow the temperature to rise until the desired point is attained4 ,then push the tubes ,a and ,b slowly down until the flame is just shut off4 ,the regulator will then keep the temperature at that point4 ,will's ,test for ,nitro-,cellulose4--,the principle of ,dr ,w4 ,will's test,a may be briefly described as follows3--,the regularity with which nitro- cellulose decomposes under conditions admitting of the removal of the products of decomposition immediately following their formation is a measure of its stability4 ,as decomposing agent a sufficiently high temperature 7#ace ,c47 is employed1 the explosive being kept in a constantly changing atmosphere of carbon dioxide1 heated to the same temperature3 the oxides of nitrogen which result are swept over red-hot copper1 and are then reduced to nitrogen1 and finally1 the rates of evolution of nitrogen are measured and compared4 ,dr ,will considers that the best definition and test of a stable nitro-cellulose is that it should give off at a high temperature equal quantities of nitrogen in equal times4 ,for the purposes of manufacture1 it is specially important that the material should be purified to its limit1 i4e41 the point at which further washing produces no further change in its speed of decomposition measured in the manner described4 ,footnote ,a3 ,w4 ,will1 ,mitt4 a4 d4 ,centrallstelle f4 ,wissench4 ,techn4 ,untersuchungen ,nuo-,babelsberg ,berlin1 #aijb #b1 #e-bd4 ,the sample of gun-cotton 7#b4e grms47 is packed into the decomposition tube #ae mm4 wide and #aj cm4 high1 and heated by an oil bath to a constant temperature1 the oxides so produced are forced over ignited copper1 where they are reduced1 and the nitrogen retained in the measuring tubes4 ,care must be taken that the acid decomposition products do not condense in any portion of the apparatus4 ,the air in the whole apparatus is first displaced by a stream of carbon dioxide issuing from a carbon dioxide generator1 or gas-holder1 and passing through scrubbers1 and this stream of gas is maintained throughout the whole of the experiment1 the gas being absorbed at the end of the system by strong solution of caustic potash4 ,to guard against the danger of explosions1 which occasionally occur1 the decomposition tube and oil bath are surrounded by a large casing with walls composed of iron plate and strong glass4 ,dr ,will's apparatus has been modified by ,dr ,robertson1,a of the ,royal ,gunpowder ,factory1 ,waltham ,abbey4 ,the form of the apparatus used by him is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,,co#b ,holders4--,although objection has been taken to the use of compressed ,,co#b in steel cylinders on account of the alleged large and variable amount of air present1 it has1 nevertheless1 been found possible to obtain this gas with as little as #j4jb per cent4 of air4 ,frequent estimations of the air present in the ,,co#b of a cylinder show that even with the commercial article1 after the bulk of the ,,co#b has been removed1 the residual gas contains only a very small amount of air1 which decreases in a gradual and perfectly regular manner4 ,for example1 one cylinder which gave #j4jc per cent4 of air by volume1 after three months' constant use gave #j4jb per cent4 ,the advantage of using ,,co#b from this source is obvious when compared with the difficulty of evolving a stream of gas of constant composition from a ,kipps or ,finkener apparatus4 ,a micrometer screw1 in addition to the main valve of the ,,co#b cylinder1 is useful for governing the rate of flow4 ,a blank experiment should be made to ascertain the amount of air in the ,,co#b and the correction made in the readings afterwards4 ,footnote ,a3 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,june #cj1 #aijb1 p4 #hai4 ,illustration3 ,fig #ea4--,will's ,apparatus for ,testing ,nitro-cellulose ,measurement of ,pressure and ,rate of ,flow4--,great attention is paid to the measurement of the rate of flow of gas1 which is arrived at by counting with a stop-watch the number of bubbles of gas per minute in a small sulphuric acid wash bottle4 ,a mercury manometer is introduced here1 and is useful for detecting a leak in the apparatus4 ,the rate of flow that gives the most satisfactory results is #a1jjj c4c4 per hour4 ,if too rapid it does not become sufficiently preheated in the glass spiral1 and if too slow there is a more rapid decomposition of the nitro-cellulose by the oxides of nitrogen which are not removed4 ,decomposition ,tube4--,this is of the form and dimensions given by ,dr ,will 7#ae mm4 wide and #aj cm4 high71 the preheating worm being of the thinnest hydrometer stem tubing4 ,the ground-in exit tube is kept in position by a small screw clamp with trunnion bearings4 ,bath4--,to permit of two experiments being carried on simultaneously1 the bath is adapted for two decomposition tubes1 and is on the principle of ,lothar ,meyer's air bath1 that is1 the bath proper filled with a high- flashing hydrocarbon oil1 and fitted with a lid perforated with two circular holes for the spiral tubes1 is surrounded by an asbestos-covered envelope1 in the interior of which circulate the products of combustion of numerous small gas jets4 ,the stirrer1 agitated by a water motor1 or1 better still1 a hot-air engine1 has a series of helical blades curved to give a thorough mixing to the oil4 ,great uniformity and constancy of temperature are thus obtained4 ,the bath is fitted also with a temperature regulator and thermometer4 ,reduction ,tube--,this is of copper1 and consists of two parts1 the outer tube and an inner reaching to nearly the bottom of the former4 ,into the inner tube fits a spiral of reduced copper gauze1 and into the annular space between the tubes is fitted a tightly packed reduced copper spiral4 ,at the bottom the inlet tube dips into a layer of copper oxide asbestos1 on the top of which is a layer of reduced copper asbestos4 ,through the indiarubber cork passes a glass tube1 which leads the ,,co#b and nitrogen out of the reduction tube4 ,as the portion of the tube containing the spirals is heated to redness1 water jackets are provided on both inner and outer tubes to protect the indiarubber cork4 ,nitrogen ,measuring ,apparatus4--,the measuring tube with zigzag arrangement is used1 having been found very economical in potash4 ,it is most convenient to take readings by counterbalancing the column of potash solution and reading off the volume of gas at atmospheric pressure4 ,for this purpose the tap immediately in front of the measuring tube is momentarily closed1 this having been proved to be without ill effect on the progress of the test4 ,in all experiments done by this test the air correction is subtracted from each reading1 and the remainder brought to milligrams of nitrogen with the usual corrections4 ,as objection has frequently been taken to the test on the ground of difficulty in interpreting the results obtained1 ,dr ,robertson made a series of experiments for the purpose of standardising the test1 and at the same time of arriving at the condition under which it could be applied in the most sensitive and efficient manner4 ,a variety of nitro-celluloses having been tested1 there were chosen as typical1 of stable and unstable products1 service gun-cotton on the one hand1 and an experimental gun- cotton1 ,z1 on the other4 ,the first point brought out by these experiments was the striking uniformity of service gun-cotton1 first in regard to the rectilinear nature of the curve of evolution of nitrogen1 and secondly in regard to the small range within which a large number of results is included1 #ae samples lying between #f4f and #h4g mgms4 of nitrogen evolved in four hours4 ,in the case of service gun-cotton1 little difference in the rate of evolution of nitrogen evolved is obtained on altering the rate of passage of ,,co#b gas through the wide range of #ejj c4c4 per hour to #b1ejj c4c4 per hour4 ,with ,z gun-cotton 7see ,fig4 #eb71 however1 the case is very different4 ,operating at a rate of #a1jjj c4c4 of ,,co#b per hour1 a curve of nitrogen evolution is obtained1 which is bent and forms a good representation of the inherent instability of the material as proved to exist from other considerations4 ,operating at the rate of #a1ejj c4c4 per hour1 as recommended by ,dr ,will1 the evolution of nitrogen is represented by a straight line1 steeper1 however1 than that of service gun-cotton4 ,the rate of passage of ,,co#b was therefore chosen at #a1jjj c4c4 per hour1 or two-thirds of the rate of ,dr ,will1 and this rate1 besides possessing the advantage claimed of rendering diagnostic the manner of nitrogen evolution in ,z gun-cotton1 has in other cases been useful in bringing out relationships1 which the higher rate would have entirely masked4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,dr4 ,robertson's results4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,service ,guncotton for ,cordite made at a ,private ,factory4 ,readings are taken thirty minutes from the time the nitro-cellulose is heated1 and are taken at intervals of fifteen minutes for about four hours2 fresh caustic potash is added every thirty minutes or so4 ,it is convenient to plot the results in curves4 ,the curves given in ,fig4 #ec are from gun-cotton manufacturers in ,england at a private factory4 ,the rate of evolution of nitrogen is as follows3-- ,in #a hour4 ,in #b hours4 ,in #c hours4 ,in #d hours4 ,n4 ,n4 ,n4 ,n4 in milligrammes4 #a4be #b4ee #d4e #e4ge #a4e #c4be #e4be #f4ge ,these results are very satisfactory1 the gun-cotton was of a very good quality4 ,several hours are necessary to remove all the air from the apparatus4 ,dr ,will stated fifteen minutes in his original paper1 but this has not been found sufficient4 ,it has not been satisfactorily proved that ,will's test can be applied to gelatinised nitro-cellulose powders4 ,it is convenient to plot the results in curves2 the nitrogen is generally given in cubic centimetres or in milligrammes1 and readings taken every fifteen minutes4 ,the steepness of the curve is a measure of the stability of the nitro-cellulose which is being examined4 ,the steeper the curve the more nitrogen is evolved per unit of time1 and the less stable the nitro- cellulose4 ,in the case of unstable nitro-celluloses heated under the conditions described1 the separation of nitrogen is much greater at first than at a later period4 ,if the nitro-cellulose be very unstable1 explosions are produced4 ,if the separation of nitrogen is uniform during the prolonged heating1 then the nitro-cellulose may be regarded as normal4 ,if it be desired to determine the absolute amount of nitrogen separated from a nitro-cellulose1 the following conditions must be observed3--7#a47 ,accurate weighing of the nitro-cellulose2 7#b47 ,determination of the amount of air in the ,,co#b1 and deduction of this from the volume of gas obtained2 7#c47 ,reduction of the volume of the gas to the volume at #j ,c4 and #gfj mm4 pressure4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see also ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,dec4 #aijb1 pages #aede-aeee1 on the ,stability of ,nitro-cellulose and ,examination of ,nitro- cellulose1 ,dr ,will4 ,bergrnann and ,junk,a describe a test for nitro-cellulose that has been in use in the ,prussian testing station for some years4 ,the apparatus consists of a closed copper bath provided with a condenser and #aj countersunk tubes of #bj cm4 length4 ,by boiling amyl-alcohol in the bath1 the tubes can be kept at a constant temperature of #acb ,c4 ,the explosive to be tested is placed in a glass tube #ce cm4 long and #b cm4 wide1 having a ground neck into which an absorption bulb is fitted4 ,the whole apparatus is surrounded by a shield1 in case of explosion4 ,in carrying out the test1 #b grms4 of the explosive are placed in the glass tube and well pressed down4 ,the absorption bulb is half filled with water1 and fitted into the ground neck of the glass tube1 which is then placed in one of the tubes in the bath previously brought to the boiling point 7#acb ,c474 ,the evolved oxides of nitrogen are absorbed in the water in the bulb1 and at the end of two hours the tubes are removed from the bath1 and on cooling1 the water from the bulb flows back and wets the explosive4 ,the contents of the tube are filtered and washed1 the filtrate is oxidised with permanganate1 and the nitrogen determined as nitric oxide by the ,schultze-,tieman method4 ,the authors conclude that a stable gun-cotton does not evolve more than #b4e c4c4 of nitric oxide per grm4 on being heated to #acb ,c4 for two hours1 and a stable collodion-cotton not more than #b c4c4 under the same conditions4 ,the percentage of moisture in the sample to be tested should be kept as low as possible4 ,a sample of nitro-cellulose containing #a4ig of moisture gave an evolution of #b4f c4c4 per grm41 while the same sample with #c4d moisture gave an evolution of over #ej c4c4 per grm4 ,sodium carbonate added to an unstable nitro-cellulose diminishes the rate of decomposition1 but if sodium carbonate be intimately mixed with a stable nitro-cellulose the rate of decomposition will be increased4 ,calcium carbonate and mercury chloride have no influence4 ,if an unstable nitro- cellulose be extracted with alcohol a stable compound is produced4 ,the percentage solubility of a nitro-cellulose in ether-alcohol rises on heating to #acb ,c4 ,a sample which before heating had a solubility of #d4g had its solubility increased to #hb4e after six hours' heating4 ,footnote ,a3 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 xxiii41 ,oct4 #ae1 #aijd1 p4 #iec4 ,mr ,a4,p4 ,sy 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijc7 describes a new stability test for nitro-cellulose which he terms ,the ,elastic ,limit of ,powder ,resistance to ,heat4 ,the test consists in heating the powder on a watch glass in an oven to a temperature of #aae ,c41 after eight hours the watch glass and powder are weighed and the process repeated daily for six days or less4 ,he claims that the powder is tested in its natural state1 all the products of decomposition are taken into account1 whilst in the old tests only the acid products are shown1 and in the ,will test only nitrogen1 that it affords an indication of the effect of small quantities of added substances or foreign matters on the stability and that it is simple1 and not subject to the variations of the old tests4 ,obermller 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 ,april #ae1 #aije7 considers ,bergmann and ,junk's test is too complicated and occupies too much time2 he proposes to heat gun-cotton to #adj ,c4 in vacuo1 and to measure continuously by means of a mercury manometer the pressure exerted by the evolved gases1 the latter being maintained at constant volume2 the rate at which the pressure increases is a measure of the rate of decomposition of the nitro- cellulose4 ,,specific ,,gravities ,,of ,,explosives1 ,c4 ,nitro-glycerine #a4f ,gun-cotton 7dry7 #a4jf 7#be per cent4 water7 #a4cb ,dynamite ,no4 #a #a4fb ,blasting gelatine #a4ed ,gelatine dynamite #a4ee ,ballistite #a4f ,forcite #a4ea ,tonite #a4bh ,roburite #a4dj ,bellite #a4b-a4d ,carbo-dynamite #a4e ,turpin's cast picric acid #a4f ,nitro-mannite #a4f ,nitro-starch #a4e ,emmensite #a4h ,mono-nitro-benzene #a4b ,meta-di-nitro-benzene #a4ege at #ah ,c4 ,ortho-di-nitro-benzene #a4eij ,para-di-nitro-benzene #a4fbe ,british gunpowder1 ,e4,x4,e4 #a4hj ,s4,b4,c4 #a4he ,cannonite 7powder7 #a4fj ,celluloid #a4ce ,cellulose #a4de ,ammonium nitrate #a4gjg ,mercury fulminate #d4db ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,,detonation4 ,blasting gelatine #cbbj ,nitro-glycerine #cagj ,dynamite #bidj ,gun-cotton #bfej ,tonite #bfdh ,picric acid #bfbj ,roburite #bajj ,ammonia nitrate #aacj ,,relative ,,sensitiveness ,,to ,,detonation 7by ,professor ,c4,e4 ,munroe1 ,u4,s4 ,naval ,torpedo ,station74 ,maximum ,distance at which ,detonation occurred4 ,,cm4 ,gun-cotton #aj ,nitro-glycerine #hf4e nitro-cotton #i4e1 camphor #d per cent4 ,explosive gelatine #bj ,,nh#d,,no#c #e parts1 7camphorated7 ,c#f;,h#d7,n#jc7b #a part4 ,judson powder1 ,r4,r4,p4 #be ,emmensite 7,no4 #bei7 #cj ,rack-a-rock #cb ,k,cl,o#c #gi parts1 ,c#f;,h#e7,,no7#b #ba parts4 ,bellite #ej ,forcite ,no4 #a #fa ,kieselguhr dynamite ,no4 #a #fd #ge per cent4 nitro-gycerine4 ,atlas powder ,no4 #a #gd ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,relative ,,strength ,,of ,,explosives4 ,effectiveness of an ,explosive--,high and ,low ,explosives--,theoretical ,efficiency--,,mm4 ,roux and ,sarrau's ,results--,abel and ,noble's--,nobel's ,ballistic ,test--,the ,mortar1 ,pressure1 or ,crusher ,gauge--,lead ,cylinders-- ,the ,foot-,pounds ,machine--,noble's ,pressure ,gauge--,lieutenant ,walke's ,results--,calculation of ,pressure ,developed by ,dynamite and ,gun-,cotton-- ,macnab's and ,ristori's ,results of ,heat ,developed by the ,explosion of ,various ,explosives--,composition of some of the ,explosives in ,common ,use for ,blasting1 c4 ,the ,determination of the ,relative ,strength of ,explosives4--,explosives may be roughly divided into two divisions1 viz41 those which when exploded produce a shattering force1 and those which produce a propulsive force4 ,explosives of the first class are generally known as the high explosives1 and consist for the most part of nitro compounds1 or mixtures of nitro compounds with other substances4 ,any explosive whose detonation is very rapid is a high explosive1 but the term has chiefly been applied to the nitro-explosives4 ,the effectiveness of an explosive depends upon the volume and temperature of the gases formed1 and upon the rapidity of the explosion4 ,in the high explosives the chemical transformation is very rapid1 hence they exert a crushing of shattering effect4 ,gunpowder1 on the other hand1 is a low explosive1 and produces a propelling or heaving effect4 ,the maximum work that an explosive is capable of producing is proportionate to the amount of heat disengaged during its chemical transformation4 ,this may be expressed in kilogrammetres by the formula #dbe,q1 where ,q is the number of units of heat evolved4 ,the theoretical efficiency of an explosive cannot1 however1 be expected in practice for many reasons4 ,in the case of blasting rock1 for instance3,a--#a4 ,incomplete combustion of the explosive4 #b4 ,compression and chemical changes induced in the surrounding material operated on4 #c4 ,energy expended in the cracking and heating of the material which is not displaced4 #d4 ,the escape of gas through the blast-hole1 and the fissures caused by the explosion4 ,the proportion of useful work has been estimated to be from #ad to #cc per cent4 of the theoretical maximum potential4 ,footnote ,a3 ,c4,n4 ,hake1 ,government ,inspector of ,explosives1 ,victoria1 ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahhi4 ,for the purposes of comparison1 manufacturers generally rely more upon the practical than the theoretical efficiency of an explosive4 ,these1 however1 stand in the same relation to one another1 as the following table of ,messrs ,roux and ,sarrau will show3-- ,,mechanical ,,equivalent ,,of ,,explosives4 ,theoretical ,work ,relative in ,kilos4 ,value4 ,blasting powder 7#fb per cent4 ,,kno#c7 #bdb1cce #a4j ,dynamite 7#ge per cent4 nitro-glycerine7 #edh1bej #b4bf ,blasting gelatine 7#ib per cent4 nitro-glycerine7 #gff1hac #c4af ,nitro-glycerine #gid1efc #c4bh ,experiments made in lead cylinders give-- ,dynamite #a4j ,blasting gelatine #a4d ,nitro-glycerine #a4d ,sir ,frederick ,abel and ,captain ,w4,h4 ,noble1 ,r4,a41 have shown that the maximum pressure exerted by gunpowder is equal to #dhf foot-tons per lb4 of powder1 or that when #a kilo1 of the powder gases occupy the volume of #a litre1 the pressure is equal to #f1djj atmospheres2 and ,berthelot has calculated that every gramme of nitro-glycerine exploded gives #a1cbj units of heat4 ,,mm4 ,roux and ,sarrau1 of the ,dept ,centrales des ,poudres1 ,paris1 by means of calorimetric determinations1 have shown that the following units of heat are produced by the detonation of-- ,nitro-glycerine #a1ghd heat units4 ,gun-cotton #a1abc ,potassic picrate #hdj which1 multiplied by the mechanical equivalent per unit1 gives-- ,nitro-glycerine #ggh metre tons per kilogramme4 ,gun-cotton #dhi ,picrate of potash #cff ,nobel's ,ballistic ,test4--,alfred ,nobel was the first to make use of the mortar test to measure the 7ballistic7 power of explosives4 ,the use of the mortar for measuring the relative power of explosives does not give very accurate results1 but at the same time the information obtained is of considerable value from a practical point of view4 ,the mortar consists of a solid cylinder of cast iron1 one end of which has been bored to a depth of #i inches1 the diameter of the bore being #d inches4 ,at the bottom of the bore-hole is a steel disc #c inches thick1 in which another hole has been bored #c inches by #b inches4 ,the mortar 7,fig4 #ed7 itself is fitted with trunnions1 and firmly fixed in a very solid wooden carriage1 which is securely bolted down to the ground4 ,the shot used should weigh #bh lbs41 and be turned accurately to fit the bore of the mortar4 ,down its centre is a hole through which the fuse is put4 ,the following is the method of making an experiment3--,a piece of hard wood is turned in the lathe to exactly fit the hole in the steel disc at the bottom of the bore4 ,this wooden cylinder itself contains a small cavity into which the explosive is put4 ,ten grms4 is a very convenient quantity4 ,before placing in the mortar1 a hole may be made in the explosive by means of a piece of glass rod of such a size that the detonator to be used will just fit into it4 ,after placing the wooden cylinder containing the explosive in the cavity at the bottom of the bore1 the shot1 slightly oiled1 is allowed to fall gently down on to it4 ,a piece of fuse about a foot long1 and fitted with a detonator1 is now pushed through the hole in the centre of the shot until the detonator is embedded in the explosive4 ,the fuse is now lighted1 and the distance to which the shot is thrown is carefully measured4 ,the range should be marked out with pegs into yards and fractions of yards1 especially at the end opposite to the mortar4 ,the mortar should be inclined at an angle of #de4 ,in experimenting with this apparatus1 the force and direction of the wind will be found to have considerable influence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,mortar ,,for ,,measuring ,,the ,,ballistic ,,power ,,of ,,explosives4 ,a1 ,shot2 ,b1 ,steel ,disc2 ,c1 ,section of ,mortar 7,cast ,iron72 ,d1 ,wooden ,plug holding ,explosive 7,e72 ,f1 ,fuse4 ,mr ,t4 ,johnson made some ballistic tests4 ,he used a steel mortar and a shot weighing #bi ,ibs41 and he adopted the plan of measuring the distance to which a given charge1 #e grms41 would throw the shot4 ,he obtained the following results3-- ,range in ,feet4 ,blasting gelatine 7#ij per cent4 nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose7 #cib ,ammonite 7#fj per cent4 ,am7,,no#c7 and #aj per cent4 nitro-naphthalene7 #caj ,gelignite 7#fj per cent4 nitro-gelatine and gun-cotton7 #cjf ,roburite 7,am,n,o#c and chloro-nitro-benzol7 #bid ,no4 #a dynamite 7#ge per cent4 nitro-gelatine7 #bfd ,stonite 7#fh per cent4 nitro-gelatine and #cb per cent4 wood-meal7 #bec ,gun-cotton #bcd ,tonite 7gun-cotton and nitrates7 #bbc ,carbonite 7#be per cent4 nitro-gelatine1 #dj per cent4 wood-meal1 and #cj per cent4 nitrates7 #aih ,securite 7,,kno#c and nitro-benzol7 #ahc ,gunpowder #adc ,calculation of the ,volume of ,gas ,evolved in an ,explosive ,reaction4--,the volume of gas evolved in an explosive reaction may be calculated1 but only when they are simple and stable products1 such calculations being made at #j and #gfj mm4 ,let it be required1 for example1 to determine the volume of gas evolved by #a gram-molecule of nitro-glycerine4 ,the explosive reaction of nitro-glycerine may be represented by the equation4 ,c#c;,h#e,o#c7,,no#b7c #c;,,co#b #b-a_/b;,h#b,o #a-a_/b,n#b #a_/d,o#b ,by weight #bbg #acb #de #db #h ,by volume #b #c #b-a_/b #a-a_/b #a_/d ,the weights of the several products of the above reactions are calculated by multiplying their specific gravities by the weight of #a litre of hydrogen at #j ,c4 and #gfj mm4 7#j4jhif grm74 ,thus1 ,one litre of ,,co#b #bb x 4#jhif #a4igab grm4 ,h#b,o #i x #j4hjfd ,n#b #ad x #a4bedd ,o#b #af x #a4dccf ,the volume of permanent gases at #j and #gfj mm4 is constant1 and assuming the gramme as the unit of mass1 is found to be #bb4cb litres4 ,thus3-- ,volume of #dd of ,,co#b1 at #j and #gfj mm4 #dd_/a4igab #bb4cb litres4 #ah ,h#b,o #ah_/j4hjdd #bb4cb #bh ,n#b #bh_/a4bedd #bb4cb #cb ,o#b #cb_/a4dcff #bb4cb ,therefore #acb grms4 of ,,co#b at #j ,c and #gfj mm4 #bb4cb x #c #ff4if litres4 #de ,h#b,o #bb4cb x #b-a_/b #ee4hj #db ,n#b #bb4cb x #a-a_/b #cc4dh #h ,o#b #bb4cb x #a_/d #e4eh #afa4hb ,therefore #a gram-molecule or #bbg grms4 of nitro-glycerine when exploded1 produces #afa4hb litres of gas at #j ,c and #gfj mm4 ,to determine the volume of gas at the temperature of explosion1 we simply apply the law of ,charles4,a ,thus-- ,v 3 ,v' 33 ,t 3 ,t' or ,v' ,,vt'_/,t in which ,v represents the original volume4 ,v' new volume4 ,t original temperature on the absolute scale4 ,t' new temperature of the same scale ,in the present case ,t' #fjja4 ,therefore substituting1 we have ,v' #afa4hbx#fjja_/bgc #ceeg litres or at the temperature of explosion #a gram-molecule of nitro-glycerine produces #c1eeg litres of permanent gas4 ,footnote ,a3 ,according to the law of ,charles1 the volume of any gas varies directly as its temperature on the absolute scale1 provided the pressure remains constant4 ,knowing the temperature on the centigrade scale1 the corresponding temperature on the absolute scale is obtained by adding #bgc to the degrees centigrade4 ,pressure or ,crusher ,gauge4--,there are many forms of this instrument4 ,as long ago as #agib ,count ,rumford used a pressure gauge4 ,the so-called crusher gauge was1 however1 first used by ,captain ,sir ,andrew ,noble in his researches on powder4 ,other forms are the ,rodman,a punch ,uchatius ,eprouvette1 and the crusher gauge of the ,english ,commission on ,explosives4 ,they are all based either upon the size of an indent made upon a copper disc by a steel punch fitted to a piston1 acted upon by the gases of the explosive1 or upon the crushing or flattening of copper or lead cylinders4 ,footnote ,a3 ,invented by ,general ,rodman1 ,united ,states ,engineers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,berthelot uses a cylinder of copper1 as also did the ,english ,commission1 but in the simpler form of apparatus mostly used by manufacturers lead cylinders are used4 ,this form of apparatus 7,fig4 #ee7 consists of a base of iron to which four uprights a are fixed1 set round the circumference of a #d-;inch circle2 the lead plug rests upon the steel base let into the solid iron block4 ,a ring c holds the uprights d together at the top4 ,the piston b1 which rests upon the lead plug1 is a cylinder of tempered steel #d inches in diameter and #e inches in length2 it is turned away at the sides to lighten it as much as possible4 ,it should move freely between the uprights d4 ,in the top of this cylinder is a cavity to hold the charge of explosive4 ,the weight of this piston is #ab-a_/d lbs4 ,the shot e is of tempered steel1 and #d inches in diameter and #aj inches in length1 and weighs #cd-a_/b lbs4 ,it is bored through its axis to receive a capped fuse4 ,the instrument is used in the following manner3--,a plug of lead #a inch long and #a inch in diameter1 and of a cylindrical form1 is placed upon the steel plate between the uprights a1 the piston placed upon it1 the carefully weighed explosive placed in the cavity1 and the shot lowered gently upon the piston4 ,a piece of fuse1 with a detonator fixed at one end1 is then pushed through the hole in the shot until it reaches the explosive contained in the cavity in the piston4 ,the fuse is lighted4 ,when the charge is exploded1 the shot is thrown out1 and the lead cylinder is more or less compressed4 ,the lead plugs must be of a uniform density and homogeneous structure1 and should be cut from lead rods that have been drawn1 and not cast separately from small masses of metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;b1 ,,steel ,,punch2 c1 ,,lead ,,cylinder ,,for ,,use ,,with ,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,the strength of the explosive is proportional to the work performed in reducing the height of the lead 7or copper7 plug1 and to get an expression for the work done it is necessary to find the number of foot-pounds 7or kilogrammetres7 required to produce the different amounts of compression4 ,this is done by submitting exactly similar cylinders of lead to a crushing under weights acting without initial velocity1 and measuring the reduced heights of the cylinders2 from these results a table is constructed establishing empirical relations between the reduced heights and the corresponding weights2 the cylinders are measured both before and after insertion in the pressure gauge by means of an instrument known as the micrometer calipers 7,fig4 #eg74;,a ,footnote ,a3 ,an instrument called a ,foot-pounds ,machine has been invented by ,lieut4 ,quinan1 ,u4,s4 ,army4 ,it consists of three boards1 connected so as to form a slide #af feet high1 in which a weight 7the shot of the pressure gauge7 can fall freely4 ,one of the boards is graduated into feet and half feet4 ,the horizontal board at the bottom1 upon which the others are nailed1 rests upon a heavy post set deep in the ground1 upon which is placed the piston of the gauge1 which in this case serves as an anvil on which to place the lead cylinders4 ,the shot is raised by means of a pulley1 fixed at the top of the structure1 to any desired height1 and let go by releasing the clutch that holds it4 ,the difference between the original length and the reduced length gives the compression caused by the blow of the shot in falling1 and gives the value in foot-pounds required to produce the different amounts of compression4 7,vide ,jour4 ,u4,s4 ,naval ,inst41 #ahib47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,micrometer ,,calipers ,,for ,,measuring ,,diameter ,,of ,,lead ,,cylinders4 ,the ,use of ,lead ,cylinders4--,the method of using lead cylinders to test the strength of an explosive is a very simple affair1 and is conducted as follows3--,a solid cast lead cylinder1 of any convenient size1 is bored down the centre for some inches1 generally until the bore-hole reaches to about the centre of the block4 ,the volume of this hole is then accurately measured by pouring water into it from a graduated measure1 and its capacity in cubic centimetres noted4 ,the bore-hole is then emptied and dried1 and a weighed quantity 7say #aj grms47 of the explosive pressed well down to the bottom of the hole4 ,a hole is then made in the explosive 7if dynamite7 with a piece of clean and rounded glass rod1 large enough to take the detonator4 ,a piece of fuse1 fitted with a detonator1 is then inserted into the explosive and lighted4 ,after the explosion a large pear- shaped cavity will be found to have been formed1 the volume of which is then measured in the same way as before4 ,the results thus obtained are only relative1 but are of considerable value for comparing dynamites among themselves 7or gun-cottons74 ,experiments in lead cylinders gave the relative values for nitro-glycerine #a4d1 blasting gelatine #a4d1 and dynamite #a4j4 7,fig4 #eh shows sections of lead cylinders before and after use47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,lead ,,cylinders ,,before ,,and ,,after ,,use4 ,standard regulations for the preparation of lead cylinders may be found in the ,chem4 ,zeit41 #aijc1 #bg #gd1 #hih4 ,they were drawn up by the ,fifth ,international ,congress of ,app4 ,chem41 ,berlin4 ,the cylinder of lead should be #bjj mm4 in height and #bjj mm4 in diameter4 ,in its axis is a bore-hole1 #abe mm4 deep and #be mm4 in diameter4 ,the lead used must be pure and soft1 and the cylinder used in a series of tests must be cast from the same melt4 ,the temperature of the cylinders should be #ae to #bj throughout4 ,ten grms4 of explosive should be used and wrapped in tin-foil4 ,a detonator with a charge of #b grms41 to be fired electrically1 is placed in the midst of the explosive4 ,the cartridge is placed in the bore-hole1 and gently pressed against the bottom1 the firing wires being kept in central position4 ,the bore-hole is then filled with dry quartz sand1 which must pass through a sieve of #add meshes to the sq4 cm41 the wires being 4#ce mm4 diameter4 ,the sand is filled in evenly1 any excess being levelled off4 ,the charge thus prepared is then fired electrically4 ,the lead cylinder is then inverted1 and any residues removed with a brush4 ,the number of c4c4 of water required to fill the cavity1 in excess of the original volume of the bore-hole1 is a measure of the strength of the explosive4 ,the results are only comparable if made with the same class of explosive4 ,a result is to be the mean of at least three experiments4 ,the accuracy of the method depends on 7a7 the uniform temperature of the lead cylinder 7#ae to #bj ,c4 #g72 7b7 on the uniformity of the quartz sand2 7c7 on the uniformity of the measurements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,noble',s ,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,noble's ,pressure ,gauge4--,the original explosive vessels used by ,captain ,sir ,a4 ,noble in his first experiments were practically exactly similar to those that he now employs1 which consists of a steel barrel ,a 7,fig4 #ei71 open at both ends1 which are closed by carefully fitted screw plugs1 furnished with steel gas checks to prevent any escape past the screw4 ,the action of the gas checks is exactly the same as the leathers used in hydraulic presses4 ,the pressure of the gas acting on both sides of the annular space presses these sides firmly against the cylinder and against the plug1 and so effectually prevents any escape4 ,in the firing plug ,f is a conical hole closed by a cone fitting with great exactness1 which1 when the vessel is prepared for firing1 is covered with fine tissue paper to act as an insulator4 ,the two firing wires ,,gg1 one in the insulated cone1 the other in the firing plug1 are connected by a very fine platinum wire passing through a glass tube filled with meal powder4 ,the wire becomes red-hot when connection is made with a ,leclanch battery1 and the charge which has previously been inserted into the vessel is fired4 ,the crusher plug is fitted with a crusher gauge ,h for determining the pressure of the gases at the moment of explosion1 and in addition there is frequently a second crusher gauge apparatus screwed into the cylinder4 ,when it is desired to allow the gases to escape for examination1 the screw ,j is slightly withdrawn4 ,the gases then pass into the passage ,i1 and can be led to suitable apparatus in which their volume can be measured1 or in which they can be sealed for subsequent chemical analysis4 ,the greatest care must be exercised in carrying out experiments with this apparatus2 it is particularly necessary to be sure that all the joints are perfectly tight before exploding the charge4 ,should this not be the case1 the gases upon their generation will cut their way out1 or completely blow out the part improperly secured1 in either case destroying the apparatus4 ,the effect produced upon the apparatus when the gas has escaped by cutting a passage for itself is very curious4 ,the surface of the metal where the escape occurred presents the appearance of having been washed away in a state of fusion by the rush of the highly heated products4 ,the ,pressure ,gauge4--,the pressure is found by the use of a little instrument known as the pressure gauge which consists of a small chamber formed of steel1 inside of which is a copper cylinder1 and the entrance being closed by a screw gland1 in which a piston1 having a definite sectional area1 works4 ,there is a gas check ,e 7,fig4 #fj7 placed in the gland1 and over the piston1 which prevents the admission of gas to the chamber4 ,when it is desired to find the pressure in the chamber of a gun1 one or more of these crushers are made up with or inserted at the extreme rear end of the cartridge1 in order to avoid their being blown out of the gun when fired4 ,this1 however1 often takes place1 in which case the gauges are usually found a few yards in front of the muzzle4 ,the copper cylinders which register the pressure are made #j4e inch long from specially selected copper1 the diameters being regulated to give a sectional area of either #a_/ab or #a_/bd square inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,crusher ,,gauge4 ,e1 ,,gas ,,check4 ,hollow copper cylinders are manufactured with reduced sectional areas for measuring very small pressures4 ,it has been found that these copper cylinders are compressed to definite lengths for certain pressures with remarkable uniformity4 ,thus a copper cylinder having a sectional area of #a_/ab square inch1 and originally #a_/b inch long1 is crushed to a length of #j4db inch by a pressure of #aj tons per square inch4 ,by subsequently applying a pressure of #ab tons per square inch the cylinder is reduced to a length of #j4cic inch4 ,before using the cylinders1 whether for experimenting with closed vessels or with guns1 it is advisable to first crush them by a pressure a little under that expected in the experiment4 ,captain ,sir ,a4 ,noble used in his experiments a modification of ,rodman's gauge4 7,ordnance ,dept41 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahfa47 ,by ,calculation4--,to calculate the pressure developed by the explosion of dynamite in a bore-hole #c centimetres in diameter1 charged with #a kilogramme of #ge per cent4 dynamite1 ,messrs ,vieille and ,sarrau employ the following formula3-- ,p ,vo7#a ,q_/#bgc4;c7_/7,v - v74 ,where ,vo the volume 7reduced to #j and #gfj mm47 of the gases produced by a unit of weight of the explosive2 ,q the number of calories disengaged by a unit of weight of the explosive2 c equals the specific heat at constant volume of the gases2 ,v the volume in cubic centimetres of a unit of weight of the explosive2 v the volume occupied by the inert materials of the explosive4 ,the volume of gas produced by the explosion of #a kilogramme of nitro-glycerine 7at #j and #gfj mm47 is #dfg litres4 ,vo will therefore equal #j4ge x #dfg #cej4be4 ,the specific heat c is1 according to ,sarrau1 4#bbj 7c72 and according to ,bunsen1 #a kilogramme of dynamite ,no4 #a disengages #a1bij 7,q7 calories4 ,the density of dynamite is equal to #a4e1 therefore ,v #a_/a4e 4#fff4 ,if we take the volume of the kieselguhr as 4#a1 we find from above formula that ,p #cej7a #abij_/7bgc x 4#bbb77_/74fjj - 4#a7 #ac1ijj atmospheres1 which is equal to #ad1cag kilogrammes per square centimetre4 ,the pressure developed by #a kilogramme of pure nitro-glycerine equals #ah1ecc atmospheres1 equals #ai1aea kilogrammes4 ,applying this formula to gun- cotton1 and taking after ,berthelot1 ,q #ajge1 and after ,vieille and ,sarrau1 ,vo #fga litres1 and c as 4#bcad1 and the density of the nitro-cellulose as #a4e1 we have 7,v ,o7 ,p #fga7a #ajge_/7bgc x 4#bcad77_/4fff #ah1ace atmospheres4 ,to convert this into pressure of kilogrammes per square centimetre1 it is necessary to multiply it by the weight of a column of mercury #j4gfj m4 high1 and #a square centimetre in section1 which is equal to increasing it by #a_/cj4 ,it thus becomes ,pk 7#a #a_/cj74 ,pk #ah1ace x #a4jcc #ah1gcc kilogrammes4 ,the following tables1 taken from ,messrs ,william ,macnab's and ,e4 ,ristori's paper 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ef1 #h-ai71 ,researches on ,modern ,explosives1 are very interesting4 ,they record the results of a large number of experiments made to determine the amount of heat evolved1 and the quantity and composition of the gases produced when certain explosives and various smokeless powders were fired in a closed vessel from which the air had been previously exhausted4 ,the explosions were carried out in a calorimetric bomb of ,berthelot's pattern4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,for description of bomb1 see ,explosives and their ,power1 ,berthelot1 trans4 by ,hake and ,macnab1 p4 #aej4 7,murray47 ,table ,showing ,quantity of ,heat and ,volume and ,analysis of ,gas ,developed per ,gramme with ,different ,sporting and ,military ,smokeless ,powders ,now ,in ,use ,name of ,explosive4 ,calories ,permanent ,aqueous ,total ,volume per grm4 ,gases4 ,vapour4 of ,gas at #j and #gfj mm4 cc_/grm cc_/grm cc_/grm ,e4,c4 powder1 ,english #hjj #dbj #aed #egd ,s4,s4 powder #gii #ehd #aej #gcd ,troisdorf1 ,german #idc #gjj #aie #hie ,rifleite1 ,english #hfd #gff #aei #ibe ,b4,n41 ,french #hcc #gch #afh #ijf ,cordite1 ,english #abec #fdg #bce #hhb ,ballistite1 ,german #abia #eia #bca #hbb ,ballistite1 ,italian #acag #ehl #bde #hbf and ,spanish ,the figures in column headed ,co-efficient of ,potential ,energy serve as a measure of comparison of the power of the explosives1 and are the products of the number of calories by the volume of gas1 the last three figures being suppressed in order to simplify the results4 ,the amounts of water found were calculated for comparison as volumes of ,h#b,o gas at #j and #gfj mm4 ,e4,c4 powder consists principally of nitro-cellulose mixed with barium nitrate and a small proportion of camphor4 ,s4,s4 of nitro-lignine mixed with barium nitrate and nitro-benzene4 ,troisdorf powder is gelatinised nitro-cellulose2 rifleite gelatinised nitro-cellulose and nitro-benzene4 ,cordite contains #eh per cent4 nitro-glycerine1 #cg per cent4 gun-cotton1 and #e per cent4 vaseline4 ,ballistite 7,italian7 consists of equal parts nitro-cellulose and nitro- glycerine1 and #a_/b per cent4 of aniline4 ,the ,german contains a higher percentage of nitro-cellulose4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,heat ,,developed ,,by ,,explosives ,,containing ,,nitro-,,glycerine ,,and ,,nitro-,,cellulose ,,in ,,different ,,proportions4 ,composition of ,explosives4 ,calories per cent4 ,nitro-cellulose 7,n #ac4c per cent474 ,nitro-glycerine4 #ajj per cent4 dry pulp #j #ajfa #ajj gelatinised #j #ibb #ij #aj per cent4 #ajdd #hj #bj #aaei #gj #cj #abfg #fj #dj #acdg #ej #ej #adaj #dj #fj #adfg #j #ajj #afeb ,nitro-cellulose 7,n#ab4bd per cent47 ,nitro-glycerine4 #hj per cent4 #bj per cent4 #ajfb #fj #dj #abhh #ej #ej #acdi #dj #fj #adje ,nitro-cellulose 7,n #ac4c per cent474 ,nitro-glycerine4 ,vaseline4 #ee per cent4 #dj per cent4 #e per cent4 #aacd #ce #fj #e #abhj ,,table ,,of ,,results ,,obtained ,,by ,,lieut4 ,w4 ,,walke41 ,,of ,,the ,,artillery1 ,u4,s4,a1 ,,with ,,quinan',s ,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,nitro-glycerine being taken as #ajj4 7,from ,u4,s4 ,naval ,inst4 ,jour47 ,compression ,order of ,name of ,explosive4 of ,lead ,strength4 ,inch4 ,explosive gelatine #j4ehe #ajf4ag ,hellhoffite #j4ehe #ajf4ag ,nitro-glycerine #j4eea #ajj4jj ,standard1 ,n4,g4 ,nobel's smokeless powder #j4eji #ib4ch ,nitro-glycerine #j4eji #ib4cg ,gun-cotton #j4deh #hc4ab ,u4,s4 naval torpedo gun-cotton ,gun-cotton #j4deh #hc4ab ,stowmarket4 ,nitro-glycerine #j4dea #ha4he ,vouges1 ,n4,g4 ,gun-cotton #j4ddh #ha4ca ,dynamite ,no4 #a #j4ddh #ha4ca ,dynamite de ,traul #j4dcg #gi4ca ,emmensite #j4dbi #gg4hf ,amide powder #j4che #fi4hg ,oxonite #j4chc #fi4ea ,tonite #j4cgf #fh4bd ,g4,c4 #eb4e1 and ,ba7,,no#c7b1 #dg4e ,bellite #j4cfb #fe4gj ,rack-a-rock #j4cdj #fa4ga ,atlas powder #j4ccc #fj4dc ,ammonia dynamite #j4ccb #fj4be ,volney's powder ,no4 #a #j4cbb #eh4dd ,nitrated naphthalene4 ,no4 #b #j4bid #ec4ah ,melinite #j4bhj #ej4hb ,picric acid #gj1 and sol4 nitro-cotton #cj4 ,silver fulminate #j4bgg #ej4bg ,mercury #j4bge #di4ia ,mortar powder #j4aee #bh4ac ,composition of some of the ,explosives in ,common ,use4 ,ordinary ,dynamite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ge per cent4 ,kieselguhr #be ,amvis4 ,nitrate of ,ammonia #ij per cent4 ,chloro-di-nitro ,benzene #e ,wood ,pulp #e ,ammonia ,nitrate ,powder4 ,nitrate of ,ammonia #hj per cent4 ,chlorate of ,potash #e ,nitro-,glucose #aj ,coal ,tar #e ,celtite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ef-ei parts4 ,nitro-,cotton #b-c4e ,,kno#c #ag-ba ,wood ,meal #h-i ,ammonium ,oxalate #aa-ac ,moisture #j4e-a4e ,atlas ,powders4 ,sodium ,nitrate #b4j per cent4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ge4j ,wood ,pulp #ba4j ,magnesium ,carbonate #b4j ,dauline4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ej per cent4 ,sawdust #cj ,nitrate of ,potash #bj ,vulcan ,powder4 ,nitro-,glycerine #cj per cent4 ,nitrate of ,soda #eb4e ,sulphur #g4j ,charcoal #aj4e ,vigorite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #cj per cent4 ,nitrate of ,soda #fj ,charcoal #e ,sawdust #e ,rendrock4 ,nitrate of ,potash #dj per cent4 ,nitro-,glycerine #dj ,wood ,pulp #ac ,paraffin or ,pitch #g ,ammonia ,nitrate ,powder4 ,ammonia ,nitrate #hj per cent4 ,potassium ,chlorate #e ,nitro-,glucose #aj ,coal ,tar #e ,hercules ,powders4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ge to #dj per cent4 ,sugar #a #ae4ff ,chlorate of ,potash #a4je #c4cd ,nitrate of ,potash #b4aj #ca4jj ,carbonate of ,magnesia #bj4he #aj4jj ,carbo-,dynamite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ij per cent4 ,charcoal #aj ,geloxite 7,permitted ,list74 ,nitro-,glycerine #fd-ed parts4 ,nitro-,cotton #e-d ,nitrate of ,potash #bb-ac ,ammonium ,oxalate #ae-ab ,red ,ochre #a-j ,wood ,meal #g-d ,the ,wood ,meal to contain not more than #ae and not less than #e moisture4 ,giant ,powder4 ,nitro-,glycerine #dj per cent4 ,sodium ,nitrate #dj ,rosin #f ,sulphur #f ,guhr #h ,dynamite de ,trauzel4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ge parts4 ,gun-,cotton #be ,charcoal #b ,rhenish ,dynamite4 ,solution of ,n4,g4 in ,naphthalene #ge per cent4 ,chalk1 or ,barium ,sulphate #b ,kieselguhr #bc ,ammonia ,dynamite4 ,ammonia ,nitrate #ge parts4 ,paraffin #d ,charcoal #c ,nitro-,glycerine #ah ,blasting ,gelatine4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ic per cent4 ,nitro-,cotton #c to #g ,gelatine ,dynamite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ga per cent4 ,nitro-,cotton #f ,wood ,pulp #e ,potassium ,nitrate #ah ,gelignite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #fj to #fa per cent4 ,nitro-,cotton #d #e ,wood ,pulp #i #g ,potassium ,nitrate #bg ,forcite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #di per cent4 ,nitro-,cotton #a4j ,sulphur #a4e ,tar #aj4j ,sodium ,nitrate #ch4j ,wood ,pulp #e 7,the ,n4-,g41 c41 varies47 ,tonite ,no4 #a4 ,gun-,cotton #eb-ej per cent4 ,barium ,nitrate #dg-dj ,tonite ,no4 #b4 ,contains ,charcoal also4 ,tonite ,no4 #c4 ,gun-,cotton #ah to #bj per cent4 ,ba7,,no#c7b #gj #fg ,di-nitro-,benzol #aa #ac ,moisture #j4e #a ,carbonite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #ag4gf per cent4 ,nitro-,benzene #a4gj ,soda #j4db ,,kno#c #cd4bb ,ba7,,no#c7b #i4ga ,cellulose #a4ee ,cane ,sugar #cd4bg ,moisture #j4cf #ii4ii ,roburite4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #hf per cent4 ,chloro-di-nitro-,benzol #ad ,faversham ,powder4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #he per cent4 ,di-nitro-,benzol #aj ,trench's ,flame-extinguishing ,compound #e ,favierite ,no4 #a4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #hh per cent4 ,di-nitro-,naphthalene #ab ,favierite ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #a ,powder #ij per cent4 ,ammon4 ,chloride #aj ,bellite4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #e parts4 ,meta-di-nitro-,benzol #a ,petrofacteur4 ,nitro-,benzene #aj per cent4 ,chlorate of ,potash #fg ,nitrate of ,potash #bj ,sulphide of ,antimony #c ,securite4 ,mixtures of ,meta-di-nitro-,benzol #bf per cent4 and ,nitrate of ,ammonia #gd ,rack-a-,rock4 ,potassium ,chlorate #gi parts4 ,mono-nitro-,benzene #ba ,oxonite4 ,nitric ,acid 7sp4 gr4 #a4e7 #ed parts4 ,picric ,acid #df ,emmensite4 ,emmens ,acid #e parts4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #e ,picric ,acid #f ,brugre ,powder4 ,ammonium ,picrate #ed per cent4 ,nitrate of ,potash #df ,designolle's ,torpedo ,powders4 ,potassium ,picrate #ee to #ej per cent4 ,nitrate of ,potash #de #ej ,stowite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #eh to #fa parts4 ,nitro-,cotton #d4e #e ,potassium ,nitrate #ah #bj ,wood ,meal #f #g ,oxalate of ,ammonia #aa #ae ,the ,wood ,meal shall contain not more than #ae and not less than #e by weight of moisture4 ,the explosive shall be used only when contained in a non-water-proofed wrapper of parchment--,no4 #f detonator4 ,faversham ,powder4 ,nitrate of ,ammonium #ic to #hg ,tri-nitro-,toluol #aa #i ,moisture #a -- ,kynite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #bd-bf parts4 ,wood-,pulp #b4e-c4e ,starch #cb4e-c4e ,barium ,nitrate #ca4e-cd4e ,ca,c,o#c #j-j4e ,moisture #c4j-f4j ,must be put up only in water-proof parchment paper1 and ,no4 #f electric detonator used4 ,rexite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #f4e-h4e parts4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #fd-fh ,sodium ,nitrate #ac-af ,tri-nitro-,tolulene #f4e-h4e ,wood ,meal #c-e ,moisture 4#e-a4d ,must be contained in water-proof case 7stout paper71 water-proofed with ,resin and ,cerasin--,no4 #f detonator4 ,withnell ,powder4 ,ammonium ,nitrate #hh-ib parts4 ,tri-nitro-,toluene #d-f ,flour 7dried at #ajj ,c47 #d-f ,moisture #j-ae ,only to be used when contained in a linen paper cartridge1 water-proofed with ,carnuba ,wax1 ,parrafin--,no4 #g detonator used4 ,phenix ,powder4 ,nitro-,glycerine #bh-ca parts4 ,nitro-,cotton #j-a ,potassium ,nitrate #cj-cd ,wood ,meal #cc-cg ,moisture #b-f ,,smokeless ,,powders4 ,cordite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #eh per cent4 or- 4#ge ,nitro-,cotton #cg or- 4#fe ,vaseline #e or- 4#be ,cordite1 ,m4,d4 ,nitro-,glycerine #cj per cent4 or- #a ,nitro-,cotton #fe or- #a ,vaseline #e or- 4#be ,analysis of-- ,by ,w4 ,mancab and ,a4,e4 ,leighton4 ,e4,c4 ,powder4 ,nitro-,cotton #gi4j per cent4 ,potassium ,nitrate #d4e ,barium ,nitrate #g4e ,camphor #d4a ,wood ,meal #c4h ,volatile ,matter #a4a ,walarode ,powder4 ,nitro-,cotton #ih4f per cent4 ,volatile ,matter #a4d ,kynoch's ,smokeless4 ,nitro-,cotton #eb4a per cent4 ,di-nitro-,toluene #ai4e ,potassium ,nitrate #a4d ,barium ,nitrate #bb4b ,wood ,meal #b4g ,ash #j4i ,volatile ,matter #a4b ,schultze4 ,nitro-,lingin #fb4a per cent4 ,potassium ,nitrate #a4h ,barium ,nitrate #bf4a ,vaseline #d4i ,starch #c4e ,volatile ,matter #a4j ,imperial ,schultze4 ,nitro-,lignin #hj4a per cent4 ,barium ,nitrate #aj4b ,vaseline #g4i ,volatile ,matter #a4h ,cannonite4 ,nitro-,cotton #hf4d per cent4 ,barium ,nitrate #e4g ,vaseline #b4i ,lamp ,black #a4c ,potassium ,ferro-cyanide #b4d ,volatile ,matter #a4c ,amberite4 ,nitro-,cotton #ga4j per cent4 ,potassium ,nitrate #a4c ,barium ,nitrate #ah4f ,wood ,meal #a4d ,vaseline #e4h ,sporting ,ballistite4 ,nitro-,glycerine #cg4f per cent ,nitro-,cotton #fb4c ,volatile ,matter #j4a ,the following is a complete ,list of the ,permitted ,explosives as ,defined in the ,schedules to the ,explosives in ,coal ,mines ,orders of the #bjth ,december #aijb1 of the #bdth ,december #aijc1 of the #eth ,september #aijc1 and #ajth ,december #aijc3-- ,albionite4 ,ammonal4 ,ammonite4 ,amvis4 ,aphosite4 ,arkite4 ,bellite ,no4 #a4 ,bellite ,no4 #b4 ,bobbinite4 ,britonite4 ,cambrite4 ,carbonite4 ,clydite4 ,coronite4 ,dahmenite ,a4 ,dragonite4 ,electronite4 ,faversham ,powder4 ,fracturite4 ,geloxite4 ,haylite ,no4 #a4 ,kynite4 ,negro ,powder4 ,nobel's ,ardeer ,powder4 ,nobel ,carbonite4 ,normanite4 ,pit-ite4 ,roburite ,no4 #c4 ,saxonite4 ,stow-ite4 ,thunderite4 ,victorite4 ,virite4 ,west ,falite ,no4 #a4 ,west ,falite ,no4 #b4 ,,index4 ,abel's1 ,sir ,frederick1 method of manufacturing gun-cotton1 #eg4 ,abel's heat test1 #bdi4 ,acid mixture for nitrating nitro-glycerine1 #bc4 ,air pressure in nitrator1 #bh4 ,alkalinity in nitro-cellulose1 #bag4 ,amberite1 #ahi4 ,ammonite1 #adi4 ,analyses of collodion-cotton1 #ha4 gelatine dynamites1 #abc4 ,analysis of explosives1 #aig4 acetone1 #bji4 blasting gelatine1 #aii4 cap composition1 #bda4 cordite1 #bjf4 celluloid1 #bcj4 dynamite1 #aig4 forcite1 #bjb4 fulminate1 #bdj4 glycerine1 #bcc4 gun-cotton1 #bab4 nitric acid1 #bd4 picric acid1 #bcj4 tonite1 #bje4 waste acids1 #bci4 ,armstrong on the constitution of the fulminates1 #aei4 ,atlas powder1 #aai4 ,auld on acetone1 #baa4 ,axite1 #agf4 ,ballistite1 #agi4 ,beater or ,hollander for pulping gun-cotton1 #fd4 ,bedson1 ,prof41 on roburite explosion gases1 #adj4 ,bellite1 #adb4 ,benzene1 explosives derived from1 #acb4 ,benzene1 mono-nitro- and di-nitro-benzene1 #acd4 ,bergmann and ,junk on nitro-cellulose tests1 #bfh4 ,bernthsen summary of nitro-benzenes1 #acc4 ,blasting gelatine1 #aai4 ,blasting charge1 preparation of1 #aff4 ,b4,n4 powder1 #aij4 ,boiling-point of ,n4,g41 #ai4 ,boutnny's nitro-glycerine process1 #ae4 ,brown on wet gun-cotton1 #ef4 ,brugre's powder1 #aie4 ,bucknill's resistance coil1 #ac4 ,calculation of volume of gas evolved in an explosive reaction1 #bgf4 ,cannonite1 #ahi4 ,cellulose1 #b1 #dg4 ,celluloid manufacture1 #ia4 analysis1 #bcj4 cartridges1 #ia4 uses of1 #ij4 ,field's papers on1 #ic4 fibre for1 #id4 nitration of fibre1 c41 #ie4 formula of1 #eg4 ,champion and ,pellet's method of determining nitrogen1 #bbc4 ,chenel's modification of ,kjeldahl's method1 #bbg4 ,collodion-cotton1 #gi4 ,comparative tests of black and nitro-powders1 #aic4 ,compressing gun-cotton1 #gg4 ,composition of waste acids from nitro-glycerine1 #dc4 ,composition of some common explosives1 #bij4 ,conduits for nitro-glycerine1 #g4 ,cooppal powder1 #e1 #ahi4 ,cordite manufacture1 #afi4 analysis1 #bjf4 ,cresilite1 #aeh4 ,cross and ,bevan on nitro-jute1 #ajg4 ,crusher gauge1 #bhd4 ,cundill1 ,colonel1 classification of dynamites1 #aab4 ,danger area1 #e4 ,dangers in the manufacture of gun-cotton1 #he4 ,decomposition of cellulose1 #ed4 ,definition of explosives in ,order of ,council 7,explosives ,act71 #a4 ,determination of ,n#b,o#d in nitric acid1 #bd4 ,determination of strength of ,h#b,,so#d1 #be4 ,determination of relative strength of explosives1 #bgb4 ,detonators1 #afc4 ,di-nitro-toluene1 #ach4 ,dipping cotton in manufacture of gun-cotton1 #fj4 ,divers and ,kawakita on the fulminates1 #aei4 ,dixon1 ,prof4 ,h4,b41 on roburite explosions1 #aci4 ,drying house for gun-cotton1 #abb4 ,dynamite1 efficiency of1 #aah4 frozen dynamite1 #aaf4 gelatine dynamite1 #aai4 properties of kieselguhr dynamite1 #aaf4 ,reid ,borland's carbo-dynamite1 #aai4 ,rhenish dynamite1 #aai4 various kinds of1 #aai4 ,e4,c4 powder1 #ahf4 ,electronite1 #aea4 ,emmensite1 #aie4 ,equation of formation of nitro-glycerine1 #af4 ,equation of formation of nitro-cellulose1 #ej4 ,exploders1 electric1 #afg4 ,explosion gases of dynamite1 #ai4 nitro-glycerine1 #ah4 gun-cotton1 #ee4 roburite1 #aci4 ,exudation test gelatines1 #beg4 ,faversham powder1 #adg4 ,favier's explosive1 #adi4 ,field on celluloid1 #ic1 #ii4 ,firing-point of explosives1 #bdg4 ,filite1 #ahj4 ,filtering nitre-glycerine1 #cg4 ,flameless explosives1 #hi1 #ach1 #add4 ,formation of white matter in the nitration of ,n4,g41 #ci4 ,forcite1 #aai4 ,france1 #hb4 ,free fatty acid in glycerine1 #ci1 #bce4 ,freeing nitric acid from ,n#b,o#d1 #be4 ,freezing-point of ,n4,g41 #ba4 ,french ,commission on ,ammonium ,nitrate1 #adb4 ,fulminates constitution1 #aei4 ,fulminate of mercury1 #aei1 #bdj4 ,fulminate of silver1 #afa4 ,fuses1 various kinds of1 #aff4 ,gases formed by the decomposition of nitro-glycerine1 #ah4 ,gelatine explosives1 analysis of1 #aii4 ,glycerine1 analysis of1 #bcc4 formula of1 #af4 nitration of1 #bc4 ,greiner's powder1 #aij4 ,gun-cotton1 analysis of1 #bab4 boiling1 #fd4 complete series of1 #eb1 #ed4 compressing1 moulding1 and packing1 #fg1 #gg1 #gh4 dipping and steeping the cotton1 #fj4 drying the cotton1 #eh4 granulation of1 #gi4 manufacture of1 #eg4 ,abel's method1 #eg4 ,stowmarket1 #eg4 ,waltham ,abbey1 #ga4 products of decomposition of1 #ee4 properties of1 #ed4 pulping1 #fe4 washing1 #fc4 as a mining explosive1 #ef4 ,guttmann's nitric acid plant1 #de4 ,guttmann's heat test1 #bef4 ,handy's method for determining moisture in dynamite1 #aig4 ,hannah1 ,dr ,n41 on roburite explosion gases1 #aci4 ,heat developed by explosives containing nitro-glycerine1 c41 #bhh4 ,heat test1 ,abel1 #bdi4 ,hellhoffite1 #aeb4 ,henrite powder1 #aia4 ,hollander1 #fe4 ,horsley's apparatus1 #bdh4 ,hydro-extractors for wringing out gun-cotton1 #fb4 ,impurities in commercial glycerine1 #ci1 #bcc4 ,impurities in fulminate1 #bdj4 nitro-glycerine1 #ch4 picric acid1 #bca4 ,ketones as solvents for pyroxyline1 #aja4 ,kieselguhr dynamite1 #aab4 ,kinetite1 #ade4 ,kjeldahl method of determining nitrogen1 #bbg4 ,le ,bouchet1 manufacture of gun-cotton at1 #gh4 ,lead cylinders for testing strength of explosives1 #bha4 ,lenk's improvements in gun-cotton manufacture1 #di4 ,lewes on the pressure of cordite1 #age4 ,leibert's treatment of nitro-glycerine1 #cj4 ,lightning conductors for danger buildings1 #aj4 ,liquefaction test for gelatine1 #beg4 ,lodge on lightning conductors1 #h4 ,lowering of freezing-point of ,n4,g41 #ba4 ,lung's nitrometer1 #bai4 ,lydite1 #aef4 ,manufacture of gun-cotton1 #eg4 ,manufacture of nitro-glycerine1 #ag4 cordite1 #afi4 roburite1 #adj4 fulminates1 #afb4 tonite1 #hd4 di-nitro-benzene1 #ach4 nitro-starch1 #ajc4 celluloid1 #ia4 ,majendie 7,col4 ,sir ,v4,d471 report on a picric acid explosion1 #aee4 ,maximite1 #aia4 ,maxim's detonator mixture1 #afe4 ,m',robert's mixing machine1 #abf4 ,mechanical equivalent of explosives1 #bgc4 ,melinite1 #aef4 ,mono-nitro-glycerine1 di-nitro-nitro-glycerine1 #da4 ,moulding gun-cotton1 #gg4 ,mounds for protection of danger buildings1 #f4 ,mortar for ballistic tests1 #bge4 ,mowbray on use of compressed air1 #ae4 ,mhlhusen on nitro-starch1 #d1 #e1 #ajc4 ,nathan's nitrator1 #cb4 ,nitric peroxide in ,n4,g41 #bd4 ,nitration products of cellulose1 #eb1 #ed4 ,nitro-glycerine1 analysis of1 #aih4 properties1 #ag4 nitration1 #bc4 separation1 #ce4 washing1 #cg4 uses of1 #da4 manufacture of1 #ag4 ,nitro-benzene1 properties and manufacture of1 #acb1 #acg4 ,nitro-cellulose1 #b1 #dg1 #fj1 #bab4 ,nitro-jute1 #e1 #ajg4 ,nitro-mannite1 #d1 #aji4 ,nitro-naphthalene1 #adh4 ,nitro-starch1 #d1 #ajc4 ,nitro-toluene1 #acb4 ,nitrated gun-cotton1 #hc4 ,nitrogen1 determination of1 ,lung method1 #bai4 ,champion and ,pellet's1 #bbc4 ,schultze-,tieman1 #bbd4 ,kjeldahl-,chenel's1 #bbg4 percentages of in various explosives1 #bbh4 ,nitrometers1 ,lung1 ,horn's1 c41 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,nobel's ballistic test1 #bgd4 ,noble's pressure gauge1 #bhb4 experiments on cordite1 #agb4 ,normal powder1 #aia4 ,oleic acid in glycerine1 #bcf4 ,orsman on roburite1 #adb4 ,oxonite1 #aeb4 ,oxy-cellulose1 #ajb4 ,packing gun-cotton1 #gh4 dynamite1 #aaf4 ,page's regulator1 #bfj4 ,panclastite1 #aeb4 ,percentage composition of nitro-glycerine1 #ah4 ,perkin on magnetic rotation of nitro-glycerine1 #ai4 ,phenol1 tri-nitro-phenol1 #aeb4 ,picric acid1 #aeb1 #bca4 powders1 #aeg1 #ahi4 ,picrates1 #aed1 #bca4 ,polarised light and nitro-cellulose1 #bah4 ,position of the ,,no#b group in nitro-explosives1 #b1 #c1 #af4 ,prentice's nitric acid plant1 #dc4 ,pressure gauge1 #bhb4 ,primers of gun-cotton1 #aff4 ,properties of dynamite1 #aaf4 gelatine compounds1 #acj4 ,pulping gun-cotton1 #fe4 ,pyroxyline for celluloid1 #if4 solvents for1 #aja4 ,quinan's foot-pound machine1 #bhj4 ,raoult's law and ,n4,g41 #ba4 ,reworked gun-cotton1 #gh4 ,rhenish dynamite1 #aai4 ,roburite1 properties and manufacture of1 #ach4 ,bedson's report on1 #adj4 ,orsman on gases produced by explosion of1 #adb4 ,romit1 #adh4 ,sarrau and ,vieille1 gases obtained from ignition of dynamite1 #ai4 ,sayers1 #ej4 ,scheme for analysis of explosives1 #bac4 ,schultze's powder1 #ahc4 ,schultze-,tieman method of determining nitrogen1 #bbd4 ,securite1 #add4 ,separation of nitro-glycerine from mixed acids1 #ce4 ,shimose1 #aef4 ,silver test for glycerine1 #bcc4 ,smokeless powders1 #afh4 ,smokeless diamond1 #aij4 ,snyder's powder1 #aic4 ,sobrero discovered nitro-glycerine1 #ad4 ,sodium nitrate1 analysis of1 #bci4 ,soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose1 #ea4 ,solubility of nitro-glycerine1 #bj4 ,solvents for soluble gun-cotton1 #eb1 #aja4 ,solubility test for gun-cotton1 #bad4 ,specific gravity of explosives1 #bgj4 ,sprengel's explosives1 #aea4 ,stowmarket1 manufacture of gun-cotton at1 #eg4 ,sulphuric acid1 determination of strength of1 #bd4 ,sy on test for nitro-cellulose1 #bfi4 ,temperature of nitration of nitro-glycerine1 #bi4 ,thomson's patents1 #gc4 ,toluene1 #adf4 ,tonite1 #hd1 #adf4 analysis of1 #bje4 fumes from1 #he4 ,treatment of waste acids1 #dc4 ,trench's fire-extinguishing compound1 #hh4 ,trebouillet and ,de ,besancele on celluloid manufacture1 #ib4 ,tri-nitro-cresol1 #aeh4 ,tri-nitro-toluene1 #adf4 ,tri-nitro-phenol1 #aeb4 ,tri-nitro-glycerine1 #b1 #ad4 ,troisdorf powder1 #aia1 #aib4 ,turpin's melinite1 #aef4 ,u4,s4 naval powder1 #ahj4 ,uses of celluloid1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajb4 ,uses of collodion-cotton1 #ij4 ,vaseline1 #bjh4 ,vielle poudre1 #aij4 ,volney's powder1 #adh4 ,von ,foster's powder1 #aia4 ,walsrode powder1 #ahh4 ,w4,a4 powder1 #ahb4 ,waltham ,abbey1 manufacture of gun-cotton at1 #ga4 manufacture of cordite at1 #afi4 ,walke's pressure gauge results1 #bhi4 ,war ,office experiments with cordite1 #agc4 ,washing gun-cotton1 #fc4 nitro-glycerine1 #cg4 ,waste acids from nitro-glycerine1 #da1 #bbf4 ,weltern powder1 #aia4 ,werner ,pfleiderer's mixing machine1 #abd4 ,whirling out the acids from gun-cotton1 #fb4 ,will's test for nitre-cellulose1 #bfa4 ,wood pulp1 #abf4 ,xylonite ,company's process1 #if4 ,zenger's lightning conductors1 #aa4 ,printed at ,,the ,,darlen ,,press1 ,edinburgh4