,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hda      
,,new ,,york1 ,,february #ac1 #ahib     
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xxxiii1 ,no4 #hda4  ,scientific      
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
   ,i4                                  
,,anthropology4--,investigation of a    
,mound near ,jefferson       ,city1     
,mo4--,by ,a4,s4 ,,logan4--,prehistoric 
remains from the banks       of the     
,missouri ,river ,,ii4                  
,,biology4--,new ,observations on the   
,language of ,animals4--,by       ,m4   
,,de ,,lacaze ,,duthiers4--,a lengthy   
examination of some facts       in the  
language of animals1 including birds and
 quadrupeds  ,,iii4                     
,,botany4--,electricity in              
,agriculture4--,by ,,clarence ,d4       
,,warner4--,the       effect of currents

 of electricity upon the germination of 
seeds4       --,interesting experiments 
detailed1 which can be easily repeated  
,electricity in ,horticulture4--,the    
effect of the electric light on         
vegetation1 availability it may possess 
for the gardener        ,pentapterygium 
,serpens4--,a ,himalayan flowering plant
 introduced       in ,england about ten 
years ago4--#b illustrations        ,the
 ,perforation of ,flowers4--,what       
insects do to promote the               
propagation of plants by perforating the
 flowers in search of       honey4--#af 
illustrations  ,,iv4   ,,chemistry4--,a 
,new ,laboratory ,process for ,preparing
 ,hydrobromic       ,acid4--,by ,g4,s4  
,,newth4--,simple synthesis of hydrogen 
and bromium        ,boron               
,salts4--,boron sulphides and selenides 
and silicon selenide        ,detection  
of ,peanut ,oil in ,olive ,oil4--,a     
practical laboratory       test for the 
above adulteration                      
,hydroxylamine4--,recent preparation of 

this compound and its       properties  
,new ,boron ,compounds4--,compounds of  
boron1 phosphorus1 and       iodine     
recently prepared by ,m4 ,,moissan      
,sapotin1 a ,new ,glucoside4--,by       
,,gustave ,,michaud4--,preparation      
of a new glucoside from almonds and     
other sources  ,v4    ,,civil           
,,engineering4--,completion of the      
,mersey ,tunnel ,railway4--,the         
penetration of the bed of the ,mersey   
,river by a tunnel       at the rate of 
#aej feet per week4--,details of the    
work  ,,vi4   ,,educational             
,,science4--,chinese ,competitive       
,examinations4       --,interesting     
details of the famous examinations of   
,china4--,fatal       consequences to   
overworked competitors  ,,vii4          
,,electrical ,,engineering4--,high      
,speed ,engine and ,dynamo4--,a         
high speed compound engine1 running at  
#ejj revolutions       per minute1 with 
direct-driven dynamo for electric       
lighting4--#c       illustrations       

,,viii4 ,,medicine4--,the ,treatment of 
,rattlesnake ,bite by ,permanganate     
of ,potassium1 ,based on ,nine          
,successful ,cases4--,by       ,,amos   
,w4 ,,barber1 ,m4,d4--,the use of this  
powerful disinfectant1       and the    
proper treatment and mode of applying   
it4  ,,ix4                              
,,meteorology4--,modification of ,our   
,climate4--,by ,,joseph                 
,,wallace4--,climate epochs and the     
probabilities of the present            
climatic era4--,changes within the      
records of man        ,the ,eruption of 
,krakatoa4--,a graphic description of   
this catastrophe1       involving the   
lives of #ce1jjj people  ,x4            
,,military ,,engineering4--,the         
,military ,engineer and ,his            
,work4--,by ,col4 ,w4,r4 ,,king4--,a    
,sibley ,college lecture1 treating      
of the special problems ,in             
fortifications1 sieges1 and the more    
pacific work of surveys and explorations
  ,,xi4   ,,mineralogy4--,natural       

,sulphide of ,gold4--,by ,t4,w4,t4      
,,atherton4--,a probable new occurrence 
of gold  ,,xii4  ,,natural              
,,history4--,the ,living ,jerboa in the 
,zoological       ,garden of            
,berlin4--,a rare rodent from ,south    
,africa1 one seldom       seen alive in 
captivity4--#e illustrations  ,,xiii4   
,,naval ,,engineering4--,twenty-four    
,knot ,steamers4--,the possibility of   
fast ships for long voyages4--,the      
prospects and difficulties  ,,xiv4      
,,railroad ,,engineering4--,a ,steam    
,street ,railway ,motor4--,a            
noiseless motor built of steel on trial 
in ,chicago4--#a illustration  ,,xv4    
,,sanitary ,,engineering4--,some ,means 
of ,purifying       ,water4--,different 
filtering processes and the subsidence  
treatment       of water  ,,xvi4        
,,technology4--,action of ,caustic ,soda
 on ,wood4--,by ,m4,h4                  
,,tauss4--,direct experiments on the    
action of lye on wood at various        
pressures        ,burning ,brick with   

,crude ,oil ,fuel4--,the use of         
petroleum in       brick kilns4--,its   
advantages1 cleanliness1 and cheapness4 
,chlorine ,gas and ,soda by the         
,electrolytic ,process4--,the           
decomposition       of common salt      
solution into chlorine and caustic soda 
on the commercial scale        ,how     
,enameled ,letters are ,made4--,the     
manufacture of separate       enameled  
letters as conducted in ,london4--#e    
illustrations        ,how ,mechanical   
,rubber ,goods are ,made4--,hose1       
corrugated       matting1 packing1 and  
jar rings4--,processes of their         
production         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,the ,,living ,,jerboa 
,,in ,,the ,,zoological ,,garden ,,of   
,,berlin4   ,like other strangely formed
 quadrupeds1 the jerboas are counted    
among the curiosities of the animal     
kingdom1 and as such are described in   
natural history2 but1 nevertheless1     
there has never been a good exhibition  
of them1 for the simple reason that live

 jerboas are seldom seen in ,europe1 as 
they usually die during the journey     
hither or soon after their arrival4     
,after some hesitation ,i decided to    
purchase a pair that ,i happened to find
 mentioned in the price list of ,mr4 ,c4
 ,reiche1 of ,alfeld1 as one of the most
 interesting specimens obtained during  
his expedition to ,south ,africa the    
year before2 but ,i1 also1 found the    
sensitiveness and delicacy of the jerboa
 very trying1 for the short journey from
 ,alfeld to this city caused the death  
of the female and reduced her mate to   
such a condition that when it arrived   
there seemed little hope that it could  
ever be utilized for scientific research
 or artistic life studies4              
,illustration3 ,,jerboa ,,in ,,the      
,,zoological ,,garden ,,of              
,,berlin4--,,drawn ,,from ,,life ,,by   
,g4 ,,mutzel4  ,my anticipation and     
pleasure were changed to vexation and   
grief4 ,the most careful nursing--the   
stiff1 weak little legs were dipped into

 and rubbed with ,french brandy--and a  
warm pen with a dry sanded floor        
directly over a heater1 did their work4 
,as the new-comer got on his feet again 
my hope gained new life1 and now our    
jerboa is my delight4 ,it is1 indeed1 a 
curious animal4 ,one who saw it only in 
the day time asleep would scarcely know 
what he had before him1 for he would see
 little more than a mass of soft1 bright
 sandy hair4 ,the coming of the keeper  
with the dish of food and the           
unfastening of the door of the cage     
bring life to the ball of hair in the   
corner2 a part of it is unrolled and the
 long1 black-tipped tail with two lines 
of hair is laid out on the ground1 and  
then on each side of it a leg is run out
 which is nearly as long as the tail and
 is provided with blunt1 smooth1        
hoof-life nails2 and1 finally1 the head 
and body are distinguishable and the    
animal stretches out comfortably on its 
back in the sand4 ,the fine-skinned1    
hairless ears still hang limp1 the eyes 

are half closed and the short fore legs 
are crossed under the chin4  ,but now   
the animal gets on its legs by an       
elastic swing1 and its ears are raised  
and its eyes wide open1 so that we can  
see that the latter are large and dark1 
with long eyelashes4 ,then the jerboa   
raises himself to his full height and   
playfully measures his cage by one bound
 from corner to corner4 ,soon after1 the
 fresh food receives due attention1 the 
animal either jumping toward it in      
rabbit fashion or crawling slowly on all
 fours4 ,when it has reached its goal it
 again assumes the upright position1 in 
which it is evidently most comfortable1 
and begins to eat it in his own peculiar
 way2 that is1 sitting on his hind legs 
he quickly seizes a piece of bread1     
turnip or other food in his fore paws   
and conveys it to his mouth1 apparently 
indifferent to the nature of the food   
before him4 ,he never takes anything    
directly in his mouth2 even the grass on
 a piece of turf that ,i had given to   

him as an experiment was not eaten as it
 would have been eaten by other animals1
 but was first plucked with the fore    
paws4 ,if we notice the position of the 
mouth1 far back on the under side of the
 head1 we will understand that the      
jerboa could not take his food in any   
other way4 ,besides this1 nothing of    
special interest has been observed in   
this nocturnal creature1 but he1 of     
course1 lives more regularly and quietly
 than if his mate had lived4  ,one who  
knows anything about the structure of   
animals' bodies need not be told that   
the jerboa is a rodent4 ,one glance at  
the peculiar shape of his head would    
assure him of that4 ,the form of the    
rest of its body1 especially its long   
hind and short fore legs1 give          
unmistakable proof that it is related to
 the jumping rodents2 it belongs1 in a  
wide sense1 to the family of the jumping
 mouse1 the scientific name 7,dipodidea1
 two-footed7 of which is very           
significant1 as the very short fore legs

 are usually carried close under the    
chin and are scarcely noticeable when   
the animal is in its normal position1   
and are of little use when it moves     
about4 ,the hind legs are very strong1  
and when going at full speed the jerboa 
takes jumps that measure from eight to  
ten yards1 according to the unanimous   
testimony of various witnesses4  ,the   
jumping mouse of ,north ,america1 which 
is somewhat larger than an ordinary     
mouse1 is1 according to ,brehm1 also as 
swift as an arrow or a low-flying bird4 
,this exceptional velocity is not all   
that reminds us of a bird1 for there is 
also a strong resemblance in the        
formation of certain parts of the bodies
 of the two creatures2 but1 after       
consideration1 this should not seem     
strange1 because in animal organisms    
similar means are employed to accomplish
 similar ends4 ,it is only natural that 
there should be peculiarities in the    
construction of the limbs and skulls of 
the ,dipodidea with their bird-like     

movements and bird-like                 
sharp-sightedness1 that are usually     
found only among birds4 ,the consistency
 between the construction of their      
bodies and their mode of life is a      
beautiful example of fitness2 only by   
extraordinary quickness of movement and 
sagacity could the little defenseless   
plant-eaters maintain the struggle for  
existence in the barren steppes and     
deserts4 ,the formation of the bodies of
 the different members of the family    
varies according to their needs4 ,the   
jerboa is the largest member of the     
family4 ,very little is known of his    
life when free2 it being known only that
 the jerboas are widely spread over the 
whole of southern ,africa1 and are      
nocturnal burrowers of the steppes4     
,during the rainy season they remain in 
a sort of winter sleep4--,dr4 ,l4 ,heck1
 in the ,illustrirte ,zeitung4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,new ,,observations ,,on ,,the         
,,language ,,of ,,animals4  ,by ,m4 ,,de

 ,,lacaze ,,duthiers1 of the ,institute 
of ,france4   ,i had occasion in a note 
published several years ago in the      
,revue ,scientifique to mention a       
parroquet which ,i have since continued 
to observe1 the manifestations of whose 
intelligence are both interesting and   
instructive4 ,many acts of birds are    
difficult of interpretation4 ,to speak  
only of their songs1 the meanings of    
most of the innumerable varieties of    
sounds which they produce1 and of their 
diverse warblings1 escape us completely4
 ,it is not possible to find the meaning
 of these things except by forming      
suppositions and hypotheses1 or by      
catching the connections between cries  
and acts4 ,but instances of the latter  
kind are extremely rare in comparison   
with the great majority of the          
manifestations made by animals4  ,thus1 
to select examples which every one can  
observe1 when a canary bird is warbling 
in its cage and becomes deafening1 or   
when a lark rises straight up in the air

 and incantat suum tirile tirile--sings 
its tirile tirile--as ,linnus           
picturesquely expresses it2 when a      
tomtit1 leaping from branch to branch of
 a willow or among the reeds1 repeats   
its florid warblings2 when a raven      
croaks2 when a blackbird whistles--what 
significance can we attach to their     
songs and their cries8 ,certainty is    
impossible1 and we can only form more or
 less plausible hypotheses concerning   
the interpretation of them4  ,the parrot
 furnishes us one more aid in this      
matter than other birds1 and this helps 
us1 to a certain extent1 in overcoming  
the difficulty of interpretation4 ,it   
has an articulate voice1 and when we    
have taught it a few words1 the meaning 
which it gives them may be better       
divined by us according to the tone and 
the rapidity or slowness of its         
utterance4 ,this permits us to discover 
the feelings that move it1 for we can   
better judge from an articulate sound   
than from one that is merely musical4   

,much has been written on the language  
of animals4 ,it is neither my desire nor
 my intention to repeat here all that   
may have been said on this subject4 ,it 
would take too long and would be of no  
use4 ,i have often witnessed facts that 
may be of interest to those who are     
occupied with the mental manifestations 
of animals4 ,i will simply relate them2 
and of such as are already known1 ,i    
will merely mention them anew1 admitting
 in advance a priority for others which 
,i do not demand for myself4  ,there can
 be no doubt that animals communicate   
their impressions by an inarticulate    
voice4 ,common sense and the most       
superficial observations are opposed to 
the negative of this proposition4 ,but  
when a canary bird warbles till it stuns
 us1 or a nightingale sings in the      
shadows on the fine nights of ,june1 can
 we follow and discover the significance
 of those modulations--now sharply      
cadenced1 now slowly drawn out1 and     
ending with a trill long and accurate   

enough to challenge the most skillful   
musician8  ,all the poets of every      
country have constantly sung of the     
songs of ,philomela4 ,but their fervent 
and enthusiastic verses cast little     
light on the value of the nightingale's 
song4 ,it is said that the male sings   
for the entertainment of the sitting    
female1 but there is no proof of the    
assertion4 ,the note warning of the     
approach of danger is easier to         
recognize4 ,the bird utters a short1    
hoarse cry1 and repeats it with a       
succession of trrre1 trrre1 which is    
impossible to mistake4 ,when we hear    
this cry we may be sure that an enemy is
 near4 ,music gives way to a cry of     
distress and warning1 and the female    
leaves her nest if the sounds become    
piercing4 ,what do we know of the       
gobbling of the turkey1 which the       
whistling and the cries of children     
excite8 ,they are doubtless responses to
 those challenges2 but what do they     
mean8  ,the crowing of the cock1        

recurring regularly at fixed hours1 has 
some signification1 but we cannot       
comprehend it4 ,if on a fine afternoon  
in autumn the cock crows1 and repeats   
his strain between two and four o'clock1
 the countrymen in some places will say 
there will be a fog on the morrow1 and  
they are generally not mistaken4 ,hens  
do not mistake his notes either2 when a 
leader of the troop1 coming upon a spot 
rich in food1 utters his peculiar       
chuckle1 they run from all around to    
share the find with him4 ,it is evident 
that the cock has called them and they  
have understood him4 ,these facts       
indicate that there is some definite    
sense in this inarticulate language2 and
 examples of it1 taken from other       
groups1 might be multiplied4  ,the dog1 
intelligent animal as he is1 manifests  
his affection on meeting his master1    
with peculiar cries which vary with the 
intensity of his joy4 ,no one could     
confound these notes of pleasure with   
those which he utters when he is angrily

 driving away a beggar1 or when he meets
 another dog of unpleasant appearance   
and puts himself in the position of     
attack4  ,an interesting study of the   
voice of the dog on guard may be made in
 the country at night4 ,if another dog  
barks in the distance1 the house dog    
answers in a peculiar manner4 ,he gives 
a few growls1 stops1 seems to listen1   
begins again1 very often getting        
answers2 and1 after two or three        
interruptions1 he terminates his barking
 with abrupt yelps1 loud at the         
beginning and long drawn out1 and       
gradually dying away4 ,this ending of   
his cries is habitually accompanied by  
his raising his head and throwing it    
back4 ,i have often1 when within the    
house1 on hearing the watch dog bark in 
this way1 opened the window to assure   
myself on the subject1 and              
distinguished1 as ,i could not do with  
the windows closed1 the voice of another
 watch dog barking in the same way in   
the distance--the barkings of the two   

dogs alternating1 one answering the     
other4 ,there is in such cases an       
evident communication of impressions4   
,one of the dogs1 having had his        
attention aroused by some unusual noise1
 has transmitted his impression to the  
other1 as sentinels posted at intervals 
call out theft warnings one to another4 
,i have often repeated this observation 
during the long evenings of winter4     
,another example1 little known in       
thickly populated countries1 is drawn   
from a curious scene which ,i witnessed 
during a winter passed in ,perigord     
,noir4 ,we had remarked that for several
 nights the three watch dogs1 a young   
and an old male and a bitch1 howled     
often toward midnight1 but in a peculiar
 way4 ,one night in particular1 during  
their tedious concert1 just as we had   
got to sleep1 they mingled with their   
cries howlings like those they would    
have uttered if they had been beaten1   
with a shading hard to define1 but which
 we perceived plainly2 and we remarked  

that1 leaving their kennel in the avenue
 that led up to the lodge1 they had come
 to close quarters with one another at  
the gate1 with alternating howlings and 
plaintive cries4 ,inquiring in the      
morning for the cause of these singular 
cries1 the peasants told me that a wolf 
had passed1 and predicted that it would 
return4 ,they said1 too1 that a         
neighbor's hunting bitch had            
disappeared1 and its bones had been     
found in the fields near a wood4 ,we    
were awakened again about midnight by   
the cries of the dogs1 and the scene was
 renewed4 ,informed as we now were of   
the nature of what was going on1 we ran 
to one of the windows1 whence we could  
see1 in the clear light of the moon1 all
 that passed4 ,the three dogs were      
cowering against the gate1 the oldest   
one howling by the side of the others1  
while the younger one and the bitch were
 exposed at intervals to the attacks of 
another animal1 browner than they1 and  
of about their size1 without defending  

themselves1 but moaning as if they were 
undergoing a vigorous correction4       
,frightened1 doubtless1 by the opening  
of the blinds of the first story above  
him1 the strange animal had gone away   
and was sitting in the middle of the    
road4 ,we could only see that he had    
straight ears4 ,while we were going down
 to get a gun the visitor came back to  
his charge on the dogs1 which had begun 
howling after he left them1 and resumed 
the cries significant of chastisement   
when they were attacked again4 ,for some
 reason1 perhaps because he heard the   
click of the gun1 the foe drew back and 
sat down in a garden walk1 concealed by 
a bunch of shrubbery4 ,the three dogs1  
notwithstanding our reiterated urging1  
were no more disposed to pursue him than
 before4 ,if the assailant had been a   
dog they would have rushed upon him1 but
 they stayed cowering at the gate and   
howled distressfully4 ,the bitch was    
most affected1 and they all seemed      
paralyzed by fear4 ,it is said in the   

country that bitches are especially     
liable to be attacked by wolves4 ,it was
 so here4 ,the most certain feature in  
the matter was the terror of the        
animals4 ,they were capable of resisting
 the attack three times over4 ,the young
 dog was a savage one1 and passers-by   
were afraid of the bitch2 but that night
 they were terrorized1 and all incapable
 of defending themselves4 ,their cries  
were therefore due to the same cause as 
in the preceding night--the presence and
 attacks of the wolf4 ,i could not have 
realized their meaning if ,i had not    
been a witness of the scene--that is1 ,i
 could not have correlated the cries and
 the acts4  ,a shot at the animal behind
 the bushes was followed by a hoarse    
cry4 ,he was hit1 and ran2 but1 in spite
 of our urgings1 the dogs stayed at the 
gate and only stopped howling4 ,under   
any other conditions1 upon the signal of
 the shot they would all have started in
 pursuit of the wounded animal4  ,a wolf
 came to the farm during the last winter

 7#ahij-ia7 and attacked the same bitch4
 ,he would have carried her off1 for he 
had seized her by the throat1 if we     
could judge from the stifled cries she  
uttered2 but this time he found with her
 a new watch dog--a mountain bitch from 
the ,pyrenees--of a breed that attacks  
the wolf and the bear4 ,the wolf would  
have been caught if he had not run away4
 ,he did not return1 for he had been    
attacked1 and learned what he had to    
deal with4  ,the ,pyrenean breed        
furnishes excellent watch dogs4 ,i knew 
one of remarkable traits4 ,at evening he
 would go round the house1 giving two or
 three growls at each door4 ,with his   
head raised he seemed to listen to his  
fine voice1 then he would start again   
and go to another door4 ,he seemed      
desirous to show those who were         
observing him that he was attending to  
his post as guardian4 ,he then went away
 in silence along the walk1 through a   
dark1 rising hedgerow1 leaping the      
slight hillock1 yelping toward the wood4

 ,he listened1 yelped again1 and went   
in4 ,there was never any failure in this
 performance1 but every evening as night
 was coming on he began his round1 which
 no one had taught him4 ,it was all done
 in his function as a guard4 ,it would  
be hard to determine what his yelps     
meant1 but there were in them an        
inflection1 a sonorousness1 and a       
continuance quite different from those  
he uttered when pursuing a passer-by or 
when going to meet a person coming      
toward the house4 ,every one who has a  
watch dog is able to tell by the sound  
of his barking when a person is coming  
up1 and usually what sort of a visitor  
it is4  ,the peasants' dogs of the      
southwest of ,france dislike the country
 millers1 because of the long whips     
which they are always carrying and      
snapping1 and with which the dogs1      
running after them1 are often struck4   
,from as far off as the snapping of the 
whip can be heard1 the dogs come to wait
 for the millers and pursue them2 and it

 is easy to recognize when the millers  
are passing1 by the behavior of the     
dogs4 ,there is in this also a          
significance1 at once aggressive and    
defensive1 in the cries which one can1  
by giving a little attention1 soon learn
 to distinguish4  ,another example of   
the reality of the various meanings of  
the cries of the dog under different    
circumstances is afforded by the        
companies that collect around a female  
in heat4  ,i have a very intelligent and
 experienced brach hound1 the same which
 with the bitch had to face the attack  
of the wolf4 ,he amuses me much at my   
country lunches4 ,hunting dogs which    
have been much with their masters at    
lunch do not like to have the drinking  
glass offered them4 ,this dog was much  
afraid of the glass1 and ,i had only to 
present it to him at lunch time to make 
him keep his distance4 ,i used to keep  
my door open at lunch1 for the amusement
 of observing how ,i could make him stop
 exactly at the threshold without       

stepping over it4 ,if he had passed over
 it ,i could always send him back by    
casting toward him a few drops of water 
from the bottom of the glass after      
drinking4 ,sitting1 as was his habit1 on
 the sill of the door1 with the tip of  
his muzzle never extending beyond the   
plane of the panels1 he would follow my 
motions with the closest attention1     
reminding me1 if ,i failed to give him a
 sign of attention1 by a discreet1      
plaintive cry1 that he was there4 ,but  
if ,i touched my glass1 he would spring 
up at once2 if ,i filled it1 he would   
put himself on guard1 utter a kind of   
sigh1 sneeze1 lick his lips1 yawn1 and1 
shaking his ears briskly1 make little   
stifled cries4 ,then he would grow      
impatient1 and more and more watchful   
and nervous4 ,when ,i lifted my glass to
 my lips he would draw back1 working    
gradually nearer to the farther door1   
and at last disappear and hide4 ,one who
 was looking at him without seeing me   
could tell by his wails and his attitude

 the level and position of my glass4    
,when the glass was horizontal1 ,i could
 see only about half of his head1 with  
one eye regarding me fixedly1 for that  
was usually the critical moment--the    
one1 also1 when the wails and restraints
 were most demonstrative of the anxious 
fear of my poor animal4  ,when we dine  
in the kitchen1 which is on the ground  
floor1 the dogs are usually all put out4
 ,there are four of them1 three young   
and not experienced1 and this old1      
sagacious brach hound4 ,he insists on   
coming in1 and1 to gain his purpose1    
tries to have the door opened4 ,although
 no person may be coming up the walk1 he
 dashes down it barking1 all the others 
going along too and yelping with him2   
then he stops1 remains a little behind  
after having got the others out of the  
way1 and1 turning his head from moment  
to moment1 looks to see if the door has 
been opened1 for we generally go to it  
to see who has come4 ,in that case the  
feigned attack is successful1 and the   

dog1 who has evidently meant to give the
 alarm so as to have the door opened1   
comes in at once and claims a place at  
the table4 ,he has accomplished his end1
 for the door is usually shut without   
paying attention to his having got in4  
,i have frequently witnessed this       
stratagem1 and when1 during my kitchen  
dinner1 ,i suddenly hear the dogs       
yelping after the brach hound has begun1
 ,i am pretty sure that nobody is in    
sight4  ,i have forgotten where ,i found
 the next story of an old dog who was   
also very sagacious4 ,hunting dogs1 when
 they grow old1 become rheumatic1 or are
 at least debilitated with pains4 ,we   
know1 too1 that they crave heat1 and get
 as near the fire as possible--a craving
 which increases as they grow older4    
,one such dog1 older than the others1   
and slower in getting into the lodge on 
returning from the hunt1 was often      
crowded away from the fire by the other 
livelier dogs getting all the best      
places before him4 ,finding himself thus

 turned out in the cold1 he would dash  
toward the door barking1 when the       
others1 supposing it was an alarm1 would
 rush away too1 while the old rheumatic 
went to the fire and selected a place to
 suit him4  ,it is not necessary to     
dwell upon the intelligence shown by    
such acts4 ,but it is hardly contestable
 that the old animal1 who knows how to  
play such tricks upon his less          
experienced companions1 deceives them by
 his intonations1 while he is well aware
 that no enemy is approaching the house2
 but he does it scientifically1 by the  
inflections of his voice1 as a man      
speaking to other men would do in       
announcing the arrival of an imaginary  
enemy4  ,inarticulate cries are all     
pretty much the same to us2 their       
inflections1 duration1 pitch1           
abruptness1 and prolongation alone can  
inform us of their purpose4 ,but        
experience and close attention have     
shown us the connection of these        
variations with the acts that accompany 

or precede them4 ,animals evidently     
understand these inflections at once4   
,we cannot better compare the language  
of animals than with what takes place in
 a pleasant sport1 a kind of pantomime  
of the voice or language which many     
youth doubtless understand1 and which ,i
 venture to refer to here to aid in more
 easily conceiving of the communication 
of thought among animals by sounds which
 seem to us all alike4 ,when ,i was     
engaged in hospitals1 the evenings in   
the guard room were sometimes enlivened 
by the presence of a companion who      
excelled in humorous mimicry4 ,he would 
represent a man in liquor who had       
stopped at a fountain that flowed with a
 gentle sound1 somewhat like that of his
 own hiccough4 ,a single oath1          
pronounced in different tones1 was      
sufficient to enable us to comprehend   
all the impressions1 all the states of  
mind through which this devotee of      
,bacchus passed4 ,the oath1 at first    
pronounced slowly and with an accent    

expressing relief1 represented a feeling
 of satisfaction1 with shadings of      
prolonged exclamation which it would be 
hard for one to imagine without         
suggestion4 ,the continued flowing of   
the fountain made our drunken man       
impatient1 and he wanted it to stop4    
,this state of mind was translated by a 
new modulation of the same word4 ,in a  
little while the gurgling of the        
fountain produced astonishment4 ,was it 
possible that he1 with all the liquid he
 had imbibed1 could vomit so much and   
for so long a time8 ,this mental        
condition was expressed by a new        
modulation of the same oath4 ,the first 
movement of surprise over1 resignation  
follows1 and our man decides to wait    
patiently for the end4 ,a period of half
 lethargy was easily represented by the 
slowness and weakness of the man's voice
 while living up to this decision2 but  
when he comes out of this sleepy        
condition and hears the fountain again1 
he is possessed with fear2 he cannot    

understand the flood he is pouring      
out--he dares not move--he believes he  
is lost4 ,gradually the fumes of the    
liquor pass away1 and1 his mistake being
 recognized1 the drunkard is taken with 
a laughing and a gayety which are       
indicated by the same oath repeated in  
tones corresponding with the            
satisfaction he is then enjoying4 ,this 
making the series of impressions a man  
passes through comprehensible by a      
single word1 varied in pronunciation and
 utterance1 is very like the language of
 animals1 which is always the same1 and 
the significance of which is given by   
variety of intonations corresponding    
with sensational conditions4  ,the      
mewing of the cat is always the same2   
but what a number of mental conditions  
it expresses6 ,i had a kitten whose     
gambols and liveliness entertained me   
greatly4 ,i understood well1 when it    
came up to me mewing1 what the sound    
meant2 sometimes the kitten wanted to   
come up and sleep in my lap2 at other   

times it was asking me to play with it4 
,when1 at my meals1 it jumped on my     
knees1 turned round1 looked at me1 and  
spoke in a coaxing and flattering way1  
it was asking for something to eat4     
,when its mother came up with a mouse in
 her jaws1 her muffled and low-toned mew
 informed the little one from a         
distance1 and caused it to spring and   
run up to the game that was brought to  
it4 ,the cry is always the same1 but    
varied in the strength of the           
inflections and in its protraction1 so  
as to represent the various states of   
mind with which my young animal is      
moved--just as it was with the drunken  
man in the mimicry scene4 ,these facts  
are probably well known to all observers
 of animals4  ,we have seen that this   
tonality of the watch dog's cries is    
competent to indicate that a person is  
coming to the house4 ,we find similar   
cries of warning uttered by birds4 ,when
 ,i was a professor in the faculty of   
,lille1 ,i frequently visited the well  

known aged ,professor of ,physics1 ,m4  
,delezenne4 ,he had a working room at   
the end of a garden1 in which a laughing
 mew wandered4 ,from the time that any  
one came in till he went out1 this bird 
made the vocal explosions to which it   
owes its name2 and the good professor   
was certain1 without ever being         
mistaken1 that somebody was coming to   
his laboratory4 ,he was notified4 ,my   
,jaco in ,paris has a warble that       
answers the ringing of the bell4 ,if we 
have not heard the bell1 we are notified
 by ,jaco of its ringing1 and1 going to 
the door1 find some one there4 ,i have  
been told of a parrot belonging to the  
steward of a lyceum which had heard the 
words ,come in1 when any one rang the   
bell4 ,he never failed to cry1 ,come in1
 when the bell moved1 and the visitor   
was embarrassed at seeing nobody after  
having been invited to open the door4   
,instances in which the cries of birds  
had an incontestable and precise        
signification are numerous2 let me refer

 to a few of the best known4 ,the cackle
 of a hen1 after having laid an egg and 
left her nest1 is decidedly             
characteristic4 ,her clucking when she  
is impelled to sit on her eggs1 or when 
she is calling her chicks1 is no less   
demonstrative4 ,there is not a farmer   
who does not recognize it and understand
 it4 ,in these things we see the        
relation between the tone of the prating
 or cluck of the hen and her acts4 ,but 
when a nightingale sings all night1 or a
 goldfinch whistles1 or a raven croaks1 
we cannot so easily interpret the       
significance of their inarticulate      
sounds4 ,the finch calls its mate by    
uttering a few notes followed by a long 
trill4 ,matches of a barbarous          
character1 based on this habit1 ,i were 
held in the north of ,france while ,i   
was living at ,lille1 between #ahee and 
#ahfj4 ,i do not know whether they have 
been suppressed or not1 but the laws for
 the protection of animals ought to take
 cognizance of them4 ,the gamesters put 

out the eyes of the male finches1 and   
made them1 thus blinded1 compete as     
singers1 for which purpose they brought 
their cages into proximity4 ,when the   
birds heard and recognized one another's
 voices1 they made their appeal to the  
female2 the one that renewed his amorous
 trills most frequently1 protracted them
 longest and to the last1 gained the    
prize4 ,the bird that was declared      
victor received a medal amid the        
applause of a large and enthusiastic    
crowd2 and considerable wagers were     
staked upon the result4 ,i have heard   
that these poor blinded birds sometimes 
fell down exhausted with singing1 and   
kept on calling the absent female till  
they died1 not being willing to yield to
 a rival1 who on his side was also      
keeping up his equally useless appeals4 
,these finch contests were suggested    
after the meaning of the song of the    
birds was learned4 ,but when these      
birds1 which are more usually           
isolated--whence they have been named   

,fringilla coelebs1 or celibates--hop   
around our houses and also utter their  
amorous trills at another than the      
mating season1 they are evidently not   
calling the female4 ,should we not then 
seek to determine by the tone whether   
their call1 which is always the same1 is
 amorous or not8  ,in countries where   
flocks of turkeys are raised one can    
learn very quickly from their gobblings 
when they have captured a hare4 ,if they
 meet him standing still or lying down1 
they form in a circle around him1 and1  
putting their heads down1 repeat        
continually their peculiar cries4 ,the  
hare remains quiet1 and it is sometimes 
possible to take him up1 terrorized as  
he is in the midst of the black circle  
of gobbling beaks and heads4 ,the       
language of the turkeys is at that time 
incontestably significant4 ,it is       
warlike1 and similar to that of the     
males when they are fighting4 ,in the   
present instance they have joined for   
war1 and they make it on the frightened 

hare4  ,my ,jaco1 like all parrots1     
which are excellent imitators1          
pronounces a few words and repeats them 
over and over again4 ,such birds amuse  
us because the words they know sometimes
 happen to be ludicrously fitting4 ,a   
bird of this kind had been struck by the
 note sounded by the wind blowing into a
 room through a crack in the glass work 
whenever a certain door was opened2 and 
he had become so perfect in his         
imitation that they sometimes1 on       
hearing the noise1 went to shut the door
 when it was not open4  ,jaco formerly  
belonged to a very pious old lady who   
was accustomed to say her litanies with 
another person4 ,he had caught the words
 ,pray for us1 in the invocations to the
 several saints1 and said them so well  
as sometimes to deceive his learned     
mistress1 and cause her to think she was
 saying her litanies with two           
colleagues4 ,when ,jaco was out of food1
 and any one passed by him1 he would    
say1 ,my poor ,cocotte6 or ,my poor rat6

 in an arch1 mawkish1 protracted tone   
that indicated very clearly what he     
wanted1 and that his drinking cup was   
empty4 ,there was no doubt in the house 
as to his meaning2 and whenever one     
heard it he said3 ,he has nothing to    
eat4 ,he was exceedingly fond of fresh  
pits of apples and pears1 and ,i was in 
the habit of collecting them and keeping
 them to give him4 ,so whenever1 as ,i  
came near him1 ,i put my hand into my   
pocket he never failed to say3 ,poor    
,cocco6 in a supplicating tone which it 
was impossible to mistake4 ,a sugar plum
 is a choice morsel to him4 ,he can tell
 what it is from a distance when ,i hold
 it out in my fingers2 and when ,i give 
it to him he cannot restrain himself if 
it has been any considerable time since 
he has had the delicacy4 ,usually1 after
 having made the first motion to get it1
 as if he were ravished and wanted to   
express his joy in advance1 he would    
draw back before taking it1 and say1 in 
a comical tone1 ,hold1 my poor ,cocotte6

 ,his manner of thanking in advance is  
likewise amusing4 ,the expression of his
 eyes and the pose of his head are all  
in accord with the tone of his          
exclamation4 ,when he tastes the plum he
 utters a series of ahs1 and produces a 
kind of warble by prolonging some of his
 notes and shortening up others4 ,we    
find in these examples1 without doubt1  
that the articulate voice makes us      
better able to judge the meaning of the 
impressions that are moving the animal  
than inarticulate cries1 or merely      
musical sounds4 ,when ,jaco met a child 
for whom he had a great affection1 he   
would promenade on his perch1 or turn   
the wheel1 spreading out his tail and   
ruffling the feathers of his head1 while
 his eyes grew red with excitement if   
the child was too slow in bestowing the 
accustomed caress4 ,then he would stop1 
bend down his head1 and1 looking at his 
friend1 say pleasantly1 ,jaco1 in a tone
 and with a manner quite in contrast    
with the pronunciation of the same word 

when he was hungry4  ,it is not the word
 he speaks that is of interest2 he might
 have been taught another1 and it would 
have been the same2 but it is the tone4 
,in this case1 too1 the articulation    
gives an easier clew to the meaning the 
bird seeks to express1 having a meaning 
according to the manner of pronouncing  
it1 than any isolated1 simply musical   
sound1 like the song of the nightingale1
 canary bird1 and warbler4 ,this became 
evident to me1 not from observing       
animals for a few moments without seeing
 them again1 but from studying them     
continuously4  ,jaco did not like       
solitude1 and was talkative and fond of 
being caressed1 like all of his kind4   
,one day1 when there was no one in the  
country house1 all having gone out into 
the garden or the fields1 ,i heard him  
saying over what few words he knew1 in  
different inflections4 ,i went quietly  
into the room where he was1 without     
being seen2 but he heard my steps1      
although ,i walked in very cautiously1  

hoping to surprise him4 ,he ceased his  
chatter1 listened1 and1 after a silence1
 pronounced ,jaco in a low tone1 drawing
 out the end of the word4 ,he listened  
again1 and repeated the word in the same
 tone2 then1 after another silence1     
repeated it with a rise of the voice4 ,i
 continued observing him1 and1 as he    
heard no one1 he raised his tone        
gradually1 repeating the same word1 and 
ended at last with a genuine cry of     
distress4 ,the people ran in from       
without1 supposing something had        
happened to him4 ,he then repeated his  
name in a lower tone1 which seemed to   
indicate his satisfaction at finding his
 isolation ended4 ,i went in myself1 and
 his prattle unmistakably betrayed his  
gladness at being no longer alone4  ,is 
there not in this an act of real        
intelligence8 ,while alone1 the parrot  
entertained himself by talking2 but when
 he heard a sound he hoped at first to  
see some one come2 and when no one      
answered him1 he raised his voice1 as a 

person would do who calls1 and1 getting 
no reply1 cried out louder and louder   
till he was heard and answered4 ,the    
meaning of the differences of intonation
 is as evident in this case as in that  
of the drunken man4 ,a parrot raised in 
the ,south had learned to swear in the  
local patois4 ,being fond of coffee1 he 
was sometimes given a spoonful1 which he
 would come awkwardly up to the table to
 drink with his master4 ,one day the    
master1 not thinking of his bird1 had   
already added cognac to his coffee1 and 
gave the parrot the accustomed spoonful4
 ,the parrot took a swallow of it1 and1 
in his surprise at the novel taste1     
raised his head and repeated the oath in
 a tone that excited laughter in all who
 were present4 ,the cause of his        
surprise being discovered1 he was       
soothed1 and then took his usual ration 
with evident signs of contentment4 ,the 
mimicry of language in this case clearly
 represented the shade of the new       
impression he felt4  ,jaco is very      

timid4 ,in the evening1 when he is put  
to roost in a close and dark room1 he is
 afraid of the shadow of his perch that 
is cast by the light we carry in our    
hand2 he eyes it1 and utters a low cry1 
which stops when the candle is blown out
 and he cannot see the shadow any       
longer4 ,he stands in dread of blows in 
the bottom of his cage1 because1 having 
a wing broken1 he cannot fly1 and is    
afraid of falling4 ,feeling his         
weakness1 his language has a different  
tone from the usual one4 ,large birds   
flying in the sky above him annoy him   
greatly1 and we can all tell by his     
voice when such a bird is near or flying
 over4 ,he inclines his head and        
chatters in a low tone as long as the   
bird is in sight1 paying no attention to
 anything else4 ,turkeys and hens       
announce the approach of a bird of prey 
in a similar manner4  ,we find in the   
facts which we have related1 as well as 
in many others which are cited          
respecting the ways and habits of       

parrots1 proofs of a remarkable         
intelligence4 ,these creatures are      
distinguished by the unlimited affection
 which they bestow upon some persons1 as
 well as by their excessive dislikes1   
which nothing can explain4 ,jaco        
conceived an extraordinary dislike for a
 maid who1 although she took good care  
of him1 was in the habit of washing the 
bottom of his cage under a faucet4 ,he  
afterward discarded another person1 whom
 he had liked so much that she could do 
what she pleased with him1 even to      
passing her hand over his back and      
taking him by the tail1 holding him in  
her hands1 or putting him in her        
apron--caresses of a kind that parrots  
do not usually permit4 ,nothing         
astonished him or offended him4 ,he     
proved very inconstant toward her1 and  
now1 while better disposed toward the   
other girl1 he is furious against this  
one4 ,a third miss has come to capture  
his affection2 and when he has been left
 asleep1 or resting in his cage1 he has 

always the same word1 but different in  
the inflection wheedling1 angry1 or     
nearly indifferent1 as either of the    
three persons comes near him4 ,jaco's   
pronunciation is scanned in many meters4
 ,only one young student has had the    
privilege of retaining his affection    
unmarred4  ,jaco had been left in the   
country for a whole week in the winter4 
,alone and isolated1 he was taken care  
of by a person who was not constantly   
with him4 ,the young student1           
accompanied by a tutor1 came to pass a  
few days in the house4 ,at the sight of 
the youth1 ,jaco1 surprised1 called out1
 ,momon6 ,momon6 ,it was affecting1 they
 wrote me1 to see so great signs of joy4
 ,i have also myself witnessed similar  
signs of joy at the coming of the       
student4 ,jaco's speech at such times is
 always in harmony with his feelings4   
,in the pleasant season ,jaco's cage is 
put outdoors2 and at meal times1 knowing
 very well what is going on within1 he  
keeps up a steady course of suppliant   

appeals for attention4 ,his appeals     
cease at once if ,i go out with fruit in
 my hand1 and if ,i go toward him he    
utters a prattle of joy that sounds like
 musical laughter4 ,these manifestations
 indicate that he is happy at seeing    
that he has been thought of4  ,i close  
these anecdotes1 as ,i began them1 by   
repeating that animals communicate their
 impressions1 and the feelings that move
 them1 by various modulations of their  
inarticulate cries1 which are           
incomprehensible to us unless we have   
succeeded by attentive observation in   
connecting them with the acts that      
follow or precede them4 ,we have also   
seen that the articulation of a few     
words learned by parrots aids us greatly
 in learning the meaning of these       
different inflections4  ,the extension  
of these studies would furnish much of  
interest2 but further observations      
should be made upon the same animals for
 a longtime continuously1 relating      
especially to their peculiar instincts  

as manifested by their various cries4   
,we might then1 by comparing and        
relating acts and cries1 reach the point
 of comprehending and perhaps fixing the
 meaning in many cases where we are now 
in ignorance4 ,every one has noticed a  
few facts1 and has interpreted and      
related them1 but much is still wanting 
for the co-ordination of them in the    
point of view of the signification of   
the language and communication of       
animals among themselves4 ,it has not   
been made in a general sense4           
--,translated for the ,popular ,science 
,monthly from the ,revue ,scientifique4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,modification ,,of ,,our ,,climate4    
,by ,,joseph ,,wallace4   ,every now and
 then some weather sage predicts        
extremely cold winters1 and another     
ventures to say that the sun is         
gradually losing heat and in time       
,arctic cold will prevail over the      
globe4 ,whatever may have been the      
changes during the vast cycles of time  

prior to the advent of man1 or whatever 
may be the changes in the time to come1 
one thing is quite certain2 that our    
climate has been much modified within   
the past two or three thousand years4   
,there have been fifteen climatic       
changes since the beginning of the      
glacial age1 each change lasting #aj1ejj
 years1 and each change reversing the   
season in the two hemispheres1 the pole 
which had enjoyed continuous summer     
being doomed to undergo perpetual winter
 for #aj1ejj years1 and then passing to 
its former state for an equal term4 ,the
 physical changes upon the earth's      
surface during the past #hj1jjj years   
modified the changes of climate even in 
the ,arctic regions1 so that the intense
 cold of the former epochs was much     
modified during the latter epochs4      
,reckoning these climatic changes in    
their order1 we had entered the epoch of
 a more genial temperature about fifteen
 hundred years ago2 and if no disturbing
 change takes place during the present  

epoch1 we may reasonably expect a       
gradual modification of our winters for 
nine thousand years to come4 ,the       
changes to intense cold from perpetual  
summer during the greater part of the   
glacial period are supposed to have been
 caused by the high temperature of the  
north pole as compared to that of the   
south pole1 owing to the distribution of
 land around the two1 the south having  
almost none4 ,dr4 ,croll thinks it was  
caused by the varying inclination of the
 earth's axis1 which produced the       
relative position of the two poles      
toward the sun to be periodically       
reversed at distant periods4 ,dr4 ,james
 ,geikie agrees with ,croll on the      
reverse of seasons every #aj1ejj years  
during certain periods of high          
ellipticity of the earth's orbit4  ,but 
it may be asked1 ,how could the fauna   
and flora propagate themselves under    
such conditions8 ,the flora itself at   
the quaternary age was of extreme vigor4
 ,we know this from the little which is 

left us1 but more especially from the   
presence of a large number of           
herbivorous animals--stags1 horses1     
elephants1 rhinoceros1 etc4--which      
animated the plains and valleys of      
,europe and ,america at the same time4  
,evidently they could not have lived and
 propagated themselves without abundant 
vegetation for nourishment and          
development4  ,that which has deceived  
the adherents of the glacial theory1 as 
understood in its absolute sense1 is1   
they have generally placed a too high   
estimate on its extent and intensity4   
,it needs but a little effort of the    
reasoning powers to come to the         
conclusion that the earth had cooled to 
the degree that all animal and vegetable
 life could exist upon it1 and that a   
portion of the earth's surface          
permanently covered with snow and ice   
was absolutely indispensable to the     
existence1 perpetuity1 and well-being of
 animal and vegetable life4 ,again1 they
 have attributed to the glaciers the    

rocks1 gravels1 and other material which
 they have found spread here and there  
long distances from the mountains4 ,the 
transportation of the so-called erratic 
rocks has appeared inexplicable in any  
other way1 and the piles of rock and    
gravel have been considered so many     
moraines1 that is1 deposits of diverse  
material transported by the glaciers4   
,they do not regard the probability of  
other agents taking the place of        
glaciers1 and undervalue the moving     
power of water4 ,water in liquid state  
has often produced analogous effects1   
and it has often been the error of the  
glacialists to confound the one with the
 other4 ,the erratic rocks and the      
moraines are undoubtedly the ordinary   
indications of the ancient gravels1 but1
 taken isolatedly1 they are not         
sufficient proof4 ,in order to convince 
they should be accompanied with a third 
indication1 which is the presence of    
striated rocks which we find in the     
neighborhood of our actual glaciers4    

,when all these signs are together then 
there is hardly a possibility of error1 
but one alone is not sufficient1 because
 it can be the effect of another cause4 
,no doubt the temperature was really    
lower at the quaternary age and at the  
epoch generally assigned to man's advent
 in ,european countries1 but the        
difference was not so great as some say4
 ,a lowering of four degrees is         
sufficient to explain the ancient       
extension of the glaciers4 ,we can look 
on this figure as the maximum1 for it is
 proved to-day that humanity played the 
main role in the glacial phenomena4 ,the
 beds of rivers and the alluvia are     
there to tell that all the water was not
 in a solid state at that time1 that the
 glaciers were much more extended than  
in our days1 and that the courses of the
 rivers were infinitely more abundant4  
,when this is understood we can         
reasonably reduce the extension of the  
ancient glaciers1 the lowering of the   
temperature at the quaternary age1 and  

account for the uninterrupted life of   
the fauna and flora4 ,however1 we must  
not fall into the opposite excess and   
assert1 as some have done1 that the     
glacial period is comparatively recent1 
the traces of which are too plain and   
fresh in some localities to assign to it
 an age prior to man1 and that the      
temperature has rather lowered itself   
since this epoch4 ,the ancient extension
 of the glaciers has been followed by a 
corresponding growth and extension of   
animal life1 thus proving that the      
permanence of glaciers is a wise        
provision and absolutely essential to   
man and the high orders of animals and  
vegetation4 ,the ancient extension does 
not prove alone that it was much colder 
than in historic times1 for the animals 
themselves are proof of this4 ,at that  
time the plains of ,europe1 and of      
,france in particular1 were animated by 
herds of reindeer1 gluttons1 camels1 and
 marmots1 which one does not find to-day
 except in the higher latitudes or more 

considerable heights4 ,the mammoth and  
rhinoceros are no exception to this1 for
 naturalists know they were organized to
 live in cold countries4  ,space will   
not permit us to pursue this point      
further1 or speculate on the probable   
climatic conditions of the ice age2 but 
we can carry ourselves back a few       
thousand years and describe the climate 
of ,europe and neighboring countries of 
,africa and ,asia4 ,herodotus describes 
the climate of ,scythia in terms which  
would indicate in our day the countries 
of ,lapland and ,greenland4 ,he shows us
 the country completely frozen during   
eight months of the year2 the ,black    
,sea frozen up so that it bore the      
heaviest loads2 the region of the       
,danube buried under snow for eight     
months1 and watered in summer by the    
abundant rains which gave to the river  
its violent course4 ,the historian adds 
that the ass cannot live in ,scythia on 
account of the extreme cold which reigns
 there4 ,the following century          

,aristotle makes the same remarks       
concerning ,gaul4 ,his contemporary1    
,theophrastes1 tells us that the olive  
tree did not succeed in ,greece more    
than five hundred furlongs from the sea4
 ,we can assure ourselves that both the 
ass and the olive thrive in these       
countries at the present day4  ,three   
centuries later1 ,csar speaks frequently
 and emphatically of the rigor of       
winters and early setting in of cold in 
,france1 the abundance of snow and rain1
 and the number of lakes and marshes    
which became every moment serious       
obstacles to the army4 ,he says he is   
careful not to undertake any expedition 
except in summer4 ,cicero1 ,varro1      
,possidonius1 and ,strabo insist equally
 on the rigor of the climate of ,gaul1  
which allows neither the culture of the 
vine nor the olive4 ,diodorus of ,sicily
 confirms this information3 ,the cold of
 the winters in ,gaul is such that      
almost all the rivers freeze up and form
 natural bridges1 over which numerous   

armies pass quite safely with teams and 
baggages2 in order to hinder the        
passengers to slip out upon the ice and 
to render the marching more secure1 they
 spread straw thereon4  ,virgil and     
,ovid insist on the severity of cold in 
the regions of the ,danube4 ,the first  
describes the inhabitants of these      
miserable countries withdrawing         
themselves into caves dressed with the  
skins of wild beasts4 ,ovid1 who had    
passed several years of his life in that
 region1 is more precise in his         
description4 ,he says the wine has      
changed itself here 7,black ,sea7 into a
 solid frozen mass2 one gives it to     
drink by pieces4 ,fearing of being      
accused of poetic exaggeration he       
appeals to the testimony of two ancient 
governors of ,moesia1 who could         
establish the facts like himself4 ,the  
author who would give such accounts of  
the ,black ,sea in our days would risk  
his reputation for veracity4  ,italy1   
too1 experienced its part of the cold in

 early days4 ,virgil tells us of the    
snows being1 heaped up1 rivers which    
carried ice along1 the sad winter which 
split the stone and bound up the course 
of large streams1 and all this in the   
warmest part of ,italy1 at the base of  
the walls of ,taranto4 ,heratius affirms
 that the ,soracte1 a neighboring       
mountain of ,rome1 was whitened with    
thick snow1 rivers frozen1 and the      
country covered with snow4 ,to-day the  
snow stays very little upon the ,soracte
 and never in the country around ,rome4 
,during the four or five centuries which
 followed1 writers speak of the severity
 of climate in ,northern ,italy1 the    
lagoons on the ,adriatic being frozen   
over4 ,algiers was much colder then than
 now4 ,the ,danube1 ,rhine1 and other   
rivers in ,europe1 the ,nile in ,africa1
 the ,amazon in ,south ,america1 the    
,mississippi and ,missouri in ,north    
,america1 had quite different volumes   
two thousand years ago than their       
present actual ones1 and they especially

 rolled much greater masses of water4   
,there is everything to show a          
modification of climate in our own days4
 ,if this goes on in the future as in   
the past1 there will be a marked        
difference in the temperature two or    
three hundred years from now4 ,even a   
degree in a thousand years would effect 
a great change in the course of time4   
,the lowering of four degrees           
established the ancient extension of    
glaciers1 though it did not interrupt   
animal or vegetable life4 ,fifty-four of
 the fifty-seven species of ,mollusca   
have outlived the glacial age1 and all  
our savage animals--even a certain      
number which have disappeared--date     
equally from the quaternary1 and were   
contemporary with the great extension of
 the glaciers4--,popular ,science ,news4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,the ,,eruption ,,of ,,krakatoa4
   ,before the year #ahhc physical      
geographers1 in speaking of the most    
disastrous volcanic eruption on record1 

referred first1 in point of time1 to the
 celebrated eruption of ,vesuvius1 in   
,a4,d4 #gi1 when the cities of          
,herculaneum1 ,pompeii and several      
smaller towns on the slope of the       
mountain were destroyed by lava or      
buried under a mass of pumice stones and
 ashes2 second to that of ,hecla and    
,skaptar ,jokull1 contiguous mountains  
in ,iceland1 in #aghc1 when two enormous
 lava streams1 one #ae miles wide and   
over #ajj ft4 deep and the other        
scarcely inferior1 flowed1 the first1   
#ej miles and the other #dj1 till they  
reached the sea1 pouring a flood of     
white hot lava into the ocean1          
destroying everything in their paths and
 killing in the waters of the ocean the 
fish1 the mainstay of the inhabitants1  
who were reduced by the disaster1       
directly or indirectly1 to less than    
five-sixths of their former strength2   
and third to that of ,galungung1 in     
#ahbb1 which devastated such an immense 
area in ,java2 but all the eruptions    

known besides were as mere child's play 
to the terrible one of ,krakatoa in     
#ahhc4  ,if the reader will examine the 
map of the ,east ,indies he will find   
represented in the straits of ,sunda1   
which lie between ,sumatra and ,java1   
the little island of ,krakatoa4 ,in maps
 made before #ahhc he will hunt in vain 
for the name1 for like ,bull ,run before
 #ahfa1 it was then unknown to fame1    
though navigators who passed through the
 straits knew it as a beautiful tropical
 isle1 with an extinct volcanic cone in 
the center4 ,in the beginning of #ahhc1 
however1 the little well behaved island 
showed symptoms of wrath that boded no  
good to the larger islands in the       
vicinity4 ,noted for the fine fruits    
with which it abounded1 it was a famous 
picnic ground for towns and cities even 
#ajj miles away1 and when the           
subterranean rumblings and mutterings of
 wrath became conspicuous the people of 
the capital of ,java1 ,batavia1 put a   
steamboat into requisition and visited  

the island in large numbers4 ,for a time
 the island was constantly in a slight  
tremor1 and the subterranean roar was   
like the continued but distant          
mutterings of thunder1 but the crisis   
was reached ,august #bc1 at #aj o'clock 
,a4,m4 ,it was a beautiful ,sunday      
morning and the waters of the straits of
 ,sunda were like that sea of glass1 as 
clear as crystal1 of which ,john in his 
apocalyptic vision speaks4 ,the beauty  
that morning was enhanced by the        
extraordinary transparency of the       
tropical air1 for distant mountain      
ranges seemed so near that it seemed    
possible to strike them with a stone    
cast from the hand4 ,only the mysterious
 rumblings and mutterings of the pent up
 forces beneath the island disturbed the
 breathless calm and silence that lay on
 nature--the calm before the terrible   
storm--the mightiest1 the most awful on 
record6 ,it burst forth6 ,sudden night  
snatched away day from the eyes of the  
terrified beholders on the mainland1 but

 the vivid play of lightnings around the
 ascending column of dust penetrated    
even the deep obscurity to a distance of
 #hj miles4 ,this awful darkness        
stretched within a circle whose diameter
 was #djj miles1 while more or less     
darkness reigned within a circle with a 
diameter three times as great4 ,within  
this latter area dust fell like snow    
from the sky1 breaking off limbs of     
trees by its weight miles distant1 while
 in ,batavia1 #ajj miles away from the  
scene of the disaster1 it fell to the   
depth of several inches4 ,the explosions
 were so loud as to be distinctly heard 
in ,hindostan1 #a1hjj miles away1 and at
 ,batavia the sound was like the        
constant roar of cannon in a field of   
battle4 ,finally the whole island was   
blown to pieces1 and now came the most  
awful contest of nature--a battle of    
death between ,neptune and ,vulcan2 the 
sea poured down into the chasm millions 
of tons1 only to be at first converted  
into vapor by the millions of tons of   

seething white hot lava beneath4 ,over  
the shores #cj miles away1 waves over   
#ajj ft4 high rolled with such a fury   
that everything1 even to a part of the  
bedrock1 was swept away4 ,blocks of     
stone1 of #ej tons weight were carried  
two miles inland4 ,on the ,sumatra side 
of the straits a large vessel was       
carried three miles inland4 ,the wave1  
of course growing less in intensity1    
traveled across the whole ,indian       
,ocean1 #e1jjj miles1 to the ,cape of   
,good ,hope and around it into the      
,atlantic4 ,the waves in the atmosphere 
traveled around the globe three times at
 the rate of #gjj miles per hour4 ,the  
dust from the volcano was carried up    
into the atmosphere fully twenty miles  
and the finest of it was distributed    
through the whole body of air4 ,the     
reader doubtless remembers the beautiful
 reddish or purple glow at sunrise and  
sunset for fully six months after       
,august1 #ahhc--that glow was caused by 
volcanic dust in the atmosphere         

interfering with the passage of the     
sun's rays of the upper part of the     
solar spectrum1 more manifest at sun    
rising and setting than at other times  
during the day1 because at these periods
 the sun's rays have to travel obliquely
 through the atmosphere1 and            
consequently penetrating a very deep    
layer1 were deprived of all their colors
 except the red4  ,the loss of life was 
appalling4 ,the last sight on earth to  
#ce1jjj people was that of the awful    
eruption4 ,engulfed in the ocean or     
covered with heaps of ashes1 a few hours
 after the eruption commenced the awful 
work was done1 and that vast multitude  
had vanished from off the face of the   
earth4 ,the fact that in the            
neighborhood of the mountain there was a
 sparse population accounts for there   
not being even a far greater loss of    
life4  ,notwithstanding the awfulness of
 volcanic and earthquake phenomena1     
there is some silver lining to the dark 
clouds4 ,they prove that the earth is   

yet a living planet4 ,centuries must    
pass away before it will become like the
 moon--a dead planet--without water1 air
 or life4 ,our satellite is a prophecy  
indeed of what the earth must eventually
 become when all its life forces1 its   
internal energies1 are dissipated into  
space4--,granville ,f4 ,foster1 ,min4   
,sci4 ,press4         99       99       
99       99       99                    
,,pentapterygium ,,serpens4   ,this is  
one of five species of ,himalayan plants
 which1 until recently1 were included in
 the genus vaccinium4 ,the new name for 
them is ugly enough to make one wish    
that they were vacciniums still4        
,pentapterygium serpens is the most     
beautiful of the lot1 and1 so far as ,i 
know1 this and ,p4 rugosum are the only 
species in cultivation in ,england4 ,the
 former was collected in the ,himalayas 
about ten years ago by ,captain ,elwes1 
who forwarded it to ,kew1 where it grows
 and flowers freely under the same      
treatment as suits ,cape heaths4 ,sir   

,joseph ,hooker says it is abundant on  
the ,sikkim mountains at from #c1jjj to 
#h1jjj feet elevation1 and that it      
usually grows on the stout limbs of     
lofty trees4 ,in this it resembles many 
of the rhododendrons of that region1 and
 it has been suggested that they are    
epiphytic from force of circumstances1  
not from choice4 ,on the ground they    
would have no chance against the other  
vegetation1 which would strangle or     
starve them out4 ,remove them from this 
struggle for existence1 and they at once
 show their preference for rich soil and
 plenty of it4 ,all the pentapterygiums 
have the lower part of the stem often   
swelling out into a prostrate trunk1 as 
thick as a man's leg sometimes1 and     
sending out stout branching roots which 
cling tightly round the limbs of the    
tree upon which it grows4 ,these swollen
 stems are quite succulent1 and they    
serve as reservoirs of moisture and     
nourishment4 ,in the wet season they    
push out new shoots1 from which grow    

rapidly wands three or four feet long1  
clothed with box-like leaves1 and       
afterward with numerous pendulous       
flowers4 ,these are elegant in shape and
 richly colored4 ,they are urn-shaped1  
with five ribs running the whole length 
of the corolla1 and their color is      
bright crimson with deeper colored      
,v-shaped veins1 as shown in the        
illustration of the flowers of almost   
natural size4 ,they remain fresh upon   
the plant for several weeks4 ,the       
beautiful appearance of a well grown    
specimen when in flower may be seen from
 the accompanying sketch of the specimen
 at ,kew1 which was at its best in      
,july1 and remained in bloom until the  
middle of ,september4   ,illustration3  
,,pentapterygium ,,serpens 7,,flowers   
,,nearly ,,natural ,,size7  ,p4 rugosum 
is also grown as a greenhouse plant at  
,kew1 where it has been in cultivation  
about twenty years4 ,it has larger      
leaves and a more bushy habit than ,p4  
serpens1 while the flowers are produced 

in fascicles on the old wood4 ,they are 
as large as those here figured1 but     
differ in color1 being whitish1 with    
brown-red ,v-shaped marks4 ,both species
 may be propagated from cuttings4 ,the  
plants thrive in sandy peat1 and they   
like plenty of moisture at all          
times4--,w4 ,watson1 in ,the ,gardeners'
 ,magazine4  ,illustration3             
,,pentapterygium ,,serpens 7,,flowers   
,,deep ,,crimson7         99       99   
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,perforation ,,of ,,flowers4   ,the    
subject of the relations and adaptations
 which exist between flowers and insects
 does not appear to excite as much      
popular attention as many other branches
 of natural science which are no more   
interesting4 ,sprengel1 ,darwin1 and    
,hermann ,muller have been the chief    
authors in giving us our present        
knowledge and interest in the study2    
,sir ,john ,lubbock has helped to       
popularize it1 and ,prof4 ,w4 ,trelease 
and others have carried on the work in  

this country4  ,the perforation as well 
as the fertilization of flowers has     
received attention1 but there is a wide 
field for further study for those who   
have leisure to pursue it1 as it        
requires much time and patience1 as well
 as closeness and accuracy of           
observation4  ,the accompanying figures1
 from drawings by ,mr4 ,c4,e4 ,faxon1   
show a few characteristic perforations  
and mutilations1 and also represent two 
of the principal kinds of insects which 
make them4  ,any one interested in the  
subject will find an excellent brief    
review of the work already done1 a fair 
bibliography1 and a list of perforated  
flowers in ,professor ,l4,h4 ,pammel's  
paper on the ,perforation of ,flowers1  
in the ,transactions of the ,st4 ,louis 
,academy of ,science1 vol4 v41 pp4      
#bdf-bgg4  ,the general beauty of       
flowers is usually not greatly marred by
 the perforations except in a few cases1
 as when the spurs of columbines and    
corollas of trumpet creepers are much   

torn1 which frequently happens4  ,the   
great object of the perforations by     
insects is the obtaining of the         
concealed nectar in an easy way4 ,very  
naturally1 flowers which depend on      
insect agency for fertilization rarely  
produce seed when punctured if they are 
not also entered in the normal way4     
,perforating is only practiced by a     
small number of species of insects1 and 
many but not all of the perforators do  
so because their tongues are too short  
to reach the nectar by entering the     
flower4 ,some obtain nectar from the    
same kind of flower both in the normal  
way and by perforating4  ,the chief     
perforators of flowers1 in this part of 
the continent at least1 appear to be    
some kinds of humble bees 7,bombus7 and 
carpenter bees 7,xylocopa74 ,these      
insects have developed an unerring      
instinct as to the proper point to      
perforate the corollas from the outside1
 in order to readily get at the nectar4 
,the holes made by the humble bees and  

by the carpenter bees are usually quite 
different and easily distinguished4     
,the humble bees have short1 stout1     
blunt jaws1 ill adapted for cutting1 and
 the perforations made by them are      
apparently always irregular in shape1   
and have jagged edges4 ,it has been     
stated that the humble bees often bore  
through the tubes of their corollas with
 their maxill1 but in all cases observed
 by me the mandibles were first brought 
into use in effecting an opening4 ,the  
noise caused by the tearing is often    
audible for a distance of several feet4 
,the true jaws of the carpenter bees are
 not any more prominent or better       
adapted for making clean-cut            
perforations than those of the humble   
bees2 but behind the jaws there is a    
pair of long1 sharp-pointed1 knife-like1
 jointed organs 7maxill7 which seem to  
be exclusively used on all ordinary     
occasions in making perforations4 ,the  
inner edges of these maxill are nearly  
straight1 and when brought together they

 form a sharp-pointed1 wedge-shaped1    
plow-like instrument which makes a      
clean1 narrow1 longitudinal slit when it
 is inserted in the flower and shoved   
forward4 ,the slits made by it are often
 not readily seen1 because the          
elasticity of the tissues of some       
flowers causes them to partially close  
again4 ,when not in use the instrument  
can be folded back1 so that it is not   
conspicuous4 ,the ordinary observer     
usually sees no difference between the  
humble bees and the carpenter bees1 but 
they may be readily distinguished by a  
little close observation4               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,perforation ,,of 
,,flowers4  #a4 ,xylocopa and heads of  
male and female4 #b4 ,bombus and head4  
#c4 ,dicentra spectabilis1 showing      
punctures4 #d4 ,ribes aureum4 #e4       
,ligustrum ,ibota4 #f4 sculus glabra4   
#g4 ,lonicera involucrata4 #h4 ,caragana
 arborescens4 #i4 ,andromeda ,japonica4 
#aj4 ,buddleia ,japonica4 #aa4          
,mertensia ,virginica4 #ab4             

,rhododendron arborescens4 #ac4         
,corydalis bulbosa4  ,no doubt1 in some 
of the recorded cases of perforations1  
carpenter bees have been mistaken for   
humble bees4 ,the heads of all our      
,northern humble bees are rather narrow1
 retreating from the antenn toward the  
sides1 and with a more or less dense    
tuft of hair between the antenn4 ,the   
abdomen1 as well as the thorax1 is      
always quite densely covered with hair1 
which may be black or yellowish or in   
bands of either color4 ,with possibly   
one or two exceptions1 the only species 
,i have seen doing the puncturing is    
,bombus affinis1 ,cresson4  ,the        
carpenter bees 7,xylocopa ,virginica7 of
 this region have the head very broad   
and square in front1 and with no        
noticeable hair between the antenn4 ,the
 heads of the male and female differ    
strikingly4 ,in the male the eyes are   
lighter colored and are hardly half as  
far apart as in the female1 and the     
lower part of the face is yellowish     

white4 ,the female has eyes smaller1    
darker1 and very far apart1 and the     
whole face is perfectly black4 ,the     
abdomen is broad1 of a shining          
blue-black color1 very sparsely covered 
with black hairs1 except on the first   
large segment nearest the thorax4 ,on   
this segment they are more dense and of 
the same tawny color as those on the    
thorax4 ,but it is particularly from the
 character of the head that the amateur 
observer of the perforators may soon    
learn to distinguish between a ,xylocopa
 and a ,bombus as they work among the   
flowers4 ,it is also interesting to know
 that the ,xylocopas are not so inclined
 to sting as the humble bees1 and the   
males1 of course1 being without stinging
 organs1 may be handled with impunity4  
,among other insects1 honey bees have   
been said to perforate flowers1 but     
authentic instances are rare of their   
doing much damage1 or even making holes4
 ,i have only recorded a single         
instance1 and in this a honey bee was   

seen to perforate the fragile spurs of  
,impatiens4 ,when searching for nectar  
they quite commonly use the perforations
 of other insects4 ,wasps and other     
allied insects also perforate for       
nectar4 ,my only observations being a   
,vespa puncturing ,cassandra calyculata1
 an ,andrena 787 perforating the spurs  
of ,aguilegia1 and ,adynerus foraminatus
 biting holes close to the base on the  
upper side of rhododendron flowers4 ,the
 holes made by some of the wasp-like    
insects are often more or less circular 
and with clean-cut edges4 ,the ravages  
committed by larv1 beetles and other    
insects in devouring flowers1 or parts  
of them1 do not properly come under the 
head of perforations4  ,the question as 
to the cause of the handsome corollas of
 the trumpet creeper 7,tecoma radicans7 
being so often split and torn has been  
accounted for in various ways in        
published notes on the subject4 ,humming
 birds and ants have been blamed1 the   
humming birds being such constant       

visitors of these flowers that it really
 seemed as though they must be the      
authors of the mischief4 ,i have often  
watched them when they appeared as      
though they were pecking at the         
blossoms1 but careful examinations1 both
 before and after their visits1 always  
failed to show any trace of injury4     
,finally1 on ,july #bf1 #ahij1 ,i was   
rewarded by seeing a number of          
,baltimore orioles vigorously pecking at
 and tearing open a lot of fresh        
blossoms1 and this observation was      
afterward repeated4 ,that the oriole    
should do this was not surprising1      
considering its known habits in relation
 to some other flowers4 ,j4,g4 ,,jack4  
,mr4 ,jack adds a list of sixteen plants
 whose flowers he has seen punctured by 
the carpenter bee and seventeen others  
whose flowers were punctured by the     
humble bee4 ,he names more than thirty  
other flowers which he has found        
perforated without having seen or       
identified the authors of the           

mischief4--,,ed4--,garden and ,forest4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,electricity ,,in ,,horticulture4      
,the influence of electricity upon      
vegetation has been the subject of      
numerous investigations4 ,some have been
 made to ascertain the effects of the   
electric current through the soil2      
others to ascertain the effect of the   
electric light upon growth through the  
air4 ,among the latter are those of     
,prof4 ,l4,h4 ,bailey of the ,cornell   
,university ,agricultural ,experiment   
,station4 ,in ,bulletin ,no4 #cj of the 
,horticultural ,department is given an  
account of experiments with the electric
 light upon the growth of certain       
vegetables1 like endive1 spinach1 and   
radish2 and upon certain flowers like   
the heliotrope1 petunia1 verbena        
primula1 etc4 ,the results are          
interesting and somewhat variable4 ,the 
forcing house where the experiments were
 carried on was #bj  #fj ft41 and was   
divided into two portions by a          

partition4 ,in one of these the plants  
received light from the sun by day and  
were in darkness at night4 ,in the other
 they received the sunlight and in      
addition had the benefit of an arc light
 the whole or a part of the night4 ,the 
experiment lasted from ,january until   
,april during two years1 six weeks of   
the time the first year with a naked    
light and the balance of the time with  
the light protected by an ordinary white
 globe4 ,it is not the purpose here to  
enter into any great details1 but to    
give the general conclusions4  ,the     
effect of the naked light running all   
night was to hasten maturity1 the nearer
 the plants being to the light the      
greater being the acceleration4 ,the    
lettuce1 spinach1 etc41 ran to seed in  
the light house long before similar     
plants in the dark4 ,an examination of  
the spinach leaves with the microscope  
showed the same amount of starch in     
each1 but in the electric light plants  
the grains were larger1 had more        

distinct markings and gave a deeper     
color with iodine4  ,with lettuce it was
 found that the nearer the plants were  
to the light the worse the effect2 and  
conversely those furthest away were the 
best developed4 ,cress and endive gave  
the same results4 ,in the case of the   
latter1 some of the plants were shaded  
from the light by an iron post1 and     
these grew better and were larger than  
those exposed to its direct rays4 ,the  
average weight of eight plants in full  
light was #di4f grains1 as opposed to an
 average of six plants in the shade of  
#ic4h grains4 ,radishes were strongly   
attracted to the light and moved toward 
it during the night4 ,during the day    
they straightened up1 but moved again   
toward the light at night4 ,the plants  
nearest the lamp made a poor growth and 
were nearly dead at the end of six      
weeks4 ,averaging the weight of plant1  
of top and of tuber1 it was found that  
those grown in the dark were heavier in 
every instance than those grown in the  

light2 and the percentage of marketable 
tubers from the light-grown plants was  
twenty-seven1 as opposed to             
seventy-eight in the dark4 ,chemical    
analyses showed the plants in the light 
to be more mature than those in the     
dark1 although they were much smaller4  
,dwarf peas showed the same facts1 those
 in full light being smaller than those 
in the dark4 ,the former bloomed a week 
earlier than the latter1 but the        
production of seed was less1 being only 
about four-sevenths as great4  ,further 
experiments were made by excluding the  
sun during the day and exposing the     
plants to the diffused electric light   
only4 ,in all cases1 with radishes1     
lettuce1 peas1 corn1 and potatoes1 the  
plants died in about four weeks4 ,only a
 little starch and no chlorophyl was    
found in the plants deprived of sunlight
 and only receiving the electric light4 
,thus the experiments with a naked light
 showed conclusively that within range  
of an ordinary forcing house the naked  

arc light running continuously through  
the night is injurious to some plants4  
,in no case did it prove profitable4    
,experiments with the light inclosed in 
a white globe and running all night were
 different in their results4 ,the effect
 was much less marked4 ,lettuce was     
decidedly better in the light house2    
radishes were thrifty but did not       
produce as much as in the dark house4 ,a
 third series of experiments with the   
naked light running a part of the night 
only were also made4 ,radishes1 peas1   
lettuce1 and many flowers were          
experimented upon4 ,the lettuce was     
greatly benefited by the light4 ,three  
weeks after transplanting 7,feb4 #e71 we
 are told1 both varieties in the        
lighthouse were fully #ej per cent4 in  
advance of those in the dark house in   
size1 and the color and other characters
 of the plants were fully as good4 ,the 
plants had received at this time #gj    
hours of electric light4 ,just a month  
later the first heads were sold from the

 light house1 but it was six weeks later
 when the first heads were sold from the
 dark house4 ,in other words1 the       
electric light plants were two weeks    
ahead of the others4 ,this gain had been
 purchased by #afa hours of electric    
light1 worth at current prices of street
 lighting about #g4  ,this experiment   
was repeated with the same results4 ,in 
the second experiment the plants        
receiving eighty-four hours of electric 
light1 costing #c4ej1 were ready for    
market ten days before the plants in the
 dark house4 ,the influence of the light
 upon color of flowers was variable4    
,with tulips the colors of the lighted  
plants were deeper and richer than the  
others1 but they faded after four or    
five days4 ,verbenas were injured in    
every case1 being of shorter growth and 
losing their flowers sooner than those  
in the dark house4 ,scarlet1 dark red1  
blue and pink flowers within three feet 
of the light soon turned to a grayish   
white4 ,chinese primulas seven feet from

 the light were unaffected1 but those   
four feet away were changed4 ,lilac     
colors were bleached to pure white when 
the light struck them fairly4 ,an       
elaborate series of tables of the effect
 of the light is given in the paper4    
,the author believes it possible that   
the electric light may be used some day 
to pecuniary advantage in floricultural 
establishments4  ,these experiments     
naturally open up many questions4 ,those
 which will be of most importance to the
 practical man will be such as relate to
 the benefits to be derived from the use
 of the electric light4 ,that           
electricity has a great effect upon     
vegetation can no longer be denied4     
,what remains now is to ascertain how to
 use the force with the most economy and
 to the best advantage4 ,if by its use  
early vegetables will be made earlier1  
bright flowers be made brighter1 it will
 be a question of only a short time     
before it will come into general use4   
,to the student of plant physiology     

there are also many questions of        
interest1 but into these it is not the  
intention to enter4 ,prof4 ,bailey's    
general conclusions are1 in part1 as    
follows3 ,there are a few points which  
are clear3 the electric light promotes  
assimilation1 it often hastens growth   
and maturity1 it is capable of producing
 natural flavors and colors in fruits1  
it often intensifies colors of flowers  
and sometimes increases the production  
of flowers4 ,the experiments show that  
periods of darkness are not necessary to
 the growth and development of plants4  
,there is every reason1 therefore1 to   
suppose that the electric light can be  
profitably used in the growing of       
plants4 ,it is only necessary to        
overcome the difficulties1 the chief of 
which are the injurious influences upon 
plants near the light1 the too rapid    
hastening to maturity in some species1  
and in short the whole series of        
practical adjustments of conditions to  
individual circumstances4 ,thus far1 to 

be sure1 we have learned more of the    
injurious effects than of the beneficial
 ones1 but this only means that we are  
acquiring definite facts concerning the 
whole influence of electric light upon  
vegetation2 and in some cases1 notably  
in our lettuce tests1 the light has     
already been found to be a useful       
adjunct to forcing establishments4444   
,it is highly probable that there are   
certain times in the life of the plant  
when the electric light will prove to be
 particularly helpful4 ,many experiments
 show that injury follows its use at    
that critical time when the planetlet is
 losing its support from the seed and is
 beginning to shift for itself1 and     
other experiments show that good results
 follow from its later use4444 ,on the  
whole1 ,i am inclined toward ,siemens'  
view that there is a future for         
electro-horticulture4  ,,joseph ,p4     
,,james4 ,washington1 ,jan4 #bj1 #ahib4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,electricity ,,in ,,agriculture4 ,by   

,,clarence ,d4 ,,warner4   ,it is well  
known that currents of electricity exist
 in the atmosphere4 ,clouds are charged 
and discharged4 ,there is a constant    
change of electricity from earth to air 
and from air to earth1 the latter being 
the great reservoir for all electricity4
 ,hills1 mountain peaks1 trees1 high    
chimneys1 spires1 in fact all points    
elevated above the earth's surface      
assist greatly in charging and          
discharging the atmosphere4 ,again1 if  
two iron rods are driven into the earth 
and connected by a copper wire with an  
electrometer in the circuit1 the        
instrument is almost immediately        
affected1 showing that currents of      
electricity are running through the     
ground4 ,now1 what is the function of   
these atmospheric and ground electric   
currents8 ,many scientists are agreed   
that certain forms of precipitation are 
due to electrical action2 but my        
observations have led me to believe     
conclusively that electricity is a      

potent factor in the economy of nature1 
and has more to do with the growth and  
development of plants than has hitherto 
been known4 ,davy succeeded in the      
decomposition of the alkalies1 potash   
and soda1 by means of electric currents4
 ,in our laboratories1 water and ternary
 compounds are rapidly decomposed by the
 battery1 and we may reasonably suppose 
that that which is effected in our      
laboratories by artificial means takes  
place in the great laboratory of nature 
on a grander and more extended scale4   
,plant food is carried throughout the   
plant by means of the flow of sap2 these
 currents circulate through all the     
rootlets and center1 as it were1 in the 
stalk1 carrying their tiny burdens of   
various elements and depositing them in 
their proper places4 ,that this         
phenomenon of circulation is due to     
electricity cannot be doubted4 ,most    
plants grow more rapidly during the     
night than in the day4 ,may not the     
following be a reason for this8  ,we    

have already mentioned how electric     
currents pass from air to earth and vice
 versa2 at night the plant is generally 
covered with dew and the plant itself   
becomes a good conductor1 and1          
consequently1 currents of electricity   
pass to each through this medium1 and   
during the passage convert soil elements
 into plant food and stimulate the      
upward currents to gather up the        
dissolved elements and carry them to    
their proper places4  ,from the time    
electricity became a science1 much      
research has been made to determine its 
effect1 if any1 upon plant growth4 ,the 
earlier investigations gave in many     
cases contradictory results4 ,whether   
this was due to a lack of knowledge of  
the science on the part of the one      
performing the experiments1 or some     
defect in the technical applications1 we
 are not prepared to say2 but this we do
 know1 that such men as ,jolabert1      
,nollet1 ,mainbray and other eminent    
physicists affirmed that electricity    

favored the germination of seeds and    
accelerated the growth of plants2 while1
 on the other hand1 ,ingenhouse1        
,sylvestre and other savants denied the 
existence of this electric influence4   
,the heated controversies and animated  
discussions attending the opposing      
theories stimulated more careful and    
thorough investigations1 which establish
 beyond a doubt that electricity has a  
beneficial effect on vegetation4 ,sir   
,humphry ,davy1 ,humboldt1 ,wollaston   
and ,becquerel occupied themselves with 
the theoretical side of the question2   
but it was not till after #ahde that    
practical electroculture was undertaken4
 ,williamson suggested the use of       
gigantic electrostatic machines1 but the
 attempts were fruitless4 ,the methods  
most generally adopted in experiments   
consisted of two metallic plates--one of
 copper and one of zinc--placed in the  
soil and connected by a wire4 ,sheppard 
employed the method in ,england in #ahdf
 and ,forster used the same in          

,scotland4 ,in the year #ahdg ,hubeck in
 ,germany surrounded a field with a     
network of wires4 ,sheppard's           
experiments showed that electricity     
increased the return from root crops1   
while grass perished near the           
electrodes1 and plants developed without
 the use of electricity were inferior to
 those grown under its influence4       
,hubeck came to the conclusion that     
seeds germinated more rapidly and       
buckwheat gave larger returns2 in all   
other cases the electric current        
produced no result4 ,professor ,fife in 
,england and ,otto von ,ende in ,germany
 carried on experiments at the same     
time1 but with negative results1 and    
these scientists advised the complete   
abandonment of applying electricity to  
agriculture4 ,after some years had      
elapsed ,fichtner began a series of     
experiments in the same direction4 ,he  
employed a battery1 the two wires of    
which were placed in the soil parallel  
to each other4 ,between the wires were  

planted peas1 grass and barley1 and in  
every case the crop showed an increase  
of from thirteen to twenty-seven per    
cent4 when compared with ordinary       
methods of cultivation4  ,fischer1 of   
,waldheim1 believing atmospheric        
electricity to aid much in the growth   
and development of plants1 made the     
following tests3  ,he placed metallic   
supports to the number of about sixty   
around each hectare 7#b4dg acres7 of    
loam2 these supports were provided at   
their summits with electrical           
accumulators in the form of crowns      
surmounted with teeth4 ,these collectors
 were united by metallic connection4    
,the result of this culture applied to  
cereals was to increase the crop by     
half4  ,the following experiment was    
also tried3 ,metallic plates sixty-five 
centimeters by forty centimeters were   
placed in the soil4 ,these plates were  
alternately of zinc and copper and      
placed about thirty meters apart1       
connected two and two1 by a wire4 ,the  

result was to increase from twofold to  
fourfold the production of certain      
garden plants4 ,mr4 ,fischer says that  
it is evidently proved that electricity 
aids in the more complete breaking up of
 the soil constituents4 ,finally he says
 that plants thus treated mature more   
quickly1 are almost always perfectly    
healthy1 and are not affected with      
fungoid growth4  ,later1 ,n4 ,specnew1  
inspired by the results arrived at by   
his predecessors1 was led to investigate
 the influence of electricity on plants 
in every stage of their development2 the
 results of his experiments were most   
satisfactory and of practical interest4 
,he began by submitting different seeds 
to the action of an electric current1   
and found that their development was    
rendered more rapid and complete4 ,he   
experimented with the seeds of haricot  
beans1 sunflowers1 winter and spring    
rye4 ,two lots1 of twelve groups of one 
hundred and twenty seeds each1 were     
plunged into water until they swelled1  

and while wet the seeds were introduced 
into long glass cylinders1 open at both 
ends4 ,copper disks were pressed against
 the seeds1 the disks were connected    
with the poles of an induction coil1 the
 current was kept on for one or two     
minutes and immediately afterward the   
seeds were sown4 ,the temperature was   
kept from #de to #ej ,fahrenheit1 and   
the experiments repeated four times4    
,the following table shows the results3 
,peas4  ,beans4  ,barley4  ,sunflowers4 
,days4   ,days4    ,days4      ,days4   
,electrified seeds developed in         
#b4e      #c        #b          #h4e    
,non-electrified seeds developed in  #d 
#f        #e         #ae  ,it was also  
observed that the plants coming from    
electrified seeds were better developed1
 their leaves were much larger and their
 color brighter than in those plants    
growing from non-electrified seeds4 ,the
 current did not affect the yield4  ,at 
the ,botanical ,gardens at ,kew1 the    
following experiment was tried3  ,large 

plates of zinc and copper 7#j4dde meter 
and #j4gab meter7 were placed in the    
soil and connected by wires1 so arranged
 that the current passed through the    
ground2 the arrangement was really a    
battery of 7zinc  earth  copper74 ,this 
method was applied to pot herbs and     
flowering plants and also to the growing
 of garden produce2 in the latter case  
the result was a large crop and the     
vegetables grown were of enormous size4 
,extensive experiments in electroculture
 were also made at ,pskov1 ,russia4     
,plots of earth were sown to rye1 corn1 
oats1 barley1 peas1 clover and flax2    
around these respective plots were      
placed insulating rods1 on the top of   
which were crown-shaped collectors--the 
latter connected by means of wires4     
,atmospheric electricity was thus       
collected above the seeds1 and the      
latter matured in a highly electrified  
atmosphere2 the plots were submitted to 
identical conditions and the experiments
 were carried on for five years4 ,the   

results showed a considerable increase  
in the yield of seed and straw1 the     
ripening was more rapid and the barley  
ripened nearly two weeks earlier with   
electroculture4 ,potatoes grown by the  
latter method were seldom diseased1 only
 to #e per cent41 against #aj to #dj per
 cent4 by ordinary culture4  ,grandeau1 
at the ,school of ,forestry at ,nancy1  
found by experiment that the electrical 
tension always existing between the     
upper air and soil stimulated growth4   
,he found plants protected from the     
influence were less vigorous than those 
subject to it4  ,macagno1 also believing
 that the passage of electricity from   
air through the vine to earth would     
stimulate growth1 selected a certain    
number of vines1 all of the same variety
 and all in the same condition of health
 and development4 ,sixteen vines were   
submitted to experiment and sixteen were
 left to natural influences4 ,in the    
ends of the vines under treatment1      
pointed platinum wires were inserted1 to

 which were attached copper wires1      
leading to the tops of tall poles near  
the vines2 at the base of these same    
vines other platinum wires were inserted
 and connected by copper wires with the 
soil4 ,at the close of the experiment1  
which began ,april #ae1 and lasted till 
,september #af1 the wood1 leaves and    
fruit of both sets of vines were        
submitted to careful analysis with the  
following results3                      
,without conductor4  ,with conductor4   
,moisture per cent4          #gh4ba     
#gi4hd   ,sugar4                        
#af4hf            #ah4da   ,tartaric    
acid4               #j4hhj              
#j4gia   ,bitartrate of potash4         
#j4ahj            #j4ahf  ,thus we see  
that the percentage of moisture and     
sugar is greater and the undesirable    
acid lower in those vines subject to    
electrical influences than in those left
 to natural conditions4 ,there are also 
experiments which prove the beneficial  
effects of electricity on vines attacked

 by phylloxera4  ,the following         
experiments were made at this station3  
,several plots were prepared in the     
greenhouse1 all of which had the same   
kind of soil and were subjected to like 
influences and conditions4 ,frames in   
the form of a parallelogram1 about three
 feet by two feet1 were put together2   
across the narrow way were run copper   
wires in series of from four to nine    
strands1 each series separated by a     
space about four inches wide1 and the   
strands by a space of one-half inch4    
,these frames were buried in the soil of
 the plot at a little depth1 so that the
 roots of the garden plants set would   
come in contact with the wires1 the     
supposition being that the currents of  
electricity passing along the wires     
would decompose into its constituents   
the plant food in the vicinity of the   
roots and more readily prepare it for   
the plants4 ,two electric gardens were  
thus prepared and each furnished with   
two common battery cells1 so arranged as

 to allow continuous currents to pass   
through each series of wires4 ,near each
 electric garden was a plot prepared in 
the same manner1 save the electrical    
apparatus4 ,we will call the two gardens
 ,a and ,b4  ,the place chosen for the  
experiments was in a part of the        
greenhouse which is given up largely to 
the raising of lettuce1 and the gardens 
were located where much trouble from    
mildew had been experienced4 ,the reason
 for this choice of location was to     
notice1 if any1 the effect of           
electricity upon mildew1 this disease   
being1 as it is well known1 a source of 
much trouble to those who desire to grow
 early lettuce4 ,the soil was carefully 
prepared1 the material taken from a pile
 of loam commonly used in the plant     
house4  ,garden ,a was located where    
mildew had been the most detrimental2   
the experiments began the first of      
,january and closed the first of ,april4
 ,for the garden1 fifteen lettuce plants
 of the head variety were selected1 all 

of the same size and of the same degree 
of vitality1 as nearly as could be      
determined2 the plants were set directly
 over the wires1 so that the roots were 
in contact with the latter2 the plants  
were well watered and cared for as in   
ordinary culture1 and the fluid in the  
battery cells was renewed from time to  
time1 that the current of electricity   
might not become too feeble4 ,at the    
close of the experiments the following  
results were noted3  ,five plants died  
from mildew1 the others were well       
developed and the heads large4 ,the     
largest heads were over the greatest    
number of wires and nearest the         
electrodes4 ,it was further noticed that
 the healthiest and largest plants1 as  
soon as the current became feeble or    
ceased altogether1 began to be affected 
with mildew4 ,on examining the roots of 
the plants it was found that they had   
grown about the wires as if there they  
found the greatest amount of            
nourishment2 the roots were healthy and 

in no way appeared to have been injured 
by the current1 but1 rather1 much       
benefited by the electrical influences4 
,beside garden ,a was prepared another  
plot of the same dimensions1 having the 
same kind of soil and treated in like   
manner as the first1 but the electrical 
apparatus and wires were wanting4 ,at   
the close of the experiments only three 
plants had partially developed1 and two 
of these were nearly destroyed by       
mildew--one only was free from the      
disease4 ,the results1 therefore1 show  
that the healthiest and largest plants  
grew in the electric plot4  ,in the     
second experiment1 which we called ,b1  
twenty plants of the same variety of    
lettuce and of equal size were taken4   
,the treatment given was the same as the
 plants in plot ,a received4 ,five      
plants only remained unaffected with    
mildew2 seven died from the disease when
 they were half grown2 the rest were    
quite well developed1 but at the last   
part of the experiment began to be      

affected4 ,several heads were large1 the
 largest being over the greatest number 
of wires and nearest the electrodes4    
,examination of the roots disclosed the 
same phenomena as in ,a4  ,near plot ,b 
were also set twenty other plants1      
subjected to like conditions as the     
first1 but without electricity2 all but 
one died from mildew before they were   
half grown1 the solitary plant that     
survived being only partly developed at 
the close of the experiment1 and even   
this was badly affected with the        
disease4  ,everything considered1 the   
results were in favor of electricity4   
,those plants subjected to the greatest 
electrical influence were hardier1      
healthier1 larger1 had a better color1  
and were much less affected by mildew   
than the others4 ,experiments were made 
with various grasses1 but no marked     
results were obtained4  ,the question   
would naturally arise whether there may 
not be a limit reached where electricity
 would completely overcome the attack of

 mildew and stimulate the plant to a    
healthy and vigorous condition          
throughout its entire growth4 ,from the 
fact that the hardiest1 healthiest1 and 
largest heads of lettuce grew over the  
greatest number of currents and nearest 
the electrodes1 it would seem that      
electricity is one of the agents        
employed by nature to aid in supplying  
the plant with nourishment and to       
stimulate its growth4 ,to what extent   
plants may be submitted to electrical   
influence1 or what strength of current  
is best suited to them and what currents
 prove detrimental to their development1
 have not been determined as yet1 but it
 is desirable to continue this research 
until some definite information shall be
 gained on these points4 ,probably      
different varieties of plants differ    
greatly in their capacity for enduring  
the action of electric currents without 
injury--experiment alone must determine 
this4  ,it has been proved that the slow
 discharge of static electricity        

facilitates the assimilation of nitrogen
 by plants4 ,faraday showed that plants 
grown in metallic cages1 around which   
circulated electric currents1 contained 
#ej per cent4 less organic matter than  
plants grown in the open air4 ,it would 
seem from the researches of the latter  
physicist that those plants requiring a 
large percentage of nitrogen for their  
development would be remarkably         
benefited if grown under electric       
influence4--,massachusetts ,agricultural
 ,college1 ,bulletin ,no #af4  ,a very  
interesting article on the ,influence of
 ,electricity upon ,plants1 illustrated1
 is given in ,,supplement #hjf4 ,it     
presents the results of the studies of  
,prof4 ,lemstrom1 of ,helsingfors4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,rattlesnake    
,,bite ,,by ,,permanganate ,,of         
,,potassium1 ,,based ,,on ,,nine        
,,successful ,,cases4  ,by ,,amos ,w4   
,,barber1 ,m4,d41#a ,cheyenne4          
,footnote #a3 ,governor of ,wyoming4    

,poisoned wounds1 inflicted by the fangs
 of the rattlesnake1 are happily more   
rare each year1 since1 as the country is
 becoming more populated1 the crotalus  
is rapidly being exterminated4 ,yet1    
considering the recklessness which      
characterizes the cow boy in his        
treatment of this reptile1 it is        
astonishing that this class of injury is
 not more common4 ,thus it is the       
invariable custom among the cattlemen to
 dismount and destroy these snakes      
whenever they are seen4 ,this is readily
 accomplished1 since a slight blow will 
break the back4 ,this blow is1 however1 
generally delivered by means of the     
quirt1 a whip not over two and a half   
feet long1 and hence a weapon which     
brings the one who wields it in         
unpleasant proximity to the fangs of the
 reptile4 ,a still more dangerous       
practice1 and one which ,i have         
frequently seen1 is a method of playing 
with the rattlesnake for the delectation
 of the cow boy at the expense of a     

tenderfoot4 ,it is well known that      
unless a snake is coiled1 or held by the
 tail or body1 or placed at length in a 
hole or crevice so narrow that by       
rendering its length sinuous a certain  
amount of support is given1 it cannot   
strike4 ,on this theory a mounted cow   
boy first puts a rattler to flight1 then
 pushes his pony in pursuit1 stoops from
 the saddle1 seizes it by the tail1     
gives a quick upward jerk1 and1 swinging
 it so rapidly around his head that it  
is impossible for it to strike1 sets off
 in pursuit of whoever has exhibited    
most terror at the sight of the reptile4
 ,when within fair distance he hurls the
 snake at the unfortunate victim1 in the
 full assurance that even should it     
strike him it cannot bury its fangs in  
his flesh1 since it is impossible for it
 to coil till it reaches the ground4    
,this is a jest of which ,i have        
frequently been the victim1 nor have ,i 
yet learned to appreciate it with       
unalloyed mirth4  ,the belief that      

rattlesnakes always give warning before 
striking is not well founded4 ,if come  
upon suddenly1 they often strike first1 
and if disturbed when in a space so     
narrow that the coil cannot be formed1  
they may give no warning of their       
presence beyond the penetration of the  
fangs into the hand or foot of an       
intruder4 ,one such case ,i saw4  ,it   
seems to be well established that a     
snake will not voluntarily crawl over a 
hair rope1 and in certain parts of the  
country it is common for campers-out to 
surround their beds with such a rope1   
since the reptiles seek warmth1 and are 
frequently found under or in the        
blankets of those sleeping on the       
ground4  ,after an exceptionally large  
experience with wounds inflicted by the 
fangs of the rattlesnake1 and an        
experience which1 ,i am glad to say1 has
 been most successful in its outcome1 ,i
 think it my duty to add1 from a        
practical standpoint1 my testimony as to
 the efficacy of permanganate of        

potassium in the treatment of this class
 of cases4 ,this drug was first         
introduced by ,lacerda1 of ,brazil1 and1
 if more generally used1 would1 ,i      
believe1 render comparatively innocuous 
a class of injury which now usually     
terminates in death4  ,i make this      
statement as to the fatality of crotalus
 poison advisedly4 ,i know the belief is
 very common that the poison of a       
rattlesnake is readily combated by full 
doses of whisky4 ,this is fallacious4 ,i
 have taken the pains to investigate a  
number of instances of cure resulting   
from the employment of free stimulation4
 ,in each case the fangs did not        
penetrate deeply into the tissues1 but  
either scratched over the surface or    
tore through1 making a wound of entrance
 and exit1 so that the poison1 or at    
least the major part of it1 was not     
injected into the tissues of the person 
struck4 ,the effect is very much the    
same as when an inexperienced           
practitioner picks up a fold of skin for

 the purpose of making a hypodermic     
injection1 and plunges his needle       
entirely through1 forcing the medicament
 wide of his patient4  ,nearly all1 if  
not all1 of the cases treated by        
stimulation alone have1 according to my 
experience1 perished if they have       
received a full dose of virus from a    
vigorous snake4 ,one of these cases     
lived for upward of a month4 ,he then   
perished of what might be considered a  
chronic pymia1 the symptoms being those 
of blood poisoning1 accompanied by      
multiple abscesses4 ,another case1 not  
occurring in my own practice1 died at   
the end of four days apparently of      
cardiac failure4 ,active delirium       
persisted all through this case4 ,two   
other cases treated by stimulants also  
died with symptoms of more or less acute
 blood poisoning4  ,the feeling is      
almost universal among the people of    
,wyoming that a fair strike from a      
rattlesnake is certain death1 and that  
the free use of stimulants simply       

postpones the end4 ,i do not for a      
moment deny that a strong1 lusty man may
 be struck fairly by a rattlesnake and  
if the wound is at once opened and      
cauterized1 and the heart judiciously   
supported1 he may yet recover2 still the
 fact remains that the great majority of
 these cases perish at a longer or      
shorter interval following the          
infliction of the wound4 ,hence any     
treatment that will save even the       
majority of such cases is a distinct    
gain1 and one which has saved every one 
of nine cases to which it has been      
applied needs no further commendation4  
,the first case of rattlesnake wound to 
which ,i was called occurred in #ahhe4  
,a cow boy was bitten on the foot1 the  
fang penetrating through the boot4 ,he  
was brought forty miles to ,fort        
,fetterman1 where ,i was then stationed4
 ,i saw him about twenty-four hours     
after he was struck4 ,there was an      
enormous swelling1 extending up to the  
knee4 ,the whole limb was bronzed in    

appearance4 ,there was no special       
discoloration about the wound2 in fact1 
the swelling disguised this to such an  
extent that it was impossible to        
determine exactly where the fangs had   
entered4 ,the pulse was scarcely        
perceptible at the wrist2 the heart was 
beating with excessive rapidity4 ,the   
patient was suffering great pain4 ,his  
mind was clear1 but he was oppressed    
with a dreadful anxiety4 ,up to the time
 ,i saw him he had received absolutely  
no treatment1 excepting the application 
of a cactus poultice to the leg1 since  
there was no whisky at the ranch where  
he was wounded4 ,i at once made free    
incisions1 five or six in number1 from  
one to two inches in depth1 and about   
three inches in length4 ,these cuts gave
 him very little pain1 nor was there    
much bleeding1 though there was an      
enormous amount of serous oozing4 ,into 
these wounds was poured a fifteen per   
cent4 solution of permanganate of       
potassium1 and fully half an hour was   

devoted to kneading this drug into the  
tissues4 ,in addition ,i made many      
hypodermic injections into all portions 
of the swollen tissue1 but particularly 
about the wound4 ,since there was no    
very distinct line of demarkation       
between the swollen and healthy tissue1 
,i did not1 as in other cases1 endeavor 
to prevent the extension of the cellular
 involvement by a complete circle of    
hypodermic injections4 ,i employed1 in  
all1 about forty grains of the          
permanganate4 ,in addition to the local 
treatment ,i pushed stimulation1        
employing carbonate of ammonium and     
whisky4 ,by means of diuretics and      
laxatives the kidneys and bowels were   
encouraged to eliminate as much of the  
poison as possible4  ,the patient went  
on to uninterrupted recovery4 ,the wound
 healed with very little sloughing4 ,the
 patient returned to his work in about a
 month4 ,the cure of this case was      
regarded by the cow boys as most        
exceptional1 since1 in their experience1

 similar cases1 even though very freely 
stimulated1 had not recovered4  ,some   
time later ,i was called to see a girl1 
aged #ad1 who was struck by a           
rattlesnake1 fifty-six miles from ,fort 
,fetterman4 ,there was some trouble     
about procuring relays1 and ,i was      
compelled to ride the same horse all the
 way out4 ,this took a little short of  
five hours4 ,this1 together with the    
time consumed in sending me word1 caused
 an interval of about twenty hours      
between the infliction of the injury and
 the time ,i saw the patient4 ,i found  
the fangs had entered on either side of 
the distal joint of the middle          
metacarpal bone4 ,the arm was enormously
 swollen1 almost to the axilla1 and     
exhibited a bronzed discoloration2 this 
was especially marked about the wound   
and along the course of the lymphatics4 
,the swollen area was boggy to the      
touch1 and exhibited a distinct line of 
demarkation between the healthy and     
diseased tissues1 excepting along the   

course of the brachial vessels1 where   
the indurated discolored area extended  
as a broad band into the axilliary      
lymphatics1 which were distinctly       
swollen4 ,the patient was delirious1 was
 harrassed by terror1 complained        
bitterly of pain1 and had an exceedingly
 feeble1 rapid heart action4 ,there was 
marked dyspnoea1 and all the signs of   
impending dissolution4 ,i at once made  
free multiple incisions into all parts  
of the inflamed tissue1 carrying two of 
my cuts through the wounds made by the  
fangs of the snake4 ,in the arm these   
incisions were several inches long and  
from one to two inches deep4 ,as in the 
former case1 the bleeding was slight1   
but there was a free exudation of serum4
 ,into these wounds a fifteen per cent4 
permanganate of potassium solution was  
poured1 and as much as possible was     
kneaded into the tissues4 ,in addition  
multiple hypodermic injections were     
made1 these being carried particularly  
into the bitten region1 and circularly  

around the arm just at the border of the
 line of demarkation1 thus endeavoring  
to limit by a complete circle of the    
antiseptic solution the further         
extension of the inflammatory process4  
,in the region of the brachial vessels  
,i hesitated to make my injections as   
thoroughly as in the rest of the        
circumference of the arm1 fearing lest  
the permanganate of potassium might     
injure important vessels or nerves4     
,this treatment caused very little pain1
 but immediately after the              
constitutional symptoms became          
distinctly aggravated4 ,i stimulated    
freely1 and at once made preparations to
 take the patient to the ,fort          
,fetterman hospital4 ,she was           
transported over the fifty-six miles1 ,i
 riding the same horse back again1 and  
arriving at ,fort ,fetterman the same   
evening4  ,the after treatment of this  
case was comparatively simple4 ,she was 
stimulated freely as long as cardiac    
weakness was manifested4 ,as in the     

former case1 diuretics and laxatives    
were employed4 ,the arm was wrapped in  
cloth soaked in a weak permanganate     
solution1 was placed in a splint1 and   
was loosely bandaged4 ,there was some   
sloughing1 but this was treated on      
general surgical principles4 ,the       
patient recovered the entire use of her 
arm1 and was turned out cured in about  
six weeks4  ,the third case ,i saw about
 fourteen hours after he was struck4    
,the patient was a healthy blacksmith1  
about #cj years of age4 ,the wound was  
at about the middle of the forearm1 the 
fangs entering toward the ulnar side4   
,when ,i saw the patient he exhibited   
comparatively trifling symptoms4 ,his   
heart action was rapid1 and he was      
suffering from the typical despondency  
and terror1 but ,i could not note the   
profound systemic depression            
characteristic of the great majority of 
cases4 ,surrounding the wound and       
extending up the forearm for several    
inches there was a boggy swelling1      

exhibiting a sharp line of demarkation4 
,it was bronzed in color1 and was       
apparently spreading4 ,i at once applied
 the intermittent ligature just above   
the elbow1 and injected the permanganate
 of potassium solution freely all       
through the involved tissues1           
particularly in the region of the bite  
and about the periphery of the swelling1
 surrounding the latter by a complete   
ring of injections4  ,the general       
treatment of this patient was continued 
on the same general line as described in
 the former cases1 stimulants being     
employed moderately4 ,he recovered      
without any bad symptoms4 ,there was no 
sloughing2 the swelling disappeared     
without any necrosis of tissue4 ,he is  
still pursuing his trade in ,cheyenne1  
and suffers from absolutely no          
disability4  ,i saw but one case shortly
 after the wound was inflicted4 ,this   
patient was a healthy young man1 who was
 struck about the middle of the dorsal  
surface of the hand1 the fangs entering 

on each side of a metacarpal bone1 and  
the poison lodging apparently in the    
palm of the hand4 ,the patient1 when    
seen1 exhibited the characteristic      
terror and depression1 weak1 rapid heart
 action1 and agonizing local pain4 ,i   
made two small incisions in the region  
of the wound upon the dorsum of the     
hand1 and injected permanganate of      
potassium freely4 ,this patient         
ultimately recovered1 but only after    
sloughing and prolonged suppuration4 ,i 
believe that had ,i incised freely and  
at once from the palmar surface1 ,i     
would have been spared this unpleasant  
complication4  ,i have had in all nine  
cases1 and without a single death4 ,the 
others are in their general features and
 in the treatment employed quite similar
 to those given4  ,the symptoms         
resulting from snake bite poison are    
strikingly like those dependent upon the
 violent septic poison seen in          
pre-antiseptic times4 ,there is often   
the same prodromal chill1 the high      

elevation of temperature1 the profound  
effect on the circulation1 and the rapid
 cellular involvement4 ,the tissue      
disturbance following snake poisoning   
differs from ordinary cellulitis1       
however1 in the following particulars3  
,the color is bronze1 not red2 the      
involved area is boggy1 not brawny2 and 
the extension of the process is         
exceedingly rapid4  ,the treatment      
applicable to one condition seems to be 
equally successful when applied to the  
other4 ,in cellulitis1 free incisions1  
antiseptic lotions1 and active          
stimulation are the three means upon    
which the surgeon mainly depends1 and in
 combating the local and general        
symptoms excited by snake bite          
poisoning1 the same treatment has given 
me the successful results detailed      
above4 ,whether or not permanganate of  
potassium is more active than other     
antiseptics in snake bite poisoning ,i  
am not prepared to state1 but the high  
authority of ,s4 ,weir ,mitchell1       

together with my own experience1 does   
not incline me to substitute any other  
drug at present4  ,i would formulate the
 treatment for poison of the rattlesnake
 as follows3  #a4 ,free incisions to the
 bottom of the wound and immediate      
cauterization2 or1 if this is not       
practicable1 sucking of the wound4  #b4 
,the immediate application of an        
intermittent tourniquet1 that is1 one   
which is relaxed for a moment at a time1
 so that the poison may gain admission  
into the circulation in small doses4    
#c4 ,the free administration of alcohol 
or carbonate of ammonium4  ,this might  
be termed the urgency treatment of snake
 bite poisoning4 ,the curative treatment
 requires--  #d4 ,free incisions into   
all portions of the inflamed tissues1   
and the thorough kneading into these    
incisions of a fifteen per cent4        
solution of permanganate of potassium4  
#e4 ,multiple injections of the same    
solution into all the inflamed regions1 
but particularly into the region of the 

wound4  #f4 ,the complete surrounding of
 all the involved tissues1 by           
permanganate of potassium injections    
placed from half an inch to an inch     
apart1 the needle being driven into the 
healthy tissue just beyond the line of  
demarkation1 and its point being carried
 to the deepest part of the border of   
the indurated area4  #g4 ,the           
permanganate of potassium solution      
should be used freely in fifteen per    
cent4 solution4 ,i have used one and a  
half drachms of the pure drug diluted1  
and would not hesitate to use four times
 that quantity were it necessary1 since 
it seems to exert no deleterious effect1
 either locally or generally4  #h4 ,the 
involved area should be dressed by means
 of lint saturated with fifteen per     
cent4 permanganate of potassium         
solution4 ,stimulants should be given   
according to the indications--i4e41 the 
condition of the pulse4 ,laxatives1     
diuretics1 and diaphoretics should be   
administered to aid in the elimination  

of the poison4 ,the diet should be as   
nutritious as the stomach can           
digest4--,the ,therapeutic ,gazette4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,chinese ,,competitive ,,examinations4 
,wuchang1 on the ,yangtsze opposite     
,hankow1 is the capital of the two      
provinces ,hupeh and ,hunan4 ,here1     
every third year1 the examination for   
competitors from both provinces is held1
 and a correspondent of the ,north      
,china ,herald1 of ,shanghai1 describes 
the scene at the examination at the     
beginning of ,september last4 ,the      
streets1 he says1 are thronged with     
long-robed1 large-spectacled gentlemen1 
who inform the world at large by every  
fold of drapery1 every swagger of gait1 
every curve of nail1 that they are the  
aristocracy of the most ancient empire  
of the world4 ,wuchang had from #ab1jjj 
to #ae1jjj bachelors of arts within its 
walls1 who came from the far borders of 
the province for the examination for the
 provincial degree4 ,about one-half per 

cent4 will be successful2 thousands of  
them know they have not the shadow of a 
chance1 but literary etiquette binds    
them to appear4 ,in the wake of these   
,confucian scholars come a rout of      
traders1 painters1 scroll sellers1      
teapot venders1 candle merchants1       
spectacle mongers1 etc42 servants and   
friends swell the number1 so that the   
examination makes a difference of some  
#dj1jjj or #ej1jjj to the resident      
population4 ,in the great examination   
hall1 which is composed of a series of  
pens shut off from each other in little 
rows of #bj or #cj1 and the view of     
which is suggestive of a huge cattle    
market1 there is accommodation for over 
#aj1jjj candidates4 ,the observance of  
rules of academic propriety is very     
strict4 ,a candidate may be excluded1   
not only for incompetence1 but for      
writing his name in the wrong place1 for
 tearing or blotting his examination    
paper1 etc4 ,after the examination of   
each batch a list of those allowed to   

compete for honors is published1 and the
 essay forms for each district are      
prepared with proper names and          
particulars4 ,the ancestors of the      
candidate for three generations must be 
recorded1 they must be free from taint  
of yamen service1 prostitution1 the     
barber's trade and the theater1 or the  
candidate would not have obtained his   
first degree4 ,with the forms #cjj cash 
7about #as47 are presented to each      
candidate for food during the ordeal4   
,the lists being thus prepared1 on the  
sixth day of the eighth moon 7,tuesday1 
the #hth of ,september1 in #ahia71 the  
city takes a holiday to witness the     
ceremony of entering the curtain1 i4e41 
opening the examination hall4 ,for days 
coolies have been pumping water into    
great tanks1 droves of pigs have been   
driven into the inclosure1 doctors1     
tailors1 cooks1 coffins1 printers1 etc41
 have been massed within the hall for   
possible needs4 ,the imperial           
commissioners are escorted by the       

examination officials to the place4 ,a  
dozen district magistrates have been    
appointed to superintend within the     
walls1 and as many more outside1 two    
prefects have office inside1 and the    
governor of the province has also to be 
locked up during the eight days of      
examination4 ,the whole company is first
 entertained to breakfast at the yamen1 
and then the procession forms2 the      
ordinary umbrellas1 lictors1 gongs1     
feathers1 and ragamuffins are there in  
force2 the examiners and the highest    
officers are carried in open chairs     
draped in scarlet and covered with tiger
 skins4 ,the dead silence that falls on 
the crowd betokens the approach of the  
governor1 who brings up the rear4 ,then 
the bustle of the actual examination    
begins4 ,the hall is a miniature city4  
,practically martial law is proclaimed4 
,in the central tower is a sword1 and   
misdemeanor within the limits is        
punished with instant death4 ,the       
mandarins take up their quarters in     

their respective lodges1 the whole army 
of writers whose duty it is to copy out 
the essays of the candidates1 to prevent
 collusion1 take their places4          
,altogether there must be over #bj1jjj  
people shut in4 ,cases have been known  
in which a hopeful candidate was crushed
 to death in the crowd at the gate4     
,each candidate is first identified1 and
 he is assigned a certain number which  
corresponds to a cell a few feet square1
 containing one board for a seat and one
 for a desk4 ,meanwhile the printers in 
the building are hard at work printing  
the essay texts4 ,each row of cells has 
two attendants for cooking1 etc41       
assigned to it1 the candidates take     
their seats1 the rows are locked from   
the outside1 the themes are handed out1 
the contest has begun4 ,the examination 
is divided into three bouts of about #cf
 hours1 two nights and a day1 each1 with
 intervals of a day4 ,the first is the  
production of three essays on the four  
assigned books2 the second of five      

essays on the five classics2 the third  
of five essays on miscellaneous         
subjects4 ,the strain1 as may be        
imagined1 is very great1 and several    
victims die in the hall4 ,the literary  
ambition which leads old men of #fj and 
#gj to enter not unfrequently destroys  
them4 ,should any fatal case occur1 the 
coffin may on no account be carried out 
through the gates2 it must be lifted    
over or sometimes through a breach in   
the wall4 ,death must not pollute the   
great entrance4 ,at the end of the third
 trial1 the first batch of those who    
have completed their essays is honored  
with the firing of guns1 the bows of the
 officials1 and the ministry of a band  
of music4 ,three weeks of anxious       
waiting will ensue before a huge crowd  
will assemble to see the list published4
 ,then the successful candidates are the
 pride of their country side1 and well  
do the survivors of such an ordeal      
deserve their credit4 ,the case of those
 who are in the last selection and are  

left degreeless1 for the stern reason   
that some must be crowded out1 is the   
hardest of all4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,high ,,speed 
,,engine ,,and ,,dynamo4   ,we          
illustrate a high speed engine and      
dynamo constructed by ,easton           
,anderson1 ,london4 ,this plant was used
 at the ,royal ,agricultural ,society's 
show at ,doncaster in testing the       
machinery in the dairy1 and constituted 
a distinct innovation1 as well as an    
improvement1 on the appliances          
previously employed for the purpose4    
,the separator1 or whatever might be the
 machine under trial1 was driven by an  
electric motor fed by a current from the
 dynamo we illustrate4 ,a record was    
made of the volts and amperes used1 and 
from this the power expended was        
deduced1 the motor having been          
previously carefully calibrated by means
 of a brake4 ,so delicate was the test  
that the observers could detect the     
presence of a warm bearing in the       

separator from the change in the        
readings of the ammeter4  ,illustration3
 ,,improved ,,high ,,speed ,,engine     
,,and ,,dynamo4  ,the engine is         
carefully balanced to enable it to run  
at the very high speed of #ejj          
revolutions per minute4 ,the cranks are 
opposite each other1 and the moving     
parts connected with the two pistons are
 of the same weight4 ,the result is     
complete absence of vibration1 and      
exceedingly quiet running4 ,very liberal
 lubricating arrangements are fitted to 
provide for long runs1 while uniformity 
of speed is provided for by a ,pickering
 governor4 ,the high pressure cylinder  
is #d in4 in diameter1 and the low      
pressure cylinder is #g in4 in diameter4
 ,the stroke in each case is #d in4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4  ,the dynamo is
 designed to feed sixty lamps of #af    
candle power each1 the current being #fj
 amperes at #ej volts4 ,the armature is 
of the drum type4 ,the peculiar feature 
of it is that grooves are planed in the 

laminated core from end to end1 and in  
these grooves the conductors1 which are 
of ribbon section1 are laid4 ,slips of  
insulating material are laid between the
 coils and the dovetailed mouths of the 
grooves are closed with bone or         
vulcanized fiber1 or other dielectric4  
,at each end of the core there are      
fitted non-magnetic covers4 ,at the     
commutator end the cover is like a      
truncated cone1 and incloses the        
connections completely4 ,one end of the 
cone is supported on the end plate of   
the armature and the other end on a ring
 on the commutator4 ,a bell-shaped cover
 incloses the conductors at the other   
end of the armature4 ,the result is that
 the conductors are completely incased1 
protected from all mechanical injury1   
and positively driven4 ,they can neither
 be displaced nor abraded4 ,the         
conductors on the magnet coils are      
likewise carefully protected from harm  
by metal coverings4 ,these dynamos are  
made in sixteen sizes1 of which seven   

sizes are designed to feed more than    
#ajj lamps1 the largest serving for #fjj
 lamps4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4       
,messrs4 ,easton  ,anderson are showing 
machinery of this type at the ,crystal  
,palace ,electrical ,exhibition now open
 in ,london4--,engineering4         99  
99       99       99       99           
,,chlorine ,,gas ,,and ,,soda ,,by ,,the
 ,,electrolytic ,,process4   ,the       
decomposition of a solution of common   
salt1 and its conversion into chlorine  
gas and caustic soda solution by means  
of an electric current1 has long been a 
study with electro-chemists4            
,experimentally it has often been       
effected1 but so far as we are aware1   
the success of this method of production
 has never until now been demonstrated  
on a sound commercial basis4 ,the       
solution of this important industrial   
problem is due to ,mr4 ,james           
,greenwood1 who has been engaged in the 
development of electro-chemical         
processes for many years4 ,the outcome  

of this is that ,mr4 ,greenwood has now 
perfected an electrolytic process for   
the direct production of caustic soda   
and chlorine1 as well as other chemical 
products1 the operation of which we     
recently inspected at ,phoenix ,wharf1  
,battersea1 ,london4 ,one of the special
 features in connection with ,mr4       
,greenwood's new departure is the novel 
and ingenious method by which the       
electrolyzed products are separated1 and
 their recombination rendered           
impossible4 ,this object is attained by 
the use of a specially constructed      
diaphragm which is composed of a series 
of ,v-shaped glass troughs1 fitted in a 
frame within each other with a small    
space between them1 which is lightly    
packed with asbestos fiber4 ,another    
important feature of the apparatus is a 
compound anode which consists of carbon 
plates1 with a metal core to increase   
the conductivity4 ,the anode is treated 
in a special manner so as to render it  
non-porous and impervious to attack by  

the nascent chlorine evolved on its     
surface4 ,no anode appears ever to have 
been invented that is at all suitable   
for working on a large scale1 and the   
successful introduction of this compound
 anode1 therefore1 constitutes a marked 
advance in the apparatus used in        
electrolytic methods of production4     
,the apparatus by which the new process 
is being successfully demonstrated on a 
working scale has been put up by the    
,caustic ,soda and ,chlorine ,syndicate1
 ,london1 and has been in operation for 
several months past4 ,the installation  
consists of five large electrolytic     
vessels1 each of which is fitted up with
 five anodes and six cathodes arranged  
alternately4 ,the anodes and cathodes   
are separated by the special diaphragms1
 and each vessel is thus divided into   
ten anode or chlorine sections and ten  
cathode or caustic soda sections4 ,the  
anodes and cathodes in each vessel are  
connected up in parallel similar to an  
ordinary storage battery1 but the five  

electrolytic vessels are connected up in
 series4 ,the current is produced by an 
,elwell-,parker dynamo1 and the         
electromotive force required to overcome
 the resistance of each vessel is about 
#d4d volts1 with a current density of   
#aj amperes per square foot of electrode
 surface4 ,the anode sections1 numbering
 fifty altogether1 are connected by     
means of tubes1 the inlet being at the  
bottom and the outlet at the top of each
 section4 ,the whole of the cathode     
sections are connected in the same      
manner4 ,in commencing operations1 the  
electrolytic vessels are charged with a 
solution of common salt1 through which a
 current of electricity is then passed1 
thus decomposing or splitting up the    
salt into its elements1 chlorine and    
sodium4 ,in the separation of the       
sodium1 however1 a secondary action     
takes place1 which converts it into     
caustic soda4 ,an automatic circulation 
of the solutions is maintained by       
placing the charging tanks at a slight  

elevation1 and the vessels themselves on
 platforms arranged in steps4 ,the      
solutions are pumped back from the      
lowest vessel to their respective       
charging tanks1 the salt solution to be 
further decomposed and the caustic soda 
solution to be further concentrated4    
,the chlorine gas evolved in the fifty  
anode sections is conveyed by means of  
main and branch tubes into several      
absorbers1 in which milk of lime1 kept  
in a state of agitation1 takes up the   
chlorine1 thus making it into bleaching 
or chlorate liquor as may be required4  
,if the chlorine is required to be made 
into bleaching powder1 then it is       
conveyed into leaden chambers and       
treated with lime in the usual manner4  
,the caustic soda formed in the fifty   
cathode sections is more or less        
concentrated according to the particular
 purpose for which it may be required4  
,if1 however1 the caustic soda is       
required in solid form1 and practically 
free from salt1 then the caustic        

alkaline liquor is transferred from the 
electrolytic vessels to evaporating     
pans1 where it is concentrated to the   
required strength by evaporation and at 
the same time the salt remaining in the 
solution is eliminated by precipitation4
  ,such is the method of manufacturing  
caustic soda and chlorine by this       
process1 which will doubtless have a    
most important bearing upon many trades 
and manufactures1 more particularly upon
 the paper1 soap1 and bleaching         
industries4 ,but the invention does not 
stop where we have left it1 for it is   
stated that the process can be applied  
to the production of sodium amalgam and 
chlorine for extracting gold and other  
metals from their ores4 ,it can also be 
utilized in the production of caustic   
and chlorate of potash and other        
chemicals1 which can be manufactured in 
a state of the greatest purity4 ,a very 
important consideration is that of cost1
 for upon this depends commercial       
success4 ,it is therefore satisfactory  

to learn that the cost of production has
 been determined by the most careful    
electrical and analytical tests1 which  
demonstrate an economy of over #ej per  
cent4 as compared with present methods4 
,highly favorable reports on the process
 have been made by ,dr4 ,g4 ,gore1      
,f4,r4,s41 the eminent authority on     
electro-chemical processes1 by ,mr4     
,w4,h4 ,preece1 ,f4,r4,s41 and by       
,messrs4 ,cross  ,bevan1 consulting     
chemists4 ,dr4 ,gore states that the    
chemical and electrical principles upon 
which this process is based are         
thoroughly sound1 and that the process  
is of a scientifically practical        
character4 ,should1 however1 the economy
 of production even fall somewhat below 
the anticipations of those who have     
examined into the process very          
carefully1 it can hardly fail to prove  
as successful commercially as it has    
scientifically4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,completion   
,,of ,,the ,,mersey ,,tunnel ,,railway4 

,on the #aath of ,january 7says the     
,liverpool ,daily ,post7 will be opened 
for traffic the new station of the      
,mersey ,tunnel ,railway at the bottom  
of ,bold ,street4 ,with the completion  
of the station at ,bold ,street the     
scheme may be said to have been brought 
successfully to a conclusion4 ,it was   
not until #ahgi1 after the expenditure  
of #abe1jjjl4 upon trial borings1 that  
the promoters ventured to appeal to the 
public for support1 and that a company1 
of which the ,right ,hon4 ,h4 ,cecil    
,raikes1 ,m4,p41 was chairman1 was      
formed for carrying the project of the  
,mersey ,railway into effect4 ,the      
experience of the engineers in the      
construction of the tunnel is not a     
little curious4 ,it was proved by the   
borings that the position in which the  
tunnel was proposed to be bored was not 
only the most important from the point  
of view of public convenience1 and      
therefore of commercial advantage1 but  
was from the point of view of           

engineering difficulty decidedly the    
most preferable4 ,in this position the  
cuttings passed through the sandstone   
rock1 although on the ,liverpool side   
the shafts were sunk through a          
considerable depth through made ground1 
the whole of ,mann ,island and the      
,goree being composed of earth and      
gravel tipped on the old bank of the    
river4 ,indeed the miners passed through
 the cellars of old houses and unearthed
 old water pipes2 excavated through a   
depth of tipped rubbish on which these  
houses had evidently been built2 and    
then came upon the former strand of the 
river1 beneath which was the blue silt  
usually found2 then a stratum of bowlder
 clay2 and finally the red sandstone    
rock4 ,once begun1 the works were pushed
 forward night and day1 ,sundays        
excepted1 until ,january1 #ahhd1 when   
the last few feet of rock were cleared  
away by the boring machine1 and the     
mayors of ,liverpool and ,birkenhead met
 in fraternal greeting beneath the      

river4 ,the operations gave employment  
to #c1jjj men working three shifts of   
eight hours each1 but were greatly      
accelerated by the use of ,colonel      
,beaumont's boring machine1 on which    
disks of chilled iron are set in a      
strong iron bar made to revolve by means
 of compressed air4 ,this machine       
scooped out a tunnel #g feet in         
diameter2 and by successive improvements
 ,colonel ,beaumont attained a speed of 
#aej feet per week1 leaving the old     
method of blasting far behind4 ,as the  
machine moved forward the rock behind   
was broken out to the size of the main  
tunnel and bricked in in short lengths4 
,one remarkable circumstance in         
connection with the work is that the    
boring from the ,birkenhead side and the
 boring from ,liverpool were found1 when
 they were completed and joined1 to be  
out of line by only #a inch4  ,this     
excellent result was attained by careful
 calculations and experiments with      
perpendicular wires kept in position by 

weights1 which1 to avoid oscillation1   
were suspended in buckets of water4     
,from shaft to shaft the tunnel is      
#a1ggj yards in length and #bf feet in  
diameter2 but for a length of #djj feet 
at the ,james ,street and ,hamilton     
,square stations the arch is enlarged to
 #ej feet4 ,the tunnel is lined with    
from six to eight rings of solid        
brickwork embedded in cement1 the two   
inner rings being blue ,staffordshire or
 ,burnley bricks4 ,for the purpose of   
ventilation a smaller tunnel1 #g feet in
 diameter1 was bored parallel with the  
main tunnel1 with which it is connected 
in eight places by cross cuts1 provided 
with suitable doors4 ,both at ,liverpool
 and at ,birkenhead there are two guibal
 fans1 one #dj feet and the other #cj   
feet in diameter4 ,the smaller1 which   
throw each #ahj1jjj cubic feet of air   
per minute1 ventilate the continuations 
of the tunnel under ,liverpool and      
,birkenhead respectively1 and the larger
 tunnel under the river4 ,the fans      

remove together #fjj1jjj cubic feet of  
air per minute1 and by this combined    
operation the entire air in the tunnel  
is changed once in every seven minutes4 
,by the use of regulating shutters the  
air passes in a continuous current and  
the fans are noiseless4 ,the telegraph  
and telephone wires pass through the    
tunnel1 thus avoiding the long detour by
 ,runcorn4 ,probably1 as a feat of      
engineering1 the construction of the new
 station at ,bold ,street is not        
inferior to any part of the scheme      
advanced4 ,under very singular and      
perplexing difficulties it could only be
 proceeded with in its first stages from
 midnight until six o'clock the         
following morning1 it being of course   
essential that the traffic at the       
,central ,station should not be         
interfered with4 ,during these hours1   
night after night1 trenches were cut at 
intervals of #aj feet across the roadway
 connecting the arrival platforms at the
 station1 and into these were placed    

strong balks of timber1 across which    
planks were laid as a temporary roadway4
 ,beneath these planks1 which were taken
 up and put down as required1 the rock  
was excavated to a depth of #i feet1 and
 the balks supported upon stout props4  
,then from the driftway or rough boring 
beneath well holes were bored to the    
upper excavation1 and through them the  
strong upright iron pillars designed to 
support the roof of the new tunnel      
station were passed1 bedded and securely
 fixed in position4 ,no sooner were they
 in situ than the most troublesome part 
of the task was entered upon1 for the   
balks had then to be removed in order to
 allow to be placed in position the     
girders running the length of the new   
station1 and resting on the tops of the 
upright pillars4 ,from these            
longitudinal girders cross girders of   
great strength were placed1 and between 
these were built brick arches1 packed   
above with concrete4 ,this formed the   
roof of the new station4 ,one portion of

 it passed under the rails in the       
station above1 and had to be constructed
 without stoppage of the traffic4 ,the  
rails had consequently to be supported  
on a temporary steel bridge of ingenious
 design1 constructed by ,mr4 ,c4,a4     
,rowlendson1 the resident engineer and  
manager of the company1 under whose     
personal supervision1 as representing   
,sir ,douglas ,fox1 the work has been   
carried out4 ,with this device the men  
were enabled to go on in safety although
 locomotives were passing immediately   
above their heads4 ,after the completion
 of the roof the station below was      
excavated by what is technically called 
plug and feather work--that is to say1  
by drilling holes into which powerful   
wedges are driven to split the rock4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,steam ,,street ,,railway ,,motor4  
,illustration3 ,north ,chicago ,street  
,railroad ,engine  ,while in ,paris1    
,president ,yerkes1 of the ,north       
,chicago ,street ,railway ,company1     

purchased a noiseless steam motor1 the  
results in experimenting with which will
 be watched with great interest4 ,the   
accompanying engraving1 for which we are
 indebted to the ,street ,railway       
,review1 gives a very accurate idea of  
the general external appearance4 ,the   
car is all steel throughout1 except     
windows1 doors and ceiling4 ,it is #ab  
ft4 long1 #h ft4 wide1 and #i ft4 high1 
and weighs about seven tons4 ,the       
engines1 which have #be horse power and 
are of the double cylinder pattern1 are 
below the floor and connected directly  
to the wheels4 ,the wheels are four in  
number and #ca in4 in diameter4 ,the    
internal appearance and general         
arrangement of machinery1 etc41 is about
 that of the ordinary steam dummy4 ,it  
will run in either direction1 and the   
exhaust steam is run through a series of
 mufflers which suppress the sound1     
condense the steam and return the water 
to the boiler1 which occupies the center
 of the car4 ,the motor was built in    

,ghent1 ,belgium1 and cost about #e1jjj1
 custom house duties amounting to about 
#b1jjj more4--,the ,railway ,review4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,twenty-,,four ,,knot ,,steamers4      
,probably the most important form of    
steam machinery is the marine engine1   
not only because of the conditions under
 which it works1 but because of the     
great power it is called upon to exert4 
,naturally its most interesting         
application is to ,atlantic steaming4   
,the success of the four great liners1  
,teutonic1 ,majestic1 ,city of ,paris   
and ,city of ,new ,york1 has stimulated 
demand1 and the ,cunard ,company has    
resolved to add to its fleet1 and place 
two ships on the ,atlantic which will   
outstrip the racers we have named4  ,the
 visitor to the late ,naval ,exhibition 
interested in shipping will have        
remarked at each of the several exhibits
 of the great firms a model of a        
projected steamer1 intended to reduce   
the present record of the six days'     

voyage across the ,atlantic--the ne plus
 ultra at this time of steam navigation4
 ,to secure this present result a       
continuous steaming for the six days at 
#bj knot speed is requisite1 not to     
mention an extra day or two at each end 
of the voyage4 ,the ,city of ,paris and 
the ,city of ,new ,york1 ,furst         
,bismarck1 ,teutonic and ,majestic are  
capable of this1 with the ,umbria and   
,etruria close behind at #ah to #ai     
knots4 ,only ten years ago the average  
passage1 reckoned in the same way as    
from land to land--or ,queenstown to    
,sandy ,hook--was seven days with a     
speed of #ag knots1 the performance of  
such vessels as the ,arizona and        
,alaska4 ,twenty years ago the length of
 the voyage was estimated as seven and a
 half to eight days at a speed of #af   
knots1 the performance of such vessels  
as the ,germanic and ,britannic of the  
,white ,star fleet of #e1jjj tons and   
#e1jjj horse power4 ,thirty years ago   
the paddle steamer was not yet driven   

off the ocean1 and we find the ,scotia  
crossing in between eight and nine days1
 at a speed of #ac or #ad knots4 ,in    
#aheh ten and a half to twelve and a    
half days was allowed for the passage   
between ,liverpool and ,new ,york4 ,so  
as we recede we finally arrive at the   
pioneer vessels1 the ,sirius and ,great 
,western1 crossing in fourteen to       
eighteen days at a speed of #f to #h    
knots4 ,for these historical details an 
interesting paper may be consulted1 ,de 
,toenemende ,grootte der                
,zee-,stoombooten1 #ahhh1 by ,professor 
,a4 ,huet1 of the ,delft ,polytechnic   
,school4  ,each of the last two or three
 decades has thus succeeded1 always1    
however1 with increasing difficulty1 in 
knocking off a day from the duration of 
the voyage4 ,but although the present   
six-day #bj knot boats are of extreme   
size and power1 and date only from the  
last two or three years1 still the world
 of travelers declares itself           
unsatisfied4 ,already we hear that      

another day must be struck off1 and that
 five-day steamers have become a        
necessity of modern requirements1       
keeping up a continuous ocean speed of  
#bc knots to #bd knots4 ,shipbuilders   
and engineers are ashamed to mention the
 word impossible2 and designers are     
already at work1 as we saw in the ,naval
 ,exhibition1 but only so far in the    
model stage2 as the absence of any of   
the well known distinguishing blazons of
 the foremost lines was sufficient to   
show that no order had been placed for  
the construction of a real vessel4 ,it  
will take a very short time to examine  
the task of the naval architect required
 to secure these onerous and magnificent
 conditions1 five days' continuous ocean
 steaming at a speed of #bd knots4  ,the
 most practical1 theory-despising among 
them must for the nonce become a        
theorist1 and argue from the known to   
the unknown2 and1 first1 the practical  
man will turn--secretly perhaps1 but    
wisely--to the invaluable experiments   

and laws laid down so clearly by the    
late ,mr4 ,froude4 ,although primarily  
designed to assist the ,admiralty in    
arguing from the resistance of a model  
to that of the full size vessel1 the    
practical man need not thereby despise  
,froude's laws1 as he is able to choose 
his mode3 to any scale he likes1 and he 
can take his experiments ready made by  
practice on a large scale1 as ,newton   
took the phenomena of astronomy for the 
illustration of the mechanical laws4    
,suppose then he takes the ,city of     
,paris as his model1 #efj ft4 by #fc    
ft41 in round numbers #aj1jjj tons      
displacement1 and #bj1jjj horse power1  
for a speed of #bj knots1 with a coal   
capacity of #b1jjj tons1 sufficient1    
with contingencies1 for a voyage of six 
to eight days4 ,or we may take a later  
#bj knot vessel1 the ,furst ,bismarck1  
#ejj ft4 by #ej;ft41 #h1jjj tons1 and   
#af1jjj horse power1 speed #bj knots1   
and coal capacity #b1gjj tons1 to allow 
for the entire length of voyage to      

,germany4  ,in ,froude's method of      
comparison the laws of mechanical       
similitude are preserved if we make the 
displacements of the model and of its   
copy in the ratio of the sixth power of 
the speeds designed1 or the length as   
the square of the speed4 ,our new #bd   
knot vessel1 taking the ,city of ,paris 
as a model1 would therefore have #aj1jjj
 7#bd  #bj7f  #bi1hfj1 say #cj1jjj tons 
displacement1 and would be #hjj ft4  #ij
 ft4 in dimensions4 ,the horse power    
would have to be as the seventh power of
 the speed1 and our vessel would        
therefore have #bj1jjj 7#bd  #bj7g1 or  
say #gb1jjj horse power4 ,further       
applications of ,froude's laws of       
similitude will show that the steam     
pressure and piston speed would have to 
be raised #bj per cent41 while the      
revolutions were discounted #bj per     
cent41 supposing the engines and        
propellers to be increased in size to   
scale4 ,to provide the requisite        
enormous boiler power1 all geometrical  

scale would disappear2 but it would     
carry us too far at present to follow up
 this interesting comparison4  ,our     
naval architect is not likely at present
 to proceed further with this monstrous 
design1 exceeding even the ,great       
,eastern in size1 if only because no    
dock is in existence capable of         
receiving such a ship4 ,he has however  
learned something of value1 namely1 that
 this vessel1 if the proper similitude  
is carried out1 is capable of keeping up
 a speed of #bd knots for five days with
 ample coal supply1 provided the boilers
 are not found to occupy all the        
available space4 ,for it is an immediate
 consequence of ,froude's laws that in  
similar vessels run at corresponding    
speeds over the same voyage1 the coal   
capacity is proportionately the same1 or
 that a ton of coal will carry the same 
number of tons of displacement over the 
same distance4 ,thus our enlarged ,city 
of ,paris would require to carry about  
#d1jjj tons of coal1 burning #hjj tons a

 day4  ,with the ,britannic and         
,germanic as models of #e1jjj tons and  
#e1jjj horse power at #af knot speed1   
the #bd knot vessel would require to be 
of #eg1jjj tons and #he1jjj horse power1
 to carry sufficient coal for the voyage
 of #c1jjj miles4 ,these enormous       
vessels being out of the question1 the  
designer must reduce the size4 ,but now 
the ,city of ,paris will no longer serve
 as a model1 he must look elsewhere for 
a vessel of high speed1 and smaller     
scale1 and naturally he picks out a     
torpedo boat at the other end of the    
scale4 ,a speed of #bd knots--and it is 
claimed even of #be1 #bf1 and #bg       
knots--has been attained on the mile by 
a torpedo boat4 ,but such a performance 
is useless for our mode of comparison1  
as sufficient fuel at this high speed   
for ten or twelve hours only at most can
 be carried--a voyage of1 say1 #ejj     
miles2 while our steamer is required to 
carry coal for #c1jjj miles4 ,the       
,russian torpedo boat ,wiborg1 for      

instance1 is designed to carry coal for 
#a1bjj miles at #aj knot speed2 but at  
#bj knots this fuel would last only     
twenty-seven hours1 carrying the vessel 
#edj miles4 ,it will now be found that  
with this limited coal capacity the     
speed of the ordinary torpedo boat must 
be reduced considerably below #aj knots 
for it to be able to cross the          
,atlantic1 #c1jjj miles under steam4 ,so
 that1 even at a possible speed of #aj  
knots for the voyage1 the full sized #bd
 knot five-day vessel1 of which the best
 torpedo boat is the model1 must have   
7#b4d7f1 say #bjj times the tonnage1 and
 7#b4d7g1 or #dfj times the horse power4
 ,the enlarged ,wiborg would thus not   
differ much from the enlarged ,city of  
,paris4 ,a better model to select would 
be one of the recent dispatch boats1    
commerce destroyers1 or torpedo         
catchers1 recently designed by ,mr4     
,w4,h4 ,white1 for our navy--the        
,intrepid or ,endymion1 for instance4   
,the ,intrepid is #cjj ft4 by #dd ft41  

#c1fjj tons1 and #i1jjj horse power for 
#bj knot speed1 with #hjj hours' coal   
capacity for #h1jjj miles at #aj knot   
speed2 which will reduce to #c1jjj miles
 at #af knots1 and #b1jjj miles at #bj  
knots4  ,the ,endymion is #cfj ft4 by   
#fj ft41 with coal capacity for #b1hjj  
miles at #ah knot speed1 or for about   
#add hours or six days4 ,the enlarged   
,endymion for the same voyage of #b1hjj 
miles in five days1 or at #ba knot      
speed1 would be #dd per cent larger and 
broader1 that is #ebj ft4 by #hf ft41   
and of threefold tonnage1 and three and 
a half times1 or about #cj1jjj horse    
power--about the dimensions of the      
,furst ,bismarck1 but much more         
powerfully engined4 ,this agrees fairly 
with the estimate in the ,,scientific   
,,american of #aith ,sept1 #ahia41 where
 it is stated that twenty-two boilers1  
at a working pressure of #ahj lb4 on the
 square inch1 would be required1        
allowing #a lb4 of coal per horse power 
hour4  ,the ,intrepid1 enlarged to a #bd

 knot boat1 for the same length of      
voyage of #c1jjj miles1 would be #fej   
ft4 by #ajj ft41 #dj1jjj tons1 and about
 #de1jjj horse power4 ,so now we are    
nearing the ,messrs4 ,thomson design in 
the ,naval ,exhibition of the five-day  
steamer1 #bc knot speed1 #fcj ft4 by #gc
 ft41 and #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj horse      
power4  ,no one doubts the ability of   
our shipbuilding yards to turn out these
 monsters2 and on the measured mile1 and
 for a good long distance1 we shall     
certainly see the contract speeds       
attained and some excelled4 ,but the    
whole difficulty turns on the question  
of the coal capacity1 and whether it is 
sufficient to last for even five days or
 for #c1jjj miles4 ,every effort then   
must be made to shorten the length of   
the voyage from port to port2 and we may
 yet see ,galway and ,halifax1 only     
#b1bjj miles apart1 once more mentioned 
as the starting points of the voyage as 
of old1 in the earliest days of steam   
navigation4 ,in those days the question 

of fuel supply was a difficulty1 even at
 the then slow speeds1 in consequence of
 the wasteful character of the engines1 
burning from #g lb4 of coal and upward  
per horse power hour4 ,dr4 ,lardner's   
calculations1 based upon the average    
performance of those days1 justified him
 in saying that steam navigation could  
not pay--as was really the case until   
the introduction of the compound engine4
  ,it is recorded in ,admiral ,preble's 
,origin and ,development of ,steam      
,navigation1 ,philadelphia1 #ahhc1 page 
#afj1 that the ,sirius1 #gjj tons and   
#cbj horse power1 on her return voyage  
had to burn up all that old be spared on
 board1 and took seventeen days to reach
 ,falmouth4 ,an interesting old book to 
consult now is ,atherton's ,tables of   
,steamship ,capacity1 #ahed1 based as   
they are upon the performance of the    
marine engine of the day4 ,atherton     
calculates that a #aj1jjj ton vessel    
could at #bj knots carry only #bjd tons 
of cargo #a1fgf miles1 while a #e1jjj   

ton vessel at #ah knots on a voyage of  
#c1jjj miles could carry no cargo at    
all4 ,also that the cost per ton of     
cargo at #af knots would be twenty times
 the cost at eight knots1 implying a    
coal consumption reaching to #ab lb4 per
 horse power hour4 ,it is quite possible
 that some invention is still latent    
which will enable us to go considerably 
below the present average consumption of
 #b lb4 to #a lb4 per horse power hour2 
but at present our rate of progress     
appears asymptotic to a definite limit4 
,to conclude1 the whole difficulty is   
one of fuel supply1 and it is useless to
 employ a fast torpedo boat as our      
model1 except at the speed at which the 
torpedo boat can carry her own fuel to  
cross the ,atlantic4 ,if the voyage must
 be reduced in time1 let it be reduced  
from six days to four1 by running       
between ,galway and ,halifax1 a problem 
not too extravagant in its demands for  
modern engineering capabilities4 ,a     
statement has recently gained a certain 

amount of circulation to the effect that
 the ,inman ,company was about to use   
petroleum as fuel1 in order to obtain   
more steam4 ,we have the best possible  
authority for saying there is not the   
least syllable of truth in this rumor4  
,it has also been stated that since     
solid piston valves have been fitted to 
the ,teutonic in lieu of the original   
spring ring valves1 she has steamed     
faster4 ,this rumor is only partially   
true4 ,her record1 outward passage1 of  
#e days #af hours #ca minutes1 was made 
on her previous voyage4 ,she has1       
however1 since made her three fastest   
trips homeward4--,the ,engineer4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,military ,,engineer ,,and ,,his 
,,work4#a  ,by ,col4 ,w4,r4 ,,king4     
,footnote #a3 ,a lecture delivered      
before the students of ,sibley ,college1
 ,cornell ,university1 ,december #d1    
#ahia4--,the ,crank4   ,it is not an    
easy matter to present a dry subject in 
such an attractive form as to excite a  

thrilling interest in it1 and military  
science is no exception to this rule4   
,an ingenious military instructor at one
 of our universities has succeeded in   
pointing out certain analogies between  
grand tactics and the festive game of   
football1 which appears to have greatly 
improved the football1 if we may judge  
from the recent victories of the blue   
over the red and the black and orange1  
but it is not so clear that the effect  
of the union has been very beneficial to
 military science2 and even if such had 
been the case1 ,i fear there are no     
similar analogies that would be useful  
in enlivening the subject of military   
engineering4  ,from the earliest times  
of which we have record man has been    
disposed to strive with his fellow man1 
either to maintain his own rights or to 
possess himself of some rights or       
material advantage enjoyed by others4   
,when one or only a few men encroach on 
the rights of others in an organized    
community1 they may be restrained by the

 legal machinery of the state1 such as  
courts1 police1 and prisons1 but when a 
whole community or state rises against  
another1 the civil law becomes powerless
 and a state of war ensues4 ,it is not  
proposed here to discuss the ethics of  
this question1 nor the desirability of  
providing a suitable court of nations   
for settling all international          
difficulties without war4 ,the great    
advantage of such a system of avoiding  
war is admitted by all intelligent      
people4 ,we notice here a singular      
inconsistency in the principles upon    
which this strife is carried on1 viz43  
,if it be a single combat1 either a     
friendly contest or a deadly one1 the   
parties are expected to contest on equal
 terms as nearly as may be arranged2 but
 if large numbers are engaged1 or in    
other words1 when the contest becomes   
war1 the rule is reversed and each party
 is expected to take every possible     
advantage of his adversary1 even to the 
extent of stratagem or deception4 ,in   

fact1 it has passed into a proverb that 
all things are fair in love and war4    
,now one of the first things resorted   
to1 in order to gain an advantage over  
the enemy1 was to bring in material     
appliances1 such as walls1 ditches1     
catapults1 scaling ladders1 battering   
rams1 and subsequently the more modern  
appliances1 such as guns1 forts1 and    
torpedoes1 all of which are known as    
engines of war1 and the men who built   
and operated these engines were very    
naturally called engineers4 ,it is this 
kind of an artificer that ,shakespeare  
refers to when he playfully suggests    
that 'tis the sport to have the engineer
 hoist with his own petard4  ,the early 
military engineer has left ample records
 and monuments of his genius4 ,the walls
 of ancient cities1 castles that still  
crown many hills in both hemispheres1   
the great ,chinese wall1 the historical 
bridge of ,julius ,csar1 which with     
charming simplicity he tells us was     
built because it did not comport with   

his dignity to cross the stream in      
boats1 the bridge of boats across the   
,hellespont1 by ,xerxes1 are all        
examples of early military engineering4 
,the ,bible tells us ,king ,uzziah built
 towers at the gates of ,jerusalem1 and 
at the turning of the wall1 and         
fortified them4 ,we may note in passing 
that the buttresses1 battlements1 and   
bartizans with which our modern         
architects ornament or disfigure        
churches1 peaceful dwellings1 and public
 buildings1 are copied from the early   
works of the military engineer4  ,coming
 down to the military engineers of our  
own country1 we find that one of the    
first acts of the ,continental          
,congress1 after appointing ,washington 
as commander-in-chief1 was to authorize 
him to employ a number of engineers4 ,it
 was not1 however1 until #aggg that a   
number of engineer officers from the    
,french army arrived in this country1   
and were appointed in the ,continental  
army4 ,general ,du,portail was made     

,chief ,engineer1 and ,colonel          
,kosciusko1 the great ,polish patriot1  
was among his assistants4 ,other        
officers of the ,continental army were  
employed on engineering duty2 and under 
their supervision such works as the     
forts and the great chain barrier at    
,west ,point were built1 and the siege  
operations around ,boston and ,yorktown 
were carried on4  ,after the close of   
the war1 in #agid1 a ,corps of          
,artillerists and ,engineers was        
organized4 ,this corps was stationed at 
,west ,point1 and became the nucleus of 
the ,united ,states ,military ,academy4 
,in #ahjb1 by operation of the law      
reorganizing the army1 this corps was   
divided1 as the names would indicate1   
into an ,artillery ,corps and ,corps of 
,engineers4 ,the ,corps of ,engineers   
consisted of one major1 two captains1   
four lieutenants1 and ten cadets4 ,the  
,artillery ,corps was again divided into
 the ,ordnance ,corps and several       
regiments of artillery1 now five in     

number1 while the duties of the ,corps  
of ,engineers were divided between the  
,engineer ,corps and a ,corps of        
,topographical ,engineers1 organized at 
a later date2 but on the breaking out of
 the late rebellion it was deemed best  
to unite the two corps1 and they have so
 remained until the present time4 ,the  
,corps of ,engineers now consists of    
#aah officers of various grades1 from   
second lieutenant to brigadier general1 
of which last grade there is only one   
officer1 the chief of the corps1 and it 
requires something more than an average 
official lifetime for the aforesaid     
lieutenant to attain that rank4 ,hardly 
one in ten of them ever reach it4       
,daniel ,webster's remark to the young  
lawyer1 that there is always room at the
 top1 will not apply to the ,corps of   
,engineers4 ,the officers are all       
graduates of the ,military ,academy1    
which institution continued as a part of
 the ,corps of ,engineers until #ahff4  
,the vacancies in the corps are filled  

by the assignment to it of from two to  
six graduates each year1 and there is   
attached to the corps a battalion of    
four companies of enlisted men1 formerly
 called ,sappers and ,miners1 but now   
known as the ,battalion of ,engineers4  
,we now come naturally to the duties of 
our military engineer1 and here ,i may  
remark that these duties are so varied  
and so numerous that a detailed recital 
of them would suggest ,goldsmith's      
,deserted ,village3        444 ,and     
still the wonder grew       ,that one   
small head could carry all he ought to  
know  ,never lose sight of fact for the 
sake of rhyme4  ,in general terms1 his  
duties consist of3      #a4 ,military   
surveys and explorations4      #b4      
,boundary surveys4      #c4 ,geodetic   
and hydrographic survey of the great    
lakes4      #d4 ,building               
fortifications--both permanent works and
 temporary     or field works4      #e4 
,constructing military roads4      #f4  
,pontoniering or building military      

bridges1 both with the     regular      
bridge trains and with improved         
materials4      #g4 ,the planning and   
directing of siege operations1 either   
offensive or defensive2 sapping1 mining1
 etc4      #h4 ,providing1 testing and  
planting torpedoes for harbor           
defense when operating from shore       
stations4      #i4 ,staff duty with     
general officers4      #aj4 ,improving  
rivers and harbors4      #aa4 ,the      
building and repairing of lighthouses4  
#ab4 ,various special duties as         
commissioner of ,district of            
,columbia1 superintendent military      
academy1 commandant engineer     school1
 instructors at both of these schools1  
attaches to     several foreign         
legations1 for the collection of        
military     information1 etc4  ,it     
would1 of course1 exceed the proper     
limits of a single lecture to go into   
the details of these many duties1 but we
 may take only a passing glance at most 
of them1 and give more special attention

 to a few that may involve some points  
of interest4 ,perhaps the most          
interesting branch of the subject would 
be that of permanent fortifications1 or 
what amounts to almost the same thing in
 this country1 sea coast defenses4 ,and 
here our trouble begins1 for1 while     
civil engineers have constant experience
 to guide them1 their roads1 bridges1   
and other structures being in constant  
use1 the military engineer has only now 
and then1 at long intervals1 a war or a 
siege of sufficient extent to furnish   
data upon which he can safely plan or   
build his structures4 ,imagine a civil  
engineer designing a bridge1 road1 or a 
dam to meet some possible future demand1
 without having seen such a structure   
used for twenty years or more1 and you  
can form some estimate of the delightful
 uncertainties that surround the        
military engineer when called upon to   
design a modern fort4 ,the proving      
ground shows him that radical           
improvements are necessary1 but actual  

service conditions are almost entirely  
wanting1 and such as we have contradict 
many of the proving ground theories4    
,thus we have the records of shot going 
through #be inches of iron or #be feet  
of concrete on the proving ground2 but  
such actual service tests as the        
bombardment of ,fort ,sumter1 ,fort     
,fisher1 and the forts at ,alexandria   
contradict this entirely1 and indicate  
that1 except for the moral effect1 our  
old forts1 with modern guns in them and 
some additional strengthening at their  
weaker points1 would answer all purposes
 so far as bombardment from fleets is   
concerned4 ,this is not saying that the 
forts are good enough in their present  
condition1 but simply that they can     
readily be made far superior in         
strength1 both offensive and defensive1 
to any fleet that could possibly be     
provided at anything like the same      
expense1 or in fact at any expense that 
would be justified by the condition of  
our treasury1 either past1 present1 or  

probable future4 ,it might be added that
 a still more serious difficulty in the 
way of the military engineer1 so far as 
practice and its consequent experiences 
are concerned1 is that for many years   
past1 until quite recently1 there have  
been no funds either for experiments or 
actual work on fortifications1 so that  
very little has been done on them during
 the last twenty years4  ,without going 
into the question of the necessity for  
sea coast defenses1 we may assume that  
an enemy is likely to come into one of  
our harbors and that it is desirable to 
keep him out4 ,what provisions must be  
made to accomplish this1 i4e41 to secure
 the safety of the harbors and the      
millions of dollars' worth of           
destructible property concentrated at   
the great trade centers that are usually
 located upon those harbors8 ,we must   
first take a look at the enemy and see  
what he is like before we can decide    
what will be needed to repel his attack4
 ,for this purpose we need not draw on  

the imagination1 but we may simply      
examine some of the more recent armadas 
sent to bombard seaports4 ,for example1 
the fleet sent by ,great ,britain to    
bombard the ,egyptian city of           
,alexandria1 in #ahhb4 ,this fleet      
consisted of eight heavy ironclad ships 
of from #e1jjj to #aa1jjj tons          
displacement and five or six smaller    
vessels2 and the armament of this       
squadron numbered more than one hundred 
guns of all calibers1 from the sixteen  
inch rifle down to the seven inch rifle1
 besides several smaller guns4 ,but this
 fleet represented only a small fraction
 of ,england's naval power4 ,during some
 recent evolutions she turned out       
thirty-six heavy ironclads and forty    
smaller vessels and torpedo boats4 ,the 
crews of these vessels numbered nearly  
#ai1jjj officers and men1 or about three
 times the entire number in our navy4   
,such a fleet1 or1 more likely1 a much  
larger one1 might appear at the entrance
 say of ,new ,york harbor within ten    

days after a declaration of war1 and    
demand whatever the nation to which it  
belonged might choose1 with the         
alternative of bombardment4  ,the       
problem of protecting our people and    
property from such attacks is not a new 
one1 and1 in fact1 most of the          
conditions of this problem remain the   
same as they were fifty years ago1 the  
differences being in degree rather than 
in kind4 ,the most natural thought would
 be to meet such a fleet by another     
fleet1 but the folly of such a course   
will become apparent from a moment's    
consideration4 ,the difficulties would  
be3  #ast4 ,our fleet must be decidedly 
stronger than that of the enemy1 or we  
simply fight a duel with an equal chance
 of success or failure4  #b;d4 ,in such 
a duel the enemy would risk nothing but 
the loss of his fleet1 and even a       
portion of that would be likely to      
escape1 but we would not only risk a    
similar loss1 but we would also lose the
 city or subject it to the payment of a 

heavy contribution to the enemy4  #c;d4 
,unless we have a fleet for every       
harbor1 it would be impossible to depend
 upon this kind of defense1 as the enemy
 would select whichever harbor he found 
least prepared to receive him4 ,it would
 be of vital importance that we defend  
every harbor of importance1 as a neglect
 to do so would be like locking some of 
our doors and leaving the others open to
 the burglars4  #dth4 ,it might be      
thought that we could send our fleet to 
intercept the enemy or blockade him in  
his own ports1 but this has been found  
impracticable4 ,large fleets can readily
 escape from blockaded harbors1 or elude
 each other on the high seas1 and any   
such scheme implies that we are much    
stronger on the ocean than the enemy1   
which is very far from the case4 ,to    
build a navy that would overmatch that  
of ,great ,britain alone would not only 
cost untold millions1 but it would      
require many years for its              
accomplishment2 and even if this were   

done1 there would be nothing unusual in 
an alliance of two or more powerful     
nations1 which would leave us again in  
the minority4 ,fleets1 then1 cannot be  
relied on for permanent defense4        
,again1 it may be said that we have     
millions of the bravest soldiers in the 
world who could be assembled and placed 
under arms at a few days' notice4 ,this 
kind of defense would also prove a      
delusion1 for a hundred acres of        
soldiers armed with rifles and field    
artillery would be powerless to drive   
away even the smallest ironclad or stop 
a single projectile from one4 ,in fact1 
neither of these plans1 nor both        
together1 would be much more effective  
than the windmills and proclamations    
which ,irving humorously describes as   
the means adopted by the early ,dutch   
governors of ,new ,york to defend that  
city against the ,swedes and ,yankees4  
,having considered some of the means of 
defense that will not answer the        
purpose1 we may inquire what means will 

be effective4 ,and here it should be    
noted that our defenses should be so    
effective as not only to be reasonably  
safe1 but to be so recognized by all    
nations1 and thus discourage1 if not    
actually prevent1 an attack upon our    
coast4  ,in the first place1 we must    
have heavy guns in such numbers and of  
such sizes as to overmatch those of any 
fleet likely to attack us4 ,these guns  
must be securely mounted1 so as to be   
worked with facility and accuracy1 and  
they must be protected from the enemy's 
projectiles at least as securely as his 
guns are from ours4 ,merely placing     
ourselves on equal terms with the enemy1
 as in case of a duel or an ancient     
knight's tournament1 will not answer1   
first1 because such a state of things   
would invite rather than discourage     
attack1 and secondly1 because the enemy 
would have vastly more to gain by       
success and vastly less to lose by      
failure than we would4 ,this can be     
accomplished much easier than is        

generally supposed1 either by earthen   
parapets of sufficient thickness or by  
iron turrets or casements4 ,it is       
evident that the weight of metal used in
 these structures may be vastly greater 
than could be carried on shipboard4     
,great weight of metal is no objection  
on land1 but1 aside from its cost1 is a 
positive advantage4 ,this is evident    
when we consider the enormous quantity  
of energy stored in the larger          
projectiles moving at high velocities4  
,for example1 we often hear of the      
sixteen inch rifle whose projectile     
weighs about one ton1 and this enormous 
mass projected at a velocity of #b1jjj  
feet per second would have a kinetic    
energy of #fj1jjj foot tons1 or it would
 strike a blow equal to that of ten     
locomotives of #ej tons each running at 
#fj miles an hour and striking a solid  
wall4 ,any structure designed to resist 
such ponderous blows must1 therefore1   
have enormous weight1 or it will be     
overturned or driven bodily from its    

foundations4 ,if the armor itself is not
 thick enough to give the required      
weight as well as resistance to         
penetration1 the additional stability   
must be supplied by re-enforcing it with
 heavy masses of metal or masonry4 ,it  
is evident1 therefore1 that quality of  
metal is less important than quantity1  
and that so long as it is sufficiently  
tough to resist fracture1 a soft1 cheap 
metal1 like wrought iron or low steel1  
is better adapted for permanent works   
than any of the fancy kinds of armor    
that have been tested for naval         
purposes4 ,as an illustration of this1  
we may compare compound or steel-faced  
armor with wrought iron as follows3 ,the
 best of the former offers only about   
one-third greater resistance to         
penetration than the latter1 or #ab     
inches of compound armor may equal #af  
inches of wrought iron1 but the cost per
 ton is nearly double2 so that by using 
wrought iron we may have double the     
thickness1 or #bd inches1 which would   

give more than double the resistance to 
penetration1 in addition to giving      
double the stability against overturning
 or being driven bodily out of place4   
,but our guns may be reasonably well    
protected by earthen parapets without   
any expensive armor by so mounting them 
that when fired they will recoil        
downward or to one side1 so as to come  
below the parapet for loading4 ,this    
method of mounting is called the        
disappearing principle1 and has been    
suggested by many engineers1 some of    
whose designs date back more than one   
hundred years4 ,we may also mount our   
guns in deep pits1 where they will be   
covered from the enemy's guns1 and fire 
them at high elevation1 so that the     
shell will fall from a great height and 
penetrate the decks of the enemy's      
ships4 ,this is known as mortar firing1 
but the modern ordnance used for this   
purpose is more of a howitzer than a    
mortar1 being simply short rifled pieces
 arranged for breech loading4 ,all our  

batteries should1 of course1 be as far  
from the city or other object to be     
protected as possible1 to prevent the   
enemy from firing over and beyond the   
batteries into the city4  ,but1 with all
 these precautions1 the enemy might put 
on all steam and run by us either at    
night or in a dense fog1 and we must    
have some means of holding him under the
 fire of our guns until his ships can be
 disabled or driven away4 ,this object  
is sought to be accomplished by the use 
of torpedoes anchored in the channels   
and under the fire of our guns1 so that 
they cannot be removed by the enemy4    
,these torpedoes are generally exploded 
by electricity from batteries located in
 casements on shore1 these casements    
being connected with the torpedoes by   
submarine cables4 ,it is easy to see how
 the torpedo may be so arranged that    
when struck by a ship the electric      
current will be closed1 and1 if the     
battery on shore is connected at the    
same instant1 an explosion will take    

place2 on the other hand1 if the battery
 on shore is disconnected a friendly    
ship may pass in safety over the        
torpedoes4 ,many ingenious contrivances 
have also been devised by which the     
torpedo may be made to signal back to   
the shore station either that it has    
been struck or that it is in good order 
for service1 in case the enemy should   
undertake to run over it4 ,one simple   
plan for this is to have a small        
telephone in the torpedo with some loose
 buckshot on the diaphragm1 which is    
placed in a horizontal position1 and    
will be slightly tilted as the torpedo  
is moved about by the waves4 ,by        
connecting the shore end of the cable   
with a telephone receiver1 the rolling  
of the shot may be distinctly heard if  
the torpedo is floating properly1 but if
 sunk at its moorings1 or if the cable  
is broken1 no sound will be heard4  ,the
 use of torpedoes involves the use of   
both electricity and high explosives1   
and a careful study based upon actual   

experiments has been carried on for many
 years1 by the engineers and naval      
officers in all civilized countries4    
,some of these experiments have supplied
 interesting and useful data1 for the   
use of the agents in question1 for      
various industrial purposes4  ,another  
form of torpedo is that known as the    
locomotive torpedo1 of which there are  
several kinds2 some are propelled by    
liquid carbonic acid1 which is carried  
in a strong tank and acts through a     
compact engine in driving the propeller4
 ,one of these is steered by electricity
 from the shore1 and is known as the    
,lay-,haight torpedo1 and can run       
twenty-five miles per hour4 ,the        
,whitehead torpedo is also propelled by 
liquid carbonic acid1 but is not steered
 from shore4 ,its depth is regulated by 
an automatic device actuated by the     
pressure of the water4 ,the ,howell     
torpedo is driven by a heavy fly wheel  
which is set in rapid rotation just     
before the torpedo is launched4 ,it has 

but a short range and is intended for   
launching from ships4 ,another torpedo  
is propelled and steered from shore by  
rapidly pulling out of it two fine steel
 wires which1 in unwinding1 drive the   
twin screw propellers4 ,this is the     
,brennan torpedo4 ,the ,sims-,edison    
torpedo is both propelled and steered by
 electricity from the shore1 transmitted
 to a motor and steering relay in the   
torpedo by an insulated cable4 ,this    
cable has two cores and is paid out by  
the torpedo as it travels through the   
water just as a spider pays out its web4
 ,the cable is about half an inch in    
diameter and two miles long1 and the    
torpedo can be driven at about eighteen 
miles per hour with a current of thirty 
amperes and #a1hjj volts pressure4      
,still another auxiliary weapon of      
defense is the dynamite gun1 or rather1 
a pneumatic gun1 that throws long       
projectiles carrying from #bej to #dej  
pounds of dynamite1 to a distance of    
about two miles4 ,the shells are        

arranged to explode soon after striking 
the water1 by an ingenious battery that 
ignites the fuse as soon as the salt    
water enters it4 ,the gun1 which is     
known as the ,zalinski gun1 is some     
sixty feet long and fifteen inches in   
caliber1 the compressed air being       
suddenly admitted to it from the        
reservoirs at any desired pressure by a 
special form of valve that regulates the
 range4 ,these guns are to be mounted in
 deep pits and fired at somewhat higher 
elevations than ordinary guns1 but it   
has great accuracy within reasonable    
limits of range4   ,,field              
,,fortifications4  ,in field            
fortification an enormous quantity of   
work was done during our last war4      
,washington1 ,richmond1 ,nashville1     
,petersburg1 ,norfolk1 ,new ,berne1     
,plymouth1 ,vicksburg1 and many other   
cities were elaborately fortified by    
field works which involved the handling 
of vast quantities of earth1 and1 where 
the opposing lines were near together1  

ditches1 abbatis1 ground torpedoes1 and 
wire entanglements were freely used4 ,in
 some cases the same ground was         
fortified in succession by both armies1 
so that the total amount of work        
expended1 in this way1 would have built 
several hundred miles of railway4       
,around ,richmond and ,petersburg alone 
the development of field works was far  
greater than ,wellington's celebrated   
lines at ,torres ,vedras4 ,in all future
 wars1 when large armies are opposed to 
each other1 it is probable that field   
works will play even a more important   
part than in the past4 ,the great       
advantage of such works1 since the      
introduction of the deadly breech       
loading rifles and machine guns1 was    
shown at ,plevna1 where the ,russians   
were almost annihilated in attempting to
 capture the ,turkish intrenchments4    
,,sieges4  ,it is not proposed to go    
into historical or other details of this
 branch of the subject1 but to give in a
 condensed form some account of siege   

operations4 ,according to the text      
books1 the first thing to be done1 if   
possible1 in case of a regular siege1 is
 to invest the fortress4 ,this is done  
by surrounding it as quickly as possible
 with a continuous line of troops1 who  
speedily intrench themselves and mount  
guns bearing outward on all lines of    
approach to the fortress1 to prevent the
 enemy from sending in supplies or      
re-enforcements4 ,as this line must be  
at considerable distance from the fort1 
it is usually quite long1 and so is its 
name1 for it is called the line of      
,circumvallation4 ,inside of this line  
is then established a similar line      
facing toward the fort1 to prevent      
sorties by the garrison4 ,this line is  
called the line of ,countervallation1   
and should be as close to the fort as   
the range of its guns and the nature of 
the ground will permit4 ,from this line 
the troops rush forward at night and    
open the trenches1 beginning with what  
is called the first parallel1 which     

should be so laid out as to envelop     
those parts of the fort which are to be 
made the special objects of attack4     
,from this first parallel a number of   
zigzag trenches are started toward the  
fort and at proper intervals other      
parallels1 batteries1 and magazines are 
built2 this method of approach being    
continued until the besieged fort is    
reached1 or until such batteries can be 
brought to bear upon it as to breech the
 walls and allow the attacking troops to
 make an assault4  ,during these        
operations of course many precautions   
must be observed1 both by the attacking 
and defending force1 to annoy each other
 and to prevent surprise1 and the work  
is mostly carried on under cover of the 
earth thrown from the trenches4 ,these  
operations were supposed to occupy1     
under normal conditions1 about forty-one
 days1 or rather nights1 as most of the 
work is done after dark1 at the end of  
which time the fort should be reduced to
 such a condition that its commander1   

having exhausted all means of defense1  
would be justified in considering terms 
of surrender4  ,the ,theoretical        
,journal of the siege prescribes just   
what is to be done each day by both     
attack and defense up to the final      
catastrophe1 and this somewhat          
discouraging outlook for the defenders  
was forcibly illustrated by the late    
,captain ,derby1 better known by the    
reading public as ,john ,phoenix1 who1  
when a cadet1 was called upon by        
,professor ,mahan to explain how he     
would defend a fort1 mounting a certain 
number of guns and garrisoned by a      
certain number of men1 if besieged by an
 army of another assumed strength in men
 and guns1 replied3  ,i would           
immediately evacuate the fort and then  
besiege it and capture it again in      
forty-one days4  ,of course the fallacy 
of this reasoning was in the fact that  
the besieging army is generally supposed
 to be four or five times as large as   
the garrison of the fort2 the primary   

object of forts being to enable a small 
force to hold a position1 at least for a
 time1 against a much larger force of   
the enemy4  ,sieges have changed with   
the development of engines of war1 from 
the rude and muscular efforts of        
personal prowess like that described in 
,ivanhoe1 where the ,black ,knight cuts 
his way through the barriers with his   
battle axe1 to such sieges as those at  
,vicksburg1 ,petersburg1 and ,plevna1   
where the individual counted for very   
little1 and the results depended upon   
the combined efforts of large numbers of
 men and systematic siege operations4   
,it should also be noticed that modern  
sieges are not necessarily hampered by  
the rules laid down in text books1 but  
vary from them according to             
circumstances4  ,for example1 many      
sieges have been carried to successful  
issues without completely investing or  
surrounding the fortress4 ,this was the 
case at ,petersburg1 where ,general ,lee
 was entirely free to move out1 or      

receive supplies and re-enforcements up 
to the very last stages of the siege4   
,in other cases1 as at ,fort ,pulaski1  
,sumter1 and ,macon1 the breeching      
batteries were established at very much 
greater distances than ever before      
attempted1 and the preliminary siege    
operations were very much abbreviated   
and some of them omitted altogether4    
,this is not an argument against having 
well defined rules and principles1 but  
it shows that the engineer must be      
prepared to cut loose from old rules and
 customs whenever the changed state of  
circumstances requires different        
treatment4   ,,military ,,bridges4  ,in 
the movement of armies1 especially on   
long marches in the enemy's country1 one
 of the greatest difficulties to be     
overcome is the crossing of streams1 and
 this is usually done by means of       
portable bridges4 ,these may be built of
 light trestles with adjustable legs to 
suit the different depths1 or of wooden 
or canvas boats supporting a light      

roadway wide enough for a single line of
 ordinary wagons or artillery carriages4
 ,the materials for these bridges1 which
 are known as ,ponton ,bridges1 are     
loaded upon wagons and accompany the    
army on its marches1 and when required  
for use the bridge is rapidly put       
together1 piece by piece1 in accordance 
with fixed rules1 which constitute1 in  
fact1 a regular drill4 ,the wooden boats
 are quite heavy and are used for heavy 
traffic1 but for light work1 as1 for    
example1 to accompany the rapid         
movements of the cavalry1 boats made of 
heavy canvas1 stretched upon light      
wooden frames1 that are put together on 
the spot1 are used4  ,during ,gen4      
,sherman's memorable ,georgia campaign  
and march to the sea1 over three miles  
of ,ponton bridges were built in        
crossing the numerous streams met with1 
and nearly two miles of trestle bridges4
 ,in ,gen4 ,grant's ,wilderness campaign
 the engineers built not less than      
thirty-eight bridges between the        

,rappahannock and the ,james ,rivers1   
these bridges aggregating over #f1fjj   
feet in length4 ,under favorable        
circumstances such bridges can be built 
at the rate of #bjj to #cjj feet per    
hour1 and they can be taken up at a     
still more rapid rate4 ,when there is no
 bridge train at hand the engineer is   
obliged to use such improvised materials
 as he can get2 buildings are torn down 
to get plank and trees are cut to make  
the frame4 ,sometimes single stringers  
will answer1 but if a greater length of 
bridge is required it may be supported  
on piles or trestles1 or in deep water  
on rafts of logs or casks4 ,but the     
heavy traffic of armies1 operating at   
some distance from their bases1 must be 
transported by rail1 and the building of
 railway bridges or rebuilding those    
destroyed by the enemy is an important  
duty of the engineer4 ,on the ,potomac  
,creek1 in ,virginia1 a trestle bridge  
#hj feet high and #djj feet long was    
built in nine working days1 from timber 

out of the neighborhood4 ,another bridge
 across the ,etowah ,river1 in ,georgia1
 was built in ,gen4 ,sherman's campaign1
 and a similar bridge was also built    
over the ,chattahoochee4   ,,surveys    
,,and ,,explorations4  ,for more than   
half a century before the building of   
the great ,pacific railways1 engineer   
officers were engaged in making surveys 
and explorations in the great unknown   
country west of the ,mississippi ,river1
 and the final map of that country was  
literally covered with a network of     
trails made by them4 ,several of these  
officers lost their lives in such       
expeditions1 while others lived to      
become more famous as commanders during 
the great rebellion4 ,generals ,kearney1
 ,j4,e4 ,johnston1 ,pope1 ,warren1      
,fremont and ,parke1 and ,colonels      
,long1 ,bache1 ,emory1 ,whipple1        
,woodruff and ,simpson1 ,captains       
,warner1 ,stansbury1 ,gunnison and many 
other officers1 generally in their      
younger days1 contributed their quota to

 the geographical knowledge of the      
country1 and made possible the wonderful
 network of railways guarded by military
 posts that has followed their          
footsteps4 ,their reports fill twelve   
large quarto volumes4   ,,boundary ,,and
 ,,lake ,,surveys4  ,the astronomical   
location of the boundaries of the       
several ,states and ,territories1 as    
well as of the ,united ,states1 is a    
duty frequently required of the engineer
 officer1 and such a survey between this
 country and ,mexico is now in progress4
 ,the entire line of the #dith parallel 
of latitude from the ,lake of the ,woods
 to the ,pacific ,ocean1 which forms our
 northern boundary1 was located a few   
years ago by a joint commission of      
,english and ,united ,states engineers1 
and monuments were established at short 
intervals over its entire length4  ,a   
careful geodetic and hydrographic survey
 of the ,great ,northern ,lakes1        
including every harbor upon them and the
 rivers connecting them1 was carried on 

for many years and was finally completed
 some ten years ago4 ,maps and charts of
 these surveys are published from time  
to time for use of pilots navigating    
these waters4  ,not only are the duties 
of the military engineer similar in many
 respects to those of the civil         
engineer1 but there are many instances  
in which the duties of one branch of the
 profession have been performed by      
members of the other branch1 quite as   
efficiently as though they had been     
performed by engineers specially        
educated for the purpose4 ,during the   
late civil war there were many          
illustrations of this1 all showing that 
an ingenious engineer can readily adapt 
himself to circumstances entirely       
different from those to which he has    
been accustomed4 ,a very good example of
 this occurred in the ,red ,river       
expedition of ,general ,banks and       
,admiral ,porter4 ,in that memorable but
 disastrous campaign an army accompanied
 by a fleet of transports and light     

draught gunboats1 sometimes called tin  
clads because some parts of them were   
covered with boiler plate to stop the   
bullets of the enemy1 ascended the ,red 
,river in ,louisiana2 but the advance   
having been checked and a retreat       
commenced1 it was found that the river  
had fallen to such a low state that the 
fleet was caught above the rapids near  
,alexandria1 and it would in all        
probability have been a complete loss   
had it not been for the timely          
application of engineering skill by     
,lieut4 ,col4 ,joseph ,bailey1 a civil  
engineer from ,wisconsin1 who built a   
temporary dam across the river below the
 rapids and floated out the entire      
fleet4 ,this dam was over #gej feet long
 and in connection with some auxiliary  
dams raised the water level some #f     
feet4 ,it was built under many          
difficulties1 but by the skill and      
ability of the engineer and the         
co-operation of the troops it was       
completed in ten days4 ,another case was

 at the siege of ,petersburg1 ,va41     
where ,lieut4 ,col4 ,pleasants1 a       
,pennsylvania coal miner1 ran a gallery 
from our lines1 under the rebel battery1
 some #ejj feet distant1 and blew it    
entirely out of existence4 ,the mine    
contained four tons of powder and       
produced a crater #bjj feet by #ej feet 
and #be feet deep1 and was completed in 
one month4 ,the sequel to this was to be
 an attack on the enemy's line through  
the gap made by the explosion1 and such 
an attack properly followed up would    
doubtless have had a marked effect in   
shortening the duration of the war1 but 
this attack was so badly managed that it
 utterly failed and caused a severe loss
 to our own army4 ,the mine itself1     
however1 was a great success and        
produced a decided moral effect on both 
sides which lasted until the end of the 
war4  ,it may be out of place to digress
 a moment to illustrate the moral effect
 of such a convulsion4 ,several weeks   
after this great mine explosion1 the    

#ahth ,army ,corps1 to which ,i then    
belonged1 was holding a line of works   
recently captured from the rebels1 about
 six miles from ,richmond1 when one     
night the colonel commanding ,fort      
,harrison1 a large field work forming a 
part of this line1 came down to         
headquarters and reported that some old 
,pennsylvania coal miners in his command
 had heard mining going on under the    
fort4 ,as the nearest part of the       
enemy's line was some #djj yards from   
the fort1 ,i was quite certain that they
 could not have run a gallery that      
distance in the time that had elapsed   
since we occupied the work1 but there   
was of course the possibility that the  
mine had been partly built beforehand so
 as to be ready in just such a case as  
had arisen1 viz41 the capture of the    
fort by our troops4 ,i therefore went   
with the colonel up to the fort to      
listen for the mining operations1 and   
got the men who claimed to have heard   
the subterranean noises1 down in the    

bottom of the ditch of the fort1 which  
was ten feet deep1 and at the angles    
formed a fairly good listening gallery1 
but nothing unusual could be heard4 ,i  
therefore made arrangements to sink a   
line of pits in the bottom of the ditch1
 something like ordinary wells2 the     
bottoms of these pits to be finally     
connected by a horizontal gallery which 
would envelop the fort and enable us to 
hear the enemy and blow him up1 before  
he could get under the fort4 ,although  
the commanding officer of that fort was 
as brave an officer as the war          
developed1 he would not keep his men in 
the fort after dark1 but withdrew them  
quietly to the flanks of the work1 where
 they not only would be safe from an    
explosion1 but would be ready to fall   
upon the enemy in case he should blow up
 the fort and rush in to capture the    
line1 as our troops had attempted to do 
at ,petersburg4 ,no explosion took      
place1 however1 and after our           
countermining work was completed1 the   

garrison became reassured and remained  
in the fort at night as well as in day  
time4 ,a few months later1 when the     
enemy was driven from his lines1 ,i went
 through his works to see whether any   
mining had been attempted1 and found    
that a gallery leading toward ,fort     
,harrison had been carried quite a      
distance1 but was still incomplete1 and 
it is barely possible that the old      
miners were right1 after all1 in        
thinking that they could hear the sound 
of the pick1 although the distance was  
almost too great to make this theory    
very probable4  ,still another          
illustration of the way in which civil  
engineers can make themselves extremely 
useful in military operations was the   
wonderful system of military railways1  
or railways operated for military       
purposes1 that formed complete lines of 
transportation for the armies and their 
enormous quantities of supplies and     
munitions1 more especially those in the 
,west and ,southwest4 ,construction     

trains were organized in the most       
complete style1 and when a piece of     
track or a number of bridges were       
destroyed by the enemy1 they would be   
rebuilt so rapidly that our trains would
 hardly seem to be delayed by it4 ,the  
trains carried spare rails1 ties1 and   
bridges of various lengths ready to put 
up1 and they also carried the necessary 
rolling stock and tools for destroying  
the roads and bridges of the enemy4 ,so 
expert had this construction corps      
become that the enemy was ready to      
believe almost any statement in regard  
to it4 ,general ,sherman tells of an    
instance where it was proposed to blow  
up a tunnel1 to check his ,march to the 
,sea1 when one of the men objected1     
saying it was of no use1 for ,sherman   
had a duplicate tunnel in his train4    
,although this is not a sermon1 it may  
not be out of place to point out a few  
qualifications common to all engineers1 
for they all deal more or less with the 
same materials and forces and employ    

similar methods of investigation and    
construction4 ,wood1 iron1 steel1 copper
 and stone and their compounds are the  
materials of the civil1 mining1         
mechanical and electrical1 as well as of
 the military engineers4 ,they all deal 
with the forces of gravitation1         
cohesion1 inertia and chemical affinity4
 ,they all require skill1 intelligence1 
industry1 confidence1 accuracy1         
thoroughness1 ingenuity and1 beyond all1
 sound judgment4 ,wanting in any one of 
these qualifications1 an engineer is    
more or less disqualified for important 
work4 ,it is said that a distinguished  
engineer was always afraid to cross his 
own bridges1 although built in the most 
thorough and approved manner4 ,he was   
deficient in confidence4 ,another       
engineer distinguished for his          
mathematical attainments built a bridge 
which promptly collapsed at the first   
opportunity4 ,on overhauling his        
computations he ejaculated somewhat     
forcibly1 ,that confounded minus sign6  

,it should have been plus4 ,he was      
deficient in sound judgment1 or what is 
sometimes called horse sense4  ,another 
and more common defect in young         
engineers is a want of thoroughness4 ,it
 is generally best to go to the bottom  
of a question at first and keep at it   
until it is thoroughly and fully        
completed4 ,confucius says1 ,if thou    
hast aught to do1 first consider1 second
 act1 third let the soul resume her     
tranquillity4 ,those who begin a great  
many things and never fully complete    
them lose a great deal of valuable time1
 but do very little valuable work4 ,the 
way to avoid this difficulty is to be   
cautious about beginning things1 but    
when once started don't leave it until  
you are satisfied to leave it for good4 
,there is an ,arabian saying1 ,never    
undertake all you can do1 for he who    
undertakes all he can do will frequently
 undertake more than he can do4         
,another common error is extravagance4  
,on the plea that the best is always the

 cheapest1 and to be sure of a large    
factor of safety1 or as the late ,mr4   
,holley called it a factor of ignorance1
 without much trouble to themselves1    
some engineers use more or better       
materials than the work requires1 and   
thus greatly increase the cost without  
any corresponding advantage4 ,almost any
 engineer can do almost anything in the 
way of engineering if not limited by the
 cost1 but the man who knows just what  
materials to use and how to use them so 
that they will answer the purpose as to 
strength and durability can save his own
 salary to his employer many times over 
by simply omitting unnecessary expense4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,how ,,mechanical ,,rubber ,,goods     
,,are ,,made4   ,while the manufacture  
of rubber goods is in no sense a secret 
industry1 the majority of buyers and    
users of such goods have never stepped  
inside of a rubber mill1 and many have  
very crude ideas as to how the goods are
 made up4 ,in ordinary garden hose1 for 

instance1 the process is as follows3    
,the inner tubing is made of a strip of 
rubber fifty feet in length1 which is   
laid on a long zinc-covered table and   
its edges drawn together over a hose    
pole4 ,the cover1 which is of what is   
called friction1 that is cloth with     
rubber forced through its meshes1 comes 
to the hose maker in strips1 cut on the 
bias1 which are wound around the outside
 of the tube and adhere tightly to it4  
,the hose pole is then put in something 
like a fifty foot lathe1 and while the  
pole revolves slowly1 it is tightly     
wrapped with strips of cloth1 in order  
that it may not get out of shape while  
undergoing the process of vulcanizing4  
,when a number of these hose poles have 
been covered in this way they are laid  
in a pan set on trucks and are then run 
into a long boiler1 shut in1 and live   
steam is turned on4 ,when the goods are 
cured steam is blown off1 the vulcanizer
 opened and the cloths are removed4 ,the
 hose is then slipped off the pole by   

forcing air from a compressor between   
the rubber and the hose pole4 ,this1 of 
course1 is what is known as hose that   
has a seam in it4  ,for seamless hose   
the tube is made in a tubing machine and
 slipped upon the hose pole by reversing
 the process that is used in removing   
hose by air compression4 ,in other      
words1 a knot is tied in one end of the 
fifty foot tube and the other end is    
placed against the hose pole and being  
carefully inflated with air it is       
slipped on without the least trouble4   
,for various kinds of hose the processes
 vary1 and there are machines for       
winding with wire and intricate         
processes for the heavy grades of       
suction hose1 etc4 ,for steam hose1     
brewers'1 and acid hose1 special        
resisting compounds are used1 that as a 
rule are the secrets of the various     
manufacturers4 ,cotton hose is woven    
through machines expressly designed for 
that purpose1 and afterward has a       
half-cured rubber tube drawn through it4

 ,one end is then securely stopped up   
and the other end forced on a cone      
through which steam is introduced to the
 inside of the hose1 forcing the rubber 
against the cotton cover1 finishing the 
cure and fixing it firmly in its place4 
,,corrugated ,,matting4  ,after the     
mixing of the compound and the          
calendering1 that is the spreading it in
 sheets1 the great roll of rubber and   
cloth that is to be made into corrugated
 matting is sent to the pressman4 ,here 
it is hung in a rack and fifteen or     
twenty feet of it drawn between the     
plates of the huge hydraulic steam      
press4 ,the bottom plate of this press  
is grooved its whole length1 so that    
when the upper platen is let down the   
plain sheet of rubber is forced into the
 grooves and the corrugations are       
formed4 ,while in that position steam is
 let into the upper and lower platens   
and the matting is cured4 ,after it has 
been in there the proper time1 cold     
water is let into the press1 it is      

cooled off1 and the upper platen being  
raised1 it is ready to come out4 ,a     
simple device for loosening the matting 
from the grooves into which it has been 
forced is a long steel rod1 with a      
handle on one hand like an auger handle1
 which1 being introduced under the edge 
and twisted1 allows the air to enter    
with it and releases it from the mould4 
,,packing4  ,sheet packing is often     
times made in a press1 like corrugated  
matting4 ,the varieties1 however1 known 
as gum core have to go through a        
different process4 ,usually a core is   
squirted through a tube machine and the 
outside covering of jute or cotton1 or  
whatever the fabric may be1 is put on by
 a braider or is wrapped about it       
somewhat after the manner of the old    
fashioned cloth-wrapped tubing4 ,the    
fabric is either treated with some      
heat-resisting mixture or something that
 is a lubricant1 plumbago and oil being 
the compound4 ,other packings are made  
from the ends of belts cut out in a     

circular form and treated with a        
lubricant4 ,there are scores of styles  
that make special claims for excellences
 that are made in a variety of ways1 but
 as a rule the general system as        
outlined above is followed4   ,,jar     
,,rings4  ,the old fashioned way of     
making jar rings was first to take a    
large mandrel and wrap it around with a 
sheet of compounded rubber until the    
thickness of the ring was secured4 ,it  
was then held in place by a further     
wrapping of cloth1 vulcanized1 put in a 
lathe and cut up into rings by hand4    
,that manner of procedure1 however1 was 
too slow1 and it is to-day done almost  
wholly by machinery4 ,for example1 the  
rubber is squirted out of a mammoth     
tubing machine in the shape of a huge   
tube1 then slipped on a mandrel and     
vulcanized4 ,it is then put in an       
automatic lathe and revolving swiftly is
 brought against a sharp knife blade    
which cuts ring after ring until the    
whole is consumed1 without any handling 

or watching4--,india ,rubber ,world4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,how ,,enameled ,,letters ,,are ,,made4
   ,the following is a description of a 
brief visit by a representative of the  
,journal of ,decorative ,art to the new 
factory of the ,patent ,letter and      
,enamel ,company1 ,ltd41 situate in the 
,east ,end of ,london4  ,the company    
have recently secured a large freehold  
plot in the center of the ,east ,end of 
,london1 and have built for themselves a
 most commodious and spacious factory1  
some hundreds of feet in length1 all on 
one floor1 and commanded from one end by
 the manager's office1 from whence can  
be seen at a glance the entire premises4
  ,the works are divided into two large 
compartments1 and are lighted from the  
roof1 ample provision being made for    
ventilation1 and attention being given  
to those sanitary conditions which are1 
or should be1 imperative on all well    
managed establishments4  ,we first      
explore the stockroom4 ,here are stored 

the numerous dies1 of all sizes and     
shapes1 which the company possess1      
varying in size from half an inch to    
twelve or sixteen inches4 ,here1 too1 is
 kept the large store of thin sheet     
copper out of which the letters are     
stamped4 ,our readers are familiar with 
the form or principle upon which these  
letters are made4 ,it is simply a convex
 surface1 the reverse side being        
concave1 and being fixed on to the glass
 or other material with a white lead    
preparation4 ,when these letters were   
first made1 the practice was to cut or  
stamp them out in flat copper1 and then 
to round or mould them by a second      
operation4 ,recent improvements in the  
machinery1 however1 have dispensed with 
this dual process1 and the stamping and 
moulding is done in the one swift1 sharp
 operation4  ,the process of making an  
enameled letter has four                
stages--stamping1 enameling1 firing1 and
 filing4 ,there are other and subsequent
 processes for elaborating1 but those   

named are of the essence of the         
transaction4   ,,stamping4  ,the        
stamping is done by means of presses1   
and is a very rapid and complete        
operation4  ,the operator takes a piece 
of the sheet copper1 places it on the   
press1 the lever descends1 there is a   
sharp crunching1 bursting sound1 and in 
a time shorter than it has taken to     
describe1 the letter is made1 sharp and 
perfect in every way4   ,,enameling4    
,the letters are now taken charge of by 
a girl1 who lays them out on a wire     
tray1 the hollow side up1 and paints    
them over with a thin mordant4 ,while   
they are in this position1 and before   
the mordant dries1 they are taken on the
 gridiron-like tray to a kind of large  
box1 which is full of the powdered      
enamel1 and1 holding the tray in her    
left hand1 the girl takes a fine sieve  
full of the powder and dusts it over the
 letter1 all superfluous powder falling 
through the open wirework and into the  
bin again1 so that there is absolutely  

no waste4  ,illustration3 ,,dusting     
,,the ,,letters ,,before ,,firing4      
,,firing4  ,the letters are now taken   
and placed carefully on thin iron disks 
or plates on the bench1 where they      
remain until they are fired4 ,it will be
 remembered that we said at the outset  
that the factory was divided into two   
large compartments1 and it is into the  
second of these that we now go4  ,here  
are ranged the series of furnaces which 
convert the copper and superincumbent   
enamel into one common body--fuse the   
one into the other4 ,an unwary step soon
 warns us that we are too near the      
furnace1 unless we want to run the risk 
of a premature cremation1 and in the    
interests of the readers of this journal
 we step back to a respectful and proper
 distance1 and watch the operations from
 afar4  ,there seems to be something    
innately picturesque about all furnaces 
and those who work about them4 ,whether 
it is the ,rembrandt effects produced by
 the strong light and shade1 or whether 

it is that the necessary use of the long
 iron instruments1 such as all furnace  
workers employ1 compels a certain       
dignity and grace of poise and action1  
we know not2 but certain it is that the 
grace is there in a marked degree1 and  
as we watched the men take their        
long-handled iron tongs and place in or 
lift out the plates of hot metal1 we    
could not fail to be impressed with the 
charm of the physical action they       
displayed4  ,the disk containing the    
enameled letters is taken at the end of 
a long iron handle and carefully placed 
in a dome-shaped muffle4 ,these muffles 
are all heated from the outside2 that   
is1 the fire is all round the chamber1  
but not in it1 the fumes of the sulphur 
being destructive of the enamel if they 
are allowed to come into contact with   
it4 ,so intense is the heat1 however1   
that a muffle lasts only about nine     
days1 and at the end of that time has to
 be renewed4  ,illustration3 ,,firing   
,,the ,,letters  ,after the enamel is   

fused on to the copper1 the disk is     
taken out and placed on a side slab1    
where it is allowed to cool4  ,this     
process is repeated on the front side of
 the letter1 when all that remains to   
complete it is   ,,the ,,filing4        
,illustration3 ,,filing ,,the ,,letters 
,,after ,,enameling4  ,this is done by  
girls1 who1 with very fine files1 rub   
off the edges and any protuberances     
which may be there4 ,every letter is    
subject to this operation1 and all are  
turned out smooth and well finished4    
,sometimes the letters are colored or   
further defined by the addition of a    
line1 but the essentials are as we have 
already described4  ,illustration3      
,,mixing ,,the ,,enamel   ,,brushing    
,,out4  ,there are1 however1 one or two 
other operations of interest which we   
may notice4 ,the company do not confine 
their exertions to the making of        
letters1 various collateral developments
 having taken place which fill an       
important part in this scheme of work4  

,of these1 small tablets1 containing    
advertisements or notices1 such as we   
see in railway carriages1 ,push after   
raising window1 or ,close this door     
after you1 or some legend pertaining to 
,brown's ,soap or ,robinson's ,washing  
,powder4 ,these are done by different   
processes1 the transfer process1 as used
 in the potteries1 being employed1 but  
the one most largely used is that of    
brushing out1 which is done by plates4  
,let us suppose that the tablet shows   
white letters on a dark ground1 the     
modus operandi is as follows3  ,the     
tablet has been enameled1 as already    
described1 and is white4 ,the operator  
now takes a dark enamel and spreads it  
evenly over the entire surface of the   
tablet4 ,he1 or she1 now takes a stencil
 plate1 of tinfoil1 out of which the    
ground is cut1 leaving the letter in the
 center4  ,this is carefully placed over
 the tablet and held tight with the left
 hand1 while with the right hand he     
holds a fine brush1 which he uses with a

 quick1 sharp movement over the surface4
 ,this action readily removes the       
unfired color from the hard1 glassy     
surface underneath1 and leaves a white  
letter4 ,this is fired1 and is then     
complete4  ,sometimes two and1 it may   
be1 three plates are necessary to       
complete the brushing out1 as ties must 
be left1 as in the case of ordinary     
stencils1 and these have to be brushed  
out with additional plates4 ,two or     
three colors may be introduced by this  
process1 but each separate color means  
separate firing4 ,if the letters are    
dark on a light ground1 the process is  
exactly the same1 the stencil only being
 modified4 ,in addition to the letters  
and tablets thus described1 the company 
also undertake the production of large  
enameled signs1 and to cope with the    
rapid expansion of this department of   
their work they are erecting special    
furnaces1 to enable them to deal with   
any demand likely to be made upon them4 
,the call for things permanent and      

washable in the way of advertising is on
 the increase1 and the enameled plates  
made by the company is one of the most  
successful ways of meeting the demand4  
,illustration3 ,,the ,,smith ,a ,,mighty
 ,,man ,,is ,,he4         99       99   
99       99       99     ,,burning      
,,brick ,,with ,,crude ,,oil ,,fuel4    
,at the present time there is not the   
least reason why either wood1 coal1 or  
any other solid fuel should be used for 
the burning of brick4 ,this style of    
burning brick belongs to a past age4    
,the art of brickmaking has made        
tremendous progress during the past     
quarter of a century4 ,it is no longer  
the art of the ignorant2 brains1        
capital1 experience1 science1 wide and  
general knowledge1 must in these days be
 the property of the successful brick   
manufacturer4 ,there are some such      
progressive brick manufacturers in      
,chicago1 who use neither coal nor wood 
in the drying or burning of their clay  
products4 ,crude oil is the fuel which  

they employ1 and with this fuel they    
obtain cheaper and better brick than do 
manufacturers who employ solid fuel4    
,some of these manufacturers have       
expressed themselves as preferring to   
quit the brick business rather than     
return to the use of wood or coal as    
fuel in brick burning4  ,this shows     
plainly that progress in our art1 when  
it does come1 comes to remain4 ,it is   
true that crude oil for brick-burning   
purposes is not everywhere obtainable4  
,but there is a fuel which is even      
better than crude oil1 namely1 fuel gas1
 and which can be produced and employed 
on any brick yard at a saving of        
seventy-five per cent4 over coal or     
other solid fuel4  ,the ,rose process   
for making fuel gas gives a water gas   
enriched by petroleum4 ,roughly1 about  
half the cost of this gas as made at    
,bellefonte1 ,pa41 was for oil4 ,the gas
 cost #f4fh;c4 per #a1jjj cu4 ft41 with 
oil at #b;c4 a gallon4 ,at double this  
price the gas would cost but #aj;c41 and

 show that in practice1 foot for foot1  
it equals natural gas4  ,fuel gas means 
a larger investment of capital than does
 any of the other modes of brick        
burning1 and is1 therefore1 not within  
the reach of the entire trade4 ,the cost
 of appliances for burning brick with   
crude oil is not very large1 and as all 
grate bars1 iron frames1 and doors can  
be dispensed with in the use of crude   
oil fuel1 the cost of an oil-burning    
equipment is but little in excess of an 
equipment of grates1 etc41 for          
coal-burning kilns4  ,at works using    
small amounts of fuel1 especially if    
cost of fuel bears but a small          
proportion to total cost of the         
manufactured product1 oil will be in the
 future very largely used4 ,it is clean1
 as compared with coal1 can be easily   
handled1 and when carefully used in     
small quantities1 is safe4 ,there are   
several methods of burning oil that are 
well adapted to the use of brick        
manufacturers and other fuel consumers4 

,the ,pennsylvania ,railroad made some  
very thorough experiments on the use of 
petroleum in their locomotives1 and     
while the results obtained are reported 
to have been satisfactory1 it was the   
opinion of those having the experiments 
in charge that the demand for the       
,pennsylvania ,railroad alone1 were it  
to change its locomotives from coal to  
oil1 would consume all the surplus and  
send up the price of oil to a figure    
that would compel a return to coal4  ,it
 is true that production has enormously 
increased in the last three years1 and  
the promise for the near future is that 
a high rate will be maintained4 ,it is  
further true that the production of     
,russia has increased enormously1 and   
will probably be larger this year than  
ever before4 ,this ,russian oil must go 
to markets and supply demands that have 
been met by ,american oil1 and this will
 still further increase the amount of   
oil available for fuel purposes4  ,there
 is no doubt1 therefore1 that petroleum 

has a future for fuel uses4 ,many brick 
manufacturers are ready to use it1      
notwithstanding the possibility of an   
advance in its cost4  ,while there are  
some objections to the use of petroleum 
as a fuel1 growing chiefly out of the   
risk attending its storage and          
conveyance to the point of consumption1 
it is undoubtedly true that the chief   
objection is the fear that with the     
increased demand that would follow any  
extended use for this purpose would come
 an increase in price that would make   
its continued use too expensive4  ,just 
four years ago1 when the fuel oil       
industry was first projected1 it was    
cried down because1 as its enemies      
claimed1 there was not enough oil fuel  
to be obtained in ,america to supply the
 ,new ,york ,city factories alone1 to   
say nothing of other territory1 and     
because of the high prices for oil that 
were sure to follow its substitution for
 coal fuel4 ,since then the industry has
 experienced a magnificent success1 the 

sales exceeding #bj1jjj1jjj barrels a   
year1 while the price is lower than     
ever4  ,a curious impression seems to   
have gained ground to the effect that   
the ,standard ,oil ,company does not    
want to sell oil for fuel4 ,it may be   
stated authoritatively that the company 
is not only able but willing to sell and
 deliver oil for fuel purposes in any   
quantity that may be desired4 ,it is now
 delivering oil for fuel purposes in    
fourteen ,states of the ,union4 ,for its
 sales in ,chicago and the ,west and    
,northwest1 the delivery is by tank cars
 from the terminus of the pipe line at  
,south ,chicago1 to which point it is   
pumped from ,lima1 ,o4 ,the ,chicago    
price is #a-b_/c;c4 per gallon1 or      
#gj;c4 per barrel of #db gallons1 f4o4b4
 cars at ,chicago4  ,a great many of the
 brick manufacturers here and throughout
 the ,northwest are beginning to use    
crude petroleum as a substitute for soft
 coal4 ,it is smokeless1 for the fine   
spray of oil which comes from the       

injector consists of such minute drops  
of the liquid and is so thoroughly mixed
 with oxygen that when it burns the     
combustion is complete1 and only steam  
and carbonic acid gas go out of the top 
of the kiln4 ,not a speck of soot comes 
from the kiln or the smokestack or soils
 the whitewashed purity of the boiler   
room4 ,oil fuel is absolutely clean4 ,it
 is labor saving1 too4 ,no fireman has  
to keep shoveling coal1 there are no    
ashes to be dragged out from under the  
furnace grates1 and there are no        
clinkers to clog up the bars4 ,one man1 
by turning a valve1 may regulate the    
heat of a kiln containing one million   
brick4  ,not only is it cleaner than    
coal and calls for less labor1 but it is
 actually cheaper as a fuel4 ,a barrel  
and a half of crude oil is equal for    
furnace fuel to a ton of the best       
,illinois bituminous coal1 and at #gj;c4
 a barrel any one can easily calculate  
the advantages petroleum has over its   
smoky rival4 ,theoretically1 two barrels

 of oil equal in heating power one ton  
of best ,pittsburg coal4  ,an           
examination into the relative cost of   
the ,pittsburg and ,chicago coal to the 
oil consumed shows that the price of oil
 at ,pittsburg is #ei;c4 per barrel of  
#db gallons1 and slack coal can be      
purchased at from #gj;c4 to #hj;c4 per  
ton1 and the best quality of lump coal  
at from #a4aj to #a4be per ton1 while   
the same quality of fuel can be bought  
in ,chicago at about #gj;c4 a barrel1 as
 against coal at from #b to #c4ej per   
ton4 ,it would1 therefore1 look as      
though there could be no question       
whatever as to the economy and          
advantages to be derived from the use of
 oil as a fuel in this vicinity4  ,the  
weight of oil required is less than half
 that of average coal to produce the    
same amount of steam4  ,a great         
advantage in using oil as fuel in brick 
burning is that the fires are always    
under the absolute and direct control of
 the man in charge of the burning1 who  

can regulate the volume of flame to the 
nicest degree and throw the heat to any 
part of the arches that he may desire4  
,from present indications1 oil will be  
the fuel adopted generally for          
generating power and for brick burning  
in ,chicago1 as it saves the boilers1   
avoids grate bars1 saves dirt and       
cinders1 and reduces running expenses1  
etc4  ,much skepticism was at first     
exhibited in ,chicago only a few years  
ago when one of the leading brick       
manufacturers attempted to burn a kiln  
of brick with coal for fuel4 ,nearly all
 the brickmakers then in business put on
 wise looks and predicted the failure of
 the experiment with coal4 ,but coal    
proved to be a better and cheaper fuel  
than wood1 and in five or six years wood
 was used only for the kindling of the  
coal fires4  ,then came the attempt to  
burn brick with crude oil1 and the      
experiment having proved a success1 coal
 has been banished from the leading     
brick yards in ,chicago and vicinity4   

,the ,purington-,kimball ,brick ,co41   
,adams ,j4 ,weckler1 ,weber  ,la ,bond1 
the ,may-,purington ,brick ,co41 the    
,union ,brick ,co41 and the ,pullman    
,brick ,co41 all having headquarters in 
,chicago1 as well as the ,peerless      
,brick ,co4 and the ,pioneer ,fireproof 
,construction ,co41 both of ,ottawa1    
,ill41 are using crude oil fuel for     
brick burning4  ,lima crude oil is used1
 and it is atomized by means of steam in
 small furnaces extending about two feet
 from the face of the brick kilns1 and  
in which furnaces combustion occurs1 and
 the conversion of the oil and steam    
into a gaseous fuel is secured4 ,there  
is little doubt that the fuel employed  
in the future by the successful brick   
manufacturer must be in the gaseous     
form4 ,owing to the enormous cost of    
handling coal1 wood1 and other crude    
fuel1 and of removing the ash resulting 
from such fuel1 it has been demonstrated
 in practice by the use of crude oil    
that the expense connected with the     

burning of brick can be reduced fully   
#fj per cent4 ,this large saving is made
 by converting crude petroleum into gas 
and utilizing this fuel1 either directly
 in the arches of the kiln or by        
converting the crude oil into gas in a  
gas producer1 and drawing this fuel gas 
from the producer and burning the same  
as required in kilns of suitable        
construction4  ,crude oil fuel must in  
the future play an important part in all
 branches of manufacture requiring high1
 constant heats1 and in which the cost  
of wood1 coal1 and other solid fuels1   
together with the labor cost of handling
 them1 forms a considerable part of the 
cost of production4 ,where coal is      
required to be hauled in carts from the 
wharves1 or from a line of railway to   
the brick yard1 located a mile1 more or 
less1 from the places where the coal is 
received1 the cost of handling1 haulage1
 and waste is an important item4 ,added 
to these costs1 the deterioration of    
soft coal under atmospheric influences  

and the waste from imperfect combustion 
and from the particles which fall from  
the grate bars into the ash pits1 all   
eat a large hole in the brickmakers'    
profit4  ,mr4 ,d4,v4 ,purington1 of     
,chicago1 ,ill41 in speaking on this    
subject1 says3      ,i will say that my 
fuel bill for oil is cheaper than it    
would     cost me for coal4 ,there is a 
very wide difference in the cost     of 
unloading1 hauling away ashes and       
cinders1 and getting my     coal around 
to the kiln1 or boilers1 or drier1 or   
wherever ,i     use it1 and ,i get very 
much better results by being able to    
put the heat from oil fuel just where ,i
 want it4  ,in order to secure the best 
results with any fuel it is not only    
necessary that a cheap fuel should be   
used1 but that it should be always      
obtainable1 and that all of it should be
 burned and turned to commercial account
 in the operations of brick manufacture4
  ,owing to the losses which we have    
previously mentioned1 and resulting from

 the use of coal1 this fuel is destined 
to be superseded by some form of fuel   
which will avoid such losses1 and which 
will dispense with all of the           
inconveniences now encountered in the   
handling of coal and of the ashes       
resulting from combustion4 ,wood is     
rapidly becoming too scarce and high    
near the great centers of man's         
habitation to be regarded in the present
 discussion4  ,fully two hundred million
 of brick a year are being burned in the
 city of ,chicago with crude oil fuel1  
and a clamp kiln containing one million 
brick can be burned with crude oil in   
,chicago at a labor cost of less than   
#ajj1 and at a total cost for labor and 
oil of about #dj;c4 per thousand brick4 
,there are not1 however1 many places in 
the world where brick can be burned with
 oil at such a low cost as in the city  
of ,chicago2 the reason being that oil  
is not everywhere obtainable so cheaply 
as in this city1 and because few clays  
in the world are so easily burned into  

brick as are the clays of ,chicago4 ,in 
,milwaukee1 ,wis41 and in other places  
within a distance of #ajj miles from    
,chicago1 the time required to burn     
building brick with crude oil fuel      
averages from sixteen to twenty-one     
days1 whereas the time of burning the   
,chicago clays averages only about five 
days1 and splendid burns have been      
secured there with crude oil in three   
and one-half days4 ,it is evident1      
therefore1 that the advantages of using 
crude oil fuel for the burning of brick 
will vary in different parts of the     
,united ,states4  ,where circumstances  
and the nature of the clay permit of its
 use1 crude oil is1 next to fuel gas1   
the brickmakers' ideal fuel4--,the      
,brickmaker4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,investigation
 ,,of ,a ,,mound ,,near ,,jefferson     
,,city1 ,,mo4  ,by ,a4,s4 ,,logan4      
,recently1 a party consisting of        
engineers and employes of the ,missouri 
,river ,improvement ,commission began an

 exploration of one of the mounds1 a    
work of a prehistoric race1 situated on 
the bluff1 which overlooks the ,missouri
 ,river from an elevation of one hundred
 and fifty feet1 located about six miles
 below ,jefferson ,city4  ,this mound is
 one of about twenty embraced in a      
circle one quarter of a mile in         
diameter4  ,the above party selected the
 mound in question apparently at        
haphazard2 all the mounds presenting    
nearly a uniform outline1 differing only
 in size and mostly circular in form1   
and from twenty to twenty-four feet at  
the base1 rising to a height of eight   
feet and under4 ,a trench was cut on a  
level with the natural soil1 penetrating
 the mound about eight feet4 ,a stone   
wall was encountered which was built    
very substantially1 making access in    
that direction difficult1 in consequence
 of which the earth was removed from the
 top for the purpose of entering from   
that direction4 ,the earth was removed  
for a depth of four feet1 when the top  

of the wall was exposed4 ,further       
excavation brought to light human bones1
 some of them fairly well preserved1    
especially the bones of the legs4 ,on   
the removal of these and a layer of     
clay1 another layer of bones was        
exposed1 but presenting a different     
appearance than the first1 having       
evidently been burned or charred1 a     
considerable quantity of charcoal being 
mixed with the bones4 ,in this tier were
 found portions of several skulls1 lying
 close together1 as if they had been    
interred without regard to order4 ,they 
were1 in all probability1 detached from 
the body when buried4  ,the portions of 
the skulls found were those of the back 
of the head1 no frontal bones being     
discovered4 ,some jaw bones with the    
teeth attached were among the remains1  
but only that portion of the jaw        
containing the molar teeth4  ,a few     
pieces of flint weapons were found in   
the upper layers1 and nothing else of   
any significance4  ,at this juncture the

 diggers abandoned the search1 and some 
days later the writer1 desirous of      
seeing all that was to be seen1 resumed 
the work and removed the earth and      
remains until the bottom of the vault   
was reached2 several layers being thus  
removed4 ,all of these had evidently    
been burned1 as charcoal and ashes were 
mixed with the bones of each succeeding 
layer4 ,the layers were about an inch in
 thickness1 with from two to four inches
 of earth between1 and small flat       
stones1 about the size of a man's hand1 
spread on each different layer1 as if to
 mark its division from the next above4 
,between the bottom layers1 mixed with  
charcoal1 ashes and small portions of   
burned bones were found what gives value
 to the search1 numbering about fifty   
tools and a smoking pipe4  ,the material
 of the tools is the same as the rock   
forming the vault1 locally known as     
cotton rock4 ,i would consider it a     
species of sandstone4  ,overlying the   
edge of cotton rock in the bluff is     

flint in great quantities1 and in every 
conceivable shape1 that these people    
could have resorted to had they been so 
disposed1 and why they used the softer  
material ,i will leave to some          
archologist to determine4 ,the tools    
themselves are made after no pattern1   
but selected for their cutting          
qualities1 as they all have a more or   
less keen edge which could be used for  
cutting purposes1 and were no doubt     
highly prized1 as they were found all in
 a pile in one corner of the vault and  
on top of which was found a stone pipe4 
,the pipe is made bowl and stem         
together1 and it is curious that people 
of such crude ideas of tools and weapons
 should manufacture such a perfect      
specimen of a pipe4 ,it is composed of a
 very heavy stone1 the nature of which  
would be difficult to determine1 as it  
is considerably burned4  ,a description 
of the vault will be found interesting  
to many4 ,the wall of the vault rests   
upon the natural surface of the ground1 

about three feet high and eight and a   
half feet square1 the inside corners    
being slightly rounded2 it is built in  
layers about four inches in thickness   
and varying in length upward to three   
feet1 neither cement nor mortar being   
used in the joints2 the corners formed a
 sort of recess as they were drawn      
inward to the top1 in which many of the 
stones were found4 ,the stone for       
constructing the vault was brought from 
a distance of about a quarter of a mile1
 as there is none in sight nearer4  ,i  
assume from all these circumstances that
 these people lived in this neighborhood
 anterior to the age of flint tools1 as 
the more recent interments indicate that
 they were then entering upon the flint 
industry1 and it may be that the cotton 
rock had become obsolete4  ,these people
 buried their dead on the highest       
ground1 covering and protecting them    
with these great mounds1 when it would  
seem much easier to bury as at the      
present day2 but instead1 they1 with    

great labor1 carried the rock from a    
great distance1 and it is reasonable to 
suppose1 also1 that the earth was       
brought from a distance with which they 
are surrounded1 and piled high above1 as
 there is no trace of an immediate or   
local excavation4  ,in my view from the 
mounds and their surroundings ,i would  
unhesitatingly say the water1 the foot  
hills of the glacier and the swamps left
 in its wake were but a short distance  
to the north of them1 and during the    
summer months the melting ice would send
 a volume of water down this valley that
 the ,missouri ,river of to-day is but a
 miniature of1 and therefore the highest
 hills were the only land that could be 
used by that ancient race4  ,in this    
connection ,i would make the following  
suggestions that may lead to more       
important disclosures3 ,my object is the
 hope of a more thorough investigation  
at some future time4 ,nearer to the top 
of the mound was found1 certainly1 the  
remains of a people of more recent date 

than those found in the vault1 as their 
bones were larger1 which would indicate 
a more stalwart tribe1 and also their   
mode of burial was different1 as there  
was no indication of fire being used1 as
 was the case with the lower burials4 ,i
 would pronounce the upper interments   
those of ,indians of the present day2   
the tools found with these were weapons 
of the chase4 ,on the other hand1 those 
found in the vault were of a peaceful   
character1 and their surroundings would 
readily comport1 in my opinion1 to the  
glacial period4 ,the entire absence of  
flint in the bottom of the mound would  
show one of two things1 either they were
 unacquainted with the use of flint or  
at that time there was no flint to be   
had4 ,it is there now in great          
abundance1 in such forms for cutting    
purposes that would render the cotton   
rock almost useless4 ,the flint is found
 in a hill close to the river bank1     
about half a mile from the mound1 and   
the upper portion of the ledge has the  

appearance1 to me1 of glacial action and
 probably forms a moraine1 as it has1   
evidently1 been pushed over the         
underlying ledge1 and been ground and   
splintered in a manner that could not   
have been without great crushing force4 
,it would be reasonable enough to       
suppose that the action of the river may
 have uncovered this flint by washing   
away the softer material since the      
occupation of the older race4  ,in      
relation to the ,indian interment in the
 examined mound1 ,i could not say       
distinctly whether the ,indian burials  
had been such as to make them aware of  
former burials or not1 but ,i think from
 the thickness of the clay between the  
two that they were ignorant of former   
burials4 ,the mounds of the modern      
,indian1 so far as my investigations are
 concerned1 would indicate a more rudely
 formed structure which would appear to 
be an imitation of the older mounds1 as 
they are not finished with like care nor
 have they the ulterior                 

structures4--,the ,scientist4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,action ,,of ,,caustic ,,soda ,,on     
,,wood4  ,by ,m4,h4 ,,tauss4   ,the     
researches of the author upon the action
 which water exerts upon wood at a high 
temperature have shown how much of the  
incrusting material can be removed      
without the aid of any reagent4  ,in    
connection with the manufacture of      
cellulose1 it is also interesting to    
prosecute at the same time experiments  
with solutions of the caustic alkalies1 
in order to study the mode of action    
upon both wood and pure cellulose4 ,the 
manufacture of cellulose has for many   
years been an industry1 and yet little  
or nothing from a chemical point of view
 is known of the action of caustic soda 
upon vegetable fibers4  ,braconnot1 in  
#ahbj1 obtained alumina by treating wood
 with an alkali1 but the first          
application of wood to the manufacture  
of paper was due to ,chauchard4 ,by     
boiling vegetable fibers with caustic   

lyes1 ,collier and ,piette obtained     
cellulose4 ,again1 in #ahfb1 ,barne and 
,blondel proposed to make cellulose in a
 similar way1 but employed nitric acid  
in the place of soda4  ,the first       
cellulose made exclusively from wood and
 caustic soda was produced at the       
,manayunk ,wood ,pulp ,works1 in #ahed1 
in the neighborhood of ,philadelphia1 by
 ,burgess  ,watt4 ,the operation        
consisted in treating the wood for six  
hours at a pressure of from six to eight
 atmospheres1 with a solution of caustic
 soda of #ab ,b4  ,ungerer noticed that 
it was sufficient to limit the pressure 
from three to six atmospheres1 according
 to the quality of the wood1 and advised
 the use of solutions containing four to
 five per cent4 of caustic soda4 ,he    
employed a series of cylinders1 arranged
 vertically1 in which the wood was      
subjected to a methodical system of     
lixiviation4 ,the same lye passed       
through many cylinders1 so that when it 
made its exit at the end it was         

thoroughly exhausted1 and the wood thus 
kept coming in contact with fresh       
alkaline solutions4  ,according to the  
account of ,kiclaner1 the disintegration
 of wood may be effected in the         
following four ways3      #a4 ,by       
heating direct in boilers at a pressure 
of #aj     atmospheres4 7,see ,dresel   
and ,rosehain47      #b4 ,in vertical   
boilers heated direct or by steam1 and  
kept at     a pressure of from #aj to   
#ad atmospheres4 7,sinclair1 ,nicol1 and
     ,behrend47      #c4 ,in revolving  
boilers1 maintained at a pressure of #ab
     atmospheres by direct steam4       
#d4 ,by means of a series of small      
vessels communicating with     each     
other1 and through which a lye          
circulates at a pressure     of six     
atmospheres4 7,ungerer47  ,this latter  
process is preferable to the others4    
,researches have also been made by the  
author in order to ascertain the loss   
which wood and cellulose suffer at      
different temperatures or in contact    

with varying quantities of alkali       
7,na,h,o74  ,the following is a resum of
 the experiments1 giving the loss in per
 cent4 resulting from a cooking of three
 hours duration3    ,i4 ,ordinary       
pressure3        #aj grms4 cellulose1   
with #ehj c4c4 of caustic           soda
 solution1 sp4 gr4 #a4ji                
#ba4ii        #aj grms4 of soft wood1   
treated as above        #di4ai          
#aj         hard                        
#ec4fh    ,,ii4 ,pressure of five       
atmospheres3        #aj grms4 cellulose1
 with #ejj c4c4 caustic soda            
solution of sp4 gr4 #a4jii              
#eh4jb        #aj grms4 of soft wood1   
treated as above        #ge4he          
#aj         hard                        
#fi4hj    ,,iii4 ,pressure of ten       
atmospheres3        #aj grms4 of        
cellulose                               
#eh4ii        #aj         soft wood     
#ha4hj        #aj         hard          
#gj4ci    ,,iv4 ,ordinary pressure3     
#aj grms4 of cellulose1 with #ejj c4c4  

caustic          soda solution of sp4   
gr4 #a4afb               #ba4hh         
#aj grms4 of soft wood                  
#ce4de        #aj         hard          
#df4dc    ,v4 ,pressure of five         
atmospheres3        #aj grms4 of        
cellulose1 with #ejj c4c4 caustic       
soda solution of sp4 gr4 #a4afb         
#gg4cc        #aj grms4 of soft wood    
#ig4ac        #aj         hard          
#ia4dh    ,,vi4 ,ordinary pressure3     
#aj grms4 of cellulose1 with #ejj c4c4  
caustic          soda solution of sp4   
gr4 #a4jdc               #ab4jg         
#aj grms4 of soft wood                  
#bh4cg        #aj         hard          
#cj4be    ,,vii4 ,pressure of five      
atmospheres3        #aj grms4 of        
cellulose1 with #ejj c4c4 of caustic    
soda solution of sp4 gr4 #a4jdc         
#ae4cf        #aj grms4 of soft wood    
#ej4if        #aj         hard          
#ee4ff    ,,viii4 ,pressure of ten      
atmospheres3        #aj grms4 of        
cellulose1 with #bjj c4c4 caustic       

soda solution of sp4 gr4 #a4jdc         
#bj4bh        #aj grms4 of soft wood    
#gj4ca        #aj         hard          
#fe4ei  ,from this it is evident that by
 increasing the temperature and pressure
 the solvent action of the alkali is    
increased1 but the strength of the lye  
exercises an influence which is even    
more marked4 ,thus1 at a pressure of    
five atmospheres1 the loss of cellulose 
was #j4ge with a caustic lye containing 
#ad per cent4 of ,na,h,o1 while it was  
only #j4je with a lye of #h per cent4   
,na,h,o4  ,to further elucidate the     
action of the alkali under the          
conditions given above1 the author has  
estimated the amount of precipitate     
which alcohol gives with the soda       
solutions1 after boiling with the wood3 
#a4      #b4     #c4   ,specific gravity
 of ,na,h,o solutions          #a4jdc   
#a4ji  #a4afb   ,soft wood1 ordinary    
pressure                #a4jdc  traces  
#d4h             pressure of five       
atmospheres     #a4jdc   #b4j   #bf4h   

ten                 #a4jdc   #a4g    -- 
,hard wood1 ordinary pressure           
#aa4aj   #bg4dj  #cj4hj                 
pressure of five atmospheres     #a4aj  
#be4gj  #ae4h                        ten
                 traces  #e4bj  #ae4h   
,the estimation of the precipitate1     
produced in the soda solutions employed 
in the experiments cited above1 gives3  
,soft wood1 ordinary pressure           
#a4ca traces   #b4j             pressure
 of five atmospheres    #ae4id  #af4j   
#bd4hj                        ten       
#ag4jj  #be4d    --   ,hard wood1       
ordinary pressure                #e4dj  
#f      #e4fj             pressure of   
five atmospheres     #i4dj  #ae4dj      
#cc4fj                        ten       
#ad4jj #ah4dj  #cc4fj  ,as a general    
rule manufacturers employ a greater     
pressure than that which was found      
necessary by the author4 ,as a result1  
it appears from these experiments that  
the wood not only loses incrusting      
matter1 but that part of the cellulose  

enters into solution4 ,as a matter of   
fact1 the yield obtained in practical   
working from #ajj parts of wood does not
 exceed #cj to #ce per cent4--,le ,bull4
 ,fab4 ,pap42 ,chemical ,trade ,journal4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,new ,,boron ,,compounds4   ,an 
important paper is contributed by ,m4   
,moissan to the current number of the   
,comptes ,rendus1 describing two        
interesting new compounds containing    
boron1 phosphorus1 and iodine4 ,a few   
months ago ,m4 ,moissan succeeded in    
preparing the iodide of boron1 a        
beautiful substance of the composition  
,,bi#c1 crystallizing from solution in  
carbon bisulphide in pearly tables1     
which melt at #dc to a liquid which     
boils undecomposed at #baj4 ,when this  
substance is brought in contact with    
fused phosphorus an intense action      
occurs1 the whole mass inflames with    
evolution of violet vapor of iodine4    
,red phosphorus also reacts with        
incandescence when heated in the vapor  

of boron iodide4 ,the reaction may1     
however1 be moderated by employing      
solutions of phosphorus and boron iodide
 in dry carbon bisulphide4 ,the two     
solutions are mixed in a tube closed at 
one end1 a little phosphorus being in   
excess1 and the tube is then sealed4 ,no
 external application of heat is        
necessary4 ,at first the liquid is quite
 clear1 but in a few minutes a brown    
solid substance commences to separate1  
and in three hours the reaction is      
complete4 ,the substance is freed from  
carbon bisulphide in a current of carbon
 dioxide1 the last traces being removed 
by means of the ,sprengel pump4 ,the    
compound thus obtained is a deep red    
amorphous powder1 readily capable of    
volatilization4 ,it melts between #aij  
and #bjj4 ,when heated in vacuo it      
commences to volatilize about #agj1 and 
the vapor condenses in the cooler       
portion of the tube in beautiful red    
crystals4 ,analyses of these crystals   
agree perfectly with the formula        

,,bpi#b4 ,boron phospho-di-iodide is a  
very hygroscopic substance1 moisture    
rapidly decomposing it4 ,in contact with
 a large excess of water1 yellow        
phosphorus is deposited1 and hydriodic1 
boric1 and phosphorus acids formed in   
the solution4 ,a small quantity of      
phosphureted hydrogen also escapes4 ,if 
a small quantity of water is used1 a    
larger deposit of yellow phosphorus is  
formed1 together with a considerable    
quantity of phosphonium iodide4 ,strong 
nitric acid oxidizes boron              
phospho-di-iodide with incandescence4   
,dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to      
phosphoric and boric acids4 ,it burns   
spontaneously in chlorine1 forming boron
 chloride1 chloride of iodine1 and      
pentachloride of phosphorus4 ,when      
slightly warmed in oxygen it inflames1  
the combustion being rendered very      
beautiful by the fumes of boric and     
phosphoric anhydrides and the violet    
vapors of iodine4 ,heated in contact    
with sulphureted hydrogen1 it forms     

sulphides of boron and phosphorus and   
hydriodic acid1 without liberation of   
iodine4 ,metallic magnesium when        
slightly warmed reacts with it with     
incandescence4 ,when thrown into vapor  
of mercury1 boron phospho-di-iodide     
instantly takes fire4  ,the second      
phospho-iodide of boron obtained by ,m4 
,moissan is represented by the formula  
,,bpi4 ,it is formed when sodium or     
magnesium in a fine state of division is
 allowed to act upon a solution of the  
di-iodide just described in carbon      
bisulphide2 or when boron               
phospho-di-iodide is heated to #afj in a
 current of hydrogen4 ,it is obtained in
 the form of a bright red powder1       
somewhat hygroscopic4 ,it volatilizes in
 vacuo without fusion at a temperature  
about #baj1 and the vapor condenses in  
the cooler portion of the tube in       
beautiful orange colored crystals4 ,when
 heated to low redness it decomposes    
into free iodine and phosphide of boron1
 ,,bp4 ,nitric acid reacts energetically

 with it1 but without incandescence1 and
 a certain amount of iodine is          
liberated4 ,sulphuric acid decomposes it
 upon warming1 without formation of     
sulphurous and boric acids and free     
iodine4 ,by the continued action of dry 
hydrogen upon the heated compound the   
iodine and a portion of the phosphorus  
are removed1 and a new phosphide of     
boron1 of the composition ,b#e,p#c1 is  
obtained4--,nature4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,boron        
,,salts4   ,a paper upon the sulphides  
of boron is communicated by ,m4 ,paul   
,sabatier to the ,september number of   
the ,bulletin de la ,societe ,chimique4 
,nature gives the following3 ,hitherto  
only one compound of boron with sulphur 
has been known to us1 the trisulphide1  
,b#b,s#c1 and concerning even that our  
information has been of the most        
incomplete description4 ,berzelius      
obtained this substance in an impure    
form by heating boron in sulphur vapor1 
but the first practical mode of its     

preparation in a state of tolerable     
purity was that employed by ,wohler and 
,deville4 ,these chemists prepared it by
 allowing dry sulphureted hydrogen gas  
to stream over amorphous boron heated to
 redness4 ,subsequently a method of     
obtaining boron sulphide was proposed by
 ,fremy1 according to which a mixture of
 boron trioxide1 soot1 and oil is heated
 in a stream of the vapor of carbon     
bisulphide4 ,m4 ,sabatier finds that the
 best results are obtained by employing 
the method of ,wohler and ,deville4 ,the
 reaction between boron and sulphureted 
hydrogen only commences at red heat1    
near the temperature of the softening of
 glass4 ,when1 however1 the tube        
containing the boron becomes raised to  
the temperature1 boron sulphide         
condenses in the portion of the tube    
adjacent to the heated portion2 at first
 it is deposited in a state of fusion1  
and the globules on cooling present an  
opaline aspect4 ,further along the tube 
it is slowly deposited in a porcelain   

like form1 while further still the      
sublimate of sulphide takes the form of 
brilliant acicular crystals4 ,the       
crystals consist of pure ,b#b,s#c2 the  
vitreous modification1 however1 is      
usually contaminated with a little free 
sulphur4 ,very fine crystals of the     
trisulphide may be obtained by heating a
 quantity of the porcelain-like form to 
#cjj at the bottom of a closed tube     
whose upper portion is cooled by water4 
,the crystals are violently decomposed  
by water1 yielding a clear solution of  
boric acid1 sulphureted hydrogen being  
evolved4 ,on examining the porcelain    
boat in which the boron had been placed1
 a non-volatile black substance is      
found1 which appears to consist of a    
lower sulphide of the composition       
,b#d,s4 ,the same substance is obtained 
when the trisulphide is heated in a     
current of hydrogen2 a portion          
volatilizes1 and is deposited again     
further along the tube1 while the       
residue fuses1 and becomes reduced to   

the unalterable subsulphide ,b#d,s1     
sulphureted hydrogen passing away in the
 stream of gas4  ,two selenides of      
boron1 ,b#b,se#c and ,b#d,se1           
corresponding to the above described    
sulphides1 have also been prepared by   
,m4 ,sabatier1 by heating amorphous     
boron in a stream of hydrogen selenide1 
,h#b,se4 ,the triselenide is less       
volatile than the trisulphide1 and is   
pale green in color4 ,it is             
energetically decomposed by water1 with 
formation of boric acid and liberation  
of hydrogen selenide4 ,the liquid       
rapidly deposits free selenium1 owing to
 the oxidation of the hydrogen selenide 
retained in solution4 ,light appears to 
decompose the triselenide into free     
selenium and the subselenide ,b#d,se4   
,silicon selenide1 ,si,se#c1 has        
likewise been obtained by ,m4 ,sabatier 
by heating crystalline silicon to       
redness in a current of hydrogen        
selenide4 ,it presents the appearance of
 a fused hard metallic mass incapable of

 volatilization4 ,water reacts most     
vigorously with it1 producing silicic   
acid1 and liberating hydrogen selenide4 
,potash decomposes it with formation of 
a clear solution1 the silica being      
liberated in a form in which it is      
readily dissolved by alkalies4 ,silicon 
selenide emits a very irritating odor1  
due to the hydrogen selenide which is   
formed by its reaction with the moisture
 of the atmosphere4 ,when heated to     
redness in the air it becomes converted 
into silicon dioxide and free selenium4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,natural ,,sulphide ,,of ,,gold4  ,by  
,t4,w4,t4 ,,atherton4   ,the existence  
of gold in the form of a natural        
sulphide in conjunction with pyrites has
 often been advanced theoretically as a 
possible occurrence1 but up to the      
present time this occurrence has1 ,i    
believe1 never been established as an   
actual fact4  ,during my investigations 
on the ore of the ,deep ,creek ,mines1  
,i have found in them what ,i believe to

 be gold existing as a natural sulphide4
 ,the description of this ore will1 no  
doubt1 be of interest to your readers4  
,the lode is a large irregular one of   
pure arsenical pyrites1 existing in a   
felsite dike near the sea coast4        
,surrounding it on all sides are        
micaceous schists1 and in the           
neighborhood is a large hill of granite 
about #hjj ft4 high4 ,in the lode and   
the rock immediately adjoining it are   
large quantities of pyrophylite1 and in 
some places of the mine are deposits of 
this pure white1 translucent mineral1   
but in the ore itself it is a yellow and
 pale olive green color1 and is never   
absent from the pyrites4  ,from the     
first ,i was much struck with the       
exceedingly fine state of division in   
which the gold existed in the ore4      
,after roasting and very carefully      
grinding down in an agate mortar1 ,i    
have never been able to get any pieces  
of gold exceeding the one-thousandth of 
an inch in diameter1 and the greater    

quantity is very much finer than this4  
,careful dissolving of the pyrites and  
gangue1 so as to leave the gold intact1 
failed to find it in any larger         
diameter4 ,as this was a very unusual   
experience in investigations on many    
other kinds of pyrites1 ,i was led      
further into the matter4 ,ultimately1   
after a number of experiments1 there was
 nothing left but to test for gold as a 
sulphide4  ,taking #bjj grammes of      
pyrites from a sample assaying #ag      
ounces fine gold per ton1 grinding it   
finely1 and2 heating for some hours with
 a solution of sodium sulphide          
7,na#b,s#b71 on decomposing the filtrate
 and treating it for gold ,i got a      
result at the rate of #ab ounces gold   
per ton4 ,this was repeated several     
times with the same result4  ,this      
sample came from the lode at the #adj   
ft4 level1 while samples from the higher
 levels where the ore is more oxidized1 
although carrying the gold in the same  
degree of fineness1 do not give as high 

a percentage of auric sulphide4  ,it    
would appear that all the gold in the   
pyrites 7and ,i have never found any    
apart from it7 has originally taken its 
place there as a sulphide4  ,the        
sulphide is an analysis of a general    
sample of the ore3    ,silica           
#ac4idj p4c4   ,alumina        #f4eib   
,lime           #j4ijbe    ,sulphur     
#af4ehd     ,arsenic       #cc4bfg      
,iron          #bg4gbj     ,cobalt      
#j4ifd                                  
,per ,ton4   ,nickel                    
,traces4   ,gold                      #e
 ozs4 #c dwts4 #h grs4   ,silver        
#j     #af     #j                       
-------                 #ii4ifi         
,nambucca ,head's ,gold ,mining         
,company1 ,deep ,creek1 ,n4,s4 ,wales1  
,oct4 #i1 #ahia4--;,chemical ,news4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,some ,,means ,,of ,,purifying ,,water4
   ,there are several methods extant for
 the purpose of purifying and softening 
water1 and in the following brief       

account some of the chief features of   
these methods are summarized4 ,the      
,slack and ,brownlow apparatus we will  
deal with first4 ,this purifier is one  
which is intended to remove the matter  
in suspension in the water to be treated
 by subsidence and not by filtration4   
,the apparatus consists of a vertical   
iron tank or cylinder1 inside which are 
a series of plates arranged in a spiral 
direction around a fixed center1 and    
sloping at an angle of #de on both sides
 outward4 ,the water to be dealt with   
flows through a large inlet tube fixed  
to the bottom of the cylinder1 rises to 
the top by passing spirally round the   
whole circumference1 and depositing on  
the plates or shelves all solids and    
impurities at the outer edges of the    
plates4 ,mud cocks are placed to remove 
the solids deposited during the flow of 
the water upward to the outlet pipe1    
placed close to the top of the cylinder4
 ,one of these tanks1 a square one1 is  
at work purifying the ,medlock water at 

,manchester1 and on drawing samples of  
water from nearly every plate1 that from
 the lower mud cock showed considerable 
deposit1 which decreased in bulk until  
the top mud cock was reached1 when the  
water was quite free from deposit4 ,it  
is stated that one man would be         
sufficient to attend to #bj of these    
purifiers4  ,to filter or purify        
#b1jjj1jjj gallons per #bd hours would  
require #dj tanks1 #aj ft4 by #g ft4    
diameter1 each doing #b1jjj gallons per 
hour1 and would cost1 with their        
fittings1 #f1djj1 including all patent  
rights1 but exclusive of lime mixing    
tanks1 agitators1 lime water and        
softening tanks1 engine and boiler1 and 
suitable buildings1 the cost of which   
would not be far short of #e1jjj1 or a  
total of #aa1djj to soften #b1jjj1jjj   
gallons per #bd hours4 ,the labor and   
other working expenses in connection    
with this plant would not be less than  
that necessary to work the              
,porter-,clark process1 which is given  

as ,o4#ee;d4 per #a1jjj gallons4  ,the  
,brock and ,minton filter press system  
is another method4 ,this patent press is
 made of steel1 perforated with  inch   
holes4 ,on the inside of the shell there
 is first laid a layer of fine wire     
netting1 then a layer of cloth1 and     
lastly another layer of wire netting of 
a larger mesh than the other4 ,the      
matter treated is pumped into the body  
of the cylinder1 the liquid passing     
through the filtering material to the   
outside1 the solids being retained      
inside1 and are got rid of by partially 
revolving the upper half to relieve it  
from the knuckle joint1 and1 after being
 raised1 the lower half is turned over  
by machinery1 and the solid matter is   
simply allowed to fall out into wagons  
or trucks run underneath for that       
purpose4 ,such1 in brief1 is the manner 
of using this filter press for chemical 
works' purposes4 ,the cost of each      
filter press1 including royalties1 is   
from #bej to #cjj1 the size being #h ft4

 by #d ft4 diameter4 ,having a filtering
 area of #ajj square feet1 it would     
require #cb of these applied to         
softening water to effectually deal with
 #b1jjj1jjj gallons per #bd hours2 this1
 at the lowest estimate for filters     
alone1 would be #h1jjj1 and1 using the  
same figures1 #e1jjj for lime mixing    
tanks1 etc41 as referred to in the      
,slack and ,brownlow purifier1 would    
bring the total cost up to #ac1jjj1 and 
the working expense would not be less   
than that required to work the          
,porter-,clark process1 and would       
probably be very much greater4 ,this    
filter press is not in use anywhere for 
dealing with large quantities of water  
in connection with a town water supply4 
,a process which has been working for a 
long time at ,southampton is the ,atkins
 system1 which also includes the use of 
filter presses4 ,the pumping station and
 softening works are situated at        
,otterbourne1 eight miles from          
,southampton1 and were built together as

 one scheme4 ,the mixing room has two   
slaking lime tanks1 with agitators      
driven by steam power4 ,the mixture is  
then run as cream of lime into a tank   
#bj ft4 square and is then pumped into  
the lower ends of two lime water        
producing cylinders4 ,the agitation is  
here obtained by pressure from a small  
cistern placed above them with a #ab ft4
 head1 the pipe from which is attached  
to the lower ends of the cylinders4     
,this has been found by experiment to be
 the most satisfactory means of         
obtaining the proper degree of agitation
 necessary2 the clear lime water is then
 drawn off at the top of the cylinders1 
and flows by gravity into a mixer1 where
 it comes in contact with the hard      
water4 ,both flow together into a       
distributing trough1 from which it      
overflows into a small softening        
reservoir1 having a capacity of one     
hour's supply1 a weir being placed along
 the lower end1 over which the water    
flows to #ac filter presses4 ,the clear 

water from the filters is then conveyed 
to a small well1 from which the         
permanent engines raise it to the first 
of a series of high level covered       
service reservoirs4  ,in the filter     
press there are #bj hollow disks        
representing a filtering area of #bej   
square feet1 or a total of #c1bej square
 feet4 ,the water to be filtered passes 
into the body of the filter and then    
through a filtering medium of cloth laid
 on a thin perforated zinc plate1 into  
the inner side of the disks1 from whence
 it is conveyed through the hollow      
shaft1 to which the disks are attached1 
to the high level pumps4  ,the filter   
cloths are cleaned three times every #bd
 hours1 without removal1 by jets of     
softened water from the main1 having a  
pressure of #fj pounds to the square    
inch4 ,during cleaning operations the   
disks are made to revolve slowly2 this  
only occupies a space of five minutes   
for each cleaning4 ,the cloths last from
 six to eight months without being      

renewed4 ,they also occasionally use for
 further cleaning the cloths a jet of   
steam injected upon the center of the   
disks in order to remove by partial     
boiling the insoluble particles         
engrained in the cloths4 ,this has been 
found to make the cloths last longer4   
,this cloth is obtained from ,porritt   
,bros4 and ,austen1 ,stubbing ,vale1    
,ramsbottom1 and costs #ac;d4 per lineal
 yard of a width to suit the disks4     
,the quantity softened is #b million    
gallons per #bd hours1 but the present  
plant can deal with #b million gallons1 
and the buildings are erected for #c    
million gallons1 additional filters and 
lime producing tanks being only required
 to deal with the increased quantity4   
,the costs of the softening works was   
#aj1cid1 of which #g1hdd was for the    
softening machinery and plant and #b1eej
 for the reservoir1 buildings1 etc4     
,the working expenses1 including lime1  
labor1 cloths1 general repairs1 and     
steam1 is stated to be #j4bbe;d4 per    

#a1jjj gallons1 the labor required being
 only two men1 one on the day and the   
other on the night shift1 with an       
occasional man to assist4  ,the hardness
 of the ,southampton water on ,clark's  
scale is #ah of total hardness1 and this
 is reduced down to #f or #h by this    
process4--,chem4 ,tr4 ,jour4         99 
99       99       99       99     ,a    
,,new ,,laboratory ,,process ,,for      
,,preparing ,,hydrobromic ,,acid4  ,by  
,g4,s4 ,,newth4   ,this method is a     
synthetical one1 and consists in passing
 a stream of hydrogen and bromine vapor 
over a spiral of platinum wire heated to
 bright redness by means of an electric 
current4 ,a glass tube1 about #g inches 
long and #e_/h of an inch bore1 is      
fitted at each end with a cork carrying 
a short straight piece of small tube2   
through each cork is also fixed a stout 
wire1 and these two wires are joined by 
means of a short spiral of platinum     
wire1 the spiral being about #a inch    
long4 ,one end of this apparatus is     

connected to a small wash bottle        
containing bromine1 through which a     
stream of hydrogen can be bubbled4 ,the 
other end is attached to a tube dipping 
into a vessel of water for the          
absorption of the gas1 or1 if a large   
quantity of the solution is required1 to
 a series of ,woulf's bottles containing
 water4 ,hydrogen is first slowly passed
 through the tube until the air is      
displaced1 when the platinum spiral is  
heated to bright redness by the passage 
of a suitable electric current4         
,complete combination takes place in    
contact with the hot wire1 and the color
 imparted to the ingoing gases by the   
bromine vapor is entirely removed1 and  
the contents of the tube beyond the     
platinum are perfectly colorless4 ,the  
vessel containing the bromine may be    
heated to a temperature of about #fj ,c4
 in a water bath1 at which temperature  
the hydrogen will be mixed with nearly  
the requisite amount of bromine to      
combine with the whole of it4 ,so long  

as even a slight excess of hydrogen is  
passing1 which is readily seen by the   
escape of bubbles through the water in  
the absorbing vessels1 the issuing      
hydrobromic acid will remain perfectly  
colorless1 and therefore free from      
bromine2 so that it is not necessary to 
adopt any of the usual methods for      
scrubbing the gas through vessels       
containing phosphorus4 ,when the        
operation is proceeding very rapidly a  
lambent flame occasionally appears in   
the tube just before the platinum wire1 
but this flame is never propagated back 
through the narrow tube into the bromine
 bottle4 ,the precaution may be taken1  
however1 of plugging this narrow tube   
with a little glass wool1 which renders 
any inconvenience from this cause quite 
impossible4 ,by this method a large     
quantity of bromine may be rapidly      
converted into hydrobromic acid without 
any loss of bromine1 and the operation  
when once started can be allowed to     
proceed without any further             

attention4--,chemical ,news4         99 
99       99       99       99           
,,sapotin3 ,a ,,new ,,glucoside4  ,by   
,,gustave ,,michaud4   ,achras ,sapota1 
,l41 is a large tree scattered through  
the forests of ,central ,america and the
 ,west ,indies2 its fruit is often seen 
upon the ,creole dinner table4 ,this    
fruit is a berry1 the size of an orange1
 the taste of which suggests the flavor 
of melon1 as well as that of hydrocyanic
 acid4 ,the fruit contains one or two   
seeds like large chestnuts1 which1 if   
broken1 let fall a white almond4 ,this  
last contains the glucoside which ,i    
call sapotin4  ,i obtained sapotin for  
the first time by heating dry raspings  
of the almond with #ij per cent4        
alcohol4 ,while cooling1 the filtered   
liquid deposited a good deal of the     
compound4 ,since that time ,i have      
advantageously modified the process and 
increased the amount of product4 ,i     
prepare sapotin in the following way3   
,the almonds are rasped1 dried at #ajj  

,c4 and washed with benzene1 which takes
 away an enormous quantity of fatty     
matter4 ,the benzene which remains in   
the almond is driven put first by       
compression1 afterward by heating4 ,then
 the raspings are exhausted with boiling
 #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,the solution is
 filtered as rapidly as possible1 in    
order to avoid its cooling and          
depositing the sapotin in the filter4   
,as soon as the temperature of the      
filtered liquid begins to fall1 a       
voluminous precipitate is seen to form1 
which is the sapotin4  ,in order to     
purify it1 the precipitate is collected 
in a filter and expressed between sheets
 of filter paper4 ,when dry it is washed
 with ether1 which takes away the last  
particles of fatty and resinous matter4 
,the purification is completed by two   
crystallizations from #ij per cent4     
alcohol4 ,at last the substance is dried
 at #ajj4  ,the sapotin separates from  
its alcohol solution in the form of     
microscopic crystals4 ,when dry1 it is a

 white1 inodorous powder4 ,its taste is 
extremely acrid and burning4 ,if the    
powder penetrate into the nostrils or   
the eyes1 it produces a persistent      
burning sensation which brings about    
sneezing and flow of tears4 ,it melts at
 #bdj ,c41 growing brown at the same    
time4  ,it has a laevo-rotatory power of
 aj  -#cb4aa1 which was determined with 
an alcoholic solution1 the aqueous      
solution not being sufficiently         
transparent4  ,it is very soluble in    
water1 easily soluble in boiling        
alcohol1 much less in cold alcohol1 and 
insoluble in ether1 chloroform and      
benzene4 ,its alcoholic solution is     
precipitated by ether4  ,tannin has no  
action on it1 but basic acetate of lead 
produces a gelatinous precipitate in its
 aqueous solution4 ,strange enough1 this
 precipitate is entirely soluble in a   
small excess of basic acetate of lead4  
,if thrown into concentrated sulphuric  
acid1 sapotin colors it with a garnet   
red tint4 ,it does not reduce ,fehling's

 solution4 ,its analysis gave the       
following results3           ,calculated
 for                     ,found4        
,c#bi;,h#eb,o#bj4         ,i4           
,,ii4    ,c          #dh4cc             
#dh4fi             #dh4ca   ,h          
#g4bc                  #g4cc            
#g4de  ,when heated with water and a    
little sulphuric acid1 sapotin is       
decomposed and yields glucose and an    
insoluble matter which ,i call          
sapotiretin4 ,one hundred parts of      
sapotin produce #ea4eh parts of glucose 
and #di4fg of sapotiretin4 ,the equation
 which represents this reaction is3     
,c#bi;,h#eb,o#bj  #b;,h#b,o             
#b;,c#f;,h#ab,o#f  ,c#ag;,h#cb,o#aj  and
 requires #ej per cent4 of glucose and  
#ee per cent4 of sapotiretin4           
,sapotiretin is an amorphous compound1  
insoluble in water1 very soluble in     
alcohol1 less soluble in chloroform1    
insoluble in ether4 ,below is the result
 of its analysis3           ,calculated 
for                      ,found4        

,c#ag;,h#cb,o#aj4         ,i4           
,,ii4    ,c          #ea4eb             
#ea4ea                #ea4bj   ,h       
#h4jh                  #h4ai            
#h4cd  --,amer4 ,chem4 ,jour4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,detection ,,of ,,peanut ,,oil ,,in    
,,olive ,,oil4   ,holde1 after a careful
 trial of the various processes for     
detecting the above adulteration1 gives 
the preference to ,renard's1 which he   
describes as follows3  ,ten grms4 of the
 suspected oil1 after being saponified1 
and the fatty acids separated by        
hydrochloric acid1 are dissolved in #ij 
per cent4 alcohol1 and precipitated by  
sugar of lead4 ,the oleate of lead is   
separated by ether1 and the residuum1   
consisting of palmitic and arachic      
acids1 is decomposed by hydrochloric    
acid4 ,the fatty acids are dissolved1   
with the aid of heat1 in #ej c4c4 of #ij
 per cent4 alcohol4 ,the arachic acid   
which separates after cooling is        
filtered out and washed1 first with #ij 

per cent4 and afterward with #gj per    
cent4 alcohol4 ,it is then dissolved in 
hot alcohol1 and the solution evaporated
 in a weighed saucer4 ,the weight of the
 residuum1 after taking into account the
 acid dissolved in the alcohol1 equals  
the whole amount of arachic acid        
contained in the oil2 the melting point 
of this residuum should be #gj to #ga   
,c4 ,with this process the author has   
always been successful2 but when the    
olive oil contains not more than #e to  
#aj per cent4 of peanut oil1 it is      
necessary to make the test with #dj     
grms4 of the former1 otherwise the      
melting point of the arachic acid cannot
 be estimated4 ,furthermore1 the acids  
which are separated from the lead salt  
by hydrochloric acid must be            
recrystallized repeatedly with #ij per  
cent4 alcohol1 until the melting point  
ceases to rise1 in case the latter is   
not found to exceed #gj ,c4 at the first
 estimation4 ,when peanut oil is        
present1 the melting point will always  

be above #gj4--;,chem4 ,zeit4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,hydroxylamine4   ,free hydroxylamine1 
,,nh#b,,oh1 has been isolated by ,m4    
,lobry de ,bruyn1 and a preliminary     
account of its mode of preparation and  
properties is published by him in the   
current number of the ,recueil des      
travaux chimiques des ,pays-,bas 7#ahia1
 #aj1 #aja74 ,the manner in which the   
free base was obtained was briefly as   
follows4 ,about a hundred grammes of    
hydroxylamine hydrochloride1            
,,nh#b,,oh4,h,cl1 were dissolved in six 
hundred cubic centimeters of warm methyl
 alcohol4 ,to this solution a quantity  
of sodium dissolved in methyl alcohol   
was added1 in such proportion that the  
hydrochloride of hydroxylamine was      
present in slight excess over and above 
that required to convert it to sodium   
chloride4 ,after deposition of the      
separated sodium chloride the solution  
was decanted and filtered4  ,the greater
 portion of the methyl alcohol was next 

removed by distillation under the       
reduced pressure of #afj-bjj mm4 ,the   
remainder was then treated with         
anhydrous ether1 in order to completely 
precipitate the last traces of dissolved
 sodium chloride4 ,the liquid eventually
 separated into two layers1 an upper    
ethereal layer containing about #e per  
cent4 of hydroxylamine1 and a lower     
layer containing over #ej per cent4 of  
hydroxylamine1 the remainder of the     
methyl alcohol1 and a little dissolved  
salt4 ,by subjecting this lower layer to
 fractional distillation under #fj mm4  
pressure1 it was separated into three   
fractions1 of which the first contained 
#bg per cent4 of hydroxylamine1 the     
second #fj per cent41 and the third     
crystallized in the ice-cooled receiver 
in long needles4 ,this third fraction   
consisted of free solid ,,nh#b,,oh4     
,hydroxylamine as thus isolated in the  
free state is a very hygroscopic        
substance1 which rapidly liquefies when 
exposed to air1 owing to the absorption 

of water4  ,the crystals melt at #cc1   
and the fused substance appears to      
possess the capability of readily       
dissolving metallic salts4 ,sodium      
chloride is very largely soluble in the 
liquid2 powdered niter melts at once in 
contact with it1 and the two liquids    
then mix4 ,free hydroxylamine is without
 odor4 ,it is heavier than water4 ,when 
rapidly heated upon platinum foil it    
suddenly decomposes in a most violent   
manner1 with production of a large sheet
 of bright yellow flame4 ,it is only    
very slightly soluble in liquid carbon  
compounds1 such as chloroform1 benzene1 
ether1 acetic ether1 and carbon         
bisulphide4 ,the vapor attacks corks1 so
 that the solid requires to be preserved
 in glass-stoppered bottles4 ,the free  
base appears also to act upon cellulose1
 for1 upon placing a few drops of the   
melted substance upon filter paper1 a   
considerable amount of heat is evolved4 
,the pure crystals are very stable1 the 
base in the free state appearing to     

possess much greater stability than when
 dissolved in water4 ,the instability of
 the solution appears1 however1 to be   
influenced to a considerable extent by  
the alkalinity of the glass of the      
containing vessel1 for concentrated     
solutions free from dissolved alkali are
 found to be perfectly stable4 ,bromine 
and iodine react in a remarkable manner 
with free hydroxylamine4  ,crystals of  
iodine dissolve instantly in contact    
with it1 with evolution of a gas and    
considerable rise of temperature4       
,bromine reacts with violence1 a gas    
again being explosively evolved and     
hydrobromic acid formed4 ,the nature of 
the gas evolved is now undergoing       
investigation4 ,a letter from ,m4 ,lobry
 de ,bruyn appears in the number of the 
,chemiker ,zeitung for ,october #ca1    
warning those who may attempt to prepare
 free hydroxylamine by the above method 
that it is a dangerously explosive      
substance when warmed to a temperature  
of #hj-ajj4 ,upon warming a flask       

containing the free solid base upon a   
water bath a most violent explosion     
occurs4 ,a spontaneous decomposition    
appears to set in about #hj1 and even in
 open vessels the explosion is very     
violent4 ,care must also be taken during
 the fractional distillation of the     
concentrated solution in methyl alcohol 
to cool the apparatus before changing   
the receiver1 as if air is admitted     
while the retort is heated the          
experiment ends with an                 
explosion4--,nature4         99       99
       99       99       99   ,,the     
,,scientific ,,american  ,,architects   
,,and ,,builders ,,edition  #b4ej a     
,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4  ,this 
is a ,special ,edition of the           
,,scientific ,,american1 issued         
monthly--on the first day of the month4 
,each number contains about forty large 
quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred
 ordinary book pages1 forming1          
practically1 a large and splendid       
,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly  

adorned with elegant plates in colors   
and with fine engravings1 illustrating  
the most interesting examples of modern 
,architectural ,construction and allied 
subjects4  ,a special feature is the    
presentation in each number of a variety
 of the latest and best plans for       
private residences1 city and country1   
including those of very moderate cost as
 well as the more expensive4 ,drawings  
in perspective and in color are given1  
together with full ,plans1              
,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of      
,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4  ,no
 other building paper contains so many  
plans1 details1 and specifications      
regularly presented as the ,,scientific 
,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have 
already been erected on the various     
plans we have issued during the past    
year1 and many others are in process of 
construction4  ,architects1 ,builders1  
and ,owners will find this work valuable
 in furnishing fresh and useful         
suggestions4 ,all who contemplate       

building or improving homes1 or erecting
 structures of any kind1 have before    
them in this work an almost endless     
series of the latest and best examples  
from which to make selections1 thus     
saving time and money4  ,many other     
subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 
,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1      
,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1   
etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive    
,compendium of ,manufacturers'          
,announcements is also given1 in which  
the most reliable and approved ,building
 ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 
and ,appliances are described and       
illustrated1 with addresses of the      
makers1 etc4  ,the fullness1 richness1  
cheapness1 and convenience of this work 
have won for it the ,,largest           
,,circulation of any ,architectural     
publication in the world4  ,a ,catalogue
 of valuable books on ,architecture1    
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