,,the ,,commercial ,,products ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom1 ,,considered ,,in ,,their ,,various ,,uses ,,to ,,man ,,and ,,in ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,arts ,,and ,,manufactures2 ,,forming ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,handbook ,,of ,,reference ,,for ,,the ,colonist1 ,manufacturer1 ,merchant1 and ,consumer1 ,,on ,,the ,,cultivation1 ,,preparation ,,for ,,shipment1 ,,and ,,commercial ,,value1 c4 ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,substances ,,obtained ,,from ,,trees ,,and ,,plants1 ,,entering ,,into ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,tropical ,,and ,,sub-,,tropical ,,regions1 c4 ,,by ,p4,l4 ,,simmonds1 ,,honorary ,,and ,,corresponding ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,and ,,commercial ,,societies ,,of ,,jamaica1 ,,british ,,guiana1 ,,antigua1 ,,barbados1 ,,konigsberg1 ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope1 ,,natal1 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,society1 ,,the ,,nova ,,scotia ,,central ,,board ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,the ,,societies ,,for ,,promoting ,,agriculture ,,in ,,philadelphia ,,and ,,new ,,orleans2 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,editors ,,of ,,johnson',s ,,farmer',s ,,encyclop,,dia2 ,,many ,,years ,,editor ,,and ,,proprietor ,,of ,,the ,,colonial ,,magazine1 c4 c4 ,,mdcccliv4 ,,list ,,of ,,subscribers4 ,african ,steam ,ship ,company1 #c1 ,mincing ,lane ,archbell1 ,j41 ,esq41 ,pietermaritzburg1 ,natal ,assam ,company1 #cj1 ,great ,winchester-street ,aubert1 ,honourable ,j4,m4,a41 ,m4,c41 ,st4 ,lucia ,botanical ,society 7the ,royal71 ,regent's ,park ,burton1 ,c4,h41 ,esq41 #acc1 ,fenchurch-street ,boddington1 ,messrs4 ,co41 #i1 ,st4 ,helen's ,place ,bristol ,chamber of ,commerce1 ,bristol ,brown1 ,messrs4 ,co41 #d1 ,pancras ,lane ,begg1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 #c1 ,corbett ,court1 ,gracechurch-street ,bow1 ,j4,b4 ,de41 ,editor of ,commercial ,review1 ,new ,orleans ,breede1 ,l4 ,von1 ,esq41 ,natal ,breen1 ,h4,h41 ,esq41 ,st4 ,lucia ,barbados ,general ,agricultural ,society ,british ,guiana ,royal ,agricultural and ,commercial ,society ,browne1 ,hunter ,co41 ,messrs41 ,liverpool ,bagshaw1 ,john1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,cliff ,house1 ,harwich ,berry1 ,richard ,l41 ,esq41 ,chagford1 ,devonshire ,blyth1 ,messrs41 ,j4 ,a41 ,steam ,engine ,house1 ,limehouse ,blyth1 ,philip ,p41 ,esq41 #bc1 ,upper ,wimpole ,street ,brown1 ,messrs4 ,robert ,co41 #be1 ,lawrence ,pountney ,lane ,carmichael1 ,sir ,james1 ,bart41 ,sussex ,gardens ,christopher1 ,j4,s41 ,esq41 #bf1 ,coleman-street ,challis1 ,alderman1 #cb1 ,wilson ,street1 ,finsbury ,childs1 ,r4,w41 ,esq41 #bf1 ,coleman ,street ,cape of ,good ,hope ,agricultural ,society ,campbell1 ,c4,t41 ,graham's ,town1 ,cape of ,good ,hope 7#c copies7 ,central ,board of ,agriculture1 ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia 7#e copies7 ,crum1 ,h4,e41 ,esq41 7,messrs4 ,j4 ,ewing ,co's417 ,glasgow ,clegg1 ,t41 ,esq41 ,manchester ,carleton1 ,percival ,a41 ,esq41 ,stipendiary ,magistrate1 ,bahamas ,davis1 ,messrs4 ,t4,e4 ,w4,w41 manufacturers1 #aei and #afj1 ,whitechapel ,road ,dinneford1 ,messrs4 ,co1 #agb1 ,new ,bond-street ,denoon1 ,messrs4 ,d4 ,co41 #f1 ,adam's ,court1 ,old ,broad-st4 ,decasseres1 ,phineas1 ,esq41 ,falmouth1 ,jamaica ,dod1 ,francis1 ,esq41 ,savanna le ,mar1 ,jamaica ,duke1 ,sir ,james1 ,m4,p41 ,portland ,place ,dunbar1 ,messrs4 ,d41 ,sons1 #ie1 ,fore-street1 ,limehouse ,dennistoun1 ,messrs4 ,j4 ,a41 ,glasgow ,drysdale1 ,hon4 ,j4,v41 ,colonial ,secretary1 ,st4 ,lucia ,drumm1 ,mr4 ,w41 ,chemist1 ,barbados 7#ab copies7 ,ede1 ,francis1 ,esq41 ,great ,winchester-street ,ede1 ,limbrey1 ,esq41 merchant1 ,winchester-street ,edmonds1 ,e41 junr41 ,esq41 ,bilcomb ,brook1 ,bradford1 ,wilts ,evett1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 ,trelawney1 ,jamaica ,forbes1 ,dr41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,burlington-street ,fielden1 ,j4 ,leyland1 ,esq41 ,feniscowles1 ,blackburn ,fox1 ,mr4 ,c41 ,paternoster ,row ,foster1 ,t4,c41 ,esq41 ,natal ,framgee1 ,neeswanjee ,co41 ,bombay ,forman1 ,mr4 ,r4,b41 #ad1 ,mincing ,lane ,franks ,co41 ,messrs41 #cf1 ,fenchurch-street ,grey1 ,the ,right ,honourable ,earl ,grassett1 ,elliot1 ,esq41 #f1 ,chesham-street1 ,belgrave ,square ,gray1 ,messrs4 ,b4,c4,t4 ,co41 ,great ,st4 ,helen's ,gray ,co41 ,messrs41 ,commercial ,chambers1 ,mincing ,lane ,glasgow1 ,messrs4 ,alexander ,co41 ,glasgow ,glasgow ,chamber of ,commerce and ,manufactures ,harker1 ,george1 ,esq41 #ajb and #ajc1 ,upper ,thames-street ,henry1 ,j4,g41 ,esq41 ,bicknollon ,house1 ,williton1 ,somerset ,holloway1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 #bdd1 ,strand ,hanbury1 ,daniel1 ,esq1 #b1 ,plough ,court ,howard1 ,messrs4 ,james ,frederick1 ,bedford ,haywood1 ,james1 ,esq41 ,birmingham ,henley1 ,the ,right ,honourable ,j4,w41 ,m4,p4 ,humphreys1 ,e4,r41 ,l4,l4,d41 ,cheltenham ,school ,haynes1 ,robert1 ,esq41 ,thimbleby ,lodge1 ,northallerton ,howson1 ,rev4 ,j4,s41 ,m4,a41 ,principal of ,liverpool ,collegiate ,school ,howard1 ,w4,m41 ,esq41 ,barbados ,hitchins1 ,richard1 ,esq41 ,kingston1 ,jamaica ,hamilton1 ,william1 ,esq41 #bi1 ,st4 ,vincent ,place1 ,glasgow ,hodge1 ,honorable ,langford ,l41 ,antigua ,ifill1 ,benjamin1 ,esq41 #hf1 ,gloucester ,terrace1 ,hyde ,park ,gardens ,innes1 ,j41 ,esq41 ,moorgate-street ,isle of ,thanet ,agricultural ,association1 ,ramsgate ,jamaica ,association1 #a1 ,new ,square1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,jamaica ,royal ,agricultural ,society ,jennings1 ,j4,h41 ,esq41 ,stipendiary ,magistrate1 ,st4 ,lucia ,jung ,burgtheel1 ,messrs41 #b1 ,winchester ,buildings ,johnson1 ,c4,w41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,croydon ,keane1 ,charles ,c41 ,esq41 ,bermuda ,keating1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard ,keeling ,hunt1 ,messrs41 ,monument ,yard ,laird1 ,j4,m41 ,esq41 ,african ,steam ,ship ,co41 ,mincing ,lane ,laurie1 ,w4,c41 ,esq4 #f1 ,great ,winchester-street ,lane1 ,crawford ,co41 ,messrs41 ,hong ,kong 7#ab copies7 ,lee1 ,d4 ,mc,phee1 ,esq41 ,bermuda ,livesay1 ,drs41 ,r4,n41 #ce1 ,nelson ,square ,lloyd1 ,b4,s41 ,esq41 ,birchin ,lane ,liverpool1 ,library of ,collegiate ,institution ,lawton1 ,isaac1 ,esq41 ,kingston1 ,jamaica 7#b copies7 ,lyons1 ,george1 ,esq41 ,falmouth1 ,jamaica 7#b copies7 ,lawrence ,co41 ,messrs41 ,madras 7#c copies7 ,losack1 ,f4,c41 ,esq41 ,trelawney1 ,jamaica ,lord ,mayor1 ,the ,right ,honourable1 ,mansion ,house ,molesworth1 ,the ,right ,honourable ,sir ,william1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,eaton ,square ,mc,culloch1 ,j4,r41 ,esq41 ,her ,majesty's ,stationery ,office ,morewood1 ,edward ,esq41 ,compensation1 ,natal ,morewood1 ,j4,j41 ,esq41 #a1 ,winchester ,buildings ,martin1 ,r4 ,montgomery1 ,esq41 #ba1 ,victoria ,road1 ,kensington ,mc,henry1 ,george1 ,m4,d41 #ab1 ,danzie ,street1 ,liverpool ,masterman1 ,john1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,nicholas ,lane1 ,city ,mayers1 ,j4,p4 ,esq41 ,staplegrove1 ,barbados ,mouat1 ,richard1 ,esq41 ,r4,n41 ,h4,m4 ,dockyard1 ,port ,royal1 ,jamaica ,mc,hugh1 ,r4,g41 ,esq41 ,st4 ,lucia ,marryatt1 ,charles1 ,esq41 ,laurence ,pountney ,lane ,mason1 ,j4,p4 and ,co41 #ah1 ,mincing ,lane ,mosely1 ,mr4 ,e4,n41 ,nassau1 ,bahamas4 ,michelli1 ,mr4 ,f41 ,gould ,square ,nesbit1 ,j4,c4 ,esq41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,scientific ,school1 ,kennington ,lane ,newdegate1 ,c4,n41 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,blackheath ,natal ,agricultural and ,horticultural ,society ,newcastle1 his ,grace the ,duke of1 7#b copies7 ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society1 ,albany ,noble1 ,messrs4 ,g4 ,j4,a41 #aa1 ,george ,yard1 ,lombard ,street1 ,pakington1 ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,john ,s41 ,m4,p4 ,poole1 ,david1 ,esq41 ,analytical ,chemist1 #ah1 ,jubilee ,street1 ,mile ,end ,road4 ,poole1 ,braithwaite1 ,esq41 ,london and ,north ,western ,railway1 ,liverpool4 ,pitts and ,gavin1 ,messrs41 ,kandy1 ,ceylon4 ,porteous1 ,the ,honorable ,james1 ,jamaica4 ,prescott1 ,george ,w41 ,esq41 #fb1 ,threadneedle ,street ,rowland1 ,messrs4 ,alex4 and ,sons1 #bj1 ,hatton ,garden 7#c copies7 ,ransomes and ,sims1 ,messrs41 ,implement ,makers1 ,ipswich 7#b copies7 ,rolph1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 ,m4,d41 ,portsmouth4 ,richardson1 ,robert1 ,esq41 #c1 ,jermyn ,street1 ,st4 ,james's ,richardson1 ,mr4 ,j4,m41 ,cornhill ,rowe1 ,sir ,joshua1 ,chief ,justice of ,jamaica ,roberts1 ,charles1 ,esq41 #ch1 ,mincing ,lane ,russell1 ,graham1 ,esq41 #fc1 ,miller ,street1 ,glasgow ,rothschild1 ,baron1 ,lionel ,de1 ,m4,p41 ,new ,court1 ,swithin's ,lane ,sampson1 ,m4,b41 ,esq41 ,city ,editor of the ,times1 ,lombard ,street ,saunders1 ,trelawney ,w41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 #f1 ,charing ,cross ,staunton1 ,sir ,george ,thomas1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,b4,s41 ,hants ,strousberg1 ,b4,h41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,editor of ,the ,merchant's ,magazine4 ,straube1 ,dr41 #cf1 ,moorgate ,street ,stewart1 ,charles1 ,esq41 #d1 ,adam's ,court1 ,old ,bond-street 7#b copies7 ,schomburgk1 ,sir ,r4,h41 ,british ,consul1 ,st4 ,domingo ,sewell1 ,william1 ,esq41 ,st4 ,james's1 ,jamaica ,stephenson1 ,r4 ,macdonald1 ,esq41 ,east ,india ,railway1 ,calcutta ,simmonds1 ,richard1 ,esq41 ,r4,n41 ,admiralty1 ,somerset ,house ,simmonds1 ,j4,g41 ,esq41 ,r4,n41 ,h4,m4,s4 ,crane1 ,west ,coast of ,africa ,simeon1 ,hardy and ,sons1 ,messrs41 ,cork ,samuelson1 ,b41 ,esq41 ,britannia ,iron ,works1 ,banbury ,stanford1 ,mr41 #f1 ,charing ,cross ,trade1 ,the ,honorable the ,board of ,tennent1 ,sir ,j4 ,emerson1 ,m4,p4 ,travers1 ,messrs41 and ,co41 #ai1 ,st4 ,swithin's ,lane ,thibou1 ,james ,b41 ,esq41 ,antigua ,tollemache1 ,honorable ,f41 ,hillmagham ,hall1 ,ipswich ,thornton1 ,edward1 ,esq41 ,statistical ,department1 ,east ,india ,house ,weeding1 ,thomas1 ,esq41 #f1 ,great ,winchester ,street 7#b copies7 ,weguelin1 ,t4,m41 ,esq41 #g1 ,austin ,friars ,wyld1 ,james1 ,esq1 ,great ,globe1 ,leicester ,square ,westgarth1 ,ross and ,co41 ,messrs41 ,melbourne1 ,port ,philip ,wortley1 ,s4,s41 ,esq41 ,cumberland ,pen1 ,spanish ,town1 ,jamaica ,wray1 ,leonard1 ,esq41 ,natal ,wells1 ,charles1 ,esq41 ,grenada ,woodifield1 ,r4,d41 ,esq41 ,custom ,house ,woods1 ,r4,c41 ,esq41 ,straits ,times1 ,singapore 7#bj copies7 ,wilson1 ,mr4 ,effingham1 ,royal ,exchange ,buildings 7#b copies7 ,yeatman1 ,rev4 ,h4,f41 ,l4,l4,b41 ,stockhouse1 near ,sherborne ,young1 ,bryan1 ,t41 ,esq41 ,barbados ,,works ,,consulted4 ,,simmonds',s ,,colonial ,,magazine1 #ae vols4 ,,porter',s ,,tropical ,,agriculturist4 ,,paxton',s ,,botanical ,,dictionary4 ,,lawson',s ,,merchant',s ,,magazine1 #b vols4 ,,professor ,,royle1 on the ,productive ,resources of ,india4 ,,crawford',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,archipelago1 #c vols4 ,,logan',s ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,archipelago1 #c vols4 ,,reports ,,and ,,documents ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,proceedings ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,india ,,company1 in regard to the ,cultivation and ,manufacture of ,cotton1 ,wool1 ,raw ,silk1 and ,indigo in ,india4 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,agricultural ,,society ,,of ,,western ,,australia4 ,,milburn',s ,,oriental ,,commerce4 ,,ure',s ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts ,,and ,,manufactures1 ,,and ,,supplements4 ,,chase',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope4 ,,professor ,,balfour',s ,,manual ,,of ,,botany4 ,,dupon',s ,,travels ,,in ,,south ,,america1 #b vols4 ,,count ,,dandolo on the art of ,rearing ,silk ,worms4 ,,journal ,,and ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,agricultural ,,society1 #g vols4 ,,pridham',s ,,history ,,of ,,ceylon ,,and ,,its ,,dependencies1 #b vols4 ,,pridham',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mauritius4 ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,society ,,of ,,jamaica1 #e vols4 ,,the ,,barbados ,,agricultural ,,society',s ,,reporter1 #b vols4 ,,low',s ,,dissertation ,,on ,,the ,,agriculture ,,of ,,the ,,straits ,,settlements4 ,m',,culloch',s ,,commercial ,,dictionary1 last ,edition and ,supplements4 ,,hunt',s ,,new ,,york ,,merchant',s ,,magazine1 #bg vols4 ,,de ,,bow',s ,,commercial ,,review1 ,new ,orleans1 #f vols4 ,,renny',s ,,history ,,of ,,jamaica4 ,,schomburgk',s ,,history ,,of ,,barbados4 ,,breen',s ,,history ,,of ,,st4 ,,lucia4 ,,captain ,,beever',s ,,african ,,memoranda4 ,,perreira',s ,,elements ,,of ,,materia ,,medica4 ,,spry',s ,,plants1 c41 required for ,india4 ,,hooper',s ,,medical ,,dictionary4 ,,perley',s ,,reports ,,on ,,the ,,forest ,,trees ,,and ,,fisheries ,,of ,,new ,,brunswick4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,tea ,,plant ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states1 by ,junius ,smith1 ,l4,l4,d4 ,,the ,,mahogany ,,tree1 its ,range1 c4 ,,the ,,states ,,of ,,central ,,america1 by ,john ,bailey1 ,r4,m4 ,,the ,,industrial ,,resources ,,of ,,nova ,,scotia1 by ,a ,gesner4 ,,reports ,,on ,,the ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,state ,,of ,h4,m4's ,,colonial ,,possessions1 for the years #ahdi-ej4 ,,poole',s ,,statistics ,,of ,,commerce4 ,,patent ,,office ,,reports ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahdi-ej4 ,,de ,,bow',s ,,industrial ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,southern ,,and ,,western ,,states ,,of ,,america1 #d vols4 ,,official ,,and ,,descriptive ,,catalogue ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,exhibition2 ,part #a4--,,raw ,,materials4 ,,dr4 ,o',,shaughnessy',s ,,bengal ,,dispensatory4 ,,archer',s ,,economic ,,botany4 ,a ,,few ,,words ,,on ,,the ,,tea ,,duties1 by ,j4 ,ingram ,travers4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,vegetable ,,products ,,of ,,ceylon4 ,,general ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,empire1 by ,james ,mc,queen4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom1 by ,w4 ,rhind4 ,,the ,,statistical ,,companion1 by ,banfield and ,weld4 ,,fortune',s ,,travels ,,in ,,china4 ,,ball ,,on ,,tea ,,culture4 ,,professor ,,royle ,,on ,,cotton4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,exhibition1 delivered before the ,society of ,arts1 #b vols4 ,,johnson',s ,,farmer',s ,,encyclop,,dia4 ,a ,,dissertation ,,upon ,,tea1 by ,thomas ,short1 ,m4,d42 #agec4 ,,parliamentary ,,papers ,,on ,,trade ,,and ,,navigation4 ,,the ,,hong ,,kong ,,almanac ,,and ,,directory4 ,,jamaica ,,almanacs1 c4 ,,keefer',s ,,prize ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,canals ,,of ,,canada1 #ahej4 ,,colman',s ,,continental ,,agriculture1 #ahdh4 ,,cuba ,,in #ahea1 by ,alexander ,jones4 ,,martin1 on ,china4 ,,ceylon ,,almanacs4 ,,earl',s ,,enterprise ,,in ,,tropical ,,australia4 ,,cunningham',s ,,hints ,,for ,,australian ,,emigrants4 ,,dr4 ,,turnbull',s ,,cuba1 with ,notes of ,porto ,rico4 ,,lt4 ,,moodie',s ,,ten ,,years ,,in ,,south ,,africa1 #b vols4 ,,farmer',s ,,magazine1 #bj vols4 ,,robertson',s ,,letters ,,on ,,south ,,america1 #c vols4 ,,stevenson',s ,,twenty ,,years ,,residence ,,in ,,south ,,america1 #c vols4 ,,journals ,,of ,,the ,,statistical ,,societies ,,of ,,london ,,and ,,paris4 ,,pharmaceutical ,,journal1 #aj vols4 ,,the ,,leading ,,agricultural ,,periodicals ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,the ,,colonies4 ,,balanza ,,general ,,de ,,comercio ,,of ,,cuba4 ,,knight',s ,,cyclop,,dia ,,of ,,the ,,industry ,,of ,,all ,,nations4 ,,preface4 ,the objects and purposes of the following ,work are fully set forth in the introductory chapter2 but ,i may be permitted to remark here1 that its compilation and arrangement have occupied a very large share of my time and attention1 and ,i can therefore assert with confidence1 that it will be found the most full and complete book of the kind that has ever yet appeared4 ,it is not a mere condensation from ,encyclopdias1 ,commercial ,dictionaries1 and ,parliamentary and ,consular ,reports2 but is the fruit of my own ,colonial experience as a practical planter and of much laborious research and studious investigation into a class of ephemeral but useful publications1 which seldom meet with any extended or enduring circulation--assisted1 moreover1 by the contributions and suggestions of many of the most eminent agricultural chemists1 planters1 and merchants of our ,colonial ,possessions and ,foreign ,countries4 ,few are aware of the great labor and research required for digesting and arranging conflicting accounts--for consulting the numerous detached papers and foreign works treating of the subjects embraced in this volume1 and for referring to the home and colonial trade circulars1 ,legislative papers1 and scientific periodicals of different countries4 ,the harassing duties appertaining to the position of ,city editor of a daily paper1 coupled with numerous other literary engagements1 have afforded me insufficient time to do full justice to the work while passing through the press2 and several literal typographical errors in the botanical names have1 ,i find1 escaped my attention in the revision of the sheets4 ,i have1 however1 thought it scarcely necessary to make a list of errata for these4 ,from want of leisure1 to reduce all the weights and measures named in the body of the work into ,english1 ,i have given their relative value in the ,index4 ,i have taken considerable pains to make the ,index most full and complete1 for it has always appeared to me1 that in works embracing a great variety of subjects1 facility of reference is of paramount importance4 ,some discrepancy may here and there be found between the figures quoted from ,parliamentary returns and those derived from private trade circulars2 but the statistics are accurate enough for approximate calculations4 ,whilst the work has been passing through the press1 several important modifications and alterations have been made in our ,tariff4 ,i have throughout found great difficulty in obtaining commercial information from the various ,colonial brokers and importers of the ,city1 who1 with but few exceptions1 have been stupidly jealous of any publicity respecting the staples in the sale of which they were specially interested4 ,the greatest fear was expressed lest any details as to the sources of supply1 stocks on hand1 and cost prices of many of the minor articles1 should transpire4 ,after the results of the ,great ,exhibition1 the exertions making to establish ,trade ,museums1 and the prospect of information to be furnished at the new ,crystal ,palace1 this narrow-minded and selfish feeling seems singularly misplaced4 ,i had not originally contemplated touching upon the grain crops and food plants of temperate regions2 but the prospect of a failure in our harvest1 the disturbed state of political affairs on the ,continent1 with short supplies from ,russia and the ,danubian provinces1 and the absence of any reliable statistics and information for convenient reference on this all-important subject1 added to the recommendations of one or two well-informed correspondents1 induced me to go more into detail on the ,food-plants and ,breadstuffs than ,i had at first intended1 and to treat very fully upon ,wheat1 ,barley1 ,potatoes1 and other subsidiary food crops4 ,this has trenched somewhat largely on my space2 and although the volume has been swelled to an unexpected size1 ,i am reluctantly compelled to omit some few ,sections1 such as those treating of elastic and other ,gums1 ,resins1 c42 on tropical ,fruits2 and on textile substances and products available for cordage and clothing4 ,the latter section1 which includes ,cotton1 ,flax1 ,jute1 c41 and embraces a wide and important range of plants1 ,i propose issuing in a separate volume at an early date1 with a large fund of statistical and general information4 ,among those gentlemen to whom ,i acknowledge myself most indebted for valuable suggestions or important information1 are my friends ,sir ,r4,h4 ,schomburgk1 ,british ,consul at ,st4 ,domingo1 and ,mr4 ,r4 ,montgomery ,martin1 the well-known ,statist and ,colonial ,historian2 ,mr4 ,r4,d4 ,wodifield1 ,deputy ,inspector of ,imports at the port of ,london2 ,mr4 ,leonard ,wray1 of ,natal1 author of ,the ,practical ,sugar ,planter2 ,dr4 ,w4 ,hamilton1 of ,plymouth1 a talented and frequent contributor to the scientific periodicals of the day2 ,mr4 ,t4,c4 ,archer1 of ,liverpool1 author of ,economic ,botany2 ,mr4 ,greene1 of the firm of ,blyth1 ,brothers1 and ,greene2 ,mr4 ,j4,s4 ,christopher1 author of several works on the ,cape ,colony1 and ,natal2 ,mr4 ,b4,h4 ,strousberg1 editor of ,the ,merchant's ,magazine1 and ,mr4 ,g4,w4 ,johnson1 the eminent agricultural writer1 author of various elaborate ,essays on the ,agriculture of ,hindostan1 which were written for my ,colonial ,magazine4 ,p4,l4 ,,simmonds4 #e1 ,,barge ,,yard1 ,,bucklersbury1 ,december1 #ahec4 ,,contents4 ,,introductory ,,chapter ,objects of the work4 ,prof4 ,solly on the demand for a practical book on raw materials4 ,objects of the ,society of ,arts and ,great ,exhibition4 ,necessity for an attention to the culture of the minor staples of the soil4 ,new objects of industry worthy the attention of ,science4 ,principal part of our homeward commerce composed of raw materials from the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,mutual dependence of countries on ,commerce for the supply of their wants4 ,system of arrangement of subjects adopted by the author4 ,many articles of commerce omitted for want of space4 ,those of tropical and sub-tropical regions chiefly discussed4 ,hints for the cultivator4 ,division of zones1 and countries lying within each1 with their range of temperature4 ,table of climate2 duration and production of the principal cultivated plants4 ,,section ,i4--,,dried ,,leaves1 ,,seeds1 ,,and ,,other ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,popular ,,dietetic ,,beverages ,cacao or ,cocoa4 ,varieties and description of the tree4 ,mode of cultivation in the ,colombian ,republics4 ,enemies of the tree4 ,expenses of a plantation in ,jamaica4 ,cultivation in ,trinidad and ,st4 ,lucia4 ,statistics and consumption4 ,coffee4 ,home consumption and revenue of coffee4 ,chicory largely substituted for2 history of the fiscal changes4 ,continental demand4 ,present produce and consumption in various countries4 ,cultivation in ,mocha4 ,cultivation in ,india2 in ,ceylon4 ,exports from that island4 ,manures suitable for the tree4 ,peeling1 pulping1 and winnowing4 ,improved machinery4 ,new use for coffee leaves4 ,culture in ,java4 ,production of ,america and the ,west ,indies2 ,venezuela4 ,statistics of the ,brazils4 ,shipments of various countries to the ,united ,states4 ,comparative consumption by different nations4 ,cultivation in ,jamaica2 ,trinidad2 ,british ,guiana2 ,cuba2 decline of production in this island4 ,statistics of exports4 ,preparation of coffee leaves for infusion according to ,dr4 ,gardner's patent4 ,dr4 ,hooker's opinion thereon4 ,tea4 ,immense consumption of4 ,liebig's analysis of4 ,varieties of the plant4 ,imports of tea for a series of years4 ,alterations in the duties4 ,statistics of import and consumption1 revenue and prices4 ,value and extent of the tea exported from ,china2 first cost at the ports2 enormous prices paid for superior teas4 ,total outlay for tea4 ,consumption of tea in ,china4 ,export to various countries4 ,total production4 ,consumption per head in ,england2 not properly within the reach of the poorer classes4 ,china could furnish any quantity4 ,mr4 ,travers on the tea duties4 ,brick tea of ,thibet4 ,tea annually imported into the ,united ,states2 proportion of green to black4 ,range of the plant4 ,countries in which its culture has been attempted4 ,its progress in ,america4 ,the ,assam ,company and its plantations4 ,extension of tea culture by the ,east ,india ,co4 ,mr4 ,fortune's travels in the tea districts of ,china4 ,instructions and details as to soil1 management and manufacture1 by ,dr4 ,jameson and ,mr4 ,fortune4 ,dr4 ,campbell's notes4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,macfarlane's ,report4 ,the ,east ,india tea plantations in the ,north-,west ,provinces4 ,experimental cultivation of the tea plant in ,brazil2 ,m4 ,geullemin's report thereon4 ,paraguay ,tea3 ,mr4 ,robertson's description of the collection and manufacture4 ,sugar4 ,plants from which it is usually obtained4 ,the sugar cane2 its range of cultivation4 ,production in our colonies4 ,consumption in the last ten years4 ,improvements in sugar machinery and manufacture4 ,quantity of cane sugar annually produced and sent into the markets4 ,local consumption in ,india4 ,present ,european supply2 demand according to the consumption in ,england4 ,estimated annual production throughout the world4 ,consumption in the principal ,european countries4 ,average annual consumption in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,comparative amount of beet-root and cane sugar produced in the last four years4 ,gazette prices of sugar in the last ten years4 ,production of sugar in the ,united ,states4 ,production in ,cuba4 ,production in the ,british ,west ,indies4 ,production in ,mauritius4 ,statistics of imports from the ,mauritius4 ,production in the ,british ,east ,indies4 ,production in ,java4 ,production in the ,philippines4 ,chemical distinction between cane and grape sugar4 ,varieties of the sugar cane cultivated4 ,possibility of raising the cane from seed4 ,analysis of the cane1 and of a sugar soil4 ,chemical examination of cane juice4 ,vacuum pans4 ,boiling and tempering4 ,composition of cane juice4 ,ramos's prepared plantain juice4 ,professor ,fownes on the manufacture of sugar4 ,expression of cane juice4 ,construction of the sugar mill4 ,quantity of juice obtained by each kind of mill4 ,position of rollers4 ,mode of culture and varieties in the ,east ,indies4 ,soils considered best adapted for its luxuriant growth4 ,manures4 ,sets and planting4 ,aftergrowth4 ,harvesting4 ,injuries1 from seasons1 storms1 insects1 c4 ,mode of cultivation in the ,brazils2 in ,natal2 expenses4 ,comparison between the cost of production in ,mauritius and ,natal4 ,comparative cost in free and slave countries4 ,beet-root sugar3 variety cultivated2 mode of expression and manufacture2 yield of sugar2 estimated profit2 extensive production in ,france2 production in the ,german ,states4 ,statistics of the ,prussian ,provinces of ,saxony2 ,russia1 ,belgium and ,austria4 ,a ,visitor's account of the ,french manufactories4 ,mr4 ,colman's opinion4 ,proportion of sugar in the beet4 ,maple ,sugar3 description of the tree2 its production limited to ,america2 extent of the manufacture in ,canada and the ,united ,states2 processes employed2 statistics of production4 ,maize ,sugar4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,grain ,,crops1 ,,edible ,,roots ,,and ,,farinaceous ,,plants1 ,,forming ,,the ,,breadstuffs ,,of ,,commerce ,statistics of ,wheat ,culture4 ,exports of flour from the ,united ,states4 ,adaptation of the soil and climate of the ,united ,states to the culture of the cereals4 ,export of sophisticated 7damaged7 flour4 ,kiln drying of bread stuffs and exclusion of air4 ,value of the whole meal of wheat as compared with that of the fine flour4 ,nutritious properties of various articles of food4 ,composition of wheat and wheat-flour1 and the modes of determining their nutritive value4 ,rotation of crops in connexion with wheat culture4 ,production and consumption of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,statistics of other countries4 ,barley1 ,oats1 ,rye1 ,buckwheat1 ,maize3 ,indian corn and meal imported4 ,crop and exports of ,united ,states4 ,system of culture4 ,rice3 ,statistics of production and culture in ,carolina4 ,the ,bhull rice lands of ,lower ,scinde4 ,rice in ,kashmir2 exports from ,arracan4 ,millet4 ,broom ,corn4 ,chenopodium ,quinoa4 ,fundi or ,fundungi4 ,pulse4 ,the ,sago ,palms4 ,manufacture and extent of the trade in ,singapore4 ,the bread-fruit tree4 ,kafir bread4 ,the ,,plantain and ,,banana2 various products of these palms4 ,,starch-,,producing ,,plants investigated4 ,characters of starch from different plants4 ,tenacity and clearness of jellies2 per centage of starch yielded1 and produce of plant per acre2 their meal as articles of export4 ,indian ,corn starch4 ,rice starch4 ,,arrowroot3 ,east and ,west ,india1 culture and statistics of4 ,,root ,,crops3 ,potatoes1 ,yams1 ,cocos1 or ,eddoes1 ,sweet ,potatoes1 ,cassava or ,manioc4 ,,new ,,tuberous ,,plants recommended as substitutes for the potato4 ,,miscellaneous ,,food ,,plants4 ,,lichens and ,,mosses4 ,,ferns4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,spices1 ,,aromatic ,,condiments1 ,,and ,,fragrant ,,woods4 ,,cinnamon4 ,limited range of the culture in ,ceylon4 ,analysis of the soil most favorable to the tree4 ,peeling4 ,various kinds of bark2 commercial classification1 distinguishing properties of good cinnamon2 suitability of the ,straits ,settlement for cinnamon plantations2 oil of cinnamon2 statistics and exports from ,ceylon1 and prices realised2 reduction of the duty2 extent of land under cultivation with the tree2 progress of the culture in ,java2 exports thence to ,holland4 ,,cassia ,,bark3 species from whence derived2 imports1 consumption and prices4 ,cassia ,buds4 ,cassia ,oil4 ,,canella ,,alba4 ,,cascarilla ,,bark4 ,,cloves3 description and varieties of the tree4 ,produce in ,java4 ,introduction into the ,west ,indies4 ,progress of the culture in ,pinang and ,singapore4 ,the ,clove plantations of ,zanzibar4 ,imports and consumption of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the ,,nutmeg3 ,botanical description4 ,dr4 ,oxley's account of the cultivation and management of a plantation2 enemies of the tree4 ,produce and returns4 ,preparation of the nuts for market4 ,statistics of culture in the ,straits ,settlements4 ,memorandum on the duties on nutmegs4 ,exports of nutmegs from ,singapore and ,java4 ,imports into the ,united ,kingdom1 and consumption of wild and cultivated nutmegs and mace4 ,,ginger3 description and consumption of4 ,commercial distinction between black and white ginger4 ,east and ,west ,india ginger1 directions for cultivation4 ,shipments from ,jamaica4 ,comparison between the imports from the ,east and from the ,west4 ,total annual imports and consumption4 ,,galangale ,,root4 ,,cardamoms2 plants from which derived4 ,grains of ,paradise4 ,meleguetta1 or ,guinea pepper4 ,,pepper3 description of the vine2 range of the plant4 ,production of the ,world4 ,the culture declining in ,java4 ,extent of the production in ,singapore4 ,exports from ,ceylon4 ,its introduction into the ,mauritius4 ,shipments from ,singapore4 ,imports and consumption of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,,chillies ,,and ,,cayenne ,,pepper3 varieties of ,capsicum4 ,,pimento3 description of the tree2 production of the spice limited to ,jamaica4 ,imports and consumption4 ,,vanilla3 description of the plant4 ,its collection and preparation for the market4 ,commercial varieties4 ,tonquin beans4 ,,turmeric3 sources of supply4 ,commercial uses4 ,value of the ,curry stuffs of the ,east4 ,imports and consumption4 ,,ginseng3 description of--demand for in ,china1 exports from ,america1 and commercial value4 ,canary1 ,coriander1 mustard and anise seeds4 ,,putchux1 or ,,costus4 ,,lignum ,,aloes1 and fragrant woods4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,dyes ,,and ,,coloring ,,stuffs ,,and ,,tanning ,,substances ,importance and value of these substances to our manufacturing interests4 ,new specimens and materials recently produced4 ,miscellaneous notices of useful plants4 ,lana ,dye4 ,prices of ,dyewoods4 ,red ,,sanders ,,wood4 ,,fustic4 ,,sappan ,,wood1 ,camwood and ,barwood4 ,imports of ,dyewoods4 ,,arnatto4 ,commercial kinds4 ,cultivation and manufacture4 ,imports1 consumption and prices4 ,,chay-,,root4 ,wood ,dyes4 ,mangrove ,bark4 ,,sumach4 ,statistics of imports and prices4 ,,safflower4 ,gamboge4 ,common native dyes4 ,,indigo2 plants which produce it4 ,commercial sources of supply4 ,cultivation in ,central ,america1 in ,jamaica and the ,west ,indies2 once an important crop in the ,united ,states4 ,the indigo plant a common weed in many parts of ,africa4 ,cultivation in ,india4 ,classification of the dye-stuff4 ,localities best suited to its production4 ,process of ,manufacture4 ,annual production in the ,east ,indies2 adaptation of ,ceylon4 ,extent of the culture in ,java2 annual exports therefrom2 imports and consumption4 ,,madder3 extent of the demand for4 ,enormous profit of the cultivation2 system of harvesting and manufacture4 ,large supplies received from ,france4 ,,munjeet1 or ,indian madder1 deserving of more consideration4 ,,logwood1 ,,fustic1 ,quercitron4 ,brazil ,wood4 ,,lichens ,,for ,,dyeing4 ,henna4 ,,orchilla ,,weed4 ,chemical examination of the coloring principles of the ,lichens4 ,,barks ,,for ,,tanning3 cursory notice of a variety of suitable barks4 ,proportions of tannin yielded by different barks4 ,,catechu3 definition of1 and whence derived4 ,,gambier ,,plant3 cultivation in ,singapore2 returns from a plantation4 ,different qualities of extract and mode of obtaining it4 ,places of manufacture2 average produce4 ,terra ,japonica1 a misnomer4 ,cutch1 another name for ,catechu4 ,statistics of imports and consumption2 the amount and value of ,gambier from ,singapore4 ,,divi-,,divi3 description of4 ,,cork ,,tree ,,bark4 ,,mimosa ,,bark4 ,valuable native barks of ,new ,zealand4 ,mangrove bark4 ,,myrobalans4 ,kino3 definition of2 sources from whence obtained4 ,,valonia3 statistics of1 consumption and prices4 ,,section ,v4--,,oleaginous ,,plants ,,and ,,those ,,yielding ,,fixed ,,or ,,essential ,,oils ,general ,remarks4 ,extensive demand for ,oils4 ,proportion of oil furnished by various seeds4 ,richness of ,indian seeds in oil4 ,,rape ,,oil4 ,domba ,oil4 ,the ,,earth or ,,ground ,,nut1 its extensive cultivation for food and oil4 ,tea oil4 ,tobacco seed oil4 ,poppy oil4 ,tallicoonah oil4 ,carap oil4 ,macaw oil4 ,madia sativa4 ,cocum oil4 ,candle ,tree4 ,cinnamon ,suet4 ,croton oil4 ,oil of ,ben4 ,,palm ,,oil3 progress of the ,african trade4 ,imports into ,liverpool4 ,quantity retained for home consumption4 ,statistics of2 imports of the four principal vegetable oils4 ,,olive ,,oil3 description of the tree and its varieties2 its cultivation attempted in the ,united ,states4 ,preservation of the fruit4 ,expression of the oil4 ,range of prices4 ,frequently adulterated with cheaper oils4 ,annual imports and consumption4 ,,almond ,,oil4 ,,sesame1 or ,,teel ,oil4 ,various species cultivated in the ,east4 ,large exports of the seed from ,india2 native oil mills2 processes of expression and manufacture4 ,sunflower oil4 ,margose1 or ,neem oil4 ,illepe oil4 ,vegetable butter4 ,candle nut tree4 ,colza oil4 ,,vegetable ,,wax4 ,the ,candleberry myrtle4 ,the ,,castor ,,oil ,,plant3 manufacture of the oil in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,extent of the imports annually4 ,the oil-cake for manure4 ,kanari oil4 ,the ,,coco-,,nut ,,palm3 description of the tree2 its various and important uses4 ,varieties of this palm met with4 ,wide range of the plant4 ,directions for its culture2 profits derived from plantations2 great attention paid to them in ,ceylon4 ,commercial value of its products4 ,statistics of culture in ,pinang4 ,natural enemies of the tree4 ,copperah and ,poonac4 ,statistical returns connected with its products in ,ceylon4 ,imports and consumption of coco-nut oil4 ,comparison of the consumption of the chief vegetable oils of commerce4 ,the value and uses of oil-cake for cattle-feeding4 ,,volatile1 ,,or ,,essential ,,oils3 description of the most important4 ,oil of peppermint4 ,process of obtaining the perfumed oils4 ,cultivation of ,roses in the ,east and preparation of ,attar4 ,lemon-grass oil4 ,citronella oil4 ,patchouly4 ,,saponaceous ,,plants4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,drugs1 ,,including ,,narcotics ,,and ,,other ,,medicinal ,,substances ,the ,,coca ,,plant4 ,cocculus ,indicus4 ,,betel ,,leaf4 ,the ,,areca ,,palm2 extensive use of the nuts in the ,east as a masticatory4 ,narcotic properties4 ,catechu1 or ,cutch2 its astringent properties4 ,davy's analysis4 ,value of the ,areca nuts exported from ,ceylon4 ,the ,,poppy3 increasing consumption of ,opium in this country4 ,production of the ,drug in ,india4 ,large revenue derived therefrom4 ,variety of the poppy grown2 system of culture pursued4 ,various modes of consuming opium4 ,its preparation and manufacture described4 ,commercial varieties met with4 ,requisites for the successful culture of the poppy for opium4 ,the ,,tobacco ,,plant2 species cultivated4 ,london's classification4 ,analyses of various samples of tobacco2 ,statistics of the culture in ,brazil2 extent of the consumption2 considerations of revenue2 memorial of ,liverpool ,chamber of ,commerce4 ,comparative consumption of tea1 coffee and tobacco1 per head4 ,imports and duty received on tobacco in the last five years4 ,consumption checked in ,england and ,france by the high duties4 ,imports1 sales1 and stocks1 in ,bremen for #aj years4 ,culture and statistics in the ,united ,states4 ,quantity exported from #ahba to #ahej4 ,countries from whence we received our supplies in #ahej4 ,particulars of the tobacco trade in #ahej and #ahec4 ,mode of culture pursued in ,virginia4 ,general instructions for the planter4 ,information as to growing ,cuba tobacco4 ,history of the trade and cultivation in ,cuba4 ,statistics of exports from the ,havana4 ,culture of tobacco in the ,east4 ,analysis of tobacco soils4 ,progress of cultivation and shipments in ,ceylon4 ,manila tobacco and cigars4 ,production in the ,islands of the ,archipelago4 ,suggestions and directions for tobacco culture in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,its value and extensive use as a sheep wash4 ,excellence of the product and manufacture in ,new ,south ,wales2 culture of tobacco in ,south ,australia4 ,,miscellaneous ,,drugs4 ,poisons4 ,,aloes3 varieties of the plant2 culture and manufacture in ,socotra1 ,barbados1 and the ,cape ,colony4 ,,asafoetida4 ,,camphor4 ,,cinchona ,,bark3 commercial varieties of ,,calumba ,,root4 ,,colocynth4 ,,cubebs4 ,,gamboge4 ,,gentian4 ,,ipecacuan4 ,,introductory4 ,the want of a practical work treating of the cultivation and manufacture of the chief ,agricultural ,productions of the ,tropics and ,foreign ,countries1 has long been felt1 for not even separate essays are to be met with on very many of the important subjects treated of in this volume4 ,the requirements of several friends proceeding to settle in the ,colonies1 and wishing to devote themselves to ,cotton culture1 ,coffee planting1 the raising of ,tobacco1 ,indigo1 and other agricultural staples1 first called my attention to the consideration of this fertile and extensive field of investigation4 ,professor ,solly1 in one of the series of ,lectures on the results of the ,great ,exhibition1 delivered before the ,society of ,arts1 early last year1 made some practical remarks bearing on the subject3-- ,if 7he said7 you were to place before any manufacturer specimens of all the substances which could be employed in his particular manufacture1 and if you could tell him from whence each could be procured1 its cost1 the quantities in which he might obtain it1 and its physical and chemical properties1 he would soon be able to select for himself the one best suited for his purposes4 ,this1 however1 has never happened in relation to any one art2 in every case manufacturers have had to make the best of the materials which chance or accident has brought before them4 ,it is strange and startling1 but nevertheless perfectly true1 that even at the present time there are many excellent and abundant productions of nature with which not only our manufacturers1 but1 in some instances1 even our men of science1 are wholly unacquainted4 ,there is not a single book published which gives even tolerably complete information on any one of the different classes of vegetable raw produce at present under our consideration4 ,the truth of these remarks will be felt strongly by any one who takes the trouble to examine any of these great divisions of raw materials4 ,he will obtain tolerably complete information respecting most of those substances which are known in trade and commerce2 but of the greater number of those not known to the broker1 he will learn little or nothing4 ,men of science1 for the most part1 look down upon such knowledge4 ,the practical uses of any substances1 the wants and difficulties of the manufacturer1 are regarded as mere trade questions1 vulgar and low--simple questions of money4 ,on the other hand1 mere men of business do not feel the want of such knowledge1 because1 in the first place1 they are ignorant of its existence1 and secondly1 because they do not see how it could aid them or their business2 and if it should happen that an enterprising manufacturer desires to learn something of the cultivation and production of the raw material with which he works1 he generally finds it quite impossible to obtain any really sound and useful information4 ,in such cases1 if he is a man of energy and of capital1 he often is at the cost of sending out a perfectly qualified person to some distant part of the globe1 to learn for him those practical details which he desires to know4 ,this is no uncommon thing2 and many cases might be stated1 showing the great advantages which have arisen to those who have thus gained a march upon their neighbours4 ,the ,society of ,arts1 appreciating the importance of from time to time encouraging the introduction of new and improved products from our ,indian and ,colonial ,possessions1 has offered many gold medals as premiums for a great variety of staples from abroad4 ,the ,great ,exhibition of the ,industry of all ,nations brought together an immense variety of productions from tropical regions1 of which the ,english public were comparatively ignorant4 ,attracting public attention1 as these necessarily did1 information on the best modes of cultivating and manufacturing them will be peculiarly valuable to the colonists1 and is as eagerly sought after by many brokers1 merchants and manufacturers at home4 ,in consequence of the recent liberal policy of ,great ,britain1 the competition of foreign countries1 the want of cheap and abundant labor1 and other causes1 those chief staples1 ,sugar and ,coffee1 which for a series of years formed the principal and almost exclusive articles of production in our colonies1 and which had met with a ready and remunerative sale in the ,british markets1 have either fallen off to an alarming extent1 or become so reduced in price as scarcely to repay the cost of cultivation4 ,the partial abandonment of the cultivation of these staples in our colonies has had the effect of crippling the agricultural and commercial enterprise of several of our most valuable foreign possessions1 and throwing out of employment a number of persons3 it behoves us1 therefore1 to direct attention to some of the many minor articles in demand2--to those indigenous or exotic products of the soil in tropical regions1 which1 being inexpensive in cultivation and manufacture1 might be undertaken with a moderate outlay of labor and capital1 and the certainty of a ready and remunerative sale in the ,european markets2 and could moreover be attended to without neglecting or at all interfering with the cultivation of the leading staples4 ,it is evident that the export wealth of tropical regions must be chiefly agricultural1 the soil and climate being peculiarly fitted for the culture of fruits1 trees and plants yielding oils1 gums1 starch1 spices1 and other valuable products1 which no art can raise cheaply in more temperate latitudes4 ,the large and continued emigration of farmers and other enterprising persons from ,britain and the ,continent to ,natal1 the ,cape ,colony1 ,northern ,australia1 ,ceylon1 the ,east ,india ,company's ,possessions and the ,straits ,settlements1 ,brazil1 ,new ,granada1 and the ,central ,american ,republics1 ,texas1 the ,southern ,states of ,north ,america1 and other tropical and sub-tropical countries1 renders information as to the agriculture and productions of those regions highly desirable4 ,even to the settlers in our ,west ,indian possessions1 most of whom have too long pursued the old beaten track of culture and manufacture1 comparatively regardless of modern improvements and the results of chemical1 scientific1 and practical investigation1 recent information on all these subjects1 and a comparison of the practices of different countries1 cannot fail to be useful4 ,there is much valuable information to be met with in detached papers and essays in the scientific periodicals of the day1 and in colonial and other publications2 such as the ,transactions and ,journals of the different agricultural and horticultural societies of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 the ,united ,states1 ,australia1 c41 but none readily accessible for easy reference1 and which the new settler1 proceeding out to try his fortune in those fair and productive regions of the globe1 can turn to as a hand book4 ,i have had much experience in ,tropical ,agriculture1 and for many years my attention has been mainly directed to this important subject1 for which purpose ,i have kept up a large and extended correspondence with numerous agricultural1 scientific and other societies abroad2 with experienced practical men1 and have also received the leading journals of all the tropical ,colonies4 ,no one person could be expected to be thoroughly familiar with all the different modes of culture and preparation of every one of the numerous products to be described in this volume2 but where my own agricultural experience 7of several years in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america7 was at fault1 ,i have availed myself of the practical knowledge of those of my colonial friends and correspondents best informed on the subject1 and am particularly fortunate in having many valuable essays on ,tropical ,agriculture scattered through the different volumes of my ,colonial ,magazine4 ,the discussion of the best modes of culture1 properties1 manufacture1 consumption1 uses1 and value of the commercial products of the vegetable kingdom cannot be without its value1 and the attention of merchants and planters may be usefully directed to various articles1 which will be profitable both in an agricultural and commercial point of view2 many of which are already sources of wealth to other countries4 ,the introduction of new objects of industry into the colonial dependencies of the ,british ,empire1 is no longer considered a mere subject of speculation1 but one well worthy the attention of the eye of science2 and the fostering hand of care is beginning to be held out to productions of nature and art1 which1 if not all equally necessary to the welfare of man1 yet certainly merit the attention of the cultivator and capitalist1 and have great claims on the scientific observer1 and on those interested in raising the manufactures of our country to a higher standard4 ,few who have not investigated this subject are aware of the immense number of countries lying in the equatorial and tropical ranges of the torrid zone1 many of which1 from the value and importance of their indigenous productions1 have already attracted considerable notice1 and to which still more attention will be directed by ,european nations as the value of their various products becomes more extensively known4 ,the homeward commerce which we carry on with our numerous ,colonies1 with our ,indian ,possessions1 and with foreign countries1 is principally in articles furnished by the vegetable kingdom1 such as the cereal grains1 wheat1 rice1 maize1 c42 vegetables used in preparing dietetic drinks and distilled liquors1 as tea1 coffee1 cacao1 and the sugar cane1 grapes1 c42 spices and condiments2 drugs2 dyes and tanning substances1 obtained from the bark1 leaves1 fruit1 and roots of various herbs and trees2 the expressed or distilled oils of different plants2 fruits in the green1 dried1 or preserved state2 starches obtained from the roots or trunks of many farinaceous plants2 fibrous substances used for cordage1 matting1 and clothing1 as cotton1 ,indian hemp1 flax1 coco-nut coir1 plantain and pine-apple fibre2 timber and fancy woods4 ,these substances1 in the aggregate1 form at least nine-tenths in value of the whole imports of this country4 ,there are also several products of the animal kingdom dependent on vegetable culture1 which might be brought into this category1 such as silk and cochineal4 ,very few of these products of the vegetable kingdom come to us in any other than an unmanufactured state2 they are shipped to this country as the chief emporium and factory of the world1 either for re-export or to be prepared for consumption by the millions to whom they furnish employment1 sustenance1 and articles of clothing4 ,it is a wise ordination of ,providence1 that the different nations of the earth are as it were mutually dependent on each other for many of the necessaries and luxuries of life1 and the means of progress and civilization4 ,commerce is thus extended1 the various arts and manufactures improved by comparison and competition2 and the acres yet untilled in distant lands hold out strong inducements for immigration1 their climate and products affording health1 freedom1 and independence to the over-tasked and heavily taxed artisan and agriculturist of ,europe4 ,although the systems of tropical agriculture1 generally pursued1 are peculiar and effective1 yet there is no doubt that much improvement remains to be carried out in the practices adopted1 in the implements employed1 and the machinery used for preparing the crops for shipment4 ,in the ,british ,isles our insulated position1 limited extent of country1 unsettled climate1 and numerous population1 aggregated in dense masses1 have compelled us to investigate and avail ourselves of every improvement in agriculture1 arts and manufactures1 which experience1 ingenuity1 and a comparison with the customs of other countries1 have placed at our disposal4 ,if we except sandy deserts1 and some of the interior portions of the polar regions1 it will be found that there is scarcely any country but what is capable of improvement4 ,indeed1 so extensive are the resources of agriculture1 that further improvements may be most easily effected4 ,let us then examine and ascertain what new objects may be improved upon1 and if by our speculations only one single article1 either for food or use1 is added to those already in use1 or those that are already cultivated be improved upon1 it is equivalent to an increase of our wealth4 ,an eminent writer has truly remarked that ,agriculture is the parent of ,manufactures1 seeing that the productions of nature are the materials of art4 ,in the economy of ,providence every fragment of creation seems to unfold1 as man progresses in the arts of life1 unbounded capabilities of adaptation to his every want4 ,we have1 indeed1 daily illustration of the truth of that trite and homely adage1 that nothing is made in vain4 ,that quaint old ,english poet1 ,herbert1 who flourished in the fifteenth century1 in a short poem on ,providence1 has graphically described1 in his unique vein1 the sentiment which forces itself upon us in view of the numerous discoveries of the age in which we live3-- ,all countries have enough to serve their need4 99 99 99 99 99 ----,the ,indian nut alone ,is clothing1 meat and trencher1 drink and can1 ,boat1 cable1 sail1 and needle1 all in one4 ,the addition 7it has been well observed7 of even a single flower1 or an ornamental shrub1 to those which we already possess1 is not to be regarded as a matter below the care of industry and science4 ,the more we extend our researches into the productions of nature1 the more are our minds elevated by contemplating the variety as well as the exceeding beauty and excellence of the works of the ,creator4 ,the mode of arrangement of the various subjects treated of involved some consideration2 two or three plans were open for adoption4 #ast4 ,to describe the several products in the order of their agricultural importance or commercial value4 #bnd4 ,an alphabetical reference1 in the style of a ,dictionary or ,encyclopdia2 and #crd4 ,classifying them under subdivisions1 according to their particular or chief uses4 ,the last seemed to me the most desirable and efficient mode1 although open to some objections1 from the variety of uses to which different parts of many plants were applied4 ,some1 as cotton1 indigo1 sugar1 coffee1 tea1 c41 would readily fall into their proper division1 but others1 as the coco-nut1 plantain1 c41 from the variety of their products1 would come under several heads4 ,i have1 however1 endeavoured to meet this difficulty by placing each plant or tree under the section to which its most valuable production seemed naturally to refer it4 ,there are very many plants and substances which have been passed over altogether1 it being impossible1 within the limits of a moderate sized volume1 to bring under notice even a tithe of the valuable grasses1 timber trees1 cabinet woods1 fruits1 c42 and ,i have confined myself in a great measure to those which either already are1 or might easily be rendered1 articles of commerce1 of some importance4 ,i have shown their present value by quoting the current prices1 and brought down1 as far as possible1 the statistics of each article to the close of last year1 thus rendering the work valuable by commercial references which could not be found collectively elsewhere4 ,there are some articles of commerce which could not properly be treated of in a work intended as a guide on agriculture and husbandry1 for the tropical planter and cultivator1 who purposes devoting his attention to the raising of useful crops and plants on his estate4 ,the forests and jungles of the tropics abound in products of an useful character1 the luxurious and spontaneous growth of nature1 such as ebony1 sandal wood1 c42 but these must be sought for by a different class of settlers2 and the mahogany cutter of ,honduras1 the teak-feller of ,india1 the gatherer of elastic gums1 can scarcely be ranked with the cultivators of the soil4 ,i had originally intended to confine my remarks to staples of tropical growth1 but ,i have been induced to depart from my prescribed plan by the importance of some of the commercial products of temperate regions1 such as maple and beet-root sugar1 wheat1 the grain crops1 and potatoes4 ,the system of agriculture1 and modes of tillage1 c41 of separate countries in the ,eastern and ,western hemisphere1 notwithstanding their similarity of climate1 are as opposite as if each country belonged to a different zone2 and yet much may be learned by one of the other4 ,the only essentially useful division of seasons in countries within the tropics is into a wet and dry season1 the former being the period of germination1 the latter that of fructification4 ,the implements of agriculture required are for the most part few and simple1 for no high tillage is necessary1 the luxuriance of vegetation being so great that most of the products of the soil will grow indiscriminately throughout the year1 and the only care of the husbandman1 after the first preparation of the soil1 is to keep down the vast growth of weeds1 which might stifle the crops4 ,in tropical regions there is less demand for manures than in temperate climates1 but still there are many additions to the soil that may profitably be made4 ,firstly1 that most important principle1 which has only recently been practically inculcated1 is in too many quarters entirely neglected1 namely1 returning to the soil the component parts taken off by various crops1 and which is so generally practised in all good agricultural districts1 by a careful rotation of crops4 ,liebig has well pointed out this3 ,it must be admitted 7he says71 as a principle of agriculture1 that those substances which have been removed from a soil must be completely restored to it2 and whether this restoration be effected by means of excrements1 ashes1 or bones1 is in a great measure a matter of indifference4 ,again he remarks1 ,we could keep our fields in a constant state of fertility by replacing every year as much as we remove from them in the form of produce2 but an increase of fertility1 and consequent increase of crop1 can only be obtained when we add more to them than we take away4 ,of all natural manures1 therefore1 the best for each description of plant is its own refuse1 or ashes2 enough of these can seldom1 however1 be obtained4 ,but1 as far as they can be restored1 this principle is beginning to be acted upon by the sugar planters of the ,west ,indies1 who employ the waste leaves and ashes of the expressed stalk of the cane1 after it has been used as fuel1 to manure their cane-fields4 ,the vine growers of ,germany and the ,cape also bury the cuttings of their vines around the roots of the plants4 ,the cinnamon grower of the ,east returns the waste bark and cuttings of the shoots to the soil4 ,and in the coco-nut groves of ,ceylon1 the roots of the trees are best manured with the husks of the nuts and decomposed poonac1 or the refuse cake1 after the oil has been expressed from the pulp4 ,analysis of soils is1 perhaps1 not so essential in countries where virgin land is usually in abundance1 and the luxuriance of vegetation furnishes itself1 by decomposition1 abundant materials for replenishing the fertility of the soil4 ,but there are some substances1 such as muriate of soda1 gypsum1 phosphate1 and other compounds of lime1 which may be advantageously applied4 ,guano and expensive artificial manures1 are seldom required1 and1 indeed1 will not repay the planters for importing4 ,an experienced cultivator can generally judge by a superficial examination1 aided by the situation1 locality1 and appearance of the soil1 whether a certain portion of land is fitted for the profitable growth of any particular plant4 ,depth of soil1 and facilities for deepening it1 with the nature of the subsoil1 so as to know whether it retains or parts with water1 are also important considerations1 because tap-rooted plants require free scope for penetrating deep into the ground4 ,a due supply of water is of vital importance to most crops--and therefore the extent and periods of the fall of rain are essential to be known1 as it is not always possible to resort to irrigation4 ,the quantity of labor required for previous tillage1 cultivation1 and harvesting of different crops1 and the available supply1 are primary essentials to be considered before entering upon the culture of any staple product1 however remunerative it may appear in prospective4 ,facility and cost of transport to the nearest market or shipping port are the next desiderata to be ascertained1 as well as a careful estimate of the cost of plant or machinery necessary4 ,it may be desirable at the outset to make a brief enumeration of the countries lying within the different zones1 and the agricultural products of which come1 therefore1 more especially under the notice of the tropical planter4 ,meyen1 in his division of the horizontal range of vegetation into zones1 extends-- #a4 ,the equatorial zone to fifteen degrees on both sides of the equator4 ,in this division we shall find the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 ,sierra ,leone1 ,ascension1 and ,st4 ,helena1 the ,republic of ,liberia1 the ,european and native settlements in the ,gulf of ,guinea1 and on the western ,coast of ,africa1 ,abyssinnia1 ,zanzibar on the ,east ,coast1 ,mocha and ,aden in the ,red ,sea1 the northern portion of ,madagascar1 the ,seychelles1 the ,madras ,presidency1 ,northern ,india1 ,ceylon and the ,nicobar ,islands1 ,sumatra1 ,siam1 ,malacca1 ,singapore and the ,straits ,settlements1 ,cochin ,china1 the ,phillippine ,islands1 ,borneo1 ,celebes and the ,moluccas1 ,java and ,madura1 ,banca1 the ,johore ,archipelago1 ,timor and the eastern group of ,islands1 with ,new ,guinea1 a large portion of ,northern ,australia1 the ,marquesas1 ,society's and other oceanic islands4 ,in ,south ,america the ,republics of ,peru1 ,bolivia1 ,ecuador1 ,new ,granada1 and ,venezuela1 ,british1 ,french and ,dutch ,guiana1 and a large portion of the empire of ,brazil2 ,trinidad1 ,barbados1 and most of the islands in the ,carribean ,sea4 ,this zone has a mean temperature of #gh to #hb ,fahrenheit4 #b4 ,the tropical zone reaches from the #aeth deg4 on each side of the equator to the tropics in #bc lat4 ,the mean temperature is #gc to #gh deg4 ,summer temperature #hj to #hf deg42 winter temperature in the eastern coast districts1 #ei deg4 ,in this region is comprised the following countries3--,sandwich ,isles1 ,canton1 in province of ,china1 ,burmah1 ,calcutta1 and a portion of the ,bengal ,presidency1 the ,bombay ,presidency1 ,madagascar1 ,mauritius and ,bourbon2 the southern portion of ,brazil1 ,cuba1 ,st4 ,domingo1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america4 #c4 ,the sub-tropical zone extends from the tropics #bc to #cd deg4 of latitude4 ,there are a number of tropical fruits in this region4 ,the winters are mild and vegetation is green throughout the year4 ,in the northern division of the zone palms and bananas grow on the plains4 ,in this region is comprised all the extreme northern portions of ,africa1 coasting the ,mediterranean1 comprising ,algiers and the ,barbary ,states1 ,egypt1 part of ,persia1 ,cabool and the ,punjab2 the greater portion of ,china1 ,lower ,california1 ,texas1 the ,south-,western ,states of ,america1 the ,bermudas1 the ,cape ,colony and ,natal1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,southern and ,western ,australia--the ,government settlements in the ,northern ,island of ,new ,zealand1 the largest portion of ,chile1 ,paraguay1 ,uruguay and the ,argentine ,republics1 the ,provinces of ,brazil from ,st4 ,paul to ,rio ,grande1 ,madeira and the ,canary ,isles4 ,to define accurately the conditions of temperature which a plant requires to maintain it in a flourishing condition we must ascertain within what limits its period of vegetation1 may vary1 and what quantity of heat it requires4 ,this most remarkable circumstance was first observed by ,boussingault1 but unfortunately we do not as yet possess sufficiently accurate accounts of the conditions of culture in the various regions of the earth1 to enable us to follow out this ingenious view in all its details4 ,his theory is1 that the time required by a plant to arrive at maturity is as the inverse ratio of the temperature2 therefore1 knowing the mean temperature of any place1 and the number of days which a plant takes to ripen1 the time required at any other point more or less elevated1 can easily be ascertained4 ,peter ,purry1 a native of ,switzerland1 who settled in ,charleston in the eighteenth century1 in a memorial to the ,duke of ,newcastle1 then ,secretary of ,state1 sets out with this postulate1 that there is a certain latitude on our globe1 so happily tempered between the extremes of heat and cold1 as to be more particularly adapted than any other for certain rich productions of the earth2 among which are silk1 cotton1 indigo1 c4--and he fixes on the latitude of #cc deg41 whether north or south1 as the one of that peculiar character4 ,the following ,table1 showing the climate1 duration and production of certain plants cultivated in tropical ,america1 is from the proceedings of the ,agricultural ,society of ,grenada4 ,the second1 column gives the altitude in ,english yards above the level of the sea4 ,the third1 the mean temperature by ,fahrenheit's thermometer4 ,the fourth1 the average time required to commence bearing4 ,the fifth1 the number of plants in a ,spanish fanegada of #agj varras1 about #aec square yards4 ,the sixth1 the average duration of each plant4 ,the seventh1 the average produce of each plant in the year3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #b #c #d #e #f #g ,level of ,mn4 ,temp4 ,time ,no4 of ,average the ,sea1 to,deg4 ,min4,requiredplants,years produce ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,cacao #ha4ag #f #a1aef #dj #a lb 7,theobroma #ehg yds4 #df4jj yrs per tree ,cacao7 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,plantain #fcj yds4 to#ha4ag #i mths4 #c1fac #cj #ej 7,musa #ajgg #df4jj #i plantains ,paradisiaca7 #dj4fa #aa ---------------------------------------- --------- ,indian ,corn #ajgg #ha4ag #ij days#bh1ijj;,annual#bch for 7,zea ,mays7 #abfj to #dj4fa #aaj every #ahij #cfto#cg4hjabj seed #bhhj #be4bjto#bgahj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,manioc or #ajgg #ha4ag #aj mths #bh1ijj;,bicen-,one ,cassava #aaie #dj4fa #ab nial cassava #dc4jj #abj days weighing lb4 oz4 starch ---------------------------------------- -------- ,coco nut #fcj #ha4ag #e yrs4 #deb #fj #d bottles 7,cocos #df4jj #f oil per nucifera7 tree ---------------------------------------- -------- ,tobacco #fcj #ha4ag #aej days#bh1ijj;,annual lb4 7,nicotiana #ajgg #df4jj #agj dried tabacum7 #aihj #dj4fa #ahj to each #cc4cj #bbe #e plants ---------------------------------------- -------- ,cotton #fcj #ha4ag #f mth #bh1ijjc lb4 7,gossypium7 #ajgg #df4jj #g nett #adae #dj4fa #g per #cd4fa #i plant ---------------------------------------- -------- ,coffee #bcj #dg #bd mths #e1cjj #de #a 7,coffea #fcj #df #be lb4 ,arabica7 #ajggto #bbejcg4hj to #bh per #bdec #ci4fj #cf tree #cc4cj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,sugar cane #fcj #hd4ag #aa mths4#bh1ijj #e #aj percnt 7,saccharum #ajhj #df4jj #ab sugar officinarum7 #da4dj #ad upon the weight of the raw cane ---------------------------------------- -------- ,indigo #ij #dh4fj #b #eg1hjj #a #gj plants 7,indigofera #fcj #df4jj #c produce tinctoria7 #ajgg #dj4fa #c #a lb4 coloring matter ---------------------------------------- -------- ,potato #ajhj #ch4gj #adj days#aaf1fjj #d 7,solanum #aihj #cc4cj #afe ,annuallb each tuberosum7 #bgjj #bg4jj #baj plant ---------------------------------------- -------- ,wheat #efg #db4cj #hj #eg1hjj;,annual#cg for 7,triticum #aagj #ch4gj #ajj every stivum7 #bebj #cb4ii #abj seed planted ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the plantain bears at #a1ebi yards1 in a temperature of #fa deg4 ,fahrenheit1 and requires fifteen months1 but its cultivation is of little benefit in so high a latitude4 ,it is the same with the cassava root4 ,the cane at #a1afj altitude1 in a temperature of #ff deg41 gives no sugar2 and indigo at #a1fbj affords no coloring matter4 ,,section ,i4 ,,dried ,,leaves1 ,,seeds1 ,,and ,,other ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,popular ,,dietetic ,,beverages4 ,no substances are so essentially necessary to mankind1 or form such important articles of commerce1 as those which we come first to consider1 the dietetic products--cacao1 coffee1 tea1 and sugar4 ,the consumption of these in all civilized countries is immense1 notwithstanding that in many they have been fettered with heavy fiscal duties4 ,the investigation of the culture of the plants from which they are obtained1 and the manufacture of the products1 is a very curious object of research4 ,,cacao ,,or ,,cocoa4 ,the chocolate nuts or seeds1 termed cacao1 are the fruit of species of ,theobroma1 an evergreen tree1 native of the ,western ,continent4 ,that commonly grown is ,t4 cacao2 but ,lindley enumerates two other species1 ,t4 bicolor1 a native of ,new ,granada2 and ,t4 ,guianensis1 with yellow flowers1 a native of ,guiana4 ,the seeds being nourishing and agreeable to most people1 are kept in the majority of houses in ,america1 as a part of the provisions of the family4 ,by pressure they yield fatty oil1 called butter of cacao4 ,they also contain a crystalline principle analogous to caffeine1 called theobromine4 ,the common cacao of the shops consists generally of the roasted beans1 and sometimes of the roasted integuments of the beans1 ground to powder4 ,the consumption of cacao in the ,united ,kingdom is about three millions of pounds annually1 yielding a revenue of #ae1ejj4 ,few tropical products are more valuable or more useful as food to man than cacao4 ,it is without any exception the cheapest food that we can conceive1 and were it more generally employed1 so that the berries should not be more than two1 three1 or1 at most1 six months old1 from the time of gathering 7for1 if kept longer1 they lose their nutritive properties71 even a smaller quantity than that usually taken in a cup would suffice3 in fact1 cacao cannot be too new4 ,the cacao beans lie in a fruit somewhat like a cucumber1 about five inches long and three-and-a-half inches thick1 which contains from twenty to thirty beans1 arranged in five regular rows with partitions between1 and which are surrounded with a rose-colored spongy substance1 like that of water melons4 ,there are fruits1 however1 so large as to contain from forty to fifty beans4 ,those grown in the ,west ,india islands1 as well as ,berbice and ,demerara1 are much smaller1 and have only from six to fifteen2 their development being less perfect than other parts of ,south ,america4 ,after the maturation of the fruit1 when their green colour has changed to a dark yellow1 they are plucked1 opened1 their beans cleared of the marrowy substance1 and spread out to dry in the air4 ,in the ,west ,indies they are immediately packed up for the market when they are dried2 but in ,caraccas they are subjected to a species of slight fermentation1 by putting them into tubs or chests1 covering them with boards or stones1 and turning them over every morning to equalize the operation4 ,they emit a good deal of moisture1 and lose the natural bitterness and acrimony of their taste by this process1 as well as some of their weight4 ,instead of wooden tubs1 pits or trenches dug in the ground are sometimes had recourse to for curing the beans2 an operation called earthing4 ,they are1 lastly1 exposed to the sun and dried4 ,according to ,lampadius1 the kernels of the ,west ,india cacao beans contain in #ajj parts1 besides water1 #ec4a of fat or oil1 #af4g of an albuminous brown matter1 which contains all the aroma of the bean2 #aj4ia of starch1 #g of gum or mucilage1 #j4i of lignine1 and #b4ja of a reddish dye-stuff1 somewhat akin to the pigment of cochineal4 ,the husks form #ab per cent1 of the weight of the beans4 ,the fatty matter is of the consistence of tallow1 white1 of a mild agreeable taste1 and not apt to turn rancid by keeping4 ,it melts only at #aab degrees ,fahr41 and should1 therefore1 make tolerable candles4 ,it is obtained by exposing the beans to strong pressure in canvas bags1 after they have been steamed or soaked in boiling water for some time4 ,from five to six ounces of butter may be thus obtained from a pound of cacao4 ,it has a reddish tinge when first expressed1 but it becomes white by boiling with water4 ,the beans1 being freed from all spoiled and mouldy portions1 are to be gently roasted over a fire in an iron cylinder1 with holes in its ends for allowing the vapors to escape1 the apparatus being similar to a coffee-roaster4 ,when the aroma begins to be well developed1 the roasting is known to be finished1 and the beans must be turned out1 cooled1 and freed by fanning and sifting from their husks4 ,the kernels are then to be converted into a paste1 either by trituration in a mortar heated to #acj degrees ,fahr41 or by a powerful mill4#a ,the cacao tree resembles our dwarf apple tree both in body and branches1 but the leaf1 which is of a dark green1 is considerably broader and larger4 ,the nuts are of the color and about the size of an almond1 and hang eighteen to thirty together by a slender stringy film1 enclosed in a pod4 ,a ripe pod is of a beautiful yellow1 intermixed with crimson streaks2 when dried1 it shrivels up and changes to a deep brown2 the juice squeezed from the mucilaginous pulp contained in the husks of these nuts appears like cream1 and has a very grateful taste of a cordial quality4 ,the nuts have a light pleasant smell1 and an unctuous1 bitterish1 roughish 7not ungrateful7 taste4 ,those of ,nicaragua and ,caracas are the most agreeable and are the largest2 those of the ,french ,antilles1 and our own ,west ,india islands1 are the most unctuous4 ,the ,mexicans1 in preparing the chocolate paste1 add some long pepper1 a little annatto1 and lastly vanilla2 some add cinnamon1 cloves and anise1 and those who love perfumes1 musk and ambergris4 ,the finest ,american cacao is said to be that of ,soconusco1 but the principal imports are from ,caracas and ,guayaquil1 which is of a very good quality4 ,the province of ,barcelona1 adjoining ,caracas exports annually from #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj cwt4 ,the very large shipments from ,guayaquil are shown by the following return4 ,of this quantity ,spain takes the largest portion1 ,mexico the next1 and ,england receives but a very small quantity4 ,cacao exported from ,guayaquil3-- lbs4 #ahcc #f1fje1ghf #ahcd #aj1iii1hec #ahce #ac1hjj1hea #ahcf #aj1iah1efe #ahcg #h1ebj1aba #ahch #g1aii1jeg #ahci #ab1afi1ghg #ahdj #ad1bff1idb ,the exports of cacao from the port of ,la ,guayra1 has been as follows in the years ending ,december #ca4 ,fanegas4 #ahej #dj1aha #ahea #dg1iea #aheb #ed1jhc ,five fanegas are equal to one ,english quarter4 ,the price of cacao was1 at the close of #aheb1 sixteen dollars the fanega4 ,the province of ,caracas1 according to ,humboldt1 at the end of the last century1 produced annually #aej1jjj fanegas of cacao1 of which two-thirds were exported to ,spain1 and the remainder locally consumed4 ,the shipments from the port of ,la ,guayra alone averaged #hj1jjj to #ajj1jjj1 or nearly double the present shipments4 ,in the early part of the present century the captain-generalship of ,caracas produced nearly #bjj1jjj fanegas1 of which about #ade1jjj were sent direct to ,europe4 ,the province of ,caracas then produced #aej1jjj fanegas2 ,maracaibo1 #bj1jjj2 ,cumana1 #ah1jjj1 and ,new ,barcelona1 #e1jjj4 ,the vallies of ,aragua1 in the province of ,caracas1 those of ,cariaco1 ,campano1 of ,rio ,caribe and the banks of the river ,caroni1 in ,spanish ,guiana1 produce excellent cacao in abundance4 ,the tree there bears fruit in four years after it has been planted1 the following year still more1 and increases in fecundity until the ninth or tenth year1 when it is in full bearing4 ,the banks of the ,magdalena1 in the vicinity of ,santa ,martha and ,carthagena1 are famed for the excellent cacao they produce4 ,this tree1 says ,bonnycastle 7,spanish ,america1 vol4 #a1 p4 #beg71 is indigenous1 seldom exceeds the diameter of seven inches1 and is extremely beautiful when laden with its fruit1 which are disposed on short stalks over the stem and round the great branches1 resembling citrons1 from their yellow color1 and warty appearance4 ,the leaves are attenuate1 stalked1 drooping1 about a foot long and three inches broad1 elliptic1 oblong1 pointed1 slightly wavy1 entire1 and very smooth on both sides2 with one mid-rib and many transverse ones1 connected by innumerable veins4 ,the petals of the flower are yellow1 the calyx of a light rose-color1 and the flowers themselves are small and placed on tufts on the sides of the branches1 with single foot-stalks1 about an inch long4 ,its fruit is red1 or a mixture of red and yellow1 and about three inches in diameter1 with a fleshy rind half-an-inch thick2 the pulp is whitish and of the consistence of butter1 containing the seed2 these seeds are generally twenty-five in number in each fruit1 and when first gathered are of a flesh color1 and form a nice preserve if taken just before they are ripe4 ,each tree yields about two or three pounds of fruit annually1 and comes to maturity the third year after planting from the seed2 it also bears leaves1 flowers1 or fruit all the year round1 the usual seasons for gathering being ,june and ,december4 ,the excellence of the ,magdalena chocolate may be attributed to the moist nature of the soil1 as the plant never thrives where the ground is hard and dry1 or cannot be irrigated4 ,mode of cultivation in the ,colombian ,republics--,plantations of cacao were speedily multiplied in ,colombia1 and the soil so admirably seconded the labors of the planter1 that in the produce abundance was united to excellence4 ,the cacao of this quarter ranks next to that of ,soconusco4 ,it is well known that the best commercial recommendation of cacao is that of coming from ,caracas4 ,but even in these provinces the quality varies4 ,the cacao of ,orituco is superior to that of other places1 and a quantity of equal bulk weighs twenty per cent4 more4 ,the cacao of the coast comes next1 and obtains a preference over that of the interior4 ,the plantations of cacao are all to the north of the chain of mountains which coast the sea1 and in the interior country4 ,the former extend from ,cumana to the mouth of the ,tocaygo2 the latter are situate in the vallies of ,tuy1 ,orituco1 ,ocumare1 ,cura1 ,marrin1 ,tare1 ,santa ,theresa1 ,santa ,lucia1 ,zuapira1 ,santa ,philippo1 ,barquisimeto1 ,valencia1 ,gruige and ,cariaco4 ,all kinds of soil are not equally adapted to the culture of cacao1 still less are all exposures2 but an analysis of the soil destined to this culture never furnishes indications on which reliance can be placed4 ,no regard should be had to color or composition2 it is only requisite that it should be friable to a certain depth1 which is ascertained by the size of the trees with which it is covered2 this sign determines the land proper for cacao4 ,a suitable situation is not so easily found4 ,it should be exposed as little as possible to the north1 and be on the borders of a river1 which may communicate moisture to the soil in dry seasons1 and receive its drainings in times of rain4 ,a preference is particularly to be given to land which can receive from the river the benefits of irrigation without being exposed to injury from its overflow4 ,after having chosen the land1 it should be cleared of all trees1 shrubs1 and other plants4 ,this operation is performed in various ways4 ,it is customary in ,colombia to commence felling the trees immediately after the rains1 that is1 about the month of ,november2 the wood1 after being cut1 is left to dry1 then collected in heaps and burnt4 ,as soon as the new plantation is cleared1 it is crossed with small ditches1 in directions according to the declivity of the soil4 ,these serve to drain the stagnant waters1 to carry off the rains1 and to irrigate or water the soil whenever necessary4 ,the alignement is then laid out1 in which the cacao trees are to be arranged4 ,they are planted in triangles or squares4 ,in either case1 there is always in the centre an alley1 bordered by cacao trees1 and running from east to west4 ,when they are planted in squares1 this alley is crossed by another running from north to south4 ,the cacao plants should be placed at fifteen or sixteen feet 7,french measure7 from each other1 in good soil2 and about thirteen or fourteen feet in soil of inferior quality4 ,this is almost the only tree in nature to which the enlivening beams of the sun are obnoxious4 ,it requires to be sheltered from their ardour2 and the mode of combining this protection with the principles of fertility1 forms a very essential part of the skill which its cultivation demands4 ,the cacao tree is mingled with other trees1 which guard it from the rays of the sun1 without depriving it of the benefit of their heat4 ,the ,erythrina and the banana are employed for this purpose4 ,the latter1 by the rapidity of its growth1 and the magnitude of its leaves1 protect it for the first year4 ,the erythrina endures at least as long as the cacao2 it is not every soil1 however1 that agrees with it4 ,it perishes after a while in sandy and clayey ground1 but it flourishes in such as combine those two ingredients4 ,in the ,antilles this protection cannot be given to cacao1 as it would expose the plantation to destruction by every hurricane4 ,besides1 the cacao succeeds but indifferently there1 and is much less oily than in other parts4 ,the quality of the soil1 and the species of the erythrina1 should determine the distance at which they ought to be placed4 ,that kind which the ,spaniards call bucare anaveo1 is planted in a fertile soil1 at the distance of two alleys1 that is to say1 at each second range of cacao trees4 ,that which they call bucare peonio1 is placed at three alleys in good soils 7about forty-eight ,french feet74 ,the former species of erythrina is that which elevates itself the highest4 ,the second species has many thorns1 the upper surface of the leaf is darker and the lower whiter4 ,both kinds should be cut in the wane of the moon1 and remain in the shade until its increase1 at which time they should be planted4 ,it is much preferable1 however1 to take them from a nursery4 ,in one range of cacao trees a banana is placed between two cacaos1 and an erythrina between the two following4 ,in the other range a banana is placed between each cacao tree1 and no erythrinas1 so that the latter are at the distance of two alleys4 ,the banana and the erythrina are first planted1 and when a shelter from the sun is thus provided1 the hole for the cacao is made1 around which are planted four stalks of the yucca plant1 at the distance of two feet from each other4 ,at the end of two months the cacao is planted4 ,the smaller the plant is1 the better4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 soils subject to worms where the small plants do not thrive2 but1 excepting in this particular1 the small plants are preferable1 because the large require more labor for their transportation and planting2 many of them die1 and those which survive bud and shoot forth1 but are never of any value4 ,the cacao plant should not exceed thirty-six inches in size when transplanted2 if larger1 it succeeds with difficulty1 as will be shown4 ,the nurseries of cacao demand an excellent soil1 well prepared1 where the water does not remain4 ,they should be well sheltered from the sun4 ,small knolls of earth are formed1 in each of which are put two seeds of cacao1 in such a manner that they are parallel with the level of the ground4 ,during the first twenty days the seeds are covered with two layers of banana or other leaves4 ,if necessary1 the ground is watered2 but the water is not suffered to remain4 ,the most suitable time for sowing is in ,november4 ,where there is not a facility for watering1 the planting of the cacao should take place in the rainy season2 but when the former is practicable1 it is best to plant in dry weather and assist nature by irrigation1 since it is then in the power of the cultivator to give the exact quantity of moisture necessary4 ,but1 in all cases1 care should be taken that the plants are not wet in the interval between their being taken out of the ground and replanted4 ,when the bananas grow old1 they should be carefully felled1 lest the cacaos should be injured by their accidental fall4 ,they are totally removed as soon as the erythrina yields sufficient shade2 this operation gives more air to the trees of the plantation1 and encourages their growth4 ,until the cacao attains four feet in height1 it is trimmed to the stem4 ,if it shoots forth several branches1 they are reduced to three1 at equal distances2 and1 in proportion as the plant increases1 the leaves which appear on the three branches are stripped off4 ,if they bend much1 and incline towards the earth1 they are tied in bunches1 so that the tree may not remain crooked4 ,the branches1 which are trimmed1 are cut at the distance of two fingers from the tree4 ,the suckers which spring from the tree are also removed1 as they only live at its expense4 ,enemies of the tree4--,the cacao trees should1 as already stated1 have sufficient shade to prevent their being burned by the sun4 ,if they are much exposed to its rays1 their branches are scattered1 crack1 and the tree dies4 ,they are also infested with worms1 which gnaw the bark all around1 then attack the interior and destroy them4 ,the only remedy which has hitherto been found1 is to employ people to kill these worms1 which are deposited by a small1 scaly winged insect1 which gnaws the tree2 as soon as it hears the approach of its destroyers1 it lets itself fall1 and trusts to its wings for safety4 ,the color of this insect is a mixture of ash color and white4 ,if pressed1 it emits a sound something similar to the noise of water thrown on a very hot substance4 ,it has two small horns on its head1 the points of which are directed upwards4 ,it is so lively that1 even when the head is separated from the body1 it is a long time in dying4 ,to deposit its progeny it makes small holes in the tree4 ,at the commencement of the winter1 or rainy season1 another worm makes its appearance1 which devours the leaves of the young cacao plant4 ,this species of worm is called goaseme1 and they are in some years so abundant1 that all the people of the plantation are solely employed in destroying them4 ,this worm is four inches in length1 and of the thickness of a finger4 ,it is sometimes called angaripola1 or ,indian1 on account of the vivacity of its colors4 ,it is believed that these worms are mediately produced by other large worms in the earth1 from which are engendered butterflies1 who lay their eggs on the leaves of the cacao4 ,these eggs are full of small worms1 which feed on the leaves of the cacao1 and appear in clusters of the size of a shilling4 ,they are sought and destroyed with great attention1 as they occasion considerable damage4 ,those which escape lodge themselves in the earth1 and in the succeeding year are changed into butterflies4 ,at the time when the worm makes its appearance1 it is necessary to make fires1 which should not be so large as to injure the cacao1 yet sufficient to attract and burn the butterfly4 ,the plantations of cacao in the valley of ,tuy1 the quarters of ,marrin1 ,cuba1 ,sabana1 ,ocumare1 ,san ,francis1 c41 are subject to another species of worm called rasquilla4 ,it multiplies in the dry seasons4 ,there are small insects1 called by the ,spaniards accerredores1 of the same figure with those which eat the bark of the cacao1 but larger and of a blackish colour4 ,they feed on the branches of the tree2 are always found upon those branches which they have cut2 and the evil can only be obviated by killing them4 ,the worms called vachacos occasion also much damage4 ,they eat the leaf and the flower4 ,to destroy them it is necessary to seek them in their nests in the earth4 ,water is thrown on the spot1 and stirred1 as in making mortar4 ,by this means their young are crushed1 and the evil is diminished1 if it be not entirely removed4 ,a parasitical plant often attaches itself to a branch of the cacao tree which it covers over and causes to wither1 by nourishing itself with the substance of the plant4 ,the only remedy is to remove it4 ,when the cacao trees are in a bearing state1 they are subject to a disease called tache4 ,this is a black taint1 or stain1 which attacks the trees1 encircling them below1 and kills them4 ,the mode of preservation is to make1 in the beginning1 a slight notch that shall pierce the bark4 ,but if the taint is extensive1 it is necessary to cut all the affected part4 ,it then exudes a liquid and is healed4 ,the bark remains of a violet color in the part that has been tainted4 ,the other enemies of the cacao are the agouti1 stag1 squirrel1 monkey1 c4 ,the agouti produces most havoc4 ,it often destroys in one night all the hopes of the proprietor4 ,birds are not less injurious to the cacao4 ,the whole class of parrots1 in particular the great ,ara1 which destroys for the pleasure of destroying1 and1 the parroquets1 which come in numerous flocks1 conspire also to ruin the plantations of cacao4 ,means of preserving a plantation4--,it is necessary that a cacao plantation should have always shade and irrigation2 the branches of the plant should be cleared of the lichens that form on them2 the worms destroyed2 and no large herbs or shrubs and mosses permitted to grow near1 since the least disadvantage resulting therefrom would be the loss of all the fruit that should fall into these thickets4 ,but it is most essential to deepen the trenches which carry off the water1 in proportion as the plant increases in size1 and as the roots of course pierce deeper2 for if the trenches are left at a depth of three feet1 while the roots are six feet in the earth1 it follows that the lower part of the cacao plant is in a situation of too great humidity1 and rots at the level of the water4 ,this precaution contributes not only to make the plantation more durable1 but also to render the crop more productive4 ,it is necessary1 also1 to abstain from cutting any branch from cacao plants that are already bearing4 ,such an operation might occasion the subsequent crop to be stronger2 but the plants become enervated1 and often perish1 according to the quality of the soil and the number of branches cut off4 ,if the earth of the plantations be pressed and trampled down by animals1 the duration of the plant is diminished4 ,irrigation1 made with judgment1 maintains them long in a state of produce4 ,withering of the fruit4--,the fruit of the cacao withers on the tree from three causes3-- ,first4--,when the plantation is1 during a long time1 inundated with water4 ,i have seen plantations of cacao1 which had only been covered with water thirty hours1 and of which the fruit was totally withered4 ,second4--,from abundant rains1 particularly in very damp valleys4 ,this is only to be remedied by keeping the plantation well drained1 that the water may not remain on it4 ,third4--,a want of necessary irrigation1 and the watering of the plantation under an ardent sun4 ,the vapor from the earth kills the fruit4 ,if the rains are deficient for a time1 and an excessive rain succeeds1 the fruit of the cacao also withers4 ,this dessication or withering takes place everywhere2 but in some places the surplus of fruit1 which the tree is unable to nourish1 is alone subject to it4 ,in others1 as ,araquita and ,caucagua1 it withers in proportion to the northerly rains4 ,an unsuitable soil occasions another kind of decay4 ,the pods become stinted1 containing some good and some bad seeds4 ,the ,spaniards call this cocosearse1 which means defective4 ,harvest of the cacao4--,the tree yields two principal crops in a year1 one about ,st4 ,john's day1 the other towards the end of ,december4 ,the cacao however ripens and is gathered during the whole year4 ,but in all seasons the planters of the ,central ,american republics make it a point1 so far as possible1 to collect their crops only at the decline of the moon2 because experience proves that this precaution renders the cacao more solid1 and less liable to spoil4 ,to collect the fruit1 those negroes and ,indians are employed who have the sharpest sight1 that only the ripe fruit may be gathered4 ,the most robust and active are chosen to carry it to the places where the beans are to be shaken out4 ,the aged and maimed are employed to do this4 ,the operation is performed on a floor well swept1 and covered with green leaves1 on which they place the cacao4 ,some open the pod1 and others strike out the beans with a small piece of wood1 which must not be sharp1 lest it should injure them4 ,the good and bad beans must not be mingled together4 ,there are four sorts of cacao in every crop2 the ripe and in good condition1 the green but sound1 the worm-eaten1 and the rotten4 ,the first quality is best1 the second is not bad2 but the two others should be rejected4 ,as soon as that which is not fully ripe begins to show specks1 it must be separated4 ,as to the pods which are not perfectly ripe1 they should remain in heaps during three days under green banana leaves1 that they may ripen before they are hulled4 ,when the cacao is stored1 great care is necessary not to leave amongst it pieces of the pod or leaves1 or any other excrementitious particles4 ,this care must be repeated every time that it is removed from the store1 or replaced in it4 ,the cacao must always be exposed to the sun on the fourth day after it has been gathered1 and this exposure should be daily repeated until it is perfectly dry4 ,when that is the case1 the beans burst on being squeezed1 their shell resounds when struck1 and they no longer become heated when placed in heaps2 the latter is the best proof that the moisture injurious to their preservation is dissipated4 ,if the cacao is not sufficiently exposed to the sun1 it becomes mouldy2 if too much1 it withers1 and easily pulverises--in either case it soon rots4 ,when the quantity of cacao gathered is considerable1 it is placed in the sunshine by a hundred quintals at a time1 unless the cultivator has a sufficient number of persons employed to expose a greater quantity4 ,this operation is indispensable1 to prevent it from becoming mouldy4 ,if the rains prevent this exposure to the sun1 it is necessary1 as soon as it is sufficiently cleaned or purified1 to spread it in apartments1 galleries1 or halls1 with which the plantation must be provided2 this operation cannot be delayed without danger of losing the crop4 ,it is to be wished that stoves were employed to dry the cacao when the sun fails1 but this expedient1 so simple and important1 is generally unknown4 ,it is almost universally believed that the most essential precautions for preserving the cacao consists in gathering it at the decline of the moon4 ,i believe that they may more seriously calculate on the care of depositing it in apartments so hermetically closed that the air cannot penetrate2 it would be advisable to make these apartments of wood1 for the more perfect exclusion of moisture4 ,the floor should be elevated two feet2 under the floor a pan of coals is placed1 covered with a funnel1 the point of which enters into the heap of cacao and then diffuses the vapor4 ,in the apartment which contains the cacao1 some persons place bottles of vinegar1 slightly stopped with paper1 to prevent the formation of worms4 ,the beans which begin to show specks1 may be preserved from entire corruption by a slight application of brine4 ,this occasions a small degree of fermentation1 which is sufficient to destroy the worms1 and to preserve the cacao during a considerable time from new attacks4 ,why is not this preservative also employed after the cacao is dried1 and when placed in the store1 where it awaits the purchaser8 ,at ,st4 ,philip they make use of smoke to preserve the cacao2 it is also ascertained that fine salt1 thrown in small quantities on the cacao1 protects it from worms4 ,much has been done for the cacao when it has been cleared of all green or dead beans1 and extraneous substances2 when it has received no bruise or injury in the operation of drying1 and when it has been subsequently kept in a place that is dry and not exposed to the air2 yet1 even with all these precautions1 cacao of the best quality is seldom found marketable at the end of a year4 ,these circumstances sufficiently prove that the culture of cacao requires attention more than science1 vigilance rather than genius1 and assiduity in preference to theory4 ,choice of ground1 distribution and draining of the waters1 position of the trees destined to shade the cacao1 are almost the only points which require more than common intelligence4 ,less expense is also required for an establishment of this kind than for any other of equal revenue4 ,one able hand1 as ,i have already said1 is sufficient for the preservation and harvest of a thousand plants1 each of which should yield at least one pound of cacao1 in ground of moderate quality1 and a pound and a half in the best soil4 ,by an averaged calculation of twenty ounces to each plant1 the thousand plants must produce twelve hundred and fifty pounds1 which1 at the ordinary price of #cas4 #f;d4 per cwt41 would produce about #ag #ajs4 per annum for each laborer4 ,the expenses of the plantation1 including those of utensils1 machines1 and buildings1 are also less considerable for cacao than for any other produce4 ,the delay of the first crop1 and the accidents peculiar to cacao1 can alone diminish the number of planters attached to its culture1 and induce a preference to other commodities4 ,the cacao plant is not in a state of prolific produce till the eighth year in the interior1 and the ninth in plantations on the coast4 ,yet1 by a singularity which situation alone can explain1 the crops of cacao commence in the ninth year in the valley of ,goapa1 and at the east of the mouth of the ,tuy4 ,in the vicinity of the line1 and on the banks of ,rio-,negro1 the plantations are in full produce on the fourth1 or at most the fifth year4 ,the cacao tree continues productive to the age of fifty years on the coast1 and thirty years in the interior of the country4 ,in general the culture and preparation of cacao receives more attention in the eastern parts of ,venezuela than in other places1 and even than in the ,french colonies4 ,it is true that the suitability of the soil contributes much to the quality of the article2 but without the assistance derived from art1 it would be far from possessing that superiority awarded to it by commerce over the cacao of every other country4 ,stevenson 7,travels in ,south ,america7 speaks of another kind of cacao tree1 called moracumba1 which is larger than the ordinary species1 and grows wild in the woods4 ,the beans under the brown husk are composed of a white1 solid matter1 almost like a lump of hard tallow4 ,the natives take a quantity of these1 and pass a piece of slender cane through them1 and roast them1 when they have the delicate flavour of the cacao4 ,there are several cacao plantations in ,surinam4 ,the trees are left to grow their natural height1 which is about that of a cherry-tree2 their leaves resemble those of the broad-leaved laurel1 and are of a dark green colour4 ,the fruit in shape resembles a lemon1 but is rather more oval2 it is at first green1 and1 when ripe1 yellow4 ,it is said that there are some trees which produce above two hundred1 each containing about twenty beans or nuts4 ,the fruit not only proceeds from the branches1 but even from the stem2 and though there is always ripe and unripe fruit1 it is only gathered twice a year4 ,the chocolate is in that colony in general of an inferior quality1 known by its dark brown color and rough taste1 but the superiority of the cacao depends principally on the soil where the trees are planted4--7,baron ,von ,sack's ,surinam47 ,my friend1 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 in his ,description of ,british ,guiana1 says--,while we crossed from the river ,berbice to the ,essequibo1 we met a number of chocolate nut trees1 near the abandoned ,caribi settlement of ,primoss4 ,it is not to be doubted that the trees were originally planted by the ,indians1 but from their number and the distance from the river1 ,i judged they were propagated by nature4 ,though they were overshadowed by larger trees1 and had for many years been neglected1 they had reached nevertheless a height of from thirty to forty feet1 and the luxuriant growth and the abundance of fruit1 proved that the plant was satisfied with the soil4 ,the forests at the banks of the ,rio ,branco1 in the vicinity of ,santa ,maria and ,carno1 abound in wild cacao trees1 the fruits of which are collected by the scanty population of that district for their own use4 ,the cultivation of cacao will be most suitable to the less wealthy individual1 as it demands so little labor and outlay4 ,baron ,humboldt observes1 in alluding to ,spanish ,america1 that cacao plantations are occupied by persons of humble condition1 who prepare for themselves and their children a slow but certain fortune2 a single laborer is sufficient to aid them in their plantations1 and #cj1jjj trees1 once established1 assure competence for a generation and a half4 ,the following have been the total imports of ,cacao into the ,united ,kingdom from ,mexico and ,central ,america1 c43-- lbs4 #ahcb #he1fdb #ahcd #af1aga #ahce #baa #ahcf #hfa1eca #ahcg #efd1iib #ahch #a1fha1ife #ahci #ejh1cjg #ahdj #a1jeh1jae #ahda #a1hjb1edg #ahdb #dda1jhd #ahdc #a1bbi1eae 7,parl4 ,paper1 ,no4 #dbf1 ,sess4 #ahdd47 ,only a few hundred pounds of this is entered annually for home consumption1 the great bulk being re-exported4 ,in #ahej we imported #a1bjd1egb lbs4 from ,mexico2 #a1bca1ggc lbs4 from ,chile2 #d1dch lbs4 from ,venezuela1 and #bc1ech lbs4 from ,hayti4 ,,brazil4--,a great deal of cacao is raised in different parts of this empire4 ,from the province of ,para alone #ce1jjj bags1 valued at #ce1jjj1 were exported in the year #ahde4 ,mr4 ,edwards1 in his ,voyage up the ,river ,amazon1 gives an interesting account3-- ,we were now 7he says7 in the great cacao region1 which1 for an extent of several hundred square miles1 borders the river4 ,the cacao trees are low1 not rising above fifteen or twenty feet1 and are distinguishable from a distance by the yellowish green of their leaves1 so different from aught else around them4 ,they are planted at intervals of about twelve feet1 and1 at first1 are protected from the sun's fierceness by banana trees1 which1 with their broad leaves1 form a complete shelter4 ,three years after planting the trees yield1 and therefore require little attention1 or1 rather1 receive not any4 ,from an idea that the sun is injurious to the berry1 the tree-tops are suffered to mat together until the whole becomes dense as thatch-work4 ,the sun never penetrates this1 and the ground below is constantly wet4 ,the trunk of the tree grows irregularly1 without beauty1 although perhaps by careful training it might be made as graceful as an apple tree4 ,the leaf is thin1 much resembling our beech1 excepting that it is smooth-edged4 ,the flower is very small1 and the berry grows direct from the trunk or branches4 ,it is eight inches in length1 five in diameter1 and shaped much like a rounded double cone4 ,when ripe1 it turns from light green to a deep yellow1 and at that time ornaments the tree finely4 ,within the berry is a white acid pulp1 and embedded in this are from thirty to forty seeds1 an inch in length1 narrow and flat4 ,these seeds are the cacao of commerce4 ,when the berries are ripe1 they are collected into great piles near the house1 are cut open with a tresado1 and the seeds1 squeezed carelessly from the pulp1 are spread upon mats to dry in the sun4 ,before being half dried they are loaded into canoes in bulk1 and transmitted to ,para4 ,some of these vessels will carry four thousand arrobas1 of thirty-two pounds weight each1 and1 as if such a bulk of damp produce would not sufficiently spoil itself by its own steaming during a twenty days' voyage1 the captains are in the habit of throwing upon it great quantities of water1 to prevent its loss of weight4 ,as might be expected1 when they arrive at ,para it is little more than a heap of mould1 and it is then little wonder that ,para cacao is considered the most inferior in foreign markets4 ,cacao is very little drunk throughout the province1 and in the city we never saw it except at the cafs4 ,it is a delicious drink when properly prepared1 and one soon loses relish for that nasty compound known in the ,states as chocolate1 whose main ingredients are damaged rice and soap fat4 ,the cacao trees yield two crops annually1 and1 excepting in harvest time1 the proprietors have nothing to do but lounge in their hammocks4 ,most of these people are in debt to traders in ,santarem1 who trust them to an unlimited extent1 taking a lien upon their crops4 ,sometimes the plantations are of vast extent1 and one can walk for miles along the river1 from one to another1 as freely as through an orchard4 ,no doubt a scientific cultivator might make the raising of cacao very profitable1 and elevate its quality to that of ,guyaquil4 ,cacao shipped from ,brazil to the ,united ,kingdom1 for nine years1 ending #ahce3-- lbs4 #ahbg #c1iib1ddi #ahbh #a1agd1afh #ahbi #b1ddb1def #ahcj #a1cjh1fid #ahca #a1gaf1fad #ahcb #b1aih1gji #ahcc #b1djb1hjc #ahcd #a1eia1fjj #ahce #a1fgh1gfi ,cultivation in the ,west ,india ,islands4--,the only ,english colonies where this nutritious and wholesome substance is now cultivated to any extent1 are ,trinidad1 ,st4 ,lucia1 ,grenada1 and ,st4 ,vincent4 ,in ,jamaica and ,british ,guiana it has given place to the production of sugar1 and though it forms such an important article in the imports and consumption of the ,united ,kingdom1 the quantity introduced from ,british plantations is barely equal to the demand4 ,the imports from ,jamaica in #ahca were #f1fhd lbs41 and in #ahch1 #af1efd lbs42 while the imports since have been merely nominal4 ,of #e1jad1fha lbs4 imported in #ahda1 #b1ibj1bih lbs4 were furnished by the ,british ,west ,indian colonies1 #a1hjb1edg lbs4 came from the ,colombian republics1 and #bfi1gid lbs4 were brought from ,brazil4 ,trinidad furnishes by far the largest proportion of the ,west ,indian supplies1 the imports from thence in #ahda having been #b1ejj1jjj lbs41 while the imports from all the other islands were but #dbg1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahej1 #d1gej1jjj lbs4 were shipped from ,trinidad1 whilst in #ahea the quantity was nearly as much4 ,trinidad4--,although this tree is indigenous to many1 if not most of the tropical parts of ,america1 it was first extensively cultivated in ,mexico2 and it is remarkable that the words cacao and chocolate are both of ,mexican origin4 ,from ,mexico the variety called ,creole cacao it is supposed was transplanted to the ,west ,india colonies2 that variety called ,forastero 7stranger7 came from the ,brazils4 ,the latter tree is the most productive1 but the former gives the best fruit1 insomuch that few persons now plant the ,forastero cacao4 ,there are two or three indigenous species found growing wild in the forests of ,trinidad1 viz41 ,t4 ,sylvestris cacao1 ,t4 ,guianensis1 and another sort4 ,there are few1 perhaps no agricultural or horticultural pursuits1 so delightful 7observes ,mr4 ,joseph1 in his ,history of ,trinidad17 as that of the cultivation of the cacao4 ,it is planted in rows1 intersecting each other at right angles1 at the distance of from twelve to fifteen feet1 according to the nature of the soil4 ,the tree is not suffered to grow higher than about fifteen feet1 and its broad rich foliage1 the hues of which vary from a light green to a dark red1 loaded with yellow and dark red pods1 which contain the chocolate bean1 are beautiful objects2 these alleys are shaded by rows of magnificent trees1 called ,bois ,immortel by the ,french and ,english1 by the ,spaniards the ,madre de ,cacao4 ,it is the ,erythrina umbrosa or arborea of ,linnus4 ,like the ,bignonia or ,pouie1 this tree1 at particular seasons1 throws off its foliage and is covered with blossoms2 those of the ,erythrina are of a brilliant red color1 justifying its ,greek appellation4 ,in this state they are literally dazzling to behold--no object in the vegetable world looks more striking than the alleys of a cacao walk shaded by a forest above them of the ,bois ,immortel4 ,i have been obligingly furnished by ,mr4 ,w4 ,purdie1 the able ,government botanist of ,trinidad1 with a short essay upon the cultivation of the cacao tree1 with which many of the valleys of that island are so beautifully adorned1 and which1 at one time1 poured into that now unfortunate colony so large a stream of wealth4 ,fortunately the cacao planter of the island has managed to survive the many years of depression under which--like sugar now--the cacao cultivations lingered and sunk1 and which brought the once wealthy planter down to poverty and misery4 ,his prospects1 however1 are gradually improving4 ,the opinions put forth by ,mr4 ,purdie1 on the subject of which he treats1 will be found to run counter to the long-established practice hitherto pursued in the treatment of cacao plantations2 but it must not be forgotten that these are the opinions of a person with whom the study of trees1 their physiology and functions1 has been not merely an amusing science1 but an adopted employment1 and whose acquirements in this respect1 previous to his arrival in the colony1 recommended him for selection as the agent to extend through ,south ,america 7the great cacao region7 the investigations of one of the most noted botanical gardens in ,europe4 ,mr4 ,purdie says3-- ,in the present depressed times1 it behoves us to look well into the resources of our fertile island1 particularly as far as any improvement can be suggested capable of averting1 at least1 a part of the misery and ruin that is hovering over us1 and which is too eagerly borne on the lips of all classes of the community1 instead of using our efforts to do what we can to meet the difficulty2 but few seem to inquire whether we make the most of our present means or not1 whilst every one rather joins in the cry that sugar fetches little or nothing1 and it is no uncommon thing to hear the complaint transferred from sugar to cacao4 ,it is but too true that the markets are at present lamentably against the most important branch of our industry1 under the present manner of sugar cultivation and manufacture in this island4 ,but it can hardly be admitted that the same is the case in that of cacao--also a very important branch of our agriculture4 ,my attention has been lately directed to the average produce per tree1 which will1 ,i hope1 throw some light on its cultivation4 ,from fifteen cacao trees1 which are all there are at ,st4 ,ann's1 ,i have this year gathered #aae lbs4 of cacoa 7dried71 and at present there is at least #ej lbs4 more ripe on the same trees4 ,this gives #afe lbs4 of cacao from fifteen trees1 or #aa lbs4 per tree4 ,these cannot be considered fine trees2 on the contrary1 they are what would be considered ordinary ones2 therefore the average in this case is fair1 and differs materially from selecting the produce of fifteen trees from a large plantation1 and giving the average return of what might be obtained from cacao cultivation4 ,last year these trees did not average more than #b lbs4 per tree1 and ,i attribute the increase of crop to the thinning out of both the cacao and shade trees4 ,in a former letter to the cacao-planters of ,trinidad1 ,i recommended twenty-four to thirty feet from tree to tree as the proper distance2 but so as to meet the feelings of those who1 unfortunately for themselves1 consider every cacao tree cut down a sacrifice1 ,i propose that the trees be thinned out to twenty-four feet1 and that1 at intervals of twenty rows at most1 avenues of fifty feet in both directions should be left4 ,after this1 it will be better seen what may be necessary to be done to each individual tree2 neither should the shade trees be forgotten2 as a general rule1 they are prejudicially thick4 ,by attending to this1 ,i am quite satisfied that a very material increase in the produce will be seen2 indeed1 ,i may say that on this depends the chief difference of #a lb4 and #aa lbs4 per tree2 for ,i consider it a very fair inference1 that the average obtained here can be realised in any other place in this island1 and to any extent1 under the same circumstances of light and air1 unless on very poor soil1 of which we fortunately have but little4 ,at twenty-four feet apart there would be seventy-five trees per acre1 or #bej per quarre4 ,this1 at #aa lbs4 per tree1 gives #b1gej lbs4 of dried cacao per quarre1 at #e dollars per #ajj lbs41 gives #acg dollars #ej cents gross2 deducting #hj dollars per quarre expenses1 leaves #eg dollars #fj cents net profit4 ,thus an estate of #abj acres1 or #cf quarres1 would contain #i1jjj trees1 at #aa lbs4 per tree will give #cc1jjj lbs4 of cacao1 at #e dollars gives #d1cej dollars gross per annum2 deducting #hj dollars per quarre 7a much more liberal sum than is at present laid out71 leaves a net balance of #a1iej dollars1 or #af dollars #be cents per acre4 ,now this1 it must be remembered1 would be the produce from #i1jjj trees1 and from an estate containing only #cf quarres of land 7which cannot be considered a large one72 what1 then1 might be expected from estates containing #dj1jjj trees8 ,i have been recently favoured with the following average return of cacao in this island1 which ,i have no doubt will be considered a fair one4 ,i insert it in full1 and1 from the very low return1 it shows a lamentable deficiency in the cultivation of this most grateful tree3-- ',the average number of cacoa trees in a quarre of land is #hfh4 '#ast4 ,the estates throughout the island are generally planted at a distance of #ab feet by #ab1 and #ac feet by #ac4 ,those planted at #ab by #ab contain #ifi trees in the quarre1 and those at #ac by #ac contain #gfg trees1 the area of the quarre being taken at #aci1fig superficial feet4 ,there may be in the island about #fj quarres in all1 planted at #ae by #ae feet4 '#bnd4 ,the actual annual value of a quarre of land planted in cacoa is ten fanegas1 or #a lb4 to a tree4 ',it is to be observed that this is the general return from each tree as estates are now cultivated1 but if planters had the means of keeping their estates in high cultivation1 each cacoa tree would produce #b lbs4 on an average4 '#crd4 ,the annual average cost of cultivating a quarre in cacao1 and manufacturing the produce therefrom1 is #ce dollars1 in the imperfect manner it is carried on at present1 thereby giving only #aj fanegas per quarre4' ,i believe there are many estates in the island where the average distance is less than #ab by #ab2 however1 to give the present mode the full benefit of the return1 ,i will adopt1 for comparison's sake1 the maximum number of trees2 so that #ifj trees per quarre1 at l lb4 per tree1 gives #a1baa lbs4 of cacao1 at #e dollars per #ajj lbs4 is worth #fj dollars1#b gross return per quarre2 deducting #cf dollars1 not #hj dollars1 for expenses1 which leaves #bd dollars per quarre net1 or about #g dollars #ge cents per acre4 ,this is a startling account from lands among the most fertile in the world1 and from a plant1 under fair treatment1 next to the sugar cane1 perhaps the most grateful for the care bestowed1 more especially when we consider that more than ten times that quantity might be obtained with a comparatively insignificant outlay of money4 ,if such1 then1 be the case1 as stated in the above report 7and it is to be regretted that it is too near the truth71 apathy on the part of those whose interests are so much concerned is unwarrantable4 ,it is not enough to say that our fathers must have known the proper way to plant cacao2 this is but a lame excuse1 and not sufficient to dispense with any exertions of the present generation1 beyond merely collecting whatever fruit may come1 as it were1 fortuitously4 ,moreover1 at the time the present cacao plantations were established in this island1 its cultivation was comparatively little known2 it is therefore likely that they might have erred1 as they undoubtedly did1 in cramming them so close together2 but notwithstanding this1 by a proper system of thinning1 the evils might have been easily obviated1 and large crops ensured4 ,a few mornings ago1 a cacao planter from ,santa ,cruz called on me1 and in conversation stated that the only place where he had anything like a crop of cacao at present1 was where the hurricane of the #aath of ,october had devastated his estate most severely1 and which he at that time considered a ruinous visitation4 ,i hope the lesson will not be lost on him4 ,in ,jamaica it is found necessary to prune the coffee trees yearly1 which is done with as much care as gooseberry or currant bushes in ,england2 but1 notwithstanding this1 ,i remember a friend of mine in ,jamaica telling me of the extraordinary difference on his coffee plantation under the management of a person who understood and attended more particularly to the pruning of his trees4 ,lunan1 in his ',hortus ,jamaicensis1' published in #ahad1 gives a very elaborate article on the cacao1 although its cultivation was almost extinct in his day in that island4 ,he1 however1 appears to have derived his information chiefly from ,blume1 who wrote a short account of ,jamaica1 in #afgb1 at which time cacao was the chief export of the island4 ,lunan attributes its downfall to heavy ministerial exaction1 which was then1 he says1 upwards of #dhj per cent4 on its marketable value4 ,speaking of the average weight of cacao per tree1 he has the following3--',the produce of one tree is generally estimated at about #bj lbs4 of nuts4 ,the produce per acre in ,jamaica has been rated at #a1jjj lbs4 weight per annum1 allowing for bad years4 ,in poor soils1 and under bad management1 the produce of the tree rarely exceeds #h lbs4 weight4' ,he also says--',when the cacao plants are six months old1 the planter from this period must not be too fond of cleaning the plantation from grass and herbage1 because they keep the ground cool2 but all creeping1 climbing plants1 and such weeds as grow high enough to overtop the cacao1 should be destroyed4' ,he gives the distance from tree to tree at #ah feet4 ,i have long since been of opinion that it is of less consequence to clean the ground beneath the trees than to attend to the top-pruning of the shade trees1 as well as to the cacao 7although the former is very desirable1 it is nevertheless a subordinate consideration74 ,under the present mode of cultivation the ground-cleaning is the only one at all attended to1 and that badly4 ,a very important economy might also be made in the curing of the cacao1 by which much time would be saved1 and consequently expense1 by adopting the same method as is used in ,jamaica for drying coffee1 namely1 floorings of cement1 or1 as they are called1 barbecues4 ,at convenient distances in the centre of these floorings 7which are inclined planes7 a slightly-raised circular ridge is formed with cement1 leaving an aperture at the lower side to allow the escape of any water that may have lodged in them4 ,the cacao is easily brought together in these places in the event of rain1 and at night covered with portable wooden frames1 which are readily removed by two men4 ,in this way the cacao would be dried in a fifth of the time much more effectually1 and of a brighter colour4 ,any experiments tending to bring about a proper system of cultivation and manufacture of cacao1 must be beneficial to the island1 as well as to individuals2 for it cannot be denied that the cultivation of cacoa will still prove advantageous in proportion to the care bestowed on it4 ,indeed its cultivation is at present languishing1 not so much from inadequate prices1 as from a want of proper attention to its cultivation4 ,in #agif1 there were sixty plantations in ,trinidad1 which produced #if1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahjb the plantations were reduced to fifty-seven1 the yield being about the same4 ,in #ahjg1 #cee1jjj lbs4 of cacao were grown4 ,in #ahca1 there were #b1igb quarrees 7each three acres and one-fifth ,english7 under cultivation in ,trinidad with cacao1 on which were #b1dfd1dbf trees1 which produced a crop of #a1dgi1efh lbs4 ,in #ahda there were #f1iaj acres planted with cacao4 ,the following have been the exports from this island from #ahba to #ahdd3-- lbs4 #ahba #a1bad1jic #ahbb #a1ghj1cgi #ahbc #b1dbd1gjc #ahbd #b1ffa1fbh #ahbe #b1gfj1fjc #ahbf #b1iea1aga #ahbg #c1fif1add #ahbh #b1ehb1cbc #ahbi #b1gef1fjc #ahcj #a1fdf1eca #ahca #a1hhh1heb #ahcb #a1ecj1iij #ahcc #c1jij1ebf #ahcd #c1cfc1fcj #ahce #b1gdd1fdc #ahcf #c1ahh1hgj #ahcg #b1ejg1dhc #ahch #b1ega1iae #ahci #b1iad1jfh #ahdj #b1jjg1did #ahda #b1dic1cjb #ahdb #b1afc1gih #ahdc #a1jii1ige 7,mill's ,trinidad ,almanac74 ,in a lecture delivered by ,dr4 ,lindley before the ,society of ,arts1 alluding to the colonial products shown1 at the ,great ,exhibition1 he said3-- ,there was one sample which ought to be mentioned most especially2 namely1 the cocoa of admirable quality which comes1 or which may come1 from ,trinidad4 ,cocoa--cacao1 as we should call it--is an article of very large consumption4 ,enormous quantities of it are now used in the navy2 and every one knows how much it is employed daily in private life4 ,it is1 moreover1 the basis of chocolate4 ,but we have the evidence of one of the most skilful brokers in ,london1 who has had forty years experience to enable him to speak to the fact--that we never get good cocoa in this country4 ,the consequence is1 that all the best chocolate is made in ,spain1 in ,france1 and the countries where the fine description of cocoa goes4 ,we get here cocoa which is unripe1 flinty1 and bitter1 having undergone changes that cause it to bear a very low price in the market4 ,but it comes from ,british possessions1 and is1 therefore1 sold here subject to a duty of only #ahs4 #h;d4 per cwt41 whereas if it came from a foreign country it would pay #efs4#c ,the differential duty drives the best cocoa out of the ,english market4 ,still it appears that we might supply1 from our own colonies1 this very cocoa2 because1 as ,i have said1 there was exhibited1 from ,trinidad1 a very beautiful sample1 quite equal to anything produced in the best markets of the ,magdalena1 of ,soconusco1 or of other places on the ,spanish main4 ,it had no bitterness1 no flintiness1 no damaged grain in it2 but all were plump and ripe1 as if they had been picked4 ,the cocoa from the ,spanish main goes into other countries1 for the preparation of that delicious chocolate which we buy of them4 ,it is thrown out of our market by the differential duty4 ,but it is their own fault if our own colonies do not produce fine cocoa1 as ,trinidad has conclusively proved4 ,the exports of cacao from ,st4 ,lucia1 where there are now #cjj acres under cultivation1 have been as follows3#d--;,i have also added the produce of ,st4 ,vincent and ,grenada imported here3-- ,grenada4 ,st4 ,lucia4 ,st4 ,vincent4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahbh #ge1bge #ag1chd #ahbi #cjj1jea #ic1gic #ab1baf #ahcj #ccg1ija #aec1cdj #i1ihi #ahca #cfh1hhb #ih1jij #g1hfa #ahcb #aif1aie #ea1ibe #ech #ahcc #cab1ddf #ia1jdh #a1jje #ahcd #cdi1cfg #fj1fbj #b1aig #ahce #bgf1cei #di1bah #e1hgf #ahcf #cjg1bcf #dg1iej #g1gba #ahcg #cea1fac #dh1eia #b1ebe #ahch #dbf1fbf #ch1eij #f1ehh #ahci #cbg1dig #ed1fci #gfj #ahdj #bfi1fhj #hb1bic #c1ief #ahda #cgb1jjh #gh1bbe #c1hgd #ahdb #bhj1fgi #ee1age #g1bfh #ahdc #bif1bfi #dh1bgi #ee1hfg #ahdd #edd1bec #fe1ffg #h1cjd #ahde #cdb1jib #ca1jjj #f1dej #ahej #fji1iaa #a1cgb #h1fdb #aheb #fjd1bii #i1dbh #e1bhg ,a little cacao is now grown in ,antigua1 about #ai1jjj lbs4 having been exported from that island in #ahdc1 and #b1jjj in #ahdf4 ,dominica and ,british ,guiana produce small quantities2 our imports from these quarters having been as follows3-- ,dominica4 ,demerara4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahcc #h1hjh #b1jea #ahcd #d1gfg #hf #ahce #fhe #abf #ahcf #bgi #a1aba #ahcg #a1hif #ebb #ahch #a1jed #ahci #a1abg #eh #ahdj #b1cff #b1cgf #ahda #d1jad #abi #ahdb #ffg #ih #ahdc #d1fad #d1agh #ahdd #a1gdf #aj1bji #ahde #e1ddd ,the cultivation of cacao in ,cuba is of comparatively recent introduction1 but it is expected to increase1 and1 in some degree1 to supply the place of coffee1 which is evidently on the decline there4 ,in #ahbg1 the gross produce of ,cuba amounted to #bc1hjf arrobas1 and the exports to #ai1jec4 ,in the same year1 #ae1cja arrobas were imported1 so that at that period the production was not adequate to the consumption4 ,the expectation of a great increase of production seems not to have been realized1 as the exports of cacao in #ahcg were only #ehg arrobas1 while the imports amounted to #dj1hcg arrobas4 ,there are now about sixty-nine cacao plantations in that island1 almost exclusively situate in the central and oriental departments1 which produced1 in #ahdi1 #c1hcf arrobas1 valued at #ai1ahj dollars4 ,hayti exported1 in #ahja1 #fdh1eah lbs4 of cacao2 in #ahbf1 #deg1eib lbs41 and in #ahcf1 #eej1dhd lbs4 ,the ,french island of ,martinique produces a considerable quantity of cacao4 ,in #agfc1 there were stated to be #ajc1hgj trees in bearing4 ,the produce exported in #agfi was #aa1gca quintals4 ,in #aggj there were #hga1jdc trees4 ,in #ahbj there were #dab square acres under cultivation with cacao1 producing #ddi1dib lbs42 and in #ahce1 #dib hectares1 which yielded #aee1cjj kilogrammes4 ,i have no later returns at hand4 ,the beverage generally called cocoa is merely the berries of ,theobroma ,cacao1 pounded and drank either with water or milk1 or with both4 ,chocolate 7of which ,i shall speak by and bye7 is a compound drink1 and is manufactured chiefly from the kernels of this plant1 whose natural habitat would seem to be ,guayaquil1 in ,south ,america1 though it flourishes in great perfection in the ,west ,indies4 ,it grows also spontaneously and luxuriantly on the banks of the ,magdalena1 in ,south ,america2 but the fruit of those trees that are found in the district of ,carthagena is preferred to all others1 probably from a superior mode of cultivation4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 in his expedition into the interior of ,british ,guiana1 found the country abounding in cacao1 which the ,indians were most anxious to secure1 as the pulpy arillus surrounding the seed has an agreeable vinous taste4 ,singular to say1 however1 they appeared perfectly ignorant of the qualities of the seed1 which possesses the most delightful aroma4 ,sir ,robert adds1 they evinced the greatest astonishment when they beheld him and ,mr4 ,goodall collecting these seeds and using them as chocolate1 which was the most delicious they had ever tasted4 ,these indigenous cacao trees were met with in innumerable quantities on the #eth of ,june1 #ahdc1 and the following day2 and thus inexhaustible stores of a highly-prized luxury are here reaped solely by the wild hog1 the agouti1 monkeys1 and the rats of the interior4--7,simmonds's ,col4 ,mag4 vol4 i41 p4 #da47 ,the height of the cacao shrub is generally from eighteen to twenty feet2 the leaf is between four and six inches long1 and its breadth three or four1 very smooth1 and terminating in a point like that of the orange tree1 but differing from it in color2 of a dull green1 without gloss1 and not so thickly set upon the branches4 ,the blossom is first white1 then reddish1 and contains the rudiments of the kernels or berries4 ,when fully developed1 the pericarp or seed-vessel is a pod1 which grows not only from the branches1 but the stem of the tree1 and is from six to seven inches in length1 and shaped like a cucumber4 ,its color is green when growing1 like that of the leaf2 but when ripe1 is yellow1 smooth1 clear1 and thin4 ,when arrived at its full growth1 and before it is ripe1 it is gathered and eaten like any other fruit1 the taste being subacid4 ,if allowed to ripen1 the kernels become hard2 and1 when taken out of the seed-vessel1 are preserved in skins1 or1 more frequently1 laid on the vijahua leaves1 and placed in the air to dry4 ,when fully dry1 they are put in leathern bags1 and sent to market3 this is the ,spanish mode of taking in the crop4 ,a somewhat different method is followed in ,trinidad and ,jamaica 7in the latter island it can scarcely be said to be cultivated now72 but it differs in no essential degree from the principle of gradual exsiccation1 and protection from moisture4 ,chocolate1 properly so called1 and so prized both in the ,spanish continent and in the ,west ,indies1 never reaches ,great ,britain except as a contraband article1 being1 like nearly all colonial manufactured articles1 prohibited by the ,custom-house laws4 ,what is generally drank under that name is simply the cacao boiled in milk1 gruel1 or even water1 and is as much like the ,spanish or ,west ,india chocolate as vinegar is to ,burgundy4 ,it is1 without any exception1 of all domestic drinks the most alimentary2 and the ,spaniards esteem it so necessary to the health and support of the body1 that it is considered the severest punishment to withhold it1 even from criminals2 nay1 to be unable to procure chocolate1 is deemed the greatest misfortune in life6 ,yet1 notwithstanding this estimation in which it is held1 the quantity made in the neighbourhood of ,carthagena is insufficient for the demands of the population1 and is so highly priced that none is exported but as presents6 ,the manner in which the ,spaniards first manufactured this veritable ,theobroma--this food for gods 7from ,theos1 ,god1 and broma1 food7--was very simple4 ,they employed the cacao1 maize1 ,indian corn 7,zea ,mays71 and raw cane-juice1 and coloured it with arnatto1 which they called achiotti or rocou1 but which was known in ,europe at that time by the name of ,terra ,orellana4 ,these four substances were levigated between two stones1 and afterwards1 in certain proportions1 mixed together in one mass1 which mass was subsequently divided into little cakes1 and used as required1 both in the solid and fluid form4 ,the ,indians used one pound of the wasted nuts1 half a pound of sugar1 and half a pound of ground corn 7maize7 each1 and then added rose-water to make it palatable4 ,this the ,mexicans called chocolate1 from two words in their language1 signifying the noise made by the instruments used to mill and prepare it in the water4 ,many other ingredients were subsequently added2 but with the exception of ,vanilla1 in the opinions of most persons1 they spoil1 rather than improve it4 ,chocolate1 as used in ,mexico1 is thus prepared3 --,the kernels are roasted in an iron pot pierced with holes2 they are then pounded in a mortar1 and afterwards ground between two stones1 generally of marble1 till it is brought to a paste1 to which sugar is added1 according to the taste of the manufacturer4 ,from time to time1 as the paste assumes consistency1 they add long pepper1 arnatto1 and lastly1 vanilla4 ,some manufacturers vary these ingredients1 and substitute cinnamon1 cloves1 or aniseed1 and sometimes musk and ambergris--the two latter on account of their aphrodisiac qualities4 ,the following is the formula given by a late writer3--,to six pounds of the nut add three-and-a-half pounds of sugar1 seven pods of vanilla1 one-and-a-half pounds of corn meal 7maize ground71 half-a-pound of cinnamon1 six cloves1 one drachm of capsicums 7bird pepper71 and as much of the rocou or arnatto as is sufficient to color it1 together with ambergris or musk1 to enforce 7as he says7 the flavor1 but in reality to stimulate the system4 ,there is another chocolate made of filberts and almonds1 but this is not considered genuine4 ,in old ,spain it is somewhat differently made2 two or three kinds of flowers1 also the pods of ,campeche1 almonds1 and hazel-nuts1 being mixed up with it1 while the paste is worked with orange-water4 ,with regard to the manner in which chocolate is prepared in ,england nothing need be said1 as it is too well known to require description4 ,that which has appeared to me the best is ,fry's ,chocolate1 which requires only to be rubbed up with a little boiling water1 and scalded milk added to it with sugar1 according to the taste of the drinker2 there is a flavour1 however1 in this chocolate sometimes of suet1 which is probably added to give it a richness which the cacao employed may not possess of itself4 ,in the ,west ,indies they rarely add anything to cacoa but arnatto 7sometimes a little fresh butter71 though it is often scented and sweetened1 and sold in little rolls at five-pence and ten-pence each1 currency4 ,it is always boiled with milk1 which1 though very indigestible when boiled and taken alone1 seems to lose this quality when taken with chocolate4 ,chocolate thus made is much drank1 when cold1 in the middle of the day1 and is considered1 both by the negroes and the old settlers1 as a most nutritive and salutary beverage4 ,the signs by which good chocolate or cacao is known are these3--,it should dissolve entirely in water1 and be without sediment2 it should be oily1 and yet melt in the mouth2 and if genuine1 and carefully prepared1 should deposit no grits or grounds4 ,that made in the ,west ,indies1 and in some parts of ,cuba1 is dark2 but that manufactured in ,jamaica is of a bright brick colour1 owing to the greater quantity of arnatto which is used in the preparation1 and which1 ,i think1 gives it a richer and more agreeable flavor4 ,in an economical point of view1 chocolate is a very important article of diet1 as it may be literally termed meat and drink2 and were our half-starved artisans1 over-wrought factory children1 and ricketty millinery girls1 induced to drink it instead of the innutritious beverage called tea1 its nutritive qualities would soon develop themselves in their improved looks and more robust constitution4 ,the price1 too1 is in its favour1 cacao being eight-pence per pound2 while the cheapest black tea1 such as even the ,chinese beggar would despise1 drank by milliners1 washerwomen1 and the poorer class in the metropolis1 is three shillings a pound1 or three hundred and fifty per cent1 dearer1 while it is decidedly injurious to health4 ,the heads of the naval and military medical departments in ,england have been so impressed with the wholesomeness and superior nutriment of cocao1 that they have judiciously directed that it shall be served out twice or thrice a week to regiments of the line1 and daily to the seamen on board ,her ,majesty's ships1 and this wise regulation has evinced its salutary effects in the improved health and condition of the men4 ,indeed1 this has been most satisfactorily established in ,jamaica among the troops2 and the same may be asserted of the seamen in men of war on the coast4 ,but the excellent qualities of chocolate were known not only to the ,mexicans and ,peruvians1 from whom1 as a matter of course1 the ,spaniards acquired a knowledge of its properties2 but ,european nations also acknowledged its virtues4 ,the ,portuguese1 ,french1 ,germans1 and ,dutch1 considered it an exceedingly valuable article of diet1 and ,hoffman looked upon it both as a food and a medicine4 ,in his monograph1 entitled ,potus ,chocolati1 he recommends it in all diseases of general weakness1 macies1 low spirits1 and in hypochondrial complaints1 and what since his time have been termed nervous diseases4 ,as one example of the good effects of cacao1 he adduces the case of ,cardinal ,richelieu1 who was cured of eramacausis1 or a general wasting away of the body1 by drinking chocolate4#e ,and ,edwards informs us that ,colonel ,montague ,james--the first white person born in ,jamaica after the occupation of the island by the ,english--lived to the great age of #ajd2 and for the last thirty years of his life took scarcely any other food but chocolate4 ,it is also certain that those who indulge in excesses find their vigor more speedily restored by the alternate use of chocolate and coffee than by any other ingesta2 and pigs1 goats1 and horses1 which are fed even on the spoiled berries1 are observed to become very speedily fat1 and in good condition4 ,but cacao has not only the property of rapidly restoring the invalid to health1 strength1 and condition1 but a very inconsiderable quantity of it will sustain life for a long period4 ,the ,south ,american ,indians perform extraordinary journeys1 subsisting1 daring these prolonged travels1 on an incredibly small quantity of chocolate--so small1 indeed1 as to render the accounts of travellers upon the subject almost marvellous4 ,in this respect it resembles coffee1 which also possesses the estimable property of sustaining the powers of life1 while it modifies and restrains the passion of hunger4 ,it is a curious fact1 and how far this condition may be connected with its powers of sustenance is worthy of inquiry1 that chocolate recently boiled1 if the operation be performed in a tin pan1 is highly electrical2 and this property may be frequently manifested by repeating the process4 ,cacao1 according to ,bridges1 was the favourite staple of the ,spanish commerce1 trifling as that commerce was2 and when the ,english took possession of the island of ,jamaica1 it was that which first engaged their attention4 ,the extensive plantations left by their predecessors1 who had made it their principal food and only support1 soon1 however1 began to fail4 ,they were renewed2 but whether it might be from the want of attention1 or of information in the new colonists1 the plants never succeeded under their management2 so that1 disgusted with the troublesome and unprofitable cultivation1 they soon substituted indigo4 ,yet forests of cacao trees grow wild in ,guiana1 the ,isthmus of ,darien1 ,yucatan1 ,honduras1 ,guatemala1 ,chiapa1 and ,nicaragua2 while in ,cuba1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and ,jamaica1 it was once an indigenous plant4 ,the following were the expenses of a cacao plantation in ,jamaica during the early period of ,british possession3-- stg ,letters patent of five hundred acres of land #aj ,six negroes #abj ,four white persons1 their passage and maintenance #hj ,maintenance of six slaves for six months #ah ,working implements #e ---- #bcc ,in four to five years the produce of one hundred acres would usually sell for #d1bdj sterling4 ,this was a monstrous and most unlooked-for return2 but then1 what was it to the profits of sugar1 which1 owing to the prodigious increase of the slave trade1 was fast coming into active operation1 and eating up and destroying all other sources and springs of industry8 ,how dearly have the ,west ,indians paid for the short-lived affluence which the sugar cane conferred6 ,blome1 in his brief account of ,jamaica1 published in #afgb1 speaks of cacao as being one of the chief articles of export4 ,he states that there were sixty cacao-walks or plantations1 and many more planting2 but1 for many years1 no cacao plantation has existed in ,jamaica1 all the chocolate used being made from imported berries1 or the chance growth of a munificent climate and redundant soil6 ,a few scattered trees1 ,edwards says 7and as ,i my self know71 here and there1 are all that remain of those flourishing and beautiful groves1 which were once the pride and boast of the country4 ,they have withered with the indigo manufactory1 under the heavy hand of ministerial exaction4 ,the excise on cacao1 when made into cakes1 rose to no less than #ab #abs4 per cwt41 exclusive of #aas4 #aa;d4 paid at the ,custom-house1 amounting together to upwards of #hdj per cent4 on its marketable value6 ,the mode of cultivating the cacao is given at some length by ,edwards2 it is that of the ,spaniards1 a process strictly followed in ,trinidad1 where1 of all the ,west ,india islands1 it constitutes a considerable item of exports4 ,it is thus described3--,a spot of level land being chosen--preference is always given to a deep black mould1 sheltered by a hedge or thicket1 so as to be screened by the wind1 especially the north1 and cleared of all weeds and stumps of trees--a number of holes are dug1 at ten or twelve feet distance from each other1 each hole being about a foot in length1 and six or eight inches deep4 ,a very important matter is the selection of the seeds for planting1 and this is done in the following manner3 the finest and largest pods of the cacao are selected when full ripe1 and the grains taken out and placed in a vessel of water4 ,those which swim are rejected2 those chosen are washed clean from the pulp1 skinned1 and then replaced in the water till they begin to sprout2 ,banana 7,musa paradisiaca71 or some other large leaves1 those of the sea-side grape 7,coccoloba uvifera71 for instance1 are then taken1 and each hole is lined with one of them1 leaving1 however1 the sides of the leaves some inches above ground2 after which the mould is rubbed in gently till the hole is filled2 three nuts are then selected for each hole1 and they are set triangularly in the earth1 by making a small opening with the finger about two inches deep1 into which the nuts are put1 with that end downwards from which the sprout issues4 ,they are then covered lightly with mould1 the leaf folded over1 and a small stone placed on the top1 to prevent its opening2 in eight or ten days the young shoots appear above the ground2 the leaves are then opened to give them light and air1 and a shelter from the sun1 either in the shape of plantain or banana leaves1 is not forgotten2 but the coco-nut and other species of palm1 on account of their fibrous structure and great durability1 are always preferred4 ,this artificial shelter is continued for five or six months4 ,but1 as a further security to the young plants1 for they are very delicate1 other trees or shrubs are planted to the south-west of the plants1 that they may grow up with and shelter them1 for young cacao will grow and flourish only in the shade4 ,for this purpose the coral bean-tree 7,erythrina ,corallodendrum7 is chosen4 ,i should presume there are other trees and plants equally eligible for this purpose1 and more useful2 but my experience does not enable me to speak positively upon the subject4 ,should the three seeds placed in each hole spring up1 it is thought necessary1 when the plants are fifteen or twenty inches high1 to cut one of them down4 ,the two others1 if they devaricate1 are sometimes suffered to remain1 but it does not always happen that even one of the three springs above the earth2 consequently this additional labor is not invariably requisite4 ,on the fourth or fifth year the tree begins to bear1 and attains perfection by the eighth1 continuing to produce two crops of fruit per annum1 yielding at each crop from #aj lbs4 to #bj lbs41 according to the nature of the soil4 ,it will continue bearing for twenty years2 but1 as it is a delicate plant1 it suffers from drought1 and is liable to blight4 ,in these respects1 however1 it does not differ from many other plants1 which are even more subject to disease1 though not half so valuable4 ,besides1 a proper system of irrigation1 such as could be had recourse to in many parts of ,jamaica1 would obviate and prevent these evils4 ,the whole quantity imported into the ,united ,kingdom from the ,west ,indies and ,british ,guiana during the last thirteen years1 has been as follows3-- lbs4 #ahca #a1dia1idg #ahcb #fah1jij #ahcc #b1abe1fda #ahcd #a1cfj1cbe #ahce #dci1ddj #ahcf #a1faa1ajd #ahcg #a1hdg1abe #ahch #b1adg1haf #ahci #ifi1dbh #ahdj #b1cgd1bcc #ahda #b1iai1aje #ahdb #b1dij1fic #ahdc #a1dif1eed #ahdd #c1aai1eee #ahde #c1cea1fjb #ahdf #a1gch1hdh #ahdg #c1jbf1cha #ahdh #b1fjb1cji #ahdi #c1aei1jhf #ahej #a1ihg1gag #ahea #d1cdg1aie #aheb #c1icc1hfc ,cacao is cultivated in the highlands as well as on the coasts of the north-eastern peninsula of the large and rich island of ,celebes1 which has within the last year or two been thrown open to foreign trade4 ,the plantations of it are even now considerable1 and this branch of industry only requires not to be impeded by any obstacles in order to be still further extended4 ,it forms a large ingredient in the local trade1 and furnishes many petty traders with their daily bread1 not to speak of the landowners1 for whom the cultivation of the cacao affords the only subsistence4 ,the preparation of the product differs from that adopted in the ,west ,indies1 but we have not been able to ascertain the practice4 ,we may reckon that #a1bjj to #b1jjj piculs of #acc lbs4 are yearly produced2 the prices vary much1 being from #ej to #ge florins per picul4--7,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hbi47 ,bourbon now produces #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj kilogrammes of cacao annually4 ,cacao is grown to a small extent in some of the settlements of ,western ,africa1 but as yet only a few puncheons have been exported1 all the produce being required for local consumption4 ,the following figures give the imports and consumption of cacao into the ,united ,kingdom in the last five years3-- ,imports4 ,consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahdh #f1ddb1ihf #ahdi #g1gfi1bcd #c1bcc1ace #ahej #d1dgh1beb #c1ajc1ibf #ahea #f1ggc1ifj #c1jbd1cch #aheb #f1bfh1ebe #c1chb1idd ,the home consumption is very steady at about #c1jjj1jjj lbs41 yielding to the revenue #ae1jjj to #af1jjj for duty4 ,the produce of ,british colonies pays #a;d4 per lb4 duty1 that from foreign countries #b;d2 cocoa husks and shells half these amounts2 when manufactured into chocolate or cocoa paste the duty is #b;d4 per lb4 from ,british possessions1 and #f;d4 from other parts4 ,the quantity imported in this form is to the extent of about #ad1jjj lbs4 weight4 ,,coffee4 ,the next staple ,i proceed to speak of is coffee--second only in importance as a popular beverage to that universal commodity1 tea4 ,i shall proceed1 in the first instance1 to take a retrospect of the progress of the coffee trade1 and glance at the present condition and future prospects of produce and consumption4 ,it will be seen1 by reference to the following figures1 that the consumption of coffee in the ,united ,kingdom shows a successive decrease1 from #ahdg to #ahej1 of #f1dad1ecc lbs41 and a loss to the revenue of #agi1fad4 ,,home ,,consumption ,,and ,,revenue ,,of ,,coffee ,,for ,,the ,years lbs4 #ahbd #h1bfb1idc #dbj1ihh #ahbe #aa1jhb1igj #cae1hji #ahbh #ag1abg1fcc #ddj1bde #ahce #bc1bie1jdf #feb1abd #ahci #bf1ghi1ide #ggi1aae #ahdj #bh1gbc1gce #iba1eea #ahdd #ca1cid1bbe #fha1faj #ahde #cd1cah1jie #gag1hga #ahdf #cf1gic1jfa #gef1hch #ahdg #cg1dda1cgc #gdf1dcf #ahdh #cg1ajf1bib #gaj1bgj #ahdi #cd1dca1jgd #fdc1baj #ahej #ca1bbf1hdj #eff1hbb #ahea #cb1efd1afd #dde1gci #aheb #ce1jdd1cgf #dch1jhd ,i estimated1 in a little treatise on coffee and its adulterations1 which ,i published in #ahej1 that not less than #ah1jjj1jjj lbs4 of vegetable matter of various kinds were sold annually under the deceptive name of coffee4 ,three-fourths of these #ah1jjj1jjj lbs4 of pretended coffee were composed of chicory1 and the remaining fourth of other ingredients prejudicial to health1 as well as a fraud upon the revenue4 ,the various substances used in adulterating both chicory and coffee1 when sold in the powdered state1 have been specifically pointed out and set forth from time to time in memorials from the trade and the coffee-growers4 ,mr4 ,m',culloch and other competent judges set down the actual consumption of chicory in the ,united ,kingdom at #ab1ejj tons per annum4 ,when we consider the vast difference of price between chicory and coffee1 as purchased by the wholesale dealer1 the temptation to its fraudulent use was obviously great1 and there was no penal restriction against it4 ,it will be interesting and useful to trace the history of the trade in chicory from its first introduction4 ,the substitution of chicory for coffee occasioned a loss to the revenue of three hundred thousand pounds sterling a-year1 besides its mischievous effect in adulterating and debasing a popular beverage when used in such large and undue proportions for admixture1 and sold at the price of coffee4 ,since the prohibition of the admixture of chicory with coffee1 when sold to the public1 and the compulsory sale by ,treasury minute of the two articles in separate packages1 a large and rapid increase in the consumption of coffee has taken place1 and the trade is now placed in a healthy position4 ,whilst the increase in the consumption of coffee from the #ast of ,january1 to #eth ,september1 #aheb1 was but #adb1bfg lbs4 as compared with the same period of #ahea2 the increase in the remaining four months of the year was to the amazing extent of #b1cej1cfh lbs4 ,this increased consumption is likely to continue1 and our colonial possessions are furnishing us with larger proportionate supplies1 as may be seen by the following figures3-- ,,total ,,imports ,,of ,,coffee ,,in #ahdh #ahdi #ahej #ahea #aheb ,produce of lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,british ,possessions #ce1igj1ejg #dj1cci1bde #cf1had1jcf #ce1igb1afc #db1eai1big ,ditto foreign countries #ba1jhb1idc #bb1igf1edb #ac1ihi1aaf #ag1ach1dig #aa1heg1ieg ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,total #eg1jec1dej #fc1cae1ghg #ej1hjc1aeb #ec1aaj1ffj #ed1cgg1bed ,in the year #ahcb chicory was first imported into ,england1 subject to a duty equivalent to that levied upon colonial coffee1 and permitted to be sold by grocers separately as chicory2 but notices were at the same time issued1 that the legal penalties would be rigidly enforced1 if discovered mixed with coffee4 ,in #ahdj1 in consequence of memorials from the grocers and dealers in chicory1 and also from the circumstance of exceedingly high rates then ruling for coffee1 together with the disruption of our commercial relations with ,china1 simultaneously advancing the price of tea 7thus rendering both these popular beverages excessively dear to the consumer71 an order was issued from the ,treasury to the ,excise ,board1 authorizing the admixture of chicory with coffee2 a duty1 however1 being still maintained on the former of #bj per ton on the kiln-dried1 and #f;d4 per lb4 on the powdered root1 when imported from abroad4 ,in the year #ahde1 the cultivation of chicory was introduced upon ,british soil1 and1 being a home-grown commodity1 was exempt from duty1 but nevertheless1 by virtue of the said ,treasury ,order1 was permitted to enter into competition with a staple production of our own colonies1 contributing on its import a tax of #fj to #hj per cent4 to the revenue of the ,state4 ,the result1 as might have been foreseen1 necessarily created and stimulated a demoralizing system of fraud1 unjust and destructive to the interests of the coffee planter1 and prejudicial to the national revenue4 ,the effects of so baneful a system being equally manifest upon both consumption and revenue1 they are here separately illustrated4 ,in #ahbd1 according to the following high scale of duties1 viz41 #as4 on ,west ,india1 #as4 #f;d4 on ,east ,india1 and #bs4 #f;d4 on foreign1 the ,customs derived from coffee was #dbj1ihh2 in the following year the rates were reduced one-half1 and in the short space of three years the amount yielded had advanced to #ddj1bde1 an increase which steadily progressed 7partly aided by the admission of the produce of ,british ,india at the low duty7 until it reached #iba1eea in #ahdj4 ,these satisfactory results justified a further reduction of the duties in #ahdb to #d;d4 on colonial and #h;d4 7and in the subsequent year to #f;d47 on foreign1 under which the revenue declined in #ahdd to #fha1faf4 ,in #ahdf it had again reached to #gef1hch1 and was gradually recovering itself1 when this system of adulteration first began to extend itself generally1 and since that time the revenue has rapidly declined under the same scale of duties to #eff1hbb in #ahej4 ,in #ahbd the quantity retained for home consumption was #h1bfb1idc lbs41 which was augmented to #aa1jhb1igj lbs4 in the first year of the reduction of duty1 and continued to exhibit an increase at a rate rather exceeding two million pounds per annum until #ahcj1 when coffee would appear to have reached its limit of consumption without further stimulus1 and remained stationary until the modification of duties allowing the admission of foreign coffee1 via the ,cape1 at the colonial rate1 when it advanced from #bc1bie1jdf lbs4 in #ahce1 to #bh1gbc1gce lbs4 in #ahdj2 and consequent upon a further reduction of duties in #ahdb1 the elasticity of the trade experienced a still wider development1 and an increase of nine million pounds is exhibited in the next five years4 ,from that period1 however1 the general use of chicory has not only checked the progressive increase of this healthy demand1 but an annual decline is observable to the extent of above six million pounds in #ahej1 as compared with #ahdg4 ,on the #aeth of ,april1 #ahea1 with the view of partly remedying the grievance of the colonists on this head1 the duties were equalized and reduced to #c;d4 ,the results are1 however1 far from satisfactory1 either in a fiscal or commercial point of view4 ,it is true that an increase in consumption1 of one-and-a-quarter million pounds has taken place1 but at the sacrifice of #aba1jjj of revenue4 ,but this increase1 it will be seen1 has not exceeded #d per cent41 whilst there has been a diminution of #ba per cent4 in the revenue receipts4 ,upon investigation1 moreover1 it will be found that1 notwithstanding the total increase exhibited1 there has been an actual falling off of #hid1ggh lbs4 of colonial coffee in #ahea2 the items for last year are1 however1 much more favorable and encouraging for the planters4 ,no reasonable cause can be assigned for this rapid and serious diminution in the consumption of coffee1 except the notorious substitution of chicory and other substances4 ,the arguments advanced to account for the falling off in the consumption of coffee1 by adducing the increase of tea and cacao for a similar period are fallacious1 and contrary to the commercial experience of many years1 which convincingly proves these kindred articles to have always simultaneously increased1 or diminished1 in ratio with the general prosperity of the kingdom1 and the prevalence of temperate habits among the community4 ,i shall now proceed to trace the fluctuations in the consumption of coffee4 ,at the close of the last century the consumption of coffee was under one million pounds yearly2 the only descriptions then known in the ,london market were ,grenada1 ,jamaica1 and ,mocha--the two former averaging about #e per cwt41 and the latter #bj per cwt4 ,grenada coffee is now unknown1 and ,ceylon and ,brazil are the largest producers4 ,in #agfj1 the total quantity of coffee consumed in the ,united ,kingdom was #bfb1jjj lbs41 or three quarters of an ounce to each person in the population4 ,in #ahcc the quantity was #bj1fia1jjj lbs41 or #a lb4 to each person4 ,when first introduced into ,england1 about the middle of the #agth century1 coffee was sold in a liquid state1 and paid a duty of #d;d4 per gallon2 afterwards1 until the year #agcc1 the duty was #bs4 per lb42 it was then reduced to #as4 #f;d41 since which it has paid various rates of duty2 in the year #ahbd it was settled at #f;d4 per lb4 ,all descriptions of coffee now pay but #c;d4 per lb4 ,the consumption of coffee in the ,united ,kingdom1 for several years previous to #ahbe1 varied from seven millions and a half to eight millions and a half pounds in round numbers1 the duty being #as4 per lb4 on ,british plantation1 #as4 #f;d4 per lb4 on ,east ,india1 and #bs4 #f;d4 per lb4 on foreign4 ,from the #eth of ,april of that year those rates were each reduced to one half1 and the immediate consequence was a steady increase of the consumption until #ahca1 when it amounted to #bc1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,the consumption continued1 without any material variation1 at this rate1 or to advance by very slow degrees1 until #ahcf1 when the duty on ,east ,india coffee was reduced to #f;d4 per lb42 and this change had precisely the same effect as the previous one1 for the consumption again advanced to upwards of #bf1jjj1jjj lbs41 which was then considered1 in a memorial of the ,london trade1 to be as much as our colonies were capable of producing6 ,we now find1 however1 one small island1 ,ceylon1 producing a fourth more than this amount annually4 ,the ,belgians1 a population of #d1ejj1jjj1 consume more than #cc1jjj1jjj lbs4 of coffee annually2 quite as much as is used by the whole #ce1jjj1jjj ,french4 ,the duty on #ajj lbs4 of coffee in ,france is more than the common original cost--the ,belgian duty not a tenth part2 so that the ,french do not use #a lb4 of coffee per head1 while the ,belgians consume #g lbs4 each per annum4 ,the proportion in ,england is not more than #a lb4 per head to the population4 ,the ,united ,states are the largest consumers of coffee1 as it is admitted into their ports free of duty1 and can therefore be sold for nearly the price per pound which the ,british ,government levies on it for revenue4 ,the entire consumption of the ,united ,states and ,british ,north ,america1 calling their population #bc1jjj1jjj and ours #cj1jjj1jjj1 exceeds ours1 on an estimate of population1 by sixfold4 ,thus the average consumption of coffee by each ,american1 annually1 is about #h lbs41 while the quantity used by each person in the ,european ,states is less than #a lb4 ,the changes in the sources of supply1 within the last fifteen or sixteen years1 have been very remarkable4 ,the ,british possessions in the ,east have taken the place which our islands of the ,west formerly occupied4 ,the ,british ,west ,indies have fallen off in their produce of coffee from #cj1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,ceylon which1 fifteen years ago1 had scarcely turned attention to coffee1 now exports nearly #ce1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,san ,domingo1 ,cuba1 and the ,french ,west ,india colonies are gradually giving up coffee-cultivation in favor of other staples2 and it is only ,brazil1 ,java1 and some of the ,central ,american ,republics that are able to render coffee a profitable crop4 ,the export crop of ,brazil 7the greatest coffee-producing country71 grown in #ahej1 for the supply of the year ending ,july1 #ahea1 amounted to no less than #cjb1jjj1jjj lbs41 of this a large quantity remained in the interior to supply the deficiency of the current year4 ,it is scarcely thirty years ago that the coffee-plant was first introduced into ,bengal by two refugees from ,manilla2 and the ,british possessions in the ,east ,indies now yield #db1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,sufficient extent has not yet been given to enable it to be decided in what district of ,continental ,india it may be most advantageously cultivated4 ,it is in the fine island of ,ceylon1 however1 that coffee-culture has made the most rapid progress4 ,it is an important fact that the supply of coffee from ,ceylon1 even at the present moment1 and irrespective of land already planted but not yet come into full bearing1 is in excess of the whole consumption of ,great ,britain1 and the planter is thus compelled to carry the surplus to continental markets4 ,the exports of coffee from ,ceylon have been rather stationary the past three years1 averaging about #cjj1jjj cwt4 ,in the sixteen years ending with #ahea1 ,ceylon had exported #acj1jhc tons of coffee6 ,the present produce of the various coffee-growing countries in the world1 may be set down at the following figures3 ,,south ,,and ,,central ,,america4 ,millions of lbs4 ,costa ,rica #i ,la ,guayra and ,porto ,cabello #ce ,brazil #cjb ,british ,west ,indies #h ,french and ,dutch ,west ,indies #g ,cuba and ,porto ,rico #cj ,st4 ,domingo #cc ,,asia ,,and ,,the ,,east4 ,java #adj ,the ,philippine ,isles #c ,celebes #a ,sumatra #e ,ceylon #cd ,malabar and ,mysore #e ,arabia 7,mocha7 #c --- #faf #bge1jjj tons4 ,this ,i have computed as accurately as possible from the most recent returns1 but it falls much below the actual capabilities of production1 even with the trees at bearing1 and land already under cultivation2 and also1 in a great measure1 excludes the local consumption in the producing countries4 ,in many quarters there has been a considerable falling off in the production4 ,the ,british ,west ,indies1 as we have seen1 formerly exported #cj1jjj1jjj lbs41 the ,french and ,dutch ,west ,indies #ag1jjj1jjj1 ,cuba and ,porto ,rico #ef1jjj1jjj1 and ,st4 ,domingo1 in the last century1 #gf1jjj1jjj4 ,the growth of coffee has been transferred from the ,west to the ,east ,indies1 and to the ,south ,american ,continent1 where labor is more abundant1 certain1 and cheap4 ,in the ,east the increase in production has been enormous and progressive1 with1 perhaps1 the exception of ,sumatra1 which has fallen off from #ae1jjj1jjj lbs4 to somewhere about one-third of that quantity4 ,the following statement may be taken as an approximate estimate of the actual consumption of coffee at the present time3-- ,millions of lbs4 ,great ,britain #cb ,holland and ,belgium #abe ,france #cc ,german ,customs ,union #ie ,other ,german ,countries not included #df in the ,union1 and ,austria ,switzerland #ac ,mediterranean ,countries #bj ,russia #ab ,sweden and ,denmark #bj ,spain and ,portugal #ae ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,australia #f ,united ,states and ,british ,america #agj --- #ehg ,a calculation made in the ,economist1 a year or two ago1 gave the following as the probable consumption3-- ,millions of lbs4 ,holland and ,netherlands #ajh ,germany and ,north ,europe #age ,france and ,south of ,europe #aje ,great ,britain #cg ,united ,states and ,british ,america #age --- ,total #fjj ,but this estimate is too high in some of the figures4 ,great ,britain we know1 from the official tables only1 consumes #cd1jjj1jjj lbs4 annually2 the ,united ,states and ,british ,america not so much as set down by several millions2 for the official returns of the imports of coffee into the ,united ,states show an average for the three years ending ,june1 #ahej1 of less than #aed1jjj1jjj lbs42 although a writer in a recent number of ,hunt's ,merchant's ,magazine1 ,new ,york1 7usually a well-informed periodical17 assumes a consumption of #bjj1jjj1jjj lbs41 for the ,north ,american ,states and ,provinces4 ,the quantity of coffee produced being greater than the consumption thereof1 the growth of it becomes less remunerative1 and consequently we may look for a decrease in the supply4 ,ceylon1 as well as the ,west ,indies generally1 ,british and foreign1 are likely to direct their attention to some more profitable staple4 ,a diminished production may further be expected in ,brazil1 consequent on the extermination of the slave-trade and the more sparing exertion of the labour of the slaves4 ,in ,cuba the want of labour is so much felt that large engagements have been entered into for the importation of ,chinese2 and there are many reasons for expecting a diminished production in ,java1 the next largest coffee-producing country4 ,the necessary consequence of this expected decrease in the quantity of coffee produced will be1 to bring the produce as much below the wants of the consumers as it is now above1 and this must again result in an enhancement of prices in process of time4 ,if it were thought desirable to extend the production of coffee1 there are many new quarters1 besides the existing countries in which it is largely cultivated1 where it could be extensively grown4 ,we may instance ,liberia and the western coast of ,africa generally1 the interior ranges of ,natal1 the mountain-ranges on the northern coast of ,australia1 from ,moreton ,bay to ,torres ,straits1 c41 c4 ,but the present production is more than equal to the demand2 and unless a very largely increased consumption takes place in the ,european countries1 the present plantations 7colonial and foreign7 are amply sufficient to supply1 for many years to come1 all the demands that can be made upon their trees1 a large proportion of which have yet to come into full bearing4 ,the coffee tree would grow to the height of fifteen or twenty feet if permitted1 but it is bad policy to let it grow higher than four or five feet4 ,it comes to maturity in five years1 but does not thrive beyond the twenty-fifth1 and is useless generally after thirty years4 ,although the tree affords no profit to the planter for nearly five years2 yet after that time1 with very little labor bestowed upon it1 it yields a large return4 ,mr4 ,churchill1 ,jamaica1 found that #a1jjj grains of the wood1 leaves1 and twigs of the coffee tree1 yielded #cc grains of ashes1 or #c4cjj per cent4 ,the ashes consist of potass1 lime1 alumina1 and iron in the state of carbonates1 sulphates1 muriates1 and phosphates1 and a small portion of silica4 ,according to ,liebig's classification of plants1 the coffee tree falls under the description of those noted for their preponderance of lime4 ,thus the proportions in the coffee tree are-- ,lime salts #gg ,potass salts #bj ,silica #c --- #ajj ,i shall now proceed to describe the cultivation of the tree and preparation of the berry1 as carried on in different countries4 ,cultivation of ,mocha--,in ,arabia ,felix1 the culture is principally carried on in the kingdom of ,yemen1 towards the cantons of ,aden and ,mocha4 ,although these countries are very hot in the plains1 they possess mountains where the air is mild4 ,the coffee is generally grown half way up on their slopes4 ,when cultivated on the lower grounds it is always surrounded by large trees1 which shelter it from the torrid sun1 and prevent its fruit from withering before their maturity4 ,the harvest is gathered at three periods2 the most considerable occurs in ,may1 when the reapers begin by spreading cloths under the trees1 then shaking the branches strongly1 so as to make the fruit drop1 which they collect and expose upon mats to dry4 ,they then pass over the dried berries a heavy roller1 to break the envelopes1 which are afterwards winnowed away with a fan4 ,the interior bean is again dried before being laid up in store4 ,the principal coffee districts are ,henjersia1 ,tarzia1 ,oudein1 ,aneizah1 ,bazil1 and ,weesaf4 ,the nearest coffee plantations are three-and-a-half days journey 7about #hj miles7 from ,aden4 ,the following information is derived from ,capt4 ,s4,b4 ,haines of the ,indian ,navy1 and our political agent at ,aden4 ,a camel load is about #djj lbs #be frazlas or bales4 ,g4,c4 ,commassees4 ,the price of ditto inland #ca #da ,at ,mocha1 duty to ,dewla uncertain ,bake fee one butsha on each frazla #be ,weighing and clerk's fee #bj ,packing #dj ,camel hire to the coast #ab #ej ,cost from ,sana to ,mocha #dd #ae ,coffee is brought into the ,sana market in ,december and ,january from the surrounding districts4 ,the varieties are-- #a4 ,sherzee1 best--price #a ,g4,c4 frazla #be butsha4 #b4 ,ouceaime4 #c4 ,muttanee4 #d4 ,sharrazee4 #e4 ,hubbal from ,aniss4 #f4 ,sherissee from ditto--price per frazla #a ,g4,c4 #ae ,b4 ,the nearest place to ,sana where the coffee tree grows1 is at ,arfish1 half a day distant4 ,attempts have been made to introduce the shrub in the garden of the ,imaum at ,sana1 but without success1 ascribed to cold4 ,kesher is more prized at ,sana2 the best is ,anissea1 and is sold at a higher price than other coffee1 namely1 g4c4 #ab per #ajj lbs42 inferior1 at from #d1 #e1 and #f4 ,rain falls in ,sana three times in the year4 #ast4 ,in ,january1 in small quantities4 #bnd4 ,beginning of ,june1 when it falls for eight or ten days4 ,by this time the seed is sown1 and the cultivators look forward to the season with anxiety4 #crd4 ,in ,july1 when it falls in abundance4 ,a few farmers defer sowing till this period1 but it is unusual when they expect rain in ,june4 ,the coffee plant is mostly found growing near the sides of mountains1 valleys1 and other sheltered situations1 the soil of which has been gradually washed down from the surrounding heights1 being that which forms its source of support4 ,this is afforded by the decomposition of a species of claystone 7slightly phosphoritic7 which is found irregularly disposed in company with a few pieces of trap-rocks1 amongst which1 on approaching ,sana from the southward1 basalt is found to preponderate4 ,the clay stone is only found in the more elevated districts1 but the debris finds a ready way into the lower country by the numerous and steep gorges which are conspicuous in every direction4 ,as it is thrown upon one side of the valley1 it is carefully protected by means of stone walls1 so as to present to the traveller the appearance of terraces4 ,the plant requires a moist soil1 though much rain does not appear necessary4 ,it is always found in greater luxuriance at places where there is no spring4 ,the tree at times looks languid1 and half withered2 an abundant supply of water to the root of the plant seems necessary for the full growth and perfection of its bean4 ,progress of ,cultivation in ,india4--,there are said to be ten varieties of the coffee1 but only one is found indigenous to ,india1 and it is questionable if this is not the ,mocha species introduced from ,arabia4 ,the cultivation of this important crop is spreading fast throughout the east1 and has been adopted in many parts of ,hindostan4 ,in the ,tenasserim provinces1 on the table land of ,mysore1 in ,penang1 and especially in the islands of ,bourbon and ,ceylon1 it is becoming more and more an object of attention4 ,it is known to have given good produce in ,sangar and the ,nerbudda2 also in ,mirzapore1 as well as ,dacca1 and other parts of ,bengal2 ,chota ,najpore1 ,malabar1 and ,travancore4 ,from three to four million pounds of coffee are now exported from the ,indian presidencies annually4 ,the highest quantity was four and a quarter million pounds in #ahde1 but the progress of culture1 judging from the export1 has been small4 ,on the hilly districts on the east coast of the ,gulf of ,siam1 the cultivation is carried on on a limited scale4 ,the annual produce is not much more than about #djj cwt41 although it is understood to be increasing4 ,the quality of the berry is reckoned to be nearly equal to ,mocha1 and it commands a high price in the ,english market4 ,the soil recommended in ,india is a good rich garden land1 the situation high and not liable to inundation1 and well sheltered to the north-west1 or in such other direction as the prevailing storms are found to come from4 ,a plantation1 or a hill affording the shrubs shade1 has been found beneficial in all tropical climates1 because1 if grown fully exposed to the sun1 the berries have been found to be ripened prematurely4 ,the spot should be well dug to a depth of two feet before the trees are planted out1 and the earth pulverised and cleared from the roots of rank weeds1 but particularly from the coarse woody grasses with which all parts of ,india abound4 ,the best manure is found in the decayed leaves that fall from the trees themselves1 to which may be added the weeds produced in the plantation1 dried and burnt4 ,these1 then1 dug in1 are the only manure that will be required4 ,cow-dung is the best manure for the seed-beds4 ,the seed reserved for sowing must be put into the ground quite fresh1 as it soon loses its power of germination4 ,clean1 well-formed berries1 free from injury by insects1 or the decay of the pulp1 should be selected4 ,these berries must be sown in a nursery1 either in small1 well-manured beds1 or in pots in a sheltered spot1 not too close1 as it is well to leave them where sown until they acquire a good growth2 indeed1 it is better if they are removed at once from the bed where they are sown1 to the plantation4 ,here they should be planted as soon as they have attained two years of age1 for1 be it remembered1 that if they are left too long in the nursery1 they become unproductive and never recover4 ,the distance at which they should be put out in the plantation need not exceed eight feet apart in the rows1 between which1 also1 there should be eight feet distance4 ,the seedlings appear in about a month after the seed is sown4 ,the culture requisite is1 in the first instance1 to afford shade to the young plants2 many consider that this shelter should be continued during the whole period of their culture2 but this is somewhat doubtful1 as it has been found that plants so protected are not such good bearers as those which are exposed4 ,the best plants for this purpose are tall1 wide-branching trees or shrubs1 without much underwood4 ,the other culture requisite is only to keep the ground tolerably clean from weeds1 for which one cooly on from five to ten biggahs is sufficient4 ,he should also prune off decayed or dead branches4 ,this treatment must be continued until the fourth year1 when the trees will first begin bearing1 and1 after the gathering of each crop1 the trees will require to be thinned out from the superabundant branches1 their extremities stopped1 and the tops reduced to prevent their growing above seven or eight feet in height2 the stems1 also1 should be kept free from shoots or suckers for the height of at least one foot1 as well as clear from weeds4 ,irrigation must be frequent during the first year that the plants are removed to the plantation1 and may be afterwards advantageously continued at intervals during the dry and hot weather1 as a very hot season is found unfavorable to the plant1 drying up and destroying the top branches and the extremities of the side shoots2 whilst1 on the other hand1 a very long rain destroys the fruit by swelling it out and rotting it before it can be ripened3 hence it is necessary to attend to a good drainage of the plantation1 that no water be anywhere allowed to lodge1 as certain loss will ensue1 not only of the crop of the current year1 but most frequently of the trees also1 as their roots require to be rather dry than otherwise4 ,the crop will be ready to gather from ,october to ,january1 when the ripe berries should be carefully picked from the trees by hand every morning1 and dried in the shade1 the sun being apt to make them too brittle2 they must be carefully turned to prevent fermentation1 and when sufficiently dry the husks must be removed1 and the clean coffee separated from the broken berries4 ,after being picked out and put aside1 and then again dried1 it is fit to pack4 ,the first year's crop will be less than the succeeding ones1 in which the produce will range from a lb4 to #a lb4 in each year4--7,simmonds's ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 xv47 ,ceylon4--,coffee is stated to have been introduced into this island from ,java1 somewhere about the year #agcj4 ,it was extensively diffused over the country by the agency of birds and jackalls4 ,in #ahba its cultivation may be said to have partially commenced1 and in #ahcf1 it had become widely extended through the ,kandyan provinces4 ,in #ahci not a tree had been felled on the wide range of the ,himasgaria mountains4 ,in #ahdj a small plantation was1 for the first time1 formed4 ,in #ahdf there were fifty estates1 then averaging1 each1 #bjj acres of planted land1 and yielding an average crop of #hj1jjj cwt4 of coffee4 ,every acre is now purchased in that locality1 and in large tracts1 or there would have been twice the number of estates in cultivation4 ,in #ahdh1 the ,galgawatte estate1 situate in this range1 at an elevation of #d1jjj feet1 containing #bdf acres1 of which #gb were planted1 was purchased by ,mr4 ,r4,d4 ,gerard1 for #a1fjj4 ,the quantity of land which had been brought under cultivation with coffee in this island in the ten years previous to the last reduction of duty in #ahdd1 was1 in round numbers1 #be1jjj acres2 but so rapid was the subsequent increase1 that in the succeeding three years1 that extent of land was doubled2 so that1 in #ahdg1 there were upwards of #fj1jjj acres of land under cultivation with coffee1 giving employment to #dj1jjj immigrant coolies from the continent of ,india1 and upwards of two millions of capital were invested in the cultivation of this staple4 ,the quantity of land under culture with coffee by ,europeans1 was about #ee1jjj acres in #ahea4 ,allowing #bj1jjj acres to produce the quantity of native coffee exported1 and #e1jjj for that consumed in the island1 the total extent of coffee cultivation in ,ceylon1 ,european and native1 will be #hj1jjj acres4 ,the produce exported in #ahdi was #cgc1eic cwt41 while in the year #ahcf1 when attention was first directed to this island as a coffee-producing country1 the crop was not more than #fj1ccj cwt4 ,large profits were made by the first planters1 more capital was introduced1 until1 between the years #ahdj and #ahdb1 the influx of capitalists1 to undertake this species of cultivation1 completely changed the face of the colony1 and enlarged its trade1 and the produce of coffee in sixteen years has increased sixfold4 ,the general culture resembles the practice in ,java4 ,of the ,ceylon coffee1 that grown about ,ramboddi fetches the highest price1 from the superiority of the make1 shape1 and boldness of the berry4 ,the weight per bushel1 clean1 averages #ef lbs42 #eg lbs4 is about the greatest weight of ,ceylon coffee4 ,the lowest in the scale of ,ceylon plantation coffee is the ,doombera1 which averages #ed lbs41 clear1 per bushel4 ,the following have been the prices of good ordinary ,ceylon coffee in the port of ,london for the last eight years in the month of ,january1 #ahec1 #dfs4 to #dhs42 #aheb1 #djs4 to #dbs42 #ahea1 #chs4 #f;d4 to #djs4 #f;d42 #ahej1 #efs4 #f;d4 to #egs4 #f;d42 #ahdi1 #cas4 to #cbs4 #f;d42 #ahdh1 #cas4 #f;d4 to #ccs42 #ahdg1 #cis4 #f;d4 to #das4 #f;d42 #ahdf1 #dis4 to #ejs4 ,forest lands are those usually planted in ,ceylon1 and the expense attendant on clearing and reclaiming them from a state of nature1 and converting them into plantations1 is estimated to average #h per acre4 ,the lowest upset price of crown lands in the colony is #a per acre4 ,coffee planting has failed over a considerable portion of the southern province of the island1 where the experiment was tried4 ,the temperature was found to be too equable1 not descending sufficiently low at any time to invigorate the plant2 which1 though growing luxuriantly at first1 soon became weak and delicate4 ,nurseries are established for young plants4 ,the districts in which the coffee is principally cultivated1 extend over nearly the whole of the hilly region1 which is the medium and connecting link between the mountainous zone and the level districts of the coast4 ,the mania for coffee planting has recently subsided1 in consequence of the barely remunerative returns at which that article has been sold1 ascribable partly to over-production1 and in some measure1 perhaps1 to the temporary glut of foreign coffee thrown on the ,british market by the reduction of the duty4 ,as regards the yield1 some estates in ,ceylon have produced upwards of #ae cwt4 per acre1 but it is a good estate that will average seven1 and many do not give more than #d cwt4 the acre4 ,the shipments from ,colombo for five years1 are stated below1 with the class of coffee3-- ,plantation4 ,native4 ,total4 cwt4 cwt4 cwt4 #ahde #ge1jjb #aab1hhi #ahg1hia #ahdf #ia1bdj #gj1iia #afb1bca #ahdg #ajf1aih #adc1deg #bdi1fee #ahdh #aia1dfd #hh1dbb #bgi1hhf #ahdi #bdc1ibf #aah1gef #cfb1fhb #ahej #aih1iig #ef1fib #bee1fhi #ahea #bbj1dga #ig1jia #cag1efb ,while1 in #ahci1 the total value of the exports from ,ceylon was only #ccj1jjj1 in #ahej the value of the single staple of coffee was no less than #fji1bfb1 and in #ahea had still further increased4 ,i append a memorandum of the quantities of coffee exported from ,ceylon since #ahcf3-- ,quantity4 ,value4 cwt4 #ahcf #fj1cbi #ahcg #cd1afd #ahch #di1eda #ahci #da1hfc #ahdj #fh1bjf #ahda #hj1ehd #aif1jdh #ahdb #aai1hje #bfi1gfc #ahdc #id1hdg #aib1hia #ahdd #acc1ieg #bfg1ffc #ahde #agh1fjc #cfc1bei #ahdf #agc1hib #cbh1gha #ahdg #bic1bba #def1fbd #ahdh #bhj1jaj #chg1aej #ahdi #cgc1eic #ede1cbb #ahej #bgh1dgc #fji1bfb #ahea #cci1gdd --------- ,total in #af years #b1fjj1hcb --------- ,average #afb1eeb 7,ceylon ,almanac for #ahec47 ,the local export duty of two-and-a-half per cent41 was abolished from #ast ,september1 #ahdh4 ,from these figures it appears that1 in a period of sixteen years1 ,ceylon exported two and a half millions of cwts4 of coffee4 ,the consumption of coffee1 although for a long time stationary in ,britain1 now that adulteration is no longer legalised1 is likely to increase as rapidly as in other parts of the world2 and it appears pretty evident that1 so long as anything like remunerative prices can be obtained1 ,ceylon will do her part in supplying the world with an article which occupies the position of a necessary to the poor as well as a luxury to the rich4 ,the exports of coffee from this colony have1 within a few thousands of hundredweights1 been nearly quadrupled since #ahdc1 when only #id1jjj cwts4 were sent away4 ,dr4 ,rudolph ,gygax1 in a paper submitted to the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 offered remarks on some analyses1 of the coffee of ,ceylon1 with suggestions for the applications of manures4 ,having had1 he observes1 my attention drawn to an account of an analysis of the ,jamaica coffee berry1 made by ,mr4 ,herapath1 the ,liverpool chemist1 ,i have paid some little attention to the subject of the coffee plant of this island1 forming1 as it does1 so very important a feature in the resources of this colony4 ,the desire that ,i thus felt for obtaining some information regarding the constituent parts of the ,ceylon tree and its fruit1 was heightened by a knowledge of the fact1 that not a few of those coffee estates1 which once gave good promise of success1 are now in a very precarious state of production4 ,i much regret that the means at my disposal have not allowed me to carry out any quantative analysis1 but the result of my labours are sufficiently accurate for my present purpose4 ,i have analysed the wood and fruit of trees from two different localities1 as well as the ashes of some plants sent me from the ,rajawella estate near ,kandy1 and they all tend to bear out the result of ,mr4 ,herapath's inquiries4 ,placing the substances traced in the coffee plant in the order in which they occur in the greatest quantity1 they will stand thus3-- ,lime1 potash1 magnesia1 phosphoric acid1 other acids4 ,of these lime is by far the most prominent1 forming about #fj per cent4 of the whole4 ,i cannot help1 therefore1 arriving at the conclusion that1 to cultivate coffee with any degree of success1 the first-named substance must be present in the soil2 or1 if not present1 must be supplied to it by some process4 ,now it is a singular fact that the rocks and soils of ,ceylon are greatly deficient in alkaline matter2 and1 taking this view of the case1 one no longer wonders that many estates cease to produce coffee4 ,that all1 or nearly all the plantations did1 in their first year or two of bearing1 produce liberally in fruit1 may readily be accounted for by the fact that the alkaline poverty of the soil was enriched by the burning of the vast quantities of timber which lay felled on all sides4 ,whilst this temporary supply lasted1 all was well with the planter4 ,heavy rains1 and frequent scrapings of the land with the mamotie1 or hoe1 soon dissipated this scanty supply1 and short crops are now the consequence4 ,but nature1 ever bountiful1 ever ready to compensate for all deficiencies1 has provided to our hands a ready means of remedying this evil of the soil1 by scattering throughout most parts of the interior supplies of dolomitic limestone4 ,the dolomite of ,ceylon is not pure1 far from it1 being mixed freely with apatite or phosphate of lime4 ,even in this very accidental circumstance the coffee planter is aided2 for the phosphoric acid thus combined with the limestone is the very substance required in addition4 ,some of the finest properties in the island are situated on a limestone bottom1 and these no doubt will continue to yield abundant crops for a very long period4 ,it has been urged against this opinion that in some districts where coffee planting has proved a complete failure1 dolomite is found most abundantly2 but ,i have very little doubt that the dolomite here alluded to is only magnesian limestone1 and which is most inimical to the coffee bush4 ,i am aware that already several manures have been tried on coffee with varying degrees of success4 ,guano has1 ,i believe1 quite failed1 and is besides very costly4 ,cattle manure is said to be effective1 and no doubt it is1 but it is a costly and troublesome affair4 ,bones1 ground fine1 are now being tried1 though they cannot but prove most expensive1 especially when imported4 ,a ton of bone dust contains of animal matter1 #gdf lbs12 phosphates of lime1 c41 #a1bde lbs42 carbonates of lime1 c41 #bdi lbs4 ,the virtue of bones lies in the phosphates far more than in the animal matter1 and thus their action on soils is felt for many years after their application4 ,the ,singalese cultivators of paddy about ,colombo and ,galle1 appear to have been long aware of the fertilizing effects of this kind of manure1 and import the article in dhonies from many parts of the coast3 they bruise them coarsely before applying them4 ,the partially decomposed husks of the coffee berry have been tried for some years1 and successfully1 but they are difficult of collection1 and bulky to remove from one part of the estate to another4 ,in ,europe it would appear that little is yet known as to the causes of the fertilising effects of oil cake3 some suppose them to arise mainly from the oil left by the crushing process1 but this is not at all clear4 ,i do not1 however1 see that we must look for much assistance from ,poonac as a manure for coffee3 for the cocoanut tree it is doubtless most valuable1 but we have yet to learn that1 beyond supplying so much more vegetable matter1 it helps the action of the soil on the roots of the coffee bush1 which1 after all1 is what is really required4 ,for the proper application of the dolomite to land as manure1 it should be freely burnt in a kiln1 with a good quantity of wood1 the ashes of which should be afterwards mixed with the burnt lime1 and the whole exposed for several days to the action of the air1 sheltered of course from the weather4 ,the mixture should be applied just before the setting in of the monsoon rains3 if the land be tolerably level1 the lime may be scattered broadcast on the surface1 though not quite near the plants4 ,when the estate to be manured is steep1 then the substance to be applied should be placed in ridges cut crossways to the descent of the slopes4 ,about one cwt4 to the acre would be ample for most lands2 some may1 however1 require more4 ,the contents of the husk pits might advantageously be mixed up with the burnt lime1 when a sufficiency of it has been saved4 ,a planter in ,ambagamoe states that he has tried the following remedy for that destructive scourge1 the coffee-bug1 with great success4 ,he applies saltpetre in a finely-powdered state1 dusted over the tree when wet with rain or dew4 ,the operation is inexpensive1 as a very small quantity suffices1 one cwt4 being sufficient for nine or ten acres4 ,it can be applied through a bamboo-joint covered with a perforated top1 or any equally simple contrivance4 ,messrs4 ,worms' are reported to have found coco-nut oil an effectual remedy4 ,to sum up the question of manures3-- ,poonac1 the marc or cake1 after the coco-nut oil is expressed1 is represented to be a stimulating manure2 but is not durable4 ,lime is an useful application1 especially to stiff soils1 as the coffee tree contains #fj parts of lime4 ,bone-dust is an excellent fertiliser1 but in ,ceylon it is found that it cannot be applied at a less expense than #e per acre4 ,cattle manure is the cheapest and most available4 ,guano does not seem suitable4 ,peeling1 pulping1 and winnowing4--,the coffee-peeler1 used for separating the bean from the pellicle1 was formerly a large wheel revolving in a trough1 the disadvantage of which was the flattening more or less of the bean when not thoroughly dry4 ,a new machine has been recently introduced1 the invention of ,mr4 ,nelson1 ,c4,e41 of the ,ceylon iron works1 by which this evil is obviated2 its principle being not weight1 but simple friction1 of sufficient force to break the parchment at first1 and1 when continued1 to polish the bean free from the husk4 ,a very simple winnowing machine for cleaning the coffee as it comes out of the peeler1 is attached4 ,from the winnowing machine it runs into the separating machine1 which sorts it into sizes1 and equalizes the samples1 by which a vast amount of time and manual labour are saved4 ,the same principle is intended to be applied by ,mr4 ,nelson to pulping1 which will obviate the injury now inflicted by the grater upon the fresh berry4 ,in spite of the greatest care numbers of the beans in a sample1 on close examination1 will be found scratched or pecked2 and when the closest attention is not paid1 or the person superintending the process is devoid of mechanical skill1 the injury is proportionate4 ,the ordinary pulping-mill in use1 consists of a cylinder of wood or iron1 covered with sheet brass or copper1 and punctured similarly to a nutmeg grater4 ,this cylinder1 technically called the barrel1 runs upon a spindle1 which turns a brass pick on each side of a frame4 ,immediately in a line with the centre upon which it turns1 and placed vertical to each other1 are two pieces of wood1 frequently shod with iron of copper1 called the chops1 placed about half an inch apart1 or sufficient to allow the passage of parchment coffee between them4 ,the lower chop is placed so close to the barrel1 yet without contact1 that all coffee must be stopped by it and thrown outwards4 ,the upper chop is adjusted to that distance only which will permit the cherry coffee to come into contact with the barrel2 but will not allow the berries to pass on till they have been denuded of their red epidermis by a gentle squeeze against its rough surface4 ,the far greater portion of the pulps are separated by being carried past the lower chops upon the sharp points of the copper1 and thrown out behind1 and a few are left with the parchment coffee4 ,as from the different sizes of the berries1 and their crowding for precedence as they descend from the hopper above to the gentle embrace of the barrel and upper chop1 some pass unpulped1 the coffee as it comes from the lower chop is made to fall upon a riddle1 which separates the unpulped cherries4 ,these are put back again1 and passed through a pulper with the upper chop set closer4 ,the secret of working-appears to be the proper setting of the chops1 and many have been the schemes proposed for reducing this to a certainty4 ,perhaps1 after all1 few plans are better than the old wedges1 by tightening or loosening of which the chop is kept in the required position4 ,within the last few years1 the machine has been considerably improved by being formed entirely of iron1 cog-wheels being substituted in the place of straps and drums to move the riddle1 and the riddle itself is now formed of two sieves1 by which the chance of unpulped berries reaching the parchment is lessened4 ,on some estates1 water-wheels have been put up to drive several pulpers at one time1 which otherwise would require from two to four men each to work them1 but from the costly buildings and appurtenances which such machinery renders necessary1 they are rare4 ,although the operation of pulping is so simple1 it is one which requires the machine to be set in such a way that the greatest quantity of work may be done1 or1 in other words1 the smallest quantity of unpulped berries be allowed to pass through4 ,on the other hand1 the berries must not be subjected to injury from the barrel2 for if the parchment skin is pricked through1 the berry will appear1 when cured1 with an unsightly brown mark upon it4 ,several new coverings for barrels1 instead of punctured copper1 have been tried2 among others1 coir-cloth and wire net1 but the old material is not as yet superseded4 ,after pulping1 the coffee in parchment is received into cisterns1 in which it is1 by washing1 deprived of the mucilaginous matter that still adheres to it4 ,without this most necessary operation1 the mucilage would ferment and expose the berry to injury1 from its highly corrosive qualities4 ,as some portion of pulp finds its way with the coffee to the cistern1 which1 if suffered to remain would1 by its long retention of moisture1 lengthen the subsequent drying process1 various methods have been adopted to remove it4 ,one mode is to pass the coffee a second time through a sieve worked by two men2 another to pick it off the surfaces of the cistern1 to which it naturally rises4 ,in ,august1 #ahdf1 premiums were awarded by the ,ceylon ,agricultural ,society to ,messrs4 ,clerihew and ,josias ,lambert for the improvements they had introduced into coffee-pulpers1 which1 by their exertions1 had been brought to great perfection4 ,the first improved complete cast-iron pulper received in the island1 was made for ,mr4 ,jolly1 from drawings sent home by ,mr4 ,lambert to ,messrs4 ,b4 ,hick and ,son1 engineers4 ,this pulper is one of the most perfect in every respect that has yet been brought into use1 the disadvantages belonging to the old machine having been entirely remedied4 ,the sieve crank has a double eccentric action4 ,the chops are regulated by set screws1 and the sieve suspended in a novel and secure manner1 the whole combining strength and efficacy1 together with an elegance of form1 which will likewise be appreciated4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,clerihew1 of ,ceylon1 submitted to the ,great ,exhibition a model of his approved apparatus for drying coffee 7which has been patented in the name of ,robert ,r4 ,banks1 ,great ,george ,street1 ,westminster71 and received the ,isis gold medal for the same4 ,the intention is to dry the vegetable and aqueous moisture of the berry4 ,before this is required1 the coffee has previously undergone the process of pulping1 or removal from the soft fleshy husk4 ,here let ,mr4 ,clerihew describe the advantages for himself-- ,when the coffee berry is picked from the tree it bears a closer resemblance to a ripe cherry1 both in size and appearance2 and several processes have to be gone through before the article known in commerce as coffee is produced4 ,in the first place1 the pulpy exterior of the cherry has to be removed by the process of pulping1 which separates the seed and its thin covering called the parchment1 from the husk4 ,when the pulping process is completed1 we have the parchment coffee by itself in a cistern1 and the next process consists in getting rid of the mucilage with which it is covered4 ,having become assured1 both by experiment and by ,liebig's reasoning1 that the successive stages of decomposition were wholly ascribable to the action of the stagnant air which occupies the interstices between the beans1 and taking into account that a mass of coffee presented a medium pervious to air1 it occurred to ,mr4 ,clerihew that it was possible1 by means of fanners1 working on the exhausting principle1 so to withdraw air from an enclosed space as to establish a current of air through masses of coffee spread on perforated floors forming the top and bottom of that space4 ,the plan he carried into execution at ,rathgoongodde plantation in #ahdi4 ,no sooner was the plan put in operation than1 instead of stagnant air occupying the interstices of the beans and gradually acting on them1 a stream of air was established and flowing through the mass of coffee1 each bean of it became surrounded by a constantly renewed atmosphere of fresh air4 ,java4--,when ,arabia enjoyed the exclusive monopoly of coffee1 it could not be foreseen that one day the island of ,java would furnish for the consumption of the world from #abe to #acj millions of pounds per annum4 ,the cultivation was introduced by ,m4 ,zwaendenkroom1 the ,governor-,general of ,batavia1 who obtained seeds from ,mocha1 in #agbc4 ,according to official statements the following are the exports4 ,in #ahci there were exported #df1gha1gbi kilogrammes1 valued at #dh million florins4 ,eight years labor1 #ahcc to #ahda1 brought its produce of coffee from #ab million kilogrammes annually1 up to #ee millions4 ,in #ahdf1 the exports were #iaf1hgf piculs1 but1 in #ahej they were only #ad1hja piculs4 ,the total coffee crop of ,java was in #ahej1 #a1bhj1gjb lbs42 in #ahea1 #a1dcf1aga lbs42 in #aheb1 #a1bbi1cdi lbs4 #ahdj #ahda ,residences in which this produce has been cultivated in #ahdj and #ahda #bj #bj ,number of families destined for the labor #dgj1fgc #dec1bhi ,trees which have yielded a crop #iaf1aic1hid #baf1jhe1fjj ,trees which have produced the average quantity of a picul of #abe lbs4 ,dutch #bhj #bdh ,quantity of coffee furnished to the godowns in piculs #gjf1beh #hgg1ddd ,trees according to the reckoning made in the month of ,march1 #ahda and #ahdb #ccf1ibb1dfj #cbi1hih1icf ,the comparative result of this table shows--#ast4 ,that1 in the year #ahda1 coffee had been gathered from #bj1jjj1jjj more trees than the number in #ahdj1 and that the crop had increased by #aga1jjj piculs4 #bnd4 ,that1 in the month of ,march1 #ahdb1 there were above #g millions less of coffee trees than in #ahdj4 ,this diminution is merely nominal1 seeing that these trees have served to replace those which by their small produce have to be suppressed in the lowlands of the residency of ,baylen4 ,on the contrary1 the increase of trees1 planted from #ahci to #ahdj1 amount to very nearly the same number1 of #g millions4 #crd4 ,that1 in the season of #ahdb1 there was planted nearly #bj millions of plants2 of which #ab millions are to serve to replace the old trees1 and #h millions are destined to extend this culture4 ,it is calculated that this island will very soon be in a condition to produce a million of piculs or #abe millions more of ,dutch pounds of coffee4 ,previous to #ahcj1 ,java scarcely exported as much as #dj millions of pounds4 ,cultivation and ,preparation of ,coffee in ,java4--,for the following valuable details ,i am indebted to ,m4 de ,munnick1 the inspector of the agricultural department1 ,batavia1 as contributed to my ,colonial ,magazine 7vol4 xi4 p4 #df74 ,soil and ,situation4--,elevated lands are found to be those best suited for the growth of coffee in ,java4 ,land situated between #a1jjj and #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea may be generally said to be adapted to the cultivation of coffee4 ,it must not be taken for granted that all ground of less elevation is unsuited4 ,suitable ground is to be found lower down1 but the cultivation on it is more difficult2 the tree gives less fruit1 and the plant is less durable4 ,valleys lying between high mountains are more especially fit for coffee plantations1 because the soil which is washed down from the heights affords fresh food continually to the lowlands2 the valleys themselves are moist1 since the hills surrounding them attract the rain2 and they are shut out from severe winds by the same protecting enclosure4 ,the soils best suited to the successful growth of coffee may be classed as follows3-- ,firstly4 ,cleared forest lands1 especially those in which the black leafy1 or vegetable mould is found to considerable depth4 ,these are the richest grounds1 and will support the coffee plant for many years1 and they are also cultivated with the least trouble4 ,secondly4 ,dark brown soils1 approaching to black1 which1 without having much clay in them1 appear to the eye to have a mixture of coral4 ,the greater the depth of this coral-like stratum1 and of the reddish or deep yellowish soil1 the better is the ground for coffee4 ,this kind of land also has sufficient strength and substance to afford nourishment for many years to the plant2 but it entails more trouble than the before mentioned soils1 because the young plant does not so speedily strike root into it1 and sometimes dies1 so that provision has to be made against failures4 ,thirdly4 ,reddish and loose ground1 such as is generally found in the neighbourhood of volcanic lands4 ,this kind is frequently found well adapted for coffee2 it flourishes on such land luxuriantly1 but does not last long1 as the ground possesses less strength and nourishing substance4#f ,by digging in different places we become better acquainted with the nature of the ground1 but we may take it as a rule1 that rich old forest land on which many larger trees are found1 and plains covered with heavy underwood1 most frequently offer eligible sites for coffee plantations4 ,grounds in which loam is found1 and stony soils1 are unfit for coffee4 ,but ,i do not mean by stony soils land on which many stones are lying1 for on that very account it may be most suitable2 but ,i mean land which shows a pebbly stratum just below the surface1 or such as is of a porous1 stony nature4 ,in the choice of situation care must be taken to select that which is as much as possible protected against the south-east wind1 because its dry influence is very injurious to the coffee plant1 and also prevents the growth of the ,erythrina 7known here locally as the ,dadap tree7 which is so necessary for its shade4 ,flat grounds1 or gentle declivities1 are better than steep slopes2 yet the latter can be well employed if proper care is taken4 ,cultivation4--,after the ground has been cleared in the dry season--that is1 after the bushes have been rooted out1 the undergrowth burnt off1 and the thickets removed--ploughing is commenced in ,september4 ,when the ground has twice been deeply ploughed1 the weeds and roots must be brought together with the rake and carefully burnt4 ,the depth of the ploughing must be regulated by the nature of the ground4 ,in all kinds of cultivation1 deep ploughing is recommended1 but in ,java we ought not to plough deeper than the stratum of fertile soil1 as a kind of subsoil may be wrought uppermost injurious to plants1 and which1 before it can become fertile1 must for a year at least have been exposed to the atmosphere4 ,the ground having been turned up1 should be left exposed for some days to throw off the vapor arising from it2 and must then be again ploughed and cleared with the rake4 ,after waiting for some days1 it should be ploughed for the fourth and last time1 and made as clean and friable as possible4 ,in small plantations this is to be done with the spade1 but on large estates the roller must be used4 ,this roller consists of a heavy piece of round wood1 eight or ten feet long1 to which a pole is fastened in the middle to have oxen harnessed to it4 ,it is drawn slowly over the ploughed land1 and presses the clods to earth4 ,to give it greater force1 the driver sits or stands upon it4 ,before the field has been properly ploughed and rolled in the above way1 the middle of ,october will have arrived1 and we then begin to open a path through the plantation from the highest to the lowest point1 about two roods broad1 and the whole of the land is then divided into separate parcels4 ,portioning off the estates into divisions of equal size is a system to be much recommended4 ,by this means labor may be equally divided1 superintended and inspected4 ,order and regularity1 which are necessary in all things1 are most especially required in cultivation on a large scale4 ,the size of these parcels is regulated by the nature of the estate4 ,on flat or gently declining land they may be greater than on steep grounds1 because1 in order to prevent the washing away of the soil on precipitous land1 the water must be led off by trenches1 which of themselves make the divisions of land smaller4 ,on flat ground the divisions may be each #fbe square roods1 each of which may contain1 if planted-- ,trees4 #ab feet by #ab #fbe #aj #aj #ijj #h #h #adjf #f #f #bejj ,the distance between the coffee bushes cannot be definitely laid down1 as it depends on the nature of the soil4 ,on the most fertile forest lands twelve feet by twelve is a good distance4 ,only on low and meagre grounds1 where the tree grows less luxuriantly and strong1 can six feet by six be reckoned a proper distance4 ,between the divisions a path should be left1 one rood in breadth4 ,along the middle paths and by the side of the divisions drains must be cut1 the former two feet in breath and depth1 the latter one foot4 ,the drains along the divisions must be cut in such a way as to conduct the rain-water to the larger drains which flank the middle paths4 ,on precipitous ground1 when the coffee is planted1 small ridges should be raised between the rows1 to prevent the rich earth from washing down in the heavy rains4 ,the steeper the land is1 the closer these ridges should be2 and care should be taken to incline them1 so as to break the descent1 the direction of which they should in some degree follow4 ,the first ridges may be made with the branches of the trees which have been felled1 or with the rubbish cleared from the ground on the first raking of it4 ,placing the pickets4--,when the ground has been worked and divided in the above manner1 the pickets are placed4 ,these are slips of bamboo one-and-a-half to two feet long4 ,first--two long canes 7which do not stretch like string71 each one hundred feet long1 are marked off in feet according to the distance at which the planting is to take place2 heavy stakes are made fast to each end of them1 by which they can be well secured on the ground4 ,at the places where they are marked off in feet1 strings are fastened so tightly that they cannot be displaced2 and then the canes are laid down and well fixed in the ground1 one in the length and the other in the breadth4 ,picketing does not give much trouble2 it ensures regular planting1 and makes the daily inspection simple4 ,the planting thus takes place in straight lines1 which give an ornamental appearance1 and afterwards renders the view over the whole plantation easy4 ,at every place where a string has been tied1 a picket is stuck in the ground2 then the cane is removed to another place1 and so on till all the estate is marked out by pickets4 ,after the picketing1 a hole is made with the spade at every mark2 it should be a good foot broad and deep1 and the earth inside should be made very fine and clear4 ,the earth is now ready to receive the coffee plant1 and the time has only to be waited for when the first rains fully begin4 ,nurseries4--,in the month of ,october1 or earlier1 if coffee trees are near at hand1 nurseries must be prepared in the neighbourhood of the land about to be planted4 ,this can be done in the ravines1 or1 if they are too far from the spot where the plants are wanted1 pieces of ground most convenient can be selected4 ,if the ravines are preferred1 places must be chosen which are shaded by trees not prejudicial to the coffee plants4 ,on ground where there is no trees1 the nurseries may be covered1 at the height of four feet1 with leaves of jack 7,artocarpus integrifolia71 areca1 or other palm trees1 in a manner to admit the air4 ,the ground made loose and fine1 coffee plants newly opening1 or seeds only1 are planted or sown at a distance of four inches square2 #ejj square roods will in this way furnish #fdh1jjj plants1 which are sufficient for an estate of #cjj1jjj trees4 ,transplanting from nurseries is absolutely necessary in coffee cultivation1 and the trouble it costs is always doubly repaid4 ,having a choice of plants1 a person can be convinced he has taken none but healthy trees1 and he proceeds therefore with a confidence of success4 ,after the first year1 all failures having been nearly replaced1 the estate is fully planted1 the trees are of regular growth1 and no useless clearing is required--a thing which is always necessary in irregular plantations4 ,it is easy also to pick the berries from the trees which are planted with regularity2 the work goes on smoothly2 and1 when the estate has lived its time1 it may be abandoned altogether1 without leaving patches of living trees here and there1 which renders superintendence so very difficult4 ,there should always be a plentiful supply of plants1 to give an ample choice and to make up for failures4 ,when plants are placed in the nurseries1 they should not have more than two offshoots1 or leaves1 above each other2 and when the ball plants are transplanted1 they should not be higher than a foot1 as large plants always give meagre trees4 ,at the end of ,november or beginning of ,december1 if the nurseries are kept free from weeds1 and1 if necessary1 occasionally watered1 the plants will be about a foot high1 and will have put forth #d or #e leaves2 they are then just fit to be transplanted4 ,then1 the ground is cloven with the spade1 at a distance of an inch and a half round the stem of the plant1 to about three inches deep2 the plant1 with the ball of earth adhering to it1 is carefully lifted out of the ground1 and the ball is wrapped in a jack1 plantain1 or other leaf1 and tied to prevent the earth falling off2 but1 before the plants are thus taken from the ground1 it must be moistened to make the earth adhesive4 ,planting the coffee trees4--,the plants1 which1 after the above operation are called ball plants1 are then placed in a bamboo wicker frame1 and are carefully carried by two men to the place where they are to be put into the ground4 ,they are then taken out of the frame and placed in the holes next to the pickets4 ,the pickets are removed1 and the plant is fixed upright2 the leaf surrounding the ball is made loose1 but not taken away2 the planter presses the plant down with his hand and fills up the hole with fine loose earth1 and the business of planting the coffee tree is finished4 ,planting the ,dadap tree4--,this is a species of ,erythrina1 probably ,e4 indica1 or ,e4 arborescens2 that used for the purpose in the ,west ,indies is ,e4 ,corallodendrum4 ,in ,java1 as soon as the coffee is planted1 the operation of planting the dadap tree is commenced4 ,the best sort of dadap comes from ,serp or ,mienyak2 it is smooth and broad-leaved1 and shoots up quickly4 ,thick young stems are chosen1 about three feet long1 and the lower part is pointed off4 ,if the dadap is moist or juicy1 it should be cut twenty-four hours before it is planted4 ,the dadap is planted uniformly by measuring the cane in the same way as the coffee itself4 ,between every two rows of coffee one of dadap is planted1 not on a line with the coffee plants1 but alternately with them2 thus1 if the coffee is eight feet by eight1 the dadap is sixteen by sixteen4 ,the dadap is planted to the depth of a foot1 with somewhat of a westerly inclination1 in order that the morning sun may fall on a larger surface of the stick4 ,the ground must be stiffly trodden round the bottom of the stem1 and the upper part of it should have some kind of leaf tightly bound around it to prevent the sap from escaping4 ,when the coffee and dadap plants have thus been put out1 every fifth day the young plantation should be carefully inspected1 and a picket placed wherever there is a failure1 as a mark to the planter that a new plant is there required4 ,this operation of replacing failures is carried on all through the wet season1 and the dadaps which have not succeeded are at the same time changed4 ,keeping up the estate4--,in the first six months after planting1 the estate should be cleaned each fortnight with the hoe2 the ground being well moved and the weeds taken out4 ,those weeds which are too close to the plants to be removed in this manner1 must be pulled out with the hand4 ,when the plantation is thus wholly or partially cleaned1 the earth must be taken off the weeds1 and they must be collected and thrown on the pathways4 ,the weeding in this manner gives at first a great deal of trouble1 but it is most advantageous in the long run1 as the weeds are thus easily kept down4 ,great care must be taken to do away with an old custom of burying the weeds in large holes on the estates4 ,it conduces to bad and slovenly habits1 such as cutting off the tops of the weeds by wholesale1 and thus giving the plantation an appearance of cleanliness1 whilst it1 in fact1 is as dirty as ever4 ,this is soon discovered by the weeds showing themselves again above ground in a very few days1 and even if they rot under ground1 they breed insects which are very hurtful to the bushes1 and the seeds vegetate4 ,after the first six months1 this weeding will be sufficient if it takes places once a month1 but this must be persevered in till the third year1 when there may be a much greater interval between the weeding4 ,when the trees are coming to full growth1 the hoe should be less frequently used in cleaning2 the hand must be used to the full extent to which the branches reach1 as the roots of the tree spread to a like distance1 and if they are injured the growth of the tree is prejudiced4 ,the well-being of an estate chiefly depends on frequent cleaning of the plantation in the beginning4 ,the idea of some persons that cleaning in the dry season is of little consequence1 must be given up1 as it is principally at that very time that it is extremely profitable to remove and clear the ground round the trees in their growth4 ,in the first place1 this destroys the weeds which take the nourishment away from the trees2 secondly1 the ground is rendered more open to receive the slight showers and dews which moisten it1 and to benefit by the influence of the air2 the roots are thus considerably refreshed4 ,the dew falling on ground which has been recently moved1 penetrates at once into it1 and does good to the plant2 but if it falls on the weeds1 the first rays of the sun absorb it1 and deprive the tree of this source of refreshment4 ,the dadap is to be taken care of whilst clearing goes on2 it must be cropped so as to cause it to grow upright1 and to throw as much shade as possible on the coffee without pressing upon it4 ,in warm fertile ground1 where the coffee plant grows rapidly1 the trees should be topped in the third year2 but this should be done sparingly1 and as a general measure it is not to be recommended2 it should be resorted to only as a means to prevent the too rapid growth of the tree1 or its running up to a point4 ,topping and taking off suckers are both necessary on meagre soils1 where the trees run much to wood2 and it prevents the trees being injured in the picking season1 which often occurs without this precaution4 ,the top or middle stem is broken off at a height of six or seven feet1 but care must be taken not to tear the tree2 when the top shoots out again it must be cropped a second time1 and it is seldom necessary to do this more than twice4 ,the cropping causes the tree to shoot out in breadth1 and to push forth a greater number of sprigs1 and good strong ones4 ,picking coffee4--,when the estate becomes productive1 it must in the picking season1 just before the work begins1 be kept exceedingly clear of weeds1 and be even swept clean with brooms1 in order that the berries which fall off may be gathered up4 ,the picking should take place under proper superintendence1 the trees be picked row by row1 and care taken that each berry is plucked off separately1 and not a heap together1 by which the trees are torn and the first offshoots prevented4 ,in picking high trees1 light ladders should be used1 made out of two or three bamboos tied together4 ,customary preparation of the berry in the pulp4--,when the coffee is picked and brought into the village1 it is piled up in a heap in the open air1 and left in that manner for twenty-four hours4 ,thus heaped up it gets warm1 and this creates a certain fermentation of the juice which is in the berry4 ,that fermentation promotes the drying and loosens the silvery pellicle which is attached to the bean inside the parchment1 and which cannot be entirely got rid of in any other way4 ,coffee which still retains that pellicle is called in trade grey coffee1 and is lower priced than good clean sorts4 ,after the fermentation1 the coffee is spread out in rather thick layers1 and turned over twice a day4 ,if it rains during this first spreading out1 the coffee does not require to be sheltered1 as the washing causes the juicy substance to evaporate1 and this accelerates the drying afterwards4 ,in proportion as the coffee becomes dryer1 the thickness of the layer must be reduced1 and the turning over must be more frequent till the coffee is quite dry outside and the pulp has become hard4 ,then the coffee is laid out on drying floors1 which can be easily and speedily covered in rainy or damp weather1 and is dried by the powerful heat of the sun4 ,this system of drying in the pulp requires six weeks or two months1 as it is advisable not to be over hasty with drying4 ,when the coffee is entirely dry1 it is either at once pounded or placed in the stores to await that operation4 ,in order to know if the coffee be sufficiently dry1 take a handful of it and shut your hand close2 shake it to your ear1 and listen if the beans rattle freely in the pulp4 ,or try them by biting the berry1 and see if the bean and pulp are both brittle and crisp1 which shows that the fruit is dry enough4 ,preparation of the coffee in the parchment1 or the ,west ,india system4--,only sound and fully ripe beans can be prepared in the ,west ,india manner4 ,in picking1 therefore1 all unripe1 green1 or unsound beans must be taken away to dry in the pulp4 ,as soon as the coffee is brought in1 it must be pulped4 ,this operation is performed by means of small peeling mills4 ,these mills consist of two horizontal wooden cylinders rubbing on a plank2 they are covered with hoop-iron1 and set in motion by a water-wheel4 ,the coffee is driven under the cylinder1 and kept constantly moist2 by being turned through the mill1 the pulp is so bruised that the bean in the parchment falls from it into the bamboo open frame1 which is placed in front of the mill4 ,the coffee is then pressed with the hand1 and falls through the frame into a basket4 ,the pulp1 and beans not rid of the pulp1 remain on the frame2 the first is cleared away1 the rest passes a second time into the mill1 and this operation is continued till all the coffee is stripped of the pulp1 and the parchment beans are in the basket4 ,when the parchment coffee is thus separated from the outer skin1 it is thrown into the washing troughs1 and remains there for twenty-four hours2 this drains from it the slimy substance adhering to it4 ,after being thus steeped1 it is washed with pure water two or three times in the basket1 so that it becomes quite free from slimy matter4 ,the parchment coffee is then spread out on drying frames1 and exposed for six or eight days to the heat of the sun1 till the outside is perfectly dry4 ,to do this equally it must be stirred about every hour4 ,these frames1 which serve also to dry the coffee in the pulp1 are made as follows3--,a bamboo roof is set up1 resting on four wooden pillars1 and sloping considerably2 it is covered closely with reeds2 its length is ten feet1 its breadth six feet2 the pillars are from nine to ten feet high2 a wooden framework is attached to this1 about thirty feet long1 or three times the length of the space covered by the roof4 ,on this frame are brought out three platforms1 one above the other1 which are pushed out by means of little rollers under them2 they are ten feet long by six broad1 and six inches deep4 ,the borders are of wood1 and the bottom of platted bamboo4 ,in rainy weather1 or when the drying cannot go on1 the three platforms are pushed under the covered space4 ,these drying places are set up near the overseer's dwelling1 where they stand free1 and are not shaded by trees or buildings4 ,after this first drying on platforms1 the parchment coffee is again dried inside the house1 and bamboo huts are for this purpose erected on each side of the outhouse of the planters4 ,these huts have trays1 divided into two or three compartments1 one above the other1 to keep the coffee separate1 according to the time of its having been picked4 ,the parchment coffee is spread out as thin as possible1 and turned over with a small wooden rake every hour4 ,in proportion to the dryness of the weather1 from one to two months are required to dry the coffee fully4 ,in drying inside the houses1 the greatest care must be taken to prevent heating the coffee2 this is the great object of the ,west ,indian system1 as such heating is very prejudicial4 ,on this account the huts in which the platforms are placed must be very airy1 so that the wind may have good play among the trays1 on which the coffee must be thinly spread and frequently turned4 ,pounding4--,coffee in the pulp1 as well as that in the parchment1 must1 before being pounded1 be exposed for some hours to the sun to make it crisp and hard2 but it must be allowed to cool again before the pounding begins1 or the beans will be liable to be broken4 ,the pounding is done in small baskets of a conical form1 two feet high1 at the top eighteen inches in diameter1 and at the bottom one foot4 ,these baskets are1 up to one-third of their height1 thickly woven round with coir1 and fastened on the ground between four thick bamboo poles1 and with the bottom half an inch in the ground itself4 ,the coffee is pounded by small quantities at a time with light1 wooden pestles2 the baskets must not be more than half full4 ,when the coffee is sufficiently pounded1 the basket is lifted from between the poles and the beans are thrown into sieves1 on which it is cleaned from skin1 and white1 black1 or broken beans4 ,according to the ,west ,indian system1 the coffee must now be instantly put in bags1 to preserve its greenish colour1 which is very peculiar4 ,if the green coffee is not instantly sent to the packing stores to be bagged1 it must be put up in a very dry place1 and be turned over once every day1 to prevent heating1 which damps and discolors the berry4 ,coffee is grown to some extent in ,celebes--the average crop being from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj piculs of #acc ,english pounds4 ,the production has rather fallen off than increased during the last few years4 ,the whole of the coffee grown must be delivered by the inhabitants to the government exclusively1 at twelve copper florins per picul4 ,it is much prized in the ,netherlands1 and maintains a higher price in the market than the best ,java coffee4 ,as the treatment of the product in ,java differs wholly from that which is in vogue in ,celebes1 and this1 in our eyes1 is much inferior1 ,i know not whether the higher price is ascribable to the name1 or to an intrinsic superiority in quality4 ,it is certain that this cultivation is susceptible of much improvement1 and might be advanced to a much higher condition4 ,from tables given by ,m4 ,spreeuwenberg 7,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hbi7 of the quantity of coffee delivered from each district of this island1 for the years #ahch to #ahdb1 it appears that the average annual delivery of coffee was #a1bhh1aah lbs4 ,of the production of ,sumatra ,i have no details1 but a very fair proportion is grown there--about five million pounds4 ,production of ,america and the ,west ,indies4--,the cultivation of the coffee plant is largely carried on in ,south and ,central ,america and the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,its culture has greatly increased within the last few years in ,venezuela1 particularly in the valleys and on the sides of the hills4 ,the exports from ,la ,guayra1 in #ahcc1 were about twelve millions of pounds1 being nearly double the quantity exported in #ahcj4 ,the price there is about ten dollars the #ajj lbs41 which is still too high to enable it to enter into competition with the produce of ,brazil or ,cuba4 ,the total produce of coffee in ,venezuela in #ahci was #bed1efg quintals4 ,the quintal is about #aj lbs4 less than the ,english cwt4 ,la ,guayra4--,the exports of coffee from this port in #agif1 were #bhc quintals4 ,quintals4 #ahdc #afd1jff #ahdd #ada1icd #ahde #acd1ehe #ahdf #age1cdf #ahdg #acj1fga #ahej #agi1ecg ,the exports of coffee from ,la ,guayra have been declining within the past few years2 the shipments were but #aec1ija quintals in #ahea1 and only #abd1fbc in #aheb4 ,caracas coffee ranks in our market with good ordinary ,st4 ,domingo4 ,the decline in the produce of coffee in the ,british ,west ,india possessions has been very great4 ,in #ahch1 we imported from the ,west ,india ,islands and ,british ,guiana #ag million pounds of coffee1 in #ahej we only received #d million pounds from thence4 ,the shipments from ,jamaica have decreased from about #ae million pounds in #ahcf1 to #d million pounds in #ahej2 ,berbice and ,demerara1 from #e million pounds in #ahcg1 to about #h1jjj pounds in #ahej4 ,production of coffee in the ,brazils4--,forty-two years ago the annual crop of coffee in ,brazil did not exceed #cj1jjj bags1 and even in #ahbj it only reached #ajj1jjj bags4 ,about that time the high price of coffee in ,england1 superadded to the diminished production in ,cuba1 stimulated the ,brazilian planters to extend its cultivation1 and in #ahcj they sent to market #djj1jjj bags1 or #fd1jij1jjj lbs41 and in #ahdg1 the enormous quantity of #cjj1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,it would seem from the annexed figures that the production of coffee in ,brazil doubled every five years1 up to #ahdj1 since when it has increased eighty per cent4 ,the increase since #ahce has been upwards of two hundred millions of pounds1 and of that increase the ,united ,states have taken one half4 lbs4 #ahbj #ae1cab1jjj #ahbe #bi1bja1fjj #ahcj #fb1fhe1fjj #ahce #ajj1cdf1djj #ahdj #agj1bjh1hjj #ahej #cjc1eef1ifj ,the sources from whence the ,united ,states derives its supplies of coffee are shown in the following table3-- ,years4 ,brazil4 ,cuba4 ,st4 ,domingo4 ,java4 ,total #ahce #ce1ggd1hgf #bi1cgc1fge #ai1bgf1bij #d1gbh1hij #ajc1aii1egg #ahdj #dg1dab1gef #be1cca1hhh #i1aec1ebd #d1cdc1bed #id1iif1jie #ahde #gh1eec1faf #a1aeg1gid #ac1jij1cei #c1ibe1gaf #ajh1acc1cfi #ahej #ij1cai1eaa #c1gdj1hjc #ai1ddj1ihe #e1adf1ifa #add1ihf1hie #ahea #ajg1egh1beg #c1jji1jhd #ac1bje1gff #b1dbc1ifh #aeb1dec1fag ,coffee1 up to #ahcj1 paid a duty in the ,united ,states of five cents a pound4 ,since #ahcb it has been free4 ,the population of the ,united ,states in #ahdj was1 in round numbers1 seventeen millions2 the average consumption of coffee for the three years ending #ahda1 #ih millions of pounds1 which gave a consumption of #e lbs4 per head4 ,the average for the three years ending #ahej1 was #adc millions of pounds1 and the population was twenty-three millions1 which gave a consumption of #f lbs4 per head4 ,in #ahcj the consumption was only #c lbs4 per head2 but the price ruled nearly double what it was in the three years preceding #ahej4 ,in #ahba the consumption per head1 to the inhabitants of the ,united ,states1 was #a lb4 #d oz4 ,in #ahcj1 the proportion had increased to #c lbs4 per head1 the foreign price having fallen fifty per cent4 ,the importation in the year #ahca doubled1 in consequence of the reduced duty2 and the consumption per head for the four years ending with #ahdb1 averaged #f lb4 per head1 having quadrupled to each inhabitant since #ahba4 ,from #ahbj to #ahdj1 the ,brazilian product increased #a1ajj per cent1 or #aee million pounds4 ,in the same time the consumption in the ,united ,states increased #acg million pounds2 leaving an increase of eighteen million pounds of ,rio coffee1 besides the enhanced products of all countries1 to supply the increased consumption of ,england and ,europe4 ,the consequence of the duty in ,england is1 that while the ,united ,states1 with a population of seventeen millions1 consumed1 in #ahdd1 #adi1gaa1hbj lbs4 of coffee1 ,great ,britain1 with a population of twenty-seven millions1 consumed #ca1icd1jjj lbs4 only1 or less than one-fourth the consumption of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahea the figures remained nearly the same1 viz41 #adh1ibj1jjj lbs4 in the ,united ,states1 and #cb1efd1jjj lbs4 for ,great ,britain4 ,the cultivation of coffee forms the present riches of ,costa ,rica1 and has raised it to a state of prosperity unknown in any other part of ,central ,america4 ,it was begun about fifteen years ago2 a few plants having been brought from ,new ,granada1 and the first trial being successful1 it has rapidly extended4 ,all the coffee is grown in the plain of ,san ,jose1 where the three principal towns are situated--about two-thirds being produced in the environs of the capital1 a fourth in those of ,hindia1 and the remainder at ,alhajuela1 and its vicinity4 ,the land which has been found by experience to be best suited to coffee is a black loam1 and the next best1 a dark-red earth--soils of a brown and dull yellow color being quite unsuitable4 ,the plain of ,san ,jose is mostly of the first class1 being1 like all the soils of ,central ,america1 formed with a large admixture of volcanic materials4 ,contrary to the experience of ,java and ,arabia ,felix1 coffee is here found to thrive much better1 and produce a more healthy and equal berry on plain land1 than upon hills1 or undulating slopes1 which doubtless arises from the former retaining its moisture better1 and generally containing a larger deposit of loam4 ,i am inclined1 in a great measure1 to attribute the practice of sowing coffee in sloping land in ,java to this fact1 that the plains are usually occupied by the more profitable cultivation of sugar-canes4 ,in ,arabia1 the plains are generally of a sandy nature 7being lands which have1 apparently1 at no very distant geological period1 formed the bed of the sea71 which may account for the plantations existing only upon the low hills and slopes4 ,a coffee plantation in ,costa ,rica produces a crop the third year after it is planted1 and is in perfection the fifth year4 ,the coffee trees are planted in rows1 with a space of about three yards between each and one between each plant1 resembling in appearance hedges of the laurel bay4 ,the weeds are cut down1 and the earth slightly turned with a hoe1 three or four times in the year2 and the plant is not allowed to increase above the height of six feet1 for the facility of gathering the fruit4 ,the coffee tree here begins to flower in the months of ,march and ,april1 and the berry ripens in the plains of ,san ,jose in the months of ,november and ,december1 strongly resembling a wild cherry in form and appearance1 being covered with a similar sweet pulp4 ,as soon as the crimson color assumed by the ripe fruit indicates the time for cropping1 numbers of men1 women1 and children are sent to gather the berry1 which is piled in large heaps1 to soften the pulp1 for forty-eight hours1 and then placed in tanks1 through which a stream of water passes1 when it is continually stirred1 to free it from the outer pulp2 after which it is spread out on a platform1 with which every coffee estate is furnished1 to dry in the sun2 but there still exists an inner husk1 which1 when perfectly dry1 is1 in the smaller estates1 removed by treading the berry under the feet of oxen2 and in the larger1 by water-mills1 which bruise the berry slightly to break the husk1 and afterwards separate it by fanners4 ,the entire cost of producing a quintal 7#aja #a-e lbs4 ,british7 of coffee1 including the keeping of the estate in order1 cleaning and fanning the plants1 and gathering and preparing the berries1 is1 at the present rate of wages 7two rials1 or about a shilling per day71 calculated at two and a half dollars 7equal to ten shillings72 but the laborers are now hardly sufficient for working all the estates which are planted1 so that the price may probably rise a little1 though the present rate of payment enables the natives to live much better than has been their wont4 ,the coffee tree bears flowers only the second year1 and its blossoms last only #bd hours4 ,the returns of the third year are very abundant2 at an average1 each plant yielding a pound and a-half or two pounds of coffee4 ,the price of coffee in ,san ,jose during the months of ,february1 ,march and ,april1 after which none can generally be met with1 was1 in #ahdf1 about #e dollars cash per quintal1 the duty 7which is collected for the repairs of the road7 one rial more1 so that the speculator makes at least ten rials1 or about #bj per cent41 by purchasing and sending the coffee to the port1 on his outlay and charges2 but it is often bartered for manufactured goods1 and is also purchased before-hand1 half being paid in imports and half in cash to the grower4 ,the largest coffee estates of ,costa ,rica are possessed by the family of ,montealegre and ,don ,juan ,moira4 ,the principal of these ,i have examined4 ,they appear to be very carefully and judiciously managed1 possessing good mills for cleaning and husking the coffee1 worked by water power2 and annually producing #ejj tons4 ,the entire produce of the year #ahcf1 amounted to about #c1jjj tons1 and the crop of #ahdg exceeded #d1jjj tons1 near which quantity it will probably continue1 till the population gradually increases1 the laborers1 as already mentioned1 being barely sufficient for the present cultivation4 ,as the value at the present average price in the ,english market of #ejs4 a cwt41 will give #bjj1jjj1 the produce of the district will appear pretty considerable for a petty ,american ,state1 possessing only #hj1jjj inhabitants1 and just emerging from a half-savage condition4--7,dunlop's ,central ,america47 ,the cultivation of coffee on the plains of ,san ,jose1 in ,costa ,rica1 according to ,stephens1 has increased rapidly within a few years4 ,seven years before1 the whole crop was not more than #ejj quintals1 and in #ahdd it amounted to #ij1jjj4 ,don ,mariano ,montealegre is one of the largest proprietors there1 and had three plantations in that neighbourhood4 ,one1 which ,mr4 ,stephens visited1 contained #bg1jjj trees1 and he was preparing to make great additions the next year4 ,he had expended a large sum of money in buildings and machinery2 and though his countrymen said he would ruin himself1 every year he planted more trees4 ,his wife1 ,la ,senora1 was busily engaged in husking and drying the berries4 ,in ,san ,jose1 by the way 7he adds71 all the ladies were what might be called good business-men1 kept stores1 bought and sold goods1 looked out for bargains1 and were particularly knowing in the article of coffee4 ,the coffee at ,surinam is suffered to grow in three stems from the root1 and when one of them does not produce plenty of berries1 it is cast away1 and the best shoot in appearance next the root is allowed to grow in its room4 ,the trees are not permitted to rise higher than about five feet1 so that the negroes can very easily pluck the berries1 for gathering which there are two seasons1 the one in ,may1 or the beginning of ,june1 and the other in ,october or the beginning of ,november4 ,the berries are often plucked of unequal ripeness1 which must greatly injure the quality of the coffee4 ,it is true when the coffee is washed1 the berries which float on the water are separated from the others2 but they are only those of the worst quality1 or broken pieces1 while the half-ripe beans remain at the bottom with the rest4 ,now1 in the description ,i have given of the method of gathering coffee in ,arabia1 it is seen that the tree is suffered to grow to its natural height1 and the berries are gathered by shaking the tree1 and making them fall on mats placed for them4 ,by this way the ,arabians harvest only the beans perfectly ripe at the time1 and which must give the coffee a more delicate flavor4 ,a tree will yield each time on an average from #a lb4 to #a lb4 of coffee1 when pulped and perfectly dried4 ,an acre of land planted with coffee1 when favored by the weather1 becomes more profitable than when it is planted with sugar canes2 but its crops are always very precarious1 as the blossoms1 and even the berries1 are sometimes damaged by the heavy rains1 which are much less injurious to sugar canes2 wherefore a planter feels himself best secured in his revenue1 as soon as he can cultivate them both4 ,nothing can exceed the beauty of the walks planted with coffee trees1 from their pyramidical shape and from their glossy dark green leaves1 shining with great brightness1 amongst which are hanging the scarlet-coloured berries4 ,mr4 ,baird1 in his ,impressions of the ,west ,indies1 thus speaks of a coffee plantation3-- ,anything in the way of cultivation more beautiful1 or more fragrant1 than a coffee plantation1 ,i had not conceived2 and oft did ,i say to myself1 that if ever ,i became1 from health and otherwise1 a cultivator of the soil within the tropics1 ,i would cultivate the coffee plant1 even though ,i did so irrespective altogether of the profit that might be derived from so doing4 ,much has been written1 and not without justice1 of the rich fragrance of an orange grove2 and at home we ofttimes hear of the sweet odors of a bean-field4 ,i have1 too1 often enjoyed in the ,carse of ,stirling1 and elsewhere in ,scotland1 the balmy breezes as they swept over the latter1 particularly when the sun had burst out1 with unusual strength1 after a shower of rain4 ,i have likewise1 in ,martinique1 ,santa ,cruz1 ,jamaica1 and ,cuba1 inhaled the gales wafted from the orangeries2 but not for a moment would ,i compare either with the exquisite aromatic odors from a coffee plantation in full blow1 when the hill-side--covered over with regular rows of the tree-like shrub1 with their millions of jessamine-like flowers--showers down upon you1 as you ride up between the plants1 a perfume of the most delicately delicious description4 ',tis worth going to the ,west ,indies to see the sight and inhale the perfume4 ,the decline in the quantities of coffee drawn from the ,west ,indies to supply the great demand1 is manifest in the following summary of imports from those islands3-- lbs4 ,in #ahbh they exported about #cj1jjj1jjj #ahca the imports from ,british ,west ,indies were #bj1jag1fbc #ahda ,ditto ,ditto #i1ijd1bcj #ahej1 the last year in which distinct accounts #d1bfb1bbe were kept ----------- ,decrease from #ahca #ae1gee1cih ,jamaica4--,the coffee plant was first introduced into ,jamaica by ,sir ,nicholas ,lawes1 in #agbh1 when it was cultivated on an estate called ,temple ,hall1 in ,liguanea1 not far from ,kingston4 ,in #ageb there were exported #fj1jjj lbs42 and in #agge1 #dd1jjj lbs4 ,until #aghh little attention was paid to this product4 ,in the four years ending #cjth ,september1 #agid1 the average exportation of coffee was #a1fjc1jjj lbs42 in #ahjd it amounted to #bb1jjj1jjj lbs42 and during the three years ending #cjth ,september1 #ahjg1 the average annual exportation was more than #bh1ejj1jjj lbs42 which1 at #f per cwt41 its cost in ,jamaica1 produced more than #a1gjj1jjj4 ,it is calculated that #bj1jjj1jjj was invested in coffee estates4 ,the coffee plant thrives in almost every soil about the mountains of ,jamaica1 and in the very driest spots has frequently produced abundant crops4 ,in #ahdd there were #fga coffee plantations in the island4 ,coffee is grown in the vicinity of the ,blue ,mountain ,peak at a height of #d1gjj feet above the level of the sea1 and some of the finest and most productive plantations are in this locality4 ,the branches of a coffee tree1 on ,radnor estate1 covered1 in #ahea1 a space of thirteen feet in diameter1 and the tree was about thirteen years old4 ,in #aghi ,hayti exported #gg1jjj1jjj lbs4 of coffee1 but in #ahbf it had declined to #cb1jjj1jjj lbs41 in #ahcg it was #ca1jjj1jjj lbs41 and the shipments of this staple are now very inconsiderable4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 ,i speak principally of ,jamaica1 where my experience extended1 the soil best adapted for the cultivation of coffee is found to be loose gravelly or stony4 ,a rich black mould will produce a luxuriant bush1 which will yield little fruit4 ,decomposing sandstone1 and slate1 known in ,jamaica as rotten rock1 mixed with vegetable mould1 is one of the most favorable soils4 ,the subsoil should be also carefully examined by a boring augur1 for a stiff moist clay1 or marly bottom retentive of moisture1 is particularly injurious to the plant4 ,a dark1 rusty-colored sand1 or a ferruginous marl on a substratum of limestone1 kills the tree in a few years4 ,in virgin lands1 after the wood has been felled and cleared1 the land is lined off into rows of from six to seven feet square1 and at each square a hole is made about eighteen inches deep1 into which the young plant is placed and the earth plied gently about it1 leaving from six to eight inches of the plant above ground4 ,nurseries for raising plants from seeds were formerly made1 but for many years this has been neglected1 and plantations are set out now from suckers which are drawn and trimmed of their roots1 and cut about two feet long4 ,the young plants require to be kept well clear from weeds1 and four cleanings in the year may be deemed necessary1 the plants which have failed must be supplied in order to ensure uniformity of appearance4 ,all manure1 whether fluid or solid1 in warm climates should be applied in wet seasons1 where it is not practicable to dig or turn it in to prevent the escape of its volatile and nutritive principles4 ,as respects situation1 coffee thrives best on elevated situations1 where the morning sun has most influence2 and on lower mountains1 where the temperature is higher1 in situations facing the south-east1 or where the sun does not act with such intensity4 ,low mountains1 in which the thermometer ranges from #ge to #ij degrees ,fahr41 as well as those exposed to sea breezes1 are less suitable for the cultivation of coffee than those districts where the temperature averages #fe to #hj degrees ,fahr41 and situated at higher elevations in the interior4 ,as a general rule1 it may be asserted that the elevation best adapted for coffee is at an altitude ranging from #b1jjj to #d1jjj feet1 at a temperature from #gj to #ge degrees ,fahr4 ,a west or south-west aspect is the best1 and the field should be well sheltered from the north breezes4 ,as a general rule in planting in light soils and high temperatures1 trees may be placed at the distance of four or five feet1 while in stronger soils and lower temperatures the average distance would be from five to seven feet4 ,topping4--,the young tree shoots out its lateral branches at each joint1 which follow in regular succession1 till the tree attains the height of about four feet six inches1 when it is usual to top it down to four feet4 ,but care should be taken that the wood has ripened1 which is known by its assuming a brown and hard appearance1 ,this strengthens the vegetation of the branches1 which begin to throw out buds1 and these shortly form collateral branches2 in the course of eighteen months after the tree will have arrived at its bearing point4 ,trees1 after being topped1 throw off suckers1 which are called gormandizers1 from each joint1 but more especially at the head4 ,they should be plucked off with care1 but not cut1 as the sap would flow more readily if cut4 ,in pruning1 one of the main objects is the admission of a free circulation of air and light through the branches to the root of the tree4 ,no general rules can be laid down for pruning2 much must depend on judgment1 experience1 and a nice eye to appearance and preservation of primary branches for bearing and ripening wood for the ensuing year1 as well as to regulate and proportion the size of the tree to the functions of the roots in supplying sustenance1 and the convenience of picking the berries when ripe4 ,every old bough which has seen its day1 every wilful shoot growing in a wrong direction1 every fork1 every cross branch or dead limb1 must be cut away4 ,the blossoming1 and ripening of the fruit varies according to the situation and temperature of the plantation4 ,in low and hot situations1 where the thermometer ranges from #gh to #ij degrees1 the tree shows its first blossoms when about two-and-a-half years old4 ,in higher and colder situations the tree will not blossom in profusion until the fourth or fifth year4 ,if there be light showers1 the blossoms will continue on the tree for a week or more1 and by the setting of the blossoms the planter can determine what germs will become fruit4 ,the trees will blossom in low situations as early as ,march1 but the ,april bloom is considered the most abundant4 ,in higher elevations1 the trees will bloom even so late as ,august or ,september4 ,in warm climates the fruit advances as rapidly1 and in a month will have attained the size of a pea2 in more elevated and colder localities1 it will take two months to arrive at this stage4 ,the fruit will be ripe in from six to eight months after the blossom has set2 it ripens in warm districts about the month of ,august1 while in others the crop will not be mature till ,february4 ,an acre will usually contain #a1bjj trees in ,jamaica1 and the produce would be about #djj lbs4 of coffee an acre1 or six ounces as the produce of each tree annually4 ,in some instances1 but very seldom1 one pound a tree may be obtained4 ,a bushel of cherry coffee will produce about ten or twelve pounds of merchantable coffee4 ,the coffee berry1 after being pulped and soaked for a day and night to free it from the mucilage1 is spread out on barbacues to dry2 in ten or twelve days1 if the weather has been good1 it will be sufficiently cured for the peeling mill4 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,marah1 of ,jamaica1 in a ,prize ,essay on the ,cultivation and ,manufacture of ,coffee in that ,island1 published in my ,colonial ,magazine1 makes some useful remarks3-- ,the manufacture of this staple commodity1 with a view to its improvement in quality1 is a subject which demands our serious attention2 and when we observe the vast importance and pecuniary advantage which accrue upon the slightest shade of improvement either in colour or appearance1 it becomes the more imperative on us to use all those means which are available1 in order to place ourselves on a footing with the foreign grower4 ,it is true that we are unable to enter the contest with the ,east ,indian or slave cultivator1 from the abundance and cheapness of labour which is placed at their command2 but by means of our skill and assiduity1 we can successfully compete with them by the manufacture of superior produce4 ,to this portion of plantation management ,i have given an attentive inquiry1 and shall shortly proceed to state my views on the system best adapted to the curing and preparing for market of good quality produce4 ,the fruit should be gathered in when in a blood-ripe state1 to all appearance like cherries4 ,the labourers are principally accustomed to reap the crop in baskets1 of which they carry two to the field2 and when the coffee is bearing heavily1 and is at its full stage of ripeness1 the good pickers will gather in four bushels per diem1 and carry the same on their heads to the works4 ,the fruit is then measured and thrown into a loft above the pulper in a heap4 ,it should be submitted to the first process of machinery1 the pulper1 within twenty-four hours after1 if not immediately2 but it not unfrequently happens that the manager is unable to pulp his coffee for two and sometimes three days1 by which time fermentation ensues1 and it becomes impossible after pulping to wash off the mucilage1 which rather adheres to the outer envelope of the berry1 and gives the produce what is termed a red or blanketty appearance when spread out on the barbacues4 ,the produce is let down by means of a small hole cut into the floor of the loft1 or a floating box1 into the hopper of the pulper1 and by means of a grater forcing the fruit against the chops1 the berries are dislodged from the pulp and fall upon a sieve1 which being shaken by the machinery1 lets the berries fall into the cistern1 whilst the grater catches the pulp and carries it backwards at each evolution of the roller1 around which it is encircled4 ,the fruit which might have passed through without being more than half squeezed1 and having only ejected one berry1 is then returned 7after being shaken off by the sieve7 into the hopper1 to undergo the process a second time4 ,the pulped coffee is then permitted to remain in the cistern for a day and a night1 during which period it undergoes a process of fermentation2 it is then washed out in two or three waters1 and the whole of the mucilaginous stuff which had risen from the berry by the fermentation is entirely washed off1 and the coffee presents a beautiful white appearance4 ,from this the produce is turned out to drain on a barbacue1 sloped so as to throw all the water to the centre1 where a drain is placed to carry it all off4 ,in an hour or so after1 the coffee may be removed to the barbacues for curing2 it is there spread out thinly and exposed to the sun1 which1 if shining strong1 will in eight or nine hours absorb all the water1 and the coffee be fit for housing that day4 ,i say fit for housing1 because ,i have repeatedly seen coffee washed out early in the morning and put up the same evening4 ,i cannot say ,i approve of the system1 though in fine weather it has been attended with success4 ,from the time the coffee is first exposed to the sun till the silver skin starts1 is the stage1 in my opinion1 during which the produce suffers most injury4 ,in the first instance1 it should be kept constantly turned1 in order to get the water absorbed as early as possible2 and after it has been housed1 the greatest precaution should be taken to prevent its heating3 and it is for this reason that ,i disapprove of early housing1 for if wet weather should intervene1 and the coffee cannot be turned out1 it is sure to get heated4 ,from this neglect ,i have seen a perfect steam issuing from the house in the morning when the doors have been opened2 and ,i have known1 as a natural consequence1 the adhesion of the silver skin to the berry so firm1 that it could not be removed by a sharp penknife without slicing the berry4 ,in a succession of wet weather the produce has remained on the barbacues for several weeks1 without the slightest advance in curing2 and1 unless it be frequently turned while in this wet state1 it is sure to germinate2 the berries first swell1 then a thin white spire issues from the seam1 and on opening the berry the young leaves will be actually seen formed inside1 so rapid is the course of vegetation4 ,i am of opinion that coffee should not be housed till the silver skin begins to start1 when no danger can ensue2 for if a few wet days should intervene1 by turning the coffee over in the house1 and allowing a current of air to pass through it1 it will keep for weeks4 ,it is at this stage that the parchment skin begins to show itself1 for at first it adheres to the inner kernel1 but the heat of the sun starts it from its hold and it separates2 thus1 on shaking a handful of the produce it will be heard to rattle1 a sure indication that the silver skin has risen from the bean1 without even threshing it to ascertain the fact4 ,the bean is perfectly white till the silver skin starts2 it then begins gradually to assume the dark1 or what is called the half-cured appearance4 ,a good day's strong sun will then half cure it1 and by subsequent exposure the produce takes another stage1 and gradually loses the half-cured1 and assumes a blue colour2 and when the produce is properly cured and fit for the mill1 not the slightest dark spot will be perceptible in the bean1 but it will exhibit a horny blue colour4 ,it is within my observation that coffee has been gathered from the field on the ,monday1 and prepared for market on the ,saturday1 in a spell of dry weather2 but ,i have known it also to lie on the barbacues for as many weeks in contrary weather1 before it had gone through the same ordeal4 ,with good weather and smooth terraces whereon to cure1 nothing but gross ignorance and unpardonable carelessness can produce a bad quality of coffee4 ,the difficulty arises in wet weather1 when one's skill and assiduity is called into action to save the produce from being spoiled4 ,after coffee has been half-cured1 the putting it up hot at an early period of the day has the effect of curing it all night4 ,i have noticed produce housed in this manner1 and requiring another day's exposure to fit it for the mill1 found perfectly cured next morning4 ,the barbacues should be kept in good order--all ruts and holes neatly patched every crop1 for to them and other roughnesses is to be attributed the peeling of the berries1 their being scratched1 and various injuries which the produce sustains4 ,and while on the subject of ,works1 ,i cannot help noticing the extreme carelessness and inattention which1 on visiting properties1 the works and buildings present to our view4 ,it is utterly impossible to manufacture good produce unless the machinery and buildings are kept in good order2 and the parsimony which is thus displayed in this necessary outlay is fallacious1 when one thinks of the result of one or two shillings per #ajj lbs4 lost on a crop through this neglect4 ,when the coffee is perfectly cured--which is generally ascertained by threshing out a few berries in one's hands1 and seeing if it has attained its horny blue colour--it is then fit for milling1 which is the second process of machinery which it has to undergo4 ,here the parchment and silver skins are dislodged from the berry1 by means of the friction of a large roller passing over the produce in a wooden trough4 ,it is then taken out of the trough1 and submitted to the fanner or winnowing machine1 when the trash is all blown away1 and the coffee1 passing through two or three sieves1 comes away perfectly clean and partially sized4 ,from this it is again sieved in order to size it properly1 hand-picked1 put into bags1 and sent on mules' backs to the wharf4 ,it is then put into tierces and sold in the ,kingston market1 or shipped to ,britain4 ,a variety of circumstances tend to injure the quality of the coffee1 which it is beyond human agency to control4 ,dry weather intervening at the particular period when the berry is getting full1 subjects it to be stinted and shrivelled2 and strong dry breezes happening at the same period1 will cause an adhesion of the silver skin which the ordinary process of curing and manufacture will not remove4 ,late discoveries in the latter have1 however1 shown the possibility of divesting the produce of that silvery appearance1 when brought about under the foregoing circumstances4 ,it is almost1 unnecessary to state that this improvement in manufacture refers to the inventions of ,messrs4 ,myers and ,meacock1 whose respective merits have already undergone public revision4 ,in reference to ,mr4 ,myers' plan of immersing coffee in warm water1 ,i may be allowed to state that it has come under my own observation1 that produce which had previously been heated through some carelessness in the curing1 subsequently was exposed to a slight sprinkling of rain1 and when ground out and fanned1 was found to have lost its silvery appearance4 ,to the invention of ,mr4 ,meacock1 a preference has1 however1 been given1 in consequence of the impression that the produce thus immersed in water will absorb a portion of the liquid1 which will deteriorate its quality in its passage across the ,atlantic4 ,several gentlemen have shipped coffee submitted to this process to ,england1 but ,i have not learnt the result4 ,it appears very manifest that a great deal might be done in the way of machinery1 to relieve produce of that silvery or foxy appearance which is so prejudicial to its value in the ,british market1 and which appearances might accrue from a variety of incidents to which all plantations are more or less subject4 ,a manifest preference is given in the leading ,european markets to coffee which has gone through the pulping and washing process2 but1 strange to say1 the consumers of this beverage are totally ignorant of the fact1 that the produce which is cured in the pulp furnishes a stronger decoction than an equal quantity of the same which has undergone the other process4 ,many persons are of opinion that the mucilaginous substance which is washed off in pulping is absorbed by the bean when cured in the pulp1 and which gives strength to the produce and enhances its aromatic flavour4 ,on most properties it has been customary to cure the remnants of the crop in this way1 for the use of the plantation2 and it has been well noticed by great epicures in the flavour of the decoction1 that the coffee thus cured produced the strongest and best beverage4 ,trinidad4--,the coffee plant does not succeed well in ,trinidad1 the tree giving but little fruit1 and perishing at the end of ten or twelve years2 though the article is always of a superior quality1 and has the advantage over that of ,martinique and the other ,antilles of not requiring age to produce an agreeable beverage4 ,it is from the fault and obstinate attachment to old habits of the planters1 that this cultivation has not been more successful in ,trinidad4 ,because coffee trees thrive in ,st4 ,domingo1 ,guadalupe1 ,dominica1 ,st4 ,lucia and ,martinique1 on the hills1 they had concluded that it would be the same in ,trinidad2 without noticing that the hills of that island are composed only of schistus covered with gravel1 on which lies a light layer of vegetative earth1 that the rain washes away after some years of cultivation2 whilst the hills of the ,antilles1 much more high and cool1 are covered with a deep bed of earth1 which is retained by enormous blocks of stone1 that at the same time maintain humidity and freshness4 ,messrs4 ,branbrun1 of ,tacarigua1 and ,don ,juan de ,arestimuno1 of ,cariaco1 worthy and intelligent planters1 some years ago adopted the plan of planting coffee trees on the plains1 in the manner cacao trees are planted1 that is1 in the shade of the ,erythrina1 and this mode of cultivation has perfectly succeeded4 ,it is to be hoped that their success will encourage the cultivation of this valuable tree in the united provinces of ,venezuela1 and in those parts of ,trinidad which were deemed unfavorable to it from the too great dryness of the climate4 ,in #agif1 the year preceding its capture1 there were #acj coffee plantations in ,trinidad1 which produced #ccj1jjj lbs4 of coffee4 ,in #ahjb1 the produce had slightly increased to #ceh1ffj lbs41 but there were two plantations less4 ,in the island of ,grenada1 according to the returns made to the local ,treasury of the staple products raised1 while there were #fd1fed lbs4 made-in #ahbi1 the quantity had decreased to #ac1fea lbs4 in #ahcg4 ,the colony of ,british ,guiana was formerly noted for its produce of coffee4 ,the following figures mark the decline of the culture of this staple1 showing the exports in ,dutch pounds3-- ,demerara and ,essequibo4 ,berbice4 #ahcd #a1ajb1bjj #a1dbi1hjj #ahce #a1bii1jhj #a1igi1hej #ahcf #b1aag1bej #b1fhd1ajj #ahcg #a1hdi1fej #b1bag1cjj #ahch #b1dhf1bdj #a1gjj1eej #ahci #gdg1dej #a1bee1hjj #ahdj #a1eca1cej #a1hbe1iej #ahda #efh1ibj #eai1gej #ahdb #a1cgb1fej #hjd1dgj #ahdc #dbh1hjj #iii1cjj #ahdd #gaf1acg #ggd1fjj ,thus the exports of the colony which in #ahcf were #d1hja1cej lbs4 had declined in #ahdd to #a1dij1gcg2 whilst in #ahca we received from ,british ,guiana #c1egf1ged lbs4 of coffee1 in #ahej we only received #h1dgb lbs4 ,there are about #ejj acres under cultivation with coffee in ,st4 ,lucia4 ,the exports1 which in #ahdj were #cbc1hbj lbs41 had declined1 in #ahdd1 to #eh1hcd lbs4 ,the ,british ,west ,indies exported to ,great ,britain1 in #ahbi and #ahej1 the following quantities of coffee3-- #ahbi4 #ahej4 lbs4 lbs4 ,jamaica #ah1fij1fed #d1aef1baj ,demerara #d1fhj1aah #ag1ggd ,berbice #b1dhb1hih #fih ,trinidad #gc1ffg #if1cgf ,dominica #idb1aad #gib ,st4 ,lucia #cjc1dii #ce ,cuba4--,for the following valuable remarks and details of coffee culture in ,cuba1 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,turnbulls ,travels in the ,west3-- ,at the period of the breaking out of the ,french revolution1 the cultivation of coffee could scarcely be said to have reached the ,south ,american continent2 so that till that its cultivation was in a great measure confined to ,arabia and the ,caribbean ,archipelago4 ,its extreme scarcity during the war enhanced its price so enormously1 that on the first announcement of peace in #ahad1 the plants were multiplied to infinity1 and coffee plantations were formed in every possible situation--on the ,coste ,firme of ,south ,america1 along the ,brazilian shores of that continent1 and even at some points on the coast of ,southern ,africa4 ,to show the extreme rapidity with which the cultivation has been extended1 take the statistical returns of ,la ,guayra1 the chief port of the ,state of ,venezuela1 from whence the whole export of coffee in the year #aghi was not more than ten tons2 and of late years from that port alone1 and in spite of the internal disunions of the country1 it has reached the enormous quantity of #b1ejj tons4 ,in the ,isle of ,bourbon 7now ,reunion71 and the ,mauritius and ,ceylon1 the planters have also applied themselves to this branch of industry2 it has been prosecuted successfully in our ,eastern ,possessions1 and the ,french government1 not content with the natural influence of the universal demand for it1 have been endeavouring to stimulate the production by means of premiums and other artificial advantages4 ,in forming a coffee plantation1 the choice of situation and soil becomes a consideration of the first importance4 ,a very high temperature is by no means a favourable condition4 ,if a spot could be found where the range of the ,fahrenheit thermometer did not sink below #ge degrees1 nor rise above #hj degrees1 and where the soil was otherwise suitable1 no planter could desire a more favourable situation4 ,in the mountainous islands of ,jamaica and ,st4 ,domingo1 the nearest approach to this temperature is found where the elevation is not less than #b1jjj1 and not more than #c1jjj feet above the level of the sea2 and it is most successfully cultivated in the two islands ,i have named4 ,the ,island of ,cuba being much less mountainous1 but at the same time being nearer the tropical limit1 the planter in seeking the degree of heat he requires is forced to confine himself in a great measure to the northern side of the island1 where1 accordingly1 we find that the cultivation of coffee is most successfully carried on4 ,the vicinity of the cafetal to a convenient place of embarcation1 enters largely1 of course1 into the consideration of the planter when choosing a suitable locality4 ,a compact form is also thought desirable1 in order to save the time and labour of the negroes2 and the ordinary extent is about six caballerias1 or something less than #bjj ,english acres4 ,the locality being finally chosen1 such open places are formed or selected1 from distance to distance1 as may be found most suitable1 in respect to shade and moisture1 for the establishment of convenient nurseries4 ,the fruit which has been gathered in the beginning of the month of ,october1 and which has been dried in the shade1 is preferred for seed4 ,the seed is sown in drills half a yard asunder1 and introduced1 two beans together1 by means of a dibble1 into holes two inches deep and ten or twelve inches apart4 ,the extent of one of these nurseries is generally about #ajj yards square1 which1 with such intervals as ,i have mentioned1 ought to contain about #fj1jjj plants4 ,a quarter of a caballeria1 or about eight ,english acres1 is visually set apart1 in a central and convenient position1 for the site of the buildings1 and for growing provisions for the use of the labourers on the future plantation4 ,in favourable seasons it is found that heavier crops are obtained from coffee trees left wholly unshaded2 but1 in the average of two years1 it seems to be settled1 in the island of ,cuba at least1 that a moderate degree of protection from the scorching rays of the sun produces a steadier1 and1 upon the whole1 a more advantageous return4 ,the distribution of the land into right-angled sections1 and the planting of the trees in straight lines1 is so contrived as to favour the future supervision of the labourers much more than from any strict attention to mere symmetry4 ,the distance of the trees from each other ought to be regulated by the quality of the soil1 and the degrees of heat and shade they are to enjoy4 ,the ranges from north to south are usually four yards apart1 and those from east to west not more than three2 but the lower the temperature the wider should be the interval1 because in that case the vegetation is more active and more rapid1 and the tree requires a wider space over which to extend itself4 ,the best season for planting the trees is the middle of the month of ,may1 if there be then a sufficient degree of moisture2 but the operation is often performed successfully during the rainy month of ,october2 subject always to the risk1 however1 of serious injury to the young plantation from the north winds which prevail at that advanced season of the year4 ,the holes prepared to receive the plants are eighteen inches in diameter1 and about two feet deep4 ,in the island of ,cuba there are two rival modes of planting the coffee tree4 ,the one is called la siembra la mota2 the other la siembra la estaca4 ,by the method a la mota1 a circle is formed around the plant in the nursery1 and care is taken to remove it without disturbing the earth around the roots4 ,the plants are then placed carefully in willow baskets1 prepared for the purpose1 and carried to the holes already opened for their reception2 gathering up the earth around the stem1 and pressing it carefully down with the foot1 in such a manner as to form a basin or filter for the reception of the rain-water1 and for suffering it to percolate among the roots1 and also to provide a convenient place of deposit for the subsequent application of manure4 ,the siembra la estaca is differently executed4 ,such plants are selected from the nursery as are of the thickness of the little finger1 or from that to an inch in diameter4 ,in withdrawing them from the ground1 great care is taken not to injure or compress the bulbs or buttons within1 eight or ten inches of the level of the soil1 because these are to serve for the production of fresh roots when the estaca is afterwards planted more deeply in its permanent position4 ,the greater part of the capillary roots are cut away with a knife2 but a few1 together with the principal root1 are suffered to remain from four to six inches long4 ,in planting them1 from three to four inches of the trunk are left above ground4 ,the little basin of earth for the reception and filtration of the rain-water1 is not so large in the stake system of planting as in that with the clod of earth la mota2 but if the soil be poor1 it must be proportionably enlarged to admit the application of the necessary quantity of manure4 ,the stake system1 requiring much less labour than the other1 is generally preferred2 but when there is abundance of shade to protect the young plant from drought1 and always1 of course1 in replacing the decayed trees of an old plantation1 it is considered more desirable to remove the whole plant1 its roots and branches entire1 with as much as possible of the adhering soil from the nursery1 according to the system la mota4 ,in the third or fourth year of the plantation1 the trees1 according to the best system of husbandry1 are pruned down to the height of three feet from the ground on the richest soil1 and still lower in proportion to its sterility4 ,all the branches which are not as nearly as possible at right angles with the trunk1 are likewise removed by the pruning-knife1 so that in the following spring the whole stem is covered with fresh shoots4 ,by this operation the power of nature seems to be exhausted1 as for that year the trees in general bear no fruit2 but in subsequent seasons the loss is amply repaid by a crop often greater than the branches can support1 or than the flow of nourishment is always able to bring to full size and maturity4 ,the machinery for removing the external pulp of the coffee-bean is seldom of a very perfect description in this island1 and the loss sustained in consequence is often very considerable4 ,it is almost uniformly moved by the power of horses or oxen1 working in a gin1 and the name it bears is that of the ,descerecador4 ,the ,barbecues1 when the coffee is laid out to dry1 are called indiscriminately ,tendales or ,secadores4 ,they are more numerous and of smaller dimensions than is customary in the ,british colonies1 where a single barbecue1 laid down with tiles or plaster1 is considered sufficient for a whole estate4 ,the warehouse for receiving the crop and preserving the coffee after it is put into bags and ready for the market1 is generally of such limited dimensions as to be barely sufficient for the purposes for which it is designed2 so that1 when the harvest has been abundant1 or when anything has occurred to interfere with the despatch of what is ready for removal1 the constant accumulation is attended with serious inconvenience4 ,in fact1 the occupation of the coffee planter has been for some time on the decline in the island1 owing to the superior rate of profit derived from the making of sugar2 and everything reminds you of it1 the moleno de pilar1 the aventador1 and the separador1 down to the humblest implement of husbandry on the estate4 ,the gathering of the fruit commences in ,cuba in ,august2 but ,november and ,december are the most active and important months of the harvests4 ,the labourers are sent out with two baskets each1 one large1 the other small4 ,every labourer has a file of coffee trees assigned to him2 the large basket he leaves near the place where his work is to begin2 the other he carries with him to receive the berries from the trees2 and as often as it is full he empties it into the large one4 ,the baskets are made of rushes1 willows1 or bamboo2 and the large one is of such a size that three of them ought to fill the barrel1 without top or bottom1 which serves the purposes of a measure at the ,tendal or ,secador4 ,three baskets1 or one barrel-measure1 of the newly-gathered coffee berry1 ought to produce thirty pounds after the process of drying1 the removal of the pulp1 and the final preparation for the market4 ,when there is a sufficient number1 or a sufficient space of ,barbecues or ,secadors1 sixty or seventy barrels only are put together2 but from want of room it often happens that the quantity amounts to a hundred barrels4 ,in either case1 the whole is gathered into two great heaps1 and in this state it is allowed to remain for four-and-twenty hours1 in order to subject it to a certain degree of fermentation4 ,after this1 it is spread out to dry over the whole surface of the ,barbecue1 and until it is sufficiently so1 it remains there uncovered day and night4 ,when the dessication is found to be far enough advanced1 it is no longer exposed during the night2 nor even during the day1 if the weather be damp or unfavorable4 ,the subsequent operations are certainly not better1 probably not so well1 conducted as in our own ,west ,india possessions4 ,in the fourth year1 it is presumed that the agricultural produce of the land1 and the first returns of coffee1 should be sufficient to meet all the current expenses4 ,at the end of the fifth year there ought to be forty thousand coffee trees four years old on the estate1 #fj1jjj of three years1 and #ajj1jjj of two and one year1 the produce of which ought to be at least #djj quintals1 which1 at a moderate estimate1 should be worth #b1djj dollars4 ,thus the calculation goes on until we arrive at the end of the seventh year1 when the estate ought to be in full bearing4 ,the returns are estimated at #c1jjj arrobas1 or #gej quintals1 which1 at eight dollars per quintal delivered free on board1 make #f1jjj dollars4 ,the minor products of the estate1 such as ,indian corn1 pigs1 and oil1 are given at #a1acj dollars1 making the gross returns #g1acj dollars2 and1 after deducting the annual expenses1 leaving #e1cjj dollars as the regular return on the capital invested1 which1 having been about #dj1jjj dollars1 gives about thirteen per cent42 not certainly to be considered extravagant in a country where twelve per cent1 is the regular rate of interest4 ,the produce of coffee from each section is given at #djj arrobas1 or #c1ejj arrobas for the whole of the nine sections4 ,the average price of coffee1 free of the expense of carriage1 is assumed to be two dollars the arroba1 or eight dollars per quintal1 which would give a return of #g1bjj dollars1 besides the repayment of the rent by the colonists4 ,the cultivation of coffee has been falling off in ,cuba for several years past1 the crops it is asserted being too precarious there1 and the prices too low to encourage the continuance of planting4 ,on the northern side of the island is where this decrease is most perceptible1 several of the largest estates having been converted to the growth of sugar and tobacco1 others abandoned to serve as pasture fields1 and the very few remaining yielding less and less every year4 ,henceforward the culture of this berry here is likely to be very insignificant1 and not many years will elapse before the amount produced will merely suffice for the local consumption4 ,about ,st4 ,jago de ,cuba the cultivation is more attended to1 the article forming still their principal export4 ,taking five quinquennial periods1 the following figures show the average annual exports of coffee3-- arrobas4 #ahbf to #ahcj #a1gah1hfe #ahcj #ahce #a1iie1hcb #ahce #ahdj #a1hgg1fdf #ahda #ahdf #a1hhg1ddd #ahdf #ahea #gfh1bdd ,the better to exhibit the decrease of production throughout the island1 ,i may state that the export from #ahci to #ahda inclusive1 was in the aggregate #a1ccb1bba quintals2 #ahdb to #ahdd1 inclusive1 was in the aggregate #a1bag1fff quintals2 #ahde to #ahdg1 inclusive1 was in the aggregate but #ehc1bjh quintals4 ,the exports of coffee for the whole island1 were1 in #ahdj1 #b1aig1gga arrobas2 in #ahda1 #a1bfj1ibj arrobas4 ,in #ahdg there were #b1jfd plantations under cultivation with coffee in ,cuba1 in #ahdf there were only #a1fgj4 ,the production of #ahdi was #a1dgj1ged arrobas1 valued at #b1bjf1aca dollars4 ,from the year #ahda to #ahdf1 the average yearly production was #de1bcf1ajj lbs42 but from #ahdf to #ahea1 it was only #ai1bjf1ajj lbs42 showing a falling off of #gb per cent42 the production still further decreased in #ahea1 it being only #ac1jjd1cej lbs41 or #a4eb per cent4 less than the preceding year4 ,this enormous decline in the production of coffee has been caused by the low price of the article in the markets of ,europe and the ,united ,states1 coupled with the more remunerative price of sugar1 during the same period2 causing capitalists rather to invest money in the formation of new sugar estates4 ,as a consequence1 many coffee plantations have been turned into cane cultivation2 or1 being abandoned1 the slaves attached thereto were sold or leased to sugar planters4 ,the following is private information from a correspondent3-- ,we generally plant about #bjj1jjj trees within a space of #ejj feet1 choosing the strongest soil4 ,i have adopted a different system from the one generally in use here1 for they usually plant the trees too near each other4 ,i find by giving them space and air1 that the plant develops itself and yields more beans4 ,it is very important to protect the trees from the rays of the sun1 for which purpose ,i plant bananas at intermediate rows2 their broad leaves1 like parasols1 shed a delightful shade round the coffee plant1 and tend to accumulate the moisture which strengthens the roots of the young tree4 ,when the tree is about two years old the top branches are lopped off for the purpose of throwing the sap into the bean4 ,some planters cut the trees so short1 that they do not allow them to stand more than five or six feet above the ground2 but ,i allow mine to attain greater height prior to lopping them1 whereby they produce larger crops4 ,nor do ,i allow my negroes to beat the trees1 or force them to pluck a certain quantity a day1 for ,i discovered that they picked the ripe and unripe beans indiscriminately--frequently injuring the trees4 ,i only allow them to shake the tree1 and pick up the beans that have fallen during the night4 ,coffee exports from the ports of ,havana and ,matanzas1 in ,cuba1 for the years ending ,december in ,quintals4 #ahci #cdd1gbe #ahdj #djb1ace #ahda #bab1gfg #ahdb #cad1aia #ahdc #bbc1bfe #ahdd #ahf1cdi #ahde #db1dji #ahdf #fe1jde #ahdg #ajf1ijd #ahdh #ca1fgd #ahdi #ib1igd #aheb #db1eaj ,porto ,rico exported #he1chd cwt4 of coffee in #ahci4 ,africa4--,coffee will require some four years to grow before it will give to the cultivator any income1 but it should be known that after that time the tree1 with little or no labor bestowed on it1 will yield two crops a year4 ,the quality of coffee grown in the republic of ,liberia1 on the western coast of ,africa1 is pronounced by competent judges to be equal to any in the world4 ,in numerous instances1 trees full of coffee1 are seen at only three years old4 #bad casks and bags of coffee were imported from the western coast of ,africa in #ahdf4 ,coffee1 it has been proved1 can be cultivated with great ease to any extent in the republic of ,liberia1 being indigenous to the soil1 and found in great abundance4 ,it bears fruit from thirty to forty years1 and yields #aj lbs4 to the shrub yearly6 ,a single tree in the garden of ,colonel ,hicks1 a colonist at ,monrovia1 is said to have yielded the enormous quantity of #af lbs4 at one gathering4 ,judge ,benson1 in #ahej1 had brought #be acres under cultivation1 and many others had also devoted themselves to raising coffee4 ,it was estimated there were about #cj1jjj coffee trees planted in one of the counties1 that of ,grand ,bassa1 and the quality of the produce was stated to be equal to the best ,java4 ,about the villages and settlements of the ,sherbro river1 and ,sierra ,leone1 wild coffee-trees are very abundant4 ,in several parts of the interior1 the natives make use of the shrub to fence their plantations4 ,coffee has been successfully grown at ,st4 ,helena1 of an excellent quality1 and might be made an article of export4 ,portugal sent to the ,great ,exhibition1 in #ahea1 a very valuable series of coffees from many of her colonies2 of ordinary description from ,st4 ,thomas2 tolerably good from the ,cape de ,verd islands2 bad from ,timor2 worse 7but curious from the very small size of the berry7 from ,mozambique2 good from ,angola2 and excellent from ,madeira4 ,aden1 alias ,mocha coffee1 is1 along with the other coffees of the ,red ,sea1 sent first to ,bombay by ,arab ships1 where it is garbelled1 or picked1 previously to its being exported to ,england4 ,an excellent sample of coffee1 apparently of the ,barbera 7,abyssinia7 variety1 was contributed to the ,great ,exhibition from ,norfolk ,island4 ,it was of good color1 well adapted for roasting1 and a most desirable novelty from that quarter4 ,dr4 ,gardner1 of ,ceylon1 has taken out a patent for preparing the coffee leaf in a manner to afford a beverage like tea1 that is by infusion1 forming an agreeable refreshing and nutritive article of diet4 ,an infusion of the coffee-leaf has long been an article of universal consumption amongst the natives of parts of ,sumatra2 wherever the coffee is grown1 the leaf has become one of the necessaries of life1 which the natives regard as indispensable4 ,the coffee-plant1 in a congenial soil and climate1 exhibits great luxuriance in its foliage1 throwing out abundance of suckers and lateral stems1 especially when from any cause the main stem is thrown out of the perpendicular1 to which it is very liable from its great superincumbent weight compared with the hold of its root in the ground4 ,the native planters1 availing themselves of this propensity1 often give this plant a considerable inclination1 not only to increase the foliage1 but to obtain new fruit-bearing stems1 when the old ones become unproductive4 ,it is also found desirable to limit the height of the plant by lopping off the top to increase the produce1 and facilitate the collecting it1 and fresh sprouts in abundance are the certain consequence4 ,these are so many causes of the development of a vegetation1 which becomes injurious to the quantity of the fruit or berry unless removed2 and when this superabundant foliage can be converted into an article of consumption1 as hitherto the case in ,sumatra1 the culture must become the more profitable2 and it is clearly the interest of the planters of ,ceylon to respond to the call of ,dr4 ,gardner1 and by supplying the leaf on reasonable terms1 to assist in creating a demand for an article they have in abundance1 and which for the want of that demand is of no value to them4 ,it ought to be mentioned also1 that the leaves which become ripe and yellow on the tree and fall off in the course of nature1 contain the largest portion of extract1 and make the richest infusion2 and ,i have no doubt1 should the coffee leaf ever come into general use1 the ripe leaf will be collected with as much care as the ripe fruit4 ,the mode of the preparation by the natives is this4 ,the ends of the branches and suckers1 with the leaves on2 are taken from the tree and broken into lengths of from twelve to eighteen inches4 ,these are arranged in the split of a stick or small bamboo1 side by side1 forming a truss in such a manner1 that the leaves all appear on one side1 and the stalk on the other1 the object of which is to secure equal roasting1 the stalks being thus exposed to the fire together1 and the leaves together4 ,the slit being tied up in two or three places1 and a part of the stick or bamboo left as a handle1 the truss is held over a fire without smoke1 and kept moving about1 so as to roast the whole equally1 without burning1 on the success of which operation the quality and flavor of the article must depend4 ,when successfully roasted1 the raw vegetable taste is entirely dissipated1 which is not the ease if insufficiently done4 ,when singed or overdone1 the extract is destroyed and the aroma lost4 ,when the fire is smoky1 the flavor varies with the nature of the smoke4 ,the stalks are roasted equally with the leaves1 and are said to add fully as much to the strength of the infusion4 ,by roasting the whole becomes brittle1 and is reduced to a coarse powder by rubbing between the hands4 ,in this state it is ready for use1 and the general mode of preparing the beverage is by infusion1 as in the case of common tea4 ,that it would soon become a most valuable article of diet amongst the laboring classes1 and on ship board particularly1 if1 once brought into use1 there can be no doubt4 ,the coffee-tree can be grown to advantage for the leaf in the lowlands of every tropical country1 where the soil is sufficiently fertile1 whilst it requires a different soil and climate to produce the fruit#g4 ,dr4 ,hooker1 in the ,jury ,reports1 observes upon the prepared coffee leaves1 submitted by ,dr4 ,gardner1 of ,ceylon1 to be used as tea leaves1 that they are worthy of notice as affording a really palatable drink when infused as tea is2 more so1 perhaps1 than coffee is to the uninitiated4 ,that this preparation contains a considerable amount of the nutritious principles of coffee1 is evident from the analysis2 but as the leaves can only be collected in a good state at the expense of the coffee bush1 it is doubtful whether the coffee produced by the berries be not1 after all1 the cheapest1 as it certainly is the best4 ,,tea4 ,the immense traffic in the produce of this simple shrub1 the growth of a remarkable country1 hitherto almost entirely isolated from the western nations1 is one of the most remarkable illustrations of the enterprise and energy of modern commerce4 ,the trade in tea now gives employment to upwards of #fj1jjj tons of ,british shipping1 and about ten millions sterling of ,english capital1 producing a revenue to this country of nearly six millions sterling4 ,every reflecting man will admit that articles of such vast consumption as tea and coffee 7amounting together to more than #cdc1ejj tons annually71 forming the chief liquid food of whole nations1 must exercise a great influence upon the health of the people4 ,there is scarcely any country in the world in which a dietetic drink or beverage resembling tea1 is not prepared1 and in general use1 from some exotic or indigenous shrub4 ,the two chief plants laid under contribution are1 however1 the ,chinese tea-plant1 and a species of holly peculiar to ,south ,america1 producing the ,paraguay tea4 ,astoria theiformis is used at ,santa ,fe as tea4 ,the leaves of ,canothus ,americanus1 an astringent herb1 have been used as a substitute1 under the name of ,new ,jersey tea4 ,it has been a matter of surprise why tea should be so much sought after by the poorer classes1 since by many it is looked on more as a luxury than of use to the human system4 ,the manner in which it acts1 and the cause why it is so much in demand by all classes1 is satisfactorily explained by ,liebig2 and the benefit1 therefore1 which will be conferred by selling it at a low rate1 and thus placing it within the means of all1 has at last come to be duly appreciated4 ,liebig says1 without entering minutely into the medical action of caffeine1 theine1 c41 it will surely appear a most striking fact1 even if we were to deny its influence on the process of secretion1 that the substance1 with the addition of oxygen and the elements of water1 can yield taurine1 the nitrogenised compound peculiar to bile3-- ,carbon4 ,nitrogen4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 #a atom caffeine or theine #h #b #e #b #i atoms water -- -- #i #i #i atoms oxygen -- -- -- #i #b atoms taurine #h #b #ad #bj #b #d #i #aj ,to see how the action of caffeine1 theobromine1 theine1 c41 may be explained1 we must call to mind that the chief constituent of the bile contains only #c4h per cent4 of nitrogen1 of which only the half1 or #a4i per cent41 belongs to the taurine2 bile contains1 in its natural state1 water and solid matter1 in the proportion of ninety parts by weight of the former1 to ten of the latter4 ,if we suppose these ten parts1 by weight of solid matter1 to be chloric acid1 with #c4hg per cent4 of nitrogen1 then #ajj parts of theine would contain #j4aga of nitrogen in the shape of taurine4 ,now this quantity is contained in #j4f parts of theine1 or #b grains #h_/ajths of theine can give to an ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of taurine4 ,although an infusion of tea contains no more than the one-tenth of a grain of theine1 still1 if it contribute in point of fact to the formation of bile1 the action even of such a quantity cannot be looked upon as a nullity4 ,neither can it be denied1 that in the case of an excess of non-azotised food1 and a deficiency of motion1 which is required to cause the change of matter of the tissues1 and thus to yield the nitrogenised product which enters into the composition of the bile1 that in such a condition the health may be benefited by the use of compounds which are capable of supplying the place of the nitrogenised substances produced in the healthy state of the body1 and essential to the production of an important element of inspiration4 ,in a chronical sense1 and it is this alone which the preceding remarks are intended to show1 caffeine1 or theine1 c41 are1 in virtue of their composition1 better adapted to this purpose than all nitrogenised vegetable principles4 ,the action of these substances in ordinary circumstances is not obvious1 but it unquestionably exists4 ,tea and coffee were originally met with among nations whose diet was chiefly vegetable4 ,considerable discussion has taken place regarding the tea plants2 some say that there is only one species2 others that there are two or three4 ,mr4 ,fortune1 who visited the tea districts of ,canton1 ,fokien1 and ,chekiang1 asserts that the black and green teas of the northern districts of ,china are obtained from the same species or variety1 known under the name of ,thea ,bohea4 ,some make the ,assam tea a different species1 and thus recognise three3 ,t4 ,cantoniensis or ,bohea1 ,t4 ,viridis1 and ,t4 ,assamica4 ,the quality of the tea depends much on the season when the leaves are picked1 the mode in which it is prepared1 as well as the district in which it grows4 ,the green teas include ,twankay1 ,young ,hyson1 ,hyson1 ,gunpowder1 and ,imperial2 while the black comprise ,bohea1 ,congou1 ,souchong1 ,oolong1 and ,pekoe4 ,the teas of certain districts1 such as ,anhoi1 have peculiar characters4 ,the first tea imported into ,england was a package of two pounds1 by the ,east ,india ,company1 in #affd1 as a present to the king2 in #affg1 another small importation took place1 from the company's factory at ,bantam4 ,the directors ordered their servants to send home by their ships #ajj pounds weight of the best tey they could get4 ,in #afgh were imported #d1gac lbs42 but in the six following years the entire imports amounted to no more than #daj lbs4 ,according to ,milburn's ,oriental ,commerce1 the consumption in #agaa was #ada1iie lbs42 #abj1eie lbs4 in #agae1 and #bcg1ijd lbs4 in #agbj4 ,in #agde the amount was #gcj1gbi lbs4 ,for above a century and a half1 the sole object of the ,east ,india ,company's trade with ,china was to provide tea for the consumption of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the company had the exclusive trade1 and were bound to send orders for tea1 and to provide ships to import the same1 and always to have a year's consumption in their warehouses4 ,the teas were disposed of in ,london1 where only they could be imported1 at quarterly sales4 ,the act of #ahcd1 however1 threw open the trade to ,china4 ,from a ,parliamentary return1 showing the quantity of tea retained for home consumption in the ,united ,kingdom1 in each year1 from #agdj to the termination of the ,east ,india ,company's sales1 and thence to the present time1 it appears that in #agdj1 #a1dic1fie lbs4 of tea were retained for home consumption4 ,two years afterwards1 the quantity fell to #dgc1hfh lbs41 and in #agfg only #bae1jai lbs4 were retained4 ,next year the amount increased to #c1aee1dag lbs42 in #agfi it was #i1aad1hed lbs42 in #agie1 #ba1cdb1hde lbs42 in #ahcf1 #di1hdb1bcf lbs4 ,the return in question also specifies the quantity of the various kinds of tea1 with the average sale prices4 ,according to the annual tea reports of ,messrs4 ,w4,j4 ,thompson and ,son1 and ,messrs4 ,w4,e4 ,franks and ,son1 the total imports of tea during the last fifteen years were as follows1 reckoned in millions of lbs43-- ,years4 ,black4 ,green4 ,total4 ,home ,consumption4 #ahch #bf1ghf #h1bae #ce1jja #cf1dae #ahci #cj1fdd #g1fhj #ch1cbd #cf1cea #ahdj #ba1jfc #g1afa #bh1bbd #ca1gaf #ahda #bd1iae #f1cjc #ca1bah #cf1haa #ahdb #ca1iae #i1gbi #da1fdd #cg1eed #ahdc #ci1eac #g1cdj #df1hec #ci1ijb #ahdd #ci1fdd #h1gdi #dh1cic #da1agf #ahde #ci1eah #aa1gij #ea1cch #dd1abg #ahdf #dd1jag #ab1dhf #ee1ejc #dg1ecd #ahdg #df1hhg #h1cfh #ee1bee #df1bdg #ahdh #cg1eab #g1faa #de1abc #dh1dca #ahdi #dc1bcd #i1aef #eb1djj #ej1ajj #ahej #ci1hgc #h1dbg #dh1cjj #ea1jjj #ahea #fb1cfi #i1aca #ga1ejj #ed1jjj #aheb #ee1ebe #i1age #fd1gjj #ed1gbd ,the duty on tea was gradually raised from #i;d4 per lb4 in #aghg to #cs4 a lb4 in #ahjf4 ,it was #bs4 #b;d4 per lb4 until ,may1 #aheb1 when #d;d4 per lb4 was taken off1 and further annual reductions are to be made4 ,down to the year #ahcd the duty was an ad valorem one of #if per cent4 on all teas sold under #bs4 a lb41 and of #ajj per cent4 on all that were sold at or above #bs41 charged on the prices which they brought at the ,east ,india ,company's sales4 ,the ad valorem duties ceased on the #bbnd of ,april1 #ahcd1 and under the act #c and #d ,william ,,iv4 c4 #ajj1 all tea imported into the ,united ,kingdom for home consumption was charged with a customs as follows3-- ,bohea #as4 #f;d4 per lb4 ,congou1 twankay1 hyson skin1 orange pekoe1 and campoi #b #b ,souchong1 flowery pekoe1 hyson1 young hyson1 gunpowder1 imperial1 and other teas not enumerated #c #j ,in #ahcf1 the uniform duty of #bs4 #a;d4 per lb4 on all descriptions of tea was imposed1 which1 with the additional #e per cent1 imposed in #ahdj1 made the total duty levied per lb4 #bs4 #b;d4 and a fraction4 ,during the years from #ahca to #ahda1 in spite of an increase of nearly three millions in the population of the country1 and notwithstanding the impetus given to the tea-trade by the abolition of the ,east ,india ,company's monopoly in #ahcc1 the increased consumption was only #f1fge1eff lbs4 ,great as the increase has been of late years1 however1 it is very far short of what we might expect to see were the duty reduced to a moderate per centage on the value of the article as it comes from the ,chinese merchant4 ,in ,jersey and ,guernsey1 where there is no duty on tea1 the average consumption is #d lbs4 per head per annum4 ,the same rate for the ,united ,kingdom would require an annual importation of nearly #aej million lbs4 ,i asserted1 many months ago1 if the duty could be gradually reduced from its present exorbitant amount to #as4 per lb41 the revenue would not suffer much1 whilst the comfort of the people would be much increased1 and our trade with ,china greatly improved4 ,years4 ,teas ,imported1 lbs4 ,entered for ,home ,consumption1 lbs4 #ahdc #db1ggi1bfe #ce1fhe1bfb #ahdd #ej1fac1cbh #da1agf1jj #ahde #ec1egj1bfg #dd1abg1jjj #ahdf #eg1ehd1efa #df1eed1ghg #ahdg #ee1bee1jjj #ej1iba1dhf #ahdh #dg1ggd1gee #dh1gce1fif #ahdi #ec1dfj1gea #ej1jbd1fhh #ahej #ej1eab1chd #ea1agh1bae #ahea #ga1dff1dba #ec1ife1aab #aheb #ff1cfa1jbj #ed1gbd1fae ,amount of duty received on tea3-- ,prices of ,sound ,common ,congou per lb4 #ahda #c1igc1ffh #as4 #g;d4 to #bs4 #j;d4 #ahdb #d1jhh1ieg #a #g #a #aj #ahdc #d1djg1fdb #a #j #a #b #ahdd #d1ebd1jic #j #aj #a #j #ahde #d1hcc1cea #a #j #a #i #ahdf #e1aab1jje #j #i #j #i #ahdg #e1jff1hfj #j #h #j #i #ahdh #e1ccj1eae #j #h #j #h #ahdi #e1dga1fda #j #h #j #i #ahej #e1eig1gjh #j #aj #a #a #ahea #e1ijb1dcc #j #h #j #h #aheb #e1ihf1dhb #j #g #b #b ,mr4 ,montgomery ,martin1 in his work on ,china1 published in #ahdg1 gave the average annual consumption of tea1 the produce of ,china1 as follows3-- lbs4 ,great ,britain and ,ireland #de1jjj1jjj ,british ,north ,america and ,west ,indies #b1ejj1jjj ,australasia1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 c4 #b1ejj1jjj ,british ,india and ,eastern ,islands #b1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total used throughout the ,british ,empire #eb1jjj1jjj ---------- ,united ,states of ,north ,america 99 #g1jjj1jjj ,russia #aj1jjj1jjj ,france and ,colonies #ejj1jjj ,hanse ,towns1 c4 #aej1jjj ,holland and its ,colonies #a1jjj1jjj ,belgium #bjj1jjj ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway #bej1jjj ,the ,german ,states #ejj1jjj ,spain and ,portugal #ajj1jjj ,italian ,states #ej1jjj ,south ,american ,states #ejj1jjj ------- ,total consumption in foreign countries #bj1bej1jjj 99 ,this is only one-third the actual consumption4 ,according to this statement1 it would seem that the ,english consume twice the quantity of tea that is used by all the other countries excepting ,china and ,japan4 ,the consumption of tea in ,europe and ,america ,i estimated a year or two ago as follows3-- lbs4 ,russia #ae1jjj1jjj ,united ,states of ,america #ah1jjj1jjj ,france #b1jjj1jjj ,holland #b1hjj1jjj ,other countries #b1jjj1jjj ,great ,britain #ej1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total #hi1hjj1jjj ,the estimated consumption1 at the rate of consumption found where taxation is favorable 7as for instance #a pounds--the average of this country7 would give the following3-- cwts4 ,england #djj1jjj ,france #eaj1jjj ,germany #djj1jjj ,austria #ejj1jjj ,prussia 444 ,belgium #fc1jjj ,russia #ijj1jjj ,rest of ,europe #gej1jjj ,the total exportation of tea by sea from ,china1 was estimated by ,mr4 ,martin in #ahdg at #gf millions of pounds1 viz43-- ,england #ej1jjj1jjj ,united ,states #bj1jjj1jjj ,all other countries #e1jjj1jjj ---------- #ge1jjj1jjj which1 at #bj taels per picul 7#acc lbs47 amounts to #aa1bhj1jjj taels of silver at #hj;d4 per tael1 #c1gfj1jjj4 ,the present ,chinese duty of two taels five mace1 does not include shipping and other charges2 the old duty was five taels1 and included all charges paid the ,hong merchants4 ,the export by sea is now about #ig millions of lbs4 ,the following was the returned value of the tea exported from the five ,chinese ports in #ahdd and #ahde3-- #ahdd4 #ahde4 ,canton #b1iaj1dgd #c1dbi1gij ,shanghae #fg1aae #dfb1gdf ,ningpo #b1jjj #b1jjj ,amoy #edd ,foo-chow-foo #fch --------- --------- #b1igi1ehi #c1hie1gah ,the average cost of tea in ,china at the ship's side is #aj;d4 per pound1 while it is confidently asserted that it could be produced in many parts of ,america at #e;d4 the pound4 ,the great cost in ,china is owing to the expensive transportation1 the cultivation of the fuel used1 the absence of all economy of machinery1 c4 ,it is only by adulteration that tea is sold in ,china as cheap as #aj;d4 ,in ,america the beating and rolling of the leaves 7one half of the labor7 could be done by the simplest machinery1 fuel could be economised by flues1 c4 ,the ,russian teas1 brought by caravans1 are the most expensive and best teas used in ,europe4 ,the ,chinese themselves pay #g dollars per pound for the ,yen ,pouchong teas4 ,full chests were exhibited in #ahea1 by ,mr4 ,ripley1 of various ,pekoe teas1 some of which fetch #ejs4 per lb4 in the ,china market2 whilst #gs4 is the very highest price any of the sort will fetch in ,england1 and this only as a fancy article4 ,the plain and orange-scented ,pekoes now fetch little with us2 but as caravan teas1 are purchased by the wealthier ,russian families4 ,the finest1 however1 never leave ,china1 being bought up by the ,mandarins2 for though the transit expenses add #cs4 to #ds4 per lb4 to the value when sold in ,russia1 the highest market price in ,st4 ,petersburg is always under #ejs4 ,among these scented teas are various caper teas1 flavoured with chloranthus flowers and the buds of some species of plants belonging to the orange tribe1 magnolia fuscata1 olea flowers1 c4 ,the ,cong ,souchong1 or ,ning-young teas1 are chiefly purchased for the ,american market4 ,oolong tea is the favourite drink in ,calcutta1 though less prized in ,england1 its delicate flavor being injured by the length of the voyage4 ,for delicacy1 no teas1 approach those usually called ,mandarin teas1 which being slightly fired and rather damp when in the fittest state for use1 will bear neither transport nor keeping4 ,they are in great demand among the wealthy ,chinese1 and average #bjs4 per lb in the native market4--7,jury ,reports47 ,the consumption of tea in the ,united ,kingdom may now be fairly taken at fifty-four million pounds yearly1 and sold at an average price to the consumer of #ds4 #f;d41 per pound4 ,the money expended for tea is upwards of twelve millions sterling4 ,the expenditure of this sum is distributed as follows1 in round numbers3-- ,net cost of #ed1jjj1jjj pounds1 average #as4 per pound #b1gjj1jjj ,export duty in ,china of #a;d4 a lb4 #ccg1ejj ,shipping charges1 c41 in ,china #be1jjj ,freight1 c41 ,china to ,england1 about #b;d4 per lb4 #dej1jjj ,insurance1 d4 per lb4 #aab1ejj ,commission1 about d4 per lb4 #ef1bej ,tasting charges1 c41 about #a_/h of a penny per lb4 #bh1abe ,interest for #f months on #c1gji1cge at #e per cent4 #ib1gcd --------- ,total outlay in ,china #c1hjb1aji ,profit to exporters in ,china17about #ab per cent47 #dde1aaf ,landing charges1 c41 in ,england #ci1jjj ---------- ,cost price in bond in ,england #d1bhf1bbe ,duty received by government at #bs4 #b4 per lb41 about #e1ihe1dhb ---------- #aj1bga1gjg ,profit divided among tea-brokers1 wholesale and retail dealers1 c #a1hgh1bic ---------- ,total outlay by ,british public for tea1 at #ds4 #f;d4 per lb4 #ab1aej1jjj ,the tea imported into ,england in #affg was only #ajj lbs41 while for the year ending ,june #cj1 #ahea1 the export from ,china to ,great ,britain was #fd1jbj1jjj lbs41 employing #aae vessels in its transportation2 and to the ,united ,states1 during the same time1 #bh1gfj1hjj lbs41 in sixty-four vessels4 ,within the last five years1 the export has increased #aj1jjj1jjj lbs4 to the ,united ,states1 and #ag1jjj1jjj to ,great ,britain4 ,these statistics will show the immense importance of this article to commerce1 and the vast amount of shipping it supports4 ,but let us follow out the statistics a little more in detail4 ,the population of the ,chinese provinces1 as quoted by ,dr4 ,morison1 from an official census taken in #ahbe1 was #ceb1hff1jab1 and we may fairly conclude that during the last twenty-eight years this population has extensively increased4 ,if we assume the annual consumption of tea at four lb4 per head on the above population2 and this is no unreasonable assumption in a country1 where1 to quote from ,murray's valuable work on ,china1 tea is the national drink1 which is presented on every occasion1 served up at every feast1 and even sold on the public roads2 we shall have a tolerably accurate result as to the total consumption in the empire4 ,indeed this computation falls short of the actual relative consumption in the island of ,jersey1 where1 as we have seen1 nearly five lbs4 is the annual allowance of each individual4 ,if we multiply the population of ,china by four1 we have-- lbs4 ,total consumption of tea in ,china #a1daa1dfd1jdh ,export of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 for the year ending ,june #cj1 #ahea4 #fd1jbj1jjj ,export to the ,united ,states1 same period #bh1gfj1hjj ,export to ,holland1 returned at #b1jjj1jjj in ,davis's ,china #c1jjj1jjj ,inland trade to ,russia #ae1jjj1jjj ,export to ,hamburg1 ,bremen1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 c41 seven cargoes1 about #c1jjj1jjj ,export to ,sydney1 and ,australasian ,colonies1 at least #f1jjj1jjj ,export to ,spain and ,france1 four cargoes #b1jjj1jjj --------- ,total lbs4 #a1ecc1bdd1hdh ,the above is exclusive of the heavy exportation in ,chinese vessels to all parts of the east where ,chinese emigrants are settled1 such as ,tonquin1 ,cochin ,china1 ,cambodia1 ,siam1 the ,philippines1 ,borneo1 and the various settlements within the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,in comparison with such an enormous quantity1 the #ed million lbs4 consumed in the ,united ,kingdom sink into insignificance4 ,the cost of tea to ,america1 at the ship's side in ,china1 say #bi1jjj1jjj lbs41 at an average of #as4 per lb41 would be #a1dej1jjj ,the cost to ,england1 #fd1jjj1jjj1 at the same price #c1bjj1jjj ,the cost to other places1 say #be1jjj1jjj #a1bej1jjj ,russia1 #ae1jjj1jjj #gej1jjj ---------- ,total #f1fej1jjj ,it is therefore clear1 that were the demand to be doubled from ,great ,britain1 it would make very little difference in the ,chinese market2 since it would be only a question of letting us have six per cent1 of their growth of the article1 instead of three4 ,when we remember that the tea plant attains to maturity in three years1 and its leaves are then fit for picking2 and that there is a vast extent of country to which it is indigenous1 growing in every climate between the equator and the latitude of #de degrees1 it is evident that1 were there a necessity for it1 the actual production of tea in ,china could be increased to an almost unlimited extent in the space of three or four years1 an extent far more than compensating for the extra three per cent41 which might be1 in the first instance1 required by the ,british4 ,the certainty of an increased consumption following upon a reduction in the price of tea to the actual consumers of it1 is so obvious as to require demonstration to those only who have not considered the subject4 ,the population of ,great ,britain and ,ireland is1 say in round numbers #cj1jjj1jjj1 the actual consumption of tea is only #ed1jjj1jjj lbs41 or little more than one pound and three quarters for each individual4 ,in the neighbouring island of ,jersey1 there are nearly five lbs4 of tea consumed by every inhabitant yearly2 and as we may fairly infer from analogy that similar results would arise from a similar cause1 the consumption in the ,united ,kingdom in the same ratio would amount to no less than #aej millions of pounds annually4 ,tea1 observes a most competent authority 7,mr4 ,j4 ,ingram ,travers71 is the favourite drink of the people3 all desire to have it strong and good1 and none who can afford it are without it4 ,but in the agricultural districts the laborers use but little2 numbers of them make tea with burnt crusts1 because the ,china tea is too dear4 ,in ,ireland the consumption is greatly below that of ,england2 there are comparatively few people who do not1 on company occasions1 make their tea stronger than for ordinary use1 and the general economy in the use of tea forms an exception to almost every other article of consumption4 ,as to the working classes in the manufacturing districts1 ,mr4 ,bayley1 ,president of the ,manchester ,chamber of ,commerce1 himself a very extensive manufacturer1 and therefore well qualified to speak to the fact1 says3--,the common calculation of two ounces per head per week ,i should think is very much in excess of what the working classes consume4 ,domestic servants1 ,i believe1 have that quantity allowed them1 but ,i should say that the working classes do not consume one quarter of that4 ,and yet it is these classes who are the great consumers of everything cheap enough to be within their reach4 ,it is this consumption that1 under better earnings1 has sustained the steady increase of nearly two million pounds of tea per annum for the last eight years1 and still there is such ample room for increase that domestic servants are allowed at least four times as much per head as those working people who value1 more than any other class1 the cheerful refreshingness of tea1 but who1 stinted in its use by the exorbitant duty1 are tempted and almost driven to the use1 instead1 of degrading drinks4 ,and if the general consumption of the population should rise to even half servants' allowance1 or one ounce per head per week1 the consumption of tea would reach #ig1ejj1jjj lbs4 per annum4 ,and as to what might be used if the taste for it had free scope1 some idea may be formed from the fact that the consumption of such people as have found their way from these countries1 where the consumption is #a lb4 #i ozs4 per head1 to ,australia1 has there risen to #g lbs4 per head1 at which rate the consumption of the ,united ,kingdom would be about #baj1jjj1jjj lbs4 per annum1 and which1 even at a #f;d4 duty1 would produce five millions and a half4 ,there is nothing in the air of ,australia to give any especial impulse to tea drinking3 on the contrary2 in this comparatively cold1 damp climate1 people would naturally use a hot beverage more largely than in the dry warm climate of ,australia2 and1 after all1 great as the ,australian consumption seems1 it is scarcely more than a quarter of an ounce per head per week above the allowance to ,english domestic servants4 ,the consumption of tea1 notwithstanding the dicta of ,mr4 ,montgomery ,martin1 is destined to a prodigious increase4 ,nor is it solely to an increase in the consumption of tea1 that we must look to prevent any deficiency in the revenue1 as there is no doubt that a reduction in the price of the article would lead to a prodigious increase in the quantity of sugar consumed1 especially by the lower classes1 who seldom take the one without the other4 ,it is not1 however1 merely that they would buy sugar in proportion to the quantity of tea that they consume2 the circumstance of a smaller sum being requisite for their weekly stock of tea1 would enable them to spend a larger amount in other articles1 among which sugar would1 undoubtedly1 be one of the most important4 ,the merchant1 shipowner1 manufacturer1 and all connected with the trade between ,great ,britain and ,china1 are in a position to see the prodigious advantages that such a measure as an extensive reduction of the impost on tea would occasion to the general trade of the country2 and the public at large1 who are not practically familiar with the subject1 only require it to be brought before them in a distinct point of view1 when the important results of such a reduction cannot fail to be apparent to them4 ,tea is not now within the reach of the poor man4 ,a person taking tea once a day1 will consume about #g lbs4 a year4 lbs4 ,say #ejj1jjj persons take tea twice a day1 or #ae lbs4 a year1 is #g1ejj1jjj ,say #d1jjj1jjj persons take tea once a day1 or #g lbs4 a year1 is #cj1jjj1jjj ,say #ab1jjj1jjj persons take tea once a week1 or #a lb4 a year1 is #ab1jjj1jjj ---------- #di1ejj1jjj ,which shows that1 at present1 only one person out of every sixty can have tea twice a day2 one of every seven only once a day2 and that out of the remaining #ac1ejj1jjj persons1 only five millions and a half can procure it once in the week4 ,the exact state of the case shows that only eight millions of the people of the ,united ,kingdom enjoy the use of tea1 leaving the other twenty-two millions excluded4 ,a ,chinese will consume thirty pounds of tea in the year4 ,but it is said we must not1 if our accumulated stocks be drank off this year1 expect the ,chinese to meet at once so huge an increase in the demand as to supply us with as much next year4 ,now on no point of the case is the evidence so clear as upon the capacity of the ,chinese to furnish1 within any year1 any quantity we may require4 ,the ,committee of #ahdg1 on ,commercial ,relations with ,china1 state--,that the demand for tea from ,china has been progressively and rapidly rising for many years1 with no other results than that of diminished prices3--a fact to be accounted for only upon the supposition that our ordinary demand is exceedingly small in proportion to the ,chinese supply4 ,nor is it an unreasonable inference1 that if so much more than usual was to be had at a less price than before1 any rise of price1 however trivial it might be1 would bring forward a much larger quantity3#h a supposition which is completely confirmed by a review of prices here1 and exports from ,china within the last four years2 and in considering which it is important to bear in mind--#ast1 that our tea trade year1 on which our account of import1 export1 home consumption1 and stock on hand is taken1 is from ,january to ,january1 and the ,chinese tea year from ,july to ,july2 #bnd1 that a rise at the close of the last months of the year in ,england1 influences the next year's exports from ,china2 and #crdly1 that of late years1 since something of decrepitude has fallen upon the ,chinese ,government1 smuggling there1 to escape the export duty1 has been carried on largely and at an increasing rate1 so that the return is considerably below the real export4 ,in the ,chinese tea year1 ,july to ,july1 #ahdh-i1 the price of good ordinary congou1 the tea of by far the largest consumption here1 and which1 in fact1 rules the market1 was #h;d4 to #i-a_/c;d41 and the export from ,china #dg1bea1jjj lbs4 ,the year closed with the higher price1 and the ,chinese export from ,july #ahdi1 to ,july #ahej1 was #ed1jjj1jjj lbs41 showing an increase of export on the year of #f1gej1jjj lbs4 ,throughout #ahej1 here1 prices fluctuated a good deal4 ,they were low in the earlier part of the year1 but in ,january went up from #i;d4 to #aa;d41 and from ,july #ahej1 to ,july #ahea1 the export from ,china rose to #fd1jjj1jjj lbs41 being an increase of ten million pounds on a previous increase of nearly seven million lbs4 ,prices here1 during #ahea1 varied very much3 it was difficult to say whether any rise would be established1 but the export still went up and reached1 from ,july #ahea1 to ,july #aheb1 #fg1jjj1jjj lbs41 giving a total increase in three years of #ai1gej1jjj lbs4 ,nor was it pretended that in any of those years the ,chinese market showed even the least symptoms of exhaustion4 ,we know1 say the ,committee1 that the ,chinese market has never been drained of tea in any one year1 but that there has been always a surplus left to meet any extraordinary demand4 ,but the effect of the rise in price in #ahej is still more forcibly shown by a comparison of our total imports in that and the following year4 ,in #ahej we imported #dh1cjj1jjj lbs42 in #ahea1 #ga1ejj1jjj lbs41 being an increase of #bc1bjj1jjj lbs4 ,doubtless the ,chinese export1 if made up totally with our year1 would not account for the whole quantity1 part of which is to be set down to ,chinese export-smuggling1 and part to arrivals from ,america and the ,continent4 ,the probability is that the increase of price referred to above never reached the ,chinese tea farmers2 the supply came from the merchants' stock on hand4 ,the rise was1 besides1 uncertain1 and from any established advance a much larger increase of export might be looked for4 ,but the mistake made in ,england in estimating what tea we may look for from ,china goes upon the supposition that they grow expressly for us3 the fact being1 as stated by ,mr4 ,robt4 ,fortune1 in his recently published ,tea ,districts of ,china1 that the quantity exported bears but a small proportion to that consumed by the ,chinese themselves4 ,on this point the report of the ,parliamentary ,committee is explicit3--,there is a population in ,china1 commonly assumed at above three hundred millions1 at all hours in the day consuming tea1 which only requires some change of preparation to be fit for exportation2 thus implying an amount of supply on which any demand that may be made for foreign export can be1 after a very short time1 but slightly felt4 ,mr4 ,fortune1 in his evidence1 says that the ,chinese drink about four times as much as we do3 they are always drinking it4 ,four times as much is probably very much an under-estimate4 ,with rich and poor of all that swarming population1 tea1 not such as our working classes drink1 but fresh and strong1 and with no second watering1 accompanies every meal4 ,but even taking their consumption at four times as much per head as ours1 and their population at the lowest estimate1 at three hundred millions1 their consumption1 setting ours at #ee1jjj1jjj lbs41 will be no less than two thousand two hundred millions of pounds per annum1 or forty times the quantity used in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,as reasonably might the few foreigners who visit the metropolis in the summer expect to cause a famine of fruit and vegetables in ,london1 as we that a doubling of our demand for tea would be felt in ,china4 ,the further fifty-five million pounds would be but another fortieth of what they use themselves1 and would have no more effect upon their entire market than the arrival of some thousand strangers within the year in ,london would have upon the supply of bread or butchers' meat4 ,there is no need1 therefore1 to wait for the extension of tea plantations1 and so far from taking for granted the statement of the late ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 that time must be given to increase production1 and that the point of its taking three or four years to make a tea-tree is to be considered in dealing with the duties1 we have the fact unmistakeably before us1 that the production is already so vast1 that any demand from us could have no appreciable effect4 ,and as to future supplies1 if we should come to drink as much as the ,chinese themselves1 a matter not at all needful to be considered at present1 the ,committee report that the cultivation of the plant may be indefinitely extended2 whilst ,mr4 ,fortune1 who has been upon the spot1 states that there is not the slightest doubt that there is a great part of the land which is nearly uncultivated now1 which1 were there a demand for tea1 could be brought into cultivation4 ,the cost would be very little indeed2 they would cut down a quantity of brushwood1 and probably dig over the ground and plant the bushes4 ,they could clear and plant it in the same year1 and in about two years they could get something from it4 ,as1 however1 without this extension they have hitherto found enough for the increase of their own vast population1 for every extension of demand from us and every other foreign customer1 whether by land or water1 without the least tendency to an advance in price1 there is no need to do more than thus touch upon the undeveloped resources of tea production4--,travers on the ,tea ,duties4 ,the consumption of tea in ,russia is very great1 as the middling classes make a more frequent use of that beverage than the rest4 ,every year #fj1jjj chests of tea arrive at ,maimiatchin and ,kiakhta1 of the declared official value of #a1ahe1jjj sterling2 and to this may be added #ch1fej for inferior tea used by the people of the south1 which makes the total declared value of the tea introduced about one and a quarter million sterling4 ,the consumption of ,russia may be assumed at over fifteen millions of pounds1 although we have no correct data1 as in the case of shipping returns1 to calculate from4 ,in #ahdh1 however1 the ,russians took #acf1bag boxes of fine tea of the ,chinese1 for which they paid #e1cdi1iah silver roubles--one million sterling4 ,the quantity forwarded from ,kiakhta into the interior consisted of-- ,foods4 ,flowery or ,pekoe tea #fi1fgg ,ordinary tea #ahc1geb ,brick tea #aaf1bdi ,equal to about fifteen million lbs4 ,english4 ,brick tea of ,thibet4--,a sample of this curious product was shown by the ,east ,india ,company in #ahea4 ,it is formed of the refuse tea-leaves and sweepings of the granaries1 damped and pressed into a mould1 generally with a little bullock's blood4 ,the finer sorts are friable masses1 and are packed in papers2 the coarser sewn up in sheep's skin4 ,in this form it is an article of commerce throughout ,central and ,northern ,asia and the ,himalayan provinces2 and is consumed by ,mongols1 ,tartars1 and ,tibetans1 churned with milk1 salt1 butter1 and boiling water1 more as a soup than as tea proper4 ,certain quantities are forced upon the acceptance of the ,western tributaries of the ,chinese ,empire1 in payment for the support of troops1 c42 and is hence1 from its convenient size and form1 brought into circulation as a coin1 over an area greater than that of ,europe4--,dr4 ,hooker1 in ,jury ,reports4 ,the quantity and value of the tea imported into the ,united ,states1 from #ahba1 is thus stated3-- ,years4 ,pounds4 ,value1 dolls4 #ahba #d1ige1fdf #a1cbb1fcf #ahbb #f1fci1dcd #a1hfj1ggg #ahbc #h1baj1jaj #b1cfa1bde #ahbd #h1ibj1dhg #b1ghf1hab #ahbe #aj1bji1edh #c1gbh1ice #ahbf #aj1ajh1ijj #c1geb1bha #ahbg #e1hge1fch #a1gad1hhb #ahbh #g1gjg1dbg #b1dea1aig #ahbi #f1fcf1gij #b1jfj1deg #ahcj #h1fji1dae #b1dbe1jah #ahca #e1ahb1hfg #a1dah1jcg #ahcb #i1ijf1fjf #b1ghh1cec #ahcc #ad1fci1hbb #e1dhd1fjc #ahcd #af1bhb1igg #f1bag1idi #ahce #ad1dae1egb #d1ebb1hjf #ahcf #af1chb1aad #e1cdb1haa #ahcg #af1ihb1chd #e1ijc1jed #ahch #ad1dah1aab #c1dig1aef #ahci #i1dci1hag #b1dbh1dai #ahdj #bj1jjf1eie #e1dbg1jaj #ahda #aj1ggb1jhg #c1jge1ccb #ahdb #ac1dhb1fde #c1efg1gde #ahdc #ab1ghe1gdh #c1dje1fbg #ahdd #ac1jed1cbg #c1aeb1bbe #ahde #ag1afb1eej #d1hjb1fba #ahdf #af1hia1jbj #c1ihc1ccg #ahdg #ad1bba1daj #c1bjj1jef #ahdh #ah1hhi1bag ,the annual reports of the ,secretary to the ,treasury1 for the last twenty years1 show a considerable increase in the consumption of tea in the ,united ,states1 but not so great as in the article of coffee4 ,the establishment of tea shops1 in all the large cities of ,america1 is a new feature in the retail trade1 dating only some six years back4 ,the average rate of duty1 which previously ranged between thirty and thirty-four cents4 per pound1 was reduced in #ahcb to fourteen cents 7#g;d47 a pound4 ,the proportion of green to black used is shown by the following return of the imports3-- lbs4 #ahdd ,green #aj1aca1hcg ,black #d1abe1ebg ---------- ,total #ad1beg1cfd #ahde ,green #ac1hjb1jii ,black #f1iej1dei ---------- ,total #bj1geb1eeh ,the large import of #ahdj1 of #bej1jjj chests1 of which #bjj1jjj were green1 was in anticipation of the disturbances arising from the war with ,great ,britain1 and the blockade of the ports4 ,in #ahej1 there were #agc1cag chests of green tea1 and #ia1jag of black tea exported from ,china to ,america2 these quantities1 with a further portion purchased from ,england1 made a total of about twenty-three million lbs4 of tea which crossed the ,atlantic in #ahej4 ,the imports and exports of tea into the ,united ,states1 in the years ending ,dec4 #cast1 #ahdh and #ahdi1 were as follows3-- ,,imports4 #ahdi4 #ahdh4 lbs4 lbs4 ,green #ad1bcg1gjj #ac1fhf1ccf ,black #e1iii1cae #c1hae1feb ---------- ---------- ,total #bj1bcf1iaf #ag1ejc1ihh ,,exports4 ,green #bcj1dgj #bfb1gjh ,black #ahf1fej #aid1bab ---------- ---------- ,total #dag1abj #def1ibj ,the value of tea imported into the ,united ,states during the year ending ,june #cjth1 #ahea1 amounted to #d1gih1jjf dollars 7nearly #a1jjj1jjj sterling72 of this was re-exported a little over #a1jjj1jjj dollars worth1 leaving for home consumption #c1ffh1ada dollars4 ,the quality of tea depends much upon the season when the leaves are picked1 the mode in which it is prepared1 as well as the district in which it grows4 ,the tea districts in ,china extend from the #bgth degree to the #cast degree of north latitude1 and1 according to missionaries1 it thrives in the more northern provinces4 ,koempfer says it is cultivated in ,japan1 as far north as #de degrees4 ,it seems to succeed best on the sides of mountains1 among sandstone1 schistus1 and granite4 ,in #ahcd1 the ,east ,india ,company introduced the cultivation of tea in ,upper ,assam1 where it is said to be indigenous2 and they now ship large quantities of very excellent tea from thence4 ,mr4 ,boyer1 director of the museum at ,port ,louis1 ,mauritius1 has succeeded in rearing #dj1jjj tea-trees1 and expresses an opinion1 that if the island of ,bourbon would give itself up to the cultivation1 it might easily supply ,france with all the tea she requires4 ,the culture has also been commenced on a small scale1 in ,st4 ,helena1 and the ,cape ,colony4 ,the cultivation of the tea-tree might be tried with probability of success in ,natal1 and the ,mauritius4 ,the plant grows in every soil1 even the most ungrateful2 resists the hurricanes1 and requires little care4 ,the picking of the leaves1 like the pods of cotton1 is performed by women1 children1 and the infirm1 without much expense4 ,the preparation is known to the greater part of the ,chinese1 of whom there are so many in ,mauritius2 besides1 it is not difficult4 ,a ,mr4 ,duprat has1 ,i am informed1 planted a certain extent of land in the neighbourhood of ,cernpipe1 in that island1 but ,i have not yet learnt with what success4 ,the tea-plant has been successfully cultivated1 on a large scale1 in the island of ,madeira1 at an elevation of #c1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 by ,mr4 ,hy4 ,veitch1 ,british ex-,consul4 ,the quality of the leaf is excellent4 ,the whole theory of preparing it is merely to destroy the herbaceous taste1 the leaves being perfect1 when1 like hay1 they emit an agreeable odor4 ,but to roll up each leaf1 as in ,china1 is found too expensive1 although boys and girls are employed at about two-pence or three-pence per day4 ,mr4 ,veitch has1 therefore1 tried the plan of compressing the leaves into small cakes1 which can be done at a trifling expense4 ,it is performed when the leaf is dry2 whereas1 the rolling requires moisture1 and subsequent roasting on copper plates is necessary to prevent mustiness4 ,in this process the acid of the tea acts upon the copper1 and causes that astringency which we remark in all the ,china teas4 ,the tea of ,cochin ,china is considered inferior to that of ,china1 being less strong and pleasant in flavour4 ,an inferior sort of tea1 with a leaf twice or thrice as large as that of ,bohea1 grows wild in the hilly parts of ,quang-ai1 and is sold at from #abs4 #f;d4 to #djs4 the picul of #acclbs4 ,the ,dutch have devoted much attention to tea cultivation in ,java1 and the plantations are in fine order4 ,nearly a million lbs4 of tea were shipped thence in #ahdh2 but the tea is said to be of inferior quality1 and grown and manufactured at considerable expense4 ,japan produces both black and green tea4 ,the ,japanese prefer the latter to the ,chinese green tea4 ,the black tea is very bad4 ,the ,japanese tea-tree1 is an evergreen1 growing in the most sterile places to the height of about six feet4 ,it is described as above1 by ,koempfer1 as having leaves like the cherry1 with a flower like the wild rose2 when fresh1 the leaves have no smell1 but a very astringent taste4 ,tea grows in all the southern provinces of ,japan1 but the best green is produced in the principality of ,kioto1 where it is cultivated with great care4 ,a few years ago1 ,messrs4 ,worms attempted the cultivation of tea in ,ceylon4 ,the island1 however1 lies too far within the tropics to offer a climate like ,assam1 which is situate without them4 ,the plants may thrive to appearance1 but that is not a demonstration of their quality4 ,the tea-plant has reached upwards of six feet in height at ,pinang1 and in as healthy a state as could be desired1 but the leaf had no flavor1 and although thousands of ,chinese husbandmen cultivate spices1 and other tropical productions on that island1 no one thinks it worth while to extend the cultivation of the tea-plant in ,pinang4 ,the ,chinese there laugh at the idea of converting the leaf into a beverage4 ,the cultivation of the tea-plant has been introduced into the ,united ,states1 and those planters who have tried the experiment have succeeded beyond their highest expectations4 ,dr4 ,junius ,smith had successfully cultivated the plant on his property called ,golden grove1 near ,grenville1 in ,south ,carolina4 ,his plants were in full blossom1 and as healthy and flourishing as those of ,china at the same stage of growth4 ,everything connected with them looked favorable1 and ,dr4 ,smith felt abundantly encouraged to extend the culture of the several descriptions of tea upon his property4 ,it is stated that his expectations were so great1 that he contemplated to place fresh tea on the tea-tables of ,england and ,paris in twenty days1 from the plantation4 ,he had a large supply of plants1 and tea seed enough for a million more4 ,the black descriptions blossomed earlier than the green plant1 but the latter also blossomed luxuriantly4 ,he introduced at first about #ejj plants of from five to seven years' growth1 overland from the north-west provinces of ,india1 and some from ,china direct4 ,in the close of #ahdi1 he writes me3-- ,during the past year the tea-plant under my care has passed through severe trials1 from the injury received in transplanting1 from the heat generated in the packing-cases1 from the want of shelter during the severe frosts of ,february1 from the excessive heat in ,june1 and from the drought of #eh days' continuance in ,july and ,august4 ,the plants were divested of their leaves and generally of their branches and twigs in ,february1 during my absence in ,new ,york4 ,knowing that the plants were tender1 and not fortified by age and mature growth against severe weather1 ,i had directed them to be covered in case a material change of temperature should occur4 ,but these orders were neglected1 and they consequently suffered from that cause4 ,the plant is sufficiently hardy to resist any weather occurring in this part of the country1 when seasoned for one year4 ,the plant has grown thrifty since ,april1 and the quantity of foliage1 buds1 and blossoms1 show that the root has taken strong hold1 and is now fully equal to produce its fruit next autumn1 which always follows the year after the blossoms4 ,i have a variety of both black and green tea-plants4 ,the buds and blossoms of the latter did not appear until a fortnight after the black tea-plant4 ,but the blossoms were larger when they did appear in ,september1 ,october1 ,november1 and ,december4 ,from present appearances1 ,i think the blossoms of some of the late plants will continue to unfold until spring4 ,it is not an unusual thing for the blossoms and the fruit to appear at the same time upon the same plant4 ,in this particular it differs from any plant ,i have seen4 ,as my chief object1 at present1 is to cultivate and increase the tea-nut1 it will be a year or two perhaps before ,i attempt to convert the leaf into tea4 ,the root supports the leaf and fruit1 and the leaf the root1 so that neither can be spared without detriment4 ,this climate appears congenial to the growth of the plant1 and the soil is so diversified in this mountainous district1 that there is no difficulty in selecting that best adapted to seed-growing plants1 or that designed for the leaf only4 ,upon the plantation purchased this summer1 ,i have light-yellow1 dark-brown1 and red clay subsoil1 of a friable character1 with a surface soil sufficiently sandy to answer the demands of the plant4 ,i do not see any reason to doubt1 from a year's experience1 that the tea-plant in its varieties will flourish in what ,i heretofore denominated the tea-growing district of the ,united ,states1 as well as in any part of ,china4 ,the slowness of its growth requires patience4 ,but when once established1 the tea-nuts will supply the means of extending cultivation1 and the duration of the plant for twenty years diminishes the expense of labor4 ,to illustrate the hardihood of the plant1 ,i may observe1 that notwithstanding the zero severity of ,february frost destroyed the leaves and branches of most of the plants1 and those now blooming in great beauty and strength are from roots the growth of this summer1 ,i have one green tea-plant the stem and branches of which withstood the frost of ,february without the slightest protection1 and is now a splendid plant1 covered with branches and evergreen leaves1 affording undeniable evidence not only of its capability of resisting frost1 but of its adaptation to just such a degree of temperature4 ,i have often remarked that the tea-plant requires for its perfection the influence of two separate and distinct climates1 the heat of summer and the cold of winter4 ,the thermometer in this vicinity during the heat of summer generally ranges from #gd at #f o'clock a4m4 to #hb at #c o'clock p4m41 only one day during the summer so high as #hf4 ,this is a most agreeable temperature1 nights always cool1 which the tea-plant enjoys1 and the days hot and fanned with the mountain breeze4 ,the drought ,i found the most difficult point to contend with1 owing to the want of adequate means for irrigation4 ,i lost #bj or #cj plants through this1 and learned that no tea plantation should he established without irrigation4 ,after two or three years there will be little necessity for it1 because the depth of the roots will generally then protect the plant4 ,my plantation at ,golden ,grove is well supplied with water1 or ,i should not have purchased it at any price4 ,it is the first and most important point to secure a southern or western aspect1 a gentle declivity the second1 salubrious air and suitable soil the third4 ,our country is filled with natural tea plantations1 which are only waiting the hand of the husbandman to be covered with this luxuriant and productive plant4 ,i know the public is naturally impatient of delay4 ,like corn1 it is expected that the tea-nuts will be planted in the spring1 and the crop gathered in the autumn4 ,but they forget that the tea-plant does not interfere with any other crop1 and when once planted it does not soon require a renewal4 ,i have sometimes felt this impatience myself1 and longed for a cup of tea of my own growing1 but ,i have never had one4 ,as a husbandman1 ,i must wait some time longer1 and let patience have her perfect work4 ,again1 under date ,may #a1 #ahej1 he states that he has succeeded admirably in the culture4 ,the plants bear the winter well1 and their physiology and general characteristics remain unchanged by the change of climate and soil4 ,the leaf puts out at the same period of the year that it does in ,china4 ,on the #bgth of ,may1 #ahej1 ,dr4 ,smith received a further batch of trees1 fresh1 green and healthful1 as if still growing in the plantations of ,china2 after a passage of little more than five months4 ,these plants1 together with the seedlings and nuts1 were of the green tea species1 and obtained from a quarter situated about #gjj miles from ,canton4 ,in a letter1 dated ,grenville1 ,s4,c41 ,june #agth1 #ahej1 with which ,i have been favored1 he adds3-- ,i never heard of the failure of the tea-crop4 ,all vegetation may be retarded1 or lessened1 or augmented1 in its production1 in a slight degree1 by excessive rains1 or drought1 or cold1 or heat1 or atmospheric action2 but the tea-plant is sure to produce its leaf4 ,from all ,i have observed1 a decided drought is the most detrimental to the health of the tea plant4 ,the almost continued rains which marked the advance of the past spring1 seemed perfectly agreeable to the tea-plant1 and facilitated the germination of the tea-nuts4 ,where any vitality remained in the nut1 it was sure to germinate4 ,curiosity1 on this point should be restrained1 and no picking and pawing up of the nuts permitted4 ,i have seedlings with tap roots four inches in length1 where no appearance of germination is visible upon the surface of the ground4 ,the chances are ten to one that the seedling would be destroyed by the tamperings of idle curiosity4 ,let nature have her own most perfect work1 and see that the enemy1 the drought1 is vanquished by an abundant supply of water4 ,from experience1 ,i notice that nothing is more congenial to the germination of the tea-nut than a good stiff blue1 clayed soil4 ,the marly colour of the soil is undoubtedly the result of a rich loam1 combined with the clay of a lighter hue4 ,the adhesive nature of the clay retains moisture in an eminent degree1 and the fertilising qualities of the loam are well known to every bottom land farmer4 ,plants put out three weeks ago1 after a long voyage from ,china1 are now taking root1 and look fresh and vigorous1 notwithstanding the recent heat and dryness of the atmosphere4 ,but ,i have taken unwearied pains in the cultivation4 ,every plant is sheltered from the scorching influence of the sun1 now from #gj deg4 to #hf deg4 of temperature4 ,although the soil is naturally moist and clayey1 and half bottom land1 from the work of gentle acclivities1 rising on either hand1 yet ,i have given the plants a liberal watering in the evening4 ,by last summer's drought of fifty-seven days1 ,i was taught the absolute necessity of deep digging and deep planting4 ,none of my plants1 of this season's planting1 are more than two or three inches above the surface of the ground4 ,if any of the plants have leaves1 as most of them have1 below that height1 they are planted with the leaves retained2 none are removed4 ,some of the older plants have no leaves remaining1 and looked like dry sticks4 ,many of these are now beginning to break1 and put forth fresh leaves4 ,in #ahea1 ,mr4 ,frank ,bonynge set on foot a subscription list of fifty dollars each1 to procure tea and various ,indian plants for culture in ,america4 ,that tea can be grown successfully in ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,florida1 is almost certain1 because the experiment has been pretty fairly tried1 as above shown1 by ,dr4 ,smith4 ,the thermometer at ,shanghai indicates the cold as more severe by thirteen degrees than at ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina4 ,the cold winter of #ahcd-e1 which destroyed the oranges in ,mr4 ,middleton's plantation1 in ,charleston1 left his tea plants uninjured4 ,the question of cultivating tea in ,california has been seriously discussed1 and will no doubt be gone into when the gold digging mania has a little subsided4 ,there is the necessary labor and experience on the spot1 in some #ab1jjj or #ad1jjj ,chinese1 most of whom doubtless understand the culture and manufacture4 ,the climate1 soil and surface of ,california exactly answer the requirements for the growth of this plant4 ,the time may yet come when the vast ranges of hills that traverse this ,state shall present terraces of tea gardens1 cultivated by the laborious ,chinese1 and adding millions to the value of its products4 ,a company for the cultivation of tea1 under the title of the ,assam ,company1 was established in ,march1 #ahci2 and which1 with a called-up capital of #aic1ccg1 has made up to the present time very profitable progress2 having now got its plantations into excellent cultivation1 and all its arrangements in admirable working order1 it has sold teas to the amount of #ij1jjj1 and has a steam-boat1 a considerable plant and machinery4 ,in the report of the ,company1 at their annual meeting1 held at ,calcutta1 in ,jan41 #ahej1 it was stated1 as the result of their operations1 that during the year #ahdi1 the manufacturing season was unusually cold and ungenial1 in consequence of which the development of leaf for manufacture was much checked4 ,although some loss was sustained1 there was considerable increase in the crop notwithstanding1 attributable to the continued improvements in the culture which had been obtained1 and improvements over the previous season in some departments of the manufacturing process4 ,the gross quantity of unsorted tea manufactured in the southern division was #bjg1ihb lbs41 being #b1fgc lbs4 less than that of the previous season1 but the actual net out-turn was expected to reach #bjj1jjj lbs4 ,as much as #aeg1ijh lbs4 of the crop had been already received and shipped to ,england4 ,these teas consisted chiefly of the finer qualities4 ,whilst the crops have been thus sensibly advancing in quantity and quality1 and the value of the company's plantations permanently raised by extended and improved culture1 and some increase to the sowings1 the total outlay had been somewhat less than the previous year1 the expenditure being limited to #ejj for a crop of #ab1jjj acres of tea4 ,with more extended gardens1 the produce will be raised at a yet lower rateable cost than at present4 ,the number of acres in cultivation in #ahdi1 was about #ab1jjj2 these were not all in bearing1 but would shortly be so1 and the produce from this extent might be estimated at #cjj1jjj lbs41 and the cost of producing this would be about #aa1jjj4 #a1jaj chests of the produce were sold in ,london on the #acth of ,march1 #ahej1 at a gross average of #as4 #aa;d4 per lb4 ,the produce of #ahdg1 sold in ,england1 was #ada1bgg lbs41 at a gross average of #as4 #h;d4 per lb43 that of #ahdh was #agf1adi lbs4 which sold at the average of #as4 #h;d4 per lb4 ,the produce of #ahdi was #baf1jjj lbs41 and there was every expectation of the average prices realised being higher than those of the previous years4 ,the season was cold and unfavorable1 or the crop would have been #aj1jjj lbs4 more4 ,the exact amounts obtained for the ,company's teas in the five years1 ending with #ahea1 will be seen from the following figures3-- ,net produce1 lbs4 ,average price4 #ahdg #add1afd at per lb4 ls4 #g-a_/af;d4 #aa1eac #ahdh #ahb1iec ls4 #h;d4 #ae1dcf #ahdi #baf1jjj ls4 #i;d4 #ai1cej #ahej #bec1dbg ls4 #f-a_/h;d4 #ah1aec #ahea #bga1dbg ls4 #h;d4 #bb1aeb #aheb esmtd4 #bhj1jjj ,this exhibits a progressive increase in the aggregate value of the ,company's produce1 and this has been effected1 it is stated1 without any sensible increase of the current expenditure4 ,it exhibits also a rise in the value of the tea 7#aeg1idb lbs4 having been sold at the high average price of #as4 #aa;d471 a fact strongly indicative of its increasing excellence4 ,the details of the crop of the season of #ahdi showed a net produce of #bcg1jjj lbs4 of tea2 so that the ,company are increasing their cultivation to the extent of nearly ten per cent1 per annum1 and the increase will doubtless proceed with greater rapidity1 whenever the increase of capital enables the directors to extend their operations4 ,in a report submitted to the ,directors1 by ,mr4 ,burkinyoung1 the managing director in ,calcutta last year1 he thus speaks of the ,company's field of operations and future prospects3-- ,the box-making is especially worthy of notice for its effective organisation and economical arrangement2 the work is performed chiefly by ,assamese boys instructed at the factory3 the number of boxes required for the year's consumption will not be short of four thousand1 the whole of which will be made at the factory1--an achievement that cannot be too highly estimated in a country so destitute of mechanical labor4 ,notwithstanding the high standard of quality and strength to which our teas have already attained1 ,i am of opinion that1 as experience advances1 and our knowledge and system of plucking and manufacturing the crops become improved1 and better organised1 a higher standard of quality and value may yet be realised2 in this opinion the superintendent concurs with me1 and the attainment of this object is one to which his attention's prominently directed4 ,in the course of my enquiries and trials of different samples of tea in ,assam1 my attention was directed to one description of black tea1 of rough strong flavor1 made by a quicker process than that ordinarily used in the manufacture of black tea3 under this mode of manipulation1 a quality of tea is produced sufficiently distinctive in its flavor and appearance to render it worthy of attention and trial1 and ,i think1 when perfected in the process of manufacture1 calculated to come into popular estimation4 ,samples of this tea the superintendent will forward to the board for trial4 ,in conducting the operations in ,assam1 the chief difficulty of importance which has not yet been effectually met is the paucity of labor2 this does not1 however1 exist to the extent of materially checking any of the important operations connected with the production of the tea1 but it is felt in the arrear of various descriptions of work1 in providing bricks for building1 and in the preparation of a stock of seasoned timber and boards for building and box-making2 while the out factories would be benefited by a larger proportion of agricultural labor4 ,great advance1 however1 has been made by the superintendent in the employment of ,assamese labor in contract work3 under the arrangement he has established1 these contracts are now1 for the most part1 fulfilled with much punctuality1 and there is reason to expect that this system of labor will be further extended4 ,the ,kachorie ,coolies are a valuable class of laborers1 but they do not appear to be sufficiently numerous1 or to emigrate in sufficient numbers to afford with the native ,assamese a supply of labor altogether equal to our wants1 so as to render the concern independent of ,bengal labor4 ,the tea lands are for the most part advantageously situated1 within convenient reach of water-carriage1 either by the ',dickhoo1' ',dsang1' and ',dehing' rivers1 or by means of small streams leading to them4 ,the ,plantations of the ,satsohea and ,rookang forests1 and on the banks of the ,tingri in the ,northern ,division1 are all valuable centres of extension in each district4 ,the lands suitable for tea cultivation are ample in extent1 and of the highest fertility2 while the ,hill ,factories of the ,southern and ,eastern ,divisions1 although secondary in importance1 are1 as regards extent and quality of soil1 equally eligible as bases of extension4 ,the prospects of the future1 ,i entertain no doubt1 will keep pace with the satisfactory results that have hitherto been realised1 looking to the sound organisation that now exists in our establishment at ,assam1 an organisation that has already taken healthy root1 and must in its growth gain strength and permanence4 ,i think we may safely calculate1 after the current year1 upon an annual increase in our production of #dj1jjj lbs4 of tea1 until a larger system of operations can be matured1 of which the basis is already laid down1 in the new lands cleared and sown during the past cold season1 averaging #bbe to #bej poorahs2 and this extended basis will be doubtless followed up by annual extensions of similar1 if not larger1 area4 ,the concern is now taking a position which will place it on a scale of working commensurate with the objects entertained upon the first incorporation of the company1 the profits now likely to be realised being adequate to all the outlay necessary4 ,the prices in the last two years in ,london have been fully maintained at #as4 #c;d4 to #ds4 #d;d41 according to sorts4 ,of ,assam tea1 the sales in the ,london market in #ahea amounted to #b1bjj packages1 against #a1ijj packages in #ahej1 and all were freely taken 7on account of their great strength7 at very full prices4 ,seventy-six packages of ,kumaon tea1 both black and green1 grown by the ,east ,india ,company1 in the ,himalayas1 as an experiment1 were also brought to sale4 ,they were teas of high quality2 but being of the light flavored class1 and not duly esteemed in this market1 they realised only about their relative value as compared with ,china teas of similar grade4 ,the ,souchong and ,pouchong sold at #as4 #a;d4 to #as4 #c;d42 the ,hyson1 ,imperial1 and ,gunpowder realised #as4 #g;d4 to #bs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,robert ,fortune1 who1 in the service of the ,horticultural ,society of ,london1 gave such satisfaction by his botanical researches in ,china1 was1 on his return to ,england1 in #ahdh1 engaged by the ,directors of the ,east ,india ,company to proceed again to the ,celestial ,empire1 and procure and transmit to ,india such a quantity and variety of the tea plant1 that its cultivation in the north-western provinces would be a matter of mere manual labor4 ,having penetrated about #cjj miles into the interior1 he left ,hong ,kong in the middle of #ahea for ,calcutta1 with a large quantity of choice plants1 selected in the green tea districts1 and these have flourished as well as could possibly be expected2 so that1 in the course of a few years1 there is every probability that tea will form a considerable article of export from our ,indian ,presidencies4 ,mr4 ,fortune secured the services of1 and took with him1 eight ,chinese1 from the district of ,wei-chow1 under an agreement for three years1 at the rate of fifteen dollars a month each4 ,six of these are regular tea-manufacturers2 the other two are pewterers1 whose sole business is that of preparing lead casings for tea-chests4 ,in the ,british portion of the ,punjaub1 it has been resolved to expend #aj1jjj a year on the cultivation of the tea plant on the banks of the ,beas1 as well as at ,anarkullee1 and ,kotghur in the ,simla jurisdiction4 ,beyond the ,beas there is a series of valleys on to ,noonpoor1 viz41 the ,palklun1 ,kangra1 ,rillo1 c41 from #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 separated from each other by small ranges of hills4 ,the valleys are from three to four miles in breadth1 and from sixty to seventy in length3 they are sheltered on the north by high mountains4 ,they are described as admirably suited for the cultivation of the plant1 now about to be attempted under the able management of ,dr4 ,jamieson4 ,should it prove successful1 the benefits it will confer on the country will be enormous4 ,tea is a favorite beverage everywhere with the natives3 at present their supplies come in scanty measure and bad condition1 at extravagant charges1 across the frontier4 ,the cultivation of the tea plant in the highlands of the ,punjaub1 is likely to be successful1 even beyond the hopes of its promoters4 ,thousands of plants sown in #ahdi have attained a height of four or five feet1 and there seems no reason why tea should not ultimately become an important article of trade in the ,punjaub1 as well as in ,kumaon4 ,the ,indian teas are already becoming popular in the ,english market1 and the cultivators have the advantage of a demand which is almost unlimited1 and of prices which seldom fluctuate to any great extent4 ,the experiment of growing tea in the ,madras ,presidency has been often successfully tried1 on a small scale4 ,a number of plants supplied by government1 through ,dr4 ,wallich1 were planted in the ,shevaroy hills1 about twelve or fourteen years since1 and have thriven well2 but though no doubt is entertained of the ease with which they could be propagated over a wide extent of country1 no attempt has been made to give the cultivation a practical turn1 or to make a cup of tea from the southern ,indian tree4 ,in ,coorg1 too1 the experiment has been tested with like results1 so that sufficient warranty exists to justify trials on the largest scale4 ,tea plants grow in luxuriance in the open air1 at the ,botanical ,gardens1 at ,kew4 ,mr4 ,bonynge has seen this plant growing wild in ,n4 lat4 #bg deg4 #cj min4 on hills from three to #ejj feet in height1 where too1 there was an abundance of frost1 snow and hail4 ,those persons in ,england who possess tea plants1 and who cultivate them for pleasure1 should always bear in mind that1 even in the tea districts of ,china1 this shrub will not succeed if it be planted in low1 wet land2 and this is1 doubtless1 one of the reasons why so few persons succeed in growing it in this country4 ,it ought always to be planted on a warm sloping bank1 in order to give it a fair chance of success4 ,if some of the warm spots of this kind in the south of ,england or ,ireland were selected1 who knows but that our cottagers might be able to grow their own tea8 at all events1 they might have the fragrant herb to look upon4 ,the ,dutch made the first movement to break the charm of ,chinese monopoly1 by introducing and cultivating the tea plant in their rich and fruitful colony of ,java4 ,that island lies between the sixth and eighth degrees of south latitude4 ,in #ahbh1 the first experiment in the cultivation of tea was made in the garden of the ,chateau of ,burtenzorg1 at ,java1 where #hjj plants of an astonishing vigor1 served as an encouragement to undertake this culture1 and considerable plantations were made in many parts of the island4 ,the first trials did not answer to the expectations1 as far as regards the quality of the article1 the astringent taste and feeble aroma of which caused the conjecture that the preparation of the leaf1 and its final manipulation1 are not exactly according to the process used in ,china4 ,at present tea is cultivated in thirteen ,residencies3 but the principal establishment1 where the final manipulation is made1 is in the neighbourhood of ,batavia4 ,the tea which ,java now furnishes yearly to the markets of the mother country1 may be stated at from #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj pounds4 ,it is intimated that the government intends to abandon this culture to the industry of private individuals1 under the guarantee of equitable contracts4 ,the mountain range1 which runs through the centre of the island1 is the most productive1 because the tea gardens1 extending from near the base1 high up the mountains1 reach an atmosphere tempered by elevation4 ,the plant escapes the scorching heats of the torrid zone1 and finds a climate1 by height rather than by latitude1 adapted to its nature4 ,but the plant is not confined to lofty ridges4 ,in the plains1 the hedges and fences1 if one may so call them1 are all planted with the tea shrub1 which flourish in greater or less perfection throughout the island4 ,but1 as has already been intimated1 the equatorial latitudes are not the most auspicious for the vigorous growth of a plant that requires a temperature equally removed from the extremes of heat and cold1 and the quality of the tea is as much affected by the climate as the growth of the plant4 ,a considerable quantity of tea is annually shipped from ,java to ,europe2 but the extension of the cultivation is no doubt checked by the exceeding fertility of the soil1 and its adaptation to the growth of the rich products of tropical regions4 ,mr4 ,jacobson1 inspector of tea culture in ,java1 has published at ,batavia a work in three volumes1 upon the mode of cultivating this plant1 upon the choice of grounds1 and the best processes for the preparation and manipulation of the leaves4 ,this book1 the fruit of many years of experience and care given to the subject1 has been well received by the cultivators who devote themselves to this branch of industry4 ,if1 by means of careful experiments and experience1 the government succeed in conferring on the island of ,java this important branch of commerce1 she may hope to obtain brilliant results2 at all events1 it will open to the country a new source of prosperity and riches4 ,an interesting account of the tea plants1 and the manufacture of tea1 will be found in ,fortune's ,wanderings in ,china1 in ,ball's ,account of the ,cultivation and ,manufacture of ,tea1 ,boyle's ,illustrations of ,himalayan ,botany1 and his ,productive ,resources of ,india4 ,from ,fortune's ,travels ,i take the following extract3-- ,there are few subjects connected with the vegetable kingdom which have attracted such a large share of public notice as the tea-plant of ,china4 ,its cultivation on the ,chinese hills1 the particular species of variety which produces the black and green teas of commerce1 and the method of preparing the leaves1 have always been objects of peculiar interest4 ,the jealousy of the ,chinese government in former times1 prevented foreigners from visiting any of the districts where tea is cultivated2 and the information derived from the ,chinese merchants1 even scanty as it was1 was not to be depended upon4 ,and hence we find our ,english authors contradicting each other2 some asserting that the black and green teas are produced by the same variety1 and that the difference in colour is the result of a different mode of preparation2 while others say that the black teas are produced from the plant called by botanists ,thea ,bohea1 and the green from ,thea viridis1 both of which we have had for many years in our gardens in ,england4 ,during my travels in ,china since the last war1 ,i have had frequent opportunities of inspecting some extensive tea districts in the black and green tea countries of ,canton1 ,fokien1 and ,chekiang3 the result of these observations is now laid before the reader4 ,it will prove that even those who have had the best means of judging have been deceived1 and that the greater part of the black and green teas which are brought yearly from ,china to ,europe and ,america are obtained from the same species or variety1 namely1 from the ,thea viridis4 ,dried specimens of this plant were prepared in the districts ,i have named1 by myself1 and are now in the herbarium of the ,horticultural ,society of ,london1 so that there can be no longer any doubt upon the subject4 ,in various parts of the ,canton provinces where ,i have had an opportunity of seeing tea cultivated1 the species proved to be the ,thea ,bohea1 or what is commonly called the black tea plant4 ,in the green tea districts of the north--,i allude more particularly to the province of ,chekiang--,i never met with a single plant of this species1 which is so common in the fields and gardens near ,canton4 ,all the plants in the green tea country near ,ningpo1 on the islands of the ,chusan ,archipelago1 and in every part of the province which ,i have had an opportunity of visiting1 proved1 without an exception1 to be ,thea viridis4 ,two hundred miles further to the north-west1 in the province of ,kiangnan1 and only a short distance from the tea hills in that quarter1 ,i also found in gardens the same species of tea4 ,thus far my actual observations exactly verified the opinions ,i had formed on the subject before ,i left ,england1 viz3 that the black teas were prepared from the ,thea ,bohea1 and the green from ,thea viridis4 ,when ,i left the north1 on my way to the city of ,foo-chow-foo1 on the river ,min1 in the province ,fokien1 ,i had no doubt that ,i should find the tea hills there covered with the other species1 ,thea ,bohea1 from which we generally suppose the black teas are made2 and this was the more likely to be the case as this species actually derives its specific name from the ,bohea hills in this province4 ,great was my surprise to find all the plants on the tea hills near ,foo-chow exactly the same as those in the green tea districts of the north4 ,here were1 then1 green tea plantations on the black tea hills1 and not a single plant of the ,thea ,bohea to be seen4 ,moreover1 at the time of my visit1 the natives were busily employed in the manufacture of black teas4 ,although the specific differences of the tea plant were well known to me1 ,i was so much surprised1 and ,i may add amused1 at this discovery1 that ,i procured a set of specimens for the herbarium1 and also dug up a living plant1 which ,i took northward to ,chekiang4 ,on comparing it with those which grow on the green tea hills1 no difference whatever was observed4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that the black and green teas of the northern districts of ,china 7those districts in which the greater part of the teas for the foreign market are made7 are both produced from the same variety1 and that that variety is the ,thea viridis1 or what is commonly called green tea plant4 ,on the other hand those black and green teas which are manufactured in considerable quantities in the vicinity of ,canton1 are obtained from the ,thea ,bohea1 or black tea4 ,in the green tea districts of ,chekiang1 near ,ningpo1 the first crop of leaves is generally gathered about the middle of ,april4 ,this consists of the young leaf buds just as they begin to unfold1 and forms a fine and delicate kind of young hyson1 which is held in high estimation by the natives1 and is generally sent about in small quantities as presents to their friends4 ,it is a scarce and expensive article1 and the picking off the leaves in such a young state does considerable injury to the tea plantation4 ,the summer rains1 however1 which fall copiously about this season1 moisten the earth and air2 and if the plants are young and vigorous1 they soon push out fresh leaves4 ,in a fortnight or three weeks from the time of the first picking1 the shrubs are again covered with fresh leaves1 and are ready for the second gathering1 which is the most important of the season4 ,the third and last gathering1 which takes place as soon as new leaves are formed1 produces a very inferior kind of tea1 which is rarely sent out of the district4 ,the mode of gathering and preparing the leaves of the tea plant is very simple4 ,we have been so long accustomed to magnify and mystify everything relating to the ,chinese1 that in all their arts and manufactures we expect to find some peculiar practice1 when the fact is1 that many operations in ,china are more simple in their character than in most parts of the world4 ,to rightly understand the process of rolling and drying the leaves1 which ,i am about to describe1 it must be borne in mind that the grand object is to expel the moisture1 and at the same time to retain as much as possible of the aromatic and other desirable secretions of the species4 ,the system adopted to attain this end is as simple as it is efficacious4 ,in the harvest seasons1 the natives are seen in little family groups on the side of every hill1 when the weather is dry1 engaged in gathering tea leaves4 ,they do not seem so particular as ,i imagined they would have been in this operation1 but strip the leaves off rapidly and promiscuously1 and throw them all into round baskets1 made for the purpose out of split bamboo or ratan4 ,in the beginning of ,may1 when the principal gathering takes place1 the young seed-vessels are about as large as peas4 ,these are also stripped off and mixed with the leaves2 it is these seed-vessels which we often see in our tea1 and which has some slight resemblance to capers4 ,when a sufficient quantity of leaves are gathered1 they are carried home to the cottage or barn1 where the operation of drying is performed4 ,this is minutely described1 and the author continues3-- ,i have stated that the plants grown in the districts of ,chekiang produce green teas1 but it must not be supposed that they are the green teas which are exported to ,england4 ,the leaf has a much more natural color1 and has little or none of what we call the 'beautiful bloom' upon it1 which is so much admired in ,europe and ,america4 ,there is now no doubt that all these 'blooming' green teas1 which are manufactured at ,canton1 are dyed with ,prussian blue and gypsum1 to suit the taste of the foreign 'barbarians2' indeed the process may be seen any day1 during the season1 by those who give themselves the trouble to seek after it4 ,it is very likely that the same ingredients are also used in dyeing the northern green teas for the foreign market2 of this1 however1 ,i am not quite certain4 ,there is a vegetable dye obtained from ,isatis indigotica much used in the northern districts1 and called ,teinsing2 and it is not unlikely that it may be the substance which is employed4 ,the ,chinese never use these dyed teas themselves1 and ,i certainly think their taste in this respect is more correct than ours4 ,it is not to be supposed that the dye used can produce any very bad effects on the consumer1 for1 had this been the case1 it would have been discovered before now2 but if entirely harmless or inert1 its being so must be ascribed to the very small quantity which is employed in the manufacture4 ,in short1 the black and green teas which are generally exported to ,england and the ,united ,states from the northern provinces of ,china1 are made from the same species2 and the difference of color1 flavor1 c41 is solely the result of the different modes of preparation4 ,i shall make an extract1 also1 from ,williams's ,middle ,kingdom3-- ,the native names given to the various sorts of tea are derived for the most part from their appearance or place of growth2 the names of many of the best kinds are not commonly known abroad4 ,bohea is the name of the ,wu-i hills1 7or ,bu-i1 as the people on the spot call them17 where the tea is grown1 and not a term for a particular sort among the ,chinese1 though it is applied to a very poor kind of black tea at ,canton4 ,sunglo is likewise a general term for the green teas produced on the hills in ,kiangsu4 ,the names of the principal varieties of black tea are as follows3 ,pecco1 'white hairs1' so called from the whitish down on the leaves1 is one of the choicest kinds1 and has a peculiar taste2 ,orange ,pecco1 called shang hiang1 or 'most fragrant1' differs from it slightly2 ,hungmuey1 'red plum blossoms1' has a slightly reddish tinge2 the terms prince's eyebrows1 carnation hair1 lotus kernel1 sparrow's tongue1 fir-leaf pattern1 dragon's pellet1 and dragon's whiskers1 are all translations of the native names of different kinds of ,souchong or ,pecco4 ,souchong1 or siau chung1 means little plant or sort1 as ,pouchong1 or folded sort1 refers to the mode of packing it2 ,campoi is corrupted from kan pei i4e4 carefully fired2 ,chulan is the tea scented with the chulan flower1 and applied to some kinds of scented green tea4 ,the names of green teas are less numerous3 ,gunpowder1 or ma chu1 i4e4 hemp pearl1 derives its name from the form into which the leaves are rolled2 ta chu or 'great pearl1' and chu lan1 or 'pearl flower1' denote two kinds of ,imperial2 ,hyson1 or yu tsien1 i4e4 before the rains1 originally denoted the tenderest leaves of the plant1 and is now applied to ,young ,hyson2 as is also another name1 mei pein1 or 'plum petals2' while hi chun1 'flourishing spring1' describes ,hyson2 ,twankay is the name of a stream in ,chehkiang1 where this sort is produced2 and ,hyson skin1 or pi cha1 i4e4 skin tea1 is the poorest kind1 the siftings of the other varieties2 ,oolung1 'black dragon1' is a kind of black tea with green flavor4 ,ankoi teas are produced in the district of ,ngank1 not far from ,tsiuenchau fu1 possessing a peculiar taste1 supposed to be owing to the ferruginous nature of the soil4 ,de ,guignes speaks of the ,pu-'rh tea1 from the place in ,kiangsu where it grows1 and says it is cured from wild plants found there2 the infusion is unpleasant1 and is used for medical purposes4 ,the ,mongols and others in the west of ,china prepare tea by pressing it1 when fresh1 into cakes like bricks1 and thoroughly drying it in that shape to carry in their wanderings4 ,considering the enormous labor of preparing tea1 it is surprising that even the poorest kind can be afforded to the foreign purchaser at ,canton1 more than a thousand miles from the place of its growth1 for #i;d4 and less a pound2 and in their ability to furnish it at this rate1 the ,chinese have a security of retaining the trade in their hands1 notwithstanding the efforts to grow the plant elsewhere4 ,comparatively little adulteration is practised1 if the amount used at home and abroad be considered1 though the temptation is great1 as the infusion of other plants is drunk instead of the true tea4 ,the poorer natives substitute the leaves of a species of ,rhamnus or ,fallopia1 which they dry2 ,camellia leaves are perhaps mixed up with it1 but probably to no great extent4 ,the refuse of packing-houses is sold to the poor at a low rate1 under the name of tea endings and tea bones2 and if a few of the rarest sorts do not go abroad1 neither do the poorest4 ,it is a necessary of life to all classes of ,chinese1 and that its use is not injurious is abundantly evident from its general acceptance and extending adoption2 and the prejudice against it among some out of ,china may be attributed chiefly to the use of strong green tea1 which is no doubt prejudicial4 ,if those who have given it up on this account will adopt a weaker infusion of black tea1 general experience is proof that it will do them no great harm1 and they may be sure that they will not be deceived by a colored article2 ,neither the ,chinese nor ,japanese use milk or sugar in their tea1 and the peculiar taste and aroma of the infusion is much better perceived without those additions2 nor can it be drunk so strong without tasting an unpleasant bitterness1 which the milk partly hides4 ,the ,japanese sometimes reduce the leaves to a powder1 and pour boiling water through them in a cullender1 in the same way that coffee is often made4 ,the following valuable details as to the cultivation and manufacture of tea in ,british ,india1 are from interesting reports by ,dr4 ,jameson1 ,superintendent of the ,company's ,botanical ,gardens in the ,north ,west ,provinces1 published in #ahdg in the ,journal of the ,agricultural and ,horticultural ,society of ,calcutta2--and from ,mr4 ,robert ,fortune's report to the ,hon4 ,east ,india ,company3-- ,the quantity manufactured4--,the quantity of tea manufactured from five plantations1 of #hi acres in all1 amounted in #ahde to #faj lb4 #b oz41 and in #ahdf1 on #aae acres1 to l1#jbc lb4 ll oz4 ,the small nursery of ,lutchmisser1 consisting of three acres of land1 gave a return in #ahde of #baf lb41 or #b maunds and #ef pounds2 in #ahdf the return was #bgb lbs41 or #c maunds and #cb pounds4 ,the small plantation of ,kuppeena1 established in #ahda-b1 and then consisting of three acres 7but increased in #ahdd to four71 yielded in #ahde1 #a maund and #ef pounds1 and in #ahdf1 #b maunds and #ef pounds4 ,thus we have received from a plantation of only five years' formation1 and of four acres 7one of these recently added71 upwards of #b maunds of tea1 and from another1 ,lutchmisser1 of three acres1 which was established in #ahce-f1 #c maunds and #cj pounds1 equal to #bgb pounds4 ,i have1 in a former report1 asserted that the minimum return of tea for an acre of land may be estimated at #a pucka maund1 or #hj lb4 ,the only plantations that ,i can as yet bring forward in favour of my assertion1 are the two above-mentioned3 ,kuppeena has not yielded the proportion mentioned1 but it was only established in #ahda-db1 and the tea-plants do not come into full bearing until the eighth year2 on the other hand1 ,lutchmisser has given more than the average return4 ,i think1 therefore1 that the returns already yielded are highly favorable1 and that though the data are small1 they are very satisfactory4 ,soil best adapted for the tea-plant4--,the soil in which the tea-plant is now thriving in the ,himalayas and in the valley of ,deyrah ,dhoon1 varies exceedingly4 ,at ,bhurtpoor and ,russiah it is of a light silico-aluminous nature1 and abounding with small pieces of clay slate1 which is the subjacent rock1 and trap 7green-stone71 which occurs in large dykes1 cutting through and altering the strata of clay slate2 mixed with the stony soil1 there is a small quantity of vegetable matter4 ,the clay slate is metamorphic1 being almost entirely composed of mica4 ,in some places it is mixed with quartz1 forming mica slate4 ,from the decomposition of these rocks1 mixed with a small quantity of vegetable matter1 the soil is formed4 ,at ,kuppeena and ,lutchmisser1 the soil is also very stony1 formed from the decomposition of clay slate1 which1 in many places1 as at ,russiah and ,bhurtpoor1 passes into mica slate1 or alternates with it1 and a little vegetable matter4 ,the same remark applies to the plantations of ,guddowli1 ,kouth1 and ,rumaserai4 ,at ,huwalbaugh part of the soil consists of a stiff clay1 of a reddish-yellow colour1 owing to peroxide of iron4 ,here1 too1 the tea-plants1 provided that the ground around them is occasionally opened up1 thrive well4 ,in ,mr4 ,lushington's garden at ,lobha1 in ,kumaon1 and in ,assistant ,commissioner ,captain ,h4 ,ramsay's garden at ,pooree1 in ,gurwahl1 plants are thriving well in a rich1 black1 vegetable mould4 ,the soil in the ,deyrah ,dhoon varies exceedingly from clayey and stiff soil to sand and gravelly soil1 or light and free4 ,the soil at ,kaolagir is a compound of the two1 neither clayey1 nor free1 nor light soil1 but composed partly of clay and sand1 mixed with vegetable mould1 and in some places mixed with much gravel1 consisting of limestone1 marl1 sandstone1 clay slate1 and quartz rock1 or of such rocks as enter into the composition of the surrounding ranges of mountains1 viz41 the ,sewalick range to the south1 and the ,himalayas1 properly so called1 to the north1 ,from the above statement1 we find that the tea-plant thrives well both in stiff and free soils1 and in many modifications of these4 ,but the soil which seems best adapted to its growth may be styled free soil1 as at ,russiah1 or a mixture of both1 as at ,kaolagir1 in the ,deyrah ,dhoon4 ,in limestone districts1 where the tea has been tried1 if the super-imposed soil has been thin and untransported1 and this proved from the decomposition of the subjacent rock1 the plant has generally failed2 and this has been particularly the case where the limestone1 by plutonic action1 has become metamorphic4 ,these districts1 therefore1 in forming plantations1 are to be avoided4 ,from the writings of various authors1 it appears that the districts where the tea-plant thrives best in ,china1 have a geological structure very similar to that met with in many parts of the ,himalayas1 being composed of primitive and transition rocks4 ,altitude above the sea best suited to the tea plant4--,to state what altitude is best adapted to the growth of the tea-plant1 and for the production of the best kinds of tea1 will require much more observation4 ,at present the tea-plant thrives equally well at ,kaolagir1 in the ,deyrah ,dhoon2 at ,russiah1 in the ,chikata district2 at ,huwalbaugh2 at ,kuppeena and ,lutchmisser2 and at ,rumaserai1 or at heights ranging from #b1bjj feet above the level of the sea to #f1jjj feet4 ,moreover1 the tea manufactured from leaves procured from ,kaolagir1 has been considered by the ,london brokers equal to that made from leaves procured from ,lutchmisser and ,kuppeena4 ,on the method of preparing ground prior to forming a plantation4--,in forming a plantation1 the first object of attention1 both in the hills and in the ,deyrah ,dhoon1 is a fence4 ,in the former1 to prevent the depredations of wild animals1 such as wild hog1 deer1 c41 which abound in the hills1 and though they do not eat tea leaves1 yet hogs1 in search of tubers1 in the space of a single night will do much damage by uprooting young shrubs--in the latter1 to prevent the straying of cattle4 ,the first thing to be done1 therefore1 is to dig a trench three feet broad and two deep1 and to plant a hedge1 if in the hills1 of black thorn 7,cratoegus72 if in the plains1 the different species of aloe are best adapted for the purpose4 ,the fence being formed1 all trees and shrubs are then to be uprooted2 this is very heavy work1 both in the hills and plains1 from the vast number of shrubs1 allowed by natives 7from indolence to remove them7 to grow everywhere throughout their fields4 ,roads are then to be marked off4 ,after this has been accomplished1 the land is to be drained1 if necessary1 by open drains--under drainage1 for want of means and the expense1 being impracticable--and then ploughed three or four times over4 ,the beds for young tea-plants are then to be formed2 these ought to be three feet in breadth1 alternating with a pathway of two feet in breadth4 ,by arranging beds in this manner much time and labour is saved in transplanting2 in irrigation the water is economised1 and in plucking tea leaves a road is given to the gatherer4 ,in transplanting1 each plant is allowed #d feet2 this is at once gained1 the beds and pathways being formed by placing in one direction the plant in the centre of the bed4 ,trenching4--,on the tea beds being marked off1 they are to be trenched to a depth of from two to three feet1 in order to destroy all the roots of weeds1 which are to be carefully removed4 ,the trenching is to be performed by the fowrah1 or ,indian spade4 ,in the hills1 in many places the fowrah cannot be used1 owing to the number of stones4 ,the work is then to be done by the koatlah1 a flat-pointed piece of iron1 of about eight inches in length1 which is inserted into a wooden handle4 ,it is in form like the pick1 and is much used in hill cultivation for weeding and opening up the ground4 ,it is1 however1 not much to be commended for trenching purposes1 as natives1 in using it1 never penetrate the ground beyond a few inches4 ,for weeding1 however1 it is particularly useful1 and to such soil is much better adapted than most other implements4 ,formation of roads and paths4--,in addition to the pathways of two feet in breadth1 recommended to be formed between each bed1 there ought1 for general use1 to be a four feet road carried round the plantation1 and one of #aj feet through the centre4 ,this applies to a limited plantation1 that is1 of from #bjj to #djj acres4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it was on a more extensive scale1 several hackery roads of #aj feet in breadth would be necessary1 in order to cart away weeds1 c41 or carry manure to seedling beds4 ,on seeds when ripe1 and method to be adopted to ascertain it4--,in all ,september and ,october the tea seeds ripen1 but in the more elevated plantations1 as at ,rumaserai1 many do not ripen until ,november4 ,the seeds are contained in a capsule1 and vary in number from one to seven2 to ascertain that they are ripe1 open the capsule1 although green1 and if their color is a nut-brown1 they are sure to be so4 ,if they are not ripe1 they are of a reddish-brown above1 mixed with white4 ,if the seeds are allowed to remain a short time on the bushes1 after they are ripe1 the capsules burst1 and they fall out2 it is necessary1 therefore1 to remove them before this takes place4 ,on the method of sowing seeds1 and season1 and on the treatment of the young tea plants after they have germinated4--,the ground having been first well trenched and manured1 that is1 from sixty to seventy maunds of manure given to the acre1 the seeds are1 when ripe1 to be removed from the capsules1 and immediately sown to the depth of one inch1 and very close1 in drills #h to #aj inches apart from each other4 ,the sooner that they are sown after being removed from the capsules the better1 as their germinating properties are apt to be destroyed if they are kept for any length of time4 ,some germinate in the space of a few weeks1 others lie dormant until ,february and ,march1 and others do not germinate until the rains4 ,the method of sowing seeds in ,china is thus described1 being similar to the native plan of sowing mangoes in ,india4 ,several seeds are dropped into holes four or five inches deep and three or four feet apart1 shortly after they ripen1 or in ,november and ,december2 the plants rise up in a cluster when the rains come on4 ,they are seldom transplanted1 but sometimes four to six are put quite close to form a fine bush4#i ,by this method nothing is gained1 and the expenditure of seeds great4 ,if the plants germinate in ,november1 which1 as already stated1 many do1 they ought to be covered with a chupper made of bamboo and grass4 ,in the hills1 everywhere at an elevation of #f1jjj and #g1jjj feet1 the ringal1 a small kind of bamboo1 of which there are several species1 is found in great abundance1 and well adapted for the purpose1 and in the ,deyrah ,dhoon the bamboo occurs in vast quantity2 the market of the ,upper ,provinces being chiefly supplied from that valley and other forests at the base of the ,himalayas4 ,bamboos are also met with to the height of six and seven thousand feet on the ,himalayas in the neighbourhood of ,almorah4 ,during the day1 in the cold weather1 the chuppers ought to be removed1 and again replaced at night2 as the weather becomes hot1 it is necessary to protect the young plants from the heat of the sun1 that is1 in ,april and ,may1 and until the rains commence2 the chuppers at this time ought to be put on about eight a4m41 and removed again about four p4m4 ,method of rearing plantations by layers1 and by cuttings4--,the best season for laying down is when the sap is dormant1 or in cold weather2 or when in full action1 as in the rains4 ,laying1 as expressed by ,dr4 ,lindley1 is nothing but striking from cuttings1 which are still allowed to maintain their connection with the mother plant by means of a portion of their stem4 ,there are various methods of making layers1 but the most simple and efficient is to bend down a branch1 and sink it into the earth after having made a slit or notch in the centre of the embedded portion4 ,by so doing1 the descent of the sap is retarded1 and thus the formation of radicles or young roots is promoted2 about five or six inches or more1 of the branch1 is to be allowed to remain above ground1 and in a position as perpendicular to the point where the plant is notched as possible4 ,in three or four mouths these layers are ready to be removed and transplanted2 the removal of the layers is to be gradual1 that is1 they ought first to be cut half through1 then a little more1 and finally altogether separated4 ,the best season for propagating by cuttings is the cold weather1 that is1 from ,november to ,february2 they may also be propagated1 though not with the same success1 during the rains2 it is necessary to protect them against frost in the cold weather1 and from the rays of the sun in the hot4 ,cuttings put in during the cold weather are ready to transplant in the rains1 and if put in during the rains1 they are generally fit for removal in ,february4 ,on the method of transplanting and season4--,in transplanting young tea-plants care should be taken to lift them with a good large ball of earth attached to their roots1 as they throw out a long central or tap root1 which1 if cut through1 invariably destroys the plant4 ,on being placed in the ground1 the earth around them is to be well pressed down and watered2 the watering is to be continued every third or fourth day1 until the plants have taken hold of the ground4 ,during the rains1 grass springs up with great rapidity1 so as to render it impossible for one man to keep three acres 7the quantity assigned by us7 clean4 ,this1 however1 is not necessary1 if care be taken to make a golah round each plant1 and keep it clear of weeds2 these golahs ought always1 in hill plantations where the ground is irregular1 to be connected by small khauls or channels1 in order to make irrigation easy2 by so doing too1 water1 if the supply be scanty1 which often happens in the hills in the hot weather1 will be economised4 ---------------------------------------- - b b a a a a ,tea plant4 ,thus-- ,x----------,x----------,x b ,bed c c c ,watercourse b b ---------------------------------------- - ,we have already stated that #d square feet ought to be assigned to each plant4 ,in ,china1 according to ,professor ,royle1 three to four feet are given2 this1 however1 is too small a space to allow the plant to grow freely4 ,after the tea plants are transplanted1 it is not necessary to protect them4 ,the best seasons for transplanting are towards the end of ,february1 or as soon as the frost has ceased1 and throughout ,march1 and during the rains1 and until the end or middle of ,november1 depending on the season4 ,in transplanting1 four parties ought to be employed2 viz41 one person to dig holes1 a second to remove plants1 a third to carry them to the ground where they are required1 and a fourth to plant4 ,by this means1 not only time is saved1 but the plants have a much better chance1 when thus treated1 of doing well4 ,when the seedling beds are extensive1 so many of the plants ought not to be removed1 that is1 a plant left every #d feet1 and these beds added to the plantation4 ,on pruning1 best season and mode4--,the plants do not require to be pruned until the fifth year1 as the plucking of leaves generally tends to make the plants assume the basket shape1 the form most to be desired to procure the greatest quantity of leaves2 if1 however1 the plants show a tendency to run into weed1 from central branches being thrown out1 this ought to be checked by removing the central stem4 ,in the fourth year a quantity of the old and hard wood ought to be removed1 to induce the plants to throw out more branches4 ,the best season for pruning is from ,november to ,march4 ,on irrigation4--,to keep the tea-plants healthy1 irrigation for two or three years is absolutely necessary1 and no land ought to be selected for a tea plantation which cannot be irrigated4 ,on the other hand1 land liable to be flooded during the rains1 and upon which water lies for any length of time1 is equally detrimental to the growth of the plant4 ,this applies to a small portion of the ,kooasur plantation1 which receives the drainage of the adjoining hills1 and the soil being retentive1 keeps the water4 ,deep trenches have been dug in order to drain it off--these1 however1 owing to the lowness of the surrounding country1 act badly4 ,three successive seasons plants have been put into the ground1 and as often have been destroyed on the setting in of the rains1 showing the necessity of avoiding such kind of land for tea plantation4 ,to facilitate irrigation1 c41 as already stated1 in the ,deyrah ,dhoon1 ,i have limited the tea beds to three feet in breadth4 ,this is particularly requisite in land so constituted as that of the ,deyrah ,dhoon1 it being so porous1 as mentioned by ,major ,cautley in his ,notes and ,memoranda of ,watercourses4 ,this is caused by the superincumbent soil not being more than from one to three feet thick1 in some places more1 but varying exceedingly4 ,beneath this there is a bed of shingle of vast thickness1 through which the water percolates2 it is this that renders the sinking of wells so difficult in the ,deyrah ,dhoon1 and which has tended so much to retard individuals from becoming permanent residents2 at present there are many tracts of several thousand acres in that valley unoccupied from want of drinking water1 as for instance1 at ,innesphaeel4 ,where the ground is very uneven1 as is the case generally in the hills1 the khaul system1 already recommended1 ought to be adopted4 ,on the tea-plant2 season of flowering1 its characters and species1 and on the advantages to be derived from importing seeds from ,china4--,from the importance of tea1 as an article of commerce1 the plant has attracted much attention2 and from few qualified ,europeans having travelled in the tea districts of ,china1 there is much difference of opinion as to the number of species belonging to the genus ,thea4 ,in the government plantations in ,kumaon and ,gurwahl1 the plants begin to flower about the end of ,august and beginning of ,september1 or1 as the seeds of the former year begin to ripen4 ,they do not all come into flower at once1 but some are in full blossom in ,september1 others in ,october1 ,november1 ,december and ,january4 ,some throw out a second set of blossoms in ,march1 ,april1 and ,may1 and during the rains2 so that from the same plant unripe or ripe seeds and flowers may be collected at one and the same time4 ,to the genus ,thea1 which belongs to the order ,ternstrmiace1 the following characters have been ascribed3 calyx persistent1 without bracts1 five-leaved1 leaflets imbricated and generally of the same size4 ,petals of the corolla vary in number from five to nine1 imbricated1 the inner ones much the largest4 ,stamens numerous1 in several rows adhering to the bottom of the petals4 ,filaments filiform4 ,anthers incumbent1 two-celled1 oblong1 with a thickish connectivum4 ,cells opening longitudinally4 ,ovary free1 three-celled2 ovules four in each cell1 inserted internally into the central angle1 the upper ones ascending1 the lower pendulous4 ,style trifid1 stigmas three1 acute4 ,capsule spheroidal1 #a-g-lobed with loculicidal dehiscence1 or with dessepiments formed from the turned-in edges of the valves4 ,seeds solitary1 or two in cells1 shell-like testa1 marked with the ventral umbilicus4 ,cotyledons thick1 fleshy1 oily1 no albumen4 ,radicle very short1 very near the umbilicus centripetal4 ,in the plantations there are two species1 and two well marked varieties4 ,the first is characterised by the leaves being of a pale-green colour1 thin1 almost membraneous1 broad lanceolate1 sinatures or edge irregular and reversed1 length from three to six inches4 ,the color of the stem of newly-formed shoots is of a pale-reddish colour1 and green towards the end4 ,this species is also marked by its strong growth1 its erect stem1 and the shoots being generally upright and stiff4 ,the flowers are small1 and its seeds but sparing4 ,in its characters this plant1 received from ,assam1 agrees in part with those assigned by ,dr4 ,lettsom and ,sir ,w4 ,hooker to the ,thea viridis1 but differs in its branches being stiff and erect4 ,the flowers small1 or rather much about the same size as the species about to be described1 and not confined to the upper axils of the plant1 and solitary1 as stated by them4#aj ,by the ,chinese manufacturers it is considered an inferior plant for making tea1 it is not therefore grown to any extent4 ,the second species is characterised by its leaves being much smaller1 and not so broadly lanceolate2 slightly waved1 of a dark-green color1 thick and coriaceous1 sinature or edge irregular1 length from one to three inches and a half4 ,in its growth it is much smaller than the former1 and throws out numerous spreading branches1 and seldom presents its marked leading stem4 ,this species1 therefore1 in the above characters1 agrees much with those that have been assigned to ,thea ,bohea by authors4 ,the characters have been mixed up in an extraordinary manner4 ,thus it has been stated1 that the ,thea viridis has large1 strong growing1 and spreading branches1 and that ,thea ,bohea is a smaller plant1 with branches stiff and straight1 and stem erect4 ,no doubt the ,thea viridis is a much larger and stronger growing plant than the ,thea ,bohea1 or rather the plant now existing in the different plantations is so2 but in the former the branches are stiff and erect1 and in the latter inclined and branches4 ,the marked distinguishing characters between the two species are the coriaceous dark-green leaves in the ,thea ,bohea1 and the large pale-green monhanous leaves of the ,thea viridis4 ,the manner1 too1 of growth is very striking1 and on entering the plantation the distinction is at once marked to the most unobservant eye4 ,this species of ,thea ,bohea forms nearly the whole of the plantations1 and was brought from ,china by ,dr4 ,gordon4 ,in the plantations there is a third plant1 which1 however1 can only be considered a marked variety of ,thea ,bohea4 ,its leaves are thick1 coriaceous1 and of dark-green color1 but invariably very small1 and not exceeding two inches in length1 and thinly lanceolate2 the serratures1 too1 on the edge1 which are straight1 are not so deep4 ,in other characters it is identical4 ,this marked variety was received from ,calcutta at the plantation in a separate despatch from the others4 ,but in addition to these there are1 no doubt1 many more varieties1 and though it may be a fact that1 in certain districts1 green tea is manufactured from a species differing from that from which black tea is manufactured1 yet1 in other districts1 green and black teas are manufactured from one and the same plant4 ,the ,chinese manufacturers now in ,kumaon state that the plant is one and the same1 and that it can be proved by converting black tea into green4 ,in manufacturing teas now in the manufactory1 if a large quantity of leaves are brought in from the plantations1 one half are converted into green1 and one half into black tea4 ,this only shows that much of the green and black teas of commerce are manufactured from one and the same plant4 ,the ,assam plant is1 from the characters given1 quite a distinct plant1 and agrees1 as already stated1 most nearly with the species described as ,thea viridis4 ,it would1 therefore1 be most desirable to procure seeds of this so-called species1 and also of other varieties1 of which1 no doubt1 there is a great variety4 ,from the northern districts of ,china in particular1 seeds ought to be imported1 not1 however1 in large quantities1 but in quantities of two or three seers1 so that they might1 on arrival at ,calcutta1 be sent up the country as quickly as possible1 for1 if the seeds are kept long out of the ground1 not one will germinate2 such was the fate of all the seeds contained in ten boxes imported by government in #ahde1 not one having germinated1 which was much to be regretted4 ,had they been sent in small parcels1 well packed in wax cloth1 to prevent them from being injured by moisture1 and placed in an airy part of the vessel in transmission from ,china to ,calcutta1 and1 on arrival there1 sent by dwk banghay direct to the plantation1 they would1 ,i am confident1 have reached in good condition4 ,it is well worthy of a trial and seeds ought1 if possible1 to be obtained from every district celebrated for its teas4 ,it is in this manner1 by obtaining seeds of the finest varieties of plants1 that the finest teas will be procured4 ,i do not mean to infer that the tea plants now under cultivation are not the produce of fine varieties1 for that has been proved by the undoubted testimony of the ,london brokers1 but only that there are1 no doubt1 many others well worthy of introduction4 ,in confirmation of what ,i have stated1 ,i may quote the words of my late friend ,dr4 ,griffith1 who1 in his report on the tea plant of ,assam1 says--,i now come to the consideration of the steps which1 in my opinion1 must be followed if any degree of success in the cultivation of tea is to be expected2 of these the most important is the importation of ,chinese seeds of unexceptionable quality1 and of small numbers of their sorts4#aa ,dr4 ,royle1 too1 who was the first person to point out that the ,himalayas were well adapted to tea cultivation1 and to whom the credit of recommending to government the introduction of the plant into ,northern ,india is due1 strongly urges the necessity of importing seeds from different localities in ,china celebrated for their teas4 ,method and season for plucking and gathering leaves4--,the season for picking leaves commences in ,april and continues until ,october4 ,the number of gatherings varies1 depending on the moisture#ab or dryness of the season4 ,if the season be good1 as many as seven gatherings may be obtained4 ,if1 however1 the rains are partial1 only four or five4 ,these1 however1 may be reduced to their general periods for gathering--that is1 from ,april to ,june1 from ,july to #aeth ,august1 and from ,september to the end of ,october4 ,but few leaves are collected after the #aeth of the latter month4 ,as soon as the new and young leaves have appeared in ,april1 the plucking takes place1 this being done by the ,chinese1 assisted by the ,mallees4 ,the following is the method adopted3--,a certain division of the plantation is marked off1 and to each man a small basket is given1 with instructions to proceed to a certain point1 so that no plant may be passed over4 ,on the small basket being filled1 the leaves are emptied into another large one1 which is put in some shady place1 and in which1 when filled1 they are conveyed to the manufactory4 ,the leaves are generally plucked with the thumb and forefinger4 ,sometimes the terminal part of a branch1 having four or five young leaves attached1 is plucked off4 ,all old leaves are rejected1 as they will not curl1 and therefore are of no use4 ,as the season advances1 and manufactory and plantation works become necessary1 the ,mallees are assisted in gathering leaves by ,coolies4 ,the process is simple1 and thus every man1 woman1 and child of villages could be profitably employed1 on the plantations being greatly extended4 ,certain kinds of leaves are not selected in the plantation1 in order to make certain kinds of tea1 but all new and fresh leaves are indiscriminately collected together1 and the different kinds separated on the leaves being fired4 ,method of manufacturing black tea4--,the young and fresh leaves on being picked 7they only being used1 the old ones being too hard1 and therefore unfit to curl71 are carried to the manufactory1 and spread out in a large airy room to cool1 and are there kept during the night1 being occasionally turned with the hand if brought in in the afternoon2 or1 if brought in during the morning1 they are allowed to lie until noon4 ,early in the morning the manufacturers visit the airing room1 and pack up the leaves in baskets and remove them to the manufacturing room4 ,each manufacturer takes a basketful1 and commences to beat them between the palms of his hands with a lateral motion1 in order to soften and make them more pliable for working1 and thus prevent them1 when rolled1 from breaking4 ,this beating process continues for about an hour1 and it may either consist of one or two processes2 the ,chinese sometimes finish the beating process at once2 at others1 they allow the leaves1 after being beat for half an hour1 to remain a time and then resume it4 ,they now go to breakfast1 and in one hour and a half the leaves are ready for the pan4 ,the pans being heated by wood placed in the oven1 so as to feel hot to the hands1 are filled to about two-thirds1 or about three seers of leaves are thrown in at a time--the quantity which a manufacturer is capable of lifting with both hands4 ,with the hands the leaves are kept moving with a rotatory motion in the pan1 and when they become very hot1 the motion is kept up with a pair of forked sticks4 ,this process is continued for three or four minutes1 depending on the heat of the pan1 or until the leaves feel hot and soft4 ,they are then1 with one sweep of a bamboo brush1 swept into a basket1 and thrown on to the rolling-table1 which is covered with a coarse mat made of bamboo4 ,each manufacturer then takes as much as he can hold in both hands1 and forms a ball and commences to roll it with all his might with a semicircular motion1 which causes a greenish yellow juice to exude4 ,this process is continued for three or four minutes1 the balls being occasionally undone and made up again4 ,the balls are then handed to another party at the extremity of the table1 to undo them and spread the leaves out thinly on flat baskets and expose them to the sun1 if there is any2 if not they are kept in the manufactory4 ,after all the leaves have gone through this process1 the first baskets are brought back1 and the leaves again transferred to the pan1 worked up in a similar manner for the same length of time1 re-transferred to the table1 and again rolled4 ,this being done1 the leaves are again spread out on large flat baskets to cool4 ,on being cooled the leaves are collected together and thinly spread out on flat wicker-worked sieve-baskets1 which are placed in others of a deep and of a double-coned shape4 ,the choolahs being lighted for some time1 and the charcoal burning clear1 they are now ready to receive the coned baskets4 ,the basket is placed over the choolah and kept there for about five minutes4 ,the leaves are then removed1 re-transferred to the flat baskets1 and re-rolled for a few minutes4 ,this being done1 the leaves are again brought together1 placed in the conical basket and kept over the charcoal fire for about two minutes4 ,the contents of the conical baskets are then all collected together in a heap1 and as much is placed in a conical basket as it will hold1 and it is again placed over the charcoal choolah until the tea is perfectly dry4 ,during this time the baskets are frequently removed and the tea turned1 in order to allow the leaves to be completely and uniformly dried1 and the basket too is generally struck1 on removal1 a violent side blow with the hand1 to remove from the sieve any small particles that might otherwise fall into the fire4 ,before removing the basket from the choolah1 a flat basket is always placed on the floor to receive it1 and all the particles which pass through1 on the coned basket being struck1 are again replaced4 ,on the conical basket being filled1 before placing it over the choolah1 a funnel is made in the centre of the tea with the hand1 to allow the heated air to pass through4 ,sometimes a funnel made of bamboo is made for this purpose4 ,after the tea feels perfectly dry1 it is packed in boxes1 and sent to the godown4 ,next day the different kinds of tea are picked1 and on being separated they are again placed in the conical baskets and heated4 ,during this process the baskets are frequently removed from the choolah in order to turn the tea1 so that the heating may be general and uniform4 ,in doing this a flat basket is always placed on the floor1 as on the former day 7and a flat basket1 too1 is placed on the top to confine the heat71 to receive the conical one1 which receive one or two blows to open the pores of the sieve4 ,what passes through is replaced amongst the tea4 ,when it is perfectly dry it is ready for finally packing4 ,the kinds of black tea at present manufactured are--,souchong1 ,pouchong1 ,flowery ,pekoe1 and ,bohea4 ,the ,flowery ,pekoe is manufactured in ,september4 ,method of manufacturing ,green ,tea4--,on the young and fresh leaves being plucked they are spread out on the ground of the airing room and allowed to cool4 ,after remaining for about two hours1 or 7if brought in late in the afternoon7 during the night1 they are removed to the green tea room4 ,the pans being properly heated1 the leaves1 as in the case with the black tea1 are thrown into the pans and kept either with the hand or two forked sticks in constant motion for three or four minutes1 and are then removed to the rolling table1 and then rolled in the same manner in balls as the black tea4 ,they are then scattered most sparingly on large flat baskets and exposed to the heat of the sun4 ,if there is no sun the baskets are arranged in frames1 which are placed over the choolah1 heated with charcoal4 ,during the drying the leaves are frequently made into balls and rolled in the flat baskets1 in order to extract the juice4 ,the drying process continues for about two hours1 and on the leaves becoming dry1 those contained in two baskets are thrown together1 and then four basketsful into one1 and so on until they are all collected together4 ,in this state the leaves still feel soft1 damp1 and pliant to the hand1 and are now brought back to the tea manufacturing-room4 ,opposite to each of the inclined pans1 which have been properly heated so as to feel warm to the hand by wood supplied to the ovens underneath1 one of the ,chinese stations himself1 and puts as many leaves into it as it will hold4 ,he then moves them in a heap gently1 from before backward1 making these perform a circle1 and presses them strongly to the sides of the pan4 ,as the leaves become hot he uses a flat piece of wood1 in order that he may more effectually compress them4 ,this process continues for about two hours1 the leaves being compressed into at least half of their bulk1 and become so dry that when pressed against the back part of the pan in mass1 they again fall back in pieces4 ,the tea1 as by this time it has assumed this appearance1 is now placed in a bag made of ,american drill or jean 7the size depending on the quantity of tea71 which is damped1 and one end twisted with much force over a stick1 and thus it is much reduced in size4 ,after being thus powerfully compressed and beaten so as to reduce the mass as much as possible1 the bag is exposed to the sun until it feels perfectly dry4 ,if there is no sun it is placed in the heated pan1 and there retained until it is so4 ,this finishes the first day's process4 ,on the second day it is placed in small quantities in the heated inclined pans1 and moved up and down against the sides and bottom with the palm of the hand1 which is made to perform a semi circle4 ,this is continued for about six hours1 and by so doing the colour of the tea is gradually brought out4 ,the third day it is passed through sieve baskets of different dimensions1 then exposed to the winnowing machine1 which separates the different kinds of green teas4 ,the winnowing machine is divided into a series of divisions1 which receive the different kinds according to their size and weight4 #ast4 ,coarsest ,souchoo4 ,this tea1 owing to its coarseness1 is not marketable4 #bnd4 ,chounchoo4 ,this is a large1 round-grained tea4 #crd4 ,machoo4 ,this is also a round-grained tea1 but finer than the former4 #dth4 ,hyson4 #eth4 ,gunpowder ,hyson4 #fth4 ,chumat4 ,this kind of tea consists of broken particles of other kinds of tea4 ,on being separated1 the different kinds are placed in baskets and picked by the hand1 all the old or badly curled and also light-coloured leaves being removed1 and others of different varieties1 which by chance may have become mixed4 ,to make the bad or light-colored leaves marketable1 they undergo an artificial process of coloring1 but this ,i have prohibited in compliance with the orders of the ,court of ,directors1 and therefore do not consider this tea at present fit for the market#ac4 ,on the different teas being properly picked1 they are again placed in the heated inclined pans1 and undergo separately the process of being moved violently up and down and along the bottom of the pan for three hours in the manner already described4 ,the color is now fully developed4 ,if the tea feels damp1 it is kept longer than three hours in the pan4 ,the tea is now ready to be packed4 ,packing4--,as soon as the tea is prepared1 boxes lined with sheet lead ought to be ready to receive it4 ,on being packed it is to be firmly pressed down1 and the lead is then to be soldered4 ,before the sheet lead box is placed in the wooden one it is covered with paper1 which is pasted on to prevent any air acting on the tea through any holes which might exist in the lead4 ,the box is then nailed1 removed to the godown1 papered1 stamped1 and numbered4 ,it is then ready for sale4 ,from what ,i have just stated1 it will be perceived that box makers and sheet lead makers are essential to form a complete tea establishment4 ,with reference to the box making it is unnecessary for me to make any remark1 further than that care is to be taken in selecting wood for making boxes1 as it ought to be free of all smell4 ,all coniferous 7pine7 woods are therefore unfit for the purpose4 ,in the hills the best woods are toon and walnut1 and at ,deyrah the saul 7,shorea ,robusta74 ,manufacture of sheet lead4--,sheet lead making is a much more complicated process1 and therefore requires more consideration4 ,to make sheet lead1 the manufacturer mixes #a to #c seers of block tin with a pucka maund of lead1 and melts them together in a cast metal pan4 ,on being melted1 the flat stone slabs1 under which it is his intention to run the lead1 are first covered with ten or twelve sheets of smooth paper 7the hill paper being well adapted to the purpose71 which are pasted to the sides1 and chalked over4 ,he then places the under stone in a skeleton frame of wood1 to keep it firm1 and above it the other stone4 ,on the upper stone the manufacturer sits1 and gently raises it with his left hand1 assisted by throwing the weight of his body backwards4 ,with his right hand he fills an iron ladle with the molten matter1 throws it under the raised slab1 which he immediately compresses and brings forward 7it having been placed back1 and thus overlapping the under slab by about half an inch7 with his own weight4 ,on doing so1 the superabundant lead issues in front and at both sides2 what remains attached to the slabs is removed by the iron ladle4 ,the upper slab is now lifted1 and the sheet of lead examined4 ,if it is devoid of holes it is retained2 if1 on the other hand1 there are several1 which is generally the case with the first two or three sheets run1 or until the slabs get warm1 it is again thrown back to the melting pan4 ,after having run off a series of sheets the slabs are to be examined1 and1 if the paper is in the least burnt1 the first sheet is to be removed1 and the one underneath taking its place1 and thus securing an uniform smooth surface1 is then to be chalked4 ,according to the size of the stone slabs used1 so is the size of the sheet lead4 ,those now in use are #af inches square by #b inches in thickness1 and are a composition1 being principally formed of lime4 ,to make sheet lead boxes1 a model one of wood 7a little smaller than the box for which the lead is intended7 is formed1 which has a hole in the bottom1 and a transverse bar of wood to assist in lifting it up1 instead of a lid4 ,the lead is then shaped on this model and soldered4 ,this being done1 the model is removed by the transverse bar1 and by pressing1 if necessary1 through the hole4 ,the lead box is then papered over1 in case there should be any small holes in it1 to prevent the action of air on the tea1 and1 when dry1 transferred to the wooden box for which it was intended4 ,the manufactory4--,the rooms of the manufactory ought to be large and airy1 and to consist of--#ast1 a black tea manufactory2 #bnd1 a green tea manufactory2 #crd1 winnowing room2 and #dth1 airing room4 ,at ,almorah the black tea manufacturing room is #ec feet long by #bj broad1 and the other three1 #bj by #bd4 ,the walls are #ah feet in height4 ,implements required in manufacturing4--,in the body of this report ,i have noticed all the different kinds of implements required1 ,i may however1 again briefly notice them1 and give a short account of each4 ,cast-iron ,pans--,in the manufactory there are two kinds in use1 one received from ,china1 the other from ,england4 ,both are considered equally good by the tea manufacturers1 though in firing green tea they prefer the ,chinese ones1 as they are thinner1 and are thus by them better able to regulate the heat4 ,the ,chinese pans are two feet two inches in diameter1 and #aj inches in depth1 by about one-eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,the ,english pans are two feet two inches in diameter1 and eight inches in depth1 and rather thicker than the ,chinese4 ,the oven for making black tea is made of kucha brick4 ,in height it is two feet nine inches1 in length1 three feet1 and in breadth three feet one inch4 ,door one foot five inches in height1 and #aa inches in breadth4 ,the base of the oven is #aj inches elevated above the floor of the manufacturing room4 ,the oven with double pans for manufacturing green tea1 is also built of kucha bricks4 ,it is three feet in height and three feet in breadth2 base of oven one foot in height4 ,door one foot six inches in height1 and #aj inches in breadth4 ,the pans are placed horizontally4 ,a brush made of split bamboo1 used in sweeping the tea leaves out of the pans4 ,a basket for receiving tea from the pan when ready to be rolled4 ,it is #b feet long1 and #a feet broad1 and gradually increases in depth from before backwards to #f inches4 ,it is made of bamboo4 ,the mat made of bamboo for placing on the table when the tea leaves are about to be rolled4 ,it is #h feet long and #d feet broad4 ,a flat basket made of bamboo for spreading out the tea leaves when they have been rolled on the mat4 ,these flat baskets are of various sizes1 varying from #c to #e feet in diameter4 ,a flat sieve basket of #b feet in diameter1 made of bamboo1 upon which the rolled tea leaves are placed1 and which is deposited in the centre of the double-coned basket4 ,double-coned baskets4 ,the height of these baskets varies from #b feet #b inches to #b feet #f inches1 external diameter #b feet #h inches4 ,in the centre there are some pegs of bamboo to support the flat sieve basket on which the tea rests4 ,forked sticks for turning leaves4 ,choolahs4 ,these are formed of kucha bricks1 and are #aj inches high1 #aj inches deep1 and generally about #b feet in diameter4 ,funnel made of bamboo to allow the heated air from the choolahs to pass through the tea2 it is seldom used2 the ,chinese tea manufacturers preferring one made in the tea basket by the hand4 ,oven for firing green tea made of kucha bricks4 ,the pans are inclined at an angle of #ej4 ,in front the oven is #c feet #b inches in height1 behind #d feet #h inches1 length #e feet1 breadth #c feet4 ,door #aj inches from the base1 #a foot #b inches high1 and #g inches wide4 ,frames for placing baskets4 ,the first being inclined4 ,baskets for collecting leaves4 ,shovel1 c41 used in regulating the fire4 ,winnowing machine4 ,this is a common winnowing machine1 with a box #b feet #aj inches in length1 #a foot #b inches in breadth1 and #a foot #c inches in depth1 attached to the bottom of the hopper1 and closely fitted into the middle of the circular apartment which contains the fanners4 ,this box is entirely closed above 7unless at the small opening receiving the hopper7 and at the sides4 ,at the base there are two inclined boards which project from the side of the machine #f inches1 and are partly separated from each other by angular pieces of wood4 ,the end towards the fanners is open1 the other is partly closed by a semicircular box which is moveable4 ,i shall now give the dimensions of the different parts of this machine1 which may be useful to parties wishing to make up similar ones to those employed in the manufactories4 ,external frame #g feet #b inches in length1 #ah inches in breadth1 and #e feet #h inches in height4 ,hopper #b feet #aj inches above1 and #a foot #h inches in depth4 ,frame of box for fanners #c feet #i inches in diameter4 ,hopper frame #b feet #g inches4 ,semicircular box1 in length #b feet #e inches and #g inches in depth4 ,inclined plane at base1 first #ae inches1 second #ac inches4 ,i may briefly state how this machine acts4 ,with the right hand the fanners are propelled by the crank1 and with the left hand the bottom of the hopper is opened by removing the wood4 ,the flat piece of wood 7the regulator7 is held in the hand to regulate the quantity of tea that passes down4 ,an assistant then throws a quantity of tea into the hopper which escapes through the apartment1 and there meets the air4 ,the first kind of tea falls down the inclined plane into one box which has been placed to receive them1 the second are propelled further on1 and fall into another box1 and the lighter particles are propelled on to the semicircular end1 and fall into a third box4 ,note on the culture of the tea plant at ,darjeeling1 in #ahdg1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,campbell1 ,superintendant4--,about six years ago ,i received a few tea seeds from ,dr4 ,wallich2 they were of ,china stock1 grown in ,kumaon4 ,i planted them in my garden in ,november1 #ahda1 and had about a dozen seedlings in the month of ,may following1 which were allowed to grow where they had come up1 and rather close together4 ,the plants were healthy from the commencement1 and up to ,may1 #ahdd1 had grown very well2 at this period the ground passed into other hands 7,mr4 ,samuel ,smith's71 and ,i lost sight of them until last ,august1 when ,mr4 ,macfarlane1 from ,assam1 who was acquainted with the tea plant in that province1 arrived here4 ,being desirous of ascertaining how far the climate and soil of ,darjeeling were suitable to the tea1 ,i took him to examine the plants1 and begged of him to record his opinion on their growth and qualities1 with reference to their age1 and his experience of the plant in ,assam4 ,the result was quite satisfactory4 ,encouraged by this result1 ,i determined to give an extended trial to the plant1 and through the kindness of ,major ,jenkins and ,captain ,brodie1 of ,assam1 ,i procured a supply of fresh seed in ,october and ,november last1 which was planted in ,november and the early part of ,december4 ,the seed was of excellent quality4 ,it commenced germinating in ,march1 a few plants appeared above ground in the early part of ,may1 and now ,i have upwards of #g1jjj fine healthy seedlings in the plantation4 ,for the information of those who may desire to try the tea culture in this soil and climate1 ,i have to state the mode of planting pursued by me1 and other particulars4 ,the ground is a gentle sloping bank1 facing the north and west2 the soil is a reddish clay mixed with vegetable mould4 ,after taking up a crop of potatoes1 and carefully preparing the ground1 ,i put in the seeds in rows six feet apart and six feet distance in the rows4 ,the seeds were placed about three inches under the surface1 five in number1 at each place about four inches apart--thus 3 4 3 ,on an average1 two out of five have come up4 ,the seedlings commenced appearing above ground early in ,may1 and continued to show until the end of ,july4 ,the earliest were1 therefore1 six months in the ground2 the latest about eight months4 ,the seed was of ,china stock1 grown in ,assam1 and of the ,assam plant mixed4 ,i am anxious to have the ,china stock only1 and purpose separating the plants of the ,assam stock as soon as ,i can distinguish them1 which ,captain ,brodie informs me can be readily done as they grow up2 the ,china plants begin of a darker color1 and smaller than the ,assam ones4 ,i hope to have a supply of the seed of ,china stock from ,kumaon next ,november1 and with it to cause the extension of the experiment at this place4 ,i think that it is reasonable to expect quite as good tea to be produced here as in ,kumaon4#ad ,i have not tasted the ,kumaon tea1 but1 from the opinion expressed on it in ,england1 ,i am satisfied that it is a very drinkable beverage1 and that with similar success here1 the tea will be a valuable addition to our products4 ,i have recently tried two kinds of the ,assam tea presented by ,mr4 ,stokes to a friend4 ,they are excellent teas1 and ,i shall be well content to have an equally good article manufactured here4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,macfarlane's report on the tea plants in ,mr4 ,smith's ground is annexed3-- ,according to your request ,i have the pleasure of transmitting you my opinion of the tea plants in your garden in this place4 ,the two larger plants have made very good progress1 considering their closeness to each other1 which prevents them from throwing their branches freely in every direction1 but as they have attained so great a size ,i would not recommend their being transplanted1 because let it be done ever so carefully1 the roots must receive more or less injury1 and should the injury be great the death of the tree is certain4 ,the smaller ones on the contrary are much stunted2 this is caused by their confined situation1 being completely choked up by the rose trees1 which prevents their receiving a proper supply of light and air1 so necessary to vegetation4 ,they are also planted too closely1 and1 as the plants are still small1 by availing yourself of the most favourable season1 and using great care in the operation1 they might he transplanted with safety1 and should then be placed at a distance of not less than six feet apart4 ,the difficulty of transplanting is occasioned by the depth to which the root penetrates1 as it generally grows downwards1 and in a large tree is principally in the subsoil4 ,the larger plants should be pruned of their lower branches to allow a free current of air4 ,this operation is generally performed in ,november1 but any time during the cold season or before the rains1 while the plant is at rest1 would answer3 as ,i have no knowledge of this climate1 ,i would leave it to more experienced persons to judge of the proper season4 ,to conclude1 the plants are in a very healthy condition1 and had they been in the hands of a cultivator1 would now have been giving a very fair supply of produce4 ,the small sample ,i tried was of a very good flavor1 but on account of the defective manner of manufacture1 for want of proper materials1 no proper judgment can be formed4 7,simmonds's ,col4 ,mag41 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dd47 ,report upon the ,tea ,plantations of ,deyra1 ,kumaon and ,gurhwal1 by ,robert ,fortune1 ,esq41 addressed to ,john ,thornton1 ,esq41 ,secretary to the ,government1 ,north ,western ,provinces1 dated ,calcutta1 ,september #fth1 #ahea3-- ,,kaolagir ,,tea ,,plantation4 #a4 ,situation and extent4--,the ,deyra ,doon1 or ,valley of ,deyra1 is situated in latitude #c deg4 #ah min4 north1 and in longitude #gh deg4 east4 ,it is about #fj miles in length from east to west1 and #af miles broad at its widest part4 ,it is bounded on the south by the ,sewalick range of hills1 and on the north by the ,himalayas proper1 which are here nearly #h1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,on the west it is open to the river ,jumna1 and on the east to the ,ganges1 the distance between these rivers being about #fj miles4 ,in the centre of this flat valley1 the ,kaolagir tea plantation has been formed4 ,eight acres were under cultivation in #ahdg4 ,there are now #cjj acres planted1 and about #ij more taken in and ready for many thousands of young plants raised lately from seeds in the plantation4 #b4 ,soil and culture4--,the soil of this plantation is composed of clay1 sand1 and vegetable matter1 rather stiff1 and apt to get baked in dry weather1 but free enough when it is moist or during the rains4 ,it rests upon a gravelly subsoil1 consisting of limestone1 sandstone1 clay-slate1 and quartz rock1 or of such rocks as enter into the composition of the surrounding mountain ranges4 ,the surface is comparatively flat1 although it falls in certain directions towards the ravines and rivers4 ,the plants are arranged neatly in rows #f feet apart1 and each plant is about #d feet from its neighbour in the row4 ,a long1 rank-growing species of grass1 indigenous to the ,doon1 is most difficult to keep from over-topping the tea-plants1 and is the cause of much extra labor4 ,besides the labor common to all tea countries in ,china1 such as weeding1 and occasionally loosening the soil1 there is here an extensive system of irrigation carried on4 ,to facilitate this1 the plants are planted in trenches1 from four to six inches below the level of the ground1 and the soil thus dug out is thrown between the rows to form the paths4 ,hence the whole of the plantation consists of numerous trenches of this depth1 and five feet from centre to centre4 ,at right angles with these trenches a small stream is fed from the canal1 and1 by opening or shutting their ends1 irrigation can be carried on at the pleasure of the overseer4 #c4 ,appearance and health of plants4--,the plants generally did not appear to me to be in that fresh and vigorous condition which ,i had been accustomed to see in good ,chinese plantations4 ,this1 in my opinion1 is caused1 #ast1 by the plantation being formed on flat land2 #bnd1 by the system of irrigation2 #crd1 by too early plucking2 and #dth1 by hot drying winds1 which are not unfrequent in this valley from ,april to the beginning of ,june4 ,,guddowli ,,plantation 7,,near ,,paorie74 #a4 ,situation and extent4--,this plantation is situated in the ,province of ,eastern ,gurhwal1 in latitude #cj deg4 #h min4 north1 and in longitude #gh deg4 #de min4 east4 ,it consists of a large tract of terraced land1 extending from the bottom of a valley or ravine to more than #a1jjj feet up the sides of the mountain4 ,its lowest portion is about #d1cjj feet1 and its highest #e1cjj feet above the level of the sea2 the surrounding mountains appear to be from #g1jjj to #h1jjj4 ,the plantation has not been measured1 but there are1 apparently1 fully one hundred acres under cultivation4 ,there are about #ejj1jjj plants already planted1 besides a large number of seedlings in beds ready for transplanting4 ,about #c1djj of the former were planted in #ahdd1 and are now in full bearing2 the greater portion of the others are much younger1 having been planted out only one1 two1 and three years4 #b4 ,soil and culture4--,the soil consists of a mixture of loam1 sand1 and vegetable matter1 is of a yellow colour1 and is most suitable for the cultivation of the tea-plant4 ,it resembles greatly the soil of the test tea districts in ,china4 ,a considerable quantity of stones are mixed with it1 chiefly small pieces of clay-slate1 of which the mountains here are composed4 ,large tracts of equally good land1 at present covered with jungle1 are available in this district without interfering in any way with the rights of the settlers4 ,i have stated that this plantation is formed on the hill side4 ,it consists of a succession of terraces1 from the bottom to the top1 on which the tea bushes are planted4 ,in its general features it is very like a ,chinese tea plantation1 although one rarely sees tea lands terraced in ,china4 ,this1 however1 may be necessary in the ,himalayas1 where the rains fall so heavily4 ,here1 too1 the system of irrigation is carried on1 although to a small extent only1 owing to the scarcity of water during the dry season4 #c4 ,appearance and health of plants4--,this plantation is a most promising one1 and ,i have no doubt will be very valuable in a few years4 ,the plants are growing admirably1 and evidently like their situation4 ,some of them are suffering slightly from the effects of hard-plucking1 like those at ,kaolagir2 but this can easily be avoided in their future management4 ,altogether1 it is in a most satisfactory condition1 and shows how safe it is in matters of this kind to follow the example of the ,chinese cultivator1 who never makes his tea plantations on low rice land1 and never irrigates4 ,,hawulbaugh ,,plantation 7,,near ,,almorah74 #ast4 ,situation and extent4--,this tea farm is situated on the banks of the river ,kosilla1 about six miles north-west from ,almorah1 the capital of ,kumaon4 ,it is about #d1ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the land is of an undulating character1 consisting of gentle slopes and terraces1 and reminded me of some of the best tea districts in ,china4 ,indeed1 the hills themselves1 in this part of the ,himalayas1 are very much like those of ,china1 being barren near their summit and fertile on their lower sides4 ,thirty-four acres of land are under tea cultivation here1 including the adjoining farm of ,chullar4 ,some of the plants appear to have been planted in #ahdd2 but1 as at ,paorie1 the greater number are only from one to three years old4 #bnd4 ,soil and culture4--,the soil is what is usually called a sandy loam2 it is moderately rich1 being well mixed with vegetable matter4 ,it is well suited for tea cultivation4 ,the greater part of the farm is terraced as at ,guddowli1 but some few patches are left in natural slopes in accordance with the ,chinese method4 ,irrigation is practised to a limited extent4 #crd4 ,appearance and health of the plants4--,all the young plants here are in robust health and are growing well1 particularly where they are growing on land where water cannot flood or injure them4 ,as examples of this1 ,i may point out a long belt between ,dr4 ,jameson's house and the flower garden1 and also a piece of ground a little below the house in which the ,chinese manufacturers live4 ,some few of the older bushes appear rather stunted2 but this is evidently the result of water remaining stagnant about the roots1 and partly also of over plucking2 both defects1 however1 admit of being easily cured4 ,,lutchmisser ,,and ,,kuppeena ,,plantations4 #ast4 ,situation and extent4--,these plantations are on the hill side near ,almorah1 and about #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the situation is somewhat steep1 but well adapted to the growth of tea4 ,the former contains three acres1 and the latter four acres under cultivation4 #bnd4 ,soil and culture4---,the soil is light and sandy1 and much mixed with particles of clay-slate1 which have crumbled down from the adjoining rocks4 ,i believe these plantations are rarely irrigated1 and the land is steep enough to prevent any stagnant water from remaining about the roots of the plants4 #crd4 ,appearance and health of plants4--,most of the bushes here are fully grown1 and in full bearing1 and generally in good health4 ,on the whole1 ,i consider these plantations in excellent order4 ,,bheemtal ,,plantations4 ,the lake of ,bheemtal is situate in latitude #bi deg4 #bj min4 north1 and in longitude #gi deg4 #cj min4 east4 ,it is #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and some of the surrounding mountains are said to be #h1jjj feet4 ,these form the southern chain of the ,himalayas1 and bound the vast plain of ,india1 of which a glimpse can be had through the mountain passes4 ,amongst these hills there are several tals or lakes1 some flat meadow-looking land1 and gentle undulating slopes1 while higher up we have steep and rugged mountains4 ,it is amongst these hills1 that the ,bheemtal tea plantations have been formed4 ,they may be classed under three heads1 viz4-- #ast4 ,anoo and ,kooasur plantations4--,these adjoin each other1 are both formed on low flat land1 and together cover about forty acres4 ,the plants do not seem healthy or vigorous2 many of them have died out1 and few are in that state which tea plants ought to be in4 ,such situations never ought to be chosen for tea cultivation4 ,the same objection applies to these as to those at ,deyra1 but in a greater degree4 ,no doubt1 with sufficient drainage1 and great care in cultivation1 and the tea plant might be made to exist in such a situation2 but ,i am convinced it would never grow with that luxuriance which is necessary in order to render it a profitable crop4 ,besides1 such lands are valuable for other purposes4 ,they are excellent rice lands1 and as such of considerable value to the natives4 #bnd4 ,bhurtpoor plantation4--,this plantation covers about four and a half acres of terraced land on the hill side1 a little to the eastward of those last noticed4 ,the soil is composed of a light loam1 much mixed with small pieces of clay-slate and trap or green-stone1 of which the adjacent rocks are composed4 ,it contains a small portion of vegetable matter or humus4 ,both the situation and soil of this plantation are well adapted to the requirements of the tea shrub1 and consequently we find it succeeding here as well as at ,guddowli1 ,hawulbaugh1 ,almorah1 and other places where it is planted on the slopes of the hills4 #crd4 ,russia plantation4--,this plantation extends over seventy-five acres1 and is formed on sloping land4 ,the elevation is somewhat less than ,bhurtpoor1 and although terraced in the same way1 the angle is much lower4 ,in some parts of the farm the plants are doing well1 but generally they seemed to be suffering from too much water and hard plucking4 ,i have no doubt1 however1 of the success of this farm1 when the system of cultivation is improved4 ,i observed some most vigorous and healthy bushes in the overseer's garden1 a spot adjoining the plantation1 which could not be irrigated1 and was informed they never received any water1 except that which fell from the skies4 ,in the ,bheemtal district1 there are large tracts of excellent tea land4 ,in crossing over the hills towards ,nainee ,tal1 with ,j4,h4 ,batten1 ,esq41 ,commissioner of ,kumaon1 ,i pointed out many tracts admirably adapted for tea cultivation1 and of no great value to the natives2 generally1 those lands on which the mundoca is cultivated are the most suitable4 ,i have thus described all the ,government plantations in ,gurhwal and ,kumaon4 ,dr4 ,jameson1 the superintendent1 deserves the highest praise for the energy and perseverance with which he has conducted his operations4 ,i shall now notice the plantations of the zemindars1 under the superintendence of the commissioner and assistant-commissioner of ,kumaon and ,gurhwal4 ,,zemindaree ,,tea ,,plantations4 #ast1 at ,lohba4--,this place is situated in eastern ,gurhwal1 about #ej miles to the westward of ,almorah1 and is at an elevation of #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,it is one of the most beautiful spots in this part of the ,himalayas4 ,the surrounding mountains are high1 and in some parts precipitous1 while in others they are found consisting of gentle slopes and undulations4 ,on these undulating slopes1 there is a great deal of excellent land suitable for tea cultivation4 ,a few tea bushes have been growing vigorously for some years in the commissioner's garden1 and they are now fully ten feet in height4 ,these plants having succeeded so well1 naturally induced the authorities of the province to try this cultivation upon a more extensive scale4 ,it appears that in #ahdd1 about #d1jjj young plants were obtained from the ,government plantations1 and planted on a tract of excellent land1 which the natives wished to abandon4 ,instead of allowing the people to throw up their land1 they were promised it rent-free upon the condition that they attended to the cultivation of the tea1 which had been planted on a small portion of the ground attached to the village4 ,this arrangement seems to have failed either from want of knowledge1 or from design1 or perhaps partly from both of these causes4 ,more lately1 a larger number of plants have been planted1 but ,i regret to say with nearly the same results4 ,but results of this discouraging kind are what any one1 acquainted with the nature of the tea plant1 could have easily foretold1 had the treatment1 intended to be given it1 been explained to him4 ,upon enquiry1 ,i found the villagers had been managing the tea lands just as they had been doing their rice fields1 that is1 a regular system of irrigation was practised4 ,as water was plentiful1 a great number1 indeed nearly all1 the plants seem to have perished from this cause4 ,the last planting alluded to had been done late in the spring1 and just at the commencement of the dry weather1 and to these plants little or no water seems to have been given2 so that1 in fact1 it was going from one extreme to another equally bad1 and the result was of course nearly the same4 ,i have no hesitation in saying that the district in question is well adapted for the cultivation of tea4 ,with judicious management1 a most productive farm might be established here in four or five years4 ,land is plentiful1 and of little value either to the natives or to the ,government4 #bnd1 at ,kutoor4--,this is the name of a large district #cj or #dj miles northward from ,almorah1 in the centre of which the old town or village of ,byznath stands4 ,it is a fine undulating country1 consisting of wide valleys1 gentle slopes1 and little hills1 while the whole is intersected by numerous streams1 and surrounded by high mountains4 ,the soil of this extensive district is most fertile1 and is capable of producing large crops of rice1 on the low irrigable lands1 and the dry grains and tea on the sides of the hills4 ,from some cause1 however1 either the thinness of population or the want of a remunerative crop1#ae large tracts of this fertile district have been allowed to go out of cultivation4 ,everywhere ,i observed ruinous and jungle-covered terraces1 which told of the more extended cultivation of former years4 ,amongst some hills near the upper portion of this district1 two small tea plantations have been formed under the patronage and superintendence of ,captain ,ramsey1 ,senior ,assistant ,commissioner of ,kumaon4 ,each of them cover three or four acres of land1 and had been planted about a year before the time of my visit4 ,in this short space of time the plants had grown into nice strong bushes1 and were in the highest state of health4 ,i never saw1 even in the most favoured districts in ,china1 any plantations looking better than these4 ,this result1 ,captain ,ramsay informed me1 had been attained in the following simple manner3--,all the land attached to the two villages with which the tea farms are connected1 is exempted from the revenue tax1 a sum amounting only to #ebe ,rs4 per annum4 ,in lieu of this1 the assamees 7cultivators7 of both villages assist with manure1 and at the transplanting season1 as well as ploughing and preparing fresh land4 ,in addition to this1 one chowdree and four prisoners are constantly employed upon the plantations4 ,the chief reason of the success of these plantations1 next to that of the land being well suited for tea cultivation1 may1 no doubt1 be traced to a good system of management2 that is1 the young plants have been carefully transplanted at the proper season of the year1 when the air was charged with moisture1 and they have not been destroyed by excessive irrigation afterwards4 ,the other zemindaree plantation at ,lohba might have been now in full bearing had the same system been followed4 ,from the description thus given1 it will be observed that ,i consider the ,kutoor plantations in a most flourishing condition4 ,and ,i have no doubt they will continue to flourish1 and soon convince the zemindars of the value of tea cultivation1 providing three things1 intimately connected with the success of the crop are strongly impressed upon their minds2 viz41 the unsuitableness of low wet lands for tea cultivation2 the folly of irrigating tea as they would do rice1 and the impropriety of commencing the plucking before the plants are strong1 and of considerable size4 ,i am happy to add1 that amongst these hills there are no foolish prejudices in the minds of the natives against the cultivation of tea4 ,about the time of my visit1 a zemindar came and begged two thousand plants1 to enable him to commence tea growing on his own account4 ,it is of great importance1 that the authorities of a district1 and persons of influence1 should show an interest in a subject of this kind4 ,at present the natives do not know its value2 but they are as docile as children1 and will enter willingly upon tea cultivation1 providing the ,sahib shows that he is interested in it4 ,in a few years the profits received will be a sufficient inducement4 ,in concluding this part of my ,report1 ,i beg to suggest the propriety of obtaining some of the best varieties of the tea plant which have been introduced lately into the government plantations from ,china4 ,dr4 ,jameson could1 no doubt1 spare a few1 but they ought to be given to those zemindars only who have succeeded with the original variety4 ,having described in detail the various government plantations1 and also those of the zemindars which came under my notice in the ,himalayas1 ,i shall now make some general remarks upon the cultivation of tea in ,india1 and offer some suggestions for its improvement4 ,,general ,,remarks4 #a4 ,on land and cultivation4--,from the observations already made upon the various tea farms which ,i have visited in the ,himalayas1 it will be seen that ,i do not approve of low flat lands being selected for the cultivation of the tea shrub4 ,in ,china1 which at present must be regarded as the model tea country1 the plantations are never made in such situations1 or they are so rare as not to have come under my notice4 ,in that country they are usually formed on the lower slopes of the hills1 that is1 in such situations as those at ,guddowli1 ,hawulbaugh1 ,almorah1 ,kutoor1 c41 in the ,himalayas4 ,it is true that in the fine green tea country of ,hwuy-chow1 in ,china1 near the town of ,tunche1 many hundred acres of flattish land are under tea cultivation4 ,but this land is close to the hills1 which jut out into it in all directions1 and it is intersected by a river whose banks are usually from #ae to #bj feet above the level of the stream itself1 not unlike those of the ,ganges below ,benares4 ,in fact1 it has all the advantages of hilly land such as the tea plant delights in4 ,in extending the ,himalaya plantation this important fact ought to be kept in view4 ,there is no scarcity of such land in these mountains1 more particularly in ,eastern ,gurhwal and ,kumaon4 ,it abounds in the districts of ,paorie1 ,kunour1 ,lohba1 ,almorah1 ,kutoor1 and ,bheemtal1 and ,i was informed by ,mr4 ,batten1 that there are large tracts about ,gungoli and various other places equally suitable4 ,much of this land is out of cultivation1 as ,i have already stated1 while the cultivated portions yield on an average only two or three annas per acre of revenue4 ,such lands are of less value to the zemindars than low rice land1 where they can command a good supply of water for irrigation4 ,but ,i must not be understood to recommend poor worn out hill lands for tea cultivation1--land on which nothing else will grow4 ,nothing is further from my meaning4 ,tea in order to be profitable requires a good sound soil1--a light loam1 well mixed with sand and vegetable matter1 moderately moist1 and yet not stagnant or sour4 ,such a soil1 for example1 as on these hill sides produces good crops of mundooa1 wheat or millet1 is well adapted for tea4 ,it is such lands which ,i have alluded to as abounding in the ,himalayas1 and which are1 at present1 of so little value either to the ,government1 or to the natives themselves4 ,the system of ,irrigation applied to tea in ,india is never practised in ,china4 ,i did not observe it practised in any of the great tea countries which ,i visited4 ,on asking the ,chinese manufacturers whom ,i brought round1 and who had been born and brought up in these districts1 whether they had seen such a practice1 they all replied1 no1 that is the way we grow rice3 we never irrigate tea4 ,indeed1 ,i have no hesitation in saying that1 in nine cases out of ten1 the effects of irrigation are most injurious4 ,when tea will not grow without irrigation1 it is a sure sign that the land employed is not suitable for such a crop4 ,it is no doubt an excellent thing to have a command of water in case of a long drought1 when its agency might be useful in saving a crop which would otherwise fail1 but irrigation ought to be used only in such emergent cases4 ,i have already observed that good tea land is naturally moist1 although not stagnant2 and we must bear in mind that the tea shrub is not a water plant1 but is found in a wild state on the sides of hills4 ,in confirmation of these views1 it is only necessary to observe further1 that all the best ,himalayan plantations are those to which irrigation has been most sparingly applied4 ,in cultivating the tea shrub1 much injury is often done to a plantation by plucking leaves from very young plants4 ,in ,china young plants are never touched until the third or fourth year after they have been planted4 ,if growing under favorable circumstances1 they will yield a good crop after that time4 ,all that ought to be done1 in the way of plucking or pruning before that time1 should be done with a view to form the plants1 and make them bushy if they do not grow so naturally4 ,if plucking is commenced too early and continued1 the energies of the plants are weakened1 and they are long in attaining any size1 and consequently there is a great loss of produce in a given number of years4 ,to make this more plain1 ,i will suppose a bush that has been properly treated to be eight years of age4 ,it may then be yielding from two to three pounds of tea per annum1 while another of the same age1 but not a quarter of the size1 from over-plucking1 is not giving more than as many ounces4 ,the same remarks apply also to plants which become unhealthy from any cause2 leaves ought never to be taken from such plants2 the gatherers should have strict orders to pass them over until they get again into a good state of health4 #bnd4 ,on climate4--,i have already stated that eastern ,gurhwal and ,kumaon appear to me to be the most suitable for the cultivation of the tea plant in this part of the ,himalayas4 ,my remarks upon climate will therefore refer to this part of the country4 ,from a table of temperature kept at ,hawulbaugh from ,november #bhth1 #ahej1 to ,july #acth1 #ahea1 obligingly furnished me by ,dr4 ,jameson1 ,i observed that the climate here is extremely mild4 ,during the winter months1 the thermometer ,fahr4 at sunrise was never lower than #dd deg41 and only on two occasions so low1 namely on the #aeth and #afth of ,february1 #ahea4 ,once it stood so high as #ff deg4 on the morning of ,february #dth1 but this is full ten degrees higher than usual4 ,the minimum in ,february must1 however1 be several degrees lower than is shown by this table1 for ice and snow were not unfrequent2 indeed1 opposite the #afth of ,february in the column of remarks1 ,i find written down a very frosty morning4 ,this discrepancy no doubt arises either from a bad thermometer being used1 or from its being placed in a sheltered verandah4 ,we may1 therefore1 safely mark the minimum as #cb deg4 instead of #dd degrees4 ,the month of ,june appears to be the hottest in the year4 ,i observe the thermometer on the #eth1 #fth and #gth of that month stood at #ib deg4 at #c ,p4,m41 and this was the highest degree marked during the year4 ,the lowest1 at this hour1 during the month was #gf deg41 but the general range in the #c ,p4,m4 column of the table is from #hj deg4 to #ij degrees4 ,the wet and dry seasons are not so decided in the hills as they are in the plains4 ,in ,january1 #ahfa1 it rained on five days and ten nights1 and the total quantity of rain which fell1 as indicated by the rain gauge1 during this month1 was #e4be inches2 in ,february1 #c4hd fell2 in ,march1 #b4aa2 in ,april1 #b4bd2 in ,may1 none2 and in ,june #f4ac4 ,in ,june there are generally some days of heavy rain1 called by the natives ,chota ,bursaut1 or small rains1 after this there is an interval of some days of dry weather before the regular rainy season commences4 ,this season comes on in ,july and continues until ,september4 ,october and ,november are said to be beautiful months with a clear atmosphere and cloudless sky4 ,after this fogs are frequent in all the valleys until spring4 ,in comparing the climate of these provinces with that of ,china1 although we find some important difference1 yet upon the whole there is a great similarity4 ,my comparisons apply1 of course1 to the best tea districts only1 for although the tea shrub is found cultivated from ,canton in the south to ,tan-chowpoo in ,shan-tung1 yet the provinces of ,fokein1 ,kainsee and the southern parts of ,kiangnan1 yield nearly all the finest teas of commerce4 ,the town of ,tsong-gan1 one of the great black tea towns near the far famed ,woo-e-shan1 is situated in latitude #bg deg4 #dg min1 north4 ,here the thermometer in the hottest months1 namely in ,july and ,august1 rarely rises above #ajj deg4 and ranges from #ib deg4 to #ajj deg41 as maximum2 while in the coldest months1 ,december and ,january1 it sinks to the freezing point and sometimes a few degrees lower4 ,we have thus a close resemblance in temperature between ,woo-e-shan and ,almorah1 ,the great green tea district being situated two degrees further north1 the extremes of temperature are somewhat greater4 ,it will be observed1 however1 that while the hottest month in the ,himalayas is ,june1 in ,china the highest temperature occurs in ,july and ,august3 this is owing to the rainy season taking place earlier in ,china than it does in ,india4 ,in ,china rain falls in heavy and copious showers in the end of ,april1 and these rains continue at intervals in ,may and ,june4 ,the first gathering of tea-leaves1 those from which the ,pekoe is made1 is scarcely over before the air becomes charged with moisture1 rain falls1 and the bushes being thus placed in such favourable circumstances for vegetating are soon covered again with young leaves1 from which the main crop of the season is obtained4 ,no one1 acquainted with vegetable physiology1 can doubt the advantages of such weather in the cultivation of tea for mercantile purposes4 ,and these advantages1 to a certain extent at least1 seem to be extended to the ,himalayas1 although the regular rainy season is later than in ,china4 ,i have already shown1 from ,dr ,jameson's table1 that spring showers are frequent in ,kumaon1 although rare in the plains of ,india2 still1 however1 ,i think it would be prudent to adopt the gathering of leaves to the climate1 that is to take a moderate portion from the bushes before the rains1 and the main crop after they have commenced4 #crd4 ,on the vegetation of ,china and the ,himalayas4 ,one of the surest guides from which to draw conclusions1 on a subject of this nature1 is found in the indigenous vegetable productions of the countries4 ,dr4 ,royle1 who was the first to recommend the cultivation of tea in the ,himalayas1 drew his conclusions1 in the absence of that positive information from ,china which we possess now1 not only from the great similarity in temperature between ,china and these hills1 but also from the resemblance in vegetable productions4 ,this resemblance is certainly very striking4 ,in both countries1 except in the low valleys of the ,himalayas 7and these we are not considering71 tropical forms are rarely met with4 ,if we take trees and shrubs1 for example1 we find such genera as pinus1 cypress1 berberis1 quercus1 viburnam1 indigofera1 and romeda1 lonicera1 deutzia1 rubus1 myrica1 spir1 ilex1 and many others common to both countries4 ,amongst herbaceous plants we have gentiana1 aquilegia1 anemone1 rumex1 primula1 lilium1 loutodon1 ranunculus1 c4 equally distributed in the ,himalayas and in ,china1 and even in aquatics the same resemblance may be traced1 as in nelumbium1 caladium c4 ,and further than this1 we do not find plants belong to the same genera only1 but in many instances the identical species are found in both countries4 ,the indigofera1 common in the ,himalayas1 abounds also on the tea hills of ,china1 and so does ,berberis nepaulencis1 ,lonicera diversifolia1 ,myrica sapida1 and many others4 ,were it necessary1 ,i might now show that there is a most striking resemblance between the geology of the two countries as well as in their vegetable productions4 ,in both the black and green tea countries which ,i have alluded to1 clay-slate is most abundant4 ,but enough has been advanced to prove how well many parts of the ,himalayas are adapted for the cultivation of tea2 besides1 the flourishing condition of many of the plantations is1 after all1 the best proof1 and puts the matter beyond all doubt4 #dth4 ,concluding ,suggestions4--,having shown that tea can be grown in the ,himalayas1 and that it would produce a valuable and remunerative crop1 the next great object appears to be the production of superior tea1 by means of fine varieties and improved cultivation4 ,it is well known that a variety of the tea plant existed in the southern parts of ,china from which inferior teas only were made4 ,that1 being more easily procured than the fine northern varieties1 from which the great mass of the best teas are made1 was the variety originally sent to ,india4 ,from it all those in the ,government plantations have sprung4 ,it was to remedy this1 and to obtain the best varieties from those districts which furnish the trees of commerce1 that induced the ,honourable ,court of ,directors to send me to ,china in #ahdh4 ,another object was to obtain some good manufacturers and implements from the same districts4 ,as the result of this mission1 nearly twenty thousand plants from the best black and green tea countries of ,central ,china1 have been introduced to the ,himalayas4 ,six first-rate manufacturers1 two lead men1 and a large supply of implements from the celebrated ,hwuy-chow districts were also brought round and safely located on the ,government plantations in the hills4 ,a great step has thus been gained towards the objects in view4 ,much1 however1 remains still to be done4 ,the new ,china plants ought to be carefully propagated and distributed over all the plantations2 some of them ought also to be given to the zemindars1 and more of these fine varieties might be yearly imported from ,china4 ,the ,chinese manufacturers1 who were obtained some years since from ,calcutta or ,assam1 are1 in my opinion1 far from being first-rate workmen2 indeed1 ,i doubt much if any of them learned their trade in ,china4 ,they ought to be gradually got rid of and their places supplied by better men1 for it is a great pity to teach the natives an inferior method of manipulation4 ,the men brought round by me are first-rate green tea makers1 they can also make black tea1 but they have not been in the habit of making so much black as green4 ,they have none of the ,canton illiberality or prejudices about them1 and are most willing to teach their art to the natives4 ,i have no doubt some of the latter will soon be made excellent tea manufacturers4 ,and the instruction of the natives is1 no doubt1 one of the chief objects which ought to be kept in view1 for the importation of ,chinese manipulators at high wages can only he regarded as a temporary measure2 ultimately the ,himalayan tea must be made by the natives themselves2 each native farmer must learn how to make tea as well as how to grow it2 he will then make it upon his own premises1 as the ,chinese do1 and the expenses of carriage will be much less than if the green leaves had to be taken to the market4 ,but as the zemindars will be able to grow tea long before they are able to make it1 it would be prudent1 in the first instance1 to offer them a certain sum for green leaves brought to the government manufactory4 ,i have pointed out the land most suitable for the cultivation of tea1 and shown that such land exists in the ,himalayas to an almost unlimited extent4 ,but if the object the government have in view be the establishment of a company to develop the resources of these hills1 as in ,assam1 ,i would strongly urge the propriety of concentrating1 as much as possible1 the various plantations4 ,sites ought to be chosen which are not too far apart1 easy of access1 and1 if possible1 near rivers2 for1 no doubt1 a considerable portion of the produce would have to be conveyed to the plains or to a sea-port4 ,in my tour amongst the hills1 ,i have seen no place so well adapted for a central situation as ,almorah1 or ,hawulbaugh4 ,here the government has already a large establishment1 and tea lands are abundant in all directions4 ,the climate is healthy1 and better suited to a ,european constitution than most other parts of ,india4 ,here plants from nearly all the temperate parts of the world are growing as if they were at home4 ,as examples1 ,i may mention myrtles1 pomegranates1 and tuberoses from the south of ,europe2 dahlias1 potatoes1 aloes1 and yuccas from ,america2 ,melianthus major and bulbs from the ,cape2 the cypress and deodar of the ,himalayas1 and the lagerstroemias1 loquats1 roses and tea of ,china4 ,in these days1 when tea has become almost a necessary of life to ,england and her wide-spreading colonies1 its production upon a large and cheap scale is an object of no ordinary importance4 ,but to the natives of ,india themselves1 the production of this article would be of the greatest value4 ,the poor paharie1 or hill farmer1 at present has scarcely the common necessaries of life1 and certainly none of its luxuries4 ,the common sorts of grain which his lands produce will scarcely pay the carriage to the nearest market town1 far less yield a profit of such a kind as will enable him to purchase some few of the necessary and simple luxuries of life4 ,a common blanket has to serve him for his covering by day and for his bed at night1 while his dwelling-house is a mere mud-hut1 capable of affording but little shelter from the inclemency of the weather4 ,were part of these lands producing tea1 he would then have a healthy beverage to drink1 besides a commodity which would be of great value in the market4 ,being of small bulk compared with its value1 the expense of carriage would be trifling1 and he would return home with the means in his pocket of making himself and his family more comfortable and more happy4 ,were such results doubtful1 we have only to look across the frontiers of ,india into ,china4 ,here we find tea one of the necessaries of life1 in the strictest sense of the word4 ,a ,chinese never drinks cold water1 which he abhors1 and considers unhealthy4 ,tea is his favorite beverage from morning until night2 not what we call tea1 mixed with milk and sugar1 but the essence of the herb itself1 drawn out in pure water4 ,one acquainted with the habits of this people can scarcely conceive the idea of the ,chinese empire existing were it deprived of the tea plant2 and ,i am sure that the extensive use of this beverage adds much to the health and comfort of the great body of the people4 ,the people of ,india are not unlike the ,chinese in many of their habits4 ,the poor of both countries eat sparingly of animal food1 and rice1 with other grains and vegetables1 form the staple articles on which they live2 this being the case1 it is not at all unlikely the ,indian will soon acquire a habit which is so universal in the sister country4 ,but in order to enable him to drink tea1 it must be produced at a cheap rate2 he cannot afford to pay at the rate of four or six shillings a pound4 ,it must be furnished to him at four pence or six pence instead2 and this can be done easily1 but only on his own hills4 ,if this is accomplished1 and ,i see no reason why it should not be1 a boon will have been conferred upon the people of ,india1 of no common kind1 and one which an enlightened and liberal government may well be proud of conferring on its subjects4 ,i shall now add a description of the ,chinese method of making black tea in ,upper ,assam1 by ,mr4 ,c4,a4 ,bruce1 superintendent of tea culture3-- ,in the first place1 the youngest and most tender leaves are gathered2 but when there are many hands and a great quantity of loaves to be collected1 the people employed nip off with the forefinger and thumb the fine end of the branch1 with about four leaves on1 and sometimes even more if they look tender4 ,these are all brought to the place where they are to be converted into tea3 they are then put into a large1 circular1 open worked bamboo basket1 having a rim all round1 two fingers broad4 ,the leaves are thinly scattered in these baskets1 and then placed in a framework of bamboo1 in all appearance like the sides of an ,indian hut1 without grass1 resting on posts1 #b feet from the ground1 with an angle of about #be deg4 ,the baskets with leaves are put in this frame to dry in the sun1 and are pushed up and brought down by a long bamboo with a circular piece of wood at the end4 ,the leaves are permitted to dry about two hours1 being occasionally turned2 but the time required for this process depends on the heat of the sun4 ,when they begin to have a slightly withered appearance1 they are taken down and brought into the house1 when they are placed on a frame to cool for half an hour2 they are then put into smaller baskets of the same kind as the former1 and placed on a stand4 ,people are now employed to soften the leaves still more1 by gently clapping them between their hands1 with their fingers and thumbs extended1 and tossing them up and letting them fall1 for about five or ten minutes4 ,they are then again put on the frame during half an hour1 and brought down and clapped with the hands as before4 ,this is done three successive times1 until the leaves become to the touch like soft leather2 the beating and putting away being said to give the tea the black color and bitter flavor4 ,after this the tea is put into hot cast-iron pans1 which are fixed in a circular mud fireplace1 so that the flame cannot ascend round the pan to incommode the operator4 ,this pan is well heated by a straw or bamboo fire to a certain degree4 ,about two pounds of the leaves are then put into each hot pan1 and spread in such a manner that all the leaves may get the same degree of heat4 ,they are every now and then briskly turned with the naked hand1 to prevent a leaf from being burnt4 ,when the leaves become inconveniently hot to the hand1 they are quickly taken out and delivered to another man with a close-worked bamboo basket1 ready to receive them4 ,a few leaves that may have been left behind are smartly brushed out with a bamboo broom3 all this time a brisk fire is kept up under the pan4 ,after the pan has been used in this manner three or four times1 a bucket of cold water is thrown in1 and a soft brick-bat and bamboo broom used1 to give it a good scouring out2 the water is thrown out of the pan by the brush on one side1 the pan itself being never taken off4 ,the leaves1 all hot in the bamboo basket1 are laid on a table that has a narrow rim on its back1 to prevent these baskets from slipping off when pushed against it4 ,the two pounds of hot leaves are now divided into two or three parcels1 and distributed to as many men1 who stand up to the table with the leaves right before them1 and each placing his legs close together1 the leaves are next collected into a ball1 which he gently grasps in his left hand1 with the thumb extended1 the fingers close together1 and the hand resting on the little finger4 ,the right hand must be extended in the same manner as the left1 but with the palm turned downwards resting on the top of the ball of tea leaves4 ,both hands are now employed to roll and propel the ball along2 the left hand pushing it on1 and allowing it to revolve as it moves2 the right hand also pushes it forward1 resting on it with some force1 and keeping it down to express the juice which the leaves contain4 ,the art lies here in giving the ball a circular motion1 and permitting it to turn under and in the hand two or three whole revolutions1 before the arms are extended to their full length1 and drawing the ball of leaves quickly back without leaving a leaf behind1 being rolled for about five minutes in this way4 ,the ball of tea leaves is from time to time delicately and gently opened with the fingers lifted as high as the face1 and then allowed to fall again4 ,this is done two or three times to separate the leaves2 and afterwards the basket with the leaves is lifted up as often1 and receives a circular shake to bring these towards the centre4 ,the leaves are now taken back to the hot pans and spread out in them as before1 being again turned with the naked hand1 and when hot taken out and rolled2 after which1 they are put into a drying basket and spread on a sieve1 which is in the centre of the basket1 and the whole placed over a charcoal fire4 ,the fire is very nicely regulated2 there must not be the least smoke1 and the charcoal should be well picked4 ,when the fire is lighted it is fanned until it gets a fine red glare1 and the smoke is all gone off2 being every now and then stirred1 and the coals brought into the centre1 so as to leave the outer edge low4 ,when the leaves are put into the drying basket1 they are gently separated by lifting them up with the fingers of both hands extended far apart1 and allowing them to fall down again2 they are placed three or four inches deep on the sieve1 leaving a passage in the centre for the hot air to pass4 ,before it is put over the fire1 the drying basket receives a smart slap with both hands in the act of lifting it up1 which is done to shake down any leaves that might otherwise drop through the sieve1 or to prevent them from falling into the fire and occasioning a smoke1 which would affect and spoil the tea4 ,this slap on the basket is invariably applied throughout the stages of tea manufacture4 ,there is always a large basket underneath to receive the small leaves that fall1 which are afterwards collected1 dried1 and added to the other tea2 in no case are the baskets or sieves allowed to touch or remain on the ground1 but always laid on a receiver1 with three legs4 ,after the leaves have bean half-dried in the drying-basket1 and while they are still soft1 they are taken off the fire and put into large open-worked baskets1 and then put on the shelf1 in order that the tea may improve in color4 ,next day the leaves are all sorted into large1 middling1 and small2 sometimes there are four sorts4 ,all these1 the ,chinese informed me1 become so many different kinds of teas2 the smallest leaves they call ,pha-ho1 the second ,pow-chong1 the third ,souchong1 and the fourth1 or the largest leaves1 ,zoy-chong4 ,after this assortment they are again put on the sieve in the drying-basket 7taking care not to mix the sorts71 and on the fire1 as on the preceding day2 but now very little more than will cover the bottom of the sieve is put in at one time2 the same care of the fire is taken as before1 and the same precaution of tapping the drying basket every now and then4 ,the tea is taken off the fire with the nicest care1 for fear of any particles of the tea falling into it4 ,whenever the drying-basket is taken off1 it is put on the receiver1 the sieve in the drying-basket taken out1 the tea turned over1 the sieve replaced1 the tap given1 and the basket placed again over the fire4 ,as the tea becomes crisp1 it is taken out and thrown into a large receiving-basket1 until all the quantity on hand has become alike dried and crisp1 from which basket it is again removed into the drying-basket1 but now in much larger quantities4 ,it is then piled up eight and ten inches high on the sieve in the drying-basket2 in the centre a small passage is left for the hot air to ascend2 the fire that was before bright and clear has now ashes thrown on it to deaden its effect1 and the shakings that have been collected are put on the top of all2 the tap is given1 and the basket1 with the greatest care1 is put over the fire4 ,another basket is placed over the whole1 to throw back any heat that may ascend4 ,now and then it is taken off1 and put on the receiver2 the hands1 with the fingers wide apart1 are run down the sides of the basket to the sieve1 and the tea gently turned over1 the passage in the centre again made1 c41 and the basket again placed on the fire4 ,it is from time to time examined1 and when the leaves have become so crisp that they break by the slightest pressure of the fingers1 it is taken off1 when the tea is ready4 ,all the different kinds of leaves underwent the same operation4 ,the tea is now1 little by little1 put into boxes1 and first pressed down with the hands and then with the feet 7clean stockings having been previously put on74 ,there is a small room inside of the tea-house1 seven cubits square1 and five high1 having bamboos laid across on the top to support a network of bamboo1 and the sides of the room smeared with mud to exclude the air4 ,when there is wet weather1 and the leaves cannot be dried in the sun1 they are laid out on the top of this room1 on the network1 on an iron pan1 the same as is used to heat the leaves2 some fire is put into it1 either of grass or bamboo1 so that the flame may ascend high2 the pan is put on a square wooden frame1 that has wooden rollers on its legs1 and pushed round and round this little room by one man1 while another feeds the fire1 the leaves on the top being occasionally turned2 when they are a little withered1 the fire is taken away1 and the leaves brought down and manufactured into tea1 in the same manner as if it had been dried in the sun4 ,but this is not a good plan1 and never had recourse to if it can possibly be avoided4 ,in #ahaj1 a number of tea plants were introduced into ,brazil1 with a colony of ,chinese to superintend their culture4 ,the plantation was formed near ,rio ,janeiro and occupied several acres4 ,it did not1 however1 answer the expectations formed of it1 the shrubs became stunted1 cankered and moss grown1 and the ,chinese finally abandoned them4 ,the culture was again tried in #ahag4 ,the plantations lie between the equator and #aj deg4 south latitude1 nearly parallel with ,java1 and of course are exposed to the same intemperate climate1 and suffer in a similar manner4 ,in addition to these physical disabilities1 the enterprise has had to contend with the natural indolence of the natives1 the universal repugnance to labor1 the crushing effect of committing so important a work to the superintendence of slaves and overseers1 the amazing fertility of the soil1 the extent of unappropriated land1 the ease with which subsistence can be obtained and the low degree of personal enterprise4 ,these are frowning features1 and would rather seem to indicate a failure1 before the attempt at cultivation was made4 ,but1 nevertheless1 the plant does nourish to some extent1 even in ,brazil1 under all the disparaging circumstances which surround it4 ,from the ,brazilian ,consul ,general1 ,i learn that although the plant for some years after its introduction received but little attention and was almost abandoned1 yet within the last few years the cultivation has revived and is now prosecuted with energy and with a corresponding success4 ,some of the large and wealthy land proprietors of ,brazil have directed their attention to tea culture1 and one gentleman has given up his coffee plantation and directed his attention exclusively to the cultivation of the tea plant4 ,the market of ,rio ,janeiro is said to be largely and almost entirely supplied with tea of domestic growth1 and the public mind is awakened to the prominent fact1 that no plant cultivated in ,brazil is more profitable and none is deserving more decided attention4 ,experimental cultivation of the tea plant in ,brazil4--,i now proceed to notice the report of ,m4 ,guillemin1 presented in #ahci to the ,french ,minister of agriculture and commerce1 on the culture and preparation of the tea plant in ,brazil--in a climate of the southern hemisphere just equivalent to that of ,cuba in the northern4 ,the report enters very minutely into the incidents of temperature and cultivation1 and cannot fail to strike the attention when disclosing the important fact1 that the tea plant grows luxuriantly with the coffee and other valuable plants of the equatorial regions1 and even on low-lying lands1 on a level with the sea1 and exposed to the full rays of a burning sun4 ,as the tea shrub1 says ,m4 ,guillemin1 is grown in several plantations about two days' journey distant from ,rio1 in different directions1 ,i hired a lodging at ,st4 ,theresa1 sufficiently contiguous to all the establishments ,i meant to visit1 and further recommended by having a small garden attached to the house1 where ,i could deposit the growing plants of tea1 and sow seeds4 ,during the month of ,november1 except when hindered by slight indispositions incidental to the ,brazilian climate1 ,i pursued my researches1 and principally in the charming valleys of the ,tijuka and ,gavia mountains4 ,there1 together with coffee1 their principal product1 the most valuable plants of the equatorial region are cultivated4 ,in the middle of ,november ,i had an opportunity of observing the method pursued when culling the tea1 which is performed by black slaves1 chiefly women and children4 ,they carefully selected the tenderest and pale-green leaves1 nipping off with their nails the young leaf bud1 just below where the first or second leaf was unfolded4 ,one whole field had already undergone this operation2 nothing but tea shrubs stripped of their foliage remained4 ,the inspector assured me that the plant received no injury from this process1 and that the harvest of leaves was to become permanent by carefully regulating it1 so that the foliage should have grown again on the first stripped shrubs at the period when the leaves of the last plant were pulled off4 ,about #ab1jjj tea shrubs are grown in this garden3 they are regularly planted in quincunxes1 and stand about one metre distant from each other2 the greater number are stunted and shabby looking1 probably owing to the aspect of the ground1 which lies low1 on the level of the sea1 and exposed to the full rays of a burning sun2 perhaps the quality of the soil may have something to do with it1 though this is apparently similar to what prevails in the province of ,rio ,janeiro4 ,this soil1 which is highly argillaceous1 and strongly tinged with tritoxyde of iron1 is formed by the decomposition of gneiss or granite rocks4 ,the flat situation of this tea ground is unfavorable to the improvement of the soil1 for the heavy rains which wash away the superfluous sand from slanting situations1 of course only consolidate more strongly the remaining component parts1 where the land lies perfectly level1 and thus the tea plants suffer from this state of soil4 ,the kindness of ,m4 de ,brandao1 director of the ,botanic ,garden1 induced him to invite me1 shortly after ,i had seen the above described tea ground1 that ,i might inspect all the operations for the preparation of tea4 ,i found that the picking of the leaves had been commenced very early in the morning1 and two kilogrammes were pulled that were still wet with dew4 ,these were deposited in a well-polished iron vase1 the shape being that of a very broad flat pan1 and set on a brick furnace1 where a brisk wooden fire kept the temperature nearly up to that of boiling water4 ,a negro1 after carefully washing his hands1 kept continually stirring the leaves in all directions1 till their external dampness was quite evaporated1 and the leaves acquired the softness of linen rag1 and a small pinch of them1 when rolled in the hollow of the hand1 became a little ball that would not unroll4 ,in this state the mass of tea was divided into two portions1 and a negro took each and set them on a hurdle1 formed of strips of bamboo1 laid at right angles1 where they shook and kneaded the leaves in all directions for a quarter of an hour1 an operation which requires habit to be properly performed1 and on which much of the beauty of the product depends4 ,it is impossible to describe this process2 the motion of the hands is rapid and very irregular1 and the degree of pressure requisite varies according to circumstances2 generally speaking1 the young negro women are considered more clever at this part of the work than older persons4 ,as this process of rolling and twisting the leaves goes on1 their green juice is drained off through the hurdle1 and it is essential that the tea be perfectly divested of the moisture1 which is acrid1 and even corrosive1 the bruising and kneading being especially designed to break the parenchyma of the leaf1 and permit the escape of the sap4 ,when the leaves have been thus twisted and rolled1 they are replaced in the great iron pan1 and the temperature raised till the hand can no longer bear the heat at the bottom4 ,for upwards of an hour the negroes are then constantly employed in separating1 shaking1 and throwing the foliage up and down1 in order to facilitate the dessication1 and much neatness and quickness of hand were requisite1 that the manipulators might neither burn themselves nor allow the masses of leaves to adhere to the hot bottom of the pan4 ,it is easy to see that1 if the pan was placed within another pan filled with boiling water1 and the leaves were stirred with an iron spatula1 much trouble might be obviated4 ,still1 the rolling and drying of the leaves were successfully performed2 they became more and more crisp1 and preserved their twisted shape1 except some few which seemed too old and coriaceous to submit to be rolled up4 ,the tea was then placed on a sieve1 with wide apertures of regular sizes1 and formed of flat strips of bamboo4 ,the best rolled leaves1 produced from the tips of the buds and the tenderest leaves1 passed through this sieve1 and were subsequently fanned1 in order to separate any unrolled fragments which might have passed through them2 this produce was called ,imperial1 or ,uchim ,tea4 ,it was again laid in the pan till it acquired the leaden grey tint1 which proved its perfect dryness1 and any defective leaf which had escaped the winnowing and sifting was picked out by hand4 ,the residue1 which was left from the first fanning1 was submitted to all the operations of winnowing1 sifting1 and scorching1 and it then afforded the ,fine ,hyson ,tea of commerce2 while the same operations performed on the residuum of it yielded the ,common ,hyson2 and the refuse of the third quality again afforded the ,coarse ,hyson4--,finally1 the broken and unrolled foliage1 which were rejected in the last sittings1 furnish what is called ,family ,tea1 and the better kind of which is called ,chato1 and the inferior ,chuto4 ,the latter sort is never sold1 but kept for consumption in the families of the growers4 ,such is the mode of preparation pursued at ,rio ,janeiro1 though ,i must add that the process employed at the ,botanic ,garden being most carefully performed in order to serve as a model for private cultivators of tea1 the produce is superior to the generality1 so that we dare not judge of all ,brazilian tea by what is raised at the garden of ,rio4 ,i was also assured1 that at ,saint ,paul each grower had his own peculiar method1 influencing materially the quality of the tea1 which decided me to visit that province1 where ,i hoped to gain valuable information respecting the culture and fabrication of tea1 especially considered as an article of commerce4 ,in the interim1 the month of ,december proving excessively hot and rainy1 so as to forbid any distant excursions1 ,i turned my attention to the important object of procuring tea plants in number and state fit for exportation2 and1 observing that almost all the shrubs ,i saw were too large for this purpose1 ,i applied to ,m4 de ,brandao for his help and advice4 ,this gentleman1 in the most courteous manner1 offered me either seeds or slips from his own tea shrubs4 ,the striking of the latter was1 he owned1 a hazardous and uncertain affair1 though it had the probable advantage of securing a finer kind of plant than could with certainty be raised from seed4 ,i1 however1 began by asking him for newly gathered seeds1 in order to set them in my little nursery garden at ,santa ,theresa1 and he obligingly gave me a thousand of the seeds1 perfectly ripe and sound1 which is easily known by the purplish-brown color of their integument4 ,m4 ,houlet immediately set about preparing the soil in which to plant these seeds1 and the earth being excessively argillaceous and hard1 much digging1 manuring1 and dressing were needful2 in a word1 we neglected no precautions which could contribute to the growth of our seeds4 ,in the interim ,i allowed not a single dry day to elapse without visiting the country house near ,rio1 in all of which ,i saw something more or less interesting1 either in the culture of tea1 or other vegetable productions of commercial value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i detected1 growing not unfrequently in the environs of ,rio1 the ,ilex ,paraguayensis of ,m4 ,auguste de ,st4 ,hilaire1 perfectly identical with the tree which the ,jesuits planted in the missions of ,paraguay1 and whose foliage is an article of great importance throughout ,spanish ,america1 and vended under the name of ,paraguay ,tea4 ,a living plant of this shrub was brought home by me1 and placed in the ,royal ,garden at ,paris1 as well as a species of ,vanilla1 and many other rare and interesting plants4 ,i also made a valuable collection of woods employed for dyeing1 building1 and cabinet work1 with samples of their flowers1 fruits1 and leaves1 to facilitate botanical determination4 ,early in ,january1 #ahci1 ,m4 ,houlet began anew sowing tea1 not only in the open ground in our little garden1 but also in pans1 in order to facilitate the lifting of the young plants1 and putting them into the cases that ,i had brought for the purpose4 ,the heat being excessive1 we purchased mats1 that we might shelter them from the sun1 and we gave them water far more frequently4 ,many of the seeds that we had sown a month previously1 were already appearing above the ground1 but the soil being of too compact a nature1 some did not come up1 which warned us to make choice in future of a lighter kind of soil4 ,the period now arrived when ,i was to visit the tea plantations in the province of ,st4 ,paul2 and hoping that the cultivators would give me some of the young shrubs1 ,i took ,m4 ,houlet with me1 leaving the charge of our collections and seedlings to ,m4 ,pissis1 a ,french geologist and engineer1 with whom ,i had formed an intimate acquaintance1 and who most obligingly offered to attend to them during my absence4 ,many were the influential persons at ,rio ,janeiro1 who gave me introductory letters to the proprietors and tea growers of ,st4 ,paul4 ,we started on the #aeth ,january1 by steam-boat1 and in two days reached ,santos1 the principal port in the province of ,st4 ,paul2 thence crossing the great chain of mountains1 named the ,serra do ,mar1 in caravans drawn by mules1 we reached the city of ,st4 ,paul on the #bjth ,january1 where ,i experienced the warmest reception from the governor1 two ex-governors1 and some other gentlemen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,accompanied by ,m4,j4 ,gomez and a ,m4 ,barandier1 an historical painter1 whom the desire to visit a new country1 and to see its inhabitants1 had induced to become my compagnon de voyage1 we visited almost immediately a ,m4 ,feigo1 ex-,regent of the ,empire1 and now ,president of the ,provincial ,senate4 ,we found this venerable ecclesiastic at his country-house1 two leagues distant from the city1 and here we saw all the process pursued on the tea leaf1 commencing by the bruising1 drying1 and scorching of a large quantity of foliage picked the preceding evening4 ,the chief difference that struck me in the mode here adopted1 was1 that the tender1 flexible1 and not brittle leaves1 were gathered with the petiole and tip extremity of every bud1 and that some water was put with them into the iron pan1 in which the negresses twisted1 squeezed1 broke and shook the masses of foliage4 ,the operation was1 on the whole1 more neatly performed than at ,rio4 ,when the tea was perfectly dry and removed from the pan1 it was placed aside in a box1 shaded from the air and light1 and was considered ready for present use1 on the spot2 but ,m4 ,feigo informed me1 that when sent to a distance1 the cases were hermetically closed1 and the tea underwent an extra dessication over the fire4 ,the plantations belonging to ,m4 ,feigo1 and surrounding his chagara1 are extensive1 containing about #bj1jjj tea shrubs1 of fine growth and high vigor1 most of them six or eight years old1 set in regular lines1 a metre asunder from each other1 and the lines with a metre and a half between them4 ,the soil is excellent1 argillaceo-ferruginous1 as is generally the case near ,st4 ,paul4 ,in the ,botanic ,garden at ,st4 ,paul1 some squares are devoted to the growth of tea2 but ,i am not aware that the leaves are ever subject to preparation4 ,m4 da ,luz had invited us to inspect his tea-grounds near ,nossa ,senhora da ,penha1 and ,i went thither1 accompanied by ,messrs4 ,barandier and ,houlet4 ,the cultivation is admirable1 the soil excellent1 and the tea-plants peculiarly vigorous4 ,each shrub was so placed that a man can easily go all round it1 and young plants1 self-sown1 were springing up below every old one2 of these offsets1 ,i was made welcome to as many as ,i could take away1 and should have had a great stock1 but that the ground had been very recently cleared4 ,m4 da ,luz showed me his magazines of prepared tea1 which were extensive and well stocked4 ,hence ,i went to the property of a lady1 ,donna ,gertrude ,gedioze ,larceda1 situated at the foot of ,jarigur1 a mountain famed for its gold mines1 and passed two days in exploring this celebrated locality1 and then visited the ,colonel ,anastosio on my way back to ,st4 ,paul4 ,these plantations are in the most prosperous condition1 situated on a sloping and well-manured tract behind the habitations4 ,the shrubs are generally kept low1 and frequently cut1 so as to1 make them branching1 by which the process of picking the leaves is rendered easier4 ,there may be #fj1jjj or #gj1jjj plants1 but a third of them were only set a year before4 ,every arrangement is excellently conducted here2 the pans kept very clean1 though perhaps rather thin from long use and the fierceness of the fires4 ,but the general good order that prevails1 speaks much in favor of the tea produced in this neighbourhood4 ,the colonel showed me his warehouse1 where the tea is stored in iron jars1 narrow-necked and closed by a tight fitting stopper4 ,i ventured to put some questions to ,colonel ,anastosio respecting the sale of the produce4 ,he gave me to understand that he was by no means eager to sell2 but1 confident of the good quality1 he waited till application was made to him for it1 as the tea is thought to improve by time1 and the price is kept up by there being a small supply4 ,with respect to the cost of its production in ,brazil1 he said1 this was so great that1 to make it answer to the grower1 a price of not less than #b1jjj reis1 about six francs 7#es471 must be got for each pound4 ,the whole labor in ,brazil is done by slaves1 who certainly do not cost much to keep1 but who1 on the other hand1 work as little as they can help1 having no interest in the occupation4 ,the slaves1 too1 bear a high price1 and the chances of mortality1 with the exorbitant value of money in ,brazil1 augment their selling value4 ,the ,major da ,luz kindly presented me with #cjj young tea-plants1 which he had caused his negroes to pull up for me2 and in an adjoining farm1 where an immense tract planted with tea is now allowed to run to waste1 being no object of value to the proprietor1 ,i was permitted to take all ,i could carry away2 and in a single day's time1 ,m4 ,houlet and ,i1 aided by some slaves1 succeeded in possessing ourselves of #c1jjj young plants1 which we carefully arranged in bamboo baskets 7here called cestos74 ,to diminish the weight1 ,m4 ,houlet removed as little soil as possible2 but carefully wetted the roots before closing the baskets1 and covered them with banana leaves4 ,in one garden1 the largest ,i have seen devoted to the growth of tea1 but which is not particularly well kept1 ,i saw that the spaces between the shrubs were planted with maize1 and the bordering of the squares which intersect this vast plantation1 and the whole of which is inclosed with valleys of ,araucaria ,brasiliensis1 is formed of little dwarf tea-plants1 which are kept low by cutting their main shoots down to the level of the soil4 ,on the #hth of ,february ,i again embarked in the steam-boat to return to ,rio ,janeiro1 and when we came in sight of ,st4 ,sebastian1 ,i left ,m4 ,houlet to proceed to the city alone1 charging him to take the very greatest care of our package of tea-plants1 as well as of the nursery-ground at ,st4 ,theresa1 while ,i should visit the flourishing colony of ,ubatuba1 inhabited by ,french families1 who cultivate most successfully coffee1 and other useful vegetables4 ,after a delightful sail through an archipelago of enchanting islands1 ,i landed at ,pontagrossa1 where ,i was most kindly received1 and spent a week1 obtaining much and varied information1 both respecting cultivated plants and the kinds of trees which grow spontaneously in the virgin forests of this lovely land1 and afford valuable woods for building1 cabinet work1 and dyeing4 ,finally1 ,i visited the tea plantations of ,m4 ,vigneron1 which are remarkably fine1 though their owner finds a much more profitable employment in the growth of coffee1 which is very lucrative4 ,he kindly gave me a quantity of young tea-plants and chocolate trees4 ,reluctantly quitting these worthy colonists1 ,i re-embarked in a ,brazilian galliot1 which took me back to ,rio ,janeiro in the close of ,february4 ,there ,i found the tea-plants from ,st4 ,paul1 set by ,m4 ,houlet1 in our garden at ,st4 ,theresa1 and ,i added to them the stock ,i had brought from ,ubatuba4 ,all the very young ones had perished on the way1 from the excessive heat1 and ,m4 ,houlet had much difficulty in saving the others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,guillemin concludes his interesting narration with this partially discouraging fact2--that though the culture of the tea-shrub succeeds perfectly well in ,brazil2 though the gathering of the foliage proceeds with hardly any interruption during the entire year2 though the quality 7setting aside the aroma1 which is believed to be artificially added7 is not inferior to that of the finest tea from ,china--still the growers have not realised any large profits4 ,they have manufactured an immense quantity of tea1 to judge by what he saw in the warehouses at ,st4 ,paul1 but they cannot afford to sell it under six francs for the half kilogramme 7a pound weight71 which is higher than ,chinese tea of equally good quality4 ,this is1 however1 precisely one of those commodities in which free labour1 that is1 the labor of a free peasant's family1 the wife and children1 the young and the old1 can successfully compete with slave labor1 and considerably undersell it4 ,it is manifest1 from the remarks of ,m4 ,guillemin1 that the cost for plantation slaves1 under a system apparently so profitable as labor without wages1 is a dead weight on the ,brazilian planter4 ,paraguay ,tea4--,a species of holly 7,ilex ,paraguensis71 which grows spontaneously in the forest regions of ,paraguay1 and the interior of ,south ,america1 furnishes the celebrated beverage called ,yerba ,mate1 in ,south ,america4 ,the evergreen leaf of this plant is from four to five inches long2 when prepared for use as tea it is reduced to powder1 and hence the decoction has to be quaffed by means of a tube with a bulb perforated with small holes4 ,the leaves yield the same bitter principle called theine1 which is found in the leaf of the ,chinese tea-plant1 the coffee berry1 c4 ,various other species of ,ilex are sometimes employed in other parts of ,south ,america for a similar purpose4 ,although the leaves may not contain as much of the agreeable narcotic oil as those of the ,china shrub1 in consequence of the rude way in which it is collected and prepared for use1 yet it is much relished by ,european travellers in ,south ,america1 and would doubtless enter largely into consumption if imported into this country at a moderate rate of duty4 ,the consumption in the various ,south ,american ,republics is estimated at thirty or forty millions of pounds annually4 ,it is generally drank without sugar or milk4 ,there are no correct data for calculating the exports1 but some authorities state the amount sent to ,santa ,fe and ,buenos ,ayres at eight millions of pounds4 ,a great trade is carried on with it at ,sta4 ,fe1 where it is brought from the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,there are two sorts1 one called ,yerba de ,palos1 the other1 which is finer1 ,yerba de ,carnini4 ,frezier tells us that1 in the earlier part of the #agth century1 above #ej1jjj arrobas1 or more than #ab1jjj cwt4 of this herb were brought into ,peru from ,paraguay1 exclusive of about #be1jjj arrobas taken to ,chile2 and ,father ,charleroix1 in his ,history of ,paraguay1 states the quantity shipped to ,peru annually at #ajj1jjj arrobas1 or nearly #b1ejj1jjj lbs4 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,w4,p4 ,robertson1 has favored me with some details as to the production of ,paraguay tea4 ,his brother has graphically described a visit he paid to the wastes or woods of the ,yerba tree1 with a colony of manufacturers from ,assumption4 ,these woods were situated chiefly in the country adjacent to a small miserable town called ,villa ,real1 about #aej miles higher up the river ,paraguay than ,assumption4 ,the master manufacturer1 with about forty or fifty hired peons or servants1 mounted on mules1 and a hundred bulls and sumpter mules1 set out on their expedition1 and having discovered in the dense wood a suitable locality1 forthwith a settlement is established1 and the necessary wigwams for dwellings1 c41 run up4 ,the next step is the construction of the tatacua4 ,this was a small space of ground1 about six feet square1 of which the soil was beaten down with heavy mallets1 till it became a hard and consistent foundation4 ,at the four corners of this space1 and at right angles1 were driven in four very strong stakes1 while upon the surface of it were laid large logs of wood4 ,this was the place at which the leaves and small sprigs of the yerba tree1 when brought from the woods1 were first scorched--fire being set to the logs of wood within it4 ,by the side of the tatacua was spread an ample square net of hidework1 of which1 after the scorched leaves were laid upon it1 a peon gathered up the four corners and proceeded with his burthen on his shoulders to the second place constructed1 the barbacue4 ,this was an arch of considerable span1 and of which the support consisted of three strong trestles4 ,the centre trestle formed the highest part of the arch4 ,over this superstructure were laid cross-bars strongly railed to stakes on either side of the central supports1 and so formed the roof of the arch4 ,the leaves being separated after the tatacua process1 from the grosser boughs of the yerba tree1 were laid on this roof1 under which a large fire was kindled4 ,of this fire the flames ascended1 and still further scorched the leaves of the yerba4 ,the two peons beneath the arch1 with long poles1 took care1 as far as they could1 that no ignition should take place2 and in order to extinguish this1 when it did occur1 another peon was stationed at the top of the arch4 ,along both sides of this there were two deal planks1 and1 with a long stick in his hand1 the peon ran along these planks1 and instantly extinguished any incipient sparks of fire that appeared4 ,when the yerba was thoroughly scorched1 the fire was swept from the barbacue or arch2 the ground was then swept1 and pounded with heavy mallets1 into the hardest and smoothest substance4 ,the scorched leaves and very small twigs were then thrown down from the roof of the arch1 and1 by means of a rude wooden mill1 ground to powder4 ,the yerba or tea was now ready for use2 and being conveyed to a larger shed1 previously erected for the purpose1 was then received1 weighed1 and stored by the overseer4 ,the next and last process1 and the most laborious of all1 was that of packing the tea4 ,this was done by first sewing together1 in a square form1 the half of a bull's hide1 which being still damp1 was fastened by two of its corners to two strong trestles1 driven far into the ground4 ,the packer then1 with an enormous stick1 made of the heaviest wood1 and having a huge block at one end1 and a pyramidal piece to give it a greater impulse at the other1 pressed1 by repeated efforts1 the yerba into the hide sack1 till he got it full to the brim4 ,it then contained from #bjj to #bej pounds1 and being sewed up1 and left to tighten over the contents as the hide dried1 it formed at the end of a couple of days1 by exposure to the sun1 a substance as hard as stone1 and almost as weighty and impervious too4 ,having described the process of making ready the yerba for use1 we will now accompany ,mr4 ,robertson to the woods1 to see how it is collected4 ,after all the preparations which ,i have detailed were completed 7and it required only three days to finish them71 the peons sallied forth from the yerba colony by couples4 ,i accompanied two of the stoutest and best of them4 ,they had with them no other weapon than a small axe2 no other clothing than a girdle round their waist and a red cap on their head2 no other provision than a cigar1 and a cow's horn filled with water2 and they were animated by no other hope or desire1 that ,i could perceive1 than those of soon discovering a part of the wood thickly studded with the yerba tree4 ,they also desired to find it as near as possible to the colonial encampment1 in order that the labor of carrying the rough branches to the scene of operations might be as much as possible diminished4 ,we had scarcely skirted for a quarter of a mile the woods which shut in the valley where we were bivouacked1 when we came upon numerous clumps of the yerba tree4 ,it was of all sizes1 from that of the shrub to that of the full-grown orange tree2 the leaves of it were very like those of that beautiful production4 ,the smaller the plant1 the better is the tea which is taken from it considered to be4 ,to work with their hatchets went the peons1 and in less than a couple of hours they had gathered a mountain of branches1 and piled them up in the form of a haystack4 ,both of them then filled their large ponchos with the coveted article of commerce in its raw state1 and they marched off with their respective loads4 ,having deposited this first load within the precincts of the colony1 the peons returned for a second1 and so on till they had cleared away the whole mass of branches and of leaves cut and collected during that day4 ,when ,i returned to the colony ,i found the peons coming by two and two1 from every part of the valley1 all laden in the same way4 ,there were twenty tatacuas1 twenty barbacues1 and twenty pies of the yerba cut and ready for manufacture4 ,two days after that the whole colony was in a blaze1 tatacuas and barbacues were enveloped in smoke2 on the third day all was stowed away in the shed2 and on the fourth the peons again went out to procure more of the boughs and leaves4--7,letters on ,paraguay1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adb-adg74 ,each peon or laborer1 going into the woods for six months1 can procure eight arrobas1 or #bjj lbs4 of yerba a day4 ,this1 at the rate of two rials1 or #as4 for each arroba1 would make his wages per day #hs42 and this for six months' work1 at six days in the week1 would produce to the laborer a sum of #eg #abs4 ,wilcockes1 in his ,history of ,buenos ,ayres1 published in #ahjg1 states3--,though the herb is principally bought by the merchants of ,buenos ,ayres1 it is not to that place that it is carried1 no more being sent thither than is wanted for the consumption of its inhabitants and those of the vicinity2 but the greatest part is dispatched to ,santa ,fe and ,cordova1 thence to be forwarded to ,potosi and ,mendoza4 ,the quantity exported to ,peru is estimated at #ajj1jjj arrobas1 and to ,chile #dj1jjj4 ,the remainder is consumed in ,paraguay1 ,tucuman1 and the other provinces4 ,it is conveyed in parcels of six or seven arrobas1 by waggons1 from ,santa ,fe to ,jugui1 and thence by mules to ,potosi1 ,la ,paz1 and into ,peru proper4 ,about four piastres per arroba is the price in ,paraguay1 and at ,potosi it fetches from eight to nine1 and more in proportion as it is carried further4 ,,sugar4 ,sugar is obtained from many grasses2 and1 indeed1 is common in a large number of plants4 ,it is procured in ,italy from ,sorghum saccharatum2 in ,china1 from ,saccharum sinense2 in ,brazil1 from ,gynerium saccharoides2 in the ,west ,indies1 from saccharum violaceum2 and in many other parts of the world from ,s officinarrum4 ,the last two are commonly known as sugar canes1 and they are generally considered as varieties of a single species1 ,s4 officinarum1 which is now widely spread over different parts of the world4 ,some curious specimens of palm sugars were exhibited at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 among others1--gomuti palm sugar 7,arenga saccharifera7 from ,java2 date palm sugar1 from the ,deccan2 nipa sugar1 from the stems of ,nipa fruticans1 and sugar from the fleshy flowers of ,bassia latifolia1--an ,east ,indian tree4 ,among the other sugars shown were beet root sugar1 maple sugar1 date sugar1 from ,dacca1 sugar from the butter tree 7,bassia butyracea71 produced in the division of ,rohekkund1 in ,india2 and sugar candy1 crystallized by the natives of ,calcutta and other parts of ,india4 ,sugar and molasses from the grape1 were also shown from ,spain1 ,tunis and the ,zollverein4 ,sugar1 or sugar candy1 has been made in ,china from very remote antiquity1 and large quantities have been exported from ,india1 in all ages1 whence it is most probable that it found its way to ,rome4 ,the principal impurities to be sought for in cane sugar are inorganic matter1 water1 molasses1 farina1 and grape1 or starch sugar4 ,the latter substance is occasionally1 for adulterating purposes1 added in ,europe to cane sugar2 it may be detected by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid and of a solution of caustic potassa2 the former blackens cane sugar1 but does not affect the starch sugar1 while potassa darkens the color of starch sugar1 but does not alter that of cane sugar4 ,but the copper test is far more delicate4 ,add to the solution to be tested1 a few drops of blue vitriol1 and then a quantity of potassa solution1 and apply heat2 if the cane sugar is pure1 the liquor will remain blue1 while1 if it be adulterated with starch sugar1 it will assume a reddish yellow color4 ,inorganic matter is determined by incineration1 farina by the iodine test1 water by drying at #baj deg41 and molasses by getting rid of it by re-crystalization from alcohol1 as also by the color and moisture of the article4 ,the natural impurities of sugar are gum and tannin2 gum is detected by giving a white precipitate with diacetate of lead1 and tannin by giving a black coloration or precipitate with persulphate of iron4 ,an experienced sugar dealer easily judges of the value of sugar by the taste1 smell1 specific gravity1 moisture and general appearance4 ,the value of molasses may be determined by drying at #bbj degs41 and by the taste4 ,the commercial demand for sugar is mainly supplied from the juice of the cane1 which contains it in greater quantity and purity than any other plant1 and offers the greatest facilities for its extraction4 ,although sugar1 identical in its character1 exists in the maple1 the coco-nut1 maize1 the beet root1 and mango1 and is economically obtained from these to a considerable extent1 yet it is not sufficiently pure to admit of ready separation from the foreign matter combined with it1 at least by the simple mechanical means1 the ordinary producers usually have at command2 unless carried onto a large extent1 and with suitable machinery and chemical knowledge and appliances4 ,the different species of commercial sugar usually met with in this country1 are four1 viz3--brown1 or muscovado sugar 7commonly called moist sugar72 clayed sugar1 refined or loaf sugar1 and sugar candy2 these varieties are altogether dependent on the difference in the methods employed in their manufacture4 ,the cultivation of the sugar cane1 and the manufacture of sugar1 were introduced into ,europe from the ,east1 by the ,saracens1 soon after their conquests1 in the ninth century4 ,it is stated by the ,venetian historians1 that their countrymen imported sugar from ,sicily1 in the twelfth century1 at a cheaper rate than they could obtain it from ,egypt1 where it was then extensively made4 ,the first plantations in ,spain were at ,valencia2 but they were extended to ,granada1 ,mercia1 ,portugal1 ,madeira1 and the ,canary ,islands1 as early as the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,from ,gomera1 one of these islands1 the sugar cane was introduced into the ,west ,indies1 by ,columbus1 in his second voyage to ,america in #adic4 ,it was cultivated to some extent in ,st4 ,domingo in #aejf1 where it succeeded better than in any of the other islands4 ,in #aeah1 there were twenty-eight plantations in that colony1 established by the ,spaniards1 where an abundance of sugar was made1 which1 for a long period1 formed the principal part of the ,european supplies4 ,barbados1 the oldest ,english settlement in the ,west ,indies1 began to export sugar in #afdf1 and as far back as the year #afgf the trade required four hundred vessels1 averaging one hundred and fifty tons burden4 ,the common sugar cane is a perennial plant1 very sensitive to cold1 and is1 therefore1 restricted in its cultivation to regions bordering on the tropics1 where there is little or no frost4 ,in the ,eastern hemisphere its production is principally confined to situations favorable to its growth1 lying between the fortieth parallel of north latitude and a corresponding degree south4 ,on the ,atlantic side of the ,western continent1 it will not thrive beyond the thirty-third degree of north latitude and the thirty-fifth parallel south4 ,on the ,pacific side it will perfect its growth some five degrees further north or south4 ,from the flexibility of this plant1 it is highly probable that it is gradually becoming more hardy1 and will eventually endure an exposure and yield a profitable return much further north1 along the borders of the ,mississippi and some of its tributaries1 than it has hitherto been produced4 ,in most parts of ,louisiana the canes yield three crops from one planting4 ,the first season is denominated plant cane1 and each of the subsequent growths1 ratoons4 ,but1 sometimes1 as on the prairies of ,attakapas and ,opelousas1 and the higher northern range of its cultivation1 it requires to be replanted every year4 ,within the tropics1 as in the ,west ,indies and elsewhere1 the ratoons frequently continue to yield abundantly for twelve or fifteen years from the same roots4 ,the cultivation of this plant is principally confined to the ,west ,indies1 ,venezuela1 ,brazil1 ,mauritius1 ,british ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1 the ,sunda1 ,phillippine1 and ,sandwich ,islands1 and to the southern districts of the ,united ,states4 ,the varieties most cultivated in the latter are the striped blue and yellow ribbon1 or ,java1 the red ribbon1 violet1 from ,java1 the ,creole1 crystalline or ,malabar1 the ,otaheite1 the purple1 the yellow1 the purple-banded1 and the grey canes4 ,the quantity of sugar produced on an acre varies from five hundred to three thousand pounds1 averaging1 perhaps1 from eight hundred to one thousand pounds4 ,six to eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant1 yield one pound of raw sugar2 from #af to #bj cart-loads of canes1 ought to make a hogshead of sugar1 if thoroughly ripe4 ,the weight necessary to manufacture #aj1jjj hhds of sugar1 is usually estimated at #bej1jjj tons1 or #be tons per hhd4 of #ae or #af cwt4 ,the quantity of sugar now produced in our colonies is in excess of the demands of the consumers1 that is1 of their demands cramped as they are by the duties still levied on sugar consumed in ,great ,britain1 imposed for the purposes of revenue2 the high duty on all other but indigenous sugar1 consumed all over the continent1 imposed to promote the manufacture of beet-root sugar1 and the legal duty levied on all other than indigenous sugar used in the ,united ,states1 for the purpose of protecting the sugar production of that country2 and so long as that excess exists---until a further reduction of duties shall increase consumption and cause sugar to be used for many purposes which the present high rates prohibit its being applied to--any improvement which may be effected in the quality--any increase which may take place in the quantity of colonial sugar--will only result infinitely more to the benefits of the consumers than the producers4 ,in #agjj the quantity consumed in ,great ,britain and ,ireland was only about #bjj1jjj cwt4 ,in #aheb1 including molasses1 c41 it was not less than #h1jjj1jjj cwt41 a forty-fold increase in the century and a-half4 ,taking the whole population last year1 it was nearly #bh lbs4 per head4 ,in #ahcb the consumption in ,great ,britain alone was put down by ,mr4 ,m',culloch at #bc lbs42 and as my estimate includes ,ireland1 where the consumption is notoriously small1 we may infer that it has increased in ,great ,britain since #ahcb at least #e lb4 per head4 ,as the allowance to servants is from lb4 to #a lb4 per week1 it may be assumed that #ej lb4 a year1 at least1 is not too much for grown persons4 ,in sugar-producing countries the quantity consumed is enormous2 the labourers live on it in the manufacturing season2 and a ,duke of ,beaufort1 who died about #agbj1 consumed one pound daily for forty years1 and enjoyed excellent health till he was seventy years of age4 ,the consumption of sugar has increased considerably since it has become cheap2 and we may expect1 therefore1 that the consumption will extend more rapidly than ever4 ,the whole quantity consumed in ,europe last year1 including beet-root sugar1 was not less than #af1jjj1jjj cwt4 ,if peace be preserved and prosperity continue1 the market for sugar will extend amazingly1 and force the cultivation by free men in all tropical countries4 ,british ,east ,india and ,total of ,b4,p4 ,years4 ,plantation ,mauritius ,e4,i4 and ,consumption tons4 tons ,mauritius tons4 #ahch-ci #agf1jcc #ed1jag #bcj1jej #aie1dhc #ci-dj #ada1bai #fj1ceh #bja1egg #aia1bgi #dj-da #aaj1gci #eb1bcb #afb1iga #agi1gda #da-db #ajg1efj #ig1gib #bje1ceb #bjb1iga #db-dc #abc1fhe #hj1dbi #bjd1aad #aii1dia #dc-dd #abe1agh #gh1idc #bjd1aba #bjb1bei #dd-de #abb1fci #ha1iei #bjd1eih #bjf1iii #de-df #adb1chd #ajb1fij #bde1jgd #bdd1jcj #dg-dh #afd1fdf #abe1hbi #bij1dge #bhi1ecg #dh-di #aci1hfh #ajg1hdd #bdg1gab #cjh1aca #di-ej #adb1bjc #aba1hej #bfd1jec #bif1aai #ej-ea #abi1dga #aai1cag #bdh1ghh #cje1faf #ea-eb #adh1jjj #aaj1jjj #beh1jjj #cab1ggh --,the above figures refer to raw sugar only4 ,at these periods1 calculating from #ahch-ci1 the duty on ,british sugar ranged from #bds4 down to #ajs4 per cwt41 and foreign slave-grown sugar from #fcs4 down to #ads4 ,the greatest impetus was given to foreign sugar when the duties were reduced1 in #ahdf4 ,the extension of sugar cultivation in various countries where the climate is suitable1 has recently attracted considerable attention among planters and merchants4 ,the ,australian ,society of ,sydney offered its ,isis ,gold ,medal recently to the person who should have planted1 before ,may1 #ahea1 the greatest number of sugar canes in the colony4 ,i have not heard whether any claim was put in for the premium1 but ,i fear that the gold fever has diverted attention from any new agricultural pursuit1 and that honorary gold medals are therefore unappreciated4 ,moreton ,bay and the northern parts of the colony of ,new ,south ,wales1 are admirably suited to the growth of all descriptions of tropical products4 ,the ,natal ,agricultural ,society is also making great exertions to promote sugar culture in that settlement4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,morewood1 one of the oldest colonists1 has about #ajj acres under cultivation with the cane1 and ,i have seen some very excellent specimens of the produce1 notwithstanding the want of suitable machinery to grind the cane and boil the juice4 ,many planters from the ,east ,indies and ,mauritius are settling there4 ,his ,royal ,highness ,prince ,albert awarded1 through the ,society of ,arts1 a year or two ago1 a gold medal1 worth #ajj guineas1 to ,mr4 ,j4,a4 ,leon1 for his beautiful work descriptive of new and improved machinery and processes employed in the cultivation and preparation of sugar in the ,british colonies1 designed to economise labor and increase production4 ,the centrifugal machines1 recently brought into use1 for separating the molasses from the sugar1 more quickly than the old-fashioned method of coolers1 have tended to cheapen the production and simplify the processes of sugar making4 ,the planters object1 however1 to the high prices which they are charged for these machines1 so simple in their construction2 and that they are not allowed1 by the patent laws1 to obtain them in the cheaper markets of ,france and ,belgium4 ,great loss has hitherto taken place annually1 in the sugar colonies1 through the drainage of the molasses1 resulting from the imperfect processes in use2 but this can now be obviated1 by the use of the centrifugal machine4 ,it is a modification of the hydro-extractor1 and is the invention of ,mr4 ,finzel1 of ,bristol4 ,the machine being filled with sugar1 appropriately placed1 is rapidly revolved1 and a powerful ceutrifugal force generated2 the moisture is speedily removed to the circumference of the revolving vessel1 and passes off through apertures adapted for the purpose4 ,various other improvements in the making of sugar have been carried into effect within the last few years1 by ,dr4 ,scoffern1 ,messrs4 ,oxland and ,m4 ,melsens1 but the description of these would occupy too much of my space1 and those who are desirous of growing sugar on an extensive scale1 ,i must refer to ,dr4 ,evans' ,sugar ,planter's ,manual1 ,mr4 ,wray's ,practical ,sugar ,planter1 ,agricola's ,letters on ,sugar ,farming1 and other works which treat largely and exclusively of the subject4 ,an announcement has recently been made1 that a ,mr4 ,ramos1 of ,porto ,rico1 has discovered some new dessicating agent1 to be used in sugar making1 which is to cost next to nothing1 but improves most materially the quality of the sugar made1 and also increases considerably the quantity obtained by the ordinary process4 ,the average annual quantity of cane sugar produced and sent into the markets of the civilised world1 at the present time1 may be taken at #a1ejj1jjj tons1 exclusive of the amount grown and manufactured for local consumption in ,india1 ,china1 ,cochin-,china1 and the ,malay ,archipelago1 of which no certain statistics exist1 but which has been estimated at about another million tons4 ,so far back as #ahdd1 the ,calcutta ,star1 in an article on sugar1 estimated the domestic consumption in ,india1 at #ejj1jjj tons4 ,this is considerably below the mark1 even if ,india is taken in its limited signification1 as including only ,british subjects4 ,on this estimate the #id1jjj1jjj of ,british subjects1 men1 women and children1 would not individually consume more than one pound avoirdupois by the month4 ,a fat1 hungry ,brahmin1 at any of the festivals given by the great1 will digest for his own share four pounds1 without at all embarrassing his stomach4 ,assuming the million and a half of tons that find their way into civilized markets1 to represent an average value at the place of production of #ae per ton1 we have here the representation of #bb1ejj1jjj sterling4 ,but this value may fairly be increased by one-fourth4 ,the whole exportable production of the sugar-growing countries was found to be1 in #ahdd1 about #ghj1jjj tons1 of which ,cuba furnished #bjj1jjj tons4 ,in #ahde1 notwithstanding ,cuba only produced #hj1jjj tons1 the increase from other sources was so considerable 7namely3--the ,british ,colonial supply #dj1jjj1 ,united ,states #dj1jjj1 ,porto ,rico #ae1jjj1 ,brazil #aj1jjj tons7 that the total produce fell very little short of the previous year--having reached #gfd1jjj tons4 ,the present ,,supply of sugar to the markets of ,europe1 is nearly as follows3-- ,cwts4 ,england #h1jjj1jjj ,france #b1eej1jjj ,german ,league #a1cej1jjj ,prussia #bbj1jjj ,austria1 7ten ,provinces7 #efj1jjj ,belgium #bid1jjj ,other ,states not defined4 ,the present ,,demand1 according to the estimated consumption per head 7#bh lbs471 found to exist in ,england1 where taxation is favorable1 and the price moderate1 would be about #c2 million tons1 viz43-- ,cwts4 ,england #h1jjj1jjj ,france #h1hge1jjj ,germany #e1gej1jjj ,prussia #d1ajj1jjj ,austria #h1fdb1heg ,belgium #a1bej1jjj ,russia #ae1bej1jjj ,rest of ,europe #ab1ejj1jjj ,the whole annual ,,production of the world is estimated by another party at #a1dga1jjj1jjj lbs41 of which the ,united ,states produce #aej1jjj1jjj lbs41 including #dj1jjj1jjj lbs4 of maple sugar4 ,of the whole amount of sugar produced1 ,europe consumes about #fdh1gjj tons1 divided nearly as follows3-- lbs4 ,great ,britain #hjc1cfj1jif ,france #afj1jhj1jjj ,belgium #ai1hdj1jjj ,netherlands #db1jjj1jjj ,russia #gj1jjj1jjj ,denmark and ,sweden #bb1jjj1jjj ,german ,zollverein #aja1cjj1jjj ,other parts of ,germany #afj1jjj1jjj ,austria #ej1jjj1jjj ------------- #a1dbh1ehj1jif ,the following figures show the quantities of raw sugar in general1 in tons1 imported into the ,british markets for the last five years1 compared with consumption3-- ,entire ,british ,years4 ,importations4 ,consumption4 ,surplus4 #ahdg #dae1bhi #bij1bha #abe1jjh #ahdh #ced1hcd #cji1dbd #de1daj #ahdi #cfb1jhg #bii1jda #fc1jdf #ahej #ccb1dgj #caj1cia #bb1jhi #ahea #dai1jhc #cbi1efa #hi1dgb #aheb #cfj1jcc #ceh1fdb #a1cia ,deduced from ,parliamentary ,paper1 ,no4 #dfa1 ,session #ahec4 ,the consumption of sugar then in the whole world may be roughly estimated at two and a half million tons1 of which the ,united ,kingdom may now be put down for #cej1jjj2 the rest of ,europe #dbj1jjj1 and the ,united ,states #cjj1jjj4 ,the ,united ,states produce about #adj1jjj tons of cane and maple sugar1 which are exclusively used for home consumption1 the remainder of their requirements being made up by foreign importation4 ,the ,american consumption1 which in #ahea amounted to #acc1jjj tons of sugar cane reached last year a total of #cba1jjj tons1 almost as much as ,england consumed--#ceh1jjj--;and more than the consumption of #ajj1jjj1jjj of persons on the continent4 ,the whole production of tropical sugar1 is about one million and a-half tons1 while the consumption is probably two million tons2 but the manufacture of sugar from beet root1 maple and other sources1 supplies the deficiency4 ,the total quantities of sugar1 and molasses as sugar1 consumed in the ,united ,kingdom in the last six years1 were1 according to a ,parliamentary paper1 ,no4 #bib1 of the last session1 as follows3-- ,cwt4 sugar4 ,cwt4 molasses4 #ahdg #d1gbc1bcb #a1bef1dba #ahdh #e1jjc1cah #hfe1geb #ahdi #e1bhc1gbi #a1jba1jfe #ahej #e1egj1dfa #geb1jbg #ahea #e1jdc1hgb #a1ebb1dje #aheb #g1bjc1fca #gii1idb ,the returns further specify that the annual average consumption of ,british colonial sugar1 in the five years ending #ahea1 was #e1abd1ibb cwt42 and in the five years ending #ahdf1 was #d1egi1jed cwt42 the average consumption of ,british colonial sugar1 has1 therefore1 exceeded in the five years since the duties were reduced1 in #ahdf1 the average consumption for the five previous years by #ede1hfh cwt4 per annum2 or in the aggregate in the five years1 the excess has been #c1bci1cch cwt4 ,the quantity consumed in the year ending ,december1 #aheb1 was #d1jcc1hgi cwt4#af ,there can be no doubt whatever1 that the consumption of sugar in ,great ,britain is capable of very large increase2 moderate cost1 and the removal of restrictions to its general use1 being the main elements required to bring it about4 ,the question of revenue must of course be a material consideration with ,government2 but recent experience certainly leads to the conclusion that it would not suffer under a further reduction of duty4 ,the revenue derived from sugar before the reduction of the duty1 was five millions per annum2 in the past two years it reached nearly four millions4 ,the reduction in duties which took place in #ahde1 may be said to have answered the expectations formed of it1 as regards the increase of consumption1 which there is no doubt would have even gone beyond the estimate1 if the failure in the crop of sugar in ,cuba--that most important island1 which usually yields one-fifth of the cane crop of the whole world--had not driven up prices in the general market of the continent1 and1 in consequence1 diverted the supply of free labor sugar from this country4 ,as it was1 however1 the consumption of the ,united ,kingdom1 which in #ahdd was #bjf1dgb tons1 in #ahde was not less than #bdc1jjj--,sir ,robert ,peel's estimate was #bej1jjj tons--the average reduction in price to the consumer during the latter year having been #bj per cent4 ,the large increase in subsequent years ,i have already shown4 ,the consumption of sugar we find1 then1 has been steadily and rapidly increasing in this country1 and if we add together to the refined and raw sugar and molasses used1 it will be seen that the consumption of #aheb amounted to #djj1agh tons2 which is at the rate of #bi lbs4 per head of the population per annum4 ,whilst the quantity retained for home consumption in the ,united ,kingdom1 in #ahdd2 was but #d1acj1jjj cwt41 the amount had risen in #aheb to upwards of #h1jjj1jjj cwt4 ,sugar unrefined1 entered for home consumption4 ,colonial ,raw4 ,foreign ,raw4 ,total4 ,cwt4 ,cwt4 ,cwt4 #ahdh #e1icf1cee #a1bbe1hff #f1afb1bba #ahdi #e1dbd1bdh #dih1jch #e1ibb1chf #ahej #e1bja1bjf #iaa1aae #f1aab1cba #ahea #e1hgb1bhh #a1chc1bhf #f1bee1egd #aheb #f1bda1eha #fhg1bfi #f1ibh1hej ,to the foregoing should be added the following quantities of refined sugar and molasses1 entered for home consumption4 ,refined ,sugar and ,candy4 ,molasses4 ,total ,cwt4 ,cwt4 ,cwt4 #ahdh #df1bib #fcg1jej #fhc1cdb #ahdi #ge1cib #hab1ccj #hhg1gbb #ahej #aaf1gdd #iag1ehh #a1jcd1cfb #ahea #cch1gcd #ggc1jce #a1aaa1gfi #aheb #bgd1gha #gii1idb #a1jgd1gbc ,the quantity of sugar refined by our bonded refiners1 and exported1 is shown by the following figures4 ,the increase in #ahea1 was one-fourth in excess of the previous year4 ,cwt4 #ahdh #bdh1gjb #ahdi #bbb1ijj #ahej #bji1adh #ahea #beh1efc #aheb #bad1bii ,the following were the imports of sugar into ,great ,britain1 in #ahdh and #ahea1 respectively--and the quarters from whence supplies were derived3-- #ahdh--,tons4 #ahea--,tons4 ,west ,indies #aba1fjj #aec1cjj ,mauritius #dc1fjj #ej1jjj ,east ,indies #fe1bjj #gh1bhf ,java and ,manila #aa1jjj #bj1hej ,havana1 ,porto ,rico1 and ,brazil #gf1ijj #gf1ebf ------- ------- #cah1cjj #cgh1ifb ,the production of sugar in the last four years1 may be stated comparatively as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,cane ,,sugar4 #ahdi4 #ahej4 #ahea4 #aheb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,cuba #bbj1jjj #bej1jjj #beb1jjj #cbj1jjj ,porto ,rico #dc1fjj #dh1bjj #di1ejj #ej1jjj ,brazil #ajf1jjj #ajc1jjj #aac1jjj #ajj1jjj ,united ,states #ih1bjj #abj1djj #ajc1bjj #aaj1jjj ,the ,west ,indies #a4 ,french ,colonies #ef1cjj #dg1bjj #ej1jjj #ej1jjj #b4 ,danish ,do4 #g1ijj #e1jjj #f1jjj #e1jjj #c4 ,dutch ,do4 #ac1hjj #ad1bjj #ae1jjj #bj1jjj #d4 ,british ,do4 #adb1bjj #abi1bjj #adh1jjj #adj1jjj ,the ,east ,indies #gj1djc #fg1cjj #ff1jjj #fj1jjj ,mauritius #ej1ghb #eg1hjj #ee1ejj #fe1jjj ,java #ij1jjj #hi1ijj #ii1cdg #ajd1edb ,manila #bj1jjj #bj1jjj #bj1jjj #bj1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #iai1ahb #ieb1bjj #igg1edg #a1jdd1edb ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,beet ,,root ,,sugar4 #ahdi4 #ahej4 #ahea4 #aheb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,estmd4 ,tons4 ,france #ch1jjj #fa1jjj #ge1jjj #fj1jjj ,belgium #e1jjj #f1jjj #h1jjj #i1jjj ,zollverein #cc1jjj #ch1jjj #di1jjj #ej1jjj ,russia #ac1jjj #ad1jjj #ae1jjj #af1jjj ,austria #f1ejj #aj1jjj #ae1jjj #ah1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ie1ejj #abi1jjj #afb1jjj #aec1jjj ,cane ,sugar #iai1ahb #ieb1bjj #igg1edg #a1jdd1edb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,total #a1jad1fhb #a1jha1bjj #a1aci1edg #a1aig1edb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the price of sugar has1 however1 fallen considerably1 and like many other things--corn1 and cotton1 and tea--has been lower for a long period than ever was known before4 ,average price per ,london ,gazette4 ,year ending ,july #e1 ,british ,west ,india4 ,mauritius4 #ahdb #cgs4 #j;d4 ----- #ahdc #cds4 #g;d4 #ccs4 #aj;d4 #ahdd #cds4 #i;d4 #cds4 #g;d4 #ahde #cas4 #c;d4 #cjs4 #c;d4 #ahdf #ces4 #c;d4 #cds4 #b;d4 #ahdg #cbs4 #aa;d4 #cbs4 #a;d4 #ahdh #bds4 #c;d4 #bcs4 #c;d4 #ahdi #bds4 #d;d4 #bds4 #j;d4 #ahej #bes4 #c;d4 #bhs4 #h;d4 #ahea #bgs4 #c;d4 #bfs4 #i;d4 ,half-year ending ,jan4 #e1 #aheb #bgs4 #c;d4 #bfs4 #i;d4 ,thus1 it is equally clear that the fall in the price has been very considerable since #ahde1 and that in #ahdi and #ahej the price of sugar was about #ajs4 per cwt41 or nearly one-third less than in #ahch4 ,the planters complain of the fall of price2 and the only question in dispute is whether the fall has been occasioned by the reduction of the duties4 ,now the reduction of duties subsequent to #ahdf and to #ahea1 was1 on brown ,muscovado sugar1 from #acs4 to #ajs41 or #cs42 and on foreign1 from #bas4 #g;d4 to #afs4 #d;d41 or #es4 #c;d4 ,at the same time there was a very large increase of consumption1 and the price1 as of almost all articles1 would not have been reduced to the full extent of the reduction of the duties1 and certainly not reduced in a much greater degree1 had there not been other causes at work to reduce the price4 ,between #ahdf and #ahea freight from the ,mauritius fell from #d #as4 #h;d4 to #b #acs4 #i;d41 or #ce per cent42 and that reduction of price was not made from the planter4 ,in the interval1 too1 great improvements were made in the manufacture of sugar2 and in proportion as the article was produced cheaper1 it could be sold cheaper1 without any loss to him4 ,i shall now take a separate review of the capabilities and progress of the leading sugar producing countries4 ,production in the ,united ,states4--,sugar cultivation1 in the ,united ,states1 is a subject of increasing interest4 ,the demand is rapidly advancing4 ,its production in the ,state of ,louisiana1 to which it is there principally confined1 is a source of much wealth4 ,in #ahdj1 the number of slaves employed in sugar culture was #adh1hij1 and the product1 #aai1idg hhds4 of #a1jjj lbs4 each2 besides #fjj1jjj gallons of molasses4 ,last year1 the crop exceeded #bdj1jjj hhds41 worth #ab1jjj1jjj of dollars4 ,the capital now employed1 is #ge1jjj1jjj of dollars4 ,the protection afforded by the ,american tariff1 has greatly increased the production of sugar in the ,united ,states4 ,from #ahaf to #ahej1 this increase was from #ae1jjj hhds4 to #bej1jjj hhds4 ,in #ahdc1 the ,state of ,louisiana had #gjj plantations1 #ebe in operation1 producing about #ij1jjj hhds4 ,in #ahdd1 the number of hogsheads was #aia1cbd1 and of pounds1 #bjd1iac1jjj2 but this was exclusive of the molasses1 rated at #i1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,in #ahde there were in ,louisiana #b1jgg sugar plantations1 in #be parishes2 #a1bdj sugar houses1 #fcj steam power1 #faj working horse power2 and the yield of sugar was #ahf1fej hhds41 or #bjg1ccg1jjj lbs4 ,the introduction of the sugar cane into ,florida1 ,texas1 ,california1 and ,louisiana1 probably dates back to their earliest settlement by the ,spaniards or ,french4 ,it was not cultivated in the latter1 however1 as a staple product before the year #agea1 when it was introduced1 with several negroes1 by the ,jesuits1 from ,st4 ,domingo4 ,they commenced a small plantation on the banks of the ,mississippi1 just above the old city of ,new ,orleans4 ,the year following1 others1 cultivated the plant and made some rude attempts at the manufacture of sugar4 ,in #ageh1 ,m4 ,dubreuil established a sugar estate on a large scale1 and erected the first sugar mill in ,louisiana1 in what is now the lower part of ,new ,orleans4 ,his success was followed by other plantations1 and in the year #agfe there was sugar enough manufactured for home consumption2 and in #aggj1 sugar had become one of the staple products of the colony4 ,soon after the revolution a large number of enterprising adventurers emigrated from the ,united ,states to ,lower ,louisiana1 where1 among other objects of industry1 they engaged in the cultivation of cane1 and by the year #ahjc there were no less than eighty-one sugar estates on the ,delta alone4 ,since that period1 while the production of cane sugar has been annually increasing at the south1 the manufacture of maple sugar has been extending in the north and west4 ,hitherto1 the amount of sugar and molasses consumed in the ,united ,states has exceeded the quantities produced--consequently there has been no direct occasion for their exportation4 ,in the year #ahae it was estimated that the sugar made on the banks of the ,mississippi amounted to #aj1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,according to the census of #ahdj1 the amount of cane and maple sugar produced in the ,united ,states was #aee1ajj1jhi lbs41 of which #aai1idg1gbj lbs4 were raised in ,louisiana4 ,by the census of #ahej1 the cane sugar made in the ,united ,states was #bdg1eha1jjj lbs41 besides #ab1gjj1fjf gallons of molasses2 maple sugar1 #cd1bdi1hhf lbs41 showing an increase1 in ten years1 of #abf1gcj1jgg lbs4 ,the culture and manufacture of sugar from the cane1 with the exception of a small quantity produced in ,texas1 centres in the ,state of ,louisiana--where the cane is now cultivated and worked into sugar in twenty-four parishes4 ,the extent of sugar lands available in those parishes is sufficient to supply the whole consumption of the ,united ,states4 ,sugar cultivation was carried on in ,louisiana to a small extent before its cession to the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahah the crop had reached #be1jjj hogsheads4 ,in #ahcd-ce it was #aaj1jjj hogsheads1 and in #ahdd-de #bjd1iac hogsheads4 ,each hogshead averaging #a1jjj lbs4 net1 and yielding from #de to #ej gallons of molasses4 ,the number of sugar estates in operation in #ahcj1 was #fjj4 ,the manual power employed on these plantations1 was #cf1jia slaves1 #bhb steam-engines1 and #djf horse power4 ,the capital invested being estimated at #ej million dollars4 ,in #ahdd the estates had increased to #gfb1 employing #ej1fgj slaves1 #dfh steam-engines1 #ced horse power4 ,the sugar-cane is now cultivated on both branches of the ,mississippi from #eg miles below ,new ,orleans to nearly #aij miles above4 ,the whole number of sugar houses in the ,state is #a1ecf1 of which #hfe employ steam1 and the rest horse power4 ,the crop of #ahdi-ej was #bdg1ibc hhds4 of #a1jjj lbs41 which1 at an average of #c cents41 amounted to nearly #i million dollars4 ,the quantity of molasses produced was more than #ab million gallons1 worth1 at #bj cents the gallon1 about #b1djj1jjj dollars1 giving a total value of close upon #ab million dollars1 or an average to each of the #a1dee working sugar houses of #h1adh dollars4 ,the overflow of the ,mississippi and ,red ,rivers in #ahej1 shortened the crop near #bj1jjj hhds41 and was felt in subsequent years4 ,since #ahdf1 not less than #cee sugar mills and engines have been erected in this ,state4 ,the sugar crop of #ahea-eb was #bcf1edg hhds41 produced by #a1dgd sugar houses1 #iad of which were worked by steam1 and the rest by horse-power4 ,texas raises about #h1jjj to #aj1jjj hhds4 of sugar1 and ,florida and ,georgia smaller quantities4 ,in the year ending ,december1 #ahea1 there were taken for consumption in the ,united ,states about #acb1hcb tons of cane sugar1 of which #abj1eii were foreign imported4 ,the quantity consumed in #ahej was #ajd1jga tons1 of which #fe1jhi was foreign4 ,production in ,cuba4--,the average yearly production of sugar in ,cuba has been1 in the five years from #ahdf to #ahej1 #ah1fij1efj arrobas1 equal to #dfg1bfa1ejj lbs41 or #bib1jca hhds4 of #a1fjj lbs4 weight4 ,the crop of #ahea was estimated at twenty-one and a-half million arrobas1 equal to about #cce1icg ,west ,india hhds4 ,thus1 the increase from #ahcf to #ahda1 has been as #bi per cent42 from #ahda to #ahdf1 as #be per cent42 and from #ahdf to #ahea1 as #de per cent4 ,a portion of sugar is also smuggled out1 to evade the export duty1 and by some this is set down as high as a fourth of the foregoing amounts4 ,in the three years ending #ahda1 the exports of the whole island were #b1bbg1fbd boxes2 in the three years ending #ahdd1 #b1gaf1cai boxes2 in the three years ending with #ahdg1 #b1hje1ecj boxes4 ,between #ahci and #ahdg1 the exports had risen from #ejj1jjj to #a1jjj1jjj boxes4 ,the following table exhibits the quantity shipped from the leading port of ,havana1 to different countries3-- ,countries4 ,sugar boxes of about #djj lbs4 each4 #ahej4 #ahea4 ,spain #ha1bfg #aja1gfb ,united ,states #adf1fgb #aii1bjd ,england #be1fig #df1fae ,cowes and a market #bba1che #bgj1jaj ,the ,baltic #de1jhe #ha1hff ,hamburgh and ,bremen #bi1bga #cc1afe ,holland #bc1bdb #bf1hbh ,belgium #fb1hdi #bi1had ,france #dd1idg #df1eag ,trieste and ,venice #ch1fbg #ad1hcb ,italy #b1hef #e1bdc ,other places #ac1hhh #af1fja ------- ------- ,boxes #gdc1bdi #hgb1deg ,our ,west ,india possessions have1 owing to the want of a good supply of labor and available capital to introduce various scientific improvements1 somewhat retrograded in the production of sugar2 which1 from the low price ruling the past year or two1 has not been found a remunerative staple4 ,the two large islands of ,jamaica and ,cuba1 may be fairly compared as to their production of sugar4 ,from #ahjd to #ahjh1 ,jamaica exported1 on the average1 annually #ace1cca hhds41 and from #ahdd to #ahdh1 it had decreased to #da1hgb hhds4 ,the exports from the single port of ,havana1 which in the first named period were #afe1fij boxes1 rose during the latter period to #fce1ahe boxes2 so that the shipments of sugar from ,jamaica1 which were in #ahjd to #ahjh double those of ,havana--in the period from #ahdd to #ahdh1 were five times less6 ,cuba will be able to withstand the crisis of the low price of sugars1 better than the emancipated ,british ,colonies1 for the following reasons3-- #a4 ,it will find1 in its present prosperity1 a power of resistance that no longer exists in the ,british sugar-growing colonies4 #b4 ,because it enjoys in the ,spanish markets a protection for at least #af1iee tons of its sugar1 or about eight-tenths of its total exportation4 #c4 ,because it has secured a very strong position in the markets of the ,united ,states2 and both from its proximity to1 and its commercial relations with that country1 as also from the better quality of its sugar1 will command the sale of at least #cc1ejj tons1 or about #af per cent4 of its total production4 #d4 ,because in #ahed1 after the duties shall have been equalized1 it will be enabled to undersell the ,british article in its own market4 #e4 ,because1 not being an exclusively sugar-growing colony1 as are almost all ,british ,west ,india ,islands1 it may suffer from the present depressed condition of the sugar market1 but cannot be entirely ruined1 owing to its having commanding resources1 and many other valuable staples1--coffee1 copper1 cotton1 c4 #f4 ,because1 by improving its agriculture and introducing useful machinery1 railroads1 c41 for which it has large available capital1 it can produce sugar at a diminished cost4 #g4 ,and lastly1 because the proprietors have continuous labour at command1 until slavery be abolished--of which there seems no present prospect4 ,the slave population numbers about #cej1jjj1 and the free coloured population1 about #ij1jjj4 ,the consumption of sugar1 during #ahdg1 very singularly tallied with the production of the ,british ,colonies that year--being exactly #bhi1jjj tons2 but as #ej1jjj tons of foreign sugar were consumed1 an accumulation of ,british plantation sugar necessarily remained on hand4 ,the production of the ,french colonies was #ajj1jjj tons1 of which ,france received nine-tenths4 ,in #ahcf1 ,jamaica made #a1acf1eed cwt4 of sugar4 ,in #ahdj1 its produce had fallen off to #ede1fjj cwt42 but in the same years1 ,porto ,rico had increased its sugar crop1 from #dih1jjj cwt41 to #a1jjj1jjj cwt4 ,in #ahcg1 ,cuba made #i1jfj1jeh arrobas of sugar1 equal to #acb1gfe hhds42 in #ahda1 it had increased to #aci1jjj hhds4 ,the largest crop grown in the ,west ,indies1 since #ahch1 was that of #ahdg1 which amounted to #aei1fjj tons4 ,the annexed returns of the sugar crops of ,barbados and ,jamaica1 for a series of years may1 be interesting3-- ,,sugar ,,crops ,,of ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,barbados1 ,,from #ahbg ,,to #ahdf ,,and #ahea4 #ahbg #ah1aji hhds4 #ahbh #bh1ecc #ahbi #bc1dhf #ahcj #bf1cfj #ahca #bh1agd #ahcb #ai1gfa #ahcc #bh1jii #ahcd #bh1gaj #ahce #be1cga #ahcf #bf1ceh #ahcg #ca1fgj #ahch #cc1jeh #ahci #bh1bac #ahdj #ac1ehi #ahda #ag1hja #ahdb #ba1fjg #ahdc #bd1ehg #ahdd #bc1adg #ahde #bd1gfg #ahdf #ba1icf #ahea #dh1jjj ,,sugar ,,crops ,,of ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,jamaica1 ,,from #agij ,,to #ahea4 #agij #ia1aca #agia #ia1jbj #agib 444 #agic #hb1acf #agid #ig1abd #agie #ie1cgb #agif #if1dfj #agig #he1aji #agih #ie1heh #agii #aaj1fdf #ahjj #aje1ehd #ahja #aci1jcf #ahjb #adj1aac #ahjc #aae1dif #ahjd #aab1afc #ahje #aej1ceb #ahjf #adf1fja #ahjg #ace1bjc #ahjh #acb1ccc #ahji #aad1fcj #ahaj #aab1bjh #ahaa #ach1bib #ahab #aac1agc #ahac #aji1aeh #ahad #ajd1eeh #ahae #abg1bji #ahaf #ajj1chb #ahag #abc1gff #ahah #aba1geh #ahai #aaf1chb #ahbj #abb1ibb #ahba #aai1efj #ahbb #id1eae #ahbc #aja1bga #ahbd #ajf1jji #ahbe #gb1jij #ahbf #ajf1gab #ahbg #hg1cii #ahbh #aja1ege #ahbi #ig1hic #ahcj #ajj1bje #ahca #id1cha #ahcb #ih1fhf #ahcc #he1afa #ahcd #hd1gef #ahce #gg1igj #ahcf #fg1jid #ahcg #fa1eje #ahch #fi1fac #ahci #di1bdc #ahdj #cc1jff #ahda #cd1dia #ahdb #ej1bie #ahdc #dd1afi #ahdd #cd1ddd #ahde #dg1ibf #ahea #da1fgh ,the average of the five years ending #ahea1 being the first five of ,free trade1 shows an annual export from ,jamaica of #da1fgh hhds4 ,the quantity of unrefined sugar imported from the ,british ,west ,indies and ,guiana in a series of years since the emancipation1 is shown by the following abstract3-- ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,sugar4 ,molasses4 #ahca #d1ajc1hjj #cbc1cjf #ahcb #c1ggc1def #eec1ffc #ahcc #c1fdf1bje #fhf1gid #ahcd #c1hdc1igf #fej1cff #ahce #c1ebd1bji #ejg1die #ahcf #c1fja1gia #ebf1ece #ahcg #c1cjf1gge #ege1feg #ahch #c1ebj1fgf #fch1jjg #ahci #b1hbd1cgb #dgd1cjg #ahdj #b1bad1gfd #dbd1ada #ahda #b1adh1bah #dcj1bba #ahdb #b1ejh1gbe #dga1gei #ahdc #b1eji1gja #fje1fcb #ahdd #b1dea1jfc #egi1deh #ahde #b1hec1iie #dia1jhc #ahdf #b1adg1cdg #dgg1fbc #ahdg #c1aii1had #eca1aga #ahdh #b1gid1ihg #che1dhd #ahdi #b1hci1hhh #fje1dhg #ahej #b1ehf1dbi #dgj1ahg ,mauritius4--,in the year #ahac the exports of sugar from this island were but #edi1dfe lbs41 and increasing gradually to #abh1dgf1edg lbs4 in #ahdi1 or two-hundred fold in thirty-six years4 ,the equalisation of the duties in #ahbe1 and the admission of ,mauritius sugars into ,england on the same footing as those from the ,west ,indies1 had the effect of stimulating the sugar trade of ,mauritius1 and advancing it to its present remarkable success4 ,notwithstanding its immense crops1 scarcely more than three-fifths of the island is yet under cultivation2 but it has the advantage of a cheap and abundant supply of labor1 and much improved machinery has been introduced4 ,the planters first commenced introducing ,coolies in #ahce1 and were for some time restricted to the single port of ,calcutta for their supply4 ,the recent advices from ,mauritius furnish some interesting information regarding the progress making in the sugar production of that colony4 ,in reference to the cultivation of the cane1 it is stated that by the introduction of guano upon several estates in the interior1 the production has been very largely increased2 but as the value and economy of manure has not been hitherto sufficiently estimated1 its introduction has not been so general as could be desired4 ,the importance of free labor to the cultivation of the estates1 has now become fully appreciated by the planters2 it being found that an equal amount of work can be obtained by this means from a less number of hands1 and that at lower rates of wages than were current in previous years1 the average of which is shown in the following table3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,number of ,aggregate ,average ,years4 ,coolies amount of wages wages per head employed4 paid per week4 per week4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- s4 d4 #ahdf #dg1gcc #cc1dhd #ad #j #ahdg #dh1cad #ce1cch #ad #i #ahdh #da1ggg #bf1fbg #ab #i #ahdi #de1chd #bg1fbe #ab #b #ahej #dg1iab #ca1ffd #ab #c #ahea #db1bge #bg1hcb #ab #b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,in #ahbf1 to make from #be to #cj1jjj1jjj lbs4 of sugar1 it required #cj1jjj laborers 7slaves72 at the present time1 with less than #de1jjj 7from which number fully #e1jjj must be deducted as absent from work from various causes71 #ace1jjj1jjj lbs4 are produced1 or about five times the quantity under slavery4 ,the coolies are found to be an intelligent race1 who have become inured to the work required1 and by whose labor this small island can produce the fifth part of the consumption of the ,united ,kingdom1 and that with only about #gj1jjj acres under cane cultivation4 ,about #aj1jjj male immigrants1 introduced since #ahdc1 are not now working under engagement1 but are following other occupations1 and thus become permanent consumers4 ,some cultivate land on a small scale1 on their own account1 but very few plant canes1 as it requires from eighteen to twenty months before they obtain any return for their labor2 but the most important fact established by this and other official statements is1 that only a small number of immigrants leave the colony at the expiration of their industrial residence4 ,in the manufacture of sugar from the cane1 considerable improvement has been effected by the introduction of new methods of boiling and grinding4 ,the vacuum pan and the system of ,wetsell are all tending to economise the cost of production1 and to save that loss which for years amounted1 in grinding alone1 to nearly one-third of the juice of the cane4 ,the planters begin to find that they can increase the value of their sugar #cj to #dj per cent4 by these improvements1 and that their future prosperity depends upon carrying them out4 ,unfortunately1 however1 here1 as in many other of our colonies1 a very large number of planters do not yet appreciate the advantages to be obtained by the adoption of improved machinery and manufacture1 or by improved cultivation1 and still struggle on under the old system of waste and negligence1 which can only result in the ruin and destruction of their property4 ,in #ahbg1 the number of sugar estates in operation in ,mauritius1 were #di worked by water power1 #ej by cattle or horses1 and #bb by steam--total #aaa2 in #ahcf1 this number had increased to #ahf1 viz4--#fd moved by water power1 #aj by horse1 and #aab by steam4 ,in #ahci1 the number was #baa1 of which #ach were worked by steam power--#gj1bib acres were then under cultivation with sugar4 ,there are now about #dij sugar estates1 whereof only #bca have mills--#db are worked by water power1 the rest by steam4 ,the annual ,mauritius crops1 as exported1 for the last ten years1 have been as follows4 ,the shipments frequently extend beyond a year1 hence a discrepancy sometimes between the year's crop and the year's export3-- ,tons1 #ahdb-dc #bd1djj #ahdc-dd #bh1fjj #ahdd-de #cg1fjj #ahde-df #di1ajj #ahdf-dg #fd1ajj #ahdg-dh #ei1jba #ahdh-di #ej1ghb #ahdi-ej #ea1haa #ahej-ea #ee1jjj #ahea-eb #fe1jhj ,besides its exports to ,great ,britain1 ,mauritius ships large quantities of sugar to the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,australia4 ,its local consumption is moreover set down at about #b1ejj tons4 ,the progressive increase in its exports is marked by the following return of imports into ,great ,britain from the island3-- ,cwt4 #ahbf #ic1gbc #ahbg #ahf1ghb #ahbh #bjd1cdd #ahbi #cfa1cbe #ahcj #big1ieh #ahca #dhe1gaj #ahcb #eag1eec #ahcc #eba1ijd #ahcd #eaf1jgg #ahce #eec1hia #ahcf #eeh1bcg #ahcg #dig1cjb #ahch #ecg1dee #ahci #fjd1fga #ahdj #fij1bid #ahda #ede1cef #ahdb #gaf1jji #ahdc #fif1feb #ahdd #ede1dae #ahde #gaf1agc #ahdf #hde1aig #ahdg #a1aic1ega #ahdh #hhf1ahd #ahdi #hic1ebd #ahej #a1jjc1bif #ahea #iii1ccg ,east ,indies4--,sugar is a very old and extensive cultivation in ,india4 ,it would probably be within the mark1 to estimate the annual produce of the country at a million of tons4 ,an official return shows that the quantity of sugar carried on one road of the interior1 for provincial consumption1 is about equal to the whole quantity shipped from ,calcutta--some #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj tons4 ,india is fast becoming a great sugar producing country1 although its produce and processes of manufacture are rude and imperfect4 ,the ,coolies who return from time to time to the ,indian ports1 bring with them much acquired knowledge and experience from the ,mauritius4 ,in #ahbe1 the import of sugar from the ,east ,indies was but #adf1jjj cwt41 and it fluctuated greatly in succeeding years1 being occasionally as low as #gf1fjj cwt4 ,in #ahcg the quantity imported was just double what it was in #ahbg4 ,in #ahda1 it had reached as high as #a1bci1gch cwt41 and subsequently kept steady for a few years at #a1ajj1jjj cwt4--and for the last four years has averaged #a1djj1jjj cwt4 ,java4--,attention has been withdrawn1 in a great measure1 from sugar cultivation in ,java1 owing to coffee being found a more remunerative staple4 ,the following figures serve to show the extent of its exports of sugar3-- ,cwt4 #ahbf #bc1efe #ahbg #ch1ceg #ahbh #ca1cja #ahbi #ia1bbg #ahcj #abi1cjj #ahca #add1jgg #ahcb #bib1gje #ahcc #aea1abh #ahcd #ddc1iaa #ahce #ebc1afb #ahcf #fjg1ccf #ahcg #hbj1jfc #ahch #hgc1jef #ahci #iii1hie #ahdj #a1bca1ace #ahda #a1beb1jda #ahdb #a1aje1hef #ahdc #a1afb1baa #ahdd #a1bfj1gij #ahde #a1hab1ejj #ahdh #a1gih1fab #ahej #a1gig1hgd #ahea #a1ihg1ieg #aheb #b1jij1hde ,in #ahdj1 we imported from ,java #ge1ecc cwt42 in #ahda1 #hg1cdb cwt42 in #ahdb1 #bd1ibb cwt42 in #ahdc1 #ce1afa cwt42 and in #ahdd1 about #gb1jjj cwt42 but most of this was only sent to ,cowes1 for orders1 to be transhipped to the ,continent4 ,philippines4--,the exports from ,manila into this country in #ahda1 were #acc1dhb cwt42 in #ahdb1 #fc1dfd cwt42 and in #ahdc1 #dh1igg cwt4 ,in the fifteen years between #ahce and #ahej1 the export of sugar from the ,philippine ,islands more than doubled3-- ,tons4 #ahce #aa1edb #ahcf #ad1hge #ahcg #ab1bic #ahch #ab1cge #ahci #ae1fca #ahdj #af1efc #ahda #ae1cba #ahdb #ah1edj #ahdc #bb1bci #ahdd #ba1ebh #ahde #bd1ejj #ahej #bh1gde ,about a third of this is raw sugar1 the rest is clayed or refined4 ,it is singular1 that though these islands belong to ,spain1 the export of this staple product to that country should be limited to about #fjj tons2 ,america taking about one-sixth1 and ,england and her colonies the remainder4 ,there is now an increased demand for the ,australian colonies1 consequent upon the large influx of population to that quarter4 ,export of sugar from ,manila in #ahej4 ,piculs4 ,to ,great ,britain #adf1ibf ,continent of ,europe #ej1hcj ,australian ,colonies #adb1cei ,singapore1 ,batavia1 and ,bombay #ab1gdi ,california and the ,pacific #bi1add ,the ,united ,states #gg1iai ------- #dei1ibg ,the sugar cane occurs in a wild state on many of the islands of the ,pacific1 but in no part of the ,american continent1 notwithstanding a contrary opinion has been expressed4 ,the following are the chief varieties cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 ,louisiana1 the ,east ,indies1 and ,mauritius3-- #a4 ,common or creole cane1 so called from being introduced from the ,new ,world4 #b4 ,yellow ,bourbon4 #c4 ,yellow ,otaheite4 #d4 ,otaheite with purple bands4 #e4 ,purple ,otaheite4 #f4 ,ribbon cane4 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,wray1 in his ,practical ,sugar ,planter1 considers the ,bourbon1 and yellow1 or straw-coloured ,otaheite cane1 as identical1 but merely altered by change of soil and climate4 ,the yield from these cane-plants seems to be about the same in either ,indies1 viz41 in good land about two-and-a-half tons of dry sugar per acre--sometimes three tons4 ,a very large species of red cane1 grown at ,gowhatty1 in ,assam1 is made favorable mention of for its strength of growth1 early maturity1 and juiciness2 and ,mr4 ,wray strongly recommends the introduction into the ,west ,indies of another fine variety1 generally grown in the ,straits' settlements1 where it is known by the name of the ,salangore cane4 ,he considers they would ratoon better than any other cane1 and the return from it is on the average #c1fjj lbs4 of dry sugar to the acre4 ,for my own part1 ,i have always reckoned as an average1 #c1fjj lbs4 of dry sugar to the acre as the return this cane will give1 on anything like good land1 in the ,straits1 according to the present imperfect mode of expressing and manufacture2 but1 considering the surpassing richness of land in the ,west ,india ,islands1 ,demerara1 and ,mauritius1 ,i should not be in any way surprised to find that it would there give even three tons an acre4 ,the ,salangore cane grows firm and strong2 stands upright much better than the ,otaheite2 gives juice most abundantly1 which is sweet and easy of clarification1 boils well1 and produces a very fine1 fair sugar1 of a bold and sparkling grain4 ,much discussion has arisen on the subject of raising the sugar cane from seed1 and the possibility has been universally denied among the planters and agricultural societies of the ,west ,india colonies4 ,mr4 ,pritchard1 a sugar planter of ,louisiana1 in the ,united ,states ,patent ,report for #ahej1 however1 states3-- ,it is an error to suppose that the cane cannot be propagated from the seed4 ,this may be the case when the seed is obtained from plants that have been produced for a number of years from buds1 or eyes4 ,all plants that have been produced in this way for a series of years1 lose the faculty of forming prolific seeds2 and the sugar cane is governed by the same laws which govern the whole vegetable kingdom4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be expected to produce seeds after it has been cultivated for a great length of time4 ,the sugar cane is composed of water1 woody fibre1 and soluble matter1 or sugar4 ,in round numbers it may be stated that the proportions are #gb per cent4 of water1 #aj per cent4 of woody fibre1 and #ah per cent4 of sugar4 ,the fluid contents of a cane1 according to ,dr4 ,evans1 contain #ij per cent4 of the entire structure of the stem4 #a1jjj grains of sugar cane1 being burnt1 gave #g grains of ash1 which1 on analysis1 furnished the following components3-- ,silica #a4gh ,phosphate of lime #c4da ,red oxide of iron and clay 4#ag ,carbonate of potash #a4df ,sulphate of potash 4#ae ,carbonate of magnesia 4#dc ,sulphate of lime #f ---- #g4df ,the following is the quantative analysis of a portion of soil taken from the surface of a cane field1 on the ,diamond estate1 in ,st4 ,vincent1 ,west ,indies3 -- ,alumina soluble in acids #ab4hg ,organic matter #aa4bf ,gypsum 4#bc ,carbonate of lime #ab4eb ---- of magnesia 4#ga ,oxide of iron #h4ea ,oxide of manganese 4#cc ,insoluble silicious and aluminous matter #ec4eg ------ #ajj4jj ,the sugar of the cane and grape sugar are distinguished by the following difference in their elements1 as proved by analysis3-- ,cane sugar4 ,grape sugar4 ,carbon #ab #ab ,hydrogen #aj #ab ,oxygen #aj #ab ,water #a #b ,there is a remarkable difference1 however1 between their fermentable properties4 ,when a solution is made of the same quantities of these two sugars1 in equal proportions of distilled water1 it will be necessary to add eight times as much of the same ferment to induce alcoholic fermentation in the solution of cane sugar1 as in that of grape sugar4 ,under the action of a larger quantity of ferment1 cane sugar is transformed into grape sugar4 ,if you cut a sugar cane in two1 and examine the interior part of it with a magnifying glass1 you perceive the crystals of sugar as distinct and as white as those of double-refined sugar4 ,the object of the operator should be then either to extract those crystals without altering their color1 or1 if that be found impracticable1 to separate them from the impurities mixed with them1 while the juice is in its natural state1 and yet contains but little coloring matter4 ,instead of this1 the juice is limed while all the impurities are in it4 ,in separating the feculencies from the juice and uniting them in large flakes1 lime dissolves a portion of them and forms with them coloring matter1 which we all know at once discolors the juice1 when lime is used in excess4 ,afterwards heat is applied1 either in clarifiers or in the grand copper1 but most of the impurities found in the juice will decompose1 and burn at a degree of heat far below the boiling point1 say at #abj deg4 of ,fahrenheit4 ,this is shown by the thick scales continually forming in the grande4 ,from that degree of heat the decomposition goes on in the clarifier till the juice is drawn1 and continues in the grande so long as there are feculencies left4 ,this decomposition greatly increases the quantity of coloring matter1 so that1 as the juice is being clarified1 it loses in color what it gains in purity4 ,and here let me show the relative value of the grande and of clarifiers as agents of clarification4 ,in the grande1 if it is well attended to1 the scummings are taken up as soon as they rise4 ,a portion of them is removed before they begin to decompose1 and the process goes on1 so that before the juice reaches the boiling point nearly all the feculencies are removed1 and the source of coloring matter is removed with them4 ,clarifiers reach the boiling point much quicker1 and cannot easily be scummed4 ,the general practice is to bring them to that point without scumming1 to let the feculencies separate from the juice by cooling and by rest1 and to wash out the clarifiers every second or third time they are filled4 ,heat and alkalies acting in them upon the accumulated feculencies of one1 two1 or three charges1 dissolve a much larger portion of those feculencies than they can possibly do in the grande4 ,the formation of coloring matter continues during the time of rest1 and accordingly planters1 after repeated trials1 generally agree that juice well clarified in the grande1 has a lighter and brighter color1 and makes better sugar than that obtained from clarifiers4 ,the first object of research should be to find means of clarifying the juice without creating coloring matter4 ,it is said that presses something like those used to press cotton1 have lately been successfully employed in the ,west ,indies1 instead of rollers2 that the juice obtained is much purer1 and that a much larger quantity of it is extracted from the cane4 ,if so1 this will be a great improvement1 and the first step of the process ,i should recommend4 ,from juice thus obtained1 ,i have no doubt that all impurities less soluble than itself may be separated by mechanical means before heat and alkalies are applied1 or at least with a very small quantity of alkalies4 ,all other liquids1 all fatty substances and oils1 except cotton seed oil1 are clarified by a very rapid process4 ,cane juice can no doubt be clarified by similar means1 and if this were accomplished the process of sugar making would be very much simplified4 ,the clarified juice might then be placed in an evaporator1 heated by the waste steam of the engine2 then be limed and scummed if necessary1 and concentrated to fifteen or sixteen of the prese sirop2 then purified by filtration through animal charcoal1 if white sugar was wanted1 or by rest for other qualities2 and finally concentrated in vacuum pans of great power1 such pans as ,mr4 ,thomas ,a4 ,morgan1 of ,louisiana1 now uses1 and which1 ,i am informed1 are only made in ,america4 ,the superiority of the vacuum pan is not universally admitted1 and we are told that in ,france it is superseded by open pans1 similar to those called in ,america ,mape's ,evaporators4 ,however this may be1 ,i cannot help believing that the vacuum pan has many decided advantages over all others4 ,one is manifest2 the sugar may be grained in the pan1 and the granulation is completely under the control of the operator4 ,he may accelerate or retard it at pleasure2 he may carry it so far that sugar will not run from the pan1 and will have to be taken out of it2 he may so conduct the operation as to increase1 almost at will1 the size and hardness of the crystals4 ,this last is an indispensable requisite if the practice of draining sugar in pneumatic pans should be adopted4 ,the atmospheric pressure is made too powerful for sugars boiled in any other manner2 it breaks and destroys the crystals1 and in a very few days sets the sugar to fermenting4 ,the pneumatic draining of sugar has many things to recommend it--the usual loss by drainage is avoided1 sugar is got ready for market day by day1 as it is made1 and it may be bleached by pouring white syrup over it and forcing it through the mass4 ,it is said that the process is attended with considerable loss in weight1 but as all that drains from the pan may be boiled over once or twice1 it is not easy to conceive how the loss can occur4 ,cane juice contains many ingredients besides sugar1 the principal of which are albumen1 gluten1 gum1 starch1 resin1 wax1 coloring matter1 and certain salts1 all of which1 either collectively or individually1 have the power of preventing granulation1 as may be proved by their addition to a syrup of pure sugar1 which will then defy all attempts to make it crystallise4 ,if1 therefore1 we want to make good sugar1 we must endeavour to free our cane juice as much as possible from those substances4 ,now1 cane juice is no more the sap of the cane1 than apple juice is that of the apple tree2 it is the natural product of the cane1 and1 in all probability1 would contain but a small proportion of these foreign matters if it could be expressed without being accompanied by the sap1 they being the natural constituents of the last-named fluid4 ,a patent has1 ,i believe1 been lately taken out for separating the cane juice without the sap4 ,however1 in the absence of such an improvement1 much may be done by care and attention at the mill2 the green bands and trash which usually accompany the canes from the field1 should1 therefore1 be carefully removed before they are passed through1 as they contain no saccharine matter1 abound in the deleterious substances already mentioned1 and communicate a bad color to the juice2 therefore1 the ripe cane only should pass through the mill4 ,there are but few planters who have not had to contend with sour juice1 and they attribute the difficulty they experience in making sugar therefrom1 to the presence of acetic acid1 or vinegar2 but this is quite an erroneous idea1 as the acetic acid is very volatile1 and evaporates quickly on the application of heat1 which may be proved by throwing a gallon of strong vinegar into a pan of liquor2 it will do no harm1 provided it be boiled before tempering2 on the contrary1 the effect1 if it be properly done1 will be beneficial1 as it will promote the coagulation of the albumen2 it is the gum which is always formed during the acetous fermentation of sugar that prevents granulation2 hence1 then1 acidity is strictly to be guarded against1 as fermentation once commenced1 it will be impossible to make good sugar1 it will continue throughout the process1 and even in the hogshead2 so that canes should be ground as soon as possible after they are cut1 and all rat-eaten and broken ones carefully excluded4 ,canes may1 however1 be kept some days without fermenting1 provided they be not broken or damaged1 it being1 as we said before1 the mixture of the sap and the cane juice that makes the liquid so prone to fermentation2 and the mill1 gutters1 and everything with which the juice is likely to come in contact1 should be kept carefully clean1 and whitewashed immediately after1 and the whitewash removed before use1 as acetate of lime being an exceedingly soluble and deliquescent salt1 will not improve the quality of the sugar2 whilst the gutter should be short1 and sheltered from the sun's rays1 they having the effect of greatly expediting chemical action4 ,i shall say no more on this subject1 but will proceed to consider the mode of tempering and clarifying cane juice1 and the action of lime on the various substances contained therein4 ,the expression tempering has1 ,i presume1 been1 adopted in consequence of the use of tempered lime for the purpose of precipitating the feculencies1 held in solution in the cane juice1 into a state of suspension2 and clarification is the process by which we afterwards clear the liquor of these and other foreign matter4 ,now1 as ,i before observed1 fermentation should be most strictly guarded against2 our first efforts should be directed to free the cane juice from those substances most conducive to that process2 and on inquiry we find these to be albumen and gluten2 so far1 however1 from getting rid of them in cold tempering1 we adopt a course which retains them permanently in solution1 as lime has the power of rendering them permanently soluble1 and of forming soapy compounds with resin1 wax1 and chlorophyle1 or the green coloring matter of leaves1 forming an insoluble compound with and precipitating only the starch1 and converting at the same time the green color of the chlorophyle 7which is1 in all probability1 attached to the resin71 into a dark brown1 of a greater or less intensity1 according to the composition of the cane juice1 and1 consequently1 the quantity of lime required2 it follows1 therefore1 as a matter of course1 that if juice be tempered before these substances have been removed1 they must be permanently retained1 and they have all the power of preventing granulation4 ,albumen1 and gluten are both coagulable by heat2 if1 therefore1 we raise the liquor to the boiling point prior to applying the lime1 taking care to remove the scum as soon as it shows signs of breaking1 and continuing the boiling until the scum thrown to the surface becomes inconsiderable1 we shall find that the albumen and gluten1 in coagulating and rising1 have carried with them the small particles of woody fibre1 the wax1 and a large proportion of the coloring matter1 and that the lime will now throw down the starch1 and any other little impurities remaining in suspension in the liquor1 leaving it perfectly clear and bright4 ,tempering is an exceedingly delicate chemical operation1 and ,i have no hesitation in saying1 that on its proper performance depends the quality of the produce4 ,the following simple experiments1 which all have it in their power to try1 will1 if they give themselves the trouble1 fully satisfy them of two important points--the superiority of the hot over the cold mode1 and the necessity for great attention to the operation of tempering4 ,let them take a tumbler of cane-juice and a bottle containing lime water1 add the latter to the former by drops1 pausing and stirring between each1 and they will find that1 after the addition of a certain quantity1 the opaque gummy appearance of the liquor undergoes a change1 and the impurities contained in it separate into flakes1 which increase in size with each drop of lime added1 until they become extinct1 and the supernatant liquor perfectly transparent2 this is the precise point at which the liquor is tempered1 and each drop of lime added after this1 causes the flakes to diminish rapidly in size1 at last entirely to disappear 7being re-dissolved71 and the liquor to resume its former gummy appearance2 it is1 therefore1 evident that there should be no such expressions as tempering high or low4 ,the reason why some liquor is so difficult to clean is1 that it is either tempered high or low2 if it be exactly tempered1 the impurities contained in it being entirely separated and thrown out of solution1 rise to the surface immediately on the application of heat1 and are easily removed2 but if there be too little lime1 a great portion remains in solution1 and if too much1 a proportional quantity is re-dissolved2 and in either case cannot be removed by any mechanical means4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to have some precise test for the application of lime4 ,as regards the superiority of the hot over the cold tempering1 let any one take1 in separate vessels1 two gallons of cane-juice1 and temper one1 adding the lime in small quantities--say1 of three grains at a time--and keeping an account of the quantity used2 he will find that the first portions produce no effect whatever1 and that it is only after the addition of a considerable quantity that the desired precipitation of the impurities manifest itself4 ,why is this8 ,because albumen1 gluten1 resin1 and chlorophyle1 being soluble in lime1 lime is equally so in them1 and they must first be saturated before it will produce any other effect4 ,let the liquor thus tempered1 be then placed on one side4 ,put the other gallon over a fire1 and boil it1 removing the scum just before1 and during1 ebullition2 let it then be taken off the fire1 and tempered in the same way as the other4 ,the very first quantity of lime added causes the appearance of the floccy precipitate2 and if the addition of the lime be continued until it be precisely tempered1 it will be found that the hot possesses the following advantages over the cold-tempered liquor3--,in a quarter of an hour its impurities will have subsided to a sixteenth of its bulk1 leaving the supernatant liquor as bright and clear as pale brandy2 while those in the other have only sunk to one-quarter of its bulk4 ,the color of the former clear liquor will not be less than one-half the intensity of that of the latter4 ,the lime used in the hot has been less by one-third than the quantity used in the cold tempering4 ,of course1 on level estates there is little difficulty in tempering liquor1 but on hilly properties scarcely two pans will require the same quantity4 ,it is generally believed that the object of adding lime to cane-juice is for the purpose of neutralising an acid1 and it is to the reception of this fallacious idea that it is indebted for its long and continued use1 and the present backward state of sugar manufacture is attributable3 ,i unhesitatingly assert that1 if there be an acid present in the cane-juice1 the addition of lime to it will be injurious instead of beneficial4 ,there are only four acids that we could expect to find in cane juice--mucous1 saccholactic or saclactic1 oxalic1 and acetic acids4 ,the three first named of these1 however1 have never been traced1 even in the most minute quantities2 and if the latter be present1 which1 unfortunately1 is but too often the case1 the addition of lime would only result in the formation of acetate of lime1 which is1 as ,i have already observed1 an exceedingly difficult crystallisable1 very soluble1 and deliquescent salt4 ,it has a bitter1 saline taste2 #ajj parts consist of #fd4e acid1 #ce4e lime1 and it is easily recognisable by its taste in the molasses made from sour cane-juice3 so that1 supposing the cane-juice sour1 every pint of acid present would require nearly half a pound of lime for its neutralisation1 independent of the quantity required for the tempering or precipitation of the feculencies contained in it1 and would result in the formation of one-and-a-half pound of the above mentioned highly deleterious salt4 ,suppose we boil the cane-juice prior to tempering it1 we then drive off a great portion of acetic acid1 much less lime will be required1 and if we could1 by filtration or subsidence1 get rid of the precipitated feculencies1 we should make a tolerably good sugar2 but as1 under the present plan1 we have no means of so doing1 the acetic acid1 which is forming during the whole process of evaporation 7as fermentation still goes on71 unites with the lime before it can be dissipated by the heat1 and thus not only forms acetate of lime1 but causes the re-solution of the precipitated feculencies1 thus rendering it necessary to add a fresh portion of lime in the tache1 a proceeding always to be avoided1 if possible1 but generally necessary in boiling down sour liquor4 ,take a small portion of cane-juice 7hot or cold7 in a tumbler1 and temper it with lime until the feculencies are precipitated and the flakes perfectly visible1 then add vinegar by drops1 and it will be found that the flakes will speedily disappear and be re-dissolved1 showing that lime has a greater affinity for acetic acid than starch1 and that1 although when added to sour cane-juice1 it neutralises the acidity1 still that result is a consequence1 not the cause1 of the application1 and is highly injurious4 ,lime is one of the greatest known solvents of vegetable matter2 it dissolves albumen1 gluten1 gum and lignin1 or woody fibre1 forming soapy compounds with wax1 resin1 and1 chlorophyle4 ,ordinary cane-juice contains about three parts of resin to every #ajj of sugar1 and the projection of a small piece of soap into a tache full of granulating syrup will soon convince any one of the effect likely to result from the presence of that material4 ,although1 by tempering hot1 we get rid of a very great quantity of the substances on which lime acts injuriously1 a considerable portion of them remain in suspension1 the quantity of albumen contained in the cane-juice not being sufficient to carry them all off by coagulation2 on the addition of the lime1 however1 they are entirely dissolved and as the impurities left behind consist chiefly of gluten1 the liability of the liquor to ferment is greatly increased by its retention1 that being the fermenting principle contained in wheat and other vegetable productions prone to that process4 ,one hundred parts of ,albumen consist of ,carbon1 #eb4hh2 ,oxygen1 #bc4hh2 ,hydrogen1 #g-ed2 ,nitrogen1 #ae4gj4 ,gluten1 nearly same as ,albumen4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ajj parts ,excess6 ,excess consist of ,carbon4,oxygen4,hydro- ,carbon4 ,water4 of of gen4 ,oxygen,hydrogen ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,lignin1 or ,woody ,fibre #ea4de #db4gc #e4hb or#ea4de #dh4ee ,starch #dc4ee #di4fc #f4gg #dc4ee #ef4de ,sugar #db4dg #ej4fc #f4ij #db4dg #eg4ec ,gum #db4bc #ej4hd #f4ic #db4bc #eg4gg ,alcohol #ea4ih #cd4cb #ac4gj #ea4ih #ch4ii #i4jc ,acetic ,acid #ej4bb #dd4ae #e4fc #ej4bb #df4ia #b4hg ,resin #ge4id #ac4cd #aj4gb #ge4id #ae4af #h4ij ,wax #ha4gi #e4ed #ab4gf #ha4gi #f4cj #aa4ja ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,by a reference to the foregoing table it will be easily understood how slight a change in the proportion of the ingredients of any one of the substances contained therein will convert it into an entirely different one4 ,in chemistry we are able1 to a certain extent1 to imitate the operations of nature2 but we must follow in the same course laid down by her2 thus1 we can convert woody fibre1 or sawdust and starch1 into sugar1 gum1 alcohol1 and acetic acid2 but we cannot convert alcohol1 acetic acid1 or gum into sugar1 starch or woody fibre2 and of such importance is a slight alteration of the proportions of these elements--carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen--that the abstraction of carbon from sugar1 and the addition of a portion of the prime support of life1 vegetation and combustion1 oxygen1 changes the harmless sugar into the most violent of poisons1 oxalic acid1 which consists of #bf4eg carbon1 #gj4fi oxygen1 and #b4gd hydrogen4 ,let us now examine the action of lime on sugar1 and we shall find it equally1 if not more1 injurious than on the other substances4 ,sugar is capable of dissolving half its weight of lime1 by which its sweet taste is destroyed1 and it becomes converted into gum2 the lime abstracting carbonic acid from it to form a carbonate of lime or chalk4 ,it will be seen by the above table that-- #ajj parts of sugar contain #db4dg carbon4 #ajj parts of gum contain #db4bc ditto4 ----- ,difference #bd ,so that1 if we extract #bd-ajjths of a grain of carbon from #ajj grains of sugar1 we convert them into gum4 ,let us suppose that about two ounces of lime1 or say #a1jjj grains1 remain in solution in a pan1 7say #bjj gallons of liquor17 those #a1jjj grains of lime will require #gfa of carbonic acid to convert them into carbonate of lime or chalk1 #ajj grains of which consist of #ef4b lime and #dc4h carbonic acid4 ,so that #a1gfa grains of chalk consist of #a1jjj lime and #gfa carbonic acid4 ,now #ajj grains of carbonic add consist of #bg4ec carbon and #gb4dg oxygen2 therefore #gfa grains will consist of #bji4ej carbon and #eea4ec oxygen4 ,consequently1 #a1jjj grains of lime will require #bji4ej grains of carbon to convert them into carbonate of lime2 and as we have seen that the abstraction of #bd from #ajj grains of sugar convert them into gum1 it follows1 that the abstraction of #bji4ej grains would have a similar effect on #hg1jjj grains1 or about #ae lbs4 of sugar1 which1 being converted into gum1 would prevent the crystallisation of several times its weight of sugar2 and this is the cause of the formation of molasses4 ,the loss of sugar is not the only bad consequence of the use of lime1 as the greater the quantity of gum in the liquor1 the more it must be boiled--the more it is boiled the darker it gets--and the higher the temperature at which the skip is struck1 the smaller the grain4 ,the following is a good proof that lime dissolves albumen1 and becomes converted into chalk3--,take a spoonful of syrup out of the tache of any estate on which the liquor is tempered cold2 it will be found filled with small flakes2 these are albumen set free from its solution in the lime by the conversion of the latter into carbonate of lime1 and coagulated by heat4 ,it is perfectly possible to temper liquor1 so that scarcely any uncrystallisable sugar will remain2 but planters do not like this2 they must have molasses for the still-house2 they could1 however1 boil low1 by which the grain and color would be improved1 and plenty of uncrystallised1 although not uncrystallisable1 syrup would be left to take the place of molasses4 ,i think ,i have now fully proved the following facts1 viz43--,that the use of lime in sugar-making is not to neutralise an acid2 that if acidity be present1 the application of lime is injurious2 that its action on gluten1 albumen1 wax1 resin1 and chlorophyle is equally so2 that by decomposing the sugar and forming gum1 the quantity of molasses or uncrystallisable sugar is much increased1 whereby high boiling is rendered necessary1 with its consequent heightening of color and injury to the grain of the produce1 and that therefore it is perfectly unfit for the purpose of tempering cane-juice4 ,messrs4 ,thomas ,begg and ,co41 of ,london1 have procured from ,e4,f4 ,telchemacher and ,j4 ,denham ,smith1 an analysis of one gallon of ordinary plantain juice1 and one gallon of ,ramos' prepared plantain juice for the purpose of ascertaining whether any substance can be used which1 in conjunction with water1 will answer as a substitute for the plantain juice in the receipt which accompanied the samples4 ,the chemists say they find that one gallon of ordinary plantain juice holds in solution2-- ,extract similar to tannin #be4fj grains ,vegetable extract and fatty matter #eg4gj ,carbonate of potash #aej4dj ,muriate of potash #cc4fj ,muriate of soda #b4jj ,silica #a4bj ------------- ,contents of one imperial gallon #bgj4ej grains --whilst one gallon of ,ramos' prepared plantain juice contains1 besides vegetable extract1 #bbf grains of solid matter1 consisting of sulphuret and potash1 in the following proportions3-- ,sulphur #dj grains ,lime #aef ,potash #cj ---------- #bbf grains ,they do not think it likely that the potash exists in fresh plantain juice as carbonate1 but rather that this salt is the product of decomposition1 arising from a compound of potash and a vegetable acid1 such as tartaric or oxalic acid present in the fresh juice2 be this as it may1 any utility derivable from the plantain juice is evidently owing to the potash it contains4 ,they then give as a substitute for ,ramos' liquid1 and to be used in a similar way1 the following-- ,take of subcarbonate of potash #b ounces1 avoirdupois2 sulphur1 #b ounces2 best ,british lime slaked1 #a lb42 mix them into a paste in an earthen pan or wooden tub1 with one quart of water 7warm7 and when thoroughly mixed1 pour in ten gallons of boiling water--rain water is the best to use--and stir from time to time until it has cooled1 when it may be drawn off from the sediment and kept for use4 ,if rain water cannot be obtained1 the purest water obtainable may be used4 ,one of the causes most fatal to ,west ,indian prosperity1 is that exuberance of advantages which they enjoy from serenity of climate and fertility of soil--causes which1 in the absence of proper stimulus to industry and improvement1 have led to an improvident system of cultivation1 and to a blind and ignorant adherence to wasteful methods of manufacture4 ,the cane is believed to contain from #ij to #ie per cent4 of its own weight of saccharine juice2 and yet 7as ,mr4 ,fownes1 a ,professor of ,practical ,chemistry in ,university ,college1 ,london1 informs us1 in an excellent paper ,on the ,manufacture of ,sugar in ,barbados1#ag from which much of what follows has been borrowed7 owing to the defective construction of the mills1 hardly so much as #ej per cent4 is obtained1 although he believes it practicable1 by an improvement in the mills1 to obtain from #gj to #ge per cent42 and of the remaining #aj or #ae per cent4 which he regards it as impossible to extract1 much1 if not the whole1 might1 ,i conceive1 be obtained1 by macerating the pressed canes or megass1 as it issues from the mill1 and repassing it through the rollers2 and1 be it remembered1 that from #dj to #de per cent4 of saccharine juice is nearly1 if not altogether1 equivalent to a similar per centage of sugar2 so that by these initiatory improvements alone1 and with little additional trouble1 the produce of sugar might be nearly doubled from any given quantity of canes4 ,from the action of lime-water when added in a slight excess to the cane juice or raw liquor1 as it is vernacularly termed1 immediately on issuing from the mill1 as well as from the effect produced by ammonia or potash1 this liquid appears to contain a considerable quantity of cane sugar1 mixed with much glucose1 or that saccharine matter which is found in fruits2 gum or dextrine1 phosphates1 and probably malates of lime and magnesia1 with sulphates and chlorides1 potash and soda1 and a peculiar azotised matter1 allied to albumen1 which forms an insoluble compound with lime1 is not coagulable by heat or acids1 and runs readily into putrefactive fermentation4 ,to free it from these constituents1 and enable it to yield pure and crystallisable sugar1 the liquor1 on entering the boiling-house1 is received into the first of three clarifiers1 of the capacity of from three hundred to a thousand gallons each4 ,here it is subjected to the action of lime-water1 which checks the tendency to fermentation1 and neutralises any free acid which it may contain4 ,the common defection process1 says ,mr4 ,fownes1 in careful hands1 seems susceptible of little improvement4 ,many other substances than lime have been proposed and tried with more or less success1 some of which1 in particular states of the cane juice1 may prove very useful2 but1 for general purposes1 nothing seems to answer so well as neutralisation by lime1 either in the form of lime-water or milk of lime1 added until the slightest possible tendency to alkalinity1 as ascertained by delicate reddened litmus paper1 is perceived4 ,the juice should be somewhat heated before the lime is added1 and afterwards raised quite to the boiling point4 ,the fire is then to be withdrawn1 and the whole allowed to rest a short time4 ,such is ,mr4 ,fownes' description of the process of clarification2 to which ,i will venture to add1 upon the authority of those who have experienced its good effects1 the joint use of the mucilage of the ,guazuma ulmifolia1 or gun-stock tree1 as it is popularly termed in ,nevis from the use to which its timber has been applied4 ,this is the bastard cedar of ,jamaica1 or ,orme d',amerique1 and ,bois d',orme of the ,french1 which may be found described by ,lunan1 in the first volume of his ,hortus ,jamaicensis1 page #ei1 under the name of ,bubroma ,guazuma4 ,this tree presents in the interval between its outer bark of sap-wood1 a mass of fibrous matter about half an inch in thickness1 richly impregnated with mucilage1 which is obtained by macerating the fibrous mass1 conveniently divided into small shreds1 for about twelve hours1 in warm water1 in the proportion of about two handsful to eight gallons of water4 ,of this solution1 which is of a light1 straw color1 and somewhat thickened1 one gallon is to be added for every hundred gallons of cane juice1 after the clarifier has been charged with the proper quantity of lime-water1 and has become lukewarm4 ,the mixture should then be stirred1 and afterwards allowed to settle till the scum has risen to the surface4 ,the fire must next be cautiously and gradually raised to the point of boiling1 when it must again be slackened1 and the whole left to stand for about forty minutes1 by which time the mass of feculencies will have risen to the surface1 when the clear liquor underneath may either be drawn off by a siphon or cock2 the whole may be filtered as ,mr4 ,fownes recommends1 by which means the liquor would be more effectually clarified1 and much1 if not all1 the subsequent labour of skimming dispensed with4 ,the matter remaining on the filter may be employed1 either as a ferment in the still-house1 or added to the manure heap4 ,much of the beneficial effect of the mucilage of the guazuma arises probably from an admixture of tannin1 or some other astringent2 for ,i have often been struck with the peculiar whiteness of the potted sugar in the curing-house1 in the immediate vicinity of the ,banana stalks1 resulting1 no doubt1 from their powerful astringency2 and tannin has already been found useful in the manufacture of sugar from beet-root in ,france1 and is no doubt equally applicable to cane-sugar4 ,the liquor1 when clarified in the manner described1 must be concentrated1 by regulated evaporation1 to the degree requisite for crystallisation4 ,this ,mr4 ,fownes advises to be done by steam of a moderate pressure circulating in a spiral of copper-pipe laid at the bottom of the evaporating vessels1 which should be large and shallow1 and wholly unlike those in present use4 ,here it may be rapidly boiled down till the heat rises to about #bbe deg41 without risk of burning4 ,when cold1 it should have a density of about #a4ch1 and mark the #chth degree of ,baume's hydrometer2 beyond which point of inspissation it would be dangerous to go4 ,the remaining concentration will be most safely conducted in the vacuum pan1 where a scarcity of water does not1 as in ,barbados1 militate against its use4 ,mr4 ,fownes exposes the absurdity of using shallow coolers1 exposing a large surface1 and producing a rapid evaporation1 for the process of crystallisation4 ,by the use of the shallow coolers formerly1 and1 ,i believe1 yet to be found on most estates1 from the rapidity of the evaporation1 the sugar is obtained in a mass of confused and imperfectly-formed crystals1 entangling in their interstices a considerable quantity of molasses1 which impairs the color of the product1 and escaping slowly1 and with difficulty1 is1 to a considerable extent1 lost on the homeward voyage by drainage into the hold1 occasioning much positive loss to the owner1 and giving the bilge-water a most offensive odor4 ,he therefore recommends the use of deep vessels1 and avoidance of all agitation in this part of the process1 so as to enable the crystallisable portion of the syrup to effect a more complete separation from the uncrystallisable portion or the molasses4 ,by this simple method1 not only sugar of a finer and whiter quality would be obtained1 but a large per centage of loss both of crystallisable and uncrystallisable sugar at present caused by the leakage of the hogshead into the hold1 would be prevented1 not only to the great advantage of the planter1 but to the great comfort of the captain1 passengers1 and crew of the vessel freighted with it4 ,it is not improbable that1 by re-boiling the molasses in the vacuum-pan1 and employing tannin in the manner adopted in the process for making sugar from beet-root1 from one to five per cent4 of crystallisable sugar could be recovered from it1 and this per centage might possibly even be found to admit of increase by the further treatment with lime-water and the gun-stock tree s already suggested1 for the first clarification of the liquor received from the mill4 ,with this view1 ,mr4 ,fownes recommends the substitution of puncheons1 or casks1 for the molasses cisterns ordinarily employed in the curing-house1 to receive the molasses as it drains from the new sugar1 and thus retaining it until after the busy period of crop time has closed4 ,should sugar of a whiter quality than the ordinary muscovado of commerce be desired1 this advantage may be readily obtained1 as ,mr4 ,fownes judiciously observes1 by filtering the thin syrup1 ready for the vacuum-pan1 through a bed of fine charcoal1 as is done by the sugar refiners1 and afterwards washing the crystals of sugar with white syrup1 when the molasses has thoroughly drained from them4 ,by this process1 which1 however1 is attended with some increase of expense1 and may not1 in consequence1 be always advisable1 muscovado sugar may be obtained1 of a quality hardly inferior to that of refined sugar4 ,mr4 ,fownes thus sums up the principal points to which he is desirous of calling the attention of the intelligent and enterprising planter4 #a4 ,to obtain1 by the use of a properly-constructed mill1 the greatest possible amount of juice from the cane4 ,by this1 according to ,mr4 ,fownes1 a gain of from #bj to #cj per cent41 equivalent to as much marketable sugar1 may be obtained without any additional expense2 but as1 from ,mr4 ,fownes' own showing1 there is a residuum of #aj to #ae per cent of liquor obstinately retained by the megass1 or cane trash1 after the most powerful pressure to which it can be subjected2 much1 if not all1 even of this loss might be prevented by subjecting the megass1 on issuing from between the rollers1 to the action of water for a brief time1 passing it once more through the mill1 and adding the saccharine solution so obtained1 or that obtained directly from the cane on its first crushing4 ,the water thus employed would serve for many successive portions of megass1 until at length it became so richly loaded with saccharine matter as to be worth attention in the boiling-house2 or1 at all events1 it would be serviceable for the cattle1 who would fatten rapidly upon it4 ,by this additional process a further gain of at least five per cent4 might be expected1 raising the total gain from improvements in this first stage of the process1 to from #be to #ce per cent4 #b4 ,to clarify and filter this juice with expedition1 and to evaporate it rapidly1 either over the open fire or by steam heat1 as far as it can be done with safety4 ,by the use of steam1 not only is a vast economy of fuel effected1 but the temperature is maintained at a uniform and sufficient standard1 and the liquor effectually guarded against the risks of carelessness or ignorance4 ,coal may be obtained on far cheaper terms1 in exchange for produce1 from the ,united ,states or from ,cape ,breton1 than from ,england2 and as colliers from those quarters would find it their interest to bring cargoes at their own risk1 and take return cargoes of sugar1 rum1 or molasses1 at the market price1 the planter will be doubly a gainer by the system1 obtaining his fuel at a reduced rate1 and having his trash and megass left free as manure for the use of his cane fields4 #c4 ,to complete the concentration in a vacuum pan1 or by other means1 at a moderate temperature1 not hurtful to the sugar1 and facilitate the natural process of crystallisation1 so as to obtain sugar of a large and distinct grain4 #d4 ,to drain and dry the sugar perfectly1 and to save all the molasses4 ,the advantages to be anticipated from these improvements1 superadded to an improvement in cultivation1 cannot be estimated at less1 upon a moderate calculation1 than from #aej to #bjj per cent4 of increase in the production of sugar1 with hardly an appreciable increase of labor or expense2 for we have1 in the first place1 a gain by improved culture of1 at least1 two hogsheads an acre in sugar1 equivalent to #ajj per cent42 in the next1 by employing improved mills and extracting the residuum1 #cj per cent42 by conducting the process of manufacture more judiciously1 #aj per cent42 and by the prevention of waste during the transit to market1 #aj per cent41 making a total of at least #aej per cent4 ,the common sugar-mill consists of three cylinders1 tightened either by wedges1 if in a wooden frame1 or by screws in a cast-iron frame4 ,if in an iron frame1 the above-mentioned noise is obviated1 but the friction and loss of power is the same1 which is ascertainable by subsequent investigation4 ,the cylinders or rollers1 which are moving either horizontally or vertically1 are from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter1 with bearings or shafts of one fourth of their diameter4 ,if the bearings or shafts of the cylinders were of less substance1 they could not resist the great strain to which they are subjected when in operation4 ,the whole of the prime mover 7steam-engine1 water-wheel1 or animals71 minus the friction of intermediate machinery1 is transmitted to the plains of these rollers and resisted by their bearings2 hence the action is equal to a weight moving on low wheels of eighteen or twenty-four inches in diameter1 on axles of from four to six inches thickness1 which weight is equal to the force applied2 consequently1 if the strain is greater than the resistance of the rollers or the bearings1 they must be wrenched off1 or if greater than the force applied1 the mill will be stopped4 ,the power necessary to move weights upon wheels1 on a smooth and level surface1 is in proportion to the respective diameters of wheels and axles4 ,the same pull which moves one ton at a given velocity upon a wheel of two feet1 with an axle of six inches1 will move four tons1 if on a wheel of four feet diameter1 with an axle of six inches4 ,consequently1 cylinders of small diameter1 with strong and substantial bearings1 are only admissible as working machines1 if no other mechanical means are applicable1 as1 for instance1 in rolling out metals1 compressing the surface of various bodies for a glossy appearance1 or1 generally speaking1 to produce a certain and equal form of the substance which is pressed and passed between them4 ,they compress the atoms of bodies1 and for this reason alone are ill suited to separate the fibres of the sugar canes1 and to express effectively the saccharine matter between them4 ,a practical proof of this demonstration is furnished by every sugar cane which has gone through the mill4 ,fresh megass is at present better suited for fattening animals than for fuel under the sugar pans4 ,the loss of material thus sustained1 which is1 on an average1 equal in every mill1 whether driven by steam1 water1 or animal power1 is entirely chargeable to the construction of the mill1 and amounts to about ten per cent4 of the saccharine matter contained in the sugar canes4 ,m4 ,duprez1 an agent of the ,french ,government1 having experimented on the canes in ,guadaloupe1 found the quantity of juice in every #ajj lbs4 crushed-- lbs4 #a ,by mills having horizontal rollers2 the motive power not stated #fa4b #b ,by mills1 motive power1 steam #fj4i #c ,by mills1 motive power1 wind and steam #ei4c #d ,by mills1 having vertical rollers #ei4b #e ,by mills1 motive power1 cattle #eh4e #f ,by mills1 motive power1 wind 99 #ef4d 99 ,dr4 ,evans' ,treatise on ,sugar1 p4 #ge4 ,the average of all these experiments being #ef per cent4 only4 ,the result of ,m4 ,avequin1 on ,louisiana cane1 was #ej per cent4 ,mr4 ,thompson1 of ,jamaica1 states #ej per cent4 as the average throughout the island of ,martinique4 ,dr4 ,evans ventures #dg per cent4 as the lowest1 and #fa per cent4 as the highest in the ,west ,indies4 ,a mill in ,madeira gave #dg4e and #gj4b of juice--the larger yield being obtained by bracing the horizontal rollers more than usually tight1 and introducing only a few canes at a time1 the motive power being cattle4 ,the three roller mill has the disadvantage of re-absorbing a part of the cane juice in the spongy megass1 7or trash as it is termed in the ,west ,indies71 and a loss of power4 ,those with five rollers have been used in ,cuba1 ,bourbon and the ,mauritius1 which gave #gj per cent41 but a great increase of motive power is necessary4 ,four roller mills1 two below and two above1 requiring little more motive power than three rollers1 have given #gj to #ge per cent of juice4 ,some years since1 the ,east ,india ,company instituted inquiries relative to the cultivation of the sugar cane in ,hindostan1 and the information obtained was published in a large folio volume4 ,the ,reports furnished by their officers1 from almost every district1 concur in stating that there were three kinds cultivated3--#a4 ,the purple4 #b4 ,the white4 #c4 ,a variety of the white1 requiring a large supply of water4 ,the epitome of the ,reports affords this information3-- #a4 ,the purple colored cane yields a sweeter1 richer juice1 than the yellow or light colored1 but in less quantity1 and is harder to press4 ,grows on dry lands4 ,scarce any other sort in ,beerbhoom1 much in ,radnagore1 some about ,santipore1 mixed with light colored cane4 ,grows also near ,calcutta2 in some fields separate1 in others mixed with pooree or light colored cane4 ,when eaten raw1 is more dry and pithy in the mouth1 but esteemed better sugar than the pooree1 and appears to be the superior sort of cane4 ,persons who have been ,west ,indian planters do not know it as a ,west ,indian cane4 #b4 ,the light colored cane1 yellow1 inclining to white2 deeper yellow when ripe1 and on rich ground1 it is the same sort as that which grows in the ,west ,india ,islands2 softer1 more juicy than the ,cadjoolee1 but juice less rich1 and produces sugar less strong2 requires seven maunds of pooree juice to make as much goor or inspissated juice as is produced from six of the ,cadjoolee4 ,much of this kind is brought to the ,calcutta markets1 and eaten raw4 #c4 ,the white variety1 which grows in swampy1 lands1 is light colored1 and grows to a great height4 ,its juice is more watery1 and yields a weaker sugar than the ,cadjoolee4 ,however1 as much of ,bengal consists of low grounds1 and as the upland canes are liable to suffer from drought1 it may be advisable to encourage the cultivation of it1 should the sugar it produces be approved1 though in a less degree than other sugars1 in order to guard against the effects of dry seasons4 ,experience alone can determine how far the idea of encouraging this sort may answer4 ,besides the foregoing1 several kinds are now known to the ,indian planter4 ,one of them1 the ,china sugar cane1 was considered by ,dr4 ,roxburgh to be a distinct species1 and distinguished by him as ,saccharum sinensis4 ,it was introduced into ,india in #agif1 by ,earl ,cornwallis1 as being superior to the native kinds4 ,it is characterised by a hardness which effectually resists most of the country rude mills2 but this hardness is importantly beneficial1 inasmuch as that it withstands the attack of the white ants1 hogs1 and jackals1 which destroy annually a large portion of the common cane4#ah ,dr4 ,buchanan found that four kinds are known in ,mysore4 ,two of these are evidently the purple and white generally known2 but as this is not distinctly stated1 ,i have retained the form in which he notices them4 ,restali1 the native sugar of the ,mysore1 can only be planted in the last two weeks of ,march and two first of ,april4 ,it completes its growth in twelve months1 and does not survive for a second crop4 ,its cultivation has been superseded by the other4 ,putta-putti4--,this was introduced from ,arcot1 during the reign of ,hyder ,ali4 ,it is the only one from which the natives can extract sugar2 it also produces the best ,bella or ,jaggery4 ,it can be planted at the same season as the other1 as well as at the end of ,july and beginning of ,august4 ,it is fourteen months in completing its growth2 but the stools produce a second crop1 like the ratoons of the ,west ,indies1 which ripen in twelve months4 ,maracabo1 ,cuttaycabo4--,these two are very small1 seldom exceeding half an inch in diameter2 yet in some districts of ,mysore1 as about ,colar1 the last-named is the variety usually cultivated2 but this arises from its requiring less water than the larger varieties4 ,the best varieties are those introduced from the ,islands of ,otaheite and ,bourbon4 ,hindostan is indebted for their introduction to ,captain ,sleeman1 who brought them hither from the ,mauritius in #ahbg4 ,he committed them to ,dr4 ,wallich1 under whose care1 at the ,botanic ,garden1 they have flourished1 and been the source from whence the benefit has been generally diffused4 ,their superiority over those which have been usually cultivated by the natives has been completely established4 ,the largest of the ,hindostan canes1 ripe and trimmed ready for the mill1 has never been found to exceed five pounds2 but it is not uncommon for an ,otaheite cane1#ai under similar circumstances1 to weigh seven pounds4 ,the extra weight arises proportionately from an increased secretion of superior sap4 ,the sugar is more abundant1 granulates more readily1 and has less scum4 ,other superior qualities are1 that the canes ripen earlier1 and are less injured by the occurrence of protracted dry weather4 ,of the history of the sugar cane a popular tradition obtains amongst the natives1 that1 in very ancient times1 a vessel belonging to their country chanced by accident to leave one of her crew1 under a desperate fit of sickness1 at a desert island1 at a considerable distance in the ,eastern ,seas1 and that1 returning by the same route1 curiosity prompted them to inquire after the fate of their companion1 when1 to their utter astonishment1 the man presented himself to their view1 completely recovered from his sickness1 and even in a state of more than common health4 ,with anxiety they inquired for the physic he had so successfully applied1 and were conducted by him to the sugar cane1 on which he acquainted them he had solely subsisted from the time of their departure4 ,attracted by such powerful recommendation1 every care and attention was bestowed1 we may suppose1 to convey such an invaluable acquisition to their own lands1 where the soil and climate have mutually since contributed to its present prosperity4 ,soil4--,the soil best suiting the sugar cane is aluminous rather than the contrary1 tenacious without being heavy1 readily allowing excessive moisture to drain away1 yet not light4 ,one gentleman1 ,mr4 ,ballard1 has endeavoured to make this point clear by describing the most favorable soils about ,gazepore as light clays1 called there ,mootearee1 or doansa1 according as there is more or less sand in their composition4--,trans4 ,agri-,hort4 ,soc4 i4 #aba4 ,mr4 ,peddington seems to think that calcareous matter1 and iron in the state of peroxide1 are essential to be present in a soil for the production of the superior sugar cane4 ,there can be no doubt that the calcareous matter is necessary1 but experience is opposed to his opinion relative to the peroxide4 ,the soil preferred at ,radnagore is there distinguished as the soil of two qualities1 being a mixture of rich clay and sand1 and which ,mr4 ,touchet believed to be known in ,england as a light brick mould4 ,about ,rungpore1 ,dinajpoor1 and other places where the ground is low1 they raise the beds where the cane is to be planted four or five feet above the level of the land adjacent4 ,the experience of ,dr4 ,roxburgh agrees with the preceding statements4 ,he says1 ,the soil that suits the cane best in this climate is1 a rich vegetable earth1 which on exposure to the air readily crumbles down into very fine mould4 ,it is also necessary for it to be of such a level as allows of its being watered from the river by simply damming it up 7which almost the whole of the land adjoining to this river1 the ,godavery1 admits of71 and yet so high as to be easily drained during heavy rains4 ,such a soil1 and in such a situation1 having been well meliorated by various crops of leguminous plants1 or fallowing1 for two or three years1 is slightly manured1 or has had for some time cattle pent upon it4 ,a favourite manure for the cane with the ,hindoo farmer is the rotten straw of green and black pessaloo 7,phaseolus ,mungo max74#bj ,many accordant opinions might be added to the preceding1 but it seems only necessary to observe further1 that the sugar cane requires a soil sufficiently elevated to be entirely free from inundation1 but not so high as to be deprived of moisture1 or as to encourage the production of white ants 7termes74 ,the sugar cane is an exhausting crop1 and it is seldom cultivated by the ryot more frequently than once in three or four years on the same land4 ,during the intermediate period1 such plants are grown as are found to improve the soil1 of which1 says ,dr4 ,tennant1 the ,indian farmer is a perfect judge4 ,they find the leguminous tribe the best for the purpose4 ,such long intervals of repose from the cane would not be requisite if a better system of manuring were adopted4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,prinsep has recorded the following analysis of three soils distinguished for producing sugar4 ,they were all a soft1 fine-grained alluvium1 without pebbles4 ,no4 #a was from a village called ,mothe1 on the ,sarjee1 about ten miles north of the ,ganges1 at ,buxar1 and the others from the south bank of the ,ganges1 near the same place4 ,there is a substratum of kunkar throughout the whole of that part of the country1 and to some mixture of this earth with the surface soil the fertility of the latter is ascribed3-- #a #b #c ,hygrometric moisture1 on drying at #bab deg4 #b4e #b4a #c4f ,carbonaceous and vegetable matter1 on calcination #a4h #b4a #d4j ,carbonate of lime 7,no4 #c effervesced7 #a4f #j4f #c4i ,alkaline salt1 soluble #a4j #a4a #j4c ,silex and alumina #id4a #id4a #hh4b ----- ----- ----- #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j ,the earths unfortunately were not separated4 ,mr4 ,prinsep says the two first were chiefly of sand1 and the third somewhat argillaceous4 ,the former required irrigation1 but the other was sufficiently retentive of moisture to render it unnecessary4--7,journ4 ,asiatic ,soc41 ii4 #dce47 ,manures4--,the sugar cane being one of the most valued crops of the ryot1 he always devotes to it a portion of the fertilising matters he has at command1 though in every instance this is too small4 ,in the ,rajahmundry district1 previously to planting1 the soil is slightly manured1 either by having cattle folded upon it1 or by a light covering of the rotten straw of the green and black pessalloo1 which is here a favourite fertiliser4 ,in some parts of ,mysore the mud from the bottom of tanks is employed1 and this practice is more generally adopted in other places4 ,thus the fields being divided by deep ditches in ,dinajpoor1 the mud from which is enriched by the remains of decayed aquatic plants and animals1 forms an excellent manure for the sugar cane1 and of this the ryots make use1 spreading it over the surface before the ploughing is commenced2 and when that operation is completed1 the soil is further fertilised by a dressing of oil-cake and ashes4 ,crushed bones would unquestionably be of the greatest benefit if applied to the sugar cane crop4 ,not only would their animal matter serve as food for the plants1 but the phosphate of lime of the bones is one of the chief saline constituents of the sugar cane4 ,salt is another valuable manure for this crop4 ,dr4 ,nugent1 in a ,report made to the ,agricultural ,society of ,antigua1 observes that salt has been found a valuable auxiliary in cultivating the sugar cane4 ,many trials of it1 he says1 have been made during successive seasons1 applied generally to the extent of about nine or ten bushels per acre4 ,it destroys grubs and other insects1 and gives the canes an increased vigor and ability to resist drought4 ,it is a singular remark of the intelligent traveller1 ,m4 de ,humboldt1 while speaking of the practice adopted in the ,missions of the ,orinoco1 when a coco-nut plantation is made1 of throwing a certain quantity of salt into the hole which receives the nut2 that of all the plants cultivated by man there are only the sugar cane1 the plantain1 the mammee1 and the ,avocado pear1 which endure equally irrigation with fresh and salt water4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 when the cane is affected by what is called there the blast1 which is a withering or drying up of the plants1 an unfailing remedy is found to be watering them with an infusion of dung in salt water4#ba ,preparation of soil4--,in the ,rajahmundry district1 during the months of ,april and ,may1 the ground is frequently ploughed1 until brought into a very fine tilth4 ,about the end of ,may1 or beginning of ,june1 the rains usually commence1 and the canes are then to be planted4 ,if the rains do not set in so early1 the land is flooded artificially1 and when converted into a soft mud1 whether by the rain or by flooding1 the canes are planted4 ,in ,mysore the ground is watered for three days1 and then1 after drying for the same period1 ploughing commences1 this operation being repeated five times during the following eight days4 ,the clods during this time are broken small by an instrument called colkudali4 ,the field is then manured and ploughed a sixth time4 ,after fifteen days it is ploughed again1 twice in the course of one or two days4 ,after a lapse of eight days it is ploughed a ninth time4 ,altogether these operations occupy about forty-four days4 ,for planting1 which is done six days1 an implement called yella kudali is employed4 ,in ,dinajpoor1 the field1 from about the middle of ,october until about the #ajth of ,january1 receives ten or twelve double ploughings1 and after each is smoothed with the moyi4 ,during the last three months of this time it is manured with cow-dung and mud from ponds and ditches4 ,on this account1 the land fit for sugar cane is generally divided into fields by wide ditches1 into which much mud is washed by the rain1 and is again thrown on the fields when the country dries1 and leaves it enriched by innumerable aquatic vegetables and animals that have died as the water left them4 ,when the ploughing has been completed1 the field is manured with ashes and oil-cake4 ,about ,malda1 the land is first ploughed in the month of ,cartick1 length and breadth ways1 and harrowed in like manner2 four or five days after it is again ploughed and harrowed1 as before1 twice4 ,in the month of ,aghun1 the whole land is covered with fresh earth1 again twice ploughed1 and harrowed in different directions1 and then manured with dung4 ,fifteen or twenty days afterwards it is to be twice ploughed1 as before2 eight or ten days after which1 it is to be slightly manured with dung1 and the refuse of oil1 mixed together2 then twice ploughed and harrowed in different directions1 so that the clods of earth brought be well mixed together with the land4 ,this preparation continues until the #bjth or #beth of the month ,pows4 ,in the vicinity of ,dacca1 during ,cautic or ,augun 7,october1 ,november7 the ,ryots begin to prepare their ground4 ,they first dig a trench round their fields1 and raise a mound of about three feet in height4 ,if the ground to be cultivated is waste1 about nine inches of the surface are taken off1 and thrown without the enclosure4 ,the ground is ploughed to the depth of nine inches more4 ,the clods are broken1 and the earth made fine4 ,in ,maug or ,faugun 7,january1 ,february7 the sugar cane is planted2 a month afterwards earth is raised about the plants2 after another month this is repeated4 ,the crop is cut in ,poous and ,maug 7,december1 ,january74 ,if the ground be not waste1 but cultivated1 the surface is not taken off4 ,after cutting the crop1 it is not usual again to grow sugar cane on the same ground for eighteen months1 on account of the indifferent produce afforded by a more early planting4 ,in the ,zillah1 ,north ,mooradabad1 the land is broken up at the end of ,june4 ,after the rains have ceased it is manured1 and has eight or ten ploughings4 ,this clears it of weeds4 ,in ,february it is again manured and ploughed four or five times1 and just before the sets are planted1 some dung1 four cart-loads to each cutcha beegah of low land1 and five cart-loads to high land1 are added4 ,the land is well rolled after the four last ploughings1 and again after the cuttings are set4 ,about ,benares and the neighbouring districts1 ,mr4 ,haines says1 that owing to the hot winds which prevail from ,march until the setting in of the annual rains in ,june or ,july1 the lands remain fallow till that period4 ,in the mean time1 those fields that are selected for sugar cane are partially manured by throwing upon them all manner of rubbish they can collect1 and by herding their buffaloes and cattle upon them at night1 though most of the manure from the latter source is again collected and dried for fuel4 ,when the annual rains have fairly set in1 and the ,assarree crops sown 7in some instances ,i have seen an ,assarree crop taken from the lands intended for sugar cane71 they commence ploughing the cane lands1 and continue to do so four or five times monthly 7as they consider the greater number of times the fields are turned up at this period of the season1 the better the crop of cane will be71 till the end of ,october1 continuing to throw on the little manure they can collect4 ,towards the end of ,october1 and in ,november1 their ploughs are much engaged in sowing their winter 7or rubbee7 crops of wheat1 barley1 grain1 c42 and at this period they make arrangements with the shepherds who have large flocks of sheep1 to fold them upon the fields at night1 for which they pay so much per beegah in grain4 ,during the latter part of ,november1 and early in ,december1 the fields are again ploughed well1 and all grass1 weeds1 c41 removed with the hoe2 then the surface of the field is made as smooth as possible by putting the hengah 7a piece of wood eight to ten feet in length1 and five to six inches in breadth1 and three or four inches in thickness1 drawn by two pairs of bullocks1 and the man standing upon the wood to give it weight71 over several times for three or four days in succession4 ,this makes the surface of the field very even and somewhat hard1 which prevents the sun and dry west wind from abstracting the moisture1 which is of great importance at this period of the season1 for1 should there be no rain1 there would not be sufficient moisture at the time of planting the cane to cause vegetation4 ,in this state the land remains till the time of planting the cane cuttings1 which is generally the #ast to the #aeth of ,february2 but should there have been a fall of rain in the mean time1 or excess of moisture appear1 the field is again ploughed1 and the hengah put over as before4 ,a day or two previous to planting the cane1 the field is ploughed and the hengah lightly put over4--7,trans4 ,agri-,hort4 ,soc4 vi4 #d1 #e47 ,sets4--,when the canes are cut at harvest time1 twelve or eighteen inches of their tops are usually taken off1 and stored1 to be employed for sets4 ,each top has several joints1 from each of which a shoot rises1 but seldom more than one or two arrive at a proper growth4 ,when first cut from the stem1 the tops intended for plants are tied in bundles of forty or fifty each1 and are carefully kept moist4 ,in a few days they put forth new leaves3 they are then cleared of the old leaves1 and separately dipped into a mixture of cow-dung1 pressed mustard seed1 and water4 ,a dry spot is prepared1 and rich loose mould and a small quantity of pressed mustard-seed2 the plants are separately placed therein1 a small quantity of earth strewed amongst them1 and then covered with leaves and grass to preserve them from heat4 ,ten or twelve days afterwards they are planted in the fields4 ,in ,burdwan1 the tops1 before they are planted1 are cut into pieces from four to six inches long1 so that there are not more than four knots in each4 ,two or three of these plant tops are put together in the ground1 and a beegah requires from #g1ejj to #aj1bdj plants4 ,in ,rungpore and ,dinajpoor1 about #i1jjj plants are required for a beegah1 each being about a foot in length4 ,in ,beerbhoom1 #c1jjj plants are said to be requisite for a beegah1 each cane top being about fifteen inches long4 ,near ,calcutta1 from #c1jjj to #h1jjj plants are required for a beegah1 according to the goodness of the soil1 the worst soil needing most plants4 ,in ,mysore an acre contains #b1dbj stools1 and yields about #aa1jjj ripe canes4 ,near ,rajahmundry1 about #djj cuttings are planted on a cutcha beegah 7one-eighth of an acre74 ,in ,zilla1 ,north ,mooradabad1 #d1bjj sets1 each eight inches long1 are inserted upon each cutcha beegah of low land1 and #e1bej upon high land4 ,in the district of ,gollagore the ,ryots cut a ripe cane into several pieces1 preserving two or three joints to each1 and put them into a small bed of rich mould1 dung1 and mustard-seed from which the oil has been expressed4 ,at ,radnagore1 when the time of cutting the canes arrives1 their tops are taken off1 and these are placed upright in a bed of mud for thirty or forty days1 and covered with leaves or straw4 ,the leaves are then stripped from them1 and they are cut into pieces1 not having less than two nor more than four joints each4 ,these sets are kept for ten or fifteen days in a bed prepared for them1 from whence they are taken and planted in rows two or three together1 eighteen inches or two feet intervening between each stool4 ,planting4--,the time and mode of planting vary4 ,in the ,rajahmundry ,circar1 ,dr4 ,roxburgh says1 that during the months of ,april and ,may the land is repeatedly ploughed with the common ,hindoo plough1 which soon brings the loose rich soil 7speaking of the ,delta of the ,godavery7 into very excellent order4 ,about the end of ,may and beginning of ,june1 the rains generally set in1 in frequent heavy showers4 ,now is the time to plant the cane2 but should the rains hold back1 the prepared field is watered or flooded from the river1 and1 while perfectly wet1 like soft mud1 the cane is planted4 ,the method is most simple4 ,laborers with baskets of the cuttings1 of one or two joints each1 arrange themselves along one side of the field4 ,they walk side by side1 in as straight a line as their eye and judgment enable them1 dropping the sets at the distance of about eighteen inches asunder in rows1 and about four feet from row to row4 ,other laborers follow1 and with the foot press the set about two inches into the soft1 mud-like soil1 which1 with a sweep or two with the sole of the foot1 they most easily and readily cover4--7,roxburgh on the ,culture of ,sugar47 ,about ,malda1 in the month of ,maug 7,january1 ,february71 the land is to be twice ploughed1 and harrowed repeatedly1 length and breadth ways2 after which it is furrowed1 the furrows half a cubit apart1 in which the plants are to be set at about four fingers' distance from each other1 when the furrows are filled up with the land that lay upon its ridges4 ,the plants being thus set1 the land is harrowed twice in different directions2 fifteen or twenty days afterwards the cane begins to grow1 when the weeds which appear with it must be taken up2 ten or twelve days after this the weeds will again appear4 ,they must again be taken up1 and the earth at the roots of the canes be removed1 when all the plants which have grown will appear4 ,at ,ghazepore the rains set in at the beginning of ,march1 and planting then commences4 ,near ,calcutta the planting takes place in ,may and ,june4 ,in ,dinajpoor and ,rungpore the planting time is ,february4 ,about ,commercolly it is performed in ,january4 ,the field is divided into beds six cubits broad1 separated from each other by small trenches fourteen inches wide and eight inches deep4 ,in every second trench are small wells1 about two feet deep4 ,the irrigating water flowing along the trenches fills the wells1 and is taken thence and applied to the canes by hand4 ,each bed has five rows of canes4 ,the sets are planted in holes about six inches in diameter1 and three deep2 two sets1 each having three joints1 are laid horizontally in every hole1 covered slightly with earth1 and over this is a little dung4 ,when1 the canes are planted in the spring1 the trenches must be filled with water1 and some poured into every hole4 ,at the other season of planting the trenches are full1 it being rainy weather2 but even then the sets must be watered for the first month4 ,mr4 ,haines says that in ,mirzapore and the neighbouring districts1 in planting the cane they commence a furrow round the field1 in which they drop the cuttings4 ,the second furrow is left empty2 cuttings again in the third2 so they continue dropping cuttings in every second furrow till the whole field is completed1 finishing in the centre of the field4 ,the field remains in this state till the second or third day1 when for two or three days in succession it is made even and hard upon the surface with the hengah1 as before stated4--7,trans4 ,agri-,hort4 ,soc4 vi4 #e47 ,mr4 ,vaupell1 in describing the most successful mode of cultivating the ,mauritius sugar cane in ,bombay1 says1 that after the ground is levelled with the small plough1 called 'paur1' in the manner of the cultivators1 pits of two feet in diameter1 and two feet in depth1 should be dug throughout the field at the distance of five feet apart1 and filled with manure and soil to about three inches of the surface4 ,set in these pits your canes1 cut in pieces about a foot and a half long1 laying them down in a triangular from1 thus _/4 ,keep as much of the eyes or shoots of the cane uppermost as you can2 then cover them with manure and soil2 beds should next be formed to retain water1 having four pits in each bed1 leaving passages for watering them4 ,the cutting should be watered every third day during hot weather1 and the field should always be kept in a moist state4--7,ibid4 iii4 #dc47 ,about ,benares1 the sets require1 after planting1 from four to six waterings1 until the rains commence1 and as many hoeings to loosen the surface1 which becomes caked after every watering4 ,the moister nature of the soil renders these operations generally unnecessary in ,bengal4 ,after-culture4--,in ,mysore1 the surface of the earth in the hollows in which the sets are planted is stirred with a stick as soon as the shoots appear1 and a little dung is added4 ,next month the daily watering is continued1 and then the whole field dug over with the hoe1 a cavity being made round each stool1 and a little dung added4 ,in the third month water is given every second day3 at its close1 if the canes are luxuriant1 the ground is again dug2 but if weakly1 the watering is continued during the fourth month1 before the digging is given4 ,at this time the earth is drawn up about the canes1 so as to leave the hollows between the rows at right angles with the trenches4 ,no more water is given to the plants1 but the trenches between the beds are kept full for three days4 ,it is then left off for a week1 and if rain occurs1 no further water is requisite2 but if the weather is dry1 water is admitted once a week during the next month4 ,the digging is then repeated1 and the earth levelled with the hand about the stools4 ,the stems of each stool are ten or twelve in number1 which are reduced to five or six by the most weakly of them being now removed4 ,the healthy canes are to be tied with one of their own leaves1 two or three together1 to check their spreading2 and this binding is repeated as required by their increased growth4 ,in the absence of rain1 the trenches are filled with water once a fortnight4 ,when the ,putta-putti is to be kept for a second crop1 the dry leaves cut off in the crop season are burnt upon the field1 and this is dug over1 and trenches filled with water1 and during six weeks the plants watered once in every six or eight days 7unless rain falls71 and the digging repeated three times1 dung being added at each digging4 ,the after-culture is the same as for the first crop4 ,in the ,upper ,provinces1 ,dr4 ,tennant says1 if moderate showers occur after planting1 nothing more is done until the shoots from the sets have attained a height of two or three inches4 ,the soil immediately around them is then loosened with a small weeding iron1 something like a chisel2 but if the season should prove dry1 the field is occasionally watered2 the weeding is also continued1 and the soil occasionally loosened about the plants4 ,in ,august1 small trenches are cut through the field1 with small intervals between them1 for the purpose of draining off the water1 if the season is too wet4 ,this is very requisite1 for if the canes are now supplied with too much moisture1 the juice is rendered watery and unprofitable4 ,if the season happens to be dry1 the same dikes serve to conduct the irrigating water through the field1 and to carry off what does not soak into the earth in a few hours4 ,stagnant water they consider very injurious to the cane1 and on the drains being well contrived depends in a great measure the future hope of profit4 ,immediately after the field is trenched1 the canes are propped4 ,they are now about three feet high1 and each set has produced from three to six canes4 ,the lower leaves of each are first carefully wrapt up around it1 so as to cover it completely in every part2 a small strong bamboo1 eight or ten feet long1 is then inserted firmly in the middle of each stool1 and the canes tied to it4 ,this secures them in an erect position1 and facilitates the circulation of the air4 ,hoeing cannot be repeated too frequently4 ,this is demonstrated by the practice of the most successful cultivators4 ,in ,zilla1 ,n4 ,mooradabad1 in ,april1 about six weeks after planting1 the earth on each side of the cane-rows is loosened by a sharp-pointed hoe1 shaped somewhat like a bricklayer's trowel4 ,this is repeated six times before the field is laid out in beds and channels for irrigation4 ,there1 likewise1 if the season is unusually dry1 the fields in the low ground are watered in ,may and ,june4 ,this supposes there are either nullahs1 or ancient pucka wells1 otherwise the canes are allowed to take their chance1 for the cost of making a well on the uplands is from ten to twenty rupees--an expense too heavy for an individual cultivator1 and not many would dig in partnership1 for they would fight for the water4 ,in the vicinity of ,benares1 as the canes advance in growth1 they continue to wrap the leaves as they begin to wither up round the advancing stem1 and to tie this to the bamboo higher up4 ,if the weather continue wet1 the trenches are carefully kept open2 and1 on the other hand1 if dry weather occurs1 water is occasionally supplied4 ,hoeing is also performed every five or six weeks4 ,wrapping the leaves around the cane is found to prevent them cracking by the heat of the sun1 and hinders their throwing out lateral branches4 ,in ,january and ,february the canes are ready for cutting4 ,the average height of the cane is about nine feet1 foliage included1 and the naked cane from one inch to one inch and a quarter in diameter4 ,near ,maduna1 the hand-watering is facilitated by cutting a small trench down the centre of each bed4 ,the beds are there a cubit wide1 but only four rows of canes are planted in each4 ,it is deserving of notice1 that the eastern and north-eastern parts of ,bengal are more subject to rain at every season of the year1 but especially in the hot months1 than the western2 which accounts for the land being prepared and the plants set so much earlier in ,rungpore than in ,beerbhoom4 ,this latter country has also a dryer soil generally2 for this reason1 so much is said in the report from thence of the necessity of watering4 ,the ,benares country is also dryer than ,bengal1 therefore more waterings are requisite4 ,at ,malda1 ten or fifteen days after the earth has been removed from the roots of the canes and the plants have appeared1 the land is to be slightly manured1 well cleared of weeds1 and the earth that was removed again laid about the canes2 after which1 ten or fifteen days1 it must be well weeded1 and again twenty or twenty-five days afterwards4 ,this mode of cultivation it is necessary to follow until the month of ,joystee4 ,the land must be ploughed and manured between the rows of canes in the month of ,assaar2 after which1 fifteen or twenty days1 the canes are to be tied two or three together with the leaves1 the earth about them well cleaned1 and the earth that was ploughed up laid about the roots of the canes something raised4 ,in the month of ,saubun1 twenty or twenty-five days from the preceding operation1 the canes are tied as before1 and again ten or fifteen days afterwards2 which done1 nine or ten clumps are then to be tied together4 ,in the ,rojahmundry ,circar1 on the ,delta of the ,godavery1 ,dr4 ,roxburgh states1 that nothing more is done after the cane is planted1 if the weather be moderately showery1 till the young shoots are some two or three inches high2 the earth is then loosened for a few inches round them with the weeding iron4 ,should the season prove dry1 the field is occasionally watered from the river1 continuing to weed and to keep the ground loose round the stools4 ,in ,august1 two or three months from the time of planting1 small trenches are cut through the field at short distances1 and so contrived as to serve to drain off the water1 should the season prove too wet for the canes1 which is often the case1 and would render their juices weak and unprofitable4 ,the farmer1 therefore1 never fails to have his field plentifully and judiciously intersected with drains while the cane is small1 and before the usual time for the violent rains4 ,immediately after the field is trenched1 the canes are all propped2 this is an operation which seems peculiar to these parts4 ,in ,dinajpoor1 in about a month after planting1 the young plants are two or three inches high2 the earth is then raised from the cuttings by means of a spade1 and the dry leaves by which they are surrounded are removed4 ,for a day or two they remain exposed to the air1 and are then manured with ashes and oil-cake1 and covered with earth4 ,weeds must be removed as they spring2 and when the plants are about a cubit high1 the field must be ploughed4 ,when they have grown a cubit higher1 which is between the #acth of ,june and #adth of ,july1 they are tied together in bundles of three or four1 by wrapping them round with their own leaves4 ,this is done partly to prevent them from being laid down by the wind1 and partly to prevent them from being eaten by jackals4 ,during the next month three or four of these bunches are tied together2 and about the end of ,september1 when the canes grow rank1 they are supported by bamboo stakes driven in the ground4 ,they are cut between the middle of ,december and the end of ,march4 ,if the canes grow too vigorously1 developing a superabundance of leaves1 it is a good practice to remove those leaves which are decayed1 that the stems may be exposed fully to the sun4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 this is called trashing the canes4 ,it requires discretion2 for in dry soils or seasons1 or if the leaves are removed before sufficiently dead1 more injury than benefit will be occasioned4 ,harvesting4--,the season in which the canes become ripe in various districts has already been noticed when considering their cultivation4 ,in addition ,i may state1 that in the ,rajahmundry ,circar1 about the mouth of the ,godavery1 ,dr4 ,roxburgh adds1 that in ,january and ,february the canes begin to be ready to cut1 which is about nine months from the time of planting4 ,this operation is the same as in other sugar countries--of course ,i need not describe it4 ,their height1 when standing on the field1 will be from eight to ten feet 7foliage included71 and the naked cane from an inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter4 ,in ,malda1 the canes are cut in ,january and ,february4 ,in ,n4 ,mooradabad1 upon the low land1 the canes are ripe in ,october1 and upon the high lands a month later4 ,the fitness of the cane for cutting may be ascertained by making an incision across the cane1 and observing the internal grain4 ,if it is soft and moist1 like a turnip1 it is not yet ripe2 but if the face of the cut is dry1 and white particles appear1 it is fit for harvesting4--7,fitzmaurice on the ,culture of the ,sugar ,cane47 ,injuries4--#a4 ,a wet season1 either during the very early or in the concluding period of the cane's vegetation1 is one of the worst causes of injury4 ,in such a season1 the absence of the usual intensity of light and heat causes the sap to be very materially deficient in saccharine matter4 ,but1 on the other hand1 #b4 ,a very dry season1 immediately after the sets are planted1 though the want of rain may in some degree be supplied by artificial means1 causes the produce to be but indifferent4 ,these inconveniences are of a general nature1 and irremediable4 #c4 ,animals4--,in ,india not only the incursions of domesticated animals1 but in some districts of the wild elephant1 buffalo1 and hog1 are frequent sources of injury4 ,almost every plantation is liable1 also1 to the attack of the jackal1 and rats are destructive enemies4 #d4 ,white ,ants4--,the sets of the sugar cane have to be carefully watched1 to preserve them from the white ant 7,termes fatalis71 to attacks from which they are liable until they have begun to shoot4 ,to prevent this injury1 the following mixture has been recommended3-- ,asafoetida 7hing71 #h chittacks4 ,mustard-seed cake 7sarsum ki khalli71 #h seers4 ,putrid fish1 #d seers4 ,bruised butch root1 #b seers2 or muddur1 #b seers4 ,mix the above together in a large vessel1 with water sufficient to make them into the thickness of curds2 then steep each slip of cane in it for half an hour after planting2 and1 lastly1 water the lines three times previous to setting the cane1 by irrigating the water-course with water mixed up with bruised butch root1 or muddur if the former be not procurable4#bb ,a very effectual mode of destroying the white ant1 is by mixing a small quantity of arsenic with a few ounces of burned bread1 pulverised flour1 or oatmeal1 moistened with molasses1 and placing pieces of the dough thus made1 each about the size of a turkey's egg1 on a flat board1 and covered over with a wooden bowl1 in several parts of the plantation4 ,the ants soon take possession of these1 and the poison has a continuous effect1 for the ants which die are eaten by those which succeed them4#bc ,they are said to be driven from a soil by frequently hoeing it4 ,they are found to prevail most upon newly broken-up lands4 ,in ,central ,india1 the penetration of the white ants into the interior of the sets1 and the consequent destruction of the latter1 is prevented by dipping each end into buttermilk1 asafoetida1 and powdered mustard-seed1 mixed into a thick compound4 #e4 ,storms4--,unless they are very violent1 ,dr4 ,roxburgh observes1 they do no great harm1 because the canes are propped4 ,however1 if they are once laid down1 which sometimes happens1 they become branchy and thin1 yielding a poor1 watery juice4 #f4 ,the ,worm is another evil1 which generally visits them every few years4 ,a beetle deposits its eggs in the young canes2 the caterpillars of these remain in the cane1 living on its medullary parts1 till they are ready to be metamorphosed into the chrysalis state4 ,sometimes this evil is so great as to injure a sixth or an eighth part of the field2 but1 what is worse1 the disease is commonly general when it happens--few fields escaping4 #g4 ,the ,flowering is the last accident they reckon upon1 although it scarce deserves the name1 for it rarely happens1 and never but to a very small proportion of some few fields4 ,those canes that flower have very little juice left1 and it is by no means so sweet as that of the rest4 ,in the ,brazils1 the fact of the slave trade being at an end must influence the future produce of sugar1 and attention has been lately chiefly directed to coffee1 cotton1 and other staples4 ,the exports of that empire in #ahdb1 were #ei1jjj tons2 in #ahdc1 #ed1ejj2 in #ahdd1 #gf1djj2 in #ahde1 #ia1jjj2 average of these four years #fi1gbj4 ,the exports in the next four years averaged #if1aej tons1 viz3--#gf1ajj1 in #ahdf2 #if1cjj1 in #ahdg2 #aab1ejj1 in #ahdh2 and #ii1gjj1 in #ahdi4 ,mode of ,cultivation in ,brazil4--,the lands in ,brazil are never grubbed up1 either for planting the sugar cane1 or for any other agricultural purposes4 ,the inconveniences of this custom are perceivable more particularly in high lands2 because all of these that are of any value are naturally covered with thick woods4 ,the cane is planted amongst the numerous stumps of trees1 by which means much ground is lost1 and as the sprouts from these stumps almost immediately spring forth 7such is the rapidity of vegetation7 the cleanings are rendered very laborious4 ,these shoots require to be cut down sometimes1 even before the cane has found its way to the surface of the ground4 ,the labor likewise is great every time a piece of land is to be put under cultivation1 for the wood must be cut down afresh2 and although it cannot have reached the same size which the original timber had attained1 still as several years are allowed to pass between each period at which the ground is planted1 the trees are generally of considerable thickness4 ,the wood is suffered to remain upon the land until the leaves become dry2 then it is set on fire1 and these are destroyed with the brush wood and the smaller branches of the trees4 ,heaps are now made of the remaining timber1 which is likewise burnt4 ,this process is universally practised in preparing land for the cultivation of any plant4 ,i have often heard the method much censured as being injurious in the main to the soil1 though the crop immediately succeeding the operation may be rendered more luxuriant by it4 ,i have observed that the canes which grew upon the spots where the heaps of timber and large branches of trees had been burnt1 were of a darker and richer green than those around them1 and that they likewise over-topped them4 ,after the plant-canes1 or those of the first year's growth1 are taken from the lands1 the field-trash1 that is the dried leaves and stems of the canes which remain upon the ground1 are set fire to1 with the idea that the ratoons1--that is1 the sprouts from the old roots of the canes1--spring forth with more luxuriance1 and attain a greater size by means of this practice4 ,the ratoons of the first year are called in ,brazil1 socas2 those of the second year1 resocas2 those of the third year1 terceiras socas1 and so forth4 ,after the roots are left unencumbered by burning the field-trash1 the mould is raised round about them2 indeed1 if this was neglected1 many of those roots would remain too much exposed to the heat of the sun1 and would not continue to vegetate4 ,some lands will continue to give ratoons for five1 or even seven years2 but an average may be made at one crop of good ratoons fit for grinding1 another of inferior ratoons fit for planting1 or for making molasses to be used in the still-house1 and a third which affords but a trifling profit1 in return for the trouble which the cleanings give4 ,i have above spoken more particularly of high lands4 ,the low and marshy grounds1 called in ,brazil1 varzeas1 are1 however1 those which are the best adapted to the cane2 and1 indeed1 upon the plantations that do not possess some portions of this description of soil the crops are very unequal1 and sometimes almost entirely fail1 according to the greater or less quantity of rain1 which may chance to fall in the course of the year4 ,the varzeas are usually covered with short and close brushwood1 and as these admit1 from their rank nature1 of frequent cultivation1 they soon become easy to work4 ,the soil of these1 when it is new1 receives the name of paul2 it trembles under the pressure of the feet1 and easily admits of a pointed stick being thrust into it2 and though dry to appearance requires draining4 ,the macape marl is often to be met with in all situations2 it is of a greenish white color1 and if at all wet1 it sticks very much to the hoe2 it becomes soon dry at the surface1 but the canes which have been planted upon it seldom fail to revive after rain1 even though a want of it should have been much felt4 ,the white marl1 barro branco1 is less frequently found2 it is accounted extremely productive4 ,this clay is used in making bricks and coarse earthenware1 and also for claying the sugar4 ,red earth is occasionally met with upon sides of hills near to the coast2 but this description of soil belongs properly to the cotton districts4 ,black mould is common1 and likewise a loose brownish soil1 in which a less or greater proportion of sand is intermixed4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 generally acknowledged that no land can be too rich for the growth of the sugar cane4 ,one disadvantage1 however1 attends soil that is low and quite new1 which is1 that the canes run up to a great height without sufficient thickness1 and are thus often lodged 7or blown down7 before the season for cutting them arrives4 ,i have seen rice planted upon lands of this kind on the first year to decrease their rankness1 and render them better adapted to the cane on the succeeding season4 ,some attempts have been made to plant cane upon the lands which reach down to the edge of the mangroves1 and in a few instances pieces of land heretofore covered by the salt water at the flow of the tide1 have been laid dry by means of draining for the same purpose2 but the desired success has not attended the plan1 for the canes have been found to be unfit for making sugar2 the syrup does not coagulate1 or at least does not attain that consistence which is requisite1 and therefore it can only be used for the distilleries4 ,the general mode of preparing the land for the cane is by holing it with hoes4 ,the negroes stand in a row1 and each man strikes his hoe into the ground immediately before him1 and forms a trench of five or six inches in depth2 he then falls back1 the whole row doing the same1 and they continue this operation from one side of the cleared land to the other1 or from the top of a hill to the bottom4 ,the earth which is thrown out of the trench remains on the lower side of it4 ,in the ,british ,west ,india colonies this work is done in a manner nearly similar1 but more systematically4 ,the lands in ,brazil are not measured1 and everything is done by the eye4 ,the quantity of cane which a piece will require for planting is estimated by so many cart-loads2 and nothing can be more vague than this mode of computation1 for the load which a cart can carry depends upon the condition of the oxen1 upon the nature of the road1 and upon the length of the cane4 ,such is the awkward make of these vehicles1 that much nicety is necessary in packing them1 and if two canes will about fit into a cart lengthways1 much more will be conveyed than if the canes are longer and they double over each other4 ,the plough is sometimes used in low lands1 upon which draining has not been found necessary2 but such is the clumsy construction of the machine of which they make use1 that six oxen are yoked to it4 ,a plough drawn by two oxen1 constructed after a model which was brought from ,cayenne1 has been introduced in one or two instances4 ,upon high lands the stumps of the trees almost preclude the possibility of thus relieving the laborers4 ,the trenches being prepared1 the cuttings are laid longitudinally in the bottom of them1 and are covered with the greatest part of the mould which had been taken out of the trench4 ,the shoots begin to rise above the surface of the ground in the course of twelve or fourteen days4 ,the canes undergo three cleanings from the weeds and the sprouts proceeding from the stumps of the trees2 and when the land is poor1 and produces a greater quantity of the former1 and contains fewer of the latter1 the canes require to be cleaned a fourth time4 ,the cuttings are usually #ab to #ah inches in length1 but it is judged that the shorter they are the better4 ,if they are short1 and one piece of cane rots1 the space which remains vacant is not so large as when the cuttings are long1 and they by any accident fail4 ,the canes which are used for planting are generally ratoons1 if any exist upon the plantation2 but if there are none of these1 the inferior plant canes supply their places4 ,it is accounted more economical to make use of the ratoons for this purpose2 and many persons say that they are less liable to rot than the plant canes4 ,in the ,british sugar islands the cuttings for planting are commonly the tops of the canes which have been ground for sugar4 ,but in ,brazil the tops of the canes are all thrown to the cattle1 for there is usually a want of grass during the season that the mills are at work4 ,in the ,british colonies1 the canes are at first covered with only a small portion of mould1 and yet they are as long in forcing their way to the surface as in ,brazil1 though in the latter a more considerable quantity of earth is laid upon them4 ,i suppose that the superior richness of the ,brazilian soil accounts for this4 ,upon rich soils the cuttings are laid at a greater distance1 and the trenches are dug farther from each other1 than upon those which have undergone more frequent cultivation1 or which are known to possess less power from their natural composition4 ,the canes which are planted upon the former throw out great numbers of sprouts1 which spread each way2 and1 although when they are young1 the land may appear to promise but a scanty crop1 they soon close1 and no opening is to be seen4 ,it is often judged proper to thin the canes1 by removing some of the suckers at the time that the last cleaning is given2 and some persons recommend that a portion of the dry leaves should also be stripped off at the same period1 but on other plantations this is not practised4 ,the proper season for planting is from the middle of ,july to the middle of ,september1 upon high lands1 and from ,september to the middle of ,november in low lands4 ,occasionally1 the great moisture of the soil induces the planter to continue his work until the beginning of ,december1 if his people are sufficiently numerous to answer all the necessary purposes4 ,the first of the canes are ready to be cut for the mill in ,september of the following year1 and the crop is finished usually in ,january or ,february4 ,in the ,british sugar islands the canes are planted from ,august to ,november1 and are ripe for the mill in the beginning of the second year4 ,thus this plant in ,brazil requires from thirteen to fifteen months to attain its proper state for the mill2 and in the ,west ,india islands it remains standing sixteen or seventeen months4 ,the ,otaheitan1 or the ,bourbon cane1 has been brought from ,cayenne to ,pernambuco since the ,portuguese obtained possession of that settlement4 ,i believe the two species of cane are much alike1 and ,i have not been able to discover which of them it is4 ,its advantages are so apparent1 that after one trial on each estate1 it has superseded the small cane which was in general use4 ,the ,cayenne cane1 as it is called in ,pernambuco1 is of a much larger size than the common cane2 it branches so very greatly1 that the labor in planting a piece of cane is much decreased1 and the returns from it are at the same time much more considerable4 ,it is not planted in trenches1 but holes are dug at equal distances from each other1 in which these cuttings are laid4 ,this cane bears the dry weather better than the small cane2 and when the leaves of the latter begin to turn brown1 those of the former still preserve their natural color4 ,a planter in the ,varzea told me that he had obtained four crops from one piece of land in three years1 and that the soil in question had been considered by him as nearly worn out1 before he planted the ,cayenne cane upon it4--7,koster's ,travels in ,brazil1 vol4 #b47 ,mr4 ,e4 ,morewood1 of ,compensation1 ,natal1 who has paid much attention to sugar culture in that colony1 has favored me with the following details1 which will be useful for the guidance of others1 as being the results of his own experience3-- lbs4 ,produce of one acre of sugar cane #gb1bdj ,juice expressed1 7or #fd per cent47 #df1cjh ,dry sugar #g1cef ,green syrup or molasses #b1hbi ,this syrup carrying with it a good deal of sugar out of the coolers1 contains fully #ge per cent4 of crystalizable sugar1 or #b1aba ,thus the total amount of sugar per acre is #i1dgg ,the average density of the cane juice was #ab degrees ,beaume1 or #ba per cent4 ,all the improved cane mills are now constructed to give at least #ge per cent4 of juice4 ,with such a mill1 an acre would yield #aa1jge lbs4 of sugar4 ,with proper cultivation ,i have no doubt the produce could be largely increased2 for1 as the numerous visitors who have seen this place can testify1 my cane fields were not attended to4 ,to enable me to show the cost of producing a crop of canes1 you must allow me to go into the expense of cultivating the land first4 ,to keep one ploughman going1 a person requires-- #bj ,oxen at #c #fj #j #j #a ,plough #g #aj #j #a set ,harrows #g #aj #j ,yokes1 ,trektows1 ,reins1 c4 #e #j #j ---------- #hj #j #j ,then the expenses per month will be3-- ,ploughman's wages #b #aj #j ,board #a #aj #j #a ,driver1 #ajs41 ,leaders1 #es4 #j #ae #j ,food for two natives #j #aj #j ,wear and tear of oxen and gear1 at #be per cent4 per annum #a #aj #d --------- #f #ah #d ,these two spans of oxen will comfortably plough and harrow twenty acres per month1 and the cost will thus be about #gs4 per acre4 ,now1 let us suppose that a person wishes to put in twenty acres of canes1 the expense would be about as follows3-- #d ,ploughings and harrowings1 #hj acres at #gs4 #bh #j #j ,drawing canefurrows1 #d acres per day1 #e days at #fs4 #a #aj #j #b1jjj ,cane tops per acre1 at #ejs4 #ajj #j #j #d ,horsehoeings1 at #bs4 #f;d4 #aj #j #j #d ,handweedings in the rows1 at #bs4 #f;d4 #aj #j #j ,cutting and carrying out canes1 at #cjs4 #cj #j #j ,carriage to ,mill1 thirty tons per acre1 at #bs4 #fj #j #j ---------- #bci #aj #j or #ab per acre4 ,to this must be added the rent of land1 say #ajs4 per acre1 with right of grazing cattle1 for two years1 when the first crop will come in1 would bring the expense to #ac per acre4 ,the cane yielding say only three tons of sugar per acre1 of which the planter would1 most likely1 have to give the manufacturer one-third1 he will receive forty tons of sugar1 costing him #f #ajs4 per ton1 and worth on the spot1 according to advices received from ,england and the ,cape1 #ae per ton1 at the lowest estimate1 or #fjj4 ,the greatest expense1 you will perceive1 is the article of tops for planting2 but this ought not to discourage persons4 ,the plants which ,i imported from the ,mauritius some years ago1 cost me1 on account of many of them not vegetating1 at the rate of #cj per acre4 ,parties who begin planting now have the great advantage that they can get plants1 every one of which1 if properly treated1 will grow1 at one-sixth of that price4 ,how many crops cane will give on good soil in ,natal1 ,i am of course unable to state1 as the oldest cane ,i have got has been cut only three times--the last yield 7second ratoons7 was much finer than the preceding ones1 and by adopting the improved manner of cane cultivation1 viz41 returning all but the cane juice to the soil1 ,i am confident that replanting will be found quite unnecessary2 the expenses for the second and following years will therefore be very trifling4 ,comparative ,statement of the ruling ,prices at ,natal and the ,mauritius of ,land1 ,live ,stock1 ,implements1 ,labor1 and other requirements connected with the cultivation of the ,sugar ,cane4 ,,mauritius ,,natal s4 d4 s4 d4 ,,land1 per acre1 #c #ajs4 to #bj #j #j ,,land1 per acre1 #ajs4 to #a #j #j ,,rent ,,of ,,land4 ,it is not ,,rent ,,of ,,land1 #f;d4 to #j #e #j customary to let land at the ,mauritius1 except on the system of an equal division of the produce4 ,,manure4 ,guano1 commonly ,,cattle ,,manure in used in its dry state1 abundance1 according to also other manures or distance1 per load1 composts1 per ton1 #f to #g #j #j #as4 to #j #b #f 7,none required on virgin soil for the first three years of cultivation47 ,,live ,,stock4 ,mules1 #e of ,oxen1 of which #ab are which are required to each required to each load1 load of #c1jjj to #d1jjj #c each #cf #j #j lbs41 #cj each #aej #j #j ,keep of oxen1 on ,keep of ,mules each1 per pasturage free4 annum #g #j #j ,,labor4 ,drivers1 each1 per ,colored driver1 month #a #j #j each1 per month #j #ae #j ,coolies1 including keep1 ,kafir leader1 ditto #j #aj #j each #a #j #j ,kafirs1 including ,white labor1 each #d #j #j keep1 ditto #j #aj #j ,white labor1 each per month1 #c #ajs4 to #d #j #j ,,fuel4 ,cane trash or wood ,cane trash or wood ,,mill ,,power4 ,steam or water ,the same ,,implements4 ,all agricultural ,all agricultural labor labor is performed by the is performed with the hand-hoe1 very expensive plough1 harrows1 and in its nature4 scarifier1 with oxen so much less expensive than the hand labor at the ,mauritius4 ,,produce of the ,cane4 ,average ,from #b to #c tons from #a to #d tons4 ,,cane4 ,periodical renewal of ,not yet ascertained1 the cane1 according to the and depending on the soil quality of the soil1 every #c to #aj years 4 s4 d4 4 s4 d4 ,,provisions1 c4 ,beef1 ,,provisions1 c4 ,beef1 per lb4 #f;d4 to #j #j #h per lb41 #a;d4 to #j #j #b ,bread1 per loaf #j #j #f ,bread1 per loaf #j #j #f ,butter1 per lb41 #as4 #c;d4 ,butter1 per lb41 #f;d4 to #j #j #i to #j #a #f ,rice1 the food of the ,indian corn1 7maize per ,coolies1 per bag of #ahj lbs4 #es47 per #aej #aej lbs41 #abs4 #f;d4 to #j #ae #j lbs4 #j #d #b ,oats1 per bag1 of #ajj ,oats1 per #ajd lbs41 #ajs4 lbs4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #j #ae #j to #a #j #j ,bran1 ditto1 #ajj lbs4 ,bran1 not used4 #abs4 to #j #ac #i ,beans1 ditto1 #ajj lbs4 ,beans1 per #ahj lbs41 #acs4 #bbs4 #f;d4 to #a #e #j to #bjs41 or per #ajj lbs4 #gs4 #b;d4 to #j #aa #j ,coal1 per ton1 #djs4 to #b #aj #j ,the same ,,charge ,,of ,,manufacture4 ,the ,mauritius principle ,the manufacturer reaps may be adopted in this and carries to the mill colony1 with such the canes of the grower1 modifications as may be but the latter provides called for by local his own bagging1 and exigencies4 carts away his half of the sugar1 the other half being the remuneration of the manufacturer ,analysis of the foregoing ,statement1 showing the total comparative outlay for sundries connected with the cultivation of ,sugar at ,natal and ,mauritius1 computed at the lowest ruling prices4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,mauritius ,,natal ,difference in favor of ,natal ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,land1 #ajj acres #gjs4 #cej #j #j #ajs4 #ej #j #j #cjj #j #j ,manure1 ,guano #aj loads #f #fj #j #j ,cattle ,manure1 #aj loads #as4 #j #aj #j ,live ,stock1 #aj mules4 #cj #cjj #j #j #ae4 #aej #j #j #aej #j #j ---- #aj oxen #ab #abj #j #j #c4 #cj #j #j #ij #j #j ,two drivers per mouth #a #b #j #j #a #e #j #j #ae #j ,coolies1 #aj with keep #aj #j #j #b #aj #j ,kafirs1 #aj ditto #aes4 #g #aj #j ,white men1 #aj #d #dj #j #j #d4 #dj #j #j ,beef1 #ajj lbs4 at #f;d4 #b #aj #j #a;d4 #j #ab #f #a #ag #f ,bread1 #ajj loaves #f;d4 #b #aj #j #f;d4 #b #aj #j ,butter1#ajj lbs4 #as4#c;d4 #f #e #j #f;d4 #b #aj #j #c #ae #j ,rice1 #ajj lbs41 food #j #h #d for ,coolies1 ,indian #j #e #g ,corn1 #ajj lbs41 food #j #b #i for ,kafirs ,oats #j #ab #f #j #aj #j #j #b #f ,beans1 #ajj lbs4 #a #b #f #j #aj #j #j #ab #f ,coals #b #j #j #b #j #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #hig #h #d #bhh #j #c #eed #ah #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the immense saving obtained by ploughing1 c41 over the ,mauritius hand labor with the hoe1 is not shown in the above figures4 ,table showing the cost of producing ,muscovado sugar1 and the quantity produced or available in the several countries mentioned1 as made up from the evidence given before the ,committee on ,sugar and ,coffee ,plantations2 by ,t4 ,wilson4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,excess of cost ,excess of free of cost over ,cost of free ,,slave ,average ,average of pro-labour ,,trade availableavailableducing over labor1 produce produce one slave taking ,in- ,average under during cwt4 ofor com- the crease cost of slavery the last sugar pulsorycost inof cost produc- or com- three at labor1,brazil in the tion pulsory years of present per at ,british ,,country4 under labor1 freedom1 date1 cwt41 #gs4 #f;d4planta- slavery for the for the exclu- taking per tions or com-supply ofsupply ofsive of the cwt4 since pulsory ,europe ,europe inter- averagemaking emanci- labor4 and the and the est on cost of the pation4 ,united ,united capi- the average ,states1 ,states4 tal1 latter of etc4 at #aas4 slave per trade cwt4 labor #hs4 per cwt4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,british s4 d4 ,tons4 ,tons4 s d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,plantations4 ,antigua #g #f #g1gfg #h1ifc #af #f #e #f #h #f #i #j ,barbados #f #j #ag1agd #af1cgh #ae #f #d #f #g #f #i #f ,grenada #aa #j #i1fcd #c1ggi #ag #f #f #f #i #f #f #f ,st4 ,kitts #e #j #d1chb #e1eeh #ai #j #h #j #aa #j #ad #j ,st4 ,vincent #e #f #aj1jef #f1fcf #ai #f #h #f #aa #f #ad #j ,tobago #e #f #e1cba #b1ead #ai #f #h #f #aa #f #ad #j ,st4 ,lucia1 etc4 #e #f #i1fjj #h1fej #ai #f #h #f #aa #f #ad #j ,jamaica #aj #j #fh1fbf #cj1hjg #bb #f #aa #f #ad #f #ab #f ,guiana #f #h #dd1agh #bd1hag #be #aj #ad #aj #ag #aj #ai #b ,trinidad ,a99 #c #j #ae1dbh #af1eci #bj #aj #i #aj #ab #aj #ag #aj ,mauritius #ce1jjj #ej1jjj #bj #j #i #j #ab #j ,bengal #fb1jjj #bc #j #ab #j #ae #j ,madras #g1jjj #bj #j #i #j #ab #j ,foreign ,free ,labor ,country4 ,europe 7,beet-root7 ,b99 #ajj1jjj #bd #d #ac #d #af #d ,foreign ,slave1 or ,compulsory ,labor ,countries4 ,java ,c99 #ae #j #hh1jjj #ae #j ,french ,colonies #ae #j #ij1jjj #ae #j ,slave ,cuba 7,muscovado7 #h #j #bbj1jjj #h #j or com- ,porto ,rico #h #f #dj1jjj #h #f pulsory ,louisiana #ab #f #ajj1jjj #ab #f labor ,brazils ,d99 #aa #aa #ij1jjj #aa #aa ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,a99 ,this cost1 as taken from the averages given in ,lord ,harris's despatches1 is lower than the averages given by the witnesses before the ,committee4 ,b99 ,this beet-root sugar sells1 in the continental markets1 on account of its inferior quality1 at about #ds4 to #fs4 per cwt4 below ,colonial ,muscovado1 so that ,colonial ,muscovado must be about #ccs4 per cwt4 to enable beet sugar to sell in this market for cost and charges1 and allowing no profit to the beet sugar maker4 ,c99 ,the cost of producing sugar in ,java is taken at the average between the ,government contract sugar1 and the free sugar1 as given by ,mr4 ,san ,martin4 ,d99 ,the cost of producing sugar in ,brazil is taken from the ,consular return3 this return has given no credit for rum or molasses1 and has charged #fs4 #e;d4 for manufacturing1 fully #cs4 #e;d4 more than the cost in ,cuba1--allowance for these two items would give #gs4 #f;d4 as the nett cost per cwt4 ,,beet ,,root ,,sugar4 ,the rapid progress of the production of beet root sugar on the continent1 especially in ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,russia1 and its recent introduction and cultivation as an article of commerce in ,ireland1 renders the detail of its culture and manufacture on the continent interesting4 ,i have1 therefore1 been induced to bestow some pains on an investigation of the rise and progress of its production and consumption in those countries4 ,during the past three years1 the smallest estimate which can be formed of the quantity of cane sugar that has been replaced by beet root sugar in the chief ,european countries1 is about #hj1jjj tons annually1 with the certainty that1 year after year1 the consumption will become exclusively confined to the former1 to the greater exclusion of the latter2 unless some great change shall take place in the relative perfection and manufacture of the two different descriptions of produce4 ,although1 observes the ,economist1 the beet root sugar produced in ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 and other parts of the continent is not brought into competition in our own markets with the produce of the ,british colonies1 yet it must be plain that the exclusion of so much foreign cane sugar from the continent1 which was formerly consumed there1 must throw a much larger quantity of ,cuba and ,brazilian sugar upon this market2 and by this means the increased production of beet root sugar1 even in those countries where it is highly protected1 does indirectly increase the competition among the producers of cane sugar in our market4 ,so early as #agdg1 a chemist of ,berlin1 named ,margraf1 discovered that beet root contained a certain quantity of sugar1 but it was not until #agif that the discovery was properly brought under the attention of the scientific in ,europe by ,achard1 who was also a chemist and resident of ,berlin1 and who published a circumstantial account of the progress by which he extracted from #c to #d per cent4 of sugar from beet root4 ,several attempts have been made1 from time to time1 to manufacture beet root sugar in ,england1 but never1 hitherto1 on a large and systematic scale4 ,some years ago a company was established for the purpose1 but they did not proceed in their operations4 ,a refinery of sugar from the beet root was erected at ,thames ,bank1 ,chelsea1 in the early part of #ahcg4 ,during the summer of #ahci a great many acres of land were put into cultivation with the root1 at ,wandsworth and other places in the vicinity of the metropolis4 ,the machinery used in the manufacture was principally on the plan of the vacuum pans1 and a fine refined sugar was produced from the juice by the first process of evaporation1 after it had undergone discolorization4 ,another part of the premises was appropriated to the manufacture of coarse brown paper from the refuse1 for which it is extensively used in ,france4 ,a refinery was also established about this period at ,belfast1 in the vicinity of which town upwards of #bjj acres of land were put into cultivation with beet root for the manufacture of sugar4 ,the experience of ,france ought to be a sufficient guarantee that the manufacture of beet root sugar is not a speculative but a great staple trade1 in which the supply can be regulated by the demand1 with a precision scarcely attainable in any other ease1 and when1 in addition1 this demand tends rather to increase than to diminish4 ,that the trade is profitable there can also be no doubt from the large capital embarked in it on the ,continent--a capital which is steadily increasing even in ,france1 where protection has been gradually withdrawn1 and where1 since #ahdh1 it has competed upon equal terms with colonial sugars4 ,the produce of ,france in #ahea was nearly #fj1jjj tons4 ,the beet root sugar made in the ,zollverein in #ahea was about #de1jjj tons4 ,probably half as much more as is made in ,france and the ,zollverein1 is made in all the other parts of the ,continent4 ,in ,belgium1 the quantity made is said to be #g1jjj tons2 in ,russia1 #ce1jjj2 making a total of beet root sugar now manufactured in ,europe of at least #aej1jjj and probably more1 or nearly one-sixth part of the present consumption of ,europe1 ,america1 and our various colonies4 ,in #ahdg this was estimated at upwards of #a1jjj1jjj tons2 and1 as the production has increased considerably since that period1 it is now not less than #a1ajj1jjj tons4 ,the soil of the ,continent1 it is said1 will give #af tons to the acre1 and that of ,ireland1 #bf tons to the acre4 ,the former yields from #f to #g per cent4--the latter from #g to #h per cent4 as the extreme maximum strength of saccharine matter4 ,the cost of the root in ,ireland--for it is with that1 and not with the cost of the ,continental root1 with which the ,west ,indies will have to contend--is said to be at the rate of #afs4 per ton this2 but will probably be #acs4 next season4 ,the cost of manufacture is set down at #g #es4 per ton4 ,calculating the yield of the root to be #g lbs4 to every #ajj lbs41 for #bf tons the yield would be nearly #b tons of sugar1 which would give about #i #ajs4 per ton1 putting down the raw material to cost #ads1 #f;d4 per ton1 the medium between #afs4 and #acs4 ,thus a ton of ,irish-grown and manufactured beet root sugar1 would cost #af #aes4 per ton4 ,mr4 ,sullivan1 the scientific guide to those who are undertaking to make beet root sugar at ,mountmellick1 ,queen's ,county1 ,ireland1 estimates the cost of obtaining pure sugar at from #af #ags4 to #ai #ahs4 per ton1 according to the quantity of sugar in the root4 ,beet root is a vegetable of large circumference1 at the upper end nine to eleven inches in diameter4 ,there are several kinds4 ,that which is considered to yield the most sugar is the white or ,silesian beet 7,beta alba74 ,it is smaller than the mangel wurzel1 and more compact1 and appears in its texture to be more like the ,swedish turnip4 ,for the manufacture of sugar1 the smaller beets1 of which the roots weigh only one or two pounds1 were preferred by ,chaptal1 who1 besides being a celebrated chemist1 was also a practical agriculturist and a manufacturer of sugar from beet root4 ,after the white beet follows the yellow 7beta major71 then the red 7beta romana71 and lastly the common or field beet root 7,beta sylvestris74 ,margraf1 as we have seen1 was the first chemist who discovered the saccharine principle in beet root2 and ,achard1 the first manufacturer who fitted up an establishment 7in ,silesia7 for the extraction of sugar from the root4 ,it was not before #ahji that this manufacture was introduced into ,france4 ,the manufacture sprung up there in consequence of ,bonaparte's scheme for destroying the colonial prosperity of ,great ,britain by excluding ,british colonial produce4 ,it having been found that from the juice of the beet root a crystallizable sugar could be obtained1 he encouraged the establishment of the manufacture by every advantage which monopoly and premiums could give it4 ,colonial sugar was at the enormous price of four and five francs a pound1 and the use of it was become so habitual1 that no ,frenchman could do without it4 ,several large manufactories of beet root were established1 some of which only served as pretexts for selling smuggled colonial sugar as the produce of their own works4 ,count ,chaptal1 however1 established one on his own farm1 raising the beet root1 as well as extracting the sugar4 ,the roots are first cleaned by washing or scraping1 and then placed in a machine to be rasped and reduced to a pulp4 ,this pulp is put into a strong canvas bag and placed under a powerful press to squeeze out the juice4 ,it is then put into coppers and boiled1 undergoing certain other processes4 ,most of the operations are nearly the same as those by which the juice of the sugar cane is prepared for use2 but much greater skill and nicety are required in rendering the juice of the beet root crystallizable1 on account of its greater rawness and the smaller quantity of sugar it contains4 ,but when this sugar is refined1 it is impossible for the most experienced judge to distinguish it from the other1 either by the taste or appearance2 and from this arose the facility with which smuggled colonial sugar was sold in ,france1 under the name of sugar from beet root4 ,five tons of clean roots produce about #d cwt4 of coarse sugar1 which give about #afj lbs4 of double refined sugar1 and #fj lbs4 of inferior lump sugar4 ,the rest is molasses1 from which a good spirit is distilled4 ,the dry residue of the roots1 after expressing the juice1 consists chiefly of fibre and mucilage1 and amounts to about one-fourth of the weight of the clean roots used4 ,it contains all the nutritive part of the root1 with the exception of #d per cent4 of sugar1 which has been extracted from the juice1 the rest being water4 ,as the expense of this manufacture greatly exceeded the value of the sugar produced1 according to the price of colonial sugar1 it was only by the artificial encouragement of a monopoly and premiums that it could be carried on to advantage4 ,the process is one of mere curiosity as long as sugar from the sugar cane can be obtained cheaper1 and the import duties laid upon it are not so excessive as to amount to a prohibition2 and in this case it is almost impossible to prevent its clandestine introduction4 ,another mode of making sugar from beet root1 practised in some parts of ,germany1 is as follows1 and is said to make better sugar than the other process3--,the roots having been washed1 are sliced lengthways1 strung on packthread1 and hung up to dry4 ,the object of this is to let the watery juice evaporate1 and the sweet juice1 being concentrated1 is taken up by macerating the dry slices in water4 ,it is managed so that all the juice shall be extracted by a very small quantity of water1 which saves much of the trouble of evaporation4 ,professor ,lampadius obtained from #aaj lbs4 of roots #d lbs4 of well-grained white powder-sugar1 and the residuum afforded #g pints of spirit4 ,achard says that about a ton of roots produced #ajj lbs4 of raw sugar1 which gave #ee lbs4 of refined sugar1 and #ae lbs4 of treacle4 ,this result is not very different from that of ,chaptal4 #f1jjj tons of beet root it is said will produce #djj tons of sugar and #ajj tons of molasses4 ,beet root sugar in the raw state contains an essential oil1 the taste and smell of which are disagreeable4 ,thus the treacle of beet root cannot be used in a direct way1 whereas the treacle of cane sugar is of an agreeable flavor1 for the essential oil which it contains is aromatic1 and has some resemblance in taste to vanilla4 ,but beet root sugar1 when it is completely refined1 differs in no sensible degree from refined cane sugar4 ,in appearance it is quite equal to cane sugar1 and the process of refining it is more easy than for the latter4 ,samples made in ,belgium were exhibited at a late meeting of the ,dublin ,society4 ,it was of the finest appearance1 of strong sweetening quality1 and in color resembling the species of sugar known as crushed lump4 ,the most singular part of the matter is1 that it was manufactured in the space of forty-five minutes--the entire time occupied from the taking of the root out of the ground and putting it into the machine1 to the production of the perfect article4 ,it was said that it could be produced for #c;d4 per lb4 ,an acre of ground is calculated to yield #ej tons of ,silesian beet1 which1 in ,france and ,belgium1 give three tons of sugar1 worth about #ej2 the refuse being applied in those countries to feeding cattle4 ,but from the superior fitness of the ,irish soil1 as shown by experience to be the case1 it is confidently affirmed by persons competent to form an opinion1 that #h per cent4 of sugar could be obtained there on the raw bulk4 ,the following figures are given as illustrative of the expense of the cultivation of one acre of beet-root in ,ireland3-- ,two ploughings and harrowing #a #a #j ,expense of manure and carting #e #j #j ,hoeing and seed #j #f #j ,drilling and sowing #j #e #j ,rent #b #j #j ------- #h #ab #j ,an average produce of #bj tons1 at #ae per ton1 would leave a profit of #f #hs4 per acre1 leaving the land in a state fit for the reception1 at little expense1 of a crop of wheat1 barley1 or oats for the next year1 and of hay for the year ensuing2 a consideration of no small importance to the farmer4 ,the following estimates1 recently given1 are not by any means exaggerated3-- #fa1fjg tons of beet1 at #ajs4 #cj1hjc #aj #j ,cost of manufacture1 at #aas4 per ton4 #cc1hhc #ag #j ------------- #fd1fhg #g #j ,produce #g per cent of sugar1 at #bhs4 per cwt4 #acf1gfg #aj #j ------------- ,estimated profit #gb1jhj #c #j ,the quantity of sugar made from beet-root in ,france in #ahbh1 was about #b1fej tons2 in #ahcj1 its weight was estimated at #f million kilogrammes#bd 7#e1hbj tons72 in #ahcd1 at #bf million kilogrammes 7#bd1jjj tons72 in #ahce1 #cf1jjj tons2 in #ahcf1 #di1jjj tons4 ,at the commencement of the year #ahcg1 the number of refineries at work or being built was #edc2 on an average #bj kilogrammes of beet-root are required for the production of one kilogramme of sugar4 ,the sugar manufactured from the beet-root in ,france a few years ago was stated to amount to #ee1jjj tons1 or one half of the entire consumption of the kingdom4 ,the ,courrier ,francais calculated that the beet-root sugar made in ,france in #ahch amounted to #aaj million lbs41 and the journal added1 there is no doubt that1 in a few years1 the produce will be equal to the entire demand4 ,the cultivation then extended over #aej1jjj acres1 and in the environs of ,lille and ,valenciennes it has sometimes been as high as #bh1jjj lbs4 per acre4 ,from returns of the produce and consumption of beet-root sugar published in the ,moniteur1 it appears that on the #ast ,dec4 #ahea1 there were #cce manufactories in operation1 or #ha more than in the corresponding period of #ahej4 ,the quantity of sugar made1 including the portion lying over from the previous year1 amounted to #ai1fbe1chf kilogrammes1 and that stored in the public bonding warehouse to #aj1eef1hdg4 ,at the end of ,june1 #aheb1 #cbi manufactories were at work1 or two more than at the same period in #ahea4 ,the quantity sold was #fb1baa1ffc kilogrammes1 or #i1afg1jah less1 as compared with the corresponding period of the previous year4 ,there remained in stock in the manufactories #ia1dcd1jgj kilogrammes1 and in the entrepot #d1eig1hbi kilogrammes1 being an increase of #b1efh1ffb kilogrammes in the manufactories1 and a decrease of #a1bib1ifb in the entrepots4 ,the manufacture of beet-root sugar is every year assuming in ,france increased importance1 and attracts more and more the attention of political economists as a source of national wealth1 and of government1 as affording matter of taxation4 ,thirty new factories1 got up upon a very extensive scale1 are enumerated as going into operation this year4 ,they are located1 with but two exceptions1 in the north of ,france2 fifteen of them are in the single department of ,nord4 ,indeed1 the manufacture of beet-root sugar is confined1 almost exclusively1 to the five northern adjacent departments of ,nord1 ,pas de ,calais1 ,somme1 ,aisne1 and ,oise4 ,the best quality retails at #af cents the pound4 ,i take from a table in the ,moniteur the following statement of the number of factories and their location1 with the amount of production up to the #cast ,may1 #ahea4 ,at that date the season is supposed to end4 ,a separate column gives the total production in the season of #ahdb1 showing an increase in ten years of more than double1 viz41 of #da1ehb1aac kilogrammes1 or1 in our weight1 of #ic1eei1ged pounds4 ,number of ,kilogrammes ,kilogrammes ,departments4 ,factories4 ,prod4 #ahej-a4 ,prod4 #ahdc4 ,aisne #cj #e1cjg1ged #c1ajc1agh ,nord #aee #dd1adb1bbd #ae1ccd1jfc ,oise #h #a1ehi1ici #gea1gdf ,pas-de-,calais #gj #af1ffe1jhd #e1hef1idd ,somme #bc #c1djd1ggf #b1fhc1dba ,scattered about #ah #b1gjg1aij #c1eje1fjb ------ ------------ ------------ #cjd #gc1hag1fjg #cj1bcd1ied ,this information was given by ,m4 ,fould1 ,minister of ,finance1 upon the introduction of a bill making an appropriation for the purchase of #dee saccharometers1 which had become necessary by reason of the late law ordering that from and after the #ast of ,january1 #aheb1 the beet sugars were to be taxed according to their saccharine richness4 ,the ,minister declared that at that date there would be in active operation in ,france #ccd sugar factories and #hd refining establishments4 ,the ,moniteur ,parisien has the following3-- ,notwithstanding the advantages accorded to colonial sugar1 and the duties which weigh on beet-root sugar1 the latter article has acquired such a regular extension that it has reached the quantity of #fj1jjj tons--that is to say1 the half of our consumption4 ,france 7deducting the refined sugar exported under favour of the drawback7 consumes #abj1jjj tons1 of which #fj1jjj are home made1 #ej1jjj colonial1 and #aj1jjj foreign4 ,the two sugars have been placed on the same conditions as to duties1 but it is only from the #ast inst4 7,jan4 #aheb71 that the beet-root sugar will pay a heavier duty than our colonial sugar4 ,in spite of this difference we are convinced that the manufacture of beet-root sugar1 which is every day1 improved by new processes1 will be always very advantageous1 and will attain in some years the total quantity of the consumption4 ,in ,belgium the produce of the beet-root follows the same progress4 ,the consumption of sugar there was1 in #ahej1 #ad1jjj tons1 of which #g1jjj was beet-root1 made in #bb manufactories4 ,this year there are #ah new ones1 and although their organisation does not allow of their manufacturing in the same proportion as the #bb old ones1 they will furnish at least #c1jjj tons4 ,the quantity of foreign sugar in that market does not reckon more than #d1jjj tons4 ,this conclusion is the more certain1 as in #ahdh-ahdi1 the beet-root only stood at #d1ejj tons in the general account4 ,it may therefore be seen from these figures what progress has been made4 ,the same progressive movement is going on in ,germany4 ,in #ahdh it produced #bf1jjj tons1 and in #ahfa1 #dc1jjj4 ,the following table shows the importance of this improvement4 ,it comprises the ,zollverein1 ,hanover1 and the ,hanse ,towns3-- ,cane ,sugar4 ,beet-root4 ,totals4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 #ahdh #fj1ejj #bf1jjj #hf1ejj #ahdi #ed1jjj #cd1jjj #hh1jjj #ahea #de1jjj #dc1jjj #hh1jjj ,thus we find that in the period of four years cane sugar has lost #ae1jjj tons and it will lose still more when new manufactories shall have been established4 ,the consumption of ,russia is estimated at #he1jjj tons1 of which #ce1jjj is beet-root1 and what proves that the latter every day gains ground is1 that the orders to the ,havana are constantly decreasing1 and prices are getting lower4 ,in #ahdh ,austria consumed #dj1jjj tons1 of which #h1jjj were beet-root4 ,last year 7#ahea17 she produced #ae1jjj tons4 ,the production of the continent rising to #bjj1jjj tons1 and the consumption remaining nearly stationary1 it is evident that ,brazilian and ,cuban sugars will encumber the ,english market1 independently of the refined sugar of ,java1 which ,holland sends to ,great ,britain4 ,when the continental system was established by the decrees of ,milan and ,berlin1 the ,emperor ,napoleon asked the savans to point out the means of replacing the productions which he proscribed3 it is to the active and useful impulse which his genius impressed on all minds1 that ,france and ,europe owe this fresh manufacture--a creation the more valuable as its fortunate development required the co-operation of chemical science and agricultural improvement4 ,the quantity of sugar extracted from beet-root in the commencement of the process1 amounted to only #b per cent42 but it was afterwards made to yield #e per cent41 and it was then supposed possible to extract #f per cent4 ,on this calculation the fiscal regulations for the protection of colonial sugars in ,france were founded2 but recent experiments have been made1 by means of which as much as ten and a half per cent4 of sugar has been obtained4 ,the following notice of the improved process is given in a number of the ,constitutionnel3-- ,it appears that a great improvement is likely to be made in the manufacture of beet-root sugar4 ,those who are acquainted with the process of this manufacture1 are aware that ,m4 de ,dombasle has the last six years exclusively devoted himself to bring to perfection the process of maceration1 of which he is the inventor4 ,adopting recent improvements1 this process is materially altered1 and has now arrived at such a point of perfection that it could scarcely be exceeded4 ,the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,national ,industry recently appointed committees to examine the effect produced in the manufactory of ,roville4 ,they witnessed the entire progress of the work1 every part of which was subjected to minute investigation4 ,similar experiments have been made in the presence of many distinguished manufacturers4 ,we have not the least intention to prejudge the decision which may be made on this subject by the society we have alluded to2 but we believe we are able to mention the principal results that have regularly attended the works of the manufactory this year4 ,the produce in coarse sugar has been more than eight per cent4 of the first quality1 and more than two per cent4 of the second quality1 in all nearly ten and a half per cent4 of the weight of beet-root used2 and the quality of these sugars has been considered by all the manufacturers superior to anything of the kind that has hitherto been made1 and admits of its being converted into loaf-sugar of the first quality4 ,the progress of these operations is as simple as possible1 and the expenses attending the manufacture are considerably less than that of the process hitherto adopted4 ,the cultivation of the beet in ,france appears likely to prove still more advantageous1 in consequence of the discovery that the molasses drawn from the root may be1 after serving for the manufacture of sugar1 turned to farther advantage4 ,it appears that potash may be made from it1 of a quality equal to foreign potash4 ,a ,monsieur ,dubranfaut has discovered a method of extracting this substance from the residue of the molasses after distillation1 and which residue1 having served for the production of alcohol1 was formerly thrown away4 ,to give some idea of the importance of the creation of this new source of national wealth 7remarks the ,journal des ,debats71 it will be sufficient to say that the quantity of potash furnished by ,m4 ,dubranfaut's process is equal to l_/#fth of the quantity of sugar extracted from the beet4 ,thus1 taking the amount of indigenous sugar manufactured each year at seventy million kilogrammes 7each kil4 equal to #b lbs4 #b oz4 avoird471 there may besides be extracted from this root1 which has served for that production1 twelve million kilogrammes of saline matter1 comparable to the best potash of commerce2 and this1 too1 without1 the loss of the alcohol and the other produce1 the fabrication of which may be continued simultaneously4 ,according to the present prices1 the twelve millions of kilogrammes represent a value of from fourteen to fifteen million francs4 ,the ,states composing the ,german ,union possessed towards the close of #ahch1 #hg manufactories of beet-root sugar in full operation1 viz41 ,prussia1 #fc2 ,bavaria1 #e2 ,wurtemburg1 #c2 ,darmstadt1 #a2 other states1 #ae2 besides #ff which were then constructing4 ,the only returns given for ,prussia and ,central ,germany are #ahcf to #ahch1 and the annual production of sugar was then estimated at eleven million pounds4 ,the quantity now made is1 of course1 much greater4 ,at the close of #ahhh1 ,austria produced nine million pounds2 she now makes fifteen thousand tons4 ,the growth of beet-root in ,hungary1 during the years #ahcg and #ahch1 was extremely favorable1 and the manufacture of sugar from it has become very extensive4 ,it has been greatly encouraged by the ,austrian government4 ,it was estimated that fifty millions of pounds were manufactured in ,prussia and ,germany in #ahci4 ,in ,bohemia there were1 in #ahdj1 fifty-two factories of beet-root sugar1 and nine for the making of syrup out of potato meal4 ,in #ahch1 the number was as high as eighty-seven4 ,the ,dutch papers state that in a single establishment in ,voster ,vick1 in ,guilderland1 about five million pounds' weight of the beet-root are consumed in the manufacture of sugar4 ,the following is a ,comparative ,statement of the number of ,sugar ,manufactories1 and the ,quantity of ,beet-root upon which duty was paid for the ,manufacture of ,sugar in the ,zollverein during the years ending the #cast of ,august1 #ahdf and #ahdg3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,quantity of ,beet-root upon which duty was paid for the ,manufacture of ,sugar4 ----------------------------------- ,number of ,comparison in ,name of the ,state ,manufactories #ahdf-g with the of the ,zollverein #ahde-f #ahdf-g preceding year4 ------------ ---------------- ,more in ,less in #ahde-fahdf-g #ahdf-g #ahdf-g ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,prussia ,cwts4 9999 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,eastern ,prussia #b #b #ab1cic #bi1ida #ag1edh -- ,western ,prussia -- -- -- -- --- -- ,posen #g #h #aja1dbb #aba1iad #bj1dib -- ,pomerania #e #d #hi1hfe #aba1jfa #ca1aif -- ,silesia #af #bb #eij1ede #gaa1fcb #aba1jhg -- ,brandenburg #c #c #adj1dba #adh1jff #g1fde -- ,prussian ,saxony #ch #db #b1fgf1jhdc1edg1hia #hga1hag -- ,duchies of ,anhalt #d #e #bff1cde #bhh1jhb #ba1gcg -- ,westphalia -- -- -- -- -- -- ,rhenish ,provinces #b -- #b1dgi -- -- #b1dgi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total in ,prussia #gg #hf #c1hgi1eedd1ifh1ehga1jgi1jdc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,luxemburg -- -- -- -- -- -- ,bavaria1 ,kingdom of #h #g #ej1ieb #df1adb -- #d1haj ,saxony1 #a #b #bj1hhg #cd1bcj #ac1cdc -- ,wurtemburg1 #b #b #ei1eba #ada1cff #ha1hde -- ,baden1 ,grand ,duchy #b #b #caf1ifh #cbh1fjh #aa1fdj -- ,hesse1 ,electorate #b #c #be1cgf #bc1ebi -- #a1hdg ,hesse1 ,grand ,duchy -- -- -- -- -- -- ,thuringia #b #c #cf1abg #ch1bah #b1jia -- ,brunswick1 ,dukedom #b #b #fe1gjg #eb1gif -- #ab1iaa ,nassau1 ,dukedom -- -- -- -- -- -- ,frankfort1 ,free,city -- -- -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,total1 exclusively of ,prussia #ai #ba #ege1ech #ffd1hhi #hi1cea ---------------------------------------- ------ ,total in the ,zollverein #if #ajg #d1dee1jibe1fcc1dgfa1afh1cid ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 9999 ,prussian cwts4 are equal to #hj ,english cwts4 ,this statement proves that the cultivation of the beet-root1 and the subsequent manufacture into sugar1 has greatly increased in the ,zollverein4 ,eleven manufactories had been added to the number in the previous year1 and an increase of #bf per cent4 took place in the quantity of beet-root which was manufactured into sugar4 ,each manufactory used1 upon an average1 the following quantity during the undermentioned years3-- #ahda-b #ahdd-e #ahdf-g ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,in ,prussia generally #ch1afa #ej1chd #eg1ggd ,in the province of ,saxony #ee1dab #gj1dbc #hd1dgc ,in the province of ,silesia #cc1eie #cf1iji #cb1cdg ,in the ,zollverein1 on an average in each manufactory #bg1bcg #df1djg #eb1fcd ,the increase is chiefly evident in the province of ,saxony1 where1 in #ahdf-g1 an augmentation of #a1jhg1hea cwt4 of beet-root2 in comparison to the preceding year1 took place4 ,if we compare the quantity of beet-root employed in ,saxony with that of the whole ,zollverein1 we find that the former province requires #fc per cent1 of the whole quantity used for the manufacture of sugar4 ,the great activity in that province 7chiefly in the district of ,magdeburg7 is rendered more apparent by the following table3-- ,comparative ,statement of the ,number of ,manufactories1 and their ,machinery and ,utensils1 employed for the ,manufacture of ,beet-root ,sugar in the ,prussian ,province of ,saxony during the years #ahda-b and #ahdf-g respectively4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,in the neighbourhood ,province of ,saxony of ,magdeburg ------------------------------------- #ahda-b #ahdf-g #ahda-b #ahdf-g ------------------------------------- ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,manufactories #dj #ci #ae #ae ,apparatus for grating #eh #fe #bg #cb ,hydraulic presses #acf #bji #gb #ic ,clarifying pans1 with open firing #ha #fh #bd #bd ,ditto1 by steam #ej #gf #cc #db ,evaporating pans1 with open firing #acj #abc #ee #ed ,ditto1 by steam #df #ga #bh #cb ,clarifiers1 with open firing #bc #ba #ad #aj ,ditto1 by steam #bc #bh #ai #ba ,boiling pans1 with open firing #gf #fa #cc #bd ,ditto1 by steam #bj #ce #ab #ag ,of which there are vacuum pans #h #ba #c #i ,steam-engines #ai #dj #ab #bj ,horse-power #baj #deg #aec #bfg ,cattle mills #ai #i #d #b ,cattle employed #gi #ch #ai #ab ,cwt4 ,cwt4 ,cwt4 ,cwt4 ,quantity of beet-root used for manufacture #b1cdi1ggdc1chg1bhja1dcc1bica1hhi1dfc ,or on an average in each manufactory #eh1gdd #hf1hec #ie1eec #abe1ifd ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the increase of power by machinery is surprising1 chiefly by steam and hydraulic presses1 which has not only effected a greater produce1 but likewise a much larger increase of the quantity of beet-root required for manufacture4 ,the works where draught cattle are employed have decreased1 and are only in use where the manufacture of beet root sugar is combined with a farm4 ,in ,russia1 in #ahcb1 there existed only #bj manufacturers of beet root sugar1 but this number subsequently increased to #ajj1 and they annually produced the twelfth of the total quantity of sugar which ,russia receives from foreign parts4 ,the number of those manufactories in #ahdj1 was #adj1 and the importation of sugar1 which reached to #a1eee1ceg lbs4 in #ahcg1 amounted to only #a1bfi1bji lbs4 in #ahci4 ,the production of indigenous sugar is now set down at #ce1jjj tons4 ,in ,france1 for many years past1 the production of beet-root sugar has been rapidly increasing1 in spite of a gradual reduction of the protection which it enjoyed against colonial and foreign sugar1 until it has reached a quantity of #fj1jjj tons1 or fully one half of the entire consumption4 ,independent of the refined sugar exported under drawback1 the consumption of ,france may be now estimated at #abj1jjj tons1 of which #fj1jjj tons are of beet-root1 #fj1jjj tons of ,french colonial1 and #aj1jjj tons at the outside of foreign sugar4 ,the beet-root and the ,french colonial sugars are now placed on the same footing as regards duty1 and a law was recently passed1 subjecting beet-root sugar1 from the #ast of ,january1 #aheb1 to even a higher duty than ,french colonial sugar4 ,nevertheless1 it is admitted that the manufacture of beet-root sugar is highly profitable and rapidly increasing1 so that it is likely in a very short time to exclude foreign sugar from ,french consumption altogether4 ,in ,belgium1 the production of beet-root sugar is also rapidly increasing2 in #ahea the entire consumption of sugar was estimated at #ad1jjj tons1 of which #g1jjj tons were of beet-root1 and #g1jjj tons of foreign cane sugar4 ,the number of beet-root factories to supply that quantity was twenty-two1 but this number has1 already increased in the present year to forty4 ,many of these will be but imperfectly at work during this season1 but it is estimated that of the entire consumption of #ad1jjj tons1 at least #aj1jjj tons will consist of beet-root1 and only #d1jjj tons of foreign cane sugar4 ,and from present appearances the manufacture of beet-root is likely to increase so much as to constitute nearly the entire consumption4 ,so lately as #ahdh and #ahdi the production of beet-root sugar was only #d1ejj tons4 ,in ,austria1 the consumption of sugar in #ahda was #dj1jjj tons1 of which #h1jjj tons were of beet-root1 and #cb1jjj tons of foreign cane sugar4 ,but the production of beet-root has increased so fast that it is estimated to produce in the present year #ae1jjj tons2 and as no increase has taken place in the entire consumption1 the portion of foreign cane sugar required in the present year will be reduced from #cb1jjj tons to #be1jjj tons4 ,the following information1 with regard to the state of the manufacture of beet-root sugar on the ,continent last year1 has been furnished by ,mr4 ,c4,j4 ,ramsay1 of ,trinidad4 ,my first start was for ,paris1 where ,i remained a week1 procuring the necessary letters of introduction1 to enable me to see some of the sugar works in the provinces4 ,whilst there ,i called upon ,messrs4 ,cail and ,co41 the principal machine makers in ,france1 mentioned the subject of my visit1 and requested their assistance4 ,nothing could have been more liberal than the way in which they treated me4 ,i was at once asked to look over their establishment and requested to call the next day1 when letters of introduction to their branch establishments at ,valenciennes and ,brussels would be ready for me4 ,this ,i of course did1 and received not only these letters but some others1 to sugar manufacturers in the neighbourhood of ,valenciennes4 ,thus provided1 and with letters from ,mr4 ,d',eickthal1 a banker in ,paris1 to ,mr4 ,dubranfaut1 the chemist1 to ,mr4 ,grar1 a refiner of ,valenciennes1 to ,mr4 ,melsens of ,brussels1 and to another sugar maker near ,valenciennes1 whose name ,i forget1 and who was the only man from whom ,i did not receive the greatest politeness1 ,i started for ,valenciennes4 ,my first essay was upon the latter personage1 who evidently with a considerable grudge showed me a simple room in his works where four centrifugal machines were at work--raised the cry of ruin1 if the ,french improvements were introduced in the ,west ,indies1 and informed me he had nothing else worth seeing4 ,i returned to ,valenciennes1 thinking if this is the way ,i was to be treated1 ,i might as well have stayed at home4 ,that this was a solitary instance of illiberality1 you will presently see4 ,i next called upon ,mr4 ,grar1 by whom ,i was received in a very different manner2 he at once offered to show me over his works1 and especially that part of them where a new process1 discovered by ,mr4 ,dubranfaut1 was carried on1 every part of which was fully explained1 ,mr4 ,dubranfaut's laboratory is connected with these works1 and having inspected the working part of the establishment ,mr4 ,g4 then took me there1 and introduced me to that gentleman1 with whom ,i passed the remainder of the afternoon1 receiving a full explanation of his new process1 which is this3--a solution of hydrate of barytes is made in boiling water--the saccharine solution to be treated is heated to the same degree1 and the two mixed together in the proportions of #df parts of hydrate of barytes to every #ajj parts of sugar contained in the solution1 which has previously been ascertained by polariscopic examination4 ,a saccharate of barytes is immediately formed in the shape of a copious precipitate2 this1 after being thoroughly washed and thus freed from all soluble impurities1 is transferred into large1 deep vats1 and a stream of carbonic acid gas forced into it1 which decomposes the saccharate of barytes1 forming carbonate of barytes1 and liberating the sugar in the shape of a perfectly pure solution of sugar in water1 of the density of #bj to #bc degrees ,baum2 the carbonate of barytes being thoroughly washed is again converted into caustic barytes by burning1 so that there is little loss in the operation4 ,the whole process is certainly very beautiful1 and its economic working has been tried for a year1 on a sufficiently large scale to leave no doubt as to the economy of the process in refining molasses1 which is the only purpose it has yet been applied to4 ,the ,messrs4 ,grar were so thoroughly satisfied with it1 that when ,i was there they had taken down their original apparatus1 and were re-erecting it on such a scale as to work up all the molasses by it1 equal to almost five tons of sugar daily4 ,owing to this circumstance1 ,i had not an opportunity of seeing the process on a working scale1 but was shown the whole proceedings in the laboratory4 ,the only difficulties ,i see in applying this process at once to the cane juice1 are the large quantity of barytes required1 the expense of re-burning it and the entire change in works that would be necessary before it could be introduced4 ,the advantage would be1 the obtaining the whole sugar contained in the juice1 free from all impurities1 consequently white1 and in the shape of a syrup marking #bj to #bc degrees instead of #h or #aj degrees1 thus saving fully half the evaporation now required4 ,the sugar made in this way1 ,i was told1 contains no trace of barytes4 ,to show you the degree of economy practised in such establishments in ,france1 ,i may mention that the washings of the saccharate of barytes are sold to the makers of potash and soda1 who make a profit by boiling them down to obtain what salts they contain4 ,the carbonic acid is obtained by the combustion of charcoal in a closed iron furnace into which air is forced by an air pump1 requiring1 ,i believe1 about one horse power4 ,from the top of the furnace a pipe leads into a washing vessel1 from which the gas is led into the bottom of the vats by pipes4 ,at ,valenciennes ,i met with ,mr4 ,cail1 who1 beside being an engineer and machine-maker1 is interested in sugar-making1 both in ,france and in the ,west ,indies1 and most thoroughly understands the subject4 ,he invited me to accompany him to ,douai1 to see a new set of works which had been set agoing this month4 ,i was of course too glad to accept his invitation1 and started with him at six next morning1 reached ,douai at eight1 and then proceeded to the works1 which are a few miles out of town4 ,in this work a new process is also employed2 it is that of ,mr4 ,rouseau1 and is said to answer well4 ,the beet root juice1 as soon as possible after expression1 is thrown up by a montjus into copper clarifiers with double bottoms1 heated by steam at a pressure of five atmospheres4 ,to every hundred litres of juice 7#bb gals47 two kilogrammes of lime are added 7about four and a half pounds ,english weight74 ,the lime is most carefully prepared and mixed with large quantities of hot water till it forms a milk perfectly free from lumps4 ,the steam is turned off1 and the juice heated to #ij deg4 ,a complete defecation has taken place1 the steam is shut off1 and the juice left a short time1 to allow the heavier impurities to subside4 ,it is then run off in the usual manner1 undergoes a slight filtration through a cotton cloth placed over a layer of about four inches thick of animal charcoal1 and runs into a second set of copper vessels placed on a lower level than the clarifiers2 these vessels are heated by means of a coil of steam piping sufficient to make them boil4 ,a second pipe passes into them1 making a single turn at the bottom of the vessel2 this is pierced on the lower side with small holes1 through which a stream of carbonic acid gas is forced4 ,this decomposes the saccharate of lime1 which has been formed in consequence of the large excess of lime added to the clarifiers4 ,the lime is precipitated as carbonate4 ,when precipitation has ceased1 steam is turned on1 and the whole made to boil2 this expels any excess of carbonic acid2 the liquor is then run off1 undergoes a similar partial filtration to that mentioned above1 and is then passed through the charcoal filters to be decomposed4 ,the sugar made by this process1 directly from the beet-root juice1 is nearly white4 ,the molasses is re-boiled as often as six times2 each time undergoing a clarification and filtration through animal charcoal4 ,and the proceeds of the last re-boiling is certainly in appearance not worse than a great deal of muscovado ,i have seen shipped from ,trinidad4 ,in this work there are about #aej people employed4 ,the work goes on night and day1 one gang replacing the other4 ,the whole evaporation is done by two vacuum pans1 each #f feet in diameter1 #hj1jjj kilogrammes of beet-root are used daily1 from which about #f1jjj kilogrammes of sugar are obtained1 equal to about #f tons ,english weight4 ,in these and every other works ,i visited--eight in all--the centrifugal machines were in use1 and had in most cases been so for two years2 those lately made have been much simplified in construction1 and work admirably4 ,cail ,co41 of ,paris1 are the makers2 their charge is #c1jjj francs for each machine 7#abj stg474 ,they require about one and a half horse power each4 ,as they are wrought in ,france1 one machine is about equal to work off a ton and a half of sugar daily1 working all the #bd hours4 ,mr4 ,cail recommends a separate engine for those machines2 so that they can be used at any time1 independent of the other machinery4 ,the charge put into a machine is about #hj kilogrammes1 from which about #cj to #ce kilogrammes of dry sugar is obtained2 the calculation is1 ,i believe1 #dj per cent4 ,i weighed some of the baskets of sugar taken out after drying1 and found them #ce kilogrammes4 ,sugar intended for the machine is never concentrated beyond #da degrees ,baum2 that made from the juice direct is allowed #ah to #cd hours to crystallize1 and is put into the machine in a semi-liquid state2 the motion at first is comparatively slow2 in about three minutes the sugar appears nearly dry2 about three-fourths of a gallon of brown syrup is then poured into the machine whilst in motion1 and the speed brought up to its highest1 about #abjj revolutions a minute2 in #c or #d minutes more the machine is stopped1 the sugar scooped out and thrown into baskets1 the inside of the revolving part1 and especially the wire cloth1 carefully washed with a brush and water1 and a fresh charge put in4 ,the whole time betwixt each charge is about #ae minutes4 ,from the large proportion of molasses you will see very plainly that those who do not intend to re-boil1 need not think of centrifugal machines4 ,the sugar dried in this way is not altogether white1 but has a slight greyish yellow tinge4 ,of the other sugar works which ,i visited1 the only one of peculiar interest was that of ,mr4 ,dequesne1 near ,valenciennes4 ,here the roots are first cut into small pieces by an instrument similar to a turnip slicer1 then dried in a species of kiln1 and stored up till required4 ,in this way ,i was told beet-root could be preserved with very little deterioration for a full year1 and this enables ,mr4 ,dequesne to go on making sugar all the year round4 ,when the sugar is to be extracted1 the dried cuttings are put into a series of closed vessels connected by pipes1 and by a system of continuous filtration of warm water through these vessels the solution of sugar is obtained1 of a density equal1 ,i believe1 to #be degrees ,baum2 it is a good deal colored1 and requires filtration through animal charcoal4 ,mr4 ,dequesne informed me that for five years he had been unable to make this mode of sugar-making cover its expenses1 owing to the loss occasioned by fermentation taking place in the beet-root2 but that he has now entirely overcome that difficulty2 by what means ,i was not told4 ,the number of macerating vessels is fourteen1 ten of which are working at a time1 the other four filling and emptying4 ,a greater number of vessels1 ,mr4 ,dequesne thinks1 would be advantageous1 as cold instead of hot water could then be employed4 ,he thinks a similar plan might be introduced in the ,west ,indies with great advantage1 and that by employing the proper means to prevent fermentation the sun's heat would be quite sufficient to dry the cane slices4 ,mr4 ,dubranfaut and ,mr4 ,rouseau's processes are patented in ,england4 ,the terms for the use of the former would1 ,i was told1 be made so moderate1 as to offer no obstruction to its being used in the colonies4 ,what ,mr4 ,rouseau's terms are ,i could not learn4 ,there are now #bhh works making beet root sugar in ,france1 and over #cj in ,belgium4 ,the same manufacture is rapidly spreading in ,germany and ,russia1 and is now being introduced in ,italy4 ,whilst at ,valenciennes1 ,i learned that two ,english gentlemen had just preceded me in visiting the works in that neighbourhood1 mentioning that they had in view introducing the beet root sugar manufacture in ,ireland4 ,the sugar crop of ,france was last year over #fj1jjj1jjj of kilogrammes 7#fj1jjj tons74 ,for two years ,belgium has been exporting to the ,mediterranean4 ,one maker told me that he had last year exported a considerable part of his crop4 ,it would therefore appear1 that even beet root sugar can compete in other than the producing country with the sugar of the tropics--a most significant hint that1 unless the cane can be made to yield more and better sugar than is now generally got from it1 there is some risk of its being ultimately beaten by the beet root1 the cultivation of which is now carried on with so much profit that new works are springing up every year1 in almost every country of the continent4 ,in going through the ,french works1 ,i made inquiries as to how far the proced ,melsens had been adopted1 and was everywhere told it was a total failure4 ,i1 however1 determined to see ,mr4 ,melsens and judge for myself how far it might be applicable to the cane1 even if a failure with regard to the beet root4 ,i1 therefore1 went on to ,brussels1 enclosed my letters of introduction and card1 and received in return a note1 appointing to meet me next morning4 ,i found him one of the best and most obliging of men4 ,he immediately offered to go over some experiments on beet root juice with me at his laboratory1 where ,i accordingly spent the greater part of two days with him1 and went over a variety of experiments2 and from what ,i saw and assisted in doing1 ,i feel strongly inclined to think that1 notwithstanding the ,french commission at ,martinique report otherwise1 some modification of ,mr4 ,melsens' process may be most advantageously employed in making cane sugar if not as a defecator1 at least to prevent fermentation1 and1 probably1 also as a decolorising agent4 ,mr4 ,melsens showed me letters he had received from ,java from a person with whom he had no acquaintance1 stating that he had used the bisulphate of lime with complete success2 and whilst ,i was with him he again received letters from the same person1 stating that by its use he had not only improved the quality of sugar1 but had raised the return to #i per cent4 of the weight of cane4 ,from the letters which ,i saw1 the process appears to have been tried on a very large scale1 with the advantage of filters and a vacuum pan4 ,where the old mode of leaving half the dirt with the sugar1 and boiling up to a temperature of #cdj degrees or thereby1 is continued1 ,i fear there is not much chance of either bisulphate or anything else making any very great improvement4 ,the use of bisulphate of lime is patented in ,england and the colonies1 but ,i believe ,i may state the charge for the right of using it will be made extremely moderate4 ,the points which appeared to me worthy of remark in visiting the beet-root sugar works are1 the extreme care that nothing shall be lost--the great attention paid to cleanliness in every part of the process1 besides the particular care given to defecation4 ,no vessel is ever used twice without being thoroughly washed4 ,such a thing as the employment of an open fire in any part of the manufacture is quite unknown4 ,everything is done by steam1 of a pressure of from #d to #e atmospheres4 ,in the more recently started works1 the evaporation is entirely carried on in vacuum4 ,in some of the older works copper evaporators1 heated by coils of steam piping1 and having covers1 with chimneys to carry off the vapor1 are still used2 but of the eight works ,i visited ,i only saw them in use in one of them1 and they are nowhere used excepting to evaporate to the point when the second filtration takes place4 ,the coolers ,i saw were invariably made of iron1 and varied in depth from #b to over #f feet4 ,these very deep vessels are used for the crystallization of sugar1 made of the fourth1 fifth and sixth re-boilings of molasses1 which requires from three to six months4 ,one thing struck me forcibly in going over the ,french and ,belgian works2 it was the extreme liberality with which ,i was allowed to go over every part of them2 to remain in them as long as ,i pleased2 had all my inquiries answered1 and every explanation given2 in most striking contrast to the grudging manner in which ,i have been trotted over some of the refineries in ,england1 as if those who showed them were afraid ,i should gain any information on the subject of their trade4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,colman1 speaking of the agriculture of the ,continent1 gives some information he obtained on the comparative cost of producing beet and cane sugar4 ,a hectare 7two and a half acres7 produces1 in the ,isle of ,bourbon1 about #gf1jjj kilogrammes 7a kilogramme is nearly two and one-fifth pounds7 of cane1 which will give #b1bjj kilogrammes of sugar1 and the cost for labor is #b1ejj francs4 ,a hectare of beet root produces #dj1jjj kilogrammes of roots1 which yield #b1djj kilogrammes of sugar1 and the expense of the culture is #ced francs4 ,the cost of the cane sugar in this case is #bg centimes1 and of the beet sugar #ad centimes only1 per kilogramme4 ,these are extraordinary statements1 and will be looked at by the political economist and the philanthropist with great interest4 ,there are few of the northern states of ,europe1 or of the ,united ,states1 which might not produce their own sugar2 and when we take into account the value of this product1 even in its remains after the sugar is extracted1 for the fattening of cattle and sheep1 and of course for the enrichment of the land for the succeeding crops1 its important bearing upon agricultural improvement cannot be exaggerated4 ,according to ,m4 ,peligot1 the average amount of sugar in beets is #ab per cent42 but1 by extraction1 they obtain only #f per cent4 ,the cane contains about #ah per cent4 of saccharine matter1 but they get only about #g4 ,the expense of cultivating a hectare of beets1 according to ,dombasle1 is #ced francs4 ,an hectare of cane1 which produces #b1bjj kilogrammes of sugar1 in the ,island of ,bourbon1 and only #b1jjj in ,french ,guiana1 demands the labor of twelve negroes1 the annual expense of each of whom is #bej francs1 according to ,m4 ,labran4--7,commission of ,inquiry in #ahdj47 ,sugar has become not only an article of luxury1 but of utility1 to such a degree1 that a supply of it constitutes an important article of importation1 and is of national consequence4 ,for sugar the world has hitherto relied on the cane1 with the exception of some parts of ,india1 where the sugar palm yields it much more cheaply4 ,the sugar cane is1 however1 a tropical plant1 and1 of course1 its cultivation must of necessity be limited to such hot countries4 ,france1 during the wars of ,napoleon1 shut out from her ,indian possessions or deprived of them1 commenced making sugar from beets1 and it proving unexpectedly successful and profitable1 it has as we have just seen1 extended not only over that empire1 but nearly the whole of continental ,europe1 where it forms an important item in their system of cultivation and profit4 ,the manufacture has been attempted in the ,united ,states2 but though the facts of the ease and certainty with which the beets may be grown and their great value for stock has been fully ascertained1 still little progress in the production of sugar from them has been made there4 ,,maple ,,sugar4 ,there are few trees in the ,american forest of more value than the maple 7,acer saccharinum74 ,as an ornamental tree1 it is exceeded by few2 its ashes abound in alkali1 and from it a large proportion of the potash of commerce is produced2 and its sap furnishes a sugar of the best quality1 and in abundance4 ,it likewise affords molasses and an excellent vinegar4 ,in the maple the sugar amounts to five per cent4 of the whole sap4 ,there is no tree whose shape and whose foliage is more beautiful1 and whose presence indicates a more generous1 fertile1 and permanent soil than the rock maple3 in various cabinet-work its timber vies with black walnut and mahogany for durability and beauty2 and as an article of fuel its wood equals the solid hickory4 ,its height is sometimes #ajj feet1 but it usually grows to a height varying from forty to eighty feet4 ,it is bushy1 therefore an elegant shade tree4 ,the maple is indigenous to the forests of ,america1 and wherever there has been opportunity for a second growth1 this tree attains to a considerable size much sooner than might be imagined4 ,in the course of ten or fifteen years the maple becomes of a size to produce sugar4 ,the trees which have come up since the first clearing1 produce sap that yields much more saccharine than the original forest maples4 ,the whole interior of the northern part of the ,united ,states have relied1 and still rely1 more on their maple woodlands for sugar than on any other source2 and as a branch of domestic manufacture and home production1 the business is of no little consequence4 ,the time occupied too in the manufacture is very limited1 and occurs at a season when very little other labor can be performed4 ,hitherto but comparatively little attention has been bestowed upon this important branch of industry in ,canada4 ,the inhabitants of that province might doubtless manufacture a sufficient quantity of maple sugar to supply the demand or consumption in this article for the whole population of the country4 ,this variety of sugar may be refined1 and made as valuable for table use as the finest qualities of ,west ,india sugar4 ,on the south shore of ,lake ,huron1 and the islands of that inland sea1 there are forests of sugar maple unsurveyed capable of producing a supply for the whole population4 ,the ,indians upon those islands have lately turned their attention pretty largely to the manufacture of sugar from the maple2 and many tons have been exported from this source4 ,if the ,indians could obtain a fair value for their sugar1 say seven or eight dollars per #ajj lbs41 they would extend their operations upon a large scale4 ,upon these islands alone1 there are upwards of a million of full-grown maple trees1 capable of yielding each from two and a half to three pounds of excellent sugar per annum2 and if proper attention were given to this branch of production in that quarter1 ,i see no reason why a most profitable business could not be carried on4 ,every farmer who has a grove of sugar maple1 should endeavour to manufacture at least sufficient for the consumption of his own family4 ,in most cases #aej trees of medium growth would yield an amount of sap that would make #cjj lbs4 of sugar1 twenty-five gallons of molasses1 and a barrel of vinegar4 ,the labor required to manufacture this amount of sugar1 molasses1 and vinegar1 would scarcely be felt by the well-organised cultivator1 as the season for the business is at the close of the winter1 and opening spring1 when no labor can be done upon the land4 ,in proportion to the amount of labor and money expended in the production of maple sugar1 it is as capable of yielding as large a return of profits as any other branch of farm business4 ,it is certainly an object of great national interest to the inhabitants of our ,north ,american ,colonies1 that they should supply their own market with such products as their highly-favored country is capable of producing4 ,sugar is an article which will ever find a ready sale at highly-remunerating prices1 provided that it be properly manufactured and brought into market in good condition4 ,it requires a little outlay at first to purchase buckets1 cisterns1 and boilers1 to stock a sugar bush2 but by carefully using the above necessary apparatus1 they will last for a very long period4 ,a farmer can supply himself with the suitable materials for performing the sugar business without any cost further than his own labor4 ,the spring is the season of the year that everything should be put in readiness1--even the wood should be chopped and drawn to the spot1 so that when the sap commences to run1 there may be no impediments in the way to hinder the complete success of the business4 ,large tracts of land in the ,ottawa district are covered with the true sugar maple4 ,it is found in great numbers in the eastern townships of ,lower ,canada1 where considerable forests of miles in extent contain nothing else1 and in other places it is mixed with various trees4 ,there is scarcely a spot in ,lower ,canada where it is not to be met with4 ,capt4 ,marryatt has stated that there were trees enough on the shores of ,lakes ,huron and ,superior1 to supply the whole world with sugar4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the manufacture of the sugar was first attempted about the year #ageb1 by some farmers of ,new ,england1 as a branch of rural economy4 ,this gradually spread wherever the tree was known4 ,now it forms an article of food throughout a large portion of the country4 ,almost every farmer prepares sugar enough from the trees in his neighbourhood for the consumption of his family during the year1 and has often a surplus for sale4 ,it is much cheaper than muscovado1 being sold at from #b;d4 to #c;d4 per pound1 whilst common muscovado cannot be bought for less than #d;d4 to #e;d4 per pound4 ,the province of ,canada produced nearly ten million pounds in #aheb1 #f1aij1fid being made in ,lower ,canada1 and #c1eha1eje in ,upper ,canada4 ,the quantity made in ,lower ,canada in #ahdi was only about #a1ecg1jic lbs4 ,the maple sugar product of the ,canadas in #ahdh was officially stated as follows3-- lbs4 ,upper ,canada #d1afj1ffg ,lower ,canada #b1cjc1aeh --------- #f1dfc1hce ,this product is therefore of immense importance to the ,british ,north ,american provinces1 all of which1 under a judicious system1 might be made to produce vastly increased quantities of this wholesome and valuable commodity4 ,the importation of sugar in ,canada may very safely be computed at #dj1jjj per annum1 and the whole of this amount of money could be retained in the country if the people would only look well to the matter4 ,in tapping the tree1 the gouge is the best implement that can be used1 provided it is an object to save the timber4 ,it is usual1 when using the gouge1 to take out a chip about an inch and a half in diameter2 but this system is objectionable where the maple is not abundant1 as it subjects the timber to decay2 it is a better course to make an incision by holding the gouge obliquely upwards an inch or more in the wood4 ,a spout1 or spile1 as it is termed1 about a foot long1 to conduct off the sap1 is inserted about two inches below this incision with the same gouge4 ,by this mode of tapping1 the wound in the tree is so small that it will be perfectly healed or grown over in two years4 ,a boiler1 of thick sheet-iron1 made to rest on the top of an arch1 by which the sides would be free from heat1 and only the bottom is exposed1 is doubtless a secure and rapid process of evaporation4 ,the sides and ends of the boiler may be made of well-seasoned boards1 which will answer the same purpose as if made solely of sheet-iron4 ,when the sap is boiled down into syrup or thin molasses1 it must be taken out of the boiler and strained through a flannel cloth into a tub1 where it should settle about twenty-four hours4 ,the clear syrup should be separated from the sediment1 which will be found in the bottom of the tub4 ,the pure syrup must be boiled down into sugar over a slow fire4 ,a short time1 however1 before the syrup is brought to a boiling heat1 to complete the clarifying process1 the whites of five eggs well beaten1 about one quart of new milk1 and a spoonful of saleratus1 should be all well mixed with a sufficient amount of syrup1 to make #ajj lbs4 of sugar4 ,the scum which would rise on the top must be skimmed off4 ,caution is to be observed in not allowing the syrup to boil until the skimming process is completed4 ,to secure a good article1 the greatest attention must be bestowed in granulating the syrup4 ,the boxes or tubs for draining should be large at the top and small at the bottom4 ,the bottom of the tubs should be bored full of small holes1 to let the molasses drain through4 ,after it has nearly done draining1 the sugar may be dissolved1 and the process of clarifying1 granulating1 and draining repeated1 which will give as pure a quality of sugar as the best refined ,west ,india article4 ,the greatest objections that are advanced against maple sugar are1 that the processes made use of in preparing the sugar for market are so rude and imperfect that it is too generally acid1 and besides charged with salts of the oxide of iron1 insomuch that it ordinarily strikes a black color with tea4 ,these objections may be removed without any comparative difficulty1 as it has been proved to demonstration1 by the application of one ounce of clear lime-water to a gallon of maple sap1 that the acidity will be completely neutralised1 and the danger of the syrup adhering to the sides of the boiler totally removed4 ,the acid so peculiar to the maple sugar1 when combined with lime in the above proportion1 is found to be excessively soluble in alcohol2 so much so1 that yellow sugar can be rendered white in a few minutes by placing it in an inverted cone1 open at the top1 with small holes at the bottom1 and by pouring on the base of the cone a quantity of alcohol4 ,this should filtrate through until the sugar is white2 it should then be dried and re-dissolved in boiling water1 and again evaporated until it becomes dense enough to crystallise4 ,then pour it into the cones again1 and let it harden4 ,by this process a very white sample of sugar may be made1 and both the alcohol and acids will be thoroughly dispelled with the vapor4 ,the process of making maple sugar it will be seen is very simple and easily performed4 ,the trees must be of suitable size1 and within a convenient distance of the place where the operations of boiling1 c41 are to be performed4 ,when gathered1 the sap should be boiled as early as possible1 as the quality of the sugar is in a great degree dependent on the newness or freshness of the sap4 ,there is a tendency to acidity in this fluid which produces a quick effect in preventing the making of sugar2 and which1 when the sap is obliged to be kept for many hours in the reservoirs1 must be counteracted by throwing into them a few quarts of slaked lime4 ,during the time of sugar making1 warm weather1 in which the trees will not discharge their sap1 sometimes occurs1 and the buckets become white and slimy1 from the souring of the little sap they contain4 ,in this case they should be brought to the boiler and washed out carefully with hot water1 and a handful of lime to each4 ,in reducing the sap1 the great danger to be apprehended is from burning the liquid after it is made to the consistence of molasses1 since1 when this is done1 it is impossible to convert it into sugar2 a tough1 black1 sticky mass1 of little value1 being the result4 ,indeed1 constant care and attention is required to produce a first-rate article3 for though sugar may be made in almost any way where the sap can be procured1 yet unless the strictest care is observed in the processes1 in gathering and boiling the sap1 clarifying the syrup1 and in converting the syrup to sugar1 a dirty inferior article will be made1 instead of the beautiful and delicious sweet which the maple1 properly treated1 is sure to yield4 ,the quantity of sugar produced in a year varies considerably from the same trees4 ,the cause of this difference is to be found in the depth of snow1 continued cold1 or a sudden transition from cold to warm1 thus abridging the period of sugar-making4 ,a sharp frost at night1 with clear warm days1 is the most favorable to the sugar-maker4 ,perhaps four pounds of sugar from a tree may be a pretty fair average of seasons generally1 although we have known the growth to exceed six pounds1 and sink as low as three4 ,a man will take care of one hundred trees easily1 during the season of sugar1 which usually lasts from about the middle of ,march into ,april1 perhaps employing him twenty days in the whole4 ,dr4 ,jackson1 in his ,report of the ,maine ,geological ,survey1 gives the following instances of the production of sugar in that ,state3-- ,lbs4 of ,sugar4 ,at the ,forks of the ,kennebec1 twelve persons made #c1fje ,on ,no4 #a1 #b;d range1 one man and a boy made #a1jjj ,in ,farmington1 ,mr4 ,titcomb made #a1ejj ,in ,moscow1 thirty families made #aj1ejj ,in ,bingham1 twenty-five families made #i1jjj ,in ,concord1 thirty families made #aa1jjj ,a cold and dry winter is followed with a greater yield of sugar from the maple than a season very moist and variable4 ,trees growing in wet places will yield more sap1 but much less sugar from the same quantity1 than trees on more elevated and drier ground4 ,the red and white maple will yield sap1 but it has much less of the saccharine quality than the rock or sugar maple4 ,the work begins usually about the first of ,march4 ,the tree will yield its sap long before vegetation appears from the bud3 frequently the most copious flow is before the snow disappears from the ground4 ,some persons have a camp in their maple orchards1 where large cauldrons are set in which to boil down the sap to the consistency of a thick syrup3 others take the liquid to their houses1 and there boil down and make the sugar4 ,the process begins by the preparation of spouts and troughs or tubs for the trees3 the spouts or tubes are made of elder1 sumach1 or pine1 sharpened to fit an auger hole of about three-fourths of an inch in diameter4 ,the hole is bored a little upward1 at the distance horizontally of five or six inches apart1 and about twenty inches from the ground on the south or sunny side of the tree4 ,the trough1 cut from white maple1 pine1 ash1 or bass wood1 is set directly under the spouts1 the points of which are so constructed as completely to fill the hole in the tree1 and prevent the loss of the sap at the edges1 having a small gimlet or pitch hole in the centre1 through which the entire juice discharged from the tree runs1 and is all saved in the vessels below4 ,the distance bored into the tree is only about one-half an inch to give the best run of sap4 ,the method of boring is far better for the preservation of the tree than boxing1 or cutting a hole with an axe1 from the lower edge of which the juice is directed by a spout to the trough or tub prepared to receive it4 ,the tub should be of ash or other wood that will communicate no vicious taste to the liquid or sugar4 ,the sap is gathered daily from the trees and put in larger tubs for the purpose of boiling down4 ,this is done by the process of a steady hot fire4 ,the surface of the boiling kettle is from time to time cleansed by a skimmer4 ,the liquid is prevented from boiling over by the suspension of a small piece of fat pork at the proper point4 ,fresh additions of sap are made as the volume boils away4 ,when boiled down to a syrup1 the liquor is set away in some earthen or metal vessel till it becomes cool and settled4 ,again the purest part is drawn off or poured into a kettle until the vessel is two-thirds full4 ,by a brisk and continual fire1 the syrup is further reduced in volume to a degree of consistence best taught by a little experience1 when it is either put into moulds to become hard as it is cooled1 or stirred until it shall be grained into sugar4 ,the right point of time to take it away from the fire may be ascertained by cooling and graining a small quantity4 ,the sediment is strained off and boiled down to make molasses4 ,the following is from a ,massachusetts paper3-- ,the maple produces the best sugar that we have from any plant4 ,almost every one admires its taste4 ,it usually sells in this market 7,boston7 nearly twice as high as other brown sugar4 ,had care been taken from the first settlement of the country to preserve the sugar maple1 and proper attention been given to the cultivation of this tree1 so valuable for fuel1 timber1 and ornament1 besides the abundant yield of saccharine juice1 we could now produce in ,new ,england sugar enough for our own consumption1 and not be dependent on the labour of those who toil and suffer in a tropical sun for this luxury or necessary of life4 ,but1 for want of this friendly admonition1 ,axeman1 spare that tree1 the sturdy blows were dealt around without mercy or discretion2 and the very generation that committed devastation in the first settlements in different sections of our country1 generally lived to witness a scarcity of fuel2 and means were resorted to for the purchase of sugar1 that were far more expensive than would have been its manufacture1 under a proper mode of economy in the preservation of the maple1 and the production of sugar from its sap4 ,those who have trees of the sugar maple1 should prepare in season for making sugar4 ,in many localities1 wood is no object1 and a rude method of boiling is followed2 but where fuel is very scarce1 a cheap apparatus should be prepared that will require but little fuel4 ,in some sections1 broad pans or kettles have been made of sheet-iron bottoms1 and sides of plank or boards1 care being taken 7continued7 to allow the fire to come into contact with the iron only4 ,these pans cost but a trifle1 and1 owing to their large surface1 the evaporation is rapid4 ,another cheap construction for boiling with economy is1 to make a tight box of plank1 some four or five feet square--the width of a wide plank will answer1 and then put into it1 almost at the bottom1 a piece of large copper funnel1 say ten or twelve inches at the outer part1 and then smaller4 ,this funnel1 beginning near one end1 should run back nearly to the opposite side1 then turn and come put at the opposite end1 or at the side near the end1 as most convenient1 being in only two straight parts1 that the soot may be cleared out4 ,each end should be made tight1 with a flange nailed to the box4 ,at the mouth of the large part there should be a door1 to reduce the draught2 here make the fire1 and at the other end have a funnel to carry off the smoke4 ,in this case1 there is only sheet copper between the fire and the sap which surrounds the funnel1 so that the heat is readily taken up by the liquid1 and very little escapes4 ,this is an economical plan for cooking food for stock1 steaming timber1 c4 ,for catching the sap1 various kinds of vessels are used4 ,the cheapest are made of white birch1 which last one season1 or less4 ,troughs of pine1 or linden or bass wood1 may be made for a few cents each1 and they will last for a number of years1 if inverted in the shade of trees4 ,but these are inconvenient2 and1 after the first year1 they become dirty1 and clog the sap4 ,pails with iron hoops are the best1 and1 eventually1 the cheapest4 ,by painting and carefully preserving them1 they will cost1 for a course of years1 about one cent each for a year4 ,mr4 ,alfred ,fitch1 in the ,genesee ,farmer1 says3-- ,in clarifying1 ,i use for #ej lbs4 of sugar one pint of skimmed milk1 put into the syrup when cold1 and place it over a moderate fire until it rises1 which should occupy thirty or forty minutes2 then skim and boil until it will grain2 after which ,i put it into a tub1 and turn on a little cold water1 and in a few days the molasses will drain out1 and leave the sugar dry1 light1 and white4 ,mr4 ,e4,w4 ,clark1 of ,oswego1 furnishes the following3-- ,on ,fining ,maple ,sugar4--,the sweet obtained from the maple tree is undoubtedly the purest known2 but from mismanagement in the manufacture it frequently becomes very impure4 ,its value is lessened1 while the expense of making it increases4 ,i am sensible that the method which ,i shall recommend is not altogether a new one1 and that it is more by attending to some apparently minute and trivial circumstances1 than to any new plan1 that my sugar is so good4 ,much has been written upon1 and many useful improvements been made in1 that part of the process which relates to tapping the trees1 and gathering and evaporating the sap1 c42 but still1 if the final operation is not understood1 there will be a deficiency in the quality of the sugar4 ,i shall confine myself to that part of the operation which relates to reducing the syrup to sugar1 as it is of the first importance4 ,my process is this3--,when the syrup is reduced to the consistence of ,west ,india molasses1 ,i set it away till it is perfectly cold1 and then mix with it the clarifying matter1 which is milk or eggs4 ,i prefer eggs to milk1 because when heated the whole of it curdles2 whereas milk produces only a small portion of curd4 ,the eggs should be thoroughly beaten and effectually mixed with the syrup while cold4 ,the syrup should then be heated till just before it would boil1 when the curd rises1 bringing with it every impurity1 even the coloring matter1 or a great portion of that which it had received from the smoke1 kettles1 buckets1 or reservoirs4 ,the boiling should be checked1 and the scum carefully removed1 when the syrup should be slowly turned into a thick woollen strainer1 and left to run through at leisure4 ,i would remark1 that a great proportion of the sugar that is made in our country is not strained after cleansing4 ,this is an error4 ,if examined in a wine-glass1 innumerable minute and almost imperceptible particles of curd will be seen floating in it1 which1 if not removed1 render it liable to burn1 and otherwise injure the taste and color of it4 ,a flannel strainer does this much better than a linen one4 ,it is1 indeed1 indispensable4 ,as to the quantity of eggs necessary1 one pint to a pailful of syrup is amply sufficient1 and half as much will do very well4 ,i now put my syrup into another kettle1 which has been made perfectly clean and bright1 when it is placed over a quick but solid fire1 and soon rises1 but is kept from overflowing by being ladled with a long dipper4 ,when it is sufficiently reduced1 7,i ascertain this by dropping it from the point of a knife1 while hot1 into one inch of cold water--if done1 it will not immediately mix with the water1 but lies at the bottom in a round flat drop17 it is taken from the fire1 and the foaming allowed to subside4 ,a thick white scum1 which is useable1 is removed1 and the sugar turned into a cask1 placed on an inclined platform1 and left undisturbed for six weeks or longer1 when it should be tapped in the bottom and the molasses drawn off4 ,it will drain perfectly dry in a few days4 ,the sugar made in this manner is very nearly as white as lump sugar1 and beautifully grained4 ,we have always sold ours at the highest price of ,muscovadoes2 and even when these sugars have sold at eighteen cents1 ours found a ready market at twenty4 ,two hands will sugar off #bej lbs4 in a day4 ,from the scum taken off in cleansing1 ,i usually make1 by diluting and recleansing1 one-sixth as much as ,i had at first1 and of an equal quality4 ,it is not of much consequence as regards the quality of the sugar1 whether care be taken to keep the sap clean or not4 ,the points in which the greatest error is committed1 are1 neglecting to use a flannel strainer1 or to strain after cleansing--to have the sugar kettle properly cleaned--and to remove the white scum from the sugar4 ,an important process of manufacturing maple sugar1 which produces a most beautiful article1 is also thus described in a communication by the gentleman who gained the first premium at the ,state ,fair at ,rochester in #ahdc1 to the ,committee on ,maple ,sugar of the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society4 ,in the first place1 ,i make my buckets1 tubs1 and kettles all perfectly clean4 ,i boil the sap in a potash kettle1 set in an arch in such a manner that the edge of the kettle is defended all around from the fire4 ,i boil through the day1 taking care not to have anything in the kettle that will give color to the sap1 and to keep it well skimmed4 ,at night ,i leave fire enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly or quite to syrup by the next morning4 ,i then take it out of the kettle1 and strain it through a flannel cloth into a tub1 if it is sweet enough2 if not1 ,i put it in a cauldron kettle1 which ,i have hung on a pole in such a manner that ,i can swing it on or off the fire at pleasure1 and boil it till it is sweet enough1 and then strain it into the tub1 and let it stand till the next morning4 ,i then take it and the syrup in the kettle1 and put it altogether into the cauldron1 and sugar it off4 ,i use1 to clarify say #ajj lbs4 of sugar1 the whites of five or six eggs well beaten1 about one quart of new milk1 and a spoonful of saleratus1 all we'll mixed with the syrup before it is scalding hot4 ,i then make a moderate fire directly under the cauldron1 until the scum is all raised2 then skim it off clean1 taking care not to let it boil so as to rise in the kettle before ,i have done skimming it4 ,i then sugar it off1 leaving it so damp that it will drain a little4 ,i let it remain in the kettle until it is well granulated4 ,i then put it into boxes made smallest at the bottom1 that will hold from fifty to seventy lbs41 having a thin piece of board fitted in1 two or three inches above the bottom1 which is bored full of small holes1 to let the molasses drain through1 which ,i keep drawn off by a tap through the bottom4 ,i put on the top of the sugar1 in the box1 a clean damp cloth2 and over that1 a board1 well fitted in1 so as to exclude the air from the sugar4 ,after it has done draining1 or nearly so1 ,i dissolve it1 and sugar it off again2 going through with the same process in clarifying and draining as before4 ,the following remarks from ,dr4 ,jackson1 of ,boston1 may be of interest to the sections of the country where maple sugar is made3-- ,the northern parts of ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 and ,new ,york1 have dense forests of the sugar maple1 and at present only very rude processes are made use of in preparing the sugar for market1 so that it is too generally acid and deliquescent1 besides being charged with salts of the oxide of iron1 insomuch that it ordinarily strikes a black color with tea4 ,to remedy these difficulties was the object of my researches2 while1 at the same time1 ,i was engaged in ascertaining the true composition of the sap1 with a view to the theory of vegetable nutrition4 ,i received several gallons of freshly-drawn maple sap from ,northampton1 ,warner1 and ,canterbury1 and made analyses of each lot1 separating the acids1 salts1 and the sugar4 ,i also analysed the sap of the yellow and white birch1 which do not give any crystallisable sugar1 but an astringent molasses4 ,i shall now communicate to you the process by which ,i manufactured sugar maple sap1 received from the ,shakers of ,canterbury1 who collected it with care in a clear glass demijohn1 and sent it forthwith1 so that it came to me without any change of composition1 the weather being cold at the time4 ,the evaporation was carried on in glass vessels until the sap was reduced to about one-eighth its original bulk1 and then it was treated with a sufficient quantity of clear lime-water to render it neutral1 and the evaporation was completed in a shallow porcelain basin4 ,the result was1 that a beautiful yellow granular sugar was obtained1 from which not a single drop of molasses drained1 and it did not deliquesce by exposure to the air4 ,another lot of the sap1 reduced to sugar without lime-water1 granulated1 but not so well1 was sour to the taste1 deliquesced by exposure1 and gave a considerable quantity of molasses4 ,having studied the nature of the peculiar acid of the maple1 ,i found that its combinations with lime were excessively soluble in alcohol1 so that the yellow sugar first described could be rendered white in a few minutes1 by placing it in an inverted cone open at the bottom1 and pouring a fresh quantity of alcohol upon it1 and allowing it to filtrate through the sugar4 ,the whitened sugar was then taken and re-dissolved in boiling water and crystallised1 by which all the alcoholic flavour was entirely removed1 and a perfectly fine crystallised and pure sugar resulted4 ,now1 in the large way1 ,i advise the following method of manufacturing maple sugar4 ,obtain several large copper or brass kettles1 and set them up in a row1 either by tripods with iron rings1 or by hanging them on a cross-bar2 clean them well1 then collect the sap in buckets1 if possible1 so that but little rain-water will be mixed with the sap1 and take care not to have any dead leaves in it4 ,for every gallon of the maple sap add one measured ounce of clear lime-water1 pass the sap into the first kettle and evaporate2 then1 when it is reduced to about one-half1 dip it out into the second kettle1 and skim it each time2 then into the next1 and so on1 until it has reached the last1 where it is reduced to syrup1 and then may be thrown into a trough1 and granulated by beating it up with an oar4 ,as soon as the first kettle is nearly empty1 pour in a new lot of the sap1 and so continue working it forward exactly after the manner of the ,west ,india sugar-boilers4 ,the crude sugar may be refined subsequently1 or at the time of casting it into the cones made of sheet iron1 well painted with white lead and boiled linseed oil1 and thoroughly dried1 so that no paint can come off4 ,these cones are to be stopped at first1 until the sugar is cold2 then remove the stopper and pour on the base of the cone a quantity of strong whiskey1 or fourth proof rum4 ,allow this to nitrate through1 until the sugar is white2 dry the loaf1 and redissolve it in boiling hot water1 and evaporate it until it becomes dense enough to crystallise4 ,now pour it into the cones again1 and let it harden4 ,if any color remains1 pour a saturated solution of refined white sugar on the base of the cone1 and this syrup will remove all traces of color from the loaf4 ,one gallon of pasture maple sap yielded #c1dea grains of pure sugar4 ,one gallon of the juice of the sugar cane yields1 on an average1 in ,jamaica1 #g1jjj grains of sugar4 ,hence1 it will appear that maple sap is very nearly half as sweet as cane juice2 and since the maple requires no outlay for its cultivation1 and the process may be carried on when there is little else to be done1 the manufacture of maple sugar is destined to become an important department of rural economy4 ,it is well known1 by the ,report of the ,statistics of the ,united ,states1 that ,vermont ranks next to ,louisiana as a sugar state1 producing 7if ,i recollect correctly7 #f1jjj1jjj of pounds in some seasons1 though the business is now carried on in a very rude way1 without any apparatus1 and with no great chemical skill2 so that only a very impure kind of sugar is made1 which1 on account of its peculiar flavor1 has not found its way into common use1 for sweetening tea and coffee4 ,it would appear worth while1 then1 to improve this manufacture1 and to make the maple sugar equal to any now in use4 ,this can be readily accomplished1 if the farmers in the back country will study the process of sugar-making1 for cane and maple sugar are1 when pure1 absolutely identical4 ,it should be remarked1 that forest maples do not produce so much sugar as those grown in open fields or in groves1 where they have more light1 the under-brush being cleared away4 ,in ,farmington1 on the ,sandy ,river1 in ,maine1 ,i have seen a very fine grove of maples1 but thirty years old1 which produced a large yield of very good sugar4 ,a man and two boys made #a1ejj lbs4 of sugar from the sap of these trees in a single season4 ,the sap was boiled down in potash kettles1 which were scoured bright with vinegar and sand4 ,the sugar was of a fine yellow color1 and well crystallised4 ,it was drained of its molasses in casks1 with a false bottom perforated with small holes--the cask having a hole bored at the bottom1 with a tow plug placed loosely in it1 to conduct off the molasses4 ,this method is a good one1 but the sap ought to be limed in boiling1 as ,i have described2 then it will not attach to the iron or copper boilers4 ,the latter metal must not be used with acid syrup1 for copper salts are poisonous4 ,there are several towns in the northern sections of ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont1 that produce more than sufficient sugar for the consumption of their inhabitants4 ,a lot of good sugar trees will average four pounds to the tree1 in a favorable season4 ,many farmers have orchards that will yield five hundred to a thousand pounds of sugar in a year4 ,as this is made at a season interfering very little with the general business of the farm1 the sugar that the farmer makes is so much clear gain4 ,there is1 on almost every hill-farm1 some place favorable for the growth of a maple orchard--some rocky spots yielding little grass1 and impervious for the plough4 ,such spots may be favorably chosen for the growth of a maple orchard2 and whether the increase be used for manufacturing sugar or molasses1 or for timber or fuel1 the proprietor of the land will find a profit better than money at interest in the growth of this beautiful tree1 which will spontaneously propagate itself in many positions4 ,its great excellence consists in yielding sap for the manufacture of vast quantities of maple sugar in the country during the months of spring4 ,an open winter1 constantly freezing and thawing1 is a forerunner of a bountiful crop of sugar4 ,the orchard of maple trees is almost equal to a field of sugar cane of the same area1 in the production of sugar4 ,this tree reaches an age of #bjj years4 ,vermont is the second sugar-producing ,state in the ,union4 ,the amount of maple sugar produced there in #ahdj was over #b1eej tons1 being more than #ag pounds to each inhabitant1 allowing a population of #bia1idh4 ,at five cents a pound1 this is worth4 #bee1ifc dols4 #bj cents4 ,the ,statistics of the ,united ,states census for #ahej1 show that about thirty-five millions of pounds 7#ae1bej tons7 of maple sugar were manufactured in that year3-- ,maine #ig1eda ,new ,hampshire #a1cib1dhi ,massachusetts #gfh1eif ,vermont #e1aei1fda ,connecticut #cg1gha ,new ,york #aj1caj1gfd ,new ,jersey #e1hhf ,pennsylvania #b1bah1fda ,maryland #dg1gdj ,virginia #a1bbc1ijh ,north ,carolina #bg1ddh ,south ,carolina #bjj ,georgia #ej ,alabama #dgc ,mississippi #aaj ,louisiana #bfj ,arkansas #h1hbe ,tennessee #aei1fdg ,kentucky #chh1ebe ,ohio #d1ebh1edh ,michigan #b1dbc1hig ,indiana #b1iba1fch ,illinois #bdf1jgh ,missouri #aga1idb ,iowa #gj1fhd ,missouri #ffa1ifi ,minnesota #b1iej ----------- ,total #cb1ggf1fga ,there is a balance of about two million pounds produced by ,rhode ,island1 ,texas1 ,oregon1 ,california1 ,utah1 ,new ,mexico1 ,delaware1 and ,florida4 ,the above statement does not include the sugar made by the ,indians1 east of the ,mississippi river1 which may be set down at #aj1jjj1jjj lbs41 and west of that river #b1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,besides the above sugar crop1 there was a yield by the sugar maple in the ,united ,states in #ahej1 of #dj1jjj1jjj gallons of maple molasses4 ,maize ,sugar4--,the stem and branches of ,indian corn1 during the time that its grain is filling1 abounds with sugar1 even when grown in this country2 so much so1 that it might be turned to account by those of the peasantry who have small plots of ground attached to their cottages2 and ,i applied a simple method by which a rich syrup may be obtained from it1 equal in sweetness to treacle1 and superior to it in flavor4 ,the proper time for cutting down the plant 7which should be done within an inch of the ground71 is when the corn in the ear is small and full of a milky juice4 ,all the large and old leaves should be stripped off1 leaving only the young and tender ones2 they should then be cut into short lengths1 thoroughly bruised1 and the juice entirely pressed out from them4 ,where the means cannot be obtained for expressing the juice by this method1 the following may be employed3--,after the plants have been cut into small pieces1 put them into a large pot or copper1 with only just sufficient water to extract the juice2 boil for one hour1 and then strain off the liquor2 to each gallon of this liquor add a wine-glass full of lime-water whilst warm2 but if it be the expressed juice1 obtained as above mentioned1 add double the quantity of lime-water4 ,when the liquor is cold1 for every three gallons beat up an egg with some of the liquor2 put altogether into a boiler1 and boil gently till the syrup acquires the consistence of treacle4 ,whilst this is going on1 the liquor should every now and then be well stirred1 and the scum which rises to the surface taken off4 ,this syrup1 which will be found a better substitute for sugar than treacle1 and more wholesome1 should be kept in lightly-covered vessels1 in a dry place4 ,my own observations1 twelve years ago1 acquainted me with the fact1 that when the grain in the ear has acquired one half of the full size1 the quantity of sugar in the sap has passed its maximum1 or begun to decrease1 and continues to do so until it disappears entirely4 ,lopping off the young ears makes shorter work of it4 ,it is like taking the young from an animal giving suck1 in which case the milk soon ceases to flow into the breast1 and that which produced it is elaborated into other fluids necessary to the nourishment of the different parts of the body of the parent4 ,in the corn-stalk1 when deprived of its ears1 the elements of sugar are dissipated by increasing the size of the plant4 ,sugar may also be obtained from the carrot and the parsnip1 as well as from all sweet fruits4 ,it is abundant throughout the vegetable kingdom2 it forms the first food of plants when they germinate in the seed2 when the first little sprout is projected from a grain of corn1 a portion of the farina1 or starch1 is changed into sugar1 which may be called the blood of the plant1 and from it is drawn the nourishment necessary to its expansion and appearance above the surface of the earth4 ,in the latter growth of many plants an inverse process is carried on1 as in the ,indian corn1 which ,i have just spoken of4 ,in this instance1 as also numberless others1 sugar is formed in large quantities in the body of the plant1 and elaborated into farina1 or starch1 in the ear4 ,the elements of which sugar and starch are composed are the same2 the only difference is in their proportions4 ,chemists1 being aware of this1 have converted starch into sugar2 and could do it with certainty to any extent1 were any advantage to be gained by it2 but hitherto starch has been higher in price than sugar4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,grain ,,crops1 ,,edible ,,roots1 ,,and ,,farinaceous ,,plants ,,forming ,,the ,,bread ,,stuffs ,,of ,,commerce4 ,the vegetable substances1 from which man derives his principal sustenance1 such as the nutritious cereal grains1 the tuberous rooted plants and the trees yielding farina1 are very widely diffused1 and necessarily occupy the main attention of the cultivator2 their products forming the most important staples of domestic and foreign commerce4 ,the cereal grasses and roots1 cultivated in temperate regions1 such as wheat1 barley1 oats1 rye1 and the potato1 are so well known1 and have been so fully described by agricultural writers that ,i shall not go much into details as to their varieties1 culture1 c41 but confine myself chiefly to their distribution1 produce1 statistics1 and commercial importance4 ,the food plants may be most conveniently arranged under three heads4 ,firstly--the ,grain crops and legumes1 which comprises the ,european cultivated grasses1 wheat1 barley1 oats1 c42 and the tropical ones of rice1 maize1 millet1 ,guinea corn1 c4 ,secondly--,palms and other trees yielding farina1 including the sago palms1 plantain and banana1 and the bread fruit tree4 ,and ,thirdly--the edible ,root crops and ,starch producing plants1 which are a somewhat extensive class1 the chief of which1 however1 are the common potato1 yams1 cocos or eddoes1 sweet potatoes1 the bitter and sweet cassava or manioc1 the arrowroot and other plants yielding starch in more or less purity4 ,there is a great diversity of food1 from the humble oak bark bread of the ,norwegian peasant1 or the ,brahmin1 whose appetite is satisfied with vegetables1 to the luxurious diet of a ,hungarian ,magnate at ,vienna4 ,the bread stuffs1 as they are popularly termed1 particularly wheat and wheat flour1 maize1 and rice1 form very important articles of commerce1 and enter largely into cultivation in various countries for home consumption and export4 ,russia1 ,india1 and the ,united ,states1 carry on a very considerable trade in grain with other countries4 ,our local production being insufficient for food and manufactures1 we import yearly immense quantities of grain and flour4 ,in the four years ending #aheb1 the annual quantity of corn1 of various1 kinds1 imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 exclusive of flour and meal1 rice1 sago1 c41 averaged #h1jhe1ijc quarters4 ,the flour and meal imported1 omitting sago1 arrowroot and other starches1 averaged in the same period #d1adc1fjc cwts4 annually4 ,the annual imports of breadstuffs for food1 taking the average of the four years ending with #aheb1 may be thus summed up-- ,tons4 ,corn and grain1 #h1jhe1ijc quarters1 at #fj lb4 the bushel #agc1bgj ,flour and meal #bjg1ahj ,rice #dj1hag ,potatoes #db1ddj ,sago1 arrowroot1 c4 #e1jjj ------- ,total #dfh1gjg ,some portion of this quantity is doubtless consumed in the arts--as starch for stiffening linens1 c41 and for other purposes not coming under the term of food1 but ,i have purposely left out in the calculation about #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj quarters of rice in the husk annually imported4 ,ireland took1 in #ahdi1 of foreign grain #b1aae1abi quarters2 #a1fhc1fhg quarters in #ahej2 and #b1ejd1bbi in #ahea2 as well as #bef1hcg cwts4 of various kinds of meal and flour in #ahdi2 #bbj1ajg cwts4 in #ahej2 and #cda1fhj cwts4 in #ahea4 ,england also supplied her with about #ejj1jjj quarters of grain and #cej1jjj cwts4 of meal in each of those years4 ,the comparative returns of the importations of grain into the ,united ,kingdom for the last four years1 are as follows1 in quarters3-- #aheb4 #ahea4 #ahej4 #ahdi4 ,wheat #c1jfh1hib #c1hab1jji #c1gch1iie #c1hde1cgh ,barley #fef1gcg #hbi1efd #a1jce1ijc #a1cha1jjh ,oats #iie1dhj #a1aih1ebi #a1aed1dgc #a1bfg1ajf ,rye #aj1jbc #bd1fji #ih1hcf #bdj1eff ,beans #cga1bej #cah1ejb #ddc1cjf #deg1icc ,peas #ajg1jag #ii1cii #aha1dai #bcd1cff ,maize #a1dgi1hia #a1hjg1fcf #a1bgg1jga #b1bbd1dei ,other sorts #h1jhe #c1dcb #hfh #a1aej --------- --------- --------- --------- ,quarters #f1ffg1cge #h1abd1bhj #g1icj1hga #i1fea1iff ,the meal and flour imported in the same years1 in cwts41 were as follows3-- #aheb4 #ahea4 #ahej4 #ahdi4 ,wheat #c1hhi1ehc #e1cad1dad #c1hai1ddj #c1cdi1hci ,barley #bab #cd #ajh #bbd ,oats #eba #b1ebe #e1iii #dj1bcj ,rye #ib #f1dic #ifd #ah1dfh ,indian corn #gdb #i1efa #aa1ccd #aja1fhc ,other sorts #ed #cdc #afc #a1cif --------- --------- --------- --------- ,cwts4 #c1hia1aie #e1cbc1cgj #c1hch1jjh #c1eaa1hdj ,before the famine in ,ireland the imports seldom reached #bj millions of bushels of grain and meal of all kinds4 ,in #ahdh our imports were about #fj millions2 in #ahdi1 #he millions2 in #ahej1 #fh millions2 in #ahea1 #ge millions2 in #aheb1 #fi millions1 with good wheat harvests2 showing the great shock received and the slowness of recovery4 ,with a rapidly increasing population in all parts of the civilized world1 the production of bread is obviously the first object to be sought after1 alike by the statesman and the peasant4 ,i scarcely dare give the calculation of the immense amount which would be realised in any great country1 by the single saving of a bushel to an acre1 in the quantity of seed ordinarily sown4 ,the same result would follow if an additional bushel could be produced in the annual average yield of the wheat crop4 ,according to ,mr4 ,h4 ,colman1 the annual amount of seed for wheat sown in ,france is estimated at #cb1dia1igh bushels4 ,if we could suppose a third of this saved1 the saving would amount to #aj1hfc1iei bushels per year4 ,suppose an annual increase of the crops of five bushels per acre1 this would give an increase of production of #ed1cai1gie bushels4 ,add this1 under improved cultivation1 to the amount of seed saved1 and the result would be #fe1ahc1ged bushels--,i believe under an improved agriculture this is quite practicable4 ,an eminent agricultural writer placed the average yield in ,england at eighteen bushels per acre2 some years since a man of sanguine temperament rated it at over thirty bushels4 ,in ,france it is stated1 in the best districts1 to average twenty-two bushels4 ,these evidently are wholly conjectural estimates4 ,in ,england ,mr4 ,colman states that fifty bushels per acre were reported to him on the best authority1 as the yield upon a large farm in a very favorable season4 ,more than eighty bushels have been returned1 upon what is deemed ample testimony1 to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 as the product of a single acre4 ,in ,france ,mr4 ,colman had1 upon credible authority1 reports of forty1 forty-four and seventy-two bushels4 ,it would be of immense importance to any government to know the exact produce grown in any county1 or district1 or in the whole country2 and this might be obtained by compelling1 on the part of the owner or cultivator1 an actual return of his crop2 but it is of little use to found such returns on estimates purely conjectural4 ,from the best statistical accounts that can be obtained1 the wheat annually produced in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland is #aaa1fha1cbj bushels4 ,in ,france it is #aih1ffj1jjj ,united ,states #ajj1ejc1hii ,the amount of seed ordinarily sown to the acre in ,france is from two to three bushels4 ,the return of crop for the seed sown is represented as in the best districts averaging #f4be for one2 in the least productive #e4dj for one4 ,my readers may be curious to know the calculations which have been made in some other countries in regard to this matter4 ,,central ,,europe ,increase ,countries4 ,year4 for seed sown4 ,spain #ahbh #f for one ,portugal #aghf #aj ,tuscany #aj ,plains of ,lucca #ae ,piedmont--,plains of ,marengo #d to five ,bologna #ae ,roman ,states--,pontine marshes #bj ,ordinary lands #h ,kingdom of ,naples--best districts #bj ,ordinary lands #h ,malta--the best lands #ch to #fd ,ordinary lands #bb1 #be1 #cj ,,northern ,,europe4 ,sweden and ,norway #ahch #d4ej for one ,denmark #ahbg #f ,russia1 a good harvest #ahai #e ---- province of ,tambof #ahba #d4ej ---- provinces north of #ej deg4 latitude #ahba #c ,poland #ahbf #h ,england #ahcj #i ,scotland #ahcj #h ,ireland #ahbe #aj ,holland #ahbh #g4ej ,belgium #ahbh #aa ,bavaria #ahbg #g to #h ,prussia #ahag #f ,austria #ahab #g4je ,hungary #ahab #d ,switzerland1 lands of an inferior quality #ahbe #c ,of a good quality1 #h2 of the best quality #ab ,france1 inferior lands1 #c2 best lands #f 7,statistique des ,cereales de la ,france par ,moreau de ,jonnes47 ,,statistics ,,of ,,wheat ,,culture4 ,as wheat forms the principal nutritious food of the world1 claiming the industrious application of labor over the greater part of ,europe1 throughout the temperate regions of ,asia1 along the northern kingdoms of ,africa1 and extending far into the northern and southern regions of the ,american continents2 as it has been cultivated from time immemorial1 and has produced in various climates and soils many varieties2 it is surprising that so little is generally known of the distinct varieties best adapted to particular climates--and that in ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states we have yet to learn the variety which will yield the largest and best amount of human food6 ,at the ,industrial ,exhibition in #ahea1 twenty-six premiums only were distributed for specimens of wheat2 of these1 five were awarded to ,british farmers1 three to ,france1 three to ,russia1 three to ,australia1 three to the ,united ,states1 and one each or severally to other nations4 ,some beautiful specimens of wheat were exhibited from ,south ,australia1 weighing seventy pounds a bushel2 which were eagerly sought after for seed wheat by our farmers and the colonists of ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,but as is well observed by ,professor ,lindley1 it has no peculiar constitutional characteristics by which it may be distinguished from other wheats4 ,its superior quality is entirely owing to local conditions2 to the peculiar temperature1 the brilliant light1 the soil1 and those other circumstances which characterise the climate of ,south ,australia4 ,all kinds of wheat contain water in greater or lesser quantities4 ,its amount is greater in cold countries than in warm4 ,in ,alsace from #af to #bj per cent42 ,england from #ad to #ag per cent42 ,united ,states from #ab to #ad per cent42 ,africa and ,sicily from #i to #aa per cent4 ,this accounts for the fact1 that the same weight of southern flour yields more bread than northern1 ,english wheat yields #ac lbs4 more to the quarter than ,scotch4 ,alabama flour1 it is said1 yields #bj per cent4 more than that of ,cincinnati4 ,and in general ,american flour1 according to one of the most extensive ,london bakers1 absorbs #h or #aj per cent4 more of its own weight of water in being made into bread than the ,english4 ,the ,english grain is fuller and rounder than the ,american1 being puffed up with moisture4 ,every year the total loss in the ,united ,states from moisture in wheat and flour is estimated at four to five million dollars4 ,to remedy this great evil1 the grain should be well ripened before harvesting1 and well dried before being stored in a good dry granary4 ,afterwards1 in grinding and in transporting1 it should be carefully protected from wet1 and the flour be kept from exposure to the atmosphere4 ,the best precaution is kiln-drying4 ,by this process the wheat and flour are passed over iron plates heated by steam to the boiling point4 ,from each barrel of flour #af or #ag pounds of water are thus expelled1 leaving still four or five per cent4 in the flour1 an amount too small to do injury4 ,if all the water be expelled1 the quality of the flour is deteriorated4 ,the mode of ascertaining the amount of water in flour is this2 take a small sample1 say five ounces1 and weigh it carefully2 put it into a dry vessel1 which should be heated by boiling water2 after six or seven hours1 weigh it2 its loss of weight shows the original amount of water4 ,the next object is to ascertain the amount of gluten4 ,gluten is an adhesive1 pasty mass1 and consists of several different principles1 though its constitution has not yet been satisfactorily determined4 ,it is chiefly the nutritious portion of the flour4 ,the remaining principles are mostly starch1 sugar and gum4 ,on an average their relative amount in #ajj parts are about as follows3-- ,average4 ,kobanga wheat1 the best4 ,water #ac #ab ,gluten #ab #af ,starch #fg #fj ,sugar and ,gum #h #h --- --- #ajj #ig ,professor ,beck examined thirty-three different samples from various parts of the ,united ,states and ,europe1 and he gives the preference to the ,kobanga variety from the south of ,russia4 ,there would probably be a prejudice against it in this country1 from the natural yellowish hue of its flour and bread4 ,the value of the vegetable food1 grain1 potatoes1 rice and apples exported from the ,united ,states within the past few years is thus set down3-- ,dollars4 #ahdg #eg1igj1cef #ahdh #be1ahe1fdg #ahdi #be1fdb1cfb #ahej #ae1hbb1bgc ,to this has to be added nine or ten million dollars more for tobacco1 #gb million dollars for cotton1 and #ahj1jjj dollars for hops and other minor agricultural staples--making the value of the raw vegetable exports about #ih million dollars4 ,there is further the value of the products of the forest1 timber1 ashes and bark1 tar1 c41 which are equal to nearly seven millions more1 as shown by the following figures3-- ,dollars4 #ahdg #e1bdh1ibh #ahdh #f1dae1big #ahdi #e1bfa1gff #ahej #f1eij1jcg ,it appears from an official document of the ,american ,treasury ,department1 that the average value of the breadstuffs and provisions annually exported from the ,united ,states from #ahba to #ahcf inclusive1 was #ab1gib1jjj dolls42 in #ahcg and #ahch1 about #i1fjj1jjj dolls42 from #ahci to #ahdf1 #af1agf1jjj dolls42 and for the last seven years as follows3-- ,dollars4 #ahdf #bg1gja1aba #ahdg #fh1gja1iba #ahdh #cg1dgb1gea #ahdi #ch1aee1ejg #ahej #bf1jea1cgc #ahea #ba1idh1fea #aheb #be1heg1jbg ,out of the wheat crop in the ,united ,states in #ahdf of #aaj million bushels raised1 #aj millions were used for seed1 starch1 c42 #gb consumed for food1 and #bh million exported4 ,the #dfj million bushels of ,indian corn raised1 were thus disposed of2 exported to foreign countries #bb million bushels2 sold to and consumed by non-producers1 #ajj million2 consumed on the farms and plantations of the producers for human and animal food1 seed1 c41 #cch million bushels4 ,the ,united ,states now produce about #abj million bushels of wheat1 and nearly #fjj million bushels of corn4 ,their surplus of wheat1 for export1 may be taken at #bj million bushels1 and of ,indian corn an almost unlimited quantity4 ,they export about one and a quarter million barrels of flour1 and about one million of bushels of wheat to other markets besides those of ,great ,britain or her ,north ,american colonies1 viz41 to ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 ,california and ,australia1 manufactured flour being the article required for these latter markets4 ,nearly four million bushels of ,indian corn1 and #cjj1jjj barrels of corn meal1 are exported from the ,united ,states to the ,west ,indies and other foreign markets4 ,from the abstracts of statistical returns prepared at the ,american ,census office1 it appears that ,pennsylvania1 in #ahej1 was the largest wheat producing ,state of the ,union4 ,i have had the curiosity to compare the most prominent ,states in respect to this crop1 and give them below1 with the crop of each1 as shown by the returns3-- ,bushels4 ,pennsylvania #ae1dhb1aia ,ohio #ad1ifg1jef ,virginia #ad1eaf1ijj ,new ,york #ac1jgc1jjj ,michigan #d1iah1jjj ,maryland #d1did1fhj ,that the ,united ,states could export #f1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat1 and its equivalent in flour in #ahde2 #ac1jjj1jjj in #ahdf1 #bf1jjj1jjj in #ahdg1 and then fell back to #ac1jjj1jjj in #ahdh1 and #f1jjj1jjj in #ahdi1 with their production of wheat constantly increasing throughout this period1 shows a wonderful elasticity1 and extensive home market4 ,if the price of wheat is higher in proportion than for corn1 the ,americans export the former and consume the latter2 if the demand for corn be also great1 they kill their hogs and export corn1 for the pork will keep4 ,if there be no great demand for either1 they eat their surplus wheat1 feed their hogs with the corn1 and export pork as having the greatest value in the least bulk4 ,,destination ,,of ,,flour ,,shipped ,,from ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,where ,,to4 #ahdg #ahdi #ahej #ahea ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,swedish ,west ,indies #g1cff #g1egc #h1geg #e1cae ,danish ditto #eb1aej #di1efh #dd1hjb #fj1ajb ,dutch ,east ,indies #a1aej #d1fbe #a1fjj #a1hgc ,dutch ,west ,indies #aa1chg #ag1bba #ah1ced #ai1bag ,holland and ,belgium #gc1hga #gbg #a1agg #eid ,england #b1dge1jgf #iec1hae #cfi1ggga1jjd1ghc ,gibraltar #bc1igd #f1bfe #b1edc #aie ,british ,east ,indies #c1jcd #gia #a1fdf #a1fjj ,british ,west ,indies #cbj1cfc #cjc1eea #bej1ggf #bid1gca ,british ,american ,colonies #bgb1bii #bid1hia #bdd1jgb #beb1chj ,france #fab1fda -- -- -- ,french ,west ,indies #bh1iff #e1eed #e1dhj #g1ijb ,hayti #dj1beg #aj1ijc #ca1ejd #dc1hfg ,cuba #ej1jdf #g1aed #e1ehd #e1faa ,spanish ,west ,indies #ag1ghj #f1dbi #g1jgd #b1bhe ,madeira #d1hef #d1ceh #f1cba #g1jjf ,cape de ,verds #a1fcd #eja #dee #hch ,mexico #e1ibh #aa1fcc #i1gcf #ad1ifd ,honduras #aj1fhf #d1abe #d1gbe #e1iab ,central ,america #eej #d1ahj #gdf #b1egc ,columbia #ci1djc #cb1bea #da1jgb #dg1dgg ,brazil #bgj1dgc #cbh1abi #bie1dae #cgd1gaa ,argentine ,republic #aj1fhd #f1eii #d1ija #bb1fab ,chili #e1igg #e1abi #b1hdh #d1cbg ,south ,america #b1abh -- #dj #bjj ,west ,indies #d1ijb #c1ihd #a1gjb #d1jgi ,africa #be1gbh #d1fag #e1ebd #e1dcj ,north-west ,coast #gfd #a1ahj #heh #b1eic ,other ports #bi1hff #ce1jag #ah1idi #ai1aeh ------------------------------------ ,total--,barrels #d1chb1difb1ajh1jaca1che1ddhb1bjb1cce ------------------------------------ ,average price #e4ie #e4ce #e4jj #d4gg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wheat1 where the soil and the climate are adapted to its growth1 and the requisite progress has been made in its culture1 is decidedly preferred to all other grains1 and1 next to maize1 is the most important crop in the ,united ,states1 not only on account of its general use for bread1 but for its safety and convenience for exportation4 ,it is not known to what country it is indigenous1 any more than any other cultivated cereals1 all of which1 no doubt1 have been essentially improved by man4 ,by some1 wheat is considered to have been coeval with the creation1 as it is known that upwards of a thousand years before our era it was cultivated1 and a superior variety had been attained4 ,it has steadily followed the progress of civilisation from the earliest times1 in all countries where it would grow4 ,in #aggf there was entailed upon ,america an enduring calamity1 in consequence of the introduction of the ,hessian or wheat fly1 which was supposed to have been brought from ,germany in some straw1 employed in the debarkation of ,howe's troops on the west end of ,long ,island4 ,from that point the insect gradually spread in various directions1 at the rate of twenty or thirty miles a year1 and the wheat of the entire regions east of the ,alleghanies is now more or less infested with the larva1 as well as in large portions of the ,states bordering on the ,ohio and ,mississippi1 and on the great ,lakes2 and so great have been the ravages of these insects that the cultivation of this grain has in many places been abandoned4 ,the geographical range of the wheat region in the ,eastern ,continent and ,australia1 lies principally between the #cjth and #fjth parallels of north latitude1 and the #cjth and #djth degrees south1 being chiefly confined to ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,greece1 ,turkey1 ,russia1 ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,poland1 ,prussia1 ,netherlands1 ,belgium1 ,great ,britain1 ,ireland1 ,northern and ,southern ,africa1 ,tartary1 ,india1 ,china1 ,australia1 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 and ,japan4 ,along the ,atlantic portions of the ,western ,continent1 it embraces the tract lying between the #cjth and #ejth parallels1 and in the country westward of the ,rocky ,mountains1 one or two more degrees further north4 ,along the west coast of ,south ,america1 as well as in situations within the torrid zone1 sufficiently elevated above the level of the sea1 and properly irrigated by natural or artificial means1 abundant crops are often produced4 ,the principal districts of the ,united ,states in which this important grain is produced in the greatest abundance1 and where it forms a leading article of commerce1 embrace the ,states of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 ,michigan1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,missouri1 ,wisconsin1 and ,iowa4 ,the chief varieties cultivated in the ,northern and ,eastern ,states are the white flint1 tea1 ,siberian1 bald1 ,black ,sea1 and the ,italian spring wheat4 ,in the middle and ,western ,states1 the ,mediterranean1 the ,virginia white ,may1 the blue stem1 the ,indiana1 the ,kentucky white bearded1 the old red chafet1 and the ,talavera4 ,the yield varies from ten to forty bushels and upwards per acre1 weighing1 per bushel1 from fifty-eight to sixty-seven pounds4 ,it appears that on the whole crop of the ,united ,states there was a gain during the ten years ending #ahej1 of #ae1fde1cgc bushels4 ,the crop of ,new ,england decreased from #b1jad1jjj to #a1jgh1jjj bushels1 exhibiting a decline of #icf1jjj bushels1 and indicating the attention of farmers has been much withdrawn from the culture of wheat4 ,grouping the ,states from the ,hudson to the ,potomac1 including the district of ,columbia1 it appears that they produced1 in #ahdi1 #ce1jhe1jjj bushels1 against #bi1icf1jjj in #ahci4 ,in ,virginia there was an increase of #a1abc1jjj bushels4 ,these ,states embrace the oldest wheat-growing region of the country1 and that in which the soil and climate seem to be adapted to promote the permanent culture of the grain4 ,the increase of production in the ten years has been #f1bgb1jjj bushels1 equal to #ae4f per cent4 ,the area tilled in these ,states is #cf1jjj1jjj acres1 only thirty per cent4 of the whole amount returned1 while the proportion of wheat produced is forty-six per cent4 ,in ,north ,carolina there has been an increase of #agj1jjj bushels1 but in the ,southern ,states generally there was a considerable decrease4 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 and ,wisconsin contributed to the general aggregate under the sixth census only #i1hjj1jjj bushels2 under the last they are shown to have produced upwards of #be1jjj1jjj bushels1 an amount equal to the whole increase in the ,united ,states for the period4 ,when we see the growth of wheat keeping pace with the progress of population in the oldest ,states of the ,union1 we need have no apprehension of a decline in the cultivation of this important crop4 ,the amount of flour exported from ,new ,jersey in #agea1 was #f1dbd barrels4 ,from ,philadelphia in #ageb1abe1ifj barrels1 besides #he1ejj bushels of wheat2 in #agfg1 #aih1haf barrels1 besides #cfg1ejj bushels of wheat2 in #agga1 #beb1gdd barrels4 ,from ,savannah1 in #agga1 #g1bjj lbs4 ,from ,virginia1 for some years annually preceding the revolution1 #hjj1jjj bushels of wheat4 ,the total exports of flour from the ,united ,states3 in #agia were #fai1fha barrels1 besides #a1jah1cci bushels of wheat2 in #ahjj1 #fec1jeb barrels1 besides #bf1hec bushels of wheat2 in #ahaj1 #gih1dca barrels1 besides #cbe1ibd bushels of wheat2 in #ahbj-ba1 #a1jef1aai barrels1 besides #be1hba bushels of wheat2 in #ahcj-ca1 #a1hjf1ebi barrels1 besides #djh1iaj bushels of wheat2 in #ahdj-da1 #a1eae1hag barrels1 besides #hfh1ehe bushels of wheat2 in #ahde-df1 #b1bhi1dgf barrels1 besides #a1fac1gie bushels of wheat2 in #ahdf-dg1 #d1chb1dif barrels1 besides #d1cii1iea bushels of wheat2 in #ahej-ea1 #b1bjb1cce barrels1 besides #a1jbf1gbe bushels of wheat4 ,in the ,london ,exhibition very little wheat was exhibited equal to that from the ,united ,states1 especially that from ,genessee county1 in the ,state of ,new ,york--a soft white variety1 to the exhibitor of which a prize medal was awarded by the ,royal ,commissioners4 ,the red ,mediterranean wheat exhibited from the ,united ,states attracted much attention4 ,the wheat from ,south ,australia was probably superior to any exhibited1 while much from the ,united ,states fell but little behind1 and was unquestionably next in quality4 ,from the ,second ,report on the ,breadstuffs of the ,united ,states1 made to the ,commissioner of ,patents1 by ,lewis ,c4 ,beck1 ,m4,d41 ,i am induced to make some extracts4 ,he states3-- ,the analyses of several samples1 the growth of various foreign countries1 have afforded me an opportunity of comparing the ,american and foreign wheats and flours4 ,with a few exceptions of peculiar varieties1 it will be seen from the results that with ordinary care the wheat of this country will compare advantageously with that of any other4 ,indeed1 on reviewing my analyses1 ,i question whether there is any part of the world where this grain is generally of a finer quality than it is in the ,united ,states4 ,but all the advantages which we possess in this respect will be of little avail so long as inferior and damaged breadstuffs are shipped from our ports4 ,in addition to the analyses which ,i have executed of the various samples of wheat and wheat flour according to the mode heretofore pursued1 ,i have performed a series of experiments for the purpose of settling the important question in regard to the relative value of the fine flour of wheat1 and the whole meal4 ,i have also consulted every work within my reach which could throw any light upon the different points that have presented themselves during the progress of the investigation4 ,the large number of samples of wheat and wheat flour which have been placed in my hands for examination1 have left me no time for the analysis of our other breadstuffs4 ,it cannot be denied that the amount shipped to foreign ports during #ahdi is considerably less than for the two preceding years4 ,in the meantime1 however1 a new and important market has been opened in our territories on the ,pacific4 ,it may also be safely affirmed that the causes for foreign demand1 and which must hereafter operate1 still remain4 ,these are the cheapness of land in this country1 and the peculiar adaptation of our soil and climate to the growth of the two important cereals1 wheat and maize4 ,another fact1 it seems to me1 is of sufficient interest in connection with this subject1 to be here noticed4 ,the failure of the potato crop in various parts of the world for several years past has engaged the attention of scientific and practical men4 ,unfortunately1 the nature of the blight which has seized upon this tuber has eluded the most careful inquiries2 but it has been shown by well-conducted analyses that potatoes at their late prices are the most expensive kind of farinaceous food4 ,this will be evident from the following statement3-- ,potatoes contain from about seventy to seventy-nine per cent4 of water1 while the proportion in wheat flour is from twelve to fourteen per cent2 and while the gluten and albumen in potatoes scarcely rise to one per cent41 in wheat flour the range may be set down at from nine to thirteen per cent4 ,again1 the non-nitrogenous principles are as about seventy-five per cent4 in wheat flour against fifteen or sixteen in potatoes4 ,in short1 whilst potatoes supply only twenty per cent4 of heat-forming and nutritious principles1 taken together1 wheat supplies more than seventy per cent4 of the former1 and more than tea of the latter4 ,the value of wheat to potatoes1 therefore1 is at least four to one2 or1 if wheat sells at fifteen shillings sterling per cwt41 potatoes to be equally cheap1 ought to sell at between three and four shillings4 ,the preceding results1 for which ,i am principally indebted to ,dr4 ,daubeny1 ,professor of ,chemistry at ,oxford1#be show that unless a great change occurs in the culture of the potato1 there must be an increased demand for other kinds of farinaceous food4 ,and it is worthy of notice that while this blight is one of the causes which bring to our shores the starving population of ,europe1 the raising of the cereals not only furnishes profitable employment to the emigrant1 but enables him to make the best return to those who are still obliged to remain4 ,adaptation of the soil and climate of the ,united ,states to the culture of the cereals4--,that the soil and climate of many portions of the ,united ,states are well adapted to the cultivation of the more important cereals1 is fully shown by the results of all the researches which have thus far been prosecuted4 ,i have indeed seen it asserted that the climate of ,england is the best for the cultivation of wheat1 and preferable to any in our country2 its humidity being the peculiarity to which this superiority is ascribed4#bf ,but this is undoubtedly the testimony of a too partial witness4 ,a recent statement by an ,english author is the result of a more correct knowledge of the facts4 ,he acknowledges that there is no ground for the expectation which has been entertained concerning the advantageous growth of maize in ,england4 ,nor is ours1 says he1 the most favorable country for wheat1 but skill in husbandry has overcome great difficulties4#bg ,the mistake on this subject may have originated from the occurrence of a larger and plumper grain in the more humid climate2 but analysis shows that the small grain raised in the hotter and drier air oftentimes greatly surpasses the former in its nutritious value4 ,russia is said to be the great rival of this country in the growth of wheat1 but ,i think it doubtful whether she possesses superior natural advantages2 and ,i am sure she will find it difficult to compete with the industry and skill which here characterize the operations of husbandry1 and the manufacture and shipment of breadstuffs4 ,export of sophisticated and damaged flour4--,it is a matter of deep regret that circumstances have occurred which must have a most injurious influence upon the trade in breadstuffs between this country and ,great ,britain4 ,i refer to the mixtures of damaged1 inferior1 and good kinds of flour1 which it appears on authentic testimony have been largely exported during the past year4 ,whether this fraudulent operation1 which is said to have been principally confined to ,new ,york1 is the result of the change in the inspection laws1 as some assert1 ,i am unable to say4 ,but it requires no great foresight to predict that1 if continued1 it will create a distrust of our breadstuffs in foreign ports which it will be very difficult to remove4 ,it cannot but excite the indignation of the many honorable dealers1 that the unworthy cupidity of a few individuals should lead to such disastrous consequences4 ,i have as yet been unable to obtain samples of these sophisticated flours1 and the only information which ,i have in regard to them is the general fact above stated1 and concerning the truth of which there can be little doubt4 ,no means should be left untried to devise some mode by which these frauds can be easily and certainly detected4 ,injury sustained by breadstuffs during their transport and shipment4--,during the past year1 ,i have had abundant means of determining the nature of the injuries which are often sustained by our breadstuffs in their transport from the particular districts in which they are grown and manufactured to our commercial depots1 and in their shipment to foreign ports4 ,as this is one of the most important points connected with these researches1 ,i have devoted much time to its investigation4 ,from the results of numerous analyses1 ,i think it may be safely asserted1 that of the wheat flour which arrives in ,england from various ports of the ,united ,states1 a large proportion is more or less injured during the voyage4 ,the same remark may be made in regard to many of the samples sent from the ,western ,states to the city of ,new ,york4 ,their nutritive value is considerably impaired1 and without more care than is usually exercised1 they are entirely unfit for export4 ,in my former report1 ,i adverted to one of the great causes of the deterioration which our breadstuffs often suffer during their transport and shipment4 ,this was the undue proportion of the great disorganizing substance1 water1 under the influence of what usually occurs1 viz41 an elevation of temperature above the ordinary standard4 ,my recent investigations have served only to strengthen these views4 ,there is no doubt that these are the conditions which cause the change of the non-nitrogenous principles into acids 7the lactic or acetic71 while a portion of the gluten is thus also consumed4 ,i have tried a series of experiments in reference to the action of moisture upon various samples of wheat and wheat flour4 ,the samples were placed for twelve hours in the oven of a bath with a double casing1 containing a boiling saturated solution of common salt1 the temperature of which was about #bbj deg4 ,fahr4 ,subjected to this test1 #ajj grains of ,milwaukie wheat lost #ab4aj grains4 ,guilderland 7,holland7 wheat lost #i4ce ,polish ,odessa red wheat #aj4ee ,soft ,russian wheat #h4ee ,kobanga wheat #h4ae ,after an exposure of the dried samples to the air for two or three days1 they increased in weight from one to three grains in the hundred originally employed4 ,nineteen different samples of wheat flour1 which lost by exposure to the above heat from ten to fourteen grains in the one hundred1 when similarly exposed to the air for eighteen hours1 again increased in weight from #h4dj to #aa4fj in the hundred grains originally employed4 ,these experiments show1 what might indeed have been predicted as to the general result1 that wheat in grain1 if not less liable to injury than flour1 yet if once properly dried1 suffers much less from a subsequent exposure to air and moisture4 ,it is now ascertained that in presence of a considerable proportion of water1 wheat flour under the influence of heat undergoes a low degree at least of lactic fermentation1 which will account for the souring of the ordinary samples when exposed to warm or humid climates4 ,the same result will inevitably follow from their careless exposure in the holds of vessels4 ,that this is particularly the case with many of the cargoes of wheat flour shipped to ,great ,britain1 there is little reason to doubt4 ,this may be partly owing to the great humidity of the ,english climate1 as the deterioration is observed as well in the flour which is the produce of that country as in that which is received from abroad4 ,it is stated by ,mr4 ,edlin1 quoted in an article on ,baking1 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 that1 as a general rule1 the ,london flour is decidedly bad4 ,the gluten generally wants the adhesiveness which characterizes the gluten of good wheat4 ,i have observed that1 in the analyses of some of the samples of damaged flour1 the proportions of what is set down under the head of glucose and dextrine are unusually large4 ,this is perhaps due to the change produced in the starch by the action of diastase1 and which may under certain circumstances be formed in wheat flour4 ,it would seem1 according to ,m4 ,gurin1 that starch may thus be acted on even at slightly elevated temperatures4 ,in one of his experiments1 at a temperature no higher than #fh deg4 ,fahr41 a quantity of starch1 at the end of twenty-four hours1 was converted into syrup1 which yielded seventy-seven per cent4 of saccharine matter4#bh ,it may be thought that ,i have overrated the importance of this subject1 but it is believed that a careful examination of the facts will relieve me from this charge4 ,i am now satisfied that1 if the proportion of water in our exported breadstuffs could be reduced to about five or six per cent41 one of the great causes of complaint in regard to them would be completely removed4 ,kiln-drying of breadstuffs1 and exclusion of air4--,the injury which our breadstuffs sustain by the large proportion of water can of course be prevented only by careful drying before shipment1 and by the employment of barrels rendered as impervious as possible to the influence of atmospheric moisture4 ,in my first report1 ,i have spoken favorably of the process of drying by steam1 according to the plan patented by ,mr4 ,j4,r4 ,stafford4 ,i still think this mode possesses great advantages over those previously followed1 and which almost always injured the quality of the grain or flour3 but from some trials which ,i have made during the past year1 it is inferred that the exposure to the heat is perhaps usually not sufficiently prolonged to answer the purpose intended by the operation4 ,i have often observed that samples of wheat flour1 after being exposed to the heat of the salt water-bath oven 7#bbj deg4 ,fahr47 for two or three hours1 lost weight by a further continuance of the heat4 ,an apparatus has been patented by ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,tower1 of ,clinton1 ,n4,y41 consisting of a cylinder of square apartments or tubes1 into which the grain or flour is introduced1 and subjected to heat while in rapid revolution4 ,i examined samples which had been subjected to this operation1 and ascertained that wheat flour1 originally containing #ad4hj per cent4 of water1 had the proportion reduced to #aj4be per cent41 while in wheat the proportion of water was reduced from #ad4ge to #h4ee per cent4 ,now it is probable that by either of the above modes1 and perhaps by many others1 the various kinds of breadstuffs may be brought to that degree of dryness which1 with ordinary care1 shall protect them from subsequent injury2 but in order to secure this advantage1 the operation must be carefully performed1 and experiments must be made to ascertain how long an exposure to heat is necessary to bring the sample to the proper degree of dryness1 and to determine whether in any respect its quality is impaired4 ,it has already been stated that absolute desiccation is not necessary1 even were it attainable2 but any process in order to be effective should reduce the proportion of water to about six1 or at most seven per cent4 ,i have heretofore adverted to the great care employed in the drying of grain in various foreign countries1 and to which the preservation of it for a great number of years is to be ascribed4 ,the operation is not conducted in the hurried manner which is here thought to be so essential1 but is continued long enough to effect the intended object4 ,thorough ventilation1 as well as the proper degree of drying1 and which is equally important1 is thus secured4 ,it is said that in ,russia the sheaves of wheat1 carried into the huts1 are suspended upon poles and dried by the heat of the oven4 ,the grain shrinks very much during this process1 but it is supposed to be less liable to the attacks of insects1 and preserves its nutritive qualities for many years4 ,during the winter1 it is sent to market4--7,the ,czar1 his ,court and ,people4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,maxwell1 p4 #bgb47 ,with all the necessary attention which may be paid to the proper drying of our breadstuffs intended for export1 another point is of equal importance1 viz41 the shipment in vessels rendered as impervious as possible to the influence of atmospheric moisture4 ,for however carefully and thoroughly the drying1 especially of wheat flour or maize meal1 may have been performed1 it will be nearly useless if the shipment is afterwards made in the barrels commonly employed4#bi ,and it is very certain that the transport and shipment of grain in bulk1 as usually conducted1 are attended with great loss4 ,this difficulty might be removed at a trifling expense by adopting the plan suggested in the preceding report1 and to which ,i would again respectfully call the attention of those who are engaged in this branch of trade4 ,i might here adduce a mass of testimony showing the importance of the matters just referred to1 but will only advert to the following statements1 which although made in allusion principally to maize1 are equally applicable to our other breadstuffs4 ,maize meal1 if kept too long1 is liable to become rancid1 and it is then more or less unfit for use4 ,in the shipments made to the ,west ,indies1 the meal is commonly kiln-dried1 to obviate as much as possible this tendency to rancidity4 ,when ground very fine1 maize meal suffers a change by exposure to the air4 ,it is oxygenated4 ,it is upon the same principle that the juice of an apple1 after a little exposure to the air1 is oxygenated1 and changes its character and taste4 ,if the flour could be bolted in vacuo1 it would not be changed4 ,intelligent writers speak of the necessity of preparing corn for exportation by kiln-drying as indispensable4 ,without that process1 corn is very liable to become heated and musty1 so as to be unfit for food for either man or beast4 ,the kiln-dried maize meal from the ,brandywine ,mills1 c41 made from the yellow corn1 has almost monopolized the ,west ,india trade4 ,this process is indispensable1 if we export maize to ,europe4 ,james ,candy says that from fifty years experience he has learned the necessity of this process with corn intended for exportation4 ,i have often found the corn from our country when it reached its destination1 ruined by heating on the voyage4 ,it had become musty and of little or no value4 ,kiln-drying is absolutely necessary to preserve it for exportation4 ,we must learn and practice the best mode of kiln-drying it4#cj ,the nutritious value of the whole meal of ,wheat1 as compared with that of the fine flour4--,the question whether what is called the whole meal of wheat1 or that which is obtained by the mixture of the bran1 contains more nutritious matter than the fine flour1 is one of great importance4 ,in my former report1 ,i adverted to the statement made in regard to it by ,professor ,j4,f4,w4 ,johnston1 and which seemed to be almost conclusive in favor of the value of the whole meal4 ,during the past year1 however 7#ahdi71 ,m4 ,eug4 ,peligot1 an eminent ,french chemist1 in an elaborate article ,on the ,composition of ,wheat1 to which more particular reference will be made hereafter1 combats the opinion that the bran is an alimentary substance4 ,he observes that the difficulty of keeping the bran in flour intended for the manufacture of bread of good quality appears to result much less from the presence of the cellulose 7one of the constituents of woody matter7 contained in wheat than that of the fatty matter4 ,this is found in the bran in a quantity at least triple of that which remains in the flour1 and the bolting separates it from the ground wheat not less usefully than the cellulose itself4#ca ,m4 ,millon objects entirely to the views of ,m4 ,peligot on this point1 and states some facts which are especially worthy of consideration4 ,he asserts that1 according to the views of the last named chemist1 the separation at most of one part of fatty matter sacrifices fifteen1 twenty1 and even twenty-five per cent4 of substances which are of the highest nutritive value4 ,this abstracts from wheat1 for the whole amount raised in ,france1 the enormous sum of about two hundred millions of pounds annually4 ,it seems that in ,france the question whether the bolting of flour is advantageous has always been decided in the most arbitrary manner4 ,an ordinance of ,louis ,,xiv41 issued in #afeh1 prohibited1 under a very heavy penalty1 the regrinding of the bran and its mixture with the flour2 this1 with the mode of grinding then in use1 caused a loss of more than forty per cent4--7,comptes ,rendus1 ,february #aith1 #ahdi47 ,in large cities and elsewhere1 there seems for some time to have been a growing prejudice against the use of brown bread2 and it is said that now nearly all the peasantry of ,france bolt their flour4 ,the increase of this practice1 according to ,m4 ,millon1 threatens the nation with an annual loss of from two to three hundred millions of francs4 ,if the bran was entirely valueless1 there would be a loss of more than one million a day4 ,it is quite difficult to determine the precise amount of bran which may have been removed from wheat1 for various samples contain such a different proportion of bran that in the one case a removal of ten per cent1 leaves more bran in the flour than a bolting of five per cent4 in another4 ,the following is an analysis of bran by ,m4 ,millon2 the sample being a soft ,french wheat grown in #ahdh3-- ,starch1 dextrine and sugar #ec4jj ,sugar of liquorice #a4jj ,gluten #ad4ij ,fatty matter #c4fj ,woody matter #i4gj ,salts 4#ej ,water #ac4ij ,incrusting matter and aromatic principles 7by difference7 #c4dj ------ #ajj4 ,the conclusion to be drawn from this analysis is1 that bran is an alimentary substance4 ,if it contains six per cent4 more of woody matter than the rough1 flour1 it has also more gluten1 double that of fatty matter1 besides two aromatic principles which have the perfume of honey1 and both of which are wanting in the fine flour4 ,thus by bolting1 wheat is impoverished in its most valuable principles1 merely to remove a few hundredths of woody matter4 ,the economical suggestion which springs from these views is1 that the bran and coarse flour should be reground and then mixed with the fine flour4 ,millon states that he has ascertained1 by repeated experiments1 that bread thus made is of superior quality1 easily worked1 and not subject to the inconvenience of bread manufactured from the rough flour1 such as is made in some places1 and especially in ,belgium4 ,opinions similar to those above noticed are entertained by ,professor ,daubeny4 ,the great importance attached to having bread perfectly white is a prejudice1 he says1 which leads to the rejection of a very wholesome part of the food1 and one which1 although not digestible alone1 is sufficiently so in that state of admixture with the flour in which nature has prepared it for our use4 ,after quoting the remarks of ,professor ,johnston on the same side of the question1 he adds1 that according to the experiments of ,magendie1 animals fed upon fine flour died in a few weeks1 whilst they thrived upon the whole meal bread4 ,brown bread1 therefore1 should be adopted1 not merely on a principle of economy1 but also as providing more of those ingredients which are perhaps deficient in the finer parts of the flour4--7,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,january #bgth1 #ahdi1 p4 #ec47 ,the remarks of ,dr4 ,robertson may also be here introduced4 ,the advantage1 he observes1 of using more or less of the coverings of the grain in the preparation of bread has often been urged on economical principles4 ,there can be no doubt that a very large proportion of nutritive matter is contained in the bran and the pollard2 and these are estimated to contain about one-fifth part of the entire weight of the wheat grain4 ,it is1 unquestionably1 so far wasteful to remove these altogether from the flour2 and in the case of the majority of people1 this waste may be unnecessary1 even on the score of digestibility4#cb ,this subject can also be rendered apparent to the eye4 ,if we make a cross section of a grain of wheat1 or rye1 and place it under the microscope1 we perceive very distinct layers in it as we examine from without inwards4 ,the outer of them belong to the husk of the fruit and seed1 and are separated as bran1 in grinding4 ,but the millstone does not separate so exactly as the eye may by means of the microscope1 not even as accurately as the knife of the vegetable anatomist1 and thus with the bran is removed also the whole outer layer of the cells of the nucleus1 and even some of the subjacent layers4 ,thus the anatomical investigations of one of these corn grains at once explains why bread is so much the less nutritious the more carefully the bran has been separated from the meal4#cc ,there can therefore be little doubt that the removal of the bran is a serious injury to the flour2 and ,i have presented the above array of evidence on this point in the hope of directing public attention to it here1 as has been done in various foreign countries4 ,after this1 it will easily be inferred that ,i am not disposed to look with much favor upon the plan proposed by ,mr4 ,bentz for taking the outer coating or bran from wheat and other grains previously to grinding4#cd ,independently of the considerations which have already been presented1 it is far from being proved1 as this gentlemen asserts1 that the mixture of the bran with the meal which results from the common mode of grinding is the chief cause of the souring of the flour in hot climates4 ,on the contrary1 the bran is perhaps as little liable to undergo change as the fine flour1 and then the moistening to which1 as ,i am informed1 the grain is subjected previously to the removal of the husk1 is still further objectionable1 and must be followed by a most carefully-conducted process of kiln-drying4 ,nutritious properties of various articles of food4--,there seems to be some difference of opinion in regard to the nutritious properties of various kinds of food4 ,it is generally1 however1 agreed that those which contain the largest proportion of nitrogenous matters are the most nutritious4 ,it is on this account that haricots1 peas1 and beans1 form1 in some sort1 substitutes for animal food4 ,tubers1 roots1 and even the seeds of the cereal grasses1 are but moderately nutritious4 ,if we see herbivorous animals fattening upon such articles1 it is because1 from their peculiar organisation1 they can consume them in large quantities4 ,it is quite doubtful whether a man doing hard work could exist on bread exclusively4 ,the instances which are given of countries where rice and potatoes form the sole articles of food of the inhabitants1 are believed to be incomplete4 ,boussingault states that in ,alsace1 for example1 the peasantry always associate their potato dish with a large quantity of sour or curdled milk2 in ,ireland with buttermilk4 ,the ,indians of the ,upper ,andes do not by any means live on potatoes alone1 as some travellers have said they do3 at ,quito1 the daily food of the inhabitants is lorco1 a compound of potatoes and a large quantity of cheese4 ,rice is often cited as one of the most nourishing articles of diet4 ,i am satisfied1 however1 after having lived in countries where rice is largely consumed1 that it is anything but a substantial1 or1 for its bulk1 nutritious article of sustenance4--7,rural ,economy1 ,amer4 edition1 p4 #dji47 ,these statements are further confirmed by the observations of ,m4 ,lequerri1 who1 during a long residence in ,india1 paid particular attention to the manners and customs of the inhabitants of ,pondicherry4 ,their food1 he states1 is almost entirely vegetable1 and rice is the staple2 the inferior castes only ever eat meat4 ,but all eat kari 7curry71 an article prepared with meat1 fish1 or vegetable1 which is mixed with the rice1 boiled in very little water4 ,it is requisite to have seen the ,indians at their meals to have any idea of the enormous quantity of rice which they will put into their stomachs4 ,no ,european could cram so much at a time2 and they very commonly allow that rice alone will not nourish them4 ,they very generally still eat a quantity of bread4#ce ,in regard to the proportion of nutritious matter contained in grains of various kinds1 it may be remarked that the tables which have been constructed as the results of various experiments are liable to an objection1 which will be more particularly adverted to under another head4 ,for example1 two substances1 by the process of ultimate analysis1 may exhibit the same proportion of nitrogenous matter1 and still differ very materially in their value as articles of food4 ,much depends on the digestibility of the form in which this matter is presented to the digestive organs4 ,a strong illustration is afforded in the case of hay1 the proportion of nutritive matter of which1 about #i4ga1 would certainly not represent its power of affording nourishment to the human system4 ,it is in truth quite impossible to arrive at any other than approximate results from the operations of chemistry1 as to the amount of nutriment contained in a given quantity or weight of any article of food4#cf ,it is perhaps not irrelevant to notice in this place some of the researches which have recently been made upon fermentation1 and particularly its effects in the manufacture of bread4 ,it appears that when this process is brought about by the addition of yeast or leaven to the paste or dough1 the character of the mass is materially altered4 ,a larger or smaller proportion of the flour is virtually lost4 ,according to ,dr4 ,william ,gregory the loss amounts to the very large proportion of one-sixteenth part of the whole of the flour4 ,he says1 ,to avoid this loss1 bread is now raised by means of carbonate of soda1 or ammonia and a diluted acid1 which are added to the dough1 and the effect is perfectly satisfactory4 ,equally good or better bread is obtained1 and the quantity of flour which will yield fifteen hundred loaves by fermentation1 furnishes sixteen hundred by the new method1 the sugar and fibrin 7gluten7 being saved4--7,outlines of ,chemistry1 p4 #ceb47 ,another author1 ,dr4 ,r4,d4 ,thomson1 states1 as the results of his experiments upon bread produced by the action of hydrochloric acid upon carbonate of soda1 that in a sack of flour there was a difference in favor of the unfermented bread to the amount of thirty pounds thirteen ounces1 or in round numbers1 a sack of flour would produce one hundred and seven loaves of unfermented bread1 and only one hundred loaves of fermented bread of the game weight4 ,hence it appears that in the sack of flour by the common process of baking1 seven loaves1 or six-and-a-half per cent1 of the flour are driven into the air and lost4--7,experimental ,researches on the ,food of ,animals1 c41 p4 #ahc47 ,the only objection to the general introduction of this process seems to be the degree of care and accuracy required in properly adjusting the respective qualities and quantities of acid and alkali1 and which could seldom be attained even by those who are largely engaged in the manufacture of bread4 ,i cannot leave this subject without adverting to a practice which has prevailed in ,england and ,france1 and perhaps also in this country1 of steeping wheat before sowing it in solutions of arsenic1 sulphate of copper1 and other poisonous preparations4 ,the result has been that injurious effects have often followed1 both to those who are employed in sowing such grain1 and to those who have used the bread manufactured from it4 ,the great importance of the subject led to the appointment of a commission at ,rouen1 in ,france1 in ,december1 #ahdb1 having for its object to determine the best process of preventing the smut in wheat1 and to ascertain whether other means less dangerous than those above noticed were productive of equally good results4 ,the labors of this commission extended over the years #ahdc-'dd-'de1 and the experiments were repeated two years following on the farm of ,mr4 ,fauchet1 one of the commission1 at ,boisquilaume1 in the department of the ,seine ,inferieure4 ,the results arrived at by this commission are--#ast4 ,that it is not best to sow seed without steeping4 #bnd4 ,that it is best to make use of the sulphate of soda and lime process1 inasmuch as it is more simple and economical1 in no way injurious to the health1 and yields the soundest and most productive wheat4 #crd4 ,that the use of arsenic1 sulphate of copper1 verdigris1 and other poisonous preparations1 should be interdicted by the government4--7,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,january #fth1 #ahdi1 pp4 #aj and #aa47 ,composition of wheat and wheat flour1 and the various modes of determining their nutritive value4--,in my former report it was stated that the analyses of the various samples of wheat1 the results of which were there given1 had been chiefly directed to the determining the amount of rough gluten which they contained4 ,my reasons for adopting this plan1 and the arguments in favor of its general accuracy1 as compared with other modes of analysis1 and especially that by which the ultimate composition is ascertained1 were also detailed4 ,a more full examination of this subject has served only to strengthen the opinion already expressed1 that for the great purpose to be answered by these researches1 the process which ,i have adopted is1 to say the least1 as free from objection as any other1 and if carefully and uniformly carried out1 will truly represent the relative values of the several samples of wheat flour4 ,as this is a matter of much consequence in a practical point of view1 ,i trust ,i shall be excused for introducing some additional facts in regard to it4 ,the term gluten was originally applied to the gray1 viscid1 tenacious1 and elastic matter1 which is obtained by subjecting wheat flour to the continuous action of a current of water4 ,but it appears that this is a mixture of fibrine and caseine1 with what is now called glutine1 and a peculiar oily or fatty matter4 ,now these substances may be separated from each other1 but the processes employed for this purpose are tedious1 and to insure accuracy the various solvents must be entirely pure--a point which1 especially in the case of alcohol and ether1 is not ordinarily easy to be attained4 ,this will be rendered still more evident by a reference to a ,french process1 which will hereafter be noticed4 ,but were it much less difficult in every case accurately to separate the constituents of gluten1 it would not1 in my opinion1 be of the least practical utility4 ,it is to the peculiar mechanical property of this gluten that wheat flour owes its superior power of detaining the carbonic acid engendered by fermentation1 and thus communicating to it the vesicular spongy structure so characteristic of good bread4#cg ,it may also be added1 that the results of more than one hundred trials have satisfied me that a diminution or loss of elasticity in the gluten is the surest index of the amount of injury which the sample of flour has sustained4 ,whether1 therefore1 the sample contains a certain proportion of nitrogen1 or whether it contains albumen1 fibrine1 and caseine in sufficient quantity1 it may still want the very condition which is essential to the manufacture of good bread4 ,my objection1 therefore1 to the mere determination1 however accurate1 of the proportion of nitrogen contained in wheat flour1 or of the various principles which form the gluten1 is1 that it does not represent the value of the various samples for the only use to which they are applied1 viz41 the making of bread4 ,the remarks of ,mulder1 the celebrated ,dutch chemist1 upon the subject of manures1 are so applicable to this point that ,i cannot refrain from quoting them4 ,it has1 he says1 become almost a regular custom to determine the value of manures by the quantity of nitrogen they yield by ultimate analysis4 ,this method is entirely erroneous2 for it is based upon the false principle1 that by putrefaction all nitrogeneous substances are immediately converted into ammonia1 carbonic acid1 and water6 ,but these changes sometimes require a number of years4 ,morphine1 for example1 is prepared by allowing opium to putrefy2 and the process for preparing leucin1 a substance which contains #aj4gb of nitrogen1 is to bring cheese into putrefaction4 ,cheese1 therefore1 does not perhaps in a number of years resolve itself into carbonic acid1 ammonia1 and water1 but produces a crystalline substance1 which contains no ammonia4 ,hence the proportion of nitrogen yielded by manures is not a proper measure of their value1 and therefore this mode of estimating that value ought to be discontinued4#ch ,we infer1 therefore1 that the proportion of nitrogen furnished by food of various kinds is not the true measure of their nutritious value1 and cannot for practical purposes take the place of that process by which the amount of rough gluten is determined4 ,no better illustration can be given of the uncertainty which attends the inferences drawn from the ultimate composition1 than the fact heretofore stated in regard to hay1 the nutritive value of which is placed in the tables containing the results of these analyses1 at a figure nearly the same as that of ordinary wheat flour4#ci ,in the paper on the ,composition of ,wheat1 by ,m4 ,peligot--7 ,comptes ,rendus1 ,february #eth1 #ahdi7--to which ,i have already referred1 the author gives the results of the various analyses which he has made1 and details the process he adopted4 ,aware of the complex and difficult nature of the examination as conducted by him1 he seems to doubt in regard to some of the results given in his tables ,in the fourteen samples which he analysed1 the proportion of water ranges from #ac4b to #ae4b1 which is a rather higher average than is yielded by our ,american samples1 especially those which have not been shipped across the ,atlantic4 ,of the nitrogenous matter1 soluble and insoluble1 the proportions range from #i4ij per cent1 to #ba4ej per cent42 the former being from a sample of very soft and white ,french wheat2 the latter from a very hard wheat with long grains1 from ,northern ,africa1 cultivated at ,verrires4 ,another sample from ,egypt yielded #bj4fj per cent1 of these nitrogenous matters1 both of which are very remarkable proportions4 ,in describing the process for ascertaining the amount of insoluble nitrogenous matters1 this author adverts to their estimation either by the quantity of nitrogen gas furnished1 or of ammonia formed1 the last being preferred for substances1 which1 like wheat1 contain only a few hundredths of nitrogen4 ,the results which he obtained by this method were compared with those yielded by the direct extraction of the gluten by softening the farina under a small stream of water4 ,these results1 says he1 differ but little from each other when we operate upon wheat in good condition1 although the gluten which we thus obtain holds some starch and fatty matter1 while the starch which is carried away by the water contains also some gluten4 ,the loss and gain1 as ,i have already explained1 and as has been proved by these and other comparisons1 are nearly balanced1 and the amount of rough gluten will therefore afford a fair exhibit of that of the insoluble nitrogenous matters in this grain4 ,the salts in the samples of wheat analysed by ,m4 ,peligot1 were either wanting or were in small proportion2 while the amount of fatty matter ranged from #a4jj to #a4hj and #a4ij per cent4 ,these results agree very well with those which ,i have obtained4 ,but it is probable that the proportion is liable to great variation1 inasmuch as it is inferred that the fatty matter originates from starch through its exposure to the general deoxidising influence which prevails in plants4#dj ,there are also many difficulties attending the accurate determination of this matter1 and which are probably the cause of the higher proportion often given4 ,it is properly remarked by ,m4 ,peligot that the ether employed in this process should be free from water1 and that the flour ought also to be very dry4 ,by neglecting these precautions1 we separate not only the fatty matter1 but also a certain amount of matters soluble in the water1 which is furnished as well by the wheat as by the ether4 ,it would not1 ,i think1 be difficult to point out some incorrect views entertained by this chemist1 and more especially those which relate to the fatty matter4 ,some of his processes for the separation of various substances1 if not faulty1 require so many conditions for success as to render the results1 at least in other hands1 exceedingly uncertain4 ,but the capital error which he has committed is that concerning the bran1 already adverted to1 which he considers injurious to the flour1 chiefly in consequence of the large proportion of fatty matter which it contains4 ,in regard to the soluble nitrogenous matter usually called albumen1 from its resemblance to the animal substance of the same name1 ,i have to remark that in my trials the proportion has been found to be considerably less than that often given in tables of the composition of wheat4 ,in one sample it was found to be as low as #j4ae per cant41 in another it did not rise above #j4bj per cent4 ,the amount was usually so inconsiderable1 that ,i did not think it worth while to retard the progress of the work by following out processes which could add little to the utility of these investigations4 ,although much time and labor have been expended upon the analyses of the ash of plants1 ,i have but slight confidence in the results heretofore given4 ,the difficulties which attend the obtaining the ash in a proper condition1 and the fact that the products of all the organs and parts of the plants have been analysed together1 must necessarily impair the accuracy of the experiments1 and render the inferences drawn from them of uncertain value4 ,much1 indeed ,i may say almost everything1 still remains to be done in this department of agricultural chemistry4 ,weight of wheat as an index to its value4--,much has been said in regard to the relative weights of the bushel of wheat of different varieties or under different modes of culture4 ,as ordinarily determined1 this weight ranges from fifty-six to sixty-five or sixty-six pounds1 being in a few cases set down somewhat higher4 ,it is said also that the bushel of wheat weighs less in some years than it does in others1 and that the difference often amounts to two1 or three1 or even four pounds4 ,though this may seem of comparatively little consequence for a few bushels1 yet1 for the aggegate of the wheat crop of the ,united ,states1 or for a ,state1 or even a county1 it makes a great difference4 ,thus1 were we to estimate the product of one year in the ,united ,states at one hundred and ten million bushels1 weighing fifty-six pounds to the bushel1 and another year at one hundred and eight million bushels1 weighing sixty-two pounds1 the difference in favor of the latter1 though the least in quantity1 would amount to five hundred and thirty-six million pounds in weight1 or more than one million and a quarter of barrels of flour4--7,report of the ,american ,commissioner of ,patents for #ahdg1 p4 #aag47 ,it may be remarked1 however1 that it is not after all so easy to determine with accuracy the weight of a bushel of wheat1 nor to decide upon the circumstances which have an influence in increasing the density of a grain of wheat4 ,if the microscopical representations of wheat are to be relied on1 it is probable that the increase in the density of wheat depends upon the increase in the proportion of gluten4 ,i have found in several cases that1 the proportion of water being the same1 those samples of wheat which contain the largest proportion of gluten exhibit the highest specific gravity1 or1 in other words1 will yield the greatest number of pounds to the bushel4 ,but the weight of wheat will be influenced by the proportion of water which it contains2 the drier the grain1 the greater is its density2 a fact which may account for the difference which has been observed in the weight of wheat in different seasons4 ,if this is the cause1 the calculation above given in reference to the ,united ,states is fallacious--but if the amount of gluten is actually1 instead of relatively1 increased by peculiarities in seasons1 it is no doubt correct4 ,i have devised a series of experiments to test the accuracy of the statements made upon this point1 but have not yet had leisure to complete them4 ,general conditions from the analyses of wheat flour4--,the large number of analyses which ,i have made1 and the uniformity of the processes pursued1 enable me to draw some general conclusions which it may be useful to present in a connected form4 #a4 ,in the samples from the more northern wheat-growing ,states1 there seems to be little difference in the proportion of nutritive matter that can be set down to the influence of climate4 ,thus1 the yield of the wheat from ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,iowa1 is scarcely inferior to that from ,new ,york1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 although the two latter are somewhat farther south4 ,local causes1 and more especially the peculiarities of culture and manufacture1 have more influence1 within these parallels of latitude1 than the difference of mean temperature4 #b4 ,the samples from ,new ,jersey1 ,lower ,pennsylvania1 the southern part of ,ohio1 ,maryland 7probably ,delaware71 ,virginia1 the ,carolinas1 and ,georgia1#da contain less water and more nutritive matter than those from the ,states previously enumerated4 ,that the samples from ,missouri1 which is included within nearly the same parallels of latitude as ,virginia1 do not exhibit so high an average of nutritive matter as those from the latter ,state1 must be ascribed principally to a want of care in the management of the crop1 and perhaps also in the manufacture of the flour4 ,virginia flour1 for obvious reasons1 maintains a high reputation for shipment4 #c4 ,the difference in the nutritive value of the various samples of wheat depends greatly upon the variety1 and mode of culture1 independently of climate4 ,the correctness of the former statement is shown by the much larger proportions of gluten yielded by many of the samples of hard wheat from abroad1 the ,oregon wheat in ,virginia1 and a variety of ,illinois wheat1 c4 ,and in regard to the effect of particular modes of culture1 the various analyses of ,boussingault may be referred to1 and that in my table of a sample from ,ulster county1 ,new ,york4 #d4 ,the deterioration of many of the samples of wheat and wheat flour arises in most cases from the presence of a too large per centage of water4 ,this is often the result of a want of proper care in the transport1 and is the principal cause of the losses which are sustained by those who are engaged in this branch of business4 #e4 ,there seems to be little doubt that a considerable portion of the wheat and wheat flour1 as well as of other breadstuffs1 shipped from this country to ,england1 is more or less injured before it reaches that market4 ,it is also shown that this is mostly to be ascribed to the want of care above noticed1 and to the fraudulent mixture of good and bad kinds4 ,the remedy in the former case is the drying of the grain or flour before shipment1 by some of the modes proposed1 and the protection of it afterwards as completely as possible from the effect of moisture4 ,the frauds which are occasionally practised should be promptly exposed1 and those who are engaged in them held up to merited reproach4 #f4 ,it has been fully shown1 by the results of many trials1 that the flour obtained by the second grinding of wheat1 or the whole meal1 contains more gluten than the fine flour4 ,hence the general use of the latter1 and the entire rejection of the bran1 is wasteful1 and ought in every way to be discouraged4 #g4 ,it cannot but be gratifying to us that the average nutritive value of the wheat and wheat flour of the ,united ,states is shown by these analyses to be fully equal to1 if not greater than1 that afforded by the samples produced in any other part of the world4 ,and it will1 in my opinion1 be chiefly owing to a want of proper care and of commercial honesty1 if the great advantages which should accrue to this country from the export of these articles are either endangered or entirely lost4 ,,table ,,exhibiting ,,the ,,per ,,centage ,,composition ,,of ,,various ,,samples ,,of ,,american ,,and ,,foreign ,,wheat ,,flour1 ,,by ,,lewis ,c4 ,,beck1 ,m4,d4 7#ahdi74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,gluten ,glucos ,kind of ,wheat ,flour1 and from and dextrine1 whence obtained ,wateralbumen,starch c4 ,bran ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,country ,mills1 ,new ,jersey #ab4ge #aa4ee #fe4ie #h4aj 4#fe ,west ,jersey ,wheat #ab4hj #ab4cb #fi4dh #e4ij 4#ej ,white ,wheat1 ,new ,jersey #aa4ee #ab4fj #ff4he #h4ej 4#ej ,pennsylvania ,wheat #aa4ij #ac4af #ff4bj #g4be 4#ge ditto ditto #ac4ce #ab4gc #ff4ij #f4ej 4#eb ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ac4ce #ad4gb #ga4bh 4#fe ,pelham ,wheat1 ,ulster ,co41 ,n4,y4 #aj4gi #ac4ag #fg4gd #g4fj 4#gj ,pure ,genesee ,wheat #ac4bj #aa4je #ge4bj 4#ee ,ohio ,wheat1 fine #ab4he #ab4be #gc4ij #a4jj ,ohio ,wheat1 superfine #ac4jj #i4aj #gg4hj 4#aj ,winter ,wheat1 ,ohio #ac4aj #aa4ef #ff4hd #g4ij 4#fj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ac4je #ab4fi #gc4fa 4#fe ,michigan ,wheat1 superfine #ac4be #aa4aj #gd4hj 4#he ,michigan ,wheat #ab4be #aj4jj #fg4gj #h4ge 4#ge ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ab4ge #aa4bj #ff4jj #h4ej #a4je ,illinois ,wheat #ab4gc #ad4fa #fe4bj #f4de 4#hj ,magnolia ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #ac4ac #aj4bg #fi4ge #f4ae 4#ce ,mound ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ac4dh #aj4ec #fg4ce #h4ae 4#bj ,walsh's ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ab4gj #aj4fc #fi4dj #f4fe 4#dj ,washington ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ab4hh #aa4jj #fh4fe #g4bg 4#bj ,missouri ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ac4jj #aj4df #fg4gi #h4ce 4#dj ,o',fallan's ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ab4he #aa4be #fh4bd #g4jj 4#ff ,phoenix ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ac4bb #aj4aj #fh4gj #g4cj 4#ae ,nonantum ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ab4aj #aa4jb #fh4fj #g4ic 4#ce ,franklin ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #ab4be #aj4bi #fi4he #g4bf 4#ce ,eagle ,mill1 ,st4 ,louis #aa4jj #aj4ae #fi4ej #h4fe 4#bj ,winter ,wheat1 ,missouri #ad4jj #i4cj #gj4je #f4cj 4#ce ,wisconsin ,wheat #ab4hj #ac4bj #fh4ij #f4ej 4#gj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ab4hj #ac4df #gb4ed #a4bj ,maryland ,wheat #ac4jj #ab4cj #ff4fe #g4aj 4#fe ,richmond ,city ,mill #aa4gj #ac4jj #fg4ej #f4ij 4#ej ,haxall and ,co41 ,richmond1 ,va4 #aa4dj #ab4hj #fh4ej #f4fj 4#ce ,virginia ,wheat1 superfine #ab4je #ab4ie #gd4ej 4#ej ,haxall and ,co41 best brand1 '#di #aa4dj #ac4be #fh4bj #f4be 4#fj ,haxall and ,co41 #bnd brand1 '#di #aa4jj #ac4bj #ge4fj 4#bj ,richmond ,city ,mill1 '#di #aa4ij #aj4ej #gj4jj #g4aj 4#ej ,oregon ,white ,wheat1 ,va4 #ab4hj #ad4hj #ga4cj #a4aj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ac4he #ad4ej #fe4ae #e4ij 4#fj ,gallego ,mill1 ,richmond1 ,va4 #aa4ej #ac4ej #fh4ce #f4jj 4#fe ,ship ,brandywine1 ,liverpool #ac4ch #aj4fb #fg4fj #g4ge 4#fe ,ship ,fanchon1 ,liverpool #ac4hc #aa4ch #fg4de #f4cd #a4jj ,ship ,new ,world1 ,liverpool #ac4fe #aa4fj #fe4hj #g4gj 4#fe ,ship ,juniata1 ,liverpool #ab4ej #ad4ad #fd4bj #h4cf 4#hj ,ship ,stephen ,lurman1 ,liverpool #aa4fe #ac4ah #fd4ej #i4ee 4#fh ,ship ,leila1 ,liverpool #ac4bb #ac4ah #fd4fe #h4jj 4#ie ,ship ,oxenbridge1 ,liverpool #ac4ij #aj4ac #fh4db #g4cj 4#be bran ,ship ,italy1 ,liverpool #ab4id #aj4fj #fh4ef #g4ij ,ship ,west ,point1 ,liverpool #ad4cj #ab4cj #fc4jj #i4de 4#ie ,ship ,w4,h4 ,harbeck1 ,liverpool #ac4ec #aj4ah #ff4ie #h4hj 4#cj ,ship ,princeton1 ,liverpool #ac4dj #aa4eb #fe4fj #g4ij 4#he ,ship ,columbus1 ,liverpool #ac4ej #aj4de #ff4de #h4ej #a4jc ,ship ,russell ,glover1 ,liverpool #ac4de #aj4dg #ff4bj #h4hc #a4je ,ship ,south ,carolina1 ,liverpool #ac4hj #i4jj #gj4hj #e4ie 4#ch ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ac4cj #i4de #gf4ij 4#ce ,ship ,cambridge1 ,liverpool #ad4ej #h4eb #gj4fj #e4dj 4#dj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ad4aj #i4aj #gj4ee #e4de 4#bj ,ship ,columbus1 ,liverpool #ad4he #h4dg #gf4dh 4#bj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ad4ae #i4jj #gf4fj 4#be ,ship ,ashburton1 ,liverpool #ac4ee #aa4fh #fi4bb #e4cj 4#be ,wheat grown in ,canada ,west #ab4hj #g4bc #gd4ab #e4aj 4#ge ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ab4fj #h4de #gh4ee 4#dj ,chilian ,wheat #ab4dd #i4de #fg4hj #h4cg #a4cj ,chilian ,wheat #ab4he #h4fe #ga4fj #f4aj 4#fj bran ,valparaiso ,wheat #ab4ej #ad4ee ,french ,wheat #ac4bj #i4he #fi4jj #g4fe 4#cj ,spanish ,wheat #ac4ej #aj4cj #fh4ij #g4jj 4#cj ,canivano ,wheat #aa4cc #af4ce #fc4aj #f4ej #b4cj ,canivano ,wheat #aa4ae #ae4dj #fg4be #e4gj 4#fj ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #ab4fj #ah4gj #fg4jj #a4gj ,hard wheat1 grown near ,malaga #aj4hg #ab4ae #fd4ch #ab4fj lactic acid ditto ditto 7#bnd grinding7 #aj4jj #ad4ej #fj4bj #ae4cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,there is no crop1 the skilful and successful cultivation of which on the same soil1 from generation to generation1 requires more art than is demanded to produce good wheat4 ,to grow this grain on fresh land1 adapted to the peculiar habits and wants of the plant is an easy task4 ,but such fields1 except in rare instances1 fail sooner or later to produce sound and healthy plants1 which are little liable to attacks from the malady called rust1 or which give lengthened ears or heads1 well filled with plump seeds4 ,having long resided in the best wheat-growing district in the ,union1 the writer has devoted years of study and observation to all the influences of soil1 climate1 and constitutional peculiarities1 which affect this bread-bearing plant4 ,it is far more liable to smut1 rust1 and shrink in some soils than in others4 ,this is true in western ,new ,york1 and every other section where wheat has long been cultivated4 ,as the alkalies and other fertilizing elements become exhausted in the virgin soils of ,america1 its crops of wheat not only become smaller on an average1 but the plants fail in constitutional vigor1 and are more liable to diseases and attacks from parasites and destructive insects4 ,defects in soil and improper nutrition lead to these disastrous results4 ,soils are defective in the following particulars3 #a4 ,they lack soluble silica1 or flint in an available form1 with which to produce a hard glassy stem that will be little subject to rust4 ,soluble flint is never very abundant in cultivated soils2 and after they have been tilled some years1 the supply is deficient in quantity4 ,it is not very difficult to learn with considerable accuracy the amount of silica which rain-water as it falls on the earth will dissolve out of #a1jjj grains of soil in the course of eight or ten days4 ,hot water will dissolve more than cold2 and water charged with carbonic acid more than pure water which has been boiled4 ,the experiments of ,prof4 ,rogers of the ,university of ,virginia1 as published in ,silliman's ,journal1 have a direct bearing on this subject4 ,the researches of ,prof4 ,emmons of ,albany1 in his elaborate and valuable work on ,agriculture1 as a part of the ,natural ,history of ,new ,york1 show that #aj1jjj parts of soil yield only from one to three parts of soluble silica4 ,the analyses of ,dr ,jackson1 as published in his ,geological ,survey of ,new ,hampshire1 give similar results4 ,earth taken from an old and badly exhausted field in ,georgia1 gave the writer only one part of soluble flint in #ajj1jjj4 ,what elements of crops rain water1 at summer heat1 will dissolve out of ten or twenty pounds of soil1 in the course of three months1 is a point in agricultural science which should be made the subject of numerous and rigid experiments4 ,in this way1 the capabilities of different soils and their adaptation to different crops may be tested1 in connection with practical experiments in field culture1 on the same kind of earth4 ,few wheat-growers are aware how much dissolved flint an acre of good wheat demands to prevent its having coarse1 soft1 and spongy stems1 which are anything but a healthy organization of the plant4 ,in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 vol4 #g1 there is an extended ,report on the ,analysis of the ,ashes of ,plants1 by ,thomas ,way1 ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,royal ,agricultural ,college1 ,cirencester1 which gives the result of sixty-two analyses of the ash of wheat1 from as many samples of that grain1 mostly grown on different soils and under different circumstances4 ,in this report are given the quantity of wheat per acre1 the weight of straw cut close to the ground to the acre1 and also that of the chaff4 ,these researches show1 that from ninety-three to one hundred and fifty pounds of soluble flint are required to form an acre of wheat2 and ,i will add from my own investigations1 that three-fourths of this silica is demanded by nature during the last sixty days preceding the maturing of the crop4 ,this is the period in which the stem acquires its solidity and strength1 and most of its incombustible earthy matter4 ,the quantity of this varies from three to fifteen per cent4 of the weight of the straw4 ,prof4 ,johnston and ,sir ,humphry ,davy give instances in which more than fifteen per cent4 of ash was found2 and ,prof4 ,way gives cases where less than three per cent4 were obtained4 ,the mean of forty samples was four and a half per cent4 ,dr4 ,sprengel gives three and a half as the mean of his analyses4 ,m4 ,boussingault found an average of seven per cent4 ,as flint is truly the bone of all the grass family1 imparting to them strength1 as in cane1 timothy1 corn1 oats1 rye1 rice1 millet1 and the proportion of this mineral varies as much in wheat-straw1 as bone does in very lean and very fat hogs or cattle4 ,a young growing animal1 whether a child or a colt1 that is kept on food which lacks bone-earth1 7phosphate of lime17 will have soft cartilaginous bones4 ,nature cannot substitute iron or any other mineral in the animal system1 out of which to form hard strong bones2 nor can any other mineral in the soil perform the peculiar function assigned to silica in the vital economy of cereal plants4 ,to protect the living germs in the seeds of wheat1 corn1 oats1 rye1 barley1 c1 the cuticle or bran of these seeds contains considerable flint4 ,the same is true of chaff4 ,the question naturally arises1--,how is the farmer to increase the quantity of soluble silica or flint in his soil8 ,this is a question of the highest practical importance4 ,there are three principal ways in which the object named may be attained4 ,first1 by keeping fewer acres under the plough4 ,land in pasture1 if well managed1 will gain its fertility1 and in the process accumulate soluble silica in the surface soil4 ,in this way more wheat and surer crops may be made by cultivating a field in wheat two years than four or six4 ,if the field in the mean time be devoted to wool-growing1 butter or cheese-making1 or to stock-raising1 particular care must be taken to make great crops of grass or clover to grow on the land1 and have all the manure1 both solid and liquid1 applied to its surface4 ,there are many counties in ,england that yield an average of thirty-two bushels of wheat per acre for ten crops in succession4 ,there are but few of the old counties in the ,united ,states which average the half of that quantity3 and yet ,america has greater agricultural capabilities than that of ,great ,britain4 ,another way to increase soluble silica in the soil1 is to grow such crops1 in rotation with wheat culture1 as will best prevent the loss of dissolved flint1 at any time by leaching and washing1 through the agency of rain water4 ,this remark is intended to apply more particularly to those large districts devoted to cotton and tobacco culture1 plants that take up no considerable amount of silica1 and which by the constant stirring of the earth1 and the clean tillage which they demand1 favor the leaching of the soil4 ,to keep too much of a plantation of these crops1 is to lessen its capabilities for producing good crops of corn1 wheat1 and barley1 at a small expense4 ,corn plants1 well managed1 will extract more pounds of silica in three or six months from the soil1 than any other4 ,as not an ounce of this mineral is needed in the animal economy of man or beast1 it can all be composted in cornstalks1 blades1 and cobs1 or in the dung and urine derived from corn1 and be finally reorganized in the stems of wheat plants4 ,corn culture and wheat culture1 if skilfully and scientifically conducted1 go admirably together4 ,of the two1 more bread1 more meat1 and more money can be made from the corn than from the wheat plant in this country4 ,but so soon as what is called high farming in ,england1 shall be popular in the ,united ,states1 the crops both of wheat and corn grown here will demonstrate how little we appreciate the vast superiority of our climate for the economical feeding and clothing of the human family1 over that of our mother country4 ,in several counties in ,england1 it takes from twelve to fourteen months to make a crop of wheat1 after the seed is put into the ground4 ,at or near the first of ,december1 #ahdg1 ,mr4 ,m4,b4 ,moore1 of ,augusta1 ,ga41 sowed a bushel of seed wheat on an acre and a half of ground1 which gave him over thirty bushels by the middle of ,may following4 ,this ground was then ploughed1 and a fine crop of hay made and cut in ,july4 ,after this1 a good crop of peas was raised1 and harvested in ,october1 before it was time to seed with wheat again1 as was done4 ,while the mean temperature of ,england is so low1 that corn plants will not ripen1 in ,georgia one can grow a crop of wheat in the winter1 and nearly two crops of corn in succession in the summer and autumn1 before it is time to sow wheat again4 ,no writer1 to my knowledge1 has done full justice to the vast agricultural resources of the southern portion of the ,american confederacy4 ,but there is much of its soil which is not rich in the elements of bread4 ,nothing but the careful study of these elements1 and of the natural laws by which they are governed1 can remedy defects in wheat culture anywhere1 but especially on very poor land4 ,all alkaline minerals1 such as potash1 soda1 lime1 ammonia1 and magnesia1 hasten the solution of the several insoluble compounds of silica in the soil4 ,this fact should be remembered by every farmer4 ,to undertake an explanation of the various ways in which alkalies1 oxides1 and acids act and re-act upon each other in the surface of the earth1 when subject to tillage1 would be out of place in this outline view of wheat-growing in the ,united ,states4 ,i may state the fact1 however1 as ascertained by many analyses1 that a cubic foot of good wheat soil in the valley of the ,genesee1 contains twenty times more lime than do the poorest soils in ,south ,carolina and ,georgia4 ,the quantity of gypsum1 bone-earth1 and magnesia1 available as food for plants1 varies in an equal degree4 ,not only lime1 but phosphoric acid1 potash1 and magnesia are lacking in most soils1 if one desires to raise a large crop of wheat1 and have the seeds of the grain weigh as much as the straw4 ,in a number of the specimens of wheat analyzed by ,prof4 ,way1 when cut close to the roots1 the dry wheat outweighed the dry straw4 ,having secured the growth of a bright1 hard1 glassy stem1 the next thing is to develop a long1 well-filled ear4 ,to this end1 available ammonia or nitrogen1 phosphorus1 potash1 and magnesia are indispensable4 ,ammonia 7spirits of hartshorn7 is necessary to aid in forming the combustible part of the seed4 ,the other ingredients named are required to assist in making the incombustible part of the grain4 ,in #ajj parts of the ash of wheat1 there are the following substances1 viz43-- ,silica #b4bh ,phosphoric acid #de4gc ,sulphuric acid #j4cb ,lime #b4jf ,magnesia #aj4id ,peroxide of iron #b4jd ,potash #cb4bd ,soda #d4jf ,chloride of sodium #j4bg ----- ,total #ii4id ,the quantity of ash in wheat varies from #a to #b per cent42 the average is about #a4fi4 ,the amount of phosphoric acid in any given quantity of the ash of wheat varies from forty to fifty per cent4 of the same4 ,seeds that have a thick cuticle or bran1 and little gluten1 contain a smaller per centage of phosphoric acid1 and more silica4 ,about one-third of the ash is potash2 in nearly all cases magnesia varies from nine to fourteen per cent42 lime from one and a half to six per cent4 ,peroxide of iron is seldom as abundant as in the ash above given1 and the same is true of soda4 ,chloride of sodium is common salt1 and exists in a small quantity4 ,salt is beginning to be much used as a fertilizer on wheat lands in western ,new ,york4 ,it operates indirectly to increase the crop4 ,the following may be taken as about the average composition of the ash of wheat-straw4 ,it is ,specimen ,no4 #dj1 in the tables of ,prof4 ,way1 and ,i copy verbatim all that is said upon the subject3 ,soil1 sandy2 subsoil1 stone and clay2 geological formation1 silurian2 drained2 eight years in tillage2 crop1 after carrots1 twenty tons per acre2 tilled ,december1 #ahde2 heavy crop2 mown1 ,august #abth2 carried1 ,august #bjth2 estimated yield1 forty-two bushels per acre2 straw long1 grain good1 weight sixty-two pounds to the bushel4 ,length of straw1 forty-two inches4 ,relation of ,grain1 ,straw and ,chaff4 ,actual quantities4 ,per centage4 ,grain #afcc lbs4 #de4ae ,straw #agcb #dg4hi ,chaff #bej #f4if ---- ,total #cfae lbs4 ,specific gravity of grain #a4cif ,weight of grain per acre #bfjd lbs4 straw #b1gge #c_/ajths4 chaff #dja #a_/fth4 ,mineral ,matter in an ,acre4 ,wheat #dd lbs4 ,straw #aac ,chaff #dg #a_/fth4 ----------- ,total #bjd #g_/ajths4 ,analysis of the ,ash of the ,grain4 ,per centage4 ,removed from an acre4 lbs4 ozs4 ,silica #e4fc #b #h ,phosphoric acid #dc4ih #ai #h ,sulphuric acid 4#ba #j #a #a_/fth4 ,lime #a4hj #j #ab #h_/ajths4 ,magnesia #aa4fi #e #c #b_/ajths4 ,peroxide of iron 4#bi #j #b ,potash #cd4ea #ae #e #f_/ajths4 ,soda #a4hg #j #ac #c_/ajths4 ----- --- ---------- ,total #ii4ih #dd #f l_/#ajths4 ,analysis of ,straw with its proportion of ,chaff4 ,per centage4 ,removed per acre4 lbs4 ozs4 ,silica #fi4cf #aaa #a #g_/ajths4 ,phosphoric acid #e4bd #h #f #g_/ajths4 ,sulphuric acid #d4de #g #b #b_/ajths4 ,lime #f4if #aa #b #b_/bjths4 ,magnesia #a4de #b #e ,peroxide of iron 4#bi #a #b ,potash #aa4gi #ah #ad ,soda none none4 ,chloride of sodium ----- --- ----------- ,total #ii4ed #afj #a l_/#ajths4 ,if we subtract the #aaa pounds of silica from #afj pounds of minerals in the straw and chaff1 the difference between what are left and those in wheat1 is not great4 ,as the stems and leaves of wheat plants grow before their seeds1 if all the phosphoric acid1 potash1 and lime available in the soil is consumed before the organization of the seeds begin1 from what source is nature to draw her supply of these ingredients to form a good crop of wheat8 ,if the farmer could reverse the order of nature1 and grow a good supply of seeds first1 and make straw afterwards1 then many a one would harvest more wheat and less straw4 ,but the cultivator must grow the stems1 roots1 and leaves of wheat1 corn1 and cotton1 before nature will begin to form the seeds of these several plants3 and every one should know that the atoms in the soil1 which are consumed in organizing the bodies of cultivated plants1 are1 in the main1 identical in kind with those required to make their seeds4 ,the proportions1 however1 differ very considerably4 ,thus1 while #ajj parts of the ash of wheat contain an average of #de parts of phosphoric acid1 #ajj of the ash of the wheat straw contain an average of only #e parts4 ,the difference is as #i to #a4 ,in magnesia the disparity is only a little less striking4 ,in what are called the organic elements of wheat 7the combustible part7 there are seven times more nitrogen in #ajj pounds than in a like weight of straw4 ,hence1 if the farmer converts straw into manure or compost1 with the view ultimately of transforming it into wheat1 it will take #g pounds of straw to yield nitrogen enough to form one pound of wheat4 ,few are aware how much labor and money is annually lost by the feeding of plants on food not strictly adapted to the peculiar wants of nature in organizing the same4 ,it is true1 that most farmers depend on the natural fertility of the soil to nourish their crops1 with perhaps the aid of a little stable and barn-yard manure1 given to a part of them4 ,as the natural resources of the land begin to fail1 the supply must be drawn from other quarters than an exhausted field1 or its cultivator will receive a poor return for the labor bestowed4 ,in ,great ,britain1 where the necessity for liberal harvests and artificial fertilizing is far greater than in this country1 the yield of wheat is said to be governed in a good degree by the amount of ammonia available as food for growing plants4 ,this opinion is founded not at all on theory1 but altogether on the teachings of experience4 ,but in ,england1 limeing and manuring are so much matters of constant practice1 that few soils are so improverished as many are in the ,united ,states1 ,with land as naked and sterile as is much that can be found in the whole thirteen colonies between ,maine and ,alabama1 ,english farmers could hardly pay their tithes and poor rates1 to say nothing of other taxes1 rent1 and the coat of producing their annual crops4 ,the first step towards making farming permanently profitable in all the older ,states1 is to accumulate in a cheap and skilful manner the raw material for good harvests in the soil4 ,over a territory so extensive as the ,united ,states1 it is extremely difficult to lay down any rule that will be applicable even to a moiety of the republic4 ,there are1 however1 many beds of marl1 greensand1 gypsum1 limestone1 saline and vegetable deposits available for the improvement of farming lands1 in the ,union4 ,in addition to these1 there are extraneous resources1 the ocean with its fish1 its shells1 its sea-weeds1 and its fertilizing salts1 which will yield an incalculable amount of bread and meat4 ,in the subsoil and the atmosphere1 every agriculturist has resources which are not duly appreciated by one in a thousand4 ,as a general rule1 the soil must be deepened before it can be permanently improved4 ,one acre of soil #ab inches deep is worth more to make money from1 by cultivating it1 than four acres #f inches in depth4 ,thus1 admit that a soil #f inches deep will produce #ad bushels of wheat1 and that #ab bushels will pay all expenses and give #b for profit4 ,four acres of this land will yield a net income of only #h bushels4 ,now double the depth of the soil and the crop3 making the latter #bh bushels1 instead of #ad per acre1 and the former #ab inches deep1 in the place of #f4 ,fifteen bushels instead of twelve1 will now pay all annual expenses1 and leave a net profit not of two but of thirteen bushels per acre4 ,if small crops will pay expenses1 large ones will make a fortune2 provided the farmer knows how to enrich his land in the most economical way4 ,it is quite as easy to pay too dear for improving lands1 as to lose money at any other business whatever4 ,the first thing for the operator to do is to acquire all the knowledge within his reach1 from the experience of others who have done for their soils what he proposes to accomplish for his4 ,twenty or fifty dollars1 invested in the best agricultural works in the ,english language1 may save him thousands in the end1 and double his profits in two years4 ,the ,agricultural ,journals of the ,united ,states abound in information most useful to the practical farmer3 and the back volumes1 if collected and bound1 will form a library of great value4 ,rotation of ,crops in connexion with ,wheat ,culture4--,a system of tillage and rotation which will pay best in one locality1 or on one quality of soil1 and in a particular climate1 will be found not at all adapted to other localities1 different soils and latitudes4 ,hence1 no rule can be laid down that will meet the peculiar exigencies of a farming country so extensive as the thirty ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,there are soils in ,western ,new ,york1 known to the writer1 which have borne good crops of wheat every other year for more than twenty years1 and produce better now than at the beginning of their cultivation4 ,the resources of the earth in supplying the elements of wheat and corn are extremely variable4 ,there are friable shaley rocks in ,livingstone county1 ,n4,y41 which crumble and slake when exposed to the air1 that abound in all the earthy minerals necessary to form good wheat4 ,these rocks are hundreds of feet in thickness1 and have furnished much of the soil in the valley of the ,genesee4 ,the ,onondaga ,salt ,group1 and other contiguous strata1 which extend into ,canada ,west1 form soils of extraordinary capacity for growing wheat4 ,indeed1 the rocks and drift of a district give character to its arable surface4 ,nothing is more needed at this time than a good geological map of the ,united ,states1 accompanied by an accurate and popularly arranged work on agricultural geology4 ,the writer had hoped to give such a map in this report2 but it is thought best to devote another year to the collection of geological surveys and facts1 and to the making of more critical and extended researches before publishing4 ,in the matter of rotation of crops in connection with wheat culture1 clover and corn are generally preferred in all the ,northern1 and most of the ,middle ,states4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,northern ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 so far as the writer is acquainted1 a crop of wheat is made in rotation1 either every third1 fourth1 or fifth year4 ,wherever wool growing is united with wheat culture1 clover and wheat are the staple crops of the farm4 ,wool and superfine flour are exported2 farmers taking nearly all the bran and shorts of the millers who purchase their wheat4 ,the offal of wheat makes not a little feed with chaff and cut straw4 ,many agriculturists grow peas1 beans1 turnips1 beets1 and carrots in large quantities1 as well as clover1 corn1 oats1 and barley4 ,peas and beans1 both stems and pulse1 when well cured1 are excellent feed for sheep2 and on good land they are easily grown4 ,they prepare the soil well for wheat4 ,all the manure derived from sheep is husbanded with extreme care by the farmers who are gradually enriching their lands4 ,on a deep1 rich1 arable soil1 quite a number of sheep may be kept per acre1 if highly cultivated2 and their manure prepares the land for producing generous crops of wheat at a small expense4 ,of all business men1 farmers should be the closest calculators of profit and loss4 ,great care should be taken to sow good and clean seed on clean land4 ,previous to putting the seed in the ground 7drilling is preferable to sowing broadcast71 wheat should be soaked five or six hours--not longer--in strong brine4 ,after this1 add a peck or more of recently slaked lime to each bushel1 and shovel it over well1 that the lime may cover each seed4 ,it is now ready to commit to the earth4 ,most good farmers roll the earth after seeding3 some before4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 planters are in the habit of permitting their wheat to remain too long in the field after it is cradled1 and in small shocks4 ,good barns are too scarce in all the planting ,states1 and in some others4 ,summer fallowing is generally abandoned1 except in cases where old pastures and meadows1 new prairie1 or bushy bad fields are to be subdued4 ,as a general rule1 friable soils need not be ploughed long before the intended crop is expected to begin to grow4 ,among fertilizers1 wood ashes1 salt1 bones1 lime1 guano1 and poudrette have been used in wheat culture with decided advantage4 ,in ,great ,britain1 manure derived from the consumption of turnips and other root crops by sheep and neat cattle1 is much used in preparing land for wheat4 ,sheep1 clover and peas1 corn and hogs1 rotate well to insure the economical production of this staple4 ,manure is usually applied to the crop preceding wheat4 ,it may be interesting to some readers to see in this place the mean result of several organic analyses of wheat made by ,m4 ,boussingault4 ,wheat1 dried at #bcj deg4 in vacuo1 was found to contain3 ,carbon #df4a ,oxygen #dc4d ,hydrogen #e4h ,nitrogen #b4c ,ash #b4d ----- ,total #ajj4j ,charcoal may be regarded as a fair representative of carbon1 and water as the representative of both oxygen and hydrogen4 ,it will be seen by the above figures1 that over #ie per cent4 of wheat is made up of elements which greatly abound in nature in an available condition2 and the same is true of all other plants4 ,it is doubtless owing to this circumstance1 that a comparatively small quantity of guano and other highly concentrated fertilizers are able to produce crops five1 ten1 and fifty times greater than their own weight4 ,azote1 or nitrogen1 in the form of ammonia1 or nitric acid1 7aqua fortis71 and the incombustible part of plants are the elements which least abound in soils1 and should be husbanded with the greatest care4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4,p4 ,holcomb1 of ,delaware1 furnishes some interesting remarks on the wheat crop of the ,united ,states3-- ,a short wheat crop in ,england1 ,mr4 ,webster says1 affects the exchanges of the civilized world4 ,in the vast increase of population in the absence of long wars and famines1 the importance of this staple is constantly increasing4 ,its cultivation is the most attractive and pleasant of all descriptions of husbandry2 and its rewards are generally remunerating1 when the soil and climate are favorable1 and the markets are not too distant4 ,it is important to know what our relation is to this staple of the world1 and what is1 and what is likely to be1 our contribution to the great aggregate of production4 ,beyond feeding our own great and rapidly increasing population1 it probably will not soon1 if ever1 be very great4 ,it is a mistake1 ,i apprehend1 to suppose our country is naturally a great wheat-producing country4 ,the wheat district at present1 in comparison to the whole extent of our territory1 is limited4 ,it is confined1 so far as any appreciable amount is grown1 to about ten degrees of latitude and twenty degrees of longitude1 and embracing about one half the number of the ,states4 ,the crop of #ahdh is estimated by the ,commissioner of ,patents at one hundred and twenty-six millions1 and our population at twenty-two millions4 ,this gives a less number of bushels1 per head1 to our population than the consumption of ,great ,britain1 which is generally set down at one hundred and sixty millions1 or six bushels to each inhabitant4 ,but with us ,indian corn is a great substitute2 so are potatoes and oats in ,ireland and ,scotland4 ,still our consumption of wheat1 including the black population1 is undoubtedly less1 per head1 than theirs4 ,but in the absence of any certain data1 to ascertain either the actual production1 or our consumption1 our only safe course is to take the actual excess1 or the amount exported1 after supplying our own wants4 ,this1 for the fiscal year #ahdh1 being the crop of #ahdg1 amounted1 in flour and wheat1 to twelve millions two hundred and ninety-four thousand one hundred and seventy-five bushels1 although ,mr4 ,burke's figures would show a surplus of some forty millions6 ,that there was not1 and never has been any such surplus in the country is very evident1 for the foreign demand was all the time good1 and drew away all we had to part with4 ,the crop of #ahdh was1 undoubtedly1 one of the best and largest we have ever grown2 yet ,i have ascertained1 by application at the registrar's office1 that the exports for the fiscal year #ahdb1 amounted in wheat to but #a1ebg1ecd bushels1 and in flour to #b1ajh1jac barrels1 or less by #bbf1fgf bushels than the exports of #ahdh4 ,twelve millions is comparatively a small surplus in a favorable season1 for a country with a population of twenty-two millions of inhabitants4 ,the loss of a small per cent4 in an unfavorable season would at once sink this excess4 ,let us now notice more in detail the different sections of our country as adapted to the growth of wheat4 ,the ,new ,england ,states1 some of them aided in their recent enterprises by bounties offered by the state governments1 have failed to insure such success as is likely to encourage them to continue the culture of wheat2 or1 at all events1 to induce them to aim at increasing their product to any considerable extent1 since1 as one of their own farmers candidly states1 the attempt to grow a crop of wheat is an experiment4 ,the ,states south of ,north ,carolina1 and inclusive of a part of ,delaware1 have never heretofore succeeded in growing wheat to any considerable extent1 though there were periods in their history--before the general introduction of the culture of cotton--when1 if it had been practicable to make the cereal one of their staples1 they would certainly have done so4 ,besides the common dangers from rust and blight1 the fly1 and sometimes the frost--as the past season--they have a most formidable enemy in the weevil4 ,in ,upper ,georgia1 in the ,cherokee country in particular1 wheat will probably be cultivated to some extent1 and a limited cultivation of it by the planters for their own use will probably continue in several of the southern states4 ,but the cotton1 rice1 and sugar states1 like the manufacturing states of ,new ,england1 will not soon1 if ever1 add much to the supply of wheat2 the rich staples of the former1 and the varied husbandry and grazing of the latter1 suited to supply the immediate wants of a manufacturing population1 will be likely to receive their attention in preference4 ,kentucky and ,tennessee1 though their agricultural history dates back beyond the settlement of the north-western states1 have already been out-stripped by at least two of them4 ,in neither of these states has the culture of wheat ever been put forward1 and regarded as one of their best staples1 or as very favorably adapted to their soil and climate4 ,still1 notwithstanding the formidable danger from rust1 the production of ,tennessee is estimated to be equal to nine bushels to each person1 and ,kentucky about seven and a half bushels4 ,missouri may be classed with ,kentucky and ,tennessee1 which she much resembles in soil1 climate1 and productions1 except that she raises much less wheat than either1 her crop being placed by the ,commissioner of ,patents at only two millions1 or less than four bushels to each resident of the state4 ,but1 besides that the experience of the past discourages the idea that these fine states are likely to become great wheat-producing states1 the fact that the staple of cotton may be cultivated over a considerable portion of one of them1 and that hemp and tobacco are among the valuable products of the other two2 that ,tennessee is the very largest corn-producing state in the ,union1 showing her soil and climate are particularly adapted to this description of grain1 and that ,kentucky and ,missouri are unsurpassed as grazing countries1 and there is little ground to suppose that any change in their husbandry will very greatly or suddenly augment the production of wheat4 ,let us come now to the ,states of ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 and ,iowa1 and that fabulous wheat district or territory to the west of these again1 from which1 according to the vaticinations of some1 may be drawn supplies of wheat to feed the population of both ,europe and ,america1 or fill warehouses that would sustain our people through a longer famine than that which afflicted the people of ,egypt6 ,i cannot help thinking that1 to some extent1 this generally fertile district of country has1 so far as the production of wheat is concerned1 been shouted forth in acclamations hyperbolical4 ,my own impression in regard to it is1 including the states last named1 derived in part from observation1 from intercourse and correspondence with intelligent agriculturists of these states1 and from a careful examination of a geological survey of two of them1 that the soil and climate of this whole district of country are not particularly favorable to the production of wheat4 ,the popular idea ,i know to be otherwise4 ,i am not going to dwell upon it1 or to examine the subject at any length4 ,there is a single remark that may help to explain the reputation that has gone abroad in reference to the wheat-producing qualities of these lands4 ,the prairie sod1 when first broken up1 generally produces wheat well1 often most abundantly1 provided it escapes the rust1 insect1 c4 ,but1 when this ground has been much furrowed1 becomes completely pulverized by exposure to the atmosphere1 the light and friable mould1 of which most of it is composed1 drenched1 as a good deal of it is1 at times1 with surface water1 fails to hold or sustain the roots of the plant1 it is thrown out1 or winter-killed2 and winter-killed1 winter-killed1 winter-killed1 we all know1 is among the catalogue of disasters that almost annually reach us4 ,sometimes1 when escaping the winter1 the high winds of spring blow this light soil from the roots1 exposing them to such an extent1 that1 in a dry time in particular1 the wheat often perishes4 ,when breaking up fresh prairies1 there was much encouragement and promise of hope1 but which1 ,i believe1 has not been1 nor is likely to be1 realized by their husbandmen1 in the degree that early experiments induced them to look for4 ,as appears by the last report of the ,commissioner of ,patents1 the crop of ,illinois1 in reference to population and production1 is below that of ,kentucky1 and both ,indiana and ,illinois are below that of ,tennessee4 ,the crop of ,indiana is set down at #h1cjj1jjj1 her population at #a1jjj1jjj1 or equal to #h bushels a-head4 ,the production of ,illinois is stated at #e1djj1jjj1 her population at #hjj1jjj1 or less than seven bushels to each inhabitant--and both these fair and fertile plains are still farther behind the old battered moors of ,maryland and ,virginia4 ,much of their wheat1 too1 is spring wheat1 sown often on land where the fall crop had winter-killed1 increasing the number of bushels much more than the value of the crop4 ,i have heard it estimated that full one-third of all the wheat shipped from ,chicago was of this description4 ,chicago is their great wheat depot4 ,several millions of bushels are shipped from this point1 the contributions from parts of three ,states1 ,wisconsin1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois2 and which concentration of their joint product at this new western city1 or something else1 seems to have imparted to each and all these states the reputation of great wheat-growing states1 though they are1 in fact1 with the advantage of a virgin soil1 behind several of the western states1 and two at least of the eastern or ,atlantic ,states4 ,the geological explorations of the ,hon4 ,robert ,dale ,owen1 undertaken under the authority of ,congress1 throws much light on the character of the soil of ,wisconsin and ,iowa1 and the description given undoubtedly characterizes much of that region of country4 ,the specific gravity of the soil1 ,mr4 ,owen states to be remarkably light2 but what he represents to be a striking feature in the character of the ,iowa and ,wisconsin soils1 is the entire absence1 in the most of the specimens of clay1 and in a large proportion of silex4 ,again1 he speaks of their being particularly adapted to the growth of the sugar-beet1 which he truly says1 flourishes best in a loose fertile mould4 ,again1 he detected no phosphates2 but they might be there1 as the virgin soil produced good wheat4 ,so does the virgin soil of most of the prairie land4--,the soil was rich in geine1 c4 ,but ,i submit that this does not describe a wheat soil1 hardly in any one particular4 ,liebig tells us1 that however great the proportion of humus in a soil1 it does not necessarily follow it will produce wheat--and cites the country of ,brazil4 ,again1 he adds1 how does it happen that wheat does not flourish on a sandy soil 7which much of the soil of these states is described to be71 and that a calcareous soil is also unsuitable to its growth1 unless it be mixed with a considerable quantity of clay8 ,the late ,mr4 ,colman1 in his ,european ,agriculture1 states1 that the soil preferred for wheat 7in ,england7 is a strong soil with a large proportion of clay4 ,but the question after all is1 not whether these ,states cannot grow wheat1 and in comparatively large quantities1 for we know that while their lands are fresh1 they can and do--but whether1 considering the hazard of the crop from winter-killing1 the rust1 the fly--the risk from the two former being equal to a large per cent4 premium of insurance1 they are not likely to find their interest in grazing1 in raising and feeding stock1 instead of attempting to extend their wheat husbandry4 ,lord ,brougham has said1 that grazing countries are always the most prosperous1 and their population the most contented and happy4 ,the meat markets of ,great ,britain are likely to prove better and more stable for us1 than their grain markets4 ,the ,hon4 ,henry ,l4 ,ellsworth1 a distinguished citizen1 and large farmer of ,indiana--distinguished throughout the ,union for his zeal in the cause of agriculture--thus expresses himself on this subject3 ,after a full consideration of the subject1 ,i am satisfied that stock-raising at the ,west is much more profitable than raising grain4 ,indeed1 an examination of the north-western ,states shows a vast difference in the wealth of the grazier over those who crop with grain4 ,the profits of wheat appear well in expectation on paper1 but the prospect is blasted by a severe winter1 appearance of insects1 bad weather in harvesting1 in threshing1 for there are but few barns at the ,west1 or transporting to market1 or last1 a fluctuation in the market itself4 ,such is the opinion of ,mr4 ,ellsworth1 the result of observation and experience1 himself largely interested in ascertaining the safest and surest course to be pursued4 ,the destiny he has indicated for this beautiful fertile region of country1 will undoubtedly be fulfilled2 it will become a great pastoral1 stock-raising1 and stock-feeding country4 ,ohio stands now1 as she did at the census of #ahdj1 at the head of all the wheat ,states1 in the aggregate of production2 her crop of #ahdh being estimated at #bj1jjj1jjj1 which is about equal to #aj bushels per head of her population4 ,the geological survey of this ,state1 and the character of the soil1 as described in the ,reports of the ,board of ,agriculture1 in a large range of her counties1 as a clayey soil1 clayey loam1 clay subsoil1 c41 shows ,ohio to possess a fine natural wheat soil1 if indeed1 alter thirty years of a generally successful wheat husbandry1 such additional testimony or confirmation was necessary4 ,michigan has also been successful in the cultivation of wheat4 ,her burr-oak openings are unsurpassed in producing wheat4 ,they are intervening ridges between low grounds1 or marshes and bodies of water1 and their location not generally considered very healthy4 ,a doubt has also been suggested as to whether this soil1 being a clayey loam1 resting on a sandy and gravelly subsoil1 is likely to wear as well as some other portions of the fertile soil of the ,state4 ,the ,commissioner of ,patents puts her crop for #ahdh at #aj1jjj1jjj of bushels1 which is equal to #bc bushels to each inhabitant6 ,by the census of #ahdj1 the population of ,michigan was #bab1bfg2 number of bushels of wheat1 #b1aeg1ajh4 ,her population in #ahdh is estimated at #dab1jjj4 ,while she has barely doubled her population1 she has1 according to the above estimate1 more than quadrupled her production of wheat--increased it at the rate of about one million bushels a year for eight consecutive years1 making the quantity she grows to each head of her population more than double that of any ,state in the ,union4 ,we can at least say1 and appeal to the past history of the country to show it1 that for a period of more than one hundred years1 the supply of the ,atlantic wheat ,states has generally been constant1 and for the most part abundant4 ,they have furnished the staff of life to several generations of men1 and cotemporary with it1 an annual amount for export1 that materially assisted in regulating the exchanges of the country4 ,england requires for her own consumption1 upon the average of years1 somewhere about #cb1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat more than she produces4 ,the average annual entries of foreign wheat for consumption in the ,united ,kingdom1 for the sixteen years ending with #ahde1 were about nine and a half million bushels4 ,inasmuch as the average number of acres in wheat crop were in #ahdf about #d1fjj1jjj1 the average produce #adb1bjj1jjj bushels1 or over #cj bushels to the acre--an improvement in the harvest to the extent of two bushels per acre1 will destroy the demand1 and a deficiency to that extent will double it4 ,now as there is an available surplus at the neighbouring ports in ,europe1 in the ,baltic and the ,black ,sea1 of about #ah1jjj1jjj of bushels only1 whenever there is a demand for home consumption1 for1 say #bj1jjj1jjj bushels1 as was the case in each of the five years from #ahch to #ahdc1 larger shipments from ,america will take place2 but whenever there are good harvests1 as in the six years from #ahca to #ahcg1 in which the deficiency only ranged from #bcj1jjj to #a1jjj1jjj bushels1 the trade is not worth notice4 ,it must be remarked1 however1 that in a country like ,britain1 where capital is abundant1 consumption great1 speculation rife1 the harvest so uncertain1 and the stake so great that a cloudy day transfers thousands from one broker to another1 the importation cannot be closely assimilated to the actual wants of the country4 ,the ordinary yield of grain in the ,united ,kingdom after deductions for seed1 is about #djj1jjj1jjj bushels1 and as nearly #ajj1jjj1jjj bushels of grain and meal were imported in #ahdg1 there must have been a general deficiency of nearly twenty-five per cent4 ,in the ,statistics of the ,british ,empire1 the average extent of land under grain culture1 c41 in #ahdj1 was estimated as follows3-- ,,england ,,and ,,wales4 ,produce per ,acre4 ,total ,produce4 ,wheat #c1hjj1jjj #c quarters4 #ab1cej1jjj ,barley and rye4 #ijj1jjj #d #c1fjj1jjj ,oats and beans4 #c1jjj1jjj #d #ac1ejj1jjj ,,scotland4 ,wheat #bbj1jjj #c #ffj1jjj ,barley #bhj1jjj #c #ihj1jjj ,oats #a1bge1jjj #d #e1gcg1ejj ,in ,scotland1 ten years ago1 #aej1jjj acres were reckoned to be under cultivation with wheat1 #cjj1jjj with barley1 and #a1cjj1jjj with oats1 which is the great crop and chief food of the people4 ,mr4 ,braithwaite ,poole1 in his ,statistics of ,british ,commerce1 #aheb1 states--,the annual average production of all sorts of corn in the ,united ,kingdom has been estimated by competent parties at rather more than #fj1jjj1jjj quarters1 and #hj1jjj1jjj in value2 but in the absence of general official returns1 we cannot vouch for its accuracy1 although1 from various comparisons1 there are reasonable grounds for assuming this calculation to be as nearly correct as possible4 ,some persons in the corn trade imagine the aggregate production to approach almost #hj1jjj1jjj quarters2 but ,i cannot find any data extant to warrant such an extended assumption4 ,the estimated produce of wheat1 in quarters1 and acreage1 he states as follows3-- ,quarters4 ,acreage4 ,england #ae1bjj1jjj #c1hjj1jjj ,ireland #a1hjj1jjj #fjj1jjj ,scotland #a1bbe1jjj #cej1jjj ---------- --------- ,total #ae1bbe1jjj #d1gej1jjj ,the average price of wheat per quarter in the last thirteen years1 in ,england and ,wales1 has been as follows3-- s4 d4 #ahdj #ff #d #ahda #fd #d #ahdb #eg #c #ahdc #ej #a #ahdd #ea #c #ahde #ej #aj #ahdf #ed #h #ahdg #fi #i #ahdh #ej #f #ahdi #dd #c #ahej #dj #d #ahea #ch #g #aheb #da #j ,the best wheat1 as well as the greatest quantity1 is raised in the midland counties4 ,from two and a half to three ,winchester bushels per acre are required for seed1 and the average produce varies from twenty-two to thirty-two bushels per acre4 ,,the ,,continent4 ,the quantity of wheat raised in ,france in #ahce was #ga1fig1dhd hectolitres1 of which eleven millions was required for seed4 ,the average produce per hectare was stated at thirteen and a half hectolitres4 ,the total grain and pulse raised in that year was set down at #bjd1afe1aid hectolitres4 ,hectolitres4 ,maslin #ab1bha1jbj ,barley #ah1ahd1caf ,rye #cb1iii1iej ,buckwheat #e1age1icc ,maize and ,millet #f1iea1agi ,oats #di1dfj1jeg ,peas and ,beans #c1cah1fia ,oats1 next to wheat is the largest crop grown in ,france1 for the support of two million horses and three and a half million mules and asses4 ,according to the ,annuaire de l',economie ,politique de la ,statistique1 there were #ac1ijj1jjj hectares 7each about #b acres7 under cultivation with the cereals in ,france4 ,the primary article of consumption is wheat4 ,at the rate of three hectolitres 7#a qr4 bush47 to each individual1 every family would require thirteen to fourteen hectolitres1 costing #baj to #bhj francs 7#h #aes4 to #aa #ajs47 according as the price varies1 between its present value fifteen francs1 and its occasional cost twenty francs4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,,xvi1 ,arthur ,young referred with horror to the black bread eaten by the ,french4 ,since that time half a century has passed1 and whilst the agricultural produce in ,france has tripled in value1 the labourers who produce it continue1 from custom and necessity1 to eat a detestable bread made from rye1 barley1 or peas and potatoes2 and1 to make the matter still worse1 it is badly baked1 without yeast1 and being sometimes kept for weeks1 it becomes covered with mould1 and altogether presents an appearance enough to turn the stomach of a savage4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mc,gregor's estimate some ten or twelve years ago1 the land under wheat culture was #ac1hjh1aga acres1 producing #aia1jjj1jjj bushels2 and #aa1gae acres with spelt1 or red wheat1 the yield of which was #cgd1jjj bushels4 ,the other crops were-- ,acres ,crops1 bushels ,maslin #b1bea1dch #cb1jjj1jjj ,rye #f1cfi1hgi #gf1jjj1jjj ,barley #b1icf1dec #de1jjj1jjj ,oats #g1daf1big #acd1jjj1jjj ,maize #a1efa1cgb #bj1jjj1jjj ,wheat and oats are grown all over ,russia1 which is the greatest corn land in the world4 ,in ,austrian ,italy the yield of grain has been reckoned at three million quarters1 but this seems rather low4 ,about one-half of this is maize and rye1 and a quarter wheat4 ,it is reckoned that eight million quarters of grain are raised yearly in ,denmark1 but this seems doubtful4 ,in #ahci1 a million quarters of grain1 however1 were shipped from that kingdom4 ,,british ,,american ,,provinces4 ,according to the census return of #aheb1 the number of acres under grain crops1 and the produce in ,canada1 were as follows3-- ,lower ,canada--,produce4 ,upper ,canada--,produce4 ,acres4 ,bushels4 ,acres4 ,bushels4 ,lower ,canada--,produce ,upper ,canada--,produce ,acres ,bushels ,acres ,bushels ,wheat #dbg1aaa #c1jge1hfh #ghb1aae #ab1fib1heb ,barley #db1ibg #ffh1fbf #bi1iaf #fbe1hge ,rye #df1jjg #cda1ddc #ch1ifh #dgi1fea ,oats #edj1dbb #h1ifg1eid #dba1fhd #aa1aic1hdd ,buckwheat #ea1gha #ecj1dag #dd1bfe #fci1cha ,maize #bb1ffi #djj1bhg #gj1ega #a1fff1eac ,flour may be valued at #bas4 the barrel4 ,the grain crops in ,lower ,canada are taken in the minot1 and not in the bushel1 except in the townships4 ,in like manner1 the acres are taken in arpents4 ,an arpent is about one-seventh less than an acre2 and a minot about one-eighth 7some say one-twelfth7 more than a bushel4 ,during the years #ahej-a1 ,western ,canada exported upwards of two million barrels of flour1 and three million bushels of wheat1 being equivalent to #ac1fjj1jjj bushels of wheat4 ,the value of the wheat and flour exported in #ahea was #djd1jcc4 ,canadian flour1 like that of ,genessee1 is of very superior quality4 ,,wheat4--,,upper ,,canada4 ,bushels4 ,to each inhabitant4 ,wheat crop of #ahda was #c1bba1iia or #f4fj ,do4 #ahdg #g1eeh1ggc #aj4de ,do4 #ahdi #i1gjf1jhb #ab4jh ,do4 #ahea #ab1fib1heb #ac4cc ,the quantity of land under wheat in ,upper ,canada was #ghb1aae acres1 showing a yield of about sixteen and three quarter bushels to the acre4 ,the wheat produced in #aheb was valued at nearly two million pounds sterling4 ,,lower ,,canada4 ,minots4 ,wheat crop in #ahdc was #idb1hce or #a4cf ,do4 #ahea #c1jge1hfh #c4df ,,united ,,states4 ,bushels4 ,wheat crop in #ahci was #hd1hcb1bgb or #d4if ,estimated by patent office #ahdg #aad1bde1ejj #e4ej ,crop of wheat #ahdi #ajj1fhd1fbg #d4cc ,in order1 however1 to institute a fairer comparison1 ,i will divide the ,states into three classes1 viz43--#ast4 ,states growing over six million bushels4 ,bushels4 ,population4 ,bush1 per head4 ,pennsylvania #ae1cfg1fia #b1caa1gcf #f4fe ,ohio #ad1dhg1cea #a1ihj1djh #g4cb ,new ,york #ac1aca1dih #d1adh1ahb #c4af ,virginia #aa1bcb1faf #a1dba1ffa #g4ij ,illinois #i1dad1ege #hea1dga #aa4jf ,indiana #f1bad1deh #ihh1daf #f4bh ---------- ---------- ----- ,total #fi1hdg1ahi #aa1gja1ibd #e4ig #bnd4 ,states growing over one million and less than six million bushels4 ,bushels4 ,population4 ,bush1 per head4 ,michigan #d1ibe1hhi #cig1fed #ab4ci ,wisconsin #d1bhf1aca #cje1aia #ad4jd ,maryland #d1did1fha #ehc1jca #g4ga ,missouri #b1iha1feb #fhb1jdc #d4ch ,kentucky #b1adj1hbb #ihb1dje #b4ae ,north ,carolina #b1acj1ajb #hfh1ijc #b4de ,tennessee #a1fai1cha #a1jjb1ebe #a4fa ,new ,jersey #a1fja1aij #dha1eee #c4bg ,iowa #a1ecj1eha #aib1bad #g4if ,georgia #a1jhh1ecd #ije1iii #a4ba ,south ,carolina #a1jff1bgg #ffh1ejg #a4fj ---------- --------- ---- ,total #bg1hfe1bdj #g1jgh1aca #c4ic #crd4 ,the remaining ,states and territories4 #b1gia1dgj #d1dff1bdf #j4fc ,total wheat crop in the ,united ,states1 #ajj1ejc1hii bushels4 ,population1 #bc1bdf1cja4 ,bushels per head1 #d4cc4 ,increase3--,u4 ,states1 #ahci #hd1hbc1bgb bushels #ahdi #ajj1ejc1hif ----------- #ae1fhj1fbg ,or #ah4di per cent4 in ten years4 ,upper ,canada1 #ahda #c1bba1iia #ahea #ab1fib1hbe ---------- #i1dgj1hfa ,or nearly quadrupling itself in ten years4 ,bushels4 ,population4 ,bush4 per head4 ,pr4 ,ed4 ,island #ahdg #bai1ghg #fb1fgh #c4ej ,newfoundland #ahej #big1aeg #bgf1aag #a4jh ,new ,brunswick #ahej #bjf1fce #aic1hjj #a4jf ,the ,eastern ,states in #ahdi raised #a1jij1hif bushels4 ,population #b1ffh1ajf1 or #j4da each4 ,the population of ,upper ,canada is #ieb1ijd1 and allowing five bushels for each1 #d1gfj1jbj bushels2 and for seed at one and a half bushels per acre #a1agc1agc bushels #e1icc1aic2 leaves for export #f1gfa1ffh bushels4 ,more than sufficient to supply the consumption of the whole of the ,eastern ,states4 ,were the population of ,lower ,canada to consume flour at the given rate1 it would require-- ,bushels4 #hij1bfa at five bushels each #d1dea1cje ,seed #fdj1jjj --------- #e1jia1cje ,grown #c1jge1hfh --------- #b1jae1dcg ,leaving a surplus of wheat in ,canada #d1gdf1bca bushels1 or at four and a half bushels for each1 equal to #a1jed1gah barrels of flour4 ,professor ,johnston in his report on ,new ,brunswick1 furnishes some valuable information as to the produce there4 ,the following table of average weights indicates a capacity in the soil and climate to produce grain of a very superior quality3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,buck- ,,counties ,wheat ,barley ,oats ,rye ,wheat ,maize ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,saint ,john #fa -- #da -- #ej -- ,westmoreland #fj #dh #ce -- #dh #ei ,albert #eh #ej #cd #ej #de -- ,charlotte #ei #de #ci -- #eg #ei ,king's #ei #dh #cg -- #dh #fj ,queen's #eh #ej #cf #ec #dc #fa ,sunbury #eg #ee #ch #ec #dg #eg ,york #fc #ej #ch -- #ea #fj ,carleton #fd -- #ch -- #eb #fe ,kent #fc -- #cg -- #ej -- ,northumberland #fb #ec #cg -- #de #eg ,gloucester #fc #ea #ci -- -- -- ,restigouche #fc #dh #db -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the general average weights for the whole ,province are1 for ,wheat #fj #aa-ac lbs4 ,barley #ej ,oats #ch ,rye #eb ,buckwheat #dh #h-aa ,indian ,corn #ei ,potatoes #fc ,turnips #ff ,carrots #fc ,the annexed statement shows not only the average yield per acre of each description of crop1 but affords an opportunity of contrasting it with the like products in the ,state of ,new ,york3-- ,,average ,,produce ,,per ,,imperial ,,acre4 ,new ,brunswick ,state of ,new ,york ,bushels ,bushels ,wheat #bj #ad ,barley #bi #af ,oats #cd #bf ,rye #bj #i ,buckwheat #cc #ad ,indian ,corn #da #be ,potatoes #bbf #ij ,turnips #dfj #hh ,hay #a -- ,a possibility of error in striking the averages is suggested in the report2 and to guard against it the following statement of the averages derived from the minimum returns is given1 viz43--,wheat #ag bushels2 ,barley1 #bg2 ,oats1 #cc2 ,buckwheat1 #bh2 ,rye1 #ah2 ,indian ,corn1 #cf2 ,potatoes1 #bjd2 ,turnips1 #chi4 ,the diminished averages scarcely affect the question of productiveness1 as in every particular they exceed the averages for the favored ,genesee ,valley and the southern shores of ,lake ,ontario4 ,while the productiveness of the soil is thus proven by the statements of most experienced farmers1 the average prices appear to be equally favorable to the ,provincial growers4 ,the following tables of averages set this in a clear point of view3-- ,,average ,,prices ,,of ,,grain ,,per ,,bushel ,,and ,,per ,,quarter4 ,per ,bushel ,per ,quarter ,wheat #gs4 #f;d4 #fjs4 #j;d4 ,barley #d #b #cc #h ,oats #b #j #af #j ,rye #d #aj #ch #h ,buckwheat #c #i #cj #j ,indian ,corn #d #h #cg #d ,,root ,,crops ,,and ,,hay4 ,potatoes #as4 #aa;d4 per bushel4 ,turnips #a #b ,eng4 ,hay #di #j per ton4 ,carrots #b #e per bushel4 ,man4 ,wurtzel #b #a ,marsh ,hay #bj #j per ton4 ,,average ,,money ,,value ,,of ,,an ,,acre ,,of ,,each ,,crop4 ,new ,brunswick ,canada ,west ,state of ,ohio ,wheat #f #ac #j #b #d #g #b #ai #j ,barley #e #ac #g #a #ai #d #b #d #j ,oats #f #c #f #a #aa #j #a #ac #i ,rye #d #g #j #a #e #aj #a #ab #d ,buckwheat #e #e #j #c #e #j #a #af #c ,indian ,corn #h #aj #d #b #ad #d #b #ae #j ,potatoes #ai #aa #j #f #f #j #f #i #d ,on a review of the foregoing and other tables1 ,professor ,johnston has drawn the following conclusions3-- ,that grain and roots generally can be raised more cheaply in the ,province of ,new ,brunswick than in ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 or ,upper ,canada2 and that the ,province ought to be able to compete with those countries and drive them from its home markets4 ,such are the deductions of a skilful and scientific1 practical and theoretical agriculturist1 from the statements furnished by the most enterprising and successful of our colonists4 ,nevertheless1 ,i cannot conceal a doubt whether all the elements of comparison have been duly weighed4 ,the result1 especially as regards wheat1 is so contrary to pre-conceived opinions1 that further investigations should be made4 ,is it not possible that1 while an equality of expense in preparing the land for a wheat crop appears to have been assumed1 the great care and expense necessary in ,new ,brunswick to prepare the land1 and an occasional succession of minimum returns would1 to a very considerable extent1 account for the supposed discrepancy8 ,wheat has1 from time immemorial1 been a staple crop in the plains of ,northern ,india1 and especially in the ,punjaub4 ,the climate and soil are well fitted for this cereal1 but owing to defects and carelessness in the agriculture and harvesting1 the crops1 though excellent1 fall short of what most corn-growing countries produce4 ,further--owing to foul boats and granaries1 and to the moist heat of the months immediately succeeding harvest1 the wheat reaches ,england in a state too dirty and weevelled for market4 ,the hard wheat is preferred by the natives in ,india to the soft1 probably for no better cause than that the hardness of the grain more closely resembles their favorite food1 rice4 ,,barley4 ,oats1 rye and barley1 are the staple crops of northern and mountainous ,europe and ,asia4 ,in ,england barley is grown principally in the eastern and some of the midland counties1 and chiefly for malting4 ,it is most extensively cultivated in the ,himalaya and ,thibet1 replacing in many districts the wheat1 and producing an admirable flour4 ,since the establishment of the studs at ,buxar1 ,ghazepore1 c41 oats have been extensively cultivated4 ,it is a winter crop4 ,although believed to have been indigenous to the countries bordering on the torrid zone1 this grain possesses the remarkable flexibility of maturing in favorable seasons and situations on the eastern continent as far north as #gj deg41 and flourishes well in lat4 #db deg4 south4 ,along the ,atlantic side of the continent of ,america1 its growth is restricted to the tract lying between the #cjth and #ejth parallels of north latitude1 and between #cj and #dj deg4 south4 ,near the westerly coast1 its range lies principally between latitude #bj and #fb deg4 north4 ,the barley chiefly cultivated in the ,united ,states is the two-rowed variety which is generally preferred from the fulness of its grain and its freedom from smut4 ,barley has never been much imported from that country1 as the ,americans have been rather consumers than producers4 ,the consumption of barley there in #ahej in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors amounted to #c1ghj1jjj bushels1 and according to the census returns1 the quantity of barley raised was #d1afa1ejd bushels in #ahdj1 and #e1afg1bac bushels in #ahej4 ,in this country barley is extensively used for malting1 distilling1 and making beer2 large quantities are consumed in ,scotland1 or carried into ,england4 ,in ,prussia1 about ten and a half million hectolitres of barley are annually raised4 ,in the ,canary ,isles1 about #ced1jjj bushels are annually exported4 ,in ,van ,diemen's ,land in #ahdd1 #agd1dje bushels of barley were grown on #ab1dff acres4 ,the quantity of barley made into malt in the ,united ,kingdom in the year ending #ajth ,october1 #ahej1 was #e1ahc1fag quarters1 of which about four million quarters were used by #h1ejj maltsters4 ,the quantity of malt charged with duty in the year ending #eth ,january1 #ahea1 was #fcf1fda tons2 the average price per quarter1 #bfs4 #b;d4 ,barley is at present extensively cultivated in the temperate districts and islands of ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa and ,australia4 ,in ,spain1 ,sicily1 the ,canaries1 ,azores and ,madeira1 two crops are produced in a year4 ,in ,north ,america its growth is principally confined to ,mexico1 the middle1 western1 and northern ,states of the ,union1 and to the ,british ,north ,american provinces4 ,the introduction of barley into the ,american colonies may be traced back to the period of their settlement4 ,by the year #afdh it was raised in abundance in ,virginia1 but soon after its culture was suffered to decline1 in consequence of the more profitable and increased production of tobacco4 ,it has also been sparingly cultivated in the regions of the middle and northern ,states for malting and distillation1 and has been employed1 after being malted1 as a substitute for rice4 ,barley1 like wheat1 has been cultivated in ,syria and ,egypt for more than #c1jjj years1 and it was not until after the ,romans adopted the use of wheaten bread1 that they fed their stock with this grain4 ,it is evidently a native of a warm climate1 as it is known to be the most productive in a mild season1 and will grow within the tropics at an elevation of #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,it is one of the staple crops of northern and mountainous ,europe and ,asia4 ,it is the corn that1 next to rice1 gives the greatest weight of flour per acre1 and it may be eaten with no other preparation than that of boiling4 ,it requires little or no dressing when it is sent to the mill1 having no husk1 and consequently produces no bran4 ,in this country barley is chiefly used for malting and distilling purposes4 ,in the year #ahej1 #dj1gde1jej bushels of malt paid duty1 the number of maltsters in the ,united ,kingdom being from #h1jjj to #i1jjj4 ,about one and a half million quarters of barley were imported in #ahdi1 and a little over a million quarters in #ahej1 principally from ,denmark and ,prussia4 ,the counties in ,england where this grain is chiefly cultivated are ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,cambridge1 ,bedford1 ,herts1 ,leicester1 and ,nottingham4 ,the produce of barley on land well prepared1 is from thirty to fifty bushels or more per statute acre1 weighing from #de to #ee lbs4 per bushel1 according to quality4 ,it is said to contain #fe per cent4 of nutritive matter1 while wheat contains #gh per cent4 ,the estimated average produce of barley in this country may be stated as follows3-- ,acres4 ,crop4 ,england #a1ejj1jjj #f1cge1jjj ,ireland #cbj1jjj #a1abj1jjj ,scotland #dej1jjj #a1hjj1jjj -------- ----------- #b1bgj1jjj #i1bie1jjj ,the average produce per acre1 in the ,united ,kingdom1 is #d quarters in ,england1 #c in ,ireland1 and #d in ,scotland4 ,the prices of barley per quarter have ranged1 in ,england1 from #cfs4 #e;d4 in #ahdj1 to #bgs4 #f;d4 in #ahdb4 ,in #ahdg barley reached #dds4 #b;d41 and gradually declined to #bcs4 #e;d1 in #ahej4 ,,oats4 ,oats are principally in demand for horses1 and the extraordinary increase of the latter has occasioned a proportional increase in the culture of oats4 ,they are grown more especially in the north and north-eastern counties2 in the midland counties their culture is less extensive1 but it is prevalent throughout most parts of ,wales4 ,nearly twice as much oats as wheat is raised in the ,united ,kingdom1 but the proportion grown in ,scotland is not so large as is supposed4 ,the following is a fair estimate of the comparative production3-- ,acres4 ,produce4 ,england #b1ejj1jjj #ab1ejj1jjj ,ireland #b1cjj1jjj #aa1fjj1jjj ,scotland #a1cjj1jjj #f1ejj1jjj --------- --------- ,total #f1ajj1jjj #cj1ejj1jjj ,we import annually about l million quarters from foreign countries and nearly three-fourths of a million quarters from ,ireland4 ,the average produce per acre throughout the kingdom is five quarters4 ,the price within the last #aj years has ranged from #bhs4 #g;d4 per quarter 7the famine year7 to #ags4 #f;d4 ,the oat1 when considered in connection with the artificial grasses1 and the nourishment and improvement it affords to live stock1 may be regarded as one of the most important crops produced4 ,its history is highly interesting1 from the circumstance that in many portions of ,europe it is formed into meal1 and forms an important aliment for man2 one sort1 at least1 has been cultivated from the days of ,pliny1 on account of its fitness as an article of diet for the sick4 ,the country of its origin is somewhat uncertain1 though the most common variety is said to be indigenous to the ,island of ,juan ,fernandez4 ,another oat1 resembling the cultivated variety1 is also found growing wild in ,california4 ,this plant was introduced into the ,north ,american ,colonies soon after their settlement by the ,english4 ,it was sown by ,gosnold on the ,elizabeth ,islands in #afjb2 cultivated in ,newfoundland in #afbb1 and in ,virginia1 by ,berkley1 prior to #afdh4 ,the oat is a hardy grain1 and is suited to climates too hot and too cold either for wheat or rye4 ,indeed1 its flexibility is so great1 that it is cultivated with success in ,bengal as low as latitude twenty-five degrees ,north1 but refuses to yield profitable crops as we approach the equator4 ,it flourishes remarkably well1 when due regard is paid to the selection of varieties1 throughout the inhabited parts of ,europe1 the northern and central portions of ,asia1 ,australia1 ,southern and ,northern ,africa1 the cultivated regions of nearly all ,north ,america1 and a large portion of ,south ,america4 ,in the ,united ,states the growth of the oat is confined principally to the ,middle1 ,western and ,northern ,states4 ,the varieties cultivated are the common white1 the black1 the grey1 the imperial1 the ,hopetown1 the ,polish1 the ,egyptian1 and the potato oat4 ,the yield of the common varieties varies from forty to ninety bushels and upwards per acre1 and weighing from twenty-five to fifty pounds to the bushel4 ,the ,egyptian oat is cultivated south of ,tennessee1 which after being sown in autumn1 and fed off by stock in winter and spring1 yields from ten to twenty bushels per acre4 ,in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors oats enter but lightly1 and their consumption for this purpose does not exceed #fj1jjj bushels annually in the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahdj1 ,ireland exported #b1jcg1hce quarters of oats and oatmeal1 but in #ahdf1 on account of the dearth1 the grain exports fell off completely4 ,most of the grain grown in ,ireland requires to be kiln-dried1 and is1 therefore1 of lower value4 ,the oat1 like rye1 never has entered much into our foreign commerce1 as the domestic consumption has always been nearly equal to the quantity produced4 ,the annual average exports from the ,united ,states for several years preceding #ahag1 were #gj1jjj bushels4 ,by the census returns of #ahdj1 the total produce of the ,united ,states was #abc1jga1cda bushels2 of #ahej1 #adf1fgh1hgi bushels4 ,in ,prussia #dc million hectolitres of oats are annually raised4 ,the quantity of oats imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 has been declining within the last few years4 ,in #ahdi1 we imported #a1bfg1ajf quarters2 in #ahej1 #a1aed1dgc2 in #ahea1 #a1bji1hdd2 in #aheb1 #iie1dgi4 ,in #ahdd1 #bba1aje bushels of oats were raised in ,van ,diemen's ,land on #ac1hfd acres4 ,,rye4 ,rye 7,secale cereale7 is scarcely at all raised in this country for bread1 except in ,durham and ,northumberland1 where1 however1 it is usually mixed with wheat1 and forms what is called maslin1--a bread corn in considerable use in the north of ,europe4 ,geographically rye and barley associate with one another1 and grow upon soils the most analogous1 and in situations alike exposed4 ,it is cultivated for bread in ,northern ,asia1 and all over the ,continent of ,europe1 particularly in ,russia1 ,norway1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,germany and ,holland2 in the latter of which it is much employed in the manufacture of gin4 ,it is also grown to some extent in ,england1 ,scotland and ,wales4 ,with us it is little used as an article of food compared with wheat and oats1 though in the north of ,europe and in ,flanders it forms the principal article of human subsistence1 but generally mixed with wheat1 and sometimes1 also with barley2 #ajj parts of the grain consist of #fe4f of meal1 #bd4b of husk1 and #aj4b of water4 ,the quantity of rye we import seldom reaches #ajj1jjj quarters per annum4 ,the straw is solid1 and the internal part1 being1 filled with pith1 is highly esteemed for ,dunstable work1 for thatching and litter1 and it is also used to stuff horse collars4 ,in ,ireland there are #ba1jjj acres under culture with rye1 producing #aje1jjj quarters4 ,in ,north ,america rye is principally restricted to the ,middle and ,eastern ,states1 but its culture is giving place to more profitable crops4 ,in ,bohemia1 as in most parts of ,germany1 rye forms the principal crop1 the product being about #c1bej1jjj quarters annually4 ,the three leading varieties cultivated in the ,united ,states are the spring1 winter1 and southern2 the latter differing from the others only from dissimilarity of climate4 ,the yield varies from #aj to #cj or more bushels per acre1 weighing from #dh to #ef pounds to the bushel4 ,the production of rye has decreased #d1deg1jjj bushels in the aggregate1 but in ,new ,york it is greater by the last decennial census than in #ahdj1 by about #dj per cent4 ,pennsylvania1 which is the largest producer1 has fallen off from #f1fac1cgc to #d1hje1afj bushels4 ,perhaps the general diminution in the quantity of this grain now produced may be accounted for1 by supposing a corresponding decline in the demand for distilling purposes1 to which a larger part of the crop is applied in ,new ,york4 ,this grain has never entered largely into its foreign commerce1 as the home consumption for a long period nearly kept pace with the supply4 ,the amount exported from the ,united ,states in #ahja1 was #cib1bgf bushels2 in #ahab1 #hb1gje bushels2 in #ahac1 #adj1acf bushels4 ,in #ahbj-a there were exported #bc1ebc barrels of rye flour2 in #ahcj-a1 #ai1ajj barrels2 in #ahdj-a #dd1jca2 in #ahde-f1 #ch1ecj barrels2 in #ahdf-g1 #dh1hib barrels2 in #ahej-a1 #dd1aeb barrels4 ,during the year ending ,june #a1 #ahej1 there were consumed of rye about #b1add1jjj bushels in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors4 ,according to the ,american census returns of #ahdj1 the product of the country was #ah1fde1efg bushels2 in #ahej1 #ad1ahh1fcg bushels4 ,we imported #bdf1hdc quarters of rye and rye meal1 in #ahdi1 equivalent to #di1cfh tons2 but in #ahej the imports were only #id1jgh quarters and in #ahea they were but #bf1cbc quarters4 ,about #bj1jjj acres are under cultivation with rye in ,ireland1 the produce of which is #ajj1jjj quarters4 ,,buckwheat4 ,buckwheat belongs to the temperate and arctic climates1 and is cultivated in ,northern ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america for the farinaceous albumen of its seeds1 which1 when properly cooked1 affords a delicious article of food to a large portion of the human race4 ,it also serves as excellent fodder to milch cows1 and the straw1 when cut green and converted into hay1 and the ripened seeds1 are food for cattle1 poultry1 and swine4 ,it is raised most abundantly in ,central ,asia and the ,himalaya4 ,in the latter country the different varieties are grown at various elevations1 between #d1jjj and #ab1jjj feet4 ,the finest samples exhibited in #ahea were from ,canada1 but some of excellent quality was also shown by the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 and ,belgium4 ,the common variety grown in ,europe is the ,polygonum fagopyrum1 and ,p4 emarginatum is grown in ,china and the ,east4 ,in this country the produce varies from #b to #d quarters per acre4 ,the quantity of seed sown is #e to #h pecks the acre4 ,vauquelin found #ajj parts of its straw to contain #bi4e of carbonate of potash1 #c4h of sulphate of potash1 #ag4e of carbonate of lime1 #ac4e of carbonate of magnesia1 #af4b of silica1 #aj4e of alum1 and #i of water4 ,it is believed to be a native of ,central ,asia1 as it is supposed to have been first brought to ,europe in the early part of the twelfth century1 at the time of the crusades for the recovery of ,syria from the dominion of the ,saracens2 while others contend that it was introduced into ,spain by the ,moors1 four hundred years before4 ,the cultivation of buckwheat1 in one or other of its species1 is principally confined to ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,italy1 ,netherlands1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 ,china1 ,tartary1 ,japan1 ,algeria1 ,canada1 and the middle and northern portions of the ,united ,states4 ,in ,america from #cj to #de bushels per acre may be considered as an average yield in favorable seasons and situations1 but #fj or more bushels are not unfrequently produced4 ,according to the census returns of #ahdj1 the annual quantity raised in the ,united ,states was #g1bia1gdc bushels2 of #ahej1 #h1iej1iaf bushels4 ,the average annual imports of buckwheat into this country have not exceeded #a1jjj quarters1 until last year 7#aheb71 when they reached #h1jhe quarters4 ,a small quantity of the meal is also annually imported4 ,,maize4 ,maize 7,zea ,mays71 is the common well-known ,indian corn forming one of the most important of the grain crops1 and has a greater range of temperature than the other cereal grasses4 ,it was found cultivated for food by the ,indians of both ,north and ,south ,america1 on the first discovery of that continent1 and thence derived its popular name4 ,maize succeeds best in the hottest and dampest parts of tropical climates4 ,it may be reared as far as #dj degrees north and south latitude on the ,american continent2 while in ,europe it can grow even to #ej degrees or #eb degrees of latitude1 some of the numerous varieties being hardy enough to ripen in the open air1 in ,england and ,ireland4 ,it is now cultivated in all regions in the tropical and temperate zones1 which are colonized by ,europeans4 ,it is most largely grown1 however1 about the ,republics bordering on the northern shores of ,south ,america1 ,california1 the ,united ,states and ,canada1 the ,west ,india islands and ,guiana1 on the coasts of the ,mediterranean1 and partially in ,india1 ,africa1 and ,australia4 ,we see the singular fact in ,mexico of land which1 after perhaps thousands of years' culture1 is so little exhausted1 that with a very little labor bestowed on it1 a bad maize harvest will yield two hundredfold profit1 while a good crop returns #fjj fold4 ,this grain adopts itself to almost every variety of climate1 and is found growing luxuriantly in the low countries of tropical ,mexico1 and nearly equally well on the most elevated and coldest regions of the table-land2 in the rich valleys of the ,cordilleras or the ,andes1 and on the sandy heights of those mountains wherever a rill of water can be brought to nourish its roots4 ,in short1 it ripens under the sun of ,america1 in every part of both continents4 ,though wheat is characterised as the most nutritious food for man in all quarters of the world1 yet the ,indian corn crop of the ,united ,states is not second in value to any product of the earth2 cultivated in the middle and ,eastern ,states1 nay1 even in the rich cotton-growing districts1 ,indian corn is fast rising in importance1 and will soon equal in value that important commercial staple4 ,this indigenous grain yields to the nation an annual average of five hundred millions of bushels1 and has1 within the last five years1 attracted much attention as a life-sustaining food1 more particularly at the period of ,ireland's severe suffering1 in #ahdg1 and the following years4 ,nations1 as well as statesmen and farmers1 have found it an object worthy of their consideration and esteem4 ,when due regard is paid to the selection of varieties1 and cultivated in a proper soil1 maize may be accounted a sure crop in almost every portion of the habitable globe1 between the #ddth degree of north latitude and a corresponding parallel south4 ,among the objects of culture in the ,united ,states1 it takes precedence in the scale of cereal crops1 as it is best adapted to the soil and climate1 and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food4 ,besides its production in the ,north ,american ,republic1 its extensive culture is limited to ,mexico1 the ,west ,indies1 most of the ,states of ,south ,america1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,lombardy1 and ,southern and ,central ,europe generally4 ,it is1 however1 also cultivated with success in ,northern1 ,southern1 and ,western ,africa1 ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,australia1 and the ,sandwich ,islands1 the groups of the ,azores1 ,madeira1 the ,canaries1 and numerous other oceanic isles4 ,maize is not a favorite grain as bread-corn with the ,european nations1 for although it abounds in mucilage1 it is asserted to contain less gluten1 and is not likely to be much used by those who can procure wheaten flour1 or even rye bread4 ,the large importations which were made by our ,government during the prevalence of the potato disease1 brought it into more general use among some classes1 and the imports for home consumption are still extensive1 having been as follows in the last few years3-- #ahdh4 #ahdi4 ,indian corn1 quarters #a1ehb1gee #b1bdi1ega meal1 cwts4 #bcc1hhj #ajb1aha #ahej4 #ahea4 ,indian corn1 quarters #a1bhf1bfd #a1haj1dbe meal1 cwts4 #aa1dja ,the trade in maize1 or ,indian corn1 is totally new since #ahdf4 ,the famine in ,ireland in that year1 and the potato rot in almost every successive year since1 have now fully established it4 ,like the gold discoveries1 the potato rot may be regarded as a providential means of effecting a great change in the condition of society4 ,those discoveries are not without their influence in the ,east1 and1 combined with the potato rot1 they have rapidly increased the commerce between the ,east and ,west of ,europe1 while they are spreading broad paths between all ,europe and the lands in the ,southern ,ocean4 ,the imports of maize from all parts1 in #aheb1 amounted to #a1eej1jjj quarters1 of which about #a1ajj1jjj quarters arrived in vessels from the ,mediterranean1 c41 calling at ,queenstown or ,falmouth for orders4 ,the balance consisted of imports from ,america1 ,france1 ,portugal1 c41 and also of cargoes addressed direct to a port of discharge1 without first calling off the coast for orders4 ,the quantities received in #ahea and #aheb from the ,mediterranean were as follows3-- #aheb4 #ahea4 ,received from qrs4 qrs4 ,galatz #bbc1jjj #bhf1jfg ,ibraila #cfb1fjj #baa1ggi ,salonica #ce1fdj #ie1cgg ,odessa #bai1agj #gd1jfe ,egypt #ej1ifj #hf1bfj ,italy #h1bej #afb1edd ,constantinople1 ,malta1 ,trieste1 and other ports in the ,mediterranean #aij1gbj #bhf1ceh --------- --------- #a1jij1cdj #a1bjb1dej ,the various quarters from whence we derive supplies of this grain1 are shown in the following table of the imports for the last three years1 which ,i have compiled from the most recent ,parliamentary returns4 ,,indian ,,corn ,,and ,,meal ,,imported ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #ahdi4 #ahej4 #ahea4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,places4 ,corn4 ,meal4 ,corn4 ,meal4 ,corn4 ,meal4 qrs4 cwts4 qrs4 cwts4 qrs4 cwts4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,russian ,ports in ,black ,sea #be1eai #ai1gba #ih1agf ,denmark #a1cjj #bej #e ,hanover #a1cdd ,belgium #fg ,france #ace1aae #eaj #ajb1igh #bf #afd1abh #bi ,portugal ,proper #fa1ddf #fg1eah #ec #ba1ibb ,azores and ,madeira #ag1bad #g #g1gid #f #d1cef #a ,spain and ,bahama ,islands #bf1hef #dh #ai1ihb #dh #cd1gga ,sardinian ,territories #ac1ceg #be #b #a1cjb #a ,tuscany #aa1dha #ie #ae1fab #id #cd1gfj ,papal ,territories #h1ibg #a1hgf #ge1ehh ,naples and ,sicily #ah #aj1jff #aja1dhi ,austrian ,territories #ij1edj #de1gdh #gc1iff ,malta and ,gozo #ah1aih #d1ifi #aa1jjb ,ionian ,islands #e1cij #g1cbd #e1ifg ,greece #eg1ebj #h1gab #c1beb ,egypt #ab1gfg #ga1hjh #abg1fib ,turkish dominions1 including ,wallachia1 ,moldavia and ,syria #efc1gii #cdh1def #gdh1ahj ,morocco #gfj ,west ,coast of ,africa #hhi #b1cbb ,b4,n4,a4 ,colonies #a1fde #afd #a1ecj #d1cgg #g ,u4,s4 of ,america #a1agj1aedajj1hei #ech1aeeaa1bec #bie1ighi1ebb ,brazil #a1bec #dfh #gbe ,other places #a1gef #a ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #b1bbe1deiaja1fhca1bgg1jgjaa1dhba1hjg1fc fi1efa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ 7,parliamentary ,paper1 ,no4 #ad1 ,sess4 #aheb47 ,the many excellent properties of ,indian corn1 as a wholesome nutritious food1 and the rich fodder obtained from the stalk and leaf for the nourishment of cattle1 invite more earnest attention from the farmer and planter in the ,colonies to its better and extended cultivation4 ,though the average quantity of grain from each acre in the ,united ,states is not more than thirty or forty bushels1 yet it is known that with due care and labor #ajj to #acj bushels may be obtained4 ,in feeding cattle little difference is discoverable between the effects of ,indian corn meal and oil-cake meal2 the preference rather preponderates in favor of the latter4 ,corn cobs1 ground with the grain1 have advocates1 but this food is not relished1 and swine decline it4 ,indian corn contains about the same proportion of starch as oats 7sixty per cent471 but is more fattening1 as it contains about nine or ten per cent4 of oily or fatty ingredients4 ,the following analysis of maize is given by ,dr4 ,samuel ,david1 of ,massachusetts3-- ,,flesh ,,forming ,,principles4 ,gluten1 albumen1 and casein #ab4fj ,,fat ,,forming ,,principles4 ,gum1 sugar1 starch1 woody fibre1 oil1 c4 #gg4ji ,water #i4jj ,salts #a4ca ----- #ajj4 ,prof4 ,gorham1 in ,thomson's ,organic ,chem41 published in ,london in #ahch1 gives another analysis3-- ,fresh grain4 ,dried grain4 ,water #i4jj ,starch #gg4jj #hd4fj ,gluten #c4jj #c4cj ,albumen #b4ej #b4gd ,gum #a4ge #a4ib ,sugar #a4de #a4fj ,loss #e4cj #e4hd ------ ------ #ajj4 #ajj4 ,professor ,johnston supplies a table1 which1 he says1 exhibits the best approximate view we are yet able to give of the average proportion of starch and gluten contained in #ajj lbs4 of our common grain crops as they are met with in the market4 ,from this table ,i extract the following3-- ,starch1 gum1 c4 ,gluten1 albumen1 c4 ,wheat flour4 #ee lbs4 #aj to #ae lbs4 ,oats #fe #ah lbs4 ,indian corn #gj #ab ,beans #dj #bh ,peas #ej #bd ,potatoes #ab #b-a_/c ,the ,professor remarks that the proportion of oil is1 in #ajj lbs4 of ,wheat flour #b to #d ,oats #e #h ,indian corn #e #i ,beans and peas #b #c ,potatoes #j ,maize is one of those plants in which potash preponderates1 for analysis of its ashes gives the following proportions3-- ,salts of potash and soda #ga4jj ---- lime and magnesia #f4ej ,silica #ah4jj ,loss #d4ej ------ #ajj4 ,dr4 ,salisbury has also furnished the proximate analysis of five varieties of ripe maize or ,indian corn3-- ,proportions4 ,one hundred grains of each4 ,water4 ,dry4 ,golden ,sioux corn1 a bright1 yellow1 twelve-rowed variety1 frequently having fourteen rows #ae4jb #hd4ih ,large eight-rowed yellow corn #ad4jj #hf4jj ,small eight-rowed ditto #ad4jc #he4ig ,white flint corn #ad4jj #hf4jj ,ohio ,dent corn1 one of the largest varieties of maize #ad4ej #he4ej ,,comparative ,,organic ,,analysis4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,golden ,ohio ,small ,large ,white ,sioux4 ,dent #h-rowed #h-rowed ,flint ,corn4 ,corn4 ,corn4 ,corn4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,starch #cf4jf #da4he #cj4bi #di4bb #dj4cd ,gluten #e4jj #d4fb #e4fj #e4dj #g4fi ,oil #c4dd #c4hh #c4ij #c4ga #d4fh ,albumen #d4db #b4fd #f4jj #c4cb #c4dj ,casein #a4ib #a4cb #b4bj #j4ge #j4ej ,dextrine #a4cj #e4dj #d4fa #a4ij #c4jj ,fibre #ah4ej #ba4cf #bf4hj #aa4if #ah4ja ,sugar and extract #g4be #aj4jj #e4bj #i4ee #h4cj ,water #ae4jb #aj4jj #ac4dj #ad4jj #ad4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,large quantities of starch are now made from this grain in ,ohio2 an establishment near ,columbus consume #bj1jjj bushels of corn annually for this purpose4 ,the offal of the grain is given to hogs1 #ejj to #fjj head being annually fattened therewith4 ,the quality of the starch is said to be superior to that of wheat1 and commands a higher price in ,new ,york4 ,a corn plant1 fifteen days after the seed was planted1 cut on the #crd ,june close to the ground1 gave of-- ,water #hf4fbf ,dry matter #aj4cgd ,ash #a4ced ,ash calculated dry #ac4jec ,by the above figures it will be seen that nearly #ij per cent1 of the young plant is water2 and that in proportion to the dry matter1 the amount of earthy minerals which remain1 as ash1 when the plant is burnt1 is large4 ,this excess of water continues for many weeks4 ,thus1 on the #eth ,july1 thirty-three days from planting1 the relations stood thus3-- ,water #ij4eah ,dry matter #i4dhb ,ash #a4ccc ,ash calculated dry #ad4aja 7,ash very saline47 ,before green succulent food of this character is fit to give to cows1 oxen1 mules1 or horses1 it should be partly dried4 ,plants that contain from #gj to #ge per cent4 of water need no curing before eaten4 ,the young stalk cut ,july #ab1 gave over #id per cent4 of water4 ,such food used for soiling without drying would be likely to scour an animal1 and give it the cholic4 ,the root at this time 7,july #ab7 gave of-- ,water #ha4jbf ,dry matter #ah4igd ,ash #b4bbb ,ash calculated dry #aa4gaa 7,ash tastes of caustic potash47 ,ash of the whole plant above ground1 #f4gg grains4 ,amount of ash in all below ground1 #c4ic grains4 ,so late as ,july #bf1 the proportion of water in the stalk was #id per cent42 and the ash calculated dry #ag4ff per cent4 ,the plant gained #ba4cf4ih grains in weight in a week preceding the #fth ,september4 ,this was equal to a gain of #ab4gb grains per hour4 ,the rapid growth of corn plants1 when the heat1 light1 and moisture1 as well as the soil are favorable1 is truly wonderful4 ,a deep1 rich1 mellow soil1 in which the roots can freely extend to a great distance in depth and laterally1 is what the corn-grower should provide for his crop4 ,the perviousness of river bottoms contributes largely to their productiveness of this cereal4 ,a compact clay1 which excludes alike air1 water1 and roots1 forbidding all chemical changes1 is not the soil for ,indian corn4 ,when farmers sell corn soon after it is ripe1 there is considerable gain in not keeping it long to dry and shrink in weight4 ,corn grown by ,mr4 ,salisbury1 which was ripe by the #ahth ,october1 then contained #cg per cent4 of water1 which is #be per cent4 more than old corn from the crib will yield4 ,the mean of man experiments tried by the writer has been a loss of #bj per cent4 in moisture between new and old corn4 ,the butts of cornstalks contain the most water1 and husks or shucks the least1 when fully matured and not dried4 ,the latter have about #cj per cent1 of dry matter when chemically desiccated4 ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,ash ,,of ,,the ,,leaves ,,at ,,different ,,stages4 ,july #ai4 ,aug4 #b4 ,aug4 #bc4 ,aug4 #cj4 ,oct4 #ah4 ,carbonic acid #e4dj #b4hej #j4fe #c4ej #d4jej ,silicia #ac4ej #ai4hej #cd4ij #cf4bg #eh4fej ,sulphuric acid #b4af #a4iie #d4ib #e4hd #d4hha ,phosphates #ba4fj #af4bej #ag4jj #ac4ej #e4hej ,lime 4#fi #d4jce #b4jj #c4hh #d4eaj ,magnesia 4#cg #b4ihj #a4ei #b4cj #j4hfe ,potash #i4ih #aa4fge #aj4he #i4ae #g4ccc ,soda #cd4ci #bi4ehj #ba4bc #bb4ac #h4ebj ,chlorine #d4ee #f4jbj #c4jf #a4fc #b4ffd ,organic acids #e4ej #b4djj #c4ch #b4je #b4bjj ----- ------ ------ ----- ------ #ih4ad #ig4gej #ih4ahg #ii4hc #ii4ccd ,the above figures disclose several interesting facts4 ,it will be seen that the increase of silica or flint in the leaf is steadily progressive from #ac per cent4 at ,july #ai1 to #eh4fe at ,october #ah4 ,flint is substantially the bone earth of all grasses4 ,if one were to analyse the bones of a calf when a day old1 again when thirty days of age1 and when a year old1 the increase of phosphate of lime in its skeleton would be similar to that witnessed in the leaves and stems of maize4 ,in the early stages of the growth of corn1 its leaves abound in phosphates2 but after the seeds begin to form1 the phosphates leave the tissues of the plant in other parts1 and concentrate in and around the germs in the seeds4 ,on the #bcrd of ,august1 the ash of the whole stalk contained #ai per cent4 of phosphates2 and on the #ahth of ,october1 only #ae4ae per cent4 ,in forming the cobs of this plant1 considerable potash is drawn from the stalk1 as it decreases from #ce4ed per cent4 ,august #af1 to #bd4fi ,october #ah4 ,when the plant is growing fastest1 its roots yield an ash which contains less than one per cent4 of lime2 but after this development is nearly completed1 the roots retain1 or perhaps regain from the plant above1 over #d per cent4 of this mineral4 ,soda figures as high as from #bj to #ca per cent4 in the ash obtained from corn roots4 ,ripe seeds gave the following results on the analysis of their ash3-- ,silica #j4hej ,phosphoric acid #di4baj ,lime #j4jge ,magnesia #ag4fjj ,potash #bc4age ,soda #c4fje ,sodium #j4afj ,chlorine #j4bie ,sulphuric acid #j4eae ,organic acids #e4gjj ------ #ii4age ,the above table shows a smaller quantity of lime than is usually found in the ash of this grain4 ,it is1 however1 never so abundant as magnesia2 and ,professor ,emmons has shown that the best corn lands in the ,state of ,new ,york contain a considerable quantity of magnesia4 ,all experience1 as well as all chemical researches1 go to prove that potash and phosphoric acid are important elements in the organisation of maize4 ,corn yields more pounds of straw and grain on poor land than either wheat1 rye1 barley1 or oats2 and it does infinitely better on rich than on sterile soils4 ,to make the earth fertile1 it is better economy to plant thick than to have the rows five feet apart each way1 as is customary in some of the ,southern ,states1 and only one stalk in a hill4 ,this gives but one plant to twenty-five square feet of ground4 ,instead of this1 three square feet are sufficient for a single plant2 and from that up to six1 for the largest varieties of this crop4 ,mr4 ,humboldt states the production of maize in the ,antilles as #cjj for one2 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,colman has seen in several cases in the ,new ,england ,states of ,america1 a return of #djj for one2 that is to say1 the hills being three feet apart each way1 a peck of ,indian corn would be sufficient seed for an acre4 ,if #ajj bushels of grain is in such case produced by an acre--and this sometimes happens--this is clearly a return of #djj for one4 ,of the whole family of cereals1 ,zea ,mays is unquestionably the most valuable for cultivation in the ,united ,states4 ,when the time shall come that population presses closely on the highest capabilities of ,american soil1 this plant1 which is a native of the ,new ,world1 will be found greatly to excel all others in the quantity of bread1 meat1 milk1 and butter which it will yield from an acre of land4 ,with proper culture1 it has no equal for the production of hay1 in all cases where it is desirable to grow a large crop on a small surface4 ,although there has been much written on the ,eastern origin of this grain1 it did not grow in that part of ,asia watered by the ,indus1 at the time of ,alexander the ,great's expedition1 as it is not among the productions of the country mentioned by ,nearchus1 the commander of the fleet2 neither is it noticed by ,arian1 ,diodorus1 ,columella1 nor any other ancient author2 and even as late as #adia1 the year before ,columbus discovered ,america1 ,joan di ,cuba1 in his ,ortus ,sanitatis1 makes no mention of it4 ,it has never been found in any ancient tumulus1 sarcophagus1 or pyramid2 nor has it ever been represented in any ancient painting1 sculpture1 or work of art1 except in ,america4 ,but in that country1 according to ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 one of the ancient ,peruvian historians1 the palace gardens of the ,incas1 in ,peru1 were ornamented with maize1 in gold and silver1 with all the grains1 spikes1 stalks1 and leaves2 and in one instance1 in the garden of gold and silver1 there was an entire cornfield1 of considerable size1 representing the maize in its exact and natural shape2 a proof no less of the wealth of the ,incas1 than their veneration for this important grain4 ,in further proof of the ,american origin1 it may be stated that this plant is still found growing1 in a wild state1 from the ,rocky mountains in ,north ,america1 to the humid forests of ,paraguay1 where1 instead of having each grain naked1 as is always the case after long cultivation1 it is completely covered with glumes or husks4 ,it is1 furthermore1 a well authenticated fact1 that maize was found in a state of cultivation by the aborigines1 in the island of ,cuba1 on its discovery by ,columbus1 as well as in most other places in ,america1 first explored by ,americans4 ,the first successful attempt to cultivate this grain in ,north ,america1 by the ,english1 occurred on ,james' river1 in ,virginia1 in #afjh4 ,it was undertaken by the colonists sent over by the ,indian company1 who adopted the mode then practised by the natives1 which1 with some modifications1 has been pursued throughout this country ever since4 ,the yield1 at this time1 is represented to have been from two hundred to more than one thousand fold4 ,the same increase was noted by the early settlers in ,illinois4 ,the present yield1 east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 when judiciously cultivated1 varies from #bj to #ace bushels to an acre4 ,the varieties of ,indian corn are very numerous1 exhibiting every grade of size1 color1 and conformation1 between the chubby reed that grows on the shores of ,lake superior--the gigantic stalks of the ,ohio valley--the tiny ears1 with flat1 close1 clinging grains1 of ,canada--the brilliant1 rounded little pearl--the bright red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed hmatite--the swelling ears of the big white and the yellow gourd seed of the ,south4 ,from the flexibility of this plant1 it may be acclimatised1 by gradual cultivation1 from ,texas to ,maine1 or from ,canada to ,brazil2 but its character1 in either case1 is somewhat changed1 and often new varieties are the result4 ,the blades of the plant are of great value as food for stock1 and is an article but rarely estimated sufficiently1 when considering of the agricultural products of the ,southern and ,southwestern ,states especially4 ,to supply slaves on plantations with bread1 including old and young1 requires from twelve to thirteen bushels of corn each a year4 ,taking thirteen bushels as the average consumption of breadstuffs by the #bb1jjj1jjj of people in the ,united ,states1 the aggregate is #bhf1jjj1jjj bushels per annum4 ,the increase of production1 from #ahdj to #ahej1 was #bad1jjj1jjj bushels1 equal to #ef per cent4 ,the production of ,new ,england advanced from #f1iic1jjj to #aj1cgg1jjj bushels1 showing an increase of #c1chd1jjj bushels1 nearly fifty per cent4 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware and ,maryland1 increased #bj1hab1jjj bushels1 more than fifty per cent4 ,in the production of this crop no ,state has retrograded4 ,ohio1 which in #ahdj occupied the fourth place as a corn-producing ,state1 now ranks as the first4 ,kentucky is second1 ,illinois third1 ,tennessee fourth4 ,the crop of ,illinois has increased from #b1jjj1jjj to #e1ejj1jjj bushels1 or at the rate of #afj per cent4 in ten years4 ,of the numerous varieties some are best adapted to the ,southern ,states1 while others are better suited for the ,northern and ,eastern4 ,those generally cultivated in the former are the ,southern big and small yellow1 the ,southern big and small white flint1 the yellow ,peruvian1 and the ,virginian white gourd seed4 ,in the more ,northerly and ,easterly ,states they cultivate the golden sioux1 or ,northern yellow flint1 the ,king ,philip1 or eight-rowed yellow1 the ,canadian early white1 the ,tuscarora1 the white flour1 and the ,rhode ,island white flint4 ,the extended cultivation of this grain is chiefly confined to the ,eastern1 ,middle1 and ,western ,states1 though much more successfully grown in the latter4 ,the amount exported from ,south ,carolina1 in #agdh1 was #ci1cjh bushels2 from ,north ,carolina1 in #agec1 #fa1ehj bushels2 from ,georgia1 in #agee1 #fjj bushels2 from ,virginia1 for several years preceding the revolution1 annually #fjj1jjj bushels2 from ,philadelphia1 in #agfe-ff1 #ed1bje bushels2 in #agga1 #bei1dda bushels4 ,the total amount exported from ,america in #aggj1 was #egc1cdi bushels2 in #agia1 #b1jfd1icf bushels1 #cea1fie of which were ,indian meal2 in #ahjj1 #b1jcb1dce bushels1 #cch1ajh of which were in meal2 in #ahaj1 #a1adj1ifj bushels1 #hf1gdd of which were meal4 ,in #ahbj-ba1 there were exported #fjg1bgg bushels of corn1 and #aca1ffi barrels of ,indian meal2 in #ahcj-ca1 #ega1cab bushels of corn1 and #bjg1fjd barrels of meal2 in #ahdj-da1ece1gbg bushels of corn1 and #bcb1bhd barrels of meal2 in #ahde-df1 #a1bhf1jfh bushels of corn1 and #bih1gij barrels of meal2 in #ahdf-dg #af1cbf1jej bushels of corn1 and #idh1jfj barrels of meal2 in #ahej-ea1 #c1dbf1haa bushels of corn1 and #bjc1fbb barrels of meal4 ,more than eleven millions of bushels of ,indian corn were consumed in #ahej1 in the manufacture of spirituous liquors4 ,according to the census of #ahdj1 the corn crop of the ,united ,states was #cgg1eca1hge bushels2 in #ahej1 #eib1cbf1fab bushels4 ,the increase in the production of corn in ,ohio has been 7in ten years7 #ff per cent4 ,i have also before me the auditor's returns for the crop of #ahej1 as taken by assessors1 and the number of acres planted4 ,the auditor's returns are3-- ,seventy-three counties #ee1jgi1cgd ,darke county #ebd1dhd ,twelve counties1 average #h1djj1jjj ---------- ,total #fd1jjc1heh ,this is an advance of #ae per cent4 on the crop of #ahdj1 and it is known that the crop of #ahej was better than that of #ahdi4 ,the number of acres planted1 and the average production was3-- ,acres planted #a1haj1idg ,bushels produced #fd1jjc1heh ,average per acre #ce-c_/h bush4 ,considering how large a portion of hill land is planted1 and how many fields are ill cultivated1 the average is high4 ,many persons have believed that taking all years and all lands into view1 the average of corn lands was not more than thirty bushels4 ,but the immense fertility of bottom lands on the rivers and creeks of ,ohio make up for bad cultivation and inferior soil4 ,we may see something of the differences in the production of corn1 by taking the averages of different counties1 thus3-- ,acres4 ,crop4 ,average4 ,butler #fb1jca #b1fdf1cec #db ,warren #db1cbb #a1geg1dji #db ,pickaway #fe1hfj #b1fbg1gbg #dj ,ross #fi1ebj #b1iah1ieh #db ,compare the average of these counties1 which embrace some of the best lands in the ,state1 with the following3-- ,acres4 ,crop4 ,average4 ,carroll #aj1ajg #caf1iii #cb ,jackson #ae1fhj #dci1hej #cj ,monroe #bc1cge #gbh1bdb #ca ,portage #aj1dbf #cbi1ebi #cb ,vinton #aa1dac #cde1dgj #cj ,the last counties contain but little bottom land1 and hence the average of corn is reduced one-fourth in amount4 ,of these counties1 two are full of coal and iron4 ,the resources of the last are more slow to develop1 but in the end will be equally valuable4 ,but a small quantity of the corn of ,ohio is exported as grain4 ,it is first manufactured into other articles1 and then exported in another form4 ,the principal part of these are hogs1 cattle1 and whiskey4 ,it is difficult to say exactly how much corn is in this way exported1 but the following is an approximation-- ,bushels4 ,in ,fat ,cattle #d1jjj1jjj ,in ,fat ,hogs #aj1jjj1jjj ,in ,whiskey #b1ejj1jjj ---------- ,total #af1ejj1jjj ,taking into view the export of corn meal--about twenty millions of bushels--the residue goes to the support of the stock animals on hand1 of which there are near three millions1 exclusive of those fatted for market4 ,the exported corn in the shape of cattle1 hogs1 and whiskey1 is worth about thirty cents cash1 while on the farm it is not worth twenty--thus proving that it is more profitable to consume corn on the farm1 than to export it in bulk4 ,this fact is well known to good farmers1 who seldom attempt to sell corn as a merchantable article4 ,no mining in the world has ever been equal to mining in a fertile soil1 and no treasury is so reliable as a granary of surplus products4 ,indian corn and meal generally find a market in the ,west ,indies1 ,newfoundland1 ,spain1 and ,portugal4 ,it commands a good price1 and finds a ready sale in the ports which are open to its reception4 ,deducting one-sixteenth for the amount exported1 and one-tenth for seed1 the quantity of maize annually consumed for food in the ,united ,states by a family of five persons is #he bushels4 ,maize may be considered as the great staple of the agricultural products of the ,states4 ,it is exported in large quantities1 in a raw state1 or when manufactured into meal4 ,before it is manufactured into meal it is dried by a fire1 in a kiln prepared for that purpose4 ,by this process the meal is much less liable to become sour on the voyage1 and can be preserved much longer in a warm climate4 ,no inconsiderable quantities have likewise been consumed in distillation2 and the article of kiln-dried meal for exportation is destined to be of no small account to the corn-growing sections of that country4 ,the improvement continually making in the quality of the seed augurs well for the productiveness of this indigenous crop1 as it has been found that new varieties are susceptible of being used to great advantage4 ,the following was the produce of the different ,states in the years named1 as given in the ,official ,census ,returns3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahdj #ahda #ahdc #ahej ,bushels4 ,bushels4 ,bushels4 ,bushels4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,maine #iej1ebh #ihh1edi #a1cij1gii ,new ,hampshire #a1afb1egb #aia1bge #ccj1ibe ,massachusetts #a1hji1aib #a1ije1bgc #b1cdg1dea ,rhode ,island #dej1dih #dga1jbb #egh1gbj ,connecticut #a1ejj1dda #a1eba1aia #a1ibf1deh ,vermont #a1aai1fgh #a1afg1bai #a1beb1hec ,new ,york #aj1igb1bhf #aa1dda1bef #ae1egd1eij ,new ,jersey #d1cfa1ige #e1acd1cff #e1hje1aba ,pennsylvania #ad1bdj1jbb #ad1ifi1dgb #ae1heg1dca ,delaware #b1jii1cei #b1afd1ejg #b1gci1ihb ,maryland #h1bcc1jhf #f1iih1abd #f1bje1bhb ,virginia #cd1egg1eia #cc1ihg1bee #de1hcf1ghh ,n4 ,carolina #bc1hic1gfc #bd1aaf1bec #bg1iaf1jgg ,s4 ,carolina #ad1gbb1hje #ad1ihg1dgd #ah1aij1iac ,georgia #bj1ije1abb #ba1gdi1bbg #bf1ifj1fhg ,alabama #bj1idg1jjd #ba1eid1ced #bd1hag1jhi ,mississippi #ac1afa1bcg #e1ihe1gbd #i1chf1cii ,louisiana #e1ieb1iab #f1bbd1adg #h1ieg1cib ,tennessee #dd1ihf1ahh #df1bhe1cei #fg1hch1dgg #eb1jjj1jjj ,kentucky #ci1hdg1abj #dj1ghg1abj #ei1cee1aef #eh1jjj1jjj ,ohio #cc1ffh1add #ce1eeb1afa #ch1fea1abh #ei1ghh1gej ,indiana #bh1aee1hhg #cc1aie1ajh #cf1fgg1aga #ec1jjj1jjd ,illinois #bb1fcd1baa #bc1dbd1dgd #cb1gfj1dcd #eg1jjj1jjj ,missouri #ag1ccb1ebd #ai1gbe1adf #bg1adh1fjh ,arkansas #d1hdf1fcb #f1jci1dej #h1ged1bjd ,michigan #b1bgg1jci #c1jeh1jij #c1eib1dhb ,florida ,territory #hih1jgd #fid1bje #hch1ffg ,wisconsin #cgi1cei #eba1bdd #gej1gge ,iowa ,t4 #a1djf1bda #a1edg1bae #b1abh1daf ,d4 of ,columbia #ci1dhe #dc1gbe #dg1hcg ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total #cgg1eca1hge #chg1chj1ahe #did1fah1cjf #ejj1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the ,indian corn crop of #ahej1 for the whole of the ,united ,states1 is returned as over #ejj million bushels1 a gain of about #dj millions on that of #ahdj4 ,i give below the quantities of ,indian corn and meal which were exported from the ,united ,states in the following years3-- ,corn1 ,bushels4 ,meal1 ,bushels4 ,value4 ,dolls4 #agij #a1gac1bda #agid #a1eje1igg #bda1egj #agih #a1bah1bca #baa1fid #ahjb #a1fcc1bhc #eff1haf #ahjf #a1jfd1bfc #ajh1cdb #a1bhf1jjj #ahaj #a1jed1beb #hf1gdd #a1ach1jjj #ahad #fa1bhd #bf1dch #agj1jjj #ahah #a1jge1aij #abj1jbi #b1cce1dje #ahbb #eji1jih #adh1bhh #ijj1fef #ahbf #eje1cha #aeh1feb #a1jjg1cba #ahbi #hig1fef #agc1gge #igd1ece #ahcc #dcg1agd #adf1fgh #hga1had --7,pitkin's ,statistics of the ,united ,stales1 and ,seybert's ,statistical ,annals47 ,system of culture pursued in the ,united ,states4--,maize1 the corn1 par excellence1 of ,america1 is grown in every ,state in the ,union4 ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 ,virginia1 and ,indiana1 are in their order the greatest producers of this grain4 ,in ,illinois1 ,north ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 ,missouri1 ,pennsylvania1 ,south ,carolina1 ,new ,york1 ,maryland1 ,arkansas1 and the ,new ,england ,states1 it appears to be a very favorite crop4 ,in ,massachusetts1 the most ,northern and least favorable ,state on that account1 being cold1 a fair proportion is grown1 the aggregate produce being greater there than in any of the grains1 except oats2 more1 indeed1 than might be expected1 were not labor somewhat cheaper than in more ,southern ,states1 where the climate is more congenial4 ,the ordinary produce is twenty-five bushels per acre2 forty bushels is often raised1 and in prize crops the weight has come up to #ajj bushels per acre4 ,in ,ohio the average is fifty-five bushels to the acre4 ,the eight and twelve-rowed varieties of ,indian corn are those most usually grown in ,new ,york1 and the average produce of a good field in that ,state is from forty to sixty bushels2 on ordinary ground twenty-five to thirty is a fair crop4 ,the same returns appeared to be derived from ground in ,new ,jersey4 ,mr4 ,doubleday1 of ,binghampton1 ,new ,york1 estimates the produce of that neighbourhood at forty bushels1 and the expense of raising the crop as follows1 estimating the worth of the land at twenty-five dollars 7say #e7 per acre3-- ,dollars4 ,cents4 ,the interest of which is #a #af ,one ploughing with double team1 and harrowing #c #ej ,seed and planting #a #jj ,plaster or gypsum1 and putting on the hill #j #cg ,ploughing and hoeing twice1 cutting or stalking the corn #b #ge ,husking or thrashing #b #ej ----------------- #aa #fb ,average yield1 forty bushels2 cost of produce1 twenty-nine cents4 7#as4 #d;d47 per bushel4 ,nothing is here put down for manure or cartage1 because the fodder1 cut up and saved1 as usually adopted1 is equal to the manure required4 ,it is looked upon that the preparation of ground for corn costs less than wheat2 the approved plan is to plant on sward ground1 ploughing at once1 and turning the ground completely over1 then harrowing longitudinally until1 a good tilth is obtained4 ,should the soil not be rich enough1 stable manure is first spread on the land4 ,now suppose the corn to sell at seventy-five cents the bushel1 the account would stand thus3-- ,dollars4 ,cents4 ,forty bushels1 at seventy-five cents4 #cj #jj ,cost #aa #fb --------------- ,gain per acre #ah #ch or #c #acs4 #f;d4 ,british money profit per acre4 ,in ,lichfield1 ,connecticut1 the cost of produce has been1 for the items as stated above1 eighteen dollars twenty-five cents1 or the cost of each bushel thirty-six and one-half cents4 ,the acre produce was fifty bushels1 so that it stood thus3-- ,dollars4 ,cents4 ,fifty bushels1 at seventy-five cents #cg #ej ,cost #ah #be ----------------- ,gain #ai #e or #c #abs4 per acre4 ,the cost of producing maize varies somewhat in the other ,states1 thus3-- ,per bushel4 ,cents4 ,new ,hampshire 7,unity7 the cost was #ej ,fayette county1 ,pennsylvania #af ,donesville1 ,michigan1 only #ag ,plymouth1 ,massachusetts #ag #g_/aj ,the cost on producing this crop was small1 but it appears to have been a small crop1 and did not bring more than thirty cents per bushel4 ,in ,monroe county1 the richest land in the ,state of ,new ,york1 estimating the land at fifteen dollars per acre1 the producing cost stood at3-- ,dollars4 ,cents4 ,interest at six per cent4 #j #de ,one ploughing sward1 cover or stubble #a #jj ,harrowing1 furrowing1 seed1 and planting #j #hg ,cultivating three times and hoeing #a #jj ,husking the hill #a #jj ,shelling and cleaning #a #jj --------------- #e #hb ,this yielded fifty bushels1 the cost of producing the bushel was eleven and three-fifths cents4 ,this low cost was owing to the fact of no manure being used2 and while it speaks volumes as to the natural fertility of ,american soils1 yet it reflects very disgracefully upon the careless system adopted there1 as under such treatment no land could continue1 after some years1 to produce a crop which could come into competition with those from newer and less exhausted lands2 but if under a good system of tillage the ground was yearly renewed with manure1 and those amendments which every soil requires1 after a crop has been raised from it1 added to the soil in top-dressing and in ploughing-in1 we should never hear of the exhausted state of ,new ,england land1 or see the sons of the soil moving west and cultivating newer soils1 thus removing much of the capital and intelligence of a country away from it4 ,supposing the corn of ,monroe county sold at seventy cents per bushel1 the balance would appear thus3-- ,dollars4 ,cents4 ,fifty bushels1 at seventy cents #ce #jj ,cost of production #e #hb -------------- ,gain #bi #ah #f #as4 per acre profit4 ,in ,northern ,ohio and in ,illinois the cost of production averages twenty cents per bushel4 ,the mode of cultivation in ,connecticut and the ,new ,england ,states has been thus described to me by ,mr4 ,l4 ,durand1 an experienced agriculturist3--,if the soil selected is light and mellow1 it should be ploughed and subsoiled in the spring1 first spreading on the coarse unfermented manure which is to be ploughed in4 ,for marking the rows for planting1 a corn marker may be used to advantage4 ,it is made by taking a piece of scantling1 three inches square and ten to twelve feet long1 with teeth of hickory or white oak inserted at distances of two to four feet1 according to the width designed for the rows4 ,then an old pair of waggon-thills and a pair of old plough-handles are put to it1 and your marker is done4 ,with a good horse to draw this implement1 the ground may be made ready for planting very rapidly4 ,it is better to leave the ground flat than to ridge it1 for the latter mode has no advantage1 except when the ground is wet4 ,the difference in the two modes is chiefly this3--,when the ground is ridged1 the corn being planted between the edges of the furrows1 it comes immediately in contact with the manure1 springs up and grows rapidly the fore part of the season4 ,when the ground is left flat1 and the manure turned under the furrows1 the corn will often look feeble at first1 and in growth will frequently be much behind that on the ridges2 and the inference early in the season is1 that the ridged ground will give the best crop1 but as soon as the roots of the corn on the flat ground get hold of the manure 7say about the #bjth of ,july71 the corn will shoot rapidly ahead1 and the full force of the manure will be given to the stalk just at the time of forming the grain4 ,corn cultivated in this way1 if the soil is deeply tilled1 will often keep green1 while that on ridges is dried up4 ,many farmers1 at planting1 shell the corn off the cob1 and plant it dry4 ,others soak it a few days in warm water4 ,but when the seed is only treated in this way1 it is very likely to be pulled up by birds and injured by worms4 ,the best way to prevent this is to first soak the corn in a strong solution of saltpetre2 then take a quantity of tar1 and having warmed it over a fire1 pour it on the corn1 and stir with a stick or paddle till the grain is all smeared with the tar2 then add gypsum or plaster till the corn will separate freely1 and no birds will touch the grain4 ,the time of planting1 in the ,united ,states1 varies with the season and the section of the country4 ,in ,new ,england it may generally be planted from the #aeth to the #beth ,may4 ,where the ground is flat1 a light harrow or a cultivator is much better to go between the rows than the plough4 ,formerly a great deal of useless labor was spent in hilling up corn2 in dry seasons this was worse than useless4 ,the earth hauled round the stalk does not assist its growth1 nor aid in holding it up2 the brace roots1 which come out as the stalk increases in height1 support it2 and it has been observed1 that in a heavy storm and thunder gust1 corn that is hilled will be broken down more than that which is not hilled4 ,the ground which is kept level has also the advantage of more readily absorbing rain1 rendering the crop less liable to suffer from drought4 ,the field should have two or three regular hoeings1 and the weeds be carefully kept under4 ,in harvesting the following will be found a good plan3--,let two hands take five rows1 cutting the corn close to the ground4 ,a hill should be left standing to form the centre of the shock1 placing the stalks round it1 so that they may not lie on the ground4 ,after the shock is made of sufficient size1 take a band of straw1 and having turned down the tops of the stalks1 bind them firmly1 and the work is done4 ,maize may be cut as soon as the centre of the grain is glazed1 even if the stalks are green4 ,there will be sufficient nutriment in the stalk to perfect the ear1 and the fodder is much better than when it gets dry before it is cut4 ,if the shocks are well put up1 they may stand four or five weeks4 ,the corn may then be knocked out1 and the fodder secured for winter use4 ,the report of the ,ohio ,board of ,agriculture for #ahdi1 contains many interesting statements in reference to maize culture1 made by the officers of numerous county agricultural societies4 ,in ,miami county1 #b1jcj1fgj bushels were grown1 at an average yield of fifty-five bushels per acre4 ,three varieties are cultivated3 the common gourd seed1 for cattle2 the yellow ,kentucky1 for hogs and distilling2 and the white1 for grinding and exportation4 ,according to the returns from ,green county1 which produced #a1bej1jjj bushels of corn in #ahdi1 a regular rotation of clover1 corn1 wheat1 and clover again1 is best for corn2 and no crop pays better for extra culture4 ,the ,harrison county ,agricultural ,society reports the pork crop at #d1hjj1jjj pounds2 and it gave its first premium for corn to ,mr4 ,s4,b4 ,lukens1 whose statement is as follows3-- ,the ground had been in meadow ten years1 was ploughed six inches deep about the middle of ,april1 was harrowed twice over on the #ith ,may1 and planted on the #aath four feet by two feet4 ,it came up well1 was cultivated and thinned when ten inches high2 three stalks were left in a hill4 ,about two weeks afterward it was again cultivated1 and the suckers pulled off4 ,about the last of ,june it was again cultivated1 making three times the same way1 as it was laid off but one way4 d4 c4 ,expense of culture1 gathering1 and cribbing1 was #ag #aj ,produce of #cgd-c_/h bushels1 at #ca cents #aag #aj ---------- ,profit on three acres #ajj #jj ,the evidence on which a premium was awarded was such as should satisfy any one that #cgd bushels were grown on three acres of land1 and at a cost not exceeding #ag dollars #aj cents1 delivered in the crib4 ,this is producing corn at less than #e cents a bushel4 ,whether the statement be true to the letter or not1 it shows conclusively the great value of a rich soil for making cheap corn4 ,the ,board of ,agriculture estimates the crop of ,ohio last year at #gj1jjj1jjj of bushels4 ,taking the ,united ,states as a whole1 probably the crop of corn was never better than in the year #ahdi4 ,one that has rich land needs only to plough it deep and well1 plant in season1 and cultivate the earth properly with a plough or cultivator1 to secure the growth of a generous crop4 ,on poor soils the case is very different4 ,to raise a good crop of corn on poor land1 and at the least possible expense1 requires some science and much skill in the art of tillage4 ,take the same field to operate in1 and one farmer will grow #ajj bushels of corn at half the cost per bushel that another will expend in labor1 which is money4 ,it unfortunately happens that very skilful farmers are few in number1 in comparison with those who have failed to study and practice all attainable improvements4 ,to produce cheap corn on poor land1 one needs a clear understanding of what elements of the crop air and water will furnish1 and what they cannot supply4 ,it should be remembered that the atmosphere is precisely the same over ground which yields #ajj bushels of corn per acre1 that it is over that which produces only five bushels per acre4 ,now1 the whole matter which forms the stems1 leaves1 roots1 cobs1 and seeds of corn1 where the crop is #ajj bushels per acre1 is not part and parcel of the soil4 ,a harvest equal to fifty bushels per acre can be obtained without consuming over ten per cent1 of earth1 as compared with the weight of the crop4 ,no plant can imbibe more of the substance of the soil in which it grows1 than is dissolved in water1 or rendered gaseous by the decomposition of mould4 ,the quantity of matter dissolved1 whether organic or inorganic1 during the few weeks in which corn plants organise the bulk of their solids1 is small4 ,from #ic to #ig parts in #ajj of the dry matter1 in a mature1 perfect plant1 including its seeds1 cob1 stems1 leaves1 and roots1 are carbon 7charcoal7 and the elements of water4 ,it is not only an important1 but an exceedingly instructive fact1 that the most effective fertilisers known in agriculture are those that least abound in the elements of water and carbon4 ,the unleached dry excrements of dunghill fowls and pigeons1 have five times the fertilising power on all cereal plants that the dry dung of a grass-fed cow has1 although the latter has five times more carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 per #ajj pounds1 than the former4 ,although it is desirable to apply to the soil in which corn is to grow as much of organised carbon and water as one conveniently can1 yet1 where fertilisers have to be transported many miles2 it is important to know that such of the measure as would form coal1 if carefully burnt1 can best be spared4 ,the same is true of those elements in manure which form vapor or water1 when the fertiliser decomposes in the ground4 ,carbonic acid and nascent hydrogen evolved in rotting stable manure are truly valuable food for plants1 and perform important chemical offices in the soil2 but they are1 nevertheless1 not so indispensable to the economical production of crops1 as available nitrogen1 potash1 silica1 magnesia1 sulphur1 and phosphorus4 ,these elements of plants being less abundant in nature1 and quite indispensable in forming corn1 cotton1 and every other product of the soil1 their artificial supply in guano1 night soil1 and other highly concentrated fertilisers1 adds immensely to the harvest1 through the aid of a small weight of matter4 ,in all sections where corn is worth #cj cents and over a bushel1 great benefits may be realised by the skilful manufacture and use of poudrette4 ,this article is an inodorous compound of the most valuable constituents of human food and clothing4 ,it is the raw material of crops4 ,it is not necessary to restore to a cornfield all the matter removed in the crop to maintain its fertility4 ,a part of each seed1 however1 ought to be carried back and replaced in the soil1 to make good its loss by the harvest4 ,in every barrel of meal or flour sent to market 7#aif pounds71 there are not far from #ahf pounds of carbon 7coal71 and the elements of water4 ,when a bird eats wheat or corn1 ,i have reason to believe1 from several experiments1 that over #hj per cent1 of the food escapes into the air through its capacious lungs in the process of respiration2 and yet the #bj per cent1 of guano left will re-produce as much wheat or corn as was consumed4 ,imported guano1 which has been exposed to the weather for ages1 often gives an increase in the crop of wheat equal to three pounds of seed to one of fertiliser2 while it has given a gain of seven to one of corn1 and fifty to one of green turnips4 ,like other grains that have been long cultivated1 ,indian corn abounds in varieties4 ,in ,spain they count no less than #acj1 and in the ,united ,states the number is upwards of forty4 ,the difference consists in size1 color1 period of maturation1 and hardness and weight of grain4 ,of size there exists a considerable variety1 from ,zea ,curagua of ,chili1 and the ,egyptian or chicken corn1 both extremely diminutive1 to the large white flint1 and ground seed corn of the ,united ,states4 ,the differences in color are the red1 yellow1 and white4 ,the period of maturation varies1 apparently1 very considerably2 but it is questionable whether this variation is real1 and independent of climate4 ,in the ,northern ,states of ,america1 ,indian corn ripens in a shorter period of time than it does in the ,south1 owing1 possibly1 to the greater length of the summer day in those latitudes4 ,in selecting varieties1 some experienced and judicious farmers prefer that which yields the greater number of ears1 without regard to their size1 or number of rows4 ,others prefer that which furnishes one or two larger ears1 having from twelve to twenty-four rows4 ,in the ,northern ,states of ,america the yellow corn bears the highest price in the market1 and is considered the most prolific and best suited to feed cattle and hogs4 ,for bread1 the white ,button is preferred at the ,north1 and the white ground seed is used for that purpose in other quarters4 ,preference1 however1 is most frequently given to white flint corn1 which is unquestionably the heaviest1 and contains the greatest proportion of farina4 ,in ,mississippi many varieties are grown1 principally those known as flint and bastard flint4 ,the gourd-seed varieties are very objectionable in that climate1 principally on account of their softness rendering them unfit for bread1 and open to the attacks of insects in the field and the crib4 ,they require a grain1 white1 hard1 and rather flinty--white because of its great consumption in bread and hommony1 in the preparation of both of which their cooks greatly excel4 ,when meal is ground for bread1 the mill is set rather wide1 that the flinty part of the grain may not be cut up too fine1 this being sifted out for small hommony2 the farinaceous part of the grain is left for bread4 ,this hommony is a beautiful and delicious dish4 ,on most plantations the negroes have it for supper1 with molasses or buttermilk4 ,a hard flinty grain is necessary to head the weevil1 with which not only the cribs but the heads of corn in the field are infested4 ,these are the ,calandra oryz1 the true rice weevil1 distinguished from his ,european cousin by the two reddish spots on each elytra or wing-cover1 and known in ,america as the black weevil2 also a little brown insect1 not a true weevil1 but a ,sylvanus4 ,this sylvanus1 and another of the same genus1 most probably the ,s4 surinamensis1 attack the corn in the field before it becomes hard1 causing serious damage--but nothing to equal that occasioned by the black weevil4 ,i know of no generally successful method of staying or even checking the injury caused by the insects1 though much might be written in the way of suggestion4 ,in ,michigan1 the dent variety in dry seasons produces the best crops on sandy loam1 as its roots run deeper than the common eight-rowed yellow or white4 ,in moist seasons the latter varieties usually do well4 ,they are grown most generally in the ,northern part of the ,state1 while in the ,southern section the ,ohio dent is principally raised4 ,the shuck and blade are much used as fodder for cattle1 in the early part of winter4 ,indian corn is very liable to change of character from soil and climate1 growing smaller the farther ,north it is raised4 ,the mixing of the eight-rowed yellow with the ,ohio dent has1 so far as my experience goes1 been beneficial in increasing the yield4 ,sandy loam1 or clay1 is considered the soil best adapted to corn4 ,it is usually planted in ,may1 and harvested in ,september4 ,the blade is not taken off there as at the ,south2 some farmers cut up their corn when ripe1 put it into shocks1 and husk it late in the fall2 others cut the stalks1 bind them in sheaves1 and stack them for winter in the fields1 or put them away in barns or sheds2 while others husk the corn on the hill without cutting the stalks1 and late in the fall turn their cattle into the field to eat the fodder4 ,of these different modes the preference is usually given to cutting the stalks and putting them under cover after being well cured1 and busting the corn on the hill4 ,the corn is thought to ripen better in this way1 and to keep better in the cribs4 ,the ,ohio dent1 having a smaller ear containing less moisture than other varieties1 ripens quicker and keeps better4 ,this crop ranges from #be to #fe bushels per acre1 and the difference in the yield is to be attributed to the manner of cultivation4 ,my experience shows that a crop of #de bushels per acre costs #ac cents a bushel1 including interest on land4 ,corn is principally raised in ,michigan for home consumption1 and the stalks and shucks1 if well cured1 are worths dollars per acre1 compared with hay at #e dollars per ton4 ,as much as #acd bushels per acre have been obtained1 in some instances1 in ,massachusetts2 till the last #bj years #ce bushels was considered an average crop1 but by a due rotation of crops1 and ploughing in long manure1 at least #ge bushels to the acre are now raised4 ,the kinds preferred there1 are an eight-rowed variety1 procured originally from ,canada2 the ,cass corn1 another eight-rowed variety1 and the ,dutton corn1 each of which averages about #fj lbs4 to the bushel4 ,maize is a principal crop in the ,connecticut ,river ,valley1 ,western ,vermont1 and along the ,lake shore2 but in the high dividing ridge1 and in the ,northern counties bordering on ,canada1 the climate is too severe for its profitable cultivation4 ,the kind mostly grown 7observes ,mr4 ,colburn1 of ,vermont7 is the yellow eight-rowed1 though some prefer the twelve and sixteen-rowed1 known here by the name of the ,button corn2 but my experience in cultivating the different kinds for the last twenty-four years1 has forced me to the conclusion that the common eight-rowed1 mixed with a kind called the ,brown corn1 does the best2 the kernel of the-latter bearing upon a chocolate hue1 and the mixture of these two kinds of seed imparting a deep rich color to the whole1 when they become blended1 and enhancing the yield whenever the soil is in high tilth4 ,of this kind1 the writer has raised1 the past season1 upon eleven acres on the ,connecticut ,river alluvium1 over eight hundred bushels shelled corn1 four acres of which1 with extra preparation1 produced four hundred and sixteen bushels4 ,it will never do to carry seed corn from ,south to ,north1 as it will not mature in a higher or colder climate than that from which it has been taken4 ,even half a degree of latitude sensibly affects the maturing of the blade1 and renders it an uncertain crop in our high northern latitudes4 ,to insure an extra yield of this valuable grain1 the soil must be highly manured1 deeply ploughed1 thorough cultivated and hoed1 and top-dressed with lime1 house ashes1 and plaster4 ,this done1 it is the most remunerative and profitable of all grain crops4 ,in ,delaware there are many varieties1 and everybody esteems his own kind the best4 ,the grain varies from pure flint to pure gourd seed--of course the mixtures which are between these two varieties are most common--it inclines more to gourd seed than to flint4 ,mint weighs full standard fifty-six1 the gourd seed from forty-nine to fifty-two pounds1 and the mixtures range between4 ,flint ripens from ten days to two weeks earlier4 ,it will not produce as many pounds per acre as the lighter gourd seed4 ,soil exerts its influence over the character of corn1 a heavy soil tending to produce flint--light soil1 gourd seed4 ,the corn is cut up in the fall1 and after curing in the shuck1 is husked2 the shuck remaining on the stalk with the blades4 ,the average yield1 on improved land1 is fifty bushels2 though crops of one hundred and twelve1 and one hundred and sixty bushels per acre are reported to have been raised in the county1 in #ahdi4 ,the yield increases from year to year4 ,a general and rapid improvement of the ,state is in progress1 and in nothing is this seen more clearly than in the corn crop4 ,mossy old sedge fields1 which have been laid out for years1 are broken up1 and will yield1 if it be a good season1 from five to ten bushels per acre2 fence them1 lime them with twenty to thirty bushels1 and seed the oat crop with clover1 and in two years the clover sod will return eighteen to twenty bushels of corn4 ,another dressing of lime1 or its equivalent in marl1 of which there is an abundance in the lower half of ,newcastle ,county1 will show thirty bushels of corn2 and of wheat1 if the farm manure be used on it1 nine to twelve bushels will not be too much to expect4 ,in ,arkansas1 ,indian corn is regarded as the king of grains4 ,it constitutes the chief food of every animal1 from man down to the marauding rat1 while its dried blade furnishes seven-tenths of the long food for working animals4 ,the large white is the variety most esteemed1 and most generally cultivated1 for the reasons that it yields more grain and fodder1 makes1 when ground into meal1 whiter and sweeter bread1 and is less liable to injury from the weevils4 ,the blade is usually esteemed the best long food for horses1 exceeding in price the best ,northern hay2 the average price may be stated at about seventy cents per cwt4 ,the shuck is fed to cows and young mules1 they eat it1 but with less relish than they do the blades1 which are sweeter and more nutritious4 ,the former are much used for mattresses1 being preferred to moss1 as they are cleaner1 and easier manufactured4 ,when mixed with coarse cotton1 and properly prepared1 they will make a mattress but little inferior to curled hair3 price about fifty cents per cwt4 ,the average price of this grain may be set down at forty cents per bushel2 and the yield on upland in some parts of the ,state may be stated at thirty bushels per acre4 ,five varieties of maize are grown in ,peru4 ,one is known by the name of chancayano1 which has a large semi-transparent yellow grain2 another is called morocho1 and has small yellow grain of a horny appearance2 amarello1 or the yellow1 has a large yellow opaque grain1 and is more farinaceous than the two former varieties2 blanco1 white--this variety is large1 and contains more farina than the former2 and cancha1 or sweet maize4 ,the last is only cultivated in the colder climates of the mountains2 it grows about two feet high1 the cob is short1 and the grains large and white2 when green1 it is very bitter1 but when ripe and roasted1 it is particularly sweet1 and so tender that it may be reduced to flour between the fingers4 ,in this roasted state it constitutes the principal food of the mountaineers of several provinces4 ,the natives remove the husk from the maize by putting it into water with a quantity of wood ashes1 exposing it to a boiling heat1 and washing the grain in running water1 when the husk immediately separates from the grain4 ,in ,jamaica ,i found maize to produce two crops in the year1 and often three4 ,it is usually grown there on the banks or ridges of the cane fields4 ,it may be planted at any time when there is rain1 and it yields from fifteen to forty bushels per acre1 according to the richness of the soil1 and the more or less close manner in which it is planted4 ,in the colony of ,new ,south ,wales1 including the district of ,port ,phillip1 there were #bj1gih acres under cultivation with maize in #ahdd1 the produce from which was returned at #ege1heg bushels2 #bg1jeh bushels of maize were exported from ,sydney in #ahdh4 ,culture in the ,east ,indies4--,the growers on the hills of ,nepaul reckon three kinds of maize3 a white grained species1 which is generally grown on the hill sides2 a yellow grained one1 grown in the low and hot valleys2 and a smaller one1 called ,bhoteah1 or ,murilli ,makii1 which is considered the sweetest of the three1 but from being less productive is not generally grown on good lands4 ,maize thrives best on a siliceous1 well-drained1 rich soil4 ,a correspondent in my ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cji1 says the finest ,indian corn he ever saw was in the ,himalayas of the ,sikim-range1 where the soil consists of a substratum of decomposed mica from the under or rocky stratum1 with a superstratum of from three to six inches of decayed vegetable matter1 from leaves1 c41 of the ancient forests4 ,throughout ,hindostan1 ,june is the usual time for sowing4 ,in ,behar1 about two seers are usually sown upon a beggah2 in ,nepaul1 twenty-four seers upon an ,english acre2 in the vicinity of ,poonah1 one and a-half seer per beggah4 ,before the seed is sown the land is usually ploughed two or three times1 and no further attention given to the crop than two hoeings4 ,in ,nepaul1 where it is the principal crop cultivated1 the seed is sown1 after one delving and pulverisation of the soil1 in the latter end of ,may and early part of ,june1 in drills1 the seeds being laid at intervals of seven or eight inches in the drills1 and the drills an equal space apart4 ,the drills are not raised as for turnip sowing1 but consist merely of rows of the plant on a level surface4 ,the seed is distributed in this manner with the view of facilitating the weeding of the crop1 not for the purpose of earthing up the roots1 which seems unnecessary4 ,the ,indian corn sowing resembles that of the gohya 7or upland7 rice1 in the careful manner in which it is performed2 the sower depositing each grain in its place1 having first dibbled a hole for it five or six inches deep1 with a small hand hoe1 with which he also covers up the grain4 ,the after-culture of this crop is performed with great care in the valleys1 but much neglected in the hills1 especially on new and strong lands4 ,in the former it undergoes repeated weeding during the first month of its growth1 the earth being loosened round the roots1 at each weeding1 with the hand hoe4 ,after the first loosening of the soil1 which is performed as soon as the plants are fairly above ground1 a top dressing of ashes or other manure is given4 ,by this mode the crop gets the immediate benefit of the manure1 which otherwise1 from the extraordinary rapidity of its growth1 could not be obtained by it4 ,in three months from the time of sowing1 the seed is ripe4 ,the crop is harvested by cutting off the heads4 ,in ,nepaul these are either heaped on a rude scaffolding1 near the cultivator's house1 or1 more commonly1 they are suspended from the branches of the trees close by1 where1 exposed to wind and weather1 the hard and tough sheath of the seed cones preserves the grain for many months uninjured4 ,cattle are voraciously fond of the leaves and stems1 which are very sweet1 and even the dry straw1 which ,dr4 ,buchanan surmises may be the reason why it is not more generally cultivated by the natives1 as the difficulty would be great to preserve the crop4 ,so slow is the progress of changes in the regions of ,india1 that near ,kaliyachak1 though the people give all other straw to their cattle1 yet they burn that of maize as unfit for fodder4 ,in ,nepaul the stalks1 with the leaves attached1 often twelve feet long1 cut by the sickle1 are used as fodder for elephants1 bedding for cattle1 and as fuel4 ,the maize crop within the hills of ,nepaul suffers much from the inroads of bears1 which are very numerous in these regions1 and extremely partial to this grain4 ,the average return from this crop is seldom below fifty seers1 ranging frequently far above it4#db ,maize is increasing in cultivation in ,java1 and some of the ,eastern islands4 ,it is found to have the advantage there over mountain rice1 of being more fruitful and hardy1 and does not suffer from cold until the mean temperature falls to #de deg4 of ,fahrenheit1 and no heat is injurious to it4 ,several varieties of it are known1 but for all practical purposes these resolve themselves into two kinds3 one1 a small grain1 requiring five months to ripen1 and a larger one1 which takes seven to mature4 ,in some provinces of ,java it yields a return of #djj or #ejj fold4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd found1 from repeated trials1 that in the soil of ,mataram1 in ,java1 an acre of land1 which afforded a double crop1 produced of the smaller grain #hdh lbs4 annually4 ,,rice4 ,this is one of the most extensively diffused and useful of grain crops1 and supports the greatest number of the human race4 ,the cultivation prevails in ,eastern and ,southern ,asia1 and it is also a common article of subsistence in various countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,it is grown in the ,japan ,islands1 on all the sea coasts of ,china1 the ,philippine and other large ,islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 partially in ,ceylon1 ,siam1 ,india1 both shores of the ,red ,sea1 ,egypt1 the shores of the ,mozambique ,channel1 ,madagascar1 some parts of ,western ,africa1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,central ,america4 ,three species only are enumerated by ,lindley3--,oryza sativa1 the common rice1 a native of the ,east2 ,o4 latifolia1 a species having its habitat in ,south ,america2 and ,o4 ,nepalensis1 common in ,nepaul4 ,but there are a host of varieties known in the ,east2 these1 however1 may for all practical purposes1 be resolved into two kinds--the upland or mountain rice 7,o4 ,nepalensis1 the ,o4 mutica1 of ,roxburgh71 and the lowland or aquatic species 7,o4 sativa74 ,zizania aquatica is exceedingly prolific of bland1 farinaceous seeds1 which afford a kind of rice in ,canada and ,north-,west ,america1 where it abounds wild in all the shallow streams4 ,the seeds contribute essentially to the support of the wandering tribes of ,indians1 and feed immense flocks of wild swans1 geese1 and other water fowl4 ,pinkerton says1 this plant seems intended to become the bread-corn of the ,north4 ,two other species of ,zizania are common in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,rice1 the chief food1 perhaps1 of one-third of the human race1 possesses the advantage attending wheat1 maize1 and other grains1 of preserving plenty during the fluctuations of trade1 and is also susceptible of cultivation on land too low and moist for the production of most other useful plants4 ,although cultivated principally within the tropics1 it flourishes well beyond1 producing even heavier and better filled grain4 ,like many other plants in common use1 it is now found wild it is to be understood that the wild rice1 or water oat 7,zizania aquatica71 already referred to1 which grows along the muddy shores of tide waters1 is a distinct plant from the common rice1 and should not be confounded with it1 nor is its native country known4 ,linnus considers it a native of ,ethiopia1 while others regard it of ,asiatic origin4 ,the chief variety of this cereal is cultivated throughout the torrid zone1 wherever there is a plentiful supply of water1 and it will mature1 under favorable circumstances1 in the ,eastern continent1 as high as the #deth parallel of north latitude1 and as far south as the #chth4 ,on the ,atlantic side of the ,western continent1 it will flourish as far north as latitude #ch degrees1 and to a corresponding parallel south4 ,on the ,western coast of ,america1 it will grow so far north as #dj or more degrees4 ,its general culture is principally confined to ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,ceylon1 ,madagascar1 ,eastern ,africa1 the ,south of ,europe1 the ,southern portions of the ,united ,states1 the ,spanish ,main1 ,brazil1 and the ,valley of ,parana and ,uruguay4 ,in #ahcd1 #bi1ehc bags of rice were shipped from ,maranham1 but ,i am not aware what have been the exports since4 ,at the ,industrial ,exhibition in ,london1 in #ahea1 there were displayed many curious specimens and varieties of rice1 grown without irrigation1 at elevations of three thousand to six thousand feet on the ,himalaya1 where the dampness of the summer months compensates for the want of artificial moisture4 ,among these ,american rice received not only honorable mention for its very superior quality1 but the ,carolina rice1 exhibited by ,e4,i4 ,heriot1 was pronounced by the jury magnificent in size1 color1 and clearness1 and it was awarded a prize medal4 ,the jury also admitted that the ,american rice1 though originally imported from the ,old ,world1 is now much the finest in quality4 ,this grain was first introduced into ,virginia by ,sir ,william ,berkeley1 in #afdg1 who received half a bushel of seed1 from which he raised sixteen bushels of excellent rice1 most or all of which was sown the following year4 ,it is also stated that a ,dutch brig1 from ,madagascar1 came to ,charleston in #afid1 and left about a peck of paddy 7rice in the husk71 with ,governor ,thomas ,smith1 who distributed it among his friends for cultivation4 ,another account of its introduction into ,carolina is1 that ,ashley was encouraged to send a bag of seed rice to that province1 from the crops of which sixty tons were shipped to ,england in #afih4 ,it soon after became the chief staple of the colony4 ,its culture was introduced into ,louisiana in #agah1 by the ,company of the ,west4 ,the present culture of rice in the ,united ,states is chiefly confined to ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 and ,texas4 ,the yield per acre varies from twenty to sixty bushels1 weighing from forty-five to forty-eight pounds when cleaned4 ,under favorable circumstances as many as ninety bushels to an acre have been raised4 ,judge ,dougherty1 who resides near the borders of ,henderson county1 ,texas1 has raised a crop of several hundred bushels of upland rice4 ,the crop averages thirty bushels to the acre4 ,he thinks rice can be raised there as easily as ,indian corn1 and will be far more profitable4 ,another variety is cultivated in ,america to a limited extent1 called ,cochin-,china1 dry1 or mountain rice1 from its adaptation to a dry soil1 without irrigation4 ,it will grow several degrees further north or south than the ,carolina rice1 and has been cultivated with success in the ,northern provinces of ,hungary1 ,china1 ,westphalia1 ,virginia and ,maryland2 but the yield is much less than that already stated1 being only fifteen to twenty bushels to an acre4 ,it was first introduced into ,charleston1 from ,canton1 by ,john ,brodly ,blake1 in #aggb4 ,the ,american crop of rice in #ahdh1 reached #afb1jeh tierces in market1 and of these #afj1ccj tierces were exported from ,south ,carolina4 ,the largest rice crop grown in ,south ,carolina for the past thirty years1 was in #ahdg1 when #aib1dfb tierces were raised2 #adj1jjj to #aej1jjj is about the average1 and it has only exceeded #agj1jjj on four occasions4 ,the amount of rice exported from ,south ,carolina in #agbd1 was #ah1jjj barrels2 in #agca1 #da1ieg barrels2 in #agdj1 #ij1aaj barrels2 in #agdg-dh1 #ee1jjj barrels2 in #aged1 #ajd1fhb barrels2 in #agfj-fa1 #ajj1jjj barrels2 from ,savannah1 in #agee1 #b1bii barrels1 besides #bcg bushels of paddy or rough rice2 in #agfj1 #c1bhc barrels1 besides #bjh bushels of paddy2 in #aggj1 #bb1abj barrels1 besides #g1jfd bushels of paddy2 from ,philadelphia1 in #agga1 #beh1cge pounds4 ,the amount exported from the ,united ,states1 in #aggj1 was #aej1ebi barrels2 in #agia1 #if1ihj tierces2 in #ahjj1 #aab1jef tierces2 in #ahaj1 #aca1cda tierces2 in #ahbj-ba1 #hh1bba tierces2 in #ahcj-ca1 #aaf1eag tierces2 in #ahdj-da1 #aja1fag tierces2 in #ahde-df1 #abd1jjg tierces2 in #ahdf-dg1 #add1dbg tierces2 in #ahej-ea1 #aje1eij tierces4 ,according to the census of #ahdj1 the rice crop of the ,united ,states amounted to #hj1hda1dbb lbs42 in #ahej1 #bae1cab1gaj lbs4 ,rice being an aquatic plant1 is best grown in low moist lands1 that are easily inundated4 ,the ground is ploughed superficially1 and divided into squares of from twenty to thirty yards in the sides1 separated from each other by dykes of earth about two feet in height1 and sufficiently broad for a man to walk upon4 ,these dykes are for retaining the water when it is required1 and to permit of its being drawn off when the inundation is no longer necessary4 ,the ground prepared1 the water is let on1 and kept at a certain height in the several compartments of the rice field1 and the seedsman goes to work4 ,the rice that is to be used as seed must have been kept in the husk2 it is put into a sack1 which is immersed in the water until the grain swells and shows signs of germination2 the seedsman1 walking through the inundated field1 scatters the seed with his hand1 as usual2 the rice immediately sinks to the bottom1 and many even penetrate to a certain depth in the mud4 ,in ,piedmont1 where the sowing takes place at the beginning of ,april1 they generally use about fifty-five pounds of seed per acre4 ,the rice begins to show itself above the surface of the water at the end of a fortnight2 as the plant grows1 the depth of the water is increased1 so that the stalks may not bend with their own weight4 ,about the middle of ,june this disposition is no longer to be apprehended2 the rice is not so flexible as it was1 so that the water can be drawn off for a few days to permit hoeing2 after which the water is again let on1 and maintained to the height of the plant4 ,in ,july it is usual to top the stalks1 an operation which renders the flowering almost simultaneous4 ,rice generally flowers in the beginning of the month of ,august1 and a fortnight later the grain begins to form4 ,it is at this period especially that the stalks require to be supported1 and this is effectually done by keeping the water at about half their height4 ,the rice field is emptied when the straw turns yellow4 ,the harvest generally takes place at the end of ,september4 ,in the ,isle of ,france rice is cultivated in very damp soils1 upon which a great deal of rain falls1 but which are not flooded1 as in other tropical countries3 but the process is not so certain nor the crop so great1 as when inundation is employed4 ,in ,piedmont the usual return of a rice field is reckoned at about fifty for one4 ,at ,munzo1 in ,new ,granada1 the paddy fields which are not inundated1 under the influence of a mean temperature of #bf deg4 centrigrade 7#gi4j deg4 ,fahrenheit71 yield #ajj for #a4--7,simmonds's ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 xi41 p4 #ib47 ,the rice now grown about ,new ,orleans is as sweet1 if not sweeter1 than that imported from ,south ,carolina1 but it is deficient in hardness and brightness when ready for market1 a defect owing entirely to two causes1 neither of which is beyond the control of the planter4 ,the one cause is the mode of culture1 it being generally grown without due attention to the seed--seeded at too late a period of the season1 and allowed to become rare-ripe upon the stalk4 ,the other cause is the very imperfect mode of its preparation for market2 this being invariably accomplished by the primitive pestle and mortar1 or the old-fashioned pecker mill4 ,the same seed is planted in the same soil from year to year1 a system which1 it is generally conceded1 will deteriorate the quality and production of any grain crop4 ,a very large proportion of the rice grown in ,carolina is prepared for market at the steam toll-mills1 in the vicinity of ,charleston2 and a mill of this description near ,new ,orleans1 would remedy the greatest defect in the rice of the country1 greatly increase the demand for the article1 and undoubtedly yield a large return for the investment4 ,the toll mills at and around ,charleston are1 and always have been1 prosperous4 ,the mills of ,mr4 ,lucas1 in ,england1 erected to clean paddy1 i4e4 rough rice1 sent there in bulk from ,carolina1 have succeeded also1 and have increased the consumption of the article in that country4 ,the rough rice1 paddy1 or grain1 as it comes from the ear1 is composed1 first1 of a rough1 silicious outer covering1 impervious to water1 which is very useful in the neighbourhood of cities1 for filling up low lots or pools1 for horse beds1 and for packing crockery and ice1 being far better for the latter purpose than the sawdust used2 second1 a brown flour or bran1 lying directly under the outer covering2 and third1 of the clean or white rice4 ,there is no question that1 as a common diet1 it is better adapted to the climate of ,louisiana than ,indian corn2 and it can be grown on the hitherto waste lands of the sugar plantations2 it is always substituted by the physician1 when practicable1 as the food best adapted to the laborer1 in seasons of diarrhoea and other similar diseases1 is preferred before any other grain by the negro2 and if the clean rice be ground and bolted1 a meal is produced which can be made up into various forms of cake and other bread1 of unrivalled sweetness and delicacy4 ,the outer flour1 or brown bran1 which is separated from the chaff at the toll mill1 is known as rice flour1 and corresponds to the bran of wheat1 it is a most excellent food for horses1 poultry1 pigs and milch cows1 and would always command a ready sale in ,new ,orleans4 ,it is used extensively for these purposes at and around ,charleston1 and is shipped thence1 by the cargo1 to ,boston and other ,northern ports4 ,no portion of the globe is better adapted to the growth of this grain than the delta of the ,mississippi4 ,the river is always up and ready to do the all-important duty of irrigation in ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 and ,june1 in which period of the year the crop ought to be made2 and ,i am informed1 and doubt not1 that two cuttings can be obtained from the same plants1 between ,march and the killing frosts of the succeeding ,november4 ,an interesting report by ,dr4 ,e4 ,elliot1 on the ,cultivation of ,rice1 was read before the ,pendleton ,farmer's ,society1 ,south ,carolina1 at a recent annual meeting1 from which ,i shall make an extract4 ,in ,ramsay's ,history of ,south ,carolina it is stated3--,landgrave ,thomas ,smith1 who was ,governor of the ,province in #afic1 had been at ,madagascar before he settled in ,carolina4 ,there he observed that rice was planted and grew in low moist ground4 ,having such ground in his garden1 attached to his dwelling in ,east ,bay1 ,charleston1 he was persuaded that rice would grow therein1 if seed could be procured4 ,about this time a vessel from ,madagascar1 being in distress1 came to anchor near ,sullivan's ,island4 ,the master inquired for ,mr4 ,smith1 as an old acquaintance4 ,an interview took place4 ,in the course of conversation ,mr4 ,smith expressed a wish to obtain some seed rice to plant in his garden4 ,the cook being called1 said that he had a small bag of rice suitable for the purpose4 ,this was presented to ,mr4 ,smith1 who sowed it in a low spot in ,longitude ,lane4 ,from this small beginning did one of the great staple commodities of ,south ,carolina takes its rise1 which soon became the chief support of the colony1 and its great source of opulence4 ,such is the historical account of the introduction of rice into ,south ,carolina2 and from that day to this1 it has constituted one of her staple articles of production4 ,although the climate and soil were found admirably suited to the plant1 the planters encountered incredible difficulty in preparing or dressing the rice for market4 ,from the day of its introduction1 to the close of the ,revolution1 the grain was milled1 or dressed1 partly by hand and partly by animal power4 ,but the processes were imperfect1 very tedious1 very destructive to the laborer1 and very exhausting to the animal power4 ,the planter regarded a good crop as an equivocal blessing1 for as the product was great so in proportion was the labor of preparing it for market4 ,while matters stood thus1 the planters were released from their painful condition by a circumstance so curious that it deserves a place in the history of human inventions4 ,a planter from the ,santee1 whilst walking in ,king-street1 ,charleston1 noticed a small windmill perched on the gable end of a wooden store4 ,his attention was arrested by the beauty of its performance4 ,he entered the store and asked who the maker was4 ,he was told that he was a ,northumbrian1 then resident in the house--a man in necessitous circumstances1 and wanting employment4 ,a conference was held2 the planter carried the machine to the ,santee1 pointed out the difficulties under which the planters labored1 and the result was the rice pounding-mill4 ,this man was the first ,mr4 ,lucas1 and to his genius ,south ,carolina owes a large debt of gratitude4 ,for what the cotton planter owes to ,eli ,whitney1 the rice planter owes to ,mr4 ,lucas4 ,his mills were first impelled by water1 but more recently by steam1 and though much mechanical ingenuity and much capital have been expended in improving them1 the rice pounding-mill of this day1 in all essential particulars1 does not differ materially from the mill as it came from the hands of ,mr4 ,lucas4 ,this great impediment being removed1 one formidable difficulty still remained in the way of the rice planters1 and that was the threshing of the crop by flail4 ,the labor requisite to accomplish this was so great1 that we once heard a distinguished planter say1 while having one large crop threshed out by flail1 that he would regard another large crop as a calamity4 ,previous to #ahcj threshing mills had been tried by various individuals1 but with no apparent success4 ,in that year the attempt was renewed1 and we were present and witnessed the first trial of a thresher1 constructed in ,new ,york1 and which was tested on ,savannah river1 under the auspices of ,general ,hamilton4 ,the machinery was driven by apparatus similar to that employed for driving the cotton gin4 ,the result was not very satisfactory1 but there was ground for hope1 and after an outlay of very large sums1 and after many disappointments1 the happy expedient was thought of1 of testing the mill with steam instead of animal power4 ,the experiment was completely successful1 and it was manifest at once that the difficulties had not been in the imperfect construction1 of the thresher1 but in the insufficiency of the moving power4 ,it is now twenty years since we witnessed the working of the small mill alluded to1 and the rice threshing-mill1 with steam-engine attached1 is now a splendid piece of operative machinery4 ,the rice in sheaf is taken up to the thresher by a conveyor1 it is threshed1 the straw taken off1 then thrice winnowed and twice screened1 and the result in some cases exceeds a thousand bushels of clean rough rice1 the work of a short winter day4 ,humanity rejoices at these inventions--at this transfer to water and steam1 of processes so slow and so exhausting to the human as well as to the animal frame--and in this feeling we are confident every planter deeply sympathises4 ,moreover1 the relief they have afforded in other respects has been perfectly indescribable4 ,previous to these improvements all the finer portions of the winter were appropriated exclusively to the milling and the threshing of the crop with the flail1 yet it is manifest they added not one particle to the value of the property2 indeed1 while going on1 all other work1 and all preparation for another crop had to be suspended1 so that the condition of the plantation was not progressive1 but retrograde4 ,a short recapitulation will show what has been accomplished by the enterprise of our planters in the last seventy years4 ,at the close of the ,revolution it is believed the rice fields were poorly drained1 and when broken up were chiefly turned with the hoe1 then trenched with the hoe2 then came three or four hoeings and as many pickings4 ,the rice was then cut with the sickle and carried in on the head1 then threshed with the flail1 then milled and dressed1 in some cases wholly by human labor1 and in others by a rude machine1 called a pecker mill4 ,now1 in #aheb1 the hoeing1 the pickings1 and the cutting with the sickle remain unchanged2 but the lands are better drained1 and in the turning the plough has superseded the hoe2 the trenching1 when1 necessary1 is done by animal power2 the rice1 when cut1 is carried in on a flat and wagon1 then threshed and milled by machinery1 so perfect that it is difficult to imagine how it can be surpassed4 ,it is one hundred and fifty-nine years since the introduction of rice into ,carolina1 and there are grounds for supposing that our people have accomplished more during that period1 in the cultivation and preparation of this grain1 than has been done by any of the ,asiatic nations who have been conversant with its growth for many centuries4 ,we had the rare opportunity1 a few years since1 of seeing a ,chinese book on rice planting1 which contained many engravings4 ,the language we could not read1 but we comprehended a sufficient number of the engravings to institute a comparison between their system and our own1 and the result was1 in our method of irrigation we were their equals1 while in economy of cultivation1 and in the preparation of the grain for market and for use1 we are greatly their superiors4 ,again1 some six or seven years since the ,east ,india ,company1 of ,london1 sent an agent to this country to procure ,american cotton seed1 gins1 and overseers1 for the purpose of testing the practicability of raising cotton by our method in ,india4 ,this agent1 ,captain ,bayles1 when in ,savannah1 was heard to say that he had especial directions from the ,company to inform himself minutely of our system of rice culture4 ,here1 then1 was an embassage from the banks of the ,ganges1 a spot where rice has been cultivated probably for twenty centuries1 to inquire into the method of cultivation and preparation1 of a people amongst whom the grain had no existence one hundred and sixty years ago4 ,the following is the mode of culture for rice in ,carolina3--,it is sowed as soon as it conveniently can be after the vernal equinox1 from which period until the middle1 and even the last of ,may1 is the usual time of putting it in the ground4 ,it grows best in low marshy land1 and should be sowed in furrows twelve inches asunder2 it requires to be flooded1 and thrives best if six inches under water2 the water is occasionally drained off1 and turned on again to overflow it1 for three or four times4 ,when ripe the straw becomes yellow1 and it is either reaped with a sickle1 or cut down with a scythe and cradle1 some time in the month of ,september2 after which it is raked and bound1 or got up loose1 and threshed or trodden out1 and winnowed in the same manner as wheat or barley4 ,husking it requires a different and particular operation1 in a mill made for that purpose4 ,this mill is constructed of two large flat wooden cylinders1 formed like mill-stones1 with channels or furrows cut therein1 diverging in an oblique direction from the centre to the circumference1 made of a heavy and exceedingly hard timber1 called lightwood1 which is the knots of the pitch pine4 ,this is turned with the hand1 like the common hand-mills4 ,after the rice is thus cleared of the husks1 it is again winnowed1 when it is fit for exportation4 ,a bushel of rice will weigh about sixty or sixty-six pounds1 and an acre of middling land will produce twenty-five bushels4 ,various machines have been contrived for cleaning rice1 of which one secured by patent to ,mr4 ,m4 ,wilson1 in #ahbf1 and thus described by ,dr4 ,ure1 may be regarded as a fair specimen3--,it consists of an oblong hollow cylinder1 laid in an inclined position1 having a great many teeth stuck in its internal surface1 and a central shaft1 also furnished with teeth4 ,by the rapid revolution of the shaft1 its teeth are carried across the intervals of those of the cylinder1 with the effect of parting the grains of rice1 and detaching whatever husks or impurities may adhere to them4 ,a hopper is set above to receive the rice1 and conduct it down into the clean cylinder4 ,about eighty teeth are supposed to be set in the cylinder1 projecting so as to reach very nearly the central shaft1 in which there is a corresponding number of teeth1 that pass freely between the former4 ,the cylinder may also be placed upright1 or horizontal if preferred1 and mounted in any convenient framework4 ,the central shaft should be put in rapid rotation1 while the cylinder receives a slow motion in the opposite direction4 ,the rice1 as cleaned by that action1 is discharged at the lower end of the cylinder1 where it falls into a shute1 and is conducted to the ground4 ,the machine may be driven by hand1 or by any other convenient motive power4#dc ,the growth of rice in ,north ,america is almost wholly confined to two ,states2 nine-tenths of the whole product1 indeed1 being raised in the ,states of ,south ,carolina and ,georgia4 ,a little is grown in ,north ,carolina1 ,louisiana1 and ,mississippi4 ,the aggregate crop1 for #ahdc1 amounted to #hi1hgi1ahe lbs41 while in #ahdg it had risen to #ajc1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,besides the rice which is raised in the water1 there is also the dry1 or mountain rice1 which is raised in some parts of ,europe on the sides of the hills4 ,it is said to thrive well in ,cochin ,china1 in dry light soils1 not requiring more moisture than the usual rains or dews supply4 ,by long culture the ,german rice1 raised by the aid of water1 is stated to have acquired a remarkable degree of hardness and adaptation to the climate4 ,the upland rice of the ,united ,states is thought by some to be only a modified description of the swamp rice4 ,it will grow on high and poor land1 and produce more than ,indian corn on the same land would do1 even fifteen bushels1 when the corn is but seven bushels4 ,the swamp rice was originally cultivated on high land1 and is not so now1 because it is more productive in the swamp1 in the proportion1 as is said1 of twenty to sixty bushels per acre2 and the use of water likewise1 it is stated1 makes it easier of cultivation1 by enabling the planter to kill the grasses4 ,it is thought that on rich high land1 rice may be made to produce twenty-five or thirty bushels to an acre in a good season4 ,a letter from a gentleman in ,north ,carolina gives the following account of some rice raised there4 ,he says3-- ,i have planted it the two past years with a view to private consumption only2 not1 however1 with the success of my neighbours1 who are famous1 and have the things under their own management4 ,they make from forty to fifty1 and some1 sixty bushels to the acre1 on fine land that produces ordinarily from ten to fifteen bushels of ,indian corn or maize4 ,it is a larger grain than the gold or swamp rice1 and very white2 hence it is commonly called here the 'white rice4' ,it is planted generally about the middle of ,march1 or #ast of ,april1 in small ridges two-and-a-half feet apart1 in chops at intervals of about eighteen inches1 on the top of the ridge1 ten or twelve seeds in each chop4 ,a season that will make ,indian corn1 will1 if long enough1 make this rice2 but it requires about four or five weeks more than the corn to mature4 ,it ought to be cut before quite ripe1 as it threshes off very easily1 and is liable to great waste4 ,instead of the flail1 we take the sheaf in the hand1 and whip it across a bench in a close room until the rice leaves the straw4 ,it does not stand the pestle as well as the swamp rice1 but breaks a good deal in the beating2 this1 however1 ,i have heard attributed to the dry culture4 ,a new variety of rice is mentioned as having been discovered in ,south ,carolina1 in #ahch1 called the big-grained rice4 ,it has been proved to be unusually productive4 ,one gentleman1 in #ahdj1 planted not quite half an acre with this seed1 which yielded forty-nine and a half bushels of clean winnowed rice4 ,in #ahdb1 he planted #djj acres1 and in #ahdc1 he sowed his whole crop with this seed4 ,his first parcel when milled1 was eighty barrels1 and netted half a dollar per cwt4 over the primest rice sold on the same day4 ,another gentleman also planted two fields in #ahci1 which yielded seventy-three bushels per acre4 ,the average crop before from the same fields of fifteen and ten acres1 had only been thirty-three bushels per acre4 ,the following were the returns of produce on some of the leading estates of ,south ,carolina1 in #ahdh3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,barrels ,shipped ,barrels ,average ,net ,net ,income ,plantation of ,produce ,amount ,whole,half#fjj lbs4net ,weight per barrel4 ,dollars ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #a4 ,prospect ,hill #a1chg #aj #a1die #hig1affaf #jh-ajjths #bd1jja #b4 ,springfield #gcg #e #hja #dhj1icgaf #fj-ajjths #ac1bfd #c4 ,brook ,green #a1ega #ae #a1gaf #a1jbf1djeaf #ec-ajjths #bh1bfa #d4 ,longwood #a1aac #d #a1bbg #gcf1dacae #ec-ajjths #ai1jba #e4 ,alderly #dhd #f #ecc #cai1iabaf #fh-ajjths #h1hea ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,total #e1bib #dj #e1ggc #c1dfj1hcc #ic1cih ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,nos4 #b and #c were sown with long grain rice1 the others with small grain4 ,these plantations were all on the river ,waccamaw4 ,the expenses of a well supplied rice plantation may be stated at #cc-a_/c per cent4 on the net income4 ,a gentleman from the ,united ,states1 named ,colvin1 proposes to establish the cultivation of rice in the colony of ,demerara4 ,this is no new experiment1 rice having been already grown with success in several parts of the colony--for instance1 in ,leguan1 up the ,canje ,creek1 and elsewhere2 and some of it is of superior quality1 preferable1 indeed1 to that imported4 ,if ,mr4 ,colvin's object be not merely to demonstrate the practicability of rice being grown in ,british ,guiana1 but to promote its cultivation on such a scale as may tend to render it in time one of the staples of the colony1 he is deserving of support1 and ,i hope that his efforts will be crowned with complete success4 ,the editor of the ,gazeta1 a local paper1 has been shown some sprigs of rice raised near ,matanzas1 in ,cuba1 the smallest of which contains at least three hundred grains1 perfectly opened1 and of a larger size than is usually produced on the island4 ,he observes that this phenomenon is not limited to a certain number of sprigs1 but that the whole crop is similar--that this excess of production is to be attributed to the extraordinary abundance of rain this year4 ,here we have a specimen1 says the editor1 of the enormous production that could be raised in our fields of this excellent and nutritious grain1 if it were cultivated in places contiguous to the rivers1 where it could be flowed during drought4 ,the experiment of cultivating rice in ,france appears to have succeeded perfectly4 ,a piece of ground of #ajj hectares in extent 7#bej acres7 was sown with rice last year in the lands of ,arcachon1 near ,bordeaux1 and the crop proved a highly satisfactory one4 ,the seed is sown about the middle of ,april1 and almost immediately appears above ground4 ,rice may be kept a very long period in the rough--,i believe a lifetime4 ,after being cleaned1 if it be prime rice1 and well milled1 it will keep a long time in this climate2 only when about to be used 7if old7 it requires more careful washing to get rid of the must1 which accumulates upon it4 ,some planters--the writer among the number--prefer for table use rice a year old to the new4 ,the grain is superior to any other provisions in this respect4 ,if a laborer in the gold diggings1 or elsewhere1 takes with him two days' or a week's provisions1 in rice1 and his wallet happens to get wet1 he has only to open it to the sun and air1 and he will find it soon dries1 and is not at all injured for his purpose4 ,rough rice may remain under water twenty-four hours without injury1 if dried soon after4 ,passing eastward1 rice begins to be found cultivated in ,egypt1 becomes more general in ,northern ,india1 and holds undisputed rule in the peninsulas of ,india1 in ,china1 ,japan1 and the ,east ,india islands--shares it in the west coast of ,africa with maize1 which1 on the other hand1 is the exclusively cultivated corn plant of the greatest part of tropical ,america1 with only some unimportant exceptions4 ,on the coast of ,africa rice ripens in three months2 they put it under water when cut1 where it keeps sound and good for some time4 ,rice is now the staple commodity of ,bourbon1 and it produces about #bf1jjj quintals annually4 ,it forms1 together with maize and mandioc1 the principal article of food amongst the negroes and colored people4 ,the ,bhull rice lands of ,lower ,sind4--,like all large rivers which flow through an alluvial soil1 for a very lengthened course1 the ,indus has a tendency to throw up patches of alluvial deposit at its mouth2 and these are in ,sind called bhulls1 and are in general very valuable for the cultivation of the red rice of the country4 ,these bhulls are large tracts of very muddy swampy land1 almost on a level with the sea1 and exposed equally to be flooded both by it and the fresh water2 indeed on this depends much of the value of the soil1 as a bhull which is not at certain times well covered with salt water1 is unfit for cultivation4 ,they exist on both sides of the principal mouths of the ,indus1 in the ,gorabaree and ,shahbunder pergunnas1 which part of the province is called by the natives ,kukralla1 and was in olden days1 before the era of ,goolam ,shah ,kalora1 a small state almost independent of the ,ameers of ,sind4 ,on the left bank of the mouths of the river these bhulls are very numerous and form by far the most fertile portion of the surrounding district4 ,they bear a most dreary1 desolate1 and swampy appearance--are intersected in all directions by streams of salt and brackish water1 and are generally surrounded by low dykes or embankments1 in order to regulate the influx and reflux of the river and sea4 ,yet from these dreary swamps a very considerable portion of the rice consumed in ,sind is produced2 and the ,zemindars1 who hold them1 are esteemed amongst the most respectable and wealthy in ,lower ,sind4 ,to visit a bhull is no easy matter4 ,route by land there is none1 and the only way is to go by boat1 in which it is advisable to take at least one day's provisions and water1 as the time occupied in the inspection will be regulated entirely by the state of the tide and weather4 ,very difficult is it too1 to land on any of these places1 the mud being generally two or three feet deep1 and it is only here and there that a footing can be secured1 in the embankment surrounding the field4 ,let me now describe the mode of cultivating these anomalous islands1 floating as it were in the ocean1 and deriving benefit both from it and the mighty river itself1 whose offspring they are4 ,should the river during the high season have thrown up a bhull1 the ,zemindar selecting it for cultivation1 first surrounds it with a low bund of mud1 which is generally about three feet in height4 ,when the river has receded to its cold weather level1 and the bhull is free of fresh water 7for be it remembered1 that these bhulls being formed during the inundation1 are often considerably removed from the river branches during the low season71 he takes advantage of the first high spring tide1 opens the bund and allows the whole to be covered with the salt water4 ,this is generally done in ,december4 ,the sea water remains on the land for about nine weeks1 or till the middle of ,february1 which is the proper time for sowing the seed4 ,the salt water is now let out1 and as the ground cannot1 on account of the mud1 be ploughed1 buffaloes are driven over every part of the field1 and a few seeds of the rice thrown into every footmark2 the men employed in sowing being obliged to crawl along the surface on their bellies1 with the basket of seed on their backs2 for were they to assume an upright position1 they would inevitably be bogged in the deep swamp4 ,the holes containing the seed are not covered up1 but people are placed on the bunds to drive away birds1 until the young grain has well sprung up4 ,the land is not manured1 the stagnant salt water remaining on it being sufficient to renovate the soil4 ,the rice seed is steeped in water1 and then in dung and earth for three or four days1 and is not sown until it begins to sprout4 ,the farmer has now safely got over his sowing1 and as this rice is not as in other cases transplanted1 his next anxiety is to get a supply of fresh water2 and for this he watches for the freshes which usually come down the river about the middle and end of ,february1 and if the river then reaches his bhull1 he opens his bund1 and fills the enclosure with the fresh water4 ,the sooner he gets this supply the better1 for the young rice will not grow in salt water1 and soon withers if left entirely dry4 ,the welfare of the crop now depends entirely on the supply of fresh water4 ,a very high inundation does not injure the bhull cultivation1 as here the water has free space to spread about4 ,in fact the more fresh water the better4 ,if1 however1 the river remains low in ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 and the south-west monsoon sets in heavily on the coast1 the sea is frequently driven over the bhulls and destroys the crops4 ,it is in fact a continual struggle between the salt water and the fresh4 ,when the river runs out strong and full1 the bhulls prosper1 and the sea is kept at a distance4 ,on the other hand1 the salt water obtains the supremacy when the river is low1 and then the farmer suffers4 ,in this manner much bhull crop was destroyed in the monsoons of #ahea and #aheb1 during the heavy gales which prevailed in those seasons4 ,the rice is subject to attacks also of a small black sea crab1 called by the natives ,kookaee1 and which1 without any apparent cause1 cuts down the growing grain in large quantities1 and often occasions much loss4 ,the crop when ripe1 which1 if all goes well will be about the third week in ,september1 is reaped in the water by men1 either in boats1 or on large masses of straw rudely shaped like a boat1 and which being made very tight and close1 will float for a considerable time4 ,the rice is carried ashore to the high land1 where it is dried1 and put through the usual harvest process of division1 c43 and the bhull is then on the fall of the river again ready for its annual pickling4 ,the process of preparing the field for rice culture1 in the ,kandian country1 ,ceylon1 is very simple4 ,when the paddy is to be cultivated in mud1 a piece of ground is enclosed in a series of squares or terraces1 by ridges raised with mud and turf2 a quantity of water is directed into the field from an adjacent stream or tank1 and is allowed to remain on it for fifteen days2 at the expiration of this time the field is ploughed with a yoke of buffaloes1 which operation is repeated at the end of fifteen days more1 when1 by the rotting of the weeds and other matter1 the field has become manured4 ,after another interval of fifteen days the field is again ploughed and the broken ridges are repaired4 ,eight days after the field is harrowed1 and subsequently rolled or levelled2 and when the water has been let out the seed is sown1 having in most instances been previously made to germinate1 by being spread on platforms and kept wet4 ,the water is turned in during night1 to prevent crabs and insects from destroying the seedlings1 and let out during the day2 and this they continue to do till the plants attain the height of one foot4 ,water is only retained in the field until the ears are half ripe1 otherwise they would ripen indifferently and be destroyed by vermin4 ,a variety of coast paddy1 called moottoo samboo1 was introduced into the ,kandian province in #ahcb1 which was found to produce a more abundant crop1 by one third1 than the native4 ,it is of six months growth4 ,in ,kashmir rice is the staple of cultivation1 and the practice adopted there is thus described by a writer in my ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 x4 p4 #acj4 ,it is sown in the beginning of ,may1 and is fit to cut about the end of ,august4 ,the grain is either sown broadcast in the place where it is intended to stand till it is ripe1 or thickly in beds1 from which it is transplanted when the blade is about a foot high4 ,as soon as the season will admit after the #bast of ,march1 the land is opened by one or more ploughings1 according to its strength1 and the clods are broken down by blows with wooden mattocks1 managed in general by women1 with great regularity and address2 after which water is let in upon the soil1 which for the most part of a reddish clay1 or foxy earth1 is converted into a smooth soft mud4 ,the seed grain1 put into a sack of woven grass1 is submerged in a running stream until it begins to sprout1 which happens sooner or later1 according to the temperature of the water and of the atmosphere1 but ordinarily takes place in three or four days4 ,this precaution is adopted for the purpose of getting the young shoots as quickly as possible out of the way of a small snail1 which abounds in some of the watered lands of ,kashmir1 but sometimes proves insufficient to defend it against the activity of this destructive enemy4 ,when the farmer suspects1 by the scanty appearance of the plants above the water in which the grain has been sown1 and by the presence of the snail drawn up in the mud1 that his hopes of a crop are likely to be disappointed1 he repeats the sowing1 throwing into the water some fresh leaves of the ,prangos plant1 which either poison the snails or cause them to descend out of the reach of its influence4 ,the seed is for the most part thrown broadcast into about four or five inches of water1 which depth is endeavoured to be maintained4 ,difference of practice exists as to watering1 but it seems generally agreed that rice can scarcely have too much water1 provided it be not submerged1 except for a few days before it ripens1 when a dried state is supposed to hasten and to perfect the maturity1 whilst it improves the quality of the grain4 ,in general the culture of rice is attended with little expense1 although dearer in ,kashmir than ,hindostan1 from its being customary in the former country to manure the rice-lands1 which is never done in the latter4 ,this manure1 for the most part1 consists of rice straw rejected by the cattle1 and mixed with cow-dung4 ,it is conveyed from the homestead to the fields by women1 in small wicker baskets1 and is set on the land with more liberality than might have been expected from the distance it is carried4 ,many of the ripe lands are situated much higher than might be thought convenient in ,hindostan1 and are rather pressed into this species of culture than naturally inviting1 but still yield good crops1 through the facility with which water is brought upon them from the streams which fall down the face of the neighbouring hills4 ,in common seasons the return of grain is from thirty to forty for one1 on an average1 besides the straw4 ,the rice of ,bengal1 by the exercise of some care and skill1 has recently been so far improved as nearly to equal that of the ,carolinas4 ,dr4 ,falconer has introduced into ,india the numerous and fine varieties of rice cultivated in the ,himalayas2 of these some of the best sorts were at his suggestion distributed to cultivators along the ,doab canal4 ,a species of hill rice grows on the edge of the ,himalaya mountains4 ,the mountain rices of ,india are grown without irrigation1 at elevations of #c1jjj to #f1jjj feet on the ,himalaya1 where the dampness of the summer months compensates for the want of artificial moisture4 ,the small reddish ,assamese rices1 which become gelatinous in boiling1 and the large1 flat-grained1 soft1 purple-black ,ketana rice1 of ,java and ,malacca1 shown at the ,great ,exhibition1 were curious4 ,the fertility of the province of ,arracan is very great1 its soil being fit for the culture of nearly all tropical productions2 rice1 however1 is alone cultivated to any great extent2 the low alluvial soil which extends over the whole country1 from the foot of the mountains to the sea1 being admirably suited for its growth4 ,about #aae square miles are under culture with rice4 ,the export trade in rice of the district1 is seen by the following statistical return2 and it gives employment to from #djj to #gjj vessels1 aggregating #fj1jjj to #hj1jjj tons4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,paddy ,,and ,,rice ,,exported ,,from ,,akyab1 ,,the ,,port ,,of ,,arracan4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,average price per #ajj baskets ,total of #ab seers1 in ,rupees ,maunds of,maunds value --------------------------------- ,paddy of rice ,rupees ,rice ,paddy ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahca-cb #chj1fjj #bh1igj #acj1eia #ae4d to #af4f #h to #i #ahcb-cc #ejb1gdjage1efj #bcb1iae #af #ag #g4e #h #ahcc-cd #eee1edjdah1iej #dcj1hcj #ai #bj #i #aj #ahcd-ce #abg1jejbfj1fej #agf1gag #ah #ai #h #i #ahce-cf #ghc1hgjedh1dfj #ced1gia #aj #aa #e #e4h #ahcf-cga1gcg1hdafda1jaj #fff1gcb #aj4h #ab #e #f #ahcg-cha1fba1effbdh1ghc #fej1che #ba #bc #i #aj4h #ahch-cia1cfd1ajjccb1chj #hba1afh #bd #be4a #h4h #aa4ab #ahci-djb1jcc1fihebi1ifaa1aba1caa #ba4h #bc #i4h #aj #ahdj-dab1bab1jfhddf1idaa1aca1jhg #bj #ba4h #aj #aa #ahda-dba1bfe1chhbgj1jjj #eec1jad #ai #bj #h #i #ahdb-dca1caj1ijjcic1ijj #dgb1hhi #ad #ae #g4h #h #ahdc-dd #hdh1ibbgjg1ghj #fcc1gaj #ag #ah #g #h ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7 ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 vi41 p4 #cdh47 ,,export ,,of ,,rice ,,from ,,moulmein ,baskets ,value #ahdj #fg1cah #ch1gjh #ahda #aa1age #f1ijj #ahdb #fd1jee #dj1jcd #ahdc #ce1fce #ce1bhi #ahdd #ga1hbb #dd1ebi #ahde #adi1hae #gc1jcd #ahdf #aic1bfg #aja1dfe --7,simmonds's ,colonial ,magazine1 vol4 xii41 p4 #dfb47 ,from ,tavoy and ,mergui rice was also exported1 equal in value to #da1jjj rupees1 in #ahdf2 #ajj baskets of #ab seers each1 are equal to #cj ,bengal maunds4 ,the basket of rice named above1 is equal to #ee lbs4 ,english4 ,paddy means rice in the husk--rice1 the grain when unhusked--a distinction to be kept in mind4 ,the daily average consumption of rice in a family of five1 is rated in the ,straits' settlements at three and a quarter chupahs4 ,the ,burmese and ,siamese are the grossest consumers of rice4 ,a common laboring ,malay requires monthly #cj chupahs1 or #ef pounds of rice1 value #cs4 #i;d4 or #ds4 ,the ,burmese and ,siamese about #cd chupahs1 or #fd pounds4 ,rice land in ,penang yields a return which cannot be averaged higher than seventy-five fold--or nearly thirty guntangs of paddy for each orlong 7#a-a_/c acres72 but it has been considered advisable to rate it here at sixty fold only4 ,the rice land of ,province ,wellesley gives an average return of #aag fold2 the maximum degree of productiveness being #fjj guntangs of paddy to an orlong of well flooded1 alluvial land1 or #aej fold1 equal to #cjj guntangs of clean rice1 weighing nearly #d1ebj ,english pounds4 ,the present average produce has been very moderately estimated at #dgj guntangs the orlong of paddy4 ,the quantity of seed invariably allotted for an orlong of land is four guntangs4 ,in ,siam forty fold is estimated a good average produce4 ,at ,tavoy1 on the ,tenasserim coast1 the maximum rate of productiveness of the rice land was1 in #ahbe1 and is still believed to be1 nearly the same as the average of ,siam2 while their average was only twenty-fold4--7,low1 on ,straits ,settlements47 ,rice in ,cochin-,china is the staff of life1 and forms the main article of culture4 ,there are six different sorts grown2 two on the uplands1 used for confectionery1 and yielding only one crop annually2 the other sorts affording from two to five crops a year2 but generally two1 one in ,april and another in ,october2 or three when the inundations have been profuse4 ,the late ,dr4 ,gutzlaff stated1 at a meeting of the ,statistical ,society of ,london1 that the population of ,china was about #cfg1jjj1jjj1 and the returns of the land subject to tax as used in rice cultivation there1 gave nearly half an acre to each living person2 and he further stated that in the southern and well watered provinces1 it is anything but uncommon to take two crops of rice1 one of wheat1 and one of pulse1 from the same land in a single season4 ,rice is the only article the ,chinese ever offer a bounty for2 the price fluctuates according to the seasons1 from one and three-quarter dollars to eight dollars per picul4 ,siam and the ,indian ,islands1 particularly ,bali and ,lombok1 supply the empire occasionally with large quantities4 ,the price of rice in ,china varies according to the state of the canals leading to the interior2 if they are full of water the prices rise2 if on the contrary they are low1 prices fall in proportion at the producing districts4 ,the amount of consumption is controlled1 in a considerable degree1 by the cost of transit2 when this is cheap prices rise from the general demand2 but when land-carriage to any extent has to be resorted to1 they fall2 it raises prices so much at any great distance1 that rice must be used very sparingly1 from its enhanced price4 ,it is obvious that if the waters are sufficiently high to allow a boat to pass fully loaded1 she does so at an expense of nearly #ej per cent1 less than she would do1 if1 from want of water1 she could only take half the quantity2 when transport is cheap every one obtains a full supply2 when it is dear the rice districts have more than they can consume4 ,at home we are so much accustomed to the facilities of transit offered by railroads1 canal boats1 c41 that we do not readily take into consideration1 that in ,china1 except by water1 all articles are conveyed from one place to another on men's shoulders4 ,taking the population of ,canton at the usual estimate of a million1 and allowing to each a catty a day1 the quantity of rice required for one day's consumption alone in that city would be #aj1jjj piculs1 of #acc lbs4 each #a1cdj1jjj lbs4 ,java is the granary of plenty for all the ,eastern ,archipelago2 and the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company occupies itself in this culture with solicitude1 well persuaded that a scarcity of rice might be fatal to its power4 ,ordinances to encourage and increase this branch of agriculture1 have been promulgated at different times by an authority called to watch over the physical well-being of many millions of inhabitants4 ,as an evident proof that the culture of rice1 of which it would be difficult to fix the quantity produced annually1 increases considerably1 ,i may mention that the exportation from ,java1 in #ahdj1 was #a1dhh1cej piculs of #abe ,dutch lbs4 ,rice is cultivated in ,java in three systems4 ,the name of sawah is given to the rice fields1 which can be irrigated artificially2 tepar1 or tagal1 are elevated but level grounds2 and gagah1 or ladang1 are cleared forest grounds4 ,the two last only give one crop2 a second crop may be obtained from the sawah1 which then most commonly consists of katjang1 from which oil is extracted1 in kapus or fine cotton1 and in ubie1 a kind of potato4 ,there are1 says ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 two distinct descriptions of rice cultivated throughout the ,indian islands1 one which grows without the help of immersion in water1 and another for which that immersion is indispensably requisite4 ,in external character there is very little difference between them1 and in intrinsic value not much4 ,the marsh rice generally brings a somewhat higher price in the market4 ,the great advantage of this latter consists in its superior fecundity4 ,two very important varieties of each are well known to the ,javanese husbandman1 one being a large productive1 but delicate grain1 which requires about seven months to ripen1 and the other a small1 hardy1 and less fruitful one1 which takes little more than five months4 ,the first we constantly find cultivated in rich lands1 where one annual crop only is taken2 and the last in well watered lands1 but of inferior fertility1 where two crops may be raised4 ,both of these1 but particularly the marsh rice1 is divided into a great number of sub-varieties1 characterised by being awned or otherwise1 having a long or round grain1 or being in color black1 red1 or white4 ,the most singular variety is the ,o4 glutinosa1 of ,rumphius4 ,this is never used as bread1 but commonly preserved as a sweetmeat4 ,the rudest1 and probably the earliest practised mode of cultivating rice1 consists in taking from forest lands a fugitive crop1 after burning the trees1 grass1 and underwood4 ,the ground is turned up with the mattock1 and the seed planted by dibbling between the stumps of trees4 ,the period of sowing is the commencement of the rains1 and of reaping that of the dry season4 ,the rice is of course of that description which does not require immersion4 ,the second description of tillage consists also in growing mountain or dry land rice4 ,this mode is usually adopted on the common upland arable lands1 which cannot conveniently be irrigated4 ,the grain is sown in the middle of the dry season1 either broadcast or by dibbling1 and reaped in seven or five months1 as the grain happens to be the larger or the smaller variety4 ,the culture of rice by the aid of the periodical rains forms the third mode4 ,the grain being that kind which requires submersion1 the process of sowing and reaping is determined with precision by the seasons4 ,with the first fall of the rains the lands are ploughed and harrowed4 ,the seed is sown in beds1 usually by strewing very thickly the corn in the ear4 ,from these beds the plants1 when #ab or #ad days old1 are removed into the fields and thinly set by the hand4 ,they are then kept constantly immersed in water until within a fortnight of the harvest1 when it is drawn off to facilitate the ripening of the grain4 ,the fourth mode of cultivating rice is by forcing a crop by artificial irrigation1 at any time of the year2 thus1 in one field1 in various plots1 the operations of sowing1 ploughing1 transplanting1 and reaping may be seen at the same period4 ,the fertile1 populous1 and industrious countries of the ,eastern ,archipelago export rice to their neighbours4 ,the most remarkable of these are ,java1 ,bali1 some parts of ,celebes1 with the most fertile spots of ,sumatra1 and of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,rice is generally imported to these western countries from those farther east1 such as the ,spice ,islands4 ,java is the principal place of production for the consumption of the other islands1 and the only island of the ,archipelago that sends rice abroad4 ,the rice of the eastern districts is generally superior to that of the western4 ,the worst rice is that of ,indramayu1 which is usually discolored4 ,the subdivision of the province of ,cheribon1 called ,gabang1 yields rice of fine white grain1 equal to that of ,carolina4 ,the rice of ,gressie preserves best4 ,all ,indian rice is classed1 in commercial language1 into the three descriptions of table rice1 white rice1 and cargo rice4 ,from the limited demand for the first1 it is only to be had in ,java1 in small quantity4 ,for the same reason the second is not procurable in large quantity1 unless bespoken some time before-hand2 but the third may be had at the shortest notice in any quantity required4 ,java rice is inferior in estimation to that of ,bengal or ,carolina in the markets of ,europe4 ,the following statistics show the extent and progress of the culture in ,java3-- ,in #ahdj4 ,in #ahda4 --------- ---------- ,no4 of ,residencies in which rice is cultivated #ah #ah ,regencies #fi #fh ,districts #dad #dad ,desas or villages #ci1ica #cf1bif ,amount of the population who take a part in it1 without distinction of caste #f1gjd1gig #f1heg1cgb ,number of families1 c4 #a1dff1hde #a1dge1fge families who devote themselves to the cultivation #a1aej1djf #a1adf1jhc ,number of men bound to obligatory service #a1cba1gfg #a1cbe1gdf ,cleared grounds in bahus1 of #ga decametres #a1dgj1jdg #a1edj1jed ,upon this extent the population had cultivated for the government1 in bahus of #ga decametres #gh1ahb #gd1bgg ,extent of fields which the population had cultivated #a1bhf1aci #a1cha1baf on their own account1 in bahus1 c4 ,extent of land in fallow in bahus1 c4 #aje1gbf #hd1efa ,produce in piculs of fields cultivated by the population on its own account #ba1bgc1bgh #bc1haj1egc ,average produce of a bahu #af #ag ,gross amount of the land tax of #ahdj #h1ejb1djb fl #i1jcj1gfa fl4 ,extent of rice fields newly cultivated in bahus #aj1cbh #ac1efa ,this comparative summary shows that the culture of rice increases yearly1 and that the average produce of the fields is also continually increasing4 ,these results have been obtained by the attention paid to the proper irrigation of the soil fit for this culture2 and to the hydraulic works which the ,government executes on its own account in the parts of the island where rice fields can be established1 and where they are required to feed a population whose number is still increasing yearly4 ,i have seen1 continues ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 lands which have produced1 from time beyond the memory of any living person1 two yearly crops of rice4 ,when this practice is pursued1 it is always the five-months grain which is grown4 ,the rapid growth of this variety1 has1 indeed1 enabled the ,javanese husbandman1 in a few happy situations1 to urge the culture to the amount of six crops in two years and a half4 ,rice cultivated in a virgin soil1 where the wood has been burnt off1 will1 under favorable circumstances1 give a return of twenty-five and thirty fold4 ,of mountain rice1 cultivated in ordinary upland arable lands1 fifteen fold may be looked upon as a good return4 ,in fertile soils1 when one crop only is taken in the year1 marsh rice will yield a return of twenty-five seeds4 ,when a double crop is taken1 not more than fifteen or sixteen can be expected4 ,in the fine province of ,kadu1 an ,english acre of good land1 yielding annually one green crop and a crop of rice1 was found to produce of the latter #fda lbs4 of clean grain4 ,in the light sandy1 but well watered lands of the province of ,mataram1 where it is the common practice to exact two crops of rice yearly without any fallow1 an acre was found to yield no more than #bhe lbs4 of clean rice1 or an annual produce of #egj lbs4 --7,history of the ,indian ,archipelago47 ,the low estimation of ,java rice is not attributable to any real inferiority in the grain1 but to the mode of preparing it for the market4 ,in husking it1 it is1 for the want of proper machinery1 much broken1 and1 from carelessness in drying1 subject to decay from the attack of insects and worms4 ,when in the progress of improvement more intelligent methods are pursued in preparing the grain for the market1 it will equal the grain of any other country4 ,machinery must be employed for husking the grain1 and some degree of kiln drying will be necessary to ensure its preservation in a long voyage4 ,i know nowhere that rice is so cheap as in ,java1 except in ,siam1 whence it is exported at one-third less cost4 ,a great deal of rice is exported from ,siam to ,china by the junks1 and also occasionally a little from ,java4 ,the quantity exported from ,java in #ahcj was #ac1eba coyans4 #ahce #be1egg #ahci #a1ajc1cgh piculs #ahda #fgf1bac #ahdc #a1ajh1ggd ,rice is grown to some extent in the ,dutch portion of ,celebes2 it yields at a minimum one hundred and fifty fold4 ,the average annual delivery of rice to the ,government1 from #ahch to #ahdb1 was #c1cij1aai lbs4 ,at present the ,government pays sixty cents for a measure of forty pounds4 ,that which is sold for the consumption of the inhabitants may be procured at the public warehouse for a guilder the #ce lbs42 and that which is sold for export may be had at public auction for #abe florins the coyan of #c1jjj lbs4 ,the following description of some varieties of rice cultivated in the ,philippine islands1 is given by ,mr4 ,rich1 botanist to the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition4 ,the varieties are very numerous2 the natives distinguish them by the size and shape of their grain3-- ,binambang4--,leaves slightly hairy2 glumes whitish2 grows to the height of about five feet2 flowers in ,december3 aquatic4 ,lamuyo greatly resembles the above2 is more extensively cultivated1 particularly in ,batangas1 where it forms the principal article of food of the inhabitants of the coast3 aquatic4 ,malagcquit4--,this variety derives its name from its being very glutinous after bailing2 it is much used by the natives in making sweet or fancy dishes2 and also used in making a whitewash1 mixed with lime1 which is remarkable for its brilliancy1 and for withstanding rain1 c43 aquatic4 ,bontot ,cabayo4--,common in ,ilocos1 where it is cultivated both upland and lowland2 it produces a large grain1 and is therefore much esteemed1 but has rather a rough taste4 ,dumali1 or early rice4--,this rice is raised in the uplands exclusively1 and derives its name from ripening its grain three months from planting2 the seed is rather broader and shorter than the other varieties2 it is not extensively cultivated1 as birds and insects are very destructive to it4 ,quinanda1 with smooth leaves4--,this variety is held in great estimation by the people of ,batangas1 as they say it swells more in boiling than any other variety2 it is sown in ,may1 and gathered in ,october3 upland4 ,bolohan4--,this variety has very hairy glumes2 it is not held in much esteem by the natives1 but it is cultivated on account of its not being so liable to the attacks of insects and diseases as most of the other upland varieties4 ,malagcquit4--,with smooth leaves1 and red glumes 7all the preceding are whitish72 possesses all the qualities of the aquatic variety of the same name--that of being very glutinous after boiling4 ,this rice is said to be a remedy for worms in horses1 soaked in water1 with the hulls on2 it is given with honey and water4 ,tangi4--,leaves slightly hairy1 glumes light violet color4 ,this upland variety is held in much esteem for its fine flavor4 #dce1jfg arrobas of rice were exported from ,manilla in #ahdg4 ,a simple but rude mill is in use in ,siam1 and many parts of ,india1 for hulling paddy1 which is similar to those used #d1jjj years ago4 ,it consists of two circular stones1 two feet in diameter1 resting one on the other2 a bamboo basket is wrought around the upper one1 so as to form the hopper4 ,a peg is firmly set into the face of the upper stone1 half way between its periphery and centre1 having tied to it by one end a stick three feet long1 extended horizontally1 and attached by the other to another stick pending from the roof of the shed under which the mill is placed4 ,this forms a crank1 by which the upper stone is made to revolve on the other set firmly on the ground4 ,the motion throws the rice through the centre of the stone1 and causes it to escape between the edges of the two4 ,more starch is contained in this grain than in wheat4 ,braconnet obtained from ,carolina rice #he4jg1 and from ,piedmont rice #hc4h per cent4 of starch4 ,vogel procured from a dried rice no less than #ih per cent4 of starch4 ,there are several patent processes in existence for the manufacture of rice-starch1 which are accomplished chiefly by digesting rice in solutions1 more or less strong1 of caustic alkali 7soda71 by which the gluten is dissolved and removed1 leaving an insoluble matter composed of starch1 and a white substance technically called fibre4 ,under ,jones's patent1 the alkaline solution employed contains #bjj grains of real soda in every gallon of liquor1 and #aej gallons of this liquor are requisite to convert #ajj lbs4 of rice into starch4 ,in manufacturing rice-starch on a large scale1 ,patna rice yields #hj per cent1 of marketable starch1 and #h4b per cent4 of fibre1 the remaining #aa4h per cent4 being made up of gluten1 gruff1 or bran1 and a small quantity of light starch carried off in suspension by the solution4 ,jones's process may be thus described3--#ajj lbs4 of rice are macerated for #bd hours in #ej gallons of the alkaline solution1 and afterwards washed with cold water1 drained1 and ground4 ,to #ajj gallons of the alkaline solution are then to be added #ajj lbs4 of ground rice1 and the mixture stirred repeatedly during #bd hours1 and then allowed to stand for about #gj hours to settle or deposit4 ,the alkaline solution is to be drawn off1 and to the deposit cold water is to be added1 for the double purpose of washing out the alkali and for drawing off the starch from the other matters4 ,the mixture is to be well stirred up and then allowed to rest about an hour for the fibre to fall down4 ,the liquor holding the starch in suspension is to be drawn off and allowed to stand for about #gj hours for the starch to deposit4 ,the waste liquor is now to be removed1 and the starch stirred up1 blued 7if thought necessary71 drained1 dried1 and finished in the usual way4#dd ,rice is imported into this country in bags of #a cwt41 and tierces of #f cwt41 not only for edible purposes1 but1 when ground into flour1 for cotton manufactures1 in aiding to form the weaver's dressings for warps4 ,rice-meal is commonly used for feeding pigs4 ,imported4 ,british ,retained for home ,plantation4 ,foreign4 consumption of all kinds4 ,bags4 ,bags4 ,bags4 #ahdc #acf1cai #ce1abe #fj1ife #ahdd #abg1hgf #fi1aab #abf1gcc #ahde #agc1gid #e1gac #aad1icc ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 #ahdg #ch1gcf #c1jcc #bh1cge #ahdh #ba1bbf #d1fca #ae1dfh #ahdi #ai1cig #a1daj #ad1ifa ,total imported4 ,re-exported4 #ahdi #igf1aif cwts4 #bij1gcb cwts4 in the husk #ca1hbh qrs4 #ahej #ghe1dea cwts4 #bdh1acf in the husk #cg1aej qrs4 #ahea #gad1hdg cwts4 #cde1fgg in the husk #ca1dha qrs4 #aheb #ihi1caf cwts4 #dad1ejg in the husk #bc1idf qrs4 ,the quantity of rice retained for home consumption1 by the corrected returns1 in #ahej1 was #dja1jah cwts4 and #ce1aai quarters2 in #ahea1 #cii1agj cwts4 and #ca1dha quarters2 in #aheb1 #egd1hji cwts4 and #bc1idf quarters4 ,the aggregate imports range from #dj1jjj to #hj1jjj tons annually1 of which about #ejj to #hjj tons are in the husk4 ,among culmiferous plants and legumes used in the ,east1 are the ,panicum italicum1 ,p4 miliaceum1 ,eleusine coracana 7the meal of which is baked and eaten in ,ceylon under the name of ,corakan flour71 and ,paspalum of several varieties4 ,the pigeon pea 7,cytisus ,cajan71 and a very valuable and prolific species of bean1 called the ,mauritius black bean 7,mucuna utilis71 growing even in the poorest soil1 is cultivated in ,india and ,ceylon4 ,sorghum vulgare is the principal grain of ,southern ,arabia1 and the stems are also used extensively for feeding cattle4 ,the plant bears its ,indian name of joar1 or juri1 and is cultivated throughout ,western ,hindostan4 ,job's tears 7,croix lachryma7 is another cereal grass1 native of the ,east ,indies4 ,,millet4 ,millet of different kinds is met with in the hottest parts of ,africa1 in the ,south of ,europe1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in the ,east ,indies4 ,it is a small yellowish seed1 growing in dense panicles or clusters1 the produce of a grassy plant with large and compact seeds1 growing to the height1 in ,india1 of seven or eight feet4 ,the millets1 known to ,europeans as petit mais1 are tropical or sub-tropical crops4 ,in ,india they hold a second rank to rice alone2 and in ,egypt1 perhaps1 surpass all other crops in importance4 ,in ,western ,africa they are the staff of life4 ,the red and white millets shown by ,austria1 ,russia1 and the ,united ,states1 at the ,great ,exhibition1 were beautiful1 and ,ceylon exhibited fair samples4 ,turkey abounds in small grains4 ,panicum miliaceum and ,p4 frumentaceum are the species grown in the ,east ,indies4 ,loudon says there are three distinct species of millet2 the ,polish1 the common or ,german1 and the ,indian4 ,setaria ,germanica yields ,german millet4 ,the plants are readily increased by division of the roots or by seed1 and will grow in any common soil4 ,the native ,west ,indian species are ,p4 fascisculatwm and oryzoides4 ,millet receives some attention in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,in #ahdd there were #ajj acres of land under cultivation with it1 and the amount grown in some years in this colony has been about #c1ejj bushels4 ,in the ,united ,states millet is chiefly grown for making hay1 being found a good substitute for clover and the ordinary grasses4 ,it is a plant which will flourish well on rather thin soils1 and it grows so fast that when it is up and well set it is seldom much affected by drought4 ,it is commonly sown there in ,june1 but the time of sowing will vary with the latitude4 ,half a bushel of seed to the acre is the usual quantity1 sown broadcast and harrowed in4 ,for the finest quantity of hay1 it is thought advisable to sow an additional quantity of three or four quarts of seed4 ,the ordinary yield of crops may be put at from a ton to a ton and a half of hay to the acre4 ,it should be cut as soon as it is out of blossom2 if it stands later1 the stems are liable to become too hard to make good hay4 ,the variety known as ,german millet is that most common in ,north ,america4 ,it grows ordinarily to the height of about three feet1 with compact heads from six to nine inches in length1 bearing yellow seed4 ,there are some sub-varieties of this1 as the white and purple-seeded4 ,the ,italian millet1 ,setaria italica1 is larger than the preceding1 reaching the height of four feet in tolerable soil1 and its leaves are correspondingly larger and thicker4 ,the heads are sometimes a foot or more in length1 and are less compact than the ,german1 being composed of several spikes slightly branching from the main stem4 ,it is said to derive its specific name from being cultivated in ,italy1 though its native habitat is ,india4 ,it is claimed by some that this variety will yield more seed than any other1 and the seed is rather larger1 but the stalk is coarser1 and would probably be less relished by stock4 ,if the greatest amount of seed is desired from the crop1 it is best to sow it in drills1 two to two-and-a-half feet apart1 using a seed drill for the purpose4 ,this admits of the use of a small harrow or cultivator between the rows1 while the plants are small1 which keeps out the weeds4 ,the crop will ripen more uniformly in this way than broadcast1 and enables the cultivator to cut it when there will be the least waste4 ,the seed shatters out very easily when it is ripe1 and when the crop ripens unequally it cannot be cut without loss1 because either a portion of it will be immature1 or1 if left till it is all ripe1 the seed of the earliest falls out4 ,it should be closely watched1 and cut in just about the same stage that it is proper to cut wheat1 while the grain may be crushed between the fingers4 ,it may be cut with a grain cradle1 and1 when dry1 bound and shocked like grain2 but it should be threshed out as soon as practicable1 on account of its being usually much attacked by birds1 many kinds of which are very fond of the seed4 ,in particular localities they assail the crop in such numbers1 from the time it is out of the milk1 till it is harvested and carried off the field1 that it is no object to attempt to ripen it4 ,this crop is sometimes sown in drills1 when it is only intended for fodder1 being cut and cured in bundles1 as the stalks of ,indian corn are4 ,it is best to pass it through a cutting machine before feeding it to stock2 indeed1 all millet hay will be fed with less loss in this way1 than if fed to animals without cutting4 ,the seed is used in various ,european countries as a substitute for sago1 for which it is considered excellent4 ,it is likewise a valuable food for poultry1 particularly for young chickens1 which from the smallness of the grain can eat it readily1 and it appears to be wholesome for them4 ,in some countries millet seed is ground into flour and converted into bread2 but this is brown and heavy4 ,it is1 however1 useful in other respects1 as a substitute for rice4 ,a good vinegar has been made from it by fermentation1 and1 on distillation1 it yields a strong spirit4 ,millet seed--the produce of ,h4 saccharatum--is imported into this country from the ,east ,indies for the purpose chiefly of puddings2 by many persons it is preferred to rice4 ,it is cultivated largely in ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,the stalks1 if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane1 yield a sweet juice1 from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made4 ,millet will grow best on light1 dry soils4 ,the ground being first well prepared1 half a bushel of seed to the acre is ploughed in at the commencement of the rains1 in ,india4 ,the crop ripens within three months from the time of sowing4 ,the usual produce is about #af bushels to the acre4 ,the ,canary ,islands export annually about #bab1djj bushels of millet4 ,great ,indian ,millet1 or ,guinea ,corn4--,this is a native of ,india 7the ,sorghum vulgare1 the ,andropogon ,sorghum of ,roxburgh71 which produces a grain a little larger than mustard or millet seed4 ,it is grown in most tropical countries1 and has peculiar local names4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 where it is chiefly raised for feeding poultry1 it is called ,guinea corn4 ,in ,egypt it is known as ,dhurra1 in ,hindostan and ,bengal as ,joar1 and in some districts as ,cush4 ,in ,lower ,scinde joar is very extensively cultivated1 as well as bajree 7,h4 spicatus74 ,it is harvested in ,december and ,january2 requires a light soil1 and is usually grown in the east1 after ,cynosurus corocanus4 ,guinea corn is extensively cultivated in some parts of ,jamaica4 ,i did not1 however1 find it thrive on the north side of the island4 ,it is best planted in the ,west ,indies between ,september and ,november1 and ripens in ,january4 ,it ratoons or yields a second crop1 when cut4 ,the returns are from #cj to #fj bushels an acre1 but the crops are uncertain4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,bravo tried ,guinea corn at ,st4 ,ann's1 ,jamaica1 as a green crop1 sown broadcast1 for fodder1 and it answered admirably1 the produce being very considerable4 ,it was weighed1 and yielded #ad tons of fodder per acre1 and was found very palatable and nutritious for cattle4 ,it was grown on a very poor soil1 which had1 previously to ploughing1 given nothing but marigolds and weeds4 ,the luxuriant growth of the corn completely kept under the weeds4 ,a great number of the stalks were measured1 and they averaged #aj feet from the root to the top of the upper leaf4 ,it had been planted #aj weeks1 and had1 therefore1 grown a foot a month4 ,mr4 ,bravo is of opinion1 that sown broadcast it would answer either as a grain crop1 as fodder1 or ploughed in to increase the fertility of the soil4 ,dr4 ,phillips1 of ,barbados1 being of opinion that it might be advantageously employed as human food1 requested ,dr4 ,shier1 the analytical chemist1 of ,demerara1 to determine in his laboratory its richness in protein compounds 7the muscle-forming part of vegetable food7 in comparison with ,indian corn4 ,he1 therefore1 caused a sample of each to be burned for nitrogen1 when the following results were obtained3-- ,indian corn4 ,guinea corn4 ,water1 per cent4 #ab4ha #ac4gf ,in ordinary state-- ,nitrogen1 per cent4 #a4hc #a4ah ,protein compounds #aa4ea #g4db ,in dry state-- ,nitrogen1 per cent4 #b4aj #a4cf ,protein compounds #ac4bj #h4fj ,according to these results1 the ,guinea corn is less rich in nitrogen or protein compounds than ,indian corn1 though not much less so than some varieties of ,english wheat4 ,indian corn meal1 analysed by ,mr4 ,hereford1 from two localities1 gave in the ordinary state of dryness #aa4ec and #ab4dh per cent4 of protein compounds--results which come very near to that obtained by ,dr4 ,shier4 ,sorghum avenaceum1 or ,holcus avenaceus1 is a native of the ,cape4 ,several species and varieties of sorghum have been introduced1 and more or less cultivated in the ,united ,states4 ,it is often popularly termed ,egyptian corn4 ,it is closely allied to broom corn 7,s4 saccharatum71 the head being similar in structure1 and the seed similar1 except that in most varieties of sorghum1 the outer covering does not adhere as in broom corn4 ,the plant bears a strong resemblance1 while growing1 to maize or ,indian corn4 ,there is also some similarity in the grain1 and it is extensively used as food by many oriental nations4 ,a variety1 under the name of ,african purple millet1 was some years since introduced into ,north ,america1 and recommended for cultivation as a soiling crop2 but this1 as well as other varieties1 do not possess any advantages over ,indian corn4 ,the natives of ,mysore reckon three kinds1 known as white1 green1 and red4 ,the red ripens a month earlier than the rest1 or about four months from the time of sowing4 ,near ,bengal1 ,bombay1 and elsewhere1 in ,eastern ,india1 sowing is performed at the close of ,may or early in ,june4 ,a gallon and a third of seed is sown per acre1 and the produce averages #af bushels4 ,this grain1 though small1 and the size of its head diminutive1 compensates for this deficiency by the great hulk and goodness of its straw1 which grows usually to the height of #h or #aj feet4 ,it is sometimes sown for fodder in the beginning of ,april1 and is ready to cut in ,july4 ,it is said to be injurious to cattle1 if eaten as green provender1 the straw is therefore first dried1 and is then preferable to that of rice4 ,this grain is frequently fermented to form the basis1 in combination with goor or half made sugar1 of the common arrack of the natives1 and in the hills is fermented into a kind of beer or sweet wort1 drank warm4 ,holcus spicatus1 the ,panicum spicatum of ,roxburgh1 is cultivated in ,mysore1 ,behar1 and the provinces more to the north4 ,from one to four seers are sown on a biggah of land1 and the yield is about four maunds per acre4 ,it is sown after the heavy rains commence1 and the plough serves to cover the seed4 ,the crop is ripe in three months1 and the ears only are taken off at first4 ,afterwards the straw is cut down close to the surface of the soil1 to be used for thatching1 for it is not much in request as fodder4 ,being a grain of small price1 it is a common food of the poorer class of natives1 and really yields a sweet palatable flour4 ,it is also excellent as a fattening grain for poultry4 ,the ,poa ,abyssinicais one of the bread-corns of ,abyssinia4 ,the bread made from it is called teff1 and is the ordinary food of the country1 that made from wheat being only used by the higher classes4 ,the way of manufacturing it is by allowing the dough to become sour1 when1 generating carbonic acid gas1 it serves instead of yeast4 ,it is then baked in circular cakes1 which are white1 spongy1 and of a hot acid taste1 but easy of digestion4 ,this bread1 carefully toasted1 and left in water for three or four days1 furnishes the bousa1 or common beer of the country1 similar to the quas of ,russia4 ,,broom ,,corn4 ,the production of broom corn is rapidly extending1 and corn brooms are driving broom sedge1 as an article for sweeping floors1 out of every humble dwelling in the ,united ,states4 ,there are about #a1jjj acres of it under culture in one county 7,montgomery7 alone1 and it brings #cj dollars per acre in the field4 ,messrs4 ,van ,eppes1 of ,schenectady1 have been engaged in the broom manufactory business about eleven years4 ,they have a farm of about #cjj acres1 #bjj of which are ,mohawk flats4 ,a large portion of the flats was formerly of little value1 in consequence of being kept wet by a shallow stream which ran through1 it1 and which1 together with several springs that issue from the sandy bluff on the south side of the flats1 kept the ground marshy1 and unfit for cultivation4 ,by deepening the channel of the stream1 and conducting most of the springs into it1 many acres1 which were formerly almost worthless1 have been made worth #abe dollars per acre4 ,they have also1 by deepening the channel1 saving the water of the springs1 and securing all the fall1 made a water privilege1 on which they have erected an excellent mill1 with several run of stones1 leaving besides sufficient power to carry saws for cutting out the handles of brooms1 c4 ,they have about #bjj acres of the flats in broom-corn4 ,the cultivation of this article has within a few years been simplified to almost as great a degree as its manufacture4 ,the seed is sown with a seed-barrow or drill1 as early in the spring as the state of the ground will admit1 in rows #c feet apart4 ,as soon as the corn is above ground1 it is hoed1 and soon after thinned1 so as to leave the stalks two or three inches apart4 ,it is only hoed in the row1 in order to get out the weeds that are close to the plants1 the remaining space being left for the harrow and cultivator1 which are run so frequently as to keep down the weeds4 ,the cultivation is finished by running a small1 double mould-board plough1 rather shallow1 between the rows4 ,the broom corn is not left to ripen1 as formerly1 but is cut when it is quite green1 and the seed not much past the milk4 ,it was formerly the practice to lop down the tops of the corn1 and let it hang some time1 that the brush might become straightened in one direction4 ,now1 the tops are not lopped till the brush is ready to cut1 which1 as before stated1 is while the corn is green4 ,a set of hands goes forward1 and lops or bends the tops to one side1 and another set follows immediately and cuts off the tops at the place at which they are bent1 and a third set gathers the cut tops into carts or waggons1 which take them to the factory4 ,here they are first sorted over1 and parcelled out into small bunches1 each bunch being made up into brush of equal length4 ,the seed is then taken off by an apparatus with teeth1 like a hatchet4 ,the machine is worked by six horses1 and cleans the brush very rapidly4 ,it is then spread thin to dry1 on racks put up in buildings designed for the purpose4 ,in about a week1 with ordinary weather1 it becomes so dry that it will bear to be packed closely4 ,the stalks of the corn1 after the tops have been cut off1 are five or six feet high1 and they are left on the ground1 and ploughed in the next spring4 ,it is found that this keeps up the fertility of the soil1 so that the crop is continued for several years without apparent diminution4 ,it should be observed1 however1 that the ground is overflowed every winter or spring1 and a considerable deposit left on the surface1 which is undoubtedly equivalent to a dressing of manure4 ,this may be inferred from the fact that some of the flats have been in ,indian corn every year for forty or fifty years1 without manure1 and with good cultivation have seldom produced less than sixty bushels per acre1 and with extra cultivation from eighty to ninety bushels have been obtained4 ,in case of need1 the stalks would furnish a large amount of good food for cattle4 ,they are full of leaves which are nutritive1 and whether cut and dried for winter1 or eaten green by stock turned on the ground where they grow1 would be very valuable in case of deficiency of grass4 ,messrs4 ,van ,eppes employ twenty hands during the summer2 and in autumn1 when the brush is being gathered and prepared1 they have nearly a hundred1 male and female4 ,they are mostly ,germans1 who come to ,schenectady with their families during the broom corn harvest1 and leave when it is over4 ,the manufacture of brooms is carried on mostly in the winter season4 ,the quantity usually turned out by ,messrs4 ,van ,eppes is #aej1jjj dozen per annum4--7,albany ,cultivator47 ,,chenopodium ,,quinoa4 ,about twenty-eight years ago this plant was introduced into ,britain from ,peru1 where the seeds are used as food1 under the name of petty rice4 ,attention was drawn to it by ,loudon1 in his ,gardener's ,magazine1 in #ahcd1 and in #ahcf it was cultivated on a large scale by ,sir ,charles ,lemon4 ,this plant and the lentil are two of the most promising exotics that have been recommended for field culture4 ,there are two varieties of quinoa1 the white and the red seeded2 the red has bitter properties1 and is only used for medicine4 ,in ,north ,america the seeds of the former are used as a substitute for maize and the potato4 ,a white meal is obtained from it1 having a tinge of yellow4 ,it contains scarcely any gluten1 but1 like oatmeal1 makes very good porridge and cakes4 ,its nutritive qualities are proved by the analysis of ,dr4 ,voelcker 7,journal of ,agriculture of ,scotland1 ,october1 #ahej71 which states it to yield #c4ff per cent4 of nitrogen1 equal to #b4hg per cent4 of protein compounds4 ,in this respect the meal appears to be superior to rye1 barley1 rice1 maize1 the plantain1 and potato4 ,it has long furnished the food of millions in ,south ,america2 and in ,scotland and ,ireland the plant would find a congenial climate and rich soil4 ,,fundi ,,or ,,fundungi4 ,this is an hitherto undescribed species of ,african grain 7probably the ,paspalum exile71 much cultivated and esteemed in ,sierra ,leone1 and other places on the ,african coast1 where it is known by the ,foulahs1 ,joloffs1 and other native tribes1 under the local name of ,hungry rice4 ,it is a slender grass with digitate spikes1 which have much of the habit of ,digitaria1 but which1 on account of the absence of the small outer glume existing in that genus1 ,mr4 ,keppist1 ,librarian of the ,linnean ,society1 of ,london1 refers to ,paspalum4 ,it produces a semi-transparent cordiform grain1 about the size of a mignionette seed2 the ear consists of two conjugate spikes1 the grain being arranged on the outer edge of either spike1 and alternated2 they are attached by a peduncle to the husk4 ,the picarp1 or outer membrane1 is slightly rugous4 ,the ground is cleared for its reception by burning down the copse wood and hoeing between the roots and stumps4 ,it is sown in the months of ,may and ,june1 the ground being slightly opened1 and again lightly drawn together over the seeds with a hoe4 ,in ,august1 when it shoots up1 it is carefully weeded4 ,it ripens in ,september1 growing to the height of about #ah inches1 and its stems1 which are very slender1 are bent to the earth by the mere weight of the grain4 ,the patch of land is then either suffered to lie fallow1 or is planted with yams or cassava in rotation4 ,experienced cultivators of this ,lilliputian grain assert that manure is unnecessary1 as it delights in light soils1 and it is even raised on rocky situations1 which are most frequent about ,kissy4 ,when cut down1 it is tied up in small sheafs and placed in a dry situation within the hut2 for if allowed to remain on the ground and to become wet1 the grains are agglutinated to their coverings4 ,the grain is trodden out with the feet1 and is then parched or dried in the sun1 to allow the more easy removal of the chaff in the process of pounding1 which is performed in wooden mortars4 ,it is afterwards winnowed with a kind of cane fanner or mats4 ,this grain could be raised in sufficient quantities to become an article of commerce1 and ,i have no doubt would prove a valuable addition to the list of light farinaceous articles of food in use among the delicate or convalescent4 ,in preparing this delicious grain for food1 it is first put into boiling water1 in which it is assiduously stirred for a few minutes2 the water is then poured off1 and the ,foulahs1 ,joloffs1 c41 add to it palm oil1 butter1 or milk2 but ,europeans and negroes connected with ,sierra ,leone prepare it as follows3--,to the grain cooked as above mentioned1 fowl1 fish1 or mutton1 with a piece of salt pork for the sake of flavor is added1 the whole being then stewed in a close saucepan4 ,this makes a very good dish1 and thus prepared resembles ,kous-kous4 ,the grain is sometimes made into puddings1 with the usual condiments1 and eaten either hot or cold1 with milk4 ,by the few natives of ,scotland in the colony1 it is occasionally dressed as milk porridge4 ,the negroes also eat it in the same way as they do rice1 with palaver sauce4 ,fundi ought to be well washed in cold water1 and afterwards rewashed in boiling water4 ,if properly prepared it will be white1 and perfectly free from gritty matter4 ,canary-seed1 obtained from ,phalaris canariensis1 is grown rather largely in ,kent1 the ,isle of ,thanet1 and other parts of the south of ,england1 as much as #ejj tons being annually consumed here for feeding singing birds4 ,the produce is three to five quarters the acre1 and it is sold at about #be the ton4 ,we receive foreign supplies of the seed from ,germany and the ,mediterranean1 and the duty on imports is #bs4 #f;d4 per bushel4 ,,pulse4 ,there are a variety of pulses and leguminous seeds extensively cultivated as food for both man and cattle1 and which form an important article in the husbandry of tropical countries4 ,the importance of peas and beans is well appreciated1 both by the horticulturists and agriculturists in ,europe and our temperate colonies1 where1 however1 they are comparatively of less importance than the smaller pulses and grains are in various tropical countries1 such as haricots in the ,brazils and ,west ,indies2 ground or earth nuts in ,south ,america1 and especially in ,western ,africa2 beans of different kinds amongst the miners of ,peru2 gram 7,ervum lens71 and dholl 7,cajanus71 with innumerable varieties of beans and small lentils among the natives of ,india and ,egypt2 and the ,carob bean1 or ,st4 ,john's bread 7,ceratonia siliqua71 in the ,mediterranean countries4--7,jury ,reports47 ,of leguminous grains there are various species cultivated and used by the ,asiatics1 as the ,phaseolus ,mungo1 ,p4 ,max and ,p4 radiatus1 which contain much alimentary matter2 the earth-nut 7,arachis hypoga71 which buries its pods under ground after flowering4 ,the gram 7,cicer arictinum7 which is mentioned by ,dr4 ,christie 7,madras ,journal of ,science1 ,no4 #ac7 as exuding oxalic acid from all parts of the plant4 ,it is used by the ryots in their curries instead of vinegar4 ,it is the chick pea of ,england1 and chenna of ,hindostan4 ,among the most commonly cultivated leguminous plants are the lentil 7,ervum lens71 horse gram 7,dolichos biflorus1 ,linn71 various species of ,cytisus and ,cajanus1 c4 ,many of these are grown in ,india as fodder plants2 others for their seeds1 known as gram1 dholl1 c4 ,the ,cajanus flavus1 of ,decandolle 7,cytisus ,cajan71 is very generally cultivated along the ,western coast of ,africa1 and continues to bear for three years4 ,several species of dolichos are used as food in various countries1 as ,d4 ensiformus in ,jamaica1 ,d4 tuberosus in ,martinique1 ,d4 bulbosus and ,d4 lignosus in the ,east ,indies4 ,the vessels of the ,north bring to ,shanghae a great quantity of a dry paste1 known under the name of tanping1 the residuum or husk of a leguminous plant called ,teuss1 from which the ,chinese extract oil1 and which is used1 after being pressed1 as manure for the ground4 ,captain ,h4 ,biggs1 in a communication to the ,agri4-,hort4 ,soc4 of ,india1 in #ahde1 states that of the esculents a large white pea forms the staple of the trade of ,shanghae1 or nearly so1 to the astonishing amount of two and a-half millions sterling4 ,this he gives on the authority of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,medhurst1 of ,shanghae1 and ,mr4 ,thorns1 ,british ,consul at ,ningpo4 ,these peas are ground in a mill and then pressed1 in a somewhat complicated1 though1 as usual in ,china1 a most efficient press1 by means of wedges driven under the outer parts of the framework with mallets4 ,the oil is used both for eating and burning1 more for the latter purpose1 however1 and the cake1 like large ,gloucester cheese1 or small grindstones in circular shape1 is distributed about ,china in every direction1 both as food for pigs and buffaloes1 as also for manure4 ,we import on the average about #bj1jjj quarters of beans1 peas1 c41 from ,ireland1 #dej1jjj quarters of beans and #bjj1jjj quarters of peas from foreign countries4 ,the land under cultivation with pulse1 and the crops raised1 have been estimated as follows3-- ,acres4 ,quarters4 ,england #ejj1jjj #a1hge1jjj ,ireland #acj1jjj #edj1jjj ,scotland #ej1jjj #aej1jjj ------- --------- #fhj1jjj #b1efe1jjj ,this is of course exclusive of garden cultivation4 ,the average produce of beans per acre in ,england is #c quarters1 #c in ,ireland1 and three in ,scotland4 ,the price of beans per quarter in the last ten years has ranged from #cis4 to #bgs4 the quarter2 peas from #djs4 #f;d4 to #bgs4 #f;d4 ,algaroba beans4--,the seed pods or bean of the carob-tree 7,ceratonia siliqua1 or ,prosopis pallida87 a tree common in the ,levant and ,south of ,europe1 are used as food4 ,the pods contain a large proportion of sweet fecula1 and are frequently used by singers1 being considered to improve the voice4 ,the name of ,st4 ,john's ,head has been applied to them1 from the supposition that they were the wild honey spoken of in ,scripture as the food of ,john the ,baptist4 ,about #dj1jjj quintals of these carobs are annually exported from ,crete4 ,during the ,peninsular war1 the horses of our cavalry were principally fed upon these algaroba seeds4 ,the pods of the ,west ,india locust tree1 ,hymena courbaril1 also supply a nutritious matter4 ,that well known sauce1 ,soy1 is made in some parts of the ,east1 from a species of the ,dolichos bean 7,soja hispida71 which grows in ,china and ,japan4 ,in ,java it is procured from the ,phaseolus radiatus4 ,the beans are boiled soft1 with wheat or barley of equal quantities1 and left for three months to ferment2 salt and water are then added1 when the liquor is pressed and strained4 ,good soy is agreeable when a few years old2 the ,japan soy is superior to the ,chinese4 ,large quantities are shipped for ,england and ,america4 ,the ,dolichos bean is much cultivated in ,japan1 where various culinary articles are prepared from it2 but the principal are a sort of butter1 termed mico1 and a pickle called sooja4 #a1ajh piculs of soy were shipped from ,canton in #ahdd1 for ,london1 ,british ,india1 and ,singapore4 #ajj jars1 or about #ej gallons of soy1 were received at ,liverpool in #ahej4 ,the price is about #fs4 per gallon in the ,london market4 ,,the ,,sago ,,palms1 ,,bread-,,fruit1 c4 ,sago1 and starchy matter allied to it1 is obtained from many palms4 ,it is contained in the cellular tissue of the stem1 and is separated by bruising and elutriation4 ,from the soft stem of ,cycas circinalis1 a kind of sago is produced in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,the finest is1 however1 procured from the stems of ,sagus lvis 7,s4 inermis1 of ,roxburgh71 a native of ,borneo and ,sumatra2 and ,arenga saccharifera1 or ,gomutus saccharifus1 of ,rumphius4 ,the ,saguerus ,rumphii1 or ,metroxylon ,sagus1 which is found in the ,eastern ,islands of the ,indian ,ocean1 yields a feculent matter4 ,after the starchy substance is washed out of the stems of these palms1 it is then granulated so as to form sago4 ,the last-mentioned palm also furnishes a large supply of sugar4 ,sago as well as sugar1 and a kind of palm wine1 are procured from ,caryota urens4 ,in ,china sago is obtained from ,rhapis flabelliformis1 a dwarfish palm2 and some sago is made from it for native use in ,travancore1 ,mysore1 and ,wynaad1 and the jungles in the ,east ,indies4 ,the trunk of the sago palm is five or six feet round1 and it grows to the height of about #bj feet4 ,it can only be propagated by seed4 ,it flourishes best in bogs and swampy marshes2 a good plantation being often a bog1 knee deep4 ,the pith producing the sago is seldom of use till the tree is fourteen or fifteen years old2 and the tree does not live longer than thirty years4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd says there are four varieties of this palm2 the cultivated1 the wild1 one distinguished by long spines on the branches1 and a fourth destitute of these spines1 and called by the natives female sago4 ,this and the cultivated species afford the best farina2 the spiny variety1 which has a slender trunk1 and the wild tree1 yield but an inferior quality of sago4 ,the farinaceous matter afforded by each plant is very considerable1 #ejj lbs4 being a frequent quantity1 while #cjj lbs4 may be taken as the common average produce of each tree4 ,supposing the plants set at a distance of ten feet apart1 an acre would contain #dce trees1 which1 on coming to maturity in fifteen years1 would yield at the before-mentioned rate #abj1ejj lbs4 annually of farinaceous matter4 ,the sago meal1 in its raw state1 will keep good about a month4 ,the ,malays and natives of the ,eastern ,islands1 with whom it forms the chief article of sustenance1 partially bake it in earthenware moulds into small hard cakes1 which will keep for a considerable time4 ,in ,java the word saga signifies bread4 ,the sago palm 7,metroxylon ,sagus7 is one of the smallest of its tribe1 seldom reaching to more than #cj feet in height1 and grows only in a region extending west to ,celebes and ,borneo1 north to ,mindanao1 south to ,timor1 and east to ,papua4 ,ceram is its chief seat1 and there large forests of it are found4 ,the edible farina is the central pith1 which varies considerably in different trees1 and as to the time required for its attaining proper maturity4 ,it is eaten by the natives in the form of pottage4 ,a farina of an inferior kind is supplied by the ,gomuti palm 7,borassus gomutus71 another tree peculiar to the ,eastern ,archipelago growing in the valleys of hilly tracts4 ,at so great a distance it is difficult to decide as to which of these trees really produce the ordinary sagos of commerce1 for there are several kinds4 ,planche1 in an excellent memoir on the sagos1 has described six species1 which he distinguishes by the names of the places from which they come4 ,preferring to classify them according to their characters1 ,m4 ,mayet distinguishes only three species4 ,the first he denominates ,ancient sago1 which comes from different parts1 and varies much in color4 ,it comprehends--#ast1 ,maldivian sago of ,planche1 in spherical globules1 of two or three millimetres in diameter1 translucid1 of an unequal pinkish white color1 very hard and insipid4 #bnd1 ,new ,guinea sago1 of ,planche1 in rather smaller globules1 of a bright red color on one side1 and white on the other4 #crd4 ,grey sago of the ,moluccas or brown sago of the ,english2 of unequal globules1 from one to three millimetres in diameter1 opaque1 of a dull grey color on one side1 and whitish on the other4 ,this grey color probably arises from long keeping and humidity4 #dth4 ,large grey sago of the ,moluccas1 exactly resembling ,no4 #c1 only that the globules are from four to eight millimetres in diameter4 #eth4 ,fine white sago of the ,moluccas2 entirely resembling ,no4 #c1 only that it is purely white1 owing to the complete edulcoration of the fecula of which it is made4 ,whatever may be the places of origin of these sagos1 they all possess the following characters-- ,rounded globules1 generally spherical1 all isolated1 very hard1 elastic1 and difficult to break or powder4 ,the globules put into water1 generally swell to twice their original size1 but do not adhere together4 ,second sage4--,this species corresponds with the pinkish sago of the ,moluccas of ,planche4 ,it is in very small globules1 less regular than those of the first sago1 and sometimes stuck together to the number of two or three4 ,soaked in water1 it swells to double its volume4 ,third ,species4--,tapioca sago4---,this name has been applied to a species of sago now abundant in commerce1 because it bears the same relation to the ancient or first sago1 and even to the preceding sago1 that tapioca bears to ,moussache1 which is the fecula of the manioc1 ,janipha manihot 7,manihot utilissima74 ,whilst the two preceding species of sago1 whatever may have been stated to the contrary1 have been neither baked nor submitted to any heating process1 as is proved by the perfect state of nearly all their grains of fecula1 this species has been subjected to the action of heat while in a state of a moist paste4 ,this sago is not in spherical globules1 like the two preceding species1 or at least there are but few of the globules of that form2 it is rather in the form of very small irregular tubercular masses1 formed by the adherence of different numbers of the primary globules4 ,the facility with which this sago swells and is divided by water1 has occasioned it to be preferred as an article of food to the ancient sago4 ,it has been described by ,planche under the name of the white sago of the ,moluccas1 and by ,dr4 ,pereira under the name of pearl sago4 ,bennet1 in his work on ,ceylon and its ,capabilities1 7#ahdc71 states that sago is procured from the granulated pith of the talipot palm1 ,corypha umbraculifera4 ,the ,sagus ,rumphii1 ,willdenow1 and ,s4 farinifera1 ,gaertner4--,before maturity1 and previous to the formation of the fruit1 the stem consists of a thin hard wall1 about two inches thick1 and of an enormous volume of tissue 7commonly termed the medulla or pith71 from which the farina or sago is obtained4 ,as the fruit forms1 the farinaceous medulla disappears1 and when the tree1 attains full maturity1 the stem is no more than a hollow shell4 ,sago occurs in commerce in two states1 pulverulent and granulated4 #a4 ,the meal or flour as imported in the form of a fine amylaceous powder4 ,it is whitish1 with a buffy or reddish tint4 ,its odor is faint1 but somewhat unpleasant and musty4 #b4 ,granulated sago is of two kinds1 pearl and common brown4 ,the former occurs in small hard grains1 not exceeding in size that of a pin's head1 inodorous1 and having little taste4 ,they have a brownish or pinkish yellow tint1 and are somewhat translucent4 ,by the aid of a solution of chloride of lime they can be bleached1 and rendered perfectly white4 ,the dealers1 it is said1 pay #g per ton for bleaching it4 ,common sago occurs in larger grains1 about the size of pearl barley1 which are brownish white4 ,sago is an article of exportation to ,europe1 and is also shipped to ,india1 principally ,bengal1 and to ,china4 ,it is in its granulated form that it is usually sent abroad4 ,the best sago is the produce of ,siak1 on the north coast of ,sumatra4 ,this is of a light brown color1 the grains large1 and not easily broken4 ,the sago of ,borneo is the next in value2 it is whiter1 but more friable4 ,the produce of the ,moluccas1 though greatest in quantity1 is of the smallest estimation4 ,the cost of granulated sago1 from the hands of the grower or producer1 was1 according to ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 only a dollar a picul4 ,it fetches in the ,london market--common pearl1 #bjs4 to #bfs4 the cwt41 sago flour1 #bjs4 the cwt4 ,the ,chinese of ,malacca and ,singapore have invented a process by which they refine sago1 so as to give it a fine pearly lustre1 and it is from thence we now principally derive our supplies of this article4 ,the exports from ,singapore in #ahdg exceeded #f million pounds1 but are now much larger4 ,the following is a description of the manufacture of this important article of commerce3--,the tree being cut down1 the exterior bark is removed1 and the heart1 or pith of the palm1 a soft1 white1 spongy and mealy substance is gathered2 and for the purpose of distant transportation1 it is put into conical bags1 made of plantain leaves1 and neatly tied up4 ,in that state it is called by the ,malays ,sangoo tampin1 or bundles of sago2 each bundle weighs about #cj lbs4 ,on its arrival at ,singapore it is purchased by the ,chinese manufacturers of sago1 and is thus treated3--,upon being carried to the manufactory1 the plantain-leaf covering is removed1 and the raw sago1 imparting a strong acid odor1 is bruised1 and is put into large tubs of cold spring water1 where it undergoes a process of purification by being stirred1 suffered to repose1 and again re-stirred in newly-introduced water4 ,when well purified thus1 it is taken out of the tubs by means of small vessels2 and being mixed with a great deal of water1 the liquid is gently poured upon a large and slightly inclined trough1 about ten inches in height and width2 and in the descent towards the depressed end1 the sago is deposited in the bottom of the trough1 whilst the water flows into another large tub1 where what may remain of sago is finally deposited4 ,as the strata of deposited sago increases in the trough1 small pieces of slates are adjusted to its lower end to prevent the escape of the substance4 ,when by this pouring process the trough becomes quite full of sago1 it is then removed to make room for a fresh one1 whilst the former one is put out into the air1 under cover1 for a short time2 and on its being well dried1 the sago within is cut into square pieces and taken out to be thoroughly dried1 under cover1 to protect it from the sun4 ,it has then lost the acid smell already noticed1 and has become quite white4 ,after one day's drying thus1 it is taken into what may be called the manufactory1 a long shed1 open in front and on one side1 and closed at the other and in the rear4 ,here the lumps of sago are broken up1 and are reduced into an impalpable flour1 which is passed through a sieve4 ,the lumps1 which are retained by the sieve are put back to be re-bruised1 whilst that portion which has passed is collected1 and is placed in a long cloth bag1 the gathered ends of which1 like those of a hammock1 are attached to a pole1 which pole being suspended to a beam of the building by a rope1 one end of it is sharply thrown forward with a particular jerk1 by means of which the sago within is shortly granulated very fine1 and becomes what is technically termed pearled4 ,it is then taken out and put into iron vessels1 called quallies1 for the purpose of being dried4 ,these quallies are small elliptical pans1 and resemble in form the sugar coppers of the ,west ,indies1 and would each hold about five gallons of fluid4 ,they are set a little inclining1 and in a range1 over a line of furnaces1 each one having its own fire4 ,before putting in the sago to be dried1 a cloth1 which contains a small quantity of hog's-lard1 or some oily substance1 is hastily passed into the qually1 and the sago is equally quickly put into it1 and a ,chinese laborer who attends it1 commences stirring it with a pallit1 and thus continues his labor during the few minutes necessary to expel the moisture contained in the substance4 ,thus each qually1 containing about ten pounds of sago1 requires the attendance of a man4 ,the sago1 on being taken off the fire1 is spread out to cool on large tables1 after which it is fit to be packed in boxes1 or put into bags for shipment2 and is known in commerce under the name of pearl sago4 ,thus the labor of fifteen or twenty men is required to do that which1 with the aid of simple machinery1 might be done much better by three or four laborers4 ,a water-wheel would both work a stirring machine and cause an inclined cylinder to revolve over a fire1 for the purpose of drying the sago1 in the manner used for corn1 meal1 and flour in ,america1 or for roasting coffee and chicory in ,england4 ,but the ,chinese have no idea of substituting artificial means1 when manual ones are obtainable4 ,a considerable quantity of sago is exported from ,singapore in the state of flour4 ,the whole quantity made and exported there exceeds1 on the average1 #b1ejj tons annually4 ,the quantity shipped from this entrepot is shown by the annexed returns1 nearly all of which was grown and manufactured in the settlement4 ,the estimated value for export is set down at #ads4 per picul of #a cwt4 ,,exports ,,from ,,singapore4 ,piculs #ahdj-da ,pearl sago #da1adf ,sago flour #cc1eeb #ahda-db ,pearl sago #df1bbe ,sago flour #g1ddg #ahdb-dc ,pearl sago #be1cjf ,sago flour #d1hch #ahdc-dd ,pearl sago #ad1bff ,sago flour #ad1jfg #ahdd-de ,pearl sago #ah1dgb ,sago flour #cf1ada #ahde-df ,pearl sago #ai1ccc ,sago flour #bf1ibe #ahdf-dg ,pearl sago #dj1gfe ,sago flour #i1jbe ,imports of sago into the ,united ,kingdom1 and quantity retained for home consumption3-- ,imports4 ,home consumption4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #ahbf #i1fdd #b1efe #ahcj #b1fgg #c1che #ahcd #be1gfc #ac1hbg #ahch #ah1fbg #bh1cif #ahdb #de1fdf #ej1iid #ahdf #ch1eie #de1fga #ahdh #fe1jjj #ahdi #hc1gaa #gb1gda #ahej #hi1hhd #hc1ied ,,the ,,bread-,,fruit ,,tree4 ,artocarpus incisa4--,this tree is less cultivated than would be supposed from its useful properties4 ,in the ,west ,indies and the ,indian ,islands1 where it has been introduced from its native place1 the ,south ,sea ,islands1 it is held in very little consideration1 the graminea1 tuberous roots1 and farinaceous plants being more easily and readily cultivated4 ,there are two or three varieties known in the ,asiatic regions4 ,the properties of this tree are thus enumerated by ,hooker3--,the fruit serves for food2 clothes are made from the fibres of the inner bark2 the wood is used for building houses and making boats2 the male catkins are employed as tinder2 the leaves for table cloths and for wrapping provisions in2 and the viscid milky juice affords birdlime4 ,a4 integrifoliais the ,jack or ,jacca1 the fruit of which attains a large size1 sometimes weighing #cj lbs41 but is inferior in quality to the bread-fruit4 ,the nuts or fruit of ,brosimum ,alicastrum1 an evergreen shrub1 native of ,jamaica1 are nutritious and agreeable articles of food4 ,when boiled with salt fish1 pork or beef1 they have frequently been the support of the negroes and poorer sorts of white people in times of scarcity1 and proved a wholesome and not unpleasant food2 when roasted it eats something like our common chesnut1 and is called bread-nut4 ,kafir ,bread4--,according to ,thunberg1 the ,hottentots being very little acquainted with agriculture1 or with the use of the cerealia1 and subsisting principally upon wild bulbs and fruits1 obtain food also from ,encephalartos caffer1 a species of ,zamia1 with a cylindrical trunk1 the thickness of a man's body1 and about seven feet high4 ,having cut down a tree1 they took out the pith1 that nearly fills its trunk1 and which abounds in mucilage and an amylaceous fluid2 after keeping this for some time buried under ground in the skin of an animal1 they reduced it by pounding and kneading into a kind of paste2 and then baked it in hot ashes1 in the form of round cakes1 nearly an inch thick4 ,the ,dutch colonists1 in consequence of this practice of the natives1 called the plant brood-boon1 which signifies literally bread tree4 ,,the ,,plantain ,,and ,,banana4 ,the several varieties of the edible plantain which are known and cultivated throughout the ,west ,indies1 ,africa1 and in the ,east are all reducible to two classes1 viz41 the ,plantain and the ,banana 7,musa ,paradisiacaand sapientum74 ,the difference between these two plants is even so slight as to be scarcely specific2 it is therefore most probable that there was originally but one stock1 from which they have1 by cultivation and change of locality1 been derived4 ,the tiger plantain 7,m4 maculata7 and the black ditto 7,m4 sylvestris7 are cultivated in ,jamaica4 ,the whole of the species and varieties of the tribe are what are called polygamous monoecious plants1 each individual tree bearing the male and female organs of reproduction4 ,the plantain and its varieties invariably bear male1 female and hermaphrodite flowers within the same spathe1 all of them being imperfect and consequently unproductive of seed4 ,an individual may1 even from excess of culture1 moisture1 c41 be entirely incapable of flowering4 ,during the prevalence of a disease or blight among the plantain walks of ,demerara in the years #ahdd and #ahde1 it was seriously proposed to introduce male plantains1 or obtain fresh stock by seed4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to determine with exactness1 if possible1 whether the ,plantain or ,banana1 7whichever be the parent stock7 exists anywhere at present1 or has been known to have existed as a perfect plant1 that is bearing fertile seeds2 or1 whether it has always existed in the imperfect state1 that is1 incapable of being procreated by seed1 the only state in which it at present exists in our colonies4 ,whether ,linnus be right in his conjecture 7,spec4 ,plant1 #agfc7 that the ,bihai 7,heliconia humilis71 a native of ,caraccas1 which produces fertile seeds1 is the stock plant of the plantain1 it is almost impossible to ascertain2 but the absence of any description of a wild seed-bearing plantain1 renders it highly probable that the cultivated species are hybrids produced long ago4 ,the banana1 from time immemorial1 has been the food of the philosophers and sages of the ,east1 and almost all travellers throughout the tropics have described these plants exactly as they are known to us1 either as sweet fruit eaten raw1 or a farinaceous vegetable roasted or boiled4 ,it is remarkable that the plantain and banana should be indigenous1 or at all events cultivated for ages both in the ,old and ,new ,world4 ,numerous ,south ,american travellers describe some one of these plants as being indigenous articles of food among the natives1 thus showing 7if the plantain and its varieties be hybrids7 a communication between the tropics of ,america1 ,asia and ,africa1 long before the time of ,columbus4 ,the older writers on the colony of ,guiana1 as ,hartsinck1 ,bellin and others1 consider the plantain to be a native4 ,it is remarkable that ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 during his travels1 found a large species of edible plantain far in the interior4 ,it appears1 therefore1 from all the investigations that have been made1 that the plantain is either a hybrid1 or its power of production from seed has been destroyed long ago by cultivation1 and that it is not known to exist anywhere in a perfect state2 in which case any attempt to improve the present stock by the introduction of suckers from elsewhere1 must be totally futile4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,garnett recommends the following system of cultivation1 as calculated to prevent the blight4 ,the walk or plantation is to be formed into beds #cf feet wide1 divided by open drains #cj inches deep4 ,two rows of plantains to be planted upon each bed at #ah feet distance1 both between and along the rows1 to afford a clear ventilation to the enlarging plants1 and so soon as the plantation has been established1 the space of land between each row to be shovel-ploughed #ab inches deep2 the same to be repeated annually1 and upon the interspace may be planted maize1 yams1 sugar cane1 or eddoes1 and the whole kept clear at all times4 ,thus1 with the conjoined principles of good tillage1 free ventilation1 and mixed crops1 the blight may yet be successfully combated4 ,a great diminution in the cultivation of the plantain has been occasioned in ,british ,guiana by this blight or disease1 which first made its destructive appearance in ,essequibo1 upwards of thirty years ago1 where its ravages increased with such fatal intensity as to render the profitable growth of the plant almost hopeless2 and up to this hour no one has been able to discover the immediate or remote cause of this extraordinary vegetable endemic2 whether arising from the action of insects among the sheathes of the petioles of the leaves1 or in the soil1 or from organic decay of the plant1 remains without solution4 ,the last-named cause seems to be rejected1 by the fact that the fructification of the plant is as healthy and abundant in parts of the colony where the blight does not prevail1 both in number and size of the fruit upon the spike1 as at any former period4 ,on the east coast of ,demerara1 both the plantain and banana have been grown for more than twenty years upon the same land1 without any attack of the disease1 and without any extraneous manure or even lime having been applied1 and the plants still exhibit great luxuriance1 and produce their former weight of fruit4 ,the foliage of the plantain affords food and bedding1 and is used for thatch1 making paper1 and basket making2 and from its petioles is obtained a fine and durable thread4 ,the tops of the young plants are eaten as a delicate vegetable2 the fermented juice of the trunk produces an agreeable wine4 ,the abundance and excellence of the nutritive food which the plants of this valuable genus supply are well known2 but of the numerous uses to which they are applied ,i may mention1 the following3-- ,the fruit is served up both raw and stewed2 slices fried are also considered a delicacy4 ,plantains are sometimes boiled and eaten with salt meat1 and pounded and made into puddings1 and used in various other ways4 ,in their ripe state these fruits contain much starchy matter4 ,from their spurious stems1 the fibres of the spiral vessels may be pulled out in such quantity as to be used for tinder4 ,m4 textilis yields a fibre which is used in ,india in the manufacture of fine muslins1 and the coarser woody tissue is exported in large quantities from ,manila1 under the name of white rope or ,manila hemp4 ,horses1 cattle1 swine1 and other domestic animals are fed upon the fruit1 leaves1 and succulent trunks4 ,the same extent of ground which in wheat would only maintain two persons1 will yield sustenance under the banana to fifty4 ,that eminent naturalist and elegant writer1 the ,baron ,von ,humboldt1 states 7,political ,essay on ,new ,spain1 vol4 ii47 that an acre of land cultivated with plantains produces nearly twenty times as much food as the like space sown with corn in ,europe4 ,he refers to a place in ,venezuela1 where the most careful tillage was rendered to a piece of land1 yielding produce supporting a humble population residing in huts1 each placed in the centre of an enclosure1 growing the sugar cane1 ,indian corn1 the ,papaw tree1 and the ,musa--a tropical garden6--upon the elaborate culture of which a whole family relied for subsistence4 ,although from the extensive plantain walks in our colonies--which are seldom cultivated with a garden-like care--so large an average proportion may not be obtained as twenty times the production of wheat in ,europe1 yet ,i have had practical experience of the prodigious quantity of farinaceous matter obtainable from an acre of tolerably well-cultivated plantains1 and no esculent plant requires less labor in its culture upon land suitable for its production4 ,they are readily increased by suckers1 which the old plants produce in abundance4 ,lindley enumerates ten species of ,musa1 some of which grow to the height of #be or #cj feet1 but that valuable species ,m4 ,cavendishii1 does not grow more than four or five feet high4 ,the bananas of the family of the ,musace1 appear to be natives of the southern portion of the ,asiatic continent 7,r4 ,brown1 ,bot4 of ,congo1 p4 #ea74 ,transplanted at an unknown epoch into the ,indian ,archipelago and ,africa1 they have spread also into the1 ,new ,world1 and in general into all intertropical countries1 sometimes before the arrival of ,europeans4 ,according to ,humboldt it affords1 in a given extent of ground1 forty-four times more nutritive matter than the potato1 and #acc times more than wheat4 ,these figures must be considered as only approximative1 since nothing is more difficult than to estimate the nutritive qualities of different aliments4 ,musa paradisiaca is cultivated in ,syria1 to latitude #cd deg4 ,humboldt says it ceases to yield fruit at a height of #c1jjj feet1 where the mean annual temperature is #fh deg41 and where1 probably1 the heat of summer is deficient4 ,the banana seems1 however1 to be found no higher than #d1fjj feet in a state of perfection4 ,no fruit is so easily cultivated as are the varieties of the plantain4 ,there is hardly a cottage in the tropics that is not partly shaded by them2 and it is successfully grown under other fruit trees1 although it is independent of shelter4 ,its succulent roots and dew-attracting leaves render it useful in keeping the ground moist during the greatest heats4 ,the plantain may be deemed the most valuable of fruits1 since it will1 in some measure1 supply the place of grain in time of scarcity4 ,to the negroes in the ,west ,indian ,islands the plantain is invaluable1 and1 like bread to the ,europeans1 is with them denominated the staff of life4 ,in ,jamaica1 ,demerara1 ,trinidad1 and other principal colonies1 many thousand acres are planted with these trees4 ,the vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line of thread be drawn across1 and on a level with the top of one of the leaves1 when it begins to expand1 it will be seen1 in the course of an hour1 to have grown nearly an inch4 ,the fruit when ripe is of a pale yellow1 about a foot in length and two inches thick1 and is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh #dj lbs4 and upwards4 ,the soil best suited to the growth of the plantain is found in the virgin land most recently taken in from the forest1 having a formation of clay and decomposed vegetable substances4 ,a large portion of organic matter is required1 as well as clay or other ponderous strata1 to afford the greatest production of fruit4 ,i have known good plantains produced in the ,west ,indies1 upon land considerably exhausted by the culture of cotton1 but which was enriched by the application of a quantity of the decomposed seed of that shrub near the roots of the young plantains4 ,in the ,straits' settlements of the ,east1 the following are the most approved varieties3--,the royal plantain1 which fruits in eight months2 one which bears in a year1 the milk plantain1 the downy plantain1 and the golden plantain or banana4 ,a species termed gindy has been lately imported from ,madras1 where it is in great request4 ,it has this advantage over the other kinds1 that it can be stewed down like an apple while they remain tough4 ,the ,malays allege that they can produce new varieties1 by planting three shoots of different sorts together1 and by cutting the shoots down to the ground three successive times1 when they have reached the height of nine or ten inches4 ,about #add suckers of the plantain are set on an orlong 7#a-a_/c acres71 each of which spreads into a group of six or eight stems1 of about six inches to one foot in diameter1 which yield each a bunch of fruit1 and are then cut down1 when fresh shoots succeed4 ,in very rich soils the plant will continue to bear for twenty years1 but otherwise it is dug up after the seventh or eighth year4 ,the cost of cultivating #ajj orlongs of land exclusively with plantains1 will be nearly #b1jjj ,spanish dollars until produce be obtained4 ,about #dc1bjj bunches may be had afterwards yearly1 which might give a return of #b1afj dollars1 or1 deducting the cost of cultivation and original expenses1 a profit per annum of #a1dej dollars4 ,the plantain has frequently been suggested as an article of export from our colonies4 ,a few bunches are occasionally brought over by the ,royal ,west ,india ,mail ,company's steamers running to ,southampton1 but more as a curiosity than as articles of commerce4 ,in its ripe state no unexceptionable and sufficiently cheap method of preserving it has yet been suggested4 ,in some districts of ,mexico it is1 indeed1 dried in the sun1 and in this state forms a considerable article of internal commerce under the name of plantado pasado4 ,it is sometimes so abundant and cheap in ,demerara1 ,jamaica1 ,trinidad1 and other of our colonies1 that it might1 if cut and dried1 in its green state1 be exported with advantage4 ,it is in the unripe state that it is so largely used by the peasantry of the colonies as an article of food4 ,it has always been believed to be highly nutritive1 but ,dr4 ,shier states that1 in any sample of the dried plantain which he analysed1 he could not find a larger amount than #hh per cent of nitrogen1 which corresponds with about #e per cent4 of proteine compounds4 ,when dried1 and reduced to the state of meal1 it cannot1 like wheat flour1 be manufactured into maccaroni or vermicelli1 or at least the maccaroni made from it falls to powder when put into hot water4 ,the fresh plantain1 however1 when boiled whole1 forms a pretty dense firm mass1 of greater consistency and toughness than the potato4 ,the mass1 beaten in a mortar1 constitutes the foo-foo of the negroes4 ,the plantain meal cannot be got into this state unless by mixing it up with water to form a stiff dough1 and then boiling it in shapes or bound in cloths4 ,plantain meal is prepared by stripping off the husk of the plantain1 slicing the core1 and drying it the sun4 ,when thoroughly dry it is powdered and sifted4 ,it is known among the ,creoles of the ,west ,indies under the name of ,conquin tay4 ,it has a fragrant odour1 acquired in drying1 somewhat resembling fresh hay or tea4 ,it is largely employed as the food of infants1 children1 and invalids4 ,as food for children and convalescents1 it would probably be much esteemed in ,europe1 and it deserves a trial on account of its fragrance1 and its being exceedingly easy of digestion4 ,in respect of nutritiveness1 it deserves a preference over all the pure starches on account of the proteine compounds it contains4 ,the plantain meal would probably be best and freshest were the sliced and dried plantain cores exported1 leaving the grinding and sifting to be done in ,europe4 ,the flavor of the meal depends a good deal on the rapidity with which the slices are dried2 hence the operation is only fitted for dry weather1 unless indeed1 when there was occasion for it1 resource were had to a kiln or stove4 ,above all1 the plantain must not be allowed to approach too closely to yellowness or ripeness1 otherwise it becomes impossible to dry it4 ,the color of the meal is injured when steel knives are used in husking or slicing1 but silver or nickel blades do not injure the color4 ,on the large scale a machine1 on the principle of the turnip slicer1 might be employed4 ,the husking could be greatly facilitated by a very simple machine4 ,were the plantain meal to come into use in ,england1 and bear a price in any way approaching to that of ,bermuda arrowroot1 it would become an extensive and very profitable export4 ,full-sized and well-filled bunches give #fj per cent4 of core to #dj of husk and top-stem1 but in general it would be found that the core did not much exceed #ej per cent41 and the fresh core will yield #dj per cent4 of dry meal1 so that from #bj to #be per cent4 of meal is obtained from the plantain1 or #e lbs4 from an average bunch of #be lbs42 and an acre of plantain walk of average quality1 producing during the year #dej such bunches1 would yield a ton and #aj lbs4 of meal1 which1 at the price of arrowroot1 namely1 #as4 per lb41 would be a gross return of #aab #ajs4 per acre4 ,a new plantain walk would give twice as much4 ,even supposing the meal not to command over half the price of arrowroot1 it would still form an excellent outlet for plantains whenever1 from any cause1 the price in the colony sank unusually low4 ,in respect of the choice of a situation for establishing a plantain walk1 with a mill1 boiling-house and drying ground1 it will be necessary to fix upon new land with plenty of moisture1 and flat if possible1 in order that there may be no difficulty in making roads to carry the trees2 whilst a deep river traversing the land1 where there is no tide or danger of salt water--where facility would be afforded in making the basins wherein to wash the fibre2 where a sea port would be near at hand for shipping the produce--where workmen1 provisions1 and fuel would be readily obtained1 and where the climate is particularly healthy1 should be especially sought after4 ,the plantain grows in profusion between the tropics in all parts of the world2 but as it is an object to have the ,london market available for the prepared fibre1 the following places may be mentioned as best calculated to produce a good and constant supply1 viz3--the ,west ,india ,colonies1 the ,british ,colonies in ,africa1 the ,south ,american ,republics1 along the ,mosquito shore1 and other places on the ,continent of ,america1 including ,porto ,rico1 ,hayti1 and ,cuba4 ,the advantages to the paper manufacturer in employing the prepared fibre instead of rags1 will be numerous1 for the fibre is equal in texture1 clean1 and aromatic2 whilst rags are dirty1 full of vermin1 and very often pestilential4 ,a large stock of the plantain can always be secured1 without fear of its being injured by keeping4 ,the paper will be superior to that made of rags1 and the process of making it will be more economical1 inasmuch as the sorting of the material will not be required4 ,another advantage is1 that a new article of commerce will be opened for the benefit of the colonial shipping interests1 and a stimulus will be given to the cultivation of a fruit which is the favorite food of large masses of the population4 ,the following is a specification of articles requisite for making three tons of prepared fibre in a day3-- ,four wooden boilers lined with lead1 in the form of coolers1 #g feet deep by #f in diameter4 ,one hydraulic press1 from #djj to #ejj tons4 ,one stout screw press1 to compress the fibre before it is submitted to the hydraulic press4 ,one iron mill with horizontal cylinders4 ,six waggons2 twenty mules4 ,utensils1 such as spatulas1 cutlasses1 hoes1 rakes1 c4 c4 ,one lever1 to take out the fibre from the boilers4 ,one steam boiler1 equal to #ab-;horse power1 to steam the four wooden boilers4 ,it being very desirable that the works should be in the immediate neighbourhood of a river1 the machinery should be worked by water-power2 but if this mode should be inconvenient1 a steam engine in addition must be obtained1 of about #h or #aj-;horse power2 or if one steam engine of #bj-;horse power were employed1 it would be sufficient for all purposes4 ,thirty men are required to make three tons of fibre in a day4 ,buildings4--,a store1 #ajj feet long by #be feet broad1 in wood1 covered with straw1 to contain the dried fibre and the presses4 ,one open shed of the same dimensions1 covered with straw for the boilers4 ,capital required4--,it is ascertained that the following outlay will be sufficient3-- ,the materials will cost #b1jjj ,buildings #ejj ,purchase of land #a1ejj ,working capital #a1jjj ------ #e1jjj ,the estimated expense in cultivating one quarree1 or #e #a-eth ,english acres1 in plantains1 will be #cj1 as the work can be easily performed by one laborer in #cjj days1 at #bs4 sterling per day4 ,a quarree will produce #ah tons of mill fibre1 the cost of the preparation of which is as follows3-- ,for workmen's wages1 soda1 lime1 and fuel1 at #c per ton #ed ,freight to ,europe at #d per ton #gb ,managers #cj ,duty1 insurance1 office fees1 c41 at #a per ton #ah ---- #agd ,thus1 making the total expense of producing #ah tons of fibre #agd1 or #i #acs4 #d;d4 per ton4 ,in #ahdh ,manila rope1 or plantain fibre of good quality1 was worth #ch per ton4 ,a correspondent in ,jamaica1 who has devoted much attention to the subject1 has furnished me with some very valuable detailed information1 the most complete and practical that has ever yet appeared3-- ,cultivation4--,the first care of a planter in superintending the cultivation of the banana tree1 with the two-fold object of collecting both fibre and fruit1 will be to study the nature of the tree to which he will give the preference4 ,a number of experiments have been made upon different species of the banana with a view of obtaining therefrom the largest quantity and the best color of fibre1 as well as the finest fruit4 ,those experiments were very tedious and minute1 but were absolutely necessary1 in order to arrive at the most economical and advantageous method of rendering the fibre into a state fit for shipment to ,europe4 ,at the same time1 it was of the utmost importance to find out the best description of tree1 for producing the strongest1 the most abundant1 and the most silky fibre--for containing the least quantity of juice1 for producing the color sufficiently white to facilitate the operation of bleaching1 for bearing fruit of the most esteemed quality1 and1 therefore1 the most favorable for general consumption4 ,a banana tree1 which seemed at first sight to possess all those good qualities--being of a large size1 with whitish or flaxen colored fibre1 and producing very savoury fruit1 only gave #b per cent1 of fibre after preparation2 that is to say1 #ajj lbs4 in its raw state1 only gave two pounds of fibre after it was boiled4 ,in endeavoring to find out the cause of such a small result1 it was discovered that this specimen of banana 7commonly called the pig banana17 contained a larger proportion of water than of fibre1 compared with other sorts--that the heart was too large1 and that the inside leaves were so tender that they almost dissolved in the process of boiling4 ,these were the greatest inconveniences of this species of tree4 ,there was also another disadvantage1 in the quality of its fruit1 which was yellow in color1 and not so useful as those descriptions of banana which are generally eaten as a substitute for bread4 ,the results of several experiments made upon various descriptions of banana1 demonstrated the properties of each species1 both as regarded fibre and fruit4 ,the most profitable in both respects is undoubtedly the yellow banana1 or common plantain4 ,this tree grows to the height of about fifteen feet1 it is nine or ten inches in diameter1 its fibre is firm and abundant1 and its fruit is used both in a green and ripe state4 ,this plantain abounds on the continent of ,spanish ,america and between the tropics1 where the natives cultivate it as producing the most nutricious fruit of its kind4 ,cargoes of the fruit are frequently exported from ,surinam and ,demerara4 ,on the ,spanish part of the ,american continent1 land is measured by fanegas1 each fanega containing twelve quarrees1 and each quarree five and one-fifth ,english acres4 ,a quarree measures one hundred geometrical paces1 or three hundred square feet4 ,in the first instance1 the suckers of the plantain 7the tree being propagated by cuttings or suckers which shoot up from the bulb71 should be set at ten feet distance from each other2 this proposition gives #cjj plants on one line of trees1 or #ijj on the surface of one quarree of land4 ,each plant propagates itself and gives upon an average ten trees of the same size and bearing4 ,on one quarree of land1 therefore there would be #i1jjj trees1 yielding four pounds of fibre and one bunch of fruit each1 which is #i1jjj bunches of fruit1 and #cf1jjj lbs4 nett of fibre1 in the whole4 ,in good ground the same plant will last fifteen years without any further trouble4 ,flat lands ought to be cultivated in preference to any other4 ,the plantain thrives with the root in the water1 and the head to the sun4 ,on the borders of the river ,orinoco it grows to the height of twenty feet1 is one foot in diameter1 and the stalks of the branches are three inches in circumference4 ,cutting4--,the tree which has not produced its ripe fruit ought to be cut1 for two reasons--first1 that the fruit be not lost2 and secondly1 that the tree will not have arrived at its full growth and ordinary size1 and the fibres will be too tender4 ,in cutting it down1 take it off six inches above the surface of the ground1 then divide it longitudinally into four parts1 take out the heart1 which must be left to serve for manure1 and if fermentation is decided upon1 leave the pieces at the foot of the tree1 otherwise take them to the mill to be crushed4 ,the tree being very tender1 may1 on being bent down1 be cut asunder with a single stroke of a hatchet1 cutlass1 or other convenient instrument4 ,one man can cut down #hjj trees1 and split them in a day4 ,carrying4--,the trees being thus divided1 may be immediately carried to the mill to be crushed1 or may remain until the fermentation separates the juice of sap from the fibres and the pith4 ,by fermenting the trees1 their weight will be so much reduced as to render their carriage considerably lighter than if taken away when first cut down4 ,a wagon1 with oxen or mules1 can carry about a ton per day1 and one man can load the wagon and drive the cattle4 ,crushing4--,if the tree is carried from the plantation without being subjected to fermentation1 it must be passed through a mill1 the rollers of which1 if made about three feet in length1 and one foot in diameter1 will be found a very convenient size4 ,in this operation1 care should be taken1 first of all1 to separate the tender from the harder or riper layers of fibre4 ,the tree is composed of different layers of fibre1 which may be divided into three sorts2 those of the exterior1 having been exposed to the atmosphere1 possess a great degree of tenacity--whilst those of the interior1 having been secluded from the air1 are much more soft and tender4 ,if1 therefore1 the layers of the plantain are passed indiscriminately through the mill1 those which are hard or firm will not be injured by the pressure1 whilst those which are soft will be almost reduced to pulp4 ,therefore1 the rollers of the mill should be always placed horizontally1 and upon passing the trees lengthways through the mill1 the pressure will be uniform and the fibre uninjured4 ,in this manner1 pass the different sorts of layers separately1 and the produce will be about four pounds of fibre from each tree4 ,the stalks of the branches of the plantain give the best fibre1 and a large quantity1 as compared with the body of the tree2 #ajj lbs4 of the stalk will give #ae lbs4 nett of fibre4 ,in general1 if a tree will give #d lbs4 nett of fibre1 the stalks will give #a lb4 out of the #d lbs4 ,the stalks ought also to be crushed separately1 because they are harder than the exterior layers of the tree4 ,about #c1jjj trees may be passed through the mill in a day4 ,whilst the experiments were in progress it was ascertained that with a single horse1 #ajj plantain trees on an average were crushed in twenty minutes1 giving five minutes rest for the horse4 ,fermentation4--,this operation may be performed in several ways4 ,if the trees are allowed to ferment upon the spot after being cut1 a great saving will occur in respect of carriage2 this matter ought to be carefully studied1 because1 on an extensive scale of manufacture1 it is of serious importance4 ,it is found that the trees when cut and heaped up1 are subject to a drainage of juice1 which1 having a tanning property1 discolors those pieces which lie at the bottom2 hence much time is consumed in afterwards restoring the fibre to its natural color4 ,the cut plants should be removed from the stumps of the trees1 and then placed in heaps1 shaded from the sun by laying the leaves over them4 ,they will take several weeks to ferment4 ,to pursue this process in the immediate vicinity of the establishment1 would give rise to many inconveniences1 in consequence of the very large space of ground that would thereby be occupied4 ,fermentation requires a mean temperature4 ,a tree cut down and exposed to the sun1 would be nearly dry at about #cj deg4 centigrade1 showing a result quite different to that which ought to be obtained2 whilst a tree placed on a wet soil1 and open for the fresh air to circulate between the plants1 covered at the same time with its own leaves1 and shaded by the foliage of the plantation1 would be decomposed at the desired point of about #bb degrees4 ,the different modes of fermentation require the same proportions4 ,if the cut plants be covered with a thick layer of earth1 they will not decompose in six months2 but if1 on the contrary1 they are covered slightly1 so that they may receive the freshness of the earth1 and the heat of the air1 they will decompose in six weeks4 ,it is the same with the fermentation of alkaline baths4 ,baths at only one degree will produce decomposition1 whilst baths at three degrees will not produce any decomposition4 ,the stuff after being passed through the mill1 or after fermentation1 will be put into the chemical baths1 or vats1 or chemical liquor1 and the persons in charge of the mill and boilers will do this work4 ,fermentation may be advantageously used1 in cases where the trees are grown at a distance from the establishment--but1 where they are in the immediate vicinity of the works1 it will be best to crush them by the mill4 ,the principal saving that is occasioned by fermentation1 will be found in the carriage1 as the substance will be much reduced in weight by that process4 ,in an establishment where the manufacture is carried on upon a very large scale1 trees cut down at a distance can be fermented1 whilst those produced near the mill can be crushed4 ,chemical ,agents4--,for decomposing the gluten in the trees during the process of boiling1 soda1 carbonate of soda1 and quick lime1 are used4 ,the proportions herein given1 are those requisite for making three tons of fibre per day1 upon which scale the cost price of the fibre in a prepared state for bleaching1 is subsequently calculated4 ,to make three tons of fibre per day1 it is necessary to have four boilers of #hjj gallons each1 and give five boilings in a day1 or #a1fej lbs4 of nett fibre for each boiler1 or #f1fjj lbs4 for the four boilers per day4 ,after having put into the boiler a sufficient quantity of water to cover the material1 wait until the water begins to boil1 and then add the chemical agents4 lbs4 ,to the first boiling of a copper1 put of soda #fj ,to the #bnd1 #crd1 #dth1 and #eth boilings of the same copper1 #ae lbs41 each making #fj ----- #abj ----- ,therefore the four boilings will take of soda #dhj ,the same liquid will serve for two other days1 by adding #ae lbs4 to each fresh boiling1 say1 in the whole1 #dj lbs41 or #fjj ,it will consume in soda for nine tons made in three days #a1jhj ,or #cfj lbs4 for three tons made in one day4 ,on the fourth day commence again in the same manner1 and go on for the two remaining days as above1 producing eighteen tons in the six days4 ,the quick lime is to be employed in each of the boilings1 in the proportion of one-third less than the quantity of soda4 ,crude soda may be used in the boilings1 without previously discarbonising it1 and quick lime reduced to lime water2 but1 to render the action of the chemical ingredients more quick and certain1 it is better to discarbonise the soda before it is put into the boiler4 ,this may be done by preparing in a small separate boiler the quantity of liquid necessary for a day's consumption1 which is prepared in about an hour4 ,the carbonisation is effected in the following manner3-- ,ten parts of salt of soda4 ,six parts of quick lime4 ,in weight4 ,seventy parts of water 7never less47 ,boiling4--,this is a most important operation4 ,by it the gluten and coloring matter are separated from the fibres1 which separation is absolutely necessary1 in order to prepare the fibre to receive the bleaching4 ,it is necessary to observe that the three several sorts of layers which are found in the tree1 and which1 under the head of crushing1 are recommended to be pressed separately1 should be also boiled separately1 because the outermost layer has more coloring matter than the next under it1 which again has more than the innermost layer4 ,as they are boiled so will they be dried and shipped1 and each sort will have a different price in the market2 that fibre which is lightest in color bearing the preference1 in consequence of its not requiring more than six hours to bleach--whilst the darkest will1 probably from its greater tenacity1 take twelve to eighteen hours4 ,it is advisable to place over each boiler the means of lifting the mass of fibre when boiled1 and suffering it to drain into the boiler before it is carried away to be washed4 ,this is easily effected by a chain from the roof1 to which may be hung a lever1 having at that end over the boiler some hooks attached to it1 whereby the mass is lifted out of the boiler1 and the liquor thus preserved for the next boiling4 ,washing4--,it is absolutely necessary that the fibre should be well washed after being taken out of the boiler1 in order that all extraneous matter may be separated therefrom4 ,in choosing the site for an establishment of this kind1 care must always be taken to make choice of a spot in the immediate neighbourhood of a large river1 or other plentiful supply of fresh clean water4 ,the machinery necessary for cleansing and washing the fibre may be of various descriptions2 but1 perhaps a selection from one of the three following sorts will be found to answer every purpose1 viz41 those used by paper manufacturers in ,england1 and by coffee planters and arrowroot growers in the ,west ,indies4 ,drying4--,the washed fibre1 when hung over lines made of the twisted fibre1 or any other convenient material1 will be sufficiently dry in a few hours to be taken down1 when more can be hung up1 and then several batches can be dried in a day2 and it will be necessary to have the drying ground as near the water as possible1 in order to save weight in carriage4 ,pressing4--,when the fibre is perfectly dry1 it must be well pressed1 for the convenience of packing1 carriage1 and shipment4 ,the hydraulic press is the best machine that can be used for the purpose2 but in the absence of that1 the lever and screw will make a large amount of pressure available4 ,a hydraulic press of from #djj to #ejj tons1 will press bales of from four to five hundred weight each1 which will not be too large for shipment4 ,,starch-,,producing ,,plants ,,investigated4 ,starch is one of the constituent parts in all mealy farinaceous seeds1 fruits1 roots1 and other parts of plants1 and is in large demand for domestic use1 the arts1 c4 ,our common starch is made from wheat1 and a good deal from potatoes4 ,pure fecula is separated by art from a variety of plants4 ,of plants yielding starch we have the ,indian arrowroot1 which is the fecula in the rhizomata of several species of the ,marantace4 ,in the ,west ,indies it is obtained from the ,maranta arundinacea1 ,allomyca and nobilis1 and also from various species of ,canna called ,tous les mois1 and in the ,east ,indies from species of ,curcuma1 and from ,maranta ramossissima in ,silhet4 ,the bread fruit 7,artocarpus incisa71 already alluded to1 yields a large quantity of starch2 as do the sweet potato 7,convolvulus ,batatas1 or ,batatas edulis74 ,the pith or farinaceous part of the trunk of the ,caryota urens1 is almost equal to the finest sago4 ,in ,assam the sago of this palm is much used4 ,the two varieties of the ,cassava afford a very superior fecula1 which is imported under the name of ,brazilian arrowroot4 #h1ced bags of tapioca and farina were imported from ,maranham in #ahcd4 ,some excellent starch from ,norfolk ,island was shown at the ,great ,exhibition4 ,the ,cycadaceous family yields much starchy matter1 along with mucilage4 ,from the soft stems of ,cycas revoluta and ,c4 circinalis1 natives of ,china and the ,east ,indies1 a kind of sago is made4 ,these plants are propagated by suckers4 ,zamia pumila1 a native of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and other species of this remarkable genus of plants1 which is nearly related to both ferns and palms1 supply an amylaceous matter1 which has been sold as arrowroot4 ,a similar product is obtained from ,alstroemeria pallida1 a perennial plant1 with pink red flowers1 growing in ,chili4 ,from the nuts of the ,cycas circinalis1 the ,singalese prepare an inferior kind of starch1 by pounding the fresh kernels4 ,these are cut in slices1 and well dried in the sun before they are fit for use1 otherwise when eaten they are intoxicating1 and occasion vomiting and purging4 ,the quantity of starch in a plant varies according to the period of growth4 ,the results of examination on the comparative yield of starch in the potato1 showed that while it abounded towards the latter part of the season1 it decreased when the tubers began to germinate in the spring4 ,it was found by ,professor ,balfour that #bdj lbs4 of potatoes left in the ground1 contained of starch-- lbs4 ,per cent4 ,in ,august #bc to #be or #i4f to #aj4d ,september #cb #ch #ac4c #af ,october #cb #dj #ac4c #af4f ,november #ch #de #af #ah4g ,april #ch #bh #af #aa4f ,may #bh #bj #aa4f #h4c ,the quantity of starch remained the same during the dormant state of winter1 but decreased whenever the plant began to grow1 and to require a supply of nourishment4 ,mr4 ,harris1 of ,jamaica1 some years ago1 made experiments upon the nutritious qualities of the principal roots and vegetables of the ,west ,indies4 ,these being well washed and scraped1 were grated1 in each case into two gallons of clear rain-water1 and the whole then filtered through a clean linen strainer1 after which it was left to settle2 when the amylaceous matter had wholly subsided the supernatant liquor was carefully decanted1 and fresh water added1 which process was repeated until every foreign substance appeared to be removed2 the produce of these several operations was then carefully collected and dried with a temperature of about #aaj deg4 ,fahrenheit1 and1 when dry1 weighed4 ,in this manner the results given in the following table were obtained3-- ,,produce ,,from ,,five ,,pounds ,,of ,,the ,oz4 ,drms4 ,centes4 prop4 ,root of the sweet cassava 7,janipha ,loeflingii7 #ad #a #ag4bg ,root of ocoes or taniers 7,caladium esculentum7 #aa #ag #ad4bi ,root of the bitter cassava 7,janipha manihot71 the ,yucca amarga of the ,spaniards #aa #b #ac4ij ,full grown but unripe fruit of the plantain 7,musa paradisiaca7 #aa #a #ac4hb ,root of the ,guinea yam 7,dioscorea bulbifera7 #h #f #aj4df ,root of the sweet potato 7,batatas edulis7 #h #f #aj4df ,root of the arrowroot 7,maranta arundinacea7 #e #f #f4ga ,the full-grown but unripe fruit of the banana 7,musa sapientum7 #j #j #j4jj ,this table exhibits1 no doubt1 very unexpected results1 since it places the sweet cassava at the very top1 and the banana at the lowest place in the list1 while the bitter cassava1 which seems to be little more than a variety of the sweet1 notwithstanding its being the staple material of ,west ,indian bread1 occupies two places lower down1 and is followed by the plantain4 ,the sweet potato and the yam1 both of which are considered to be less nutritious than the arrowroot1 rank above it in the centesimal proportion of their amylaceous produce4 ,upon what1 then1 do the nutritive properties of these various substances depend8 ,is it upon a gluten which was overlooked by ,mr4 ,harris1 in his experiments1 or1 if not1 may we not suspect some inaccuracy in the proportion of starch assigned by him to each8 ,it is to be wished that similar experiments were repeated with care in different quarters1 and the list extended to other tropical products applicable to human sustenance1 especially the roots which yield the farinaceous starch of the ,south ,sea islanders1 to the achira of ,choco1 c4 ,i shall extract largely from a very valuable report drawn up by ,dr4 ,john ,shier1 agricultural chemist1 of ,demerara1 and submitted to the ,governor of that colony in #ahdg1 on the starch-producing plants1 which is deserving of more widely extended publicity than the merely local circulation it has received4 ,the remarks and results of experiments are worthy of deep consideration2 and although they were meant to apply specially to ,british ,guiana1 they are equally pertinent to the ,west ,india colonies generally1 our ,african and ,australian settlements1 and many other of our foreign possessions4 ,for many reasons it is desirable that the number of the staples of cultivation and export of our colonies should be increased4 ,it is the general experience of ,british agriculturists1 that the mixed system of agriculture is more profitable to the farmer and safer for the land1 than the continued cultivation of any single crop1 or indeed of nearly allied crops2 and although fewer valid objections can be urged against the continued cultivation of the sugar cane1 when properly conducted1 than against that of grain crops1 it is nevertheless certain that a well-arranged alternation or rotation of crops would be better4 ,when an efficient system of covered drainage is adopted in ,british ,guiana1 there can be no doubt that the sugar cane will be replanted at shorter intervals of time than at present1 and that other crops1 such as provender crops for cattle1 and provision crops for the colonial and perhaps the home market1 will be made to alternate in cultivation with the cane4 ,when the cane rows are as far apart as they require to be1 to admit of sufficient tillage with the plough and other implements1 it will also be possible to intercalate crops of rapidly growing plants2 and were this done1 as it easily might1 in such a manner as to prevent undue exhaustion of the land1 or impoverishment of the sugar crop1 the returns could not fail to be materially increased4 ,it would then probably be found that the fluctuations in prices would be less felt1 for they would not likely1 at the same time1 affect different crops in the same manner4 ,it has been ascertained1 in regard to some plants at least1 that a much larger return can be obtained in the colonies than can be grown in temperate countries1 however fertile4 ,this is partly owing to the greater fertility of the soil under powerful tropical atmospheric influences1 and partly to the fact that vegetation is continuous throughout the year1 so that slow growing plants can do more within the time1 from their functions not being arrested by the chill of winter2 and of many rapidly growing plants1 two successive crops can be grown within the year4 ,starch is a substance easily manufactured1 and being largely used in several of the arts1 as well as an article of diet1 there consequently exists a considerable demand for it in ,england4 ,it may be obtained from a great variety of plants1 and many of the most productive of it are natives of the tropics4 ,the high prices commanded by grain and breadstuffs in ,europe1 renders the present a remarkably favorable time to ascertain what can be done in this branch of tropical agriculture2 for should the potato disease return1 or this root be less extensively planted than hitherto1 starch must maintain a high price1 and it will be worth ascertaining whether some of the superior starch-producing plants of the tropics might not be cultivated to such an extent as to supply the ,english market1 and thus be at once profitable to the colonies and advantageous to the mother country4 ,before entering on such a cultivation1 however1 various points require investigation4 ,we ought to be able to answer such questions as the following3-- #a4 ,what differences exist between the characters of starch produced by different plants8 #b4 ,what are the qualities or properties that lead manufacturers--calico printers for example--to prefer one variety to another8 #c4 ,for culinary purposes1 and as an article of diet1 what qualities or characters obtain a preference8 #d4 ,can the starches from different plants be distinguished from one another by distinct and well marked characters1 so that the substitution of a less esteemed variety for a more esteemed one1 or the adulteration of a high priced variety with a cheaper one1 could be readily detected8 #e4 ,what plants produce the most esteemed varieties8 #f4 ,what plants produce it in the largest quantity8 #g4 ,what plants produce the largest yield per acre8 #h4 ,from what plants is it most easily manufactured8 #i4 ,is the process attended with any particular difficulties that ought to deter the ,east and ,west ,india planters from engaging in it8 ,in the following observations 7continues ,dr4 ,shier7 ,i shall be able to reply to several of these questions1 especially those capable of being settled in the laboratory4 ,on other points1 particularly those relating to the returns per acre1 ,i am at present but imperfectly informed1 in consequence of the limited extent to which these plants have hitherto been cultivated in this colony 7,demerara71 and from the total absence of authentic data regarding the amount of yield4 ,characters of starch produced from different plants4--,starches from different plants are best distinguished from one another by examination under a good miscroscope4 ,the grains or globules may be examined either as transparent or opaque objects2 and although in the same species there are considerable differences in size and form1 the different kinds are1 on the whole1 quite distinguishable4 ,one of the best ways of examining the form of the globules1 under the microscope1 is to lay them on a plate of glass and cover them with a drop of aqueous solution of iodine1 which renders them gradually blue and opaque4 ,when the difference in size and form between the globules of different species is considerable1 as between the ,tous les mois starch and cassava starch1 or even between the arrowroot starch and cassava starch frequently used to adulterate it1 it is not difficult1 with a little practice1 to detect the fraud4 ,,table ,,illustrative ,,of ,,the ,,size ,,and ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,starch ,,globules ,,of ,,various ,,plants4 #a4 ,tous-les-mois 7,canna coccinea74--,grown in ,grenada1 #a-cjj to #a-b1jjj of an inch2 general size1 #a-ejj2 form of the globules1 large1 elliptical and ovate1 and remarkably transparent4 #b4 ,ditto ditto 7species unknown74--,from a plant grown in the garden of the ,hon4 ,j4 ,croal1 ,georgetown1 but gathered before the root was fully ripe2 globules spherical1 shortly ovate and elliptical2 size1 from #a-fjj to #a-a1fjj2 general size1 #a-hjj4 #c4 ,buck ,yam 7,dioscorea triphylla74--,grown on the banks of the ,demerara ,river4 ,form of globules1 elliptical1 often truncated at one end1 so as to be mullar-shaped1 some pear-shaped2 length1 twice the width2 size1 #a-fjj to #a-b1jjj2 general size1 #a-hjj4 #d4 ,common ,yam 7,d4 sativa74--,grown on ,no4 #a ,canal1 ,demerara ,river4 ,elliptical1 some long elliptical2 size1 #a-gjj to #a-b1jjj2 general size1 #a-a1jjj4 #e4 ,guinea ,yam 7,d4 aculeata74--,grown in the same locality4 ,larger globules1 elliptical2 smaller ditto1 spherical1 often truncated2 some shortly ovate1 with the appearance of being flattened2 general size and range1 same as ,no4 #d4 #f4 ,barbados ,yam1 grown on banks of ,demerara river4 ,globules1 pear-shaped and mullar-shaped2 range1 #a-gjj to #a-a1fjj2 general size1 #a-a1jjj4 #g4 ,plantain 7,musa paradisiaca74--,grown on the banks of the ,demerara river4 ,globules long and narrow1 generally long elliptical1 often more acute at the ends than in any other species1 some linear ended abruptly2 length1 often three times the width2 range1 from #a-djj to #a-d1jjj of an inch2 general size1 #a-hjj4 #h4 ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum74--,irish tubers1 from ,belfast ,sound4 ,globules1 #a-fjj to #a-b1jjj2 general size1 #a-a1bjj4 #i4 ,potato 7,commercial74--,locality unknown4 ,range from #a-fjj2 globules generally same as former1 but a few stray ones as large as #a-dj of an inch4 #aj4 ,sweet ,potato 7,convolvulus ,batatas74--,grown at the ,lodge1 ,demerara4 ,form of globules1 spherical aggregated2 range1 #a-a1jjj to #a-d1jjj2 general size1 #a-b1djj4 #aa4 ,arrowroot 7,maranta arundinacea74--,specimens from ,bermuda1 where the highest priced and best quality is prepared4 ,ovate and elliptical2 length in the larger globules1 twice the width2 range1 from #a-hjj to #a-b1djj2 general size1 #a-a1djj4 #ab4 ,ditto ditto1 grown on plantation ,turkeyen1 ,demerara1 by ,j4,w4 ,king4 ,size and description same as ,no4 #aa4 #ac4 ,ditto ditto1 grown and prepared in ,barbados4 ,characteristics the same1 but globules more uniform in size4 #ad4 ,ditto ditto1 grown on plantation ,enmore2 not quite so uniform in size4 #ae4 ,bitter ,cassava 7,janipha ,manihot74--,grown on ,haagsbosch plantation4 ,a few globules occur as large as the #a-a1jjj of an inch2 these are ovate1 the rest are spherical4 ,the range is from #a-b1jjj to #a-h1jjj2 general size1 #a-d1jjj4 #af4 ,sweet ,cassava 7,janipha ,loeflingii74--,grown on ,no4 #a ,canal1 ,demerara ,river4 #ag4 ,tannia 7,caladium sagittifolium74--,grown at the ,lodge4 ,globules not so truly spherical as the foregoing1 but range and size the same4 #ah4 ,wheat 7,triticum sativum74--,locality unknown4 ,form of globules1 spherical and slightly elliptical1 some very small2 range1 #a-b1jjj to #a-f1jjj1 the former the general size4 #ai4 ,maize 7,zea ,mays74--,grown in the colony1 but locality uncertain4 ,globules1 approaching to spherical1 much aggregated2 range1 #a-b1jjj to #a-d1jjj2 general size1 #a-c1jjj4 ,from an inspection of this list1 it does not appear that the species would be easily distinguishable1 and it is not easy briefly to describe the differences2 in practice1 however1 and especially when the observer has a number of pure and authentic specimens before him1 to have recourse to as standards of comparison1 the discrimination is by no means difficult4 ,specific gravity of starch derived from various plants4--,of many bodies the determination of the specific gravity is one of the best modes of distinguishing the purity4 ,with the view of ascertaining whether the different varieties of starch have all the same density1 as has been asserted by some1 trials were carefully made of as many specimens as ,i could procure4 ,the results are embodied in the following table3-- ,,table ,no4 ,i4--,,density ,,of ,,starch ,,derived ,,from ,,various ,,plants4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,tem4 at ,names of ,densitytime of ,remarks ,plants ,obs4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #a4 ,bitter cassava#a4d #c #hg4 ,grown in the colony and prepared in the ,colonial ,laboratory4 #b4 ,tannia #a4dggc #hg4 ,ditto ditto #c4 ,arrowroot #a4dggb #hf4be ,ditto ditto #d4 ,arrowroot #a4dgdh #hf4be ,ditto ditto #e4 ,common yam #a4dgcc #hc4be ,ditto ditto #f4 ,sweet potato #a4dgah #he4ge ,ditto ditto #g4 ,arrowroot #a4dgag #hb4ge ,st4 ,vincent's1 commercial #h4 ,arrowroot #a4dgja #hd4ge ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 #i4 ,tous les mois #a4dfih #he4be ,ditto ditto #aj4 ,sweet cassava #a4dfib #hf4e ,ditto ditto #aa4 ,wheat starch #a4dfcb #he4 ,commercial1 of ,english manufacture #ab4 ,plantain #a4dfae #he4ge ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 #ac4 ,tous les mois #a4dfaa #hd4be ,grenada1 commercial #ad4 ,barbados yam #a4dfjg #hc4e ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 #ae4 ,irish potato #a4dehi #hd4ge ,tubers from ,belfast2 prepared in ,c4,l4 #af4 ,guinea yam #a4deha #hd4b ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 #ag4 ,potato #a4defa #hd4 ,commercial #ah4 ,buck yam #a4ddhi #ha4be ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 #ai4 ,arrowroot #a4dddc #he4e ,barbados1 commercial #bj4 ,arrowroot #a4daeh #hf4be ,bermuda1 ditto #ba4 ,maize #a4daji #he4e ,grown in the colony and prepared in ,c4,l4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,from this it will be seen that the order of density does not correspond with the order in any of the other tables4 ,probably those specimens prepared from dry seeds1 such as wheat and maize starch1 which1 as commercial articles at least1 are less pure than those prepared from recently dug roots1 have also the lowest density4 ,hygroscopic properties of starch produced from different plants4--,such of the specimens as are marked in the following table1 as prepared in the colonial laboratory1 were dried in the sun in shallow trays1 to which they had previously been transferred in the wet state4 ,when sun dried1 the masses were broken down1 and the starches freely exposed to the air in the shade for ten days4 ,any adherent masses were then rubbed to powder by light pressure in a glazed mortar1 and the whole sifted4 ,portions of each of these starches1 and of others for the sake of comparison1 were then dried1 at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 in a current of dry air1 and the loss determined3-- ,,table ,no4 ,,ii4--,,showing ,,the ,,hygroscopic ,,water ,,contained ,,by ,,starch ,,produced ,,from ,,different ,,plants4 ,per centage of water4 ,remarks4 #a4 ,potato #bj4bg ,commercial1 locality unknown #b4 ,sweet potato #ai4eg ,c41 ,c4,l49999 #c4 ,buck yam #ai4dc ,c41 ,c4,l4 #d4 ,barbados yam #ai4dj ,c41 ,c4,l4 #e4 ,arrowroot #ah4ha ,bermuda1 commercial #f4 ,irish potato #ag4bh ,tubers from ,belfast1 ,c4,l4 #g4 ,guinea yam #ag4ad ,c41 ,c4,l4 #h4 ,tous les mois #af4gd ,grenada1 commercial #i4 ,arrowroot #af4dc ,barbados1 ditto #aj4 ,common yam #af4cf ,c41 ,c4,l4 #aa4 ,plantain #af4bc ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ab4 ,arrowroot #ae4fe ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ac4 ,arrowroot #ad4hd ,c41 ,plantation ,enmore #ad4 ,tous les mois #ad4fd ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ae4 ,tannia #ad4fj ,c41 ,c4,l4 #af4 ,sweet cassava #ad4cj ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ag4 ,maize #ad4bb ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ah4 ,arrowroot #ac4cf ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ai4 ,bitter cassava #aa4hh ,c41 ,c4,l4 #bj4 ,wheat starch #aa4af ,commercial1 of ,english manufacture 9999 ,the initial ,c4 throughout these tables indicates that the plant was grown in the colony2 ,c4,l41 that the starch was prepared in the colonial laboratory4 ,that the extremes in this table should occur in the case of the starches of commerce1 was1 perhaps1 to be expected2 nevertheless the difference between the starch of the sweet potato and that of the bitter cassava is nearly as great1 and both these specimens were prepared in the laboratory1 by the same process1 and subject to the same temperature and exposure4 ,characters of the jellies formed by various starches4--,tenacity4--,i have met with no very precise results on this subject1 except the well-known fact that it takes a much larger quantity of some starches1 the arrowroot for instance1 to form a jelly of equal tenacity with that formed by others1 such as the ,tous les mois2 and hence in the ,west ,indies the latter is universally preferred to the cassava starches4 ,after trying various plans1 the method which ,i found best fitted for comparing the tenacity of different starch jellies1 was the following3--,of each of the kinds of starch1 #bd grains were weighed out and mixed with #djj grains of distilled water1 in a porcelain capsule of suitable size4 ,the mixture was then heated and boiled briskly for three minutes1 with constant stirring1 and was immediately poured into a conical test-glass1#de which the jelly nearly filled4 ,the time at which each glass was filled was noted1 and exactly two hours were allowed for the contents to cool in a current of air4 ,the glass is then set on a plate of glass1 supported on a ring of a retort stand1 and the weight ascertained1 which was necessary to force a metallic disc1 of ascertained size1 through the jelly4 ,the most convenient way of doing this was by using a piece of apparatus of the form rudely represented on the margin4 ,the rectangular frame is of thin brass wire1 and the slightly cup-shaped disc1 d d1 is soldered to a wire1 attached to the upper short side of the rectangle4 ,from the opposite or lower side of the rectangle a small glass cup1 c41 is suspended1 into which weights are put as soon as the disc has been made to rest on the surface of the jelly1 pp is the plate of glass on which the test-glass is set4 ,whenever the disc tears the skin of the jelly and begins to sink in it1 no further addition1 of weights is made1 and the weight of the disc1 framework1 and cup being known1 we have an estimate of the tenacity of the jelly4 ,this process is but approximative1 and some practice is necessary before the operator succeeds in getting uniform results from the same series of specimens4 -------------------- d _/ d p--------------p -------------------- --------- c4 ,the following statement shows the results on such specimens as ,i could procure4 ,the disc was exactly #g_/ajths of an inch in diameter4 ,,table ,,no4 ,,iii4--,,tenacity ,,of ,,starch ,,in ,,jellies4 ,no4 ,names of specimens4 ,weight in grains required to break the jelly4 #a4 ,tous les mois1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #b1ddf99 #b4 ,tous les mois1 ,grenada1 ,commercial #a1gdb #c4 ,maize1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #iee #d4 ,barbados yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #hie #e4 ,irish potato1 from ,belfast1 ,c4,l4 #gef #f4 ,tannia1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #fcj #g4 ,bermuda arrowroot1 finest ,commercial #fbg #h4 ,common yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #feg #i4 ,guinea yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ega #aj4 ,plantain1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #dfg #aa4 ,potato starch1 ,commercial #dfg #ab4 ,arrowroot1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #cic #ac4 ,sweet potato1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #cfh #ad4 ,arrowroot1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #cdj #ae4 ,arrowroot1 ,c4 #cja #af4 ,arrowroot1 ,st4 ,vincent's1 ,commercial #bhi #ag4 ,barbados arrowroot1 ,commercial #bgc #ah4 ,wheat starch1 ,commercial #ahc #ai4 ,buck yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #aea #bj4 ,bitter cassava1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #aej #ba4 ,sweet cassava1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #gh 99 ,in this instance the weight stated detached the jelly from the side of the glass1 but the skin of the jelly was not torn as in the other cases4 ,from this list it is obvious that1 in respect of tenacity1 there is a very great difference between the jellies prepared from the different starches--greater1 indeed1 than exists in regard to any other character4 ,at first ,i thought it probable that the tenacity of the jelly would bear some relation to the size of the globules1 and it is true that we find the ,grenada ,tous les mois1 the largest globule1 next the top1 and the cassava among the smallest1 at the bottom of the scale4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we have the ,buck yam starch1 a large sized globule1 very high2 together with many other exceptions4 ,as an article of diet1 the most tenacious varieties of starch are preferred1 on account of the economy of employing an article of which a less quantity will suffice2 and the same is true when applied to starching linen1 provided the jelly be not deficient in clearness4 ,clearness of jellies4--,when starch jelly is used for the purpose of starching1 or glazing linen1 or cotton goods1 those varieties that are most transparent are understood to be preferred1 provided1 at the same time1 they possess the requisite tenacity4 ,this and other matters will be best determined by practical men in ,england2 but having had occasion many times to prepare specimens for trying the tenacity1 the opportunity was always taken of arranging the specimen of jellies in the order of their clearness1 or1 to speak more accurately1 of their translucency4 ,in this respect also they exhibit considerable differences1 varying1 when prepared according to the formula described under the head of tenacity1 from very translucent approaching to opaque4 ,the order is shown in the annexed list1 which begins with the clearest4 ,,table ,,no4 ,,iv4--,,showing ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,clearness ,,or ,,translucency ,,of ,,uniformly ,,prepared ,,starch ,,jellies4 ,order4 ,names of specimens4 #a4 ,st4 ,vincent ,arrowroot1 ,commercial #b4 ,arrowroot1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #c4 ,sweet cassava1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #d4 ,bitter cassava1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #e4 ,bermuda arrowroot1 ,coml4 #f4 ,arrowroot1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #g4 ,irish potato1 ,c4,l4 #h4 ,potato starch1 ,coml4 #i4 ,buck yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #aj4 ,arrowroot1 ,c4 #aa4 ,plantain1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ab4 ,tannia1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ac4 ,sweet potato1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ad4 ,common yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ae4 ,tous les mois1 ,grenada1 ,cml4 #af4 ,barbados arrowroot1 ,coml4 #ag4 ,tous les mois1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ah4 ,barbados yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #ai4 ,guinea yam1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 #bj4 ,wheat starch1 ,coml4 #ba4 ,maize1 ,c41 ,c4,l4 ,on comparing this list with the former one1 and taking a general view of the subject1 it will be seen that the jellies that are most tenacious are generally the least translucent1 and that the order of the two lists is more nearly the converse than occurs in regard to any other properties4 ,percentage of starch yielded by different plants4--,on this point no two writers do or can agree4 ,the quantity of starch1 even in the same plants1 the potato for instance1 varies with the season1 the soil1 climate1 age1 ripeness1 length of time the roots have been out of the ground1 c4 ,in the following table ,i have given the result of a series of trials made in the ,colonial ,laboratory1 ,demerara4 ,the roots were all fresh dug1 and1 with two exceptions1 noticed in the remarks1 were fair average specimens4 ,the process was the common one4 ,the grater or rasping machine was of copper1 to avoid injuring the color of some of the starches1 which an iron grater is liable to do3-- ,,table ,,no4 ,v4--,,percentage ,,of ,,starch ,,yielded ,,by ,,different ,,plants4 ,no4 ,names of plants4 ,percentage of starch4 #a4 ,sweet cassava #bf4ib #b4 ,bitter cassava #bd4hd #c4 ,another sample #bj4bf #d4 ,a third #af4jb #e4 ,common yam #bd4dg #f4 ,arrowroot 7roots scarcely ripe7 #ba4dc #g4 ,another sample #ag4bh #h4 ,barbados yam #ah4ge #i4 ,tannia #ag4je #aj4 ,another sample #ae4ce #aa4 ,guinea yam #ag4jc #ab4 ,plantain #af4ii #ac4 ,sweet potato #af4ca #ad4 ,buck yam #af4jg #ae4 ,another sample #ae4fc #af4 ,a third1 from a dark colored variety #ad4hc ,from the foregoing list it appears that the sweet and bitter cassava merit attention as starch-producing plants4 ,they are occasionally grown for this purpose in the colonies1 and yield a large per centage of starch2 but there exists an opinion1 whether well or ill founded1 that it is liable to rot linen1 and the preference is given here to the starch of arrowroot4 ,it remains to be seen1 however1 what estimate will be formed of this starch in ,england1 for if it should prove an esteemed variety1 there can be no doubt of its proving a highly profitable cultivation4 ,cassava grows readily in almost any soil1 and when the drainage is tolerable1 two crops of the sweet variety can1 it is stated be grown in a year4 ,i have seen it growing luxuriantly in the light soils of the interior1 as well as in the stiff clay soils of the coasts4 ,it is considered an excellent preparatory crop in new and stiff land1 on account of its tendency to loosen the soil4 ,were the bitter variety fixed on1 the preparation of ,casareep might be combined with the preparation of starch2 and as that substance is one of the most esteemed bases for the preparation of various sauces1 it is probable that this might turn out the most profitable part of the produce4 ,at all events1 bitter cassava would have this advantage over all other starch-producing roots1 that the juice of the roots could be turned1 to account as well as the starch4 ,of all the plants mentioned in the list1 starch is most readily separated from the arrowroot1 in consequence of the tissue being more fibrous1 and yielding little or no cellular tissue requiring to be run off the starch4 ,time and water are thus saved in the process1 and were the fibrous residue pressed and dried1 it could probably be turned to good account in the manufacture of paper4 ,in respect of facility of preparation1 the plantain starch1 though of excellent quality1 ranks lowest1 for the flesh-colored tissue in which the starch is embedded is somewhat denser than the starch1 and settles down under it1 and it is not a little difficult to arrange the process so as completely to separate the finer parts of this matter from the starch1 and hence its color is never perfectly white4 ,yield of starch-producing plants per acre4--,on this subject1 as already remarked1 ,i do not at present possess sufficiently accurate data4 ,in ,england ten tons of potatoes are not unfrequently produced per acre2 now assuming #ae the per centage of starch1 there would be a yield of one-and-a-half tons per acre1 which1 at the-lowest quotation1 #bhs4 a cwt41 would give #db per acre2 and were the starch to rank with that prepared from wheat1 it would produce #dj per ton1 or #fj per acre4 ,in the thorough drained land of ,demerara1 and under a good system of cultivation1 ,i have no doubt that ten tons of cassava could easily be grown1 and if it yielded #be per cent4 of starch1 it would be a return of #b tons1 or of #fb #ajs4 per acre1 reckoned at the price of potato starch4 ,of the yield of the plantain we possess much more accurate information4 ,a new plantain walk in this colony 7,british ,guiana7 will yield #dej bunches1 of #ej lbs4 each1 of which1 as nearly as possible1 #ej per cent4 will be of core1 containing #ag per cent4 of starch1 thus producing #ag cwt4 of starch per acre4 ,but an old plantain walk1 even when free from disease1 could not be reckoned to yield more than half this quantity1 namely1 #h cwt4 per acre4 ,considering the value that is set on the plantain as an article of food1 and the difficulties incident to the process of making starch from it1 it is by no means probable that it will ever be used as a source from which to obtain starch4 ,of the quantity of arrowroot that can be grown per acre1 ,i have been able 7continues ,dr4 ,shier7 to procure no information2 but from the price it commands in the market1 the facility with which it can be grown1 and the ease with which the process of separating the starch can be carried on1 it deserves a fair trial here4 ,to cultivate it to advantage it ought to be done on thorough-drained and well-tilled land1 planted at the proper season1 and not dug till ripe and in dry weather4 ,of the ,tous les mois1 ,i have only been able to procure a single plant1 for which ,i am indebted to the kindness of the ,hon4 ,john ,croal4 ,as the root was immature1 it would be unfair to deduce from the quantity of starch obtained1 the per centage generally contained by the plant4 ,its immaturity was also indicated by the globules being smaller than in the specimen obtained from ,grenada2 in other respects1 however1 such as the tenacity of its jelly1 it stands highest4 ,it is altogether one of the most promising starch-producing plants1 and obviously deserves a careful trial4 ,it is a plant that expends a good deal of matter in maturing a considerable quantity of dense and bulky seeds1 but as it propagates both by root and seed1 it is probable that1 as a root-crop1 it would be highly advantageous to procure a variety that does not flower4 ,both the tannia and the sweet potato can be readily grown1 and the produce per acre is large2 but from the foregoing tables it would appear that there are other plants whose starch is likely to be held in greater estimation4 ,difficulties attendant on the process of preparing starch4--,were the manufacture of superior starch to be carried out in this colony 7,british ,guiana7 on a large scale and profitably1 recourse would require to be had to all the well-known means of economising labor4 ,in the cultivation as much as possible would require to be done by cattle and implement labor1 and this would be the easier to accomplish1 inasmuch as1 to grow roots to great advantage1 the land would require to be thorough drained4 ,when the produce was brought to the buildings1 machinery similar to what is already in use in ,europe1 for the purpose of washing and rasping roots1 and of separating and washing starch1 would suffice with comparatively little manual labor4 ,an ordinary amount of judgment being exercised in determining the proper period of ripeness of the roots1 and in selecting seasons when the weather is usually most suitable for conducting the process of manufacture1 it does not appear that any unusual difficulty would have to be encountered by growers or manufacturers1 unless as regards the obtaining of a sufficient supply of good water2 for that is essential to the production of good starch4 ,the creek water of the colony is generally too brown1 and the trench water too muddy1 and contains often too much salt to produce starches of the finest color1 hence recourse would require to be had to rain water1 or ,artesian water4 ,the first is remarkably pure1 and it certainly does not appear that were sufficiently capacious reservoirs built1 or ponds dug1 and protected from infiltration by the usual well-known means1 there would be great difficulty in getting a sufficient supply of rain water4 ,it is done in ,bermuda1 and why not here8 ,on the other hand1 almost all the ,artesian wells in the colony contain a large quantity of oxide of iron held in solution by carbonic acid1 and which separates as an ochrey deposit on free exposure to the air4 ,were this water used in the starch process1 it would certainly injure the color materially2 but by a chemical process1 exceedingly simple1 inexpensive1 and easy of application1 it is possible to purify the ,artesian water1 and render it almost as fit as rain water for the purpose of manufacturing starch4 ,in some of the other colonies a great deal of the best starch is produced by the holders of small lots of land1 and many parts of the labor being light1 and suited for women and children1 it is one of the most desirable cultivations for small holders1 and would be very beneficial for ,demerara1 where the lands of the peasantry too generally lie in a state of utter neglect2 yet small holders could not be expected to be able to compete with those who should grow starch on the large scale1 and prepare it with the best machinery4 ,cassava meal1 plantain meal1 c41 as articles of export4--,it may soon become an important question whether the plantain1 or some of the edible roots grown in the tropics1 might not be sent to ,europe in a fresh state as a substitute for the potato4 ,many of them1 the buck yam and the cassava1 for instance1 ought to be used when fresh dug1 for every day they are out of the ground they deteriorate4 ,this1 however1 is not so much the case with some of the larger yams4 ,it is worth trying whether the finer sorts that deteriorate by keeping1 might not1 after being sliced and dried in the sun1 become articles of export1 either in that state or when ground to meal4 ,for this purpose the bitter cassava1 the plantain1 and the buck yam are the most promising4 ,of the bitter cassava mention has already been made as a substance from which the starch and casareep might be prepared4 ,in this case1 however1 the woody and cellular tissue1 with the small quantity of starch left in it by the ordinary starch process1 would form far too poor an article of diet to constitute part of the food of man4 ,but the roots might be used as a medium from which to prepare cassava meal1 casareep1 and the very small quantity of starch which is expressed along with the juice1 leaving all the rest of the starch to form part of the meal4 ,it is of such meal that the cassava cakes of the ,indians are prepared2 and although by no means so nutritive as ,indian corn meal#df1 there can be little doubt that in the ,scotch and ,irish markets the cassava meal would obtain a preference2 and were it exported in quantity it would probably come into extensive use among all classes4 ,the process would be as follows3--,after washing in a revolving apparatus1 by which means the adherent earth would be got quit of1 and almost the whole of the thin dark colored cuticle become detached1 the roots could be reduced to pulp in a rasping-mill1 without the use of water2 the pulp might be compressed in bags by hydraulic pressure1 whereby the juice1 together with a small portion of the starch1 would be expressed4 ,after allowing the starch to subside1 the juice should be concentrated to about the density of #a4d4 ,the starch would be washed1 purified1 and dried4 ,the contents of the bags would then be broken up and dried in the sun or in a current of air1 after which the meal would be sifted through a coarse sieve to separate the coarser parts1 which1 if their amount was considerable1 could be ground and added to the rest4 ,in this state of rough meal it is fit for making the cassava cakes4 ,if ground to flour it might be used to mix with wheat1 rye1 or barley flour4 ,the process is usually conducted as follows3--,the squeezed pulp is broken up1 sifted1 and exposed to the sun on trays or mats till it is fully more than half dry4 ,an iron hoop of the size and thickness of the cake to be made is then laid on a griddle or hot plate1 and the space within the hoop is filled evenly with the somewhat moist meal1 no previous kneading or rolling having been employed4 ,as soon as the coarse meal coheres1 the ring is lifted and the cake is turned and heated on the opposite side4 ,the heat should not be sufficient to brown the cake4 ,the cakes are finally dried by exposure to the sun4 ,from the dry cassava meal cakes may be prepared by sprinkling it with as much cold water as to moisten it to the proper point1 and then proceeding as above4 ,hot water cannot be employed1 neither can kneading1 or any considerable degree of compression be used1 otherwise the water does not evaporate readily enough2 the starch gets too much altered by the heat1 and the cake becomes tough4 ,if an acre of well-tilled thorough-drained land yield #aj tons of fresh roots1 and ,i have every reason to believe that such a return might be obtained1 ,i have ascertained that the produce would be #c tons of meal1 #eih lbs4 of casareep1 and #b cwt4 of starch2 and estimating the meal at #a;d4 per lb41 the casareep at #as4 #e;d4 per lb41 and the starch at #djs4 per cwt41 the gross amount would be #gh #acs4 #d;d4 per acre4 ,in ascertaining these proportions1 very simple machinery was employed1 and had the pulp been better pressed the quantity of casareep would have been considerably greater4 ,from the table given in a former note it will be seen that the cassava meal prepared in this way contains but a very small proportion of matter nutritive in the sense of contributing to the formation of blood1 and that the expressed juice carries off fully one-half of the proteine compounds contained in the plant4 ,lichenin is a variety of starch occurring in ,cetraria islandica1 or ,iceland moss4 ,indian corn starch4--,the advance of science has recently brought to our knowledge the preparation and use of another article1 not only important as food1 but also essential in the arts4 ,i have had occasion to mention the high value of the ,indian corn1 and ,i might with advantage allude to many of its uses and properties2 at present ,i must confine my remarks to a product from this valuable grain1 known as corn starch1 and yet another as the fecula of maize4 ,in the close of #ahdi1 ,mr4 ,willard and his associates1 of ,auburn1 established extensive works at ,oswego1 for the preparation of these important products1 their establishment covering an area of #di1jjj square feet4 ,as the proprietors have to some extent held unrevealed the process by which they produce a starch more pure than the starch of commerce1 we may not indulge in speculative curiosity2 yet ,i can hardly doubt their great success is mainly attributable to perfect machinery1 guided by science and talent4 ,the rapid and extended demand for these new products presents sufficient evidence of their character1 as we are told that about three millions of pounds of this corn starch are demanded annually by the trade1 notwithstanding the usual supply of wheat starch is undiminished4 ,a remarkable feature of maize starch is the absence of impurities2 upon being subjected to analysis1 it is found that only #b #gf-ajj parts in #ajjj are of other matter than pure starch4 ,according to ,dr4 ,ure1 wheat yields only #ce to #dj per cent1 of good starch1 a material extensively used in arts and manufactures4 ,in addition to starch1 the ,oswego starch-factory produces from ,indian corn a fecula1 peculiarly adapted to culinary purposes1 presenting to our domestic economy one of the most acceptable1 pure1 and nutritious articles of food4 ,already has it become an indispensable household article1 and is consumed largely at home and abroad4 ,the factory1 though in its infancy1 consumes annually #aej1jjj bushels of corn1 equal to about nine millions of pounds in weight4 ,hitherto the quantities of starch used for laundry purposes and in the manufactories of ,america1 have been produced from costly wheats1 though it may be found in many vegetable substances1 such as potatoes1 the horse chesnut and other seeds4 ,in ,england1 where breadstuffs1 particularly wheat1 have been raised in quantities inadequate to the demand for food1 attempts have been made to convert the viscid matter of lichens into a gum1 for the use of calico printers1 paper-makers1 and ink makers2 for the stiffening of silks1 crapes1 and the endless variety of dry goods1 which1 by means of these gums or starch1 are made to appear of greater consistency4 ,most of these attempts had partial success1 yet the making of starch from wheat has not been arrested4 ,the ,oswego starch factory has happily introduced the use of ,indian corn1 as a grain producing a larger proportion of pure amylaceous properties than any other known vegetable substance1 proffering to the ,american manufacturer another economic advantage1 sustaining1 in a most legitimate matter1 sound rivalry and competition with all the world4 ,i am not aware whether the ,oswego factory has converted its starch into gum--a process easily accomplished by heat1 and thus rendered soluble in cold water1 which cannot be done while in its condition of starch4 ,here is another result of vast importance derivable from ,indian corn2 and we can well conceive that1 in a short period of time1 the advantages now derived from the production of corn starch1 may have grown into a national benefit4 ,rice 7according to ,prof4 ,solly7 contains on an average about #hd per cent of starch2 but till comparatively a few years ago1 no starch was manufactured from it1 notwithstanding its low price1 and the large quantity of starch which exists in it4 ,the reason of this was1 that the old process of fermentation1 by means of which starch is procured from grain1 was not found to be applicable to rice2 and hence the latter only became available as a source of starch in #ahdj1 when ,mr4 ,orlando ,jones introduced his new process1 for which he obtained a patent4 ,this process consisted in macerating the rice for about #bj hours in a dilute solution of caustic potash1 containing about #bjj grains of the alkali in every gallon2 the liquor is then drawn off1 the rice dried1 reduced to powder by grinding1 then a second time digested in a similar alkaline lye for #bd hours1 repeatedly agitated4 ,after this it is allowed to settle1 and well washed with pure cold water4 ,a prize medal was awarded for this rice starch at the ,great ,exhibition4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,berger1 of ,bromley1 also received a prize medal4 ,he adopts a different mode of preparation4 ,in place of employing a dilute solution of caustic potash to dissolve the gluten and other insoluble matters of the grain1 ,mr4 ,berger uses a solution of carbonate of soda1 containing half a pound to the gallon4 ,the rice is steeped1 in cold water for #dh hours1 levigated in a suitable mill1 and the pulp thus formed is treated with the solution of carbonate of soda for #fj or #gj hours1 being repeatedly stirred2 it is then allowed to settle for some hours1 the alkaline liquor is drawn off1 and the starch is washed and purified4 ,this process was patented by ,mr4 ,berger1 in ,december1 #ahda4 ,a third process was patented in ,february1 #ahdb1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,colman2 he uses dilute muriatic acid for the same purpose as ,messrs ,jones and ,berger4 ,,arrowroot1 ,,east ,,and ,,west ,,indian4 ,the genuine arrowroot of commerce is the produce of the tuberous rhizomata of ,maranta arundinacea1 a native of ,south ,america1 and ,m4 indica1 indigenous to the ,west ,indies1 but also cultivated in the ,east4 ,the best ,west ,indian arrowroot comes from ,bermuda4 ,its globules are much smaller and less glistening than those of ,tous-les-mois1 or potato starch4 ,the peculiar characteristics of the starch obtained from various plants has been particularised and described already in the elaborate investigation of the commercial yield and value of the starch-producing plants4 ,amylaceous matter of a similar kind to arrowroot is obtained from other species of ,maranta1 as from some species of ,canna1 well known under the popular name of ,indian shot1 from the similarity of their round black seeds4 ,the arrowroot plant 7,m4 arundinacea7 is a perennial1 its root is fleshy and creeping1 and very full of knots and numerous long white fibres4 ,arising from the root are many leaves1 spear-shaped1 smooth on the upper surface and hairy beneath4 ,the length of the leaf is about six or seven inches1 and the breadth about three towards their base1 the color and consistence resembling those of the seed4 ,from the root arise slender petioles upon which the leaves stand1 and several herbaceous erect stalks come out between them1 rising to the height of about two feet4 ,a loose bunch of small white flowers is succeeded by three-cornered capsules1 each containing one hard rough seed4 ,the propagation and culture of this plant are of the simplest kinds4 ,the roots should be parted1 and the most suitable soil is a rich loam4 ,in the ,bermudas1 a deep rich soil1 or one in which marsh or peat prevail1 is alone adapted for growing arrowroot in perfection4 ,a correspondent from the ,bermudas1 7where arrowroot forms the great staple crop of the islands71 informs me that he ploughed up a small piece of land1 twenty rods 7or the eighth part of an acre71 with a small plough and one horse4 ,he ploughed it over three times1 and the third time planted the arrowroot as he ploughed it4 ,the land had not been turned up before for twenty years4 ,the expenses and profits stand thus3-- ,,expense4 4 s4 d4 ,to the ploughman1 harrowing and planting the arrowroot #a #j #j ,arrowroot plants #af #j ,digging it up #a #j #j ,deduct half1 as the land was planted for the next year #j #aj #j #j #aj #j ,balance carried down1 being net profit #e #ad #j -------- #h #j #j ,,produce4 ,by #b1jjj lbs4 of root at #hs4 per #ajj lbs4 #h #j #j ,by balance brought down as net profit #e #ad #j ,the above #e #ads4 clear profit on the #bj rods1 is at the rate of #de #abs4 profit for one acre4 ,now1 if a small cultivator were to plant three or four acres1 and get only one-half of the above profit1 it would give a good return1 and would be well worth the trial4 ,arrowroot requires a good rich red soil1 of which there is still much lying waste4 ,the best time for planting it is in ,april1 but it can be planted in ,march1 or indeed at any time after the first of the year1 till ,may3 though if taken up and planted before ,christmas1 you may depend it will not come to any perfection4 ,arrowroot can be planted in many ways2 either in holes made with a hoe1 ploughed under1 or in drills like ,irish potatoes4 ,now the way ,i prefer is to prepare the land1 then strike the line at two feet apart1 and make holes with a pointed stick or dibble six inches apart1 putting in each hole one strong plant or two small ones1 then cover them up4 ,this is more trouble than the old way1 but it gives an excellent crop4 ,it can also be planted like ,irish potatoes in drills1 two feet apart in the rows1 and six inches between the plants4 ,it should be hand-weeded in the spring1 because if it is hoed1 most likely you will cut some of it off which may be springing under ground1 and it will never come up so strong again4 ,arrowroot requires very strong ground and plenty of manure4 ,farm yard manure is the best2 next to that green seaweed dripping with salt water--this is an excellent manure1 and should be dug in the ground as the arrowroot is taken up4 ,i have no doubt that it would be of great advantage to the planter1 if he were to put a cask in a cart1 fill it with salt water1 and put it on the land a few weeks before it is planted4 ,some people say that arrowroot does not pay so well1 because it has to stay in the ground a whole year2 but then if you have onions you can plant them over it1 and so obtain a crop which will pay much better than the arrowroot itself4 ,if you have a large piece of arrowroot ground1 take up one half early1 and plant it out with ,irish potatoes2 then take up the other half later1 and with the plants set out your potato ground1 that is if you have taken up your potatoes2 if not1 plant the arrowroot between the rows1 in holes2 so that when you take up the potatoes1 you clean the arrowroot and loosen the ground1 which will give a good crop2 or you can plant ,indian corn very thin over the arrowroot ground 7if you have nothing else71 but be sure to cut it up before it ripens corn1 or it will injure your arrowroot crop2 or you may plant a few melon seeds over it1 and you will have a fine crop of fruit4 ,in #ahde ,i planted1 in the months of ,january and ,february1 a quarter of an acre of good land1 in arrowroot and onions4 ,the expense and profit stand as follow4-- ,,expense 4 s4 d4 ,to digging the ground #a #j #j ,planting arrowroot #j #f #j ,twelve load of seaweed1 at #as4 #j #ab #j ,rotten manure for onions1 #aj loads1 at #bs4 #a #j #j ,one bottle onion seed #j #af #j ,sowing onion seed and keeping the plants clean #j #aj #j ,planting out onions #a #j #j ,cleaning onions after set out #j #ae #j ,tops and making basket #a #h #j ,pulling1 cutting1 and basketing #j #ah #j ,carting and shipping #j #h #j ,digging arrowroot #b #j #j -------- #aj #ac #j ,clear profit on quarter acre #bb #ac #i -------- #cc #f #i ,,produce ,by onions sold #bj #af #j ,by arrowroot #ab #aj #i -------- #cc #f #i ,this is at the rate of #ij #aes4 clear profit per acre1 which is more than double the worth of the land4 ,i have not named the arrowroot plants1 because ,i have planted my land with them again1 but they might be fairly put to the credit of the account4 ,the above statement shows what may be done with good land and good management2 but even if a man can only clear #aj on an acre of land1 he ought not to grumble4 ,dr4 ,ure gives a most interesting and lucid account of the mode of manufacture in the island of ,st4 ,vincent1 where the plant is now cultivated with great success1 and the root manufactured in a superior manner4 ,it grows there to the height of about three feet1 and it sends down its tap root from twelve to eighteen inches into the ground4 ,its maturity is known by the flagging and falling down of the leaves1 an event which takes place when the plant is from ten to twelve months' old4 ,the roots being dug up with the hoe1 are transported to the washing-house1 where they are thoroughly freed from all adhering earth1 and next taken individually into the hand and deprived1 by a knife1 of every portion of their skins1 while every unsound part is cut away4 ,this process must be performed with great nicety1 for the cuticle contains a resinous matter1 which imparts color and a disagreeable flavor to the fecula1 which no subsequent treatment can remove4 ,the skinned roots are thrown into a large cistern1 with a perforated bottom1 and there exposed to the action of a copious cascade of pure water1 till this runs off quite unaltered4 ,the cleansed roots are next put into the hopper of a mill1 and are subjected to the powerful pressure of two pairs of polished rollers of hard brass2 the lower pair of rollers being set much closer together than the upper4 ,the starchy matter is thus ground into a pulp1 which falls into the receiver placed beneath1 and is thence transferred to large fixed copper cylinders1 tinned inside1 and perforated at the bottom with numerous minute orifices1 like a kitchen drainer4 ,within these cylinders1 wooden paddles are made to revolve with great velocity1 by the power of a water-wheel1 at the same time that a stream of pure water is admitted from above4 ,the paddle-arms beat out the fecula from the fibres and parenchyma of the pulp1 and discharge it in the form of a milk through the perforated bottom of the cylinder4 ,this starchy water runs along pipes1 and then through strainers of fine muslin into large reservoirs1 where1 after the fecula has subsided1 the supernatant water is drawn off1 and fresh water being let on1 the whole is agitated and left again to repose4 ,this process of ablution is repeated till the water no longer acquires anything from the fecula4 ,finally1 all the deposits of fecula of the day's work are collected into one cistern1 and being covered and agitated with a fresh change of water1 are allowed to settle till next morning4 ,the water being now let off1 the deposit is skimmed with palette knives of ,german silver1 to remove any of the superficial parts1 in the slightest degree colored2 and only the lower1 purer1 and denser portion is prepared by drying for the market4 ,on the ,hopewell estate1 in ,st4 ,vincent1 where the chief improvements have been carried out1 the drying-house is constructed like the hot-house of an ,english garden4 ,but instead of plants it contains about four dozen of drying pans1 made of copper1 #g feet by #d feet1 and tinned inside4 ,each pan is supported on a carriage having iron axles1 with lignum vit wheels1 like those of a railway carriage1 and they run on rails4 ,immediately after sunrise1 these carriages1 with their pans1 covered with white gauze to exclude dust and insects1 are run out into the open air1 but if rain be apprehended they are run back under the glazed roof4 ,in about four days the fecula is thoroughly dry and ready to be packed1 with ,german silver shovels1 into tins or ,american flour barrels1 lined with paper1 attached with arrowroot paste4 ,the packages are never sent to this country in the hold of the ship1 as their contents are easily tainted by noisome effluvia1 of sugar1 c4 ,arrowroot is much more nourishing than the starch of wheat or potatoes1 and the flavor is purer4 ,the fresh1 root consists1 according to ,benzon1 of #j4jg of volatile oil2 #bf of starch 7#bc of which are obtained in the form of powder1 while the other #c must be extracted from the parenchyma in a paste1 by boiling water72 #a4dh of vegetable albumen2 #j4f of a gummy extract2 #j4be of chloride of calcium2 #f of insoluble fibrine2 and #fe4f of water4 ,arrowroot is often adulterated in this country with potato flour and other ingredients4 ,dr4 ,lankester asserts that the value of arrowroot starch1 as an article of diet1 is not greater than that of potato starch1 and that the yield of starch is not greater from the arrowroot than from potatoes2 but this ,i must decidedly deny4 ,chemical analysis and experience are proofs to the contrary4 ,the analogy arrowroot has to potato starch1 has induced many persons to adulterate the former substance with it2 and not only has this been done1 but ,i have known instances in which potato starch alone has been sold for the genuine foreign article4 ,there is no harm in this1 to a certain extent2 but it certainly is a very great fraud upon the public 7and one for which the perpetrators ought to be most severely punished71 to sell so cheap an article at the same price as one which is comparatively costly4 ,there is1 moreover1 in potato starch1 a peculiar taste1 bringing to mind that of raw potatoes1 from which the genuine arrowroot is entirely free4 ,this fraud1 however1 can be readily detected2 arrowroot is not quite so white as potato starch1 and its grains are smaller1 and have a pearly and very brilliant lustre2 and further1 it always contains peculiar clotted masses1 more or less large1 which have been formed by the adhesion of a multitude of grains during the drying4 ,these masses crush very readily when pressed between the fingers1 and as before stated1 arrowroot is free from that peculiar odor due to potato starch4 ,this may be most readily developed by mixing the suspected sample with hot water2 if it be genuine arrowroot1 the mixture is inodorous1 if potato starch1 the smell of raw potatoes is immediately developed4 ,if a mixture of arrowroot and potato starch be minutely observed by means of a good microscope1 the grains of arrowroot may be readily detected2 they are very small and exceedingly regular in shape1 whilst those of potato starch are much larger1 and very irregular in shape4 ,but the most convenient and delicate test of all1 is that proposed by ,dr4 ,scharling1 of ,copenhagen4 ,after mentioning the test by the microscope1 he goes on to state that he has obtained more favorable results by employing diluted nitric acid2 and that1 if arrowroot or potato starch be mixed with about two parts of concentrated nitric acid1 both will immediately assume a tough gelatinous state4 ,this mass1 when potato starch is employed1 is almost transparent1 and when arrowroot is used1 is nearly opaque1 as in the case above mentioned1 in which hydrochloric acid is substituted4 ,a mixture of nitric acid and water1 however1 operates very differently on these two kinds of starch4 ,the glutinous mass yielded by the potato starch1 becomes in a very brief period so tough that the pestle employed for stirring the mixture is sufficiently agglutinated to the mortar1 that the latter may be lifted from the table by its means4 ,arrowroot1 on the other hand1 requires from twenty-five to thirty minutes to acquire a like tenacity4 ,the ,lancet recently stated that1 on a microscopical analysis of #ej samples of arrowroot1 purchased indiscriminately of various ,london tradesmen1 #bb were found to be adulterated4 ,in #af cases this adulteration consisted in the addition of a single inferior product much cheaper in price1 such as potato flour1 sago meal1 or tapioca starch1 while in other instances there was a combination of these articles1 potato flour being usually preponderant4 ,ten of the mixtures contained scarcely a particle of the genuine ,maranta or ,west ,india arrowroot1 for which they were sold4 ,one consisted almost wholly of sago meal2 two of potato flour and sago meal2 two of potato flour1 sago meal1 and tapioca starch2 one of tapioca starch2 and four of potato arrowroot1 or starch entirely4 ,the worst specimens were those which were done up in canisters especially marked as ,genuine ,west ,india arrowroot1 or as being warranted free from adulteration2 and one1 which contained a considerable quantity of potato flour1 was particularly recommended to invalids1 and certified as the finest quality ever imported into this country4 ,the profits to the vendors of the inferior compounds are to be estimated from the fact that the price of sago meal and potato starch is about #d;d4 per lb41 while the genuine ,maranta arrowroot is from #as4 to #cs4 #f;d4 per lb4 ,the arrowroot of ,bermuda has long borne a high reputation1 being manufactured on a better principle and being therefore of superior quality to that produced in ,antigua1 ,st4 ,vincent1 and other ,west ,indian islands4 ,the process is tedious and requires a good deal of labor4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that the quality of the water has a great deal of influence on the fecula4 ,bermuda arrowroot is necessarily made from rain water collected in tanks or reservoirs1 and the lime and the deposit from houses1 c41 may alter its properties4 ,after the root is taken from the ground it is placed in a mill1 and is thereby cleansed of its exterior excrescences2 it is then thoroughly washed1 when it is ready for the large machine1 the principle of which is similar to the treadmill4 ,a horse is placed on something like a platform1 and as he prances up and down1 the machinery is set in play4 ,a person stands at the end1 and places the root in the wheel of the machine1 which1 after being ground1 falls into a trough of water4 ,after going through this process1 it is rewashed and then placed in vessels to dry in the sun4 ,it is packed in boxes lined with blue paper or tin1 and sent to the markets in ,england and ,america1 where it generally meets with ready sale4 ,at a meeting of the ,agricultural ,society of ,bermuda1 held in ,may1 #ahdj1 ,mr4 ,w4,m4 ,cox submitted a new arrowroot strainer which he had invented4 ,it consists of two cloth strainers fixed to hoops from #ae to #bj inches in diameter4 ,the strainers working one within the other1 are kept in motion by a lever1 moved by hand4 ,the whole apparatus is not an expensive one1 and is well adapted for aiding the manufacture of arrowroot upon an expeditious and economical plan4 ,a simple method by which starch may be extracted from the fecula with much purity consists in enclosing the flour in a muslin bag and squeezing it with the fingers while submerged in clean water1 by which process the starch passes out in a state of white powder and subsides4 ,two essential constituents of flour are thus separated from each other2 a viscid substance remains in the bag1 which is called gluten1 and the white powder deposited is starch4 ,the principal quarters from whence the supply is derived1 are the ,bermudas1 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,barbados and ,grenada1 in the ,west ,indies2 ,ceylon1 and some other parts of the ,east--and a few of our settlements on the ,west coast of ,africa4 ,the annual imports for home consumption average #ejj tons4 ,the cultivation of arrowroot for the production of starch in ,st4 ,vincent has increased enormously of late years4 ,in #ahce1 the island produced #da1cig lbs42 in #ahde it exported #hbh1hdb lbs4 ,the exports to #aeth ,june1 #ahea1 were1 #b1icd barrels1 #b1jhc half barrels1 #e1faj tins4 ,the culture is year by year extending1 and as1 unlike that of the sugar cane1 it may be carried on on a small scale with very little outlay of capital1 we may reasonably anticipate a still further progressive extension for some years to come4 ,arrowroot1 when once established in virgin soil1 produces several crops with very little culture4 ,in the first half of #ahea1 #be1jbg lbs4 were shipped from ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica4 ,the quantity of arrowroot on which duty of #as4 per cwt4 was paid in the six years ending #ahdj1 was as follows3-- ,cwts4 #ahce #c1eha #ahcf #c1bhj #ahcg #b1heh #ahch #b1ech #ahci #b1bfd #ahdj #b1abd ,the imports in the last few years have been in ,cwt4 #ahdg #h1jdj #ahdh #aj1ehj #ahdi #i1beb #ahej #ae1ihj #ahea ,about #ejj cwt4 are re-exported4 ,east ,india arrowroot is procured in part from ,curcuma angustifolia1 known locally as ,tikoor in the ,east1 and a similar kind of starch is yielded by ,c4 ,zerumbet1 ,c4 rubescens1 ,c4 leucorhiza1 and ,alpinia ,galanga1 the ,galangale root of commerce4 ,c4 angustifolia grows abundantly on the ,malabar coast1 and is cultivated about the districts of ,patna1 ,sagur and the south-west frontier1 ,mysore1 ,vizigapatam1 and ,canjam1 ,cochin and ,tellicherry4 ,it was discovered but a few years ago growing wild in the forests extending from the banks of the ,sona to ,nugpore4 ,the particles of ,east ,india arrowroot are very unequal in size1 but on the average are larger than those of ,west ,india arrowroot4 ,dr4 ,taylor1 in his ,topography of ,dacca1 speaks of fecula or starch being obtained from the ,egyptian lotus 7,nympha lotus71 which is used by the native practitioners as a substitute for arrowroot4 ,chinese arrowroot is said to be made from the root of ,nelumbium speciosum4 ,the original ,indian arrowroot is extracted at ,travancore1 according to ,ainslie1 from the root of the ,curcuma angustifolia4 ,it is easily distinguished by its form1 which is sometimes ovoid1 sometimes elongated1 of considerable size1 rounded at one of the extremities1 and terminating in a point at the other1 often resembling a grain of rice4 ,the manufacture of arrowroot on the southern borders of the ,everglades1 at ,key ,west1 ,florida1 bids fair to become as extensive and as profitable as at ,bermuda1 whence1 at present1 we receive the bulk of our supplies4 ,the wild root1 which the ,indians call ,compti1 grows spontaneously over an immense area of otherwise barren land4 ,it is easily gathered1 and is first peeled in large hoppers ingeniously contrived1 and thrown into a cylinder and ground into an impalpable pulp4 ,it is then washed and dried in the sun1 baked and broken into small lumps1 when it is ready for the market4 ,the article is extensively used in the ,eastern woollen and cotton establishments1 as well as for family use4 ,arrowroot is cultivated in the interior of ,east ,florida with great success4 ,it is also cultivated to a considerable extent in ,georgia1 and is1 ,i understand1 a profitable crop4 ,the following is the process of manufacture3--,the roots1 when a year old1 are dug up1 and beaten in deep wooden mortars to a pulp2 which is then put into a tub of clean water1 well washed1 and the fibrous part thrown away4 ,the milky liquor being passed through a sieve or coarse cloth1 is suffered to settle1 and the clean water is drawn off2 at the bottom of the vessel is a white mass1 which is again mixed with clean water1 and drained2 lastly the mass is dried in the sun1 and is pure starch4 ,arrowroot can be kept without spoiling for a very long time4 ,a considerable quantity of arrowroot is now produced in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,in #ahda arrowroot to the value of #c1cbj dolls4 was shipped1 and in #ahdc1 #ce1adj lbs41 valued at #a1dje1 was exported1 principally to ,tepic and ,san ,blas1 where it is used as starch for linen4 ,a kind of arrowroot of very good quality was sent to the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 by ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 which is obtained in ,st4 ,domingo from the stems of a species of ,zamia1 called there ,guanjiga2 and the ,zamia ,australis1 of ,western ,australia1 yields even better fecula4 ,the taste was unpleasant and salt1 as if it had been immersed in lime4 ,the other starch1 from the ,western ,australian ,zamia1 in quality rivalled arrowroot4 ,this fecula hangs together in chains1 quite unlike the ordinary appearance of arrowroot when seen under the microscope4 ,the following figures show the exports of arrowroot from ,bermuda3-- lbs4 ,value of the exports4 #ahcj #ah1agd -- #ahca #gg1aec -- #ahcb #cd1hcc -- #ahcc #dd1fea -- #ahcd #ed1dga -- #ahce #fe1ejj -- #ahcf -- -- #ahda #ia1bcj -- #ahdb #acf1faj -- #ahdc #aea1geg #h1fhb #ahdd #agc1bge #aj1igd #ahde #bbd1dhj #h1jhd #ahdg -- #d1gaf #ahdh -- #d1gdg #ahdi -- #f1gfj #ahej #hed1cbi -- ,in the spring of #ahea1 #bja1acj lbs4 were shipped from ,bermuda4 ,in #ahdc the quantity of arrowroot in the rough state made in ,bermuda was #a1aaj1ejj lbs4 ,,arrowroot ,,exported ,,from ,,antigua ,,to ,great ,britain ,b4,n4 ,america ,b4,w4 ,indies ,boxes ,boxes ,boxes #ahce #a1jge #bj -- #ahcf #eha #dc -- #ahcg #ajj #db -- #ahch #dgb #bj -- #ahci #fhb -- #cb #ahdj #dec -- #cj #ahda #bhi -- #aj #ahdb #ehb -- -- #ahdc #gdd -- -- #ahdd #cgf -- -- #ahde #djb #e -- ,barbados exported in #ahcb1 #af1had lbs41 value #dfi2 in #ahdj1 #chg packages2 in #ahdc1 #cjb2 in #ahdd1 #gij packages2 in #ahea1 #cjf packages2 these average about #cj lbs4 each4 ,ceylon now produces excellent arrowroot4 ,in #ahdb1 #aej boxes were exported2 in #ahdc1 #bjj2 in #ahdd1 #cjj2 in #ahde1 #fjj boxes4 ,from ,africa we now import a large quantity3 #bej boxes were received in #ahdf4 ,not unfrequently arrowroot from ,africa has been sent to the ,west ,indies in the ships with the liberated ,africans1 and thence re-exported to ,england1 as of ,st4 ,vincent or ,bermuda growth4 ,the duty on arrowroot1 under the new tariff1 is equalised on all kinds to #d;d4 per lb4 ,the imports and home consumption of arrowroot have increased very largely1 as may be seen from the following figures3-- ,retained for home ,imports consumption lbs4 lbs4 #ahbf #cah1hcj #ceh1jjg #ahcj #ddi1gbc #eaf1ehg #ahcd #hcg1haa #gce1aij #ahce #bhg1iff #hie1djf #ahch #djd1gch #dcd1egd #ahci #cjc1dhi #bbd1gib #ahdj #djh1dfi #ccj1dij #ahda -- #ded1hic #ahdb #hij1gcf #hdf1hcb #ahdf #ije1jgb #iha1abj #ahdg #a1ahe1ifh #a1baa1afh #ahdh #ijf1cjd #icc1gdd #ahdi #a1jcf1ahe #a1jcb1iib #ahej #a1ghi1ggd #a1dad1ffi #ahea #b1jhc1fha #a1hdh1ggh #aheb #b1aci1cij #b1jbd1caf ,,salep is the prepared and dried roots of several orchideous plants1 and is sometimes sold in the state of powder4 ,indigenous salep is procured1 according to ,dr4 ,perceval from ,orchis mascula1 ,o4 latifolia1 ,o4 morio1 and other native plants of this order4 ,on the continent it is obtained from ,o4 papilionaceo1 and militaris4 ,oriental salep is procured from other orchideoe4 ,professor ,royle states that the salep of ,kashmir is obtained from a species of ,eulophia1 probably ,e4 virens4 ,salep is also obtained from the tuberous roots of ,tacca pinnatifida1 and other species of the same genus1 which are principally natives of the ,east ,indies and the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the large fleshy tubers of tacca1 when scraped and frequently washed1 yield a nutritious fecula resembling arrowroot4 ,salep consists chiefly of bassorin1 some soluble gum1 and a little starch4 ,it forms an article of diet fitted for convalescents when boiled with water or milk4 ,the price of salep is about eight guineas per cwt4 in the ,london market4 ,a little is exported from ,constantinople1 as ,i noticed a shipment of #ff casks in #ahdb2 excellent specimens from this quarter were shown in the ,egyptian department of the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea4 ,it was formerly a great deal used1 but has latterly been much superseded by other articles4 ,major ,d4 ,williams 7,journal of the ,agri4 and ,hort4 ,soc4 of ,india1 vol4 iv41 part ,i71 states that the tacca plant abounds in certain parts of the province of ,arracan1 where the ,mugs prepare the farina for export to the ,china market4 ,after removing the peel1 the root is grated on a fish-skin1 and the pulp having been strained through a coarse cloth1 is washed three or four times in water1 and then dried in the sun4 ,according to a recent examination of the plant by ,mr4 ,nuttall 7,american ,journal of ,pharmacy1 vol4 ix41 p4 #cje71 the ,otaheite salep is obtained from a new species of tacca1 which he names ,t4 oceanica4 ,for many years we have obtained from ,tahiti1 and other islands of the ,south ,seas1 this fecula1 known by the name of ,tahiti arrowroot1 probably the produce of ,tacca pinnatifida4 ,it is generally spherical1 but also often ovoid1 elliptic1 or rounded1 with a prolongation in the form of a neck1 suddenly terminated by a plane4 ,the tacca plant grows at ,zanzibar1 and is found naturalised on the high islands of the ,pacific4 ,the art of preparing arrowroot from it is aboriginal with the ,polynesians and ,feejeeans4 ,at ,tahiti the fecula is procured by washing the tubers1 scraping off their outer skin1 and then reducing them to a pulp by friction1 on a kind of rasp1 made by winding coarse twine 7formed of the coco-nut fibre7 regularly round a board4 ,the pulp is washed with sea water through a sieve1 made of the fibrous web which protects the young frond of the coco-nut palm4 ,the strained liquor is received in a wooden trough1 in which the fecula is deposited2 and the supernatant liquor being poured off1 the sediment is formed into balls1 which are dried in the sun for twelve or twenty-four hours1 then broken and reduced to powder1 which is spread out in the sun further to dry4 ,in some parts of the world cakes of a large size are made of the meal1 which form an article of diet in ,china1 ,cochin-,caina1 ,travancore1 c41 where they are eaten by the natives with some acid to subdue their acrimony4 ,some twenty varieties of the ,ti plant 7,diacaena terminalis7 are cultivated in the ,polynesian islands4 ,there is1 however1 but one which is considered farinaceous and edible4 ,in ,java the root is considered a valuable medicine in dysentery4 ,within the last three or four years1 considerable quantities of a feculent substance1 called ,tous les mois1 have been imported from the ,west ,indies4 ,it is cultivated in ,barbados1 ,st4 ,kitts1 and the ,french islands1 and is said to be prepared by a tedious and troublesome process from the rhizomes of various species of ,canna ,coccinea1 ,achiras1 glauca1 and edulis4 ,it approaches more nearly to potato starch than to any other fecula1 but its particles are larger4 ,like the other amylaceous substances1 it forms a valuable and nutritious article of food for the invalid4 ,the large tuberous roots of the ,canna are equal in size to the human head4 ,the plant attains in rich soils a stature of fourteen feet1 and is identical1 it is supposed1 with the ,achira of ,choco1 which has an esculent root highly esteemed2 and my friend1 ,dr4 ,hamilton1 of ,plymouth1 has named it provisionally1 in consequence1 ,canna achira4 ,the starch of this root1 he asserts1 is superior to that of the ,maranta4 ,,root ,,crops4 ,amongst tuberous rooted plants1 which serve as food for man in various quarters of the globe1 the principal are the common potato1 yam1 cocoes or eddoes1 sweet potatoes1 taro1 tacca1 arrowroot1 cassava1 or manioc1 and the ,apios 7,arracacha esculenta74 ,there are others of less importance1 which may be incidentally mentioned4 ,the roots of ,tropolum tuberosum are eaten in ,peru1 those of ,ocymum tuberosum in ,java4 ,in ,kamschatka they use the root of the ,lilium ,pomponium as a substitute for the potato4 ,in ,brazil the ,helianthus tuberosus4 ,the rhizom and seed vessels of the ,lotus form the principal food of the aborigines of ,australia4 ,as a matter of curious information1 ,i have also briefly alluded to many other plants and roots1 furnishing farinaceous substance and support in different countries4 ,the comparative amount of human food that can be produced upon an acre from different crops1 is worthy of great consideration4 ,one hundred bushels of ,indian corn per acre is not an uncommon crop4 ,one peck per week will not only sustain life1 but give a man strength to labor1 if the stomach is properly toned to the amount of food4 ,this1 then1 would feed one man #djj weeks1 or almost eight years6 #djj bushels of potatoes can also be raised upon an acre4 ,this would give a bushel a week for the same length of time2 and the actual weight of an acre of sweet potatoes 7,convolvulus batatas7 is #ba1cdd lbs41 which is not considered an extraordinary crop4 ,this would feed a man 7six pounds a day7 for #c1eeg days1 or nine and two-third years6 ,to vary the diet we will occasionally give rice1 which has been grown at the rate of #ic bushels to the acre1 over an entire field4 ,this1 at #de lbs4 to the bushel1 would be #d1ahe lbs42 or1 at #bh lbs4 to the bushel when husked1 #b1fjd lbs41 which1 at two pounds a day1 would feed a man #a1cjb days1 or more than three-and-a-half years6 ,,potatoes4 ,the common ,english or ,irish potato 7,solanum tuberosum71 so extensively cultivated throughout most of the temperate countries of the civilised globe1 contributing as it does to the necessities of a large portion of the human race1 as well as to the nourishment and fattening of stock1 is regarded as of but little less importance in our national economy than wheat or other grain4 ,it has been found in an indigenous state in ,chili1 on the mountains near ,valparaiso and ,mendoza2 also near ,monte ,video1 ,lima1 ,quito1 as well as in ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 and more recently in ,mexico1 on the flanks of ,orizaba4 ,the history of this plant1 in connection with that of the sweet potato1 is involved in obscurity1 as the accounts of their introduction into ,europe are somewhat conflicting1 and often they appear to be confounded with one another4 ,the common kind was doubtless introduced into ,spain in the early part of the sixteenth century1 from the neighbourhood of ,quito1 where1 as well as in all ,spanish countries1 the tubers are known as papas4 ,the first published account of it we find on record is in ,la ,cronica del ,peru1 by ,pedro de ,cieca1 printed at ,seville1 in #aeec1 in which it is described and illustrated by an engraving4 ,from ,spain it appears to have found its way into ,italy1 where it assumed the same name as the truffle4 ,it was received by ,clusius1 at ,vienna1 in #aeih1 in whose time it spread rapidly in the ,south of ,europe1 and even into ,germany4 ,it is said to have found its way to ,england by a different route1 having been brought from ,virginia by ,raleigh colonists1 in #aehf1 which would seem improbable1 as it was unknown in ,north ,america at that time1 either wild or cultivated2 and besides1 ,gough1 in his edition of ,camden's ,britannia1 says it was first planted by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 on his estate at ,youghal1 near ,cork1 and that it was cultivated in ,ireland before its value was known in ,england4 ,gerarde1 in his ,herbal1 published in #aeig1 gives a figure of this plant1 under the name of ,batata ,virginiana1 to distinguish it from the ,batata edulis1 and recommends the root to be eaten as a delicate dish1 but not as a common food4 ,the sweet potato1 says ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 was used in ,england as a delicacy1 long before the introduction of our potatoes4 ,it was imported in considerable quantities from ,spain and the ,canaries1 and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed vigor4 ,it is related that the common potato was accidentally introduced into ,england from ,ireland1 at a period somewhat earlier than that noticed by ,gerarde1 in consequence of the wreck of a vessel on the coast of ,lancashire1 which had a quantity on board4 ,in #affc the ,royal ,society of ,england took measures for the cultivation of this vegetable1 with the view of preventing famine4 ,notwithstanding its utility as a food became better known1 no high character was attached to it2 and the writers on gardening towards the end of the seventeenth century1 a hundred years or more after its introduction1 treated of it rather indifferently4 ,they are much used in ,ireland and ,america as bread1 says one author1 and may be propagated with advantage to poor people4 ,the famous nurserymen1 ,loudon and ,wise1 did not consider it worthy of notice in their ,complete ,gardener1 published in #agai4 ,but its use gradually spread as its excellencies became better understood4 ,it was near the middle of the last century before it was generally known either in ,britain or ,north ,america1 since which it has been most extensively cultivated4 ,the period of the introduction of the common potato into the ,british ,north ,american colonies1 is not precisely known4 ,it is mentioned among the products of ,carolina and ,virginia in #agdi1 and by ,kalm as growing in ,new ,york the same year4 ,the culture of this root extends through the whole of ,europe1 a large portion of ,asia1 ,australia1 the southern and northern parts of ,africa1 and the adjacent islands4 ,on the ,american continent1 with the exception of some sections of the torrid zone1 the culture ranges from ,labrador on the east1 and ,nootka ,sound on the west1 to ,cape ,horn4 ,it resists more effectually than the cereals the frosts of the north4 ,in the ,north ,american ,union it is principally confined to the ,northern1 ,middle1 and ,western ,states1 where1 from the coolness of the climate it acquires a farinaceous consistence highly conducive to the support of animal life4 ,it has never been extensively cultivated in ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana1 probably from the greater facility of raising the sweet potato1 its more tropical rival4 ,its perfection1 however1 depends as much upon the soil as on the climate in which it grows2 for in the red loam1 on the banks of ,bayou ,boeuf1 in ,louisiana1 where the land is new1 it is said that tubers are produced as large1 savory1 and as free from water as any raised in other parts of the world4 ,the same may be said of those grown at ,bermuda1 ,madeira1 the ,canaries1 and numerous other ocean isles4 ,the chief varieties cultivated in the ,northern ,states of ,america are the carter1 the kidneys1 the pink-eyes1 the mercer1 the orange1 the ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 the merino1 and ,western red2 in the ,middle and ,western ,states1 the mercer1 the long red1 or merino1 the orange1 and the ,western red4 ,the yield varies from #ej to #djj bushels and upwards per acre1 but generally it is below #bjj bushels4 ,within the last ten years an alarming disease1 or rot1 has attacked the tubers of this plant1 about the time they are fully grown4 ,it has not only appeared in nearly every part of ,america1 but has spread dismay1 at times1 throughout ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 and has been felt more or less seriously in every quarter of the globe4 ,to the greater uncertainty attending its cultivation of late years1 must be attributed the deficiency of the ,united ,states crop of #ahdi1 as compared with that of #ahci4 ,this is one of the four agricultural products which1 by the last census1 appears smaller than ten years since4--7,american ,census ,reports for #ahej47 ,the crops in ,ireland1 where the potato is the principal object of culture1 vary from #a to #aj tons per acre1 according to the season2 but in the average of three years ending #ahdi1 the annual growth of ,great ,britain and ,ireland amounted to nine million tons1 which1 at #c per ton1 exhibits the value at #bg1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,ireland produced in #ahdg a little over two million tons1 the yield being #g tons per acre4 ,in #ahdh the produce was #b1hhj1had tons1 averaging only four tons to the acre4 ,in #ahdi1 #d1jad1abb tons1 averaging #e tons to the acre4 ,in #ahej1 #c1ied1iij tons2 and in #ahea1 #d1dda1jbb tons2 the average yield per acre not stated4 ,in many parts of ,scotland #bd tons to the acre are raised4 ,the sales of potatoes in the principal metropolitan markets exceed #adj1jjj tons a year1 which are irrespective of the sales which take place at railway stations1 wharfs1 shops1 c4 ,the imports into the ,united ,kingdom average about #gj1jjj tons annually4 ,potatoes are exported to the ,west ,indies1 ,mediterranean1 and other quarters4 ,for emigrant ships1 preserved or dried potato flour is now much used4 ,the following quantities of potato flour were imported from ,france in the last few years3-- ,cwts4 #ahdh #ag1bbb #ahdi #c1heh #ahej #ab1eia #ahea #b1fca ,we also imported the following quantities of potatoes in the last five years3-- ,cwts4 #ahdh #idj1fig #ahdi #a1dag1hfg #ahej #a1cdh1hfg #ahea #fcf1gga #aheb #ggc1feh ,thoroughly dried potatoes will always produce a crop free from disease4 ,such is the positive assertion of ,mr4 ,bollman1 one of the professors in the ,russian ,agricultural ,institution1 at ,gorigoretsky4 ,in a very interesting pamphlet#dg by this gentleman1 it is asserted1 as an unquestionable fact1 that mere drying1 if conducted at a sufficiently high temperature1 and continued long enough1 is a complete antidote to the disease4 ,the account given by ,professor ,bollman of the accident which led to this discovery is as follows3--,he had contrived a potato-setter1 which had the bad quality of destroying any sprouts that might be on the sets1 and even of tearing away the rind4 ,to harden the potatoes so as to protect them against this accident1 he resolved to dry them4 ,in the spring of #ahej1 he placed a lot in a very hot room1 and at the end of three weeks they were dry enough to plant4 ,the potatoes came up well1 and produced as good a crop as that of the neighbouring farmers1 with this difference only1 that they had no disease1 and the crop was1 therefore1 upon the whole1 more abundant4 ,professor ,bollman tells us that he regarded this as a mere accident2 he1 however1 again dried his seed potatoes in #ahea1 and again his crop was abundant and free from disease1 while everywhere on the surrounding land they were much affected4 ,this was too remarkable a circumstance not to excite attention1 and in #aheb a third trial took place4 ,all ,mr4 ,bollman's own stock of potatoes being exhausted1 he was obliged to purchase his seed1 which bore unmistakable marks of having formed part of a crop that had been severely diseased2 some1 in fact1 were quite rotten4 ,after keeping them about a month in a hot room1 as before1 he cut the largest potatoes into quarters1 and the smaller into halves1 and left them to dry for another week4 ,accidentally the drying was carried so far that apprehensions were entertained of a very bad crop1 if any4 ,contrary to expectation1 however1 the sets pushed promptly1 and grew so fast that excellent young potatoes were dug three weeks earlier than usual4 ,eventually nine times the quantity planted was produced1 and although the neighbouring fields were attacked1 no trace of disease could be found on either the herbage or the potatoes themselves4 ,this singular result1 obtained in three successive years1 led to inquiry as to whether any similar cases were on record4 ,in the course of the investigation two other facts were elicited4 ,it was discovered that ,mr4 ,losovsky 7living in the government of ,witebsk1 in the district of ,sebege71 had for four years adopted the plan of drying his seed potatoes1 and that during that time there had been no disease on his estate4 ,it was again an accident which led to the practice of this gentleman4 ,five years ago1 while his potatoes were digging1 he put one in his pocket1 and on returning home threw it on the stove 7poele71 where it remained forgotten till the spring4 ,having then chanced to observe it1 he had the curiosity to plant it1 all dried up as it was1 and obtained an abundant1 healthy crop2 since that time the practice of drying has been continued1 and always with great success4 ,professor ,bollman remarks that it is usual in ,russia1 in many places1 to smoke-dry flax1 wheat1 and rye2 and in the west of ,russia1 experienced proprietors prefer1 for seed1 onions that have been kept over the winter in cottages without a chimney4 ,such onions are called dymka1 which may be interpreted smoke-dried4 ,the second fact is this3--,mr4 ,wasileffsky1 a gentlemen residing in the government of ,mohileff1 is in the habit of keeping potatoes all the year round1 by storing them in the place where his hams are smoked4 ,it happened that in the spring of #aheb his seed potatoes1 kept in the usual manner1 were insufficient1 and he made up the requisite quantity with some of those which had been for a month in the smoking place4 ,these potatoes produced a capital crop1 very little diseased1 while at the same time the crop from the sets which were not smoke-dried was extensively attacked by disease4 ,professor ,bollman is of opinion that there would have been no disease at all if the sets had been better dried4 ,the temperature required to produce the desired result is not very clearly made out4 ,mr4 ,bollman's room1 in which his first potatoes were dried1 was heated to about #gb degrees1 and much higher4 ,by way of experiment he placed others in the chamber of the stove itself1 where the thermometer stood at #acf degrees1 and more4 ,he also ascertained that the vitality of the potato is not affected1 even if the rind is charred4 ,those who have the use of a malt-kiln1 or even a lime-kiln1 might try the effect of excessive drying1 for a month seems to be long enough for the process4--7,gardener's ,chronicle47 ,a ,mr4 ,penoyer1 of ,western ,saratoga1 ,illinois1 publishes the following1 which he recommends as a perfect cure and preventive of the potato rot1 having tested it thoroughly four years with perfect success2 while others in the same field1 who did not use the preventive1 lost their entire crop by the rot4 ,it not only prevents the rot1 but restores the potato to its primitive vigor1 and the product is not only sound1 but double the size1 consequently producing twice the quantity on the same ground1 and the vines grow much larger1 and retain their freshness and vitality until the frost kills them4 ,aside from the cure of the rot1 the farmers would be more than doubly compensated for their trouble and expense in the increase and quality of the crop4 ,the remedy or preventive is as follows3--,take one peck of fine salt and mix it thoroughly with half a bushel of ,nova ,scotia plaster or gypsum 7the plaster is the best71 and immediately after hoeing the potatoes the second time1 or just as the young potato begins to set1 sprinkle on the main vines1 next to the ground1 a tablespoon full of the above mixture to each hill1 and be sure to get it on the main vines1 as it is found that the rot proceeds from a sting of an insect in the vine1 and the mixture coming in contact with the vine1 kills the effect of it before it reaches the potato4 ,i cannot but consider ,professor ,bollman's as the most important of the two remedies suggested4 ,the potato crop of the ,united ,states exceeds #ajj million bushels1 nearly all of which are consumed in the country2 the average exports of the last eight years not having exceeded #afj1jjj bushels per annum4 ,according to the census returns of #ahdj1 the quantity of potatoes of all sorts raised in the ,union1 was #ajh1bih1jfj bushels2 of #ahej1 #ajd1jee1ihi bushels1 of which #ch1bei1aif bushels were sweet potatoes4 ,last year 7#aheb7 there was under cultivation with potatoes in ,canada1 the following extent of land3-- ,acres4 ,bushels4 ,upper ,canada #gg1fgb ,produce #dih1gdg ,lower ,canada #gc1bdd ,produce #def1aaa ,about #ghb1jjh cwts4 of potatoes are annually exported from the ,canary ,islands4 ,in ,prussia1 #aec million hectolitres of potatoes were raised in #ahdi4 ,in #ahdj ,van ,diemen's ,land produced #ae1jjj tons of potatoes1 on about #e1jjj acres of land4 ,the potato is not yet an article of so much importance in ,france1 as in ,england or the ,low ,countries1 but within the last twenty years its cultivation has increased very rapidly4 ,it is mostly grown where corn is the least cultivated4 ,the quantity raised in #ahah1 was #bi1bca1hfg hectolitres1 which had increased in #ahce to #ga1ihb1had hectolitres4 ,about #b1jjj1jjj hectolitres of chesnuts are also annually consumed in ,france1 a portion of the rural population in some of the ,central and ,southern ,departments living almost entirely on them for half the year4 ,in ,peru dried potatoes are thus prepared3--,small potatoes are boiled1 peeled1 and then dried in the sun1 but the best are those dried by the severe frosts on the mountains4 ,in the ,cordilleras they are covered with ice1 until they assume a horny appearance4 ,powdered1 it is called chimo4 ,they will keep for any length of time1 and when used required to be bruised and soaked4 ,if introduced as a vegetable substance in long sea voyages1 the potato thus dried would be found wholesome and nourishing4 ,a large and profitable business is now carried on1 in what is called preserved potatoes1 for ships' use1 prepared by ,messrs4 ,edwards and ,co41 which are found exceedingly useful in the ,royal ,navy1 in emigrant ships1 for troops and other services1 from their portability1 nutritious properties1 and being uninjured by climate4 ,few persons are probably aware of the quantity of potatoes used in ,england1 ,america and the ,continent1 in the manufacture of starch1 arrowroot1 and tapioca1 c41 ,a starch manufactory in ,mercer1 ,maine1 ,united ,states1 grinds from #af1jjj to #bd1jjj bushels annually of potatoes1 and makes #adj1jjj to #bdj1jjj lbs4 of starch1 which finds a ready market at ,boston1 at four dollars the hundred pounds4 ,the ,new ,england manufacturers prefer it to ,poland starch4 ,another starch manufacturer1 in ,hampden1 ,america1 consumes #b1ejj bushels per day4 ,in a single district in ,bavaria1 in ,germany1 #djj1jjj lbs4 of sago and starch are manufactured from potatoes2 #ajj lbs4 of potatoes are said to yield #ab lbs4 of starch4 ,from experiments made in ,america1 with three varieties of potatoes1 the long reds1 ,philadelphia1 and pink-eyes1 it was found that the former yielded the most starch1 viz41 about #f lbs4 to the bushel4 ,a bushel of potatoes weighs about #fd lbs4 ,the following table from ,accum1 gives the rate of starch and component parts per cent4 in different varieties3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,sort4 ,fibrine4,starch4,vegetable ,gum4 ,acids and,water4 ,albumen4 ,salts4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,red potatoes #g4j #ae4j #a4d #d4a #e4a #ge4j ,ditto germinated #f4h #ab4b #a4c #c4g #gc4j ,potato sprouts #b4h #j4d #j4d #c4c #ic4j ,kidney potatoes #h4h #i4a #j4h #ha4c ,large red ditto #f4j #ab4i #j4g #gh4j ,sweet ditto #h4b #ae4a #j4h #gd4c ,potato of ,peru #e4b #ae4j #a4i #a4i #gf4j ,ditto of ,england #f4h #ab4i #a4a #a4g #gg4e ,onion potato #h4d #ah4g #j4i #a4g #gj4c ,voigtland #g4a #ae4d #a4b #b4j #gd4c ,cultivated in the environs of ,paris #f4h #ac4c #j4i #c4c #a4d #gc4a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the first six varieties were analysed by ,einhoff1 the next four by ,lamped1 and the last named by ,henry4 ,,yams4 ,the different species of yams have a wide range4 ,in the ,west ,indies there are several varieties1 having distinctive names1 according to quality1 color1 c41 as the white yam1 the red yam1 the negro yam1 the creole yam1 the afoo yam1 the buck yam 7,dioscorea triphylla71 which is found wild in ,java and the ,east2 the ,guinea yam1 the ,portuguese yam1 the water yam1 and the ,indian yam1 c4 ,the last is considered the most farinaceous and delicate in its texture1 resembling in size the potato2 most of the other sorts are coarse1 but still very nutritive and useful4 ,the common yam 7,dioscorea sativa7 is indigenous to the ,eastern ,islands and ,west ,indies4 ,the ,guinea yam 7,d4 aculeata7 is a native of the ,east4 ,the ,barbados or winged yam 7,d4 alata87 has a widely extended range1 being common to ,india1 ,java1 ,brazil1 and ,western ,africa4 ,the yam species are climbing plants1 with handsome foliage1 of the simplest culture1 which succeed well in any light1 rich1 or sandy soil1 and are readily increased by dividing the tuberous roots4 ,the ,indian1 ,barbados1 and red yams are planted in the ,west ,indies early in ,may1 and dug early in the ,january following4 ,if not bruised1 they will keep well packed in ashes1 the first nine1 and the second and last twelvemonths4 ,the ,portuguese and ,guinea yams are planted early in ,january and dug in ,september4 ,creole yams and ,tanias are dug in ,january4 ,sweet potatoes from ,january to ,march4 ,in most of our colonies large crops of the finest descriptions of yams1 cocos1 c41 could be obtained1 but the planting of ground provisions is too much neglected by all classes4 ,from the tubers of yams of all sorts1 and particularly the buck yam1 starch is easily prepared1 and of excellent quality4 ,some varieties of the buck yam are purple-fleshed1 often of a very deep tint1 approaching to black1 and although this is an objection1 because it renders more washing necessary1 yet even from these the starch is at last obtained perfectly white4 ,as an edible root the buck yam1 especially when grown in a light soil1 is equal to the potato1 if not superior to it4 ,it does not1 however1 keep for any length of time1 and therefore could not be exported to ,europe1 unless the roots were sliced and dried4 ,yams and sweet potatoes thrive well in the northern parts of ,australia2 indeed the former are indigenous there1 and constitute the chief article of vegetable food used by the natives4 ,the yam was introduced into ,sweden1 where it succeeded well1 and bread1 starch1 and brandy were made from it1 but it prefers a warmer climate4 ,yams are occasionally brought to this country4 ,when cooked1 either by roasting or boiling1 the root is even more nutritious than the potato1 nor is it possessed of any unpalatable flavor1 the pecularity being between that of rice and the potato4 ,dressed in milk1 or mashed1 they are absolutely a delicacy2 and from the abundance in which they are cultivated in the ,west ,indies and other parts1 they promise to become a most economical and nutritious substitute for the potato4 ,the yam frequently grows to the enormous size of forty or fifty pounds weight1 but in this large state it is coarse-flavored and fibrous4 ,an acre of land is capable of producing #d tons of yams1 and the same quantity of sweet potatoes1 within the twelve months1 or nine tons per acre for both1 being nearly as much as the return obtained at home in the cultivation of potatoes2 and ,i have the authority of all analytical chemists for saying that in point of value1 as an article of food1 the superiority is as two to one in favor of the tropical roots4 ,the kidney-rooted yam 7,d4 pentaphylla71 is indigenous to the ,polynesian islands1 and is sometimes cultivated for its roots4 ,it is called kawaii in the ,feejee islands4 ,d4 bulbifera1 a native of the ,east1 is also abundantly naturalised in the ,polynesian islands1 but is not considered edible4 ,there are seven or eight kinds of yams grown in ,india4 ,two are of a remarkably fine flavor1 one weighing as much as eighteen pounds1 the other three pounds4 ,these are found in the ,tartar country4 ,,cocos ,,or ,,eddoes ,arum esculentum4--,this root has not hitherto been considered of sufficient importance to demand particular care in its cultivation1 except by those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits1 and derive their subsistence from the production of the soil4 ,but though the cultivation of the root is almost unknown to the higher classes in society1 and little regarded by planters in the colonies1 it is a most valuable article of consumption4 ,amongst the laboring population it is the principal dependence for a supply of food4 ,long droughts may disappoint the hopes of the yam crop1 storms and blight may destroy the plantain walks1 but neither dry or wet weather materially injure the coco2 it will always make some return1 and though it may not afford a plentiful crop1 it will yield a sufficiency until a supply can be had from other sources4 ,for this reason the laborer in the ,west ,indies always takes care to put in a good plant of cocos to his provision ground as a stand by1 and knowing their value1 is perhaps the only person who bestows any degree of care or attention upon them4 ,previous to their emancipation1 whole families of negroes lived upon the produce of one provision ground1 and the coco formed the main article of their support4 ,where the soil is congenial to the white and black ,bourbon coco1 the labor of one industrious person once a fortnight will raise a supply sufficient for the consumption of a family of six or seven persons4 ,the coco begins to bear after the first year1 and with common care and cultivation the same plant ought to give annually two or three returns for several years4 ,in ,jamaica1 a disease something similar to that affecting the potato1 has been found injurious to the coco root4 ,this disease1 which has baffled all inquiry as to its origin1 affects the plants in and after the second year of their being planted4 ,the first indication of it is the change in the leaves1 which gradually turn to a yellow hue1 have a sickly appearance1 and at length drop off at the surface of the earth4 ,the stock or coco head1 as it is called1 below ground1 having become rotten1 nothing but a soft pulpy mass remains4 ,in some fields every third or fourth root is thus affected1 in others much greater numbers are destroyed1 so much so that the field requires to be almost entirely replanted1 by which not only an expense is entailed1 but a heavy loss sustained1 from the field being thrown out of its regular bearing4 ,the black coco seems to suffer less than the white4 ,another species1 the ,taro 7,arum ,colocasia1 ,colocasia esculenta and macrorhizon71 is an important esculent root in the ,polynesian islands4 ,in the dry method of culture practised on the mountains of ,hawaii1 the roots are protected by a covering of fern leaves4 ,the cultivation of taro is hardly a process of multiplication1 for the crown of the root is perpetually replanted4 ,as the plant endures for a series of years1 the tuberous roots serve at some of the rocky groups as a security against famine4 ,it is also extensively cultivated in ,madeira and ,zanzibar1 and has even withstood the climate of ,new ,zealand4 ,it is grown also in ,egypt1 ,syria1 and some of the adjacent countries1 for its esculent roots4 ,a species is cultivated in the ,deccan1 for the sake of the leaves1 which form a substitute for spinach4 ,farina is obtained from the root of ,arum ,rumphii in ,polynesia4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes4 ,the batatas1 or camote of the ,spanish colonies 7,convolvulus batatas1 ,linn2 ,batatas edulis1 of ,choisy1 and the ,ipoma ,batatas of other botanists71 belongs to a family of plants which has been split into several genera4 ,it is a native of the ,east ,indies1 and of intertropical ,america1 and was the potato of the old ,english writers in the early part of the fourteenth century4 ,it was doubtless introduced into ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,virginia soon after their settlement by the ,europeans1 being mentioned as one of the cultivated products of those colonies as early as the year #afdh4 ,it grows in excessive abundance throughout the ,southern ,states of ,america1 and as far north as ,new ,jersey1 and the southern part of ,michigan4 ,the varieties cultivated there are the purple1 the red1 the yellow1 and the white1 the former of which is confined to the ,south4 ,the amount of sweet potatoes exported from ,south ,carolina in #agdg-dh1 was #gjj bushels2 that of the common potato exported from the ,united ,states1 #ahbj-ba1 #ij1hhi1jjj bushels2 in #ahcj-ca1 #aab1hge1jjj bushels2 in #ahdj-da1 #acf1jie1jjj bushels2 in #ahej-ea1 #ajf1cdb1jjj bushels4 ,the sweet potato is cultivated generally in all the intertropical regions1 for the sake of its roots1 and as a legume in temperate countries4 ,in the ,southern ,states of ,north ,america1 the culture ceases in ,carolina under latitude #cf degs42 in ,portugal and ,spain it reaches to latitude #dj and #db deg42 and as a legume its cultivation is attempted to the vicinity of ,paris4 ,in ,india it is a very common crop2 its tubers are very similar to the potato1 but have a sweeter taste1 whence the common name2 but it must not be confounded with the topinambur 7,helianthus tuberosus71 a native of ,brazil1 which is less cultivated4 ,the root contains much saccharine and amylaceous matter4 ,several marked varieties of the sweet potato are raised in the ,polynesian groups4 ,in some islands it forms the principal object of cultivation4 ,it is grown in the ,northern districts of ,new ,zealand1 at ,zanzibar1 ,monomoisy1 ,bombay1 and other parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,they are raised on the bare surface of the rock in some parts of the ,hawaiian islands1 and a sourish liquor is procured from them4 ,it was early cultivated on the ,western ,coast of ,africa1 for the ,portuguese ,pilot 7who set out on his voyages to the colony at ,st4 ,thomas1 in the ,gulf of ,guinea7 speaks of this plant1 and states that it is called batata by the aboriginals of ,st4 ,domingo4 ,they are abundant at ,mocha and ,muscat4 ,sweet potatoes form a principal and important crop in the ,bermudas4 ,a valuable addition has lately been made to the votaries of the sweet potato in ,alabama1 supposed to be from ,peru4 ,a letter describing it says3--,it is altogether different and equally superior to any variety of this root hitherto known4 ,it is productive1 and attains a prodigious size1 even upon the poorest sandy land1 and the roots remain without change from the time of taking them out of the ground until the following ,may4 ,the plant is singularly easy of cultivation1 growing equally well from the slip or vine1 the top or vine of the full-grown plant being remarkably small2 the inside is as white as snow4 ,it is dry and mealy1 and the saccharine principle contained resembles in delicacy of flavor fine virgin honey4 ,there is in general a great error in cultivating this root1 as most people still plant in the old way1 two or three sets in the hole1 which is a great deal too close4 ,when a piece of land is to be planted in sweet potatoes1 it should be top-dressed with some manure1 to be dug or ploughed under a week or two before it is to be planted4 ,drills should be made two feet apart1 and the potatoes placed in the drill about one foot asunder4 ,from eight to twelve to the pound are the best size for planting4 ,the white upright kind1 when intended for sets1 should be taken up early in ,march1 and kept about a month1 so as to be quite dry before planting4 ,abundant crops can rarely be raised from the stem of the uprights2 the old potato1 however1 grows to a large size4 ,i have planted a potato weighing about an ounce1 and dug it up in ,august1 weighing over two pounds4 ,the drills can be made with a small plough to great advantage1 when a person understands it4 ,the best manure for the sweet potato is anything green1 such as fresh seaweed1 green oats1 bushes1 or anything of the kind1 put in in abundance4 ,care should be taken to get early and good strong slips4 ,a slip with about six joints is quite long enough2 three or four joints to be put under ground1 and the rest above4 ,for slips1 the land must be prepared as already described for the potatoes2 this should be done before the slips are ready to cut4 ,the best way to plant slips is to drill1 the same way as for the potatoes1 only a little closer2 then put the end of the slip in1 leaving about two joints out of ground1 placing them one foot apart4 ,the drills can be made in dry weather1 so as not to have any delay when it rains2 by this means a great many can be planted in a day4 ,the best land for sweet potatoes is the light sandy kind2 a rich friable black mould1 or a rocky substratum2 for hill sides1 rocky ravines1 and places which would be called barren and unprofitable for other crops1 are found to yield a good return when planted with sweet potatoes4 ,the best time to plant slips to get stock from1 is the latter end of ,august or early in ,september1 as the season may suit4 ,the sweet potato of ,java1 says ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 is the finest ,i ever met with4 ,some are frequently of several pounds weight1 and now and then have been found of the enormous weight of #ej lbs4 ,the sweetness is not disagreeable to the palate1 though considerable1 and they contain a large portion of farinaceous matter1 being as mealy as the best of our own potatoes4 ,in ,java it is cultivated in ordinary upland arable1 or in the dry season as a green crop in succession to rice4 ,a tuberous root 7,ocymum tuberosum71 an inhabitant of the hot plains1 is frequently cultivated in ,java4 ,it is small1 round1 and much resembling in appearance the ,american potato1 but has no great flavor4 ,its local name is kantang4 ,,cassava ,,or ,,manioc4 ,of this plant1 which is a shrub about six feet high1 extensively grown for its farinaceous root1 there are several species1 nearly all natives of ,america1 principally of ,brazil1 whence it derives one of its common names of ,manihot or ,mandioc4 ,two species of ,manihot have been found indigenous in ,south ,australia4 ,the varieties commonly cultivated for their roots1 are the sweet and the bitter4 #a4 ,sweet cassava 7,janiphi 7or ,jatropha17 ,loeflingii1 ,kunth2 ,manihot ,aipi1 of ,pohl74--,this species has a spindle-shaped root brown externally1 about six or seven ounces or more in weight1 which contains amylaceous matter1 without any bitterness1 and is used as food1 after being rasped and washed1 so as to cleanse it from the fibrous matter1 in the same manner as arrowroot is prepared4 ,it is distinguished from the bitter cassava by a tough ligneous fibre1 which runs through the heart of the tuber4 ,manihot starch is sometimes imported into ,europe under the name of ,brazilian arrowroot4 ,the cassava is known in ,peru as yucca4 ,a dry mixed soil is best suited to its culture4 ,so exhausting is this crop1 that it cannot be raised more than two or three times successively on the same land4 ,the roots arrive at maturity in eight or nine months after planting1 but may be kept in the ground a much longer time without injury4 ,sweet cassava might be sliced1 dried in the sun1 and sent to ,europe in that state4 ,in dry weather the process succeeds remarkably well1 and the dried slices keep for a considerable time4 ,dr4 ,shier ascertained that when these sliced and dried roots were first steeped and then boiled1 they return to very nearly their original condition1 and make an excellent substitute for the potato4 ,the plant thrives on even the poorest soil2 the mode of planting is simple4 ,it consists in laying cuttings a foot long in square pits a foot deep1 and covering them with mould1 leaving the upper ends open4 ,from two to four pieces may be placed in each square4 ,the planting ought to be in the rainy season4 ,the cuttings must be made from the full-grown stem4 ,a humid soil causes the root to decay1 a dry soil is therefore more adapted for its cultivation4 ,as blossoms are occasionally plucked from potato plants1 so the manihot or cassava is deprived of its buds to increase the size of its roots4 ,the raw root of the bitter species1 when taken out of the ground1 is poisonous--if exposed1 however1 to the sun for a short time1 it is innocuous1 and when boiled is quite wholesome4 ,the starch of the root of the manioc is prepared in the following manner1 as described by ,dr4 ,ure3-- ,the roots are washed and reduced to a pulp by means of a rasp or grater4 ,the pulp is put into coarse strong canvas bags1 and thus submitted to the action of a powerful press1 by which it parts with most of its noxious juice4 ,as the active principle of this juice is volatile1 it is easily dissipated by baking the squeezed cakes of pulp upon a plate of hot iron4 ,the pulp thus dried concretes into lumps1 which become hard and friable as they cool4 ,they are then broken into pieces1 and laid out in the sun to dry4 ,in this state they are a wholesome nutriment4 ,these cakes constitute the only provisions laid in by the natives1 in their voyages upon the ,amazon4 ,boiled in water1 with a little beef or mutton1 they form a kind of soup similar to that of rice4 ,the cassava cakes sent to ,europe are composed almost entirely of starch1 along with a few fibres of the ligneous matter4 ,it may be purified by diffusion in warm water1 passing the milky mixture through a linen cloth1 evaporating the straining liquid over the fire1 with constant agitation4 ,the starch1 dissolved by the heat1 thickens as the water evaporates1 but on being stirred it becomes granulated1 and must be finally dried in a proper stove4 #b4 ,bitter cassava 7,janipha ,manihot1 of ,kunth2 ,jatropha ,manihot1 of ,linnus2 and ,manihot utilissima1 ,pohl74--,this species has a knotty root1 black externally1 which is occasionally #cj lbs4 in weight4 ,in the root there is much starchy matter deposited1 usually along with a poisonous narcotic substance1 which is said to be hydrocyanic acid4 ,the juice of the plant1 when distilled1 affords as a first product a liquor which1 in the dose of thirty drops1 will cause the death of a man in six minutes4 ,it is doubted whether this acid pre-exists in the plant2 some suppose it to be generated after it is grated down into a pulp4 ,it can be driven off by roasting1 and then the starch is used in the form of cassava bread4 ,it is principally from the starch of the bitter cassava that tapioca is prepared by elutriation and granulating on hot plates4 ,this serves to agglutinate it into the form of concretions1 constituting the tapioca of commerce4 ,this being starch very nearly pure1 is often prescribed by physicians as an aliment of easy digestion4 ,a tolerably good imitation of it is made by beating1 stirring1 and drying potato starch in a similar way4 ,the grated starch of the roots1 floated in water1 is spontaneously deposited1 and when repeatedly washed and dried in the sun1 forms cassava flour1 called ,moussache by the ,french4 ,the juice of the bitter cassava1 mixed with molasses and fermented1 has been made into an intoxicating liquor1 which is much relished by the negroes and ,indians4 ,the concentrated juice of the bitter cassava1 under the name of cassareep1 forms the basis of the ,west ,india dish1 pepper pot4 ,one of its most remarkable properties is its highly antiseptic power1 preserving meat that has been boiled in it for a much longer period than can be done by any other culinary process4 ,cassareep was originally an ,indian preparation4 ,the manioc or cassava is cultivated in ,america1 on both sides of the equator1 to about latitude #cj degrees north and south4 ,among the mountains of intertropical ,america1 it reaches to an elevation of #c1bjj feet4 ,it is cultivated also in great abundance on the island of ,zanzibar1 and among the negro tribes of ,eastern ,africa to the ,monomoesy1 inclusive2 on the west coast of ,africa1 in ,congo and ,guinea4 ,it appears not to have been introduced into ,asia4 ,the farina of the manioc is almost the only kind of meal used in ,brazil1 at least in the north1 near the equator4 ,an acre of manioc is said to yield as much nutriment as six acres of wheat4 ,meyen states1 ,it is not possible sufficiently to praise the beautiful manioc plant4 ,the ,indians find in this a compensation for the rice and other cerealia of the ,old ,world4 ,it has been carried from ,brazil to the ,mauritius and ,madagascar4 ,the following quantities of ,brazilian arrowroot1 or tapioca1 were imported in the undermentioned years3-- ,cwts4 #ahcc #idb #ahcd #hhh #ahce #a1ffc #ahcf #c1gce #ahcg #b1adb #ahch #dfb #ahci #djb #ahdj #ihc #ahda #a1hgj #ahdc #b1cbe ,st4 ,lucia grows a considerable quantity of manioc2 it exported of cassava flour in-- ,barrels4 #ahbg #h #ahbh #had #ahbi #bgi #ahcj #ii #ahca #ei #ahcd #gac ,the cassava root grows abundantly in most of the ,west ,india islands and tropical ,america2 the trouble of planting is inconsiderable1 and the profit arising from its manufacture1 even by the common process of hand-grating1 is immense4 ,i should be glad if ,i could induce the enterprising of our colonial settlers to give this a fair trial1 as well as encourage the present growers to increase their crops and improve the quality of the article1 so as to render it suitable for the ,english market4 ,the manufacture of starch will one of these days become a productive source of colonial wealth4 ,since cassava was first grown in the ,west1 its capabilities as a starch-producer have1 to a certain extent1 been known1 and for that purpose it has been in limited use4 ,mr4 ,james ,glen1 of ,haagsbosch plantation1 ,demerara1 has recently tested its value as an article of export1 and added it to the other industrial resources of that colony4 ,this gentleman1 by erecting machinery on his plantation for grinding the root and preparing the starch of the bitter cassava1 has already shipped the article in considerable quantities to ,europe1 and it has been sold at a price which puts the profit upon sugar cultivation completely to the blush4 ,his agent in ,glasgow writes1 that any quantity 7like that already shipped7 can command a ready sale at #i;d4 per lb4 ,its use is co-extensive1 or nearly so1 with that of sugar4 ,the productive capabilities of the soil are not perhaps generally known2 nor is it necessary that1 to pay the grower there1 it should bring even half that price4 ,a sample of a ton1 which was prepared at ,haagsbosch in #ahda1 was submitted for examination to ,dr4 ,shier1 at the colonial laboratory1 ,georgetown1 who admitted it to be a beautiful specimen of starch1 although it had undergone but one washing4 ,the root from which it was made1 was planted eight or nine months previously1 upon an acre of soil1 which had never undergone any preparation of ploughing1 or been broken and turned up in any way4 ,the plants were never weeded after they had begun to spring1 nor were they tended or disturbed until they were ripe and pulled up4 ,the expense of planting the acre was five dollars1 and reaping this crop would1 ,i suppose1 amount to as much more1 say #b in all4 ,the green cassava was never weighed1 but the acre yielded fully a ton of starch--equal1 at #i;d4 per lb41 to #hd4 ,the experimental researches of ,dr4 ,shier have led him to believe that the green bitter cassava will give one-fifth its weight of starch4 ,if this be the case the return per acre would1 under favorable circumstances1 when the land is properly worked1 be enormous4 ,on an estate at ,essequibo1 a short time ago1 an acre of cassava1 grown in fine permeable soil1 was lifted and weighed2 it yielded #be tons of green cassava4 ,such a return as this per acre would enable our ,west ,india colonies to inundate ,great ,britain with food1 and at a rate which would make flour to be considered a luxury4 ,dr4 ,shier is convinced that1 in thorough drained land1 where the roots could penetrate the soil1 and where its permeability would permit of their indefinite expansion1 a return of #be tons an acre might uniformly be calculated upon4 ,what a blessing1 not only for those colonies1 but for the world1 would the introduction be of this cheap and nutritious substitute for the potato4 ,,new ,,tuberous ,,plants ,,recommended ,,as ,,substitutes ,,for ,,the ,,potato4 ,in the present disturbed state of the grain markets of ,europe1 the advantage of cultivating plants which directly or indirectly can form a substitute for the potato1 admits of no doubt4 ,it appears to me1 moreover1 that when the way is once opened up1 even under ordinary circumstances1 the tropical colonies of ,great ,britain1 without diminishing the quantity of sugar and coffee they produce1 could advantageously supply the ,british market with the purest starches1 and possibly also with various other articles of farinaceous food4 ,anything that will lead the planters to a more varied cultivation than the present uniform and persistent one1 will be advantageous to our colonies2 and the growth of farinaceous root crops for exportation1 cannot fail to produce most beneficial effects on that class of the peasantry in the ,british possessions1 who are owners of small lots of land1 which at present they either totally neglect1 or cultivate most imperfectly4 ,in #ahdf1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,gesner1 one of my correspondents1 called attention1 in my ,colonial ,magazine1 to two indigenous roots of ,north ,america1 which he thought deserving special attention4 ,these were ,apios tuberosa1 and ,claytonia acutiflora1 or ,virginiana4 #a4 ,a4 tuberosa 7,boerhave71 or ,glycine ,apios4--,this plant is common throughout the ,northern and ,southern ,states of ,america1 and is also met with in the lower ,british ,north ,american ,provinces4 ,it is known under the native name of ,saa-ga-ban by the ,micmac ,indians1 by whom the pear-shaped roots are used as an article of food4 ,like the ,arachis hypoga1 it belongs to the ,leguminos family4 ,the fruit and flower resemble those of the wood vetch4 ,it is thus described in ,professor ,eaton's ,manual of ,botany for ,north ,america1 published in #ahcf3--;,color of corolla1 blue and purple2 time of flowering1 ,july 7and ,august in ,nova ,scotia71 perennial2 stem1 twining2 leaves1 pinnate1 with seven lance-ovate leaflets2 racemes shorter than the leaves1 axillary2 root1 tuberous4 ,root very nutritive2 ought to be generally cultivated4 ,the average size of the tubers is that of cherries1 but a few are found of much larger dimensions4 ,in their appearance they resemble the common potato1 having apparently the peculiar indentations called eyes4 ,the skin of the tuber is of a rusty or blackish brown color4 ,the interior is very white1 and the root has the taste and odor of the common potato4 ,the ,indians state that the roots1 if kept either in a dry or moist state1 will not suffer any decay for a lengthened period4 ,they are very farinaceous1 and contain a large per centage of starch1 which resembles that of wheat2 by being dried the tuber shrinks a little1 but it immediately expands on being thrown into warm water4 ,it contains much nutritive matter1 is wholesome1 and ,i have no doubt1 if properly cultivated1 it will prove to be very prolific4 ,the tubers are situated a few inches below the surface of the soil1 and are strung together like beads by a strong ligament4 ,a similar kind of earth-nut1 or tuberous root1 probably the ,glycine subterranea of ,linnus1 the ,voandzou of ,madagascar1 is extensively cultivated in various parts of ,africa4 #b4 ,claytonia acutiflora or ,virginiana1 the ,musquash of the ,micmac ,indians1 is found throughout the ,northern and ,southern ,states of ,north ,america4 ,it is thus described by ,prof4 ,eaton1 ,man4 ,bot4 ,n4,a4--,color of corolla1 white and red2 situation1 alpine1 perennial2 leaves1 linear1 lance-ovate2 petals1 obovate1 retuse2 leaves of the calyx1 somewhat acute2 root1 tuberous4 ,it blossoms in ,may4 ,the seed is ripe in ,june1 when the plant disappears4 ,these roots may be collected along the sea coasts and principal lakes and rivers of ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 and ,prince ,edward's ,island1 although they are not plentiful1 for they are greedily devoured by some of the wild animals1 and wherever swine have been permitted to run at large they have been destroyed4 ,dr4 ,gesner shipped several bushels of the saa-ga-ban to the principal agricultural societies in ,great ,britain1 also to ,halifax1 and ,nova ,scotia4 ,the ordinary potato of this country does not yield more than #ad per cent4 of starch1 and it contains #gf per cent4 of water4 ,from the best saa-ga-ban ,dr4 ,gesner obtained #ba per cent4 of starch1 and the quantity of water is reduced to #ej per cent4 ,it also contains vegetable albumen1 gum1 and sugar4 ,from these facts it is evident that the saa-ga-ban is much more nutritive than the potato1 and the weight of the tubers1 in their wild state1 compared with the weight of the slender vine in the best samples1 is equal in proportion to the common cultivated potato in its ordinary growth4 ,the starch is very white1 and closely resembles that made from the arrowroot4 ,it is not improbable that the quantity of water in the tuber will be increased by cultivation2 yet the fibrous parenchyma will be reduced1 and taken altogether1 the nutritive properties will be increased2 if the plant improve as much by cultivation as the potato and many others have done1 its success is certain4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians have several wild roots which they dig up for sustenance when other food is exhausted4 ,among these are--#ast1 the mendo1 or wild sweet potato2 #bnd1 the tip-sin-ah1 or wild prairie turnip2 #crd1 the omen-e-chah1 or wild bean4 ,the first is found throughout the valleys of the ,mississippi and ,st4 ,peter's1 about the basis of bluffs1 in rather moist but soft and rich ground4 ,the plant resembles the sweet potato1 and the root is similar in taste and growth4 ,it does not grow so large or long as the cultivated sweet potato1 but ,i should have thought it the same1 were it not that the wild potato is not affected by the frost4 ,a woman will dig from a peck to half a bushel a day4 ,the ,indians eat them1 simply boiled in water1 but prefer them cooked with fat meat4 ,the wild potato1 of the north-west of ,america1 is a general article of food2 it is called by them wabessepin2 it resembles the common potato1 is mealy when boiled1 and grows only in wet clay ground1 about one and a half feet deep4 ,the crane potato1 called sitchauc-wabessepin1 is of the same kind1 but inferior in quality4 ,the ,indians use these for food as well as the memomine1 and another long and slender root called watappinee4 ,probably it is the first of these that is referred to by ,nicollet1 as the prairie potato4 ,all the high prairies 7he says7 abound with the silver-leafed ,psoralia1 which is the prairie turnip of the ,americans1 the pomme des prairies of the ,canadians1 and furnishes an invaluable food to the ,indians4 ,there are several species of ,psoralia1 viz41 esculenta1 argophylla1 cuspidata1 and lanceolata4 ,the prairie turnip grows on the high dry prairies1 one or two together1 in size from that of a small hen's egg to that of a goose egg1 and of the same form4 ,they have a thick black or brown bark1 but are nearly pure white inside1 with very little moisture4 ,they are met with four to eight inches below the surface1 and are dug by the women with a long pointed stick1 forced into the ground and used as a lever4 ,they are eaten boiled and mashed like a turnip1 or are split open and dried for future use4 ,in this state they resemble pieces of chalk4 ,it is said that when thus dried they may be ground into flour1 and that they make a very palatable and nutritious bread4 ,m4 ,lamare ,picot1 a ,french naturalist1 has lately incurred a very considerable expense to obtain the seed1 which he has carried to ,france1 believing that it is capable of cultivation1 and may form a substitute both for potato and wheat4 ,the wild bean is found in all parts of the valleys where the land is moist and rich4 ,it is of the size of a large white bean1 with a rich and very pleasant flavor4 ,when used in a stew1 ,i have thought it superior to any garden vegetable ,i had ever tasted4 ,the ,indians are very fond of them1 and pigeons get fat on them in spring4 ,the plant is a slender vine1 from two to four feet in height1 with small pods two to three inches long1 containing three to five small beans4 ,the pod dries and opens1 the beans fall to the ground1 and in spring take root and grow again4 ,the beans on the ground are gathered by the ,indians1 who sometimes find a peck at once1 gathered by mice for their winter store4 ,there are also several kinds of edible roots growing in the ponds or small lakes1 which are gathered by the ,indians for food4 ,the psui-cinh-chah1 or swamp potato1 is found in mud and water1 about three feet deep4 ,the leaf is as large as the cabbage leaf4 ,the stem has but one leaf1 which has1 as it were1 two horns or points4 ,the root is obtained by the ,indian women2 they wade into the water and loosen the root with their feet1 which then floats1 and is picked up and thrown into a canoe4 ,it is of an oblong shape1 of a whitish yellow1 with four black rings around it1 of a slightly pungent taste1 and not disagreeable when eaten with salt or meat4 ,the psui-chah1 with a stem and leaf similar to the last1 has a root about the size of a large hickory-nut4 ,they grow in deep water1 and being smaller are much more difficult to get1 but the ,indians prefer them2 they have an agreeable taste1 and are harder and firmer when cooked4 ,both these roots are found in large quantities in the musk-rat lodges1 stored by them for winter use4 ,the ta-wah-pah1 with a stem1 leaf1 and yellow flower1 like the pond-lily1 is found in the lakes1 in water and mud1 from four to five feet deep4 ,the ,indian women dive for them1 and frequently obtain as many as they are able to carry4 ,the root is from one to two feet in height1 very porous2 there are as many as six or eight cells running the whole length of the root4 ,it is very difficult to describe the flavor4 ,it is slightly sweet and glutinous1 and is generally boiled with wild fowl1 but is occasionally roasted4 ,in his exploring expedition into the interior of ,guiana1 in the region of the ,upper ,essequibo1 ,sir ,e4 ,schomburgk notices the discovery of a variety of ,leguminos1 whose tubers grow to an enormous size1 fully equal to the largest yam4 ,these roots were not1 at the time he was there1 in full perfection1 but their taste was somewhat between the yam and the sweet potato4 ,the ,taruma ,indians called them ,cuyupa4 ,the roots are considered fit for use when the herb above ground dies4 ,sir ,robert brought a few of the seeds of the plant with him on his return to ,demerara4 ,two interesting productions have been recently introduced into the ,jardin des ,plantes1 at ,paris1 from the ,ecuador1 by ,m4 ,bourcier1 formerly ,consul-,general of ,france in that country4 ,one is the red and yellow ocas1 which is of the form of a long potato1 and has the taste of a chesnut2 the other is the milloco1 which has the taste and form of our best potatoes4 ,these two roots1 which are found in great abundance in the neighbourhood of ,quito1 grow readily in the poorest land4 ,the oca is cultivated in the fields of ,mexico1 but only succeeds in the warmer districts4 ,from the bulbous roots of the cacomite1 a species of ,tigridia1 a good flour is also prepared there4 ,stevenson 7,travels in ,south ,america1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ee7 says1 a root called the oca is cultivated in several of the colder provinces of ,peru4 ,this plant1 he states1 is of a moderate size1 in appearance somewhat like the acetous trefoil2 the roots yellow1 each about five or six inches long1 and two in circumference4 ,they have many eyes1 and the roots1 several of which are yielded by one plant1 are somewhat curved4 ,when boiled it is much sweeter than the camote or batata2 indeed it appears to contain more saccharine matter than any root ,i ever tasted2 if eaten raw it is very much like the chesnut4 ,the roots may be kept for many months in a dry place4 ,the transplanting of the oca 7he adds7 to ,england1 where ,i am persuaded it would prosper1 would add another agreeable and useful esculent to our tables4 ,the ,brussels paper1 ,l',emancipation1 mentions that a root has been discovered by the ,director of the ,museum of ,industry1 in that place1 destined to take the place of the potato4 ,it is the ,lathyrus tuberosus1 called by the peasants the earth mouse1 on account of its form1 and the earth chesnut on account of its taste4 ,this plant exists only in some localities of ,lorraine and ,burgundy4 ,the ,lathyrus has never been cultivated1 and it is thought that it will attain1 with cultivation1 the size of the potato4 ,the ,french peasants have a prejudice against cultivating it1 because they say it walks under ground1 and leaves the place it is planted in to go into the neighbouring field4 ,the fact is1 that it grows in a chaplet1 of which the bulbs are arranged along a root running horizontally1 of which the two extremities are very rarely found1 so that on taking up the hinder tubercles it continues its growth in front1 which gives rise to the saying that if the plant had only time enough1 it would make the tour of the world4 ,the bulb of ,gastrodia sesamoides 7,r4 ,brown71 a curious herbaceous species of orchis1 native of ,new ,holland1 is edible1 and preferred by the aborigines to potatoes and other tuberous roots4 ,some of my accredited informants believe it might be turned to profitable account1 but being a parasitic plant1 it could scarcely be systematically cultivated4 ,it flourishes in its wild state on loamy soil in low or sloping grounds4 ,the first indication of its vegetation in the spring1 is the appearance of a whitish bulb above the sward1 of an hemispherical shape1 and about the size of a small egg4 ,the dusky white covering resembles a fine white net1 and within it is a pellucid gelatinous substance4 ,again within this is a firm kernel1 about as large as a ,spanish nut1 and from this a fine fibrous root descends into the soil4 ,it is known in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 and other parts of ,australia1 by the common name of native bread4 ,captain ,hunter1 in his ,journal of the ,transactions at ,port ,jackson on the first settlement of the ,convict ,colony1 speaks of finding large quantities of wild yams1 on which the natives fed1 but the roots were not bigger than a walnut2 therefore it was probably this plant4 ,arracacha esculenta1 of ,bancroft and ,decandolle 7,conium ,arracacha74--,this perennial herb is a native of ,south ,america1 which1 from its salubrious qualities1 is extensively cultivated in the mountains of ,venezuela and other parts of tropical and ,southern ,america1 for culinary purposes4 ,it is propagated by planting pieces of the tuberous root1 in each of which is an eye or shoot4 ,the late ,baron de ,shack introduced it into ,trinidad1 from ,caraccas1 and it has thence been carried to the island of ,grenada4 ,it throve there remarkably well1 but has been unaccountably neglected4 ,he also sent roots of this valuable plant to ,london1 ,liverpool1 and ,glasgow4 ,although it bears cold better than the potato1 it requires a warmer and more equal temperature than most of the countries of ,europe afford4 ,it would1 however1 make an excellent addition to the culinary vegetables of many tropical countries1 uniting the taste of the potato and parsnip1 but being superior to both4 ,the arracacha has been introduced into the ,south of ,europe1 not as a substitute for1 but as a provision against a failure of the potato crop4 ,it is highly recommended by the ,rev4 ,j4,m4 ,wilson1 in the ,rural ,encyclopdia4 ,stevenson 7,travels in ,south ,america1 vol4 ii41 p4 #chc7 says the yucas 7cassava71 camotes 7sweet potatoes71 and yams cultivated at ,esmeraldas and that neighbourhood1 were the finest he ever saw4 ,it is not uncommon for one of these roots to weigh upwards of twenty pounds4 ,at one place ,i saw a few plants of the yuca that had stood upwards of twenty years1 the owner having frequently bared the bottom of the plants and taken the ripe roots1 after which1 throwing up the earth again1 and allowing a sufficient time for new roots to grow1 a continual succession of this excellent nutritious food was procured4 ,the ,aipi grows in ,brazil1 and according to ,t4 ,ashe1 may be eaten raw1 and1 when pressed1 yields a pleasant juice for drink2 or being inspissated by the heat of the sun1 is kept either to be boiled and eaten1 or dissolved and drank4 ,the tapinambar grows in ,chili1 and is used by the ,indians4 ,the tapioca1 or bay rash1 a plant which grows about the out-islands of the ,bahamas group1 was found of great use as a food plant to the inhabitants of ,long ,island1 during a scarcity of food occasioned by the drought in #ahdc4 ,this root grows in the form of a large beet1 and is from twelve to sixteen inches in length4 ,it is entirely farinaceous1 and1 when properly ground and prepared1 makes good bread4 ,it fetches there four to six cents a pound4 ,the root of the kooyah plant 7,valeriana edulis7 is much used by some of the ,north ,american ,indians as food4 ,the root is of a very bright yellow color1 with a peculiar taste and odor1 and hence is called tobacco root4 ,it is deprived of its strong poisonous qualities by being baked in the ground for about two days4 ,a variety of other roots and tubers furnish them with food4 ,among these are kamas root 7,camassia esculenta71 which is highly esteemed2 the bulb has a sweet pleasant flavor1 somewhat of the taste of preserved quince4 ,it is a strikingly handsome bulbous plant1 with large beautiful purple flowers4 ,yampah root 7,anethum graveolens7 is a common article of food with the ,indians of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the roots of a thistle 7,cersium virginianium1 or ,carduus virginianus71 which are about the ordinary size of carrots1 are also eaten by them4 ,they are sweet and well flavored1 but require a long preparation to fit them for use4 ,the people of ,southern ,india and ,ceylon have for many hundred years been in the habit of eating the bulb or root1 which is the first shoot from the ,palmyra nut1 which forms the germ of the future tree1 and is known locally as ,pannam kilingoes4 ,it is about the size of a common carrot1 though nearly white4 ,it forms a great article of food among the natives for several months in the year2 but ,europeans dislike it from its being very bitter4 ,recent experiments have proved that a farina superior to arrowroot can be obtained from it1 prepared in the same way2 and #ajj roots1 costing #b;d41 yield one and a-half to two pounds of the flour4 ,from the boiled inner bark of the ,russian larch1 mixed with rye flour1 and afterwards buried a few hours in the snow1 the hardy ,siberian hunters prepare a sort of leaven1 with which they supply the place of common leaven when the latter is destroyed1 as it frequently is by the intense cold4 ,the bark is nearly as valuable as oak bark4 ,from the inner bark the ,russians manufacture fine white gloves1 not inferior to those made of the most delicate chamois1 while they are stronger1 cooler1 and more pleasant for wearing in the summer4 ,the fruit of the ,cycas angulata forms the principal food of the ,australian aborigines during a portion of the year4 ,they cut it into thin slices1 which are first dried1 afterwards soaked in water1 and finally packed up in sheets of tea-tree bark4 ,in this condition it undergoes a species of fermentation2 the deleterious properties of the fruit are destroyed1 and a mealy substance with a musty flavor remains1 which the blacks probably bake into cakes4 ,they appear also to like the fruit of the ,pandanus1 of which large quantities were found by ,dr4 ,leichardt in their camps1 soaking in water1 contained in vessels formed of stringy bark4 ,the flour obtained from the seeds of ,spurry 7,spergula sativa71 when mixed with that of wheat or rye1 produces wholesome bread1 for which purpose it is often used in ,norway and ,gothland4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 before the introduction of the potato1 the roots of the fern were largely consumed4 ,many species of ,bolitus are used as food by the natives in ,western ,australia1 according to ,drummond4 ,the thick tuberous roots of a climbing species of bean 7,pachyrhizus angulatus1 or ,dolichos bulbosus7 are cultivated and eaten in some parts of the ,polynesian islands4 ,the bulbous roots of some species of ,orchide are eagerly sought after in ,new ,south ,wales by the natives1 being termed boyams1 and highly esteemed as an article of food for the viscid mucilage which they contain4 ,the root of the ,berar 7,caladium costatum7 is eaten by the natives of the ,pedir coast 7,achin71 after being well washed4 ,the pignons or edible seeds of ,pinus ,pinea are consumed occasionally in ,italy4 ,in ,chili the cone or fruit of the pehuen1 or pino de la tierra1 are considered a great delicacy4 ,the pinones are sometimes boiled1 and afterwards1 by grinding them on a stone1 converted into a kind of paste1 from which very delicate pastry is made4 ,the pine is cultivated in different parts of this province on account of its valuable wood and the pinones4 ,the seeds from the cones of the ,auracanean pine1 collected in autumn1 furnish the ,pawenches 7from pawen pine7 and ,auracanians with a very nutritious food4 ,when cooked1 the flavor is not unlike that of the chesnut1 and as they will keep for some time1 they constitute1 when the gathering season has been favorable1 a great part of their diet4 ,the seeds of the cones of the nut pine 7,pinus monophyllus71 a new species described by ,dr4 ,torrey1 and alluded to by ,col4 ,fremont in his exploring expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 are largely used by the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,the nut is oily1 of a most agreeable flavor1 and must be very nutritious as it constitutes the principal subsistence of many of the native tribes4 ,the cone of another magnificent pine 7,auracaria ,bidwillii71 indigenous to the ,eastern coast of ,australia1 about the ,moreton ,bay district1 is frequently met with twelve inches in diameter1 and containing #aej edible seeds as large as a walnut4 ,the aborigines roast these seeds1 crack the husk between two stones1 and eat them hot4 ,they taste something like a yam or hard dry potato4 ,the trees bear cones only once in four years1 during a period of six months4 ,this season is held as a great festival by the aborigines of that locality1 called by them ,bunga ,bunga1 and they congregate in greater numbers than is known in any other part of ,australia1 frequently coming from a distance of #cjj miles4 ,they grow sleek and fat upon this diet4 ,an ,act has been passed by the legislature of the colony1 prohibiting1 under heavy pains and penalties1 the demolition of those trees1 being the natural food of the natives4 ,the common people eat the seeds of the red sandal wood 7,adenanthera ,pavonina7 in the ,south of ,india4 ,the pulp of the fruit of the ,adansonia digitata1 or monkey bread1 is also used as an article of food4 ,,singhara ,,or ,,water ,,nuts4--,the large seeds of ,trapa bicornis1 a native of ,china1 and of ,t4 bispinosa and natans1 species indigenous to ,india1 are sweet and eatable1 and the aquatic plants which furnish them are hence an extensive article of cultivation4 ,in ,cashmere and other parts of the ,east they are common food1 and known under the name of ,singhara nuts4 ,in ,cashmere the government obtains from these nuts #ab1jjj of annual revenue4 ,mr4 ,moorcroft mentions that ,runjeet ,sing derived nearly the same sum4 ,from #if1jjj to #abh1jjj loads of this nut are yielded annually by the lake of ,ooller alone4 ,the nut abounds in fecula4 ,in ,china the kernel is used as an article of food1 being roasted or boiled like the potato4 ,the seeds of various species of ,nelumbium1 natives of the ,east ,indies1 ,jamaica1 and the ,united ,states1 also form articles of food4 ,the fruit of ,n4 speciosum is supposed to be the ,egyptian bean of ,pythagoras4 ,the petioles and peduncles contain numerous spiral vessels1 which have been used for wicks of candles4 ,the fruit of ,willughbeia edulis1 a native of the ,east1 as its name implies1 is eatable4 ,the kernel of the mango can be reduced to an excellent flour for making bread4 ,not only from the ,lichen tribe1 but also from the ,alg1 fungi1 mosses and ferns man derives nutriment and valuable products4 ,some of the cryptogamic plants form considerable articles of commerce1 particularly as food plants1 affording gelatinous and amylaceous matter1 and being useful in medicine and the arts4 ,nostoe eduli is used in ,china as food2 ,gelidium corneum enters into the formation of the edible swallows' nests of the ,japanese islands4 ,agar-agar moss is shipped from ,singapore to the extent of #ac1jjj tons a-year4 ,irish moss1 ,iceland moss1 ,ceylon moss1 and some others1 are also of some importance4 ,iodine and kelp are prepared to a considerable extent from sea weeds2 one species 7,fucus tenax7 furnishes large supplies of glue to the ,canton market1 and the orchilla weed is of great importance to the dyer4 ,it is principally as food that ,i have to speak of them in this section4 ,in some of the islands off the ,scotch coasts1 sea-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 forms the chief support of horses and cattle in the winter months4 ,f4 serratus is similarly employed in ,norway4 ,the ,laminaria saccharina is interesting from the fact of its containing sugar4 ,it is highly esteemed in ,japan1 where it is extensively used as an article of diet1 being first washed in cold water and then boiled in milk or broth4 ,,carrageen1 or ,,irish ,,rock ,,moss1 ,sphroccus 7,chondus7 crispus1 abounds on the ,western ,coast of ,ireland1 round the ,orkneys1 ,hebrides1 ,scilly ,islands1 c4 ,it is purplish white1 and nearly transparent1 and is largely imported to feed cattle and pigs in ,yorkshire4 ,it is also used for dressing the warp of webs in the loom1 and mixing with the pulp for sizing paper in the vat4 ,it swells up like tragacanth in water2 and1 by long decoction1 affords a considerable quantity of a light1 nutritious1 but nauseous jelly4 ,it is sometimes sold as pearl moss1 and is employed in the place of gelatine or isinglass for preparing blanc-manges1 jellies1 c4 ,it fetches about #g the ton4 ,,agar-,,agar1 a sort of edible seaweed1 or tripe de roche1 is found growing on the rocks about the eastern islands that are covered by the tide4 ,it is much used for making a kind of jelly1 which is highly esteemed both by ,europeans and natives for the delicacy of its flavor4 ,the first quality is worth about #cjs4 the picul 7#acc lbs474 ,an inferior kind is collected on the submerged banks in the neighbourhood of ,macassar 7,celebes71 by the ,bajow ,laut1 or ,sea ,gipsies4 ,it is also collected on the rocks about the settlement of ,singapore1 for export to ,china1 where it is much used as a size for stiffening silks and for making jellies4 ,it constitutes the bulk of the cargoes of the ,chinese junks on their return voyage4 ,the quantity shipped from ,singapore is about #aj1jjj piculs 7#ab1ejj tons7 annually4 ,,iceland ,,moss 7,cetraria islandica7 combines valuable alimentary and medicinal properties4 ,it is imported in bags and barrels from ,hamburg and ,gothenburg1 and is said to be the produce of ,norway and ,iceland4 ,the quantity consumed varies2 in #ahcf1 #bj1eii lbs4 paid duty2 in #ahdj1 #f1dfb lbs4 ,in ,carniola1 swine1 oxen1 and horses1 are fattened on it4 ,boiled in water or milk1 and flavored to the palate with sugar1 wine1 and aromatics1 it forms a very agreeable diet for invalids4 ,,ceylon ,,moss 7,gracelaria1 or ,gigartina1 lichenoides71 a small and delicate fucus1 is well known for the amylaceous property it possesses1 and the large proportion of true starch it furnishes4 ,the fronds are filiform2 the filaments much branched1 and of a light purple color4 ,it grows abundantly in the large lake or back-water which extends between ,putlam and ,calpentyr1 ,ceylon4 ,it is collected by the natives principally during the south-west monsoon1 when it becomes separated by the agitation of the water4 ,the moss is spread on mats and dried in the sun for two or three days4 ,it is then washed several times in fresh water1 and again exposed to the sun1 which bleaches it1 after which it is collected in heaps for exportation4 ,professor ,o',shaughnessy has given the best analysis of this moss1 which he described under the name of ,fucus amylaceus2 #ajj grains weight yielded the following proportions3-- ,vegetable jelly #ed4ej ,true starch #ae4jj ,ligneous fibre #ah4jj ,sulphate and muriate of soda #f4ej ,gum #d4jj ,sulphate and phosphate of lime #a4jj ----- ,total #ii4jj ,with a trace of wax and iron4 ,i observe among the imports into ,new ,orleans1 #iaa bushels of ,spanish moss in #ahdi1 and #a1cid bushels in #ahdh4 ,i do not know precisely its use1 or from whence derived1 but ,i believe it is chiefly used for stuffing cushions1 mattresses1 c4 ,,fern4--,the rhizome of ,pteris esculenta is used as food in ,australia1 and that of ,marattia alata in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,the trunks of the ,alsophila1 or tree fern1 of the western side of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 and of the common tree fern1 ,cibotium ,billardieri 7the ,dicksonia antarctica1 of ,labillardiere71 contain the edible pith or bread-fruit eaten by the natives4 ,many other species of ferns are esculent4 ,typha bread is prepared in ,scinde from the pollen of the flowers of the ,typha elephantina1 and in ,new ,zealand from another species of bulrush 7,typha utilis74 ,it must not be supposed1 as some have believed1 that the fern root1 wherever it grows1 is fit for food4 ,on the contrary1 it is only that found in rich loose soils which contains fecula in sufficient quantity for this purpose3 in poorer ground the root contains proportionally more fibre4 ,we were now encamped on an alluvial flat in the valley of the river1 thirty or forty feet below the general level of the plain2 and ,i observed that1 even in this favourable spot1 a great deal of discrimination was used in selecting the best roots1 which was discoverable by their being crisp enough to break easily when bent3 those which would not stand this test being thrown aside4 ,here a quantity sufficient for several days was procured1 and was packed in baskets1 to last till another spot equally favourable could be reached4 ,the process of cooking fern root is very simple2 for it is merely roasted on the fire1 and afterwards bruised by means of a flat stone similar to a cobbler's lap-stone1 and a wooden pestle4 ,the long fibres which run like wires through the root are then easily drawn out2 and the remainder is pounded till it acquires the consistence of tough dough1 in which state it is eaten1 its taste being very like that of cassava bread4 ,sometimes it is sweetened with the juice of the 'tutu4' ,the natives consider that there is no better food than this for a traveller1 as it both appeases the cravings of hunger for a longer period than their other ordinary food1 and renders the body less sensible to the fatigue of a long march4 ,it is in this respect to the human frame1 what oats or beans are to the horse4 ,they have a song in praise of this root1 which ,i have once or twice heard chanted on occasions of festivals1 by a troop of young women who carry baskets of the food intended for the guests4--7,shortland's ,new ,zealand47 ,i ought not to omit noticing the ,tuber cibarium1 a plant of the mushroom family1 growing under ground1 which furnishes the famous truffle1 so celebrated in the annals of cooking1 of which immense quantities are imported1 chiefly from the ,south of ,france4 ,it is common also in ,italy and ,germany1 and is often found in ,northamptonshire1 and some other of our own counties4 ,the kemmayes1 a desert plant of the truffle kind1 is a great favorite with the ,arabs4 ,in ,terra del ,fuego the only vegetable food of the natives1 besides a few berries of a dwarf arbutus1 is a species of globular bright yellow fungus 7,cyttaria ,darwinii71 which grows in vast numbers on the beech trees4 ,in its tough and mature state it is collected in large quantities by the women and children1 and eaten uncooked4 ,it has a slightly sweet mucilaginous taste1 with a faint smell like that of a mushroom4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,spices1 ,,aromatic ,,condiments1 ,,fragrant ,,woods1 c4 ,the various spices and condiments which form so large an item in our commercial imports1 are obtained from the barks1 the dried seeds1 the fruit1 flower-buds1 and root-stocks1 of different plants4 ,the chief aromatic barks comprise the cinnamon1 cassia lignea1 cascarilla1 and canella alba4 ,the medicinal barks will be noticed elsewhere4 ,the seeds and fruits include pepper1 pimento1 cardamoms1 anise1 nutmegs1 chillies4 ,the flower-buds of some furnish cloves and cassia buds2 the roots supply ginger1 galangale1 turmeric1 and ginseng4 ,a few other useful substances1 such as vanilla1 the costus1 or putchuk1 mace1 soy1 and some of the odoriferous woods ,i have included under this section4 ,,cinnamon4 ,the true cinnamon of commerce is obtained from the inner bark of ,cinnamonum verum1 ,r4 ,brown2 or ,c4 zeylanicum2 the ,laurus cinnamonum1 of ,linnus1 a handsome looking tree1 native of the ,east ,indies4 ,the island of ,ceylon is the chief seat of its cultivation1 and for a long time the ,dutch depended solely for their supply of this bark for the home market on the produce of the wild cinnamon trees in the ,king of ,kandy's territories there4 ,at last1 from the increasing demand1 they resorted to the growth and more careful culture of the tree themselves4 ,about the year #agid1 the cultivation had succeeded so well that they were enabled to meet the demand for the spice from trees of their own growth1 independent of any supplies from the ,kandian monarch's territory4 ,in #agif1 when this island fell into our hands1 the local government endeavoured1 after the former fashion of the ,dutch1 to restrain the production of this article of commerce within due bounds1 by destroying all above a certain quantity4 ,general ,maitland1 in #ahje1 and his successors in the government1 seeing the folly of such a ridiculous policy1 very wisely fostered and promoted the extended cultivation of cinnamon plantations4 ,in the island of ,java1 and in ,cochin-,china1 cinnamon culture has within the last few years made considerable progress4 ,the leaves of the cinnamon tree are more or less acuminated1 from five to eight inches long1 by about three broad1 growing in pairs opposite each other4 ,they have three principal ribs1 which come in contact at its base1 but do not unite4 ,the leaves1 when first developed1 are of a bright red hue1 then of a pale yellow1 and lastly of a dark shining green2 when mature1 they emit a strong aromatic odor if broken or rubbed in the hands1 and have the pungent taste of cloves4 ,the young twigs of the true cinnamon tree are not downy1 like those of the cassia bark4 ,the plant blooms in ,january and ,february1 and the seeds ripen in ,july and ,august4 ,the blossoms grow on slender foot-stalks1 of a pale yellow color1 from the axill of the leaves and the extremity of the branches4 ,they are numerous clusters of small white flowers1 having a brownish shade in the centre1 about the same size as the lilac1 which it resembles4 ,the fruit is a drupe1 about the size of a small hedge strawberry1 containing one seed1 and of the shape of an acorn1 which when ripe is soft and of a dark purple color4 ,the roots are fibrous1 hard1 and tough1 covered with an odoriferous bark2 on the outside of a greyish brown1 and on the inside of a reddish hue4 ,they strike about three feet into the earth1 and spread to a considerable distance4 ,many of them smell strongly of camphor1 which is sometimes extracted from them4 ,the trees in their wild state will grow ordinarily to the height of #cj feet4 ,the trunk is about three feet in circumference1 and throws out a great number of large spreading horizontal branches1 clothed with thick foliage4 ,when cultivated for their bark1 the trees are not permitted to rise above the height of ten feet4 ,the true cinnamon tree 7according to ,mr4 ,crawfurd7 is not a native of the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago2 but ,marshall1 in his description and history of the tree 7,annals of ,philos1 vol4 x47 assigns very extensive limits to its cultivation4 ,he asserts that it is found on the ,malabar coast1 in ,cochin-,china1 and ,tonquin1 ,sumatra1 the ,soolo ,archipelago1 ,borneo1 ,timor1 the ,nicobar and ,philippine ,islands4 ,it has been transplanted1 and grows well in the ,mauritius1 ,bourbon and the eastern coast of ,africa2 in the ,brazils1 ,guiana1 in ,south ,america1 and ,guadaloupe1 ,martinique1 ,tobago1 and ,jamaica2 but produces in the ,west a bark of very inferior quality to the ,oriental4 ,rumphius has remarked1 that the trees which yield cinnamon1 cassia1 and clove bark 7,cinnamonum ,culilaban71 though so much alike1 are hardly ever found in the same countries4 ,the term clove bark has been applied to the barks of two different trees belonging to the natural order ,laurine4 ,one of these barks is frequently called ,culilaban bark4 ,it consists of almost flat pieces1 and is obtained from ,cinnamonum ,culilaban1 a tree growing in ,amboyna1 and probably other parts of the ,moluccas4 ,the other bark1 known as clove bark1 occurs in quills1 which are imported from ,south ,america4 ,murray says it is produced by the ,myrtus carophyllata1 a tree termed by ,decandolle ,syzgium carophyllum4 ,it appears1 however1 that this is an error1 for both ,nees and ,von ,martius declare it to be the produce of ,dicypellium caryophyllatum2 and the last quoted authority states that this tree is the noblest of all the laurels found in the ,brazils1 where it is called ,pao ,cravo4 ,it grows at ,para and ,rio ,negro4 ,cinnamon may be propagated by seeds1 plants1 or layers2 roots also1 if carefully transplanted1 will thrive in favorable localities1 and yield useful shoots in twelve months4 ,it is usually cultivated from suckers1 which should not have more than three or four leaves1 and require continual watering4 ,if raised from seed1 the young plants are kept in a nursery for a year or two1 and then transplanted2 but the trees from seeds are longer arriving at maturity4 ,the plants are kept well earthed about the roots to retain the moisture1 and coco-nut husks are placed above them1 which in time form an excellent compost4 ,a cinnamon plantation1 even in a favorable locality1 seldom yields much return until eight or nine years have elapsed4 ,the mode of cultivation pursued by the natives differs from that followed in the plantations of the ,europeans4 ,the native system is to allow the cinnamon to grow large before cutting2 the ,european practice is to cut it young4 ,the result is that the native produces quantity1 but coarse2 the ,european produces quality1 but less in quantity4 ,i have found1 in conversation with the native growers1 that they consider the bush or tree decidedly weakened by its being kept down by constant cutting twice a year2 and that their plants are stronger and better4 ,it is not absolutely an original opinion1 but ,i think the two systems might be judiciously blended4 ,in cutting the cinnamon sticks for peeling1 as the ,europeans do it twice a year1 there is always risk of losing much valuable young wood1 which is destroyed in slashing into the bushes with catties 7bill-hooks7 to take out that which is in a fit state for peeling1 all of which is so much loss from the next cutting2 and on this ground ,i should be inclined to advocate cutting once a year4 ,there are1 ,i know1 other considerations than the mere growth of the sticks to be taken into account4 ,of these may be named the time when the bark peels best from the stick1 which of course must depend upon age as well as season1 the excited or unexcited state of the shoots1 and their several effects upon the quality of the spice4 ,weeding the plantations does not seem to be of so much consequence1 if the shrub gets plenty of free air all round it4 ,cinnamon land continues to yield abundantly crop after crop1 not for years1 but for scores of years4 ,the greater portion of the late preserved plantations in ,ceylon were planted by the ,dutch1 one hundred years ago1 and the bushes are stated to be as vigorous as ever1 and quite likely to go on yielding crops till the year #bjjj4 ,this productiveness can only be accounted for on ,liebig's principle of returning to the soil a portion of what we take from it4 ,in the operation of peeling cinnamon1 the tops and lateral branches are cut off1 and left by the peelers on the ground close to the bushes4 ,these1 no doubt1 furnish a considerable quantity of manure to the plants4 ,the general appearance of the plantation is that of a copse1 with laurel leaves and stems1 about the thickness of hazel2 occasionally a tree may be seen which1 having been allowed to grow for seed1 has reached a height of forty or fifty feet1 with a trunk eighteen inches in diameter4 ,when in full bloom1 the cinnamon bushes have a very beautiful appearance1 the small white petals affording a most agreeable contrast with the flame-colored extremities of the upper1 and the dark green of the inferior foliage1 with the blossoms of various lovely parasitical plants4 ,the cinnamon tree flourishes only in a small portion of the island of ,ceylon4 ,it is chiefly confined to the south-west angle1 formed by the sea coast1 from ,tangalle in the south to ,chilaw on the west4 ,it is in a climate of agreeable temperature1 which is at once hot and moist2 hot from its tropical position1 and moist from the frequency and plentifulness of rains4 ,the general level of the country is low1 in the midst of fresh-water lakes1 divided from the sea by a narrow riband of land4 ,and the water in the soil of the cinnamon gardens is of extraordinary purity1 so as to be for that reason much in request in the neighbouring city as a beverage4 ,this exact combination of influences does not occur anywhere else in the island1 at least not in the same degree4 ,the cultivation principally centres round ,colombo1 the capital and principal port4 ,on the hills and valleys1 in the neighbourhood of ,kandy1 which have a temperate climate1 the tree flourishes well2 a rather elevated situation1 with shelter1 contributing to the luxuriance of the plants4 ,the best soil for it appears to be a pure quartz sand1 which in some places rests on black moss or mould4 ,from the surface to the depth of a few inches1 this sand is as fine in its nature and as pearly white in its appearance as the best table salt2 but below that depth1 and near the roots of the bushes1 the sand is greyish4 ,a specimen of this soil being carefully dried by ,dr4 ,davy1 was found to consist of #ih4e silicious sand1 #j4e vegetable matter1 and #a4a water--in #ajj parts4 ,this circumstance impresses one very strongly on visiting the cinnamon gardens2 it seems so strange to see a plain of pure quartz sand whitened in the sun1 and yet covered over with a luxuriant growth of trees4 ,in richer soils the aroma does not seem to develop itself in the same concentrated form4 ,a mixture of loam and peat1 with sand1 is said1 however1 to form a good soil in some localities4 ,these plantations may well suggest a doubt as to the truth of the proposition so unqualifiedly laid down by some authors1 that earth destitute of organic matter cannot sustain vegetation4 ,certainly it is not organic matter which supports the cinnamon trees of ,colombo4 ,peeling4--,the best cinnamon is obtained from the stalks or twigs1 which shoot up in a cluster of eight or ten together from the roots1 after the parent bush or tree has been cut down4 ,these shoots are cut once in about three years1 close to the ground4 ,great care is requisite1 both as to the exact size and age2 for if the bark is too young1 it has a green taste1 if too old it is rough and gritty4 ,these shoots yield an incomparably fine cinnamon bark4 ,when cut for peeling they are of various sizes and lengths1 depending on the texture of the bark4 ,these rods afford the hazel-like walking-sticks so much esteemed by strangers1 and which1 though difficult to be procured during the prevalence of the oppressive cinnamon regulations1 may now be very easily obtained from proprietors of grounds producing that spice4 ,cinnamon is barked at two periods of the year1 between ,april and ,december4 ,those suckers which are considered fit for cutting1 are usually about three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 and five feet or more long4 ,the first operation is to strip them of the outside pellicle of bark4 ,the twigs are then ripped up lengthwise with the point of a knife1 and the liber or inner bark gradually loosened1 till it can be entirely taken off4 ,while drying they are cut up into long narrow rolls1 called quills1 then stuck into one another1 so as to form pipes about three or four feet long1 which are afterwards made up in round bundles4 ,during the first day the cinnamon is suspended under shelter upon open platforms1 and on the second day it is placed on wicker-work shelves1 and exposed to the sun until sufficiently dry to be examined and sorted for shipment4 ,it is brought home in bags or bales of #hj or #ij lbs4 weight1 and classed before export into three sorts2 first1 second1 and third quality4 ,the different kinds of cinnamon bark may be thus classified1 according to quality-- #a4 ,that which ranks above all others in quality1 is known by the ,singhalese name of penne or rasse kuroondu1 sharp sweet1 or honey cinnamon4 #b4 ,naya kuroondu1 snake cinnamon4 #c4 ,kapoorn kuroondu1 camphorated cinnamon1 from the very strong smell of camphor which it possesses4 ,this variety is principally obtained from the plantations of the interior4 #d4 ,kahate or canalle kuroondu1 astringent cinnamon4 ,in this species the bark peels off very easily1 and smells agreeably when fresh1 but it has a bitter taste4 #e4 ,savel kuroondu1 mucilaginous or glutinous cinnamon4 ,this sort acquires a very considerable degree of hardness1 which the chewing of it sufficiently proves4 ,it has otherwise little taste1 and an ungrateful smell2 but the color is very fine1 and it is often mixed with the first and best sort2 the color being much alike1 excepting only that in the good sort some few yellowish spots appear towards the extremities4 #f4 ,dawool kuroondu1 or drum cinnamon4 ,the wood of this tree1 when grown hard1 is light and tough1 and the natives make some of their vessels and drums of it4 ,the bark is of a pale color4 #g4 ,nika kuroondu1 wild cinnamon1 whose leaf resembles that of the nicasol 7,vitex ,negundo74 ,the bark of this tree has neither taste or smell when peeled1 and is made use of by the natives only in physic1 and to extract an oil from to anoint their bodies4 #h4 ,mal kuroondu1 flowering cinnamon1 because this tree is always in blossom4 ,the substance of the wood never becomes so solid and weighty in this as in the other named species1 which are sometimes nine or ten feet in circumference4 ,if this ever-flowering cinnamon be cut or bored1 a limpid water will issue out of the wound2 but it is of use only for the leaves and bark4 #i4 ,toupat kuroondu1 trefoil cinnamon1 of which there are three varieties1 which grow in the mountains and valleys of the interior about ,kandy4 #aj4 ,we kuroondu1 white ant's cinnamon4 ,the first-named four of these are1 however1 alone varieties of the ,cinnamonum verum4 ,good cinnamon is known by the following properties3--,it is thin and rather pliable2 it ought to be about the substance of royal paper1 or somewhat thicker4 ,it admits of a considerable degree of pressure1 and bends before it breaks2 the fracture is then splintering4 ,it is of a light color1 approaching to yellow1 bordering but little upon the brown2 it possesses a sweetish taste1 at the same time it is not stronger than can be borne without pain1 and is not succeeded by any after-taste4 ,the more cinnamon departs from these characteristics1 the coarser and less serviceable it is esteemed2 and it should be rejected if it be hard1 and thick as a half-crown piece2 if it be very dark colored or brown2 if it be very pungent and hot on the tongue1 with a taste bordering upon that of cloves1 so that it cannot be suffered without pain4 ,particular care should be taken that it is not false-packed1 or mixed with cinnamon of a common sort4 ,the following remarks1 by ,mr4 ,dunewille1 of ,malacca1 as to the suitability of the ,straits' ,settlements for cinnamon culture1 are interesting1 although in some instances a repetition of previous observations3-- ,it appears1 from experience1 that the soil of ,ceylon is more favorable to the growth of cinnamon than to that of any other aromatic plant1 and ,i find the climate of ,ceylon1 if at all1 differs but in a very slight degree from that of the ,straits4 ,i therefore conclude that the spice1 if cultivated in the ,straits1 will prove superior to that of ,ceylon1 if one may judge from the various spices that grow here almost wild1 and it would moreover yield a better return than in ,ceylon4 ,my supposition is confirmed from having seen the spice which was prepared last year in ,pringet by the ,honorable ,resident ,councillor of ,malacca1 and which ,i found to be equally as good in every respect as that grown and cultivated in the maritime provinces in ,ceylon4 ,a sandy soil is that which is generally selected for cinnamon1 but other soils may be chosen also1 such as a mixture of sandy with red soil1 free from quartz1 gravel1 or rock1 also red and dark brown soils4 ,such land in a flat country is preferable to hilly spots1 upon which1 however1 cinnamon also grows1 and are known by the name of the ,kandyan ,mountains4 ,the soil that is rocky and stony under the surface is bad1 and not adapted for the cultivation of cinnamon1 as the trees would neither grow fast1 nor yield a remunerative return4 ,when a tract of land of the above description is selected1 the whole of the ground should be cleared1 leaving a few trees for shade1 to which the laborers might return for rest and relaxation2 these may be from #ej to #fj feet apart4 ,the trees felled should be well lopped1 burnt and cleared away1 the stumps should be removed with roots1 after which they may be allowed to remain1 in order to save expense of carriage1 merely by observing some degree of order in the disposition1 by forming regular rows1 of which the intervening spaces are planted with cinnamon4 ,the ground being thus cleared1 holes may be dug at eight to ten feet apart1 and of one foot square2 the distance from each plant will depend upon the nature of the soil--that is1 the poorer the soil1 the nearer to each other should the trees be planted1 and vice versa4 ,when this operation is over1 should the holes be intended for cinnamon roots1 or stumps1 the latter must be carefully removed with as much earth as can be carried up with them and placed in the holes1 taking care not to return the earth removed originally in digging the holes1 which are to be filled with the soil scraped from the surface1 which has been previously burnt1 exposed1 and formed into manure4 ,should no rain have fallen after the placing of the roots in the holes1 the stumps should be well covered1 and watered morning and evening1 until such time as the sprouts shoot out fresh buds1 which will be in a fortnight or so from the time they were transplanted1 when the watering may be discontinued4 ,in a month the new shoots will be three or four inches high2 this much depends upon the weather4 ,if the holes be intended for young plants or seedlings1 the plants must be removed with boles of earth from the nurseries1 and placed in the holes1 taking the same care as with the stumps1 both in watering and covering1 in the event of its being dry weather4 ,when the seedlings take root1 the coverings should not be removed until the plants throw out a new pair of leaves from the buds1 which is a sign of their having taken root4 ,when a plantation is formed of old stumps1 all the branches should be cut down within six inches from the ground2 this should be done with one stroke of a sharp instrument1 in order to avoid the splitting of the stem4 ,from these stumps cinnamon may be cut and peeled within eighteen months from the time of transplanting4 ,often this is done after the lapse of twelve months from the time of transplanting4 ,from seedlings one cannot expect to gather a crop before two or three years from the time the plants were transplanted1 when there will be but one or a single tree1 which1 when cut down as already shown1 four or six inches to the ground1 ought to be covered with fresh earth gathered from the space between the rows1 and formed in a heap round the plant4 ,the next crop will be three or four times as much as the first1 from the number of sprouts the stem will throw out1 and so on every year1 the crop increasing according to the number of sprouts each stem will throw out yearly from the cuttings4 ,in the course of seven or eight years1 the space left between the rows will only admit the peelers and others to go round the bushes1 weed1 clear and remove cuttings1 as the branches from each bush will almost touch each other at their ends4 ,it is essentially necessary to take every care not to allow any creepers or other weeds to grow1 the former interfere with the growth of the bushes by entangling1 because it not only takes out so much of the support feeding the cinnamon trees1 but interferes with the peelers during the cutting season1 and prevents the branches growing up straight with a free circulation of air4 ,the plantation ought to be kept clean and free from weeds2 the cinnamon requires no manuring1 but when the plantation is weeding the bushes should be covered with the surface soil and raising the ground round the bush by making a heap of the earth1 which answers well in lieu of manure4 ,this operation must be attended to as soon as the cinnamon sticks are removed for peeling4 ,the plantation requires weeding three or four times a year during the first two or three years1 then twice a year will answer the purpose2 as by that time the trees will form into bushes and destroy the seeds of the weeds on the ground4 ,the forming of a nursery is necessary1 for which a space of ground1 say an acre1 should be selected in a rich bit of soil free from stones4 ,clear the whole brushwood1 only leaving the large trees for shade1 remove all stones1 stumps1 and roots1 dig the place well six or eight inches deep1 then form into long beds of three or four feet wide1 put the seeds down nine or twelve inches apart1 cover them eight or twelve inches above the ground by a platform1 and water them every other day until the seeds grow up and give one pair of leaves1 then leave off watering 7unless great dry weather prevail1 then it ought to be continued7 but not uncover until the plants grow up six or eight inches high1 and can bear the sun2 these seedlings will be ready for transplanting after three months from the time they were sown4 ,the forming of nurseries is done at the close of the year1 before ,december4 ,when this is done first1 the party commences clearing and preparing the land during the dry season1 which is from the beginning of ,december up to the end of ,march following4 ,april will set in with heavy rain 7it is generally so in ,ceylon71 and it will continue wet weather till the end of ,august1 very often till ,september and ,october1 and you have the benefit of four or five months rain4 ,the cinnamon seeds are to be gathered when they are fully ripe1 they must be heaped up in a shady place1 to have the outside red pulp rotted1 when it turns quite black1 then have the seeds trampled or otherwise freed from the decomposed pulp1 without injuring the seeds1 and well washed in water 7just as is done to cherry coffee1 before they are made into parchment in the whole shell74 ,finally1 have the seeds#dh well dried in the air without exposing them to the sun1 and then put them in on the ground prepared for their reception4 ,in washing the seeds1 those that float on the surface should be rejected4 ,there are five different sorts of cinnamon1 viz43-- #ast is called ,panny ,meers ,carundoo4 #bnd ,tittha #crd ,kahatte #dth ,wallee #eth ,savell ,of these1 the first kind is the best of all1 the #bnd and #crd1 although inferior1 are peeled likewise1 the #dth and #eth are spurious4 ,the distinction in the cinnamon can be known both by taste1 the shape of the leaves on the tree1 and an experienced ,challya man will judge the cinnamon by first sight4 ,the quality of the bark depends upon its situation in the branch1 that peeled from the middle of the bush or branch being the most superior1 and classed as #ast sort1 that taken from the upper end is the #bnd quality1 while the bark removed from the base of the branch1 or the thickest end1 is the inferior1 and called the #crd sort4 ,from the cinnamon bark refused in the sorting store of all kinds1 in separating the first1 second and third qualities and in making bales for exportation1 the refuse is collected1 and by a chemical process cinnamon oil is extracted1 which sells very high1 with an export duty of #cs4 or l rupees on each ounce1 exclusive of the ,british duties payable in ,england for importation1 which is at present one shilling and three pence per pound4#di ,of the cinnamon roots camphor is made1 which sells well both in ,ceylon and other parts of the world4 ,cinnamon1 as a medicine1 is a powerful stimulant1 but it is not much used alone4 ,it is generally united with other tonics and stimulants1 but its ordinary use is to mask the disagreeable odor and taste of other medicines4 ,the oil of cinnamon is prepared by being grossly powdered and macerated in sea water for two days and two nights1 and both are put into the still4 ,a light oil comes over with the water1 and floats on its surface2 a heavy oil sinks to the bottom of the receiver1 four hours before the light oil separates from the water1 and whilst the heavy oil continues to be precipitated for ten1 twelve1 or sometimes fourteen days4 ,the heavy oil1 which separates first1 is about the same color as the light oil1 but sometimes the portion which separates last has a browner shade than the supernatant oil4 ,the same water can be used advantageously in a second distillation4 ,professor ,duncan informs us that #hj lbs4 of newly-prepared cinnamon yield about #b ozs4 of oil1 which floats upon the water1 and #e of heavy oil4 ,the same quantity of cinnamon1 if kept in store for many years1 yields #b ozs4 of light oil and #e ozs4 of heavy oil4 ,cinnamon oil is obtained from the fragments of bark which remain after peeling1 sorting1 and packing4 ,it is distilled over with difficulty1 and the process is promoted by the addition of salt water1 and the use of a low still4 ,the oil thus obtained by distillation is at first of a yellow color1 but soon assumes a reddish brown hue4 ,it has an odor intermediate between that of cinnamon and vanilla1 but possesses in a high degree both the sweet burning taste and the agreeable aromatic smell of cinnamon4 ,it is heavier than water1 its specific gravity being #a4jce4 ,the ripe fruit of this tree yields a concrete oil called cinnamon suet1 which was formerly employed to make candles for the ,kandian kings4 ,an oil1 called clove oil1 is also distilled from the leaf1 which is said to be equal in aromatic pungency to that made from the clove at the ,moluccas4 ,the following were the quantities sold1 and the average prices realised during the ,dutch rule in ,ceylon3-- s4 d4 #afij #c1gej bales sold at #d #h all round4 #agji #c1gej #d #f #agaj #c1ejj #d #d #agbj #e1jjj #d #d #agdj #d1jjj #i #c #agfj #e1jjj #h #e #aghj #b1ejj #ab #f #aghd #b1ejj #ag #d ,the last quotation appears to have been the highest ever obtained for cinnamon1 for #ags4 #h;d4 average would give about #bbs4 for the first sort4 ,in later years we find the deliveries and prices to have been as follows3-- s4 d4 #ahbd #e1icd bales sold at #f #f all round4 #ahbh #c1iah #f #j #ahcj #e1hdi #g #h #ahdb #a1jah --- #ahde #c1bde --- ,the comparative exports of cinnamon from ,ceylon in the first six months of #ahec1 as compared with the same period last year1 are as follows3-- #ahec4 #aheb4 lbs4 lbs4 ,quarter ending #eth ,january #ii1ggh #ic1bia #eth ,april #gc1hae #ace1bdh ------- ------- ,total #agc1eic #bbh1eci ,the diminished export was caused by the prospective abolition of the export duty1 which came into operation on the #ast ,july last4 ,the quantity that will be sent to the ,english market by the close of the year 7#ahec7 will be something prodigious compared with the average consumption4 ,from ,october #aj1 #aheb1 to ,july #bb1 #ahec1 the shipments were #djf1cbf lbs4 ,,return ,,of ,,cinnamon ,,exported ,,from ,,ceylon1 ,,showing ,,the ,,quantity ,,and ,,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,year4 lbs4 #ahcf #gbd1cfd -- #ahcg #eeh1aaj -- #ahch #cih1aih -- #ahci #eif1eib -- #ahdj #chi1cgc -- #ahda #cag1iai #bd1heg #ahdb #aba1ade #ae1bjg #ahdc #ffb1gjd #ff1bgj #ahdd #a1jeg1hda #aje1ghd #ahde #djh1baa #dj1hba #ahdf #dia1fef #di1afe #ahdg #ddg1cfi #dd1gcf #ahdh #dia1fhh #di1afh #ahdi #gcc1ghb #gc1cgh #ahej #fdd1heg #fd1dhe #ahea #ejj1eah #ej1jea #aheb #dbg1ffg #db1gff ,the question of the export duty on cinnamon has1 during the last twenty years1 occupied a considerable space in ,ceylon correspondence and the ,island journals4 ,this duty was first imposed in #ahcb1 on the abolition of the ,grovernment monopoly1 and was then fixed at the rate of #cs4 per lb4 on all qualities4 ,from the #aith ,april1 #ahce1 it was fixed at #cs4 per lb4 on the best1 and #bs4 on the second quality4 ,it was reduced in ,january1 #ahcg1 to #bs4 #f;d4 on the first and second sorts1 and #bs4 on the third2 and in ,june1 #ahda1 to #bs4 on all qualities2 in #ahdc1 to #as42 and in ,september1 #ahdh1 to #d;d4 per lb4 ,such a rate of export duty could be maintained only on an article for which there was a considerable demand1 and which could not be supplied from other places1 and this was for a long time the case4 ,the circumstances are now different1 and the abolition of the duty1 which has so repeatedly been brought under the notice of the ,treasury1 has at length been determined on4 ,the quantity of cinnamon1 c41 taken for consumption in the ,united ,kingdom1 scarcely amounts to #b1hjj bales per annum4 ,the sale and consumption is nearly stationary1 and cinnamon is only in demand for those finer purposes for which cassia1 its competitor1 cannot be used4 ,whilst we imported the large amount of #gjj1jie lbs4 in #ahej1 only #bh1cdg lbs4 went into consumption4 ,the consumption has declined in the last two years to about #ba1ejj lbs4 ,cinnamon is now imported into the ,united ,kingdom duty free4 ,the land under cultivation with cinnamon in ,ceylon is about #ac1jjj acres1 principally in the western and southern provinces4 ,the number of gardens being eleven at ,kaderane1 seven at ,ekelli1 seven at ,morotto1 six at ,marandham1 and two at ,willisene4 ,several enterprising planters have recently commenced the cultivation of this spice at ,singapore and ,malacca4 ,the plants already promise well4 ,indeed there can be little doubt of its thriving1 as the tree has been long grown in gardens and pleasure grounds in those settlements1 as an ornamental plant1 and has always flourished4 ,the ,ceylon article is being supplanted in the continental markets by a cheaper one1 of ,china and ,malabar growth4 ,the ,javanese1 tempted by the fatally high prices caused by the excessive duties on our ,colonial spice1 smuggled a quantity of seed1 and with it a cinnamon cultivator1 out of the island1 and have since paid considerable attention to its growth4 ,the ,dutch have at present more than five millions of plants1 equal to upwards of #e1jjj acres1 the greater part of which are in tolerably full bearing4 ,the cinnamon trees in ,java begin to blossom in the month of ,march4 ,they do not all flower at the same time1 but in succession4 ,the fruit begins to ripen in ,october in the same manner1 so that the crop lasts from ,october to ,february4 ,in ,ceylon the blossom begins to appear in ,november4 ,the seeds when plucked ought to be fully ripe1 and after being separated from the outer pulpy covering1 should be dried in the shade4 ,they can be kept for two or three months in dry sand or ashes1 but must not be exposed to the sun1 as they would split1 and thus be rendered useless4 ,the plants in nurseries must be well sheltered from the sun and heavy rains1 but the plants are strengthened by the covers being removed at night when heavy rains are not expected to fall1 and in the day time when only light rains prevail4 ,the mode of planting out1 cultivation1 preparing the bark1 c41 appears to be the same in ,java as that practised in ,ceylon4 ,the only difference is1 that while in ,ceylon the cinnamon1 when ready for market1 is packed in gunny or canvass bags1 in ,java it is put into boxes1 made of wood free from any smell or flavor which would injure the spice4 ,the inferior cinnamon1 however1 is packed in straw mats4 ,the following is a return of the extent of cinnamon culture in ,java 3-- ,in #ahdj4 ,in #ahda4 ,residencies in which cinnamon is cultivated #aj #aj ,number of plantations #dh #di families devoted to this culture #g1ija #i1fhh paid budjans #bid #cde ,extent of ground occupied by the cultivation1 in bahus of #ga decametres #a1fij #a1hhj --------- --------- ,cinnamon trees of which the bark can be taken #a1ajf1eff #a1djg1bac ,young trees in the parks #b1dgh1dbg #b1efe1ggd ,for renewing #cjg1jjj #hf1hjj --------- --------- ,total #c1hia1iih #d1jei1ghg --------- --------- ,cinnamon crop1 in ,dutch lbs4 #eg1jgd #ch1bai refuse #bc1bhc #hb1hjc ,the number of trees peeled in #ahdb was taken at #a1hbd1eii1 and the crop reckoned at #ajh1ije lbs4 ,in the residency of ,bantam1 four trees suffice to produce a pound of cinnamon1 whilst in the other residencies eleven trees must generally be stripped to furnish the same quantity2 in #ahci one pound could scarcely be obtained from thirteen trees4 ,this cultivation increases each year1 and the quality of the produce improves1 whilst the expenses diminish4 ,however1 the ,dutch ,government has judged it proper not to extend it1 although the soil of ,java appears favorable to this culture4 ,from #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj lbs4 of true cinnamon1 not freed from its epidermis1 is exported annually from ,cochin-,china4 ,,java ,,cinnamon ,,sold ,,in ,,holland4 lbs4 ,in #ahce #b1bjj #ahcf #a1cjj #ahcg #a1fjj #ahch #b1ajj #ahci #d1gjj #ahdj #g1ijj #ahda #bc1ijj #ahdb #ac1jjj #ahdc #bc1jjj #ahdd #aja1djj #ahde #acd1ejj #ahdh #bej1eej ,,statistics ,,of ,,packages ,,in ,,london4 #ahdb4 #ahdc4 #ahdd4 #ahde4 ,imported #b1aif #d1deh #i1aig #h1iji ,exported #c1ffa #c1ifd #f1gab #f1jha ,duty paid #hch #gch #hja #a1jab ,stock #b1gji #b1fbb #d1bcj #e1edi ,,cassia ,,bark4 ,cinnamonum ,cassia1 or aromaticum1 the ,laurus cassia of ,linnus1 seems to be the chief source of the cassia lignea of commerce4 ,it differs from the true cinnamon tree in many particulars4 ,its leaves are oblong-lanceolate2 they have three ribs1 which coalesce into one at the base2 its young twigs are downy1 and its leaves have the taste of cinnamon4 ,malabar cassia appears to be the produce of another species of ,cinnamonum1 probably ,c4 eucalyptoides1 or ,malabatrum4 ,dr4 ,wight1 of the ,madras ,medical ,service1 in a report to the ,east ,india ,company1 expresses his belief that the cassia producing plants extend to nearly every species of the genus4 ,a set of specimens 7he observes7 submitted for my examination1 of the trees furnishing cassia on the ,malabar coast1 presented no fewer than four distinct species2 including among them the genuine cinnamon plant1 the bark of the older trees of which1 it would appear1 are exported from the coast as cassia4 ,three or four more species are natives of ,ceylon1 exclusive of the cinnamon proper1 all of which greatly resemble the cinnamon plant1 and in the woods might easily be mistaken for it and peeled1 though the produce would be inferior4 ,thus we have from ,western ,india and ,ceylon alone1 probably not less than six plants producing cassia2 add to these nearly twice as many more species of ,cinnamonum1 the produce of the more eastern states of ,asia1 and the ,islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 all remarkable for their striking family likeness2 all1 ,i believe1 endowed with aromatic properties1 and probably the greater part1 if not the whole1 contributing something towards the general result1 and we at once see the impossibility of awarding to any one individual species the credit of being the source whence the ,cassia lignea of commerce is derived2 and equally the impropriety of applying to any one of them the comprehensive specific appellation of cassia1 since all sorts of cinnamon-like plants1 yielding bark of a quality unfit to bear the designation of cinnamon in the market1 are passed off as cassia4 ,the cassia tree1 according to ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 is found in the more northern portion of the ,indian isles1 as in the ,philippines1 ,majindanao1 ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 and parts of ,celebes4 ,it is also grown on the western coast of ,africa4 ,the principal seat of its culture is1 however1 the ,malabar coast1 and the provinces of ,quantong and ,kingse1 in ,china4 ,the famous cassia of ,china is incomparably superior in perfume and flavor to any spice of its class4 ,its native place is unknown1 though supposed to be the interior provinces of ,china4 ,the market price is said to be #e per lb4 ,the ,malabar sort brought from ,bombay is thicker1 darker colored1 and coarser than that from ,china1 and is more subject to foul packing4 ,a small quantity of cassia is brought from ,mauritius and ,brazil1 and a large amount from the ,philippine ,islands4 ,cassia bark fetches from #hjs4 to #ajes4 per cwt4 in the ,london market1 according to quality4 ,the imports appear on the decline4 ,in #ahdc and #ahdd we imported nearly two millions of pounds4 ,the quantity imported and retained for home consumption in the past four years are shown in the following figures3-- ,imported4 ,retained for consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahdh #eaj1bdg #gf1aeb #ahdi #dgb1fic #hc1ejj #ahej #a1jej1jjh #ig1agh #ahea #bfg1ehb #hb1dfg ,the cheaper ,indian barks1 as well as the cinnamon of the ,east1 seemed at one time to be fast driving out of the market the superior class cinnamon of ,ceylon4 ,in #ahda ,java exported #djj cwts4 of cinnamon2 and the quantity of cassia imported into the ,united ,kingdom from ,india and the ,philippine ,islands1 in the five years ending with #ahdd1 was-- lbs4 #ahdj #cbi1caj #ahda #a1bfa1fdh #ahdb #a1cab1hjd #ahdc #b1dgj1ejb #ahdd #a1bgh1dac #dj1jjj lbs4 were received from ,india in #ahdh2 and #c1gie arrobas of cassia were exported from ,manila in #ahdg4 ,in #aheb1 #b1hjf cwts4 of cassia were received at ,singapore from ,china1 and #a1chj cwts4 exported from that settlement to the ,continent1 against #ijc cwts4 shipped in the previous year4 ,what the ,ceylon spice-grower wants1 is an extended field of operation--a larger class of consumers to take off his cinnamon1 and this can only be obtained by bringing it within the means of the great mass of cassia buyers4 ,look at the quantity of cinnamon exported by the ,dutch in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,eight or nine thousand bales a year were exported1 and now1 after a lapse of a hundred years1 ,ceylon hardly sends away half that quantity4 ,yet the consumption of spice must have kept pace with the increased population of countries using it1 and so it has4 ,but the difference is made up1 and more than made up1 by cassia from ,china1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,malabar ,coast1 c41 and though the new article is not equal to the cinnamon of ,ceylon1 yet the vast difference in the price obtains for it the preference4 ,now what the ,ceylon planter wants1 is to be allowed to produce a spice on equal terms1 and of a superior quality to cassia1 which might be done under an ad valorem export duty of #e per cent4 ,spice of this description of course could not afford the high cultivation bestowed on the fine qualities1 neither would it be required4 ,in fact little or no cultivation need be given it4 ,at present anything inferior to the third sort is not worth producing1 because it cannot stand the shilling export duty4 ,but under a more enlightened system of things1 with a low duty such as ,i suggest1 myriads of bushes would spring up on those low1 sandy1 and at present unprofitable wastes that skirt the sea-coast of the western province1 around ,negombo and ,chilaw4 ,the difference of duty would be more than made up by the diffusion of capital in planting1 the employment of vast numbers of laborers1 the purchase from ,government of many thousand acres of now valueless flats1 and all the attendant benefits arising out of the development of a new field of operation for the colonial industrial resources4#ej ,the cassia tree grows naturally to the height of #ej or #fj feet1 with large1 spreading1 horizontal branches4 ,the peelers take off the two barks together1 and separating the rough outer one1 which is of no value1 they lay the inner bark to dry1 which rolls up and becomes the ,cassia lignea of commerce4 ,it resembles cinnamon in taste1 smell and appearance4 ,the best is imported from ,china1 either direct from ,canton1 or through ,singapore1 in small tubes or quills1 sometimes the thickness of the ordinary pipes of cinnamon and of the same length2 but usually they are shorter and thicker1 and the bark itself coarser4 ,it is of a tolerably smooth surface and brownish color1 with some cast of red1 but much less so than cinnamon4 ,the exports from ,china are said to be about five million pounds annually2 price about #cbs4 per cwt4 ,in #ahej1 #f1eji piculs of cassia lignea 7nearly one million pounds71 valued at #hg1hej dollars1 were shipped from the single port of ,canton4 ,cassia bark is of a less fibrous texture1 and more brittle1 and it is also distinguished from cinnamon by a want of pungency1 and by being of a mucilaginous or gelatinous quality4 ,,cassia ,,buds are the dried flower buds 7perianth and ovary7 of the cassia tree1 and are mostly brought from ,china4 ,they bear some resemblance to a clove1 but are smaller1 and when fresh have a rich cinnamon flavor4 ,they should be chosen round1 fresh1 and free from stalk and dirt4 ,they are used chiefly in confectionery1 and have the flavor and pungency of cassia4 ,the exports from ,canton in #ahdd were #ba1ejj lbs42 in #ahej1 #dd1adj lbs41 valued at #g1djj dollars4 ,the average quantity of cassia buds imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 in each of the thirteen years ending with #ahdb1 was #dj1bca lbs42 the average quantity entered for home consumption in these years was #f1faj lbs41 and the average annual amount of duty received was #cab4 ,cassia bark yields a yellow volatile oil1 called oil of cassia1 the finer kind of which differs but little in its properties from that of cinnamon1 for which it is generally substituted2 it has a specific gravity of #ajga4 ,the best is manufactured in ,china1 where the wood1 bark1 leaves and oil are all in request4 ,the cassia oil is rated at #aej dollars per picul1 and the trade in this article reaches about #bej1jjj dollars4 ,,canella ,,alba1 or wild cinnamon1 is a valuable and ornamental tree1 growing about fifteen feet high1 which is cultivated in ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies for its pungent bark1 which is shipped to this country in bales or cases1 in long quills and flat pieces1 something like cinnamon4 ,large old cuttings root readily in the sand4 ,it is grown chiefly in the ,bahama ,islands1 from whence we derive our supplies4 ,by the ,caribs1 the ancient natives of the ,west ,indies1 and the negroes1 it was first employed as a condiment4 ,in this country it is chiefly used as an aromatic stimulant and tonic1 ranking between cinnamon and cloves4 ,the bark possesses1 however1 no other quality than its hot spicy flavor and strong aromatic odor when exposed to the action of heat4 ,,cascarilla ,,bark is obtained chiefly from the ,croton cascarilla1 a small shrub growing at ,st4 ,domingo1 the ,bahama ,islands1 and the ,antilles4 ,the chief portion comes from ,eleuthera4 ,in ,hayti a pleasant kind of tea is made from the leaves4 ,other species of the family supply some of the bark of commerce4 ,from its strong and aromatic properties it has been found very efficacious in all febrile diseases1 and vies with the ,jesuits' bark2 as a tonic it has very wholesome qualities1 a pleasant and strong bitterness1 and was for some time held in considerable repute among the faculty4 ,about twenty years ago1 large shipments were made from the ,bahamas4 ,it was found1 upon adulteration with hops1 to reduce the cost of that article1 and for the encouragement of the hop grower a prohibitory impost was laid upon it by the ,home ,government1 consequently it became an unsaleable product4 ,the sea-side balsam1 or sweet wood 7,croton ,eleuteria71 from which some cascarilla bark is obtained1 grows in the ,bahama ,islands and ,jamaica1 but almost all the bark imported comes from ,nassau1 ,new ,providence4 ,in #ahdj1 #ae1jjj lbs4 were imported for home consumption4 ,this bark produces the combined effect of an aromatic and of a moderately powerful tonic2 but it does not possess any astringency4 ,it has been employed as a substitute for cinchona4 ,when burned it gives out a musky odor1 and is often used in pastiles4 ,the value of this bark ranges1 according to quality1 from #ags4 #f;d4 to #dc s4 per cwt4 ,,cloves4 ,the cloves of commerce are obtained from the flower buds of ,caryophyllus aromaticus 7,eugenia caryophyllata71 which was originally a native of the ,moluccas1 but is now cultivated in several parts of the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,they have the form of a nail1 and when examined are seen to consist of the tubular calyx with a roundish projection1 formed by the unopened petals4 ,it is a very handsome tree1 growing to the height of about twenty feet4 ,the trunk is straight1 and rises four or five feet before it throws out branches4 ,the bark is smooth1 thin1 of a grey color1 and the wood of the trunk too hard for ordinary cabinet work4 ,the leaves are opposite1 smooth1 narrow1 pointed1 of a rupous color above1 and green on the under side4 ,they have a very aromatic odor when bruised between the fingers4 ,the flowers produced in branched peduncles1 at the extremity of the bough1 are of a delicate peach color4 ,the elongated calyx1 forming the seed vessel1 first changes to yellow1 and1 when ripe1 red1 which is from ,october to ,december1 and in this state it is fit to gather4 ,if left for a few weeks longer on the trees1 they expand1 and become what are termed mother cloves1 fit only for seed or for candying4 ,the ground under the tree is first swept clean1 or else a mat or cloth is spread4 ,the nearest clusters are taken off with the hand1 and the more distant by the aid of crooked sticks4 ,great care should be taken not to injure the tree1 as it would prevent future bearing4 ,the cloves are then prepared for shipment by smoking them on hurdles near a slow wood fire1 to give them a brown color1 after which they are further dried in the sun4 ,they may then be cut off from the flower branches with the nails1 and will be found to be purple colored within1 and fit to be baled for the ,european market4 ,in some places they are scalded in hot water before being smoked1 but this is not common4 ,the tree may be propagated either from layers or seed4 ,layers will root in five or six months if kept moist4 ,a strong dark loam1 a gravelly1 sandy1 or clayey soil1 but one not retentive of moisture1 seems that best suited for its successful culture4 ,it does not thrive well near the sea1 nor in the higher mountains1 the spray of the sea and the cold being found injurious4 ,the plants at first require the shade of other trees1 such as the mango1 coco-nut1 c4 ,although generally a hardy plant1 it suffers from excessive drought4 ,they should be planted about twenty feet apart4 ,in its native country the tree begins to yield fruit in the sixth year1 but a crop can seldom be looked for in other quarters under eight years4 ,it is very long lived1 sometimes attaining the age of #acj years4 ,there appears1 according to ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 to be five varieties of the clove1 viz4--the ordinary cultivated clove2 a kind called the female clove by the natives1 which has a pale stem2 the kiri or loory clove2 the royal clove1 which is very scarce1 and the wild clove4 ,the three first are equally valuable as spices1 the female clove being considered fittest for the distillation of essential oil4 ,the wild clove1 having scarcely any aromatic flavor1 is valueless4 ,the produce which may be expected from the tree seems to be uncertain2 it may1 however1 be averaged at five or six pounds4 ,a clove tree1 well weeded and taken care of1 will produce from five to twenty pounds4 ,on the other hand1 a tree that is neglected will not give above two or three pounds4 ,at intervals of from three to six years they usually produce one extraordinary crop1 but then a year now and then intervenes1 when they yield none at all2 in others they will afford a double harvest4 ,the clove tree was originally confined to the five principal ,molucca islands1 and chiefly to ,machean4 ,from these it was conveyed to ,amboyna1 a very short time only before the arrival of the ,portuguese4 ,by them the cultivation was strictly restricted to ,amboyna1 every effort being made to extirpate the plant elsewhere4 ,it has now1 however1 spread to ,java1 ,singapore1 and the ,straits' ,settlements1 ,ceylon1 the ,mauritius and ,seychelles1 ,bourbon1 ,zanzibar1 ,cayenne1 ,dominica1 ,martinique1 ,st4 ,kitts1 ,st4 ,vincent1 and ,trinidad4 ,cloves contain a volatile oil1 associated with resinous1 gummy1 and astringent matter1 which is yielded in larger proportion than by any other plant4 ,neuman obtained by distillation two ounces and two drachms from sixteen ounces of cloves4 ,on an average cloves yield from #ag to #bb per cent4 of oil1 including the heavy and light oils4 ,the oil is aromatic and acrid1 and has been used as a condiment and a stimulant carminative4 ,it is also extensively used by distillers and soap makers4 ,it is said that the clove does not thrive well on the soil of ,java1 the plantations of which trial had been made not having succeeded to the extent expected1 although they were directed by skilled persons from ,amboyna2 the places they made choice of did not differ materially as to soil and climate from those of the ,moluccas4 ,m4 ,teysman1 ,director of the ,botanical ,gardens at ,batavia1 seems to have bestowed much attention on the subject4 ,the exports however from the island have been considerable4 ,in #ahcj1 there were #hjc piculs shipped2 in #ahce1 #d1eff2 in #ahci1 #b1ccd2 in #ahdc1 #b1jbg piculs of #acc lbs4 ,m4 ,buee1 who introduced the culture of the clove in the island of ,dominica1 about #aghi1 thus describes the results of his experience1 which may be useful to other experimental cultivators4 ,he obtained a few plants from ,cayenne1 and raised #a1fjj trees from seed1 which1 in a year from the first sowing1 were transplanted4 ,the seeds were sown at about six inches apart from each other1 in beds2 over these beds small frames were erected about three feet from the ground1 and plantain leaves were spread on the top1 in order to shelter the young plants from the sun4 ,the leaves were allowed gradually to decay1 and at the end of nine months the young plants1 which by that time were strong1 were permitted to receive the benefit of the sun2 but if not protected from it when very young1 they were found to droop and die4 ,when transplanted1 the trees were placed at sixteen feet apart from each other4 ,they grew very luxuriantly1 and at the end of fifteen months after their removal1 attained the height of from three to four feet4 ,the ground wherein they were planted had been a coffee plantation during forty years4 ,the coffee trees had decayed1 and an attempt had been made to replace them2 but they refused to grow2 whereas the clove plants flourished as if on congenial soil1 and a crop was gathered on some of them when they were not more than six years old1 which period is two or three years earlier than the usual time for gathering4 ,the cloves sent from ,st4 ,vincent to ,england in #ahjj1 were obtained from trees eight feet high1 having a stem only two inches in diameter4 ,trial was made in that island of the relative growth of the plant on different soils2 it grew sickly on land which was not manured1 but on land which had received this preparation it flourished4 ,in ,singapore1 about ten years ago1 there were then about #ae1jjj clove trees planted out1 a few of which only had come in bearing4 ,if these plantations had proved equally productive with those of the sister settlement of ,pinang1 it would have been able to export #fj1jjj lbs4 of cloves1 its own produce2 but this expectation1 it will be seen1 has not been realised4 ,in the season of #ahda-db1 there was #ajjj piculs of cloves shipped from ,pinang1 but none were exported in the two previous years4 ,the quantity of land under cultivation with cloves there1 in #ahdc1 was #dfc orlongs in ,prince of ,wales ,island1 and #eag in ,province ,wellesley4 ,the number of trees planted out in the former island was #gb1ggi2 in the latter province #g1fci4 ,there were in the island #be1afa plants in nursery4 ,the trees in bearing were--,in ,prince of ,wales ,island1 #bh1gci2 not bearing1 #dd1jdj2 produce in #ahdc1 #hg piculs1 #ej catties2 gross value1 #c1cii dollars2 estimated produce of cloves for #ahdd1 #dfi piculs4 ,in ,province ,wellesley--,trees in bearing1 #a1jgc2 not bearing1 #f1eff2 produce in #ahdc1 #a picul1 #ac catties2 gross value #de dollars4 ,the export of cloves from ,pinang was1 in #ahdi1 #bd1jjj lbs42 in #ahej1 #eb1djj2 in #ahea1 #bg1hff2 in #aheb1 #de1jhg4 ,from tabular statements drawn up in #ahdd1 by ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,brown1 ,chairman of the ,pinang ,chamber of ,commerce1 it appears that there were1 in #ahdc1 in that island and ,province ,wellesley adjoining1 #if clove plantations1 containing #hj1dah clove trees2 besides many young trees in nurseries ready to be planted out4 ,the produce of cloves there1 in #ahdb1 was #aa1hac lbs41 and this was a very short crop1 it having that year proved a complete failure2 the average crop for some years previous had been #df1fff lbs4 ,pinang only began to export this spice in #ahcb4 ,of the clove trees in ,pinang there were then only #bi1hab in bearing1 leaving #ge1gfg in that settlement alone to come to maturity2 estimated to yield about #cjj1jjj lbs4 ,no success has attended repeated trials of cloves in ,singapore4 ,until the trees reach the age of bearing1 they grow and look extremely well2 but any expectation of a crop that may have been raised by their hitherto fine condition1 ends in disappointment1 for just then the trees assume the appearance of sudden blight1 as if lightning-stricken1 and then die4 #abe clove plants and #cej seedlings were sent to ,singapore from ,bencoolen1 by ,sir ,t4 ,raffles1 in the close of #ahai2 but although every care was paid them--while the nutmegs which accompanied them throve amazingly well--little or no progress has been made with clove culture4 ,two or three hundred-weight were shipped in #ahde1 but since then hardly any mention is made of the spice4 ,in a petition presented by the spice planters of ,pinang and ,province ,wellesley1 to the authorities at home1 in #ahdd1 praying that the duty on ,british ,colonial nutmegs1 mace1 and cloves might be reduced to #as4 #i;d41 #as4 #c;d41 and #c;d4 respectively1 on importation into ,england1 in order to compete with foreign produce1 it was stated that a few years hence ,prince of ,wales ,island might be expected to produce #fjj1jjj lbs4 of nutmegs1 #bjj1jjj lbs4 of mace1 and #cjj1jjj lbs4 of cloves2 whilst ,singapore1 if equally successful in the culture of the same1 would yield yearly #acg1jjj lbs4 of nutmegs1 #de1jjj lbs4 of mace1 and #fj1jjj lbs4 of cloves4 ,in short1 the planters needed only encouragement to produce in the course of a few years a full supply of those valuable spices for the whole consumption of ,great ,britain4 ,dr4 ,ruschenberger1 who visited ,zanzibar in #ahce1 thus speaks of the clove plantations there3--,as far as the eye could reach over a beautifully undulated land1 nothing was to be seen but clove trees of different ages1 varying in height from five to twenty feet4 ,the form of the tree is conical1 the branches grow at nearly right angles with the trunk1 and they begin to shoot a few inches above the ground4 ,the plantation contains nearly four thousand trees1 and each tree yields on an average six pounds of cloves a year2 they are carefully picked by hand1 and then dried in the shade2 we saw numbers of slaves standing on ladders gathering the spice1 while others were at work clearing the ground of dead leaves4 ,the whole is in the finest order1 presenting a picture of industry and of admirable neatness and beauty4 ,they were introduced into ,zanzibar in #ahah1 from ,mauritius1 and are found to thrive so well that almost everybody in the island is now clearing away the cocoa nut to make way for them4 ,the clove bears in five or six years from the seed2 of course time enough has not yet elapsed for the value and quantity of ,zanzibar cloves to be generally known2 they are worth1 however1 in the ,bombay market1 about #cjs4 the ,surat maund of #ci lbs42 the price for ,molucca cloves in the ,eastern market is from #bh to #cj dollars per picul of #acc lbs42 for those of ,mauritius1 #bj to #bd dollars per picul4 ,the average annual consumption of cloves in the ,united ,kingdom1 in the four years ending #ahda1 was #di1jjj lbs4 ,the largest quantity of cloves imported during the past twenty-five years was #a1jda1aga lbs41 in #ahdg4 ,the quantities imported and entered for home consumption in the last five years have been as follows3-- ,imports4 ,home consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahdh #aag1dcc #abf1fia #ahdi #bgd1gac #acc1gac #ahej #gdi1fdf #aei1icd #ahea #bec1dci #ach1acb #aheb #cac1idi #age1bhg ,in #ahdh we received #fj1jjj lbs4 of cloves from ,british ,india4 ,,the ,,nutmeg4 ,myristica moschata1 ,m4 officinalis1 or aromatica4--,this tree is of a larger growth than the clove1 attaining a height of thirty feet1 and has its leaves broader in proportion to their length2 the upper surface of these is of a bright green1 the under of a greyish color4 ,it is a dioecious plant1 having male or barren pale yellow flowers upon one tree1 and female or fertile flowers upon another4 ,the fruit is drupaceous1 and opens by two valves when ripe1 displaying the beautiful reticulated scarlet arillus1 which constitutes mace4 ,within this is a hard1 dark brown1 and glossy shell1 covering the kernel1 which is the nutmeg of the shops4 ,the kernels of ,m4 tomentosa are also used as aromatics1 under the name of wild or male nutmegs4 ,lindley describes two other species1 ,m4 fatua1 a native of ,surinam1 with greenish white flowers1 and ,m4 sebifera or ,virola sebifera1 a native of ,guiana1 with yellowish green flowers4 ,by expression1 nutmegs are made to yield a concrete oil1 called ,adeps ,myristic1 or sometimes erroneously oil of mace4 ,a volatile oil is also procured by distillation4 ,nutmegs and mace are used medicinally as aromatic stimulants and condiments4 ,in large doses they have a narcotic effect4 ,the fleshy part of the fruit is used as a preserve4 ,dr4 ,oxley has given such an admirable account of the nutmeg and its cultivation1 as the result of #bj years experience in ,singapore1 that ,i shall draw largely from his valuable paper1 which is contained in the second volume of ,the ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 page #fda4 ,the nutmeg tree1 like many of its class1 has a strong tendency to become monoecious1 and planters in general are well pleased at this habit1 thinking they secure a double advantage by having the male and female flowers on the same plant4 ,this is1 however1 delusive1 and being against the order of nature1 the produce of such trees is invariably inferior1 showing itself in the production of double nuts and other deformities4 ,it is best1 therefore1 to have only female trees1 with a due proportion of males4 ,the female flowers1 which are merely composed of a tripid calyx and no corolla1 when produced by a tree in full vigor are perfectly urceolate1 slightly tinged with green at the base1 and well filled by the ovary1 whereas the female flowers of weakly trees are entirely yellow1 imperfectly urceolate1 and approach more to the staminiferous flowers of the male4 ,the shape of the fruit varies considerably1 being spherical1 oblong1 and egg-shaped1 but the nearer they approach sphericity of figure1 the more highly are they prized4 ,there is also a great variety in the foliage of different trees1 from elliptic1 oblong and ovate1 to almost purely lanceolate-shaped leaves4 ,this difference seems to indicate in some measure the character of the produce2 trees with large oblong leaves appearing to have the largest and most spherical fruit1 and those with small lanceolate leaves being in general more prolific bearers1 but of inferior quality4 ,whilst its congener the clove has been spread over ,asia1 ,africa1 and the ,west ,indies1 the nutmeg refuses to flourish out of the ,malayan ,archipelago1 except as an exotic1 all attempts to introduce it largely into other tropical countries having decidedly failed4 ,the island of ,ternate1 which is in about the same latitude as ,singapore1 is said to have been the spot where it was truly indigenous1 but no doubt the tree is to be found on most of the ,moluccas4 ,at present the place of its origin is unproductive of the spice1 having been robbed of its rich heritage by the policy of the ,dutch1 who at an early period removed the plantations to the ,banda isles for better surveillance1 where they still remain and flourish4 ,but although care was formerly taken to extirpate the tree on the ,moluccas1 the mace-feeding pigeons have frustrated the machinations of man1 and spread it widely through the ,archipelago of islands extending from the ,moluccas to ,new ,guinea4 ,its circle of growth extends westward as far as ,pinang1 or ,prince of ,wales ,island1 where1 although an exotic1 it has been cultivated as a mercantile speculation with success for many years4 ,westward of ,pinang there are no plantations1 looking at the subject in a mercantile point of view4 ,the tree is to be found1 indeed1 in ,ceylon1 and the ,west ,coast of ,india1 but to grow it as a speculation out of its indigenous limits1 is as likely to prove successful as the cultivation of apples and pears in ,bengal4 ,in the ,banda ,isles1 where the tree may be considered as indigenous1 no further attention is paid to its cultivation than setting out the plants in parks1 under the shade of large forest trees1 with long horizontal branches1 called ,canari by the natives4 ,there it attains a height of #ej feet and upwards1 whereas from #bj to #cj feet may be taken as a fair average of the trees in the ,straits' ,settlements2 but notwitstanding our pigmy proportions 7adds ,dr4 ,oxley71 it does not appear1 from1 all ,i could ever learn1 that we are relatively behind the ,banda trees1 either in quantity or quality of produce1 and ,i am strongly impressed with the idea that the island of ,singapore can compete with the ,banda group on perfectly even terms4 ,our climate is quite unexceptionable for the growth of the nutmeg1 being neither exposed to droughts or high winds2 and although we may lose by comparison of soils1 we again gain by greater facilities of sending our products to market1 by the facility of obtaining abundant supplies of manure1 and any amount of free and cheap labor4 ,a nutmeg plantation1 well laid out and brought up to perfection1 is one of the most pleasing and agreeable properties that can be possessed4 ,yielding returns1 more or less daily1 throughout the year1 there is increasing interest1 besides the usual stimulus to all agriculturists of a crop time1 when his produce increases to double and quadruple the ordinary routine4 ,trees having arrived at fifteen years growth1 there is no incertitude or fear of total failure of crop1 only in relative amount of produce1 and this1 as will be seen1 is greatly in the planter's own power to command4 ,it is against reason to suppose that a tree in flower and fruit will not expend itself if left to unaided nature3 it must be supplied with suitable stimuli to make good the waste1 therefore he who wants nuts must not be sparing of manure4 ,the first requisite for the planter is choice of location4 ,it is true that the nutmeg tree1 aided by manure1 will grow in almost any soil where water does not lodge1 but it makes a vast difference in the degree of success1 whether the soil be originally good1 or poor and improved by art4 ,the tree does not thrive in white or sandy soils1 but prefers the deep red and friable soils formed by the decomposition of granite rocks and tinged with iron1 and the deeper the tinge the better4 ,i am therefore inclined to think1 that iron in the soil is almost necessary for the full development of the plant4 ,if under the before-mentioned soil there be a rubble of iron-stone at four or five feet from the surface 7a very common formation in ,singapore71 forming a natural drainage1 the planter has obtained all that he can desire in the ground1 and needs only patience and perseverance to secure success4 ,the form of the ground ought to be undulating1 to permit the running off of all superfluous water1 as there is no one thing more injurious to the plant than water lodging around its roots1 although1 in order to thrive well1 it requires an atmosphere of the most humid sort1 and rain almost daily4 ,besides the form of the ground1 situation is highly desirable1 particularly as regards exposure4 ,a spot selected for a nutmeg plantation cannot be too well sheltered1 as high winds are most destructive to the tree1 independently of the loss occasioned by the blowing off of fruit and flower4 ,at present there is abundant choice of land in ,singapore1 the greater portion of the island being as yet uncultivated1 and much answering to the above description4 ,the land can be purchased from ,government at the rate of from #ajs4 to #bjs4 per acre in perpetuity4 ,i would advise the man who wishes to establish a plantation1 to select the virgin forest1 and of all things let him avoid deserted gambier plantations1 the soil of which is completely exhausted1 the ,chinese taking good care never to leave a spot until they have taken all they can out of it4 ,a cleared spot has a great attraction for the inexperienced1 and it is not easy to convince a man that it is less expensive to attack the primitive forest1 than to attempt to clear an old gambier plantation1 overrun with lalang grass2 but the cutting down and burning of large forest trees is far less expensive than the extirpation of the lalang1 and as the ,chinese leave all the stumps of the large trees in the ground1 it is almost more difficult to remove them in this state than when you have the powerful lever of the trunk to aid you in tearing up the roots1 setting aside the paramount advantage that1 in the one case you possess a fresh and fertile soil1 in the other an effete and barren one4 ,forest land1 or jungle1 as it is called in the ,east1 can be cleared for about #be to #cj dollars 7#e to #f7 per acre1 by contract1 but the planter had better be careful to have every stump and root of tree removed1 ere he ventures to commence planting1 or the white ants1 attracted by the dead wood1 will crowd into the land1 and having consumed the food thus prepared for them1 will not be slow in attacking the young trees4 ,whilst the planter is thus clearing the ground1 he may advantageously at the same time be establishing nurseries2 for these the ground ought to be well trenched and mixed with a small quantity of thoroughly decomposed manure and burned earth1 making up the earth afterwards into beds of about three feet wide1 with paths between them for the convenience of weeding and cleaning the young plants4 ,of course if the planter can obtain really good plants1 the produce of well-selected seed1 it will be a great saving of time and expense to him1 but unless the seed be carefully chosen1 ,i would prefer beginning my own nurseries1 and in the selection of seed would recommend the most perfectly ripe and spherical nuts4 ,oval long nuts are to be rejected1 particularly any of a pale color at one end4 ,the planter having selected his seed1 which ought to be put in the ground within twenty-four hours after being gathered1 setting it about two inches deep in the beds already prepared1 and at the distance of twelve to eighteen inches apart1 the whole nursery to be well shaded both on top and sides1 the earth kept moist and clear of weeds1 and well smoked by burning wet grass or weeds in it once a week1 to drive away a very small moth-like insect that is apt to infest young plants1 laying its eggs on the leaf1 when they become covered with yellow spots1 and perish if not attended to speedily4 ,washing the leaves with a decoction of the ,tuba root is the best remedy ,i know of1 but where only a few plants are affected1 if the spots be numerous1 ,i would prefer to pluck up the plant altogether1 rather than run the risk of the insect becoming more numerous1 to the total destruction of the nursery4 ,the nuts germinate in from a month to six weeks1 and even later1 and for many months after germination the seed is attached to the young plant1 and may be removed apparently as sound as when planted1 to the astonishment of the unlearned1 who are not aware of the great disproportion in size between the ovule and albumen1 the former of which is alone necessary to form the plant4 ,the plant may be kept in nursery with advantage for nearly two years4 ,should they grow rapidly1 and the interspaces become too small for them1 every second plant had better be removed to a fresh nursery2 and set out at a distance of a couple of feet from each other4 ,when transplanted1 either in this way or for their ultimate position in the plantation1 care should be taken to remove them with a good ball of earth1 secured by the skin of the plantain1 which prevents the ball of earth falling to pieces4 ,the nurseries being established1 the ground cleared and ready1 the next proceeding is to lay out and dig holes about #bf or #cj feet apart1 and as the quincunx order has so many advantages1 it is the form ,i would recommend for adoption4 ,the holes should be at least six feet in diameter1 and about four feet deep1 and when refilled the surface soil is to be used1 and not that which is taken out of the hole4 ,each hole should be filled up about one foot higher than the surrounding ground1 to allow for the settling of the soil and the sinking of the tree1 which1 planted at this height1 will in a few years be found below the level4 ,over each hole thus filled up1 a shed1 made of ,attap leaves or other shelter1 closed on two sides1 east and west1 and proportioned to the size of the plant1 is to be erected4 ,it is not a bad plan to leave an open space in the centre of the top of each shed1 about twelve inches wide1 by which the young plant can obtain the benefit of the dew and gentle rains1 which more than compensates for the few rays of sun that can only fall upon it whilst that body is vertical4 ,after the sheds have been completed1 each hole should have added to it a couple of baskets of well decomposed manure1 and an equal quantity of burned earth1 when all is ready for the reception of the plant1 which1 having been set out1 if the weather be dry will require watering for ten days or a fortnight after1 in fact until it takes the soil4 ,the planter having set out all his trees must not deem his labors completed1 they are only commencing4 ,to arrive thus far is simple and easy1 but to patiently watch and tend the trees for ten years after1 requires all the enthusiasm already mentioned4 ,about three months after planting out1 the young trees will receive great benefit if a small quantity of liquid fish manure be given them4 ,in the first six years they ought to be trenched round three times1 enlarging the circle each time1 the trenches being dug close to the extremities of the roots1 which generally correspond to the ends of the branches1 and each new trench commencing where the old one terminated4 ,they must of course greatly increase in size as the circle extends1 requiring a proportionate quantity of manure1 but the depth ought never to be less than two feet4 ,the object of trenching is to loosen the soil and permit the roots to spread1 otherwise the tree spindles instead of becoming broad and umbrageous4 ,manure is beyond all other considerations the most important to the welfare of the estate2 it is that which gives quantity and quality of produce1 and without it a plantation cannot be carried on4 ,the want of it must limit the cultivation in the ,straits' ,settlements1 and will arrest many a planter1 who1 having got his plantation to look well up to the eighth year with very little manure1 thinks he can go on in the same manner4 ,the nutmeg tree likes well all sorts of manures1 but that which is best suited for it seems to be well-rotted stable and cow-yard manure1 mixed with vegetable matter1 and when the tree is in bearing the outer covering of the nut itself is about one of the very best things to be thrown into the dung-pit4 ,dead animals buried not too near the roots1 also blood1 fish1 and oil cakes are beneficial4 ,guano is of no use4 ,but although manuring is the chief element in successful cultivation1 there are many other matters for the planter to attend to during the period that the trees are growing4 ,all obnoxious grasses must be carefully kept out of the plantation1 at least from between the trees1 and the harmless grasses rather encouraged1 as they keep the surface cool4 ,the trunk of the tree ought to be carefully washed with soap and water once a year to keep it clear of moss2 this has been ridiculed as a work of supererogation1 but let those who think so omit the operation4 ,parasitical plants of the genus ,loranthus are very apt to attach themselves to the branches1 and if not removed do great injury4 ,the insect enemies of the tree are not very numerous1 but it has a few1 white ants among the number4 ,they seldom attack a vigorous plant2 it is upon the first symptoms of weakness or decay that they commence their operations4 ,their nests may be dislodged from the roots of the plant by a dose of solution of pig dung1 to which they have a great aversion4 ,there are several species of insects which lay their eggs on the leaves1 and unless carefully watched and removed1 they commit great havoc amongst the trees4 ,for this purpose it is necessary to wash the leaves with a decoction of ,tuba root1 and syringe them by means of a bamboo with lime and water1 of the consistence of whitewash2 this adheres to the leaves1 and will remain even after several heavy showers4 ,another nuisance is the nest of the large red ant2 these collect and glue the leaves together1 forming a cavity for the deposition of their larv4 ,the best mode of destroying them is to hang a portion of some animal substance1 such as the entrails of a fowl1 fish1 c41 to the end of a pole1 thrust through and protruding from the branches2 the ants will run along the pole and collect in immense quantities around the bait1 when1 by a lighted faggot1 they can be burned by thousands4 ,this repeated once or twice a day for a week or so1 will soon rid the tree of the invaders4 ,the number of men to be kept on an estate to preserve it in first-rate order after it has come into bearing1 must depend of course upon the size of the plantation1 but in general one man for every one hundred trees will be found sufficient1 provided there be some four or five thousand trees4 ,on a small scale the proportion must be greater4 ,the nutmeg planter is under the necessity of keeping up nurseries throughout the whole of his operations for the replacement of bad plants and redundant males4 ,of the latter ten per cent4 seems to be about the best proportion to keep1 but ,i would have completely dioecious trees4 ,no person can boast to get a plantation completely filled up and in perfect order much sooner than fifteen years4 ,of the first batch planted1 not more than one-half will turn out perfect females1 for ,i do not take into account monoecious trees1 which ,i have already condemned4 ,the tree shows flower about the seventh year1 but the longer it is before doing so1 the better and stronger will it be4 ,i cannot refrain from a smile when a sanguine planter informs me with exultation that he has obtained a nut from a tree only three or four years planted out2 so much the worse for his chance of success1 too great precocity being incompatible with strength and longevity4 ,the best trees do not show flower before the ninth year1 and one such is worth a score of the others4 ,this will be evident when it is stated that ,i have seen several trees yield more than #aj1jjj nuts each in one year1 whereas ,i do not believe that there is a plantation in the ,straits' that averages #a1jjj from every tree4 ,this very great disparity of bearing shows plainly that the cultivation of the plant is not yet thoroughly understood1 or greater uniformity would prevail1 and ,i think it clearly enough points out that a higher degree of cultivation would meet its reward4 ,the tree has not been introduced into the ,straits' sufficiently long to determine its longevity1 but those introduced and planted in the beginning of the present century1 as yet show no symptoms of decay4 ,the experiment of grafting the trees1 which at first view presents so many advantages1 both in securing the finest quality of nut and the certainty of the sex1 has still to be tried in this cultivation4 ,some three years ago 7continues ,dr4 ,oxley71 ,i succeeded in grafting several plants by approach2 these are not sufficiently old for me to decide whether it be desirable or not1 for although the plants are looking well and growing1 they as yet have thrown out their branches in a straggling irregular manner1 having no leaders1 and consequently they cannot extend their branches in the regular verticles necessary for the perfect formation of the tree1 without which they must ever be small and stunted1 and consequently incapable of yielding any quantity of produce4 ,the grafts have succeeded so far as stock and scion becoming one1 and in time a perpendicular shoot from the wood may appear4 ,if after that it should increase in size and strength1 so as to form a tree of full dimensions1 the advantage gained would be worth any trouble1 the quality of some nuts being so far above that of others1 it would make a difference beyond present calculation2 in short1 #a1jjj such picked trees at the present prices would yield something equivalent to #d1jjj a year1 for #d per tree would be a low estimate for such plants4 ,if this ever does occur1 it will change the aspect of cultivation altogether1 and ,i see no good reason why it should not1 except that those possessing trees of the quality alluded to1 would not very willingly permit others to graft from them1 so it is only the already successful planter who can try the experiment properly4 ,an acre of land contains on an average #ib trees1 and it is calculated an outlay of #cjj dollars is required upon every acre to bring the tree to maturity2 but as not more than one-half of the trees generally turn out females1 and as many others are destroyed by accident and diseases to which this plant is very liable1 it makes the cost of each tree1 by the time it yields fruit1 about eight dollars4 ,the nutmeg tree begins to bear when about eight years old1 but it gives no return for several years longer2 and therefore to the expense of cultivation must be added the interest of the capital sunk4 ,the plant being indigenous in the ,moluccas1 the expense of cultivation there is greatly less1 and this consequently forms a strong ground of claim to the ,british planter for protective duties to their spices from the ,british ,government4 ,the planter having his tree arrived at the agreeable point of producing1 has but slight trouble in preparing his produce for market4 ,as the fruit is brought in by the gatherers1 the mace is carefully removed1 pressed together and flattened on a board1 exposed to the sun for three or four days1 it is then dry enough to be put by in the spice-house until required for exportation1 when it is to be screwed into boxes1 and becomes the mace of commerce4 ,the average proportion of mace yielded in ,singapore is one pound for every #dcc nuts4 ,the nutmeg itself requires more care in its curing1 it being necessary to have it well and carefully dried ere the outer black shell be broken4 ,for this purpose the usual practice is to subject it for a couple of months to the smoke of slow fires kept up underneath1 whilst the nuts are spread on a grating about eight or ten feet above4 ,the model of a perfect drying-house is easily to be obtained4 ,care should be taken not to dry the nuts by too great a heat1 as they shrivel and lose their full and marketable appearance4 ,it is therefore desirable to keep the nuts1 when first collected1 for eight or ten days out of the drying-house1 exposing them at first for an hour or so to the morning sun1 and increasing the exposure daily until they shake in the shell4 ,the nuts ought never to be cracked until required for exportation1 or they will be attacked and destroyed by a small weasel-like insect1 the larv of which is deposited in the ovule1 and1 becoming the perfect insect1 eats its way out1 leaving the nut bored through and through1 and worth less as a marketable commodity4 ,liming the nuts prevents this to a certain extent1 but limed nuts are not those best liked in the ,english market1 whereas they are preferred in that state in the ,united ,states4 ,when the nuts are to be limed1 it is simply necessary to have them well rubbed over between the hands with powdered lime4 ,by the ,dutch mode of preparation1 they are steeped in a mixture of lime and water for several weeks4 ,this no doubt will preserve them1 but it must also have a prejudicial effect on the flavor of the spice4 ,after the nuts are thoroughly dried1 which requires from six weeks to two months smoking1 they cannot be too soon sent to market4 ,but it is otherwise with the mace2 that commodity1 when fresh1 not being in esteem in the ,london market1 seeing that they desire it of a golden color1 which it only assumes after a few months1 whereas at first when fresh it is blood red2 now red blades are looked upon with suspicion1 and are highly injurious to the sale of the article4 ,this is one of those peculiar prejudices of ,john ,bull1 which somewhat impugns his wisdom2 but it must be attended to1 as ,john is very ready to pay for his caprice2 therefore those who provide for him have no right to complain1 although they may smile4 ,the nutmeg tree was sent from ,bencoolen to ,singapore1 the latter end of #ahai1 so that thirty-four years have elapsed since its first introduction4 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles shipped to the care of the resident commandant1 ,major ,farquhar1 #ajj nutmeg plants1 #be larger ditto1 and #a1jjj nutmeg seeds1 which were committed to the charge of ,mr4 ,brooks1 a ,european gardener1 who was specially engaged by the ,east ,india ,company to look after their embryo spice plantations here4 ,some of these plants were set out in rather a bad soil and locality1 but several of them are at present1 and have been for the last ten years1 fine fruitful trees4 #cae of the trees in the ,government garden yielded1 in #ahdh1 #aij1dbf nuts1 or at the average of #fjd for each tree2 but of these not over #ej were of the old stock1 most having been planted since #ahcf2 so that a planter may safely calculate on having a better average than is here set forth1 provided he attends to his cultivation1 and his trees are brought up to the age of fifteen years4 ,if a plantation be attended to from the commencement after the manner ,i have endeavoured to explain1 and the trees be in a good locality1 the planter will undoubtedly obtain an average of #aj lbs4 of spice from each tree from the fifteenth year2 this1 at an average price of #bs4 #f;d4 per lb41 is #bes4 per annum4 ,he can have about seventy such trees in an acre1 so that there is scarcely any better or more remunerative cultivation when once established4 ,but the race is a long one1 the chances of life1 and a high rate of interest in the country1 make it one of no ordinary risk1 and it is one that holds out no prospect of any return in less than ten years4 ,a person commencing and stopping short of the bearing point1 either by death or want of funds1 will suffer almost total loss1 for the value of such a property brought into a market where there are no buyers must be purely nominal4 ,again1 if the property has arrived at the paying point1 almost any person of common honesty can take charge of and carry it on1 for the trees after twelve years are remarkably hardy1 and bear a deal of ill treatment and neglect2 not that ,i would recommend any person to try the experiment4 ,but it is some consolation for the proprietor to know that stupidity will not ruin him1 and that even at the distance of thousands of miles he can give such directions1 as1 if attended to1 will keep his estate in a flourishing and fruitful state4 ,the total number of nutmeg trees in ,singapore in #ahdh was #ee1ibe1 of which #ad1iad only were in bearing4 ,the produce of that year was #d1jhe1cfa nutmegs1 or #cc1fjj lbs4 in weight4 ,the greater number of the trees1 it will be perceived1 have not come into full bearing1 but the produce is increasing rapidly1 and in #ahdi it amounted to fully #ff1fgj lbs4 ,among the principal growers in that island are ,dr4 ,oxley1 ,mr4 ,c4,r4 ,prinsep1 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,montgomerie1 who have each large plantations1 with from #b1jjj to #e1jjj bearing trees on them4 ,others1 as ,sir4 ,j4 d',almeida1 ,mr4 ,nicol1 and one or two more1 have planted extensively1 but have not yet got their trees to the bearing point4 ,a large supply of nutmeg and clove plants arrived at ,pinang in #ahjb1 from the ,molucca ,islands4 ,there were #ga1bff nutmeg and #ee1bfd clove plants2 allowing one half of the former to have been male trees1 there would only have been #ce1fcc useful nutmeg plants4 ,it is believed that a mere fraction of these ever reached maturity1 but they served to introduce the cultivation permanently4 ,plants were likewise sent to ,ceylon and ,cape ,comorin4 ,it does not appear that the climates of these two localities suit the nutmeg tree1 as it requires rain1 or at least a very damp climate throughout the year4 ,the ,east ,india ,company's spice plantations in ,pinang were sold in #ahbd1 and the trees were dispersed over the island4 ,the spice cultivators of the ,straits' ,settlements have for some time sought a further protective duty on nutmegs1 and the extension of a similar protection to mace and cloves1 the produce of these settlements2 for singularly enough the present tariff affords no protection to mace1 the growth of ,british possessions4 ,from tabular statements1 furnished by the ,chamber of ,commerce of ,pinang1 drawn up apparently with great care1 it appears that in #ahdc there were #c1jdf acres cultivated with spice trees in ,pinang and province ,wellesley1 containing #bcc1iie nutmegs1 and #hj1dah clove trees1 besides #gg1fga trees in nurseries ready to be planted out2 and by a similar statement from ,singapore1 which is however not so complete1 that #gdc acres are cultivated1 containing #dc1edd nutmeg trees4 ,the island of ,pinang is estimated to contain #afj square miles1 nearly the whole of which1 with the exception perhaps of summits of the hills1 is well adapted to spice growing4 ,province ,wellesley is of much greater extent1 and the soil of it has already been proved to be equally well fitted for that kind of cultivation2 and the settlements of ,malacca and ,singapore are said to be admirably suited1 in many places1 for that species of produce1 the latter of which has already several plantations fast approaching to maturity4 ,the cultivation is capable of great extension2 encouragement is only required to be held out1 and new plantations will be rapidly formed in these settlements4 ,the same tables show that the produce in #ahdb was1 in ,pinang and ,province ,wellesley1 #ah1efj1bha nutmegs1 #db1hff lbs4 of mace1 and #aa1hac lbs4 of cloves#ea2 and in ,singapore1 #hdb1cbh nutmegs1 and #a1ifb lbs4 of mace4 ,thus making the produce from the two settlements #ai1djh1fjh nutmegs in number 7or in weight #adg1jcd lbs471 #dd1hbb lbs4 of mace1 and #aa1hac lbs4 of cloves4 ,now the consumption of these spices in ,great ,britain was1 on an average of four years ending #ahda1 as follows3--,nutmegs1 #aba1jjj lbs42 mace1 #ah1jjj lbs42 cloves1 #ib1jjj lbs4 ,showing1 therefore1 that the ,straits' ,settlements already produce more than sufficient of the two former to supply the home market4 ,in the course of four or five years more1 ,pinang alone will more than double the present quantity of nutmegs and mace produced in the ,straits1 and the produce of cloves will be more than tripled4 ,i have been able1 from several elaborate papers in my ,colonial ,magazine1 to condense details1 showing the progress of spice plantations in ,prince of ,wales ,island and ,province ,wellesley4 ,in the close of #ahdc there were #fd1ijb nutmeg trees in bearing in the island2 #ci1bji male trees1 #ajc1ihb not bearing2 making a total of #bjh1jic trees planted out1 besides #eb1eaj plants in nursery4 ,the quantity of ground under cultivation was #b1bhb orlongs4 ,the produce in #ahdb was #ae1aaf1eia good nuts1 #a1dfa1bbi inferior nuts1 and #ch1bfj lbs4 of mace4 ,the gross value of the produce in #ahdc1 reckoning the good nuts at five dollars per thousand1 and the inferior at one dollar1 was #gf1idd dollars4 ,the estimated number of nuts in #ahdc was #ab1deh1gfb2 in #ahdd1 #be1dbi1jjj4 ,in ,province ,wellesley there were #bdg orlongs under cultivation with the nutmeg1 on which were #aj1ejj bearing trees1 #h1jie male trees1 and #g1cjg not yet bearing1 making in all #be1ijb trees planted out4 ,the produce was in #ahdb1 #a1ifi1fai good nuts1 #ah1hdb inferior ditto1 and #d1ejj lbs4 of mace4 ,the value of the produce of nutmegs was #i1hfg dollars4 ,the estimated number of nuts in #ahdc was #a1ihj1jjj2 in #ahdd1 #b1ieh1jjj4 ,there were in all #dbc nutmeg plantations on the island and main land4 ,there were annually exported in the four years ending #ahej1 #dh1jjj lbs4 of nutmegs from ,pinang1 and #eg1djj lbs4 of mace4 ,the ,french at an early period cultivated the nutmeg at the ,mauritius1 and from thence they carried it to ,cayenne4 ,in ,sumatra it appears to have been grown successfully1 and according to ,sir ,s4 ,raffles1 there was in #ahai a plantation at ,bencoolen of #ajj1jjj nutmeg trees1 one-fourth of which were bearing4 ,attempts have been made in ,trinidad and ,st4 ,vincent to carry out the culture1 but for want of enterprise very little progress seems to have been made in the matter4 ,under the new duties which came into operation this year1 nutmegs1 instead of standing at #as4 per pound all round1 have been classified1 and the so-called wild nutmegs of the ,dutch islands are to pay only #e;d per pound4 ,this deprives the ,straits' produce of its last protection against that of the ,banda plantations1 where the tree grows spontaneously1 while it gives the long ,dutch nut a high protection4 ,if an alteration in this suicidal measure is not speedily obtained1 the ,straits' planters will be ruined4 ,the ,dutch have the power of inundating the market with the long aromatic nut4 ,if the original plan of putting all ,british and all foreign nutmegs on the same footing had been adhered to1 the ,straits' planters would not have complained1 as they would have trusted to their superior skill and care to compensate for the grand advantage the ,dutch have in their rich soils4 ,on observing this alteration of duty1 ,mr4 ,crawfurd and ,mr4 ,gilman immediately prepared the following memorandum for the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 which however failed to influence that ,minister3-- ,,memorandum ,,on ,,the ,,duties ,,on ,,nutmegs4 ,the duty proposed to be levied on nutmegs is #as4 per pound for cultivated1 and #e;d4 per pound for those commonly called wild4 ,the ground on which this distinction is founded1 is said to be that the market value of the one is but half that of the other1 and that the ,customs can readily distinguish between them4 ,now it is admitted1 on all sides1 that there is but one species of culinary nutmeg1 the ,myristica ,moschata of botanists1 although at least a score of the same genus1 all unfit for human food4 ,the parent country of the aromatic nutmegs extends from the ,molucca ,islands to ,new ,guinea1 inclusive4 ,in this they grow with facility and even in the ,banda ,islands1 where there are parks of them1 they hardly undergo any cultivation1 and may truly be said1 even there1 to be a wild product4 ,it is only when grown as exotics1 as in the ,british settlements of ,pinang and ,singapore1 that they require cultivation1 and that a more careful and expensive one than any other produce of the soil4 ,aromatic nutmegs are sometimes large and sometimes small--sometimes round1 sometimes oblong1 and sometimes long1 and this will be found the case whether cultivated or uncultivated4 ,how1 then1 the ,customs are able to distinguish them it is difficult to understand4 ,in the ordinary ,prices ,current no mention whatever is made of the wild and cultivated1 the lowest quality being quoted in the most recent at #bs4 per pound1 and the highest at #cs4 #aj;d41--the best of what are called wild fetching a higher price than the lower qualities of what are called cultivated4 ,but suppose the distinction could be made with the most perfect certainty1 to make it would be a palpable departure from the principle adopted with every other commodity1 of charging a uniform rate of duty on quality4 ,to give an example1 the present price of black pepper is #c-e_/h;d4 to #d;d4 per pound1 while that of white pepper is #h;d4 to #as4 #b;d4 per pound1 both paying the same duty of #f;d42 yet nothing can be more easily distinguished than these two commodities1 which1 except as to curing1 are the same article4 ,tea is a still more striking example4 ,the duty is the same on all qualities1 though prices range from #ald4 to #cs4 #f;d4 per pound4 ,it was the very circumstance of the difficulty of distinguishing between the different kinds of tea1 especially between ,bohea and ,congou1 which1 after an eighteen months trial1 overthrew the system of rated duties of #as4 #f;d41 #bs41 and #cs41 adopted on the abolition of the ,east ,india ,company's monopoly in #ahcc4 ,unless the duty on nutmegs is equalised there will be no end of trouble and disputes1 and however expert the ,customs may be1 they will certainly be outwitted1 and long-shaped and small nutmegs1 although really cultivated1 will be introduced at the lower duty1 by unscrupulous traders1 as wild ones4 ,it may be added that duties of #ab;d4 and #e;d4 do not1 even if a departure from the principle of charging on quality were justifiable1 represent the just proportional rates which ought to be levied upon what are supposed to be1 respectively1 cultivated and wild1 as they are represented in the ordinary ,price ,current by the highest and lowest prices1 which are #cs4 #aj;d4 and #bs4 ,the just proportional duty ought to be on the lowest1 not #e;d41 but #g;d4 ,the duty1 as first proposed by the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 of #as4 per pound on nutmegs1 without distinction1 was perfectly satisfactory to the planters1 merchants1 and the trade in general4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that a duty of #as4 would exclude the so-called wild nutmegs4 ,they would be imported in large quantities1 as the cost is low4 ,in quantity it was #ag ,spanish dollars per picul1 and there is no reason to suppose it would be more now4 ,the finest picked cost say #cd ,spanish dollars4 ,in ,pinang and ,singapore for cultivated the price is #fe to #gj dollars4 ,the planters for the most part do not sell on the spot1 but consign here for sale on their own account4 ,london1 ,may #bcrd1 #ahec4 ,,nutmegs ,,imported ,,and ,,exported ,,to ,,and ,,from ,,singapore4 ,value of the ,imported4 ,exported4 ,growth of native growth4 piculs4 piculs4 ,singapore4 #ahda #bbg #dab #ahd #c1cbc #ahdb #beh #hji #eea #i1hig #ahdc #aej #bdi #ih #a1gfj #ahdd #eb #bhb #bcj #d1aca #ahde #da #chc #cdb #f1adc #ahdf #gi #cca #beb #d1ebf #ahdg #aci #daf #bgg #d1bge ,,nutmegs ,,exported ,,from ,,java4 ,nutmegs4 ,mace4 piculs4 piculs4 #ahcj #a1cjd #agg #ahce #e1jbb #a1fjf #ahci #e1jbg #a1eha #ahdc #b1acc #dhf ,,imports ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ,,nutmegs1 ,,wild ,,and ,,cultivated4 ,,mace4 ,imports4 ,home consump4 ,imports4 ,consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahdg #cfg1icf #aej1feg #ahdg #fj1bfe #ah1hba #ahdh #ccf1dbj #afg1adc #ahdh #dg1egb #ai1gab #ahdi #bbd1jba #agh1dag #ahdi #de1igh #bj1fje #ahej #cae1abf #afg1fhc #ahej #gg1ccg #ba1iig #ahea #ceh1cbj #aid1acb #ahea #gg1hfc #ba1fie #aheb #ceg1idj #bci1aac #aheb #fa1fig #ba1dhj ,,mace ,,exported--,,actual ,,growth ,,of ,,singapore4 ,quantity--piculs4 ,value-- #ahda #be #ehc #ahdb #gb #a1faf #ahdc #dj #idc #ahdd #af #cei #ahde #ga #a1faf #ahdf #h #agi #ahdg #ge #a1ffa #aji piculs of imported mace were also re-shipped in #ahdg4 #dj1jjj lbs4 of mace were imported into the ,united ,kingdom from ,india in #ahdh4 ,,ginger1 ,,galangale1 ,,and ,,cardamoms4 ,the rhizome of ,zingiber officinale 7,amomum ,zingiber71 constitutes the ginger of commerce1 which is imported chiefly from the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,it is also grown in ,china4 ,in the young state the rhizomes are fleshy and slightly aromatic1 and they are then used as preserves1 or prepared in syrup2 in a more advanced stage the aroma is fully developed1 their texture is more woody1 and they become fit for ordinary ginger4 ,the inferior sorts1 when dried after immersion in hot water1 form black ginger4 ,the best roots are scraped1 washed1 and simply dried in the sun with care1 and then they receive the name of white ginger4 ,the rhizome contains an acid resin and volatile oil1 starch and gum4 ,it is used medicinally as a tonic and carminative1 in the form of powder1 syrup1 and tincture4 ,the root stocks of ,alpinia racemosa1 ,a4 ,galanga1 and many other plants of the order1 have the same aromatic and pungent properties as ginger4 ,the consumption of ginger is about #ac1jjj or #ad1jjj cwt4 a year4 ,of #af1jjd cwt4 imported in #ahdj1 #e1cha came from the ,british ,west ,indies1 #i1gbg from the ,east ,india ,company's possessions and ,ceylon1 and #hif cwt4 from ,western ,africa4 ,the difference between the black and white ginger of the shops is ascribed by ,dr4 ,p4 ,browne and others to different methods of curing the rhizomes2 but this is scarcely sufficient to account for them1 and ,i cannot help suspecting the existence of some difference in the plants themselves4 ,that this really exists is proved by the statements of ,rumphius 7,herb4 ,amb41 lib4 #h1 cap4 xix41 p4 #aef71 that there are two varieties of the plant1 the white and the red4 ,moreover ,dr4 ,wright 7,lond4 ,med4 ,journal1 vol4 viii47 says that two sorts are cultivated in ,jamaica1 viz41 the white and the black2 and1 he adds1 black ginger has the most numerous and largest roots4 ,the rhizome1 called in commerce ginger root1 occurs in flattish-branched or lobed palmate pieces1 called races1 which do not exceed four inches in length4 ,several varieties1 distinguished by their color and place of growth1 are met with4 ,the finest is that brought from ,jamaica4 ,a great part of that found in the shops has been washed in whiting and water1 under the pretence of preserving it from insects4 ,the dark colored kinds are frequently bleached with chloride of lime4 ,barbados ginger is in shorter flatter races1 of a darker color1 and covered with a corrugated epidermis4 ,african ginger is in smallish races1 which have been partially scraped1 and are pale colored4 ,east ,india ginger is unscraped2 its races are dark ash colored externally1 and are larger than those of the ,african ginger4 ,tellichery ginger is in large plump races1 with a remarkable reddish tint externally4 ,jamaica black ginger is not frequently found in the shops4 ,the ,malabar dark ginger is in unscraped short pieces1 which have a horny appearance internally1 and are of a dirty brown color both internally and externally4 ,ginger is imported in bags weighing about a hundred-weight4 ,the ,malabar ginger exported from ,calicut is the produce of the district of ,shernaad1 situated in the south of ,calicut2 a place chiefly inhabited by ,moplas1 who look upon the ginger cultivation as a most valuable and profitable trade1 which in fact it is4 ,the soil of ,shernaad is so very luxuriant1 and so well suited for the cultivation of ginger1 that it is reckoned the best1 and in fact the only place in ,malabar where ginger grows and thrives to perfection4 ,gravelly grounds are considered unfit2 the same may be said of swampy ones1 and whilst the former check the growth of the ginger1 the latter tend in a great measure to rot the root2 thus the only suitable kind of soil is that which1 being red earth1 is yet free from gravel1 and the sod good and heavy4 ,the cultivation generally commences about the middle of ,may1 after the ground has undergone a thorough process of ploughing1 harrowing1 c4 ,at the commencement of the monsoons1 beds of ten or twelve feet long by three or four feet wide are formed1 and in these beds small holes are dug at three-fourths to one foot apart1 which are filled with manure4 ,the roots1 hitherto carefully buried under sheds1 are dug out1 the good ones picked from those which are affected by the moisture1 or any other concomitant of a half-year's exclusion from the atmosphere1 and the process of clipping them into suitable sizes for planting performed by cutting the ginger into pieces of an inch and a half to two inches long4 ,these are then buried in the holes1 which have been previously manured1 and the whole of the beds are then covered with a good thick layer of green leaves1 which1 whilst they serve as manure1 also contribute to keep the beds from unnecessary dampness1 which might otherwise be occasioned by the heavy falls of rain during the months of ,june and ,july4 ,rain is essentially requisite for the growth of the ginger2 it is also however necessary1 that the beds be constantly kept from inundation1 which1 if not carefully attended to1 the crop is entirely ruined2 great precaution is therefore taken in forming drains between the beds1 and letting water out1 thus preventing a superfluity4 ,on account of the great tendency some kinds of leaves have to breed worms and insects1 strict care is observed in the choosing of them1 and none but the particular kinds used in manuring ginger are taken in1 lest the wrong ones might fetch in worms1 which1 if once in the beds1 no remedy can be resorted to successfully to destroy them2 thus they in a very short time ruin the crop4 ,worms bred from the leaves laid on the soil1 though highly destructive1 are not so pernicious to ginger cultivation as those which proceed from the effect of the soil4 ,the former kind1 whilst they destroy the beds in which they once appear1 do not spread themselves to the other beds1 be they ever so close1 but the latter kind must of course be found in almost all the beds1 as they do not proceed from accidental causes1 but from the nature of the soil4 ,in cases like these1 the whole crop is oftentimes ruined1 and the cultivators are thereby subjected to heavy losses4 ,ginger is extensively diffused throughout the ,indian isles1 it being especially indigenous to the ,east1 and of pretty general use among the natives1 who neglect the finer spices4 ,the great and smaller varieties are cultivated1 and the sub-varieties distinguished by their brown or white colors4 ,there is no production which has a greater diversity of names4 ,this diversity proves1 as usual1 the wide diffusion of the plant in its wild state4 ,the ginger of the ,indian ,archipelago is however inferior in quality to that of ,malabar or ,bengal4 ,in the cultivation of ginger great improvement may be adopted and expense saved4 ,the garden plough and small harrow should be used4 ,the present mode of preparing the land for this crop in the ,west ,indies1 is by first carefully hoeing off all bush and weeds from the piece you intend to plant2 the workmen are then placed in a line1 and dig forward the land to the full depth of the hoe1 cutting the furrow not more than from five to six inches thick4 ,the land is then allowed to pulverise for a short time2 you then prepare it for receiving the plants by opening drills with the hoe1 from ten to twelve inches apart1 and the same in depth1 chopping or breaking up any clods that may be in the land4 ,two or three women follow and drop the plants in the drills1 say from nine to ten inches apart4 ,the plants or sets are the small knots or fingers broken off the original root1 as not worth the scraping4 ,the plants are then covered in with a portion of the earth-bank formed in drilling4 ,it requires great care and attention in keeping them clean from weeds until they attain sufficient age4 ,it throws out a pedicle or foot stalk in the course of the second or third week1 the leaves of which are of similar shape to that of the ,guinea grass4 ,ginger is a delicate plant1 and very liable to rot1 particularly if planted in too rich a soil1 or where it may be subject to heavy rains4 ,the general average of yield is from #a1ejj to #b1jjj lbs4 per acre in plants1 although ,i have known as much as #c1jjj lbs4 of ginger cured from an acre of land4 ,the planting season generally commences in ,jamaica in ,february and ,march1 and the crop is got in in ,december and ,january1 when the stalks begin to wither4 ,the ginger is taken from the ground by means of the hoe1 each laborer filling a good-sized basket1 at the same time breaking off the small knots or knobs for future planting4 ,a good scraper of ginger will give you from #cj to #dj lbs4 of ginger per day4 ,it is then laid on barbacues 7generally made of boards7 to dry4 ,it takes from six to ten days to be properly cured4 ,the average yield in weight is about one-third of what is scraped4 ,when intended for preserving1 the roots must be taken up at the end of three or four months1 while the fibres are tender and full of sap4 ,the ginger grown in the ,west ,indies is considered superior in quality to that of the ,east1 doubtless because more care is paid to the culture and drying of the root1 but it is of less importance to commerce4 ,the quantities imported from these two quarters is however becoming more equal1 and ,africa is coming into the field as a producer1 #a1ede casks and packages having arrived from the western coast in #ahdf4 ,the annual average export of ginger from ,barbados between the years #agdj and #aghh1 was #d1ffg bags2 between #aghd and #aghf1 #f1cbj bags2 in #aghh1 #e1efb cwt4 were shipped2 in #agib1 #c1jdf bags and barrels4 ,in #agch1 so widely was the culture of this root diffused in ,jamaica1 that #bj1icc bags1 of one cwt4 each1 and #h1hfd lbs4 in casks were shipped4 ,the exports may now be taken on an average at #d1jjj cwt42 but1 like all the other staple products of the island1 this has fallen off one-half since the emancipation of the negro population4 ,in the three years which preceded the abolition of slavery1 #e1gai1jjj lbs4 of ginger were shipped from ,jamaica4 ,in the three years ending with #ahdh1 the quantity shipped had decreased #b1fab1ahf lbs41 as will be seen by the following returns3-- ,,ginger ,,shipped4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahcj #a1gdh1hjj #ahdf #a1dfb1jjj #ahca #a1fad1fdj #ahdg #a1cbd1dhj #ahcb #b1cee1efj #ahdh #cbj1cdj --------- --------- #e1gai1jjj #c1ajf1hbj ,in #ahdc there were shipped from ,jamaica #c1gai casks and bags2 in #ahdd1 #c1fib casks and #agcj bags2 in #ahde1 #c1ejf casks1 valued at #d #ajs4 each1 and #a1abi bags1 valued at #b each1 equal in all to #ah1jcg4 ,from the island of ,hayti #h1gfi lbs4 of ginger were exported in #ahce1 and #ae1eji lbs4 in #ahcf4 #ci packages of ginger were shipped from ,barbados in #ahea4 ,in ,maranham and one or two other provinces of ,brazil1 ginger of an excellent quality is grown1 and a good deal is exported4 ,it was very early an article of culture in ,south ,america4 ,according to ,acosta1 it was brought to ,america by one ,francisco de ,mendoza1 from ,malabar1 and so rapidly did its cultivation spread1 that as far back as #aedg1 #bb1jec cwt4 were shipped to ,europe4 ,southey1 in his ,history of ,brazil 7vol4 i41 p4 #cbj71 says1 ,ginger had been brought from the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 and throve so well that in the year #aegc1 #d1jjj arrobas of #be lbs4 each were cured2 it was better than what came from ,india1 though the art of drying it was not so well understood4 ,great use was made of this root in preserves1 but it was prohibited1 as interfering with the ,indian trade in that wretched species of policy which regards immediate revenue as its main object4 ,ginger was worth in the ,london market #bes4 to #fjs4 the cwt4 in bond2 middling and fine qualities1 #hjs4 to #afjs4 ,the duty is #es4 per cwt4 ,amount of imports of ginger into the ,united ,kingdom1 with the quantities entered for home consumption3-- ,west ,india ,entered for ,east ,india ,entered for ginger4 home consumption4 ginger4 home consumption4 cwts4 cwts4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahca #c1eea #d1gji #hdi #gi #ahcb #e1idg #f1gie #b1ejh #bac #ahcc #f1jfd #f1egj #aj1jdi #a1jii #ahcd #i1iac #i1iah #aj1jjd #a1fch #ahce #h1cba #h1ihb #d1dhi #a1fdg #ahcf #aj1bbf #f1cjd #ac1ehi #c1ebd #ahcg #aj1icc #i1ije #bc1hgf #c1chf #ahch #ac1cff #i1idd #be1fdi #a1dca #ahci #h1iif #g1bac #bi1fbd #iad #ahdj #e1cha #g1ice #i1gai #a1efh #ahda #d1ddf #e1ebc #e1bib #a1agg #ahdb #d1fga #e1jfh #c1fhj #a1ief #ahdc #d1jac #e1iec #d1ajf #c1bed casks1 c4 casks4 bags4 bags4 #ahdd #d1fai #c1abh #e1aja #f1ifd #ahde #f1jcc #d1jjj #h1afe #g1ich ,total ,retained for ginger imported4 home consumption4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahdf #bd1cgj #ae1icg #ahdf #bj1jaj #ae1afc #ahdg #ab1iie #i1gdd #ahdh #ac1gdh #aj1ded #ahdi #bh1jae #ab1hhj #ahej #cc1iec #af1edc #ahea #ce1fgh #ai1hee #aheb #bj1big #ah1fia ,,galangale ,,root is a good deal used in ,china1 and forms an article of commerce1 fetching in the ,london market #abs4 to #afs4 per cwt4 in bond4 ,it is the rhizoma of ,alpinia ,galanga4 ,its taste is peppery and aromatic4 ,externally the color of the root-stocks is reddish brown1 internally pale reddish white4 #a1bhj cwt4 of galangale root1 valued at #b1hhj dollars1 was exported from ,canton in #ahej4 ,,cardamoms4 ,cardamoms are the production of various species of plants of the same tribe as the ginger1 and might be profitably cultivated with that aromatic root1 as well as the ,turmeric 7,curcuma longa71 which see4 ,various species of ,alpini1 ,amomum1 ,elettaria1 and ,renealmia1 appear to furnish the cardamoms of the shops1 which consist of the oval1 trivalvular capsules containing the seeds4 ,the bright yellow seeds are used in medicine as aromatic tonics and carminatives2 and for curries1 ketchups1 soups1 c4 ,their active ingredient is a pungent volatile oil4 ,the least dampness injures the finer sorts4 ,about #fhh cwts4 of cardamoms1 and #e1jjj cwts4 of bastard cardamoms are annually exported from ,siam1 ,we imported about #cjj tons in #ahdi4 ,the price ranges from #as4 #f;d4 to #cs4 the pound4 ,the estimated value of the cardamoms and pepper shipped from ,ceylon in the past few years was as follows3--#ahdf1 #bjh2 #ahdg1 #bdf2 #ahdh1 #bje2 #ahdi1 #ded2 #ahej1 #ifj2 #ahea1 #gga2 #aheb1 #eij4 ,the following are some of the plants from which cardamoms are procured4 #a4 ,amomum ,cardamomum1 a ,java plant1 supplies the round cardamoms4 ,it has pale brown flowers4 ,the fruit varies in size from that of a black currant to a cherry4 #b4 ,a4 angustifolium 7,pereira71 a plant having red blossoms2 furnishes the large ,madagascar cardamoms1 and also supplies some of the seeds called ,grains of ,paradise1 which are1 however1 larger than those imported under that name4 ,this species is found in ,abyssinia1 according to my friend ,mr4 ,chas4 ,johnston1 author of ,travels in ,abyssinia1 who favored me with some specimens4 ,the seeds are pale olive brown1 devoid of the fiery peppery taste of the grains of paradise4 #c4 ,a4 maximum1 the great winged amomum1 produces the ,java cardamoma of the ,london market1 and is also grown extensively in ,ceylon1 the ,malay islands1 ,nepaul1 ,sumatra1 and other islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,there were exported from ,ceylon in #ahdb1 #e1cfd lbs42 in #ahdc1 #i1fcb lbs42 #ahdd1 #g1bhj lbs42 and in #ahde1 #aa1hab lbs4 ,the pods are large and long1 and dark colored1 approaching to black1 the taste nauseous and disagreeable1 not the least resembling that of the ,malabar cardamoms4 ,it is propagated by cuttings of the rhizoma4 ,the plants yield in three years1 and afterwards give an annual crop4 ,they are not used here1 but sent to the continent4 #d4 ,alpinia ,cardamomum4--,this is the source of the clustered cardamoms1 and furnishes the best known sort4 ,its produce is in great request throughout ,india1 fetching as much as #cj the candy of #fjj ,lbs4 ,about #aib candies are grown annually in ,travancore1 and the usual crop in ,malabar is reckoned at #ajj candies annually4 ,it flourishes on the mountainous parts of the ,malabar coast1 and among the western mountains of ,wynaad4 ,the bulbous plants1 which grow three or four feet high1 are produced in the recesses of the mountains by felling trees1 and afterwards burning them1 for wherever the ashes fall in the openings or fissures of the rocks1 the plant naturally springs up4 ,in the third year the plants come to perfection1 bearing abundantly for a year or two1 and then die4 ,in ,soonda ,balagat1 and other places where cardamoms are planted1 they are much inferior to those grown in the wild state4 ,it may be propagated by cuttings or divisions of the roots4 ,not more than one-hundredth part of the cardamoms raised in ,malabar are used in the country4 ,they are sent in large quantities to the ports on the ,red ,sea1 and the ,persian ,gulf1 up the ,indus to ,scinde1 to ,bengal and ,bombay4 ,the price of ,malabar cardamons at ,madras1 in ,june1 #ahec1 was about #c the maund of #be lbs4 ,they fetch in the ,bombay market #d #ajs4 the maund of #dj lbs4 ,cardamoms form a universal ingredient in curries1 pillaus1 c4 ,the seed capsules are gathered as they ripen1 and when dried in the sun are fit for sale4 ,they should be chosen full1 plump1 and difficult to be broken2 of a bright yellow color1 and piercing smell2 with an acrid bitterish1 though not very unpleasant taste1 and particular care should be taken that they are properly dried4 #e4 ,amomum ,grana-,paradisi1 which is indigenous to the islands of ,madagascar and ,ceylon1 yields an inferior sort of cardamoms1 known by the names of grains of paradise1 or ,meleguetta pepper4 ,these are worth in the ,english market only from #as4 #b;d4 to #as4 #d;d4 per pound1 while the long and ,malabar cardamoms fetch #bs4 #h;d4 to #cs4 #c;d4 the pound4 ,this plant is a native of ,guinea1 and the western parts of ,africa about ,sierra ,leone4 ,we imported from thence in #ahda1 #g1iaa pounds4 ,the taste of these ,guinea grains is aromatic and vehemently hot or peppery4 ,they are imported in casks from ,africa1 and are principally used in veterinary medicine1 and to give an artificial strength to spirits1 wine1 beer1 c4 ,the average quantity on which duty was paid in the six years ending with #ahdj1 was #af1jjj lbs4 per annum4 ,they are esteemed in ,africa the most wholesome of spices1 and generally used by the natives to season their food4 ,dr4 ,pereira1 from a careful examination and close inquiry1 is of opinion that the ,amomum ,grana-,paradisi of ,smith1 and the ,amamum ,melegueta of ,roscoe1 are identical species4 ,in the second volume of the ,pharmaceutical ,journal1 ,dr4 ,pereira states that the term grains of paradise1 or ,melegueta1 has been applied to the produce of no less than six scitamineous plants4 ,at the present time1 and in this country1 the term is exclusively given to the hot acrid seeds imported into ,england from the coast of ,guinea1 and frequently called ,guinea grains2 and by the ,africans ,guinea pepper4 ,elettaria ,cardomomum1 ,don4--,the fruit of this species constitutes the true1 small1 officinal ,malabar cardamoms4 ,it is an ovate oblong1 obtusely triangular capsule1 from three to ten lines long1 rarely exceeding three lines in breadth1 coriaceous1 ribbed1 greyish or brownish yellow4 ,it contains many angular1 blackish or reddish brown rugose seeds1 which are white internally1 have a pleasant aromatic odor1 and a warm agreeable taste4 #ajj parts of the fruit yield #gd parts of seeds1 and #bf parts of pericarpal coats4 ,this seems to be identical with ,amomum ,cardamomum4 ,elettaria major1 is a perennial1 native of ,ceylon1 which grows in shady situations in a rich mixed soil4 ,the dried capsules are known in commerce as wild or ,ceylon cardamoms1 and are of less value in the market than those of ,malabar 7,elettaria ,cardamomum1 ,maton74 ,it is chiefly grown about the ,kandyan district2 and in the eight years ending with #ahac1 the average export was nine and a-half candies per annum4 ,the seeds in taste resemble our carraways1 and are used for seasoning various dishes4 ,ceylon cardamoms are now worth in the ,london market 7,sept41 #ahec7 #as4 to #as4 #c;d4 per lb42 ,malabar ditto1 #bs4 #c;d4 to #cs4 ,,pepper4 ,the black pepper of commerce is obtained from the dried unripe fruit 7drupes7 of ,piper nigrum1 a climbing plant common in the ,east ,indies1 and of the simplest culture1 being multiplied with facility by cuttings or suckers4 ,the ripe fruit1 when deprived of its outer fleshy covering by washing1 forms the white pepper of the shops4 ,the dried fruiting spikes of ,p4 longum1 a perennial shrub1 native of ,malabar and ,bengal1 constitute long pepper4 ,the fruit of ,xylopia aromatica is commonly called ,ethiopian pepper1 from being used as pepper in ,africa4 ,the seeds of some species of fennel-flower 7,nigella sativa and arvensis71 natives of the south of ,europe1 were formerly used instead of pepper1 and are said to be still extensively employed in adulterating it4 ,in ,japan1 the capsules of ,xanthoxylum piperitum1 or ,fagara ,piperita1 are used as a substitute for pepper1 and so is the fruit of ,tasmannia aromatica in ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,according to ,dr4 ,roxburgh1 ,p4 trioicum is cultivated in the ,east1 and yields an excellent pepper4 ,the pepper vine rises about two feet in the first year of its growth1 and attains to nearly six feet in the second1 at which time1 if vigorous and healthy1 the petals begin to form the corolla or blossom4 ,all suckers and side shoots are to be carefully removed1 and the vines should be thinned or pruned1 if they become bushy at the top4 ,rank coarse weeds and parasitical plants should be uprooted4 ,the vine would climb1 if permitted1 to the elevation of twenty feet1 but is said to bear best when kept down to the height of ten or twelve feet4 ,it produces two crops in the year4 ,the fruit grows abundantly from all the branches1 in long small clusters of from #bj to #ej grains2 when ripe it is of a bright red color4 ,after being gathered1 it is spread on mats in the sun to dry1 when it becomes black and shrivelled4 ,the grains are separated from the stalks by hand rubbing4 ,the roots and thickest parts of the stems1 when cut into small pieces and dried1 form a considerable article of commerce all over ,india1 under the name of ,pippula moola4 ,almost all the plants of the family ,piperace have a strong aromatic smell and a sharp burning taste4 ,this small group of plants is confined to the hottest regions of the globe2 being most abundant in tropical ,america and in the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 but more rare in the equinoctial regions of ,africa4 ,the common black pepper1 ,p4 nigrum1 represents the usual property of the order1 which is not confined to the fruit1 but pervades1 more or less1 the whole plant4 ,it is peculiar to the torrid zone of ,asia1 and appears to be indigenous to the coast of ,malabar1 where it has been found in a wild state4 ,from this it extends between the meridians of longitude #if deg4 and #aaf deg4 ,s4 and the parallels of latitude #e deg4 ,s4 and #ab deg4 ,n41 beyond which no pepper is found4 ,within these limits are the islands of ,sumatra and ,borneo1 with the ,malay peninsula and part of ,siam4 ,sumatra produces by far the greatest quantity of pepper4 ,in #ahdb1 the annual produce of this island was reckoned at #cj1jjj1jjj lbs41 being more than the amount furnished by all the other pepper districts in the world4 ,a little pepper is grown in the ,mauritius and the ,west ,india ,islands1 and its cultivation is making some progress on the ,western ,coast of ,africa1 as we imported from thence #b1iji bags and casks in #ahdf1 and about #aaj1jjj lbs4 in #ahdg4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,crawfurd1 ,f4,r4,s41 one of the best authorities on all that relates to the commerce and agriculture of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 recently estimated the produce of pepper as follows3-- lbs4 ,sumatra 7,west ,coast7 #bj1jjj1jjj 7,east ,coast7 #h1jjj1jjj ,islands in the ,straits of ,malacca #c1fjj1jjj ,malay ,peninsula #c1gcc1ccc ,borneo #b1fff1ffg ,siam #h1jjj1jjj ,malabar #d1jfj1jjj ---------- ,total #ej1jjj1jjj ,if we add to this ,western ,coast of ,africa and ,b4,w4 ,indies #ec1jjj ,java #d1jjj1jjj ,mauritius and ,ceylon #hj1jjj ---------- ,it gives #ed1acc1jjj as the total produce of the world ,black pepper constitutes a great and valuable article of export from the ,indian ,islands2 which1 as we have seen1 afford by far the largest portion of ,what is consumed throughout the world4 ,in the first intercourse of the ,dutch and ,english with ,india1 it constituted the most considerable and important staple of their commerce4 ,the production of pepper is confined in a great measure to the western countries of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 and among these to the islands in the centre and to the northern quarter1 including the ,peninsula4 ,it is obtained in the ports on both sides of the coast of the latter1 but particularly the north-eastern coast4 ,the principal quarters 7according to ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 my authority on this subject71 are ,patani1 ,tringanu1 and ,kalantin4 ,in the ,straits a large quantity is produced in the island of ,singapore1 and above all in ,pinang1 where the capital of ,europeans and the skill and industry of the ,chinese have been successfully applied to its culture4 ,the western extremity of ,sumatra1 and the north-west coast of that island1 are the most remarkable situations in it for the production of pepper1 and here we have ,acheen1 ,tikao1 ,bencoolen1 ,padang1 and the country of the ,lampungs4 ,the production of the eastern extremity of ,sumatra or ,palembang is considerable1 but held of inferior quality4 ,in the fertile island of ,java1 the quantity of pepper grown is inconsiderable1 nor is it remarkable for the goodness of its quality4 ,the province of ,bantam has always furnished1 and still continues to produce1 the most pepper2 but the culture of this creeper is fast giving place in ,java to staples affording higher profits and requiring less care4 ,the exports were1 in the following years3-- piculs4 lbs4 #ahcj #f1jfa #ahdc #c1gcg1gcb #ahce #aa1hfh #ahdh #dfa1fhj #ahci #aa1jdd #ahea #ie1jcg #ahda #ac1dgg #aheb #ace1fij ,the number of pepper vines in the district of ,bencoolen1 in the close of last year1 #aheb1 was as follows3--#a1ega1hid young vines2 #b1dcg1jeb bearing ditto2 total1 #d1jjh1idf4 ,up to the end of ,september there had been delivered to the ,government #a1ade piculs white pepper1 and #a1abh piculs black pepper1 while of the harvest of #aheb there were still probably to be received #ccj piculs white1 and #d1ifg piculs black pepper4 ,the south1 the west1 and the north coasts of the great island of ,borneo produce a large quantity of pepper2 as early as #agba it was a staple commodity of this island4 ,banjarmassin is the most productive place on the south coast1 and the ,state of ,borneo ,proper on the north coast4 ,the best pepper certainly does not grow in the richest soils1 for the peppers of ,java and ,palembang are the worst of the ,archipelago1 and that of ,pinang and the west coast of ,sumatra are the best4 ,care in culture and curing improves the quality1 as with other articles1 and for this reason chiefly it is that the pepper of ,pinang is more in esteem than that of any other portion of the ,archipelago4 ,from the ports and districts of ,siam #c1ejj to #d1jjj tons are exported annually4 ,the duty at present levied on pepper in ,england is #f;d4 per lb41 while the wholesale price for that of ,pinang1 ,malabar1 and ,sumatra is about #d;d4 per lb4 ,white pepper ranges from #i;d4 to #as4 #f;d4 per lb4 ,the prime cost in ,singapore is not more than #a;d4 per lb4 ,about #gj1jjj or #hj1jjj piculs of pepper are annually exported from ,singapore1 of which between #cj1jjj and #dj1jjj piculs have1 until within the last two years1 gone on to ,great ,britain4 ,more than one-half of the pepper exported from ,singapore is grown in the island by ,chinese settlers4 ,the low selling price of the article in the ,english market1 the high duty levied upon it1 and the large freight paid for its carriage to ,great ,britain1 now leave so small a price to the cultivator in ,singapore1 that the cultivation ceases to be remunerative1 and is carried on at a loss2 and has consequently within the last year or two begun to decrease rapidly1 involving the ,chinese growers1 who are generally of the poorest class1 and without capital1 in great distress4 ,a reduction in the duty on pepper has always been followed by a very large increase in the consumption of the article1 as will appear from the following table1 showing the importation and consumption in ,great ,britain during some of the first and last years of the different rates of duty3-- ,duty ,singapore price ,year ,quantity consumed s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 #ahaa #a1deg1chc #a #aj #j #g to #j #g #ahad #ida1efi #a #aj #j #aa #a #a #ahbj #a1djd1jba #b #f #j #f #j #f #ahbd #a1ddg1jcj #b #f #j #d #j #e #ahbf #b1ebi1jbg #b #j #j #d #j #d #ahcf #b1gdi1dia #a #j #j #j #j #j #ahcg #b1fbe1jge #j #f #j #j #j #j #ahde #c1baj1dae #j #f #j #b #j #d ,in a memorial from the mercantile community of ,singapore1 sent home in #ahdh1 it is asserted that a reduction in the duty of pepper being always attended by a large increase in the consumption1 would not lead to any serious loss in the revenue1 while it would confer a great boon on the poorer classes1 to whom it has now become a necessary article of life4 ,the reduction would also be of great advantage to ,british manufacturers1 as well as to our ,indian possessions1 by giving rise to an increased demand or ,british goods and productions1 and of the highest benefit to the agricultural settlers in the island of ,singapore1 by enabling them to procure for their labor an honest means of livelihood4 ,the pepper vines1 which are allowed to climb poles or small trees1 are tolerably productive at ,singapore2 and pepper planting is esteemed by the ,chinese to be a profitable speculation1 particularly if they are enabled to evade the payment of quit-rent4 ,an acre of pepper vines will yield #a1afa lbs4 of clean pepper4 ,in ,sumatra a full grown plant has been known to produce seven pounds2 in ,pinang the yield is much more4 ,the average produce of one thousand vines is said1 however1 to be only about #dej lbs4 ,colonel ,low1 in his ,dissertation on ,pinang1 published at ,singapore some years ago1 gives an interesting account of the culture3-- ,pepper was1 during many years1 the staple product of ,pinang soil1 the average annual quantity having been nearly four millions of pounds2 but previous to the year #ahaj1 the above amount had decreased to about two-and-a-half millions of pounds1 which was the result of the continental system4 ,the price having fallen at length to three and three-and-a-half dollars the picul--with only a few occasional exceptions of rises--the cultivation of this spice was gradually abandoned1 and the total product at this day does not exceed #b1jjj piculs4 ,the original cost1 when pepper was at a high price1 together with charges of transporting it to ,europe1 amounted to #cf1ceg for every five hundred tons1 and the loss by wastage was estimated at #e1dje4 ,in #ahah there remained on the island #a1dhj1bfe pepper vines in bearing1 and the average value of exports of pepper from ,pinang1 including that received from other places1 was averaged at #ajf1hgj ,spanish dollars4 ,as might have been foreseen1 the fall of prices has so greatly diminished the cultivation of pepper to the eastward1 that a reaction is likely to take place2 and has in fact partly shown itself already4 ,some ,chinese in ,pinang and ,province ,wellesley seem to be preparing to renew the cultivation4 ,there is abundant scope for the purpose on both sides of the harbour1 and every facility is at hand for carrying it on4 ,the pepper plant or vine requires a good soil1 the richer the better1 but the red soil of the higher hills is not congenial1 the ,chinese think1 to it4 ,the undulations skirting the bases of the hills1 and the deep alluvial lands1 where not saturated with water1 or liable to be overflowed1 are preferred4 ,the ,chinese have always been the chief cultivators1 and when the speculation flourished they received advances from the merchants1 which they paid back in produce at fixed rates4 ,when pepper was extensively cultivated on ,prince of ,wales ,island1 the ,european owner of the land had the forest cleared by contract1 and the vines planted by contract1 and when the vines came into bearing the plantation was farmed to the ,chinese from year to year1 on payment of a specific quantity of pepper4 ,any other plan would have ruined the capitalist1 as the culture is almost entirely in their hands in the ,straits' ,settlements1 and they will not work so well for others as when they are specially interested4 ,the plants are set out at intervals1 every way1 of from seven to twelve feet1 according to the degree of fertility of the soil1 so that there are from #hjj to #a1jjj vines in one orlong of land2 to each vine is allotted a prop of from ten to thirteen feet high1 cut from the thorny tree called dadap1 or where that is scarce1 from the less durable boonglai2 these props take root1 thus affording both shade and support to the plant4 ,the plant may be raised from seed pepper1 but the plan is not approved of1 cuttings being preferable1 as they soonest come into bearing4 ,the pits in which these cuttings are set should be a foot-and-a-half square1 and two feet in depth2 manure is not often applied1 and then it is only some turf ashes4 ,however unpicturesque a pepper plantation may be1 still its neat and uniform appearance renders the landscape lively1 and there can be little doubt that the island has suffered in its salubrity since the jungle usurped the extensive tracts formerly under pepper cultivation4 ,when the vine has reached the height of three or four feet1 it is bent down and laid in the earth1 and about five of the strongest shoots which now spring up are retained and carefully trained up the prop1 to which they are tied by means of ligatures of some creeping plants4 ,one ,chinese1 after the plantation has been formed1 can take care of two orlongs of land4 ,the usual mode is this3--an advance is made by the capitalist to the laborer for building a house1 and for agricultural implements2 he then receives two dollars monthly to subsist on1 until the end of the third year1 when the estate or plantation is equally divided betwixt the contracting parties4 ,the ,chinese and even ,european cultivators used formerly to engage the ,chinese who had just arrived from ,china2 they paid off their passage-money1 and then allowed them two dollars monthly1 for provisions1 for one year2 with a suit of clothes1 by which means the cost of the labor of one man averaged about three dollars monthly2 but this plan is attended with risks4 ,the cost attendant on the cultivation of two orlongs of land1 with pepper1 for three years--the ,chinese laborer receiving the usual hire of five ,spanish dollars monthly--will be nearly as follows3-- ,spanish dollars4 ,price of land1 clearing1 and planting #dj ,quit rent1 at #ge cents per annum per orlong #i ,two thousand plants #d dadap props #f ,implements #f ,house #aj ,labor #bjj ,interest1 loosely calculated at #cj --- ,total ,spanish dollars #cje ,in a very good soil a pepper vine will yield about one-eighth of a pound of dry produce at the end of the first year2 at the end of the second1 about a quarter of a pound2 and at the expiration of the third1 probably one pound2 at the end of the fourth1 from three to three-and-a-half pounds2 ditto fifth1 from eight to ten pounds4 ,after the fifth year up to the fifteenth1 or even the twentieth year1 about ten pounds of dry merchantable produce may be obtained from each vine1 under favorable circumstances4 ,the ,chinese speculator used to rent out his half-share of a new plantation for five years1 to his cultivating partner1 after the expiration of the first three years1 at the rate of thirty piculs per annum2 the total produce of these five years giving about fifty-six piculs annually as an average4 ,a pepper plantation never survives the thirtieth year1 unless in extremely rich soil1 and then it is unproductive2 nor will the young vine thrive on an old worn out pepper land1 a peculiarity which is applicable to the coffee tree4 ,the chief crop lasts from ,august to ,february4 ,four pounds of dry produce1 for ten of green1 is considered a fair estimate4 ,great care is requisite in the management of the vine1 and especially in training and tying it on the props4 ,it is subject to be injured by the attacks of a small insect4 ,the green pepper dries in two or three days1 and if it is intended that it shall be black1 it is pulled before it is quite ripe4 ,to make white pepper1 the berry is allowed to remain somewhat longer on the vine2 it is1 when plucked1 immersed in boiling water1 by means of which process and subsequent friction1 before drying1 the husk is separated4 ,the exports of pepper from ,pinang in the last four years have been--,in #ahdi1 #b1eia1bcc lbs42 in #ahej1 #f1cig1gcc lbs42 in #ahea1 #b1cff1icc lbs42 in #aheb1 #b1aab1acc lbs4 ,a small quantity of pepper seems to be annually exported from ,ceylon1 which ,i presume is the growth of that island2 thus there were3-- #ed cwts4 shipped in #ahdb #hc #ahdc #ajb #ahdd ,in the ,customs' returns of ,ceylon1 it is classed with cardamoms1 and #afj to #agj cwt4 of the two were shipped in each of the years #ahej and #ahea4 ,last year the quantity was smaller4 ,pepper cultivation has been introduced into the ,mauritius1 and in #ahci more than #ejj1jjj lbs4 were imported from thence1 but as the shipments have since decreased1 ,i presume it has given place to the more profitable staple sugar4 ,i have been able to glean no information as to the progress it has made in the ,west ,indies4 ,in ,cayenne it has been successfully carried on for many years2 and large shipments of pepper have been made thence to ,france4 ,,black ,,pepper ,,exported ,,from ,,singapore4 ,piculs4 ,value in rupees4 #ahda ,total ,exports #ff1haj ,growth of ,singapore #ba1bca #dg1fgd #ahdb ,exports #gd1bbh ,growth of ,singapore #cb1bgg #gb1dgc #ahdc ,exports #eg1hhc ,growth of ,singapore #ce1ehe #gi1ijj #ahdd ,exports #fg1adh ,growth of ,singapore #db1iie #chf1aeb #ahde ,exports #fe1hib ,growth of ,singapore #ci1jai #cej1ddc #ahdf ,exports #ef1gji ,growth of ,singapore #ce1gab ----- #ahdg ,exports #fj1iid ,growth of ,singapore #cf1efe #cbh1cig ,pliny1 the naturalist1 states that the price of pepper in the market of ,rome in his time was1 in ,english money1 #is4 #d;d4 a pound1 and thus we have the price of pepper at least #a1ggd years ago4 ,the pepper alluded to must have been the produce of ,malabar1 the nearest part of ,india to ,europe that produced the article1 and its prime cost could not have exceeded the present one1 or about #b;d4 a pound4 ,it would most probably have come to ,europe by crossing the ,indian and ,arabian ocean1 with the easterly monsoon1 sailing up the ,red ,sea1 crossing the desert1 dropping down the ,nile1 and making its way along the ,mediterranean by two-thirds of its whole length4 ,this voyage1 which in our times can be performed in a month1 most probably then took eighteen4 ,transit and customs duties must have been paid over and over again1 and there must have been plenty of extortion4 ,all this will explain how pepper could not be sold in the ,roman market under fifty-six times its prime cost4 ,immediately previous to the discovery of the route to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 we find that the price of pepper in the markets of ,europe had fallen to #fs a pound1 or #cs4 #d;d4 less than in the time of ,pliny4 ,what probably contributed to this fall1 was the superior skill in navigation of the now converted ,arabs1 and the extension of their commerce to the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 which abounded in pepper4 ,after the great discovery of ,vasco de ,gama1 the price of pepper fell to about #as4 #c;d4 a pound1 a fall of #hs4 #a;d4 from that of the time of ,pliny1 and of #ds4 #i;d4 from that of the ,mahommedan ,arabs1 ,turks1 and ,venetians4 ,in #ahbf1 #ad1jjj1jjj lbs4 of pepper were imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 of which about #e1ejj1jjj were re-exported4 ,in #ahda1 #ae1jjj1jjj lbs4 were imported1 of which #f1ejj1jjj were re-shipped to other countries4 ,the home consumption1 it will be seen1 now averages about #c1bej1jjj lbs43-- ,imports ,home consumption lbs4 lbs4 #ahde #i1heb1ihd #c1bji1gah #ahdf #e1ijf1ehf #c1bii1iee #ahdg #d1ffi1icj #b1iff1jbb #ahdh #h1abe1ede #c1ahe1ccg #ahdi #d1gif1jdb #c1beg1iaa #ahej #h1jbh1cai #c1agj1hhc #ahea #c1iif1dif #c1cjc1djc #aheb #f1fda1fii #c1ebd1eja ,the following return shows the number of bags of pepper imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 with the quantity retained for home consumption3-- ,imports4 ,retained for home consumption4 ,black4 ,white4 ,black4 ,white4 bags bags bags4 bags4 #ahdc #cg1hdj #c1hfa #ba1afc #b1beg #ahdd #fj1gje #b1abc #bc1ebe #b1abb #ahde #hj1fjj #c1bjh #cj1bid #b1hfa #ahdg #cg1aid #a1bcf #bh1gfh #b1fed #ahdh #fe1eah #c1jdb #ca1ffe #c1iej #ahdi #dc1fea #b1faf #cb1bdf #c1hei ,,chillies ,,and ,,cayenne ,,pepper4 ,chillies or capsicum are long roundish taper pods1 divided into two or three cells1 full of small whitish seeds4 ,when this fruit is fresh1 it has a penetrating acrid smell2 to the taste it is extremely pungent1 and produces a most painful burning in the mouth4 ,they are occasionally imported dry1 and form the basis of ,cayenne pepper2 put in vinegar when green or ripe1 they are an acceptable present in ,europe4 ,in ,bengal the natives make an extract from the chillies1 which is about the consistence and color of treacle4 ,the consumption of chillies in ,india is immense1 as both rich and poor daily use them1 and it is the principal ingredient in all chutnies and curries2 ground into a paste1 between two stones1 with a little mustard1 oil1 ginger1 and salt1 it forms the only seasoning which the millions of poor in that country can obtain to eat with their insipid rice4 ,they are worth in the ,bombay market about #djs4 the candy of #fjj lbs4 ,immense quantities of the capsicum are used by the native population of the ,west ,indies1 ,africa1 and ,mexico2 the consumption as a condiment being almost universal1 and perhaps equal in quantity to salt4 ,ten barrels of these peppers were shipped from ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica1 in the first six months of #ahea4 ,the wholesale price of chillies in the ,london market is from #aes4 to #bes4 the cwt41 and there is a duty of #f;d4 per pound on them4 ,cayenne fetches #i;d4 to #bs4 the pound4 ,chilli is the ,mexican name for all varieties of ,capsicum4 ,they are natives of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and other hot climates4 ,c4 annuum is the species commonly noticed1 but there seems to be numerous varieties1 which by many are reckoned species4 ,thus1 ,c4 frutescens is a shrubby plant1 which1 along with ,c4 minimum1 supplies the variety called bird-pepper1 it grows to a larger and more bushy size2 ,c4 baccatum has a globular fruit1 and furnishes cherry or berry capsicum4 ,they are all of the simplest culture1 and may even be grown with very little care in ,england4 ,culture appears to increase the size1 but to diminish the pungency of the fruit4 ,in capsicums irritant properties prevail so as to obscure the narcotic action4 ,their acridity is owing to an oleaginous substance called capsicin4 ,cayenne pepper is used in medicine chiefly in the form of tincture1 as a rubefacient and stimulant1 especially in cases of ulcerated sore throat4 ,it acts on the stomach as an aromatic condiment1 and when preserved in acetic acid it forms chilli vinegar4 ,red pepper may be considered one of the most useful vegetables in hygiene4 ,as a stimulant and auxiliary in digestion it has been considered invaluable1 especially in warm countries4 ,a kind called the tobacco red pepper1 is said to possess the most pungent properties of any of the species4 ,it yields a small red pod1 less than an inch in length1 and longitudinal in shape1 which is so exceedingly hot that a small quantity of it is sufficient to season a large dish of any food4 ,owing to its oleaginous character1 it has been found impossible to preserve it by drying1 but by pouring strong boiling vinegar on it a sauce or decoction can be made1 which possesses in a concentrated form all the essential qualities of the vegetable4 ,a single drop of this sauce will flavor a whole plate of soup or other food4 ,the wort or ,cayenne pottage may be termed the national dish of the ,abyssinians1 as that1 or its basis dillock1 is invariably eaten with their ordinary diet1 the thin crumpet-like bread of teff or wheat flour4 ,equal parts of salt and the red cayenne pods are well powdered and mixed together with a little pea or bean meal to make a paste4 ,this is called dillock1 and is made in quantities at a time1 being preserved in a large gourd-shell1 generally suspended from the roof4 ,the wort is merely a little water added to this paste1 which is then boiled over the fire1 with the addition of a little fat meat and more meal to make a kind of porridge1 to which sometimes is also added several warm seeds1 such as the common cress or black mustard1 both of which are indigenous in ,abyssinia4--7,johnston's ,abyssinia47 ,a great quantity of ,agi or ,guinea pepper is grown in ,peru1 the natives being very fond of this condiment4 ,it is not uncommon for an ,american ,indian to make a meal of twenty or thirty pods of capsicum1 a little salt1 and a piece of bread1 washed down by two or three quarts of chica1 the popular beverage4 ,,pimento4 ,the pimento1 ,eugenia ,pimento 7,myrtus ,pimenta71 is a native of ,mexico1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,it flourishes spontaneously and in great abundance on the north side of the island of ,jamaica2 its numerous white blossoms mixing with the dark green foliage1 and with the slightest breeze diffusing around the most delicious fragrance1 give a beauty and a charm to nature rarely equalled1 and of which he who has not visited the shady arbors and perfumed groves of the tropics can have little conception4 ,this lovely tree1 the very leaf of which when bruised emits a fine aromatic odor1 nearly as powerful as that of the spice itself1 has been known to grow to the height of from #cj to #dj feet1 exceedingly straight1 and having for its base the spinous ridge of a rock1 eight or ten feet above the surface of the hill or mountain4 ,a single tree has frequently produced #aej lbs4 of the raw1 or #ajj lbs4 of the dried fruit4 ,the fruit has an aromatic odor1 and its taste combines that of cinnamon1 nutmeg1 and cloves2 hence its common name of allspice4 ,the fruit of ,eugenia acris is used for pimento4 ,the trunk is of a grey color1 smooth and shining1 and altogether destitute of bark4 ,it is luxuriantly clothed with leaves of a deep green1 somewhat like those of the bay tree1 and these leaves are1 in the months of ,july and ,august1 beautifully contrasted and relieved by an exuberance of white flowers4 ,the leaves yield by distillation a delicate odoriferous oil1 which is said to be sometimes passed off for oil of cloves4 ,the berries are gathered before they are ripe1 and spread on a terrace1 exposed to the sun for about a week1 during which time they lose their green color1 and acquire that reddish brown tint which renders them marketable4 ,some planters kiln-dry them4 ,like many of the minor productions of the tropics1 pimento is exceedingly uncertain1 and perhaps a very plenteous crop occurs but once in five years4 ,in #ahjj there were #ab1gei bags and #faj casks of pimento imported from ,jamaica2 in #ahbd there were #cc1cjh bags and #eii casks shipped from the island2 in #ahbi the quantity exported was #f1jfi1abg lbs4 ,in the year ending ,october #ahdc1 the export of pimento from ,jamaica was #bi1cbb bags and #aef casks2 in the year ending ,october #ahdd1 #ab1jee bags and #hh casks2 in the year ending ,october #ahde1 #bcc casks1 valued at #cjs4 each1 and #ei1did bags1 valued at #bjs4 ,from #ast ,january to #ast ,august1 #ahea1 #abh1bgg lbs4 pimento were shipped from the port of ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica4 ,there was a very considerable pimento plantation made in ,tobago1 some years ago1 by a ,mr4 ,franklin1 but it was abandoned by his sons1 that they might attend the more exclusively to sugar culture4 ,jamaica exported nearly two millions of pounds of pimento less1 in the three years ending #ahdh1 than she did in the three previous to the emancipation of the slaves4 ,the number of pounds shipped annually1 in these periods1 is shown by the following figures3-- ,year4 lbs4 #ahcj #e1efj1fbj #ahca #c1agb1cbj #ahcb #d1jbd1hjj #ahdf #b1iig1jfj #ahdg #b1hjj1adj #ahdh #e1bca1ijh ,pimento is imported into this country in bags of about #ajj lbs4 each4 ,the imports have been3-- ,year4 ,imports4 ,home consumption4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahdh #bj1ggc #d1bcj #ahdi #bd1iid #c1dai #ahej #bj1ddh #c1dfg #ahea #ad1hdj #c1ice #aheb #bb1gjh #c1hgb ,the following is a statement of the imports from the ,west ,indies1 and the consumption of the ,united ,kingdom1 in pounds3-- ,entries for ,year4 ,imports4 home consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahca #a1hja1cee #cje1gci #ahcb #a1cff1ahc #bif1aig #ahcc #d1ggj1bee #ccj1hij #ahcd #a1chi1djb #cbj1gai #ahce #b1ecf1cec #cdc1idb #ahcf #c1bcj1igh #djj1ida #ahcg #b1jbf1abh #chc1dja #ahch #hib1igd #chc1iig #ahci #a1jga1eaa #cji1jgh #ahdj #iii1jfh #cch1ifi #ahda #gig1geg #big1bja #ahdb #a1fdc1cah #dej1fhc #ahdc #b1jbh1feh #cgh1jif ,the imports have been1 in-- bags4 #ahdc #ah1fdi #ahdd #b1djh #ahde #ba1jib #ahdg #i1fdi #ahdh #ah1aif #ahdi #ad1ajh ,pimento is worth in the ,london market #f;d4 to #g;d4 per lb4 ,the duty is #es4 per cwt4 ,,vanilla4 ,the fleshy1 pod-like1 odoriferous fruit of different species of ,epidendrum constitute the substance called vanilla1 which is used in confectionery for giving a delicious perfume to chocolate1 liqueurs1 c4 ,as an aromatic it is much sought after by confectioners1 for flavoring ices and creams2 and also by perfumers1 liqueurists1 and distillers4 ,the best comes from the forests round the village of ,zurtila1 in the intendancy of ,oaxaca1 on the eastern slopes of the ,cordillera of ,anahuac1 between the parallels of #ai deg4 and #bj deg4 ,n4 ,all the vanilla which is used in ,europe is imported from ,mexico1 ,venezuela1 and ,vera ,cruz4 ,it is a native of tropical ,america1 and grows wild in ,brazil1 ,peru1 the banks of the ,orinoco1 and all places where heat1 shade1 and moisture prevail4 ,there are many species indigenous to the ,bahamas1 ,trinidad1 ,jamaica1 ,cuba1 ,dominica1 ,martinique and ,st4 ,vincent1 which would produce considerable gain to the inhabitants if they would give themselves the trouble of cultivating or collecting its fruit4 ,this parasitical plant has a trailing stem1 not unlike the common ivy1 but not so woody1 by which it attaches itself to the trunks of trees1 and sucks the moisture which their bark derives from the lichens and other cryptogamia1 but without drawing nourishment from the tree itself1 like the misletoe and loranthus4 ,the ,indians in ,mexico propagate it by planting cuttings at the foot of trees selected for that purpose4 ,it rises to the height of #ah or #bj feet2 the flowers are of a greenish yellow1 mixed with white4 ,the plant is subcylindrical about eight or ten inches long1 of a yellow color when gathered1 but dark brown or black when imported into ,europe4 ,it is one-celled siliquose1 and pulpy within1 wrinkled on the outside1 and full of a vast number of seeds like grains of sand1 having when properly prepared1 a peculiar and delicious fragrance4 ,it should be gathered before it is fully ripe4 ,different species of vanilla are natives of ,guiana1 and it is found in large quantities along the banks of its rivers1 and in the wooded districts which intersperse the savannahs4 ,the oily and balsamic substance which the minute seeds possess1 may be found to have medicinal qualities4 ,its cultivation can be connected with no difficulties2 it needs only to plant the slips among trees1 and to keep them clear of weeds4 ,it would prove therefore a great addition to a cocoa plantation4 ,in #ahbe the price was1 in ,germany1 sixty-six dollars 7equal to #i7 per pound1 and twenty-five to thirty dollars are paid for it in ,martinique4 ,humboldt states that the annual value of vanilla exported from the state of ,vera ,cruz was #dj1jjj dollars1 #h1jjj sterling4 ,some vanilla is exported from ,maranham4 ,the cultivation of vanilla1 which was introduced into ,java in the year #ahdg1 is said to have made considerable progress1 there being now no fewer than thirty plantations4 ,the fruit of this orchideous plant is entirely neglected in the province of ,caracas1 though abundant crops of it might be gathered on the humid coast between ,porto ,cabello and ,ocumare1 especially at ,turiamo1 where the pods attain the length of nearly a foot4 ,the ,english and ,american merchants often seek to make purchases at the port of ,la ,guayra1 but with difficulty procure it in small quantities4 ,in the valleys that descend from the chain of coast towards the ,caribbean sea1 in the province of ,truxillo1 as well as in the mission of ,guiana1 near the cataracts of the ,orinoco1 a great quantity of the vanilla pods might be collected1 the produce of which would be still more abundant1 if1 according to the practice of the ,mexicans1 the plant were disentangled from time to time from the other creepers1 with which it is intertwined and stifled4 ,when collected to prepare it for the market1 about #ab1jjj of the pods are strung like a garland by their lower end1 as near as possible to their foot-stalk2 the whole are plunged for an instant into boiling water to blanch them2 they are then hung up in the open air and exposed to the sun for a few hours4 ,by some they are wrapped in woollen cloths to sweat4 ,next day they are lightly smeared with oil1 by means of a feather or the fingers1 and are surrounded with oiled cotton to prevent the valves from opening4 ,as they become dry1 on inverting their upper end they discharge a viscid liquor from it1 and they are pressed several times with oiled fingers to promote its flow4 ,the dried pods1 like the berries of pepper1 change color under the drying operation1 grow brown1 wrinkled1 soft1 and shrink to one-fourth of their original size4 ,in this state they are touched a second time with oil1 but very sparingly1 because with too much oil they would lose some of their delicious perfume4 ,they are then packed for the market in small bundles of #ej or #ajj in each1 enclosed in lead foil1 or tight metallic cases4 ,there are four local varieties1 all differing in price and excellence2 viz41 the vanilla fina1 the zacate1 the rezacate1 and the vasura4 ,one pod of vanilla is sufficient to perfume a pound and a half of cacao4 ,it is with difficulty reduced to fine particles1 but it may be sufficiently attenuated by cutting it into small bits1 and grinding these along with sugar4 ,as it comes to us1 vanilla is a capsular fruit1 of the thickness of a swan's quill2 straight1 cylindrical1 but somewhat flattened1 truncated at the top1 thinned off at the ends1 glistening1 wrinkled1 furrowed lengthwise1 flexible1 from five to ten inches long1 and of a reddish brown color4 ,it contains a pulpy parenchyma1 soft1 unctuous1 very brown1 in which are embedded black1 brilliant1 very small seeds4 ,the kind most esteemed in ,france is called leq vanilla2 it is about six inches long1 from one-fourth to one-third of an inch broad1 narrowed at the two ends and curved at the base2 somewhat soft and viscid1 of a dark reddish color1 and of a most delicious flavor1 like that of balsam of ,peru4 ,it is called vanilla giorees1 when it is covered with efflorescences of benzcoin acid1 after having been kept in a dry place1 and in vessels not hermetically closed4 ,the second sort1 called vanilla simarona1 or bastard1 is a little smaller than the preceding1 of a less deep brown hue1 drier1 less aromatic1 destitute of efflorescence4 ,it is said to be the produce of the wild plant1 and is brought from ,st4 ,domingo4 ,a third sort1 which comes from ,brazil1 is the vanillon1 or large vanilla of the ,french market2 the vanilla pamprona or bova of the ,spaniards4 ,its length is from five to six inches1 its breadth from one-half to three-fourths of an inch4 ,it is brown1 soft1 viscid1 almost always open1 of a strong smell1 but less agreeable than the leq4 ,it is sometimes a little spoiled by an incipient fermentation4 ,it is cured with sugar1 and enclosed in tin plate boxes1 which contain from #bj to #fj pods#eb4 ,the average annual import of vanilla into ,havre1 in the five years ending #ahda1 was about #af boxes2 in #ahdb it was #cj packages4 ,,tonquin ,,beans4--,the seeds of the ,tongo tree 7,dipterix odorata71 a native of ,guiana1 are the well-known tonquin beans used to give a pleasant flavor to snuff4 ,,turmeric4 ,this article of commerce is furnished by the branches of the rhizome or root-stock of the ,curcuma longa1 and ,c4 rotunda1 plants which are natives of ,eastern ,asia1 but have been grown in ,england and the ,west ,indies4 ,they thrive well in a rich light soil1 and are readily increased by offsets from the roots4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 where it is known as ,huldee1 turmeric is much employed in dyeing yellow1 principally silks1 but the color is very fugitive4 ,it is also used medicinally as an aromatic carminative1 and as a condiment2 it enters into the composition of curry sauce or powder1 and many other articles of ,indian cookery4 ,it is cordial and stomachic1 and considered by the native doctors of ,india an excellent application in powder for cleansing foul ulcers4 ,it is grown in1 and exported chiefly from1 ,bengal and ,malabar1 ,madras1 ,java1 and ,china4 ,the turmeric of ,java is in high estimation in the ,european markets1 ranking next to that of ,china1 and being much superior to that of ,bengal4 ,the seeds of ,anethum ,sowa1 from their carminative properties1 form an ingredient in curry powder4 ,the price of turmeric in ,london is from #abs4 to #bjs4 per cwt41 according to quality4 ,the entries for home consumption are about #d1jjj to #e1jjj cwts4 annually4 ,it is better shipped in casks or cases than in bags4 ,a kind of arrowroot is prepared from ,c4 angustifolia1 another species of this tribe of plants4 ,amaranthus gangiticus1 and another species1 are much cultivated by the ,hindoos for their stews and curries4 ,the quantity and value of the curry stuff imported into ,ceylon1 chiefly from ,india1 has been in the last few years as follows3-- ,quantity4 ,years4 cwts4 packages4 ,value4 #ahdg #f1hff #ahdh #i1iha #ahdi #bf1cdg #aji #i1ffd #ahej #bd1cif #cjj #g1bfg #ahea #cb1eej #i1ddf #aheb #i1jci ,what is comprised under the term curry stuff1 ,i am not aware1 but it appears to be a bulky article1 for it was imported to the extent of #cb1jjj cwt4 in #aheb4 ,there are two varieties of turmeric usually sent into ,europe from the ,east 7whence all the turmeric imported into ,europe is obtained71 the long turmeric 7,curcuma longa71 and the round1 or as it is better known the ,chinese turmeric4 ,the latter description is very rare1 the former is the common article of commerce4 ,according to one of my correspondents1 ,mr4 ,hepburn1 chemist1 of ,falmouth1 ,jamaica1 the common or long turmeric is indigenous to that island1 growing luxuriantly in the mountainous districts1 in rather damp soils1 its locality being in the vicinity of rivers1 water-courses and springs4 ,in this respect it differs from ginger1 which requires a rather dry soil for its culture4 ,i am not aware that this plant possesses the property of impoverishing the soil like the ginger4 ,from the general habits of the plant in its natural state1 we may gather the following rules for our guidance in its culture4 ,the plants should be laid down in rows of five or six inches distant from each other1 in a soil moderately damp1 of an aluminous or clayey nature1 and free to a great extent of the more soluble alkalies1 potash and soda1 as these1 by absorption1 may destroy the coloring matter of the plant1 and so diminish its value as a dye-stuff4 ,finally1 in preparing the roots for exportation1 they should be cleansed from all earthy particles1 exposed for drying in the shade1 and without any further preparation bagged for shipment4 ,the coloring matter of turmeric is of an orange yellow color exceedingly delicate and capable of change1 either from the action of light or of alkalies1 which turn it to a dark brown color4 ,it is slightly soluble in water1 and readily soluble in an alkaline solution1 becoming dark brown4 ,alcohol extracts the coloring matter4 ,the uses to which turmeric is applied are two3 as an ingredient in the curry powder and paste1 and as a dye for silk4 ,it was some time ago used as a medicine2 but though retained in the ,pharmacopoeias of the present day1 it is entirely discarded by the practitioner as a curative agent4 ,the best ,bengal and ,malabar turmeric fetches a price nearly as high as that of ginger1 and ,i see no reason why the ,west ,india planter could not send it into the ,british market quite as cheap as the ,east ,india trader4 ,according to ,dallas1 #cig bags of turmeric were exported from ,jamaica in #agig4 ,turmeric is grown about the city of ,patna and ,behar4 ,it is much cultivated about ,calcutta and all parts of ,bengal4 ,one acre yields about #b1jjj lbs4 of the fresh root4 ,it is also grown on the central table land of ,afghanistan4 ,the exports from ,calcutta in #ahda were #aa1jjj ,indian maunds1 and #bh1acg in #ahdb4 ,the value of that exported from ,madras in #ahci was #dj1jjj rupees1 or #d1jjj2 in #ahdj1 #d1bjj4 ,the quantity shipped from that ,presidency in #ahej was #f1hgg bags4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,dacca about #bjj lbs4 of seed is sown to the beegah1 measuring #hj cubits by #hj1 and the yield is from #fdj to #hjj lbs4 #adj tons were imported into ,liverpool in #ahdi1 for dyeing and for curries2 #dad tons in #ahej2 #aa1eed bags and packages in #ahea2 and only #c1eie ditto in #aheb4 ,the price in ,january #ahec was1 for ,bengal1 #ajs4 to #abs42 ,china1 #abs4 to #ads41 and ,malabar #is4 to #abs4 the cwt4 ,the imports into ,london were #ah tons in #ahdh1 #aia in #ahdi1 and #ihj in #ahej4 ,the deliveries for consumption1 #aib tons in #ahdh1 #bgj in #ahdi1 and #hgj tons in #ahej4 ,in ,china turmeric is used with ,prussian blue in coloring and facing tea4 ,,ginseng ,the produce of this plant1 as an article of commerce1 is confined to our transatlantic neighbours1 who have the monopoly of the supply to ,china4 ,the root of ,panax quinquefolium1 the ,american ginseng1 is much esteemed by the ,chinese1 for certain supposed beneficial effects upon the nerves1 and for other presumed virtues2 but our physicians have not discovered any proofs of its efficacy in ,europe4 ,the plant is an herbaceous perennial1 growing upon the confines of ,tartary and ,china1 near the great wall4 ,it is found wild1 flourishing in moist situations1 and attains the height of from two to three feet2 it is also now produced largely in the northern1 middle1 and western ,states of the ,union1 particularly ,virginia1 ,louisiana1 and ,pennsylvania1 and a considerable trade is carried on with it to ,china4 ,a variety of the plant was discovered1 a few years ago1 in the ,himalaya mountains1 and small quantities have been thence sent to ,canton4 ,it is also found growing in ,canada4 ,the root is about three or four inches in length1 and one inch in thickness4 ,it resembles a small carrot1 but not so taper at the end1 and is sometimes single1 sometimes divided into two branches4 ,the stem is striated1 without branches1 and of a red color near the root4 ,the leaves1 from four to six of which surround the stem where they form sheaths 7bracteal71 are simply pinnate4 ,the flower stalk is long and green1 the inflorescence a simple umbel4 ,the fruit is a berry of a red color1 and contains two seeds of the size of mustard seed4 ,the officinal root differs in appearance1 according to the country from which it is brought4 ,in ,korea and ,china it is white1 corrugated when dry1 and covered with a powder resembling starch4 ,in ,mandscharia and ,dauria it is yellow1 smooth and transparent1 and when cut resembles amber4 ,the taste of the root is bitter4 ,crude ginseng now sells in the ,canton market at #gj to #hj dollars per picul of #acc lbs41 and cured or clarified root at #acj to #adj dollars4 ,the stem of the plant1 which is renewed every year1 leaves1 as it falls off1 an impression upon the neck of the root1 so that the number of these rings or marks indicates the age of the plant1 and the value of the root increases accordingly4 ,the ,chinese government were formerly in the habit of sending out annually #cj1jjj ,tartar soldiers to search for the plant1 and each was obliged to bring home two ounces of the root gratis1 and for all above that quantity he was paid its weight in silver4 ,the ,asiatic ginseng is said to be obtained from the root of ,p4 ,schinseng of ,nees von ,esenbeck1 ,p4 ,pseudo ginseng of ,wallich4 ,this root might be procured in ,prince ,edward's ,island and some of the other ,british ,north ,american colonies4 ,i have been able to trace1 after some labor and research1 the progressive exports of this curious article of trade from the ,united ,states4 ,in #agij1 #hac casks1 of the value of #dg1jbe dollars1 were exported2 and in #agia1 #bi1bjh lbs4 ,from #ahjc to #ahjg1 the annual value of ginseng shipped was about #abc1jjj dollars1 and from #ahbj to #ahcj1 it averaged #aeg1jjj dollars4 ,the following figures show the value of the article in subsequent years3--#ahca1 #aae1iba dollars2 year ending #cjth ,september1 #ahce1 #id1ifj dollars2 #ahcg1 #bab1hii lbs41 valued at #ajh1edh dollars2 #ahdj1 #bb1gbh dollars2 #ahda1 #dcg1bde dollars4 ,the quantity shipped in #ahci1 from ,philadelphia alone1 was #cag1ddc lbs4 ,in #ahda1 #fcg1hhe lbs4 were exported from the ,united ,states4 ,the value of that exported in the years ending #cjth ,june1 was #ahdd1 #ie1jjh in dollars1 and in #ahde1 #aag1adf dollars2 #aaj1jjj lbs4 were collected at ,toledo1 ,ohio1 in #ahde4 ,the value of the exports in the following years1 ending ,june #cjth1 were--#ahdg1 #fd1dff dollars2 #ahdi1 #afb1fdj2 #ahdi1 #ahb1iff2 #ahej1 #abb1iaf dollars4 ,,coriander1 ,,carraway1 ,,and ,,other ,,seeds4 ,the fruits of anise1 carraway1 coriander1 c41 7erroneously called seeds17 are in demand for various purposes4 ,,carraway ,,seed is imported to the extent of #ejj tons annually from ,germany and ,holland1 the price being about #ccs4 per cwt4 ,it is also now much grown in ,essex and ,kent4 ,in the years #ahdh and #ahdi1 #g1jjj cwt4 of this seed was imported1 of which nearly the whole quantity was retained for home consumption4 ,,coriander ,,seed is chiefly used by distillers1 to produce an aromatic oil4 ,the quantity imported annually does not exceed #ej tons1 and it is brought principally to the port of ,hull4 ,it is also cultivated in ,suffolk1 ,essex and ,kent4 ,of ,,mustard ,,seed the aggregate quantity imported annually is about #b1jjj tons for home consumption1 and the flour is used as a well-known condiment to food1 c41 and in medicine2 the average price being about #i;d4 per pound4 ,,anise4--,the fruit of ,pimpinilla anisum1 under the name of aniseed1 is principally imported from ,alicant and ,germany 7the first is preferred71 but some is also brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,it is an annual plant1 largely cultivated in ,spain1 ,malta1 and various parts of ,germany1 and also in the island of ,scio1 ,egypt1 and parts of ,asia4 ,the imports are not large2 #aib cwts4 paid duty in #ahcc1 and #cae cwts4 in #ahdj4 ,about #fj cwts4 are annually received at ,hull from ,germany4 ,it is used to flavor liqueurs1 sweetmeats1 and confectionery of various kinds4 ,oil of aniseed is obtained by distillation from the fruit1 and #a1edd lbs4 were imported in #ahci4 ,about two pounds of oil are obtained from one hundred-weight of seed4 ,,star ,,anise1 ,illicum anisatum1 is a native of the countries extending from #bc deg4 to #ce deg4 of north latitude1 or from ,canton to ,japan4 ,the capsules constitute in ,india a rather important article of commerce1 and are sold in all the bazaars4 ,large quantities are also used in ,europe in the preparation of liqueurs4 #fie piculs of star aniseed were exported from ,canton in #ahej1 valued at #h1bjj ,spanish dollars4 #ha piculs of oil of aniseed were exported from ,canton in #ahde1 and #aje piculs in #ahej1 valued at #aa1ijj dollars4 #c1jjj piculs of aniseed are exported annually from ,cambodia4 ,,putchuk1 ,,or ,,costus4 ,the substance called costus was highly prized by the ancients1 and specimens may be met with at a few of the ,london drug-houses4 ,it has been shown by ,dr4 ,falconer to be the produce of a genus of the thistle tribe1 to which he has given the name of ,aucklandia4 ,the root of ,a4 ,costus is supposed to be the ,costus ,arabicus1 on the following grounds3--,it corresponds with the descriptions given by the ancient authors1 and is used at the present day for the same purposes in ,china1 as costus was formerly applied to by the ,greeks4 ,the coincidence of the names--in ,cashmere the root is called koot1 and the ,arabic synonym is said to be koost4 ,it grows in immense abundance on the mountains which surround ,cashmere4 ,it is a gregarious herb1 about six or seven feet high1 with a perennial thick branched root1 with an annual round smooth stem1 large leaves and dark purple flowers4 ,the roots are dug up in the months of ,september and ,october1 when the plant begins to be torpid2 they are chopped up into pieces1 from two to six inches long1 and are exported without further preparation4 ,the quantity collected1 according to ,dr4 ,falconer1 is very large1 amounting to about two million pounds per annum4 ,the cost of its collection and transport to a mercantile depot in ,cashmere1 is about #bs4 #d;d4 the cwt4 ,the commodity is laden on bullocks and exported to the ,punjaub1 whence the larger portion goes down to ,bombay1 where it is shipped for the ,red ,sea1 the ,persian ,gulf1 and ,china2 a portion of it finds its way across the ,sutlej and ,jumna into ,hindostan ,proper1 whence it is taken to ,calcutta1 and bought up there with avidity under the name of putchuk4 ,the value is enhanced at ,jugadree1 on the ,jumna1 to about #afs4 #i;d4 or #bcs4 #d;d4 per cwt4 ,in the ,chinese ports it fetches nearly double that price the cwt4 ,the ,chinese burn the roots as an incense in the temples of their gods1 and they also attach great efficacy to it as an aphrodisiac4 ,the imports into ,canton in #ahdh were #dad piculs2 in #ahej1 #hed piculs2 valued at #e1aej dollars4 ,in ,cashmere it is chiefly used for the protection of bales of shawls from insects4 ,the exports from the port of ,calcutta were1 in #ahdj-da1 #ai1ffj maunds2 in #ahda-db1 #ab1hdg2 in #ahdg-dh1 #b1jej2 in #ahdh-di1 #b1aaj2--worth about #a1ejj annually4 ,specimens of amboyna wood1 the odoriferous sandal wood from ,timor1 clove wood1 and other choice woods from the ,moluccas and ,prince of ,wales ,island1 were sent home to the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea4 ,,lignum ,,aloes1 the eagle wood and ,calambak of commerce1 yielding an aromatic perfume1 is furnished by the ,aquilaria malaccensis1 and agallocha1 in ,silhet1 an ornamental evergreen shrub4 ,a very high artificial value is placed on the better qualities of this product by the natives of the ,east2 the best quality being worth about #ad the picul of #acc lbs4 ,this fragrant wood is probably the lign aloes of the ,bible4 ,incense to the value of nearly one million and a quarter francs was exported from ,alexandria in #ahcg4 ,calambak or eagle wood1 the true lignum aloes so highly esteemed in the ,east as a perfume or incense1 is said to be produced by the ,aloexylum agallochum1 ,lour4 ,this remarkable wood contains a large quantity of an odoriferous oleo-resin2 when heated it undergoes a sort of imperfect fusion1 and exhales a fragrant and very agreeable odor4 ,its price in ,sumatra is about #cj per cwt4 ,inferior specimens are obtained at ,malacca4 ,eagle wood is also obtained from several other trees4 ,the true eagle wood is however very scarce4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,dyes ,,and ,,coloring ,,stuffs1 ,,and ,,tanning ,,substances4 ,of the several classes of materials collected at the ,industrial ,exhibition in ,hyde ,park1 in #ahea1 few possessed so much importance in the eyes of the textile and leather manufacturer and chemist as the different products used in the arts and manufactures for coloring and tanning purposes4 ,these were in a great measure lost sight of by the public at large1 being scattered about in small quantities in a great number of directions2 and1 from the minute samples shown1 were in many instances overlooked altogether4 ,besides furnishing some novel and general statistical facts1 which may prove interesting1 ,i propose also in this section to draw attention more prominently to some of these products1 which are at present little known or appreciated4 ,coloring substances for staining and dyeing are obtained indifferently from the animal1 mineral1 and vegetable kingdoms1 but it is of the last alone that ,i shall have to speak4 ,the importance of a more careful consideration of this subject will be admitted1 if we consider how much the prosperity and extent of our cotton1 silk1 woollen1 and leather manufactures depends on a liberal and cheap supply of dyes and tannin1 to give beauty and color to the fabrics1 and substance and utility to the skins4 ,even oil colors1 for painters' purposes1 which do not come within the scope of my remarks1 form an item in our yearly exports of the value of #bej1jjj1 and when we calculate the large amount of cotton1 silk and wool worked up1 most of which requires various coloring agents1 gums1 starches1 and mordants2--that nearly #cj1jjj tons of hides are annually imported1 exclusive of those obtained from our now slaughter-houses1 besides goat1 seal1 and other skins--and that the exports of our various manufactures of cotton1 linen1 silk1 wool and leather in #aheb1 setting aside our home consumption1 amounted to nearly fifty millions sterling1 we shall be able to form a better estimate of the importance of the various subjects we are about to notice4 ,great ,britain does not pay less than #fjj1jjj annually for the dried carcasses of the tiny cochineal insect1 while the produce of another small insect1 that which produces the lac dye1 is scarcely less valuable4 ,then there are the gall nuts used for dyeing and making black ink4 ,upwards of #c1jjj1jjj is paid for barks of various kinds for tanners' purposes1 about one million for other tanning substances and heavy dye woods1 besides about #bjj1jjj for various extracts of tannin1 such as ,gambier1 ,cutch1 ,divi-divi1 and ,kino4 ,the aggregate value of the dye stuffs and gum it is difficult to estimate4 ,the beautiful specimens of materials imported from ,china1 ,india1 ,new ,zealand1 the ,continent1 and other countries1 and exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 proves to us that we have yet much to learn from other nations in the art of fixing colors and obtaining brilliant dyes4 ,the ,french are much our superiors in dyeing and the production of fast and beautiful colors4 ,their chemical researches and investigations are carried out more systematically and effectively than our own4 ,russia imports dyewoods and dye-stuffs to the value of five millions and a half of silver roubles annually4 ,it was well observed by the ,jury ,reporters at the ,great ,exhibition1 that a vast number of new coloring materials have been discovered or made available1 and improved modes have been devised of economically applying those already in use2 so that the dyer of the present time employs many substances of the very existence of which his practical predecessors were wholly ignorant4 ,from the increased use of many of the vegetable colors1 and from the improved modes of applying the coloring matters1 a demand has naturally sprung up for various dye stuffs2 and at the present time1 many of the dyeing materials of distant countries are beginning to excite the attention of practical men2 for though they have been acquainted with many of these substances1 it is only recently that the progress of the art has rendered their use desirable or even practicable4 ,it would be quite impossible1 within the limits which ,i have assigned myself1 to make even a bare enumeration of the various plants and trees from which coloring substances and dye stuffs can be obtained1 ,i must1 therefore1 be content to specify only a few4 ,the roots of some species of ,lithospermum afford a lac for dyeing and painting4 ,dried pomegranates are said to be used in ,tunis for dyeing yellow2 the rind is also a tanning substance4 ,sir ,john ,franklin tells us that the ,crees extract some beautiful colors from several of their native vegetables4 ,they dye a beautiful scarlet with the roots of two species of bed-straw1 ,galium tinctorium and boreale4 ,they dye black1 with an ink made of elder bark and a little bog-iron ore dried and powdered1 and they have various modes of producing yellow4 ,they employ the dried roots of the cowbane 7,cicuta virosa71 the bruised buds of the ,dutch myrtle1 and have discovered methods of dyeing with various lichens4 ,in the ,comptes ,rendus1 xxxv41 p4 #eeh1 there is an account by ,m4,j4 ,persoz1 of a green coloring matter from ,china1 of great stability1 from which it appears that the ,chinese possess a coloring substance having the appearance of indigo1 which communicates a beautiful and permanent sea green color to mordants of alumina and iron1 and which is not a preparation of indigo1 or any derivative of this dyeing principal4 ,as furnished to ,m4 ,persoz by ,mr4 ,forbes1 the ,american consul at ,canton1 it was in thin plates of a blue color1 resembling ,japanese indigo1 but of a finer grain1 differing also from indigo in its composition and chemical properties4 ,on infusing a very small quantity of it in water1 this fluid soon acquired a deep blue color with a greenish tinge2 upon boiling and immersing a piece of calico on which the mordants of iron and alumina had been printed1 it was dyed a sea green color of greater or less intensity according to the strength of the mordant--the portions not coated remaining white4 ,a berry called ,makleua grows on a large forest tree at ,bankok1 which is used most extensively by the ,siamese as a vegetable black dye4 ,it is merely bruised in water1 when a fermentation takes place1 and the article to be dyed is steeped in the liquid and then spread out in the sun to dry4 ,the berry1 when fresh1 is of a fine green color1 but after being gathered for two or three days it becomes quite black and shrivelled like pepper4 ,it must be used fresh1 and whilst its mixture with water produces fermentation4 ,the bark of ,datisca cannabina also dyes yellow4 ,it contains a bitter principle1 like quassia4 ,a coloring matter is prepared from the dried fruit of the ,rottlera tinctoria1 by the natives of the ,east1 to dye orange1 which is a brilliant and tolerably permanent dye4 ,it is apparently of a resinous nature4 ,a small quantity of ,alkanet root 7,anchusa tinctoria71 is imported from the ,levant and the south of ,france1 and is used to color gun stocks1 furniture1 c41 of a deep red mahogany and rosewood color4 ,it is brought over in packages weighing about two cwt41 the price being #djs4 or #ejs4 per cwt4 ,turmeric is now imported to the extent of upwards of #hjj tons1 a portion of this is used in dyeing4 ,the culture and commerce has been already noticed in ,section ,,iii4 ,the bark and roots of the berberry are used in the ,east to dye yellow2 the color is best when boiled in ley4 ,some of the species of ,symplocos1 as ,s4 racemosa1 known as lodh about the ,himalaya mountains1 and ,s4 tinctoria1 a native of ,carolina1 are used for dyeing4 ,the scarlet flowers of ,butea frondosa 7the ,dhaktree71 and ,b4 superba1 natives of the ,indian jungles1 yield a beautiful dye1 and furnishing a species of kino 7,pulas kino71 are also used for tanning4 ,althea rosea1 the parent of the many beautiful varieties of hollyhock1 a native of ,china1 yields a blue coloring matter equal to indigo4 ,indigo of an excellent quality has been obtained in the ,east from a twining plant1 ,gymnema tingens or ,asclepias tingens4 ,the juice of the unripe fruit of ,rhamnus infectorius1 catharticus and virigatius1 known as ,turkey or ,french berries1 is used for dyeing leather yellow4 ,when mixed with lime and evaporated to dryness1 it forms the color called sap-green4 ,a great quantity of yellow berries are annually shipped from ,constantinople2 #aae tons were imported into ,liverpool last year4 ,the average annual imports into the ,united ,kingdom are about #dej tons4 ,they come from the ,levant in hair bales weighing three and a quarter cwt41 or in tierces of four to five cwt41 and are used by calico printers for dyeing a yellow color4 ,they are sometimes called ,persian berries4 ,it is a subject of surprise that the common betel-nut of the ,east has never been introduced for dyeing purposes4 ,the roots of the awl tree of ,malabar and other parts of ,india1 ,morinda citrifolia1 and of ,m4 tinctoria1 found abundant in all the ,asiatic islands1 are extensively used as a dye stuff for giving a red color4 ,it is usually grown as a prop and shade for the pepper vine and coffee tree4 ,the coloring matter resides principally in the bark of the roots1 which are long and slender1 and the small pieces are the best1 fetching #hs4 to #ajs4 a maund4 ,it is exported in large quantities from ,malabar to ,guzerat1 and the northern parts of ,hindostan1 but seldom finds its way to ,europe4 ,the wood and roots of another species1 ,m4 umbellata1 known in the eastern islands as ,mangkudu1 are used extensively for their red dye1 in ,celebes and ,java4 ,specimens of all these1 and of the ,lopisip bark1 bunchong bulu wood1 and the gaju gum 7from undescribed plants71 have been introduced into ,england4 ,they are said to furnish excellent dyes in the ,asiatic islands4 ,native dyes from ,arracan have also been imported1 viz41 thit-tel and the-dan yielding red dyes1 ting-nget and reros1 affording dark purple dyes2 and thit-nan-weng1 a chocolate dye4 ,these would be worth enquiry1 and particulars of the plants yielding them1 the quantities available1 and the prices might be procured4 ,dyes and colors from the following plants are obtained in ,india3 several species of ,terminalia1 ,sinecarpus ,anacardium1 ,myrica ,sapide1 ,nelumbium speciosus1 ,butea frondosa1 and ,nyctanthes arboretristis4 ,the bunkita barring1 obtained from an undescribed plant in ,borneo1 produces a dark purple or black dye4 ,a species of ruellia1 under the name of ,room1 is employed in its raw state by the ,khamptis and ,lingphos to dye their clothes of a deep blue4 ,it is described by the late ,dr4 ,griffiths as a valuable dye1 and highly worthy of attention4 ,it might1 perhaps1 be usefully employed as the ground for a black dye4 ,in ,nepaul they use the bark of ,photinia dubia or ,mespilus ,bengalensis for dyeing scarlet4 ,the bark of the black oak1 ,quercus tinctoria and its varieties1 natives of ,north ,america1 are used by dyers under the name of quercitron4 ,in the south of ,europe1 ,daphne ,gnidium is used to dye yellow4 ,the root of reilbon1 a sort of madder in ,chili1 dyes red4 ,a purple tint or dye is obtained from the bark of an undescribed tree1 known under the name of ,grana ponciana1 growing about ,quito2 and ,stevenson 7,travels in ,south ,america7 says1 if known in ,europe1 it would undoubtedly become an article of commerce4 ,another much more expensive species of coloring matter 7red7 is obtained in various parts of ,south ,america from the leaves of the ,bignonia ,chica1 a climbing evergreen shrub1 native of the ,orinoco country1 with large handsome panicles of flowers4 ,the coloring substance is obtained by decoction1 which deposits1 when cool1 a red matter2 this is formed into cakes and dried4 ,dr4 ,ure thinks it might probably be turned to account in the arts of civilization4 ,the order of plants to which it belongs1 contains a vast number of species1 all natives of tropical regions1 and their value for the production of coloring substances may be worth investigation4 ,it is met with in ,british ,guiana1 and the ,indian tribes of that district prepare the pigment with which they stain their skin from it2 it is called by them ,caraveru4 ,the coloring matter is used as a dye in the ,united ,states1 and for artistical purposes would rival madder4 ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk thinks it might form an article of export if it were sufficiently known1 as its preparation is extremely simple4 ,the leaves are dried in the sun1 and at the first exposure1 after having been plucked from the vine which produces them1 they show the abundant feculent substance which they contain4 ,,lana ,,dye4--,a beautiful bluish-black color1 known as ,caruto1 is procured in ,demerara and ,berbice from the juice of the fruit of the ,genipa ,americana1 ,linn4--a tree very common in the colony4 ,the ,indians use it for staining their faces and persons4 ,the ,lana dye was honorably mentioned by the jurors at the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea4 ,the bluish-black color obtained from it is remarkably permanent1 a fact which has very long been known1 though hardly any attempt appears to have been made to introduce it to the notice of ,european dyers4 ,another pigment is prepared by them from arnotto1 mixed with turtle oil1 or carap oil1 obtained from the seeds of the ,carapa guianensis 7,aubl474 ,the wild plantain 7,urania guianensis7 and the cultivated plantain 7,musa paridisiaca71 the ,mahoe 7,thespesia populnea71 and the pear seed of the ,avocado 7,persea gratissima71 furnish dyes in various parts of the ,west ,indies2 specimens of many of these have been imported from ,british ,guiana and ,trinidad4 ,russia produces good specimens of the wood of ,statice coriaria1 the leaves and bark of sumach1 the bark of the wild pomegranate1 yellow berries1 ,madia sativa1 saffron1 safflower and madder roots for dyeing purposes4 ,avicenna tomentosa1 a species of mangrove1 is very common about the creeks of ,antigua1 ,jamaica1 and other ,west ,india islands1 where it is used for dyeing and tanning4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 the natives produce a most brilliant blue-black dye from the bark of the ,eno1 which is in great abundance4 ,some of the borders of the native mats1 of a most magnificent black1 are dyed with this substance4 ,it has been tried in ,new ,south ,wales2 but1 as with other local dyes1 although found well suited for flax1 hemp1 linen1 or other vegetable productions1 it could not be fixed on wools or animal matter4 ,dr4 ,holroyd1 of ,sydney1 some time since1 imported a ton of it for a friend near ,bathurst4 ,it is of great importance that chemical science should be applied to devise some means of fixing this valuable dye on wool4 ,as the tree is so common1 the bark could be had in any quantity at about #c #ajs4 a ton2 and our tweed manufacturers are in great want of a black dye for their check and other cloths4 ,the principal heavy woods used for dyeing are fustic1 logwood1 ,nicaragua wood1 barwood1 camwood1 red ,sanders wood1 ,brazil wood1 and sappan wood4 ,all the dyewoods are nearly #b per ton higher than last year4 ,common ,spanish fustic which in ,september1 #aheb1 was only #c #ajs4 per ton1 now fetches #f #ajs4 in the ,liverpool market2 and there is a great demand for all kinds of dyewoods4 ,tampico and ,puerto ,cabello fustic are now worth #f #ajs4 to #g the ton1 ,cuba ditto1 #i #ajs4 to #aj4 ,sappan wood is #d higher than last year2 barwood has risen cent per cent2 logwoods are #b per ton higher4 ,the following were the prices of the different dyewoods in the ,liverpool market1 on the #ast ,september1 #ahec1 per ton3-- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,,fustic1 common ,spanish #e #aj #j to #f #aj #j ,tampico #f #aj #j #g #j #j ,puerto ,cabello #f #aj #j #g #aj #j ,cuba #h #j #j #i #aj #j ,,logwood1 ,jamaica #e #j #j #e #e #j ,st4 ,domingo #e #e #j #e #aj #j ,campeachy1 direct #g #ab #f #h #j #j ,indirect and ,tobasco #f #aj #j #g #j #j ,,nicaragua4 ,,wood4 ,rio de la ,hache1 solid #i #j #j #aa #aj #j small #f #j #j #f #aj #j ,lima #ab #j #j #ad #aj #j ,,barwood1 ,angola ,gaboon #g #j #j ----- ,,camwood #be #j #j #cj #aj #j ,,red ,,sanders ,,wood #e #ae #j #f #aj #j ,,sappan ,,wood #aj #j #j #ae #j #j ,,red ,,sanders ,,wood 7,pterocarpus santalinus71 which is hard and of a bright garnet red color1 is employed to dye a lasting reddish brown on wool4 ,it only yields its color to ether or alcohol4 ,the tree1 which is a lofty one1 is common about ,madras and other parts of ,india2 it is also indigenous to ,ceylon1 ,timor1 and other ,eastern islands4 ,the exports of this wood from ,madras in one year have been nearly #b1jjj tons4 ,the imports of red ,sanders wood from ,calcutta and ,bombay chiefly into ,london are to the extent of #gjj or #hjj tons a year1 worth #f to #i per ton4 ,of ,,fustic we import from #a1ejj to #b1jjj tons annually4 ,we derive our supplies from ,brazil1 ,tampico1 ,puerto ,cabello1 ,cuba1 and ,jamaica4 ,the best is obtained from ,cuba2 for while the common white fustic from ,jamaica and the ,spanish ,main fetches only #e #ajs4 to #f #ajs4 the ton1 that of ,cuba realizes from #h to #i #ajs4 the ton4 ,,sappan ,,wood 7,csalpinia ,sappan7 is an article of considerable commerce in the ,east4 ,it is the bukkum wood of ,scinde1 and is procured in ,mergui1 ,bengal1 the ,tenasserim ,provinces1 ,malabar and ,ceylon4 ,in #ahdb as much #gh1jjj cwts4 were shipped from ,ceylon1 but the export from thence has decreased4 ,this island1 however1 ships dyewoods annually to the amount of #b1jjj4 ,a large quantity is exported from ,siam and the ,philippine ,islands2 as much as #bjj1jjj piculs annually from the former1 and #bc1jjj piculs from ,manila4 #c1ebd piculs were shipped from ,singapore in #ahea1 and #d1jgd piculs in #aheb4 ,the picul is about one cwt4 and a quarter4 ,sappan wood yields a yellowish color1 like that of ,brazil wood 7,c4 brasiliensis7 but it does not afford of dye matter so much in quantity or so good in quality4 ,it forms a large export from ,ceylon3 the shipments from thence were1 in #ahdb1 #gg1fid cwt42 in #ahdc1 #a1fib2 in #ahdd1 #b1eib2 in #ahde1 #b1hed4 ,i have no detailed returns at hand1 but in #ahcg1 #bc1fie piculs of sappan wood1 and #b1bff piculs of roots of ditto were shipped1 and in the first six months of #ahdc1 #bb1cbf piculs were exported from ,manila2 a large portion of this comes to ,europe1 but some goes to ,china1 the ,united ,states1 ,singapore1 c4 #ae1ejj piculs were shipped from ,manila in #ahdd1 #e1bej ditto in #ahde2 and #a1baj tons in #ahej4 ,about #c1jjj piculs of sappan wood and the same quantity of other dye-stuffs are annually imported into ,shanghae4 ,the price of straight sappan wood at ,shanghae in ,july1 last year1 was thirty dollars per picul4 ,in ,calcutta1 in ,june last year1 #d1jjj piculs of the root of ,manila sappan wood sold freely at about #gs4 #f;d4 per factory maund1 ,siam ditto #fs4 #ge tons were imported into ,liverpool in #ahdi2 and #abj tons in #ahej1 from ,calcutta4 ,the imports of sappan wood into the ,united ,kingdom1 in #ahej1 amounted to #c1fgj tons1 worth #h to #ab the ton1 and this continued the price in ,january #ahec4 ,camwood1 red sanders wood1 barwood1 and other dye woods1 are found in great quantities in many parts of ,africa4 ,the dyes of ,africa are found to resist both acids and light1 properties which no other dyes seem to possess in the same degree4 ,about thirty miles east of ,bassia ,cove1 in the republic of ,liberia1 is the commencement of a region of unknown extent1 where scarcely any tree is seen except the camwood4 ,this boundless forest of wealth1 as yet untouched1 is easily accessible from that settlement2 roads can be opened to it with little expense1 and the neighbouring kings would probably give their co-operation to a measure so vastly beneficial to themselves4 ,it is impossible to ascertain the exact amount of export of these commodities to ,europe and the ,united ,states1 but it is very great1 and employs a large amount of vessels4 ,one ,liverpool house imported #fjj tons in a single year1 worth #i1jjj4 ,in #ahda upwards of #c1jjj tons of dye woods were imported into ,liverpool from the western coast of ,africa4 ,,camwood 7,baphia nitida7 is used as a mordant and for producing the bright red color seen in ,english bandana handkerchiefs4 ,the imports from ,sierra ,leone to ,liverpool in #ahdi were #baf tons1 worth #bj to #be per ton4 ,gaboon barwood is another variety of this dyewood which is imported from the west coast of ,africa1 in straight flat pieces1 from three to1 five feet in length2 the average annual import being about #b1jjj tons1 of the value of #d a ton4 ,the imports of barwood into ,liverpool were in-- ,tons4 #ahce #b1jjj #ahcf #a1jjj #ahcg #a1aej #ahch #fej #ahci #cej #ahda #b1jab #ahej #a1gaj ,dyewoods imported in #ahej4 ,re-exported4 ,logwood #cb1icj #d1ccb ,fustic #i1hjh #a1gga ,nicaragua #g1iji #aab ,barwood #a1hif #a1bbi ,sappan #c1fgj -- ,green ,ebony1 and ,cocuswood #a1deg -- ,red ,sanders #fef -- ,camwood #daf -- ,brazil and ,brazillito #cji -- ------ ----- #ei1jea #g1ddd ,thus we perceive the annual consumption of heavy dyewoods in this country1 in dyeing cotton1 linen1 woollen and silk goods1 c41 exceeds in weight #ea1jjj tons4 ,,arnotto4--,the plants of this family are chiefly natives of the warmest parts of ,south ,america1 the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and ,africa4 ,in ,america the seeds are called achote or roucou4 ,from the port of ,barcelona1 in ,venezuela1 about #b1jjj quintals are annually exported4 ,the species grown for its dye is the ,bixa orellana4 ,it is used to impart a bright orange color to silk goods1 and to afford a deeper shade to simple yellows4 ,the dry hard paste is also found to be the best of all ingredients for giving a golden tint to cheese or butter4 ,a convenient liquid preparation is now sold to dairymen4 ,the ,spanish ,americans mix it with their chocolate1 to which it gives a beautiful rich hue4 ,it is of two sorts1 viz43-- #a4 ,flag or cake arnotto1 which is by far the most important article in a commercial point of view1 is furnished almost wholly by ,cayenne4 ,it is imported in square cakes1 weighing two or three pounds each1 wrapped in banana leaves1 packed in casks4 #b4 ,roll arnotto is principally brought from ,brazil4 ,the rolls are small1 not exceeding two or three ounces in weight4 ,it is hard1 dry1 and compact1 brownish on the outside1 and of a beautiful red color within4 ,the dye is usually prepared by macerating the pods in boiling water for a week or longer4 ,when they begin to ferment1 the seeds ought to be strongly stirred and bruised with wooden pestles to promote the separation of the red skins4 ,this process is repeated several times1 till the seeds are left white4 ,the liquor passed through close cane sieves1 pretty thick1 of a deep red color1 and a very bad smell1 is received into coppers4 ,in boiling1 it throws up its coloring matter to the surface in the form of scum1 which is taken off1 saved in large pans1 and afterwards boiled down to a due consistence1 and then made up1 when soft1 into balls or cakes of two or three pounds weight4 ,the following description of the manufacture is from ,dr4 ,ure3-- ,the pods of the tree being gathered1 their seeds are taken out and bruised2 they are then transferred to a vat1 which is called the steeper1 where they are mixed with as much water as covers them4 ,here the substance is left for several weeks or even months2 it is now squeezed through sieves placed above the steeper1 that the water containing the coloring matter in suspension may return into the vat4 ,the residuum is preserved under the leaves of the pine-apple shrub1 till it becomes hot by fermentation4 ,it is again subjected to the same operation1 and this treatment is continued till no more color remains4 ,the substance thus extracted is passed through sieves1 in order to separate the remainder of the seeds1 and the color is allowed to subside4 ,the precipitate is boiled in coppers till it be reduced to a consistent paste2 it is then suffered to cool1 and dried in the shade4 ,instead of this long and painful labor1 which occasions diseases by the putrefaction induced and which affords a spoiled product1 ,leblond proposes simply to wash the seeds of arnotto till they be entirely deprived of their color1 which lies wholly on their surface2 to precipitate the color by means of vinegar or lemon juice1 and to boil it up in the ordinary manner1 or to drain it in bags as is practised with indigo4 ,the experiments which ,vauquelin made on the seeds of arnotto imported by ,leblond1 confirmed the efficacy of the process which he proposed2 and the dyers ascertained that the arnotto obtained in this manner was worth at least four times more than that of commerce2 that1 moreover1 it was more easily employed2 that it required less solvents2 that it gave less trouble in the copper1 and furnished a purer color4--7,dict4 of ,arts47 ,our imports of arnotto for home consumption are from #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj lbs4 per annum4 ,the plant is grown in ,dacca and other parts of ,india1 and the eastern ,archipelago4 ,at the ,hawaiian ,islands1 ,tongataboo1 ,rio ,janeiro1 ,peru and ,zanzibar1 the arnotto is an indigenous shrub which rises to the height of seven or eight feet1 producing oblong heavy pods1 somewhat resembling those of a chesnut4 ,within these there are generally thirty or forty irregularly-formed seeds1 which are enveloped in a pulp of a bright red color1 and a fragrant smell4 ,the imports of arnotto have been as follows3-- ,retained for lbs4 home consumption4 #ahcd #beb1iha -- #ahce #afc1dba -- #ahci #cjc1dhi #bbd1gid #ahdj #djh1dfi #ccj1dij #ahdg #bgj1jjj #bif1hba #ahdi #afb1djj #ade1hbd #ahej #cja1ejd #bca1bhj ,the price of flag arnotto in the ,london market1 in ,june #ahec1 was #as4 per lb4 ,we imported from ,france1 in #ahej1 #a1ibd cwt4 of roll or flag arnotto1 of the official value of #ba1dii2 and in #ahea1 #a1bec cwt41 worth #ac1ifh4 ,wood dye exported from ,ceylon-- ,value ,quantity cwts4 #ahdh #a1cei -- #ahdi #b1jce -- #ahej #a1gff #e1bjf #ahea #bei #ggf #aheb #ggj #b1cif ,,chay-,,root4--,there is a plant called chay1 the ,oldenlandia umbellata1 which is extensively cultivated as a dye plant in the ,east1 especially on the coasts of ,coromandel1 ,nellore1 ,masulipatam1 ,malabar1 and other parts of ,india4 ,the outer bark of the roots furnishes the coloring matter for the durable red for which the chintzes of ,india are famous4 ,chay-root forms a considerable article of export from ,ceylon4 ,the wild plant there is considered preferable2 the roots1 which are shorter1 yielding one-fourth part more coloring matter1 and the right to dig it is farmed out4 ,it grows spontaneously on light1 dry1 sandy ground on the sea coast2 the cultivated roots are slender1 with a few lateral fibres1 and from one to two feet long4 ,the dye is said to have been tried in ,europe1 but not with very advantageous effect4 ,dr4 ,bancroft suspects it may be injured by the long voyage1 but he adds that it cannot produce any effect which may not be more cheaply obtained from madder4 ,this red dye1 similar to ,munjeet1 is used to a great extent in the southern parts of ,hindostan by the native dyers4 ,it is not held in very good estimation in ,europe but seems to deserve a better reputation than it at present possesses4 ,attention was drawn to it as a dye-stuff in #agih1 by a special minute of the ,board of ,trade recommending its importation2 but ,dr4 ,bancroft1 who made some experiments with a sample of damaged chay-root1 considered it inferior to madder and hence discouraged its further importation4 ,the bark and root of various species of ,morinda 7,m4 citrifolia and tinctoria7 are used in different parts of the ,east ,indies1 and considered a very valuable red dye4 ,the colors dyed with it are for the most part exceedingly brilliant1 and the coloring matter is far more permanent than many other red colors are1 with improved management it would probably rival that of madder1 and is1 therefore1 worthy more attention from dyers4 ,,mangrove ,,bark 7,rhizophora mangle71 is used to dye a chocolate color in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,this was one of the colors introduced by ,dr4 ,bancroft1 and for the exclusive use of which he obtained an ,act of ,parliament4 ,it is procured in plenty at ,arracan1 ,malabar1 and ,singapore in the ,east4 ,,shumac or ,,sumach1 sometimes called young fustic1 is the powder of the leaves1 peduncles1 and young branches of a small deciduous plant 7,rhus coriaria71 native of the ,south of ,europe1 but which is also grown in ,syria and ,palestine1 for its powerful astringent properties1 which renders it valuable for tanning light-colored leather1 and it imparts a beautiful bright yellow dye to cottons1 which is rendered permanent by proper mordants4 ,it is principally imported from the ,ionian ,islands and the ,morea4 ,the species grown for the purpose in ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,italy is ,r4 ,cotinus1 a shrub with pale purple flowers1 whereas ,r4 coriaria has greenish yellow blossoms4 ,they may be propagated by cuttings of the roots and layers4 ,r4 typhina1 and ,r4 glabia1 with their varieties1 are ,north ,american species1 which are also used for tanning purposes4 ,in ,montpellier and the ,south of ,france the twigs and leaves are known under the name of redoul or roudo4 ,they are gathered every year1 and the shoots are chipped or reduced to powder by a mill4 ,the imports into the ,united ,kingdom were in #ahdf1aj1bef tons2 in #ahdg1 #aa1ige tons2 in #ahdh1 #i1fag tons2 in #ahdi1 #ab1eij tons2 in #ahej1 #ab1ibi tons1 and in #aheb1 #i1geh2 which were all retained for consumption4 ,in #ahda1 we received about #i1jjj tons from the port of ,leghorn4 ,there were exported from ,sicily in #ahdb1 #abc1cje tons1 valued at #fh1hid4 ,it is imported in packages of about a cwt41 wrapped in cloth4 ,america takes a large quantity of sumach4 ,the imports into the port of ,boston alone1 were #ai1jgj bags in #ahdg2 #cd1ebd in #ahdh2 and #cj1jej in #ahdi4 ,the prices in ,liverpool1 duty paid1 in the close of this year1 are per cwt43-- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,sicily1 ,messina #aj #j to #aj #f ,palermo #ab #j #ac #j ,trieste #g #j #g #f ,verona #e #f #f #f ,tyrolese #h #j #i #j ,,safflower4--,the dried flowers of ,carthamus tinctorius yield a pink dye1 which is used for silks and cottons1 and the manufacture of rouge2 the color1 however1 is very fugitive4 ,it is an annual plant1 cultivated in ,china1 ,india1 ,egypt1 ,america1 ,spain1 and some of the warmer parts of ,europe2 and is indigenous to the whole of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,a large quantity is grown in and exported from ,bali4 ,the ,chinese safflower is considered the best1 and that from ,bombay is least esteemed4 ,the annual quantity exported from the district of ,dacca averages about #aej tons4 ,the shipments from ,calcutta exceed #cjj tons to various quarters4 ,our imports are on the decline1 and are now only about #a1bjj cwt4 per annum4 ,safflower was shown in the ,great ,exhibition from ,celebes1 ,assam1 the vicinity of ,calcutta1 ,dacca1 the states of ,rajpootana1 and other places4 ,there are two species3 ,c4 tinctorius1 which has small leaves and an orange flower2 and ,c4 oxyacantha1 with larger leaves and a yellow flower1 a native of ,caucasus4 ,the former is cultivated in ,egypt1 the ,levant1 c41 where it forms a considerable article of commerce4 #f1fcc cwts4 of safflower were imported into the ,united ,kingdom in #ahce1 of which about one-half was retained for home consumption4 ,of #e1ceb cwts4 imported in #ahdj1 nearly the whole came from our possessions in the ,east4 ,in #ahdg1 about #dje tons were imported2 in #ahdh1 #ejf tons2 in #ahdi1 #djg tons2 in #ahej1 #ebb tons4 ,the price of safflower varies from #a to #h per cwt41 according to quality4 ,that from ,bombay is least esteemed1 fetching only #bjs4 to #cjs4 ,the annual quantity of safflower1 according to ,dr4 ,taylor1 exported from the district of ,dacca for eight years ending with #ahci1 amounted to #d1jjj maunds1 or about #adi tons4 ,the exports through the ,calcutta ,custom ,house are occasionally large3 in #ahbd-be there were about #caf tons2 #h1ejj ,indian maunds were shipped from ,calcutta in each of the years #ahda and #ahdb4 ,the prices in the ,liverpool market1 in ,january #ahec1 were for ,bengal1 good and fine1 #f to #g #ajs4 per cwt42 middling1 #d to #d #ajs42 inferior and ordinary1 #b #ajs4 to #c4 ,,gamboge is extensively used as a pigment1 from its bright yellow color4 ,there are two kinds known in commerce1 the ,ceylon and the ,siam4 ,the former is procured from the ,hebradendron ,cambogoides1 ,graham2 a tree which grows wild on the ,malabar and ,ceylon coasts1 and affords the coarsest kind4 ,the pipe gamboge of ,siam is said to be obtained from the bruised leaves and young branches of ,stalagmites cambogoides4 ,the resinous sap is received into calabashes1 and allowed to thicken1 after which it is formed into rolls4 ,several other plants1 as the ,mangostana ,gambogia1 ,gaertner1 and the ,hypericum bacciferum and ,cayanense1 yield similar yellow viscid exudation1 hardly distinguishable from gamboge and used for the same purpose by painters4 ,the ,garcinia elliptica1 ,wallich1 of ,tavoy and ,moulmein1 affords gamboge1 and approaches very closely in its characters to ,graham's ,hebradendron4 ,in like manner the ,mysore tree bears an exceedingly close resemblance to that species4 ,it is common in the forests of ,wynaad in the western part of ,mysore1 and has been named by ,dr4 ,christison ,hebradendron pictorium4 ,another gamboge tree has recently been found inhabiting the western ,burmese territories4 ,both these seem to furnish an equally fine pigment4 ,as it can be obtained in unlimited quantity1 it might be introduced into ,european trade1 if the natives learn how to collect it in a state of purity1 and make it up in homogenous masses in imitation of pipe gamboge1 the finest ,siam variety4 ,it seems to possess more coloring matter1 more resin and less gum than the ordinary gamboge of commerce4 ,gamboge owes its color to the fatty acid4 ,the resin must be regarded as the chief constituent1 and is most abundant in that imported from ,ceylon1 which contains about #gf per cent41 and is therefore best adapted for painting4 ,gamboge also has its medicinal uses4 ,various species of ,lecanora1 particularly ,l4 tartarea1 known as cudbear1 are used in dyeing woollen yarn4 ,the ,rocella tinctoria and fusiformis furnish the orchil1 or orchilla weed of commerce1 which is sometimes sold as a moist pulp1 but usually in the form of dry cakes1 known under the name of litmus2 it produces a fine purple color4 ,our imports1 which have amounted to #f1jjj or #g1jjj cwts4 annually1 are derived chiefly from the ,canary1 ,azores1 and ,cape ,verd ,islands4 ,rock orchilla was shown at the ,exhibition1 from the ,berlingen ,isles1 from ,angola1 ,madeira and the ,cape de ,verds4 ,orchilla weed is very plentiful about the shores of the islands of ,new ,zealand1 some being sent from thence to the ,exhibition2 but from a want of knowledge as to the time at which it should be gathered1 and the mode of preparing it for the market1 it has not yet become a saleable commodity there4 ,the rich varieties of lichens on the rocks and plains of ,australia have not been tested1 as they ought to be1 with ,helot's lichen test4 ,various lichens1 and ,rocella tinctoria1 from ,tenasserim and other parts of ,india1 have been introduced by the ,east ,india ,company4 ,in the ,admiralty instructions given to ,capt4 ,sir ,james ,c4 ,ross1 on his ,antarctic voyage1 a few years ago1 his attention was specially called to the search and enquiry for substitutes for the ,rocella1 which is now becoming scarce4 ,a prize medal was awarded1 in #ahea1 to an exhibitor from the ,elbe for specimens of the weed1 and an extract of red and violet orchil4 ,specimens of varieties of the lichens used in the manufacture of cudbear1 orchil and litmus1 and of the substance obtained1 were also shown in the ,british department1 which were awarded prize medals4 ,the beauty of the dyes given by common materials1 in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 to some of the cloths which were exhibited1 should lead our botanists and chemists to examine1 more closely than they have hitherto done1 the dye-stuffs that might be extracted from ,british plants4 ,woad 7,isatis tinctoria7 and the dyers' yellow woad 7,reseda lutea71 are both well known4 ,a piece of tweed1 spun and woven in ,ross-shire1 was dyed brown and black1 by such cheap and common dyes as moss and alder bark1 and the colors were unexceptionable4 ,sutherlandshire tweed and stockings1 possessing a rich brown color1 were produced with no more valuable dye than soot2 in another piece1 beautifully dyed1 the yellow was obtained from stoney rag1 brown from the crops of young heather1 and purple from the same1 but subjecting the yarn to a greater action of the dye than was necessary to produce brown4 ,there is very little doubt but that beautiful and permanent dyes1 from brown to a very rich purple1 might be cheaply procured by scientific preparations of the common heather 7,genista tinctoria74 ,the inhabitants of ,skye exhibited cloth with a peculiarly rich dye1 obtained from the crobal moss4 ,in the ,spanish department1 specimens of vegetable dyes from many cultivated and wild plants were furnished by the ,agricultural ,board of ,saragossa1 and of several of these it would be important to obtain descriptions and particulars4 ,gums are of essential importance to the dyer1 and the imports of these1 therefore1 are large1 averaging about #h1jjj tons4 ,,indigo4 ,the plants which afford this dye grow chiefly in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 in the middle regions of ,america1 in ,africa and ,europe4 ,they are all species of the genera ,indigofera1 ,isatis and ,nerium4 ,indigofera tinctoria or coerulea1 furnishes the chief indigo of commerce1 and affords in ,bengal1 ,malabar1 ,madagascar1 the ,isle of ,france1 and ,st4 ,domingo1 an article of middling quality1 but not in large quantity4 ,the ,indigofera disperma1 a plant cultivated in the ,east ,indies and ,america1 grows higher than the preceding1 is woody1 and furnishes a superior dye-stuff4 ,the ,guatamela indigo comes from this species4 ,indigofera ,anil grows in the same countries1 and also in the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,indigofera ,argentea1 which flourishes in ,africa1 yields little indigo1 but it is of an excellent quality4 ,i4 pseudotinctoria1 cultivated in the ,east ,indies1 furnishes the best of all4 ,i4 glauca is the ,egyptian and ,arabian species4 ,there are also the cinerea1 erecta 7a native of ,guinea71 hirsuta1 glabra1 with red flowers1 species common to the ,east1 and several others4 ,the ,wrightia tinctoria1 of the ,east ,indies1 an evergreen1 with white blossoms1 affords some indigo1 as does the ,isatis tinctoria1 or1 ,woad1 in ,europe1 and the ,polygonum tinctorium1 with red flowers1 a native of ,china4 ,baptisia tinctoria furnishes a blue dye1 and is the wild indigo of the ,united ,states4 ,,sources ,,of ,,supply4--,indigo is at present grown for commercial purposes in ,bengal1 and the other provinces of that ,presidency1 from the #bjth to the #cjth deg4 of north latitude2 in the ,province of ,tinnevelly2 in the ,madras ,presidency2 in ,java1 in the largest of the ,philippine islands1 in ,guatemala1 ,caraccas1 ,central ,america and ,brazil4 ,bengal is1 however1 the chief mart for indigo1 and the quantity produced in other places is comparatively inconsiderable4 ,it is also still cultivated in some of the ,west ,india islands1 especially ,st4 ,domingo1 but not in large quantities4 ,indigo grows wild in several parts of ,palestine1 but attention seems not to have been given to its cultivation or collection4 ,on most parts of the eastern and western coasts of ,africa1 it is indigenous2 at ,sierra ,leone1 ,natal1 and other places it is found abundant4 ,in our settlements of ,honduras1 ,demerara1 and various portions of the ,american continent1 it would amply reward the labor of the cultivator2 several inferior sorts of ,indigofera being found there indigenous1 and only requiring care and culture to improve them4 ,the quality of indigo depends upon the species of the plant1 its ripeness1 the soil and climate of its growth1 and the mode of manufacture4 ,the ,east ,india1 and ,brazilian indigo arrives here packed in chests1 the ,guatemala in ox-hides1 called serons4 ,the indigo imported from the western hemisphere was for some time considered superior in quality to that of the ,east4 ,its cultivation1 however1 has been neglected1 and the ,bengal indigo is preferred at present to any imported from ,south ,america1 where it is now only cultivated by the ,brazilians and ,colombians4 ,if proper attention were paid to the cultivation of the plant1 and to the preparation of the dye1 it is very likely part of that important trade would be brought back4 ,it thrives best in a moist climate1 and the interior of ,guiana1 chiefly newly-cleared land1 would be well adapted for it4 ,the late ,mr4 ,dunlop 7,travels in ,central ,america7 gives an interesting description1 which1 at the risk of repetition in some points1 ,i shall give entire4 ,several vessels generally arrive at the ,union from ,south ,america at the time of the periodical fairs1 where nearly all the indigo 7the only produce of any importance71 is disposed of2 formerly it reached #aj1jjj bales1 but at present it does not at most exceed #c1jjj bales of #aej lbs4 each4 ,the indigo well known in ,europe by the name of ,guatemala indigo1 was never cultivated in that province 7in the same manner as not a grain of the ,honduras cochineal is grown there71 being entirely grown in the state of ,san ,salvador1 in the vicinity of ,san ,miguel1 ,san ,vicenti1 and the ,city of ,salvador1 with the exception of a small quantity of very superior quality grown in the state of ,nicaragua1 and a few bales in ,costa ,rica1 which is all consumed in the ,state4 ,under the government of ,spain1 the produce of the state of ,san ,salvador alone had reached #aj1jjj bales1 and that of ,nicaragua #b1jjj2 the produce of ,san ,salvador in #ahbj1 two years before its independence1 being #h1cbc bales4 ,but since #ahbb the annual produce had gradually declined1 and in #ahdf it did not exceed #a1jjj to #a1bjj bales1 nearly all the indigo estates being abandoned1 partly1 no doubt1 from the great fall in the price of the article1 but more on account of the impossibility of getting laborers to work steadily4 ,the plant cultivated in ,central ,america for the manufacture of indigo1 is the triennial plant1 supposed to be a native of ,america2 but there is also an indigenous perennial plant1 abounding in many parts of ,central ,america1 which produces indigo of a very superior quality1 but gives less than half the weight which is produced by the cultivated species4 ,the ground for sowing the indigo seed is prepared in ,april1--a piece of good forest land near one of the towns being selected1 a part is cut to make a rude fence1 and the remainder burnt1 which is easily accomplished1 as everything is very dry at that season2 and the ground is afterwards scratched with two sticks1 fastened crosswise1 to resemble somewhat the shape of a plough1 and the seed scattered over it by hand4 ,the rainy season always commences early in ,may1 and the indigo is ready for cutting about the middle of ,july1 taking about two and a half months to come to perfection4 ,the growing crop somewhat resembles lucerne1 and is in the best state for making indigo1 when it becomes covered with a sort of greenish farina4 ,the crop of the first year is small1 and sometimes not worth manufacturing2 that of the second year is the best1 and the third is also very good1 if it has been carefully weeded2 but many indigo fields have lasted more than ten years without being re-sown1 as the seed which falls naturally springs up again1 and where the land is good yields nearly as large a crop as a new sown field4 ,when the plant is ready for manufacturing1 a number of men are collected1 each of whom is either provided with1 or brings his own mule or horse1 if he has one4 ,two men always go together1 cut the plant1 then about the height of full-grown red clover1 and take it to the vats1 which are large tanks made of brick and lime1 holding at least #a1jjj gallons1 and some as much as #aj1jjj4 ,into these the plant is thrown till they are nearly full1 when weights are put above it to prevent its floating2 and the vats filled with water till it covers the mass of the indigo plant4 ,after remaining from twelve to twenty-four hours1 according to the state of the plant1 weather1 and other circumstances 7the time required being determined by the color which the water assumes71 the herb is taken out1 and the water beaten with paddles in the very small vats1 and by a wheel suspended above and turned by men or horses in the larger ones1 till it changes from a green color1 which it has acquired ere the removal of the herb1 to a fine blue1 when it is allowed to stand for some hours1 till the coloring matter has settled to the bottom of the tank1 a process which is generally hastened by throwing in an infusion of certain herbs to facilitate its settlement1 or as the natives term it curdle 7cuajar7 the colored water4 ,as soon as all the color has settled1 the water is drawn off1 and the blue1 which is of the consistency of thick mud1 is taken out of the vat and spread upon cotton1 or coarse woollen cloth1 and dried in the sun4 ,the color in a great measure depends upon removing the herb exactly at the proper time1 and upon properly beating the water1 neither too long1 or too short4 ,unless these processes are properly performed1 the indigo will not be of first-rate quality2 but some estates will never produce the best indigo1 whatever care may be bestowed on the manufacture4 ,a mansana1 of #ajj yards square1 which is nearly two ,british statute acres1 produces generally about #ajj to #abj lbs4 of indigo1 the carriage and cutting of the herb costing about twenty dollars1 and the cleaning of the field and all other expenses connected with it1 including the manufacture of the indigo1 about as much more4 ,the indigo of ,central ,america is not put into moulds when drying1 as that of ,bengal1 but is allowed to remain in the rough shape in which it dries1 and without further preparation is ready for baling and exportation4 ,the bales are generally made up in #aej lbs4 each1 and the quality is classed by numbers1 from #a to #i2 ,nos4 #a to #c being of the quality called cobres in ,europe2 ,nos4 #d to #f of that called cortes1 and ,nos4 #g to #i of that called flores2 ,nos4 #a to #f do not at present pay the expenses of manufacture1 and are never intentionally made4 ,no doubt1 with a little more skill in the manufacture1 the whole might1 as in ,bengal1 be made of the quality called flores2 but such improvements cannot be expected till a new race of people inhabit ,central ,america4 ,at present about one-half of the indigo produced is under ,no4 #g1 and as the cultivation is said not to pay at the present prices--and1 indeed1 hardly can be supposed to compete with ,bengal1 a country where labor is so much cheaper1 and capital abundant--it is probable1 that the cultivation will shortly be entirely abandoned1 unless the price should again rise in ,europe4 ,in #ahdf1 #ba1icc lbs4 of indigo were exported from ,angostura4 ,the following particulars were contributed to my ,colonial ,magazine1 by the late ,dr4 ,edward ,binns1 of ,jamaica3-- ,the species generally cultivated is the ,i4 tinctoria1 which requires a rich moist soil and warm weather4 ,the seed1 which is at first sight not unlike coarse gunpowder1 is sown three or four inches deep1 in straight lines1 twelve or fifteen inches apart4 ,the shoots appear above ground in about a week2 at the end of two months the plant flowers1 when it is fit for cutting1 which is done with a pruning knife4 ,it must be mentioned that great care is requisite in weeding the indigo field when plants first shoot through the earth4 ,in the ,state of ,st4 ,salvador1 large vats made of mahogany1 or other hard wood1 are constructed for the reception of the plant1 where it is allowed to undergo maceration and fermentation4 ,in a short time the water becomes greenish1 and emits a strong pungent smell1 while carbonic acid gas is freely evolved4 ,in about twenty-four hours it is run off into large flat vessels1 and stirred about until a blue scum appears1 when additional water is added1 and the blue flakes sink to the bottom4 ,the supernatant water has now acquired a yellowish tinge1 when it is run off carefully1 and the blue deposit or sediment put into bags to drain4 ,it is subsequently dried in the shade1 or sometimes in the sun1 then placed in cotton bags and carried to the indigo fair1 or forwarded to the city of ,guatemala4 ,the ,east ,indian mode of manufacturing the indigo differs materially1 and many suppose it preferable to the ,salvador4 ,it consists in steaming the fermented mass in large pipes enclosed in huge boilers4 ,i am inclined to believe this to be the most economical1 if not the best way of manufacturing indigo4 ,from ,guatemala alone1 it is computed that from #f1jjj to #h1jjj serons of indigo are exported annually2 while ,san ,miguel1 ,chalatenaugo1 ,tejulta1 ,secatecolnea1 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,sensuntepepe1 not only1 it is said1 produce a larger quantity1 but the four last-mentioned places have the advantage as to quality4 ,the ,belize ,advertiser stated1 some time since1 that the value of this dye from one ,state in #ahcj produced #b1jjj1jjj dollars1 the minimum of an immense sum which has been most unjustly and unwisely wrested from the people of ,jamaica1 and the ,west ,india islands4 ,bridges 7,annals of ,jamaica1 p4 #ehd1 ,append471 speaking of the vast returns of an indigo plantation1 says1 ,the labour of a single negro would often bring to his owner #cj sterling per annum clear profit1--a sum which was at the time the laborer's highest price4 ,it continued the staple of ,jamaica till an intolerable tax oppressed it1 while its price was lowered by the competition of other colonies4 ,its cultivation immediately declined throughout them all1 but nowhere so rapidly as here4 ,the financial error was quickly discovered1--a remedy was attempted by a bounty2 but it came too late1 the plantations were thrown up1 and the planters1 attracted by the temporary gain1 abused the tardy boon1 by introducing1 as of their own growth1 large quantities of foreign indigo4 ,as ,bridges may be said in this passage to be merely a commentator on ,edwards1 who has entered more largely upon the subject1 ,i shall condense from the latter1 statements connected with the manufacture and decay of this branch of industry1 once the staple of ,jamaica4 ,edwards 7,west ,indies1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bge1 #bnd edition7 reckons three kinds of indigo--the wild1 ,guatemala1 and ,french4 ,the first is the hardest1 and the dye extracted from it of the best quality as regards color and grain2 but one or other of the two species is commonly preferred by the planter1 as yielding a greater return4 ,of these the ,french surpasses the ,guatemala in quantity1 but yields to it in fineness of grain and beauty of color4 ,the indigo thrives almost on any land1 though the richest soils produce the most luxuriant plants1 and the longest dry weather will not kill it4 ,the cultivation and manufacture our author thus describes3--,the land being prepared1 trenches1 two or three inches in depth1 are made by the hoe4 ,these are ten or twelve inches asunder4 ,the seeds are then strewed in the trenches by the hand1 and slightly covered with mould4 ,when the plants shoot1 they are carefully weeded1 and kept constantly clean1 until they rise high enough to cover the ground4 ,a bushel of seed is sufficient for four or five acres4 ,the best season for planting is ,march2 but if the land be good1 it may be sown at any time1 and in three months the plants attain maturity4 ,in seasonable situations1 they have four cuttings in the year4 ,the subsequent growths from the plants ripen in six or eight weeks2 but the produce diminishes after the second cutting1 so that the seeds should be sown every second year4 ,a species of grub1 or worm1 which infests the plant on the second year is avoided by changing the soil2 or1 in other words1 by a rotation of crops4 ,the produce per acre of the first cutting is about #fj lbs4 ,it is nearly as much in ,north ,america2 but when the thermometer falls to sixty1 the returns are very uncertain1 that degree of heat being too low for the necessary vegetation1 maceration1 and fermentation4 ,the yieldings for the subsequent cuttings somewhat diminish2 but in ,jamaica and ,st4 ,domingo1 if the land is new1 about #cjj lbs4 per acre of the second quality may be expected annually from all the cuttings together2 and four negroes are sufficient to carry on the cultivation of five acres1 besides doing other occasional work1 sufficient to reimburse the expenses of their maintenance and clothing4 ,the process for obtaining the dye1 according to the same author1 was conducted through the means of two cisterns1 the one elevated above the other1 in the manner of steps4 ,the higher1 which was also the longer1 was named the sleeper--its dimensions sixteen feet square and two and a half in depth4 ,the second1 into which the fluid was discharged1 was called the battery2 it was about twelve feet square1 and four and a half in depth4 ,these cisterns were of stone2 but strong timber answered remarkably well4 ,there was also a lime-vat1 six feet square and four feet deep1 the plug of which was at least eight inches from the bottom4 ,this was for the purpose of permitting the lime to subside1 before the lime-water was withdrawn4 ,the plants then being ripe1 or fit for cutting1 were cut with reaping-hooks1 or sickles1 a few inches from the ground--six was the minimum--and placed by strata in the sleeper1 until it was about three parts full4 ,they were then pressed with boards1 either loaded with weights or wedged down1 so as to prevent the plants from floating loosely2 and as much water was admitted as they would imbibe1 until it covered the mass four or five inches deep4 ,in this state it was allowed to ferment until the water had extracted the pulp4 ,to know when this had been thoroughly effected1 required extreme attention and great practical knowledge2 for if the fluid were drawn off too soon1 much of the pulp was left behind2 and if the fermentation continued too long1 the tender tops of the plants were decomposed1 and the whole crop lost4 ,when the tincture or extract was received in the battery1 it was agitated or churned until the dye began to granulate1 or float in little flakes upon the surface4 ,this was accomplished at one period in ,jamaica by paddles1 worked by manual labor1 and1 in the ,french islands1 by buckets or cylinders1 worked by long poles2 but subsequently--that is1 at the time ,edwards wrote--convenient apparatus was constructed1 the levers of which were worked by a cog-wheel1 kept in motion by a horse or mule4 ,when the fluid had been churned for fifteen or twenty minutes1 a small quantity was examined in a cup or plate1 and if it appeared curdled or coagulated1 strongly impregnated lime-water was gradually added1 not only with a view to promote separation1 but to prevent decomposition4 ,browne remarks 7,civil and ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,jamaica1 art4 ,indigo71 the planters must carefully distinguish the different stages of this part of the operation also1 and attentively examine the appearance and color as the work advances1--for the grain passes gradually from a greenish to a fine purple1 which is the proper color when the liquor is sufficiently worked1--too small a degree of agitation leaving the indigo green and coarse1 while too vigorous an action brings it to be almost black4 ,the liquor being then1 as we shall suppose1 properly worked1 and granulation established1 it was left undisturbed until the flakes settled at the bottom1 when the liquor was drawn off1 and the sediment 7which is the indigo7 placed in little bags to drain1 after which it was carefully packed in small square boxes1 and suffered to dry gradually in the shade4 ,such is the account1 nearly word for word1 which ,edwards gives of the mode of manufacturing indigo4 ,i shall now quote his remarks upon the outlay and gain upon the article verbatim4--,to what has been said above of the nature of the plant suiting itself to every soil1 and producing four cuttings in the year1 if we add the cheapness of the buildings1 apparatus1 and labor1 and the great value of the commodity1 there will seem but little cause for wonder at the splendid accounts which are transmitted down to us concerning the great opulence of the first indigo-planters4 ,allowing the produce of an acre to be #cjj lbs41 and the produce no more than #ds4 per pound1 the gross profit of only twenty acres will be #a1bjj1 produced by the labor of only sixteen negroes1 and on capital in land and buildings scarce deserving consideration4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this statement1 the author informs us afterwards that he knew1 in the course of eighteen years' residence in the ,west ,indies1 upwards of twenty persons who tried to re-establish indigo manufactories1 but failed4 ,this appears strange1 since it is plain that what has once been done can be done again1 but especially in the manufacture of an article requiring a capital so very small in proportion to the profits as almost to tempt the most cautious and the most timid man to embark in it4 ,i quote the following passage from the same author1 for the purpose of showing the very loose manner in which statements are made on the authority of others1 who are as incompetent to decide the merits of a question as the party himself chronicling their opinion4 ,speaking of the twenty unfortunate indigo-planters1 our author thus writes3--,many of them were men of foresight1 knowledge1 and property4 ,that they failed is certain2 but of the causes of their ,,failure ,i confess ,i can give no satisfactory account4 ,i was told that disappointment trod close upon their heels at every stop4 ,at one time the fermentation was too long continued1 at another the liquor was drawn off too soon2 now the pulp was not duly granulated1 and now it was worked too much4 ,to these inconveniences1 for which practice would doubtless have found a remedy1 were added others of a much greater magnitude--the mortality of the negroes1 from the vapour of fermented liquor 7an alarming circumstance1 that1 ,i am informed1 both by the ,french and ,english planters1 constantly attends the process71 the failure of the seasons1 and the ravages of the worm4 ,these1 or some of these evils1 drove them at length to other pursuits1 where industry might find a surer recompense4--7p4 #bhc47 ,the fallacy of much of this requires no comment1 as it must strike even the most careless reader1--for if the so-called indigo-growers did not know the process of manufacturing the commodity1 then it could not be surprising that they failed4 ,thus the cause of their failure required no comment1 and no explanation4 ,were a ploughman taken from the field and placed at the helm of a ship1 and the vessel in consequence wrecked1 would any one be astonished but at the folly of those who placed him there8 ,this was the case with the indigo-growers1--they attempted what they did not understand1 and1 consequently1 lost their labor and their money4 ,the mortality of the negroes employed1 stated as another reason for abandoning the attempt1 requires a somewhat more lengthy notice4 ,i can briefly say1 that ,i have learned that in the ,central ,states of ,america1 deaths among indigo-laborers are not more frequent than in other branches of tropical industry2 and ,i never heard or have read that the original growers complained of the mortality attending the progress4 ,the truth is1 that this statement is not founded on fact4 ,there is nothing whatever in the manufacture of indigo1 either in the cultivation or the granulation1 or even the maceration and fermentation of the plant1 which is directly or indirectly1 per se1 injurious to human life4 ,i have certainly never seen the indigo plant macerated on a large scale2 but ,i have myself steeped much of it in water1 and allowed it even to rot1 and found nothing in the mass differing in any marked degree from decomposed vegetable matter4 ,it seems to me that this idea of the manufacture of indigo being especially inimical to human life1 is as unfounded as the belief1 even by ,humboldt1 up to a very recent period1 that none of the ,cerealia would grow in tropical climates4 ,in conversing with an old gentleman in ,jamaica1 some twelve years since1 who had tried the manufacture of indigo1 and with every prospect of success1 but abandoned it1 as he confessed1 for the cultivation of the sugar cane1 since it was then more profitable1 he suggested the solution1 that as the manufacture was light work1 probably aged and debilitated1 in place of youthful and vigorous slaves1 were too frequently employed in the process--hence the mortality4 ,this may be correct to a certain extent2 but ,i am also inclined to think that another cause of mortality might be found in the mode and manner in which the negro was fed and clothed1 and not because aged persons were exclusively engaged in the manufacture4 ,i believe ,i may state1 without fear of contradiction1 that the real cause of the decline and consequent abandonment of the indigo plant was the monstrous duty levied upon it by the ,english government4 ,indeed1 this has been already stated in the extract from ,bridges2 while the cause of the failure of the attempt to renew it1 over and above the reasons we have given1 was the greater temptation to embark capital in sugar plantations1--the ,west ,indies enjoying a monopoly in this article1 while they had competitors in the ,southern ,states of ,america in the other4 ,i have1 therefore1 no hesitation in saying1 that1 with a trifling capital1 under prudent management1 indigo might be cultivated to a very great extent1 and with considerable profit1 even now1 in ,jamaica4 ,but the adventurer is not to expect to count his gains1 as the original growers did1 by thousands2 he must be content with hundreds1 if not fifties2 for at the present day every branch of industry is laden with difficulties1 encumbered by taxation1 and obstructed by competition4 ,there are two objections1 however1 which ,i have not removed1--,i allude to the failure of the seasons and the ravages of the worm4 ,very little need be said to combat these4 ,seasons are mutable1 and the same heaven that frowns this year on the labors of the husbandman1 may smile the next2 while a remedy for the ravages of the worm may be found in the mutation of the soil1 the destruction of the grub1 or the rotation of crops1--accessories to success which seem not to have entered into the vocabularies of the twenty pseudo indigo-growers1 many of them men of knowledge1 foresight and property4 ,the following passage from ,bryan ,edwards will corroborate much that ,i have endeavored to enforce4 ,it furnishes not only a solution which has been hinted at before1 of the enigma why indigo ceased to be cultivated in ,jamaica1 but also an incentive to re-introduce the culture4 ,he says 7p4 #ddd71 ,it is a remarkable and well-known circumstance1 after the cultivation of indigo was suppressed by an exorbitant duty of near #bj the hundred-weight1 ,great ,britain was compelled to pay her rivals and enemies #bjj1jjj annually for this commodity1 so essential to a great variety of her most important manufactures4 ,at length1 the duty being repealed1 and a bounty some time after substituted in its place1 the ,states of ,georgia and ,south ,carolina entered upon1 and succeeding in the culture of this valuable plant1 supplied at a far cheaper rate than the ,french and ,spaniards 7receiving too our manufactures in payment7 not only the ,british consumption1 but also enabled ,great ,britain to export a surplus at an advanced price to foreign markets4--,it is therefore plain that the manufacture of indigo was lost to ,jamaica1 not from any difficulty in growing the plant1 or from any loss of life attending the process of manufacturing it1 but from the ruinously heavy duty of #bj the hundred-weight--and that now1 when no duty exists1 it might be again cultivated with great advantage4 ,the cultivation of indigo has been repeatedly attempted in ,cuba1 but never with much success2 although the shrub called the ,xiquilite1 from which it is extracted1 grows wild in several districts of the island1 but more especially towards the eastern extremity4 ,the first anileria1 or manufactory of indigo1 was established in #agie1 under the patronage of the ,ayuntamento of the ,havana1 who made an advance of #c1ejj dollars1 without interest1 to the party engaging in the speculation1 in order to encourage the enterprise2 but the undertaking proved unsuccessful1 and the same fate has befallen every subsequent attempt to introduce this branch of industry4 ,in #ahbg1 the whole produce amounted only to #ef arrobas4 ,in #ahcg the imports of indigo greatly exceeded the exports2 the former having amounted to #aba1cej lbs41 and the latter to #hb1hij lbs4 ,in #ahcc1 #e1ahd lbs4 reached the ,united ,kingdom from the ,havana1 and in #ahdc1 #fb1fge lbs4 ,in #ahbf ,british ,honduras exported #ceh1eeb lbs42 in #ahcj1 #b1fej serons2 in #ahdd1 #a1bdg serons2 and in #ahde1 #a1jeb serons4 ,the indigo shrub is one of the most common bushes in ,trinidad1 where it grows wild on almost all the indifferent soils4 ,in #aghc1 there were several plantations and manufactories of indigo established in ,trinidad2 these were subsequently abandoned1 on account of a supposition that they were unhealthy4 ,prior to #aghc1 the colonists had a kind of simple process by which they extracted sufficient coloring matter to serve domestic consumption4 ,this process is at present unknown1 hence all the indigo used there is imported from ,europe1 although the plant from which it can be made vegetates in every direction4 ,in #agia ,hayti imported #icj1jaf lbs4 of indigo1 while in #ahjd the export had dwindled to #ce1djj lbs4 ,indigo1 as ,i have already stated1 was once a most important crop in ,south ,carolina1 some attention has recently again been given to it by an individual or two in ,louisiana1 and the enterprise is said to promise success2 enough might undoubtedly be raised in the ,united ,states to supply the home market4 ,some indigo produced at ,baton ,rouge was pronounced to have been equal to the best ,caraccas1 which sells at two dollars per pound2 and the gentleman who cultivated it remarks1 that one acre of ground there1 well cultivated1 will yield from #dj to #fj lbs42 that it requires only from ,july to ,october for cultivating it2 that there is not connected with it one-third of the expense or time that is generally required for the cultivation of cotton4 ,i take the following from ,smyth's ,tour in the ,united ,states4 ,this plant is somewhat like the fern when grown1 and when young is hardly distinguishable from lucern grass1 its leaves in general are pinnated1 and terminated by a single lobe2 the flowers consist of five leaves1 and are of the papilonaceous kind1 the uppermost petal being longer and rounder than the rest1 and lightly furrowed on the side1 the lower ones are short and end in a point2 in the middle of the flower is formed the style1 which afterwards becomes a pod containing the seeds4 ,they cultivate three sorts of indigo in ,carolina1 which demand the same variety of soils4 ,first1 the ,french or ,hispaniola indigo1 which striking a long tap root will only flourish in a deep rich soil1 and therefore1 though an excellent sort1 is not so much cultivated in the maritime parts of the ,state1 which are generally sandy1 but it is produced in great perfection one hundred miles backwards2 it is neglected too on another account1 for it hardly bears a winter so sharp as that of ,carolina4 ,the second sort1 which is the false ,guatemala1 or true ,bahamas1 bears the winter better1 is a more tall and vigorous plant1 is raised in greater quantities from the same compass of ground1 is content with the worst soil in the country1 and is therefore more cultivated than the first soil1 though inferior in the quality of its dye4 ,the third sort is the wild indigo1 which is indigenous here2 this1 as it is a native of the country1 answers the purposes of the planter best of all1 with regard to the hardiness of the plant1 the easiness of the culture1 and the quantity of the produce4 ,of the quality there is some dispute not yet settled amongst the planters themselves2 nor can they distinctly tell when they are to attribute the faults of their indigo to the nature of the plant1 to the seasons1 which have much influence upon it1 or to some defect in the manufacture4 ,the time of planting the indigo is generally after the first rains succeeding the vernal equinox2 the seed is sown in small straight trenches1 about eighteen or twenty inches asunder2 when it is at its height1 it is generally eighteen inches tall4 ,it is fit for cutting1 if all things answer well1 in the beginning of ,july4 ,towards the end of ,august a second cutting is obtained1 and if they have a mild autumn1 there is a third cutting at ,michaelmas4 ,the indigo land must be weeded every day1 the plants cleansed from worms1 and the plantation attended with the greatest care and diligence4 ,about twenty-five hands may manage a plantation of fifty acres1 and complete the manufacture of the drug1 besides providing their own necessary subsistence and that of the planter's family4 ,each acre yields1 if the land be very good1 #fj or #gj lbs4 weight of indigo1 at a medium the produce is #ej lbs4 ,this however1 is reckoned by many skilful planters but a very indifferent crop4 ,when the plant is beginning to blossom it is fit for cutting1 and when cut great care ought to be taken to bring it to the steeper without pressing or shaking it1 as great part of the beauty of the indigo depends upon the fine farina1 which adheres to the leaves of this plant4 ,the apparatus for making indigo is inconsiderable and not expensive1 for besides a pump1 the whole consists only of vats and tubs of cypress wood1 common and cheap in this country4 ,the indigo1 when cut1 is first laid in a vat1 about twelve or fourteen feet long and four feet deep1 to the height of about fourteen inches1 to macerate and digest2 then this vessel1 which is called the steeper1 is filled with water2 the whole having laid from about twelve to sixteen hours1 according to the weather1 begins to ferment1 swell1 rise1 and grow sensibly warm4 ,at this time spars of wood are run across1 to mark the highest point of its ascent2 when it falls below this mark1 they judge that the fermentation has attained its due pitch1 and begins to abate2 this directs the manager to open a cock1 and let off the water into another vat1 which is called the beater2 the gross matter that remains in the first vat is carried off to manure the ground1 for which purpose it is excellent1 and new cuttings are put in1 as long as the harvest of the weed continues4 ,when the water1 strongly impregnated with the particles of indigo1 has run into the second vat or beater1 they attend with a sort of bottomless buckets1 with long handles1 to work and agitate it1 when it froths1 ferments1 and rises above the rim of the vessel that contains it4 ,to allay this violent fermentation1 oil is thrown in as the froth rises1 which instantly sinks it4 ,when this beating has continued for twenty1 thirty1 or thirty-five minutes1 according to the state of the weather 7for in cool weather it requires the longest continued beating71 a small muddy grain begins to be formed2 the salts and other particles of the plant united1 dissolved1 and before mixed with the water1 are now re-united together1 and begin to granulate4 ,to discover these particles the better1 and to find when the liquor is sufficiently beaten1 they take up some of it from time to time on a plate1 or in a glass2 when it appears in a hopeful condition1 they let loose some lime water from an adjacent vessel1 gently stirring the whole1 which wonderfully facilitates the operation2 the indigo granulates more fully1 the liquor assumes a purplish color1 and the whole is troubled and muddy2 it is now suffered to settle2 then the clearer part is permitted to run off into another succession of vessels1 from whence the water is conveyed away as fast as it clears on the top1 until nothing remains but a thick mud1 which is put into bags of coarse linen4 ,these are hung up and left for some time until the moisture is entirely drained off4 ,to finish the drying1 this mud is turned out of the bags1 and worked upon boards of some porous timber1 with a wooden spatula2 it is frequently exposed to the morning and evening sun1 but for a short time only2 and then it is put into boxes or frames1 which is called the curing1 exposed again to the sun in the same cautious manner1 until1 with great labor and attention the operation is finished1 and the valuable drug fitted for the market4 ,the greatest skill and care is required in every part of the process1 or there may be great danger of ruining the whole2 the water must not be suffered to remain too short or too long a time1 either in the steeper or beater2 the beating itself must be nicely managed1 so as not to exceed or fall short2 and in the curing the exact medium between too much or too little drying is not easily attained4 ,nothing but experience can make the overseers skilful in these matters4 ,there are two methods of trying the goodness of indigo2 by fire and by water4 ,if it swims it is good1 if it sinks it is inferior1 the heavier the worse2 so if it wholly dissolves in water it is good4 ,another way of proving it1 is by the fire ordeal2 if it entirely burns away it is good1 the adulterations remain untouched4 ,indigo to the extent of #bbj1jjj lbs4 per annum is grown in ,egypt4 ,the leaves are there thrown into earthen vessels1 which are buried in pits and filled with water2 heat is applied1 and the liquid is boiled away until the indigo becomes of a fit consistence1 when it is pressed into shape and dried4 ,many ,armenians have been invited from the ,east ,indies to teach the fellahs the best mode of preparation1 and1 in consequence1 nine indigo works have been established belonging to the government4 ,the indigo plant is found scattered like a weed abundantly over the face of the country in the district of ,natal1 ,eastern ,africa4 ,it is said that there are no less than ten varieties of the plant commonly to be met with there4 ,mr4 ,blaine submitted1 in #ahdh1 to the ,manchester ,chamber of ,commerce1 a small specimen of this dye-stuff1 which had been extracted by a rude process from a native plant1 which was pronounced by good authority to be of superior quality1 and worth #cs4 #d;d4 per pound4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,wilson1 a settler at ,natal1 in a letter to the editor of the ,natal ,witness1 thus speaks of the culture3-- ,my attention was first forcibly drawn to the cultivation of indigo by some seed imported by ,mr4 ,kinlock1 from ,india4 ,this seed1 on trial1 ,i found to grow luxuriantly2 and after a few experiments ,i succeeded in manufacturing the dye4 ,the success which thus attended my first attempts has encouraged me to try indigo planting on a more extensive scale4 ,for this purpose ,i am allowing all the plants of this season to run to seed1 and intend to plant equal quantities of ,bengal and native indigo4 ,while my attention was engaged in these preliminary experiments1 ,i observed that the country abounded in a variety of species of indigo1 and by a series of experiments found it rich and abundant1 and have since learnt that it is known and in use among the natives1 and called by them ,umpekumbeto4 ,this of course induced further inquiry1 and on consulting different works ,i find that the ,cape of ,good ,hope possesses more species of indigo than the whole world besides4 ,now ,i take it for granted that if ,providence has placed these materials within our reach1 it was evidently intended that we should1 by the application of industry1 appropriate them to our use4 ,it becomes1 then1 a matter of necessity that indigo must thrive1 this being its native soil and climate2 and the experiments ,i have successfully made1 go to support me in the opinion that the cultivation of indigo will bring an ample reward4 ,indeed it seems contrary to the laws of nature that it should be otherwise4 ,i have obtained from the #adjth part of an acre the proportion of #cjj lbs4 of indigo per acre4 ,that the plant will cross successfully1 ,i have also ascertained4 ,cultivation in ,india4--,during the nine years which preceded the opening of the trade with ,india in #ahad1 the annual average produce of indigo in ,bengal1 for exportation1 was nearly #e1fjj1jjj lbs4 ,but since the ports were opened1 the indigo produced for exportation has increased fully a third2 the exports during the sixteen years ending with #ahbi-cj1 being above #g1djj1jjj lbs4 a year4 ,the consumption in the ,united ,kingdom has averaged1 during the last ten years1 about #b1ejj1jjj lbs4 a year4 ,in #ahci-dj the export of indigo from ,madras amounted to #a1ccc1hjh lbs4 ,a small quantity is also exported from the ,french settlement of ,pondicherry4 ,in #ahcg the export from ,manila amounted to about #bej1jjj lbs4 ,the export from ,batavia in #ahda amounted to #iac1fic lbs41 and the production in #ahdc was double that amount4 ,the annual exports of indigo1 from all parts of ,asia and the ,indian ,archipelago1 were taken by ,m',culloch1 in #ahdj1 to be #ab1ddj1jjj lbs4 ,the imports are about #bj1jjj chests of ,bengal1 and #h1jjj from ,madras annually1 of which #i1jjj or #aj1jjj are used for home consumption1 and the rest re-exported4 ,the total crop of indigo in the ,bengal ,presidency has ranged1 for the last twenty years1 at from #ajj1jjj to #agb1jjj factory maunds2 the highest crop was in #ahde4 ,the factory maund of indigo in ,india is about #gh lbs4 ,in the delta of the ,ganges1 where the best and largest quantity of indigo is produced1 the plant lasts only for a single season1 being destroyed by the periodical inundation2 but in the dry central and western provinces1 one or two ratoon crops are obtained4 ,the culture of indigo is very precarious1 not only in so far as respects the growth of the plant from year to year1 but also as regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of plant will afford in the same season4 ,the fixed capital required1 as ,i have already shown1 in the manufacture of indigo1 consists simply of a few vats of common masonry for steeping the plant1 and precipitating the coloring matter2 a boiling and drying house1 and a dwelling for the planter4 ,thus a factory of ten pair of vats1 capable of producing1 at an average1 #ab1ejj lbs4 of indigo1 worth on the spot #b1ejj1 will not cost above #a1ejj sterling4 ,the buildings and machinery necessary to produce an equal value in sugar and rum1 would probably cost about #d1jjj4 ,the indigo of ,bengal is divided into two classes1 called1 in commercial language1 ,bengal and ,oude2 the first being the produce of the southern provinces of ,bengal and ,bahar1 and the last that of the northern provinces1 and of ,benares4 ,the first class is in point of quality much superior to the other4 ,the inferiority of the ,oude indigo is thought to be more the result of soil and climate1 than of any difference in the skill with which the manufacture is conducted4 ,the indigo of ,madras1 which is superior to that of ,manila1 is about equal to ordinary ,bengal indigo4 ,the produce of ,java is superior to these4 ,large quantities of indigo1 of a very fine quality1 are grown in ,scinde4 ,i have to acknowledge the receipt1 from the ,indian ,government1 of an interesting collection of documents on the culture and manufacture of indigo in ,upper ,scinde4 ,the papers are chiefly from the pen of ,mr4 ,wood1 ,deputy ,collector of ,sukkur1 though there are several others1 perhaps of much value1 from various other of the revenue officers of ,scinde4 ,mr4 ,wood is of opinion that ,scinde is much better suited than ,bengal for the production of this dye-stuff--the alluvial soil on the banks of the ,indus is equal in richness to that on those of the ,ganges1 and the climate seems equally well suited for the growth of the plant4 ,but in two years out of three1 the crops of the ,bengal planter are injured by excessive inundations1 while the work of gathering and manipulation is necessarily performed1 during the rainy season1 under the greatest imaginable disadvantages4 ,in ,scinde1 on the other hand1 the inundation of the river is produced almost solely from the melting of the snows in the ,himalayas1 and it is not liable to those excessive fluctuations in amount1 or that suddenness in appearance peculiar to inundations chiefly arising from falls of rain4 ,the ,granges sometimes rises ten feet in four-and-twenty hours1 and at some part of its course its depth is at times forty feet greater during a flood than in fair weather1 while the ,indus rarely rises above a foot a day1 its extreme flood never exceeding fifteen feet1 the limits and amount of the inundation being singularly uniform over a succession of years4 ,moreover1 as rain hardly ever falls in ,scinde1 and when it does so only continues over a few days1 and extends to the amount of three or four inches1 no danger or inconvenience from this need be apprehended4 ,mr4 ,wood mentions that hemp may be grown in profusion on the indigo grounds1 and that were the production of the dye once introduced1 it would bring hundreds of thousands of acres now barren into cultivation1 and secure the growth or manufacture of a vast variety of other commodities for which the country is eminently fitted4 ,an experimental factory might1 it is believed1 be set up for from two to three thousand pounds1 but this appears to be an amount of adventure from which the ,government shrinks4 ,the districts of ,kishnagar1 ,jessore1 and ,moorshedabad1 in ,bengal1 ranging from #hh to #ij degs4 ,e4 latitude1 and #bb to #bd degs4 ,n4 longitude1 produce the finest indigo4 ,that from the districts about ,burdwan and ,benares is of a coarser or harsher grain4 ,tirhoot1 in latitude #bf degs41 yields a tolerably good article4 ,the portion of ,bengal most propitious to the cultivation of indigo1 lies between the river ,hooghly and the main stream of the ,ganges4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 after having ploughed the ground in ,october1 ,november1 and the beginning of ,december1 they sow the seed in the last half of ,march and the beginning of ,april1 while the soil1 being neither too hot nor too dry1 is most propitious to its germination4 ,a light mould answers best2 and sunshine1 with occasional light showers1 are most favorable to its growth4 ,twelve pounds of seed are sufficient for sowing an acre of land4 ,the plants grow rapidly1 and will bear to be cut for the first time at the beginning of ,july2 nay1 in some districts so early as the middle of ,june4 ,the indications of maturity are the bursting forth of the flower buds1 and the expansion of the blossoms2 at which period the plant abounds most in the dyeing principle4 ,another indication is taken from the leaves1 which1 if they break across when doubled flat1 denote a state of maturity4 ,but this character is somewhat fallacious1 and depends upon the poverty or richness of the soil4 ,when much rain falls1 the plants grow too rapidly1 and do not sufficiently elaborate the blue pigment4 ,bright sunshine is most advantageous to its production4 ,the first cropping of the plants is the best2 after two months a second is made2 after another interval a third1 and even a fourth2 but each of these is of diminished value4 ,culture in ,india4--,for the following excellent account of the modes of culture1 and practice1 c41 in ,bengal1 and other parts of ,india1 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson1 one of the correspondents of my ,colonial ,magazine4 ,mr4 ,johnson1 besides his own ,indian experience1 has consulted all the best authorities1 and the opinions of contributors to the leading periodicals of ,calcutta on this important subject3-- ,when ,america became known to ,europeans1 its indigo became to them a principal object of cultivation1 and against their skill the native ,hindostanee had nothing to oppose1 but the cheapness of his simple process of manufacture4 ,the profit and extent of the trade soon induced ,europeans to brave the perils of distance and climate to cultivate the plant in ,hindostan2 but these obstacles1 added to the superior article manufactured by the ,french and ,spaniards in the ,west ,indies1 would long have held its produce in ,india in subordination1 if the anarchy and wars incident to the ,french ,revolution1 especially when they reached ,st4 ,domingo1 had not almost annihilated the trade from the ,west1 and consequently proportionally fostered that in the ,east4 ,the indigo produce of ,st4 ,domingo was nearly as large as that of all the other ,west ,india islands together4 ,from the time that the negroes revolted in that island1 the cultivation of indigo has increased in ,hindostan1 until it has become one of its principal exports1 and the quality of the article manufactured is not inferior to that of any other part of the world4 ,the most general mode of obtaining the necessary supply of weed1 as it is called by the planter1 is as follows3--,the land attached to the factory is parcelled out among the ryots or farmers1 who contract to devote a certain portion of their farm to the cultivation of indigo1 and to deliver it1 for a fixed price per bundle1 at the factory2 a sum of money1 usually equal to half the probable produce1 has to be advanced to the ryot by the planter1 to enable him to accomplish the cultivation1 and to subsist upon until the crop is ready for cutting4 ,if1 as is generally the case1 sufficient land is not attached to the factory to supply it with plant1 the owner obtains what he requires by inducing the ryots in his vicinity to cultivate it upon a part of their land4 ,yet it is with them far from a favorite object of cultivation2 and1 indeed1 if it were not for the money advanced to each ryot by the planter1 to provide seed1 c41 and which gives him a little ready money1 bearing no interest1 it is doubtful whether he would engage in the cultivation at all4 ,even this advance of money does not induce him to appropriate it to any but the worst part of his farm1 nor to bestow upon it more than the smallest possible amount of labor4 ,the reasons for this neglect are valid1 for the grain crops are more profitable to the ryot1 and indigo is one of the most precarious of ,india's vegetable products4 ,in ,bengal the usual terms of contract between the manufacturer and the ryot are1 that the latter1 receiving at the time a certain advance of money1 perhaps one rupee 7#bs47 per biggah1 with promise of a similar sum at a more advanced period of the season1 undertakes to have a certain quantity of land suitably and seasonably prepared for sowing1 to attend and receive seed whenever occasion requires1 and to deliver the crop1 when called upon1 at the factory1 at a specified price per bundle or #ajj bundles4 ,the particular conditions of these contracts vary generally in ,bengal2 they amount to advancing the ryot two rupees for every biggah of land1 furnishing him with seed at about one-third its cost1 on an engagement from him to return whatever his lands may produce 7which1 as has been said1 is generally none at all71 at the price charged1 and receiving the plant from him at six1 seven1 eight1 or sometimes nine bundles for a rupee--much oftener the former than the latter rates4 ,a ryot cultivating alluvial lands1 and having no seed1 can hardly ever repay his advances2 but it does not follow that he has been a loser1 for he1 perhaps1 could not value his time1 labor1 and rent altogether at half the amount2 and as long as this system is kept within moderate bounds1 it answers much better than private cultivation to the manufacturer1 and has many contingent advantages to the cultivator4 ,in ,tirhoot similar engagements are entered into with the ryots1 who are there called ,assamees4 ,these engagements with ,assamees are generally made in the month of ,september1 on a written instrument called a noviskaun1 by which they agree for a certain quantity of land1 for five years1 to be cultivated with indigo plant1 and for which they are to be paid at the rate of six rupees per biggah1 for every full field of plant measured by a luggie or measuring-rod4 ,the luggie1 it must be observed1 varies in size throughout the district4 ,in the southern and eastern divisions of ,tirhoot and ,sarun it is eight-and-a-half to ten feet long2 and in the northern and western from twelve to fourteen feet4 ,the ,assamee receives1 on the day of making his bundobust1 or settlement1 three rupees advance on each biggah he contracts for1 another rupee per biggah when the crop is fit to weed1 and the remaining two rupees at the ensuing settlement of accounts4 ,exclusive of the price of his maul or plant1 the ,assamee is entitled to receive two or three rupees per biggah 7as may be agreed on7 for gurkee1 or lands that have failed1 as a remuneration for his trouble1 and to enable him to pay his rent4 ,the foregoing are the principal stipulations of the noviskaun1 but the ,assamee further engages to give you such land as you may select1 prepare it according to instructions from the factory1 sow and weed as often as he is required1 cut the plant and load the hackeries at his own cost1 and in every other respect conform to the orders of the planter or his aumlah 7managing man74 ,the ,assamee is not charged for seed1 the cartage of his plants1 or for the cost of drilling4 ,i should mention that a penalty is attached to the non-fulfilment of the ,assamees engagements1 commonly called hurjah1 viz41 twelve rupees for every biggah short of his agreement1 and this for every year that the noviskaun has to run4 ,this is1 however1 seldom recoverable1 for if you sue the ,assamee in court and obtain a decree 7a most expensive and dilatory process71 he can in most instances easily evade it by a fictitious transfer of his property to other hands4 ,the planter generally finds it his interest to get the ,zemindar of the village in which he proposes cultivating1 to join in the noviskaun1 as a further security2 or he engages with a jytedar1 or head ,assamee1 having several others subordinate to him1 and for whose conduct he is responsible4 ,but a still better system is lately gaining ground in this district1 ,i mean that of taking villages in ticka1 or farm1 by far the best and cheapest plan that has ever been resorted to for the cultivation of indigo4 ,when the planter cultivates the ground himself1 it is called in ,tirhoot ,zerant cultivation4 ,zerants1 or ,neiz1 are taken on a pottah or lease for five years1 at the average rent of three rupees per biggah4 ,the heavy cost attending this cultivation has occasioned its decrease in most factories in ,tirhoot and particularly since the fall in prices4 ,about a third1 ,i believe1 was the proportion it formerly bore to the whole cultivation of the district1 but of late such factories only have retained it as cannot procure sufficient good land under the ,assamewar system2 but now that the plan of taking villages in farm is becoming more and more prevalent here1 it is very likely that ,zerants will be entirely abandoned4 ,from all the information ,i have been able to collect1 the cost of a biggah of ,zerant 7ten feet luggie7 may be estimated at sixteen rupees2 that of ,assamewar is generally twenty-five per cent4 less1 both exclusive of interest1 agents' charges1 and private expenses4 ,it can only be the reluctance of the ryot to cultivate indigo that induces a manufacturer to grow it himself1 for it has been found an expensive plan1 profitable only when the dye is at its highest rate1 and even then scarcely furnishing an adequate return4 ,they not only could not cultivate so cheaply as the native laboring husbandman1 but ordinarily had to engage extensive tracts of land1 much of which was not suitable for their purpose1 or1 perhaps1 for any other1 and consequently1 although the average rate of rent was even low on the whole1 it constituted a very heavy charge on the portion from which they obtained their return4 ,in ,oude there are three systems of obtaining a supply of the plant1 viz41 ,kush ,kurreea1 ,bighowty1 and ,nij2 but the latter is a mere trifle in proportion to the others1 and is1 therefore1 not worth mentioning4 ,on the ,bighowty system1 which prevails chiefly in the ,meerut and ,mooradabad districts1 the planter advances for a biggah of ,jumowah 7irrigated sowings7 nine rupees1 and for a biggah of ,assaroo 7rain sowings7 five rupees four annas4 ,the next year's plant1 or khoonti1 becomes his on an additional payment of eight annas per biggah4 ,he also supplies the seed at the rate of six seers per biggah1 being almost double the quantity made use of in ,bengal1 but which is necessary to make up for the destruction of the plant the year following by the frost1 white ants1 hot winds1 grass cutters1 and1 ,i may add1 the village cattle1 which are let loose to graze on the khoonte during the latter period1 when not a blade of grass or vegetation is to be seen anywhere left4 ,the ,bighowty system is a sadly ruinous one1 as1 independently of the attempts to assimilate ,assaroo1 at five rupees four annas1 with ,jumowah1 at nine rupees per biggah1 which is very easily effected if the planter is not very vigilant1 he is obliged to maintain an extensive and imposing establishment of servants1 not only to enforce the sowings1 weeding1 and cutting1 but also to look after his khoonte1 and protect it from being destroyed by bullocks and grass cutters1 or from being ploughed up clandestinely by the ,zemindars themselves4 ,the ,kush ,kurreea system again has its evils1 as the planter never gets plant for the full amount of his advances1 and hence often leads to his ruin4 ,soils4--,indigo delights in a fresh soil2 new lands1 of similar staple to others before cultivated1 always surpass them in the amount and quality of their produce4 ,hence arises the superior productiveness of the lands annually overflowed by the ,ganges1 the earthy and saline deposits from which in effect renovate the soil4 ,the further we recede from the influence of the inundation1 the less adapted is the soil for the cultivation of indigo4 ,the staple of the soil ought to be silicious1 fertile1 and deep4 ,mr4 ,ballard1 writing on the indigo soils of ,tirhoot1 says that high soomba1 or light soils1 are generally preferred1 being from their nature and level less exposed to the risk of rain or river inundation2 but they are difficult to procure1 and1 moreover1 require particular care in the preparation4 ,next in estimation is doruss1 a nearly equal mixture of light earth and clay2 a soil more retentive of moisture in a dry season than any other4 ,muttyaur1 or heavy clay soils1 are generally avoided1 although in certain seasons1 with mild showers of rain1 they have been known to answer4 ,the safest selection ,i should conceive to be an equal portion of soomba and doruss4 ,in a country1 however1 interspersed with jheels and nullahs1 it is difficult to form a cultivation without a considerable mixture of low lands1 more or less1 according to the situation of the ,assamee's fields4 ,great care should be taken1 at all events1 to guard against oosur lands1 or such as abound with saltpetre2 these can be most easily detected in the dry months4 ,puchkatak1 that is1 lands slightly touched with oosur1 have been known to answer1 as partaking more of the nature of doruss soil2 but the crop is generally thin1 although strong and branchy4 ,there is another description of land that should be cautiously avoided4 ,it goes by the name of jaung1 and is a light soil1 with a substratum of sand from six to twelve inches below the surface4 ,the plant generally looks very fine in such fields till it gets a foot high1 when the root touching the sand1 and having no moisture to sustain it1 either dies away altogether1 or becomes so stunted and impoverished as to yield little or nothing in the cutting4 ,of the daub or dearab 7alluvial7 land1 says ,mr4 ,ballard1 there is scarcely any in the district except what falls to the lot of my own factories1 being situated on the banks of the ,ganges and ,great ,gunduck4 ,of bungur1 a stiff reddish clay soil1 there is little in ,tirhoot2 it pervades the western provinces1 and is best adapted for ,assaroo sowings1 which do not succeed in ,tirhoot4 ,preparation of the soil4--,the root of the indigo plant being fusiform1 and extending to about a foot in length1 requires the soil to be loosened thoroughly to that depth at least4 ,experience teaches that the fineness of the tilth to which the soil is reduced previously to the seed being committed to it1 is one very influential operation for the obtaining a productive crop4 ,yet in some districts of ,bengal1 particularly about ,furudpore1 the sowing is performed without any previous ploughing4 ,this is where the river1 when receded1 has left the soil and deposit so deep1 that about ,october1 or a little later1 the seed being forcibly discharged from the sower's hand1 buries itself1 and requires no after covering by means of the rake or harrow4 ,in ,tirhoot they are indefatigable in this first step of the cultivation4 ,mr4 ,ballard says1 that the preparation of indigo lands should commence in ,september1 as soon as the cessation of the rains will permit2 and as we do not rely on rain for our sowings 7as is the custom in ,bengal and elsewhere1 and irrigation is never resorted to1 from the heavy expense attending it71 our principal aim is to preserve as much moisture in the fields as possible4 ,they should receive1 for this purpose1 not less than eight ploughings1 besides a thorough turning up with the spade1 after the fourth ploughing1 to clear the field from stubble1 grass and weeds4 ,it is absolutely indispensable to get all this done on our light soils1 especially before the end of ,october1 and have the land carefully harrowed down1 so as to prevent the moisture escaping4 ,should there be heavy rains between the interval of preparing and sowing1 it will be necessary to turn the fields up with either one or two ploughings1 and harrow them down as before4 ,if only a slight shower1 running the harrow over them will be sufficient to break the crust formed on the surface1 and which1 if allowed to remain1 would quickly exhaust the moisture4 ,this1 with the occasional use of the weeding-hook1 is all that the lands will require till the time of sowing4--7,transactions of the ,agri4-,hort4 ,society of ,calcutta1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bb47 ,sowing4--,the time when the seed is committed to the soil varies in different parts of ,india1 and1 even in the same place1 admits of being performed at two different seasons4 ,the periods of sowing in ,bengal are first immediately after the rains1 from about the latter end of ,october4 ,the rivers are then rapidly retiring within their beds1 and as soon as the soft deposit of the year has drained itself into a consistency1 though not solid enough to keep a man from sinking up to his knees in it1 they begin to scatter the seed broadcast4 ,this is continued until the ground has become too hard for the seed to bury itself2 the plough is then used to loosen the crust1 and the sowing continued to about the middle1 or even the end of ,november1 from which period the weather is considered too cold1 until ,february4 ,these autumnal sowings are called ,october sowings1 from the month in which they generally commence4 ,much of the plant perishes during the months of ,december and ,january1 and more again in the spring1 unless there are early and moderate showers4 ,the crop that remains is not so productive ordinarily in the vat1 as that obtained from spring sowings1 and some think the quality of the produce inferior4 ,but there is no expense of cultivation1 and the liabilities of the crop to failure are such a discouragement to cost and labor in rearing it1 that the ,october sowing is followed by most planters who can obtain suitable land4 ,the second period of sowing is the spring1 with the first rains of ,march1 or even the end of ,february4 ,the land having been measured and placed under its slight course of tillage during the two or three preceding mouths1 is sown broadcast as soon as the ground has been well moistened1 or even in prospect of approaching rain4 ,the quantity of seed used for this autumn sowing is generally more than what is considered requisite for spring sowing2 six seers at the former and four at the latter season per biggah1 in ,bengal1 is the quantity usually allowed4 ,some cultivators commence the autumn sowing as early as at the close of ,september1 or as soon as the low lands are in a state to permit the operation after the inundation has subsided4 ,this seed time may be said to continue until the end of ,december1 and the crops from these sowings often yield an average produce1 if the lands are not very low and wet4 ,if they are1 the sowing had better be delayed until ,january1 or even ,february1 for the crops from these latter sowings are usually the most productive1 and the dye obtained from them the finest4 ,the object for thus delaying the sowing is1 that the young plants may have a more genial season for vegetation4 ,those who prefer sowing earlier1 and yet are aware of the importance of saving the young plants as much as possible from the comparative low temperature of the season1 sow some other crop with their indigo4 ,til1 the country linseed1 is good for this purpose in high lying soils4 ,but ,i never knew an intermixture of crops that was not attended by inconveniences and injuries more than was compensated by the advantages gained4 ,the success of sowings during ,march and ,april is very doubtful4 ,it depends entirely upon the occurrence of rain1 which in those months is proverbially uncertain4 ,if the season should be sufficiently wet1 the sowing may be performed in ,may2 but a ,june sowing is very rarely remunerating4 ,the rains setting in during the latter part of this month so promote the growth of weeds1 that the young plants are choked and generally destroyed4 ,the exceptions only occur in high lands1 in unusually propitious seasons1 and ought never to be relied upon except when the earlier sowings have failed4 ,to protract the manufacturing season1 some planters begin sowing upon low lying lands in the hot season1 for the chance of a crop at the commencement of the rains2 and they sow at the close of the rains with the hope of1 as it were1 stealing another in the next year4 ,in the western provinces sowing necessarily occurs in the dry weather1 usually in ,march and ,april1 though occasionally either a little earlier or later4 ,in ,tirhoot the sowings commence about the latter end of ,february or the beginning of ,march1 if by that time there is sufficient warmth in the atmosphere to ensure a healthy vegetation4 ,light soils are sown on one close ploughing2 heavy soils on two1 with from four to eight seers of seed1 in proportion to the size of the biggah4 ,after strewing the seed1 the field should be harrowed down by two turns of the harrow1 and then again by two turns more after the third day4 ,in case of rain before the plant appears 7which it ought to do on the sixth or seventh day71 if a slight shower1 the harrow should be used again2 if very heavy1 it were best to turn up the ground and re-sow4 ,if rain fall after the appearance of the plant1 and before it has got past four leaves1 and attained sufficient strength to resist the hard crust before alluded to1 immediate recourse must be had to drilling4 ,in fact1 the closest attention is required to watch the state of the young crop for a month at least after the sowings2 if it yield the least1 or assume a sickly appearance1 drills are the only resource4 ,these1 if applied in time1 in all ,march1 for instance1 or before the middle of ,april at latest1 are generally successful1 not only in restoring plants1 but recovering such as may have become sickly from want or excess of moisture1 or any other cause4 ,in dry seasons they have been known to give a crop when broadcast sowings have failed4 ,each drill1 with a good pair of bullocks1 should do five biggahs a day4 ,they are regulated to throw from three to four seers per biggah1 but the quantity can be increased or diminished at pleasure4 ,the natives do not employ them in their grain sowings1 but commonly adopt a contrivance with their own plough for sowing in furrows1 whenever their fields are deficient in moisture4 ,the drill employed in ,tirhoot resembles considerably the implement known by that name in ,england4 ,it is found not only to effect a great saving of seed1 ten seers being there sown broad-cost on a biggah of #eg1fjj feet square1 and only seven seers by this drill2 but also materially to improve the quality and regularity of the growth of the plant4 ,experience has demonstrated1 that the more lateral room the plants have1 the more abundant is their produce of leaves1 in which the coloring matter chiefly resides4 ,the seed employed should always be as new as possible1 for though1 if carefully preserved1 it vegetates when one year old1 and even when nearly two years old has produced a moderate crop1 yet this has been under circumstances of an unusually favorable season and soil4 ,the plants from old seed rarely attain a height of more than a foot before they wither and die4 ,as frauds are very likely to be practised by giving old seed the glossiness and general appearance of new1 great circumspection should be shown by the planter1 who does not grow his own1 in obtaining seed from known parties4 ,planters in the lower provinces are induced to use up-country seed1 because1 coming from a colder climate1 it vegetates1 and the plants ripen rapidly1 so as to be harvested more certainly before the annual inundation1 but they employ one-fourth more4 ,three seers per ,bengal biggah are sufficient1 if it is ,dassee seed2 but four is not too much if it is up-country seed4 ,a ,bengal biggah is only a third of the size of that of ,tirhoot4 ,if the weather is dry1 the seed very often does not germinate until the occurrence of rain1 and it has been known in a dry1 light soil1 to remain in the ground without injury for six weeks4 ,if seasonable showers occur1 the plants make their appearance in four days1 or even less2 and they must be watched1 in order that they may be weeded on the earliest day that they are sufficiently established to allow the operation to be safely performed4 ,in dry weather1 it must not be done while they are very young1 otherwise many of the seedlings will have their roots disturbed1 and perish from the drought4 ,however1 not more than a fortnight should be allowed to pass1 after the seedlings have appeared1 before the weeds are carefully removed1 and this clearing should be frequently repeated until the plants so overshadow the ground that they of themselves keep back the advance of the weeds4 ,the first weeding is best performed immediately after a shower of rain4 ,irrigation is rarely adopted for the indigo crops in the lower provinces of ,bengal1 unless they happen to be grown in some situation very favorable to the operation1 such as the bank of a river4 ,it is much more attended to in the western provinces1 and in ,oude1 the water being obtained from wells1 which are dug in nearly every cultivated plot4 ,in ,oude1 ,mr4 ,ballard says that a biggah of land employs three persons to irrigate it1 and occupies never less than six days4 ,the ryot1 or cultivator1 requires for the work a pair of bullocks1 which cost him at least #cbs41 a bucket made of a white bullock hide1 at #bs41 and a rope for #bs4 more1 both of which do not last him above a year4 ,he never pays less than #hs4 for the rent of a biggah of land near a well4 ,in ,bengal the plant requires three months to attain its highest state of perfection for manufacturing1 but is often cut1 from necessity1 within half that time2 for the approach of the river compels the premature removal of the crop1 unless1 indeed1 its growth has been so retarded that it would not pay the expense of working4 ,most indigo factories have consequently to begin in ,june1 or early in ,july1 whenever they may have effected their spring sowings1 and the labors of the season are commonly terminated by the middle or end of ,august4 ,when the plants begin to flower is considered the best time for cutting them1 and this is just what the botanist would have suggested1 because then the proper sap of all plants is most abundant1 and most rich in their several peculiar secretions4 ,a vividly green1 abundant and healthy foliage1 downy at the back1 is the surest intimation of the plants being rich in indigo4 ,plants that are ready for cutting in ,july and ,august1 are usually the most productive4 ,in the western provinces from sixteen to twenty maunds of plant is considered a good produce per biggah4 ,in the upper provinces the produce of the best crop1 which is sown directly the rains commence1 is not more then ten maunds per biggah4 ,the factory maund is equal to about seventy-eight pounds4 ,one thousand maunds of plant are considered as producing quite an average quantity of indigo if this amounts to four maunds4 ,adopting another mode of estimate1 ,mr4 ,ballard says1 that in ,bengal an average crop may he considered to be from ten to twelve bundles1 over an extensive cultivation1 in a good season1 from each ,bengal biggah2 the sheaf or bundle being measured by a six-feet cord or chain4 ,speaking of the produce in ,tirhoot1 the same gentleman says the luggie1 or measuring rod1 varies throughout the district4 ,the common ,tirhoot biggah1 is1 ,i believe1 equal to two-and-a-half or three ,bengal biggahs 7about an ,english acre74 ,its produce varies according to the size of the luggie1 the fertility of the soil1 and accidents of season2 eight to ten hackery loads1 however1 is generally considered a good average return4 ,south and east of ,tirhoot1 one hundred maunds from six hundred biggahs1 including khoonti1 or a second cutting1 is reckoned a successful result4 ,in another part of the district1 including ,sarun1 where the luggie is larger1 the average produce is about one-third better4 ,as we measure our plant on the ground 7he adds71 the bundle system is unknown here2 but1 ,i believe1 forty-five or fifty ,tirhoot hackery loads of plants 7estimated to yield a maund of dry indigo71 will be found equal to two hundred ,bengal bundles4--7,trans4 ,agri4 ,hort4 ,soc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bc47 ,in ,oude the jamowah1 or crop sown in ,may1 yields on an average twenty maunds1 or say thirteen bundles1 per biggah 7#afj feet square74 ,the assaroo1 or rain sowings1 producing a very inferior plant1 the average return is not more than three maunds1 or two bundles4 ,the khoonti1 or crop of the next year from the same plants1 averages fifteen maunds1 or ten bundles per biggah4 ,in ,central and ,western ,india1 the plants are allowed to produce the second and even the third year1 according to some statements2 but in ,bengal the same stocks are rarely suffered to yield a second crop3 being nearly all on lands that are under water in the height of the inundation1 the stock is rotted in the ground4 ,mr4 ,ballard1 speaking of the duration of the plant1 says that1 as for three years' plant and khoonti1 it is a mere chimera1 like the many others with which the planters have hitherto deluded themselves1 and which it only requires a little reflection to overthrow4 ,a biggah may be cut here and there1 on an extensive cultivation1 but it can never be relied upon as forming a part of the cultivation4 ,the uncertainty of the indigo crop has been already noticed1 and is1 indeed1 as proverbial as that from the hop plant in ,england4 ,in ,bengal the crop is particularly subject to be destroyed by the annual inundation of the river1 if it occurs earlier than usual4 ,a storm of wind1 accompanied by rain and hail1 as completely ruins the crop as if devoured by the locust2 neither from this latter scourge is the crop exempt4 ,this proneness to injury extends throughout its growth4 ,the seedlings are liable to be destroyed by an insect closely resembling the turnip-fly1 as well as by the frog4 ,caterpillars feed upon the leaves of older plants1 and the white ant destroys them by consuming their roots4 ,to these destructive visitations are to be added the more than ordinary liability of the plant to injury1 not merely from atmospheric commotions1 but even from apparently less inimical visitations4 ,thus not only do storms of wind1 heavy rains1 and hail1 destroy the indigo planter's prospects1 but even sunshine1 if it pours out fervently after showers of rain1 is apt1 as it is properly termed1 to scorch the plants2 and if it occurs during the first month of their growth1 is most injurious to their future advance4 ,the reason of this effect appears to be the violent change from a state of imbibing to a rapid transpiration of moisture4 ,no human invention or foresight can preserve the crop from the atmospheric visitations4 ,to destroy and drive away the little coleopterous insects which attack the seedlings1 it would be a successful method to spread dry grass1 c41 over the surface intended to be cultivated1 and to burn the litter immediately before the sowing4 ,the heat and smoke produced has been found perfectly efficacious against the turnip-fly in ,england4 ,to destroy the caterpillar1 slacked lime dusted over the leaves1 while the dew is upon them1 is an effectual application4 ,the white ants may be driven away or destroyed by frequent hoeings1 which is the best preventive of the scorching1 for hoeing preserves the soil in an equable and fitting state of moisture4 ,the great supply of seed for ,bengal cultivation is obtained from the western provinces1 and forms an article of trade of no inconsiderable magnitude4 ,the stubble in the low lands of ,bengal is generally submerged before it has time to throw out fresh shoots1 on which the blossom and subsequent seed-pod are formed4 ,there are1 however1 some high tracts reserved for that purpose1 and on these the plant is found well in flower in ,september1 and the seed fit to gather in ,november or early in ,december4 ,two methods are pursued to extract the indigo from the plant2 the first effects it by fermentation of the fresh leaves and stems2 the second1 by maceration of the dried leaves2 the latter process being most advantageous4 ,they are thus described by ,dr4 ,ure1 in his ,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures3-- #a4 ,from the recent leaves4--,in the indigo factories of ,bengal1 there are two large stone-built cisterns1 the bottom of the first being nearly upon a level with the top of the second1 in order to allow the liquid contents to be run out of the one into the other4 ,the uppermost is called the fermenting vat1 or the steeper2 its area is twenty feet square1 and its depth three feet2 the lowermost1 called the beater or beating vat1 is as broad as the other1 but one-third longer4 ,the cuttings of the plant1 as they come from the field1 are stratified in the steeper1 till this be filled within five or six inches of its brim4 ,in order that the plant1 during its fermentation1 may not swell and rise out of the vat1 beams of wood and twigs of bamboo are braced tight over the surface of the plants1 after which water is pumped upon them till it stands within three or four inches of the edge of the vessel4 ,an active fermentation speedily commences1 which is completed within fourteen or fifteen hours2 a little longer or shorter1 according to the temperature of the air1 the prevailing winds1 the quality of the water1 and the ripeness of the plants4 ,nine or ten hours after the immersion of the plant1 the condition of the vat must be examined2 frothy bubbles appear1 which rise like little pyramids1 are at first of a white colour1 but soon become grey1 blue1 and then deep purple red4 ,the fermentation is at this time violent1 the fluid is in constant commotion1 apparently boiling1 innumerable bubbles mount to the surface1 and a copper colored dense scum covers the whole4 ,as long as the liquor is agitated1 the fermentation must not be disturbed1 but when it becomes more tranquil1 the liquor is to be drawn off into the lower cistern4 ,it is of the utmost consequence not to push the fermentation too far1 because the quality of the whole indigo is deteriorated2 but rather to cut it short1 in which case there is1 indeed1 a loss of weight1 but the article is better4 ,the liquor possesses now a glistening yellow color1 which1 when the indigo precipitates1 changes to green4 ,the average temperature of the liquor is commonly #he deg4 ,fahr42 its specific gravity at the surface is #a4jjae2 and at the bottom #a4jjc4 ,as soon as the liquor has been run into the lower cistern1 ten men are set to work to beat it with oars1 or shovels four feet long1 called busquets4 ,paddle wheels have also been employed for the same purpose4 ,meanwhile two other laborers clear away the compressing beams and bamboos from the surface of the upper vat1 remove the exhausted plant1 set it to dry for fuel1 clean out the vessel1 and stratify fresh plants in it4 ,the fermented plant appears still green1 but it has lost three-fourths of its bulk in the process1 or from twelve to fourteen per cent4 of its weight1 chiefly water and extractive matter4 ,the liquor in the lower vat must be strongly beaten for an hour and a half1 when the indigo begins to agglomerate in flocks1 and to precipitate4 ,this is the moment for judging whether there has been any error committed in the fermentation1 which must be corrected by the operation of beating4 ,if the fermentation has been defective1 much froth rises in the beating1 which must be allayed with a little oil1 and then a reddish tinge appears4 ,if large round granulations are formed1 the beating is continued1 in order to see if they will grow smaller4 ,if they become as small as fine sand1 and if the water clears up1 the indigo is allowed quietly to subside4 ,should the vat have been over-fermented1 a thick fat-looking crust covers the liquor1 which does not disappear by the introduction of a flask of oil4 ,in such a case the beating must be moderated4 ,whenever the granulations become round1 and begin to subside1 and the liquor clears up1 the beating must be discontinued4 ,the froth or scum diffuses itself spontaneously into separate minute particles1 that move about the surface of the liquor1 which are marks of an excessive fermentation4 ,on the other hand1 a rightly fermented vat is easy to work2 the froth1 though abundant1 vanishes whenever the granulations make their appearance4 ,the color of the liquor1 when drawn out of the steeper into the beater1 is bright green2 but as soon as the agglomerations of the indigo commence1 it assumes the color of ,madeira wine2 and speedily afterwards1 in the course of beating1 a small round grain is formed1 which1 on separating1 makes the water transparent1 and falls down1 when all the turbidity and froth vanish4 ,the object of the beating is three-fold2 first1 it tends to disengage a great quantity of carbonic acid present in the liquor2 secondly1 to give the newly-developed indigo its requisite dose of oxygen by the most extensive exposure of its particles to the atmosphere2 thirdly1 to agglomerate the indigo in distinct flocks or granulations4 ,in order to hasten the precipitation1 lime water is occasionally added to the fermented liquor in the progress of beating1 but it is not indispensable1 and has been supposed capable of deteriorating the indigo4 ,in the front of the beater a beam is fixed upright1 in which three or more holes are pierced1 a few inches in diameter4 ,these are closed with plugs during the beating1 but two or three hours after it1 as the indigo subsides1 the upper plug is withdrawn to run off the supernatant liquor1 and then the lower plugs in succession4 ,the state of this liquor being examined1 affords an indication of the success of both the processes4 ,when the whole liquor is run off1 a laborer enters the vat1 sweeps all the precipitate into one corner1 and enters the thinner part into a spout which leads into a cistern1 alongside of a boiler1 twenty feet long1 three feet wide1 and three feet deep4 ,when all this liquor is once collected1 it is pumped through a bag1 for retaining the impurities1 into the boiler1 and heated to ebullition4 ,the froth soon subsides1 and shows an oily looking film on the liquor4 ,the indigo is by this process not only freed from the yellow extractive matter1 but is enriched in the intensity of its color1 and increased in weight4 ,from the boiler the mixture is run1 after two or three hours1 into a general receiver called the dripping vat1 or table1 which1 for a factory of twelve pairs of preparation vats1 is twenty feet long1 ten feet wide1 and three feet deep1 having a false bottom two feet under the top edge4 ,this cistern stands in a basin of masonry 7made water-tight with ,chunam1 hydraulic cement71 the bottom of which slopes to one end1 in order to facilitate the drainage4 ,a thick woollen web is stretched along the bottom of the inner vessel1 to act as a filter4 ,as long as the liquor passes through turbid1 it is pumped back into the receiver2 whenever it runs clear1 the receiver is covered with another piece of cloth to exclude the dust1 and allowed to drain at its leisure4 ,next morning the drained magma is put into a strong bag1 and squeezed in a press4 ,the indigo is then carefully taken out of the bag1 and cut with a brass wire into bits1 about three inches cube1 which are dried in an airy house1 upon shelves of wicker work4 ,during the drying a whitish effloresence comes upon the pieces1 which must be carefully removed with a brush4 ,in some places1 particularly on the coast of ,coromandel1 the dried indigo lumps are allowed to effloresce in a cask for some time1 and when they become hard they are wiped and packed for exportation4 #b4 ,indigo from dried leaves4--,the ripe plant being cropped1 is to be dried in sunshine from nine o'clock in the morning till four in the afternoon1 during two days1 and threshed to separate the stems from the leaves1 which are then stored up in magazines till a sufficient quantity he collected for manufacturing operations4 ,the newly dried leaves must be free from spots1 and friable between the fingers4 ,when kept dry1 the leaves undergo1 in the course of four weeks1 a material change1 their beautiful green tint turning into a pale blue-grey1 previous to which the leaves afford no indigo by maceration in water1 but subsequently a large quantity4 ,afterwards the product becomes less considerable4 ,the following process is pursued to extract indigo from the dried leaves3--,they are infused in the steeping vat with six times their bulk of water1 and allowed to macerate for two hours1 with continual stirring1 till all the floating leaves sink4 ,the fine green liquor is then drawn off into the beater vat1 for if it stood longer in the steeper1 some of the indigo would settle among the leaves and be lost4 ,hot water1 as employed by some manufacturers1 is not necessary4 ,the process with dry leaves possesses this advantage1 that a provision of the plant may be made at the most suitable times1 independently of the vicissitudes of the weather1 and the indigo may be uniformly made2 and1 moreover1 that the fermentation of the fresh leaves1 often capricious in its course1 is superseded by a much shorter period of simple maceration4 ,,production ,,of ,,indigo ,,in ,,india4 maunds4 #ahdj #abj1jjj #ahda #afb1cah #ahdb #gi1jjj #ahdc #adc1bjg #ahdd #abg1hfb #ahde #abg1hfb #ahdf #aja1cbh #ahdg #aaj1jjj #ahdh #abf1efe #ahdi #abf1jjj ,average of the ten years #abf1gdd maunds4 ,the yield from the different districts in #ahdi1 was nearly as follows3-- maunds4 ,bengal #hd1ejj ,tirhoot #bd1ejj ,benares #i1ejj ,oude #f1ejj --------- #abe1jjj ,in #agij the general object of cultivation in ,mauritius was indigo1 of which from four to five crops a year were procured4 ,one person sent to ,europe #cj1jjj lbs41 in #aghi1 of very superior quality4 ,,ceylon4--,indigo1 though indigenous in ,ceylon1 is still imported from the adjoining continent1 but its growth in this island would be subject to none of the vicissitudes of climate1 that in the course of a single night have devastated the most extensive plantations in ,bengal1 and annihilated the hopes and calculations of the planter at a time when they had attained all the luxuriance of approaching maturity4 ,the district of ,tangalle1 in the southern province1 is the best adapted to the culture and manufacture of indigo for various reasons1 such as the abundance of the indigenous varieties of the plant1 the similarity of the climate to that of the coast of ,coromandel1 where the best indigo is produced2 facility of transport by water to either of the ports of export1 ,galle or ,colombo1 during the south-east1 or to ,trincomalee by the south-west monsoon2 every necessary material is at hand for building a first rate indigo factory1 including drying yards1 leaf godowns 7stores71 steeping vats and presses1 except roof and floor tiles--which may be obtained in any quantity from ,colombo1 during the south-west monsoon1 at a moderate rate1 compared with their cost at home4 ,in #ahag an offer was made to the ,grovernment to introduce the cultivation of indigo1 on condition of a free grant of the land required for the purpose and freedom from taxation for thirty years1 after which the usual tax was to be levied2 and in case the cultivation were abandoned1 the land was to revert to the ,crown4 ,but whether from the disturbed state of the colony at the time or from incredulity on the part of the ,government1 as to the capability of the colony in this respect1 the application was unheeded4 ,a subsequent proposal1 emanating from a ,swedish gentleman of great ability1 skill and enterprise1 was defeated by his death1 although a company was on the point of formation to carry out the scheme4 ,it would not be difficult1 says ,mr4 ,barrett1 to select #ejj1jjj acres1 the property of the ,crown1 which at a comparatively small expenditure might be brought into a proper state of cultivation for the reception of indigo seed2 for very little would be required to be done beyond clearing the land of weeds1 burning the grass1 and then lightly ploughing and levelling the ground2 and whenever manure might be requisite1 the fecula of the leaf affords one of the richest that could be employed4 ,ceylon produces two other plants from which a very valuable blue dye may be obtained by a similar process to that of making indigo4 ,the ,singhalese head men of the ,tangalle district have long been anxious for the establishment of an indigo plantation there1 and would readily take shares in a company established for that purpose4 ,indigo would seem to have been exported by the ,dutch from ,ceylon so late as #agid4 ,the wild varieties of indigo which grow on the sea-shore are used by the dobies 7washermen74 ,indigo grows in a wild state in ,siam1 and all the dye used in the country is manufactured from these plants4 ,the extensive low grounds are admirably suited for the cultivation of this plant4 ,a large quantity is raised in ,manila1 but ,i have no full details of the cultivation in the ,philippines4 ,however1 in the first six months of #ahdc1 #a1jci piculs of indigo were shipped to ,europe1 and about #fej to other quarters--equal in all to about #bbf1jjj lbs4 in the half year4 ,in the year #ahdg the exports of indigo were #cj1fca arrobas1 equal to about #g1feh cwt42 in #ahej the total exports from ,manila were #d1bbe quintals4 ,,java4--,the cultivation of indigo was introduced into ,java in the time of the company4 ,it was so much neglected during the administration of ,governor ,daendels1 that the exportation ceased4 ,it however revived subsequently1 and in #ahbc the exports were close upon #ag1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahbf it had risen to #df1jjj lbs4 ,in the single province of ,westbaglen1 about #fj square miles in extent1 #hf indigo factories were established in the course of seven or eight years4 ,in #ahci1 the exports of this dye-stuff from ,java were #ehh1gfd kilogrammes1 valued at #g million francs4 ,it has been found by experience that a good soil is essentially necessary for the plant1 and the indigo transplanted from elevated grounds to the rice fields succeeds better and yields more coloring matter than when raised direct on the spot from the seed4 ,the residencies of ,cheribon1 ,baglen and ,madura1 are those in which the crop succeeds best4 ,from being so exhausting a crop1 and finding it prejudicial to their rice grounds1 they are gradually abandoning indigo culture in ,java1 and about two-thirds of the indigo plantations have within the1 last year or two been replaced with sugar4 ,the value of the ,java indigo is set down at #bej rupees 7#be7 per maund4 ,if this be the average price1 and it cannot be manufactured lower1 ,bengal has little to fear from ,javanese competition4 ,the product of indigo rose from #bgf maunds in #ahbe1 to #bh1jjj in #ahdb1 and the quantity sold by the ,dutch ,trading ,company in the last-named year was #aj1ejj chests1 of about the same dimensions as those usually exported from ,calcutta4 ,some further statistics of the culture in ,java are shown in the following returns of the quantity exported3-- lbs4 #ahcj #bb1jfc #ahce #ece1gec #ahci #eie1hah #ahda #iac1fic #ahdc #a1hij1dbi #ahea #gfi1ehj #aheb #hch1bhh ,the produce in #ahdh was #a1aea1cfh lbs4 #ahdj4 #ahda4 ,residencies in which this culture is introduced #i #aj ,number of factories #gbh #gbh ,families occupied with this culture #aig1jhe #aib1aei ,extent of fields where the cutting has been made in bahas of #ga decametres #dj1hdd #ch1hbi ,quantity of bahus planted before the gathering #cag #ech ,quantity of indigo crop in pounds #b1jcb1jig #a1ffc1dbg average pounds per bahu #di #dc ,the extent of fields destined for the crop of #ahdb was #cg1igj bahus1 and the amount of the crop was calculated by approximation at #a1hfb1jjj4 ,the gradual increase of the export in the eighteen years ending #ahdb1 is shown as follows3-- ,maunds4 #ahbe #gf #ahbf #abf #ahbg #aji #ahbh #caj #ahbi #fjj #ahcj #dhj #ahca #efc #ahcb #b1bac #ahcc #b1hfa #ahcd #c1caj #ahce #g1jbc #ahcf #e1cfe #ahcg #aj1hbb #ahch #i1ghh #ahci #ae1fhj #ahdj #bg1idf #ahda #bd1jdd #ahdb #bh1jjj ,total imports of indigo into the ,united ,kingdom1 and quantity retained for home consumption3-- ,imports4 ,home consumption4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahdh #ei1abg #i1jcb #ahdi #ha1ddi #ab1bgj #ahej #gj1dhb #af1cgd #ahea #hi1iid #bg1idg #aheb #hc1efe #af1cha ,,imports ,,of ,,indigo4 ,mexico and the ports ,east ,indies4 of ,south ,america4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahca #f1iif1jfb ------ #ahcb #f1aif1jhj #ff1cfc #ahcc #f1cae1ebi #abe1bfd #ahcd #c1eie1fig #fd1fch #ahce #c1hfa1hec #hh1cjf #ahcf #g1bah1iia #aih1jjc #ahcg #e1gjf1hif #cfe1jia #ahch #f1egh1ceb #adb1gci #ahci #d1fea1edb #cfc1adh #ahdj #f1idj1aib #abd1gff #ahda #g1dea1fec #bdg1jca #ahdb #h1ica1aab #aee1jjc #ahdc #f1cai1bid #acj1hcf ,entered for home consumption about two millions and a half pounds annually4 7 ,parl4 ,returns ,no4 #fef1 ,september #ahdc1 and #dbf1 ,september #ahdd47 ,the consumption of indigo in ,europe and ,north ,america in round numbers1 estimated from authentic sources1 is thus set down by ,mr4 ,macculloch in #ahdi3-- chests4 ,in ,great ,britain for home consumption #i1hbj ,france total for ditto #aj1djj ,american ports from ,london and ,liverpool #b1ejj ,calcutta #gjj ,holland1 c #djj ,other ,european countries export from ,london and ,liverpool4 #ba1ecj ,holland #d1bgj ,calcutta #abj ,france #cjj ---------- #ej1jdj ,,madder4 ,this substance1 which is so extensively used in dyeing red1 is the product of the long slender roots of the ,rubia tinctorum1 a plant of which there are several varieties4 ,our principal supplies of this important article of commerce are obtained from ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,turkey1 ,spain1 and the ,balearic ,isles1 the ,italian ,states1 ,india1 and ,ceylon4 ,the plant is generally raised from seed1 and requires three years to come to maturity4 ,it is1 however1 often pulled in eighteen months without injury to the quality2 the quantity only is smaller4 ,a rich soil is necessary for its successful cultivation1 and when the soil is impregnated with alkaline matter1 the root acquires a red color2 in other cases it is yellow4 ,the latter is preferred in ,england1 from the long habit of using ,dutch madder1 which is of this color1 but in ,france the red sells at two francs per cwt4 higher1 being used for the ,turkey-red dye4 ,madder does not deteriorate by keeping1 provided it be kept dry4 ,it contains three volatile coloring matters1 madder purple1 orange1 and red4 ,the latter is in the form of crystals1 having a fine orange red color1 and called ,alizaine4 ,this is the substance which yields the ,turkey-red dye4 ,the chay root is employed in the ,east ,indies as a substitute for madder1 and so is the root of ,morinda citrifolia1 under the name of ,sooranjee4 ,turkey madder roots realise about #cjs4 per cwt4 ,about #a1ajj tons are annually shipped from ,naples1 worth about #cj per ton4 ,madder has become an article of great request1 on account of the fine scarlet color produced from its roots1 and is so essential to dyers and calico printers that without it they cannot carry on their manufactures4 ,it is cultivated extensively in ,holland1 from whence it is imported in large quantities into both ,england and ,france1 though it is cultivated to some extent in both countries4 ,it has also been raised as a soiling crop1 but the coloring matter is of so penetrating and subtile a character1 that the flesh1 milk1 and even the bones of animals fed upon it are said to be tinged to a considerable degree with it4 ,the soils best adapted1 and which should be selected for its cultivation1 are dry1 fertile1 and deep sandy loams2 the roots are long and fibrous1 and descend to a depth of from two to three feet4 ,it may be propagated by seed1 which1 by some1 is thought the best method1 but the more usual mode is by the division of1 and transplanting1 the roots4 ,the ground should be thoroughly and deeply pulverised1 clean1 and well-manured for the preceding crop1 that the manure may be thoroughly rotted and incorporated with the soil3 in ,april or ,may the suckers will be fit for taking from the older plantations--those of two or three years producing the best4 ,the sets should have roots four or five inches long4 ,mark out rows two feet apart1 with a line1 and set the plant with a dibble1 one foot apart in the rows4 ,the roots should be dipped in a puddle of fine rich earth and water1 beaten to the consistence of cream1 previous to planting2 let the crown of the plant be clearly over ground1 and secure the earth well around the root1 to keep out drought4 ,the plantation requires nothing more but to be kept perfectly clean and well-hoed during the summer months2 and after the top decays in the autumn1 to be earthed up by the plough for the winter1 each year1 till the plants are three years old1 when they are of the proper size and age for lifting1 which must be done by trenching the land two feet deep--several hands accompanying the digger to pick out the roots1 which must be thoroughly cleaned and dried on a kiln till they are so brittle as to break across1 when they are fit to be packed in bags1 and sold to the dye-stuff manufacturers who grind and reduce them to powder for use4 ,the produce is variable2 usually from eight to twenty cwt4 per acre1 but as much as #c1jjj to #f1jjj lbs4 is frequently obtained4 ,the forage amounts to about #ae1jjj lbs4 the first year1 and #g1ejj lbs4 the second year4 ,in a new and good soil manure may be dispensed with for the first crop4 ,some cultivators interline and grow other crops between the rows1 but the best cultivators state that such a practice is objectionable4 ,the breadth of land under this crop in ,england is much reduced1 in consequence of the reduction in price from the competition of the ,dutch growers4 ,madder is extensively grown on the central table land of ,afghanistan1 forming one of the leading products of ,beloochistan42 and1 according to ,mr4 ,pottinger1 it sells in the ,kelat ,bazaar at about #aj lbs4 for #bs4 ,the cultivation there pursued is as follows3--,the ground is repeatedly ploughed1 and laid out finally in small trenches1 in which the seed is sown1 covered slightly with earth1 and then the whole is flooded4 ,whilst thus irrigated1 the trenches are filled with a mixture of rich manure and earth4 ,the plants appear in about ten days1 and attain a height of three or four feet during the first summer4 ,they are cut down in ,september and used as fodder for cattle4 ,subsequently1 and until spring arrives1 the ground is manured and repeatedly flooded4 ,during the second year's growth1 the plants which are intended to produce seed are set apart1 but the stems of the remainder are cut every four or six weeks1 in order to increase the size and goodness of the roots4 ,madder is said to repay a nett profit of #bjj dollars to the acre1 when properly managed4 ,it produced on the farm of a gentleman1 who has devoted some attention to this product in ,ohio1 at the rate of #b1jjj lbs4 per acre1 and it may be made to produce #c1jjj lbs41 which is a greater yield than the average crops of ,germany and ,holland4 ,nine acres were planted by another person in the ,united ,states1 in #ahci1 which he harvested in #ahdb4 ,the labor required is said to be from #hj to #ajj days work per acre4 ,in the third year the stems are pruned as in the two preceding1 and in ,september the roots are dug up4 ,the roots are fusiform and thin1 without any ramifications1 and usually from three to five feet long4 ,as soon as raised1 they are immediately cut into small pieces and dried1 and are then merchantable4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,swift1 an enterprising ,american farmer1 of ,erie county1 ,ohio1 who occupies about #djj acres of choice land1 mostly alluvial1 in the valley of the ,vermilion river1 seven miles from ,lake ,erie1 has detailed his practice in the ,new ,genesee ,farmer 7an agricultural periodical71 for ,march1 #ahdc4 ,his directions must be understood as intended for those who wish to cultivate only a few acres1 and cannot afford much outlay of capital4 ,those who desire to engage in the business on an extensive scale1 would need to adopt a somewhat different practice3-- ,soil and preparation4-- ,the soil should be a deep1 rich1 sandy loam1 free from weeds1 roots1 stones1 c41 containing a good portion of vegetable earth4 ,alluvial bottom land is the most suitable1 but it must not be wet4 ,if old upland is used1 it should receive a heavy coating of vegetable earth1 from decayed wood and leaves4 ,the land should be ploughed very deep in the fall1 and early in the spring apply about one hundred loads of well-rotted manure per acre1 spread evenly1 and ploughed in deeply2 then harrow till quite fine and free from lumps4 ,next plough the land into beds four feet wide1 leaving alleys between three feet wide1 then harrow the beds with a fine light harrow1 or rake them by hand1 so as to leave them smooth and even with the alleys2 they are then ready for planting4 ,preparing sets and planting4--,madder sets or seed roots are best selected when the crop is dug in the fall4 ,the horizontal uppermost roots 7with eyes7 are the kind to be used2 these should be separated from the bottom roots1 and buried in sand in a cellar or pit4 ,if not done in the fall1 the sets may be dug early in the spring1 before they begin to sprout4 ,they should be cut or broken into pieces1 containing from two to five eyes each2 i4e41 three to four inches long4 ,the time for planting is as early in the spring as the ground can be got in good order1 and severe frosts are over1 which in this climate 7,america7 is usually about the middle of ,april4 ,with the beds prepared as directed1 stretch a line lengthwise the bed1 and with the corner of a hoe make a drill two inches deep along each edge and down the middle1 so as to give three rows to each bed1 about two feet apart4 ,into these drills drop the sets1 ten inches apart1 covering them two inches deep4 ,eight or ten bushels of sets are requisite for an acre4 ,after culture4--,as soon as the madder plants can be seen1 the ground should be carefully hoed1 so as to destroy the weeds and not injure the plants2 and the hoeing and weeding must be repeated as often as weeds make their appearance4 ,if any of the sets have failed to grow1 the vacancies should be filled by talking up parts of the strongest roots and transplanting them2 this is best done in ,june4 ,as soon as the madder plants are ten or twelve inches high1 the tops are to be bent down on the surface of the ground1 and all except the tip end covered with earth1 shovelled from the middle of the alleys4 ,bend the shoots outward and inward in every direction1 so as in time to fill all the vacant space on the beds1 and about one foot on each side4 ,after the first time covering1 repeat the weeding when necessary1 and run a single horse plough through the alleys several times to keep the earth clean and mellow4 ,as soon as the plants again become ten or twelve inches high1 bend down and cover them as before1 repeating the operation as often as necessary1 which is commonly three times the first season4 ,the last time may be as late as ,september1 or later if no frosts occur4 ,by covering the tops in this manner1 they change to roots1 and the design is to fill the ground as full of roots as possible4 ,when the vacant spaces are all full1 there is but little chance for weeds to grow2 but all that appear must be pulled out4 ,the second year4--,keep the beds free from weeds2 plough the alleys and cover the tops1 as before directed1 two or three times during the season4 ,the alleys will now form deep and narrow ditches1 and if it becomes difficult to obtain good earth for covering the tops1 that operation may be omitted after the second time this season4 ,care should be taken1 when covering the tops1 to keep the edges of the beds as high as the middle2 otherwise the water from heavy showers will run off1 and the crop suffer from drought4 ,the third year4--,very little labor or attention is required4 ,they will now cover the whole ground4 ,if any weeds are seen1 they must be pulled out2 otherwise their roots will cause trouble when harvesting the madder4 ,the crop is sometimes dug the third year2 and if the soil and cultivation have been good1 and the seasons warm and favorable1 the madder will be of a good quality2 but generally it is much better in quality1 and more in quantity1 when left until the fourth year4 ,digging and harvesting4--,this should be done between the #bjth of ,august and the #bjth of ,september4 ,take a sharp shovel or shovels1 and cut off and remove the tops with half an inch of the surface of the earth2 then take a plough of the largest size1 with a sharp coulter and a double team1 and plough a furrow outward1 beam-deep1 around the edge of the bed2 stir the earth with forks1 and carefully pick out all the roots1 removing the earth from the bottom of the furrow2 then plough another furrow beam-deep1 as before1 and pick over and remove the earth in the same manner2 thus proceeding until the whole is completed4 ,washing and drying4--,as soon as possible after digging1 take the roots to some running stream to be washed4 ,if there is no running stream convenient1 it can be done at a pump4 ,take large round sieves1 two-and-a-half or three feet in diameter1 with the wire about as fine as wheat sieves2 or if these cannot be had1 get from a hardware store sufficient screen wire of the right fineness1 and make frames or boxes1 two-and-a-half feet long and the width of the1 wire1 on the bottom of which nail the wire4 ,in these sieves or boxes1 put half a bushel of roots at a time1 and stir them about in the water1 pulling the branches apart so as to wash them clean2 then1 having a platform at hand1 lay them onto dry4 7,to make the platform1 take two or three common boards1 so as to be about four feet in width1 and nail deals across the under side74 ,on these spread the roots about two inches thick for drying in the sun4 ,carry the platforms to a convenient place1 not far from the house1 and place them side by side1 in rows east and west1 and with their ends north and south1 leaving room to walk between the rows4 ,elevate the south ends of the platforms about eighteen inches1 and the north ends about six inches from the ground1 putting poles or sticks to support them--this will greatly facilitate drying4 ,after the second or third day's drying1 the madder must be protected from the dews at night1 and from rain1 by placing the platforms one upon another to a convenient height1 and covering the uppermost one with board4 ,spread them out again in the morning1 or as soon as danger is over4 ,five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the madder sufficiently1 when it may be put away till it is convenient to kiln-dry and grind it4 ,kiln-drying1--,the size and mode of constructing the kiln may be varied to suit circumstances4 ,the following is a very cheap plan1 and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at a time4 ,place four strong posts in the ground1 twelve feet apart one way1 and eighteen the other2 the front two fourteen feet high1 and the other eighteen2 put girts across the bottom1 middle1 and top1 and nail boards perpendicularly on the outside as for a common barn4 ,the boards must be well seasoned1 and all cracks or holes should be plastered or otherwise stopped up4 ,make a shed-roof of common boards4 ,in the inside put upright standards about five feet apart1 with cross-pieces to support the scaffolding4 ,the first cross-pieces to be four feet from the floor2 the next two feet higher1 and so on to the top4 ,on these cross-pieces lay small poles1 about six feet long and two inches thick1 four or fire inches apart4 ,on these scaffolds the madder is to be spread nine inches thick4 ,a floor is laid at the bottom to keep all dry and clean4 ,when the kiln is filled1 take six or eight small kettles or hand-furnaces1 and place them four or five feet apart on the floor 7first securing it from fire with bricks or stones71 and make fires in them with charcoal1 being careful not to make any of the fires so large as to scorch the madder over them4 ,a person must be in constant attendance to watch and replenish the fires4 ,the heat will ascend through the whole1 and in ten or twelve hours it will all be sufficiently dried1 which is known by its becoming brittle like pipe stems4 ,breaking and grinding4--,immediately after being dried1 the madder must be taken to the barn and threshed with flails1 or broken by machinery 7a mill might easily be constructed for this purpose71 so that it will feed in a common grist-mill4 ,if it is not broken and ground immediately1 it will gather dampness so as to prevent its grinding freely4 ,any common grist-mill can grind madder properly4 ,when ground finely it is fit for use1 and may be packed in barrels like flour for market4 ,amount and value of product1 c4--,mr4 ,swift measured off a part of his ground1 and carefully weighed the product when dried1 which he found to be over two thousand pounds per acre1 notwithstanding the seasons were mostly dry and unfavorable4 ,with his present knowledge of the business1 he is confident that he can obtain at least three thousand pounds per acre1 which is said to be more than is often obtained in ,germany4 ,the whole amount of labor he estimates at from eighty to one hundred days' work per acre4 ,the value of the crop1 at the usual wholesale price 7about fifteen cents per pound71 from three to four hundred dollars4 ,in foreign countries it is customary to make several qualities of the madder1 which is done by sorting the roots2 but as only one quality is required for the western market1 ,mr4 ,swift makes but one1 and that is found superior to most of the imported1 and finds a ready sale4 ,madder is produced in ,middle ,egypt to some extent1 for the consumption of the country1 principally for dyeing the tarbouche or skull caps which are universally worn4 ,its culture was introduced in #ahbe4 ,in #ahcc1 #cjj acres in ,upper ,egypt1 and #ejj in the ,delta and the ,kelyout1 were devoted to madder roots4 ,new ,south ,wales is eminently suited to the culture of this valuable root1 and as the profits upon its cultivation are very large1 ,i would strongly recommend it to the attention of agriculturists there4 ,the article produces to ,france an annual sum of one million sterling2 the price of the finest quality in the ,english market being #fj per ton4 ,its yield varies from #dj to #ej per acre1 and the expenses upon its proper culture should not exceed one-half that amount4 ,the colonists would find it to their interest to turn their attention to such articles as this1 for which there is an extensive demand at home1 instead of confining themselves exclusively to the commoner and bulkier products1 which they export at a much less profit1 and which when once the market is fully supplied1 may fall to a price at which they cannot afford to sell4 ,the following is a calculation of the expenses generally supposed to attend a crop according to the mode of cultivation practised in ,vaucluse3-- ,rent per hectare 7#b ,english acres71 #c years1 at s4 d4 #afe francs #ai #ag #f ,manure1 #ddj francs #ag #ab #f ,carriage of ditto1 #acb francs #c #e #aj --------- #bb #ah #d --------- #db #ae #aj ,these expenses may almost be dispensed with in our colonies1 as the soil at ,vaucluse has long been exhausted4 ,two and a-half acres require #agj lbs4 seed1 at #b;d4 per pound1 which1 with the labor afterwards bestowed1 including the cost of spade trenching1 will be #cj #j #j --------- #gb #ae #aj ,the average produce per hectare is #gg cwt41 which1 at #a #ds4 #b;d4 per cwt4 7the price on the spot71 is #ic4 ,the price is now much lower1 but still it is clear a most profitable return would be derived from the first crop1 and a proportionably larger one afterwards4 ,a considerable portion of the madder roots1 instead of being ground and exported in that form1 as heretofore1 is now exposed1 after being invested with dilute sulphuric acid1 to a boiling heat by means of steam1 by which the coloring matter is considerably altered and improved in quality for some dyeing processes1 while the quantity rendered soluble in water is greatly increased4 ,the madder so prepared is known as garancine1 and forms an important branch of manufacture in the south of ,france1 which was well illustrated at the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea1 by a collection of specimens supplied by the ,chamber of ,commerce of ,avignon4 ,the spent madder1 after being used in dyeing1 is now also converted by ,mr4 ,h4 ,steiner1 of ,accrington1 into a garancine 7termed garanceuse by the ,french7 by steaming it with sulphuric acid in the same manner as the fresh madder1 and thus a considerable quantity of coloring matter is recovered and made available which was formerly thrown away in the spent madder4 ,both varieties of garancine give a more scarlety red than the unprepared madder1 and also good chocolate and black1 without soiling the white ground1 but are not so well fitted1 particularly the garancine of spent madder1 for dyeing purples1 lilacs1 and pinks4 ,the value of the garancine imported from ,france in #ahdh was #ei1eed1 and of that imported in #ahea #ic1hah4 ,this preparation of ground madder is imported into ,liverpool to the extent of from #ejj to #fjj tons annually from ,marseilles1 for the use of calico printers in the manufacturing districts4 ,the price is #g to #h the ton4 ,this important root is already cultivated to a considerable extent in ,russia but not nearly in sufficient quantity to meet the local demand2 so that large quantities are imported from ,holland and elsewhere1 every year4 ,the quantity of madder1 madder-root1 and garaneine annually imported into the ,united ,kingdom is exceedingly large1 over #ae1jjj tons1 as is shown by a reference to the following figures3-- ,madder4 ,madder roots4 ,garancine4 ,total4 cwts4 cwts4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahdh #ha1bfa #aci1dfc #e1iee #bgf1fgi #ahdi #ib1gcf #afa1ihf #d1ifi #bei1fia #ahej #ajj1bdh #afa1fac #e1hde #bfg1gjf #ahea #ib1ibe #bjb1jia #i1chb #cjd1cih #aheb #hd1che #agi1hac ---- ---- ,we imported from ,france1 duty free1 the following3-- ,madder4 ,official value4 ,madder-root4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahdh #ed1jhd #abb1hea #be1jfh #gj1gdi #ahdi #eg1ajh #aca1jei #bc1dei #ha1bgd #ahej #ed1eei #abc1fbh #ac1fic #ee1bfc #ahea #fe1egg #aea1ejb #cd1jag #afg1gba ,the price in the ,liverpool market1 in ,june #ahec1 for ,bombay madder-roots was #a #ahs4 to #b #ads4 the cwt4 ,,indian ,,madder4--,rubia cordifolia1 or ,munjestha1 a variety with white flowers1 a native of ,siberia1 is cultivated largely in the ,east1 particularly about ,assam1 ,nepaul1 ,bombay1 ,scinde1 ,quitta1 ,china1 c41 for its dye-stuff1 and is known as ,munjeet4 ,a small quantity is exported from ,china and ,india2 about #cch ,indian maunds were shipped from ,calcutta in #ahdj1 and #b1cbh in #ahda4 ,it fetches in the ,london and ,liverpool markets from #bjs4 to #bes4 and #cjs4 per cwt41 duty free2 #dje tons were imported into ,liverpool from ,bombay and ,calcutta1 in #ahdi1 and #ebe tons in #ahej1 but none was imported in #ahea and #aheb4 ,it was remarked by the ,jury in #ahea1 at the ,great ,exhibition1 that this is a valuable dye-stuff1 and hitherto not so well appreciated as it deserves1 for some of the colors dyed with it are quite as permanent as those dyed with madder1 and even more brilliant4 ,its use however is gradually increasing1 and it is unquestionably well worthy the attention of dyers4 ,,logwood4--,the logwood of commerce is the red heart wood1 or duramen1 of a fine lofty growing tree 7,haematroxylon ,campechianum71 growing in ,campeachy and the bay of ,honduras1 and which is also now common in the woods of ,jamaica and ,st4 ,domingo4 ,it is principally imported as a dye wood1 cut into short lengths4 ,we chip1 grind1 and pack it into casks and bags1 ready for the dyers1 hatters1 and printers' use1 who esteem it as affording the most durable deep red and black dyes4 ,it is sometimes used in medicine as an astringent4 ,that grown in ,jamaica is least valued that of ,honduras1 ,tobasco1 and ,st4 ,domingo1 fetches a somewhat higher price2 but that imported from ,campeachy direct1 is the most esteemed4 ,the annual imports into ,liverpool are about #a1cjj tons from ,honduras1 #ajj from ,tobasco1 and #a1hjj from ,campeachy4 ,it thrives best in a damp tenacious soil1 with a small proportion of sand4 ,it is imported in logs1 which are afterwards chipped1 and is of great commercial importance from its valuable dyeing properties4 ,old wood is preferred2 it is so hard as almost to be indestructible by the atmosphere4 ,the albumen is of a yellowish color1 and is not imported4 ,the bark and wood are slightly astringent4 ,the imports of logwood into the ,united ,kingdom1 were #bc1aib tons in #ahdh1 #bc1iif tons in #ahdi1 and #cd1jij tons in #ahej1 of which #c1dhd tons were re-exported in #ahdh1 and #b1cjg tons in #ahdi4 ,the imports in the past two years of #aheb and #ahec1 have averaged #bj1jjj tons1 of which about #c1jjj tons were re-exported4 ,it is increasing in use1 for in #ahcg1 the quantity retained for home use was only #ad1fgg tons4 ,the price varies according to quality from #d to #g per ton4 ,we received from ,honduras #e1dja tons in #ahdd2 and #ee1hbd tons in #ahde4 ,from ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica1 #cih tons were shipped between ,january and ,july #ahea4 ,,fustic4--,this is the common name of a species of dye wood in extensive use1 which is obtained from ,maclura tinctoria1 or ,broussonitia tinctoria1 ,kunth1 a large and handsome evergreen tree1 growing in ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,the wood is extensively used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow1 and is largely imported for that purpose4 ,the quantity entered for home consumption in the ,united ,kingdom was #a1gca tons in #ahdg1 #a1fec in #ahdh1 and #a1hdb tons in #ahdi4 ,ninety-one tons were shipped from ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica1 in the first six months of #ahea4 ,,quercitron4---,this bark furnishes a yellow dye1 of which about #c1ejj tons are annually imported in hogsheads of from half a ton to a ton4 #bif tons were imported into ,liverpool from ,philadelphia in #ahdi1 and #ead tons in #ahej4 ,,brazil ,,wood4--,this very ponderous wood is obtained in ,brazil from the ,csalpina ,braziliensis1 which yields a red or crimson dye1 when united with alum or tartar1 and is used by silk dyers4 ,it is imported principally from ,pernambuco1 #a1bjj quintals having been shipped to ,london in #ahce1 but about #ejj tons1 worth about #d a ton1 were imported from ,costa ,rica in #ahde4 ,the tree is large1 crooked1 and knotty1 and the bark is thick1 and equals the third or fourth of its diameter4 ,the imports may be stated at about #fjj tons annually1 the average price being #ej per ton4 ,brazil wood is found in the greatest abundance and of the best quality1 in the ,province of ,pernambuco1 but being a government monopoly it has been cut down in so improvident a manner1 that it is now seldom seen within several leagues of the coast4 ,among the ,cuba dye woods is ,copey 7,clusia rosea1 ,linn74 ,braziletto1 obtained from ,c4 ,crista1 is one of the cheapest and least esteemed of the red dye woods1 imported from ,jamaica and other ,west ,india islands to the extent of #aej tons per annum1 fetching #f to #h per ton4 #b1cfa tons of ,nicaragua wood were imported in #ahdh1 #b1gja tons in #ahdi1 and #f1acj tons in #ahej4 ,spain exhibited various vegetable dyes obtained from cultivated and wild plants furnished by the ,agricultural ,board of ,saragossa4 ,,lichens4 ,the chief lichens employed in the manufacture of orchil and cudbear are the following3-- ,angola weed 7,ramalina furfuracea74 ,mauritius weed 7,rocella fusiformis71 which comes also from ,madagascar1 ,lima1 and ,valparaiso1 and then bears the distinctive commercial name of the port of shipment4 ,cape weed 7,rocella tinctoria71 from the ,cape de ,verd ,islands4 ,canary ,moss 7,parmelia perlata74 ,tartareous ,moss 7,parmelia tartarea74 ,pustulatus ,moss 7,umbilicaria pustulata74 ,velvet ,moss 7,gyrophora murina74 ,the last three are imported from ,sweden4 ,of these lichens1 the first1 which is the richest in coloring matter1 grows as a parasite upon trees2 all the remainder upon rocks4 ,rocella corallina1 ,variolaris lactea and dealbata1 have been also resorted to4 ,about #acj tons of cudbear are imported annually from ,sweden4 ,these lichens are found on rocks1 on the sea coast4 ,the modes1 of treating them for the manufacture of the different dyes is the same in principle1 though varying slightly in detail4 ,they are carefully cleaned and ground into a pulp with water1 an ammoniacal liquor is from time to time added1 and the mass constantly stirred in order to expose it as much as possible to the air4 ,peculiar substances existing in these plants are1 during this process1 so changed by the combined action of the atmosphere1 water1 and ammonia1 as to generate the coloring matter1 which1 when perfect1 is pressed out1 and gypsum1 chalk1 or other substances1 are then added1 so as to give it the desired consistency2 these are then prepared for the market under the forms of cudbear or litmus4 ,,henna 7,lawsonia inermis71 is an important dye-stuff1 and the distilled water of the flowers is used as a perfume4 ,the ,mahomedan women in ,india use the shoots for dyeing their nails red1 and the same practice prevails in ,arabia4 ,in these countries the manes and tails of the horses are stained red in the same manner4 ,the ,genista tomentosa yields red petals used in dyeing1 and containing much tannic acid4 ,,orchilla ,,weed4--,the fine purple color which the orchilla weed yields1 is in use as an agent for coloring1 staining1 and dyeing4 ,about #cj1jjj lbs4 is obtained annually in the island of ,teneriffe4 #dfj arrobas 7or #aae cwt47 of orchilla were exported from the ,canary ,isles in #ahcc4 ,in #ahci1 #f1did cwts4 paid duty1 and #d1age cwts4 in #ahdj4 ,the average imports of the three years ending with #ahdb1 was #f1jej cwt4 ,a little comes in from ,barbary and the islands of the ,archipelago4 ,dr4 ,w4,l4 ,lindley1 in a very interesting paper1 read before the ,botanical ,society of ,london1 in ,december1 #aheb1 on the dyeing properties of the lichens1 stated-- ,the subject of the colorific and coloring principles of the lichen has1 within the last few years1 attracted a due share of that attention which1 has been increasingly devoted to organic chemistry4 ,since #ahcj1 ,heeren1 ,kane1 ,schunck1 ,rochleder and ,heldt1 ,knop1 ,stenhouse1 ,laurent and ,gerhardt1 have published valuable papers on these principles2 but1 here again1 we have to regret the great discrepancy in the various results obtained1 and there is therefore1 here also1 imperatively demanded re-investigation and correction before any of the results already published can he implicitly relied upon1 and before we can have safe data from which to generalise4 ,i have no doubt that a great proportion of the obscurity overhanging this subject depends on the circumstance that many of the chemists1 who have devoted attention to the color-educts and products of the lichens1 were not themselves botanists1 and have therefore probably1 in some cases at least1 analysed species under erroneous names1 and also because their investigations have comprehended a much too limited number of species4 ,their utility in the arts1 and especially in dyeing--including the collection of a series of the commercial dye lichens1 i4e41 those used by the manufacturers of ,london1 c41 in the making of orchil1 cudbear1 litmus1 and other lichen dyes4 ,while investigating the dyeing properties of the lichens1 ,i made experiments1 with a view to test their colorific power1 on as many species as ,i could obtain in sufficient quantity1 to render it at all useful to operate on--that number1 however1 being very limited 7between forty and fifty74 ,dr4 ,lindley adds1 many parties may be able to aid his investigations1 by furnishing information on their economic uses1 and on their special applications in dyeing and other arts--7particularly on their employment1 as dye agents1 by the natives of ,britain and other countries7--with specimens of the lichens so used1 and their common names--specimens of fabrics dyed therewith--notes of the processes employed for the elimination of the dyes1 c4 ,parties resident in1 or travelling through our western ,highlands and ,islands1 the northern ,highlands1 ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,norway1 ,iceland1 and similar countries1 are most likely to be able to afford this description of information--many native lichens being still used by the peasantry of these countries to dye their homespun yarn1 c4 ,he proceeded to treat--#a4 ,the vast importance of this humble tribe of plants in the grand economy of nature1 as the pioneers and founders of all vegetation4 #b4 ,their importance to man and the lower animals1 as furnishing various articles of food4 #c4 ,their importance in medicine1 and especially in its past history1 at home and abroad4 #d4 ,their importance in the useful and fine arts1 and especially in the art of dyeing4 #e4 ,their affinities and analogies to other cryptogamic families1 and to the ,phanerogamia4 #f4 ,their value as an element of the picturesque in nature2 and1 #g4 ,their typical significance4 ,he then adverted more especially to the subject of his communication1 under the ten following heads3-- ,i4 ,the colors of the ,thallus and apothecia of ,lichens--their causes1 and the circumstances which modify and alter them4 ,,ii4 ,history of the application of their coloring matters to the art of dyeing4 ,,iii4 ,chemical nature and general properties of these coloring matters4 ,,iv4 ,tests and processes for estimating qualitatively1 and quantitatively the colorific powers of individual species--with their practical applications4 ,v4 ,processes of manufacture of the ,lichen-dyes1 on the large and small scale in different countries--with the principles on which they are founded4 ,,vi4 ,nomenclature of the dye-,lichens1 and of the ,lichen-dyes4 ,,vii4 ,botanical and commercial sources of the same4 ,,viii4 ,special applications of the ,lichen-dyes in the arts4 ,,ix4 ,commercial value of the dye-,lichens1 and their products4 ,x4 ,geographical distribution of the dye-,lichens--with the effect of climate2 situation1 c41 on their colorific materials4 ,of the four first sections of his paper1 the following is a very short summary or synopsis3-- ,under the first head1 the author spoke of chlorophylle and various organic and inorganic substances1 which enter into the formation of the colors of the thallus and apothecia of lichens1 and of the modifications of these colors depending on various degrees of--#a4 ,exposure to air and light4 #b4 ,temperature4 #c4 ,moisture1 c4 #d4 ,atmospheric vicissitudes4 #e4 ,season of the year4 #f4 ,nature of the ,gonidic reproduction 7i4e41 gemmation74 #g4 ,nature of habitat4 #h4 ,organic decomposition4 #i4 ,coalescence of parts1 monstrosities1 c4 ,under the second section1 he traced historically the manufacture of ,lichen-dyes1 and the native use of ,lichens as dye agents1 among different nations1 from the times of ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny1 down to the present day1 sketching briefly the ancient end modern history of orchil1 cudbear1 and litmus1 and specifying the native use of lichen-dyes in different1 countries of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,he alluded more particularly to their application to the dyeing of yarns1 c41 by the ,scotch ,highlanders1 under the name of ,crottles4 ,the process of the manufacture of the various crottles1 generally consisted in macerating the powdered lichen for two or three weeks1 in stale urine1 exposing the mass freely to the air by repeated stirring1 and adding lime1 salt1 alum1 or argillaceous and other substances1 either to heighten the color or impart consistence4 ,to such an extent did this custom at one time prevail1 that1 in several of our northern counties each farm and cottage had its tank or barrel of putrefying urine1 a homely but perfectly efficient mode of generating the necessary amount of ammonia4 ,in the county of ,aberdeen1 in particular1 every homestead had its reservoir of ,graith1#ec and the ,lit-pig1#ed which stood by every fireside1 was as familiar an article of furniture in the cots of the peasantry1 as the cuttie-stool1 or the meal girnel4 ,so lately as #ahda 7and ,i presume the practice continues to the present day71 ,mr4 ,edmonston stated that1 of four or five native dyes1 used by the ,shetlanders to color cloth and yarns1 two at least were furnished by lichens1 viz41 a brown dye from ,parmelia saxatilis1 under the name of ,scrottyie1 and a red one from ,lecanora tartarea1 under that of ,korkalett4 ,it is very probable1 however1 that steam and free trade have gradually dispelled this good old custom1 even in the remoter corners of our island2 machinery-made articles being now readily supplied1 at a rate so extraordinarily cheap1 as to render it absolutely expensive 7as to time1 if not also as to money7 to prepare colors1 even by a process so simple and inexpensive as that just mentioned4 ,under the third head1 he examined1 in a general way1 the chemistry of the colorific and coloring matters of the lichens and the results to which it has led1 avoiding as much as possible the technicalities inseparable from such a subject1 and giving a short vise of the researches of ,heeren1 ,kane1 ,rochleder1 and ,heldt1 ,stenhouse1 ,schunck1 ,laurent1 and ,gerhardt1 and others4 ,our untaught senses should undoubtedly lead us to expect the lichens1 whose thallus exhibits the brightest tints1 to yield the finest dyes1 and these1 too1 of a color similar to that of the thallus1 but experience teaches us that the beautiful reddish or purplish coloring-matters are producible in the greatest abundance by the very species from which we should least expect to derive any1 viz41 in those most devoid of external color4 ,this1 though at first sight very remarkable1 is easily explicable1 when we remember that1 in most of the so-called dye-lichens1 colorific principles exist in a colorless form1 and only become converted into colored substances under a peculiar combination of circumstances4 ,some lichens contain coloring matters1 ready formed1 and these exhibit themselves in the tint of the thallus of the plants1 e4g4 chrysophanic or parietinic acid in ,parmelia parietina1 and vulpinic acid in ,evernia vulpina4 ,in other species we find principles1 which1 while in the plant1 and unacted on by chemical re-agents1 are colorless1 but which1 when the lichens are exposed to the combined influence of atmospheric air1 water1 and ammonia1 yield colored substances4 ,this series of colored products is usually comprehended more for convenience sake than on account of chemical identity1 under the generic term orceine4 ,the whole subject of the chemistry of these bodies is at present in a most unsatisfactory condition1 demanding fresh investigation and research1 in illustration of which1 the author exhibited tables of the colorific and coloring principles1 so far as they are at present known1 showing their chemical formul and the authority therefor1 and various relative information4 ,it is highly probable that when the chemistry of the lichens has been more fully studied1 and the whole subject of their color-educts and products better understood1 we shall begin to reduce the present confused mass of complex substances1 and find the same principles more extensively diffused through different lichen species4 ,dr4 ,l4 entered somewhat minutely on the chemical reactions of the better known colorific and coloring principles1 and their derivatives1 so far at least as these throw any light on the production and transmutation of the red or purple colors extracted from what may be termed par excellence1 the dye-lichens4 ,after a few remarks on the chemical constitution of orchil and litmus1 as given by ,kane1 ,gelis1 ,pereira1 and others1 he discussed the subject of decolorisation of weak infusions of orchil and litmus by exclusion of atmospheric air1 and by various deoxidising agents1 and the different theories as to the causation of this phenomenon4 ,i have repeatedly had occasion to notice that1 when weak infusions of these substances are excluded for some time from atmospheric air1 in a bottle1 with a tightly fitting cork1 they gradually lose color1 but rapidly regain it on re-exposure4 ,it is curious that both orchil and litmus are what are called transient or false colors1 i4e41 they slowly lose their bloom and tint by long exposure to the atmosphere2 the coloring matter1 therefore1 appears to be decolorised both by exposure to1 and exclusion from the air1 phenomena apparently of very opposite characters4 ,the cause of the latter phenomenon has never1 so far as ,i am aware1 been quite satisfactorily explained2 but it has been variously supposed to be due3-- #a4 ,to the mere negation of oxygen4 #b4 ,to the development1 in the liquids1 of various substances1 capable of exerting a decolorising influence on the coloring matter4 #c4 ,to deoxidation of the coloring matter by substances1 which have a great tendency to become oxidised or peroxised2 e4g4 hydrogen1 in the case of decolorisation by sulphuretted hydrogen1 nascent hydrogen1 and the protoxides of iron and tin1 c4 #d4 ,to the fixation of an additional amount of hydrogen in a new colorless body1 formed by the union of the sulphuretted hydrogen or other substances with the coloring matter of the liquid4 ,this view is chiefly supported by ,kane1 who says1 that precisely as the coloring matters combine with water1 to form different shades of red-colored bodies--with ammonia to produce a series of bodies1 which are blue and purple--so they combined with sulphuretted hydrogen to form colorless compounds in solution1 which1 if solid1 very probably would be white4 ,he supposes1 in a word1 that for every colored substance existing in orchil and litmus1 there is a corresponding white one1 producible by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen1 c42 and1 in proof of this theory1 he mentions having obtained from ,azolitmine and ,betaorceine colorless bodies1 to which he gave the respective names of ,leuco-litmine and ,leuco-orceine4 ,the author then gave a short summary of ,dr4 ,westring's experiments on the dyeing powers of the ,swedish lichens1 which he found might be conveniently divided into four classes1 according to the degree of heat employed in their maceration1 viz43-- #a4 ,lichens1 whose coloring matter was easily extractable by cold water alone4 #b4 ,those which required for the elimination of their coloring matter1 maceration in tepid water 7i4e4 below #beh degs4 ,swedish thermometer74 #c4 ,those which required maceration in warm water 7i4e4between #ej and #fj degs4 ,swedish thermometer74 #d4 ,those requiring boiling water alone1 or with the aid of solvents4 ,it must be admitted that our knowledge of the true nature of the colorofic and coloring principles of the lichens is1 as yet1 very imperfect and confused1 and one great cause of the dubity and obscurity overhanging the subject1 is the fact that different analysts have arrived at most opposite results1 even in the examination of the same species4 ,for instance1 in ,rocella tinctoria1 which has1 of all the dye-,lichens1 been most frequently selected for analytical investigation1 on account of its important product orchil1 the discrepancies between the results obtained are very striking4 ,in it ,heeren discovered his ,erythrine2 ,kane his ,erythriline2 ,schunk his ,erythric acid2 and ,stenhouse three different substances in as many varieties of the plant2 all of these bodies differing more or less from each other in composition and properties 7at least1 if we are to assume1 as correct1 the descriptions given of them by their respective discoverers74 ,i have already hinted that there is no ratio between the external and internal color or structure of a lichen1 and the kind or amount of coloring matter it will be found to yield4 ,it is exceedingly natural to suppose that such a ratio should exist2 but1 proceeding for some time on this supposition1 ,i was frequently disappointed in my results--the most showy and brilliantly colored lichens often furnishing the dullest and most worthless colors4 ,for instance1 the bright yellow thallus of ,parmelia parietina1 and the beautiful scarlet apothecia of ,scyphophorus cocciferus1 instead of producing a rich yellow in the one case1 and a deep crimson in the other1 yielded1 respectively1 only dirty greenish-yellow and brownish colors4 ,as a general rule ,i should almost be inclined to say that the finer the color of the thallus of any given lichen1 the more is that lichen to be suspected of poverty in valuable coloring matters2 and that1 on the other hand1 the palest pulverulent or crustaceous species1 especially such as are saxicolous1 may be expected to yield the most beautiful and valuable pigments 7e4g4 the ,rocellas and ,lecanoras74 ,in such circumstances it is necessary to have some test1 of easy applicability1 of the kind and amount of colorific properties of any lichen1 and this fortunately is readily attainable4 ,the fourth section of the paper was devoted to the consideration of the various tests of colorific power1 which have been recommended by different authors4 ,of these1 the greater number proceed on the principle of developing the coloring matter by some alkali1 in conjunction with the decomposing action of atmospheric oxygen and water2 others are founded on the reaction between colorific principles of certain of the dye lichens and some of our ordinary chemical re-agents4 ,the author noticed in particular-- #a4 ,helot's test1 #b4 ,westring's tests1 qualitative4 #c4 ,stenhouse's test1 #d4 quantitative4 ,helot's test consists in digesting the dried and powdered lichen or a few hours1 at a temperature of #acj degs41 in a weak solution of ammonia1 sufficiently strong1 however1 to be tolerably pungent4 ,one that is fit for the dyer will yield a rich violet red liquor4 ,dr4 ,westring recommended simply macerating three or four drachms of the lichen in cool spring water1 assisting1 perhaps1 the solvent action of the water by minute quantities of common salt1 nitre1 quicklime1 sulphate of copper or iron1 or similar re-agents4 ,if these means failed1 after a sufficient length of time had been allowed for the development of color1 he digested a fresh portion of the pulverised lichen in water1 containing small quantities of sal-ammoniac and quicklime in the proportion of #be parts of water1 #a-ajth lime1 and #a-bjth sal-ammoniac for every part of lichen1 for a period varying from eight to fourteen days1 and by this process1 he says1 he never failed to develop all the color which the plant was capable of yielding4 ,dr4 ,stenhouse1 of ,london1 one of our latest and best authorities on the chemistry of the lichens1 adds to an alcoholic infusion of the lichen1 a solution of common bleaching powder 7chloride of lime71 whereby1 if it contain certain colorific principles capable of developing1 under the joint action of air1 water1 and ammonia1 red coloring matters1 a fugitive but distinct blood-red color will be exhibited4 ,the amount of this colorific matter may be estimated quantitatively by noting the quantity of the chloride of lime solution required to destroy this blood-red color in different cases3 or the same result may be obtained by macerating for a short period in milk of lime--filtering--precipitating the filtered liquor by acetic or muriatic acid--collecting this precipitate on a weighed filter--drying at ordinary temperatures and again weighing4 ,the author entered into a full analysis of these tests and processes--pointing out their respective advantages and disadvantages--and showing their practical value and applications4 ,he stated that he had made use of these1 and various other tests1 in upwards of #cjj experiments1 and the one which he employed to the greatest extent1 because most uniformly applicable1 was ,helot's ammonia test4 ,the following combination is that most favorable for the development of the coloring matter of the lichens--viz41 the presence #a4 ,of water as a solvent menstruum4 #b4 ,of atmospheric oxygen4 #c4 ,of ammonia1 in the state of vapor or in solution1 and #d4 ,of a moderate degree of heat2 ,and according as the proportion of these combining elements varies1 so do the kind and amount of color educed by them4 ,this combination is the foundation of all the processes for the manufacture of the lichen dyes throughout the world1 however different these may appear to be in detail or results4 ,i believe it may come to be a matter of great commercial importance to discover1 at home or abroad1 some cheap and easily-procurable substitute for the ,roccellas1 which are gradually becoming scarce1 and consequently valuable in ,european commerce1 having sometimes fetched1 in times of scarcity1 no less than #a1jjj per ton4 ,no plants can be so easily collected and preserved as lichens--requiring merely to be cleaned1 dried1 pulverised1 and packed2 and if their bulk be an objection to transport1 their whole colorific matter may be collected in the way ,i have already mentioned4 ,ascending to the verge of eternal snows1 and descending to the ocean level--with a geographical diffusion that is co-extensive with the surface of our earth1 it is difficult to say where lichens shall not be found4 ,there are myriads of small rocky islets in the boundless ocean1 and there are thousands of miles of barren rocky coast and sterile mountain range in every part of the world1 which1 though at present unfit to bear any of the higher members of the vegetable kingdom1 are yet carpeted and adorned with a rich covering of lichens1 and of those very species too1 which ,i have already spoken of as prolific in colorific materials4 ,i sincerely believe1 therefore1 that a more general attention to the very simple tests just enumerated1 would ultimately result in a greatly extended use of the lichens as dye agents4 ,what renders it very probable that efforts in this direction are likely to meet with success is the great similarity of species found all over the world4 ,it has been repeatedly noticed that the ,european species1 which1 of course1 are best known1 differ little from those of ,north ,america4 ,dr4 ,robert ,brown remarked the same fact with regard to ,new ,holland species1 and ,humboldt also recognised the similarity in natives of the ,south ,american ,andes4 ,of a large collection made by ,professor ,royle1 in the ,himalayas1 ,don pronounced almost every one to be identical with ,european species4 ,from examining the raw vegetable products1 sent by different countries to the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 ,i am satisfied that1 even now1 there are many fields open for the establishment of an export trade in ,roccellas and other so-called orchella weeds4 ,i there saw specimens of good dye lichens from almost every part of the world1 including our own young colonies2 and as a single instance of their probable value1 ,i may introduce here the copy of a note appended to a specimen of orchella weed from the island of ,socotra1 contained in the ,indian collection of that exhibition1 abundant1 but unknown as an article of use or commerce4 ,also abundant on the hills around 7,aden7 and might be made an article of trade4 ,roccellas from this source are estimated as worth #aij to #chj per ton4 ,i believe that a similar statement might be made with regard to the countless islands of the broad ,atlantic and ,pacific1 which may1 at some future period1 perhaps not far distant1 be found to be rich depots of orchella weeds1 just as some of them are1 at present1 rich fields of guano1 and may1 as such1 become new nuclei of ,british commerce and enterprise4 ,even at home1 in the immediate vicinity of ,edinburgh1 or1 to restrict our limits still more narrowly1 within the compass of ,arthur's ,seat1 there are not a few very good dye-lichens1 which require merely to be scraped with an old knife or similar instrument1 from the rocks to which they adhere1 and subjected to the ammonia process already mentioned4 ,of twelve specimens thus collected at random one morning1 ,i found no less than three yielded beautiful purple-red colors1 apparently as fine as orchil or cudbear1 while the others furnished rich and dark tints of brownish-red1 brown and olive-green4 ,dr4 ,lindley's communication was illustrated with specimens of coloring matters yielded by various lichens collected in the neighbourhood of ,edinburgh1 c4 ,,barks ,,for ,,tanning4 ,let us now take a brief review of the sources from whence tanning materials may be obtained1 which will also enable us to form a fair estimate of the prospect of future supplies4 ,only one medal was awarded1 at the ,great ,exhibition1 for tanning substances1 viz41 to ,messrs4 ,curtis1 ,brothers 7,united ,kingdom1 ,no4 #abf71 but honorable mention was made of the following competitors3--,one from ,tunis1 one from ,van ,diemen's ,land1 one from ,new ,zealand1 one from ,belgium1 one from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 one from ,canada1 and one from the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the substance from which pure tannin is most frequently obtained for chemical purposes is nutgalls1 for tannin constitutes above #dj per cent1 of their weight4 ,it may be procured also from several other sources1 such as oak1 horse chestnut1 sumach1 and cinchona barks1 catechu1 kino1 c4 ,the basis of the skins of animals is composed of a substance to which the name of gelatine is given4 ,one of the properties of this substance is1 that when combined with tannin1 it forms the compound of tannate of gelatine1 or leather1 a substance which is so useful to mankind4 ,from time immemorial1 the substance employed to furnish the tannin to the hides of animals1 in order to convert them into leather1 has been oak bark4 ,but as the purpose for which oaks are grown is their timber1 and not their bark1 the supply of oak bark cannot be calculated upon1 and this is1 perhaps1 one of the causes why tanning as an art is in such a backward state4 ,the consumption of tannin required in the leather manufacture may be estimated from the fact that more than #fgb1jjj cwts4 of raw hides were imported in #ahea1 besides the hides of the cattle1 c41 consumed in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,on the ,continent and in the ,united ,states the consumption of bark for this purpose is also considerable4 ,the imports of bark for the use of tanners and dyers has amounted yearly to the very large quantity of #chj1fgd cwt41 besides what we obtain at home4 ,oak bark contains usually the largest proportion of tannin1 and according to ,davy's experiments eight-and-a-half pounds of oak bark are equivalent for tanning purposes to two-and-a-quarter of galls1 three of sumach1 seven-and-a-half of ,leicester willow1 eleven of ,spanish chesnut1 eighteen of elm1 and twenty-one of common willow bark4 ,tannin obtained from these sources1 however1 differs materially in some of its characters4 ,the tannin of nutgalls1 which is that generally employed for chemical purposes1 is sometimes called gallo-tannic acid1 to distinguish it from other species4 ,notwithstanding the number of different substances which have from time to time been introduced for the use of tanners1 it is1 nevertheless1 pretty generally acknowledged that there is nothing superior1 or even equal1 to good oak bark1 and that all attempts to hurry the process beyond a certain point by the use of concentrated solutions of tan1 c41 are for the most part failures1 as the manufacture of good leather1 to a great extent1 depends on the process being conducted in a slow and gradual1 but--at the same time--thorough and complete matter4 ,oak bark is1 however1 by no means the only astringent bark well suited to the use of the tanner1 and in various parts of the world other similar substances are used with very great success4 ,all these tanning materials1 though they may not be considered by the ,english tanner equal to the best oak bark1 are1 nevertheless1 of great value to him2 they may be employed in conjunction with oak bark1 or even as a substitute in times of scarcity1 or when the price of oak bark is high2 in fact the very existence of such substances tends to keep down and equalise the price of bark1 and to prevent it from undergoing those great fluctuations in value which would necessarily occur were it the only tanning material available to our manufacture--7,prof4 ,solly in ,jury ,reports of ,great ,exhibition47 ,there are a vast number of bark and other substances useful for tanning purposes1 which are found in the tropics1 that are comparatively unknown or little regarded in ,europe2 but which might be readily obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost4 ,the bark of many species of ,acacia furnishes the tanning principle in a great degree1 particularly that of ,a4 arabica1 which1 under the name of ,babul wood1 is largely used about ,scinde1 ,biliary1 ,gruzerat1 and other parts of ,india2 where it is regarded as a powerful tonic4 ,the fruit of ,a4 vera1 termed ,egyptian and ,senegal bablah1 has been employed in tanning and dyeing4 ,numerous species of this tribe are found abundant in ,new ,south ,wales and the ,cape ,colony1 and these1 particularly the wattle bark of ,australia1 are in common use for tanning1 from their astringent properties4 ,the bark and rind of the fruit of the pomegranate 7,pumica ,granata7 have similar properties4 ,the bark of ,avicenna tomentosa is in great use in the ,brazils for tanning4 ,so are the curved pods of ,csalpinia ,coriari1 in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 under the name of ,divi-divi4 ,coriaria myrtifolia is not only used in tanning leather1 but also for staining black4 ,it is worth #i to #aj per ton4 ,pterocarpus marsupium furnishes about ,tellicherry the concrete exudation called kino1 a powerful astringent used for tanning4 ,the plants of the mangrove tribe1 ,rhizophora ,mangle1 and other allied species1 have frequently an astringent bark1 which is in many cases used for tanning and dyeing black4 ,this tree is very common in most tropical countries1 where it forms dense thickets on the muddy banks of rivers and the sea shores4 ,the bark of ,bauhinia variegata1 is made use of in ,scinde and other parts of ,asia4 ,the bitter astringent bark and the galls of several of the ,tamarisk tribe are also well suited for the purpose4 ,mesembryanthemum nodiflorum1 one of the numerous indigenous species of the ,cape1 is used in making morocco leather4 ,the extract procured from the bark of the ,butea1 that of the ,buchanania latifolia1 the ,scyzgium 7,calyptranthes71 ,jambolana1 c41 are likely to be of consequence to the tanners1 and could be produced in ,india in large quantities4 ,specimens of these1 and of the bark of the ,saul tree1 of ,nychanthes arbortrista1 ,terminalia angustifolia1 and of the gaub fruit 7,diospyros glutinosa71 were shown by the ,east ,india ,company4 ,the bark of the hemlock tree is extensively employed for tanning in ,new ,brunswick4 ,the bark of yellow hercules 7,xanthoxylum ochroxylon71 and the pods of ,acacia tortuosa are used for tanning in the ,west ,indies4 ,in the instructions given by the ,admiralty to ,sir ,james ,boss1 when proceeding on his ,antarctic ,expedition1 his attention was particularly called to the astringent substances adapted for tanning1 and to the various extracts of barks1 c41 imported into ,england from our ,australian settlements1 and which are employed by the tanner4 ,little sterling information has as yet been obtained as to the qualities of the astringent gums1 barks1 and dyes1 yielded in such abundance by the trees of those colonies1 and the proportion of tannin they contained4 ,in #ahdf1 #efc tons of bark for tanning were exported from ,port ,phillip4 ,a large quantity of tannin is extracted from various species of ,eucalyptus1 the gigantic gum trees in ,australia and ,van ,diemen's ,land 7of which quarter all the species are natives71 and sent to the ,english market2 it is said to be twice as powerful in its operations as oak bark4 ,some of these trees attain a height of #bjj feet4 ,their bark separates remarkably into layers4 ,a sort of kino gum1 an astringent resinous-like substance1 is also extracted from ,e4 resinifera1 the brown gum-tree of ,new ,holland1 which is sold in the medicine bazaars of ,india4 ,it exudes in the form of red juice from incisions in the bark4 ,a single tree will often yield #fj gallons4 ,in ,brazil they use the bark of ,luhea panicata1 an evergreen climber1 for tanning leather2 and in ,peru the bark of some species of ,weinmaunia serve the same purpose4 ,among other powerful astringents ,i may notice the root of a species of ,sea ,lavender 7,statice ,caroliniana71 ,myrica cerifera1 and ,heuchera ,americana1 all natives of ,north ,america4 ,also the petals of ,hibiscus ,rosa-sinensis1 a native of ,asia4 ,the sea-side grape 7,coccolaba uvifera7 yields an astringent substance1 known as ,jamaica kino4 ,the bark of the ,cassia auriculata1 and the milky juice of the ,asclepias gigantea1 are used for tanning in ,india4 ,the red astringent gum obtained from ,butea frondosa1 a middling size tree1 common in ,bengal and the mountainous parts of ,india1 is used by the natives for tanning4 ,english tanners1 however1 object to its use on account of the color which it communicates to the leather4 ,the barks of the ,mora excelsa1 ,benth2 ,courida 7,avicenna nutida71 cashew 7,anicardium occidentale71 guava and hog-plum 7,spondius lutea1 ,linn471 have all been successfully used for tanning in ,demerara and the ,west ,india ,islands1 where they are very abundant4 ,specimens were sent from ,british ,guiana4 ,the root of the ,palmetto palm 7,chaemaerops ,palmetto7 is stated to be valuable for the purposes of tanning4 ,the leaves of ,nerium ,oleander contain tannic acid4 ,the bark of a species of ,malphigia is much used by the ,brazilians4 ,the panke 7,gunnera scabra7 is a fine plant1 growing in ,chili1 on the sandstone cliffs1 which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale4 ,the inhabitants eat the stalks1 which are subacid1 tan leather with the roots1 and also prepare a black dye from them4 ,the leaf is nearly circular1 but deeply indented on its margin4 ,mr4 ,darwin measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter1 and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference4 ,the stalk is rather more than a yard high1 and each plant sends out four or five of these enormous leaves1 presenting together a very noble appearance4 ,the barks replete with the tanning principle should be stripped with hatchets and bills from the trunk and branches of trees in spring1 when their sap flows most freely4 ,the average quantity of oak bark obtained from our forests is estimated at #aej1jjj tons annually1 of which ,ireland and ,scotland furnish but a very small quantity4 ,the following table1 given by ,dr4 ,ure1 shows the quantity of extractive matter and tannin yielded by different substances3-- ,in #dhj parts ,in #ajj parts by ,davy4 by ,cadet4 ,sicilian sumach #gh -- ,malaga ditto #gi -- ,souchong tea #dh -- ,green tea #da -- ,bombay catechu #bfa -- ,bengal ditto #bca -- ,nutgalls #abg #df ,bark of pomegranate -- #cb ,virginian sumach -- #aj ,carolina ditto -- #e ,catechu and ,gambier are very valuable for tanning1 and are alluded to under the heads ,,gambier and ,,areca ,,palm4 ,,catechu is obtained from the ,acacia ,catechu1 an arboreous tree growing from fifteen to twenty feet high1 with a brown and scabrous bark4 ,the interior wood is brown1 dark red or blackish1 and the exterior white1 one or two inches thick4 ,it inhabits various parts of the ,east ,indies1 of which it is a native1 and is also now common in ,jamaica4 ,it bears whitish or pale yellow flowers4 ,the catechu obtained from this tree in ,pegu1 is celebrated throughout ,india1 and fetches #d to #e more per ton than gambier and other astringent extracts4 ,when of good quality1 catechu is more powerful as an astringent than kino4 ,of all the astringent substances we know1 catechu appears to contain the largest proportion of tannin1 and ,mr4 ,purkis found that one pound was equivalent to seven or eight of oak bark for tanning leather4 ,the term catechu1 observes ,dr4 ,pereira1 is applied to various astringent extracts imported from ,india and the neighbouring countries4 ,a few years ago the terms catechu1 terra japonica1 and cutch were employed synonymously2 they are now1 however1 for the most part used in trade somewhat distinctively1 though not uniformly in the same sense4 ,the manufacture of catechu from the ,acacia catechu as practised in ,canara and ,behar1 has been described by ,mr4 ,kerr 7,med4 ,obs4 and ,inquiries1 vol4 v471 and ,dr4 ,hamilton 7,journey through ,mysore1 c41 vol4 iii471 while ,professor ,royle has explained the process followed in ,northern ,india4 ,according to the last-mentioned gentleman1 the kutt manufacturers move to different parts of the country in different seasons1 erect temporary huts in the jungles1 and selecting trees fit for their purpose1 cut the inner wood into small chips4 ,these they put into small earthen pots1 which are arranged in a double row1 along a fireplace built of mud2 water is then poured in until the whole are covered2 after a considerable portion has boiled away1 the clear liquor is strained into one of the neighbouring pots1 and a fresh supply of the material is put into the first1 and the operation repeated until the extract in the general receiver is of sufficient consistence to be poured into clay moulds1 which1 in the ,kheree ,pass and ,doon1 where ,i have seen the process1 are generally of a quadrangular form4 ,this catechu is usually of a pale red color1 and is considered there to be of the best quality4 ,by the manufacturers it is conveyed to ,saharunpore and ,moradabad1 whence it follows the course of commerce down the ,ganges1 and meets that from ,nepaul1 so that both may be exported from ,calcutta4 ,,gambier4 ,the ,gambier plant 7,uncaria ,gambler1 ,roxburgh1 ,nauclea ,gambir1 ,hunter71 has been described by ,rumphius under the name of ,funis uncatus4 ,it is a stout1 scandent1 evergreen shrub1 which strongly resembles the myrtle4 ,it is generally cultivated in the same plantation with pepper1 as the leaves and shoots1 after undergoing the process by which their juice is extracted1 to furnish a kind of catechu1 are found to be an excellent manure for the pepper vines4 ,the leaves and young shoots of the gambier plant are collected as soon as they have attained a sufficient size1 and boiled in iron pans until the juice acquires the consistence of treacle4 ,the decoction is poured out into narrow troughs1 dried1 and afterwards cut up into small cakes1 and packed in baskets for exportation4 ,the gambier extract1 which is of a yellowish brown color1 and has the consistence of hard cheese1 is much esteemed by the ,malays for mixing with the preparation of betel1 which they are in the habit of chewing2 and considerable quantities have lately been imported to this country1 where it is used for dyeing colors1 and for tanning leather4 ,the demand for gambier here is on the increase2 and when better known to our chemists1 it will probably be found applicable to many other purposes than those to which it is at present applied4 ,there were1 in #ahej1 #djj gambier and pepper plantations on the island of ,singapore2 each measures or occupies on an average an area of #ejj fathoms square1 and employs eight to ten hands to cultivate and manufacture the gambier and pepper4 ,there are some pepper plantations in addition1 and they have been found to answer very well without any gambier being cultivated with them4 ,gambier cultivation is generally a losing undertaking1 but it is adopted to obtain the refuse of the leaves for manuring the pepper vines1 and also to employ the people in the plantations2 it besides affords the proprietors the means of getting monthly sums to carry on the cultivation of pepper1 which affords two crops yearly4 ,there were formerly #fjj plantations in ,singapore1 but the reason already assigned1 and the formation of spice plantations contiguous have caused the abandonment of all those near the town4 ,each plantation must have an equal extent of forest land to that cultivated with gambier and pepper1 to enable the manufacture of the gambier being carried on1 and each gambier plantation1 of #ejj fathoms square1 contains about #c1ejj pepper vines1 which yield on an average two catties per vine1 or #gj piculs of pepper1 and about #agj piculs of gambier annually2--a good plantation will1 however1 yield sometimes as much as #abj piculs of pepper1 and #bjj piculs of gambier1 and a bad one as little as #dj to #ej piculs of pepper1 and #fj to #hj piculs of gambier4 ,were it not for the enormous commission charged by the agents of these plantations1 from whom the cultivators get all the advances1 it would prove a profitable cultivation4 ,the rates of commission charged generally are as follows3--,per picul of gambier1 fifteen to twenty-five cents2 per picul of pepper1 thirty to forty cents2 and if the price of the former is below one-and-a-half dollars1 and the latter below three-and-a-half dollars per picul1 a small reduction is made in the rates of commission4 ,on every picul of rice supplied to the planters twenty to twenty-five cents commission is charged2 this includes the interest of money advanced1 which is never charged4 ,a gambier and pepper plantation is valued or estimated at about #djj dollars on an average4 ,the following is supposed to be a correct estimate1 on an average1 of the yearly expenditure and returns of a gambier and pepper plantation of #ejj fathoms square1 viz3-- ,,expenditure4 drs4 c4 men4 drs4 c4 ,eight men at #c dollars and #g ,java rupees per month1 wages for headman and labourers respectively #bb4gj #ab #bgb4dj ,five piculs of rice1 including commission1 say #f4ej #ab #ha4fj ,fish1 c4 #e #ab #fj4j ,boat or cart hire to carry rice and produce #a #ab #ba4j ------ #dce4j ,,produce4 #agj piculs of gambier1 valued at l dollar #de cents per picul1 less #ae cents commission chargeable1 nett #bba4cj -- --- #gj piculs of pepper1 at #d dollars1 less #dj cents per picul commission1 nett #bhg4j -- #ejh4j ,yearly profit1 #gc dollars1 or about #ae4 ,several gambier and pepper plantations have been abandoned in ,singapore1 partly from the ground being impoverished1 but more particularly from the exhaustion of the forest adjacent to their estates4 ,the exhaustion of the trees by yearly consumption deprives the planters of the necessary fire wood which is used for the boiling down of the gambier4 ,a gambier plantation gets exhausted in fifteen years1 either from the want of firewood or the land getting impoverished4 ,there are about #bjj plantations at ,johore1 and the produce of gambier for the season of #ahea was calculated at #cj1jjj piculs4 ,this shrub was1 at one period1 cultivated with success at ,pinang and other places to the eastward1 but as ,java was the principal market for the produce1 and the ,dutch had levied a duty of twelve ,java rupees per picul on it1 the cultivation at the former island did not repay its cost1 and it was accordingly abandoned4 ,prices have been lately advancing1 and the ,chinese are talking of trying it again4 ,the plant is partial to hilly land or slopes at the skirts of hills4 ,two hundred plants are usually placed on one orlong of land1 being six feet asunder4 ,they are raised from seed1 and are topped to eight or ten feet1 when the gambier is to be prepared4 ,the ,chinese dry the seed slightly1 and sow in rainy weather4 ,the seeds vegetate in forty days1 and are planted out in the second or third month afterwards4 ,at the expiration of fourteen months1 the first cutting of the branches1 with the leaves on1 is made4 ,these are put into a boiler1 and when the juice has been extracted1 the branches and refuse are thrown away1 and the boiling is continued until the liquor has obtained the proper consistence1 when it is put into shallow troughs1 dried1 and cut into slices for sale4 ,the second cutting takes place eight months subsequently to the first4 ,the plant now grows strong and admits of frequent cropping1 and it will endure for twenty years4 ,no manure is used1 but the plantation is kept clean4 ,estimated cost of cultivating ten orlongs1 about #ac acres1 according to ,colonel ,low3-- ,spanish dollars4 ,value of cleared land1 ten orlongs #bjj ,six laborers per annum #cfj ,quit rent #g ,boilers1 firewood1 and implements #bj ,houses #ej ,incidental #cj ---- ,total first year #ffg ,second year #cig ---- #a1jfd ,the six laborers on the plantation will1 after the above period1 be constantly employed in cutting and preparing the gambier3 the average product will be #ae piculs monthly1 which1 at two dollars per picul1 will be #cj dollars monthly1 or #cfj dollars per annum4 ,this is the account obtained by collating different ,chinese statements4 ,the ,nauclea ,gambir is placed by ,jussieu under the natural order ,rubiace2 it is a shrub attaining the height of six to eight feet1 branchy2 the leaves are ovate1 pointed1 smooth1 waving1 distinctly veined transversely underneath1 of dark green color1 and1 when chewed1 they have a bitter astringent taste1 leaving however1 afterwards1 a sweetish taste in the mouth1 not unlike liquorice2 the flowers are aggregate1 globular1 composed of numerous florets1 crowded on a globular naked receptacle2 tubes of the corolla of a pinkish color2 the upper part of the corolla fine1 cleft1 and of a greenish yellow color2 the stamin are five in number1 and short2 the pistil is longer than the corolla2 the flowers are destitute of fragrance2 the capsules 7as correctly stated by ,mr4 ,hunter7 are stalked oblong1 incrusted1 and crowned with a calyx2 tapering to a point below2 two celled1 two valved1 the valves adhering at the apex1 splitting at the sides2 seeds very numerous1 oblong1 very small1 compressed1 furnished at both ends with a membraneous pappus4 ,the gambier plant is propagated either by seeds or cuttings1 but the latter are preferred4 ,it is cultivated to some extent at ,singapore1 but it is said that the gambier can be imported cheaper from the islands in the vicinity1 more especially at the ,dutch settlement at ,rhio4 ,the extract is used extensively by the natives of ,india1 ,eastern ,archipelago1 ,cochin-,china1 and ,cambodia1 as a masticatory1 wrapped up with the betel4 ,there are three different qualities of extract2 the first and best is white1 brittle1 and has an earthy appearance when rubbed between the fingers 7which earthy appearance gave it the name of ,terra ,japonica1 being supposed1 at first also1 to come from ,japan71 and is formed into very small round cakes4 ,this is the dearest sort1 and most refined1 but it is not unfrequently adulterated with sago2 this kind is brought in the greatest quantity from the island of ,sumatra4 ,the second quality is of a brownish yellow color1 is formed into oblong cakes1 and1 when broken1 has a light brown earthy appearance2 it is also made into a solid cube form2 it is sold in the bazars in small packets1 each containing five or six4 ,the third quality contains more impurities than the preceding1 is formed into small circular cakes1 and is sold in packages of five or six in the bazar4 ,the method employed in preparing the extract is thus correctly related by ,finlayson3--,the leaves are collected three or four times a year2 they are thrown into a large cauldron1 the bottom of which is formed of iron1 the upper part of bark1 and boiled for five or six hours1 until a strong decoction is obtained2 the leaves are then withdrawn1 and allowed to strain over the vessel1 which is kept boiling for as many hours more1 until the decoction is inspissated2 it is then allowed to cool1 when the catechu subsides1 ,the water is drawn off2 a soft soapy substance remains1 which is cut into large masses2 these are further divided by a knife into small cubes1 about an inch square1 or into still smaller pieces1 which are laid in frames to dry4 ,this catechu has more of a granular1 uniform appearance than that of ,bengal2 it is1 perhaps1 also less pure4 ,the younger leaves of the shrub are said to produce the whitest and best gambier2 the older1 a brown and inferior sort4 ,there are other species of ,nauclea indigenous to ,singapore1 but they do not produce any extract4 ,dr4 ,bennett has particularised four qualities of gambier3-- #a4 ,small round cakes1 about the size of a small lozenge4 ,color pale1 purplish1 yellowish1 white4 #b4 ,cubes1 in which shape it is principally imported into ,england1 and square prisms1 or oblong pieces4 #c4 ,circular discs1 or short cylindrical pieces4 #d4 ,cubical amylaceous pieces1 of a darker brown than the other kinds4 ,gambier is one of the most powerful of the pure astringents4 ,the chief places of manufacture are ,saik1 ,malacca1 ,singapore1 and ,rhio or ,bintang4 ,bennett1 in his ,wanderings1 says there are #fj1jjj plantations of gambier on this island4 ,after that of ,rhio1 the next best gambier is that of ,lingin4 ,that used by the ,malays1 with the leaves of betel1 in the same manner as cutch in other parts of ,india1 is the finest and whitest2 the red being stronger tasted and rank1 is exported to ,batavia1 ,china1 and ,england1 for the purposes of tanning and dyeing4 ,it is frequently adulterated with sago powder1 but it may be detected by solution in water4 ,large quantities of gambier are imported1 under the corrupted name of cutch1 into ,calcutta1 from ,pegu4 ,the quantity of gambier produced in ,rhio1 by the ,chinese settlers1 amounts to about #d1fjj tons a year1 about #b1jjj of which are exported for the consumption of ,java1 the rest being sent to ,cochin-,china and other neighbouring countries4 ,two methods of obtaining gambier are described4 ,one consists in boiling the leaves in water1 and in inspissating the decoction2 the other1 which yields the best gambier1 consists in infusing the leaves in warm water1 by which a fecula is obtained1 which is inspissated by the heat of the sun1 and formed into cakes4 ,the injudicious practice adopted by the ,land ,office in ,singapore1 of granting indiscriminate licenses1 or cutting papers as they are formed1 seems open to objection1 and is driving many of the ,chinese cultivators to the neighbouring island of ,johore1 where they readily obtain permission to cultivate1 without obstruction1 this important article of commerce4 ,parties of #cjj or #djj at a time left in #ahdf4 ,it appears that1 under his permissive license1 the squatter obtains permission to clear as much land as he possibly can1 but the order does not define any extent beyond which no cutting should take place4 ,the squatter clears as much land as the means at his disposal will allow1 in the hope and expectation that the jungle contiguous to the cleared ground will be at his command for fuel--a supply of fuel1 easy of access1 and adequate to the number of plants grown1 being indispensable to the culture and manufacture of gambier4 ,when the time for gathering the leaves arrives1 another squatter 7perhaps from motives of envy or malice7 obtains a cutting paper1 and commences clearing in close proximity to the already-formed gambier plantation2 obviously depriving the owner of the fuel he has reasonably calculated upon4 ,the established planter cannot of course eject the intruder from the land1 since the latter possesses an equal right to it1 in virtue of his cutting paper1 which1 as it specifies no limits1 leaves him the disposer or destroyer of the crop of the industrious planter4 ,instead of the present system1 a better practice ought to be introduced1 defining the boundaries to be included in a cutting paper1 and effectually preventing a trespass on the fuel-land of the industrious planter4 ,this might easily be effected by specifying the number of acres1 as well as the direction1 in every clearing paper granted4 ,the average produce of gambier in ,singapore is between #g1jjj and #h1jjj piculs monthly4 ,the ordinary price is about #a dollars per picul4 ,a deficiency of rain1 labor1 or other causes1 will occasionally reduce the annual produce from #ij1jjj or #ajj1jjj piculs1 to #fj1jjj or #gj1jjj1 and this diminished supply will raise the market price of the article probably #ce cents per picul4 ,but1 in addition to the effect occasioned by a deficient supply1 there are other causes in operation exercising a powerful influence in reducing prices4 ,gambier was first exported in #ahcj1 from ,singapore1 to the extent of #b1ehg piculs1 at #d dollars per picul4 ,as a rival to bark it failed at so costly a price to meet with encouragement2 the culture and manufacture consequently declined until #ahcd1 when #a1heh piculs were shipped to ,england at a somewhat lower rate4 ,the demand then became active1 the exportations were at first multiplied1 then doubled every succeeding year1 until they reached1 in #ahdf-dg no less than #agc1aag piculs4 ,the price has gradually declined to #a dollars per picul1 at which rate it displaces its rival1 bark4 ,this price1 however1 is unremunerative to the grower1 so that1 unless more encouragement offers1 the supply will decline4 ,the number of ,chinese employed in the cultivation1 c41 of gambier and pepper in ,singapore is about #aa1jjj4 ,their rate of wages fluctuates with the price of gambier4 ,if a picul of gambier realizes #a dollars1 the monthly pay will be about three dollars2 if gambier fetches two dollars1 their pay will amount to four dollars in the month4 ,the workmen who clean the plantation always receive a dollar less than those who cut and boil the gambier4 ,a good deal of gambier seems now to be grown in ,java1 for #eh1cje piculs were exported from that island in #ahdc4 ,a small quantity is taken by the ,chinese ports1 but whether as a masticatory or for tanning and dyeing ,i am not aware4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,terra ,,japonica ,,imported ,,into ,,ceylon4 #ahdj #faa #ahda #a1jec #ahdb #gfh #ahdc #dga #ahdd #a1aec #ahde #ecg #ahdf #hbd #ahdg #a1edi #ahdh #a1jie #ahdi #hif #ahej #bfe #ahea #chf ,in the ,customs' returns of imports to this country1 two articles are enumerated1 under the separate names of cutch and terra japonica2 the former is catechu and the latter the produce of the gambier plant4 ,the imports of gambier were1 in #ahcf1 #igj tons2 #ahcg1 #b1gch tons2 #ahch1 #a1fjj tons2 #ahci1 #e1bac tons4 ,cutch4 ,terra ,japonica4 tons4 tons4 #ahdh ,imported to the ,united ,kingdom #a1ahf #e1fbc ,retained for home consumption #gfe #e1ajb #ahdi ,imported #a1fcf #f1hea ,retained for home consumption #hfi #e1djj #ahej ,imported #a1agb #d1ehe ,home consumption #ghg #c1fee #ahea ,imported #b1dja #d1ghc ,home consumption #b1jbj #d1dca #aheb ,imported #b1bcf #c1bdd ,home consumption #a1gjh #c1jjc ,catechu1 imported under its ,indian name of cutch1 is brought over in bales or baskets of from one to four cwt41 the price being #ah to #be per ton4 ,about #dej cwt4 of terra japonica or gambier is annually imported into ,hull from the ,east ,indies4 ,the imports of the two substances into ,liverpool is about #ijj tons4 ,gambier is only worth #ac to #ad the ton2 a few years ago it fetched #bfs4 the cwt4 ,the imports into the port of ,london average #a1ejj tons annually4 #d1fgi bales1 and #ad1dcf baskets of terra japonica were imported into ,liverpool in #ahea1 and #ad1jjj bales and baskets in #aheb4 ,the imports of cutch were #aj1bij bags1 and #b1eib baskets1 in #ahea1 and #aa1hgc bags and baskets in #aheb2 the prices1 which were from #afs4 #f;d4 to #ahs4 per cwt4 for each article1 in #ahea1 were rapidly run up in ,liverpool1 in #ahec1 owing to short supplies1 to #bes4 for gambier1 and #bbs4 to #bds4 per cwt4 for cutch1 or catechu4 ,,exports ,,of ,,gambier ,,from ,,singapore1 ,,with ,,the ,,official ,,value ,,in ,,rupees4 ,piculs4 ,value in rupees4 #ahdj-da ,exported #gi1ejh #deg1efj ,growth of ,singapore #ei1cbe #ahda-db ,exported #ic1cdj #dgj1gij ,growth of ,singapore #dg1fif #ahdb-dc ,exported #adh1gdf #edh1bha ,growth of ,singapore #aaj1aea #ahdc-dd ,exported #aci1jej #ehd1ddi ,growth of ,singapore #aba1gia #ahdd-de ,exported #aeg1fed #eci1igh ,growth of ,singapore #acd1ebh #ahde-df ,exported #aaj1gff #dbe1fdc ,growth of ,singapore #ge1gig #ahdf-dg ,exported #agc1aag #eia1idc ,growth of ,singapore #adc1gie ,the exports of gambier from ,singapore were as follows3-- ,to ,england4 ,to the ,continent4 ,total4 piculs4 piculs4 piculs4 #ahdi #acd1edf #f1aba #adj1ffg #ahej #hg1faa #af1aff #ajc1ggg #ahea #fh1cfe #aa1fci #hj1jjd #aheb #fh1jde #i1jjf #gg1jea ,the exports of cutch from ,pinang1 in the last four years1 have been3--#ahdi1 #c1fic piculs2 #ahej1 #ijj2 #ahea1 #d1adc2 #aheb1 #c1hhj2 or1 on an average1 #aig tons4 ,,divi-,,divi is the commercial name for the curved pod of a leguminous shrub1 ,csalpinia coriaria1 which is sometimes imported from ,carthage4 ,its tannin differs materially from that of nutgalls4 ,the quantity of mucilage which it contains precludes it from the use of dyers2 but1 as it furnishes nearly #ej per cent4 of tannin1 it is largely used by curriers4 ,it is imported into ,liverpool from ,rio de la ,hacha1 ,maracaibo1 and ,savanila4 #djj tons of the seed pods and bark of the ,algaroba1 or ,locust-tree 7,prosopis pallida7 were imported in #ahdi into ,liverpool from ,valparaiso1 as a substitute for divi-divi in tanning4 #c1bjj lbs4 of divi-divi were exported from the port of ,augostara1 in #ahdf4 ,specimens of divi-divi which had been raised at ,calcutta were shown in the ,indian department of the ,great ,exhibition4 ,dr4 ,hamilton states that1 according to some admirably conducted experiments of ,mr4 ,rootsey1 of ,bristol1 undertaken at his request1 the pods of divi-divi contain above #ej per cent4 of tannin4 ,it appears also1 from trials made1 that one part of divi-divi is sufficient for tanning as much leather as four parts of bark1 and the process occupies but one-third of the time4 ,the average produce of pods from a full-grown tree has been estimated at #ajj lbs4 weight1 one-fourth of which consists of seeds or refuse1 leaving about #ge lbs4 of marketable matter4 ,at an interval of six feet apart1 an acre of ground will contain #a1baj trees1 yielding an average of #haj cwts41 and #cj pounds1 or above #dj tons of marketable matter1 worth1 at only #e per ton1 #bjj4 ,should the interval between the trees be extended two feet more1 we shall still have #fhj to the acre1 the produce of which would not improbably be increased by the increased space given for the extension of the branches4 ,the ground in which this tree admits of being cultivated is that which is least adapted to the staple products of tropical agriculture2 guinea grass may be profitably raised beneath its shade and as with the exception of the three years which precede the commencement of its bearing1 there is hardly any deduction to be made from its returns1 it promises to be among the most valuable objects of a planter's attention4 ,jacquin describes the ,csalpinia coriaria as a handsome branching tree1 of about fifteen feet in stature1 covered with a dark spotted bark4 ,its leaves are doubly pinnate1 and the leaflets of twelve pair without a terminal one2 they are oblong1 obtuse1 smooth1 very entire4 ,the flowers are disposed in spikes issuing from the extremities of the branches2 they are small1 yellowish1 and slightly fragrant4 ,to these succeed oblong1 compressed1 somewhat obtuse pods1 curved laterally1 the inner side being concave and the other convex4 ,the seeds rarely exceed three or four in each pod1 and are of a brownish color4 ,divi-divi resembles a dried pea-shuck curled up1 filled with yellow powder1 and a few dark brown seeds4 ,the price ranges from #h to #ac per ton4 ,the imports into the ,united ,kingdom in #ahdd1 were #c1ijj tons2 in #ahde and #ahdf1 about #a1djj tons each year2 during the subsequent three years the imports were merely nominal1 but in #ahej a renewed demand seems to have sprung up1 for #b1ggj tons were imported into ,liverpool1 and a few tons into ,london4 ,,cork-,,tree ,,bark 7,quercus suber7 has been imported into ,ireland to a considerable extent1 frequently to the amount of #a1ejj tons annually4 ,the quantity of cork imported annually into the ,united ,kingdom is about #c1jjj tons4 ,it is brought from ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,barbary4 ,oak bark and valonia being very cheap and plentiful1 the price of cork hark is only nominal1 being1 for ,spanish cork-tree bark1 #g #ajs4 to #h per ton2 ,leghorn ditto1 #f to #g per ton4 ,it is less astringent than oak bark1 and is more generally useful for stoppers of bottles and bungs for casks4 #afj tons of cork-tree bark were imported into ,liverpool from ,rabat in #ahdi1 and #aej tons in #ahej4 #a1hfg cwts4 of bark for tanning were imported from ,chili in #ahdd1 of which #bib were ,quillai bark4 ,,mimosa ,,bark4--,the bark of the ,mimosa decurrens1 which abounds in ,australia and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 is found to be a very powerful tanning agent4 ,the first shipment of tannin was made from ,sydney to ,england as far back as #ahbc1 in the shape of an extract of the bark of two species of mimosa1 which was readily purchased by the tanners at the rate of #ej per ton4 ,one ton of bark had produced four cwts4 of extract of the consistency of tar4 ,in #ahdc1 #c1jgh tons of mimosa bark was shipped from ,port ,phillip to ,great ,britain4 ,the price then realised in the ,london market was #ab to #ad per ton1 but it has since declined to #h a ton4 ,the quantity of this bark to be procured in the colony is quite inexhaustible4 ,the price of chopped mimosa bark in ,australia1 for export1 in the close of #ahdf1 was #b #es4 per ton4 ,bark valued at #iab was exported from ,van ,diemen's ,land in #ahdh4 ,the imports of mimosa bark have only been to a limited extent within the last few years1 reaching #cej tons in #ahej1 against #aaj tons in #ahdi1 #bcj tons in #ahdh1 and #fjj tons in #ahdg4 ,the prices realised were #aj to #aa for chopped1 #ab to #ab #ajs4 for ground1 and #h to #i per ton for unchopped bark4 ,whilst the imports were #c1ijj tons in #ahad1 they dwindled to less than #djj tons in #ahej4 ,from an experiment1 conducted by ,professor ,brandt1 the strength of the mimosa bark1 as compared with that of young ,english oak bark1 is found to be in the proportion of #eg to #ci1 so that the mimosa bark is half as strong again as the best ,english bark4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,mossman1 in a communication to the ,botanic ,society of ,edinburgh1 in #ahea1 stated that the bark of ,a4 dealbata pays to ship to ,england1 notwithstanding the distance1 from the fact of its containing a greater per centage of tannin than any other bark4 ,it is a handsome tree1 from fifteen to thirty feet high1 forming luxuriant groves on the banks of streams1 most abundant in ,port ,phillip and ,twofold ,bay1 between the parallels of latitude #cd and #cj degrees4 ,new ,zealand is rich in barks and dyes4 ,the bark of the ,tanahaka 7,phyllodadus trichomanoides1 of ,don7 is used by the natives as a red dye for the ornamental parts of their kaitahas1 their best border garments4 ,there is also another red dye1 called ,tawaivwai1 the bark of which is very profuse4 ,a black dye is procured from the hinau4 ,they are of a rich hue1 and exceedingly fast colors4 ,the barks are to be found all over the colony4 ,the hinau and tanahaka are employed in tanning1 all the leather used in the colony being tanned either at the ,bay of ,islands or ,port ,nicholson4 ,the bark of the ,rimu or red pine 7,dacrydium ,cupressinum1 of ,solander71 a very common tree1 possesses tanning qualities far superior to any of the ,australian barks4 ,one pound of the bark yields #he grains of extract4 ,the native tanning barks of ,new ,zealand are various and easily obtained4 ,specimens of the bark and dye1 c41 of most of these trees were sent home to the ,great ,exhibition4 ,one pound of the ,tanahaka bark is said to yield #fc grains of tannin4 ,the sails of boats are dyed with it to preserve them4 ,the ,towai 7,licospermum racemosum1 of ,don1 ,weinmaunia racemosa1 ,decandole71 is supposed to be valuable for the purposes of the tanner1 and is said to yield #ajd grains of tannin for every pound of bark4 ,the bark of the ,pohutu kawa of the natives1 the ,metrosideros tomentosaof ,richard1 and ,callistemon ellipticum of ,allan ,cunningham1 would also be useful for tanning1 one pound of it furnishing about #fj grains of tannin4 ,the bark of the ,hino tree1 the ,elocarpus hinau of ,cunningham1 the ,dicera dentata of ,forster1 is used by the natives for dyeing black4 ,the black mangrove 7,rhizophora mangle7 is a tree attaining an altitude of from #cj to #ej feet1 and occupying marshy situations in the vicinity of the sea4 ,almost every part of the mangrove--the bark1 roots1 and the fruit more particularly--abounds in an astringent principle1 which is successfully applied to the purposes of tanning4 ,as the tree is so abundant within the tropics1 it might be worth the while of some practical speculator to make an extract on the spot1 and introduce it into the ,english market1 for the use of tanners and dyers4 ,for tanning1 the mangrove is said to be infinitely superior to oak bark1 completing in six weeks an operation which with the latter occupies at least six months1 and the sole-leather so tanned is said to be more durable than any other4 ,the bark and leaves1 which contain nearly as much tannin as the oak1 are made use of in the ,west ,indies1 as well as in ,scinde and other parts of ,asia4 #c1gac piculs of mangrove bark1 valued at #hai1 were shipped from ,shanghae1 one of the ,chinese ports1 in #ahdi4 ,,myrobalans4--,this is a name applied to the almond-like kernels of a nut or dried fruit of the plum kind1 of which there are several sorts known in the ,east4 ,they are the produce of various species of ,terminalia1 as ,t4 ,bellerica1 chebula1 citrina1 and angustifolia4 ,they vary from the size of olives to that of gall nuts1 and have a rough1 bitter1 and unpleasant taste4 ,many of the trees of this tribe1 which are all natives of the tropical regions of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 are used for tanning1 and some for dyeing4 ,they are highly valued by dyers1 creating1 when mixed with alum1 a durable dark brown yellow4 ,myrobalans fetch in the ,bombay market #hs4 to #bfs4 the ,surat candy of #hba lbs4 ,the bark and leaves of ,t4 ,catappa yield a black pigment1 with which ,indian ink is made2 the seeds are eaten like almonds4 ,a milky juice is said to flow from ,t4 angustifolia1 which1 when dried1 is fragrant1 and1 resembling ,benzoin1 is used as a kind of incense in the ,catholic churches in the ,mauritius4 ,the fruit of ,t4 ,bellerica1 and of ,t4 ,chebula1 both useful timber trees1 indigenous to the ,east ,indies1 are used medicinally as a tonic and astringent4 #aag cwts4 of myrobalans were shipped from ,ceylon in #ahde4 ,the annual imports of myrobalans into ,hull1 amount to about #a1fjj cwts4 ,the quantity which arrived at ,liverpool was #ahe tons in #ahdi1 #hea tons in #ahej2 #bg1bab bags in #ahea1 and #ai1idf bags in #aheb2 they come from ,calcutta and ,bombay1 and are also used for dyeing yellow and black4 ,the price in ,january1 #ahec1 was #fs4 to #abs4 per cwt4 ,the average annual imports into the ,united ,kingdom may be taken at #a1bjj tons4 ,,kino4--,the ,kino1 of ,botany ,bay and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 is the produce of the iron bark tree1 ,eucalyptus resinifera4 ,white 7,journal of a ,voyage to ,new ,south ,wales71 says this tree sometimes yields1 on incision1 #fj gallons of juice4 ,kino is imported in boxes4 ,the tincture of kino is used medicinally1 but an inconvenience is frequently found to arise1 from its changing to the gelatinous form4 ,dr4 ,pereira seems to think this species of kino consists principally of pectin and tannic acid4 ,that chiefly used as ,east ,indian kino1 is an extract formed by inspissating a decoction of the branches and twigs of the gambler plant4 ,vauquelin analysed it1 and found it to consist of1 tannin and peculiar extractive matter1 #ge2 red gum1 #bd2 insoluble matter1 #a4 ,the ,east ,indian kino1 imported from ,bombay and ,tellicherry1 is the produce of ,pterocarpus marsupium1 a lofty1 broad-spreading forest tree1 which blossoms in ,october and ,november4 ,the bark is of a greyish color1 and is upwards of half an inch in thickness on the trunk4 ,when cut1 a blood-red juice speedily exudes and trickles down2 it soon thickens1 and becomes hard in the course of fifteen or sixteen hours4 ,the gum is extracted in the season when the tree is in blossom1 by making longitudinal incisions in the bark round the trunk1 so as to let the gum ooze down a broad leaf1 placed as a spout1 into a receiver4 ,when the receiver is filled it is removed4 ,the gum is dried in the sun until it crumbles1 and then filled in wooden boxes for exportation4 ,p4 erinaceus1 a tree #dj to #ej feet in height1 a native of the woods of the ,gambia and ,senegal1 furnishes kino1 but none is collected in or exported from ,africa4 ,butea frondosa1 or the dhak tree of the ,east ,indies1 furnishes a similar product1 in the shape of a milky1 colored1 brittle1 and very astringent gum4 ,kino is used as a powerful astringent1 and is administered in the form of powder and tincture4 ,some specimens of ,butea kino1 analysed by ,prof4 ,solly1 after the impurities had been separated1 yielded #gc per cent4 of tannin4 ,,valonia is the commercial name of the cupula or cup of the acorn1 produced by the ,quercus gilops and its varieties1 the ,balonia or ,valonia oak1 natives of the ,levant1 from whence1 and the ,morea1 they form a very considerable article of export2 containing abundance of tannin they are largely used by tanners4 ,the tannin differs materially from that of nutgalls4 ,the bark of ,q4 tinctorea1 a native of ,north ,america1 yields a yellow dye4 ,the quantity of valonia imported for home consumption1 in #ahcf1 was #hj1eaa cwts41 of which ,turkey furnished #eh1gbd cwts41 and ,italy and the ,ionian islands #g1bji cwts4 ,of #afc1ihc cwts4 imported in #ahdj1 #adc1jie cwts4 were brought from ,turkey1 #ae1aie cwts4 from ,italy1 and the residue from ,greece and the ,ionian ,islands4 ,the entries for home consumption in the three years ending with #ahdb1 amounted to about #h1bjj tons a year4 ,the increase since has been considerable1 the imports having been1 in #ahdh1 #aj1bcg tons2 in #ahdi1 #af1fga tons2 in #ahej1 #ab1ebf tons2 in #ahea1 #aj1fci tons2 in #aheb1 #ac1hgj tons4 ,we receive about #ad1jjj to #bj1jjj cwts4 annually from ,leghorn4 ,the imports into the port of ,hull are #c1ijj cwts4 per year4 ,the prices of ,smyrna valonias are from #ac to #ad per ton2 those of picked ,morea1 #aj per ton4 ,the duty received on valonias imported in #ahdb was about #d1jjj4 ,the annual produce is sufficient to meet the wants of all ,europe4 ,it can be had in ,turkey to any extent and at all periods4 ,many cargoes are sent to ,dublin1 and the ,german markets4 ,a little valonia is exported from ,manila1 the shipments having been about #aej tons per annum4 ,camata and ,camatina are two varieties of very young valonias1 which are found more valuable for some processes of tanning than the common kinds4 ,extensive as has been the enumeration of the vegetable substances used in the various branches of art and manufacture which have formed the principal subjects of this section1 it is probable that with the progress of knowledge1 of scientific experiment1 and of investigation into the properties of given commodities1 the list will be indefinitely increased4 ,what ,i have stated will suffice to give the reader an idea of the surprising variety of sources from which we receive the raw materials which enable us to perfect some of the most elegant processes of manufacturing skill and ingenuity1 and will further afford some criterion--though1 of course1 not a perfect one--for estimating the relative importance of the tanning and dyeing substances4 ,,section ,v4 ,,oleaginous ,,plants1 ,,and ,,those ,,yielding ,,fixed ,,or ,,essential ,,oils4 ,few cultivators are probably aware of the great importance of oil to this country1 and the number of purposes for which it is employed in the arts and manufactures4 ,it is extensively used for candle and soap making1 for burning in lamps1 for diminishing friction in machinery of all kinds1 and especially for locomotives--in wool-dressing1 in the manufacture of paints and varnishes1 as an article of food1 for medicinal purposes1 c4 ,so important are vegetable oils deemed1 that the ,society of ,arts1 in its prize list for #ahea1 offered gold medals for the importation or introduction into this country of any new plants or trees from ,china1 ,india1 or elsewhere1 producing oils or fatty substances1 such as can be used as food1 or are applicable to manufacturing purposes2 and also to the person who shall manufacture and import the finest specimen of oil1 not less than ten gallons1 the produce of olives grown in any ,british colony in ,africa or ,australasia4 ,the time of burning of equal quantities of the following oils has been found to be-- ,hours4 ,oil of poppy #ad sunflower #ac rape #aa mustard #aa flax seed #aj gold of pleasure 7,camelina sativa7 #i olives #i hemp seed #h tallow #aj ,,foreign ,,vegetable ,,oils ,,imported4 #ahba4 #ahde4 #ahej4 tuns4 tuns4 tuns4 ,coco-nut oil -- #b1adh #ih1jdj ,olive oil #a1ijj #ab1cae #bj1ghc ,palm oil #c1bjj #be1bhe #ddh1ehi cwts4 ,rape seed oil #hjj #c1igc -- ,linseed oil #aj1ejj #ch1fcd -- ------ ------ ------- #af1djj #hb1cee ,fish oils #cb1cef #bb1fbf #ba1cbh ,the total quantity of all kinds of wool annually consumed in ,england and ,wales1 in #ahdc1 was estimated at #hja1eff packs4 ,now1 five gallons of olive1 rapeseed or other oils1 being used in the preparation of every pack of wool1 for cloth 7independent of the quantity used in soap1 applicable to the woollen manufactures71 it follows that five gallons on #hja1eff packs are equal to #d1jjg1hcj gallons1 or #ae1ijd tuns2 and adding for olive or sperm oil used in machinery #a-aath of the whole1 #a1ddf tuns1 the total quantity consumed is #ag1cej tuns4--7,enderby on the ,south ,whale ,fishery47 ,fixed oils are found in the cells and intercellular spaces of the fruit1 leaves1 and other parts of plants4 ,some of these are drying oils1 as linseed oil1 from ,linum usitatissimum2 some are fat oils1 as that from olives 7fruit of ,olea sativa or ,europa72 whilst others are solid1 as palm oil4 ,the solid oils or fats procured from plants are1 butter of cacao1 from ,theobroma cacao2 of cinnamon from ,cinnamomum verum2 of nutmeg1 from ,myristica moschata2 of coco-nut1 from ,cocos nucifera2 of laurel1 from ,laurus nobilis2 of palm oil1 from ,elais guianiensis2 ,shea butter1 from ,bassia ,parkii2 ,galam butter1 or ,ghee1 from ,bassia butyracea2 and vegetable tallow1 from ,stillingia sebifera in ,china1 from ,vateria indica in ,canara and ,china1 and from ,pentadesma butyracea in ,sierra ,leone1 and from the almond4 ,these oils contain a large amount of stearine1 and are used as substitutes for fat4 ,some of them are imported in large quantities1 and enter into the composition of soap1 candles1 c4 ,castor oil1 from the seeds of ,ricinus communis1 differs from other fixed oils in its composition4 ,decandolle states the following as the quantity of oil obtained from various seeds3-- ,per cent4 in weight4 ,hazel-nut #fj ,garden cress #eg ,olive #ej ,walnut #ej ,poppy 7,papaver somniferum7 #dh ,almond #df ,caper-spurge 7,euphorbia ,lathyris7 #da ,colza 7,brassica oleracea7 #ci ,white mustard 7,sinapis alba7 #cf ,tobacco #cd ,plum #cc ,woad #cj ,hemp #be ,flax #bb ,sunflower #ae ,buckwheat #ad ,grapes #ab ,the following table1 quoted from ,boussingault1 shows the results of some experiments made by ,m4 ,grauzac1 of ,dagny3-- ,seed produced ,oil obtained per per acre4 acre1 in lbs4 ,oil per ,cake cwts4 qrs4 lbs4 lbs4 ozs4 cent4 per cent4 ,colewort #ai #j #ae #hge #d #dj #ed ,rocket #ae #a #c #cbj #h #ah #gc ,winter rape #af #b #ah #fda #f #cc #fb ,swedish turnips #ae #a #be #eie #h #cc #fb ,curled colewort #af #b #ah #fda #f #cc #fb ,turnip cabbage #ac #c #ai #efe #d #cc #fa ,gold of pleasure #ag #a #af #ede #h #bg #gb ,sunflower #ae #c #ad #bge #j #ae #hj ,flax #ae #a #be #che #j #bb #fi ,white poppy #aj #a #ah #efj #h #df #eb ,hemp #g #c #ba #bbi #j #be #gj ,summer rape #aa #c #ag #dab #e #cj #fe ,the subjoined list will serve to exhibit the richness of the produce of different ,indian seeds1 from which varieties of oil are extracted2 it gives the proportion of oil per cent4 in weight3-- ,sesame oil 7,sesamum indicum7 #df4g ,black til1 coloured variety of ditto 7,verbesena sativa7 #df4d ,gingelie oil 7,s4 orientale7 #df4g ,ground nuts1 produced by ,arachis hypogoea #de4e ,wounded seeds obtained from the ,poonnay-tree 7,calophyttum ,inophyllum71 a bitter lamp oil #fc4g ,karunj seeds1 from the ,pongamia glabra #bf4g ,ram til1 the seeds of the nuts ,ellu1 or ,guizotia oleifera #ce ,poppy seeds 7,papaver somniferum7 #dc to #eh ,silaam1 an oil seed from ,nepaul #da ,rape seed 7,brassica napus7 #cc ,the foregoing are not all the seeds from which oil is extracted by the natives of the ,east4 ,in addition to this there are cottonseed oil1 used for their lamps4 ,castor oil and ,argemone seed1 similarly used4 ,oil obtained from the fruit of ,melia ,azadriachta1 for medicine and lamps4 ,apricot oil in the ,himalayas1 sunflower oil1 oil of cucumber-seed for cooking and lamps1 oil of colocynth seed1 a lamp oil4 ,the seeds of bastard saffron 7,carthamus tinctorius7 yield oil4 ,mustard oil1 the produce of various species of ,sinapis1 c4 ,shanghae oil1 from ,brassica ,chinensis4 ,illiepie oil1 from ,bassia longifolia1 which is used for frying cakes1 c41 in ,madras2 and ,muohwa oil1 from another species of the same genus in ,bengal1 ,b4 latifolia4 ,oil is expressed from the seeds of ,csalpina oleosperma1 a native of the ,east4 ,the neem tree seeds afford a very clear or bitter oil1 used for burning4 ,wood oil is a remarkable substance1 obtained from several species of ,dipterocarpus1 by simply tapping the tree4 ,the horse-eyes and cacoons of ,jamaica 7,fevillea scandens7 yield a considerable quantity of oil or fat1 as white and hard as tallow4 ,it has been employed for similar purposes on the ,mosquito shores4 ,the seeds of the ,argemone mexicana1 and of the ,sanguinaria canadensis1 also contain a bland1 nutritious1 colorless1 fixed oil4 ,the mass from which the seed is expressed is found to be extremely nutritious to cattle4 ,the ,camelina sativa is cultivated in ,europe1 for the extraction of an oil used only by the soap makers1 and for lamps4 ,a solid oil1 of a pale greenish color1 a good deal resembling the oils of the ,bassia in character1 though rather harder1 and approaching more in properties to myrtle wax1 was shown at the ,great ,exhibition1 from ,singapore4 ,it is supposed to be the produce of the tallow tree of ,java1 called locally kawan1 probably a species of ,bassia4 ,it is very easily bleached2 indeed1 by exposure to air and light1 it becomes perfectly white2 if not too costly1 it promises to become a valuable oil4 ,according to ,mr4 ,low1 there are several varieties of solid oil commonly used in the ,islands of the ,archipelago1 and obtained from the seeds of different species of ,dipterocarpus4 ,piney tallow is obtained from the fruit of the ,vateria ,indica1 a large and quick-growing tree1 abundant in ,malabar and ,canara4 ,it is a white solid oil1 fusible at a temperature of #ig degrees1 and makes excellent candles1 especially when saponified and distilled in the manner now adopted with palm oil1 c4 ,it has one great advantage over coco-nut oil1 that the candles made of it do not give out any suffocating acrid vapors when extinguished1 as those made with the latter oil do4 ,an oil is produced from the inner shell of the cashew-nut 7,anacardium occidentale var4 indicum71 in the ,east4 ,in ,japan a kind of butter1 called mijo1 is obtained from a species of the ,dolichos bean 7,dolichos soya74 ,the kernel of the seeds of the tallow tree of ,china1 ,stillingia sebifera1 an evergreen shrub1 contains an oil1 which1 when expressed1 consolidates through the cold to the consistence of tallow1 and by boiling becomes as hard as bees' wax4 ,the plant also yields a bland oil4 ,a similar fatty product is obtained from a shrub in ,british ,guiana1 the ,myristica 7,virola7 sebifera4 ,oil is obtained in ,south ,america from the sand box tree 7,hura crepitans71 and from the ,carapa guianensis4 ,a fatty oil is obtained in ,demerara from the seeds of the butter tree1 ,pekea 787 ,bassia butyrosa1 and also from the ,saouari 7,p4 tuberculosa74 ,the fleshy seeds contained in the woody capsules of the ,monkey pot 7,lecythis ,tabucajo71 which derive their generic name from their similarity to an oil jar1 are common in the ,west ,india ,islands and ,south ,america1 and yield a considerable quantity of oil4 ,the seeds of the plants of the cucumber family frequently supply a bland oil1 which is used in the ,east as a lamp oil and for cooking4 ,among the vegetable oils imported into ,ningpo1 and other ,chinese ports1 from ,shantong1 ,leatong1 and ,teisin1 are oil of teuss1 obtained from green and dried peas2 black oil of the fruit of the tree kin 787 and oil from the pea of suchau4 ,the seeds of ,spergula saliva1 a large1 smooth-seeded variety of the common cow spurrey1 which is cultivated in ,flanders as a pasture grass and green crop1 afford1 on expression1 a good lamp oil4 ,a pale brownish yellow oil is obtained from the seeds of ,carthamus tinctorius1 in ,bombay2 the seeds contain about #bh per cent4 of oil4 ,excellent oil is expressed in various parts of ,india from the seeds of different species of ,sinapis1 especially from the black mustard seed4 ,s4 glauca1 ,s4 dichotorna1 and ,s4 juncea are extensively cultivated in the ,east for their oil4 ,the ,erysimum perfoliatum is cultivated in ,japan for its oil-seeds4 ,a beautiful pale yellow oil is procured from the seeds of the angular-leaved physic nut1 ,jatropha curcas1 a shrub which is often employed in the tropics as a fence for enclosures4 ,it is used by the natives in medicine and as a lamp oil4 ,about #gjj tons of this oil was imported into ,liverpool in #ahej from ,lisbon1 for the purpose of dressing cloth1 burning1 c4 ,a rich yellow oil1 perfectly clear and transparent1 is obtained from the seeds of ,bergera koenigii4 ,,rape ,,oil4--,the imports of rape oil1 from ,brassica napus1 into ,liverpool1 are about #ae to #bj tuns annually4 ,rape oil has been found to be better suited than any other oil for the lubrication of machinery1 when properly purified from the mucilage1 c41 which it contains in the raw state4 ,rape oil is now used extensively for locomotives1 for marine engines1 and also for burning in lamps4 ,it is stated that a locomotive consumes between #ij and #ajj gallons of oil yearly2 and the annual consumption of oil by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 for this purpose alone1 is more than #dj1jjj gallons4 ,the oil obtained from good ,english rape seed is purer and of superior quality to that from foreign or colonial seed2 and as an acre of land yields nearly five quarters of seed1 which is worth at present #ejs4 per quarter1 it is a profitable crop4 ,rape seed is now largely imported for expressing oil4 ,the imports1 which in #ahdg were but #hg1ffb quarters1 weighing #ag1ecb tons1 had reached1 in #ahea1 #ajg1jbi quarters1 weighing #ba1fjf tons4 ,the price of new seed is #be to #bg the last of ten quarters4 ,the oil is #cd per tun4 ,the refuse cake1 after the seed is crushed for oil1 is in demand as food for cattle1 being worth #d the ton4 ,we imported in #ahea1 from ,trance1 #bhi tuns of rapeseed oil1 worth about #ag1jjj1 on which there was no duty levied4 ,there are exported annually from ,hesse ,darmstadt1 #cd1ffj cwts4 of poppy and rape oils4 ,the oil of the colza is much used in ,europe1 and highly prized4 ,in ,france it has been adopted for all the purposes of lighthouses4 ,in this country it has lately come into extensive domestic use1 for burning in the ,french moderateur lamps1 being retailed at from #cs4 #d;d4 to #ds4 the gallon4 ,,domba ,,oil4--,the ,poonay or ,palang tree 7,calophyllum ,inophyllum71 the ,alexandrian laurel1 is a beautiful evergreen1 native of the ,east ,indies1 which flourishes luxuriantly on poor sandy soils1 in fact where scarcely anything else will grow4 ,the seeds or berries contain nearly #fj per cent4 of a fragrant1 fixed oil1 which is used for burning as well as for medicinal purposes1 being considered a cure for the itch4 ,as commonly prepared it has a dark green color4 ,it is perfectly fluid at common temperatures1 but begins to gelatinise when cooled below #ej degrees4 ,,the ,,earth-,,nut 7,arachis hypoga1 or hypocarpogea74--,this very singular plant has frequently been confounded with others1 partly through the carelessness of travellers1 and by the improper use of names1 which tended to mislead and confuse4 ,its common appellative1 the earth-nut1 has led to the conclusion that it was a species of nut1 such as is known in ,england under the name of pig nut1 hawk nut1 and ground nut4 ,this1 as well as the earth chesnut1 belongs to a totally different genera4 ,on the ,continent and in the ,east ,indies a similar confusion had long existed by the appellation of ground pistachio1 which caused the fruit to be confounded with the nut of the tree ,pistacia vera4 ,some resemblance1 on the other hand1 existing between these--as well as from their being eaten by different nations1 and used as an article of food1 and also for producing oil--rendered the true description still more difficult4 ,botanists are1 however1 no longer at a loss1 having well established the nature and character of all these plants4 ,the ,arachis nut partakes of the nature of the pea or bean of our own country1 and is a low annual plant of the order ,diadelphia decandria of ,linn42 originally from ,africa1 but now extensively cultivated in every quarter of the globe4 ,it has been naturalised in ,europe1 and with the climate of the ,south of ,france it may be turned to good account4 ,it has been said to be indigenous in ,florida1 ,peru1 ,brazil1 and ,surinam2 but the plant may be grown on a light sandy soil1 under a moderate heat1 equal to that of ,italy or the ,south of ,france4 ,the class to which it belongs approaches to the pea tribe2 but its remarkable difference to this1 as to the pulse we know as a bean1 is the circumstance of its introducing its fruit or pod--if we may so call it--into the earth1 for the purpose of ripening its seed4 ,the ,arachis1 or earth nut1 has obtained its name from this operation4 ,the flowers1 leaves1 and stems are produced in the ordinary manner we see in the pea tribe4 ,when the yellow flower has withered and the seed fertilised1 there is nothing left but the bare stem which had supported it4 ,this stem1 in which is the germ of the future fruit and pod1 now grows rapidly in a curved manner1 with a tendency to arrive shortly on the surface of the ground1 into which it penetrates this now naked stem1 and sinks into the earth several inches4 ,it is in this obscure position that the fruit takes its ripened form1 and is either gathered from its hiding place or left to the future season1 when its time of rising into new existence calls it from what was thought its unnatural position4 ,when mature1 it is of a pale yellow color1 wrinkled1 and forms an oblong pod1 sometimes contracted in the middle2 it contains generally two seeds4 ,the nuts or peas are a valuable article of food in the tropical parts of ,africa1 ,america1 and ,asia4 ,they are sweetish and almond-like1 and yield an oil1 when pressed1 not inferior in use and quality to that obtained from the olive4 ,the leaf resembles that of clover1 and1 like it1 affords excellent food for cattle4 ,the cake1 after the oil is expressed1 forms an excellent manure4 ,the ,arachis is usually sown in dry1 warm weather1 from ,may to ,june1 and are placed at the distance of eighteen inches from each other4 ,insects are fond of them2 and if the season is cold and unfavorable to them1 or the growth retarded1 they become musty and bad1 or are eaten by insects4 ,the mode of obtaining the oil is nearly the same as for other pulse or seeds2 and under favorable circumstances the ,arachis will produce half its weight of oil4 ,when heated and pressed the quantity is very considerably increased4 ,this oil is good for every purpose for which olive or almond oil is used4 ,for domestic purposes it is esteemed1 and it does not become rancid so quickly as other oils4 ,experiments have been made on its inflammable properties1 and it is proved that the brilliancy of light was superior to that of olive oil1 and its durability was likewise proved to be seven minutes per hour beyond the combustion of the best olive oil1 with the additional advantage of scarcely any smoke4 ,in ,cochin-,china and ,india it is used for lamps4 ,it is known as ,bhoe ,moong or ,moong ,phullee in ,bengal1 and as ,japan or ,chinese pulse in ,java4 ,from ,china this plant was probably introduced into the continent of ,india1 ,ceylon1 and the ,malayan ,archipelago1 where it is generally cultivated4 ,in ,south ,carolina the seed is roasted and used as chocolate4 ,the leaves are used medicinally4 ,it is grown in ,jamaica1 and there called ,pindar nut4 ,that the culture of the ,arachis in warm climates1 or even in a temperate one1 under favorable circumstances1 should be encouraged1 there can be but one opinion4 ,and when it is considered that its qualities are able to supersede that of the olive and the almond1 which are but precarious in their crops--to which may be added1 that as a plant it is greedily devoured in the green state by cattle--how much may it not serve to assist the new settler in regions of the world which have a climate suited to it4 ,it is known by various local names--such as mani manoti by the ,spaniards1 and has obtained also that of cacahuete in some countries4 ,it has the additional term hypogea attached to it1 which literally signifies subterranean4 ,this is apt to mislead2 for the plant grows above ground as other pulse1 whereas only its seed and pericarp are inserted1 after blooming1 into the earth4 ,hence the better term hypocarpogea4 ,it appears to form an important article of cultivation along the whole of the west coast of ,africa1 and probably on the east coast1 on several parts of which it was found by ,loureiro 7,flor4 ,cochin1 p4 #dcj74 ,it was doubtless carried from ,africa to various parts of equinoctial ,america1 for it is noticed in some of the early accounts of ,peru and ,brazil4 #hjj quarters of this nut were imported into ,liverpool from the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 in #ahdi1 for expressing oil1 and about half that quantity in #ahej4 ,eighty to #ij tuns of the expressed oil are now annually imported4 ,the seeds contain about #dd per cent4 of a clear pale yellow oil1 which is largely used in ,india as food1 and for lamps1 particularly at ,malwa and ,bombay1 c4 ,two varieties are grown in ,malacca1 the white seed and the brown seed1 and also in ,java1 in the vicinity of sugar plantations2 the oil cake being used as manure4 ,it is there known as katjang oil4 ,this plant1 which seems to be a native of many parts of ,asia1 has within the last ten years been much cultivated about ,calcutta4 ,the seeds contain abundance of fixed oil1 have a faint odor1 and very mild agreeable taste2 #a1iej parts of seed1 separated from their coverings and blanched1 give #a1dje of kernels1 from which1 by cold pressure1 #gjc parts of oil are procured4 ,the seeds are consumed as a cheap popular luxury1 being half roasted1 and then eaten with salt4 ,the oil is calculated to serve as an efficient and very cheap substitute for olive oil1 for pharmaceutical purposes4 ,it burns with little smoke1 with a clear flame1 and affords a very full bright light1 answering perfectly in ,argand lamps4 ,the oil cake affords1 also1 an excellent food for cattle4 ,the ground nut has of late become of considerable importance as an article of exportation1 by ,english houses2 yet more so by ,french houses at ,ghent1 ,rouen1 and ,bordeaux2 some of whom have contracted with the merchants of the ,african colonies for large quantities1 sending shipping for the cargoes4 ,one house alone contracted for #fj1jjj bushels in the years #ahdd and #ahde4 ,this nut oil is so very useful to machinery that the naval steam cruisers on the coast have adopted it4 ,a ground-nut oil factory exists in the colony of ,sierra ,leone2 but from the want of steam power and proper machinery1 and from bad management1 together with the inferior attainments of the ,african artisan1 when compared with the ,european mechanic1 and their facilities in quantity or quality1 there is abundant scope for improvement4 ,the price in the colony is #ds4 #f;d4 per gallon4 ,it is capable of being refined so as to answer the purpose of a salad oil2 the nut is prolific1 and eaten by the natives and ,europeans1 boiled1 roasted1 or in its raw state2 and frequently introduced at the table as we do the ,spanish ,barcelona nut at dessert4 ,it grows in the rainy season1 and is collected in the dry1 and sold in the colony for one shilling to eighteen-pence per bushel1 in goods and cash4 ,form of the nut1 long1 light shell1 contains two kernels covered with a brown rind1 when shelled white in appearance4 ,it is a low creeping plant1 with yellow flowers2 after they drop off1 and the pods begin to form1 they bury themselves in the earth1 where they come to maturity4 ,the pod is woody and dry1 containing from one to three peas1 or nuts1 as they are called1 hence the common names1 ground-nut or pea-nut4 ,they require to be parched in an oven before they are eaten1 and form a chief article of food in many parts of ,africa4 ,from a narrow strip of land1 extending about #dj miles northerly from ,wilmington 7,north ,carolina71 comes nearly the entire quantity of earth nuts 7known as pea-nuts7 grown in the ,united ,states for market4 ,from that tract and immediate vicinity1 #hj1jjj bushels have been carried to ,wilmington market in one year4 ,the plant has somewhat the appearance of the dwarf garden-pea1 though more bushy4 ,it is cultivated in hills4 ,the pea grows on tendrils1 which put out from the plant and take root in the earth1 where the nut is produced and ripened4 ,the fruit is picked from the root by hand1 and the vines are a favorite food for horses1 mules1 and cattle4 ,from #cj to #hj bushels are produced on an acre4 ,there are some planters who raise from #a1jjj to #a1ejj bushels a year4--7,hunt's ,merchant's ,magazine1 vol4 xv41 p4 #dbf47 ,the ground-nut is exceedingly prolific1 and requires but little care and attention to its culture1 while the oil extracted from it is quite equal to that yielded by the olive4 ,almost any kind of soil being adapted for it1 nothing can be more simple than its management4 ,all that is required is the soil to be turned over and the seed sown in drills like potatoes2 after it begins to shoot it may be earthed with a hoe or plough4 ,in many parts of ,western ,australia they are now grown in gardens for feeding pigs1 the rich oil they are capable of yielding being entirely overlooked4 ,in regard to their marketable value at home1 ,i will give a copy of a letter of a friend of mine1 received from some ,london brokers1 largely engaged in the ,african trade3-- ,wilson and ,rose present compliments to ,mr4 ,n41 and beg to inform him the price of ,african ground nuts is as under3--,say for ,river ,gambia1 #aa per ton here4 ,say for ,sierra ,leone1 #aj per ton here4 ,for ground nuts free on board at the former port1 #h per ton is demanded2 these are the finest description of nut1 the freight would be about #d per ton2 the weight per bushel imperial measure1 and in the shell1 is about #be lbs4 ,the following1 also1 is an extract from a letter written in #ahdb1 by ,mr4 ,forster 7the present ,m4,p4 for ,berwick71 an eminent ,african merchant4 ,speaking of the staple of ,africa1 he says3-- ,i have lately been attempting to obtain other oils from the coast1 and it was only yesterday ,i received from the hands of the oil presser the result of my most recent experiment on the ground nut1 which ,i am happy to say is encouraging4 ,i send you a sample of the oil extracted from them4 ,they are from the ,gambia4 ,it is a pure golden colored oil1 with a pleasant flavor1 free from the frequent rancidity of olive oil4 ,since then the cultivation has gone on1 and the exportation largely increased4 ,the ,french also have entered into the trade1 and several vessels are exclusively employed in exporting this product from the river ,gambia1 conveying it to oil factors on the continent1 who extract its oil4 ,seeing1 then1 the many advantages the cultivation of such a product bestows1 and its adaptation to the soil and climate of ,australia1 ,i cannot refrain from expressing a hope that some of the influential landowners in the cultivated districts will give the matter their consideration4 ,i am informed by an ,american merchant that he cleared #ab1jjj dollars in one year1 on the single article of ground or pea nuts obtained from ,africa4 ,strange as it may appear1 nearly all these nuts are transhipped to ,france1 where they command a ready sale2 are there converted into oil1 and thence find their way over the world in the shape of olive oil2 the skill of the ,french chemists enabling them to imitate the real ,lucca and ,florence oil1 so as to deceive the nicest judges4 ,indeed1 the oil from the pea nuts possesses a sweetness and delicacy that cannot be surpassed4 ,advices from the ,west ,coast of ,africa to the #afth ,august1 #ahec1 report that the ground nut season had closed2 the quantity shipped during the season having exceeded #ijj1jjj bushels4 ,the yield has increased #bj per cent1 each year for the last three years1 and it is expected the increase will be still greater in the forthcoming season4 ,,teuss ,,oil4--,the ,chinese use what is called teuss or tea oil1 for food and other purposes4 ,i have alluded to it under the head of pulse1 at page #cab4 ,it is obtained1 however1 from a species of the ground nut1 and is sold in ,hong ,kong1 at #bs4 #f;d4 the gallon1 being imported from the main land4 ,by a local ordinance it is imperative on every householder at ,victoria1 ,hong-,kong1 to have a lamp burning over his door at night4 ,when burning1 this oil affords a clear1 bright light1 and is not so offensive to the smell as train and other common lamp oils4 ,,tobacco ,,seed ,,oil4--,a discovery1 which may prove of some commercial importance1 appears to have been made by a ,british resident in ,russia1 namely1 that the seed of the tobacco plant contains about fifteen per cent4 of an oil possessing peculiar drying properties1 calculated to render it a superior medium1 especially for paints and varnishes4 ,the process employed for the extraction of the oil is to reduce the seed to powder1 and knead it into a stiff paste with quantum sufficit of hot water1 and then submit it to the action of strong fires4 ,the oil thus obtained is exposed to a moderate heat1 which1 by coagulating the vegetable albumen of the seed1 causes all impurities contained in the oil to form a cake at the bottom of the vessel employed1 leaving the oil perfectly limpid and clear4 ,,poppy ,,oil4--,about #hj cwt4 of poppy seed is imported annually into ,hull1 and small quantities come into other ports to be crushed into oil4 ,the seeds of the poppy yield1 by expression1 #ef per cent4 of a bland and very valuable oil1 of a pale golden color1 fluid to within ten degrees of the freezing point of water4 ,it dries easily1 is inodorous1 and of an agreeable flavor like olive oil4 ,dr4 ,j4,v4,c4 ,smith1 writing from ,switzerland1 to the editor of the ,boston ,medical ,journal1 says3-- ,immense crops are raised here of articles wholly unknown to the ,american farmers1 and perhaps the kinds best fitted to particular localities where grain and potatoes yield poorly under the best efforts4 ,one of these is poppies4 ,thousands of acres are at this moment ready for market--which the traveller takes for granted1 as he hurries by1 are to be manufactured into opium4 ,they are not1 however1 intended for medical use at all1 but for a widely different purpose4 ,from the poppy seed a beautiful transparent oil is made1 which is extensively used in house painting4 ,it is almost as colorless as water1 and possesses so many advantages over the flax seed oil that it may ultimately supersede that article4 ,where flax cannot be grown poppies often can be1 in poor sandy soil4 ,linseed oil is becoming dearer1 and the demand for paint is increasing4 ,with white lead1 poppy oil leaves a beautiful surface1 which does not afterwards change1 by the action of light1 into a dirty yellow4 ,another season some one should make a beginning at home in this important branch of industry4 ,the oil may be used for other purposes1 and even put in the cruet for salads4 ,,tallicoonah or ,,kundah ,,oil1 is obtained from the seeds of the ,carapa ,touloucouna 7of the ,flore de ,senegambie74 ,the tree grows to the height of #dj feet2 the fruit is a large1 somewhat globular five-celled capsule4 ,the seeds 7of which there are from #ah to #cj in each capsule71 vary in size from that of a chesnut to a hen's egg4 ,they are three-cornered1 of a brownish or blackish red color4 ,it is found abundantly in the ,timneh country1 and over the colony of ,sierra ,leone4 ,it is manufactured in the following manner3--,the nuts having been well dried in the sun1 are hung up in wicker racks or hurdles1 and exposed to the smoke of the huts1 after which they are roasted and subjected to trituration in large wooden mortars1 until reduced to a pulp4 ,the mass is then boiled1 when the supernatant oil is removed by skimming4 ,the natives principally prepare the oil to afford light2 the leaves are used by the ,kroomen as a thatch4 ,it is held in high estimation as an anthelmintic4 ,the oil is sold in ,sierra ,leone at #bs4 a gallon1 and could be procured in abundance from the coast as an article of commerce4 ,,carap or ,,crab ,,oil 7,carapa guianensis74--,this is a sort of vegetable butter1 being sometimes solid and sometimes half fluid1 which is obtained from the seed of a large tree abundant in the forests of ,guiana1 and also found in ,trinidad4 ,it is said to turn rancid very soon when exposed to the air1 but this is probably caused by the presence of impurities1 arising from the crude and imperfect way in which it is prepared by the natives1 who boil the kernels1 leave them in a heap for a few days1 then skim them1 and lastly reduce them into a paste in a wooden mortar1 which is then spread on an inclined board1 and exposed to the heat of the sun1 so that the oil may melt and gradually trickle down into a vessel placed below to receive it4 ,a prize medal was awarded for this oil at the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea4 ,carap oil in ,trinidad is highly esteemed as an unguent for the hair1 and also for applying to the wounds of animals1 for destroying ticks and other insects which infest cattle--also for the cure of rheumatism4 ,an oil called ,carap oil is also obtained in the ,east1 from the almonds of ,xylocarpus granatum1 or ,carapa ,molluccensis1 of ,lanark1 which is used by the natives to dress the hair and anoint the skin1 so as to keep off insects4 ,cacao fat1 the butter-like substance obtained from the seeds of ,theobroma cacao1 is esteemed as an emollient4 ,the nuts of the ,great ,macaw tree 7,acrocomia fusiformis71 a majestic species of palm1 furnishes much oil4 ,this tree is the ,cocos fusiformis1 of ,jacquin1 and other intertropical botanists4 ,it is a native of ,trinidad and ,jamaica1 and is found also very commonly in ,south ,america4 ,the method of extracting the oil is as follows3--,the nut or kernel is slightly roasted and cleaned1 then ground to a paste1 first in a mill1 and then on a livigating stone4 ,this paste1 gently heated and mixed with #c-ajths of its weight of boiling water1 is put into a bag1 and the oil expressed between two heated plates of iron2 it yields about #g-ajths or #h-ajths of oil4 ,if discolored it can be purified1 when melted1 by filtration4 ,it is then of the consistence of butter1 of a golden yellow hue1 the odor that of violets1 and the taste sweetish4 ,if well preserved it will keep several years without spoiling1 which is known to have taken place by the loss of its golden hue and delightful aroma4 ,it is frequently sold in the shops as palm oil1 and of late has entered largely into the composition of toilet soaps4 ,as an emollient it is said to be useful in some painful affections of the joints2 the negroes deem it a sovereign remedy in bone ache4 ,the nut itself is sometimes fancifully carved by the negroes1 and is highly ornamental1 being of a shining jet black1 and susceptible of a very high polish4 ,this tree may be increased from suckers4 ,a4 sclerocarpa is the ,macahuba palm of ,brazil4 ,,the ,,agaiti1 as it is called by the ,portuguese1 or napoota by the natives and ,arabs 7,didynamia ,gymosperma871 much cultivated in all ,eastern ,africa for its oil1 which is considered equal to that of olives1 and fetches as high a price in the ,indian market4 ,the plant1 which is as tall and rank as hemp1 and equally productive1 having numerous pods throughout the stems1 is found everywhere in a wild as well as cultivated state4 ,the ,cape ,shipping ,gazette1 of ,august1 #ahej1 says3-- ,the attention of the ,george ,agricultural and ,horticultural ,society having been drawn to the fact that an excellent oil1 equal to the olive oil of ,italy1 can be extracted from the kernel of the fruit known by the name of ,t ,kou ,pijte and ,pruim ,besje1 they have offered a reward of #aj for the best sample1 not less than a half aum of this oil--and #ae if it shall be adjudged equal to the best oil of ,italy4 ,this fact is deserving of notice1 as an instance of the advantages which are likely to result from the attention now being devoted to the natural productions of the colony4 ,madia sativa is a handsome annual plant1 native of ,chili1 which has been naturalised in ,europe4 ,it grows about two feet high1 and produces flowers in ,july and ,august1 of a pale yellow color4 ,the whole plant is viscid and exhales a powerful odor1 which is somewhat like heated honey4 ,it requires rather a rich soil1 of a ferruginous character4 ,the root is fusiform1 the stem cylindrical1 and furnished with sessile1 three to five longitudinally-nerved leaves1 which are apposite on the lower portion of the stem1 and alternate on the upper4 ,m4 ,victor ,pasquier1 who has written on the culture of the plant1 analysed the seed1 and found #ajj parts to consist of #bf4e of testa1 and #gc4e of kernel2 #ajj parts of the latter yielded #ca4c of vegetable albumen1 gum1 and lignine1 #ef4j of fixed oil1 and #ab4e of water4 ,in dry seasons the oil is both more abundant and better than in damp seasons4 ,the produce of oil1 compared with that of the poppy1 is equal2 with colza1 as #cb to #bh2 with linseed1 #cb to #ba2 with the olive1 #cb to #af4 ,the leaves and stems of this plant are rejected by cattle2 but the oil-cake1 which always contains a considerable portion of the oil1 forms a nutritive food1 of which they are very fond4 ,the oil expressed without heat is transparent1 of a golden yellow color1 inodorous1 rather fatter than the oil of rape or olives1 and of a soft1 agreeable1 nutty taste4 ,it is fit to be employed in the preparation of food1 in salads1 and for all the purposes of the best and mildest fixed oils4 ,it burns with a brilliant1 reddish-white flame1 and leaves no residue4 ,it is little liable to become rancid1 and is completely decolorised by animal charcoal4 ,the oil of the seeds of this plant1 now extensively cultivated in ,france1 will yield1 according to the observations of ,braconnet1 a solid soap1 similar to that made from olive oil4 ,boussingault obtained from the oil a solid1 as well as a fluid acid4 ,the solid one is probably palmic acid1 it fuses at exactly #adj degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,the fluid acid in its properties resembles the oleic acid discovered by ,chevreul1 and seems to dry easily4 ,the following is the composition of each1 as determined by his analysis3-- ,solid acid4 ,fluid acid4 ,carbon #gd4b #gf4j ,hydrogen #ab4j #aa4j ,oxygen #ac4h #ac4j ------ ------ #ajj4 #ajj4 ,,cocum ,,oil1 or butter1 is obtained from the seeds of a kind of mangosteen 7,garcinia purpurea71 and used in various parts of ,india to adulterate ghee or butter4 ,it is said to be exported to ,england for the purpose of mixing with bears' grease in the manufacture of pomatum4 ,it is a white1 or pale greenish yellow1 solid oil1 brittle1 or rather friable1 having a faint but not unpleasant smell1 melting at about #ie degrees1 and when cooled after fusion remaining liquid to #ge degrees4 ,an excellent solid oil1 of a bright green color1 is obtained from ,bombay1 having a consistence intermediate between that of tallow and wax1 fusible at about #ie degrees1 and easily bleached2 it has a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odor4 ,there is some uncertainty as to the plant from which it is obtained4 ,it was referred to the ,salvadora persica1 and to the ,vernonia ,anthelminticea1 a plant common in ,guzerat and the ,concan ,ghats4 ,a pale yellow clear oil is obtained from the seed of ,dolichos biflorus7874 ,oil is also expressed in ,india from the seed of the ,argemone mexicana1 which is used for lamps and in medicine2 and from the seeds of the cashew nut 7,anacardium occidentale71 from ,sapindus marginatus1 and the country walnut 7,aleurites triloba47 ,the fruit of the ,chirongia sapinda1 7or ,buchanania latifolia17 yields oil4 ,from the seeds of the ,pongamia glabra1 or ,galidupa arborea1 a honey brown and almost tasteless oil is procured1 which is fluid at common temperatures1 but gelatinises at #ee degrees4 ,other sources of oil are the ,celastrus paniculatus 787 ,balanites ,egyptictca and the saul tree 7,shorea ,robusta74 ,,the ,,candle-,,tree or ,,palo ,,be ,,velas1 7,parmentiera cereifera1 ,seemann47--,this tree1 in the valley of the ,chagres1 ,south ,america1 forms entire forests4 ,in entering them a person might almost fancy himself transported into a chandler's shop4 ,from all the stems and lower branches hang long cylindrical fruits1 of a yellow wax color1 so much resembling a candle as to have given rise to the popular appellation4 ,the fruit is generally from two to three1 but not unfrequently four feet long1 and an inch in diameter4 ,the tree itself is about #bd feet high1 with1 opposite trifoliated leaves1 and large white blossoms1 which appear throughout the year1 but are in greatest abundance during the rainy season4 ,the ,palo de ,velas belongs to the natural order ,crescentiaceae1 and is a ,parmentiera1 of which genus hitherto only one species1 the ,p4 edulis1 of ,de ,candolle1 was known to exist4 ,the fruit of the latter1 called ,quauhscilote1 is eaten by the ,mexicans1 while that of the former serves for food to numerous herds of cattle4 ,bullocks especially1 if fed with the fruit of this tree1 guinea-grass1 and ,batatilla 7,ipomoea brachypoda1 ,benth471 soon get fat4 ,it is generally admitted1 however1 that the meat partakes in some degree of the peculiar apple-like smell of the fruit1 but this is by no means disagreeable1 and easily prevented1 if1 for a few days previous to killing the animal1 the food is changed4 ,the tree produces its principal harvest during the dry season1 when all the herbaceous vegetation is burned up1 and on that account its cultivation in tropical countries is especially to be recommended2 a few acres of it would effectually prevent that want of fodder which is always most severely felt after the periodical rains have ceased4--7,hooker's ,journal of ,botany47 ,,cinnamon ,,suet is extracted by boiling the fruit of the cinnamon4 ,an oily fluid floats on the surface1 which on cooling subsides to the bottom of the vessel1 and hardens into a substance like mutton suet4 ,the ,singhalese make a kind of candles with it1 and use it for culinary purposes4 ,it emits a very pleasant aroma while burning4 ,according to the analysis of ,dr4 ,christison1 it contains eight per cent1 of a fluid not unlike olive oil2 the remainder is a waxy principle4 ,,croton ,,oil is obtained by expression from the seeds or nuts of ,croton ,tiglium1 an evergreen tree1 #ae to #bj feet in height1 belonging to the same order as the castor oil plant1 producing whitish green flowers1 and seeds resembling a tick in appearance1 whence its generic name4 ,it is a native of the ,east ,indies4 #ajj parts of seeds afford about #fd of kernel4 #ej quarters of croton nuts for expressing oil were imported into ,liverpool from the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 in #ahdi4 ,the ,croton ,tiglium grows plentifully in ,ceylon1 and the oil1 if properly expressed1 might be made an article of trade4 ,the best mode of preparing it is by grinding the seeds1 placing the powder in bags1 and pressing between plates of iron2 allow the oil to stand for fifteen days1 then filter4 ,the residue of the expression is triturated with twice its weight of alcohol1 and heated on the sand-bath from #abj to #adj degs4 ,fahrenheit1 and the mixture pressed again4 ,in this step the utmost caution is necessary in avoiding the acrid fumes4 ,one seer of seed furnishes by this process rather more than eleven fluid ounces of oil1 six by the first step1 and five by alcohol4 ,the oil acts as an irritant purgative in the dose of one drop4 ,in large doses it is a dangerous poison4 ,when applied externally it produces pustules4 ,in #ahde1 eight cases of croton oil and six cases of the seed were exported from ,ceylon4 ,other species of ,croton1 as ,c4 ,pavana1 a native of ,ava and the north-eastern parts of ,bengal1 and ,c4 ,roxburghii1 yield a purgative oil4 ,the bark of ,c4 ,eleuteria1 ,c4 ,cascarilla1 and other species is aromatic1 and acts as a tonic and stimulant4 ,it forms the cascarilla bark of commerce already spoken of4 ,when bruised1 it gives out a musky odor and is often used in pastilles4 ,the oil obtained from the seeds of ,jatropha curcas1 a native of ,south ,america and ,asia1 is purgative and emetic1 and analagous in its properties to croton oil4 ,it is said to be a valuable external application in itch4 ,in ,india it is used for lamps4 ,,oil ,,of ,,ben1 known as ,sohrinja in ,bengal1 and ,muringo in ,malabar is obtained from the seeds or nuts of the horseradish tree1 ,moringa pterygosperma1 ,burmann2 the ,hyperanthera ,moringa1 of ,linnus4 ,this clear limpid oil having no perceptible smell1 is much esteemed by watchmakers and perfumers2 it is expensive and not often to be procured pure1 consequently the oil would be a very profitable export4 ,it grows rapidly and luxuriantly everywhere in ,jamaica1 particularly on the north side of the island--as well as ,trinidad and other quarters of the ,west4 ,it is easily propagated either by cuttings from the tree 7the branches7 or by seeds1 and bears the second year4 ,the produce of each tree may be estimated at from one to two gallons4 ,from the flowers a very pleasant perfume might be easily distilled4 ,the following account ,i derive from my friend ,dr4 ,hamilton-- ,it is a small tree1 of about twenty feet in height1 of most rapid growth1 coming into flower within a few months after it has been sown1 and continuing to produce seeds and blossoms afterwards throughout the year4 ,the tree is now naturalised in the ,west ,indies4 ,the timber is said to dye a fine blue1 and the gum1 which1 exudes from wounds in the bark1 bears a strong resemblance to that obtained from the ,astragalus tragacantha1 for which it might1 no doubt1 be substituted4 ,the numerous racemes of white blossoms with which the tree is constantly loaded1 are succeeded by long triangular pods1 somewhat tourlose at the ends1 and about two feet in length1 when arrived at the full growth4 ,these pods1 while yet young and tender1 are not unfrequently cooked and served up at the planter's tables like asparagus1 for which they are not a bad substitute4 ,the pods1 when full grown1 contain about fifteen seeds2 each considerably larger than a pea1 with a membraneous covering expanding into three wings1 whence the specific name of pterygosperma4 ,on removing the winged envelope the seeds appear somewhat like pith balls2 but upon dividing them with the nail1 they are found to abound in a clear1 colorless1 tasteless1 scentless oil1 of which the proportion is so large that it may be expressed from good fresh seeds by the simple pressure of the nail4 ,geoffry informs us1 that he obtained #cj ounces of oil from eight pounds of the decorticated seeds1 being at the rate of very nearly #bd lbs4 of oil from #ajj lbs4 of seed4 ,notwithstanding the great value of its oil1 and the facility with which it can be obtained in the ,west ,indies1 the moringa has been hitherto valued merely as an ornamental shrub1 and cultivated for the sake of its young pods or the horseradish of its roots1 as luxuries for the table4 ,the oil is peculiarly valuable for the formation of ointments1 from its capability of being kept for almost any length of time without entering into combination with oxygen4 ,this property1 together with the total absence of color1 smell1 and taste1 peculiarly adapts it to the purposes of the perfumer1 who is able to make it the medium for arresting the flight of those highly volatile particles of essential oil1 which constitute the aroma of many of the most odoriferous flowers1 and cannot be obtained by any other means1 in a concentrated and permanent form4 ,to effect this1 the petals of the flowers1 whose odor it is desired to obtain1 are thinly spread over flakes of cotton wool saturated with this oil1 and the whole enclosed in air tight tin cases1 where they are suffered to remain till they begin to wither1 when they are replaced by fresh ones1 and the process thus continued till the oil has absorbed as much as was desired of the aroma2 it is then separated from the wool by pressure1 and preserved under the name of essence1 in well stopped bottles4 ,by digesting the oil thus impregnated in alcohol1 which does not take up the fixed oil1 a solution of the aroma is effected in the spirit1 and many odoriferous tinctures or waters1 as they are somewhat inaccurately termed1 prepared4 ,by this process most delicious perfumes might be obtained from the flowers of the ,acacia tortuosa1 ,pancratium carribeum1 ,plumeria alba1 ,plumeria rubra1 and innumerable other flowers1 of the most exquisite fragrance1 which abound within the tropics1 blooming unregarded1 and wasting their odors on the barren air4 ,,the ,,oil ,,palm4 ,there are several species of this genus of beautiful palms of the tribe ,cococin1 but that chiefly turned to account is ,elais guineensis1 a native of the ,coast of ,guinea to the south of ,fernando ,po1 which furnishes the best oil4 ,there are three other varieties--,e4 melanococca1 a native of ,new ,granada1 ,e4 ,pernambucana1 common on the coast of ,brazil1 and ,j4 occidentalis1 indigenous to ,jamaica4 ,all the species grow well in a sandy loam and may be increased by suckers4 ,the value of the oil of this palm1 as an article of commerce1 is exemplified by the large annual imports1 averaging more than #eaf1jjj cwt4 for many years past4 ,our supplies of palm oil are almost wholly derived from the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 of which it is the staple article of export4 ,palm oil has the greatest specific gravity of any of the fixed vegetable oils4 ,it is used principally in this country for making yellow soap4 ,but the inhabitants of the ,guinea coast employ it for the same purposes that we do butter4 ,the trade in palm oil has almost driven out the slave trade from the ,bight of ,benin1 which was a few years ago one of its principal seats4 ,the old slave traders at ,whydah have generally gone into the palm oil trade1 and are carrying it on to a very great extent4 ,in ,august #ahdi1 no less than twelve vessels were lying at that port taking in oil2 whilst1 only three years before1 it was rare to see three vessels there at once1 and of those in all probability two would be slavers4 ,this palm is called ,maba by the natives about the ,congo river4 ,it is moneocious1 which indeed ,jacquin1 by whom the genus was established1 concluded it to be1 although first described as dioecious by ,gaertner1 whose account has been adopted1 probably without examination1 by ,schroder1 ,willdenow1 and ,persoon4 ,the average imports of this oil into ,liverpool alone1 have now been for some years upwards of #ah1jjj tons1 worth nearly #hjj1jjj sterling1 and giving employment to upwards of #cj1jjj tons of shipping2 thus proving that the natives who formerly exported their brethren as a matter of traffic1 now find1 at least1 an equally profitable trade in the exportation of the vegetable products of their native soil4 ,palm oil is produced by the nut of the tree1 which grows in the greatest abundance throughout ,western ,africa4 ,the demand for it1 both in ,europe and ,america1 is daily increasing1 and there is no doubt it will1 ere long1 become the most important article of ,african trade4 ,,imports ,,into ,,liverpool4 casks4 tons4 #ahce #bh1ejj #i1ejj #ahcf #cc1ejj #aa1jjj #ahcg #bf1jjj #i1ijj #ahch #bg1ebj #aj1cbj #ahci #cf1ejj #ad1cjj #aheb about -- #bc1ejj ,in the colony of ,liberia1 ,i notice the manufacture of a new article of ,african production1 which is called ,herring's ,palm ,kernel ,oil or ,african ,lard4 ,it is thus spoken of in the newspapers of that ,republic 3-- ,we had been for a long time impressed with an idea that the oil contained in the kernel of the palm nut1 was superior both in quality and appearance to that of palm oil1 which is obtained from the exterior part4 ,on making an effort to extract the oil from the kernel 7which was by means of a little machine1 of our own invention and contrivance71 we found that our thoughts upon the matter were correct1 that the oil possessed admirable beauty in its appearance1 with a taste1 when used for cooking purposes1 unexcelled by that of the best lard4 ,after being made and set by1 it assumes a consistence like that of hard butter1 and has to be cut out with a knife or spoon2 its appearance in this state is very beautiful1 presenting such richness1 clearness1 and adaptedness to table purposes1 that one would not suppose that this oil is obtained from the same tree from which palm oil is1 for there is as much disparity both in their appearance and taste as there is between lard and butter4 ,the exquisite transparency which the kernel oil bears in a liquid state1 especially when undergoing the purifying process1 is a cause of admiration4 ,on showing some of it to several foreigners1 ,i was asked in two instances which was the oil and which the water1 or whether it was oil or water2 thus you may have an idea of its clearness4 ,we make two qualities of this oil1 differing however in taste only1 the one being for table uses and the other for exportation and for whatever use they may choose to put it to abroad4 ,there have been many conjectures in respect to the uses to which this oil might he put in foreign countries2 but that it will be a useful article1 and especially in our trade1 when made more extensively1 there can be no doubt1 for the quantity in which it might be had would undoubtedly introduce it to a respectable rank among the other commodities of our productive country so eagerly sought after4 ,there is nothing1 to my knowledge1 that can be turned to as good account and at the same time so abundant and easily obtained1 as the palm kernel1 for they are as common as the pebbles of stony land1 especially in this section of the country1 where we have palm orchards of spontaneous growth for miles together1 and interspersing the surrounding country in almost innumerable numbers4 ,according to statistical ascertainment1 there is on an average exported from this port1 thirty thousand gallons of palm oil annually1 from which fact we ascertain demonstratively that the palm kernels which are thrown away here 7leaving out the whole leeward coast of our possessions7 are sufficient to make thirty thousand gallons of oil1 more or less4 ,this is not at all a problematical speculation of ours1 but we feel authorised to advance this assertion from the fact that one bushel of kernels1 completely worked up1 will make two gallons of oil4 ,but to work them up is the thing1 plentiful as they are2 we however1 hesitate not to say1 that it can be done and probably will be4 ,having now so far conquered the difficulties attending the manufacture of this oil1 as that we can safely vouch a reasonable supply for home consumption1 we most cheerfully recommend it to the citizens of this ,republic1 whose demands for it1 for eating purposes1 we doubt not can be supplied1 and on very reasonable terms4 ,we will assure our customers that there will not be an ounce of dirt or sediment in a hundred pounds of our oil4 ,the recent abolition of the soap duty1 by stimulating the demand for palm oil1 will have an instant effect on the trade and commerce of ,western ,africa1 by confirming the suppression of the slave trade1 and giving an additional impetus to negro improvement4 ,it will also increase the production for ,england of ground nuts1 whence the oil so largely used in making continental soaps is expressed4 ,when 7observes a recent writer7 the ,portuguese first treated with that coast1 they found palm oil and ground nuts articles of native food1 and so they remained down to a period within living memory4 ,so used1 they neither required any cultivation nor gave rise to any notions of property4 ,though whole tracts of country are crowded by the oil-palm tree1 little care was taken of what was1 in fact1 superabundant2 and as for ground nuts1 they were simply dug up as prudence or necessity dictated4 ,some thirty years ago a cask or two of palm oil was sent home from the ,gold ,coast2 it met so ready a sale that it was further inquired after1 and the total amount now imported into ,england ranges from #be1jjj to #cj1jjj tons annually4 ,the exportation of ground nuts is even larger2 but1 owing to our excise on soap1 they had heretofore gone principally to ,france---to ,marseilles especially4 ,of these two articles1 it is to be observed1 the ,western ,coast of ,africa appears to have a monopoly2 and with respect to palm oil1 it is further to be remarked1 that it is exactly behind those ports and up those rivers1 which were formerly the great nests of the slave trade1 that its production is largest2 and just as the slave trade there has been crushed1 a commerce in palm oil has sprung up and replaced it4 ,there are men alive who recollect the slave trade flourishing on the ,gold ,coast2 it has long been extinct there1 and palm oil is now largely exported4 ,it is but a very few years ago since that traffic appeared to be irrepressible at the mouths of the ,niger3 it is now expelled1 and thence ,liverpool obtains1 instead1 its supplies of palm oil4 ,so also1 later still1 at ,whydah1 and the other ports of the kingdom of ,dahomy1 and along the ,lagoon1 which connects ,dahomy with the ,benin ,river1 there the ,spanish slave dealers are themselves inaugurating a commerce in palm oil4 ,already the trade in that quarter is considerable1 and it would have extended much more rapidly than it has done1 were it not that disorder and warfare in the interior have been promoted and prolonged by the indiscreet zeal of some of our own naval officers and by the desire of some of our missionaries to rule at ,abeeokutu1 at ,lagos1 and at ,badagray4 ,when1 however1 order and tranquillity are restored1 a most important trade will undoubtedly arise there4 ,a generation ago1 when palm oil was merely an article of food1 there was1 we have said1 no property in palm trees4 ,since1 however1 a large foreign demand has arisen for this oil1 the plantations1 as already they are called1 begin to be cared for2 and lately the title to some of them has been disputed in our courts on the ,gold ,coast3 a contention which constitutes the first evidence we have received of the value of land1 not actually under their own cultivation1 being recognised by the natives4 ,thus the feeling of property and the desire for accumulation are springing up out of the palm oil trade2 and they are everywhere the germs of nascent civilisation4 ,it is no light question1 therefore1 thus involved in an increased demand for this article2 it may produce ,african consequences of incalculable importance to the whole human race4 ,it is in ,france hitherto that the great consumption of ground nut oil has occurred4 ,it is there used in the manufacture of soaps1 which1 though preferred abroad1 are little used in ,england--very much because of the ,excise laws4 ,the specific gravity of the soap made out of ground nut oil is higher than those laws permitted2 in consequence we could neither make it for our own use nor for foreign exportation2 and thus ,france has substantially the soap trade of the world4 ,by the repeal of the duty1 ,england will be enabled to compete--in this1 as in all other trades--with ,france abroad4 ,the price1 in ,liverpool1 for palm oil1 in ,october1 #ahec1 was #ch #ajs4 to #ci per ton4 ,we export annually nearly four million gallons of oil made from linseed1 hemp seed1 and rape seed4 ,,palm ,,oil ,,retained ,,for ,,home ,,consumption cwts4 #ahce #bdb1gcc #ahcf #bcd1ceg #ahcg #baa1iai #ahch #bgb1iia #ahci #bfb1iaj #ahdj #cad1hha #ahda #cjj1ggj #ahdb #cec1fgb #ahdc #cgg1gfe #ahdd #cfc1cce #ahdh #eaj1bah #ahdi #dic1cca #ahej #ddh1ehi #ahea #dic1eih #aheb #djh1egg ,the quantity of the four principal vegetable oils annually imported into ,great ,britain1 is shown by the following figures3-- ,palm oil4 ,coco-nut oil4 ,castor oil4 ,olive oil4 cwts4 cwts4 cwts4 tuns4 #ahdh #eaj1bah #he1dfc #d1ehh #aj1jhf #ahdi #dic1cca #fd1deb #i1fha #af1ifd #ahej #ddh1ehi #ih1jdj -- #bj1gch #ahea #fjh1eej #ee1iie -- #aa1ejc #aheb #fbc1bca #aja1hfc -- #h1hih ,,the ,,olive-,,tree 7,olea ,europea74--,there are several varieties of this plant1 two of which have been long distinguished--the wild and the cultivated4 ,the former is an evergreen shrub or low tree1 with spiny branches and round twigs2 the latter is a taller tree1 without spines1 and with four-angled twigs4 ,the fruit is a drupe about the size and color of a damson4 ,its fleshy pericarp yields by expression olive oil1 of which the finest comes from ,provence and ,florence4 ,spanish or ,castile soap is made by mixing olive oil and soda1 while soft soap is made by mixing the oil with potash4 ,the wild olive is indigenous to ,syria1 ,greece1 and ,africa1 on the lower slopes of ,mount ,atlas4 ,the cultivated species grows spontaneously in ,syria1 and is easily reared in ,spain1 ,italy and the ,south of ,france1 various parts of ,australia and the ,ionian ,islands4 ,wherever it has been tried on the sea-coasts of ,australia1 the success has been most complete4 ,there are several fine trees near ,adelaide1 some of them fourteen feet high1 bearing fruit in abundance4 ,unfortunately no one has attempted to cultivate the plant on a large scale1 but in a few years ,australia ought to suply herself with olive oil4 ,the olive tree is also grown in ,hong-,kong4 ,there are five or six varieties of ,o4 ,europoea1 or sativa1 grown in the south of ,europe1 of which district they are for the most part natives4 ,the entire exports of olive oil from the kingdom of ,naples have been estimated at #cf1ccc tuns a year1 which1 taken at its mean value when exported at #fb per tun1 is equivalent to the annual sum of #b1beb1fdf4 ,there are one or two distinct species1 natives of the ,east ,indies and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,this genus of plants1 besides their valuable products of oil and fruit1 are also much admired for the fragrance of their white flowers4 ,there is a yellow-blossomed variety1 native of ,china1 ,o4 fragrans1 the ,lan-hoa of the ,chinese1 which is used to perfume their teas4 ,olive oil now forms an article of export from ,chili1 being grown in most parts of that republic1 particularly in the vicinity of ,st4 ,jago1 where trees of three feet in diameter1 and of a proportionate height1 are common4 ,the olive was first carried from ,andalusia to ,peru in #aefj1 by ,antonio de ,ribera1 of ,lima4 ,frezier speaks of the olive being used for oil in ,chili1 a century and a half ago4 ,the culture of the olive has been recommended for ,florida and most of the ,southern ,states of ,america4 ,formerly1 on account of its slow growth1 the olive was not considered very useful2 but some years since a new variety was introduced into ,france1 and into some parts of ,spain and ,portugal1 which yields an abundant crop of fruit the second year after planting4 ,they are small trees or rather shrubs1 about four or five feet high4 ,the fruit is larger than the common olive1 is of a fine green color when ripe1 and contains a great deal of oil1 ,the advantages accruing from this new mode of cultivating the olive tree1 are beyond all calculation4 ,by the old method an olive tree does not attain its full growth1 and consequently does not yield any considerable crop under thirty years2 whereas the new system of cultivating dwarf trees1 especially from cuttings1 affords very abundant crops in two or three4 ,an acre of land can easily grow #b1ejj trees of the new variety1 and the gathering of the fruit is easy1 as it can be done by small children4 ,at ,beaufort1 ,south ,carolina1 the olive is cultivated from plants which were obtained in the neighbourhood of ,florence1 ,italy4 ,a gentleman in ,mississippi is stated1 by an ,american agricultural journal1 to have olive trees growing1 which at five years from the cutting bore fruit1 and were as large at that age as they usually are in ,europe at eight years old4 ,the olive then1 it is added1 will yield a fair crop for oil at four years from the nursery1 and in eight years a full crop1 or as much as in ,europe at from fifteen to twenty years of age4 ,the lands and climate there are stated to be as well adapted to the successful cultivation of the olive for oil1 pickles1 c41 as any part of ,europe4 ,some hundreds of the trees are grown in ,south ,carolina1 and the owner expressed his conviction that this product would succeed well on the sea-coast of ,carolina and ,georgia4 ,the frosts1 though severe1 did not destroy or injure them1 and in one case1 when the plant was supposed to be dead1 and corn was planted in its stead1 its roots sent out shoots4 ,it is well known to be a tree of great longevity1 even reaching to #a1jjj or #a1bjj years2 so that1 when once established1 it will produce crops for a great while afterwards4 ,the expense of extracting the oil is also stated to be but trifling4 ,the olive is of slow growth2 trees #hj years of age measure only from #bg to #cj inches in circumference at the lower part of their trunks4 ,an olive tree is mentioned by ,m4 ,decandolle as measuring above #bc feet in circumference1 which1 judging from the above inferences1 may be safely estimated at #gjj years old4 ,two other colossal olives are recorded1 one at ,hieres1 measuring in circumference #cf feet1 and one near ,genoa1 measuring #ch feet #b inches4 ,the produce in fruit and oil is regulated by the age of the trees1 which are frequently little fortunes to their owners4 ,one at ,villefranche produces on an average1 in good seasons1 from #bjj to #bcj pounds of oil4 ,the tree at ,hieres1 above-mentioned1 produces about #ee imperial gallons4 ,the olive is found everywhere along the coast of ,morocco1 but particularly to the south4 ,the trees are planted in rows1 which form alleys1 the more agreeable because the trees are large1 round1 and high in proportion4 ,they take care to water them1 the better to preserve the fruit4 ,oil of olives might be here plentifully extracted were taxation fixed and moderate2 but such has been the variation it has undergone1 that the culture of olives is so neglected as scarcely to produce oil sufficient for domestic consumption4 ,olive oil might form one of the most valuable articles of export from ,morocco4 ,it is strong1 dark1 and fit only for manufacturing purposes4 ,this is1 perhaps1 not so much the fault of the olive as of the methods by which it is prepared4 ,no care is taken in collecting the olives4 ,they are beaten from the trees with poles1 as in ,portugal and ,spain1 suffered to lie on the ground in heaps until half putrified1 then put into uncleaned presses1 and the oil squeezed through the filthy residuum of former years4 ,good table oil might be made1 if care were taken1 as in ,france and ,lucca1 to pick the olives without bruising them1 and to press only those that were sweet and sound4 ,but such oil would ill suit the palate of a ,maroqueen1 accustomed to drink by the pint and the quart the rancid product of his country4 ,the olive is the great staple of ,corfu1 which has1 in fact1 the appearance of an extensive olive grove4 ,it produces annually about #bjj1jjj barrels4 ,olive oil is also produced for the purposes of commerce1 and for local consumption1 by ,france1 ,algiers1 ,tuscany1 ,spain1 ,sardinia1 ,portugal1 ,madeira1 and ,south ,australia4 ,olive plantations are extending considerably both in ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,large quantities of trees were planted under the direction of ,ibrahim ,pasha4 ,the olive tree might be expected to be quickly matured at the ,cape4 ,the native olive1 resembling the ,european1 is of spontaneous growth and plentiful1 so that if the ,spanish or ,italian tree were introduced1 there is no doubt of its success4 ,the wood of the olive is exceedingly hard and heavy1 of a yellowish color1 a close fine grain1 capable of the highest polish1 not subject to crack nor to be affected by worms4 ,the root1 in consequence of its variety of color1 is much used for snuff-boxes and similar bijouterie4 ,the wood is beautifully veined1 and has an agreeable smell4 ,it is in great esteem with cabinet makers1 on account of the fine polish of which it is susceptible4 ,the sunny slopes of hills are best suited to its natural habits4 ,layering is the most certain mode of propagating this fruit1 although it grows freely from the seed1 provided it has first been steeped for twelve hours in hot water or yeast4 ,olives intended for preservation are gathered before they are ripe4 ,in pickling1 the object is to remove their bitterness and preserve them green1 by impregnating them with a brine4 ,for this purpose various methods are employed4 ,the fruit being gathered are placed in a lye1 composed of one part of quicklime to six of ashes of young wood sifted4 ,here they remain for half a day1 and are then put into fresh water1 being renewed every #bd hours2 from this they are removed into a brine of common salt dissolved in water1 to which add some aromatic plants4 ,the olive will in this manner remain good for twelve months4 ,for oil1 the ripe fruit is gathered in ,november2 the oil1 unlike other plants1 being obtained from the pericarp1 and immediately bruised in a mill1 the stones of which are set so wide as not to crush the kernel4 ,the pulp is then subjected to the press in bags made of rushes2 and1 by means of a gentle pressure1 the best or virgin oil flows first4 ,a second1 and afterwards a third quality of oil is obtained1 by moistening the residuum1 breaking the kernel1 c41 and increasing the pressure4 ,when the fruit is not sufficiently ripe1 the recent oil has a bitterish taste1 and when too ripe it is fatty4 ,the following are the present market prices of olive oil in ,liverpool1 7,october1 #ahec17 and they are #dj per cent1 higher than a few years ago3--,galipoli1 per tun of #beb gallons1 #fh2 ,spanish1 #fd2 ,levant1 #fj4 ,french olives1 in half barrels of two gallons1 are worth #c to #d2 ,spanish1 in two gallon kegs1 #is4 to #ajs4 ,the preserved or pickled olives1 so admired as an accompaniment to wine1 are1 as we have seen the green unripe fruit1 deprived of part of their bitterness by soaking them in water1 and then preserved in an aromatised solution of salt4 ,the marc of olives after the oil has been expressed1 indeed1 the refuse cake of all oil plants1 is most valuable1 either as manure or for feeding cattle4 ,more than #bi1jjj acres are under culture with the olive in the ,austrian empire1 ,venice1 ,dalmatia1 ,lombardy1 ,carinthia1 and ,carniola4 ,the climate of ,dalmatia is highly suitable for the olive1 and the oil is better than that produced in most parts of ,italy4 ,nearly #ag1jjj cwt4 are annually obtained4 ,in #ahcg there were #aa1ebf acres of ground under cultivation with olives in ,southern ,illyria1 which yielded #bfa1hjj gallons4 ,olives and sumach form the principal crops of the landholder4 ,i have not been able to get any recent correct statistics of the culture and produce4 ,the oil of ,istria is considered equal to that of ,provence4 ,the stones and refuse are used there for fuel4 ,the olive is also extensively cultivated in the ,quarnero ,islands1 especially ,veglia and ,cherso1 and in ,corfu4 ,there were in #ahcf1 #bai1cci acres under cultivation in the ,ionian ,islands1 producing #aac1bai barrels4 ,the olive is gathered there in ,december4 ,the average price of the barrel of olive oil was #dhs4 #c;d4 ,nearly two millions of gallons of olive oil were exported from ,sicily in #ahdb4 ,naples alone shipped five millions of gallons in #ahci1 and about #b1ejj cwts4 of oil is shipped annually from ,morocco4 ,russia imports about #ejj1jjj poods 7#dj lbs4 each7 of olive oil annually4 ,provence oil1 the produce of ,aix1 is the most esteemed4 ,florence oil is the virgin oil expressed from the ripe fruit soon after being gathered2 it is imported in flasks surrounded by a kind of network formed by the leaves of a monocotyledonous plant1 and packed in half chests2 it is that used at table under the name of salad oil4 ,lucca oil is imported in jars holding nineteen gallons each4 ,genoa oil is another fine kind4 ,galipoli oil forms the largest portion of the olive oil brought to ,england1 it is imported in casks4 ,apulia and ,calabria are the provinces of ,naples most celebrated for its production2 the ,apulian is the best4 ,sicily oil is of inferior quality2 it is principally produced at ,milazzo4 ,spanish oil is the worst4 ,the foot deposited by olive oil is used for oiling machinery1 under the name of' droppings of sweet oil4'--7,pereira's ,materia ,medica47 ,the manufacture of olive oil in ,spain has undergone very considerable improvement during the last few years2 in particular1 the process for expressing the oil has been rendered more rapid and effectual by the introduction of the hydraulic press1 and thus the injurious consequences which resulted from the partial fermentation of the fruit are avoided4 ,there are four different kinds of oil known in the districts where it is prepared4 #a4 ,virgin oil--,a term which is applied1 in the district ,montpellier1 to that which spontaneously separates from the paste of crushed olives4 ,this oil is not met with in commerce1 being all used by the inhabitants1 either as an emollient remedy1 or for oiling the works of watches4 ,a good deal of virgin oil is1 however1 obtained from ,aix4 #b4 ,ordinary oil4--,this oil is prepared by pressing the olives1 previously crushed and mixed with boiling water4 ,by this second expression1 in which more pressure is applied than in the previous one1 an oil is obtained1 somewhat inferior in quality to the virgin oil4 #c4 ,oil of the infernal regions4--,the water which has been employed in the preceding operation is in some districts conducted into large reservoirs called the infernal regions1 where it is left for many days4 ,during this period1 any oil that might have remained mixed with the water separates and collects on the surface4 ,this oil being very inferior in quality1 is only fit for burning in lamps1 and is generally locally used4 #d4 ,fermented oil is obtained in the departments of ,aix and ,montpellier1 by leaving the fresh olives in heaps for some time1 and pouring boiling water over them before pressing the oil4 ,but this method is very seldom put in practice1 for the olives during this fermentation lose their peculiar flavor1 become much heated1 and acquire a musty taste1 which is communicated to the oil4 ,the fruity flavor of the oil depends upon the quality of the olives from which it is pressed1 and not upon the method adopted in its preparation1--7,french ,journal de ,pharmacie47 ,the price of olive oil is sufficiently high to lead to its admixture with cheaper oils4 ,the oil of poppy seeds is that which is usually employed for its adulteration1 as it has the advantage of being cheap1 of having a sweet taste1 and very little smell4 ,m4 ,gobley has invented an instrument which he calls an areometer1 to detect this fraud4 ,it is founded on the difference between the densities of olive oil and oil of poppies4 ,the imports1 which in #ahbf were only #gdb1gai gallons1 had risen in #ahej to #e1bcg1haf gallons4 ,the following figures show the progressive imports and consumption3-- ,imported4 ,retained for home consumption4 gallons4 gallons4 #ahbg #a1jbh1agd #a1jgj1gfe #ahca #d1aeh1iag #a1ibh1hib #ahce #fjf1aff #eed1aif #ahci #a1gic1ibj #a1hjf1agh #ahdc #c1jdg1fhh #b1eaf1gbd #ahdg #b1aij1chd -- #ahdh #b1eda1fgb -- #ahdi #d1bgd1ibh -- #ahej #e1hfj1hjf -- #ahea #b1hih1gef #b1gdi1egb #aheb #b1bdb1bif #a1jff1djj ,the imports of olive oil into the port of ,liverpool were #i1hae tuns in #ahdi1 and #aj1jch tuns in #ahej4 ,it was brought from ,manila1 ,malaga1 and ,corfu1 but chiefly from ,barbary1 ,palermo1 ,gallipoli1 and the ,levant4 ,in #ahej we imported from ,france #bei1fdf imperial gallons of olive oil1 officially valued at #cd1fch2 the average in ordinary years is only about #bj1jjj gallons from the continent4 ,,almond ,,oil4--,to the south of the ,empire of ,morocco there are forests of the ,arzo tree1 which is thorny1 irregular in its form1 and produces a species of almond exceedingly hard4 ,its fruit consists of two almonds1 rough and bitter1 from which an oil is produced1 very excellent for frying4 ,in order to use this oil it requires to be purified by fire1 and set in a flame1 which must be suffered to die away of itself2 the most greasy particles are thus consumed1 and its arid qualities wholly destroyed4 ,when the ,moors gather these fruits they drive their goats under the trees1 and as the fruit falls the animals carefully nibble off the skins1 and then greedily feed4 ,the oil of almonds is more fluid than olive oil1 and of a clear1 transparent1 yellowish color1 with a very slight odor and taste4 ,it is occasionally employed for making the finer kinds of soap1 and also in medicine4 ,in manufacturing it the fruit are first well rubbed or shaken in a coarse bag or sack1 to separate a bitter powder which covers their epidermis4 ,they are then pounded to a paste in mortars of marble1 which paste is afterwards subjected to the action of a press1 as in the case of the olive4 ,about #hj tuns of almond oil are annually imported into this country1 the price being about #as4 per pound4 ,five-and-a-half pounds of almond oil will yield by cold expression one pound six ounces of oil1 and three-fourths of a pound more if the iron plates are heated4 ,,sesame ,,or ,,teel4--,of this small annual plant there are two or three species4 ,sesamum orientale1 the common sort2 and ,s4 indicum1 a more robust kind1 cultivated at a different season1 are both natives of the ,east ,indies4 ,s4 indicum bears a pale purple flower1 and ,s4 orientals has a white blossom4 ,it is the latter which is chiefly grown1 and the seeds afford the ,gingellie oil or suffed-til1 already extensively known in commerce in the ,east4 ,the expressed oil is as clear and sweet as that from almonds1 and probably the ,behens oil1 used in varnish1 is no other4 ,it is called by the ,arabs ,siriteh1 and the seed1 bennie seed1 in ,africa4 ,s4 orientals is grown in the ,west ,indies under the name of wangle4 ,it is said to have been first brought to ,jamaica by the ,jews as an article of food4 #a1jej bags of gingelly teel1 or sesame seed1 were imported into ,liverpool1 in #ahdi1 from the ,east1 ,south ,america1 and ,africa1 for expressing oil1 and #c1gjj bags in #ahej4 ,there are two kinds of seed1 light and dark1 and it is about the same size as mustard seed1 only not round4 ,a hectare of land in ,algeria yields #a1dge kilogrammes of seed1 which estimated at #ej cents the kilogramme1 amounts to #gcg francs1 whilst the cost of production is only #bei francs1 leaving a profit of #dgh francs 7nearly #bj74 ,the oil obtained from this seed is inferior to good olive oil1 but is better adapted for the manufacture of soap4 ,this plant is not unlike hemp1 but the stalk is cleaner and semi-transparent4 ,the flower also is so gaudy1 that a field in blossom looks like a bed of florist's flowers1 and its aromatic fragrance does not aid to dispel such delusion4 ,it flourishes most upon land which is light and fertile4 ,the fragrance of the oil is perceptibly weaker when obtained from seed produced on wet1 tenacious soils4 ,a gallon of seed seems to be the usual quantity sown upon an acre4 ,in ,bengal1 ,s4 orientale is sown during ,february1 and the crop harvested at the end of ,may2 but ,s4 indicum is sown on high1 dry soil1 in the early part of the rains of ,june1 and the harvest occurs in ,september4 ,about ,poonah it is sown in ,june and harvested in ,november4 ,in ,nepaul two crops are obtained annually2 one is sown as a first crop in ,april and ,may1 and reaped in ,october and ,november2 the other as an autumn crop1 after the upland rise in ,august and ,september1 and reaped in ,november and ,december4 ,in ,mysore1 after being cut it is stacked for a week1 then exposed to the sun for three days1 but gathered into heaps at night2 and between every two days of such drying1 it is kept a day in the heap4 ,by this process1 the pods burst and shed their seeds without thrashing4 ,the seeds contain an abundance of oil1 which might be substituted for olive oil2 it is procured from them in great quantities1 in ,egypt1 ,india1 ,kashmir1 ,china1 and ,japan1 where it is used both for cooking and burning4 ,it will keep for many years and not acquire any rancid smell or taste1 but in the course of a year or two becomes quite mild1 so that when the warm taste of the seed1 which is in the oil when first expressed1 is worn off1 it is used for all the purposes of salad oil4 ,it possesses such qualities as fairly entitle it to introduction into ,europe2 and if divested of its mucilage1 it might perhaps compete with oil of olives1 at least for medicinal purposes1 and could be raised in any quantity in the ,british ,indian ,presidencies4 ,it is sufficiently free from smell to admit of being made the medium for extracting the perfume of the jasmine1 the tuberose1 narcissus1 camomile1 and of the yellow rose4 ,the process is managed by adding one weight of flowers to three weights of oil in a bottle1 which being corked is exposed to the rays of the sun for forty days1 when the oil is supposed to be sufliciently impregnated for use4 ,this oil1 under the name of ,gingilie oil1 is used in ,india to adulterate oil of almonds4 ,the flour of the seed1 after the oil is expressed1 is used in making cakes1 and the straw serves for fuel and manure4 ,the oil is much used in ,mysore for dressing food1 and as a common lamp oil4 ,from #bjj to #djj quarters under the name of ,niger seed are imported annually into ,liverpool for expressing oil4 ,three varieties of ,til are extensively cultivated throughout ,india1 for the sake of the fine oil expressed from their seeds1 the white seeded variety1 the parti-colored1 and the black4 ,it is from the latter that the sesamum or gingelly oil of commerce is obtained4 ,sesamum seed contains about #de per cent4 of oil4 ,good samples of the oil were shown at the ,great ,exhibition from ,vizianagram1 ,ganjain1 ,hyderabad1 ,tanjore1 the district of ,moorshedabad1 and ,gwalior4 ,the gingelly seed is stated to be worth about #d per ton in the ,north ,circars4 ,an oil resembling that of sesamum is obtained from the seed of ,guizotea oleifera and ,abyssinica1 a plant introduced from ,abyssinia1 and common in ,bengal4 ,the ram til1 or valisaloo seeds1 yield about #cd per cent1 of oil4 ,the oil is generally used for burning1 and is worth locally about #aj;d4 per gallon4 ,,black ,,til 7,verbesena sativa74--,this is known as kutsela or kala til1 in the ,deccan4 ,it is chiefly cultivated in ,mysore and the western districts of ,peninsular ,india1 as well as in the ,bombay presidency4 ,about ,seringapatam1 as soon as the millet crop has been reaped the field is ploughed four times1 and the seed sown1 a gallon per acre1 during the month of ,july or ,august1 after the first heavy rain4 ,no manure or weeding is required1 for the crop will grow on the worst soils4 ,it is reaped in three months1 being cut close to the ground1 and stacked for a week4 ,after exposure to the sun for two or three days1 the seed is beaten out with a stick4 ,the crop in ,mysore rarely yields two bushels per acre1 but about ,poonah the produce is much larger4 ,the seed is sometimes parched and made into sweetmeats1 but is usually grown for its oil4 ,this is used in cooking1 but it is not so abundant in the seed1 nor so good as that of the sesame4 ,bullocks will not eat the stems unless pressed by hunger4 ,about #e1jjj maunds are exported annually from ,calcutta4 #c1gjc bags were imported into ,liverpool in #ahea4 ,the price per quarter of eight bushels1 in ,january1 #ahec1 was from #cjs4 to #b2 of teel oil1 in tins1 weighing #fj to #ajj pounds1 #b to #b #ds4 ,bombay linseed was worth #b #aas4 to #b #abs4 the quarter of eight bushels1 in ,january1 #ahec4 ,bengal ditto #bs4 less4 ,the imports into ,liverpool were #fh1dfh bags and #ed1hcd pockets in #ahea1 and #ad1dij bags and #cc1gjj pockets in #aheb4 ,about #i1jjj bags of mustard seed and from #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj bags of rape seed are also imported thence4 ,the price of the latter is about #b the quarter4 ,,native ,,oil ,,mills4--,the principal native oil mill of ,india1 of which1 however1 there are some varieties1 consists of a simple wooden mortar with revolving pestle4 ,it is in common use in all ,belgaum and ,bangalore4 ,two oxen are harnessed to the geering1 which depends from the extremity of the pestle1--a man sits on the top of the mortar1 and throws in the seeds that may have got displaced4 ,the mill grinds twice a day2 a fresh man and team being employed on each occasion4 ,when sesame oil is to be made1 about seventy seers measure1 or two and a half bushels of seeds are thrown in2 to this ten seers1 or two quarts and three-quarters of water1 are gradually added2 this on the continuance of the grinding1 which lasts in all six hours1 unites with the fibrous portion of the seeds1 and forms a cake1 which1 when removed1 leaves the oil clean and pure at the bottom of the mortar4 ,from this it is taken out by a coco-nut shell cup1 on the pestle being withdrawn4 ,other seed oils are described by ,dr4 ,buchanan1 as made almost entirely in the same way as the sesamum4 ,the exceptions are the hamlu1 or castor oil1 obtained from either the small or large varieties of ,ricinus4 ,this1 at ,seringapatam1 is first parched in pots1 containing something more than a seer each4 ,it is then beaten in a mortar1 and formed into balls2 of these from four to sixteen seers are put in an earthenware pot and boiled with an equal quantity of water1 for the space of five hours2 frequent care being taken to stir the mixture to prevent it from burning4 ,the oil now floats on the surface1 and is skimmed off pure4 ,the oil mill made use of at ,bombay1 and to the northward1 at ,surat1 ,cambay1 ,kurrachee1 c41 differs a little from that just described1 in having a very strong wooden frame round the mouth of the mortar2 on this the man who keeps the seeds in order sits4 ,in ,scinde a camel is employed to drive the mill instead of bullocks4 ,castor oil seed is thrown into the mill like other seeds1 as already described2 when removed it requires to be boiled for an hour1 and then strained through a cloth to free it from the fragments of the seed4 ,it is a curious fact1 and illustrative of the imperfect manner in which the oil is separated from the seeds1 that while the common pressman only obtained some #bf per cent41 ,boussingault1 in his laboratory1 from the same seeds1 actually procured #da per cent4 ,when the oil cakes are meant for feeding stock1 this loss is of little consequence1 inasmuch as the oil serves a very good purpose1 but when the cake is only intended to be used as a manure1 it is a great loss1 inasmuch as the oil is of little or no use in adding any food for crops to the soil4 ,the chief oil made on the sea board of ,india1 is that yielded by the coco-nut palm4 ,the nut having been stripped of the husk or coir1 the shell is broken1 and the fatty lining enclosing the milk is taken out4 ,this is called cobri1 copra1 or copperah in different localities4 ,three maunds1 or ninety pounds of copperah1 are thrown into the mill with about three gallons of water1 and from this is produced three maunds1 or seven and three-quarter gallons of oil4 ,the copperah in its unprepared state is sold1 slightly dried in the market4 ,it is burned in iron cribs or grates1 on the top of poles as torches1 in processions1 and as means of illumination for work performed in the open air at night4 ,no press or other contrivance is made use of by the natives in ,india for squeezing out or expressing the oil from the cake1 and a large amount of waste1 in consequence of this1 necessarily ensues4--,bombay ,times1 ,june #e1 #ahej4 ,oil1 of the finest kind1 is made in ,india by expression from the kernels of the apricot4 ,it is clear1 of a pale yellow color1 and smells strongly of hydrocyanic acid1 of which it contains1 usually1 about #d per cent4 ,on inquiring into the use made of the sunflower1 we were given to understand that it is here 7in ,tartary7 raised chiefly for the oil expressed from it4 ,but it is also of use for many other purposes4 ,in the market places of the larger towns we often found the people eating the seeds1 which1 when boiled in water1 taste not unlike the boiled ,indian corn eaten by the ,turks4 ,in some districts of ,russia the seeds are employed with great success in fattening poultry2 they are also said to increase the number of eggs more than any other kind of grain4 ,pheasants and partridges eat them with great avidity1 and find the same effects from them as other birds4 ,the dried leaves are given to cattle in place of straw2 and the withered stalks are said to produce a considerable quantity of alkali4--,bremner's ,interior of ,russia4 #feh barrels linseed oil were brought down to ,new ,orleans from the interior in #ahdi1 and #ajji in #ahdh4 ,during the period of the ,great ,exhibition special enquiry was made by many manufacturers as to the different oils of ,southern ,india1 suitable for supplying the place of animal fat in the manufacture of candles1 and generally adapted for various other purposes4 ,enquiries should be directed to the specific gravity1 the boiling point1 the per centage of pure oil in the seeds1 and the means of obtaining a regular supply4 ,the demand for vegetable oils in ,european commerce has been steadily on the increase for several years past1 and the quantities consumed are now so large that the oleaginous products of ,india and the colonies must sooner or later have a considerable commercial importance1 from the value which they are likely to acquire4 ,indeed some have already established a footing in the home market1 and ,drs4 ,hunter1 ,cleghorn1 and others in ,india1 have specially directed the attention of the natives and merchants to the subject4 ,,margose1 ,,or ,,neem ,,oil4--,from the pericarp or fleshy part of the fruit of the ,melia ,azederachta1 the well known ,margosa oil is prepared2 which is cheap and easily procurable in ,ceylon4 ,dr4 ,maxwell1 garrison surgeon of ,trichinopoly1 states that he has found this oil equally efficacious to cod-liver oil in cases of consumption and scrofula4 ,he began with half-ounce doses1 morning and evening1 which were gradually reduced4 ,,illepe ,,oil4--,the seeds of three species of ,bassia1 indigenous to ,india1 yield solid oils1 and are remarkable for the fact1 that they supply at the same time saccharine matter1 spirit1 and oil1 fit for both food and burning in lamps4 ,the ,illepe7 ,b4 longifolia7 is a tree abundant in the ,madras ,presidency1 the southern parts of ,hindostan generally1 and the northern province of ,ceylon4 ,in ,ceylon the inhabitants use the oil in cooking and for lamps4 ,the oil cake is rubbed on the body as soap1 and seems admirably adapted for removing the unctuosity of the skin caused by excessive perspiration1 and for rendering it soft1 pliable1 and glossy1 which is so conducive to health in a tropical climate4 ,the oil is white and solid at common temperatures1 fusing at from #gj to #hj degrees4 ,it may be advantageously employed in the manufacture of both candles and soap2 in ,ceylon and some parts of ,india this oil forms the chief ingredient in the manufacture of soap4 ,mahower 7,b4 latifolia7 is common in most parts of the ,bengal ,presidency4 ,the oil a good deal resembles that last described1 obtained from the ,illepe seeds2 and may be used for similar purposes4 ,it is solid at common temperatures1 and begins to melt at about #gj degrees4 ,vegetable butter is obtained from the ,choorie 7,b4 butyracea74 ,this tree1 though far less generally abundant than the other two species1 is common in certain of the hilly districts1 especially in the eastern parts of ,kumaon2 in the province of ,dotee it is so abundant that the oil is cheaper than ghee1 or fluid butter1 and is used to adulterate it4 ,it is likewise commonly burnt in lamps1 for which purpose it is preferred to coco-nut oil4 ,it is a white solid fat1 fusible at about #abj degrees1 and exhibits very little tendency to become rancid when kept4 ,shea1 or galam butter1 is obtained in ,western ,africa from the ,bassia ,parkii1 or ,pentadisma butyracea1 a tree closely resembling the ,b4 latifolia1 and other species indigenous to ,hindostan4 ,according to ,park1 the tree is abundant in ,bambara1 the oil is solid1 of a greyish-white color1 and fuses at #ig degrees4 ,its product is used for a variety of purposes--for cooking1 burning in lamps1 c4 ,this tree has much of the character of the laurel1 but grows to the height of eighteen or twenty feet4 ,its leaf is somewhat longer than the laurel1 and is a little broader at the point2 the edges of the leaf are gently curved1 and are of a dark sap green color4 ,the nut is of the form and size of a pigeon's egg1 and the kernel completely fills the shell4 ,when fresh it is of a white drab color1 but1 if long kept1 becomes the color of chocolate4 ,the kernel1 when new1 is nearly all butter1 which is extracted in the following manner3--,the shell is removed from the kernel1 which is also crushed1 and then a quantity is put into an earthen pot or pan1 placed over the fire with a portion of water and the nut kernels4 ,after boiling slowly about half an hour the whole is strained through a grass mat into a clean vessel1 when it is allowed to cool4 ,then1 after removing the fibrous part from it1 it is put into a grass bag and pressed so as to obtain all the oil4 ,this is poured into the vessel along with the first-mentioned portion1 and when cold is about the consistence of butter4 ,the nuts hang in bunches from the different boughs1 but each nut has its own fibre1 about seven or eight inches long1 and about the thickness and color of whip-cord4 ,the nut is attached to the fibre in a very singular manner4 ,the end of the fibre is concealed by a thin membrane1 about half an inch wide and three-quarters of an inch long4 ,this membrane is attached to the side of the nut1 and1 when ripe1 relinquishes its hold1 and the nut falls to the ground1 when it is gathered for use4 ,a good-sized healthy tree yields about a bushel of nuts1 but the greater number are not so prolific4 ,the trees close to the stream present a more healthy appearance1 probably on account of being better watered1 and the fire being less powerful close to the stream4 ,,the ,,candle ,,nut ,,tree 7,aleurites triloba1 of ,foster7 grows in the ,polynesian ,islands1 and is also met with in some parts of ,jamaica and the ,east ,indies4 ,in the latter quarter it is known as the ,indian ,akhrowt4 ,a very superior kind of paint oil is produced from the nut1 and the cake1 after the expression of the oil1 forms an excellent food for cattle1 and a useful manure4 #ca gallons of the nut yield ten gallons of oil1 which bears a good price in the home markets4 ,the yearly produce of this oil in the ,sandwich ,isles1 where it is called kukui oil1 is about #aj1jjj gallons4 ,it has been shipped to the markets of ,chili1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,london1 but not as yet with much profit4 ,it realized about #bj per imperial ton in the port of ,london4 ,in #ahdc1 about #h1fbj gallons were shipped from ,honolulu1 valued at #as4 #h;d4 per gallon4 ,in ,ceylon the oil is known as kekune oil1 and a good deal of it might be obtained there from the district of ,badulla4 ,from the trials made it appears that it cannot be used as a drying oil1 but will probably answer best as a substitute for rape oil4 ,samples have been sent to several clothiers1 and the nature and quality of the oil renders it most applicable to their purposes4 ,,colza 7,brassica oleracea71 a variety of the common cabbage1 is much grown in the ,south of ,europe and other parts1 for the oil obtained by pressure from its seeds1 and which is used for lamps and other purposes4 ,the plant will not thrive on sand or clay1 but requires a rich light soil4 ,after the ground has been well ploughed and manured1 the seed should be sown in ,july1 in furrows eight or ten inches asunder4 ,the plants are transplanted about ,october4 ,when ripe the stalks are reaped with a sickle1 and the seeds threshed out with a flail4 ,the cake1 after the oil is expressed1 is an excellent food for cattle4 ,like all the oleaginous plants cultivated for their seed1 colza greatly impoverishes the soil4 ,in ,peru the caoutchouc is used as a substitute for candles4 ,a roll of it 7which is generally about a yard long and three inches in diameter7 is cut lengthways into four parts1 but before it is lighted the piece is rolled up in a green plantain leaf1 to prevent it from melting or taking fire down the sides4 ,the natives of ,peru also bruize the beans of a species of wild cacao after they have been well dried1 and use the substance instead of tallow in their lamps4 ,mr4 ,dearman1 writing from ,dacca1 to ,dr4 ,spry1 ,secretary to the ,agricultural and ,horticultural ,societies of ,india1 in #ahci1 says--,i will send you some seeds from a tree1 which resemble chestnuts4 ,one of these seeds1 after taking off the shell1 being stuck on the point of a penknife1 and lighted at a candle flame1 will burn without the least odor for four or five minutes1 giving a light equal to two or three candles4 ,from the flower of the tree 7he adds71 ,i am told1 is distilled a delightful scent4 ,i presume this must be the candle-nut tree4 ,at the ,feejee and ,hawaian islands1 the seeds of the castor oil plant and of the candle-nut tree 7,aleurites triloba7 are strung together and used for candles4 ,species of torches are also made from the candle wood in ,demerara4 ,,the ,,candleberry ,,myrtle 7,myrica cerifera7 abounds in the ,bahama ,islands4 ,the shrub produces a small green berry1 which1 like the hog plum1 puts out from the trunk and larger limbs4 ,much patient labor is required in gathering these berries1 and from them is obtained a beautiful green wax1 which burns very nearly1 if not fully1 as well as the spermaceti1 or composition candles imported from abroad4 ,not long since ,mr4 ,thos4 ,b4 ,musgrove1 of ,st4 ,salvador 7or ,cat ,island71 obtained about #hj lbs4 of this wax1 and made some excellent candles of it4 ,the method of procuring this wax is by boiling the berries in a copper or brass vessel for some time4 ,iron pots are found to darken and cloud the wax4 ,the vessel after a sufficient time is taken from the fire1 and when cool the hardened wax1 floating on the top of the water1 is skimmed off4 ,,myrtle ,,wax4--,according to the experiments of ,m4 ,cadet and ,dr4 ,bostock1 myrtle wax differs in many respects from bees' wax1 ,specimens of it assume shades of a yellowish green color4 ,its smell is also different2 myrtle wax1 when fresh1 emitting a fragrant balsamic odor4 ,it has in part the unctuosity of bees' wax1 and somewhat of the brittleness of resin4 ,its specific gravity is greater1 insomuch that it sinks in water1 whereas bees' wax floats upon it2 and it is not so easily bleached to form white wax4 ,the wax tree of ,louisiana contains immense quantities of wax4 ,mr4 ,moodie 7,ten ,tears in ,south ,africa7 says1-- ,i occasionally employed my people1 at spare times1 in gathering wax berries that grow in great abundance upon small bushes in the sand hills1 near the sea1 and yield a substance partaking of the nature of wax and tallow1 which is mixed with common tallow1 and used by the colonists for making candles4 ,the berry is about the size of a pea1 and covered with a bluish powder4 ,they are gathered by spreading a skin on the sand1 and beating the bush with a stick4 ,when a sufficient quantity of the berries are collected1 they are boiled in a great quantity of water1 and the wax is skimmed off as fast as it rises2 the wax is then poured into flat vessels and allowed to cool1 when it becomes hard and brittle1 and has a metallic sound when struck4 ,the cakes thus formed are of a deep green color1 and are sold at the same price as tallow4 ,the wild pigs devour these berries when they come in their way1 and seem very fond of them4 ,a good specimen of myrtle1 or candleberry wax1 accompanied by candles made from it in the crude unbleached state in ,new ,brunswick1 was shown at the ,great ,exhibition4 ,vegetable wax was also sent from ,shanghae1 in ,china2 from ,st4 ,domingo1 in the northern parts of which the plant is indigenous2 and a remarkable specimen from ,japan4 ,this substance1 from its high melting point and other physical characteristics1 has of late attracted a good deal of attention2 it is admirably suited as a material for the manufacture of candles4 ,at a meeting of the ,central ,board1 at ,cape ,town1 in ,march1 #ahec1 the members voted about #cjj1 to employ some #bj or #cj men1 in gathering berries from the ,downs1 and making wax during the winter months1 that is1 from the beginning of ,may to the end of ,september4 ,the wax fetches a good price in the ,cape market4 ,in the annual report of the ,cape of ,good ,hope ,agricultural ,society1 in ,may1 #ahec1 a very fine sample of myrtle1 or terry wax1 grown on the ,cape ,flats1 was exhibited by ,mr4 ,feeny1 ,superintendent of the ,road ,plantation1 by direction of the ,commissioners of the ,central ,road ,board1 in different stages of purification1 from green to white1 as also some candles2 and it being conceived by the meeting that this article might ultimately become one of considerable importance for purposes of export1 a letter of thanks was addressed to ,mr4 ,feeny2 and ,nathaniel ,day1 the constable who assisted him1 was presented with the sum of #e1 as a remuneration for his trouble in assisting to purify and prepare the wax4 ,on reference to the juror's report on the ,great ,exhibition1 it will be gratifying to find that the berry wax1 forwarded by this ,society1 had attracted peculiar notice1 and a prize medal been awarded for it2 the following reference is therein made to it3 some fine specimens of myrtle or berry wax1 from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 are exhibited by ,j4 ,lindenberg1 of ,worcester4 ,this is an excellent material for the manufacture of candles1 when employed in conjunction with other solid fats4 ,the jury awarded a prize medal for these specimens4 ,your ,committee would suggest every possible attention being drawn to this subject1 in which they are gratified to state1 the ,commissioners of the ,central ,road ,board have evinced a readiness to co-operate1 by offering to place at the ,society's disposal the sum of #aj #ajs41 to be given as a premium for the best information respecting the wax berry plant1 the soils and situations in which it is found to grow most luxuriantly3 the best mode of propagating and cultivating it1 of collecting the berries1 and extracting and preparing the wax1 c4 ,and from a letter received from the ,secretary to the ,central ,road ,board1 it appears that the ,board had authorised the shipment to ,england of #b1efa lbs4 of the wax1 by the ,queen of the ,south in ,november last1 which1 from the account sales lately received from ,messrs4 ,j4,r4 ,thomson ,co41 realised as follows1 viz43-- #d cases weighing nett #hef lbs4 #h;d4 #bh #aj #h #d #ajdj lbs4 #i;d4 #ci #j #j #c #gde lbs4 #aa;d4 #cd #b #aa #c #f lbs4 #aa;d4 #j #e #f --------------- #aja #ai #a ,discount #b per cent4 #b #aa #j --------------- #ii #h #a ,,charges4 ,warehouse ,entry #cs4 #f;d4 ,fire ,insurance #bs41 ,ports #bs4 #f;d #j #h #j ,freight #g #c #c ,primage #j #ad #d ,dock ,charges #c #i #f ,sale ,expenses #j #i #j ,brokerage #a #j #f --------------- #ac #d #g ,commission at #b per cent #b #aa #j --------------- ,carried forward #af #ae #g ,brought forward #ae #ae #g --------- #hc #ab #f ,deduct ,bills of ,lading1 c4 #j #ai #f --------- #hb #ac #j ,deduct the ,board's expenses for gathering and preparing1 c #bh #h #g --------- ,leaving a clear profit of #ed #d #e ,this statement shows that from a plant1 which is indigenous to the colony1 and might he cultivated to almost any extent1 and mostly on soils unavailable for other purposes1 an article of great export could be derived at a comparatively small expense2 it is with that view that ,i desire to direct public attention more prominently to it4 ,in the ,museum of the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens1 at ,kew1 wax is shown as scraped from the trunk of the wax palm 7,ceroxylon andicola71 and candles made from it1 as also some made of acorns and closely resembling common tallow4 ,concrete milk and butter made from the ,shea butter tree1 and others growing in ,para1 are also exhibited4 ,wax candles have been made from the seeds of ,myrica macrocarpa in ,colombia1 and also from vegetable wax in ,java4 ,some of these are to be seen in the ,museum of the ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,london4 ,,castor ,,oil ,,plant4 ,castor oil is expressed from the seeds of ,ricinus communis 7,palma ,christi71 a plant with petale-palmate leaves1 which is found native in ,greece1 ,africa1 the ,south of ,spain1 and the ,east ,indies1 and is cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 as well as in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,in the temperate and northern parts of ,europe1 the plant is an herbaceous annual1 of from three to eight feet high2 in the more southern parts it becomes scrubby and even attains an height of twenty feet2 while in ,india it is often a tree thirty to forty feet high4 ,the best oil is obtained by expression from the seeds without heat1 and is hence called cold drawn oil4 ,a large quantity of oil may be produced by boiling the seeds1 but it is less sweet and more apt to become rancid than that procured by expression4 ,the ,palma ,christi grows continuously for about four years1 and becomes a large tree in constant bearing1 ripening its rich clusters of beans in such profusion1 that #ajj bushels may be obtained annually from an acre1 and their product of oil two gallons per bushel4 ,there are several species1 all of which yield oil of an equally good quality4 ,a shrubby variety is common in ,south ,australia1 and other parts of ,new ,holland4 ,ricinus lividus is a native of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it is a hardy plant1 of the easiest culture1 and will thrive in almost any soil1 whether in the burning plains or the coldest part of the mountains4 ,the seed should be planted in the tropics in ,september1 singly1 and at the distance of #aj or twelve feet apart4 ,they will bear the first season1 and continue to yield for years4 ,when the seed-pods become brown1 they are in a fit state to pluck4 ,it is often grown in the ,east intermixed with other crops4 ,the primitive mode of obtaining the oil is to separate the seeds from the husks1 and bruise them by tying them up in a grass mat4 ,in this state they are put into a boiler amongst water1 and boiled until all the oil is separated1 which floats at the top1 and the refuse sinks to the bottom2 it is then skimmed off1 and put away for use4 ,the purest oil is obtained1 as before-mentioned1 by crushing the seeds 7which are sewed up in horsehair bags71 by the action of heavy iron beaters4 ,the oil1 as it oozes out1 is caught in troughs1 and conveyed to receivers1 whence it is bottled for use4 ,castor oil is used for lamps in the ,east ,indies1 and the ,chinese have some mode of depriving it of its medicinal properties1 so as to render it suitable for culinary purposes4 ,that which we import from the ,east ,indies comes from ,bombay and ,calcutta1 and is obtained at a very low price4 ,it is exceedingly pure1 both in color and taste4 ,in the ,west ,indies the shrub grows about six feet high4 ,the stalks are jointed1 and the branches covered with leaves about eighteen inches in circumference1 forming eight or ten sharp-pointed divisions1 of a bluish green color1 spreading out in different directions4 ,the flowers contain yellow stamina2 the seed is enclosed in a triangular husk1 of a dark brown color1 and covered with a light fur1 of the same color as the husk4 ,when the capsule is thoroughly ripened by the sun1 it bursts1 and expels the seeds1 which are usually three in number4 ,in ,jamaica this plant is of such speedy growth1 that in one year it arrives at maturity1 and ,i have known it to attain to the height of twenty feet4 ,a gallon of the seed yields by expression about two pounds of oil4 ,the wholesale price in ,liverpool1 in ,october1 #ahec1 was #c;d4 to #e;d4 per lb4 ,it is brought over from the ,east ,indies in small tin cases1 soldered together and packed in boxes1 weighing about #b cwt4 each4 ,in ,ceylon castor oil is obtained from two varieties of the plant1 the white and the red4 ,the native mode of preparing the oil is by roasting the seed2 this imparts an acridity to the oil1 which is objectionable4 ,by attending to the following directions1 the oil may be prepared in the purest and best form4 ,the modes of preparation are--#a4 ,by boiling in water4 #b4 ,by expression4 #c4 ,extraction by alcohol4 ,in the first the seeds are slightly roasted to coagulate the albumen1 cleaned of the integuments1 bruised in a mortar1 and the paste boiled in pure water4 ,the oil which rises on the surface is removed1 and treated with an additional quantity of fresh water2 #aj1jjj parts of clean seed give by this process 7in ,jamaica7 #c1bej of oil1 of good quality1 though amber-colored4 #b4 ,expression is the simplest and most usually adopted process2 the cleaned kernels are well bruised1 placed in cloth bags1 and compressed in a powerful lever and screw press4 ,a thick oil is obtained1 which must be filtered through cloth and paper to separate the mucilage4 ,in ,bengal the manufacturers boil the oil water1 which coagulates some albumen1 and they subsequently filter through cloth1 charcoal1 and paper4 #c4 ,the extraction by alcohol is practised by some druggists4 ,each pound of paste is triturated with four pounds of alcohol1 specific gravity #h4cej1 and the mixture subjected to pressure4 ,the oil dissolved by the alcohol escapes very freely3 one half is recovered by the distillation of the spirit1 the residue of the distillation is boiled in a large quantity of water4 ,the oil separates and is removed1 and gently heated to expel any adherent moisture2 then filtered at the temperature of #ij deg4 ,fahrenheit2 #a1jjj parts of the paste have by this process given #fbe of colorless and exceedingly sweet oil4 ,the cultivation of the ,palma christi1 and the manufacture of castor oil1 is extensively carried on in some parts of the ,united ,states1 and continues on the increase4 ,a single firm at ,st4 ,louis has worked up #ah1ejj bushels of beans in four months1 producing #ag1gej gallons of oil1 and it is stated that #hjj barrels have been sold1 at #ej dollars per barrel4 ,the oil may be prepared for burning1 for machinery1 soap1 c41 and is also convertible into stearine4 ,it is more soluble in alcohol than lard-oil4 ,american castor oil is imported for the most part from ,new ,york and ,new ,orleans1 but some comes from our own possessions in ,north ,america4 ,in the ,united ,states1 according to the ,american ,dispensatory1 the cleansed seeds are gently heated in a shallow iron reservoir1 to render the oil liquid for easy expression1 and then compressed in a powerful screw press1 by which a whitish oily liquid is obtained1 which is boiled with water in clean iron boilers1 and the impurities skimmed off as they rise to the surface4 ,the water dissolves the mucilage and starch1 and the heat coagulates the albumen1 which forms a whitish layer between the oil and water4 ,the clear oil is now removed1 and boiled with a minute portion of water until aqueous vapors cease to arise3 by this process an acrid volatile matter is got rid of4 ,the oil is put into barrels1 and in this way is sent into the market4 ,american oil has the reputation of being adulterated with olive oil4 ,good seeds yield about #be per cent4 of oil4 ,a large proportion of the drug consumed in the eastern section of the ,union is derived by way of ,new ,orleans from ,illinois and the neighbouring ,states1 where it is so abundant that it is sometimes used for burning in lamps4 ,in ,jamaica the bruised seeds are boiled with water in an iron pot1 and the liquid kept constantly stirred4 ,the oil which separates swims on the top1 mixed with a white froth1 and is skimmed off4 ,the skimmings are heated in a small iron pot1 and strained through a cloth4 ,when cold it is put in jars or bottles for use4 ,castor oil imported4 ,retained4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahbf #bfc1chb #dec1jgb #ahca #cic1aia #cbg1idj #ahcf #iha1ehe #hji1eei #ahda #hga1acf #gcb1gbj #ahdf #a1dgg1afh -- #ahdi #a1jhd1bgb -- #ahej #c1die1fcb -- ,the imports of castor oil come chiefly from the ,east ,india ,company's possessions1 and were as follows1 nearly all being retained for home consumption3-- lbs4 #ahcj #dij1eeh #ahca #cdc1cgc #ahcb #beg1chf #ahcc #caf1ggi #ahcd #fhe1deg #ahce #a1ajg1aae #ahcf #igb1eeb #ahcg #ieg1afd #ahch #hcg1adc #ahci #iaf1cgj #ahdj #a1aij1agc #ahda #hfi1idg #ahdb #dij1aef #ahdc #gag1fif ,in #ahda1 #ab1djf ,indian maunds of castor oil were shipped from ,calcutta alone1 and #g1ijf ditto in #ahdb4 ,in #ahdb1 #h cases were shipped from ,ceylon1 #aj in #ahdc1 #bd in #ahdd1 and #ad in #ahde4 #a1dci barrels were shipped from ,new ,orleans in #ahdg4 ,the quantity brought down to that city from the interior was #a1cid barrels in #ahdh1 and #a1ccg barrels in #ahdi4 ,within the last year or two1 an attempt has been made to introduce the cake obtained in expressing the seeds of the castor oil plant as a manure1 which is deserving attention1 both because it is in itself likely to prove a serviceable addition to the list of fertilizers which may be advantageously employed1 and because it may lead to the use of similar substances1 which are at present neglected1 or thrown aside as refuse4 ,the castor oil seed resembles in chemical composition the other oily seeds4 ,it consists of a mixture of mucilaginous1 albuminous1 and oily matters2 and the former two of these are identical in constitution and general properties with the substances found in linseed and rape cake1 while the oil is principally distinguished by its purgative properties4 ,the cake obtained is in the form of ordinary oil-cake1 but is at once distinguished from it by its color1 and by the large fragments of the husk of the seeds which it contains4 ,it is also much1 softer1 and may be easily broken down with the hand4 ,i have analysed two samples of castor cake1 stated to have been obtained by different processes2 and though ,i have not been informed of the exact nature of these processes1 ,i infer1 from the large quantity of oil1 that one must have been cold-drawn4 ,the first of the following analyses is that of the sample which ,i believe the cold-drawn4 ,it is the most complete of the two1 and contains a determination of the amount of oil4 ,in the other analysis this was not done1 but there was no doubt on my mind that its quantity was much smaller4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,water #h4cb #af4ca ,oil #bd4cb -- ,nitrogen #c4je #c4ce ,ash #g4bb #d4ie ,the ash contains-- ,siliccous matters #a4if -- ,phosphates #c4cf #b4bg ,excess of phosphoric acid #j4fd -- ,in order to give a proper idea of the value of this substance as a manure1 ,i shall quote here1 for comparison sake1 the average composition of rape cake1 as deduced from the analyses contained in the ,transactions of the ,highland ,society of ,scotland3-- ,water #aj4fh ,oil #aa4aj ,nitrogen #d4fc ,ash #g4gi ,the ash contains-- ,siliccous matters #a4ah ,phosphates #c4hg ,excess of phosphoric acid #j4ci ,it will be at once seen that there is a close general resemblance between these two substances1 although there is no doubt that the castor cake is inferior to rape cake2 still ,i believe that this inferiority is fully counterbalanced by the difference in price1 which is such that1 compared with rape cake1 the castor cake is really a cheap manure4 ,there is only one of its constituents which it contains in larger quantity1 and that is the oil4 ,no weight is1 however1 to be attached to the quantity of oil in a manure4 ,in a substance to be used as food1 it is of very high importance2 but so far as we at present know1 its value as manure is extremely problematical4 ,whale1 seal1 and other coarse oils have been used as manures1 and by some few observers benefits have been derived from their application1 but the general experience has not been favorable to their use1 nor should we chemically be induced to expect any beneficial effect from them4 ,we have every reason to believe that the oils which are found in plants are produced there as the results of certain processes which are proceeding within the plant1 and there is no evidence to show that any part of it is ever absorbed in the state of oil by the roots when they are presented to them4 ,on the other hand1 the oils are extremely inert substances1 and undergo chemical changes very slowly2 so that there is no likelihood of their being converted into carbonic acid1 or any other substance which may be useful to the plant2 and as they contain no nitrogen1 and consist only of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 they can yield only those elements of which the plant can easily obtain an unlimited supply4 ,i can conceive cases in which the oil might possibly produce some mechanical effect on the soil1 but none in which it could act as a manure1 in the proper sense of the term4 ,,kanari on4--,mr4 ,crawfurd1 in his ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago1 speaks most favorably of an oil obtained from the ,kanari1 a tree which1 he says1 is a native of the same country as the sago palm1 and is not found to the westward1 though it has been introduced to ,celebes and ,java4 ,i have not been able to distinguish its botanical name2 but ,mr4 ,crawfurd describes it as a large handsome tree1 and one of the most useful productions of the ,archipelago4 ,it bears a nut of an oblong shape1 nearly the size of a walnut1 the kernel of which is as delicate as that of a filbert1 and abounds with oil4 ,the nuts are either smoked and dried for use1 or the oil is expressed from them in their recent state4 ,it is used for all culinary purposes1 and is purer and more palatable than that of the coco-nut4 ,the kernels1 mixed up with a little sago meal1 are made into cakes and eaten as bread4 ,,the ,,coco-,,nut ,,palm4 ,this palm 7,cocos nucifera7 is one of the most useful of the extensive family to which it belongs1 supplying food1 clothing1 materials for houses1 utensils of various kinds1 rope and oil2 and some of its products1 particularly the two last1 form important articles of commerce4 ,an old writer1 in a curious discourse on palm trees1 read before the ,royal ,society1 in #afhh1 says1 ,the coco nut palm is alone sufficient to build1 rig1 and freight a ship with bread1 wine1 water1 oil1 vinegar1 sugar1 and other commodities4 ,i have sailed 7he adds7 in vessels where the bottom and the whole cargo hath been from the munificence of this palm tree4 ,i will take upon me to make good what ,i have asserted4 ,and then he proceeds to describe and enumerate each product4 ,another recent popular writer speaks in eloquent terms of the estimation in which it is held1 and the various uses to which it is applied4 ,its very aspect is imposing4 ,asserting its supremacy by an erect and lofty bearing1 it may be said to compare with other trees1 as man with inferior creatures4 ,the blessings it confers are incalculable4 ,year after year the islander reposes beneath its shade1 both eating and drinking of its fruit2 he thatches his hut with its boughs1 and weaves them into baskets to carry his food2 he cools himself with a fan plaited from the young leaflets1 and shields his head from the sun by a bonnet of the leaves2 sometimes he clothes himself with the cloth-like substance which wraps round the base of the stalks1 whose elastic rods1 strung with filberts1 are used as a taper4 ,the larger nuts1 thinned and polished1 furnish him with a beautiful goblet2 the smaller ones with bowls for his pipes2 the dry husks kindle his fires2 their fibres are twisted into fishing-lines and cords for his canoes4 ,he heals his wounds with a balsam compounded from the juice of the nut2 and with the oil extracted from its pulp embalms the bodies of the dead4 ,the noble trunk itself is far from being valueless4 ,sawn into posts1 it upholds the islander's dwelling2 converted into charcoal1 it cooks his food2 and1 supported on blocks of stones1 rails in his lands4 ,he impels his canoe through the water with a paddle of the wood1 and goes to battle with clubs and spears of the same hard material4 ,in ,pagan ,tahiti1 a coco-nut branch was the symbol of regal authority4 ,laid upon the sacrifice in the temple1 it made the offering sacred2 and with it the priests chastised and put to flight the evil spirits which assailed them4 ,the supreme majesty of ,oro1 the great god of their mythology1 was declared in the coco-nut log from which his image was rudely carved4 ,upon one of the ,tonga ,islands there stands a living tree1 revered itself as a deity4 ,even upon the ,sandwich ,islands the coco palm retains all its ancient reputation2 the people there having thought of adopting it as the national emblem4 ,besides the foregoing and following uses1 ,i am aware of several scents and spirituous liquors being procured from the flowers and pulp of the coco-nut4 ,this palm tree is one of the finest objects in nature4 ,its stem is tall and slender1 without a branch2 and at the top are seen from ten to two hundred coco-nuts1 each as large as a man's head3 over these are the graceful plumes1 with their green gloss1 and beautiful fronds of the nodding leaves4 ,nothing can exceed the graceful majesty of these intertropical fruit trees1 except the various useful purposes to which the tree1 the leaf1 and the nut are applied by the natives4 #a4 ,the stem is used for--,bridges1 posts1 beams1 rafters1 paling1 ramparts1 loop-holes1 walking sticks1 water butts1 bags 7the upper cuticle71 sieves in use for arrowroot4 #b4 ,the coco-nut is used for--milk1 a delicious drink2 meat from the scraped nut1 for various kinds of food2 jelly1 kora1 pulp1 nut1 oil1 excellent and various food for man1 beast1 and fowl4 ,the shell for vessels to drink out of1 water pitchers1 lamps1 funnels1 fuel1 panga 7for a game74 ,the fibre for sinnet1 various cordage1 bed stuffing1 thread for tying combs1 scrubbing-brushes1 girdle 7ornamental71 whisk for flies1 medicines1 various and useful4 #c4 ,the leaf is used for--,thatch for houses1 lining for houses1 takapau 7mats71 baskets 7fancy and plain71 fans1 palalafa 7for sham fights71 combs 7very various71 bedding 7white fibre71 tafi 7brooms71 ,kubatse 7used in printing71 mama 7candles71 screen for bedroom1 waiter's tray4 ,here are no less than forty-three uses of which we know something2 and the natives know of others to which they can apply this single instance of the bounty of the ,god of nature4 ,for house and clothes1 for food and medicine1 the coco-nut palm is their sheet anchor1 as well as their ornament and amusement1 who dwell in the torrid zone4 ,this fine palm1 which always forms a prominent feature in tropical scenery1 is a native of ,southern ,asia4 ,it is spread by cultivation through almost all the intertropical regions of the ,old and ,new ,worlds2 but it is cultivated nowhere so abundantly as in the ,island of ,ceylon1 and those of ,sumatra1 ,java1 c4 ,on the shores of the ,red ,sea it advances to ,mokha1 according to ,niebuhr2 but it does not succeed in ,egypt4 ,it is cultivated in the lower and southern portions of the ,asiatic ,continent1 as on the coasts of ,coromandel and ,malabar1 and around ,calcutta4 ,in the island of ,ceylon1 where the fruit of this tree forms one of the principal aliments of the natives1 the nuts are produced in such quantities that in one year about three millions were exported1 besides the manufactured produce in oil1 c4 ,according to ,marshall it requires a mean temperature of #gb deg4 ,its northern limit1 therefore1 is nearly the same as the southern limit of our cereals4 ,rumphius enumerates thirteen varieties of this palm1 but many of these have now been placed under other genera1 and ,lindley resolves them into three species--,c4 nucifera1 the most generally diffused species1 a native of the ,east ,indies2 and ,c4 flexuosa and plumosa1 natives of ,brazil4 ,the trunk1 which is supported by numerous1 small fibrous roots1 rises gracefully1 with a slight inclination1 from forty to sixty feet in height2 it is cylindrical1 of middling size1 marked from the root upwards with unequal circles or rings1 and is crowned by a graceful head of large leaves4 ,the terminal bud of this palm1 as well as that of the cabbage palm 7,euterpe montana71 is used as a culinary vegetable4 ,the wood of the tree is known by the name of porcupine wood4 ,it is light and spongy1 and1 therefore1 cannot be advantageously employed in the construction of ships or solid edifices1 though it is used in building huts2 vessels made of it are fragile and of little duration4 ,its fruit1 at different seasons1 is in much request2 when young1 it is filled with a clear1 somewhat sweet1 and cooling fluid1 which is equally refreshing to the native and the traveller4 ,when the nut becomes old1 or attains its full maturity1 the fluid disappears1 and the hollow is filled by a sort of almond1 which is the germinating organ4 ,this pulp or kernel1 when cut in pieces and dried in the sun1 is called copperah1 and is eaten by the ,malays1 ,coolies1 and other natives1 and from it a valuable species of oil is expressed1 which is in great demand for a variety of purposes4 ,the refuse oil cake is called ,poonae1 and forms an excellent manure4 ,a calcareous concretion is sometimes found in the centre of the nut1 to which peculiar virtues have been attributed4 ,along the ,gulf of ,cariaco there are many large coco walks4 ,in moist and fertile ground it begins to bear abundantly the fourth year2 but in dry soils it does not produce fruit until the tenth4 ,its duration does not generally exceed #hj or #ajj years1 at which period its mean height is about #hj feet4 ,throughout this coast a coco tree supplies annually about #ajj nuts1 which yield eight flascos of oil4 ,the flasco is sold for about #as4 #d;d4 ,a great quantity is made at ,cumana1 and ,humboldt frequently witnessed the arrival there of canoes containing #c1jjj nuts4 ,throughout the ,south ,sea ,islands1 coco-nut palms abound1 and oil may be obtained in various places4 ,some of the uninhabited islands are covered with dense groves1 and the ungathered nuts1 which have fallen year after year1 lie upon the ground in incredible quantities4 ,two or three men1 provided with the necessary apparatus for pressing out the oil1 will1 in the course of a week or two1 obtain enough to load one of the large sea canoes4 ,coco nut oil is now manufactured in different parts of the ,south ,seas1 and forms no small part of the traffic carried on with trading vessels4 ,a considerable quantity is annually exported from the ,society ,islands to ,sydney4 ,they bottle it up in large bamboos1 six or eight feet long1 and these form part of the circulating medium of ,tahiti4 ,the natives use the bruised fronds of ,polypodium crassifolium to perfume this oil4 ,evodia triphylla1 a favorite evergreen plant with the natives of the ,polynesian ,islands1 is also used for this purpose4 ,the most favorable situation for the growth of the coco palm is the ground near the sea-coast1 and if the roots reach the mud or salt water1 they thrive all the better for it4 ,the coco-nut walks are the real estates of ,india1 as the vineyards and olive groves are of ,europe4 ,i have seen these palms growing well in inland situations1 remote from the sea1 but always on plains1 never upon hills or very exposed situations1 where they do not arrive to maturity1 wanting shelter1 and being shaken too violently by the wind4 ,the stems being tall and slight1 and the whole weight of leaves and fruit at the head1 they may not unaptly be compared to the mast of a ship with round top and topmast without shrouds to support it4 ,ashes and fish are good manures for it4 ,the coco-nut is essentially a maritime plant1 and is always one of the first to make its appearance on coral and other new islands in tropical seas1 the nut being floated to them1 and rather benefiting than otherwise by its immersion in the salt water4 ,silex and soda are the two principal salts which the coco-nut abstracts from the soil1 and hence1 where these do not exist in great abundance1 the tree does not thrive well4 ,i do not know myself what is the practice in ,ceylon1 but in ,brazil1 ,dr4 ,gardner tells me1 salt is very generally applied to the coco-nut when planted4 ,far in the interior1 he states1 he has seen as much as half a bushel applied to a single tree1 and that too when it cost about #bs4 a pound1 from the great distance it had to be brought4 ,that the application1 therefore1 of salt1 of seaweed1 and saline mud1 does more than supply soda1 must be very evident1 if we only recollect how difficult it is to dry any part of our dress that has been soaked in salt water1 and what effect damp weather has on table salt1 which1 in a balance1 has often been made use of as an hydrometer4 ,moisture is always attracted by salt1 and the more sea mud and other such little matters that coco-nut planters can apply round the roots of their trees1 there will most assuredly be the less occasion for watering them in the dry season4 ,sea weed contains but very little fibrous matter1 being chiefly composed of mucilage and water2 and the experiments of ,sir ,j4 ,pringle and ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,johnson1 prove that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of both animal and vegetable substances4 ,decomposed poonac1 or oil-cake1 is one of the best manures that can be applied1 as it returns to the soil the component parts of which it has beau deprived to form the fruit4 ,the primary direction of the planter's industry will be to the establishment of a nursery of young plants4 ,in ,ceylon1 for this purpose1 the nuts are placed in squares of #djj1 covered with one inch of sand1 or salt mud2 are watered daily till the young shoots appear1 and are planted out after the rains in ,september4 ,sand and salt mud are to be found on almost all the coasts where it would be desirable to plant nuts1 and if they are put into the ground at the commencement of the rainy season1 artificial watering will scarcely be necessary4 ,any period1 when there are showers1 would answer for transplanting them4 ,i should say from the middle to the end of ,january would be best1 when they are placed in the nursery in ,october and ,november2 and in ,october when they are planted in ,june4 ,it is said that they should be allowed from #bj to #cj feet space apart1 but ,i will calculate their return when planted #bg feet apart every way4 ,this will give #eh coco-nut trees per acre4 ,if manured1 for the first two years1 with seaweed and salt mud1 and supplied with water in dry weather1 there need be no loss1 and the plants will thrive the better4 ,the land must be kept clear of weeds till the plants are matured1 in order to permit them abundance of air and light4 ,in five years1 when well cared for1 the flower may be expected1 but the plants will not be in full bearing before the seventh or eighth year4 ,from #ej to #hj nuts are the annual crop of a tree2 but ,i will calculate at the lowest rate4 ,one hundred nuts will yield1 when the oil is properly expressed1 at least two gallons and a half4 ,i shall not take into account the making of jaggery sugar and toddy1 or spirit from the sap1 as ,i do not consider that the manufacture would be remunerative2 and it must be attended with much trouble1 besides requiring a great deal of care and some skill4 ,take the case now of a plantation of #ajj acres in extent4 ,this would give us #e1hjj trees1 which1 at #ej nuts per tree1 #bij1jjj nuts1 at #b gallons of oil per hundred1 would yield #g1bej gallons of oil1 the value of which any person may calculate1 but which1 at the low rate of #cs4 over charges1 would furnish1 as the gross plantation return in oil1 a sum of #a1jhg #ajs4 sterling4 ,if the cultivator1 instead of making his produce into oil1 were to sell it in its natural state1 his gross return in the ,west ,indies would be nearly #fjj sterling1 at the rate of ten dollars per thousand4 ,either of these sums would be a handsome return from #ajj acres of any land1 requiring no cultivation or care whatever1 after the fourth year1 and yielding the same amount for upwards of half a century6 ,but this is not all4 ,an outlay of a few pounds will secure other advantages1 and ought to enable the owner of a coco-nut plantation to turn his gross receipts for oil into nett profits4 ,the coir made from the husk of the nut is calculated to realise nearly one-fourth of the proceeds of the oil1 but if we put it down at one-fifth1 we shall have1 in addition to the value of the oil1 #bag #ajs41 thus making a total of #a1cje sterling4 ,if we obtained #fj nuts from each tree1 the return would be #a1eff sterling1 and if #ge1 #a1ieg #hs4 sterling2 and this from #ajj acres of sea side sand6 ,but even this does not exhibit the whole return of this article of culture4 ,each nut may be calculated to give a quarter of a pound of poonac1 or oil-cake1 being the refuse after expression1 fit for feeding all kinds of stock1 which may be estimated as worth #aj per ton4 ,we must1 therefore1 add on this account to our first calculation1 the sum of say #cbe2 to the second1 #cij2 and to the third1 #dhe4 ,this would give1 in round numbers1 the entire returns of the #ajj acres planted3--,at #ej nuts per tree1 #a1fcj2 at #fj ditto1 #a1ieg2 at #ge1 ditto1 #b1ddf4 ,these are striking results1 and may appear exaggerated2 but ,i will1 to show how very moderate has been my calculation1 give two returns1 with which ,i have been favored from ,ceylon4 ,these1 it will be seen1 differ materially1 but the latter ,i can rely on as a practical result1 from a plantation in ,jaffna1 the peninsula of the northern portion of the island4 ,after estimating the expense of establishing the plantation1 the first writer sets down his return thus3-- ,the produce1 calculating #ij trees to an acre1 and #ge nuts to a tree1 sold at #b per #a1jjj1 would yield #fge1jjj nuts1 worth #a1cej2 or if converted into oil1 calculating #cj to give one gallon1 it would produce #bb1ejj gallons1 or about #ij tons from #ajj acres4 ,from ,jaffna1 the following is an abridged estimate of return of #ajj acres in full bearing3--,at #bg feet apart1 #eh trees per acre1 #e1hjj trees1 at #fj nuts per tree1 #c1dhj nuts per acre1 #ajj acres1 #cdh1jjj nuts1 at #dj nuts per imperial gallon1 #h1gjj gallons of oil1 at #bs4 per gallon1 netted #h #ads4 per acre4 ,the poonac left will pay the expense of making the oil4 ,if shipped to ,england1 at the present time 7close of #ahdh71 the selling price there being #ees4 per cwt41 measuring #ab imperial gallons1 say1 #ds4 #g;d4 per gallon1 and the cost and charges of sending it home and selling it being #bcs41 it would leave #cs4 per gallon1 or #ac per acre4 ,this sum is nett proceeds4 ,it will be seen by the above1 that ,i have been extremely moderate in my computation of the return which may be anticipated1 for there is no doubt that planters can1 in favorable localities1 on the coasts of most of our colonies1 cultivate this palm with as much success as attends its culture in ,ceylon4 ,by the first of the calculations ,i have cited from1 that island1 the gross return appears thus3-- #bb1ejj gallons at #ds4 #g;d #e1aef #e ,coir--one-fifth of value #a1jca #d ,cake from #fge1jjj nuts1 say lb4 each1 #ge tons at #aj #gej #j ----------- ,total gross return from #ajj acres #f1icg #i ,according to the other calculation1 the return will stand thus3-- #h1gjj gallons at #ds4 #g;d #a1iic #ae ,coir #cih #ae ,cake from #cdh1jjj nuts1 #cd tons #cdj #j ---------- ,total gross return from #ajj acres #b1gcb #aj ,it will be seen that in my calculation ,i have set down the return lower than it is rendered in the less favorable statement from ,ceylon by a sum of upwards of #a1jjj sterling4 ,but even supposing one-half of the amount of the lower ,ceylon estimate could be realised1 we should have a return of #a1cff #es4 sterling from #ajj acres of sea side sand4 ,i now proceed to point out the very small outlay required to obtain these results4 ,in places where the coco-nut would be grown1 there is generally no heavy woodland requiring great labor with axe and fire1 and consequently one able-bodied man should get through the felling and clearing away bush1 on an acre of the land to be prepared for the plant1 in a short period1--say1 on an average1 four days4 ,i will calculate1 that for wages and rations1 each hand employed will cost sixteen dollars per month1 an outside price4 ,let us then say that ten laborers shall be at work4 ,they fell two acres and a half per diem4 ,in one month there should be nearly #gj acres felled2 but ,i will say that the #ajj acres will occupy them two months in felling and stacking the wood4 ,during this period our planter may be considered to have had the aid of two more hands1 engaged in the preparation1 planting out1 and care of the nursery of young plants4 ,two more hands must also be occupied in the construction of tanks and sheds1 except where there is a stream of fresh water4 ,for grubbing up the roots1 if not very large size1 the assistance of about a dozen cattle would be required1 a labor which would be performed by means of the common grubbing machine1 an implement in the form of a claw4 ,we will consider that all hands are occupied another month in this manner1 and in removing and re-stacking the wood1 and turning up the land4 ,the planting out would require but little time and labor4 ,at the end of three months then1 one-half of the hands1 besides those engaged in the nursery and tanks1 might be discharged4 ,we must make an allowance for provision for the fodder of the cattle4 ,six thousand nuts would be required4 ,let us now see what are the planter's expenses2 making ample allowance on account of each item3-- dollars4 #f1jjj picked nuts at #aj dollars per #a1jjj #fj ,hire and rations of #ab hands1 at #af dollars for #c months #fgf ,two hands at nursery1 for same period #if ,purchase of #ab cattle at #bj dollars #bdj ,foddering cattle one month #cb ,hire of two extra hands1 making tanks and sheds #c months #if ,hire of #f hands for #i months #hfd ,tools 7including plough7 #ajj ----- ,total #b1jfd ,about #dae sterling for expenses for the first year4 ,where fencing is required1 we must add for making about three miles of fence1 say #cj sterling4 ,two carts would also have to be provided1 which will cost1 say #bj more4 ,in all we may compute the first year's expenditure at #dfj sterling4 ,second year's expenditure3 ploughing land1 or hoeing it twice1 watering plants1 manuring1 repairing fences1 and supplying plants1 say hire of eight men for six months1 about #aej sterling4 ,the same for the third4 ,fourth year's expenditure3 hire of six hands for three months1 cleaning land1 and manuring plants1 about #fj sterling1 and the like1 at the cultivator's option1 for the fifth year4 ,,summary ,,of ,,expenses4 ,first year #dfj ,second year #aej ,third year #aej ,fourth year #fj ,fifth year #fj --- ,total expenditure #hhj ,add for buildings #hj ,and we have a grand total of #ifj sterling expended2 for what purpose8 ,to secure a net income of at least #a1bjj sterling per annum for at least #ej years6 ,in the first year's expenses many items might be cut down1 but ,i leave the calculation as one to be considered by a party with small capital1 intending to establish a coco-nut plantation4 ,i have allowed nothing for the cost of land1 as it is impossible to compute that4 ,in general it would cost next to the nothing mentioned4 ,i have1 by careful calculation1 arrived at the conclusion that by combining the cultivation of provisions with the gradual but steadily progressive establishment of a coco-nut plantation1 any man of energy and perseverance may1 with the aid of but four hands1 clear1 fence1 and plant1 in a favorable locality1 #ej acres of coco-nuts within the year1 yet have a balance in his pocket at its close4 ,such a person would1 ere doing anything beyond putting in his nursery plants1 establish a provision ground1 of considerable extent1 for the purpose of supplying himself and his laborers with bread kind1 and vegetables1 and of enabling him1 by the disposal of the surplus produce in the market1 to raise a sufficient sum of money to furnish the wages and rations of the men4 ,i need not enter into a calculation to show how this could be done1 as every one must be aware of an easy method of following out so simple a suggestion4 ,of course he would have to bear in mind that the provision ground is of secondary importance1 and limit his exertions in that line accordingly2 devoting to the coco-nut plantation the strictest daily attention4 ,the cultivation of this tree deserves much more attention than has hitherto been paid to it1 particularly in the ,east1 where it not only forms part of the daily food of all classes of the community1 but is an exportable article to neighbouring regions1 the oil which it yields having of late years become in great demand in ,england1 for the manufacture of composite candles and soap1 and there is no doubt of its continually extended application to such purposes4 ,supposing1 nevertheless1 the result of an increased cultivation of the coco-nut should be such as to cause a fall in price1 and sink the nett return in ,england to #bs4 per gallon2 this being clear profit1 would make this kind of plantation a safe and sure investment for both capital and labor in the ,colonies4 ,a kind of sugar made from the sap is called jaggery1 and the sap when fermented forms an intoxicating beverage known as toddy4 ,the fibrous outer covering1 or husk of the nut1 when macerated and prepared1 is termed coir1 and is spun into yarn and rope4 ,it is extensively shipped from ,ceylon1 in coils of rope1 bundles of yarn1 and pieces of junk4 ,the coco-nut is usually planted as follows3--,selecting a suitable place1 you drop into the ground a fully ripe nut1 and leave it4 ,in a few days a thin lance-like shoot forces itself through a minute hole in the shell1 pierces the husk1 and soon unfolds three pale green leaves in the air2 while1 originating in the same soft white sponge which now completely fills the nut1 a pair of fibrous roots pushing away the stoppers which close two holes in an opposite direction1 penetrate the shell1 and strike vertically into the ground4 ,a day or two more1 and the shell and husk1 which in the last and germinating stage of the nut are so hard that a knife will scarcely make any impression1 spontaneously burst by some force within2 and1 henceforth1 the hardy young plant thrives apace1 and needing no culture1 pruning1 or attention of any sort1 rapidly arrives at maturity4 ,in four or five years it bears2 in twice as many more it begins to lift its head among the groves1 where1 waxing strong1 it flourishes for near a century4 ,thus1 as some voyager has said1 the man who but drops one of these nuts into the ground1 may be said to confer a greater and more certain benefit upon himself and posterity1 than many a life's toil in less genial climes4 ,the fruitfulness of the tree is remarkable4 ,as long as it lives it bears1 and without intermission4 ,two hundred nuts1 besides innumerable white blossoms of others1 may be seen upon it at one time2 and though a whole year is required to bring any one of them to the germinating point1 no two1 perhaps1 are at one time in precisely the same stage of growth4 ,coco-nuts form a considerable article of export from many of the ,british colonies3 #cge1ggj were exported from ,honduras in #ahdd1 and #bed1jjj in #ahde2 #aje1ajg were shipped from ,demerara1 in #ahde2 #c1ejj1jjj from ,ceylon in #ahdg4 ,they are very abundant on the ,maldive ,islands1 ,siam1 and on several parts of the coast of ,brazil4 ,humboldt states1 that on the south shores of the ,gulf of ,cariaco1 nothing is to be seen but plantations of coco-nut trees1 some of them containing nine or ten thousand trees4 ,ceylon is one of the localities where the greatest progress has been made in this species of culture4 ,in #ahcb several ,europeans settled at ,batticaloa1 expressly for the purpose of cultivating this palm to a large extent4 ,they planted cotton bushes between the young trees1 which were found to ripen well1 and nurse and shade them4 ,there are now an immense number of coco-nut topes1 or walks1 on the coasts of the island1 and about #bj1jjj acres of land are under cultivation with this tree4 ,the value of this product to ,ceylon1 may be estimated by the following return of its exports in #ahdg1 besides the local consumption3-- ,declared value of nuts #e1dhe ,ditto of ,coir #aj1cah ,kernels1 or ,copperah #f1ejc ,shells #baj ,oil #ai1adb ,arrack #aa1feg ------- ,total #ec1cae ,the annually increasing consumption of the nuts holds out a great inducement to the native proprietors to reclaim all their hitherto unproductive land4 ,the fruit commands a high price in the island1 7ranging from d4 to #c;d4 per nut71 owing to the constant demand for it as an article of food1 by both ,singhalese and ,malabars2 there is not so much1 therefore1 now converted into copperah for oil making4 ,in the maritime provinces of the island1 it has been estimated that the quantity of nuts used in each family1 say of five persons1 amounts to #ajj nuts per month1 or #a1jjj per annum4 ,it needs only a reduction in the cost of transit1 to extend the consumption in the interior of the island to an almost unlimited extent4 ,in #ahdb1 ,ceylon exported but #eej nuts1 while in #ahdg she shipped off to other quarters three millions and a half of nuts1 valued at #e1ejj4 ,the average value of the nuts exported may be set down at #g1jjj4 ,in ,cochin ,china the cultivation of the coco-nut tree is much attended to1 and they export a large quantity of oil4 ,at ,malacca and ,pinang it shares attention with the more profitable spices4 ,since the palm has been acclimatised in ,bourbon1 about #bj1jjj kilogrammes of oil have been produced annually4 ,about #h1jjj piculs of oil are exported annually from ,java4 ,a correspondent1 under date ,december1 #ahdi1 has furnished me with the following particulars of coco-nut planting in ,jaffna1 the northern district of ,ceylon1 in which the culture has only recently been carried on2 the facts and figures are interesting3-- ,the ,karandhai estate1 the property of the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,byles1 was sold last month for #b1djj1 part of it bearing4 ,it consisted of #cjc acres1 of which #bbh are planted with coco nuts--about half the trees six years old4 ,the ,victoria estate1 in extent #agj acres1 planted and part in bearing1 and about seventy acres of jungle1 was also sold for #a1ejj4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,dalrymple was the purchaser of the latter1 and ,mr4 ,davidson of the former4 ,both lots were cheap4 ,the properties are among the best in the district1 the latter1 especially1 is a beautiful estate4 ,about two-thirds of the estates planted are looking well1 and the remainder but indifferently1 in fact1 ought never to have been planted1 and ,i believe will never give any return4 ,about #g1jjj acres are now under cultivation here1 and clearing is still going on4 ,estates can now be put in for about one half what they cost formerly1 viz41 about #d or #e per acre1 and can be kept in order1 inclusive of all charges1 for about #aes4 to #bjs4 per acre for the first two years1 and about half that afterwards4 ,estates1 in some instances1 have been put in for about #c per acre4 ,elephants have almost disappeared2 now and then a stray one comes4 ,figs are still a great nuisance1 but the greatest anxiety among planters is regarding beetles4 ,you will be sorry to hear that the first year the trees showed fruit or flower1 one-tenth of them were destroyed by the beetle2 the insects still go on destroying1 and hardly a tree attacked ever recovers4 ,this is a very serious evil1 and upon which the fortunes of all those involved in coco-nut planting depend4 ,the trees come into bearing but very slowly1 and ,i consider no estate will give any return over its current expenses under twelve years4 ,it takes twelve months from the formation of the flower1 till the fruit ripens4 ,on an estate1 perhaps one of the oldest and best in this district1 out of #abj acres1 part seven and eight years old1 about #ab per cent1 are in flower or in bearing1 and give a return of about twenty-four nuts per tree1 on an average1 yearly4 ,on the next oldest1 the return is not near so great4 ,but few of the estates here will1 ,i think1 pay interest on the money laid out1 and many will never pay anything over the expense of keeping them up1 even after coming into bearing4 ,i doubt if any estate in this district1 however economically managed1 will ever give a net return of more than #b1 or perhaps of #b #ajs4 per acre1 at least without there is a great increase in the consumption of oil in ,europe4 ,the consumption of this oil1 in ,europe1 is under #e1jjj tons4 ,if the beetles do not destroy half the trees1 the estates here when in bearing1 if they yield anything1 will give half that quantity2 and it must be borne in mind that coco-nut oil is not a strong oil1 like palm oil1 and that soap boilers will never use it to any extent1 for it will allow but little admixture of rosin1 c42 its use in ,europe will be principally for candles and fancy soaps2 but as by refining and compression they can now purify tallow1 and make of it candles fully equal to those made from coco-nut oil1 the consumption of the latter is not likely to increase4 ,the consumption of candles is always limited on the continent of ,europe1 liquid oil being preferred1 and in many instances gas is now being used where candles formerly were4 ,the return of land planted with coco-nut trees in ,ceylon1 in #ahea1 was #bb1ejj acres2 but this refers only to regular estates recently opened and cultivated chiefly by ,europeans4 ,let us suppose that the natives possess besides1 twenty millions of trees2 ,butollac in his time estimated the number at thirteen millions4 ,at #ajj trees to the acre1 twenty millions of trees give #ajj1jjj acres1 so that the total amount of land planted with coco-nut trees would be #abb1ejj acres4 ,an hydraulic press1 for the manufacture of coco-nut oil1 #a1bjj horse power and weighing twenty-three tons1 was cast at the ,ceylon ,iron ,works1 in #ahej1 by ,messrs4 ,nelson and ,son4 ,in the island of ,singapore there are now many extensive plantations in a very flourishing condition1 holding out favorable prospects to the proprietors4 ,hitherto the island has been supplied almost wholly from abroad with nuts and oil for its consumption1 which will1 before long1 be obtained exclusively from its own soil4 ,in #ahdf there were #aj1jjj coco-nut trees in bearing in ,singapore4 ,i have omitted to notice1 in the foregoing observations1 a very mistaken notion which prevails in many quarters1 that it is best to let the trees drop their fruit1 and not to pick the nuts when ripe4 ,nature directs differently4 ,as soon as the husk of the nut is more brown than green it should be picked4 ,it then makes better oil and better coir1 than when left to shrivel up and fall from the tree4 ,colonel ,low1 in his ,dissertation on ,pinang1 gives some interesting details and statistics on coco-nut planting3-- ,on a rough estimate--for an actual enumeration has not been lately taken--the total number of bearing trees in ,pinang may be stated at #ej1jjj1 and those in ,province ,wellesley at #bj1jjj2 but very large accessions to these numbers have of late years been made4 ,the tree is partial to a sandy soil in the vicinity of the sea1 and ,province ,wellesley offers1 therefore1 greater facilities1 perhaps1 for its cultivation than ,pinang does1 as its line of clear beach is longer1 and has many narrow slips of light or sandy land lying betwixt the alluvial flats inland4 ,there are several kinds of this tree known here2 one has a yellowish color1 observable both on the branches and unripe fruit2 its branches do not droop much4 ,a second has green spreading branches1 more drooping than the former1 the fruit being green colored until ripe2 this is1 perhaps1 the most prolific2 it also bears the soonest1 if we except the dwarf coco-nut1 which fruits at the second or third year1 before the stem has got above one foot high4 ,this last kind was brought from ,malacca2 it attains in time to the height of the common sort4 ,its fruit is small and round1 and of course less valuable than the other sorts4 ,there is also a coco-nut so saturated with green1 that the oil expressed from its kernel partakes of that color4 ,it is a mistaken supposition that the coco-nut tree will flourish without care being taken of it4 ,the idea has been induced by the luxuriant state of trees in close proximity to houses and villages1 and in small cove's where its roots are washed by the sea4 ,in such circumstances1 a tree1 from being kept clear about the roots1 from being shaded1 and from occasional stimuli1 advances rapidly to perfection2 but in an extended plantation1 a regular and not inexpensive system of culture must be followed to ensure success4 ,the nuts being selected1 when perfectly ripe1 from middle-aged trees of the best sorts1 are to be laid on the ground under shades1 and after the roots and middle shoots1 with two branches1 have appeared1 the sooner they are planted the better4 ,out of #ajj nuts1 only two-thirds1 on an average1 will be found to vegetate4 ,the plants are then to be set out at intervals of thirty or forty feet--the latter if ground can be spared--and the depth will be regulated by the nature of the soil1 and the nut must not be covered with earth4 ,the plants require1 in exposed situations1 to be shaded for one and even two years1 and no lalang grass must be permitted to encroach on their roots4 ,a nursery must be always held in readiness to supply the numerous vacancies which will occur from deaths and accidents4 ,the following may be considered the average cost of a plantation1 until it comes into bearing3-- ,,first ,,cost--#ajj ,,orlongs ,,of ,,land4 ,spanish dollars4 ,purchase money of land1 ready for planting #a1jjj #g1jjj nuts at #a dollars1 per #ajj #aje ,houses of coolies1 carts1 buffaloes1 c41 c4 #ajj ----- ,spanish dollars #a1bje ,,yearly ,,cost ,,of ,,seven ,,years4 ,first year1 #aj laborers at #c dollars per month1 including carts1 c4 #cfj ,wear and tear of buildings1 carts1 and implements #ej ,overseer1 at #g dollars per month #hd ,quit rent1 average #ej ,nursery and contingencies #ej ----- ,total per annum #eid ,seven years at the rate will be #d1aeh ----- ,total1 ,spanish dollars #d1geb ,to this sum interest will have to be added1 making1 perhaps1 a sum total of #f1jjj ,spanish dollars1 and this estimate will make each tree1 up to its coming into bearing1 cost one ,spanish dollar at the lowest4 ,the young tree requires manure1 such as putrid fish and stimulating compounds1 containing a portion of salt4 ,on the ,coromandel coast1 the natives put a handful of salt below each nut on planting it4 ,the cultivators of ,kiddah adopt a very slovenly expedient for collecting the fruit4 ,instead of climbing the tree in the manner practised by the natives on the ,coromandel coast1 by help of a hoop passing round the tree and the body of the climber--and a ligature so connecting the feet as will enable him to clasp the tree with them--the ,malays cut deep notches or steps in the trunk1 in a zig-zag manner1 sufficient to support the toes or the side of the foot1 and thus ascend with the extra1 aid only of their arms4 ,this mode is also a dangerous one1 as a false step1 when near the top of a high tree1 generally precipitates the climber to the ground4 ,this notching cannot prove otherwise than injurious to the tree4 ,but the besetting sin of the planter of coco-nuts1 and other productive trees1 is that of crowding4 ,coco-nut trees1 whose roots occupy1 when full grown1 circles of forty to fifty feet in diameter1 may often be found planted within eight or ten feet of each other2 and in the native campongs all sorts of indigenous fruit trees are jumbled together1 with so little space to spread in1 that they mostly assume the aspect of forest trees1 and yield but sparing crops4 ,the common kinds of the coco-nut1 under very favorable circumstances1 begin to bear at six years of age2 but little produce can be expected until the middle or end of the seventh year4 ,the yearly produce1 one tree with another1 may be averaged at #hj nuts the tree2 where the plantation is a flourishing one--assuming the number of trees1 in one hundred orlongs1 to be #e1jjj--the annual produce will be #djj1jjj nuts1 the minimum local market value of which will be #d1jjj ,spanish dollars1 and the maximum #h1jjj dollars4 ,from either of these sums #f per cent4 must be deducted for the cost of collecting1 and carriage1 c4 ,the quantity of oil which can be manufactured from the above number of nuts will be1 as nearly as possible1 #hcd piculs of #acc-a_/c lbs4 ,the average price of this quantity1 at #g dollars per picul #e1hch ,deduct cost of manufacturing1 averaged at one-fourth1 and collecting1 watching1 c #b1jei ----- ,profit1 ,spanish dollars #c1ggi ,the ,chinese1 who are the principal manufacturers of the oil1 readily give a picul of it in exchange for #gaj ripe nuts1 being about #efc piculs of oil out of the total produce of the plantation of #ajj orlongs4 ,the price of coco-nut oil has been so high in the ,london market as #ce per tun1 or about an average of ten dollars per picul4 ,it is said that ,english casks have not been found tight enough for the conveyance of this oil to ,europe1 but if the article is really in great demand1 a method will no doubt be discovered to obviate this inconvenience4 ,so long1 however1 as the cultivator can obtain a dollar and a half1 or even one dollar for #ajj nuts1 he will not find it profitable to make oil1 unless its price greatly rises4 ,soap is manufactured at ,pondicherry from this oil1 but it is not seemingly in repute2 the attempt has not been made in ,pinang with a view to a market4 ,there is scarcely any coir rope manufactured at this island1 so that the profit which might 7were labor cheaper7 arise from this application of the coco-nut fibre1 is lost4 ,the shell makes good charcoal2 the leaves are scarcely put to any purpose1 the nipah or attap being a superior material for thatching4 ,the coco-nut tree is extremely apt to be struck by lightning1 and in such cases it is generally destroyed4 ,it is a dangerous tree1 therefore1 to have close to a house4 ,if the trees are widely planted1 coffee may be cultivated under their shade4 ,it is generally believed that the extracting of toddy from this tree hastens its decline4 ,the ,nicobar and ,lancavi ,islands used partly to supply the ,pinang market with this indispensable article2 but their depopulation has greatly reduced the quantity4 ,on the whole it may be said that there is no cultivation which insures the return of produce with so much certainty as that of the coco-nut tree2 and as ,rangoon1 the ,tenasserim coast1 and ,singapore will1 probably1 always remain good markets for the raw nut1 there appears to be every chance of the value of the produce affording ample remuneration to the planter4 ,coco-nut beetle4--,the chief natural enemy of this tree is a destructive species of elephant-beetle 7,oryctes ,rhinoceros71 which begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape of a fan2 it then perforates the central pithy fibre1 so that the leaf snaps off2 and lastly1 it descends into the folds of the upper shoot1 where it bores itself a nest1 and if not speedily extracted or killed1 will soon destroy the tree4 ,at ,singapore1 on account of the depredations of this beetle1 the difficulties have been considerable4 ,in ,pinang and ,province ,wellesley it has only been observed within the last two years1 and it is believed to have come from ,keddah4 ,a similar kind of beetle is1 however1 found on the ,coromandel coast4 ,the natives of ,keddah say that this insect appears at intervals of two1 three1 or more years4 ,its larv1 which are also very formidable insects or grubs1 about three inches long1 with large reddish heads1 are found in decaying vegetable matter4 ,it is when the tree has made considerable progress1 however1 that the parent insect does most mischief4 ,when they are from one to two years old1 throwing out their graceful branches in quick succession with the greatest vigor1 and promising in three or four years more to yield their ruddy fruit1 this destructive enemy begins to exercise his boring propensities2 and1 making his horn act as an auger1 he soon penetrates the soft and yielding fibre of the young tree1 and if not discovered in time1 destroys the leading shoot or branch4 ,the only remedy which has been adopted in ,ceylon1 is the following3--,several intelligent boys are provided each with an iron needle or probe1 of about a foot long1 with a sharp double barbed point1 like a fish-hook1 and a ring handle2 they go through the plantation looking narrowly about the trees1 and when they perceive the hole in the trunk1 which indicates that the enemy is at work1 they thrust in the barbed instrument and pull him out4 ,sometimes he may only have just commenced1 when his capture is more easily effected1 but even should he have penetrated to the very heart of the tree1 the deadly needle does not fail in its errand1 but brings the culprit out1 impaled and writhing on its point4 ,this is the only known way of checking the ravages of this beetle1 except destroying its larv4 ,some cultivators1 however1 think pouring salt water or brine on the top of the tree1 so as to descend among the folds of the upper shoots1 a good plan to get rid of the larv4 ,nearly two million coco-nuts are shipped annually from ,bahia4 ,from ,ceylon1 #aad1fjj coco-nuts were shipped in #ahea1 and #gj1ahe in #aheb4 ,coco-nut oil2 #ih1aei gallons were shipped from ,ceylon in #aheb2 #cei1bcc gallons in #ahea4 ,the prices of ,ceylon oil have ranged from #ca to #cc #ajs4 per tun2 of ,cochin oil1 #cd to #ce1 within the last two years4 ,the price per leaguer in ,colombo1 without casks1 has been #h #ajs4 to #i4 ,copperah is the name1 given by the natives to the kernel of the ripe nut after it has been exposed to the sun on mats1 until it has become rancid and dissolved4 ,it has recently been shipped to ,england in this state for the purpose of converting into oil4 ,the exports of copperah from ,ceylon were1 in #ahdb1 #aae cwts42 in #ahdc1 #b1aid2 in #ahdd1 #b1cig2 and in #aheb1 #ci1agd cwts4 ,the returned value of the copperah or kernels exported from ,ceylon1 as entered in the ,custom ,house books1 is-- #ahdj #b1ejh #ahda #a1dfj #ahdb #c1jbb #ahdc #e1gie #ahdd #f1aid #ahde #c1bhb #ahdf #e1eag #ahdg #f1ejc #ahdh #ab1fci #ahdi #g1hai #ahej #d1aff #ahea #i1fgh #aheb #ac1cbe #fcb cwts4 of poonac 7being the refuse or cake1 after expressing the oil7 were exported from ,ceylon in #ahdb4 ,it is worth there about #aj the ton4 ,the oil from the nut is obtained for culinary purposes by boiling the fresh pulp1 and skimming it as it rises4 ,that for exportation is usually obtained by pressing the copperah in a simple press turned by bullocks4 ,recently1 however1 steam power has been applied in ,colombo1 with great advantage4 ,about #b gallons of oil per #ajj nuts1 are usually obtained4 ,it is requisite that care should be taken not to apply too great and sudden a pressure at once1 but by degrees an increasing force1 so as not to choke the conducting channels of the oil in the press4 ,in many of the colonies the oil is expressed by the slow and laborious hand process of grating the pulp4 ,the quantity shipped from ,ceylon was #b1bej tuns1 in #ahdb2 #c1ihe in #ahdc2 #b1cca in #ahdd2 #a1gig in #ahde4 ,the quantity in gallons shipped since1 was #aja1eec in #ahdf2 #aig1hej in #ahdg2 #cjj1adf in #ahdh2 #hfg1cbf in #ahdi2 #djg1ifj in #ahej2 #ddb1gjj in #ahea2 and #gdi1jbh in #aheb4 ,the duty on importation is of and from ,british possessions1 #g;d4 and #g_/hths4 per cwt42 if the produce of foreign possessions1 #as4 #c d1 per cwt4 ,in the close of #aheb1 the price of coco-nut oil in the ,london market was1 for ,ceylon1 #cb1 #cc1 to #cc #ajs4 per ton2 ,cochin1 middling to fine1 #cd to #ce4 ,the following return shows the ,custom ,house valuation of the oil shipped from ,ceylon for a series of years1 and which is of course much below its real value3-- #ahci #bf1eig #ahdj #cb1dhc #ahda #bd1jeb #ahdb #cd1bdb #ahdc #dc1hgd #ahdd #bd1jfg #ahde #ae1ide #ahdf #g1ici #ahdg #ai1adb #ahdh #bd1hci #ahdi #cd1hca #ahej #ce1jce #ahea #ca1ddd #aheb #eh1jde ,among the coco-nut oil exported from ,ceylon1 in #ahdi1 there were #dg1dbg gallons1 valued at #c1eie1 the whole of which1 ,i believe1 was ,cochin oil2 the raw material of this kind not being1 like the copperah generally in ,ceylon1 subjected to the action of fire1 the product is finer1 and fetches a better price in the ,london market4 ,amongst the imports from ,british possessions in ,asia1 were #b1fjj cwts41 of copperah 7dried coco-nut kernels1 from which oil is expressed71 valued at #a1ajj2 amongst the imports re-exported to ,great ,britain1 we find #hgj cwts4 of the same article1 valued at #cjj4 ,of the oil exported a quantity of #aa1jjj gallons was shipped for the ,united ,states4 ,about #fjj1jjj piculs of coco-nut oil are annually exported from ,siam4 ,a large quantity of oil is made in ,trinidad1 chiefly on the east coast1 where1 in one locality1 there is an uninterrupted belt of coco-nut palms fourteen miles in extent4 ,they usually bear when five years old4 ,the cultivation of the coco-nut in a proper soil presents a very profitable speculation for small capitalists4 ,whether sold at the rate of a dollar per hundred in their natural state1 to captains of ships1 who freely purchase them1 or manufactured into oil1 they are a very remunerative product4 ,each tree in the ,west ,indies is calculated to produce nuts to the value of one dollar yearly4 ,there is one thing to which we would draw the attention of chemists and other scientific men4 ,for twenty-four or even forty-eight hours after its manufacture this oil is as free from any unpleasant taste as olive oil1 and can be used in lieu of it for all culinary purposes1 but after that time it acquires such a rancid taste as to be wholly unpalateable4 ,if any means could be discovered of preventing this deterioration in quality1 and preserving it fresh and sweet1 it could compete with olive oil1 and the price and consumption would be largely raised4 ,,coco-,,nut ,,oil ,,imported ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ,imports4 ,retained for home consumption4 cwts4 cwts4 #ahce #ai1hch #ad1jae #ahcf #bf1jeh #bf1jfb #ahcg #da1bah #bh1fda #ahch -- #ch1ffi #ahci -- #ae1aec #ahdj -- #cg1bfi #ahda -- #bf1ebh #ahdb -- #bf1bbe #ahdc -- #bi1ibh #ahdd -- #db1dhj #ahdh #he1dec #ed1ghc #ahdi #fd1dea #ad1fbb #ahej #ih1jdj #df1did #ahea #ee1iie #b1ccc #aheb #aja1hfc #bg1aab ,a ,london coco-nut oil soap was found1 on analysis by ,dr4 ,ure1 to consist of3-- ,soda #d4e ,coco-nut lard #bb4j ,water #gc4e ----- #ajj4j ,this remarkable soap was sufficiently solid2 but it dissolved in hot water with extreme facility4 ,it is called marine soap1 because it washes linen with sea water4 ,of the six principal vegetable oils1 namely--palm1 coco-nut castor1 olive1 linseed1 and rape1 the first four are imported in the state of oil only2 the two last chiefly as seed4 ,the proportion in which they were imported is shown in the following tables2 and if to these quantities are added about a million and a half cwt4 of tallow1 and nearly twenty thousand tuns of whale oil and spermaceti1 they will nearly represent the total quantity of oil imported into ,great ,britain4 ,,imports ,,in #ahdf4 ,palm oil4 ,olive oil4 ,castor oil4 cwts4 tuns4 cwts4 ,western ,africa #dge1cfd #a -- ,united ,states #ac1cdi -- #bij ,naples and ,sicily #ad #i1ffa -- ,east ,indies -- -- #f1cae ,canary ,islands #c1gai -- -- ,malta -- #b1bcg -- ,turkish ,empire -- #a1gab -- ,tuscany -- #hcb -- ,spain -- #gec -- ,brazil #ebe -- -- ,ionian ,islands -- #ejf -- ,morocco -- #cfh -- ,madeira #cec -- -- ,sardinia -- #ccc #aa ,miscellaneous #g #dga #fe ------- ------- ------- ,total #dic1cca #af1hfd #i1fha ,,imports ,,in #ahej ,linseed4 ,rape seed4 quarters4 quarters4 ,russia #dhb1hac #c1bce ,sweden #hgj -- ,norway #bfh -- ,denmark #cg #c1jib ,russia #hg1bgc #fde ,hanse ,towns #a1aec #b1hgb ,holland #g1gcd #bja ,naples #a1dgf -- ,austrian ,territories #dj #b1ehj ,greece -- #a1fcg ,wallachia and ,moldavia #iaj #a1bhj ,egypt #ag1eag -- ,east ,indian ,empire #bf1adb #ac1abf ,miscellaneous #bfb #ibb -------- ------ ,total #fbf1die #bi1die ,,oil-,,cake4--,it has been observed by ,evelyn that one bushel of walnuts will yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels1 and these will produce half that weight of oil1 which the sooner it is drawn is the more in quantity1 though the drier the nut the better its quality4 ,the cake or marc of the pressing is excellent for fattening hogs and for manure4 ,oats contain1 as a maximum1 about seven per cent4 of oil1 and ,indian corn nine per cent4 ,the cake of the gold of pleasure contains twelve per cent4 ,indeed the most valuable oil-cakes are those of the ,camelina sativa1 poppies and walnuts1 which are nearly equal2 next to these are the cakes of hemp1 cotton1 and beech-mast4 ,in ,france the extraction and purification of oil from the cotton seed is a recent branch of labor1 the refuse of which is likely to prove useful in agriculture2 its value as a manure being nearly ten times greater than that of common dung4 ,oil is obtained from maize or ,indian corn in the process of making whiskey4 ,it rises in the mash tubs and is found in the scum at the surface1 being separated either by the fermentation or the action of heat4 ,it is then skimmed off1 and put away in a cask to deposit its impurities2 after which it is drawn off in a pure state1 fit for immediate use4 ,the oil is limpid1 has a slight tinge of the yellow color of the corn1 and is inoffensive to the taste and smell4 ,it is not a drying oil1 and therefore cannot be used for paint1 but burns freely in lamps and is useful for oiling machinery4 ,among the various seeds used in the manufacture of oil-cake1 flour of linseed is the most important4 ,rape seed is also employed1 but is considered heating4 ,in ,lubeck1 a marc1 called dodder cake1 is made from the ,camelina sativa4 ,inferior oil-cake is made from the poppy in ,india4 ,cotton-seed cake has lately been recommended on account of its cheapness1 being usually thrown away as refuse by the cotton manufacturers4 ,it is extensively used as a cattle food1 in an unprepared state1 in various parts of the tropical world1 and to a limited extent in this country4 ,the cost of seed1 freight included1 was #b;d4 per lb4 from ,charlestown to ,port ,glasgow4 ,cotton oil-cake is now ordered at the same price as linseed cake4 ,the produce of oil-cake and oil from cotton seed1 is two gallons of oil to one cwt4 of seed1 leaving about #if lbs of cake2 #h lbs4 is the daily allowance for cattle in ,england4 ,cotton seed oil1 very pure1 is manufactured to a considerable extent at ,marseilles1 by ,de ,gimezney1 from ,egyptian seed2 and he received a prize medal at the ,great ,exhibition4 ,account of the export of linseed and rapeseed cakes from ,stettin1 principally to ,england1 in-- cwts4 #ahcd #cc1eah #ahce #bg1jch #ahcf #ef1eha #ahcg #gj1fdc #ahch #aai1edj #ahci #aae1daf #ahdj #afb1deg #ahda #adc1haf #ahdb #aai1had ,the quantity of oil-seed cakes imported into the ,united ,kingdom was in-- tons4 #ahdi #ei1dfb #ahej #fe1jee #ahea #ee1jgf #aheb #ec1faf ,cargoes of oil-cake1 to the value of #bb1bjg1 were exported from the port of ,shanghae1 in ,china1 in #ahdi4 #b1dfg tons of oil-cake were brought down to ,new ,orleans from the interior in #ahdh1 and #a1jcb tons in #ahdi4 ,seven samples of ,american oil-cake gave the following results3-- ,oil #aa4da ,water #g4fj ,nitrogen #d4gd ,ash #f4ce ,from the above figures1 the scientific farmer will see that the manure formed by #ajj lbs4 of oil-cake is more than that derived from #cjj lbs4 of ,indian corn4 #cjj lbs4 of corn contain about l lbs4 phosphoric acid2 #ajj lbs4 oil-cake contain about #b lbs4 ,,volatile ,,or ,,essential ,,oils occur in the stems1 leaves1 flowers and fruit of many odoriferous plants1 and are procured by distillation along with water4 ,they are called essences1 and contain the concentrated odor of the plant4 ,they usually exist ready-formed1 but occasionally they are obtained by a kind of fermentation1 as oil of bitter almonds and oil of mustard4 ,some of them consist of carbon and hydrogen only1 as oil of turpentine1 from ,juniperus communis2 oil of savin1 from ,juniperus ,sabina2 oil of lemons and oranges1 from the rind of the fruit2 and oil of nerole1 from orange flowers4 ,a second set contain oxygen in addition1 as oil of cinnamon1 from ,cinnamonum verum2 otto or attar of roses1 from various species of rose1 especially ,rosa centifolia2 oil of cloves1 from ,caryophyllus aromaticus4 ,those principally obtained from tropical shrubs and plants are citronella1 oil of oranges and lemons1 from the rind of the fruit oil of cinnamon and cloves1 croton oil1 c4 ,the oil of ,sandal or ,sanders wood 7,santalum album71 grown on the ,malabar coast1 is much esteemed as a perfume4 ,keora oil1 from ,pandanus odoratissimus1 in ,bengal4 ,oil of spikenard1 so highly prized1 on account of its perfume1 by the ancients1 may be procured in ,sagur1 ,nepaul1 and the mountains of the ,himalaya4 #ief lbs4 of essential oils were imported into ,hull in #ahej4 ,there were exported from ,ceylon in #ahdb1 #ijb cases2 in #ahdc1 #ach2 in #ahdd1 #bj2 in #ahde1 #be cases of essential oils1 and in the last two years as follows3-- #aheb4 #ahea4 cases4 cases4 ,cinnamon oil #ag #bc ,citronella oil #aaj #hg ,essential oil #gb #ce ,of chemical1 essential1 and perfumed oils imported from ,france1 the quantity is about #ce1jjj lbs4 annually1 worth #aj1jjj4 ,the duty is #as4 per lb4 ,we also imported from ,france1 in #ahea1 #i1eif cwt4 of oil or spirit of turpentine1 worth #ad1aig1 on which a duty of #es4 #c;d4 per cwt4 is levied4 ,from ,western ,australia some distilled oil of the ,liptospermum was shown at the ,exhibition1 which it is stated may be obtained in any quantity1 and a similar oil produced1 by distillation1 from the ,eucalyptus piperita1 a powerful solvent of caoutchouc1 evidently very similar1 if not altogether identical1 with the oil of cajeput4 ,the characters of these two oils are much alike and without some care it is difficult to distinguish them from one another by the odor2 the liptospermum oil has a slight tinge of yellow1 its specific gravity is #j4ijce2 the eucalyptus oil is colorless1 and has a density of #j4iade4 ,it is probable that these oils might be used with great advantage in the manufacture of varnish1 they readily dissolve copal1 and when its solution is spread over any surface the oil soon evaporates1 and leaves a hard1 brilliant and uniform coating of the resin4 ,these oils1 according to ,prof4 ,solly1 are specially worthy of attention4 ,dr4 ,bennett1 in his ,wanderings in ,new ,south ,wales1 states that a large quantity of camphorated oil1 which closely resembles the cajeputi1 is produced from the foliage of several species of ,eucalyptus4 ,some of the leaves1 which are of a bluish green1 contain it in such abundance as to cover the hand with oil when one of the leaves is gently rubbed against it4 ,from the odorous leaves of the ,arbor alba is extracted a portion of the aromatic cajeput oil4 ,this celebrated medicinal oil is principally made in the island of ,borneo1 one of the ,moluccas4 ,the leaf of the ,melaleuca minor yields1 by distillation1 the volatile oil of cajeputi1 well known as a powerful sudorific1 and a useful external application in chronic rheumatism4 ,it is an evergreen shrub1 with white flowers like a myrtle1 native of the ,east ,indies1 principally flourishing on the sea coasts of the ,moluccas and other ,indian islands4 ,two sacks full of the leaves yield scarcely three drachms of the oil1 which is limpid1 pellucid1 and of a green color4 ,oil of cinnamon and oil of cassia1 according to ,mulder1 have the same composition4 ,when fresh they are pale yellow1 but become brown on exposure to the air4 ,on exposure they rapidly absorb cinnamic acid1 two resins and water4 ,more than #bb1jjj lbs4 of essence of bergamot was imported in #ahdh4 ,it is obtained by distillation or pressure from the rind of the fragrant citron4 ,andropogon calamus aromaticus1 of ,royle1 ,a4 nardoides1 of ,nees v4 ,esenb41 according to some yields the grass oil of ,namur4 ,the fruits of ,carum carui1 a hardy biennial ,british plant1 popularly known as caraway seeds1 supply a volatile oil1 which is carminitive and aromatic4 ,oils of a similar kind are obtained from ,coriandrum sativum1 from anise 7,pimpinella ,anisum71 and cumin 7,cuminum ,cyminum71 a native of ,egypt4 ,the production of cinnamon1 clove1 and cassia oils1 have already been noticed in speaking of those spices4 ,in ,malabar1 a greenish sweet-smelling oil is obtained1 by distillation1 from the roots of ,unona ,narum1 an evergreen climber1 which is used medicinally as a ,stimulant4 ,,oil ,,of ,,peppermint4--,mr4 ,de ,witt ,c4 ,van ,slyck1 of ,alloway1 ,wayne county1 ,new ,york1 furnished me with the following particulars on the cultivation of peppermint1 in ,december1 #ahdi1 which may appropriately be introduced in this place3-- ,as an agricultural production1 the culture of peppermint in the ,united ,states is limited to few localities2 this county and the adjoining ones1 ,seneca and ,ontario1 comprise the largest bed4 ,in the year #ahdf about #dj1jjj lbs4 of oil were produced4 ,in ,lewis county1 in this state1 it is grown1 though to a less extent2 the amount of oil produced there in #ahdf was estimated at #d1ejj lbs4 ,in ,michigan about #aj1jjj lbs4 are annually produced2 ,ohio furnishes about #c1jjj lbs4 and ,indiana #gjj lbs4 per annum4 ,the entire crop in the ,united ,states1 in the year #ahdf1 is estimated in round numbers at #eh1jjj lbs4 ,the above comprises all the localities of any importance in the ,united ,states1 and the above estimates of the annual product of oil were made from correct data for the year #ahdf1 since which time the cultivation of mint has rapidly decreased in consequence of a speculative movement by a ,new ,york company1 who in the spring of #ahdg purchased nearly all the mint then growing in this ,state1 and stipulated with the growers not to raise it for two years thereafter1 which condition was generally observed on the part of the growers4 ,the present year 7#ahdi71 on account of the drought1 has not realised the expectations of those engaged in its culture1 although the amount of oil produced is much larger than the product of the two preceding years4 ,in this mint district1 #h1jjj lbs4 have been raised2 ,lewis county furnishes #a1jjj lbs42 ,michigan1 #h4jjj lbs42 ,ohio1 #a1jjj lbs41 and ,indiana #ejj lbs4 ,so that the entire crop of #ahdi will not materially vary from #ah1ejj lbs4 ,i have consulted several of the principal dealers in mint oil1 whose opportunities have been ample to form a tolerably correct estimate of the amount of oil annually consumed1 and their opinion fixes the total consumption1 for the various purposes for which it is used in the ,united ,states and in ,europe1 at from #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj lbs4 annually4 ,the price of mint oil is extremely fluctuating4 ,like other unstaple commodities1 the value of which depends upon their scarcity or abundance1 it never has assumed a constant and standing value1 but its price has generally been deranged by speculation and monopoly4 ,it has happened that the amount of oil produced was for several years greater than the annual consumption1 producing an accumulation in the market1 and reducing the price to the very low rate of #ge cents per pound2 on the other hand1 when the article was scarce1 it readily sold for #e dollars #be cents per pound4 ,the average price for fifteen vears has been about #b dollars #ej cents1 per pound4 ,this year 7#ahdi7 it readily sells for #a dollar #ej cents41 7#fs4 #f;d474 ,peppermint began to be cultivated in this vicinity as an agricultural product about the year #ahaf1 but for several years the want of a proper knowledge of its culture1 and the expense and difficulty of extracting the oil1 prevented its extension beyond a few growers1 who1 however1 realised fortunes out of the enterprise4 ,almost any kind of soil that will successfully rear wheat and maize is adapted to the growth of mint4 ,rich alluvions1 however1 seem to be most natural1 as would be inferred from the fact that the wild herb is almost uniformly found growing upon the tertiary formations on the margins of streams4 ,the rich bottom lands along our rivers and the boundless prairies of the ,west are eminently adapted for its successful culture4 ,it is believed by those best acquainted with the subject1 that its cultivation must be ultimately confined to the western prairies1 where it will grow spontaneously1 and where the absence of noxious weeds and grasses1 incident to all older settled lands1 renders the expense of cultivation comparatively light1 and where the low price of land will be an important item in the amount of capital employed1 the expense of marketing being slight in comparison to that of the more bulky products of agricultural industry4 ,the method of cultivation is nearly uniform4 ,the mode of propagation is by transplanting the roots1 which may be done in autumn or spring1 though generally the latter1 and as the herb is perennial1 it does not require replanting till the fourth year4 ,to ensure a good crop and obviate the necessity of extra attendance the first season1 the ground intended for planting should be fallowed the preceding summer1 though this is not necessary if the land is ordinarily clean4 ,the ground should be prepared as for maize1 as soon as possible in the spring furrowed1 and roots planted in drills twenty inches apart1 and covered with loose earth1 two inches deep1 the planter walking upon the drill and treading it firmly4 ,the proper time to procure roots is when the herb is a year old1 when from six to eight square rods of ordinary mint will yield a sufficient quantity of roots to plant an acre1 and the crop from which the roots are taken will not be deteriorated1 but rather benefited by their extraction4 ,as soon as the herb makes its appearance it requires a light dressing with a hoe1 care being taken not to disturb the young shoots1 many of which have scarcely made their appearance above the ground4 ,in the course of a week or two the crop requires a more thorough dressing1 and at this stage of growth the cultivator may be used with advantage1 followed by the hoe1 carefully eradicating weeds and grass from the drills1 and giving the herb a light dressing of earth4 ,another dressing a week or two later is all the crop requires4 ,the two following years no labor is bestowed upon the crop1 though it is sometimes benefited by ploughing over the whole surface1 very shallow1 in the autumn of the second year1 and harrowing lightly the following spring1 which frequently renews the vigor of the plant and increases the product4 ,the mint should be cut as soon as it is in full bloom1 and the lower leaves become sere2 the first crop will not be fit to cut as early as the two succeeding ones4 ,it is then to be hayed and put in cock1 and is then ready for distillation4 ,i have consulted many mint growers1 who have cultivated it for a series of years1 in regard to the average yield per acre1 and have arrived at the following estimate1 which ,i think is low1 provided the land is suitable1 and is properly cultivated4 ,i estimate the average yield per acre for the first year at #ah lbs42 the second year at #ad lbs42 and the third year at #h lbs4--making the product for three years #dj lbs41 which ,i think will not materially vary from the actual result1 though growers aver they have raised from #cj to #dj lbs4 per acre the first season4 ,several years since1 the only method of extracting the oil then known was by distilling the herb in a copper kettle1 or boiler1 and condensing in the usual manner2 a slow and tedious process1 by which about #ab or #ae pounds of oil could be separated in a day4 ,but recently steam1 that powerful agent1 which has wrought such immense changes in our social and national economy1 has been applied to this subject with its usual attendant success4 ,the present method consists in the use of a common steam-boiler1 of the capacity of from #ajj to #aej gallons1 from which the steam is conveyed by conductors into large wooden air-tight tubs1 of #bjj gallons capacity1 containing the dried herb2 from which it is conveyed1 charged with the volatile principle of the plant1 into a water-vat1 containing the condenser4 ,the water collected at the extremity of the condenser1 although it does not readily commingle with the oil1 is highly tinctured with it1 and is used to feed the boiler4 ,two tubs are necessary1 in order that when the charge is being worked off in one1 the other can be refilled4 ,the oil is then to be filtered1 and is ready for market4 ,the expense of a distillery is estimated at #aej dollars1 which1 with the labor of two men1 and a cord of dry wood1 will run #dj lbs4 of oil per day4 ,the usual price for distilling is #be cents per pound4 ,the cost of production is of course greatly modified by circumstances4 ,if grown on rich bottom lands1 or prairie1 unusually free from weeds and grass1 the labor required will be comparatively trifling4 ,from information derived from the principal mint growers in this vicinity1 ,i have prepared the following estimate of the cost of production of an acre of mint for three years3-- ,,first ,,year4 ,dollars4 ,rent of an acre of land one year #h4jj ,one day plough and drag1 one hand and team #b4jj ,half day furrowing1 digging roots1 one hand and horse #a4jj ,three days planting1 at #ge cents #b4be ,two days dressing with hoe1 at #ge cents #a4ej ,two days with cultivator and hoe1 #a4jj #b4jj ,two days with cultivator and hoe 7third dressing7 #a4ej ,one and a-half days cutting new mint1 at #ge cents #a4ac ,curing and drawing to distillery #a4ej ,distilling #ah lbs4 oil1 at #be cents #d4ej ,can for oil #be ----- #be4fc ,,second ,,year4 ,rent of an acre of land one year #h4jj ,cutting one acre of old mint #ge ,curing and hauling to distillery #a4ej ,distilling #ad lbs4 oil1 at #be cents #c4ej ,can for oil #be ----- #ad4jj ,,third ,,year4 ,rent of an acre of land one year #h4jj ,cutting1 curing1 c4 #b4be ,distilling #h lbs4 of oil1 at #be cents1 and can #b4be ----- #ab4ej ----- ,total expenses for three years #eb4ac ,forty pounds of oil1 at dollars #a4cg per pound #ee4jj ,deduct expenses #eb4ac ----- ,net profit #b4hg ,in the above estimate ,i have omitted the expense of roots1 for the reason that the crop will yield as many as are required for planting4 ,the price of roots is about #ej cents per square rod1 and if they are in demand1 the profit of the crop will be greatly enhanced by selling them at that1 or even a lower price4 ,it will be readily perceived that the culture of peppermint promises no great return of profit in sections of country where land is valuable1 and where the expense of production is nearly double what it is in newly-settled districts4 ,it is a fact that in ,michigan1 and other ,western ,states1 the actual expense of production is about one-half less than the above estimate1 and the yield is a fourth greater2 the greater distance from market1 which is usually ,new ,york city1 not being taken into account1 the freight on oil being comparatively trifling4 ,another consideration in favor of prairie cultivation is1 that the mint will endure for years by simply ploughing over the surface every second year1 which seems to invigorate the herb1 and obviates the necessity of replanting every second or third year1 as must be done in older settled localities4 ,in ,india the perfumed oils are obtained in the following manner3--,the layers of the jasmine1 or other flowers1 four inches thick and two inches square1 are laid on the ground and covered with layers of sesamum or any other oil yielding seed4 ,these are laid about the same thickness as the flowers1 over which a second layer of flowers like the fruit is placed4 ,the seed is wetted with water1 and the whole mass covered with a sheet1 held down at the end and sides by weights1 and allowed to remain for eighteen hours in this form4 ,it is now fit for the mill1 unless the perfume is desired to be very strong1 when the faded flowers are removed and fresh ones put in their place4 ,the seed thus impregnated is ground in the usual way in the mill and the oil expressed1 having the scent of the flower4 ,at ,ghazipoor the jasmine and bela are chiefly employed2 the oil is kept in the dubbers1 and sold for about #ds4 a seer4 ,the newest oils afford the finest perfume4 ,in ,europe a fixed oil1 usually that of the bean or morerja nut1 is employed4 ,cotton is soaked in this1 and laid over layers of flowers1 the oil being squeezed out so soon as impregnated with perfume4 ,dr4 ,johnson thus describes the culture and manufacture3-- ,cultivation of ,roses4--,around the station of ,ghazipoor1 there are about #cjj biggahs 7or about #aej acres7 of ground laid out in small detached fields as rose gardens1 most carefully protected on all sides by high mud walls and prickly pear fences1 to keep out the cattle4 ,these lands1 which belong to ,zemindars1 are planted with rose trees1 and are annually let out at so much per biggah for the ground1 and so much additional for the rose plants--generally five rupees per biggah1 and twenty-five rupees for the rose trees1 of which there are #a1jjj in each biggah4 ,the additional expense for cultivation would be about eight rupees eight annas2 so that for thirty-eight rupees eight annas you have for the season one biggah of #a1jjj rose trees4 ,if the season is good1 this biggah of #a1jjj rose trees should yield one lac of roses4 ,purchases for roses are always made at so much per lac4 ,the price of course varies according to the year1 and will average from #dj to #gj rupees4 ,manufacture of ,rose-water4--,the rose trees come into flower at the beginning of ,march1 and continue so through ,april4 ,early in the morning the flowers are plucked by numbers of men1 women1 and children1 and are conveyed in large bags to the several contracting parties for distillation4 ,the cultivators themselves very rarely manufacture4 ,the native apparatus for distilling the rose-water is of the simplest construction2 it consists of a large copper or iron boiler well tinned1 capable of holding from eight to twelve gallons1 having a large body with a rather narrow neck1 and a mouth about eight inches in diameter2 on the top of this is fixed an old dekchee1 or cooking vessel1 with a hole in the centre to receive the tube or worm4 ,this tube is composed of two pieces of bamboo1 fastened at an acute angle1 and it is covered the whole length with a strong binding of corded string1 over which is a luting of earth to prevent the vapour from escaping4 ,the small end1 about two feet long1 is fixed into the hole in the centre of the head1 where it is well luted with flower and water4 ,the lower arm or end of the tube is carried down into a long-necked vessel or receiver1 called a bhulka4 ,this is placed in a handee of water1 which1 as it gets hot1 is changed4 ,the head of the still is luted on to the body1 and the long arm of the tube in the bhulka is also well provided with a cushion of cloth1 so as to keep in all vapour4 ,the boiler is let into an earthen furnace1 and the whole is ready for operation4 ,there is such a variety of rose-water manufactured in the bazar1 and so much that bears the name1 which is nothing more than a mixture of sandal oil1 that it is impossible to lay down the plan which is adopted4 ,the best rose-water1 however1 in the bazar1 may be computed as bearing the proportion of one thousand roses to a seer of water2 this1 perhaps1 may be considered as the best procurable4 ,from one thousand roses most generally a seer and a half of rose-water is distilled1 and perhaps from this even the attar has been removed4 ,the boiler of the still will hold from eight to twelve or sixteen thousand roses4 ,on eight thousand roses from ten to eleven seers of water will be placed1 and eight seers of rose-water will be distilled4 ,this after distillation is placed in a carboy of glass1 and is exposed to the sun for several days to become pucka 7ripe72 it is then stopped with cotton1 and has a covering of moist clay put over it2 this becoming hard1 effectually prevents the scent from escaping4 ,the price of this will be from twelve to sixteen rupees4 ,this is the best that can be procured4 ,attar of ,roses4--,to procure the attar1 the roses are put into the still1 and the water passes over gradually1 as in the case of the rose-water process2 after the whole has come over1 the rose-water is placed in a large metal basin1 which is covered with wetted muslin1 tied over to prevent insects or dust getting into it2 this vessel is let into the ground about two feet1 which has been previously wetted with water1 and it is allowed to remain quiet during the whole night4 ,the attar is always made at the beginning of the season1 when the nights are cool2 in the morning the little film of attar which is formed upon the surface of the rose-water during the night is removed by means of a feather1 and it is then carefully placed in a small phial2 and1 day after day1 as the collection is made1 it is placed for a short period in the sun1 and after a sufficient quantity has been procured1 it is poured off clear1 and of the color of amber1 into small phials4 ,pure attar1 when it has been removed only three or four days1 has a pale greenish hue2 by keeping it loses this1 and in a few weeks' time it becomes of a pale yellow4 ,the first few days distillation does not produce such fine attar as comes off afterwards1 in consequence of the dust or little particles of dirt in the still and the tube being mixed with it4 ,this is readily separated1 from its sinking to the bottom of the attar1 which melts at a temperature of #hd degrees4 ,from one lac of roses it is generally calculated that #ahj grains1 or one tolah1 of attar can be procured2 more than this can be obtained if the roses are full-sized1 and the nights cold to allow of the congelation4 ,the attar purchased in the bazar is generally adulterated1 mixed with sandal oil1 or sweet oil2 not even the richest native will give the price at which the purest attar alone can be obtained1 and the purest attar that is made is sold only to ,europeans4 ,during the past year it has been selling from #hj to #ij rupees the tolah2 the year before it might have been purchased for #ej rupees4 ,general ,remarks4--,native stills are let out at so much per day or week1 and it frequently occurs that the residents prepare some rose-water for their own use as a present to their friends1 to secure their being provided with that which is the best4 ,the natives never remove the calices of the rose-flowers1 but place the whole into the still as it comes from the garden4 ,the best plan appears to be to have these removed1 as by this means the rose-water may be preserved a longer time1 and is not spoiled by the acid smell occasionally met with in the native rose-water4 ,it is usual to calculate #ajj bottles to one lac of roses4 ,the rose-water should always be twice distilled2 over ten thousand roses water may be put to allow of sixteen or twenty bottles coming out2 the following day these twenty bottles are placed over eight thousand more roses1 and about eighteen bottles of rose-water are distilled4 ,this may be considered the best to be met with4 ,the attar is so much lighter than the rose-water1 that1 previous to use1 it is better to expose the rose-water to the sun for a few days1 to allow of its being well mixed2 and rose-water that has been kept six months is always better than that which has recently been made4 ,at the commencement of the rose season1 people from all parts come to make their purchases1 and very large quantities are prepared and sold4 ,there are about thirty-six places in the city of ,ghazeepore where rose-water is distilled4 ,these people generally put a large quantity of sandal oil into the receiver1 the oil is afterwards carefully removed and sold as sandal attar1 and the water put into carboys and disposed of as rose-water4 ,at the time of sale a few drops of sandal oil are placed on the neck of the carboy to give it fresh scent1 and to many of the natives it appears perfectly immaterial whether the scent arises solely from the sandal oil or from the roses4 ,large quantities of sandal oil are every year brought up from the south and expended in this way4 #f4 ,the chief use the natives appear to make of the rose water1 or the sandal attar as they term it1 is at the period of their festivals and weddings4 ,it is then distributed largely to the guests as they arrive1 and sprinkled with profusion in the apartments4 ,a large quantity of rose water is sold at ,benares1 and many of the native ,rajahs send over to ,ghazipoor for its purchase4 ,most of the rose water1 as soon as distilled1 is taken away1 and after six months from the termination of the manufacture there are not more than four or five places where it is to be met with4 ,i should consider that the value of the roses sold for the manufacture of rose water may be estimated at #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj rupees a year2 and from the usual price asked for the rose water1 and for which it is sold1 ,i should consider there is a profit of #dj1jjj rupees4 ,the natives are very fond of using the rose water as medicine1 or as a vehicle for other mixtures1 and they consume a good deal of the petals for the conserve of roses1 or goolcond as they call it4 ,the roses of ,ghazipoor1 on the river ,ganges1 are cultivated in enormous fields of hundreds of acres4 ,the delightful odor from these fields can be scented at seven miles distance on the river4 ,the valuable article of commerce known as attar of roses is made here in the following manner3--,on #dj pounds of roses are poured #fj pounds of water1 and they are then distilled over a slow fire1 and #cj pounds of rose water obtained4 ,this rose water is then poured over #dj pounds of fresh roses1 and from that is distilled at most #bj pounds of rose water2 this is then exposed to the cold night air1 and in the morning a small quantity of oil is found on the surface4 ,from #hj pounds of roses1 about #bjj1jjj1 at the utmost an ounce and a-half of oil is obtained2 and even at ,ghazipoor it costs #dj rupees 7#dl47 an ounce4 ,five guineas have been often paid for one ounce of attar of roses4 ,the most approved mode of ascertaining its quality is to drop it on a piece of paper2 its strength is ascertained by the quickness with which it evaporates1 and its worth by its leaving no stains on the paper4 ,the best otto is manufactured at ,constantinople4 ,a volatile oil1 erroneously called oil of spikenard1 is met with in the shops1 which is obtained from a plant which has been named by ,dr4 ,royle1 the ,andropogon ,calamus aromaticus4 ,the true spikenard of the ancients is supposed to have been obtained from the ,nardostachys ,jatamansi1 a plant of the ,valerian family4 ,dr4 ,stenhouse describes rather minutely 7,journal ,pharm4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #bgf7 a species of ,east ,india grass oil1 said to be the produce of ,andropogon ,ivaracusa1 which he believes to be what is usually called the oil of ,namur4 ,it has a very fragrant aromatic odor1 slightly resembling that of otto of roses1 but not nearly so rich4 ,its taste is sharp and agreeable1 approaching that of oil of lemons4 ,it has a deep yellow color1 and contains a good deal of resinous matter4 ,,lemon ,,grass 7,andropogon schoenanthus74--,this fragrant grass1 which is now cultivated very generally throughout the ,west ,indies1 in the gardens of the planters1 as an elegant and powerful diaphoratic1 was doubtless introduced from the ,east4 ,the active principle of the leaves seems to reside in the essential oil which they contain4 ,lemon grass oil forms an important article of export from ,ceylon1 amounting in value to nearly #g1jjj annually4 ,the ,andropogon schoenanthus1 which may be seen covering all the ,kandian hills1 is the best possible pasture for cattle--at least as long as it is young4 ,this species of grass is very hard1 and grows to the height of seven feet1 and sometimes higher1 and has a strong but extremely pleasant acid taste4 ,it derives its name from having1 when crushed1 an odor like that of the lemon1 so strong1 that after a time it becomes quite heavy and sickening1 although grateful and refreshing at first4 ,it covers the hills in patches--those1 at least1 that are not overgrown with jungle and underwood--and it is to be found nowhere but in the ,kandian district4 ,spontaneous ignition frequently takes place1 and the appearance of the burning grass is described as most magnificent4 ,a few days after1 from the midst of this parched1 blackened1 and apparently dead ground1 lovely young green shoots begin to arise--for the roots of this extraordinary grass have not even been injured1 far less destroyed1 by the fire2 and in a very short time the whole brow of the mountain is again overspread with tufts of beautiful green waving grass4--7,journal of ,agriculture47 ,otto of khuskhus or scented grass1 from another species1 ,a4 digitalis1 obtained at ,ulwar in the ,states of ,rajpootanah1 was shown at the ,great ,exhibition in #ahea1 and ,newar oil 7from ,a4 maritima7 from ,agra4 ,,citronella ,,oil4--,in the ,southern province of ,ceylon some half dozen estates about ,galle are cultivated with citronella grass4 ,the exports of this oil from ,ceylon in the last three years have been as follows3--#ahej1 #hf1jdh oz41 valued at #c1cdd2 #ahea1 #aad1iei oz41 valued at #c1gdb2 in #aheb1 #aca1ghj oz41 valued at #b1hjf4 ,,patchouly4--,under this name are imported into this country the dried foliaceous tops of a strongly odoriferous labiate plant1 growing three feet high in ,india and ,china1 called in ,bengalee and ,hindu1 pucha pat4 ,about #df cases1 of from #ej to #aaj lbs4 each1 were imported from ,china1 by the way of ,new ,york1 in #ahdd4 ,the price asked was #fs4 per pound4 ,very little is known of the plant yielding it4 ,mr4 ,george ,porter1 late of the island of ,pinang1 stated that it grows wild there and on the opposite shores of the ,malay peninsula4 ,dr4 ,wallich says1 that it obviously belongs to the family ,labiat4 ,viney1 in the ,french ,journal of ,pharmacy1 suggests that it is the ,plectranthus graveolens of ,r4 ,brown4 ,it forms a shrub of two or three feet in height4 ,it is the ,pogostemon patchouly4 ,the odor of the dried plant is strong and peculiar1 and to some persons not agreeable4 ,the dried tops imported into ,england are a foot or more in length4 ,in ,india it is used as an ingredient in tobacco for smoking1 and for scenting the hair of women4 ,in ,europe it is principally used for perfumery purposes1 it being a favorite with the ,french1 who import it largely from ,bourbon4 ,the ,arabs use and export it more than any other nation4 ,their annual pilgrimship takes up an immense quantity of the leaf4 ,they use it principally for stuffing mattrasses and pillows1 and assert that it is very efficacious in preventing contagion and prolonging life4 ,it requires no sort of preparation1 being simply gathered and dried in the sun2 too much drying1 however1 is hurtful1 inasmuch as it renders the leaf liable to crumble to dust in packing and stowing on board4 ,the characteristic smell of ,chinese or ,indian ink is owing to an admixture of this plant in its manufacture4 ,m4 de ,hugel found the plant growing wild near ,canton4 ,by distillation it yields a volatile oil1 on which the odor and remarkable properties depend4 ,this oil is in common use in ,india for imparting the peculiar fragrance of the leaf to clothes among the superior classes of natives4 ,the origin of its use is this3--,a few years ago1 real ,indian shawls bore an extravagant price1 and purchasers could always distinguish them by their odor2 in fact1 they were perfumed with ,patchouly2 the ,french manufacturers at length discovered this secret1 and used to import the plant to perfume articles of their make1 and thus palm off homespun shawls as real ,india6 ,some people put the dry leaves in a muslin bag1 and thus use it as we do lavender1 scenting drawers in which linen is kept2 this is the best way to use it1 as this odor1 like musk1 is most agreeable when very dilute4--7,gardeners' ,chronicle47 ,the root of some parasitical plant1 under the name of kritz1 is used in ,cashmere to wash the celebrated shawls1 soap is used only for white shawls4 ,from the flowers of the ,bengal quince 7gle marmemolos7 a fragant liquid is distilled in ,ceylon known as marmala water1 which is much used as a perfume for sprinkling by the natives4 ,jasmine oil is distilled from ,jasminum sambac and grandiflora4 ,,saponaceous ,,plants4--,many plants furnish abroad useful substitutes for common soap4 ,the aril which surrounds the seed and the roots of ,sapindus ,saponaria1 an evergreen tree1 ,i have seen used as soap in ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies under the name of soap berries4 ,the seed vessels are very acrid1 they lather freely in water and will cleanse more linen than thirty times their weight of soap1 but in time they corrode or burn the linen4 ,humboldt says that proceeding along the river ,carenicuar1 in the ,gulf of ,cariaco1 he saw the ,indian women washing their linen with the fruit of this tree1 there called the parapara4 ,some other species of ,sapindus and of ,gypsophila have similar properties4 ,the bruised leaves and roots of ,saponaria officinalis1 a ,british species1 form a lather which much resembles that of soap1 and is similarly efficacious in removing grease spots4 ,the bark of many species of ,quillaia1 as ,q4 saponaria1 when beaten between stones1 makes a lather which can be used as a substitute for soap1 in washing woollens and silk clothes1 and to clean colors in dyeing1 in ,chili and ,brazil1 but it turns linen yellow4 ,the fruit of ,bromelia ,pinguin is equally useful4 ,a vegetable soap was prepared some years ago in ,jamaica from the leaves of the ,american aloe 7,agave ,americana7 which was found as detergent as ,castile soap for washing linen1 and had the superior quality of mixing and forming a lather with salt water as well as fresh4 ,dr4 ,robinson1 the naturalist1 thus describes the process he adopted in #agfg1 and for which he was awarded a grant by the ,house of ,assembly3--,the lower leaves of the ,curaca or ,coratoe 7,agave karatu7 were passed between heavy rollers to express the juice1 which1 after being strained through a hair cloth1 was merely inspissated by the action of the sun1 or a slow fire1 and cast into balls or casks4 ,the only precaution necessary was to allow no mixture of any unctuous materials1 which destroyed the efficacy of the soap4 ,a vegetable soap1 which has been found excellent for washing silk1 c1 may be thus obtained4 ,to one part of the skin of the ,ackee add one and a half part of the ,agave karatu1 macerated in one part of boiling water for twenty-four hours1 and with the extract from this decoction mix four per cent4 of rosin4 ,in ,brazil1 soap is made from the ashes of the bassura or broom plant 7,sidu lanceolata7 which abounds with alkali4 ,there are also some soap barks and pods of native plants used in ,china4 ,several other plants have been employed in different countries as a substitute for soap4 ,the bark of ,quillaia saponaria renders water frothy and is used as a detergent by wool dyers4 ,saponaria vaccana is common in ,india4 ,the pericarp of ,sapindus emarginatus mixed with water froths like soap4 ,saponaceous berries are found in ,java4 ,the soap-worts to which the genus ,sapindus belongs are tropical plants4 ,the fruit of many species of ,sapindus is used as a substitute for soap1 as ,sapindus acuminata1 ,laurifolius emarginatus and detergens1 all ,east ,indian plants4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,plants ,,yielding ,,drugs1 ,,including ,,narcotics ,,and ,,other ,,common ,,medicinal ,,substances4 ,the chief plants furnishing the drugs of commerce1 and which enter largely into tropical agriculture1 are the narcotic plants1 especially tobacco1 the poppy for opium1 and the betel nut and leaf2 as masticatories--but there are very many others to which the attention of the cultivator may profitably be directed4 ,i have already trenched so largely upon my space1 that ,i cannot do that justice to the plants coming under this section ,i could have wished4 ,there are very many1 however1 of which ,i must make incidental mention4 ,some few medicinal plants have been already alluded to in former sections1 particularly in that on dye-stuffs1 c4 ,,the ,,coca ,,plant grows about four or five feet high1 with pale bright green leaves1 somewhat resembling in shape those of the orange tree4 ,the leaves are picked from the trees three or four times a year1 and carefully dried in the shade2 they are then packed in small baskets4 ,the greatest quantity is grown about #cj leagues from ,cicacica1 among the ,yunnos on the frontiers of the ,yunghos4 ,some is also cultivated near to ,huacaibamba4 ,the natives in several parts of ,peru chew these leaves as ,europeans do tobacco1 particularly in the mining districts1 when at work in the mines or travelling2 and such is the sustenance that they derive from them1 that they frequently take no food for four or five days4 ,i have often 7observes ,mr4 ,stevenson7 been assured by them1 that whilst they have a good supply of coca they feel neither hunger1 thirst1 nor fatigue1 and that without impairing their health they can remain eight to ten days and nights without sleep4 ,the leaves are almost insipid1 but when a small quantity of lime is mixed with them1 they have a very agreeable sweet taste4 ,the natives generally carry with them a leather pouch containing coca1 and a small calabash holding lime or the ashes of the molle to mix with them4 ,cocculus indicus1 or ,indian berries4--,this is the commercial name for the berries or fruit of the ,menispermum ,cocculus of ,linnus1 ,m4 heteroclitum of ,roxburgh1 ,animerta paniculata of ,colebrooke1 ,a4 ,cocculus of ,wright and ,arnot1 and ,cocculus suberosus of ,decandolle4 ,it is a strong climbing shrub or tree1 native of ,malabar1 ,ceylon1 and the ,eastern ,islands4 ,the seeds or drupes contain a bitter poisonous acid1 and are used for the purpose of stupefying fish1 and1 in the form of a black extract1 for fraudulently increasing the intoxicating power of malt liquors2 one pound of the berries1 it is said1 will go as far in brewing as a sack of malt4 ,the berry is kidney-shaped1 with a white kernel4 ,whilst the imports in #ahdf were but #bdf bags1 in #ahej they had increased to #b1cei bags of about #a cwt4 each4 ,the price is #ais4 to #bds4 the cwt4 ,a crystalline1 poisonous1 narcotic principle called picrotoxin1 has been detected in these seeds1 and occasionally employed externally in some cutaneous diseases4 ,cocculus crispus is used in intermittent fevers and liver complaints4 ,the annual imports now average #bej tons1 and nearly the whole is consumed for illegal purposes by brewers4 ,though the practice is nominally discountenanced by the ,legislature under the penalty of #bjj upon the brewer and #ejj upon the seller1 yet under the recent tariff great encouragement is given to the introduction of these berries1 the duty having been reduced from #gs4 #f;d4 to #es4 the cwt4 ,the capsules and seeds of ,xanthoxylum hostile are also employed for the same purpose as cocculus indicus4 ,the bark of ,walseria piscidia1 a native of the ,circar mountains1 also intoxicates fish4 ,about #bej tons of ,nux vomica1 another species of dried flat seed possessing intoxicating properties1 are also imported annually for the same purposes1 and they fetch about #fs4 to #hs4 the cwt4 ,,betel ,,leaf4--,piper ,betel1 a scandent species of the shrubby evergreen tribe of plants belonging to the pepper family1 furnishes the celebrated betel leaf of the ,southern ,asiatics1 in which they enclose a few slices of the areca nut and a little shell lime2 this they chew to sweeten the breath1 and to keep off the pangs of hunger1 and it acts also as a narcotic4 ,such is the immense consumption of this masticatory1 termed ,pan1 in the ,east1 that it forms nearly as extensive an article of commerce as that of tobacco in the ,west4 ,the tax on the leaf forms a considerable portion of the local revenue of ,pinang2 in #ahje1 the tax yielded as much as #e1djj dollars4 ,rumphius describes six species of this vine1 besides several wild and cultivated varieties4 ,it is very easily reared in the ,indian islands1 but in the countries of the ,deccan requires manuring1 frequent watering and great care1 and in the northern parts of ,hindostan it becomes an exotic very difficult to rear4 ,the vine affords leaves fit for use in the second year1 and continues to yield for more than thirty1 the quantity diminishing as the plants grow older4 ,,areca ,,palm 7,acacia ,catechu74--,this is a fine1 slender1 graceful tree1 rising from #bj to #cj feet high1 which1 being a native of the ,east1 is found abundant in many of the forests of ,india1 from #af to #cj degs4 of latitude4 ,the principal places of its growth are the ,burmese territories1 a large province on the ,malabar coast called the ,concan1 and the forests skirting the northern parts of ,bengal1 under the hills which divide it from ,nepaul1 the south and west coasts of ,ceylon1 the south of ,china1 c41 the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,sumatra and the ,eastern islands1 it produces fruit at five years old1 and continues bearing till about its twenty-fifth year1 when it withers and dies4 ,it thrives at a greater distance from the sea1 and in more elevated regions than the coco-nut palm4 ,in ,prince of ,wales ,island some hundreds of thousands of these palms are cultivated4 ,the seeds or nuts form a chief ingredient in the celebrated eastern masticatory called ,pan and which seems to owe its stimulating properties to the leaves of the ,piper ,betel4 ,when prepared for use1 the nut is cut into slices and wrapped in the fresh leaves of the betel pepper vine1 together with a quantity of quicklime 7,chunam7 to give it a flavor4 ,the flavor is peculiar1 between an herbaceous and an aromatic taste4 ,all classes1 male and female1 chew it2 they say it sweetens the breath1 strengthens the stomach1 and preserves the teeth1 to which it gives a reddish hue2 there is probably less objection to its use than tobacco or opium1 and its taste is more pleasant2 but1 if taken to excess1 it will produce stupor like other narcotics1 and even intoxication4 ,the nuts grow in large bunches at the top1 and when ripe are red and have a beautiful appearance2 they resemble the nutmeg in shape and color1 but are larger and harder4 ,when gathered they are laid in heaps until the shell be somewhat rotted1 and then dried in the sun1 after which the process of shelling commences4 ,the trees vary in their yield from #cjj to #a1jjj nuts1 averaging about #ad lbs42 which the cultivators sell at about half a dollar 7#bs47 a picul of #acc lbs4 ,as these palms are planted usually at the distance of #g feet1 it follows that the produce of an acre is about #aj1hda lbs4 ,the tree bears but once in a year generally1 but there are green nuts enough to eat all the year long4 ,betel nut is a staple article of import into ,china2 #be1jjj piculs annually is the amount returned1 but there is an immense quantity imported in ,chinese junks from ,hainan1 of which there is no account kept4 ,in the single port of ,canton alone1 #ae1efe piculs were imported in #ahdd1 and about #djj to ,ningpo4 #c1jje piculs of betel nuts1 valued at #h1gjj dollars1 were imported into ,canton in #ahej1 and as much as #d1jjj tons of areca nuts are shipped annually from ,ceylon4 ,the astringent extract obtained from the seeds of the ,areca-palm constitutes two 7or perhaps more7 kinds of the catechu of the shops4 ,according to ,dr4 ,heyne 7,tracts ,hist4 and ,statist4 on ,india71 it is largely procured in ,mysore1 about ,sirah1 in the following manner3-- ,the nuts are taken as they come from the tree and boiled for some hours in an iron vessel4 ,they are then taken out1 and the remaining water is inspissated by continual boiling4 ,this process furnishes ,kassu1 or most astringent terra japonica1 which is black and mixed with paddy criu1 husks1 and other impurities4 ,after the nuts are dried1 they are put into a fresh quantity of water1 boiled again2 and this water being inspissated1 like the former1 yields the best or dearest kind of catechu1 called ,coony4 ,it is yellowish brown1 has an earthy fracture1 and is free from the admixture of foreign bodies4 ,most of the betel nuts imported into ,china come from ,java1 ,singapore1 and ,pinang4 ,betel nut is not so generally used in the ,south of ,china as among the ,southern ,islands1 and in the north of ,china it is a luxury1 as the pepper does not grow freely there4 ,formerly there was a considerable trade in betel nuts with the ,coromandel coast1 from whence the natives brought back manufactured goods and other necessaries in return1 but this has ceased for some time4 ,the common price was #bj1jjj for a dollar4 ,these nuts are seldom imported into ,england1 though they might be of use as a dye in some manufactures4 ,the natives of the ,east chew the fruit of ,elate sylvestris1 7which is something like a wild plum71 in the same manner as the areca nut1 with the leaf of the betel pepper and quick lime4 ,the inner wood furnishes a kind of ,catechu or ,cutch1 which contains much tannin and is a powerful astringent4 ,it is obtained by the simple process of boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours1 when it assumes the appearance and consistency of tar4 ,it hardens by cooling1 and when formed into small squares and dried in the sun is fit for the market4 ,the produce of ,bombay is of uniform texture and of a dark red color4 ,that of ,concan and other parts of ,india is of chocolate color1 and marked inside with red streaks4 ,the analysis of ,sir ,h4 ,davy gave the following result3-- ,bombay4 ,concan4 ,tannin #ed4e #dh4e ,extractive #cd4j #cf4e ,mucilage #f4e #h4j ,insoluble matters1 sand1 lime1 c4 #e4j #g4j ----- ----- #ajj4 #ajj4 ,catechu is in extensive use in ,india for tanning purposes1 and of late years it has entirely superseded madder in the calico works of ,europe for dyeing a golden coffee-brown1 one pound of catechu being found equivalent to six pounds of madder4 ,value of the areca nuts exported from ,ceylon to the ,british ,colonies and foreign ,states in the years named3-- 4 #ahci #bb1ief #ahdj #bc1jif #ahda #bb1dbh #ahdb #bi1bbb #ahdc #bg1jbh #ahdd #bj1igh #ahde #ca1hcf #ahdf #cd1bji #ahdg #ce1gbc #ahdh #db1dhb #ahdi #ca1gdf #ahej #db1ijg #ahea #ed1hdf #aheb #eb1bcj ,,the ,,poppy4 ,,opium is the concrete inspissated juice of the white poppy1 ,papaver somniferum and its varieties1 obtained by scratching the capsules and collecting the exuding juice4 ,the plant has been long known1 and is perhaps one of the earliest described4 ,it is a native of ,western ,asia and probably also of the ,south of ,europe1 but it has been distributed over various countries4 ,in #ahbf the imports of opium into the ,united ,kingdom were #gi1hbi lbs41 of which #bh1cbi lbs4 were consumed in this country4 ,the imports and consumption in subsequent years are shown by the following figures3-- ,imports4 ,consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahbg #aac1adj #ag1cbb #ahcj #bji1jgf #bb1ffh #ahcc #ajf1hdf #ce1djg #ahcf #acj1gid #ch1idc #ahci #aif1bdg #da1fhb #ahdb #gb1cgc #dg1dcb #ahde #bei1fdd #ch1bbi #ahdh #bjj1jai #fa1jee #ahai #aje1gbd #dd1agg #ahej #abf1cah #db1cbd #ahea #aah1jbd #ej1fhb #aheb #bje1ghj #fb1eba ,few who have not looked into the statistics of this trade1 are aware of the enormous consumption of opium all over the world1 but chiefly in ,china and ,india4 ,in #ahde1 #ah1gib chests of opium were sent from ,calcutta to ,china1 and nearly the same number of the ,malwa opium from ,bombay and ,damaun4 ,the total production of ,india exported to ,china1 in #ahdd1 was #ba1ebf chests from ,bengal1 and #ah1cba from ,bombay1 in all #ci1hdg chests4 ,the number of persons in ,china given to the consumption of opium was estimated1 in #ahcg1 at three millions1 and the average quantity smoked by each individual is about #ag grains a day4 ,the consumption of ,indian opium 7independent of ,turkey opium7 in ,china has gradually increased from #c1baj chests in #ahag1 to #i1ifi chests in #ahbg1 and about #dj1jjj chests in #ahcg1 valued at #be1jjj1jjj dollars4 ,now it has reached #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj chests4 ,notwithstanding severe penalties1 imprisonment1 temporary banishment1 and even death1 the number of those who smoke opium has multiplied exceedingly1 and the contraband trade in the drug is carried on to so large an extent1 that it is to be feared the practice will become general throughout the empire4 ,according to ,mr4 ,e4 ,thornton's statistics1 the production of opium in ,bengal has increased cent4 per cent4 in the last ten years3-- ,chests4 #ahdj-da #ag1heh #ahda-db #ah1hbg #ahdb-dc #ah1cfb #ahdc-dd #ae1ajd #ahdd-de #ah1cej #ahde-df #ba1dcg #ahdf-dg #ba1fdh #ahdg-dh #cj1eae #ahdh-di #cf1jjj ,the chest is about #adj lbs41 so that the production in #ahdi was #e1jdj1jjj lbs4 ,according to the statements annexed to the statistical papers relating to ,india1 the income from the opium monopoly is obtained by two principal means1 namely1 by a system of allowing the cultivation of the poppy by the natives of ,british ,india on account of ,government1 and by the impost of a heavy duty on opium grown and manufactured in foreign states1 but brought in transit to a ,british port for exportation4 ,the former system obtains in ,bengal1 the latter in ,bombay4 ,according to the statements published1 ,bengal opium yields a profit of #gs4 #f;d4 per lb41 whilst the duty derived in the ,bombay presidency is only equal to a surplus of #es4 #h;d4 per lb4 ,by these means the total revenue realised by the opium monopoly1 in ,bengal and ,bombay1 in the year #ahdi-ej yielded #c1cji1fcg4 ,lest objection should be taken to this large annual revenue derived from the cultivation of a drug1 the unnatural consumption of which would be suppressed under any other ,european government1 the ,court of ,directors is very anxious to show the benefit which the country derives from this monopoly2 they say that as the price of opium is almost wholly paid by foreign consumers1 and the largest return is obtained with the smallest outlay1 the best interests of ,india would1 appear to be consulted4 ,nobody at all acquainted with the financial resources and the capabilities of any country1 would hazard such an assertion4 ,by paying cultivators for the restricted growth of the poppy a price hardly yielding more than the average rate of wages to the common laborer1 ,i do not see in what way the best interests of ,india are consulted1 nor is it clear that the population derives any benefit by being prohibited altogether from manufacturing a drug1 which may be brought from another country in transitu on the payment of a heavy duty2 unless indeed the ,court of ,directors are of opinion that in the event of the abolition of the monopoly1 the people of the country would have to make up for the loss of the revenue by submitting to some other mode of direct or indirect taxation4 ,there is an inconsistency in the statements of the ,court of ,directors1 which is absolutely amusing4 ,the free cultivation of the poppy1 say the ,directors1 would doubtless lead to the larger outlay of capital1 and to greater economy in production2 but the poppy requires the richest description of land1 and its extended cultivation must therefore displace other products4 ,how very considerate on the part of the ,directors1 but how strongly at variance with facts1 since all the fear of displacing other products1 and all this appropriation of the richest description of land for other purposes has not prevented the ,indian ,government1 within less than ten years1 from more than doubling the cultivation of the poppy and the manufacture of opium4 ,the ,directors tell us that the heavy transit duty charged at ,bombay is to discourage production1 but they do not say whether that discouragement applies1 as one would imagine1 to those foreign districts which have to pay the transit duty for their production4 ,if so1 the assertion is again at variance with facts1 because in a subsequent statement they say1 ,it is stated that neither the price of opium1 nor the extent of cultivation in ,malwa1 has been affected by the great enhancement of the pass duty1 which has taken place since #ahde4 ,the following will show that the ,company loses no opportunity of applying the screw3-- ,the subjugation of ,scinde afforded opportunity for the levy of a higher rate4 ,down to the period of that event1 a large portion of the opium of ,malwa had been conveyed through ,scinde to ,kurrachee1 and thence onward to the ,portuguese ports of ,diu and ,demaun4 ,that route is now closed1 and it was reasonably expected that an advance might be made in the charge of passes without the risk of loss to the revenue from a diminished demand for them4 ,the rate was accordingly increased in ,october1 #ahdc1 from #abe to #bjj rupees per chest4 ,upon the principle that it was desirable to fix the price at the highest amount that could be levied1 without forcing the trade into other channels1 a further increase was made in #ahde4 when it was determined that the charge should be #cjj rupees per chest4 ,under the like views it was1 in #ahdg1 raised to #djj rupees per chest4 ,the company was perfectly correct1 for though the quantity of opium did not increase1 the revenue did2 and whilst in #ahdj-da #af1ggc chests yielded an income of only #bb1jdf1deb rupees--#af1ejj chests brought in #ahdi-ej actually #gb1jid1hce rupees into the coffers of the ,government of ,bombay4 ,but the people of ,india earned not a pice by it1 and those richest descriptions of land1 which it was so desirable to reserve for other produce than the poppy1 remained barren4 ,the white variety of the poppy is that which is exclusively brought under cultivation for the production of the drug in ,india and ,egypt4 ,for the successful culture of opium a mild climate1 plentiful irrigation1 a rich soil1 and diligent husbandry are indispensable4 ,one acre of well cultivated ground will yield from #gj lbs4 to #ajj lbs4 of chick1 or inspissated juice1 the price of which varies from #fs4 to #abs4 a pound1 so that an acre will yield from #bj to #fj worth of opium at one crop4 ,three pounds of chick will produce one pound of opium1 from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in evaporation4 ,a chief chemical feature1 which distinguishes ,bengal opium from that of ,turkey and ,egypt1 is the large proportion which the narcotine in the former bears to the morphia1 and this proportion is constant in all seasons4 ,it is a matter of importance to ascertain whether the treatment which the juice receives after its collection can influence in any way the amount of alkaloids1 or of the other principles in opium4 ,in ,turkey it is the custom to beat up the juice with saliva1 in ,malwa it is immersed as collected in linseed oil1 whilst in ,bengal it is brought to the required consistence by mere exposure to the air in the shade1 though1 at the same time1 all the watery particles of the juice that will separate are drained off1 and used in making ,lewah1 or inferior opium4 ,the lands selected for poppy cultivation are generally situated in the vicinity of villages1 where the facilities for manuring and irrigation are greatest4 ,in such situations and when the soil is rich1 it is frequently the practice with the cultivators to take a crop of ,indian corn1 maize1 or vegetables off the ground during the rainy season1 and after the removal of this in ,september1 to dress and manure the ground for the subsequent poppy sowings4 ,in other situations1 however1 and when the soil is not rich1 the poppy crop is the only one taken off the ground during the year1 and from the commencement of the rains in ,june or ,july1 until ,october1 the ground is dressed and cleaned by successive ploughings and weedings1 and manured to the extent which the means of the cultivator will permit4 ,in the final preparation of the land in ,october and ,november1 the soil1 after being well loosened and turned up by the plough1 is crushed and broken down by the passage of a heavy log of wood over its surface1 and it is in this state ready for sowing4 ,the amount of produce from various lands differs considerably4 ,under very favorable circumstances of soil and season1 as much as twelve or even thirteen seers 7#bf lbs47 of standard opium may be1 obtained from each biggah of #bg1bbe square feet4 ,under less favorable conditions the turn-out may not exceed three or four seers1 but the usual amount of produce varies from six to eight seers per biggah4 ,the chemical examination of different soils in connection with their opium-producing powers1 presents a field for profitable and interesting inquiry2 nor is the least important part of the investigation that which has reference to variations in the proportions of the alkaloids 7especially the morphia and narcotine71 which occur in opium produced in various localities4 ,that atmospheric causes exert a certain influence in determining these variations is probable2 that they influence the amount of produce1 and cause alterations in the physical appearance of the drug1 are facts well known to every cultivator3 thus the effect of dew is to facilitate the flow of the juice from the wounded capsule1 rendering it abundant in quantity1 but causing it at the same time to be dark and liquid4 ,an easterly wind 7which in ,india is usually concomitant with a damp state of atmosphere71 retards the flow of juice1 and renders it dark and liquid4 ,a moderate westerly wind1 with dew at night1 form the atmospheric conditions most favorable for collection1 both as regards the quantity and quality of the exudation4 ,if1 however1 the westerly wind 7which is an extremely dry wind7 blow violently1 the exudation from the capsules is sparing4 ,whilst the effect of meteorological phenomena in producing the above results are well marked1 their action in altering the relative proportions of the chemical constituents of the juice of the poppy plant is more obscure1 and it is highly probable that the chemical composition of the soil plays a most important part in this respect4 ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy is certainly the most accomplished chemist who had ever1 in ,india1 turned his attention to the subject1 and he has published the results of his analyses of specimens of opium from the different divisions of the ,behar ,agency1 which are worthy of much attention4 ,in the opium from eight divisions of the agency1 he found the quantity of morphia to range from #a grains to #c grains per cent41 and the amount of the narcotine to vary from grain to #c grains per cent41 the consistence of the various specimens being between #ge and #gi per cent4 ,in the opium from the ,hazareebaugh district 7the consistence of the drug being #gg71 he found #d per cent1 of morphia1 and #d per cent1 narcotine2 whilst from a specimen of ,patna-garden opium he extracted no less than #aj per cent4 of morphia1 and #f per cent4 of narcotine1 the consistence of the drug being #hg4 ,with respect to the last specimen1 ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy mentions that the poppies which produced it were irrigated three times during the season1 and that no manure was employed upon the soil4 ,it is much to be regretted that these interesting results were not coupled with an analysis of the soils from which the specimens were produced1 for to chemical variations in it must be attributed the widely different results recorded above4 ,opium as a medicine has been used from the earliest ages2 but when it was first resorted to as a luxury1 it is impossible to state1 though it is not at all improbable that this was coeval with its employment in medicine1 for how often do we find that1 from having been first administered as a sedative for pain1 it has been continued until it has taken the place of the evil4 ,such must have happened from the earliest ages1 as it happens daily in the present2 but as a national vice it was not known until the spread of ,islamism1 when1 by the tenets of the ,prophet1 wine and fermented liquors being prohibited1 it came in their stead along with the bang or hasch-schash 7made from hemp71 coffee1 and tobacco4 ,from the ,arabs the inhabitants of the ,eastern ,archipelago most probably imbibed their predilection for opium1 although their particular manner of using it has evidently been derived from the ,chinese4 ,china1 where at present it is so extensively used1 cannot be said to have indulged long in the vice4 ,previous to #agfg the number of chests imported did not exceed #bjj yearly2 now the average is #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj4 ,in #aggc the ,east ,india ,company made their first venture in opium1 and in #agif it was declared a crime to smoke opium4 ,in different countries we find opium consumed in different ways4 ,in ,england it is either used in a solid state1 made into pills1 or a tincture in the shape of laudanum4 ,insidiously it is given to children under a variety of quack forms1 such as ,godfrey's cordial1 c4 ,in ,india the pure opium is either dissolved in water and so used1 or rolled into pills4 ,it is there a common practice to give it to children when very young1 by mothers1 who require to work and cannot at the same time nurse their offspring4 ,in ,china it is either smoked or swallowed in the shape of ,tye4 ,in ,bally it is first adulterated with ,china paper1 and then rolled up with the fibres of a particular kind of plantain4 ,it is then inserted into a hole made at the end of a small bamboo1 and smoked4 ,in ,java and ,sumatra it is often mixed with sugar and the ripe fruit of the plantain4 ,in ,turkey it is usually taken in pills1 and those who do so1 avoid drinking any water after swallowing them1 as this is said to produce violent colics2 but to make it more palatable1 it is sometimes mixed with syrups or thickened juices2 in this form1 however1 it is less intoxicating1 and resembles mead4 ,it is then taken with a spoon1 or is dried in small cakes1 with the words ,mash ,allah1 or ,word of ,god1 imprinted on them4 ,when the dose of two or three drachms a day no longer produces the beatific intoxication1 so eagerly sought by the opiophagi1 they mix the opium with corrosive sublimate1 increasing the quantity of the latter till it reaches ten grains a day4 ,it then acts as a stimulant4 ,in addition to its being used in the shape of pills1 it is frequently mixed with hellebore and hemp1 and forms a mixture known by the name of majoon1 whose properties are different from that of opium1 and may account in a great measure for the want of similitude in the effect of the drug on the ,turk and the ,chinese4 ,in ,singapore and ,china the refuse of the chandu1 the prepared extract of opium1 is all used by the lower classes4 ,this extract1 when consumed1 leaves a refuse1 consisting of charcoal1 empyreumatic oil1 some of the salts of opium1 and a part of the chandu not consumed4 ,now one ounce of chandu gives nearly half an ounce of this refuse1 called ,tye1 or ,tinco4 ,this is smoked and swallowed by the poorer classes1 who only pay half the price of chandu for it4 ,when smoked it yields a further refuse called samshing1 and this is even used by the still poorer1 although it contains a very small quantity of the narcotic principle4 ,samshing1 however1 is never smoked1 as it cannot furnish any smoke1 but is swallowed1 and that not unfrequently mixed with arrack4 ,preparation4--,in ,asia ,minor1 men1 women1 and children1 a few days after the flower falls from the poppies1 proceed to the fields1 and with a shell scratch the capsules1 wait twenty-four hours1 and collect the tears1 which amount to two or three grains in weight from each capsule4 ,these being collected and mixed with the scrapings of the shells1 worked up with saliva and surrounded by dried leaves1 it is then sold1 but1 generally speaking1 not without being still more adulterated with cow's dung1 sand1 gravel1 the petals of flowers1 c4 ,different kinds of opium are known in the markets of ,europe and ,asia4 ,the first in point of quality is the ,smyrna1 known in commerce as the ,turkey or ,levant4 ,it occurs in irregular1 rounded1 flattened masses1 seldom exceeding two pounds in weight1 and surrounded by leaves of a kind of sorrel2 the quantity of morphia said to be derived from average specimens is eight per cent4 ,second1 ,constantinople ,opium1 two kinds of which are found in the market1 one in very voluminous irregular cakes1 which are flattened like the ,smyrna2 this is a good quality4 ,the other kind is in small1 flattened1 regular cakes1 from two to two and a half inches in diameter1 and covered with the leaves of the poppy2 the quantity of morphia is very uncertain in this description of opium1 sometimes mounting as high as #ae per cent41 and sometimes descending so low as six1 showing the great variety in the quality of the drug4 ,third1 ,egyptian ,opium1 occurs in round flattened cakes1 about #c inches in diameter1 and covered externally with the vestiges of some leaf4 ,it is distinguished from the others by its reddish color1 resembling ,socotrine ,aloes4 ,the quantity of morphia in this is inferior to the preceding4 ,it has one quality which1 when adulterated1 ought to be known1 that is a musty smell4 ,by keeping it does not blacken like the other kinds4 ,fourth1 ,english ,opium1 is in flat cakes or balls enveloped in leaves4 ,it resembles fine ,egyptian opium more than any other kind4 ,its color is that of hepatic aloes1 and in the quantity of morphia it is inferior to the preceding1 but in the strength of the mass it is said by one of its most extensive cultivators to be superior4 ,fifth1 ,french1 and sixth ,german ,opium1 require no particular remarks4 ,by a recent notice ,i find the ,french are cultivating the poppy in ,algeria1 from which they get opium giving a small per centage of morphia4 ,seventh1 ,trebizond or ,persian ,opium1 is sometimes met with of a very inferior quality in the form of cylindrical sticks1 which by pressure have become angular4 ,eighth1 ,indian ,opium1 divided into four kinds1 ,cutch1 ,malwa1 ,patna and ,benares4 ,of these ,cutch is but little known or cultivated4 ,it occurs in small cakes covered with leaves1 and its color is much inferior to ,smyrna4 ,malwa opium is to be met with of two kinds4 ,the inferior is in flattened cakes1 without any external covering1 dull1 opaque1 blackish brown externally1 internally somewhat darker1 and soft4 ,its color is somewhat like the ,smyrna1 but less powerful1 and with a slight smoky smell4 ,superior ,malwa is in square cakes1 about three inches in length and one inch thick4 ,it has the appearance of a well prepared1 shining1 dry1 pharmaceutical extract2 its color is blackish brown1 its odor less powerful than ,smyrna2 it is not covered by petals as the following kinds are1 but smeared with oil2 it is then rubbed with pounded petals4 ,the ,behar1 ,patna1 and ,benares ,opium1 being strictly in the hands of ,government1 no adulteration can take place1 without a most extensive system of fraud2 but it will not be uninteresting to trace the progress of the opium from the hands of the natives1 to the condition in which it is delivered to the public by the ,government4 ,from the commencement of the hot season to the middle of the rains the ,government is ready to receive opium1 which is brought by the natives every morning1 in batches1 varying in quantities from twenty seers to a maund4 ,the examining officer into each jar thrusts his examining rod1 which consists of a slit bamboo1 and1 by experience1 he can so judge of the qualities of the specimens before him1 which are sorted into lots of ,no4 #a to ,no4 #d quality4 ,opium of the first quality is of a fine chesnut color1 aromatic smell1 and dense consistence4 ,it is moderately ductile1 and1 when the mass is torn1 breaks with a deeply notched fracture1 with sharp needle-like fibres1 translucent and ruby red at the edges4 ,it is readily broken down under water1 and the solution at first filters of a sherry color1 which darkens as the process proceeds4 ,one hundred grains of this yield an extract to cold distilled water of from #ce to #de1 and at the temperature of #bab degs41 leaves from #bj to #bh per cent41 having a consistency of #gj to #gb1 the consistence of the factory4 ,the second quality is inferior to the first1 and the third quality is possessed of the following properties1 black paste1 of a very heavy smell1 drops from the examining rod1 gives off from #dj to #ej per cent1 of moisture1 and contains a large quantity of ,pasewa2 while the fourth or last number embraces all the kinds which are too bad to be used in the composition of the balls1 comprising specimens of all varieties of color and consistence4 ,this number is mixed with water1 and only used as a paste to cement the covering of the balls4 ,the three first qualities are emptied from their jars into large tanks1 in which they are kept until the supply of the season has been obtained4 ,the opium is then removed and exposed to the air on shallow wooden frames1 until it becomes of the consistency of from #fi to #gj1 when it is given to the cake maker1 who guesses to a drachm the exact weight1 and envelops the opium in its covering of petals1 cemented by a covering of quality number #d4 ,the balls are then weighed and stored1 to undergo a thorough ventilation and drying4 ,formerly the covering of the balls was composed of the leaves of tobacco2 but the late ,mr4 ,flemming introduced the practice of using the petals of the poppy1 which was such an improvement that the ,court of ,directors presented him with #ej1jjj rupees4 ,the balls1 forty in number1 are packed in a mango wood case1 which consists of two stories with twenty pigeon holes in each1 lined with lath and surrounded by the dried leaves of the poppy4 ,sometimes these balls are so soft as to burst their skins1 and much of the liquid opium running out1 is lost4 ,in #ahbc1 many of the chests of ,patna lost five catties from this cause1 and to this day we have the same thing continuing to occur4 ,patna chests are covered with bullock hides1 ,benares with gunnies4 ,dr4 ,impey1 staff surgeon at ,poona1 who resided in ,malwa from #ahdc to #ahdf1 published at ,bombay1 in #ahdh1 a valuable treatise on the cultivation1 preparation1 and adulteration of ,malwa opium4 ,it was some time before he obtained the permission of the ,east ,india ,company to publish the result of the experience he had acquired in ,malwa1 and as ,government inspector of opium at ,bombay4 ,it is the most practical treatise ,i have yet met with1 although a very elaborate1 useful paper1 by ,mr4 ,little1 surgeon1 of ,singapore1 appears in the #bnd vol4 of the ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 from which ,i have quoted the preceding remarks4 ,mr4 ,little furnishes a complete history of the drug1 and the physical and mental effects resulting from its habitual use4 ,there are also some able remarks in ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy's ,bengal ,dispensatory3-- ,for the successful cultivation of opium1 a mild climate1 plentiful irrigation1 a rich soil1 and diligent husbandry1 are indispensable4 ,in reference to the first of these1 ,malwa is placed most favorably4 ,the country is in general from #a1cjj to #b1jjj feet above the level of the sea3 the mean temperature is moderate1 and range of the thermometer small4 ,opium is always cultivated in ground near a tank or running stream1 so as to be insured at all times of an abundant supply of water4 ,the rich black loam1 supposed to be produced by the decomposition of trap1 and known by the name of cotton soil1 is that prepared for opium4 ,though fertile and rich enough to produce thirty successive crops of wheat without fallowing1 it is not sufficiently rich for the growth of the poppy until largely supplied with manure4 ,there is1 in fact1 no crop known to the agriculturist1 unless sugar cane1 that requires so much care and labor as the poppy4 ,the ground is first four times ploughed on four successive days1 then carefully harrowed2 when manure1 at the rate of from eight to ten cart loads an acre1 is applied to it2 this is scarcely half what is allowed a turnip crop at home4 ,the crop is after this watered once every eight or ten days1 the total number of waterings never exceeding nine in all4 ,one beegah takes two days to soak thoroughly in the cold weather1 and four as the hot season approaches4 ,water applied after the petals drop from the flower1 causes the whole to wither and decay4 ,when the plants are six inches high1 they are weeded and thinned1 leaving about a foot and a-half betwixt each plant2 in three months they reach maturity1 and are then about four feet in height if well cultivated4 ,the full-grown seed-pod measures three and a-half inches vertically1 and two and a-half in horizontal diameter4 ,early in ,february and ,march the bleeding process commences4 ,three small lancet-shaped pieces of iron are bound together with cotton1 about one-twelfth of an inch of the blade alone protruding1 so that no discretion as to the depth of the wound to be inflicted shall be left to the operator2 and this is drawn sharply up from the top of the stalk at the base1 to the summit of the pod4 ,the sets of people are so arranged that each plant is bled all over once every three or four days1 the bleedings being three or four times repeated on each plant4 ,this operation always begins to be performed about three or four o'clock in the afternoon1 the hottest part of the day4 ,the juice appears almost immediately on the wound being inflicted1 in the shape of a thick gummy milk1 which is thickly covered with a brownish pellicle4 ,the exudation is greatest over night1 when the incisions are washed and kept open by the dew4 ,the opium thus derived is scraped off next morning1 with a blunt iron tool resembling a cleaver in miniature4 ,here the work of adulteration begins--the scraper being passed heavily over the seed-pod1 so as to carry with it a considerable portion of the beard1 or pubescence1 which contaminates the drug and increases its apparent quantity4 ,the work of scraping begins at dawn1 and must be continued till ten o'clock2 during this time a workman will collect seven or eight ounces of what is called chick4 ,the drug is next thrown into an earthen vessel1 and covered over or drowned in linseed oil1 at the rate of two parts of oil to one of chick1 so as to prevent evaporation4 ,this is the second process of adulteration--the ryot desiring to sell the drug as much drenched with oil as possible1 the retailers at the same time refusing to purchase that which is thinner than half dried glue4 ,one acre of well cultivated ground will yield from #gj to #ajj pounds of chick4 ,the price of chick varies from three to six rupees a pound1 so that an acre will yield from #bjj to #fjj rupees worth of opium at one crop4 ,three pounds of chick will produce about two pounds of opium1 from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in evaporation4 ,it now passes into the hands of the ,bunniah1 who prepares it and brings it to market4 ,from twenty-five to fifty pounds having been collected1 is tied up in parcels in double bags of sheeting cloth1 which are suspended from the ceilings so as to avoid air and light1 while the spare linseed oil is allowed to drop through4 ,this operation is completed in a week or ten days1 but the bags are allowed to remain for a month or six weeks1 during which period the last of the oil that can be separated comes away2 the rest probably absorbs oxygen and becomes thicker1 as in paint4 ,this process occupies from ,april to ,june or ,july1 when the rain begins4 ,the bags are next taken down and their contents carefully emptied into large vats from ten to fifteen feet in diameter1 and six or eight inches thick4 ,here it is mixed together and worked up with the hands five or six hours1 until it has acquired an uniform color and consistence throughout1 become tough and capable of being formed into masses4 ,this process is peculiar to ,malwa4 ,it is now made up into balls of from eight to ten ounces each1 these being thrown1 as formed1 into a basket full of the chaff of the seeds pod4 ,it is next spread out on ground previously covered with leaves and stalks of the poppy2 here it remains for a week or so1 when it is turned over and left further to consolidate1 until hard enough to bear packing4 ,it is ready for weighing in ,october or ,november1 and is then sent to market4 ,it is next packed in chests of #aej cakes1 the total cost of the drug at the place of production being about fourteen rupees per chest1 including all expenses4 ,about #bj1jjj chests are annually sent from ,malwa1 at a prime cost charge of two lacs and #hj1jjj rupees4 ,it may easily be supposed that manipulations so numerous1 complex1 and tedious1 as those described1 give the most ample opportunities for the adulteration to which the nature of the drug tempts the fraudulent dealer4 ,in order to enable the cultivator to carry on his agricultural operations1 he receives from time to time certain advances1 the amount of which reaches in the aggregate to about one-half of the value of the estimated out-turn of produce4 ,if the land has been under cultivation in previous seasons1 its average produce is known2 if it be new land1 and considered by the ,sub-,deputy ,agent as eligible1 then the cultivator1 in addition to the usual advances1 receives an advance of so much per biggah to enable him to bestow a certain amount of extra care in tilling and dressing the soil4 ,the first advance is made on the completion of the agreement or bundobust1 and this takes place in ,september and ,october4 ,the second advance is made on the completion of the sowings in ,november1 and the final or ,chook payment is made immediately after the delivery and weighing of the produce4 ,nothing therefore can be fairer to the cultivator than this system of advances2 he is subject to no sort of exaction1 in the shape of interest or commission on the money which he receives1 and it puts within his power the certain means of making a fair profit by the exercise of common care and honesty4 ,it is an established rule in the ,agency that the cultivator's accounts of one season shall be definitively settled before the commencement of the next1 and that no outstanding balances shall remain over4 ,when a cultivator has from fraud neglected to bring produce to cover his advances1 the balances due by him are at once recovered1 if necessary by legal means2 whereas1 if he can satisfactorily show that he has become a defaulter from calamity and uncontrollable circumstances1 and that the liquidation of his debt is placed entirely beyond his power1 his case is then made the subject of report to the ,government by the ,agent1 with the request that the debt may be written off to profit and loss4 ,these provisions are most wise1 for outstanding balances may be made the means of oppression1 and to their operation may be traced a considerable amount of litigation and agrarian crime in the indigo districts of lower ,bengal4 ,it is clear that when such balances become so large that the cultivator cannot discharge them1 he is no longer a free agent1 but is perfectly subservient to the will of his creditor1 for whom he must cultivate whether he desire it or not4 ,such burdens may even be handed down from father to son4 ,the fairness of the ,agency system1 and the justice with which the cultivators are treated1 are best evidenced by the readiness with which they come forward to cultivate1 and also by the comparative rarity of agrarian crime1 arising out of matters connected with the poppy cultivation4 ,opium is grown to some extent in ,egypt2 #ci1hge lbs4 were produced in #ahca1 and sold at two dollars a pound4 ,at the end of ,october1 after the withdrawal of the ,nile waters the seed1 mixed with a portion of pulverised earth1 is sown in a strong soil1 in furrows2 after fifteen days the plant springs up1 and in two months has the thickness of a ,turkish pipe1 and a height of four feet2 the stalk is covered with long1 oval leaves1 and the fruit1 which is greenish1 resembles a small orange4 ,every morning before sunrise1 in its progress to maturity1 small incisions are made in the sides of the fruit1 from which a white liquor distils almost immediately1 which is collected in a vessel2 it soon becomes black and thickish1 and is rolled into balls1 which are covered with the washed leaves of the plant2 in this state it is sold4 ,the seeds are crushed for lamp oil1 and the plant is used for fuel4 ,a plant known in ,jamaica under the name of bull hoof yields a narcotic which has been administered successfully in the shape of tincture and a syrup1 instead of opium4 ,this is the ,muracuja ocellata1 or ,passiflora muracuja1 of ,swartz1 an elegant climber1 bearing bright scarlet blossoms4 ,there is another species1 ,m4 orbiculata1 found in ,hayti and other islands1 which may be expected to partake more or less of the properties of the former4 ,the flowers are the parts most commonly employed4 ,,the ,,tobacco ,,plant4 ,several species of ,nicotium furnish tobacco2 that chiefly used in ,europe is procured from ,n4 ,tabacum and its numerous varieties1 a plant naturally inhabiting the hotter parts of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the popular narcotic furnished by tobacco is probably in more extensive use than any other1 and its only rivals are opium and the betel-nut and leaf of the ,east4 ,the herb for smoking was brought to ,england from ,tobago1 in the ,west ,indies1 or from ,tobasco1 in ,mexico 7whence the name71 by ,sir ,ralph ,lane1 in #aehf4 ,seeds were shortly after introduced from the same quarter4 ,tobacco1 as used by man1 says ,du ,tour1 gives pleasure to the savage and the philosopher1 to the inhabitant of the burning desert and the frozen zone2 in short1 its use1 either in powder1 to chew1 or to smoke1 is universal2 and for no other reason than a sort of convulsive motion 7sneezing7 produced by the first1 and a degree of intoxication by the two last modes of use4 ,tobacco is an annual plant1 attaining a height of six feet1 having dingy red1 funnel-shaped flowers1 and viscid leaves4 ,the leaves are the officinal part1 and their active properties depend on a peculiar1 oily-like alkaloid1 called ,nicotin4 ,the flavor and strength of tobacco depend on climate1 cultivation1 and the mode of manufacture4 ,that most esteemed by the smoker is ,havanna tobacco1 but the ,virginian is the strongest4 ,the small ,havanna cigars are prepared from the leaves of ,nicotium repanda1 ,syrian and ,turkish tobacco from ,n4 rustica1 and fine ,shiraz tobacco from ,n4 persica4 ,with the exception of the ,macuba tobacco1 which is cultivated in ,martinique in a peculiar soil1 the tobacco of ,cuba is considered the finest in the world4 ,that grown in the island of ,trinidad is1 however1 fully equal to it in quality1 but all raised in the colony is generally consumed there1 and is little known in the ,english market4 ,this ought not to be the case1 for no article would pay better4 ,the ,maryland is a very light tobacco1 in thin1 yellow leaves2 that of ,virginia is in large brown leaves1 unctuous or somewhat gluey on the surface1 having a smell very like the figs of ,malaga2 that of ,havanna is in brownish light leaves1 of an agreeable and rather spicy smell1--it forms1 as ,i have already stated1 the best cigars4 ,the ,carolina tobacco is less unctuous than the ,virginian1 but in the ,united ,states it ranks next to the ,maryland4 ,the shag tobacco is dried to the proper point upon sheets of copper1 and is cut up by knife-edged chopping stamps4 ,there are said to be four kinds of tobacco reared in ,virginia1 viz41 the sweet-scented1 which is considered the best2 the big and little1 which follows next2 then the ,frederick2 and1 lastly1 the one and all1 the largest kind1 and producing most in point of quantity4 ,according to ,loudon 7,encyclo4 of ,plants71 there are fourteen species of this genus1 besides a few varieties4 ,lindley1 however1 enumerates #ca1 but many of these are mere showy species1 adapted to flower gardens4 ,i shall therefore follow chiefly ,london's classification-- #a4 ,n4 ,tabacum1 a native of several parts of ,america1 but principally known as ,virginian tobacco1 having a stem rising from four to six feet or more in height1 bearing pink flowers4 ,of this there are three chief varieties known in ,america by the popular names of ,orinoco1 ,broad-leaved and ,narrow-leaved4 ,lindley enumerates eight varieties of ,n4 ,tabacum4 #b4 ,n4 macrophylla1 or large-leaved tobacco1 an ornamental annual1 also with pink flowers1 native of ,america1 which rises to the height of six feet4 #c4 ,n4 fruticosa1 or shrubby tobacco1 an ornamental evergreen shrub1 native of ,china1 with pink blossoms1 which grows to about three feet4 #d4 ,n4 undulata1 or suaveolens1 sweet-scented or ,new ,holland tobacco1 a green house perennial1 native of ,new ,south ,wales1 with white flowers1 which is only two feet high4 #e4 ,n4 rustica4--,the common green or ,english tobacco1 an annual plant1 native of ,america1 producing white flowers1 which seldom grows higher than three feet4 #f4 ,n4 paniculata1 or panicled tobacco1 an annual plant bearing greenish yellow flowers1 native of ,peru1 rises to the height of three feet4 #g4 ,n4 glutinosa1 or clammy-leaved tobacco1 also an annual plant1 native of ,peru1 growing to the height of four feet1 with bright scarlet flowers4 #h4 ,n4 plumbaginifolia1 or curled-leaved tobacco1 an ornamental deciduous annual1 native of ,america1 with white blossoms1 rising to the height of two feet4 #i4 ,n4 pusilla1 or primrose-leaved tobacco1 an ornamental deciduous biennial1 with white flowers1 native of ,vera ,cruz1 rising to three feet4 #aj4 ,n4 quadrivalvis1 four-valved1 or ,missouri tobacco1 an ornamental annual1 native of ,north ,america1 with white flowers1 seldom growing higher than two feet4 #aa4 ,n4 nana1 or rocky mount tobacco1 a curious greenhouse annual1 native of ,north ,america1 with white blossoms1 rising only three inches high4 #ab4 ,n4 ,langsdorffii1 or ,langsdorff's tobacco1 an ornamental annual1 with greenish yellow flowers1 native of ,chili1 reaching five feet high4 #ac4 ,n4 cerinthoides1 or honey-wort tobacco1 an ornamental annual1 with greenish yellow flowers1 native country unknown4 #ad4 ,n4 repanda1 or ,havanna tobacco1 an annual with white flowers1 native of ,cuba1 rising two feet high4 ,there are a few species1 natives of the ,province of ,buenos ,ayres1 which may be particularised4 ,n4 bonariensis1 having white flowers2 ,n4 glauca1 yellowish green flowers2 ,n4 longiflora1 white flowers2 and ,n4 viscosa1 pink flowers4 ,the important mineral substances presented in ,havanna tobacco1 examined by ,hertung1 are in #ajj parts of ashes1 ,salts of potash #cd4ae ,salts of lime #ea4ch ,magnesia #d4ji ,phosphates #i4jd ,these substances were for the most part insoluble in earth1 and must have been dissolved during the growth of the crop4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,five ,,samples ,,of ,,tobacco4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #d4 ,no4 #e4 ,grown on argillaceous soil ,grown in calcareous soil4 ,potash #bi4jh #cj4fg #i4fh #i4cf #aj4cg ,soda #b4bf -- -- -- 4#cf ,lime #bg4fg #bd4gi #di4bh #di4dd #ci4eh ,magnesia #g4bb #h4eg #ad4eh #ae4ei #ae4jd ,chloride of sodium 4#ia #e4ie #d4fa #c4bj #f4ci ,chloride of potassium -- -- #d4dd #c4bg #b4ii ,phosphate of iron #h4gh #f4jc #e4ai #f4gb #g4ef ,sulphate of lime #f4dc #e4fj #f4fh #f4ad #i4db ,silica #ag4fe #ah4ci #e4ed #f4bh #h4cd ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,from the above it will be seen that on the argillaceous soil the tobacco contained a large quantity of alkalies and silica1 while on the other hand1 the lime1 magnesia and chlorides were high in proportion1 in the tobacco grown on calcareous soil4 ,there is no doubt that the manure which contains the largest proportion of alkaline carbonate1 magnesia1 lime and gypsum1 is that best adapted for tobacco4 ,i give an analysis taken from ,prof4 ,johnston's ,lectures1 7#bnd edition7 of the ash of the tobacco leaf and the composition of a special manure for tobacco3-- ,potash #ab4ad ,soda #j4jg ,lime #de4ij ,magnesia #ac4ji ,chloride of sodium #c4di ,chloride of potassium #c4ih ,phosphate of iron #e4dh ,phosphate of lime #a4di ,sulphate of lime #f4ce ,silica #h4ja ------ #ajj4jj ,all the ingredients which are necessary to replace #ajj lbs4 of the ash of tobacco leaves are present in the following mixture3-- ,bone dust1 sulphuric acid #bc lbs4 ,carbonate of potash 7dry7 #ca ,carbonate of soda 7dry7 #e ,carbonate of ,magnesia #be ,carbonate of lime 7chalk7 #fj ------ #add ,the following is the result of an analysis of the fresh leaves of tobacco1 by ,posselt and ,reimann 7,mag4 ,pharm4 xxiv4 xxv473-- ,nicotine #j4jf ,nicotianine #j4ja ,extractive matter1 slightly bitter #b4cg ,gum1 with a little malate of lime #a4gd ,green resin #j4bf ,vegetable albumen #j4bf ,substance analogous to gluten #a4jd ,malic acid #j4ea ,malate of ammonia #j4ab ,sulphate of potash #j4jd ,chloride of potassium #j4jf ,potash combined with malic and nitric acids #j4ij ,phosphate of lime #j4af ,lime in union with malic acid #j4bd ,silica #j4jh ,woody fibre #d4if ,water 7traces of starch7 #hg4ba ------ #ajj4aj ,dr4 ,covell1 in ,silliman's ,american ,journal1 vol4 vii41 shows its components to have been but imperfectly represented in the above ,german analysis4 ,he found in tobacco by chemical examination--#a1 gum2 #b1 a viscid slime1 equally soluble in water and alcohol1 and precipitable from both by subacetate of lead2 #c1 tannin2 #d1 gallic acid2 #e1 chlorophyle 7leaf green72 #f1 a green pulverulent matter1 which dissolves in boiling water1 but falls down again when the water cools2 #g1 a yellow oil1 possessing the smell1 taste and poisonous qualities of tobacco2 #h1 a large quantity of a pale yellow resin2 #i1 nicotine2 #aj1 a white substance1 analogous to morphia1 soluble in hot1 but hardly in cold alcohol2 #aa1 a beautiful orange red dye stuff1 soluble only in acids2 it deflagrates in the fire1 and seems to possess neutral properties2 #ab1 nicotianine4 ,according to ,buchner1 the seeds of tobacco yield a pale yellow extract to alcohol1 which contains a compound of nicotine and sugar4 ,m4,m4 ,henry and ,boutron ,charlard found in #ajj parts of ,cuba tobacco #h4fd of nicotine4 ,maryland #e4bh ,virginia #aj4jj ,ile et ,vilaine #aa4bj ,lot et ,garonne #h4bj quantities from #ab to #ai times more than were obtained by ,posselt and ,reimann4--,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,the following are the results of a series of experiments made by ,messrs4 ,cooper and ,brande1 for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of soluble matter in eight samples of tobacco1 of detecting the presence and quantity of sugar contained in them1 and the nature and relative proportions of their inorganic constituents4 ,an important paper on the state in which ,nicotine exists in tobacco1 and on the relative proportion of it furnished by different varieties of the plant1 has been furnished by ,schloessing 7,ann4 ,ch4 et ,ph4 #c;ieme ,ser4 ,,xix4 #bcj74 ,p s ,p ,p t o ,p s a,p s a,p m t,p o i,p m o e o e c e r f e o se o ce a he b ne a b r l r 4 r e r l hr l ir t er t fr t t u a a u 4 u d t a u t a c b c i c t m c b c b c e ac i sc e i e l e n e m o e l e l ie r se e ie r n n e n s n e n n e n e nn 1 hn n on e t t o t n i t t t 4t e nt d d 4 i 4 l 4 t a 4 i 4 i t4 a 4 d 44 e n u 4 n n h s d a ,tobacco dried o o b o w o o eo o f o u l at #bab degs4 f w f l f i f w f h f s f r f c c a e t a y a i o e o e t w a h m t m d si l a m s d h x e o i s a e a r hn i l a o t r o n h c t r t o 4s c c f c f l r 4 d a t t c o a o e c r 4 a y w a r e i e h l 1 h r h o c a f b r n r l u o m a m t f t t n o b l e r 1 i e e a t r l c n i t b r r t h i e 4 t n h r 4 e e c e e e c e i d 4 n ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a4 ,light ,missouri#di #ed4ibj4ig #b4ag #aa4gc #e4i -- -- leaf and stalk white #b4 ,light ,missouri#ej #dg4gai4g #a4gg #ab4hc #e4a #j4ge #a4ej leaf only white #c4 ,dark ,missouri #ej #eb4daf4dg #d4b #aj4ad #b4ac -- -- leaf and stalk white #d4 ,dark ,missouri #ea #ej4fac4h #b4ag #h4gc #b4i #j4ce #j4ga leaf only white #e4 ,light ,virginia#ea4eec4aaf4d #b4ec #h4ed #e4cc -- -- leaf and stalk gray- white #f4 ,light ,virginia#ed #df4aaa4ig #b4j #f4hf #c4aaa4jdeb4ji leaf only green- gray #g4 ,dark ,virginia #dh4eea4had4g #d4h #h4dj #a4e -- -- leaf and stalk gray #h4 ,dark ,virginia #eb #di4hab4ec #b4fc #h4bj #a4g #a4df #b4ic leaf only gray ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a4 ,the samples were dried and the woody fibre and extract were also dried at #bab degs4 ,the watery infusions of all contained ammoniacal salts4 ,the salts from the ash1 which were soluble in water1 consisted of sulphates1 carbonates1 phosphates1 and chlorides2 the bases being potassa and lime4 ,the solution by hydrochloric acid contained lime1 alumina1 phosphate of lime1 and oxide of iron4 #c4 ,contained oxide of manganese in small quantity2 sulphates in watery solution of ash abundant4 ,hydrochloric solution contained an abundance of lime4 #d4 ,a trace of manganese2 a trace only of phosphoric acid in watery solution4 #e4 ,contained abundance of oxide of manganese4 #f4 ,abundance of oxide of manganese4 #g4 ,a mere trace of oxide of manganese1 and a trace of oxide of iron2 only a trace of alumina4 #h4 ,a trace of oxide of manganese2 quantity of oxide of iron very great2 only a trace of alumina4 ,in rich loams1 where the solution of the minerals of the soil is rapid1 and where #aj to #bj per cent1 of vegetable matter is incorporated in the earth1 tobacco may be obtained for many years1 but it is always an exhausting crop4 ,it has been stated that #agj ,lbs4 of mineral matter are removed in less than three months from one acre of land1 by a crop of tobacco4 ,this is very much more than wheat or other grains abstract from the soil in eight or nine months4 ,tobacco is now very extensively cultivated in ,france and other ,european countries1 in the ,levant1 the ,east and ,west ,indies2 and a little is grown at the ,cape and in the ,australian ,settlements4 ,a good deal of tobacco is raised in ,mexico1 but only for home consumption1 as its export is prohibited4 ,it forms an article of culture in ,brazil and some of the ,south ,american republics1 and is grown to a small extent along the ,western shores of ,africa4 ,it is from ,north ,america1 however1 that we derive the bulk of our supplies of this great article of commerce1 which1 with cotton1 forms the chief agricultural wealth of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahba1 the tobacco exported from the ,brazils amounted to #bi1aib1jjj ,lbs41 but its cultivation was greatly injured by the siege of the capital in #ahbb-bc4 ,fresh seed was subsequently obtained from ,cuba1 and in #ahce the exports were #f1jea1jdj ,lbs4 #aca cases of ,princeza snuff were shipped from ,bahia to ,lisbon1 in #ahce2 about #fj1jjj ,lbs4 per annum of this snuff being now manufactured at ,bahia1 with the aid of two steam-engines4 ,the exports of tobacco from ,bahia increased from #b1jdh1jjj ,lbs4 in #ahcc1 to #f1jea1jdj ,lbs4 in #ahce4 ,the average shipments are about #ba1jjj bales and rolls4 ,the army of smokers in ,great ,britain and ,ireland consume yearly about six millions of pounds worth of tobacco4 ,the duty alone paid upon snuff and tobacco for the people of ,great ,britain1 averages four-and-a-half millions sterling a year6 ,the quantity consumed--smoked1 snuffed1 or chewed--during the same period1 is about #bh millions of pounds weight1 or about four pounds weight per annum for every male adult4 ,ireland annually pays not less than #hjj1jjj of duty on tobacco and snuff1 and only about #cj1jjj on coffee4 ,for every pound of coffee that the ,irish people use1 they smoke away about four pounds of tobacco4 ,north ,america produces annually upwards of #bjj million pounds4 ,the combustion of the mass of vegetable material used in this kingdom would yield about #cdj million pounds of carbonic acid gas2 so that the yearly produce of carbonic acid gas from tobacco smoking alone cannot be less than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj lbs4--a large contribution to the annual demand for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the world4 ,henceforth let no one twit the smoker with idleness and unimportance4 ,every pipe is an agricultural furnace1--every smoker a manufacturer of vegetation1--the consumer of a weed that he may rear more largely his own provisions4 ,in the year #ahdb1 #fje1jjj1jjj of cigars were made in the ,german ,commercial ,union4 ,in #ahci1 the revenue on tobacco in this country was about #c1fjj1jjj4 ,of this it has been estimated eleven-twelfths are drawn from the working classes1 and one-twelfth from the richer classes4 ,the following is a calculation of the consumption of tobacco per head of the population1 estimated from the number of pounds on which duty was paid3-- ,consumption per head4 ,rate of duty4 ozs4 #ahja #as4 #g #c-aj;d4 ,england #ag #as4 #j #g-aj;d4 ,ireland4 #ahaa #bs4 #b #ac-bj;d4 #ai #ahba #ds4 #j;d4 #aa #de #ahca #cs4 #j;d4 #ab #ce #ahda #cs4 #a #h-aj;d4 #ab #d-e #ahea #cs4 #a #d-e;d4 #ba ,thus it will be seen the consumption is materially affected by the rate of duty4 ,a memorial presented to the ,first ,lord of the ,treasury a few years ago1 by the ,american ,chamber of ,commerce1 and signed by ,mr4 ,thomas ,todd1 the chairman1 furnishes some valuable information1 and ,i am therefore tempted to give it entire3-- ,the ,american ,chamber of ,commerce of ,liverpool desire respectfully to bring under the consideration of her ,majesty's ,government the impolicy of the present high rate of duty on foreign tobacco1 and the benefit to commerce1 as well as to the revenue1 which would arise from such a reduction as would remove the temptation now held out to the smuggler4 ,the cost of tobacco1 including freight and all charges1 is from #c;d4 to #d;d4 per lb41 and the duty is #cs4 per lb41 being #ijj per cent1 on the value4 ,a duty so enormously disproportioned to the cost offers an irresistible premium to the illicit trader2 for the expense of smuggling tobacco by the cargo1 including the first cost1 does not exceed #i;d4 per lb41 and it has been ascertained that the smuggler receives #f;d4 per lb4 less than the duty1 or #bs4 #f;d4 per lb41 which yields him a clear profit of #as4 #h;d4 per lb41 to the injury not only of the revenue1 but of the fair trader4 ,the effect of this heavy duty in diminishing the consumption of duty-paid tobacco is further exemplified by the fact that1 while all other articles of general consumption have progressively increased with the increase of the population1 tobacco alone forms an exception1 as will appear from the following3-- ,,comparative ,,scale ,,of ,,population ,,and ,,consumption ,,of ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,and ,,tobacco1 ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,,compiled ,,from ,,parliamentary ,,papers4 ,population ,tea ,coffee ,tobacco #ahja #af1cch1ajb ,duty1 #fe a #ie per ct #ai;d4 per lb4 #ai;d4 per lb4 #ab per ct4 #ab per ct4 ,lbs41 #bc1afc1iii #hga1hdf #af1hie1geb #ahaa #ah1edg1gbj ,duty #if per cent4 #h;d4 per lb4 #bf;d4 per lb4 ,lbs41 #bd1dfa1cjh #f1hie1fai #ba1cgf1cgj #ahba #ba1aic1deh ,duty1 #if a #ajj per ct4 #ab;d4 per lb4 #ds4 per lb4 ,lbs41 #bf1jdc1beg #g1eic1jja #a1hbc1cfe #ahca #bd1bga1gfc ,duty #if;a #ajj per ct4 #f;d4 per lb4 #cs4 per lb4 ,lbs41 #cj1fdh1cdh #bb1gdj1fbg #ai1dah1ida #ahda #bf1hee1ibh ,duty1 #bf;d4 per lb4 #f;d4 per lb4 #cs4 per lb4 ,lbs41 #cf1cif1jgc #bh1dbj1ihj #bb1jid1ggb ,the consumption of tobacco in the island of ,great ,britain1 excluding ,ireland1 and the duty thereon1 were in ,consumption4 ,duty4 #ahja #aj1ead1iih lbs4 #as4 #g;d4 #ahaa #ad1ibc1bdc #bs4 #b;d4 #ahba #ab1ihc1aih #ds4 #j;d4 #ahca #ae1cej1jah #cs4 #j;d4 #ahda #af1jhc1eic #cs4 #j;d4 #ahea #bh1jfb1hda #cs4 #j;d4 ,in the last two periods five per cent is added to all the duties4 ,thus1 while the consumption of tea and coffee has increased even beyond the ratio of the population1 the consumption of tobacco has decreased4 ,this table also exemplifies the greater productiveness of a low duty compared with a high one2 for instance1 coffee in #ahja1 at #as4 #g;d4 per lb41 yielded #gg1fed2 in #ahba1 at #as4 per lb41 #cgi1fej2 and1 in #ahda1 at #f;d4 per lb41 #gaj1ebd2 tobacco in #ahba1 at #ds4 per lb41 yielded #c1afd1fgc1 and #ahda1 at #cs4 per lb41 #c1cad1bae4 ,but the difference in duty in the latter case was not sufficient to curtail the profits of the smuggler to any material extent4 ,cigars afford a remarkable example of the amount of duty being increased by diminishing the rate4 ,in #ahbh1 when the duty was #ahs4 per lb41 duty was paid on #h1fjj lbs4 only1 yielding #g1gdj4 ,in #ahcj1 when the duty was reduced to #is4 per lb41 duty was paid on #ff1jjj lbs41 yielding #bi1gjj2 and such has been the increase of consumption1 that1 in #ahda1 duty was paid on #bac1fac lbs41 yielding #ajj1hii4 ,we would further illustrate the position by the following facts3 ,in #agih1 ,ireland1 with a population of #d1jjj1jjj1 consumed #h1jjj1jjj lbs4 of tobacco1 and now1 with more than double the population1 she consumes about #c1jjj1jjj lbs4 of tobacco less than at the former period4 ,the reason is obvious3 in #aghi the duty was #h;d4 per lb2 now it is #cs4 ,in #agih1 ,england and ,scotland1 with a population of #aj1jjj1jjj1 consumed #aj1jjj1jjj lbs4 of tobacco1 being one half of the relative consumption of ,ireland at the same period2 the duty in ,england and ,scotland being then #as4 #g;d4 per lb41 and in ,ireland only #h;d4 ,but the quantity of tobacco on which duty is paid does not even approximately show the quantity consumed4 ,if the duty now paid on tobacco in the ,united ,kingdom retained the same relative proportion to the population that it held in ,ireland in #agih1 the duty in #ahda would have been actually levied upon #ec1gaa1hef lbs41 instead of #bb1jid1ggb lbs42 and such we believe to be about the actual amount of consumption1 the great bulk of the supply being furnished by the illicit trader4 ,in ,prussia1 it appears that the consumption of tobacco is at the rate of three pounds per head2 while1 in ,england1 if we were to judge from the amount on which duty is paid1 it is considerably less than one pound per head4 ,assuming the actual consumption at only #de1jjj1jjj lbs41 or two pounds per head1 we believe that a reduction of duty to #as4 per pound would so effectually destroy the illicit trader1 that the revenue would gain by the change1 not only by bringing upwards of #cj1jjj1jjj lbs4 under duty1 which at present escape1 but by the great increase of the consumption consequent upon the encouragement given to the fair trader4 ,we would not1 however1 treat the question merely as a matter of revenue4 ,we would strongly represent the injustice which this exorbitant duty inflicts upon those who pursue a legitimate trade1 by enabling the smuggler to lessen the extent of their transactions by more than half what they would otherwise be2 and we would further earnestly urge upon your consideration the demoralising tendency of such a systematic and extended violation of the law1 not only upon those engaged in the illicit trade1 also upon those parties who are found to connive at the practice from a sense of the gross injustice and impolicy of a duty so disproportioned to the value of an article of such extensive consumption4 ,we would refer to the opinion of a committee of the ,house of ,commons on the growth of tobacco in ,ireland1 in #ahdj1 as follows3--',that it further appears1 from the evidence1 that smuggling of foreign tobacco is at present carried on to a great extent1 and that all the measures now adopted1 at great expense to the country1 are and will be ineffectual to repress it so long as the temptation of evading a duty equal to twelve times the value of the article on which it is imposed1 remains4 ,we beg1 therefore1 respectfully to express our opinion1 that if the duty on tobacco were reduced to one shilling per pound1 it would be alike beneficial to the interests of legitimate commerce2 to the consumers1 who consist almost entirely of the poorer classes2 to the revenue1 by increasing the productiveness of the duty1 and by greatly diminishing the expenditure so ineffectually incurred to suppress the illicit trade2 and to the general morals of society by removing a powerful inducement to infringe the laws4 ,the imports of all kinds of tobacco for the last five years have been as follows3-- #ahdh4 #ahdi4 #ahej4 #ahea4 #aheb4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,unmanufactured#cd1jij1cfjda1edf1hdhce1a ff1cehca1jfa1ieccc1bje1fce ,manufactured and snuff #a1eab1gad #a1ije1cjf #a1eeg1fah #b1cca1hhf #b1icj1bii ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ce1fjc1jgddc1deb1aedcf1gbc1hgfcc1cic1hc icf1ace1icd ,gross duty received3-- #ahdh4 #ahdi4 #ahej4 #ahea4 #aheb4 ,on raw tobacco #d1bfg1egi #d1cbh1bag #d1ccg1beh #d1chf1iaj #d1dff1ecc ,cigars1 snuff1 c4 #ig1fee #if1had #ib1hgc #ih1heh #id1bih ---------------------------------------- ---------- #d1cfe1bcd #d1dbe1jca #d1dcj1aca #d1dhe1gfh #d1efi1hca ,the amount of tobacco consumed is so limited that the trade will not admit of an excessive growth4 ,in the two most thickly populated countries in ,europe--,france and ,england--not more than a certain quantity finds its way there4 ,in ,france the trade is monopolised by ,government1 which gives out contracts to deliver a stipulated quantity at certain prices2 in ,england the duty imposed is so enormous that only a limited quantity of certain descriptions can be imported without risk of loss4 ,in ,germany and ,holland1 where the trade is more extensively carried on than elsewhere1 the duty imposed is almost nominal1 and all classes of their citizens are enabled to use the weed at prices very little higher than its first prime cost4 ,the tobacco trade constitutes so large a staple of ,american produce that it is singular greater efforts are not made upon the part of that ,government to cause a reciprocal duty to be imposed1 that more favor may be shown by ,european ,governments to this particular article4 ,england1 from the duty imposed upon it alone1 derives a revenue of #d1ejj1jjj1 being about #afj to the hogshead1 or from ten to sixteen times its original cost4 ,france makes the trade a monopoly1 from which she derives an income of #c1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,,statement ,,of ,,imports1 ,,sales1 ,,and ,,stocks ,,of ,,tobacco ,,and ,,stems1 ,,in ,,bremen1 ,,from #ahdj ,,to #ahej4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,maryland ,,virginian ---------------------------------------- -------- ,s ,s ,s t ,s t t o ,d t o ,d o ,j ,i c e o ,j ,i c e c a m k c c a m k c k n p ,s e k n p ,s e ,y u o a l m u o a l m e #a a r l a b #a a r l a b a s r t e s e s r t e s e r t y s s t r t y s s t r ---------------------------------------- -------- #ahdj #d1hijad1egjah1cii #a1jfa #bde #cdib #cdbb #bhe #ahda #a1jfaai1fbiah1cba #b1cfi #bhe #cdff #cjbe #gbf #ahdb #b1cfibj1hbaai1jfg #d1abc #gbf #fgbi #ehih #aeeg #ahdc #d1abcah1dhcae1jjd #g1fjb #aeeg #eeda #dbdb #bhef #ahdd #g1fjbaf1ighah1cch #f1bdb #bhef #ejib #dbhb #cfff #ahde #f1bdbbd1beabd1ega #e1ibb #cfff #aehh #cjii #baee #ahdf #e1ibbbf1ghebc1ghh #h1iai #baee #bchf #bdef #bjhe #ahdg #h1iaiba1gdcbj1fha #i1iha #bjhe #iaa #bjgi #iag #ahdh #i1ihaab1jhd #i1iceab1acj #iag #hdg #ajed #gaj #ahdiab1acjai1bhebb1aab #i1cjc #gaj #aagc #agcd #adi ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,kentucky ,,stems ---------------------------------------- -------- ,s ,s ,s t ,s t t o ,d t o ,d o ,j ,i c e o ,j ,i c e c a m k c c a m k c k n p ,s e k n p ,s e ,y u o a l m u o a l m e #a a r l a b #a a r l a b a s r t e s e s r t e s e r t y s s t r t y s s t r ---------------------------------------- -------- #ahdj #aha #c1hjc #c1fii #bhe #bhec #ccfb #defd #afea #ahda #bhe #e1bjf #d1ida #eej #afea #gjhe #gjed #afhb #ahdb #eej #i1djg #h1ici #ajah #afhb #daea #echf #ddg #ahdc #ajah #g1dhe #f1dda #bjfb #ddg #cifi #cddg #ifi #ahdd #bjfb #i1gcf #i1efi #bbbi #ifi #dgec #eeac #bji #ahde #bbfiaa1dciaj1cbh #ccdj #bji #ebgc #daeb #accj #ahdf #ccdj #e1jbh #f1jii #bbfi #accj #fjib #dgaf #bgjf #ahdg #bbfi #c1haf #e1jac #ajgb #bgjf #fghh #hjch #adef #ahdh #ajgb #d1ddh #d1ihj #edj #adef #diab #ddgc #ahie #ahdi #edj #d1fbj #d1gdf #dad #ahie #eahh #ejhc #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,culture and ,statistics in the ,united ,states4--,tobacco has been the great staple of the ,states of ,virginia and ,maryland from their first settlement4 ,about the year #afdb it became a royal monopoly1 and afterwards1 in order to encourage its growth in the colonies1 and thereby increase the revenue of the ,crown1 ,parliament prohibited the planting of it in ,england4 ,the average quantity shipped from the ,north ,american colonies to the parent country1 for ten years preceding the year #agji1 was about twenty-nine millions of pounds4 ,for some years prior to the ,american revolution1 about #he1jjj hhds4 were exported1 then valued at little more than four millions of dollars1 and constituting nearly one-third the value of all the exports of the ,british ,north ,american colonies4 ,from #ahbj to #ahcj tobacco constituted about one-ninth in value of all the domestic exports of the ,united ,states4 ,it finds a market principally in ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,holland1 and the north of ,europe4#ee ,the crop of tobacco produced in the four principal ,states1 was in-- #ahch4 #ahci4 hhds4 hhds4 ,virginia #bf1jjj #de1jjj ,kentucky #bg1jjj #ce1jjj ,maryland #af1jjj #af1jjj ,ohio #c1jjj #d1jjj ------ ------- #gb1jjj #ajj1jjj ,the whole crop of #ahdj was #bai1afc1cai lbs41 which1 at the estimate of #a1bjj lbs4 to the hhd41 would be equal to #ahb1fcf hhds41 and at the average price of that year1 #ha dollars #e cents4 per hhd41 would make the value of the crop of the ,united ,states #ad1hjb1fdg dollars #hj cents4 ,the average annual export for the ten years ending with #ahdj1 was #if1gge hhds4 ,the actual exportation of #ahdj was #aai1dhd hhds4 ,the principal exports are formed of the produce of ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,maryland1 and ,north ,carolina4 ,the exports are chiefly to the following countries--about #cj1jjj hhds4 annually to ,england1 #ae1jjj hhds4 to ,france1 #bj1jjj hhds4 to ,holland1 #be1jjj hhds4 ,germany1 and about #bb1jjj hhds4 to other countries4 ,the whole crop for #ahde was put down at #ahg1dbb1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahci1 it was ascertained that one and a half million persons were engaged in the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in the ,united ,states1 one million of whom were so occupied in the ,states of ,virginia1 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri4 ,in the city of ,new ,york the consumption of cigars is computed at #aj1jjj dollars a day1 a sum greater than that which the inhabitants pay for their daily bread2 and in the whole country the annual consumption of tobacco is estimated at #abj million pounds1 being #g lbs4 for every man1 woman1 and child1 at an annual cost to the consumers of #bj million dollars 7more than four million pounds sterling74 ,it is estimated that the manufacture of tobacco in the ,united ,states is increasing at the rate of #b1jjj hhds4 per annum4 hhds4 ,the quantity manufactured in #ahea1 was stated at #ee1jjj ,exportations for the year estimated at #abj1jjj ------- #age1jjj ,the production for #aheb is supposed to be as follows3-- hhds4 ,virginia #bg1jjj ,maryland #cc1jjj ,western ,states1 including frosted #fe1jjj ------- ,total production #abe1jjj ,deficiency in the year's crop #ej1jjj ,the quantity produced in the ,united ,states1 in #ahdg1 was #bbj1afd1jjj lbs41 worth1 at #e cents per lb41 nearly #aa million dollars 7more than two million sterling74 ,the principal producing ,states were--,kentucky1 #fe million lbs42 ,virginia1 #ej millions2 ,tennessee1 #ce millions2 ,north ,carolina1 #ad millions2 ,ohio1 #i millions2 ,indiana1 #d millions2 ,illinois1 ,connecticut1 and a few others in smaller proportions4 ,the production in #ahdh was #bah1iji1jjj lbs41 which1 valued at four cents per lb41 would be worth nine million dollars4 ,from persons largely interested in the tobacco trade1 and well informed in relation thereto1 ,i have gathered the following general statements3-- ,the crops of tobacco to come to market in the year #ahea1 were estimated as follows-- hhds4 ,virginia #cj1jjj ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 and ,missouri1 about #ej1jjj ,maryland1 about #bb1jjj ,ohio1 about #ad1jjj ,from the above estimate it will be seen that the quantity produced in #ahej is less than two-thirds of the usual production in the ,states named4 ,the entire crop of ,virginia will be required for home consumption4 ,about #ae1jjj hhds4 ,kentucky1 and #e1jjj hhds4 ,maryland will also be wanted for home use4 ,owing to the increase of population by immigration and otherwise1 the domestic consumption1 which was a few years ago so small as not to be considered worthy of notice1 has now increased to a very important item1 and affords a steady home market for a large portion of the production4 ,the quantity of ,maryland tobacco left for export to ,bremen and ,holland1 in #ahea1 will only be about #ag1jjj hhds41 which is not more than half the amount usually shipped to these countries every year4 ,of the ,kentucky tobacco contracted for last year by ,france and ,spain1 through their agents in this country1 less than one third has yet been purchased1 and those governments will this year require the deficiency to be made up1 in addition to their annual average supply1 which1 with the quantity required for ,england1 will take the entire crop1 leaving nothing for the rest of ,europe1 ,africa1 ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 c4 ,the tobacco markets throughout the world are in a much more healthy condition than has ever been known1 and it is thought prices will rule very high the coming season4 ,in ,maryland1 while the production has been not more than half an average crop1 the price is nearly three times as high as usual2 so that the planter will receive more for his diminished crops than in ordinary seasons of plenty4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,tobacco ,,exported ,,annually ,,from #ahba ,,to #ahej4 ,exports for ,year ending hhds4,stocks in ,europe1 year ending hhds4 ,september #cjth1 #ahba #ff1hej ,december #cast1 #ahba -- #ahbb #hc1afi #ahbb -- #ahbc #ii1jjj #ahbc -- #ahbd #gg1hhi #ahbd -- #ahbe #ge1ihf #ahbe -- #ahbf #fd1jii #ahbf -- #ahbg #ajj1jbj #ahbg -- #ahbh #if1bgi #ahbh #fi1dhe #ahbi #gg1acf #ahbi #fc1fgj #ahcj #hc1haj #ahcj #ej1fgb #ahca #hf1gah #ahca #ed1fij #ahcb #ajf1hjj #ahcb #fa1hfh #ahcc #hc1aec #ahcc #ej1edc #ahcd #hg1igi #ahcd #ec1dac #ahce #id1cec #ahce #eg1deh #ahcf #aji1jdb #ahcf #fh1iah #ahcg #ajj1bcb #ahcg #ch1gjc #ahch #ajj1eic #ahch #ca1jfg #ahci #gh1iie #ahci #ch1gae #ahdj #aai1dhd #ahdj #cg1fbc #ahda #adg1hbh #ahda #ej1hhj #ahdb #aeh1gaj #ahdb #fb1dif ,june #cj 7#i ms47 #ahdc #id1ded #ahdc #ia1aif 7#ab ms47 #ahdd #afc1jdb #ahdd #hh1igc #ahde #adg1afh #ahde #ia1bac #ahdf #adg1iih #ahdf #ajj1ggd #ahdg #ace1gfb #ahdg #hh1heh #ahdh #acj1ffe #ahdh #hj1cia #ahdi #aja1eba #ahdi #gj1ebg ' #ahej #ade1gbi #ahej #ff1ggg ,it is a curious fact that1 notwithstanding the variety of climate and soil in the northern ,state21 every ,state and territory in the ,union produces some tobacco4 ,in many of the ,states its cultivation is1 of course1 a secondary object1 and perhaps in several it is attended to as a mere matter of curiosity2 but in most of the ,states1 probably a sufficient quantity has been grown1 to show that with attention to this object1 it might1 in case of necessity1 be resorted to as a profitable crop4 ,the ,states in which the great bulk of the crop is grown lie between the latitudes of about #cd and #dj degrees4 ,there is a considerable increase of consumption of ,american tobacco in ,europe1 as well as in the ,united ,states1 which should encourage the planters of ,virginia and ,north ,carolina to cultivate this article more abundantly than they have done for several years past2 and1 since the home manufacture has increased so much1 and the ,virginia tobacco is preferred in many parts of the ,european markets1 they may safely count on getting good prices for many years to come4 ,it is not in the power of ,virginia to make any three years together more than #ef1jjj hhds41 even with good seasons1 and #cj1jjj hhds4 annually of this will be wanted by our manufacturers4 ,the planters1 then1 should enrich their lands1 and aim to make full crops4 ,the increased consumption in ,europe is three per cent41 and in the ,united ,states four per cent4 per annum4 ,the crop of the ,united ,states from #ahdj to #ahej inclusive--say #aa years--averaged about #afj1jjj hhds42 this embraces the large crops of #ahdb-dc-dd4 ,the consumption of ,europe from #ahbi to #ahch was #if1hbf hhds4--it is now #acj1jjj4 ,an account of the quantities of unmanufactured tobacco1 manufactured called negro-head1 and cigars1 imported into the ,united ,kingdom in #ahej3-- ,countries from whence imported4 ,unmanufactured ,manufactured ,united ,states of ,america #cj1agc1ddd #a1aia1jja ,venezuela1 ,new ,granada and ,ecuador #hie1ebc #ebg ,brazil #ab1ach #ef1hjb ,peru #h1fdi #f ,cuba #ehi1fbg #aec1hai ,british ,west ,indies1 including ,demerara and ,honduras #bf1afi #c1bdb ,british ,territories in the ,east ,indies #ad1ejj #be1ccb ,philippine ,islands #ab1bcc #ea1baj ,hongkong and ,china #b1gjf #b1cdj ,turkey1 ,syria1 and ,egypt #adj1cfa #b1hhb ,malta #ac1jbh #g1hah ,italy1 ,sardinian ,territories #dca1ici #ag ,gibraltar #g #c1jfc ,spain #cjg1fda #a1ajj ,france #bi1iej #a1eba ,channel ,islands #adi #a1cdb ,belgium #bi1ibb #f1egi ,holland #b1dah1gcb #i1jgh ,hanseatic ,towns #ej1faj #cf1fhj ,other parts #h1icj #a1ihj ---------- --------- ,total unmanufactured #ce1aff1ceh #a1eef1cba ,ditto manfactured #a1eef1cba ,snuff #a1aig ---------- ,total #cf1gbc1hgf ,from the tobacco circulars of ,messrs4 ,clagett1 ,son1 and ,co41 leading brokers of ,london1 dated ,feb41 #ast1 #ahej1 ,i take the following extracts3-- ,the exhaustion of the stock has resulted from the concurrence of a gradually decreasing supply and increasing consumption1 which may be very clearly perceived by a reference1 first to the official returns from ,new ,orleans of the yearly receipts of the western crops in each of the last seven years2 and secondly1 to the consumption of ,american tobacco in ,great ,britain and ,ireland in the years #ahdg1 #ahdh1 and #ahdi1 as compared with that of #ahdj1 #ahda1 and #ahdb4 ,we have no means of exhibiting with similar accuracy the relative consumption of ,continental ,europe in the latter as compared with the former part of these last ten years1 but it is quite reasonable to assume that the increase1 where there has been little or no duty1 must have gone on more rapidly than it has done here1 under the restraining force of a duty of #hjj to #ijj per cent4 ,the deliveries from ,london and ,liverpool1 independently of those from ,scotland1 ,bristol1 and ,newcastle1 for the use of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 have been as follows3--,in #ahdj1 #ae1jcg hhds42 #ahda1 #ae1jai hhds42 #ahdb1 #ae1dfh hhds42 #ahdg1 #ah1jia hhds42 #ahdh1 #ah1eie hhds42 #ahdi1 #ah1gch hhds4 ,the highest estimates we have seen of the whole of the crops of the ,united ,slates in #ahdi1 do not exceed #adj1jjj hhds41 of which it is not doubted that fully #de1jjj hhds4 will be required for consumption there1 and we estimate the supply required for the consumption of ,europe1 ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,africa1 at certainly not less than #abe1jjj hhds42 if these estimates be realised in fact1 it will follow that the stocks at the close of this year must be #cj1jjj hhds4 less than at the close of #ahdi4 ,we estimate the present consumption of ,american tobacco in ,great ,britain and ,ireland as follows3-- ,the deliveries in ,london and ,liverpool in #ahdi1 were #ah1gch hhds42 do4 do4 ,bristol #a1djj hhds42 do4 do4 ,scotland we assume at #b1hjj hhds4 ,total #bb1ici4 ,of ,stripts1 the deliveries in ,liverpool last year were #h1edd hhds41 of which about #cjj were for exportation2 the deliveries1 therefore1 were--,for the use of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 #h1bej hhds4 ,in ,london we have no account of the deliveries of stripts1 as distinguished from leaf1 for the whole of last year2 it is doubtless less than that in ,liverpool1 and we assume it at #g1jjj hhds42 in ,bristol it was about #ijj hhds42 in ,scotland we assume it at #b1djj hhds4 ,total #ah1eej hhds4 ,now1 assuming #a1ejj hhds4 of the deliveries in ,scotland and ,bristol to be included in the coastwise returns in ,london and ,liverpool1 then the consumption of ,great ,britain and ,ireland would appear to be about #ba1ejj hhds4 of ,american tobacco1 and #ag1jjj for these to be stripts4 ,the progressive increase which we have shown in the returns of #ahdi1 as compared with those of #ahdj1 must still go on4 ,without troubling you with any detail of the stocks in each of the several markets1 it may be sufficient to show that the summary of the whole in all the markets of ,europe1 other than ,great ,britain1 consisted on the #cast ,december1 #ahdi1 of about #bb1jjj hhds42 of which about #ah1jjj were ,maryland and #b1jjj stalks2 and it is important to notice especially the fact1 that the stocks of the manufacturers and dealers in ,germany1 ,holland and ,belgium are unusually small4 ,we have taken very considerable care to inform ourselves on this point1 and are fully satisfied that the usual stocks in second or dealers' hands do not exist4 ,the whole demand of the year must1 therefore1 be supplied from those stocks in importers' hands1 from ,england or from the ,united ,states4 ,the following were the prices current in ,london in the spring of #ahec3--,virginia ,leaf1 common1 per pound1 #c;d4 to #c;d42 middling1 #e;d4 to #f;d42 good and fine #f;d4 to #g;d4 ,stripts1 #e;d4 to #aj;d4 ,kentucky ,leaf3 common #c;d41 to #c;d42 middling1 #c;d4 to #d;d42 good and fine1 #e;d4 to #f;d4 ,stripts1 #e;d4 to #g;d4 ,maryland1 #c;d4 to #i;d4 ,negrohead and ,cavendish3 common and heated1 #d;d4 to #f;d42 middling to good1 #f;d4 to #h;d4 and #i;d42 fine1 #aj;d41 #ab;d41 #af;d42 ,barret's none4 ,columbian1 #g;d4 to #as4 #h;d42 ,brazil1 #c;d4 to #f;d42 flat1 #e;d4 to #as4 #a;d42 ,manilla1 #g;d4 to #bs4 #f;d42 ,havana1 #aj;d4 to #es42 ,yara1 #aa;d4 to #cs42 ,cuba1 #i;d4 to #as4 #a;d42 ingars1 #cs4 to #afs42 cheroots1 ,manilla1 #gs4 #f;d41 nominal2 ,german and ,amersfoort #d;d4 to #as4 #c;d42 stalks1 duty paid1 #bs4 #f;d4 to #cs4 #d;d42 smalls1 #bs4 #i;d to #bs4 ,the shipments to ,europe were #gf1eaf hhds4 against #dj1feb hhds4 the previous year1 and #dc1egf hhds4 in #ahej4 ,the rapidity of sales1 the diminished stocks even now held in first hands1 were taken as an infallible index of the progressive rate of consumption2 and of a truth the quantity of hogsheads received in the principal markets of ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,germany1 and the ,north1 and as speedily relieved from the control of the importers1 was enough to control even those who were alive to the existing necessities of ,europe1 and to give a color to the rumour of almost inexhaustible consumption4 ,this extraordinary demand for tobacco on the continent has been occasioned by three distinct causes2 the first of which was the pressing wants which1 for the last two years1 were well known to have existed1 and the constant willingness of consumers to act at the very moderate rates which prevailed some time last spring4 ,the second was the compulsory purchases by the ,austrian ,government1 amounting1 it is estimated1 to #bj1jjj hhds41 by reason that the discontented ,hungarians1 for political considerations1 abandoned altogether the cultivation of tobacco1 and which deficiency was obliged to be replaced by ,american growths4 ,the third cause also had a political origin3 the anticipation of the extension of the ,zollverein or ,german ,customs ,league to the ,kingdoms of ,hanover and ,oldenburg1 whereby the duties on tobacco in those countries would be greatly increased1 was a natural incentive to the dealers and manufacturers there to lay in heavy stocks1 to reap the benefit thereon2 and these last two causes1 therefore1 may be viewed in the light of fortuitous circumstances1 which have fostered a speculation originally founded on the cheapness of money alone4 ,it has been shown1 and the statistics of the past year fully confirm the statement1 that a plethora of money and prosperity among the middle classes of society1 while it induces to the consumption of tobacco in general1 rather curtails than otherwise the demand for ,american growths4 ,a poor man addicted to smoking takes his pipe not from choice1 but necessity2 as he grows independent1 the humble pipe is abandoned and the more costly cigar assumed4 ,we have frequently heard this matter noticed1 more especially after the disasters which followed the railway speculations of #ahdf1 when the demand for ,english cigars sensibly declined2 and we have now a further verification of the assertion in the opposite sense1 the sales of cigar materials in ,bremen having been extended more than #dj per cent1 in three years1 viz41 from #id1gej bales and cases in #ahej to #ace1fej during last season4 ,from ,new ,orleans we learn that the arrivals from the interior since the #ast ,september had amounted to #ah1jdc hhds4 against #e1afe hhds4 last season1 and the stock on hand was #bd1abh hhds4 against #g1ibg hhds4 only4 ,the shipments from ,virginia during the past year exceeded #ac1gjj hhds4 ,in #ahea they were under #d1jjj casks4 ,from ,baltimore #ed1bgb hhds4 have been exported4 ,the official figures for the previous year gave #ce1ifg as the total4 ,the aggregate stock of tobacco on the #ast of ,january last1 in the principal ports of ,america1 was taken at #eb1ihb hhds4 against #de1bib the year before and the growth of the ,western ,states1 ,virginia1 and ,maryland during #aheb1 to come forward for our supply the present season1 is estimated at #ahe1jjj hhds41 notwithstanding all the unfavorable influences and curtailing causes which were said to have prevailed4 ,the method adopted of cultivating tobacco in ,virginia is thus described3 ,several rich1 moist1 but not too wet spots of ground are chosen out in the fall1 each containing about a quarter of an acre or more1 according to the magnitude of the crop1 and the number of plants it may require4 ,these spots1 which are generally in the woods1 are cleared1 and covered with brush or timber1 for five or six feet thick and upwards2 this is suffered to remain upon it until the time when the tobacco seed must be sowed1 which is within twelve days after ,christmas4 ,the evening is commonly chosen to set these places on fire1 and when everything thereon is consumed to ashes1 the ground is dug up1 mixed with the ashes1 and broken very fine4 ,the tobacco seed1 which is exceedingly small1 being mixed with ashes also1 is then sown and just raked in lightly2 the whole is immediately covered with brushwood for shelter to keep it warm1 and a slight fence thrown around it4 ,in this condition it remains until the frosts are all gone1 when the brush is taken off1 and the young plants are exposed to the nutritive and genial warmth of the sun1 which quickly invigorates them in an astonishing degree1 and soon renders them strong and large enough to be removed for planting1 especially if they be not sown too thick4 ,every tobacco planter1 assiduous to secure a sufficient quantity of plants1 generally has several of these plant beds in different situations1 so that if one should fail1 another may succeed2 and an experienced planter commonly takes care to have ten times as many plants1 as he can make use of4 ,in these beds1 along with the tobacco1 they generally sow kale1 colewort1 and cabbage seed1 c41 at the same time4 ,there are seven different kinds of tobacco1 particularly adapted to the different qualities of the soil on which they are cultivated1 and each varying from the other4 ,they are named ,hudson1 ,frederick1 ,thick-joint1 ,shoe-string1 ,thickset1 ,sweet-scented1 and ,oronoko4 ,but although these are the principal1 yet there are a great many different species besides1 with names peculiar to the situations1 settlements and neighbourhoods wherein they are produced2 which it would be too tedious here to specify and particularise4 ,the soil for tobacco must be rich and strong2 the ground is prepared in the following manner3--after being well broke up and by repeated working1 either with the plough or hand hoes1 rendered soft1 light1 and mellow1 the whole field is made into hills1 each to take up the space of three feet1 and flattened at the top4 ,in the first rains1 which are here called seasons1 after the vernal equinox1 the tobacco plants are carefully drawn while the ground is soft2 carried to the field where they are to be planted1 and one dropped upon every hill1 which is done by the negro children4 ,the most skilful slaves then begin planting them1 by making a hole with their finger in each hill1 inserting the plant with the taproot carefully placed straight down1 and pressing the earth on each side of it4 ,this is continued as long as the ground is wet enough to enable the plants sufficiently grown to draw and set2 and it requires several different seasons1 or periods of rain1 to enable them to complete planting their crop1 which operation is frequently not finished until ,july4 ,after the plants have taken root1 and begin to grow1 the ground is carefully weeded and worked1 either with hand hoes or the plough1 according as it will admit4 ,after the plants have considerably increased in bulk1 and begin to shoot up1 the tops are pinched off1 and only ten1 twelve1 or sixteen leaves left1 according to the quality of the tobacco and the soil4 ,the worms1 also1 are carefully picked off and destroyed1 of which there are two species that prey upon tobacco4 ,one is the ground worm1 which cuts it off just beneath the surface of the earth2 this must be carefully looked for and trodden to death2 it is of a dark brown color1 and short4 ,the other is a horn worm1 some inches in length1 as thick as your little finger1 of a vivid green color1 with a number of pointed excrescences or feelers from his head like horns4 ,these devour the leaf1 and are always upon the plant4 ,as it would be endless labor to keep their hands constantly in search of them1 it would be almost impossible to prevent their eating up more than half the crop had it not been discovered that turkeys are particularly dexterous at finding them1 eat them up voraciously1 and prefer them to every other food4 ,for this purpose every planter keeps a flock of turkeys1 which he has driven into the tobacco grounds every day by a little negro that can do nothing else2 these keep his tobacco more clear from horn worms than all the hands he has got could do were they employed solely for that end4 ,when the tops are nipped off1 a few plants are left untouched for seed4 ,on the plants that have been topped1 young shoots are apt to spring out1 which are termed suckers1 and are carefully and constantly broken off lest they should draw too much of the nourishment and substance from the leaves of the plant4 ,this operation is also performed from time to time1 and is called suckering tobacco4 ,for some time before it is ripe1 or ready for cutting1 the ground is perfectly covered with leaves1 which have increased to a prodigious size1 and then the plants are generally about three feet high4 ,when it is ripe1 a clammy moisture or exudation comes forth upon the leaves1 which appear1 as it were1 ready to become spotted1 and they are then of a great weight and substance4 ,the tobacco is cut when the sun is powerful1 but not in the morning and evening4 ,the plant1 if large1 is split down the middle1 and cut off two or three inches below the extremity of the split2 it is then turned directly bottom upwards1 for the sun to kill it more speedily1 to enable the laborers to carry it out of the field1 else the leaves would break off in transporting it to the scaffold4 ,the plants are cut only as they become ripe1 for a field never ripens altogether4 ,there is generally a second cutting likewise1 for the stalk vegetates and shoots forth again1 and in good land1 with favorable seasons1 there is a third cutting also procured1 notwithstanding acts of the ,legislature to prevent cutting tobacco even a second time4 ,when the tobacco plants are cut and brought to the scaffolds1 which are generally erected all around the tobacco houses1 they are placed with the split across a small oak stick1 an inch and better in diameter and four feet and a half long1 so close as each plant just to touch the other without bruising or pressing4 ,these sticks are then placed on the scaffolds1 with the tobacco thus suspended in the middle1 to dry or cure1 and are called tobacco sticks4 ,as the plants advance in curing1 the sticks are removed from the scaffolds out of doors into the tobacco house1 on to other scaffolds erected therein in successive regular gradations from the bottom to the top of the roof1 being placed higher as the tobacco approaches to a perfect cure1 until the house is all filled and the tobacco quite cured1 and this cure is frequently promoted by making fires on the floor below4 ,when the tobacco house is quite full1 and there is still more tobacco to bring in1 all that is within the house is struck1 and taken down1 and carefully placed in bulks1 or regular rows1 one upon another1 and the whole covered with trash tobacco1 or straw1 to preserve it in a proper condition1 that is moist1 which prevents its wasting and crumbling to pieces4 ,but1 to enable them to strike the cured tobacco1 they must wait for what is there called a season1 that is rainy or moist weather1 when the plants will better bear handling1 for in dry weather the leaves would all crumble to pieces in the attempt4 ,by this means a tobacco house may be filled two1 three1 or four times in the year4 ,every night the negroes are sent to the tobacco house to strip1 that is to pull off the leaves from the stalk1 and tie them up in hands or bundles4 ,this is also their daily occupation in rainy weather4 ,in stripping1 they are careful to throw away all the ground leaves and faulty tobacco1 binding up none but what is merchantable4 ,the hands or bundles thus tied up are also laid in what are called a bulk1 and covered with the refuse tobacco or straw to preserve their moisture4 ,after this1 the tobacco is carefully packed in hogsheads1 and pressed down with a large beam laid over it1 on the ends of which prodigious weights are suspended1 the other end being inserted with a mortice in a tree1 close to which the hogshead is placed4 ,this vast pressure is continued for some days1 and then the cask is filled up again with tobacco until it will contain no more1 after which it is headed up and carried to the pubic warehouses for inspection4 ,at these warehouses two skilful planters constantly attend1 and receive a salary from the public for that purpose4 ,they are sworn to inspect with honesty1 care1 and impartiality1 all the tobacco that comes to the warehouse1 and none is allowed to be shipped that is not regularly inspected4 ,the head of the cask is taken off1 and the tobacco is opened by means of large1 long iron wedges1 and great labour1 in such places as the inspectors direct4 ,after this strict attentive examination1 if they find it good and merchantable1 it is replaced in the cask1 weighed at the public scales1 the weight of the tobacco and of the cask also cut in the wood on the cask1 stowed away in the public warehouses1 and a note given to the proprietor1 which he disposes of to the merchant1 and he neither sees nor has any trouble with his tobacco more4 ,the weight of each hogshead must be #iej lbs4 nett1 exclusive of the cask--for less a note will not be given4 ,under the name of a crop hogshead1 however1 the general weight is from #a1jjj to #a1bjj or #a1cjj lbs4 nett1 but if the tobacco is found to be totally bad1 and refused as unmerchantable1 the whole is publicly burnt in a place set apart for that purpose4 ,however1 if it be judged that there is some merchantable tobacco in the hogshead1 the owner must unpack the whole publicly on the spot1 for he is not permitted to take any of it away again1 and must select and separate the good from the bad2 the last is immediately committed to the flames1 and for the first he receives a transfer note1 specifying the weight1 quality1 c4 ,this great and very laudable care was taken by the public to prevent frauds1 which1 however1 was not always effectual1 for1 even with all these precautions1 many acts of iniquity and imposition were committed4 ,so little is this crop cultivated in the ,states north of ,maryland1 that scarcely any notice has been taken of it in the agricultural or other public journals4 ,in ,connecticut1 in some few towns of ,hartford county1 considerable attention has been directed to it for a number of years past4 ,a ton and a-half the acre is said to be no uncommon yield4 ,the tobacco is planted very thick1 two feet and a half each way4 ,the seed came originally from ,virginia4 ,it is cured in houses1 without having been yellowed in the sun1 and without the use of fire4 ,it is said that the best ,havana cigars 7as they are termed7 are often manufactured from mixed ,cuba and ,american tobacco1 and sold under that name in ,connecticut4 ,in the ,connecticut ,valley is produced about #ejj tons of tobacco annually1 the average quantity1 #a1ejj lbs4 per acre1 value from seven to ten cents per pound4 ,culture4--,seed bed made rich and sown as cabbage early in ,april as possible4 ,land well ploughed and manured and harrowed as for corn1 laid out in rows three feet apart1 and slight hills in the row about two and a-half feet apart2 begin to plant about #ajth of ,june1 the ground to be kept clean with hoe and cultivator1 and examine the plants and keep clear of worms4 ,when in blossom and before seed is formed1 the plants must be topped about thirty-two inches from the ground1 having from sixteen to twenty leaves on each stalk1 after this the suckers are broken off1 and the plants kept clean till cut4 ,when ripe the leaves are spotted1 thick1 and will crack when pressed between the fingers and thumb4 ,it is cut at any time of the day1 after the dew is off1 left in the row till wilted1 then turned1 and if there is a hot sun1 it is often turned to prevent burning2 after wilting it is put into small heaps of six or eight plants1 then carried to the tobacco house for hanging1 usually on poles twelve feet long2 hung with twine about forty plants to a pole1 twenty on each side1 crossing the pole with a hitch knot to the stump end of the plants2 when perfectly cured1 which is known by the stems of the leaves being completely dry1 it is then taken in a damp time1 when the leaves will not crumble1 from the poles and placed in large piles1 by letting the tops of the plants lap each other1 leaving the butts out2 it remains in these heaps from three to ten days before it is stripped1 depending on the state of weather1 but it must not be allowed to heat4 ,when stripped it is made into small hands1 the small and broken leaves to be kept by themselves2 it is then packed in boxes of about #djj lbs4 and marked ,seed ,leaf ,tobacco4 ,one acre of tobacco will require as much labor as two of corn that produce #fj bags to the acre1 and requires about the same quantity of manure4 ,if the tobacco can be cured without fire heat the quality will be improved1 and if dried in the open air1 should have shades of boards to keep off rain and excess of sun4 ,the chief market for ,connecticut tobacco is ,bremen4 ,in a number of the ,charleston ,southern ,planter1 a remedy is described for preventing the destruction of plants by the fly4 ,the writer says3 ,i had a bushel or two of dry ashes put into a large tub1 and added train oil enough 7say one gallon of oil to the bushel of ashes7 to damp and flavor the ashes completely3 this was well stirred and mixed with the hand1 and sown broadcast over certain patches1 and proved thoroughly effectual for several years1 while parts left without the remedy were destroyed4 ,the best ground for raising the plant1 according to ,capt4 ,carver 7,treatise on ,culture of ,tobacco1 c471 is a warm rich soil1 not subject to be overrun with weeds4 ,the soil in which it grows in ,virginia is inclining to sandy1 consequently warm and light2 the nearer1 therefore1 the nature of the land approaches to that1 the greater probability there is of its flourishing4 ,the situation most preferable for a plantation is the southern declivity of a hill1 or a spot sheltered from the blighting north winds4 ,but at the same time the plants must enjoy a free current of air2 for if that be obstructed they will not prosper4 ,the different sorts of seed not being distinguishable from each other1 nor the goodness to be ascertained by its appearance1 great caution should be used in obtaining the seed through some responsible mercantile house1 or individual of character4 ,each capsule contains about a thousand seeds1 and the whole produce of a single plant has been estimated at #cej1jjj4 ,the seeds are usually ripe in the month of ,september1 and when perfectly dry may be rubbed out and preserved in bags till the following season4 ,there is a large quantity of tobacco raised in the southern part of ,indiana annually1 equal in quality to the tobacco raised in ,kentucky4 ,in some counties the article is extensively cultivated1 and generally pays the producer a handsome profit on the labor bestowed on it4 ,the cultivation of it is becoming more extensive every year4 ,nearly all this crop is taken to ,louisville for sale1 very little being shipped south on account of the producer4 ,heretofore1 owing to the heaviness of tobacco and bad roads1 the producer has encountered great difficulties in getting his crop to market4 ,the hauling of a few hogsheads fifty or sixty miles1 or even forty1 is no light job1 even over good roads4 ,hence1 tobacco has not been as extensively cultivated as it would have been under different circumstances4 ,but1 with the facilities afforded by the railroads in carrying their crops to market1 ,i doubt not the farmers of the interior will more generally engage in the cultivation of tobacco1 and those who have been in the habit of raising small crops will extend their operations4 ,in ,maryland the seed is sown in beds of fine mould1 and the plants arising therefrom are transplanted in the beginning of ,may4 ,they are set at the distance of three or four feet apart1 and are hilled1 and kept continually free from weeds4 ,when as many leaves have shot out as the soil will nourish to advantage1 the top of the plant is broken off1 which of course prevents its growing higher4 ,it is carefully kept clear from worms1 and the suckers which put out between the leaves are taken off at proper times1 till the plant arrives at perfection1 which is in ,august4 ,when the leaves turn of a brownish color1 and begin to be spotted1 the plants are cut down and hung up to dry1 after having sweated in heaps one night4 ,when the leaves can be handled without crumbling1 which is always in moist weather1 they are stripped from the stalks1 tied up in bundles1 and packed for exportation in hogsheads4 ,no suckers nor ground leaves are allowed to be merchantable4 ,an industrious person may manage #f1jjj plants of tobacco1 which will yield #a1jjj lbs4 of dried leaves1 and also four acres of ,indian corn4 ,miller1 an ,american author1 thus describes the mode of culture3-- ,when a regular plantation of tobacco is intended1 the beds being prepared and well turned up with the hoe1 the seed1 on account of its smallness and to prevent the ravages of ants1 is mixed with ashes and sown upon them1 a little before the rainy season4 ,the beds are raked1 or trampled with the foot1 to make the seed take the sooner4 ,the plants appear in two or three weeks4 ,as soon as they have acquired four leaves1 the strongest are carefully drawn up and planted in the field by a line1 at a distance of about three feet from each other4 ,if no rain fall1 they should be watered two or three times4 ,every morning and evening the plants must he looked over in order to destroy a worm which sometimes invades the bud4 ,when they are about four or five inches high1 they are to be cleaned from weeds and moulded up4 ,as soon as they have eight or nine leaves1 and are ready to put forth a stalk1 the top is nipped off in order to make the leaves longer and thicker4 ,after this the buds which sprout at the joints of the leaves are also plucked off1 and not a day is suffered to pass without examining the leaves to destroy the large caterpillar1 which is often most destructive to them4 ,when they are fit for cutting1 which is known by the brittleness of the leaves1 they are cut off with a knife close to the ground1 and1 after lying some time1 are carried to the drying-shed or house1 where the plants are hung up by pairs upon lines1 leaving a space between1 that they may not touch one another4 ,when perfectly dry1 the leaves are stripped from the stalks and made into small bundles1 tied with one of the leaves4 ,these bundles are laid in heaps and covered with blankets2 care is taken not to overheat them1 for which reason the heaps are laid open to the air from time to time1 and spread abroad4 ,this operation is repeated till no more heat is perceived in the heaps1 and the tobacco is then ready for packing and shipping4 ,i have been favored by ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,hernandez1 a ,cuba planter1 with some valuable instructions for the cultivation of ,cuba tobacco1 which ,i subjoin4 ,these remarks apply principally to ,america1 but most of the advice and information will be found generally applicable to other localities3-- ,the first thing to be considered in this1 as in every other culture1 is the soil1 which for this kind of tobacco 7,n4 repanda7 ought to be a rich1 sandy1 loam1 neither too high nor too low--that is1 ground capable of retaining moisture1 the more level the better1 and1 if possible1 well protected by margins4 ,the next should be the selection of a spot of ground to make the necessary beds4 ,it would be preferable to make those on land newly cleared1 or1 at all events1 when the land has not been seeded with grass2 for grass seeds springing up together with the tobacco would injure it materially1 as the grass cannot be removed without disturbing the tobacco plants4 ,in preparing the ground for the nurseries1 break it up properly1 grub up all the small stumps1 dig out the roots1 and carefully remove them with the hand4 ,this being done1 make the beds from three to four inches high1 of a reasonable length1 and from three to three and a-half feet broad1 so as to enable the hand1 at arm's length1 to weed out the tender young plants with the fingers from both sides of the bed1 and keep them perfectly clean4 ,the months of ,december and ,january are the most proper for sowing the seed in ,florida4 ,some persons speak of planting it as early as the month of ,november1 ,i am1 however1 of opinion1 that about the latter part of ,december is the best time to sow tobacco seed2 any sooner would expose the plants to suffer from the inclemency of the most severe part of the winter season4 ,before the seed is sown take some dry trash and burn it off upon the nursery beds1 to destroy insects and grass seeds2 then take one ounce of tobacco seed and mix it with about a quart of dry ashes1 so as to separate the seed as much2 as possible1 and sow it broadcast4 ,after the seed has been thus sown1 the surface of the bed ought to be raked over slightly1 and trodden upon by the foot1 carrying the weight of the body with it1 that the ground may at once adhere closely to the seed1 and then water it4 ,should the nursery-beds apparently become dry from blighting winds or other causes1 watering will be absolutely necessary1 for the ground ought to be kept in a moist state from the time the seed is planted until the young plants are large enough to be set out4 ,the nurseries being made1 proceed to prepare the land where the tobacco is to be set out4 ,if the land is newly cleared--and new land is probably more favorable to the production of this plant than it is to that of any other1 both as respects quality and quantity--remove as many of the stumps and roots as possible1 and dig up the ground in such a manner as to render the surface perfectly loose2 then level the ground1 and in this state leave it until the nursery plants have acquired about one-half the growth necessary to admit of their being set out2 then break up the ground a second time in the same manner as at first1 as in this way all the small fibres of roots and their rooted parts will be more or less separated1 and thus obviate much of that degree of sponginess so common to new land1 and which is in a great measure the cause of new land seldom producing well the first year1 as the soil does not lay close enough to the roots of the plants growing in it1 so that a shower of rain produces no other effect than that of removing the earth still more from them4 ,the ground having been prepared and properly levelled off1 and the plants1 sufficiently grown to be taken up--say of the size of good cabbage plants--take advantage of the first wet or cloudy weather to commence setting them out4 ,this should be done with great care1 and the plants put single at equal distances1 that is1 about three feet north and south1 and two and a-half1 or two and three-fourths feet east and west4 ,they are placed thus close to each other to prevent the leaves growing too large4 ,the direction of the rows1 however1 should alter according to the situation of the land2 where it has any inclination1 the widest space should run across it1 as the bed will have to be made so as to prevent the soil from being washed from the roots by rain when bedded2 but where the land is rather level1 the three feet rows should be north and south1 so as to give to the plants a more full effect on them by passing across the beds1 than by crossing them in an oblique direction4 ,to set the plants out regularly1 take a task line of #aje feet in length1 with a pointed stick three feet long attached to each end of it1 then insert a small piece of rag or something else through the line at the distance of two feet and three-fourths from each other2 place it north and south 7or as the land may require71 at full length1 and then set a plant at every division1 carefully keeping the bud of the plant above the surface of the ground4 ,then remove the line three feet from the first row1 and so on1 until the planting is completed4 ,care ought to be taken to prevent the stretching of the line from misplacing the plants4 ,in this way the plants can be easily set out1 and a proper direction given to them both ways4 ,in taking the plants up from the nursery1 the ground should be first loosened with a flat piece of wood or iron1 about an inch broad2 then carefully holding the leaves close towards each other between the fingers1 draw them up1 and place them in a basket or some other convenient thing to receive them for planting4 ,after taking up those that can be planted during the day1 water the nursery that the earth may again adhere to the remaining ones4 ,the evening is the best time for setting out the plants1 but where a large field has to be cultivated it will be well to plant both morning and evening4 ,the plants set out in the morning1 unless in rainy or cloudy weather1 should be covered immediately1 and the same should be done with those planted the evening previous1 should the day open with a clear sunshine1--the palmetto leaf answers the purpose very well4 ,there should be water convenient to the plants1 so as to have them watered morning and evening1 but more particularly in the evening1 until they have taken root4 ,they should also be closely examined when watered1 so as to replace such plants as happen to die1 that the ground may be properly occupied1 and that all the plants may open as nearly together as possible4 ,from the time the plants are set out1 the earth around them should be occasionally stirred1 both with the hand and hoe4 ,at first hoe flat1 but as soon as the leaves assume a growing disposition1 begin gradually to draw a slight heel towards the plant4 ,the plants must be closely examined1 even while in the nursery1 to destroy the numerous worms that feed upon them--some1 by cutting the stalk and gnawing the leaves when first set out2 these resemble the grub-worm1 and are to be found near the injured plant1 under ground2 others1 which come from the eggs deposited on the plant by the butterfly1 and feed on the leaf1 grow to a very large size1 and look very ugly1 and are commonly called the tobacco-worm4 ,there is also a small worm which attacks the bud of the plant1 and which is sure destruction to its further growth2 and some again1 though less destructive1 are to be seen within the two coats of the leaf1 feeding as it were on its juices alone4 ,the worming should be strictly attended to every morning and evening1 until the plants are pretty well grown1 when every other day will be sufficient4 ,the most proper persons for worming are either boys or girls from ten to fourteen years of age4 ,they should be made to come to the tobacco ground early in the morning1 and be led by inducements1 such as giving a trifling reward to those who will bring the most worms1 to clear it thoroughly4 ,grown persons would find it rather too tedious to stoop to examine the under part of every leaf1 and seek the worm under ground3 nor would they be so much alive to the value of a spoonful of sugar1 or other light reward4 ,beside1 where the former would make the search a matter of profit and pleasure1 it would to the latter prove only a tedious and irksome occupation4 ,here ,i will observe1 that it is for similar reasons that the culture of the ,cuba tobacco plant more properly belongs to a white population1 for there are few plants requiring more attention and tender treatment than it does4 ,indeed it will present a sorry appearance1 unless the eye of its legitimate proprietor is constantly watching over it4 ,when the plants have acquired from twelve to fourteen good leaves1 and are about knee high1 it may be well to begin to top them1 by nipping off the bud with the aid of the finger and thumb nail 7washing the hands after this in water is necessary1 as the acid juices of the plants1 otherwise1 soon produce a soreness on the fingers71 taking care not to destroy the small leaves immediately near the bud3 for if the land is good and the season favorable1 those very small top leaves will in a short time be nearly as large1 and ripen quite as soon as the lower ones1 whereby two or more leaves may be saved2 thus obtaining from #af to #ah leaves1 in the place of #ab or #ad1 which is the general average4 ,as the topping of the tobacco plant is all essential in order to promote the growth1 and to equalise the ripening of the leaves1 ,i would observe that this operation should at all events commence the instant that the bud of the plant shows a disposition to go to seed1 and be immediately followed by removing the suckers1 which it will now put out at every leaf4 ,indeed1 the suckers should be removed from the plant as often as they appear4 ,the tobacco plant ought never to be cut before it comes to full maturity1 which is known by the leaves becoming mottled1 coarse1 and of a thick texture1 and gummy to the touch1 at which time the end of the leaf1 by being doubled1 will break short1 which it will not do to the same extent when green4 ,it ought not to be out in wet weather1 when the leaves lose their natural gummy substance1 so necessary to be preserved4 ,about this period1 the cultivator is apt to be rendered anxious by the fear of allowing the plants to remain in the field longer than necessary2 until experience removes those apprehensions1 he should be on his guard1 however1 not to destroy the quality of his tobacco1 by cutting it too soon4 ,when the cutting is to commence1 there should be procured a quantity of forked stakes1 set upright1 with a pole or rider setting on each fork ready to support the tobacco1 and to keep it from the ground4 ,the plant is then cut obliquely1 even with the surface of the ground1 and the person thus employed should strike the lower end of the stalk1 two or three times with the blunt side of his knife1 so as to cause as much of the sand or soil to fall from it as possible1 then tying two stalks together1 they are gently placed across the riders or poles prepared to receive them4 ,in this state they are allowed to remain in the sun or open air until the leaves have somewhat withered1 whereby they will not be liable to the injury which they would otherwise receive1 if they came suddenly in contact with other bodies when fresh cut4 ,then place as many plants on each pole or rider as may be conveniently carried1 and take them in the drying house1 where the tobacco is strung off upon the frames prepared for it1 leaving a small space between the two plants1 that air may circulate freely among them1 and promote their drying4 ,as the drying advances1 the stalks are brought closer to each other1 so as to make room for those which yet remain to be housed4 ,in drying the tobacco1 all damp air should be excluded1 nor ought the drying of it to be precipitated by the admission of high drying winds4 ,the process is to be promoted in the most moderate manner1 except in the rainy season1 when the sooner the drying is effected the better2 for it is a plant easily affected by the changes of the weather1 after the drying commences4 ,it is then liable to mildew in damp weather1 which is when the leaf changes from its original color to a pale yellow cast1 and from this1 by parts1 to an even brown4 ,when the middle stem is perfectly dry1 it can be taken down1 and the leaves stripped from the stalk and put in bulk to sweat1 that is1 to make tobacco of them2 for before this process1 when a concentration of its better qualities takes place1 the leaves are always liable to be affected by the weather1 and cannot well be considered as being anything else than common dry leaves1 partaking of the nature of tobacco1 but not actually tobacco4 ,the leaves are to be stripped from the stalks in damp or cloudy weather1 when they are more easily handled1 and the separation of the different qualities rendered also more easy4 ,the good leaves are at this time kept by themselves as wrappers1 or caps1 and the most defective ones for fillings1 or tripa4 ,when the tobacco is put in bulk1 the stem of the leaves should all be kept in one direction1 to facilitate the tying of them in hanks3 afterwards make the bulk two of three feet high1 and of a proportionate circumference4 ,to guard against the leaves becoming over-heated1 and to equalise the fermentation or sweating1 after the first twenty-four hours1 place the outside leaves in the centre1 and those of the centre to the outside of the bulk4 ,by doing this once or twice1 and taking care to cover the bulk either with sheets or blankets1 so as to exclude all air from it1 and leaving it in this state for about forty days1 it acquires an odor strong enough to produce sneezing1 and the other qualities of cured tobacco4 ,the process of curing may then be considered as completed4 ,then take some of the most injured leaves1 but of the best quality1 and in proportion to the quantity of tobacco made1 and place them in clean water1 there let them remain until they rot1 which they will do in about eight days2 then break open your bulks1 spread the tobacco with their stems in one direction1 and damp them with this water in a gentle manner1 that it may not soak through the leaf1 for in this case the leaf would rot4 ,sponge is used in ,cuba for this operation4 ,then tie them in hanks of from1 twenty-five to thirty leaves2 this being done1 spread the hanks in the tobacco house for about twelve hours1 to air them1 that the dampness may be removed1 and afterwards pack them in casks or barrels1 and head them tight1 until you wish to manufacture them4 ,the object of damping the tobacco with this water1 is to give it elasticity1 to promote its burning free1 to increase its fragrance2 to give it an aromatic smell1 and to keep it always soft4 ,this is the great secret of curing tobacco for cigars properly1 and for which we are indebted to the people of ,cuba1 who certainly understand the mode of curing this kind of tobacco better than other people4 ,it is to them a source of great wealth1 and may be made equally so to others4 ,we have here three cuttings from the original plants2 the last cutting will be of rather a weak quality1 but which1 nevertheless1 will be agreeable to those who confine their smoking to weak tobacco4 ,in ratooning the plant1 only one sprout ought to be allowed to grow1 and this from those most deeply rooted2 all other sprouts ought to be destroyed4 ,the houses necessary for the curing of tobacco ought to be roomy1 with a passage way running through the centre1 from one extremity of the building to the other1 and pierced on both sides with a sufficient number of doors and windows to make them perfectly airy4 ,in addition to what ,i have said respecting the mode of cultivating and treating the tobacco plant1 ,i have further to state1 that when once the plant is allowed to be checked in its growth1 it never again recovers it4 ,that in promoting the drying of the leaf1 fire should not be resorted to1 because the smoke would impart to it a flavor that would injure that of the tobacco itself4 ,in order to obtain vigorous plants1 the seed ought to be procured from the original stalk1 and not from the ratoons1 by allowing some of them to go to seed for that express purpose4 ,in ,cuba1 the seed is most generally saved from the ratoon plants1 but we should consider that that climate and soil are probably more favorable to the production of the plant than ,america1 and consequently we ought to confide in the best seed1 which is had from the original stalk4 ,all plants have their peculiar empire3 nevertheless1 we should not be deterred from planting ,cuba tobacco here2 for even if we should be compelled to import the seed every third year1 which would be as often as necessary1 it would still prove a profitable culture4 ,taking #fjj lbs41 which is the average product per acre1 it would yield1 if well cured1 at #ej cents1 per lb41 #cjj dollars in the leaf4 ,the following exhibits the profit to be derived from it when manufactured into cigars3-- ,dls4 ,dls4 ,six hundred pounds1 allowing eight pounds to the #a4jjj1 would produce #ge1jjj cigars1 which at ten dollars per thousand #gej4jj ,cost of the leaf #cjj4jj ,worth of manufacture1 at two dollars fifty cents per thousand #ahg4ej #dhg4ej -------- ,difference in favor of manufacturer #bfb4ej ,this amount being the profits of the manufacturer alone1 the profit to him who could combine both pursuits would be more than doubled4 ,as to the quantity of land which can be cultivated to the hand1 there is some difference in the practice of planters2 however1 ,i think that ,i am within the usual calculation in saying1 that an acre and a half would not exceed the quantity that an able hand can easily cultivate and manage properly4 ,with reference to the cultivation of ,spanish tobacco from the seed1 the following remarks are also made by a gentleman residing in ,maryland3-- ,my experience for some years in the cultivation and manufacture of ,spanish tobacco into cigars1 convinces me that the first-rate variety of ,spanish tobacco--that is1 the most odorous and fine--will bear reproduction in our climate twice1 without much deterioration2 by that time it becomes acidulated and worthless as ,spanish tobacco4 ,for seven years ,i have imported annually first seed from ,cuba1 but have occasionally made experiments with reproduced seed1 and ,i have arrived at the conclusion above stated4 ,i have obtained1 annually1 a cigar maker from ,baltimore1 who has made for me on my farm1 and from ,spanish tobacco4 ,these produced about the average of #gj1jjj cigars1 per year2 they have been sold in ,baltimore and ,philadelphia for five dollars the half box1 that is ten dollars the thousand4 ,the tobacco has been uniformly admired1 but in former years they have been very badly made2 for the last two years1 7writing in #ahdc17 my crops were destroyed by the unfavorable weather4 ,this growth and manufacture do not interfere with my cultivation of other crops2 in fact they are wholly unconnected with the other operations of the farmer4 ,he mentions having obtained a premium from an agricultural society1 for having produced on one and a half acres1 growth and manufacture included1 of ,spanish tobacco #ejd dollars net profit4 ,the following letter from ,mr4 ,clarke1 to the ,hon4 ,h4 ,l4 ,ellsworth1 ,washington1 speaks favorably of a new variety of tobacco3-- ,willow ,grove1 ,orange ,county1 ,virginia1 ,feb4 #ac1 #ahdd4 ,dear ,sir1--,agreeably to my promise ,i enclose you the ,californian tobacco seed4 ,it grew from the small parcel given to me by ,mr4 ,wm4 ,smith1 in your office in ,march last4 ,on getting home1 although late1 ,i prepared a bed1 and sowed the small parcel1 the first week in ,april1 and not having seed enough to finish the bed1 sowed the balance of the bed in ,oronoko tobacco seed1 and to my astonishment the ,californian plants were soon ready to set out1 as soon as the other kinds of tobacco sown in the month of ,january2 and the ,oronoko seed1 that was sown with the ,californian1 did not arrive to sufficient size until it was too late to set out4 ,the ,californian tobacco1 if it continues to ripen and grow for the time to come1 as it did for me on the first trial1 must come into general use--first1 because the plants are much earlier in the spring 7say ten days at least71 than any kind we have2 secondly1 when transplanted1 the growth is remarkably quick1 matures and ripens at least from ten to fifteen days earlier than any kind of tobacco we have in use amongst us4 ,it is a large broad1 silky leaf1 of fine texture1 and of a beautiful color1 and some plants grow as large as seven feet across1 from point to point2 upon the whole1 ,i consider it a valuable acquisition to the planting community4 ,tobacco is one of the chief staples of ,cuba4 ,there are many qualities1 but it is usually classed into two kinds4 ,that which is raised on the western end of the island and is unequalled for smoking1 is called ,vuelta abajo4 ,that which is raised east of ,havana1 is called ,vuelta arriba1 and is far inferior to the former4 ,the best ,havana tobacco farms are confined to a very narrow area on the south west part of ,cuba4 ,this district1 twenty-seven leagues long and only seven broad1 is bounded on the north by mountains1 on the south and west by the ocean1 whilst eastward1 though there is no natural limit1 the tobacco sensibly degenerates in quality4 ,a light sandy soil and rather low situation suit the best4 ,the ,vuelta abajo is usually divided into five classes4 ,calidad or ,libra4 ,ynjuriado ,principal or ,firsts4 ,segundas or ,seconds4 ,terceiras or ,thirds4 ,cuartas or ,fourths4 ,calidad is the best tobacco1 selected for its good color1 flavor1 elasticity and entireness of the leaves4 ,the bales contain sixty hands of four gabillas1 or fingers of twenty-five leaves each1 and are marked ,l4#fj4 ,ynjuriado ,principal has less flavor1 and is usually of a lighter color4 ,the leaves should be whole and somewhat elastic4 ,the bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas1 or thirty leaves each1 and are marked ,b4 #hj4 ,segundas is the most inferior class of wrapper4 ,there are many good leaves in it1 but the hands are usually made up of those which are stained1 have a bad color1 or have been slightly touched by the worm4 ,the bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of thirty-six to forty leaves each1 and are marked ,y4 #b;a4 #hj4 ,terceiras is the best tilling1 and much wrapper can usually be selected from it when new4 ,the bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of more than forty leaves each1 and are marked #c;a4 #hj4 ,cuartas is the most inferior class1 fit only for filling4 ,the bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of no determined number of leaves1 and are marked #d;a4 #hj4 ,the ,vuelta arriba tobacco is prepared in a similar manner1 but neither its color or flavor is good1 and it does not burn well4 ,the crop is gathered in the spring1 and usually begins to appear at market in ,july4 ,good tobacco should be aromatic1 of a rich brown color1 without stains1 and the leaf thin and elastic4 ,it should burn well and the taste should be neither bitter nor biting4 ,the best is grown on the margins of rivers which are periodically overflowed1 and is called ,de rio4 ,it is distinguished from other tobacco by a fine sand1 which is found in the creases of the leaves4 ,the tobacco plantations in ,cuba increased in number from #e1ecd in #ahbg1 to #i1ajb in #ahdf4 ,the production of tobacco has nearly doubled in the province1 of which ,st4 ,jago is the port1 in the last ten years4 ,the following figures show the exports from the ,havana3-- ,leaf tobacco4 ,cigars4 #ahdj #a1jca1acf lbs4 #adg1hah thousand4 #ahda #a1dfj1cjb #afa1ibh #ahdb #a1jec1afa #ace1abg #ahdc #b1abe1hje #aec1bbg #ahdd #a1aig1acf #adg1hbe #ahde #a1fba1hhi #abj1ceb #ahdf #d1jff1bfb #aeh1hda #ahdg #a1icf1hbi #a1ihb1bfg #ahdh #a1cej1hae #aej1gbi #ahdi #a1aeh1bfe #aaa1egb ,the class of tobacco shipped at the port of ,havana1 is not the same as that gathered in the districts from which the manufacturers of cigars there receive their supplies--it would cost too dear4 ,however1 it is not a rare occurrence to find among a number of bales a few of a quality about equal to that employed there1 and this happens in years when the crop has been very abundant1 as in #ahdf and #ahdh4 ,the various classes are paid in proportion to the capa1 or outside leaves1 which are found in an assortment2 the three first classes are employed as covers1 and often1 if the tobacco is new1 they may be found in the fourth and even in the fifth4 ,in parcels well assorted1 one-fourth is composed of capa--say1 first1 second1 and third1 and the rest is composed of tripa1 or interior of the cigar4 ,in the first-named1 there generally comes more of the capa than is necessary to use2 the remaining bales1 which contain the inferior class1 are fit only for fillings4 ,the following is an analysis of the ashes of ,havana tobacco3-- ,salts of potash #bd4cj ,salts of lime and magnesia #fg4dj ,silica #h4cj ----- #ajj4jj ,hayti exported in #ahcf #a1bbb1gaf lbs4 ,porto ,rico1 in #ahci #dc1bjc cwt4 ,the ,french have been so successful in cultivating tobacco1 in their possessions in ,northern ,africa1 that they hope soon to be independent of the foreign grown article4 ,the mode of preparing it1 however1 is not very well understood by the colonists4 ,in #ahea1 the number of planters in ,algeria was only #acg1 whereas in #aheb1 it was #a1jgc4 ,the number of hectares under culture with the tobacco plant was #ddf in #ahea1 and #a1jie in #aheb4 ,the total of the present year's crop is estimated at #a1ghj1jjj kilogrammes1 of which #gjj1jjj kilogrammes have been grown by the natives1 and the rest by ,europeans4 ,in the province of ,algiers alone1 the quantity of tobacco sold will amount to #eej1jjj kilogrammes1 which is nearly three times as much as in #ahea1 and an equal progression has taken place in the provinces of ,oran1 and ,constantina4 ,the cultivation of tobacco in ,algeria has proved most successful2 in #ahea1 only #bfd1iab kilogrammes were produced2 in #aheb1 the quantity had risen to #gce1aii kilogrammes4 ,there are two crops in the year1 the first being the best1 but even this is capable of almost indefinite augmentation4 ,,culture ,,of ,,tobacco ,,in ,,the ,,east4 ,having touched upon the practice of culture in the western world1 we will now bend our steps towards the east1 and it may be curious to notice the method pursued in cultivating and curing the celebrated ,shiraz tobacco of ,persia 7,nicotiana ,persica71 which is so much esteemed for the delicacy of its flavor1 and its aromatic quality4 ,it is thus described by an intelligent traveller4 ,the culture of the plant1 it will be seen1 is nearly the same2 it is only the preparation of the tobacco that forms the difference3-- ,in ,december the seed is sown in a dark soil1 which1 has been slightly manured 7red clayey soils will not do74 ,to protect the seed1 and to keep it warm1 the ground is covered with light1 thorny bushes1 which are removed when the plants are three or four inches high2 and during this period1 the plants are watered every four or five days1 only however in the event of sufficient rain to keep the soil well moistened not falling4 ,the ground must be kept wet until the plants are six to eight inches high1 when they are transplanted into a well moistened soil1 which has been made into trenches for them2 the plants being put on the top of the ridges ten or twelve inches apart1 while the trenched plots are made1 so as to retain the water given4 ,the day they are transplanted1 water must be given to them1 and also every five or six days subsequently1 unless rain enough falls to render this unnecessary4 ,when the plants have become from thirty to forty inches high1 the leaves will be from three to fifteen inches long4 ,at this period1 or when the flowers are forming1 all the flower capsules are pinched or twisted off4 ,after this operation and watering being continued1 the leaves increase in size and thickness until the month of ,august or ,september1 when each plant is cut off close to the root1 and again stuck firmly into the ground4 ,at this season of the year1 heavy dews fall during the night2 when exposed to these the color of the leaves change from green to the desired yellow4 ,during this stage1 of course no water is given to the soil4 ,when the leaves are sufficiently yellow1 the plants are taken from the earth early in the morning1 and while they are yet wet from the dew1 are heaped on each other in a high shed1 the walls of which are made with light thorny bushes1 where they are freely exposed to the wind4 ,while there1 and generally in four or five days1 those leaves which are still green become of the desired pale yellow color4 ,the stalks and centre stem of each leaf are now removed1 and thrown away1 the leaves are heaped together in the drying house for three or four days more1 when they are in a fit state for packing4 ,for this operation the leaves are carefully spread on each other and formed into sorts of cakes1 the circumference from four to five feet1 and three to four inches thick1 great care being taken not to break or injure the leaves4 ,bags made of strong cloth1 but thin and very open at the sides1 are filled with these cakes1 and pressed very strongly down on each other2 the leaves would be broken if this were not attended to4 ,when the bags are filled1 they are placed separately in a drying house1 and turned daily4 ,if the leaves were so dry that there would be a risk of their breaking during the operation of packing1 a very slight sprinkling of water is given them to enable them to withstand it without injury4 ,the leaf is valued for being thick1 tough1 and of a uniform light yellow color1 and of an agreeable aromatic smell4 ,in ,india1 the ,surat1 ,bilsah1 and ,sandoway 7,arracan7 varieties of tobacco are the most celebrated4 ,the two first are found to be good for cultivation in the district about ,calcutta1 but the ,cabool is still more to be preferred4 ,tobacco requires in the ,east1 for its growth1 a soil as fertile and as well manured as for the production of the poppy or opium4 ,it is1 therefore1 often planted in the spaces enriched by animal and vegetable exuvi1 among the huts of the natives4 ,i have tried seed in different soils1 says ,capt4 ,c4 ,cowles1--namely a light garden mould with a large portion of old house rubbish1 dug to a good depth1 which had a top dressing of the sweepings of the farm-yard and cow-houses2 a rather heavy loam1 highly manured with burnt and decayed vegetables1 and old cow dung2 the third was a patch of ground1 which was originally an unwholesome swamp1 from being eighteen inches to two feet1 lower than the surrounding land2 the soil appeared to be a hard sterile clay1 and covered with long coarse grass and rushes4 ,as there was a tank near it1 ,i cut away one side of it1 and threw the soil over the ground1 bringing it rather above the level4 ,such was its appearance1 7a hard compost marly clay17 that ,i expected no other good from it than that of raising the land so as to throw the water off2 contrary1 however1 to my expectations1 it produced a much finer crop of tobacco than either of the other soils1 and with somewhat less manure4 ,the agricultural process is limited to some practical laws founded on experience1 and these are subject to two principal agents2 viz41 the soil and climate4 ,with respect to the former1 it is the practice amongst the growers in tobacco countries1 such as ,cuba1 the ,states of ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 and the ,philippine ,islands1 to select a high and dry piece of land1 of a siliceous nature1 and combined with iron1 if possible2 and with respect to the latter1 there are seasons of the year too well known to the planters to need any explanation4 ,the only difference 7if there is any7 depends on the geographical situation of the place1 with respect to its temperature1 or in the backwardness or advancement of seasons1 and even on the duration of the same--in which circumstances the planter takes advantage of the one for the other4 ,the influence of a burning climate may be modified by choosing the coolest month of the year1 whereas the soil cannot be altered without incurring great expense4 ,i have seen tobacco lose its natural quality and degenerate by transplanting from one soil to another1 although of the same temperature1 and vice versa4 ,mr4 ,piddington has analysed several ,indian soils1 distinguished for the production of superior tobacco4 ,these are the table soils from ,arracan1 7,sandoway17 a soil from ,singour1 in ,burdwan1 near ,chandernagore1 the tobacco of which1 though of the same species as that of the surrounding country1 sells at the price of the ,arracan sort2 and the soil of the best ,bengal tobacco1 which is grown at1 and about ,hingalee1 in the ,kishnagur district4 ,the best tobacco soils of ,cuba and ,manila1 are for the most part red soils4 ,now1 the red and reddish soils contain most of their iron in the state of peroxide1 or the reddish brown oxide of iron2 while the lighter grey soils contain it only in the state of protoxide1 or the black oxide of iron4 ,mr4 ,piddington believes the quality of the tobacco to depend mainly on the state and quantity of the iron of the soil1 while it is indifferent about the lime1 which is so essential to cotton4 ,none of the tobacco soils contain any lime4 ,their analysis show them to contain3-- ,arracan soil4 ,singour soil4 ,hingalee soil4 ,oxide or iron1 7peroxide7 #ae1fe #aj1fj #f1jj ,water and saline matter #a1aj #ge #a1ej ,vegetable matter and fibre #c1ge #a1aj #ge ,silex #gf1ij #hj1fe #hg1be ,alumina #b1jj #d1ej #a1ej ------- ------- ------- #ii1dj #ig1fj #ig1jj ,water and loss #fj #b1dj #c1jj ------- ------- ------- #ajj #ajj #ajj ,from which it will be seen that the best tobacco soil hitherto found in ,india contains about sixteen per cent41 or nearly one-sixth1 of iron1 which is mostly in a state of peroxide2 and that the inferior sort of tobacco grows in a soil containing only six per cent41 or one-sixteenth of iron1 which is1 moreover1 mostly in the state of protoxide1 or black oxide4 ,mr4 ,piddington thought it worth examining what the quantity of iron in the different sorts of tobacco would be1 and found that while the ashes of one ounce1 or #dhj grains of ,havana and ,sandoway cheroots gave exactly #a4id grains1 or #j4dj per cent41 of peroxide of iron the ashes of the same quantity of the ,hingalee1 or best ,bengal tobacco1 only gave #a4ej grains1 or #j4cb per cent42 and it appears to exist in the first two in a state of peroxide1 and in the last as a protoxide of iron2 rendering it highly probable that the flavor of the tobacco to the smoker depends on the state and quantity of the iron it contains6 ,green copperas water1 which is a solution of sulphate of iron1 is often used by the ,american and ,english tobacconists and planters1 to colour and flavor their tobacco2 and this would be decomposed by the potass of the tobacco1 and sulphate of potass and carbonate of iron is formed4 ,carbonate of iron is of an ochre-yellow color4 ,mr4 ,piddington says he took care to ascertain that this process had not been performed with the tobacco used for this experiment2 and adds that ,bengal cheroot makers do not know of this method4 ,mr4 ,laidley1 of ,gonitea1 dissents from the idea suggested by ,mr4 ,piddington that ferruginous matter in the soil is essential to the successful growth of tobacco4 ,he observes that if we attend only to the iron contained1 why every plant will be found to require a ferruginous soil2 but tobacco contains a notable quantity of nitrate of potass and muriate of ammonia 7the latter a most rare ingredient in plants71 and these two salts are infinitely more likely to affect the flavor of the leaf than a small portion of oxide of iron1 an inert body4 ,now as neither of these can be supplied by the atmosphere1 we must search for them in the soil1 and accordingly he imagined that a compost similar to the saltpetre beds which ,napoleon employed so extensively in ,france1 would be a good manure for tobacco lands2 namely1 calcareous matter1 such as old mortar1 dung1 and the ashes of weeds or wood4 ,he was aware that good tobacco might be grown in ,beerbhoom1 having raised some himself several years ago from ,american seed4 ,the plants grew most vigorously1 and he further observed1 in confirmation of his opinion about the proper manure1 that in other districts in which he had resided the natives always grew the tobacco 7each for his own use7 upon the heap of rubbish at his door1 consisting of ashes1 cow-dung1 and offal of all kinds4 ,while the soil of the ,gangetic diluvium almost always contains carbonate of lime1 the ,beerbhoom soil does not1 as far at least as ,mr4 ,laidley had examined it4 ,the following is the mode of culture pursued about the city of ,coimbetore4 ,between the middle of ,august and the same time in ,september1 a plot of ground is hoed and embanked into small squares2 in these the seed is sown1 and covered by hand three times at intervals of ten days4 ,to secure a succession of seedlings water is then given1 and the sun's rays moderated by a covering of bushes4 ,watering is repeated every day for a month1 and then only every fifth day4 ,the field in which the seedlings are transplanted1 is manured and ploughed at the end of ,august4 ,cattle are also folded upon the ground4 ,four or five ploughings are given between mid ,september and the middle of ,october1 when the field is divided as above into small squares4 ,these are watered until the soil is rendered a mud4 ,plants of the first sowing are then inserted at the end of ,september1 about a cubit apart1 the transplanting being done in the afternoon4 ,at intervals of ten days the seedlings of the other two sowings are removed4 ,a month after being transplanted the field is hoed1 and after another month the leading shoot of each plant is pinched off1 so as to leave them not more than a cubit high4 ,three times during the next month all side shoots thrown out are removed4 ,when four months old1 the crop is ready for cutting4 ,to render the leaves sweet the field is watered1 and the plants cut down close to the surface1 being allowed to remain when cut until next morning4 ,their roots are tied to a rope and suspended round the hedges4 ,in fine weather the leaves are dry in ten days1 but if cloudy they require five more days4 ,they are then heaped up under a roof1 which is covered with bushes and pressed with stones for five days4 ,after this the leaves are removed from the stems1 tied in bunches1 heaped again1 and pressed for four days longer4 ,they are now tied in bundles1 partly of the small leaf and partly of the large leaf bundles1 and again put in heaps for ten days--once during the time the heaps being opened and piled afresh4 ,this completes the drying4 ,a thousand bundles1 weighing about #egj lbs41 is a good produce for an acre4 ,in #agfj1 ,ceylon produced a considerable quantity of tobacco1 principally about ,jaffna1 a demand having sprung up for it in ,travancore1 and on the ,malay coast4 ,the cultivation spread to other districts of the island1 ,negombo1 ,chilaw1 and ,matura4 ,not long after the possession of the island by the ,british1 a monopoly was created by an import duty of #be per cent41 ad valorem1 and in #ahaa the growers were compelled to deliver their tobacco into the ,government stores at certain fixed rates4 ,the culture and demand thereupon decreased4 ,in #ahec1 the duty on the exports of tobacco from this island amounted to #h1chf1 and in #ahcf to #i1ead4 ,ceylon now exports a considerable quantity of tobacco4 ,the value of that exported in #ahdd was nearly #ah1jjj3 it went exclusively to ,british colonies4 ,the shipments since have been as follows3-- #ahdh #ag1iib ---- #ahdi #bb1cjj ---- #ahej #bj1gba #bb1ahd cwts4 #ahea #ba1dbb #bb1ebc #aheb #bj1eca #ba1iee ,about #if1jjj piculs of cigars1 of five different qualities1 are exported annually from ,siam4 ,a good deal of very fine tobacco is grown in the ,philippines1 and the ,manila cheroots are celebrated all over the globe4 ,the quantity of raw tobacco shipped from ,manila in #ahdg was #ib1ajf arrobas 7each about a quarter of a cwt472 manufactured tobacco1 #ab1jed arrobas2 and #a1icc cases of cigars4 #e1bbj boxes of cigars were shipped from ,manila in #ahdd4 #gc1dci millions of cigars were shipped in #ahej1 and #db1fbi quintals of leaf tobacco4 ,the manufacture of cigars in ,manila is a monopoly of the government1 and not only is this the case1 but it is a monopoly of the closest description1 and any infringement of the assumed rights of the ,spanish ,indian government is visited by the most severe penalties4 ,public enterprise1 however little of that commodity there now exists in the ,spanish character1 is thus kept down2 and this is not only detrimental to the nation itself1 but is also unjust towards those persons who are the purchasers of the article1 enhanced in price1 as is always the case1 by monopoly4 ,the cheroot1 which now costs1 free of duty1 about one halfpenny1 could be rendered for half that sum1 according to well-authenticated opinions4 ,to protect itself from illicit manufacturers1 or smuggling of any kind in connection with cigars1 the government is compelled to maintain an army of gendarmes1 in order to adopt the most stringent means which despotic states alone tolerate4 ,no person is1 therefore1 permitted to have even the tobacco leaf in its raw state on his premises1 and gendarmes pay1 at stated intervals1 domiciliary visits to the habitations of the people1 in search of any contraband materials4 ,there are several extensive manufactories of cigars and cheroots belonging to the government in and near ,manila4 ,mr4 ,mac ,micking1 in his recent work on the ,philippines1 thus describes the mode of manufacture by those employed by the government3-- ,in making cheroots women only are employed1 the number of those so engaged in the factory at ,manila being generally about #d1jjj4 ,beside these1 a large body of men are employed at another place in the composition of cigarillos1 or small cigars1 kept together by an envelope of white paper in place of tobacco2 these being the description most smoked by the ,indians4 ,the flavor of ,manila cheroots is peculiar to themselves1 being quite different from that made of any other sort of tobacco2 the greatest characteristic probably being its slightly soporific tendency1 which has caused many persons in the habit of using it to imagine that opium is employed in the preparatory treatment of the tobacco1 which1 however1 is not the case4 ,the cigars are made up by the hands of women in large rooms of the factory1 each of them containing from #hjj to #a1jjj souls4 ,these are all seated1 or squatted1 ,indian like1 on their haunches1 upon the floor1 round tables1 at each of which there is an old woman presiding to keep the young ones in order1 about a dozen of them being the complement of a table4 ,all of them are supplied with a certain weight of tobacco1 of the first1 second1 or third qualities used in composing a cigar1 and are obliged to account for a proportionate number of cheroots1 the weight and size of which are by these means kept equal4 ,as they use stones for beating out the leaf on the wooden tables before which they are seated1 the noise produced by them while making them up is deafening1 and generally sufficient to make no one desirous of protracting a visit to the place4 ,the workers are well recompensed by the government1 as very many of them earn from six to ten dollars a month for their labor2 and as that amount is amply sufficient to provide them with all their comforts1 and to leave a large balance for their expenses in dress1 c41 they are seldom very constant laborers1 and never enter the factory on ,sundays1 or1 at least1 on as great an annual number of feast days as there are ,sundays in a year4 ,the ,japanese grow a good deal of tobacco for their own consumption1 which is very considerable4 ,they consider that from ,sasma as the best1 then that from ,nangasakay1 ,sinday1 c4 ,the worst comes from the province of ,tzyngaru2 it is strong1 of a black color1 and has a disgusting taste and smell4 ,the tobacco from ,sasma is1 indeed1 also strong1 but it has an agreeable taste and smell1 and is of a bright yellow color4 ,the tobacco from ,nangasakay is very weak1 in taste and smell perhaps the best1 and of a bright brown color4 ,the tobacco from ,sinday is very good4 ,the ,japanese manufacture the tobacco so well1 says ,capt4 ,golownin1 7,recollections of ,japan17 that though ,i was before no friend to smoking1 and even when ,i was at ,jamaica could but seldom persuade myself to smoke an ,havana cigar1 yet ,i smoked the ,japanese tobacco very frequently1 and with great pleasure4 ,the culture of tobacco is a very profitable article for the laborers1 seeing that the produce is obtained from grounds which have already given the first crop4 ,the qualities of ,java tobacco are more and more prized in the ,european markets1 the preparation and assortment are not yet all that could be desired1 but they have progressed in this branch1 and the contracts made with the new adventurers assure them of a considerable benefit4 ,but before the ,java tobaccos can find an assured opening in the ,european markets1 it is necessary that the cultivators should make use of seed from the ,havana or ,manila4 ,the residencies of ,rembang1 ,sourabaya1 ,samarang1 ,chinbou1 and ,tagal1 present districts suited for its culture2 it has been carried on with success for a good many years in the residencies of ,treanger1 ,pakalongan1 and ,kedu1 but only for the consumption of the interior1 and of the ,archipelago4 ,tobacco is cultivated in ,celebes1 but merely in sufficient quantity for local consumption4 ,it is exclusively grown by the ,bantik population--the mode of preparation is the same as in ,java2 it is chopped very fine and mostly flavored with arrack4 ,when bought in large quantities1 it may be had for thirty cents the pound2 but in smaller quantities it costs double that price4 ,tobacco is cultivated in ,new ,south ,wales with much success4 ,australia produces a leaf equal to ,virginia1 or the most fertile parts of ,kentucky1 but the great difficulty is to extract the superabundant nitre4 ,the first crop in ,new ,south ,wales exceeds one ton per acre1 and the second crop off the same plants1 yields about half the weight of the first4 ,in #ahdd there were about #hga acres in cultivation in ,new ,south ,wales with tobacco1 and the produce was returned at #f1chb cwts4 ,in ,new ,england1 ,new ,south ,wales1 as fine a fig as could be wished for is manufactured under the superintendence of a thorough-bred ,virginia tobacco manufacturer--but the impossibility of extracting the nitre by the heating1 or any other process1 renders the flavor rank and disagreeable4 ,perhaps cheroots1 or the lower numbers of cigars1 manufactured from the ,australian leaf1 might prove more successful4 ,in ,sydney the time for sowing tobacco seed is ,september1 but in ,van ,diemen's ,land it should be a month later1 as tobacco plants cannot stand the frost4 ,the ground should be made fine1 and in narrow beds three feet wide from path to path1 to allow for weeding without stepping on the beds4 ,the seed1 being small1 should not be raked in2 but after the ground is raked fine1 and perfectly clean1 and well pulverised1 mix the seed with wood ashes1 and sow over the beds1 and pat in with the spade1 or tread in with the naked feet1 which is preferable4 ,the ground should be moist1 but not much watered1 or it moulds the plants4 ,when about as large as moderate sized cabbage plants1 they should be put out--three feet or three feet six in the rows1 and five feet apart between the rows4 ,when the plant rises to about two feet high1 it will throw out suckers at each leaf1 which must be carefully taken off with the finger and thumb1 and all bottom and decayed leaves that touch the ground taken off4 ,when the tobacco plant throws out flower1 it must be topped off1 leaving about twelve leaves in the stalk to ripen and come to maturity4 ,when the leaves feel thick between the finger and thumb1 and assume a mottled appearance1 they are fit to cut4 ,in ,tegg's ,new ,south ,wales ,almanac it is stated that the end of ,july is the usual time for sowing the seed4 ,in order1 however1 to prevent the plants from being subsequently destroyed by frost1 care must be taken not to sow the seed until the frost has ceased in any respective locality 7unless raised in a frame74 ,tobacco requires a rich light soil1 and well manured4 ,by the instructions for cultivating it1 the plant must be three feet apart each way1 which would give #d1hdj plants to an acre2 assuming that each plant would yield half a pound for the first crop1 this would give #b1dbj lbs4 to an acre1 which is only #ahj lbs4 in excess of a ton4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales several parties use the tobacco stems for sheep wash4 ,one pound of tobacco is sufficient to wash five sheep on an average 7one washing71 which would give #ab1ajj sheep to one acre4 ,assuming that only one crop was grown in ,new ,zealand in one year1 of #b1dbj lbs4 to an acre1 at #c;d4 per pound1 7which is about half the market price of a fair sample of tobacco in bond17 it would amount to #cj #es4 per acre4 ,three rows of ,indian corn are planted outside the tobacco plants to shelter them from the wind4 ,in order to save seed1 a few plants are allowed to flower4 ,the ,virginian tobacco is the largest2 it is known by a pink flower2 the ,nicotiana rustica 7common green7 has a yellow flower4 ,a planter in ,northern ,australia furnishes the following directions3-- ,the land selected for the growth of tobacco ought to be of the most fertile description1 of a friable description1 and upon which no water can rest within eighteen inches of the surface4 ,newly cleared brush lands of this nature are the most prolific2 upon such1 after good tillage1 put the plants about four feet or more apart1 in rows1 and five feet six inches asunder4 ,in interior or old ground1 plant proportionately closer4 ,before topping or nipping off the head1 all the lower leaves 7that is such as may touch the ground7 ought to be broken off1 leaving only from five to seven for the crop1 which will yield a greater weight and be of a superior quality than if double that number were left4 ,when ripe1 a dry and cloudy day should be selected to cut it1 as the sun destroys its quality after cutting4 ,it ought then to lie sufficiently long upon the ground so as to welt before carting to the sheds1 hanging up each stalk next morning so as not to touch its fellow4 ,the drying sheds ought to be built upon an elevated or dry spot1 with a hoarded flour of rough split stuff1 fifteen or eighteen inches from the ground1 with apertures as windows to admit or to exclude the external atmosphere4 ,in damp weather close all the doors and windows1 also every night2 in contrary weather open all4 ,in these drying houses the stalks should remain suspended until the vegetable moisture is entirely evaporated1 so that on a dry day the stems of the leaves will break like a glass pipe1 and the finer parts crumble into snuff upon compression2 after which1 in humid weather1 they will become quite pliable2 then strip the leaves off the stems1 make them up into hands1 and pack them tightly into a close bin3 when full1 cover it with boards and old bagged stuff1 upon which place heavy weights4 ,in this state it undergoes the sweating process1 which1 in this colony1 is little understood or not properly attended to1 and yet1 upon the skill displayed thereon1 the quality of the tobacco greatly depends4 ,i will therefore give some general directions upon this portion of the planter's office4 ,if the tobacco happen to be too damp when put into the bin1 it will attain either an injurious or a destructive degree of heat2 it must therefore he watched for some days after it is packed4 ,to an experienced operator ,i would say1 if the heat exceed #hj degrees of temperature1 immediately unpack and re-hang the whole1 waiting its condition as before explained1 before it is again put into the sweating bin4 ,should the degree of heat be below that stated1 it may remain for weeks or until the heat has subsided4 ,i have generally removed it from the sweating process in about fourteen or twenty days1 sometimes considerably longer1 regulating that act by the odor and color of the leaf4 ,if1 however1 it appears to be attaining a very dark brown color and its heat not subsided1 it should be taken out and closely pressed into large cases or casks1 when it will again attain a gentle heat called the second sweating1 as is invariably the case with the hogsheads of the ,american leaf tobacco3 this again improves its quality4 ,here the grower's operations terminate4 ,it may be necessary to remark1 that how skilful and experienced soever the grower may be1 it is hardly possible for him to produce a good article upon a small scale2 for with a less quantity than one ton to place in the sweating bin at a time1 the requisite heat to insure success will not be generated4 ,i would further observe1 that the practice of the colonists in growing what they term a second crop is most injurious to their interests1 their lands1 and the quality and character of the colonial tobacco4 ,the ,american planter never attempts it4 ,i would therefore strongly recommend its discontinuance1 and also never to crop one piece of land with tobacco more than two or three years in succession4 ,the ,americans rarely take more than two crops unless the land be new2 after which they sow it down with grasses1 in which state it remains for two or three years until it is again planted with tobacco4 ,i would recommend this plan to the growers4 ,the character of the ,american tobacco has been greatly advanced in the mercantile world by an ordinance regulating that source of national wealth4 ,the planters are thereby obligated to deposit their crops in warehouses1 over which sworn inspectors preside1 who rigidly examine every hogshead1 and if found to be of mercantile quality1 grant the owner a certificate1 by which instrument only he sells his produce4 ,the purchaser is hereby safe in buying these certificates4 ,the tobacco to which they refer is delivered to the holder on presentation to the inspector4 ,i mention this not as applicable here at present1 but it most probably may hereafter4 ,when the colony is suffering severely for the want of labor1 it may by some be deemed inopportune in offering remarks upon this article of commerce4 ,to such dissentients ,i will remark1 that a great portion of the work can be performed by women and children4 ,a moiety of our anticipated increase of population will be available for this hitherto mismanaged source of wealth4 ,at present the quantity grown in the colony is equal to three-fourths of its consumption1 and which production is of a very inferior quality to the imported4 ,these facts tend to show that my notice of the subject is not inopportune1 and particularly so when the object is to point out those errors so generally adopted by the tobacco growers here4 ,years of practical experience1 of personal observation upon the plantations of ,north ,america1 and my having been1 ,i believe1 the grower of the greatest quantity of tobacco in the colony1 qualify me to afford instructions thereon2 whereby1 if attended to1 our tobacco will become fully equal to the ,american1 as was proved to be the case by the crops ,i grew here 7upwards of #dj tons71#ef which were sold in ,sydney by the ,commissariat ,department at public auction1 at an advance of twenty per cent4 more than the imported leaf4 ,as the duty on tobacco is about to be reduced1 the present production may fall off1 unless an immediate improvement in its quality take place4 ,instead of being importers of tobacco1 we should1 if it was grown here to perfection1 be exporters of it to all our sister colonies2 and in its raw state1 also to the ,european markets4 ,at present1 for home consumption1 there is a greater profit to be made by its cultivation1 if skilfully managed1 than in any part of the world2 for the duty upon imported is a positive bonus to the grower4 ,in #ahdi-ej there were fifteen manufactories of tobacco on a small scale in ,new ,south ,wales1 but these were reduced in #ahea to six4 ,many samples of tobacco grown in the colony have been pronounced by competent judges equal to ,virginian1 but a very considerable prejudice exists against it4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that the dealers dispose of a great deal as ,american tobacco1 and get a best price for it4 ,the reduction of the import duties on foreign tobacco1 recently made by the ,legislative ,council1 will probably retard the progress of the colonial production and manufacture of this article2 but with an abundance of labor there is no question that this branch of industry will be again profitably resorted to4 ,the quantity of tobacco manufactured in ,new ,south ,wales1 in #ahdg1 was #a1cba cwt42 in #ahdh1 #gad cwt42 in #ahdi1 #b1geh cwt42 in #ahej1 #c1hcc cwt42 in #ahea1 #d1hda cwt4 ,a correspondent of the ,adelaide ,observer recommends its culture in ,south ,australia1 and supplies the following useful information3-- ,without entering into botanical details1 ,i will simply state that the plant is of a shrubby nature1 about five feet high1 and ought not to be planted nearer than four feet from each other1 in rows five feet apart--thus allowing for each plant a space of ground four feet by five1 or #bj square feet4 ,an acre will consequently furnish sufficient room for #b1agh plants4 ,the tobacco plant will thrive in almost any climate1 from the torrid zone to the temperature of ,great ,britain4 ,it luxuriates in rich alluvial valleys1 where the soil is either of a loamy or a peaty nature4 ,maiden soil is not recommended4 ,the ground should be trenched1 worked as fine as possible1 and well manured4 ,tobacco will not answer unless the subsoil is thoroughly broken4 ,the best manure is that obtained from the bullock-yard1 and bark from the tan yard2 and by two or three ploughings the earth can be brought to a proper consistency1 and fit for the reception of the plants4 ,the usual method adopted in ,new ,south ,wales1 is to raise the plants in a warm1 sheltered bed1 neither exposed to wind nor to the sun's rays2 but if the weather is dry1 they should be well watered night and morning4 ,the time of sowing is the end of ,august or the beginning of ,september in the latitude of ,sydney1 according to the state of the weather2 and they may be transplanted when they have attained their sixth leaf1 which is generally about a month or five weeks after they are up4 ,the period is rather later in this colony1 and care should be taken that the plants have gained sufficient strength in the ground after transplanting to withstand the effect of the hot winds1 and1 if practicable1 the aspect should be either ,n4,e4 or ,n4,w41 and the rows should incline towards either of these points4 ,the most suitable spots in this colony for the cultivation of tobacco1 are ,lyndoch ,valley and the districts round the town of ,willunga and ,morphett ,vale4 ,the greatest care is required from the cultivator to prevent the destruction of the plant from its greatest enemy1 the black grub4 ,daily search should be made for it1 and not a plant should be left unexamined2 they make their appearance about the beginning of ,november1 when the plants have scarcely had time to take root4 ,the soil between the rows should be kept constantly stirred with a three-pronged fork1 that air and the sun's rays may be admitted1 which latter are as indispensable to the growing plant as injurious to the seedling4 ,the labor is great1 and from first to last requires the constant attention of one man throughout the year1 with an additional hand for about six weeks during the process of curing4 ,the profits even in bad seasons are considerable2 but when the season and soil are favorable1 they average upwards of #ajj per cent4 ,the consumption of tobacco is great in this colony1 not only for personal use1 but for sheep-wash2 and the profits may be considerably greater for the lower leaves1 which1 owing to their gritty nature1 cannot be manufactured1 but may be advantageously cured for wash4 ,it is not my office to argue the point as to the advantages which may accrue from a free trade in tobacco2 but this ,i know1 and confidently assert it1 from actual experiments made in this province1 that a more lucrative article cannot be grown4 ,the consumption in ,south ,america1 in #ahej1 was #adg1agh lbs42 and the annual increase since #ahdj has been a higher percentage than the increase of population1 chiefly owing to extension in sheep-farming4 ,the probable expense of cultivation per acre may be as under3-- s4 d4 ,rent #j #aj #j ,labor1 #ab months #eb #j #j ,ditto1 #b months #h #aj #j ,ploughing three times #b #b #j ,harrowing twice #a #j #j ,manure1 say #b #aj #j ,seed1 say #j #aj #j ---------- #fg #b #j ,the ,sydney average quantity is said to be #aa-a_/c cwt4 per acre1 say #aj cwt42 and the cost price per lb4 will be #ad;d41 or #f #aes4 #d;d4 per cwt4 ,the profit will at once be seen on this article of consumption4 99 99 99 99 99 ,miscellaneous ,drugs4--,the blood tree 7,croton gossypifolia71 an evergreen shrub1 native of the ,trinidad mountains1 is remarkable for yielding1 when wounded1 a thick juice resembling blood in color1 which is one of the most powerful astringents ,i know of1 and as such would be valuable to medical science4 ,the bark of ,croton ,cascarilla is1 as we have seen in a former section1 aromatic1 and the seeds of ,c4 ,tiglium1 the physic nut1 are purgative2 so are those of the purging nut 7,jatropha multifida71 and another species 7,j4 gossypifolia74 ,the pods of cow-itch 7,mucuna pruriens7 act as a vermifuge2 the roots of the ,ruellia tuberosa1 or manyroot1 and the bulbs of the white lily 7,pancratium ,carribum and maritimum71 are emetic4 ,the ,indian root or bastard ipecacuan 7,asclepias curassavica7 has medicinal properties4 ,a4 tuberosa is used as a mild cathartic1 and a remedy for a variety of disorders4 ,hydrastis canadensis1 or ,canadian yellow root1 is a valuable bitter1 and furnishes a useful yellow dye4 ,knowltonia vesicatoria is used commonly as a blister in the ,cape ,colony4 ,ranunculus saleratus 7the ,r4 indicus of ,roxburgh1 and ,b4 camosus of ,wallich71 common in ,india1 is also used by the natives for blistering purposes4 ,a kind of sedge rush1 common in swampy places in the ,west ,india islands1 the ,adme cyperus1 enjoys a reputation for the cure of yellow fever4 ,it is also stated to be cordial1 diuretic and cephalic1 serviceable in the first stages of the dropsy1 good in vomitings1 fluxes1 c4 ,dr4 ,impey1 the residentiary surgeon of ,malwa1 has just confidence in the indigenous drugs in use by the natives of the ,east1 many of which are quite unknown in ,european practice4 ,he believes that1 in the ,indian bazaars and the jungle1 drugs having precisely the same effect as those of ,europe may be discovered1 and has recently drawn up a list of ninety substances1 which are perfect substitutes for an equal number of ,european medicines4 ,the class of tonics1 in particular1 is most amply supplied1 and the ,englishman is not the only animal who suffers from disorders of the digestive organs4 ,my friend ,dr4 ,hamilton1 of ,plymouth1 recently brought under the notice of the profession the medical properties of the prickly poppy or ,mexican thistle 7,argemone ,mexicana74 ,it is indigenous to and grows wild in the greatest profusion throughout the whole of the ,caribbean islands1 and may be found at every season of the year covered with its bright golden blossoms1 and bearing its prickly capsules in all their several stages of maturity4 ,it is an annual plant1 attaining a height of about two feet1 growing abundantly in low and hot uncultivated spots4 ,its stem is round and prickly1 furnished with alternate branches and thorny leaves4 ,the seeds possess an emetic quality4 ,the whole plant abounds in a yellow milky juice1 resembling gamboge in color1 and not improbably possessing properties similar to the seeds4 ,in ,nevis the oil is obtained from the bruised seeds by boiling1 and sold by the negroes in small phials1 containing about an ounce each1 under the name of thistle oil1 at the price of a quarter of a dollar each4 ,the usual dose for dry bellyache is thirty drops upon a lump of sugar1 and its effect is perfectly magical1 relieving the pain instantaneously1 throwing the patient into a profound and refreshing sleep1 and in a few hours relieving the bowels gently of the contents4 ,this oil seems fitted to compete in utility with the far more costly and less agreeable oil of the croton4 ,the seeds of the sandbox 7,hura crepitans7 when bruised1 operate powerfully as emetico-cathartic4 ,it is probable that an oil might be obtained from them similar in its operation to the thistle oil4 ,a cucurbitaceous fruit1 one of the ,luffas 7called by ,von ,martius ,luffa purgans71 a tribe closely allied to the colocynth and mornordicas1 growing in ,south ,america1 is a powerful purgative1 and is used in the province of ,pernambuco1 where it is called ,cabacinha4 ,the fruit is about the size of a small pear and resembles the wild cucumber4 ,an infusion of a fourth part of one of these fruits is administered chiefly in the form of an injection4 ,another species 7,luffa drastica1 of ,martius7 is also employed for the same purpose4 ,the ,luffa purgans grows spontaneously in the suburbs of ,recieffe1 the capital of the province of ,pernambuco1 and flowers in ,november and ,december4 ,the fruit is a drastic purgative1 and an infusion of it is used either internally or in the form of clyster4 ,the tincture is prepared by macerating1 for twenty-eight hours or more1 four of the fruit deprived of the seeds in a bottle of spirit #ba degrees4 ,the dose is three or four ounces daily1 which occasions much sickness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,poisons4--,the vegetable kingdom 7observes ,mr4 ,simple71 to which man is largely indebted for the materials of food1 clothing1 and shelter1 produces also some of the most deadly poisons with which science1 experience1 or accident1 has made him acquainted4 ,in examining the poisonous productions of the vegetable kingdom1 we find that their properties are generally due to the presence of some acid or alkali contained in the plant from which they are derived4 ,oil of bitter almonds and cherry laurel water are poisonous in consequence of containing prussic acid4 ,opium owes its activity to the alkaloid morphia4 ,the ,upas-tiente derives its energetic powers from the alkaloid strychnia2 conia is the active principle of hemlock2 veratria of hellebore2 aconita of monk's hood2 and although there are several poisonous plants in which the active principle has not yet been detected1 there can be little doubt that such a principle exists1 although it has hitherto eluded the researches of the chemist4--7,pharmaceutical ,journal1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ag47 ,the bark taken from the roots of the ,jamaica dogwood 7,piscidia erythrina71 which is extensively distributed throughout the ,archipelago of the ,antilles1 is used for stupefying fish4 ,the pounded root is mixed with slaked lime and the low wines or lees of the distillery1 and the mixture is put into small baskets or sacks1 and so suffered to wash out gradually1 coloring the water to a reddish hue4 ,the fish rise to the surface in a few minutes1 when they float as if dead4 ,the expressed juice of the root of ,maranta ,arundinacea is stated to be a valuable antidote to some vegetable poisons1 and also serviceable in cases of bites or stings of venomous insects or reptiles4 ,one of the most popular remedies for the bites of snakes is a decoction of the leaves of the ,guaco1 or snake plant1 of ,south ,america1 a species of willow which flourishes along the banks of the streams in the sultry regions shaded by other trees4 ,it is said to be both a preventive and cure4 ,mr4 ,edward ,otto1 writing from ,cuba to the ,gardener's ,magazine for ,may1 #ahdb1 p4 #bhf1 describes the guaco as a tree growing from four to eight feet in height1 with beautiful dark green leaves1 having a brown tinge round the margin4 ,the blossoms are small1 of a bluish brown1 and hang like loose bunches of grapes at the points of the shoots1 or even on the stem itself1 as it has seldom branches4 ,the milky sap is said to have poisonous effects4 ,i was told 7he adds7 that this plant is used efficiently in cholera and yellow fever4 ,this tree is said to be the ,camladia ilicifolia of ,swartz1 common in ,antigua and ,hayti1 being known in ,antigua by the popular name of the holly-leaved maiden plum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,aloes4--,the drug called aloes is the bitter1 resinous1 inspissated juice of the leaves of various species of an arborescent plant of the lily family1 with a developed stem and large succulent leaves1 growing principally in tropical and sub-tropical regions1 and having a wide extent of range1 being produced in ,borneo and the ,east1 ,africa1 ,arabia1 and the ,west ,indies2 many are also natives of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the plant will thrive in almost any soil1 and1 when once established1 it is extremely difficult to eradicate4 ,the cultivation and manufacture are of the most simple kind4 ,the usual mode of propagating the plants is by suckers2 and all the care required is to keep them free from weeds4 ,from the high price which the best ,barbados aloes fetches in the market1 #g per cwt41 its culture might be profitably extended to many of the other islands4 ,the aloes plant is indigenous to the soil of ,jamaica1 and although handled by thousands of the peasantry and others1 there is not perhaps one in five thousand who understands its properties or the value of the plant4 ,with the ,jamaicans it is commonly used in fever cases1 by slicing the leaves1 permitting the juice to escape partially1 and then applying them to the head with bandages2--this is the only generally known property which it possesses there4 ,a series of trials made recently in ,paris proved that cordage manufactured from the fibre of this plant grown in ,algiers1 was far preferable in comparative strength to that manufactured from hemp4 ,cables1 of equal size1 showed that that made of the aloe raised a weight of one-fifth more than that of hemp4 ,the drug is imported into this country under the names of ,socotrine1 ,east ,indian or ,hepatic1 ,barbados1 ,cape and ,caballine aloes4 ,it contains a substance called ,aloetine1 which some regard as its active principle4 ,the various species now defined are--,aloe spicata1 vulgaris1 ,socotrina1 ,indica1 rubescens1 ,arabica1 lingu-formis and ,commelina4 ,the average imports in #ahda and #ahdb were only about #agj1ghj cwts42 it is now much larger1 and a great portion of the supply is drawn from the ,cape colony4 ,the mode of preparing the drug1 which ,i have myself seen in the ,west ,indies1 is exceedingly simple4 ,when the plant has arrived at proper maturity1 the laborers go into the field with tubs and knives1 and cut the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk2 these are placed upright in the tubs1 side by side1 so that the sap may flow out of the wound4 ,sometimes a longitudinal incision is made from top to bottom of the leaf1 to facilitate the discharge4 ,the crude juice thus obtained is placed in shallow flat-bottomed receivers1 and exposed to the sun until it has acquired sufficient consistency to be packed in gourds for exportation4 ,in preparing the coarser kind1 or horse aloes1 the leaves are cut into junks and thrown into the tubs1 there to lie till the juice is pretty well drained out2 they are then squeezed by the hand1 and water1 in the proportion of one quart to ten of juice1 is added1 after which it is boiled to a due consistence and emptied into large shallow coolers4 ,the following analysis by ,m4 ,edmond ,robiquet of a specimen of ,socotrine aloes1 obtained from ,m4 ,chevallier1 is given in the sixth volume of the ,pharmaceutical ,journal1 p4 #bgg4 ,the constituents in #ajj parts were3-- ,pure aloes 7,aloetine7 #he4jj ,ulmate of potash #b4jj ,sulphate of lime #b4jj ,carbonate of potash -------------lime traces4 ,phosphate of lime ,gallic acid 4#be ,albumen #h4 ,the true ,socotrine aloes is the produce of ,a4 ,socotrina1 which grows abundantly in the island of ,socotra in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,lieutenant ,wellstead says1 the hills on the west side of the island are covered for an extent of miles with aloe plants4 ,the aloe grows spontaneously on the limestone mountains of ,socotra1 from #ejj to #c1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the produce is brought to ,tamarida and ,colliseah1 the principal town and harbor for exports4 ,in #ahcc1 the best quality sold for #bs4 a pound1 while for the more indifferent the price was #ac;d4 ,the value is much impaired by the careless manner in which the aloes is gathered and packed4 ,aloes once formed the staple of its traffic1 for which it was chiefly resorted to2 but only small quantities are now exported4 ,it was formerly shipped by the way of ,smyrna and ,alexandria1 but is usually now brought by the way of ,bombay2 ,melinda1 on the ,zanzibar coast1 and ,maccula on the ,arabian shore1 furnish the greater part of that sold in ,europe as ,socotrine aloes4 ,it comes home in chests or packages of #aej to #bjj lbs4 wrapt in skins of the gazelle1 sometimes in casks holding half a ton or more4 ,it is somewhat transparent1 of a garnet or yellowish red color4 ,the smell is not very unpleasant1 approaching to myrrh4 ,socotrine aloes1 although long considered the best kind1 is now below ,barbados aloes in commercial value4 ,about two tons were imported from ,socotra in #ahcc1 but a much larger quantity could be obtained if required4 ,the price of ,socotrine aloes in the ,liverpool market1 in the early part of #ahec1 was #cjs4 to #f the cwt42 of ,cape1 #cjs4 to #cbs4 ,east ,indian1 or ,hepatic aloes4-- ,the real hepatic aloes1 so called from its liver color1 is believed to be the produce of ,a4 ,arabica1 or perfoliala1 which grows in ,yemen in ,arabia1 from whence it is exported by the way of ,bombay to ,europe4 ,according to ,dr4 ,thomson and the ,materia ,medica1 it is duller in its color than the other kinds1 is bitterer1 and has a less pleasant aroma than the ,socotrine aloes4 ,it should not be liquid1 which deteriorates the quality4 ,a4 ,indica--a species with reddish flowers1 common in dry situations1 in the north-west provinces of ,india1 is that from which an inferior sort of the drug is produced4 ,it is obtained in ,guzerat1 ,salem1 and ,trichinopoly1 and fetches a local price of #b;d4 to #c;d4 a pound4 ,in the ,bombay market1 ,socotrine aloes fetches wholesale #afs4 to #bjs4 the ,surat maund of #da lbs41 and ,maccula aloes only #is4 ,barbados aloes1 is the produce of ,a4 vulgaris1 or ,a4 barbadensis1 a native of the ,cape colony1 and is often passed off for the ,hepatic4 ,it is brought home in calabashes1 or large gourd shells1 containing from #fj to #gj lbs4 each1 or more4 ,it is duskier in hue than the ,east ,indian species1 being a darkish brown or black1 and the taste is more nauseous and intensely bitter4 ,in #aghf one hogshead and #dji gourds of aloes were exported from ,barbados4 ,in #ahbg1 there were about #if1jjj packages shipped from the island4 ,in #ahdd1 there were #d1fjj packages exported4 ,the exports have fallen off considerably1 only about #hej gourds having been shipped in the season of #ahdi-ej2 but in #ahea it increased to #b1eje gourds4 ,caballine1 or ,horse-aloes1 is the coarsest species or refuse of the ,barbados aloes1 and from its rank fetid smell is only useful for veterinary medicine4 ,it is also obtained from ,spain and ,senegal4 ,a very good description of the mode of cultivating and preparing the aloes in ,barbados is given in the #hth vol4 of the ,london ,medical ,journal3-- ,the lands in the vicinity of the sea1 that is from two to three miles1 which are rather subject to drought than otherwise1 and are so strong and shallow as not to admit of the planting of sugar-canes with any prospect of success1 are generally found to answer best for the aloe-plant4 ,the stones1 at least the larger ones1 are first picked up1 and either packed in heaps upon the most shallow barren spots1 or laid round the field as a dry wall4 ,the land is then lightly ploughed and very carefully cleared of all noxious weeds1 lined at one foot distance from row to row1 and the young plants set like cabbages1 at about five or six inches from each other4 ,this regular mode of lining and setting the plants is practised only by the most exact planters1 in order to facilitate the frequent weeding by hand2 because if the ground be not kept perfectly clean and free from weeds1 the produce will be very small4 ,aloes will bear being planted in any season of the year1 even in the dryest1 as they will live on the surface of the earth for many weeks without a drop of rain4 ,the most general time of planting them1 however1 is from ,april to ,june4 ,in the ,march following1 the laborers carry a parcel of tubs and jars into the field1 and each takes a slip or breadth of it1 and begins by laying hold of a bunch of the blades1 as much as he can conveniently grasp with one hand1 whilst with the other he cuts it just above the surface of the earth as quickly as possible 7that the juice may not be wasted71 and then places the branches in the tub bunch by bunch or handful by handful4 ,when the first tub is thus packed quite full1 a second is begun 7each laborer having two72 and by the time the second is filled1 all the juice is generally drained out of the blades in the first tub4 ,the blades are then lightly taken out and thrown over the land by way of manure1 and the juice is poured out into a jar4 ,the tub is then filled again with blades1 and so alternately1 till the laborer has produced his jar full1 or about four gallons and a half of juice1 which is often done in six or seven hours1 and he has then the remainder of the day to himself1 it being his employer's interest to get each day's operation as quickly done as possible4 ,it may be observed that although aloes are often cut in nine1 ten1 or twelve months after being planted1 they are not in perfection till the second or third year1 and that they will be productive for a length of time1 say ten or twelve years1 or even for a longer time1 if good dung or manure of any kind is stirred over the field once in three or four years1 or oftener if convenient4 ,the aloe juice will keep for several weeks without injury4 ,it is therefore not boiled till a sufficient quantity is procured to make it an object for the boiling house4 ,in the large way1 three boilers1 or coppers are placed to one fire1 though some have but two1 and the small planters only one boiler4 ,the boilers are filled with the juice1 and as it ripens or becomes more inspissated by a constant but regular fire1 it is ladled from boiler to boiler1 and fresh juice is added to that farthest from the fire1 till the juice in that nearest the fire 7by much the smallest of the three7 becomes of a proper consistency1 to be skipped or ladled out into gourds or other small vessels used for its final reception4 ,the proper time to skip or ladle it out of the last boiler is when it has arrived at what is termed a resin height1 or when it cuts freely or in thin flakes from the edges of a small wooden slice that is dipped from time to time into the boiler for that purpose4 ,a little lime water is used by some aloe boilers during the process1 when the ebullition is too great4 ,,cape ,,aloes is the produce chiefly of ,a4 spicata1 and ,a4 ,commelini1 which are found growing wild in great abundance in the interior of the ,cape ,colony4 ,it has not the dark opaque appearance of the other species4 ,about fifty miles from ,cape ,town is a mountainous tract1 almost entirely covered with numerous species and varieties of the plant1 and some of the extensive arid plains in the interior of the colony are crowded with it4 ,the settlers go forth and pitch their waggous and campa on these spots to obtain the produce4 ,the shipments from ,table ,bay and the eastern port of ,algoa ,bay are very considerable4 ,the odor of the ,cape aloes is stronger and more disagreeable than that of the ,socotrine or ,barbados1 and the color is more like gamboge4 ,it is brought over in chests and skins1 the latter being preferred4 ,mr4 ,george ,dunsterville1 surgeon of ,algoa ,bay1 gives the following description of the manufacture of ,cape aloes3-- ,a shallow pit is dug1 in which is spread a bullock's hide or sheep's skin4 ,the leaves of the aloe plants in the immediate vicinity of this pit are stripped off and piled up on the skin to variable heights4 ,these are left for a few days4 ,the juice exudes from the leaves1 and is received by the skin beneath4 ,the ,hottentot then collects in a basket or other convenient article the produce of many heaps1 which is then put into an iron pot capable of holding eighteen or twenty gallons4 ,fire is applied to effect evaporation1 during which the contents of the pot are constantly stirred to prevent burning4 ,the cooled liquor is then poured into wooden cases of about three feet square by one foot deep1 or into goat or sheep skins1 and thus is filled for the market4 ,in the colony aloes realises about #b d4 to #c d4 per pound4 ,the ,hottentots and ,dutch boors employ indiscriminately different species of aloe in the preparation of the drug4 ,the ,cape aloes1 which is usually prized the highest in the ,english market1 is that made at the ,missionary institution of ,bethelsdorp 7a small village about nine miles from ,algoa ,bay1 and chiefly inhabited by ,hottentots and their missionary teachers74 ,its superiority arises not from the employment of a particular species of aloe1 for all species are used1 but from the greater care and attention paid to what is technically called the cooking of the aloes2 that is1 the evaporation1 and to the absence of all adulterating substances 7fragments of limestone1 sand1 earth1 c471 often introduced by manufacturers4 ,mr4 ,moodie1 in his ,ten ,years' ,residence in ,southern ,africa1 gives a somewhat similar account4 ,mr4 ,bunbury states that1 about the neighbourhood of ,graham's ,town1 three large kinds of aloe are very abundant1 which form striking and characteristic features of the scenery2 they grow irregularly scattered over the parched and naked faces of the hills1 but most abundantly among the low broken ledges and knolls of sandstone rock1 and are often seen spiring up above the evergreen bushes in the ravines1 and crowning the cliffs4 ,one kind grows to the height of a man4 ,they are plants of a strange1 rigid1 and ungraceful appearance1 but with very handsome flowers1 which form tall and dense spikes1 of a fine coral-red color in two of the species 7,a4 arborescens and lineata871 and of an orange scarlet in the third 7,a4 glaucescens874 ,when in blossom they are conspicuous at a great distance1 and might easily be mistaken1 when seen from far off1 for soldiers in red uniforms4 ,the importance of this indigenous plant to the ,cape ,colony1 may be estimated from the following figures3-- ,,amount ,,of ,,aloes1 ,,the ,,produce ,,of ,,the ,,colony1 ,,and ,,value ,,thereof1 ,,exported ,,in ,,the ,,years ,,ending #e,,th ,,january #ahda1 #ahdb1 ,,and #ahdf4 lbs #ahda #dhe1egd #h1hba #ahdb #fjb1fbj #aa1hgg #ahdf #bff1gbe #c1jah ,,exports ,,and ,,value ,,from ,,the ,,eastern ,,province4 lbs4 #ahce #fh1jdb #dgd #ahcf #cj1hjh #bhe #ahcg #ac1djj #aae #ahch #bh1hfg #cjf #ahci #ge1ejj #iah #ahdj #hb1dgh #a1ade #ahda #bbj1bad #d1bga #ahdb #bhc1cje #e1jjc #ahdd #cah1jce #c1bbe ,,exports ,,and ,,value ,,from ,,the ,,western ,,province4 lbs4 #ahda #bdb1hfj #d1age #ahdb #cgi1cae #f1hgd #ahdd #ejf1gif #f1ehf ,,asafoetida4---,this drug of commerce is procured from the milky juice of ,ferula asafoetida1 a plant recently described by ,dr4 ,falconer1 under the name of ,narthex asafoetida4 ,it is found in ,persia1 the mountains of ,chorasan1 the central table land of ,affghanistan1 and some seeds of it1 sent to this country by ,dr4 ,falconer1 germinated in the ,botanical ,garden at ,edinburgh1 and are now vigorous thriving plants of six years growth4 ,its leaves have a resemblance to those of a pony2 the fruit is distinguished by divided and interrupted vittae1 which form a network on the surface4 ,the perennial roots grow to a very large size1 and are seldom of any use until after four or five years' growth4 ,the asafoetida is procured by taking successive slices off the top of the root and collecting the milky juice41 which is allowed to concrete into masses of a fetid resinous gummy matter1 with a sulphur oil1 similar to that of garlic1 which is probably its active ingredient4 ,an inferior sort is obtained from ,f4 persica1 another species with very much divided leaves1 growing chiefly in the southern provinces of ,persia4 ,it comes over usually in casks and cases4 ,the ,british consumption of the drug is about #aj1jjj lbs4 a year4 ,a little is procured from ,scinde4 ,in #ahbe the quantity imported was #ajf1ggj lbs41 in #ahci only #bd cwts4 ,the wholesale price in the ,liverpool market1 in ,january #ahec1 was #a to #c #ajs4 the cwt4 ,,camphor4--,the ,camphor tree 7,camphora officinarum1 ,laurus ,camphora7 is a native of ,china1 ,japan1 and ,cochin ,china1 of the laurel tribe1 with black and purple veins4 ,camphor is procured from all parts of the tree1 but it is obtained principally from the wood by distillation1 and subsequent sublimation4 ,many plants1 such as the cinnamon tree1 supply a kind of camphor1 but the common camphor of the shops is the produce chiefly of ,c4 officinarum4 ,two kinds of unrefined camphor are known in commerce4--#a4 ,the ,dutch1 which is brought from ,batavia1 and is said to be the produce of ,japan4 ,this is imported in tubs covered by matting and each surrounded by a second tub1 secured on the outside by hoops of twisted cane4 ,each tub contains about one cwt4 ,most of this goes to the continent4 #b4 ,ordinary crude camphor is imported from ,singapore and ,bombay1 in square chests lined with lead-foil1 and containing #a to #a cwts4 ,it is chiefly produced in the island of ,formosa1 and is brought by the ,chin ,chew junks in very large quantities to ,canton1 whence foreign markets get supplied4--7,pereira's ,materia ,medica47 ,in the southern part of ,japan the tree grows in such abundance that1 notwithstanding the great consumption of it in the country1 large quantities are exported4 ,koempfer says1 that the ,japanese camphor is made by a simple decoction of the wood and roots1 but bears no proportion in value to that of ,borneo4 ,there is also an imitation of camphor in ,japan1 but every body can distinguish it from the genuine4 ,the camphor of ,sumatra is procured from the stem of a large tree1 ,dryobalanops ,camphora1 ,colebrook2 ,d4 aromatica1 ,graertner4 ,it is secreted in crystalline masses naturally into cavities of the wood4 ,it supplies this camphor only after attaining a considerable age4 ,in its young state it yields1 however1 by incision1 a pale yellow liquid1 called the liquid camphor of ,borneo and ,sumatra1 which consists of resin and a volatile oil having a camphorated odor4 ,an account of this tree1 and of the mode of procuring the peculiar and high-priced camphor which it yields1 is given by ,dr4 ,junghuhn1 who has travelled lately in ,sumatra1 and ,prof4 ,de ,vriese1 of ,leyden1 in the ,nederlandsch ,kruidkundig ,archief for #ahea4 ,an abstract of the memoir1 translated into ,english by ,miss ,de ,vriese1 is published in ,hooker's ,journal of ,botany for ,february and ,march #aheb3-- ,the ,dryobalanops is a gigantic tree1 rising for fifty or even a hundred feet above those which compose the chief mass of the forests where they grow1 just as the steeples of the churches appear above the roofs of the houses in a town4 ,the trunks of the full-grown trees are from #g to #aj feet in diameter at the very base1 and from #e to #h feet higher up2 they rise to the height of #ajj or #acj feet1 and their ample crown is from #ej to #gj feet in diameter4 ,the tree has a limited range1 being confined to the seaward slope of the mountains of southwestern ,sumatra1 most abundant on the lower slopes and the outlying hills of the alluvial plain1 and extending in latitude from #a;deg4 #ajm4 to #b;deg4 #bjm4 ,n41 and perhaps further to the north4 ,camphor oil occurs in all the trees1 and is most abundant in the younger branches and leaves4 ,the solid camphor is found only on the trunks of older trees1 especially in fissures of the wood1 and in smaller quantity than is generally supposed4 ,colebrooke1 and authors who have copied from him1 assert that camphor is found in the heart of the tree in such a quantity as to fill a cavity of the thickness of a man's arm1 and that a single tree yields about eleven pounds4 ,the price of this camphor1 which at ,padang sells for about #cdj dollars per hundred weight1 suffices to show that the account is much exaggerated4 ,the camphor occurs only in small fissures1 from which the natives1 having felled the trees and split up the wood1 scrape it off with small splinters or with their nails4 ,from the oldest and richest trees they rarely collect more than two ounces4 ,after a long stay in the woods1 frequently of three months1 during which they may fell a hundred trees1 a party of thirty persons rarely bring away more than #ae or #bj pounds of solid camphor1 worth from #bjj to #bej dollars4 ,the variety and price of this costly substance are enhanced by a custom which has immemorially prevailed among the ,battas1 of delaying the burial of every person who during his life had a claim to the title of ,rajah 7of which each village has one7 until some rice1 sown on the day of his death1 has sprung up1 grown and borne fruit4 ,the corpse1 till then kept above ground among the living1 is now1 with these ears of rice1 committed to the earth1 like the grain six months before2 and thus the hope is emblematically expressed that1 as a new life arises from the seed1 so another life shall begin for man after his death4 ,during this time the corpse is kept in the house1 enclosed in a coffin made of the hollowed trunk of a ,durion1 and the whole space between the coffin and the body is filled with pounded camphor1 for the purchase of which the family of the deceased ,rajah frequently impoverish themselves4 ,the camphor oil is collected by incisions at the base of the trunk1 from which the clear balsamic juice is very slowly discharged4 ,in ,sumatra the best camphor is obtained in a district called ,barus1 and all good camphor bears that local name4 ,it appears that the tree is cut down to obtain the gum and that not in one tenth of the trees is it found4 ,barus camphor is getting scarce1 as the tree must be destroyed before it is ascertained whether it is productive or not4 ,about #hjj piculs are annually sent to ,china4 ,the proportion between ,malay and ,chinese camphor is as eighteen to one2 the former is more fragrant and not so pungent as the latter4 ,nine hundred and eighty-three tubs of camphor were exported from ,java in #ahdc2 #fbe bales were imported in #ahdc1 the produce of the ,japanese empire2 and #eei piculs exported from ,canton in #ahdd4 ,the price of unrefined camphor in the ,liverpool market in ,july1 #ahec1 was #d to #d #ajs4 the cwt4 ,there have been no imports there direct in the last two years4 ,camphor 7says ,dr4 ,ure7 is found in a great many plants and is secreted in parity by several laurels2 it occurs combined with the essential oils of many of the labiac2 but it is extracted for manufacturing purposes only from the ,laurus ,camphora1 which abounds in ,china and ,japan1 as well as from a tree which grows in ,sumatra and ,borneo1 called in the country kapur barus1 from the name of the place where it is most common4 ,the camphor exists1 ready formed1 in these vegetables between the wood and the bark2 but it does not exude spontaneously4 ,on cleaving the tree ,laurus ,sumatrensis 7,qy4 ,dryobalanops ,camphora71 masses of camphor are found in the pith4 ,the wood of the ,laurus is cut into small pieces and put1 with plenty of water1 into large iron boilers1 which are covered with an earthen capital or dome1 lined within with rice straw4 ,as the water boils1 the camphor rises with the steam1 and attaches itself as a sublimate to the stalks1 under the form of granulations of a grey color4 ,in this state it is picked off the straw and packed up for exportation to ,europe4--7 ,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures47 ,the price of camphor at ,canton in ,july1 #ahej1 was from fourteen to fifteen dollars per picul4 ,cinchona4--,peruvian or ,jesuit's ,bark--,one of the most valuable and powerful astringents and tonics used in medicine1 is the produce of several species of cinchona1 natives of the ,andes1 from #aa north latitude to #bj south latitude1 at elevations varying from #a1bjj to #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and in a dry rocky soil4 ,there are at least twelve trees which are supposed to furnish the barks of commerce1 and great obscurity prevails as to the species whence the various kinds of cinchona bark are derived4 ,the names of yellow1 red1 and pale bark have been very vaguely applied1 and are by no means well defined4 ,dr4 ,lindley mentions twenty-six varieties2 of which twenty-one are well known4 ,the barks are met with either in thick1 large1 flat pieces1 or in thinner pieces1 which curl inwards during drying1 and are called quilled4 ,quinine is one of the most important of the vegetable alkaline bitters4 ,it was first discovered by ,vauquelin1 in #ahaa1 and its preparation on a large scale pointed out by ,pelletier and ,caventon in #ahbj4 ,it is obtained by boiling the yellow bark 7,cinchona7 in water and sulphuric acid1 and then treating it with lime and alcohol1 when the quinine is precipitated in the form of a white powder4 ,upwards of #abj1jjj ounces are made annually in ,paris4 ,cinchona1 or the ,peruvian bark1 was gathered to the amount of two million dollars in one year recently1 and the demand is constantly increasing4 ,peruvian bark is cut in the eastern ,provinces of ,bolivia1 skirting the river ,paraguay1 and now conveyed an immense distance by mules over a mountainous region to ,el ,puerto1 the only port of ,bolivia on the ,pacific4 ,it is thence brought by ,cape ,horn to the cities of the ,united ,states and ,europe4 ,now that ,government has been successful in opening the ,south ,american rivers1 this important article of commerce will be furnished in market by the ,paraguay and ,la ,plata rivers1 at a much reduced price4 ,a species of bark from ,colombia1 known as ,malambo or ,matias bark1 has been frequently administered by ,dr4 ,alexander ,ure as a substitute for cinchona with good effect4 ,it offers the useful combination of a tonic and aromatic4 ,it is supposed to be the produce of a species of ,drimys4 ,it is stated that in ,new ,granada1 and other districts of ,central ,america1 where the tree is indigenous1 incisions are made in the bark1 and there exudes an aromatic oil which sinks in water4 ,cinchona bark contains two alkaloids1 cinchonia and quina1 to which its active properties are due2 the former is best obtained from gray bark1 the latter from yellow bark4 ,in combination with these there exists an acid called kinic acid4 ,the imports of cinchona bark to this country are from #bbe1jjj to #eef1jjj lbs4 annually1 and about #abj1jjj lbs4 are retained for home consumption4 ,it comes over in chests and serons1 or ox-hides1 varying from #ij to #bjj lbs4 ,we imported from ,france1 in #ahej1 #dhi cwt4 of ,peruvian bark1 of the value of #f1hdj2 and in #ahea1 #a1abh cwt41 of the value of #ae1ghg2 also the following quantities of sulphate of quinine1 on which there is a duty of #f;d4 and #c-ajths per ounce4 oz4 #ahdh #c1hef #e1hih #ahdi #a1aad #a1efj #ahej #h1igf #ab1eff #ahea #g1fje #aj1fdg ,the following is the arrangement of these barks adopted by ,pereira1 who has gone very fully into the subject3-- ,a4 ,true cinchonas1 with a brown epidermis4 ,i4 ,pale barks #a4 ,crown or ,loxa bark4 ,c4 ,condaminea4 #b4 ,gray or silver or ,huanuco bark4 ,c4 micrantha4 #c4 ,ash or ,jaen bark4 ,c4 ovata4 #d4 ,rusty or ,huamalies bark4 ,c4 pubescens4 ,,ii4 ,yellow barks4 #e4 ,royal1 yellow or ,calisaya bark4 ,c4 sp 8 ,,iii4 ,red barks4 #f4 ,red bark4 ,c4 sp 8 ,b4 ,true cinchonas1 with a white epidermis4 ,i4 ,pale barks4 #g4 ,white ,loxa bark4 ,,ii4 ,yellow barks4 #h4 ,hard ,carthagena bark4 ,c4 cordifolia4 #i4 ,fibrous ditto4 ,perhaps ,c4 cordifolia4 #aj4 ,cuzco bark4 ,c4 sp48 #aa4 ,orange bark of ,santa ,fe4 ,c4 lancifolia4 ,,iii4 ,red barks4 #ab4 ,bed bark of ,santa ,fe4 ,c4 oblongifolia4 ,the genus ,exostemma yields various kinds of false cinchona bark1 which do not contain the cinchona alkalies4 ,the following are some of the kinds noticed by ,pereira3-- #a4 ,st4 ,lucia or ,piton bark4 ,exostemma floribundum4 #b4 ,jamaica bark4 ,e4 caribaeum4 #c4 ,pitaya bark4 ,e4 sp8 #d4 ,false ,peruvian bark4 ,e4 peruvianum4 #e4 ,brazilian bark4 ,e4 souzianum4 ,the mode adopted by the bark-peelers of obtaining cinchona varies somewhat in different districts4 ,the ,indians 7says ,mr4 ,stevenson1 ,twenty ,years' ,residence in ,south ,america7 discover from the eminences where a cluster of trees grow in the woods1 for they are easily discernable by the rose-colored tinge of their leaves1 which appear at a distance like bunches of flowers amid the deep-green foliage of other trees4 ,they then hunt for the spot1 and having found it out1 cut down all the trees1 and take the bark from the branches1 and after they have stripped off the bark1 they carry it in bundles out of the wood1 for the purpose of drying it4 ,the peelers commence their operation about ,may1 when the dry season sets in4 ,some writers state that the trees are barked without felling4 ,in a letter published in one of the ,calcutta papers not long ago1 from the pen1 ,i believe1 of ,mr4 ,piddington1 he strongly urged the introduction of the cinchona tree into ,british ,india3-- ,there is 7he observes7 one tree1 the introduction and the copious distribution of which within certain appropriate points of the sub-,himalayan range1 would confer a greater blessing on the great body of natives1 than any effort the ,government has made or can make1 and that is the cinchona bark tree4 ,without any reference to the greater or less force of medical theories as to the efficacy of cinchona bark1 ,i now only take an experienced and practical view1 well knowing that the sufferings of many millions of poor and rich natives1 especially in the jungle districts1 are yearly very great1 and the mortality quite enormous from remittent and intermittent fevers1 by far the greater part of which would be immensely relieved1 or wholly cured1 by the free use of cinchona bark4 ,if by abundance the price be once brought within the poor native's reach1 he will readily take to it1 having no objection whatever on account of caste to anything of the nature of the bark of a tree4 ,if the cinchona tree were once growing in abundance1 quinine could be easily prepared in ,india1 from the facility of procuring1 and cheapness of spirits of wine used in the process of its elimination4 ,i take it that every hundred ,sepahees sick of fevers remaining in hospital off duty for thirty days1 drawing an average pay of eight rupees each1 form a full monthly loss to ,government of eight hundred rupees2 while a free use of quinine and bark would cure them in ten days on the average1 costing at present about forty rupees2 thus by the twenty days' services gained1 ,government would save nearly five hundred rupees4 ,but the cinchona tree once glowing abundantly1 quinine would of course become infinitely cheaper4 ,under a proper system of culture1 quill bark only need be taken without destroying the trees1 and an earlier return be obtained4 ,there never yet has been a substitute found for cinchona bark and its salts1 as an antiperiodic and tonic4 ,it yet remains for some one to find an equally efficacious substitute1 and thus make a fortune4 ,in the mean time the importance of the cinchona is paramount4 ,the cinchona tree1 like the pimento1 deteriorates under cultivation1 and in moist1 warm1 rich valleys the bark becomes inert4 ,the best bark is from trees growing on mountain tops or steep declivities4 ,from the full accounts of ,condamine1 ,mutis1 and ,humboldt1 a soil and climate like that of the north west sub-,himalayan range is admirably adapted to the planting and prospering of cinchona trees4 ,in ,lord ,w4 ,bentinck's time1 before there were steamers in or to ,india1 seeing the immense benefit to be derived1 ,i sent in a proposition to procure young cinchona plants from ,vera ,cruz1 begging to be then permitted to proceed there on that account1 and my proposition was civilly and even favorably received2 but these were not the days to act on it4 ,of about the twenty species of cinchona trees the following would of course be the best to bring--the ,cinchona bineifolia1 the cinchona cordifolia1 the cinchona oblongifolia1 the cinchona micrantha1 and the cinchona condaminea4 ,the ,calumba plant 7,cocculus palmatus1 ,decandolle1 or ,minispermum palmatum7 furnishes the medicinal ,colombo root1 which is one of the most useful stomachics and tonics in cases of dyspepsia4 ,it is scarcely ever cultivated1 the spontaneous produce of thick forests on the shores of ,oibo and ,mozambique and many miles inland on the eastern shores of ,africa1 ,madagascar and ,bombay1 proving sufficient4 ,the supplies principally go to ,ceylon4 ,the roots are perennial1 and consist of several fasciculated1 fusiform1 branched1 fleshy1 curved and descending tubers1 from one to two inches thick1 with a brown warty epidermis2 internally deep yellow1 odorless1 very bitter4 ,the main roots are dug up by the natives in ,march 7the hot season74 ,the offsets are cut in slices and hung up on cords to dry in the shade4 ,it is deemed fit to ship when1 on exposure to the sun1 it breaks short1 and of a bad quality when it is soft and black4--7,pereira's ,materia ,medica47 ,it contains a bitter crystallizable principle called ,calumbin4 ,the commercial parcels are often adulterated with the roots of ,costus indicus1 ,c4 speciosus1 and ,c4 ,arabicus 7,kusmus1 ,putckuk1 c474 ,it is imported into this country in bags and chests of from one to three cwt41 and ranges in price from #a to #b the cwt4 ,the imports in #ahdf to ,london were #hb packages1 and in #ahej1 #bad packages1 but the stock held in ,london is always large1 being nearly #b1ejj packages4 ,colocynth1 furnished by ,cucumis colocynthis and ,c4 pseudocolocynthis1 is the dried medullary part of a wild species of gourd which is cultivated in ,spain4 ,it also grows wild in ,japan1 the sandy lands of ,coromandel1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,syria1 ,nubia1 ,egypt1 ,turkey1 and the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,it may be obtained in the jungles of ,india in cart loads4 ,the fruit1 which is about the size of an orange1 with a thin but solid rind1 is gathered in autumn1 when ripe and yellow1 and in most countries is peeled and dried either in the sun or by stoves4 ,it comes over from ,cadiz1 ,trieste1 ,mogadore1 c41 in cases1 casks1 c41 and duty was paid on about #aa1jjj lbs4 in #ahci4 ,,cubebs4--,the dried unripe fruit of ,p4 ,cubebi1 or ,cubeba qfficinalia1 a climbing plant of the pepper tribe1 native of ,prince of ,wales' ,island1 ,java1 and the ,indian islands furnishes the medicinal cubebs1 which is used extensively in arresting discharges from mucous membranes4 ,in appearance cubebs resemble black pepper1 except that they are higher colored and are each furnished with a stalk two or three lines long4 ,dr4 ,blume says1 that the cubebs of the shops are the fruit of ,p4 caninum4 ,this species of pepper1 when fresh and good1 contains nearly #aj per cent4 of essential oil4 ,in #ahdb the quantity entered for home consumption was #fg1jic lbs4 ,the average imports are about #dj to #ej tons annually4 #c cases were imported into ,liverpool in #ahea4 ,the price in the ,liverpool market1 in ,january #ahec1 was #c #ajs4 to #d #ajs4 the cwt4 ,,gamboge4--,this resinous juice1 which is a most important article of commerce1 is furnished by some of the plants of ,gambogia1 natives principally of ,south ,america4 ,it is a powerful irritant1 and is employed medicinally as a drastic and hydragogue cathartic4 ,from its bright yellow color it is also used as a pigment4 ,gamboge fetches in the ,london market from #e to #aa per cwt4 ,some of the species of ,stalagmites 7,murray71 natives of ,ceylon and the ,east1 yield a similar yellow viscid juice1 hardly distinguishable from gamboge1 and used for the same purpose by painters4 ,they are a genus of fine ornamental trees1 thriving well in soils partaking of a mixture of loam and peat4 ,according to ,koenig1 the juice is collected by breaking off the leaves or young branches4 ,from the fracture the gamboge exudes in drops1 and is therefore called gum gutta4 ,it is received on leaves1 coco-nut shells1 earthen pots1 or in bamboos2 it gradually hardens by age1 and is then wrapped up in leaves prior to sale4 ,the common gamboge of ,ceylon is produced by a plant which ,dr4 ,graham was led to view as a species of a new genus under the name of ,hebradendron ,gambogoides4 ,a very different species1 the ,garcinia ,gambogia1 of ,roxburgh1 once supposed to produce gamboge1 and indeed actually confounded by ,linnus with the true gamboge tree of ,ceylon1 he has proved not to produce gamboge at all4 ,this substance is also obtained from several other plants1 as the ,mangostana ,gambogia 7,gaertner71 ,hypericwm bacciferum and ,cayanense1 natives of the ,east ,indies1 ,siam and ,ceylon1 whence it is imported in small cakes and rolls or cylindrical twisted masses4 ,its composition is as follows3 number #a being an analysis by ,professor ,christison of a commercial specimen from ,ceylon2 number #b of a fine sample of common ditto3-- #a #b ,resin1 or fatty acid #gh4hd #gd4h ,coloring matter #d4jc #c4e ,gum #ab4ei #af4e ,residue #d4ed #e4b ----- ----- #ajj4 #ajj4 ,the average imports of gamboge into the port of ,london1 during the past five or six years1 have been from #djj to #ejj chests of one to two cwt4 each4 ,gentian4--,the yellow gentian root 7,gentiana lutea7 is the officinal species1 and a native of the ,alps of ,austria and ,switzerland4 ,the stems and roots of ,g4 amarella and campestris1 ,british species1 and ,g4 cruciata1 purpurea1 punctata1 c41 are similar in their effects1 having tonic1 stomachic1 and febrifugal properties4 ,so has ,g4 kurroo of the ,himalayas4 ,the root is generally taken up in autumn1 when the plant is a year old4 ,it is cut longitudinally into pieces of a foot or a foot and a half long4 ,they are imported into this country in bales from ,havre1 ,marseilles1 c41 and a good deal comes from ,germany4 ,in #ahci1 #dgj cwts4 were entered for home consumption4 ,chiretta is the herb and root of ,agathotes ,chirayta1 ,don2 ,gentiana ,chirayta1 ,fleming2 or ,ophelia chirayta1 a herbaceous plant1 growing in the ,himalaya mountains about ,nepaul and the ,morungs4 ,ipecacuan4-- ,cephlis ,ipecacuanh1 ,richard1 yields the ipecacuan of the shops4 ,the plant is met with in the woods of several ,brazilian provinces1 as ,pernambuco1 ,bahia and ,rio ,janeiro4 ,it is found growing in moist shady situations1 from #h to #bj degs4 south latitude4 ,the roots1 which are the officinal part1 are contorted1 knotty and annulated1 and about the thickness of a goose quill4 ,besides this brown or gray annulated ipecacuan1 there are spurious kinds1 such as the striated or black ,peruvian1 the produce of ,pyschotria elliptica1 and other species2 and white or amylaceous ipecacuan1 furnished by ,richardsonia scabra1 an herbaceous perennial1 native of the provinces of ,rio ,janeiro and ,minas ,geraes4 ,manettia glabra or cordifolia1 also furnishes ipecacuan in ,buenos ,ayres4 ,it is imported into this country from ,rio in bales1 barrels1 bags1 and serons1 and the average annual imports in the eight years ending in #ahda were #aj1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahdj1 the shipments from ,rio were as much as #bj1jjj lbs4 ,castelnau states1 that one expert hand can gather #ae lbs4 of the ipecacuan root in a day1 which will fetch in ,rio one dollar per pound4 ,he estimates that1 from #ahcj to #ahcg1 not less than #hjj1jjj lbs4 of this drug were exported from the province of ,matto ,grosso to ,rio4 ,jalap4--,this drug is obtained from the dried tubers or root-stock of ,ipomoea ,jalapa or ,convolvulus ,jalapa1 a perennial plant1 native of ,america4 ,some suppose it takes its specific name from ,xalapa1 in ,mexico1 whence we chiefly import it4 ,it grows in the woods near ,chicanquiaco1 at an altitude of #f1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,large quantities might be gathered and exported in ,jamaica4 ,the root is of a roundish tuberous form1 black externally1 and of a deep1 yellowish grey within1 and varies in size from that of a walnut to that of a moderate sized turnip4 ,it contains a resin in which its active properties reside4 ,it is brought to this country in thin transverse slices1 and the amount entered for home consumption is about #de1jjj lbs4 a year4 ,it is imported in bales1 from ,vera ,cruz direct1 or indirectly by way of ,new ,york1 and other places4 ,two sorts of jalap root occur in commerce4 ,the one which was first introduced into the market1 and which is even at the present day most frequently met with1 is obtained from the ,ipomoea ,schiedeana of ,zuccarini1 a plant growing on the eastern declivity of the ,mexican ,andes1 and discovered by ,von ,schiedes4 ,the root1 as met with in commerce1 consists of pieces varying from the size of a nut to that of the fist1 sometimes whole1 sometimes cut into disks1 and at other times divided into two or three portions4 ,the external surface is of a more or less dark gray brown color1 corrugated and rough4 ,it is very hard1 presents a shining resinous even surface when broken1 and is difficult to reduce to powder4 ,the powder is of a brownish color1 has a faint peculiar odor and irritant taste4 ,the second quality1 which was introduced into commerce is great quantities a few years ago1 by the name of stalk jalap1 is now more scarce1 and obtained from the ,ipomoea orazabensis of ,pelletan1 a plant growing without cultivation in the neighbourhood of the ,mexican town of ,orizaba4 ,the root1 as met with in the trade1 consists of pieces varying from one to three inches in length1 and #a to two inches in diameter4 ,they are of a higher color than the first-named root1 and of decidedly fibrous structure4 ,the chief constituents of both varieties is a peculiar resin1 of which they contain about #aj per cent4 ,scammony4--,the root of ,convolvulus ,scammonia1 another plant of the same family1 affords1 when cut1 a gummy resinous exudation or milky juice1 which soon concretes and forms scammony4 ,the plant grows abundantly in ,greece1 the ,grecian ,islands1 and various parts of the ,levant4 ,it is imported from ,aleppo in drums1 weighing from #ge to #abe lbs4 each1 and from ,smyrna in compact cakes like wax packed in chests4 ,in #ahci1 the quantity on which duty 7#bs4 #f;d4 per lb47 was paid amounted to #h1eha lbs4 ,the duty received for scammony1 in #ahdb1 was #fjg4 ,a spurious kind is prepared from ,calystegia 7,convolvulus7 sepium1 a native of ,australia1 and several plants of the ,asclepiadac order4 ,dr4 ,russell 7,med4 ,obs4 and ,inqui47 thus describes the mode of procuring scammony3-- ,having cleared away the earth from the upper part of the root1 the peasants cut off the top in an oblique direction1 about two inches below where the stalks spring from it4 ,under the most depending part of the slope they affix a shell1 or some other convenient receptacle1 into which the milky juice flows4 ,it is then left about twelve hours1 which time is sufficient for the drawing off of the whole juice2 this1 however1 is in small quantities1 each root affording but a few drachms4 ,this milky juice from the several roots is put together1 often into the leg of an old boot1 for want of some more proper vessel1 when in a little time it grows hard1 and is the genuine scammony4 ,various substances are often added to scammony while yet soft4 ,those with which it is most usually adulterated are wheat flour1 ashes1 or fine sand and chalk4 ,liquorice4--,the plant which yields the liquorice root of commerce is ,glycirrhiza glabra or ,liquiritia officinalis4 ,it is a native of ,italy and the southern parts of ,europe1 but has been occasionally cultivated with success in ,britain1 especially at ,pontefract1 in ,yorkshire1 and at ,mitcham1 in ,surrey4 ,the plant is a perennial1 with pale blue flowers4 ,it grows well in a deep1 light1 sandy loam1 and is readily increased by slips from the roots with eyes4 ,the root1 which is the only valuable part1 is long1 slender1 fibrous1 of a yellow color1 and when grown in ,england is fit for use at the end of three years4 ,the sweet1 subacid1 mucilaginous juice is much esteemed as a pectoral4 ,it owes its sweetness to a peculiar principle called glycrin or glycirrhiza1 which appears also to be present in the root and leaves of other papilionaceous plants1 as ,g4 echinata and glandulifera1 ,trifoliwm alpinum1 and the wild liquorice of the ,west ,indies1 ,abrus precatorius1 a pretty climber4 ,the greatest portion of our supplies of the extract1 which amount to #g1jjj or #h1jjj cwts4 a year1 are obtained from ,spain and ,sicily4 ,the juice1 obtained by crushing the roots in a mill1 and subjecting them to the press1 is slowly boiled1 till it becomes of a proper consistency1 when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness1 which are usually covered with bay leaves4 ,it is afterwards usually re-dissolved1 purified1 and1 when formed into small quills1 is known as refined liquorice4 ,in #ahci1 #a1aff tons of liquorice paste were exported from ,naples1 valued at #de per ton4 ,mr4 ,poole1 in his ,statistics of ,commerce1 states that the consumption of liquorice root and paste in this country averages #ejj tons per annum4 #aaj cwt4 of the juice and #ajj cwt4 of the root are annually brought into ,hull from the continent4 ,matico--the ,peruvian styptic1 a powerful vegetable astringent1 was first made known to the medical profession of ,england by ,dr4 ,jeffreys1 of ,liverpool1 in the ,lancet1 as far back as ,january #eth1 #ahci4 ,a paper on its history and power was published in ,may1 #ahdc1 in the ,transactions of the ,provincial ,medical and ,surgical ,association1 vol4 #aj4 ,it is stated to be the ,piper angustifolium of ,ruiz and ,parsons4 ,dr4 ,martin believes it to be a species of ,phlomis4 ,the leaves are covered with a fine hair4 ,the powdered leaves of the ,eupatorium glutinosum1 under the name of ,matico1 are used about ,quito for stanching blood and healing wounds4 ,a good article on the pharmaceutical and chemical character of matico1 by ,dr4 ,j4,f4 ,hodges1 appeared in the ,proceedings of the ,chemical ,society of ,london1 in #ahde4 ,it is stated1 by ,dr4 ,martin1 that1 like the gunjah1 which the ,east ,indians prepare1 from the ,cannabis ,indica1 the leaves and flowers of the matico have been long employed by the sensual ,indians of the interior of ,peru to prepare a drink which they administer to produce a state of aphrodisia4 ,the leaves and flowering tops of the plant are the parts imported and introduced to notice as a styptic1 which property seems to depend on their structure and not on their chemical composition4 ,quassia4--,the quassia wood of the pharmacopoeia was originally the product of ,quassia amara1 a tall shrub1 never above fifteen feet high1 native of ,guiana1 but also inhabiting ,surinam and ,colombia4 ,it is a very ornamental plant1 and has remarkable pinnate leaves with winged petioles4 ,this wood is well known as one of the most intense bitters1 and is considered an effectual remedy in any disorder where pure bitters are required4 ,surinam quassia is not1 however1 to be met with now4 ,that sold in the shops is the tough1 fibrous1 bitter bark of the root of ,simaruba 7,quassia7 excelsa and officinalis1 very large forest trees1 growing in ,cayenne1 ,jamaica1 and other parts of the ,west ,india ,islands1 where they bear the local name of bitter-wood4 ,its infusion is used as a tonic4 #bc tons of bitter-wood were shipped from ,montego ,bay1 ,jamaica1 in #ahea4 ,quassia acts as a narcotic poison on flies and other insects4 ,although prohibited by law1 it is frequently employed by brewers as a substitute for hops4 ,the duty of #h #ags4 #f;d4 per cwt41 levied on quassia1 is intended to restrict its use for such a purpose4 ,rhubarb4--,this most important plant belongs to the genus ,rheum4 ,the officinal rhubarb is the root of an undetermined species4 ,there are about thirteen different kinds which are said to yield rhubarb4 ,lindley enumerates fifteen4 ,i however take ,professor ,balfour's classification3-- #a4 ,rheum palmatum1 native of ,bucharia1 which has perhaps the best title to be considered the true rhubarb-plant1 grows spontaneously in the ,mongolian empire on the confines of ,china4 #b4 ,r4 undulatum1 native of ,china1 which yields much of the ,french rhubarb4 #c4 ,r4 compactum1 native of ,tartary1 another species yielding ,french rhubarb1 and often cultivated in ,britain for its acid petioles4 #d4 ,r4 ,emodi 7,wallich74 ,this species yields a kind of ,himalayan rhubarb4 ,its petioles are much used for their acid properties4 #e4 ,r4 ,rhaponticum1 native of ,asia4 ,used in ,france and ,britain in the same way as the third species4 ,it is much cultivated in the department of ,morbihan4 #f4 ,r4 hybridum 7,murr74 ,much cultivated in ,germany for its root and in ,britain for its stalks4 #g4 ,r4 ,webbianum 7,royle74 #h4 ,r4 ,spiceformi 7,royle74 #i4 ,r4 ,moorcroftianum 7,royle74 ,himalayan species or varieties4 #aj4 ,r4 crassinervium 7,fisch71 a ,russian species4 #aa4 ,r4 leucorhizum 7,pall71 a ,siberian and ,altai species1 said to yield imperial or white rhubarb4 ,it has striped flowers1 while all others are whitish green4 #ab4 ,r4 ,caspicum 7,fisch71 a ,russian and ,altai species4 #ac4 ,r4 ,ribes1 native of the ,levant1 but some say an ,afghanistan or ,persian species4 ,all these grow in the cold parts of the world1 as on the ,altai mountains1 in ,siberia1 ,thibet1 ,north of ,china1 and on the ,himalayan range4 ,the rhubarb procured from one or more of these species is known in commerce under the names of ,russian or ,turkey1 ,chinese or ,east ,indian1 and ,english rhubarb4 ,the plants all thrive well in a rich loamy soil1 or light sandy soil1 and are increased by divisions of the roots or by seed4 ,the extent of country from which rhubarb of one kind or another is actually collected1 according to ,christison1 stretches from ,ludall1 in #gg east longitude1 to the ,chinese province of ,shen-si1 #bi degrees further east1 and from the ,sue-chan mountains1 in north latitude #bf degrees1 nearly to the frontiers of ,siberia1 #bd degrees northward4 ,the best rhubarb is said to come from the very heart of ,thibet1 within #ie degrees east longitude and #ce degrees north latitude1 #ejj or #fjj miles north of ,assam4 ,the ,chinese rhubarb is inferior to that of ,russia and ,turkey4 ,the price varies in ,china from #ch dollars per picul upwards1 and about #a1ejj piculs are annually exported1 on an average at #ej dollars per picul4 ,in #ahdd1 #b1jgg piculs were shipped from ,canton for ,great ,britain2 and of #ie1gja lbs4 imported in #ahda1 #dc1fdj lbs4 were brought from ,china1 #h1cdi lbs4 from the ,philippines1 #g1bij lbs4 from the ,east ,indies1 and #cc1gaj lbs4 from the ,united ,states2 only #a1dfb lbs4 were brought from ,russia4 ,the imports from the ,east ,indies have decreased more than #gj per cent4 in the last twelve years1 as compared with the preceding4 ,the wholesale prices are1 for round rhubarb1 #h;d4 to #cs4 per lb42 flat1 #f;d4 to #cs4 #c;d4 per lb42 ,dutch trimmed1 #fs4 to #gs4 per lb42 ,russian1 #acs4 to #acs4 #f;d4 per lb4 ,in #ahca1 we imported #acc1dfb lbs4 from the ,east ,india ,company's possessions1 and #f1ija lbs4 from ,russia4 ,in #ahdc1 only #ga1bih lbs4 came from the ,east4 ,from ,china we received1 in #ahdc1 #agb1hhb lbs4 ,the quantities of rhubarb on which duty of #as4 per lb4 was paid in the six years ending #ahdj1 were as follows2-- ,east ,indian4 ,foreign4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahce #cb1eae #aj1fdg #ahcf #cf1hcf #g1geb #ahcg #dd1ffi #e1idf #ahch #cg1jbf #g1djb #ahci #bb1ege #ab1ebe #ahdj #af1gde #bb1bjc ,the imports and consumption of rhubarb are thus stated in the ,pharmaceutical ,journal3-- ,imports4 ,consumption4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahbf #ajb1fbd #cb1icf #ahca #adj1cie #dj1abd #ahcf #abb1adb #dd1dfh #ahda #ie1gja #fg1hgg #ahdf #dbg1fid -- #ahdg #cje1gcf -- #ahdh #aaf1jje -- #ahdi #id1iad -- ,the rhubarb brought into ,siberia grows wild in ,chinese ,tartary1 especially in the province ,gansun1 on hills1 heaths1 and meadows1 and is generally gathered in summer from plants of six years of age4 ,when the root is dug up1 it is washed to free it from earthy particles2 peeled1 bored through the centre1 strung on a thread1 and dried in the sun4 ,in autumn all the dried rhubarb collected in the province is brought in horsehair sacks1 containing about #bjj lbs41 to ,sinin 7the residence of the dealers71 loaded on camels1 and sent over ,mongolia to ,kiachta1 and the ports and capital of ,china4 ,sarsaparilla4--,the root of various species of ,smilax constitutes the sarsaparilla of the shops4 ,it is an evergreen climbing undershrub1 having whitish green flowers1 and grows readily from suckers4 ,it is a native of the temperate and tropical regions of ,asia and ,america4 ,the officinal part is the bark1 which comes off from the rhizomes4 ,they are mucilaginous1 bitter1 and slightly acid4 ,sarsaparilla is used in decoction and infusion as a tonic and alterative4 ,the following are enumerated as sources whence sarsaparilla of various kinds is derived4 ,smilax ,china and sagittfolia1 yielding the ,chinese root1 are said to come from the province of ,onansi in ,china4 ,s4 pseudo ,china1 ,s4 ,sarsaparilla1 ,s4 rubens1 and ,s4 ,watsoni1 furnish the drug of ,north ,america4 ,the sarsaparilla distinguished in commerce as the ,lisbon or ,brazilian is the root of ,s4 papyracea of ,poiret4 ,it is an undershrub1 the stem of which is compressed and angular below1 and armed with prickles at the angles4 ,the leaves are elliptic1 acuminate1 and marked with three longitudinal nerves4 ,this species grows principally in the regions bordering the river ,amazon1 and on the banks of most of its tributary streams4 ,it is generally brought from the provinces of ,para and ,maranham4 ,it is in large cylindrical bundles1 long and straight1 and the flexible stem of the plant is bound round the bundles1 so as to entirely cover them4 ,its fibres are very long1 cylindrical1 wrinkled longitudinally1 and furnished with some lateral fibrils4 ,its color is of a fawn brown1 or sometimes of a dark grey1 approaching to black4 ,the color internally is nearly white4 ,besides this species there are others indigenous1 such as ,s4 officinalis1 which grows in the province of ,mina2 ,s4 syphilitica1 which grows in the northern regions1 and three new species1 ,s4 japicanga1 ,s4 ,brasiliensis1 and ,s4 syringioides4 ,there is also met with in ,brazil another plant1 ,herreria sarsaparilla1 belonging to the same natural order1 which abounds in the provinces of ,rio1 ,bahia1 and ,mina1 and the roots of which receive the name of wild sarsaparilla4 ,from ,mexico1 ,honduras1 and ,angostura very good qualities are imported4 ,s4 zeylanica1 glabra1 and perfoliata furnish sarsaparilla from ,asia1 and ,s4 excelsa and aspera are used as substitutes for the officinal drug in ,europe4 ,smilax officinalis1 found in woods near the ,rio ,magdalena in ,new ,granada1 furnishes the best in the market1 which is commonly known as ,jamaica ,sarza4 ,it differs from the other kinds in having a deep red cuticle of a close texture1 and the color is more generally diffused through the ligneous part4 ,it is shipped in bales1 formed either of the spirally formed roots1 as in the ,jamaica and ,lima varieties1 or of unfolded parallel roots1 as in the ,brazilian varieties4 ,the roots are usually several feet long1 about the thickness of a quill1 more or less wrinkled1 and the whole quantity retained for home consumption1 in #ahdj1 was #adc1jjj lbs4 ,in #ahdd1 #ahd1gdh lbs41 and in #ahde #aaa1gge lbs4 were shipped from ,honduras4 ,the prices in the ,london market1 at the close of #ahec1 were --,brazil1 #as4 #c;d4 per lb42 ,honduras1 #as4 #c;d4 to #as4 #h;d4 per lb42 ,vera ,cruz1 #f;d4 to #aa;d4 per lb42 ,jamaica1 #as4 #h;d4 to #cs4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,the duty received on sarsaparilla in #ahdb was #a1ecf4 ,the average annual quantity of sarsaparilla obtained from ,mexico and ,south ,america1 exclusive of ,brazil1 and taken for home consumption1 in the twelve years ending with #ahdc was #cg1hbf lbs4 ,,imports ,,of ,,brazilian ,,sarsaparilla4 lbs4 #ahbg #bh1aee #ahbh #di1bhj #ahbi #eb1ggb #ahcj #ai1hdb #ahca #ca1igb #ahcb #ia1bch #ahcc #ac1jgg #ahcd #bh1hjc #ahce #bb1chg #ahcf #a1gah #ahcg #ab1hdb #ahch -- #ahci #i1dhd #ahdj #d1ada #ahda #a1cii #ahdb #e1egb ,the total imports in #ahdi were #aah1icd lbs4 ,sarsaparilla has been found growing in the ,port ,phillip district of ,australia1 and has been shipped thence in small quantities4 ,it seems to be indigenous to the ,bahamas1 and is to be found on many of the out islands4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,dalzell1 of ,abaco1 collected some considerable quantity at a place called ,marsh ,harbor1 which was found to be of a superior quality4 ,some thousands of pounds of sarsaparilla were brought to ,falmouth1 ,jamaica1 last year1 and bought by merchants for export4 ,it came from the parish of ,st4 ,elizabeth1 and there are whole forests covered with this weed1 for such in reality it is4 ,it is too the real black ,jamaica sarsaparilla1 that is so much valued in the ,european and ,american markets4 ,it is also found in other parts of the island4 ,in #agih #c1fgd lbs4 of sarsaparilla were shipped from ,la ,guayra2 #b1cid lbs4 in #ahja from ,puerto ,cabella1 and #djj quintals from ,costa ,rica1 in #ahde1 valued at eight dollars a quintal4 ,,senna4--,several varieties of ,cassia1 natives of the ,east1 are grown for the production of this drug4 ,the dried leaves of ,c4 lanceolata or orientalis1 grown in ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,arabia1 the true ,mecca senna1 are considered the best4 ,in ,egypt the leaves of ,cynanchum ,arghel are used for adulterating senna1 ,cassia obovata or ,c4 senna1 also a native of ,egypt1 cultivated in the ,east ,indies1 as well as in ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,jamaica4 ,it is a perennial herb1 one or two feet high4 ,in the ,east ,indies there is a variety 7,c4 elongata7 common about ,tinnivelly1 ,coimbatore1 ,bombay1 and ,agra1 c4 ,several of this species are common in the ,west ,india islands4 ,the plants1 which are for the most part evergreens1 grow from two to fifteen feet high2 they delight in a loamy soil1 or mixture of loam or peat4 ,the seed is drilled in the ground1 and the only attention required by the plant is loosening the ground and weeding two or three times when it is young4 ,the senna leaves imported from ,india are not generally so clean and free from rubbish as those from ,alexandria4 ,they are worth from #bjs4 to #bgs4 per cwt4 in the ,bombay market4 ,the prices are--,alexandria1 ld4 to #f;d4 per lb42 ,east ,indian1 #b;d4 to #c;d4 per lb42 ,tinnevelly1 #g;d4 to #i;d4 per lb4 ,senna is collected in various parts of ,africa by the ,arabs1 who make two crops annually2 one1 the most productive1 after the rains in ,august and ,september1 the other about the middle of ,march4 ,it is brought to ,boulack1 the port of ,cairo1 by the caravans1 c41 from ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 and ,sennaar1 also by the way of ,cossier1 the ,red ,sea1 and ,suez4 ,the different leaves are mixed1 and adulterated with arghel leaves4 ,the whole shipments from ,boulack to ,alexandria1 whence it finds it way to ,europe1 is #ad1jjj to #ae1ejj quintals4 ,the quantities imported for home consumption were-- ,from the ,east ,indies4 ,other places4 ,total4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 #ahch #gb1egf #fi1ech #adb1aad #ahci #aaj1dji #fc1gff #agd1age ,in #ahdj1 #baa1djj lbs4 paid duty1 which is now only #a;d4 per lb4 ,in #ahdh1 we imported #hjj1jjj lbs4 from ,india2 in #ahdi1 the total imports were #eda1adc lbs4 ,the imports into the ,united ,kingdom were1 in #ahdg1 #bdf tons2 #ahdh1 #djb tons2 #ahdi1 #bdj tons4 ,alexandrian senna 7,cassia acutifolia74 ,this species is said by some to constitute the bulk of the senna consumed for medical purposes in ,europe4 ,it is much adulterated with the leaves of ,cynanchum ,arghel1 ,tiphrosia apollinea1 and ,coriaria myrtifolia4 ,c4 lanceolata and ,c4 ethiopica furnish other species of the same article1 the greater part of the produce of which find its way to ,india1 through the ,red ,sea1 ,surat1 ,bombay and ,calcutta1 the imports into ,calcutta1 in #ahdi1 having been #gi1bab lbs4 ,c4 obovata furnishes the ,aleppo and ,italian drug4 ,at least eight varieties of senna leaf are known in commerce in ,europe--#a4 the ,senna palthe2 #b4 ,senna of ,sennaar or ,alexandria2 #c4 of ,tripoli2 #d4 of ,aleppo2 #e4 of ,moka2 #f4 of ,senegambia2 #g4 the false or ,arghel2 #h4 the ,tinnevelly4 ,in ,egypt the senna harvest takes place twice annually1 in ,april and ,september2 the stalks are cut off with the leaves1 dried before the sun1 and then packed with date leaves4 ,at ,boulka1 the drug is sorted1 mixed1 and adulterated1 and passed into commerce through ,alexandria4 ,alexandrian senna1 according to ,mr4 ,jacob ,bell 7,pharmaceutical ,journal1 vol4 #b1 p4 #fc71 contains a mixture of two or more species of true senna4 ,it consists principally of ,cassia obovata and ,c4 obtusata1 and according to some authorities it occasionally contains ,c4 acutifolia4 ,this mixture is unimportant1 but the ,cynanchum ,arghel1 which generally constitutes a fifth of the weight on an average1 possesses properties differing in some respects from true senna1 and which render it particularly objectionable4 ,the ,tinnevelly senna1 that most esteemed by the profession1 is known by the size of the leaflets1 which are much larger than those of any other variety2 they are also less brittle1 thinner and larger1 and are generally found in a very perfect state1 while the other varieties1 especially the ,alexandrian1 are more or less broken4 ,the leaves of the ,cynanchum are similar in form to those of the lanceolate senna1 but they are thicker and stiffer1 the veins are scarcely visible1 they are not oblique at the base1 their surface is rugose1 and the color grey or greenish drab2 their taste is bitter and disagreeable1 and they are often spotted with a yellow1 intensely bitter gummo-resinous incrustation4 ,being less fragile than the leaflets of the true senna1 they are more often found entire1 and are very easily distinguishable from the varieties which constitute true ,alexandrian senna4 ,in their botanical character they are essentially different1 being distinct leaves1 not leaflets1 which is the case with true senna4 ,the ,,sumbul root1 which has recently been introduced into the ,french market1 is the root of an umbelliferous plant1 which is characterised by a strong odor of musk4 ,the pilgrims1 on their return from ,mecca1 generally import to ,salonika1 ,constantinople1 c41 among other articles of trade1 various plants with a musk-like odor4 ,the preparation of these vegetable substances is said to be effected by smearing them over with musk-balsam4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,footnote #b3 ,fractional parts are not necessary to include4 ,footnote #c3 ,dr4 ,lindley is in error as to the discriminating duties--,british cacao pays #is41 and foreign #ahs4 ,footnote #d3 ,according to ,breen's ,history of ,st4 ,lucia up to #ahdd4 ,footnote #e3 ,caffeine 7the principle of coffee7 and theobromine 7the principle of cacao7 are the most highly nitrogenised products in nature1 as the following analysis will show3-- ,caffeine1 according to ,pfaff and ,liebig1 contains-- ,carbon #di4gg ,hydrogen #e4cc ,nitrogen #bh4gh ,oxygen #af4ab ,theobromine1 according to ,woskreseusky1 contains-- ,carbon #dg4ba ,hydrogen #d4ec ,nitrogen #ce4ch ,oxygen #ab4hj ,of the two1 cacao contains the larger quantity of nitrogen2 and this chemical fact explains why cacao should be so much more nutritive than tea1 though the principle of tea 7theine7 is nearly identical with the principle of cacoa--tea containing in #ajj parts #bi4jji of nitrogen4 ,on this subject ,liebig has made an observation which ,i cannot avoid noticing4 ,he says1 ,we shall never certainly be able to discover how men were led to the use of the hot infusion of the leaves of a certain shrub 7tea71 or of a decoction of certain roasted seeds 7coffee74 ,some cause there must be1 which would explain how the practice has become a necessary of life to whole nations4 ,but it is surely still more remarkable that the beneficial effects of both plants on the health must be ascribed to one and the same substance1 the presence of which in two vegetables1 belonging to different natural families1 and the produce of different quarters of the globe1 could hardly have presented itself to the boldest imagination4 ,yet recent researches have shown1 in such a manner as to exclude all doubt1 that caffeine1 the peculiar principle of coffee1 and theine1 that of tea1 are in all respects identical4--7,anim4 ,chem41 pp4 #agh-i47 ,we really can see nothing in all this but the manifestation of that instinct which1 implanted in us by the ,almighty1 led the untutored ,indian 7as we are pleased to call him7 to breathe into the nostril of the buffalo or the wild horse1 and by that single act to subdue his angry rage1 or that impelled the first discoverer of combustion to extract fire from the attrition of two pieces of wood4 ,the ,american ,indian1 living entirely on flesh1 discovered for himself in tobacco smoke a means of retarding the change of matter in the tissues of the body1 and thereby of making hunger more endurable4--7,p4 #agi47 ,but the wonder ceases1 when we reflect that man was endued with certain properties by his ,maker which must have been at some remote period1 of which we can form no idea1 active and manifest the moment he breathed the breath of life4 ,to inquire how he lost this property is not our business at present1 but it is only by supposing the quondam existence of such a property1 active and manifest1 that can in any way explain a first knowledge of the therapeutic1 or threptic1 qualities of plants and shrubs4 ,with regard to the identity of theine1 caffeine1 theobromine1 c41 it would be as well that the reader should keep in mind that it is so chemically only1 for in appearance1 taste1 weight1 odor1 c41 no substances can differ more4 ,does the palate exert some peculiar action on the ingesta1 so as to give to each a distinct sapor8 ,or vice versa8 ,footnote #f3 ,in the ,west ,indies1 from my own experience1 ,i have found this to be one of the worst descriptions of soil4 ,p4,l4,s4 ,footnote #g3 ,correspondent of the ,singapore ,free ,press1 ,december1 #aheb4 ,footnote #h3 ,it is important1 in considering what tea may be had from ,china1 to consider the manner of its production4 ,it is grown over an immense district1 in small farms1 or rather gardens1 no farm producing more that #fjj chests4 ,the tea merchant goes himself1 or sends his agents to all the small towns1 villages1 and temples in the district1 to purchase tea from the priests and small farmers2 the large merchant1 into whose hands the tea thus comes1 has to refire it and pack it for the foreign market4--7,fortune's ,tea ,districts47 ,this refiring is the only additional process of manufacture for our market4 ,mr4 ,fortune elsewhere1 in his valuable work1 giving an account of the cost of tea from the farmers1 the conveyance to market1 and the merchant's profit1 states that the small farmer and manipulator is not overpaid1 but that the great profits are received by the middlemen4 ,no doubt these men do their utmost to keep the farmers in complete ignorance of the state of the tea-market1 that they may monopolise the advantages1 but it is pretty certain that the news of a bold reduction of duty1 and the promise of an immensely increased consumption1 would reach even the ,chinese farmers1 and make them pick their trees more closely--a little of which amongst so many would make a vast difference in the total supply4 ,footnote #i3 ,see article ,thea1 by ,dr4 ,royle1 in ,penny ,cyclopdia1 vol xxiv41 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #aj3 ,hooker's ,bot4 ,mag41 #a4cadh4 ,it is the ,assam tea plant4 ,footnote #aa3 ,report on ,tea ,cultivation submitted to ,house of ,commons4 ,see ,blue ,book1 #ahci1 p4 #a-c4 ,footnote #ab3 ,in a short time rain gauges will be established at ,bheemtal1 ,huwalbaugh1 ,paoree1 and ,kaolagir1 in order to measure the quantity of rain that falls annually1 for the purpose of ascertaining how much the quantity and quality of the produce of tea is affected by the weather4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in ,china this process1 according to the statement of tea manufacturers1 is carried on to a great extent4 ,footnote #ad3 ,dr4 ,jameson1 in a late communication1 remarks--,from the accounts ,i have received of that place 7,darjeeling71 ,i doubt not but that the plants there grown will yield tea of a superior description4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the crops of this district1 such as rice1 mundooa1 and other grains1 are so plentiful and cheap as scarcely to pay the carriage to the nearest market town1 much less to the plains4 ,in ,almorah a maund of rice or mundooa sells for something less than a rupee2 barley for eight annas2 and wheat for a rupee4 ,footnote #af3 ,there is frequently a discrepancy in the figures in the ,parliamentary papers1 which will account for a want of agreement in some of these returns4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see the ,pharmaceutical ,journal for ,june1 #ahdi1 p4 #ae1 et seq4 ,footnote #ah3 ,reports of ,dr4 ,roxburgh1 ,mr4 ,touchet of ,radanagore1 and ,mr4 ,cardin of ,mirzapore1 ,cutna4 ,papers on ,east ,india ,sugar1 page #beh4 ,footnote #ai3 ,many are of opinion1 that although the juice of this cane is larger in quantity1 yet that it contains less sugar4 ,there is some sense in the reason they assign1 which is1 that in the ,mauritius and elsewhere it has the full time of twelve or fourteen months allowed for its coming to maturity--whereas the agriculture of ,india1 and especially in ,bengal1 only allows it eight or nine months1 which1 though ample to mature the smaller country canes1 is not sufficient for the ,otaheite4 ,footnote #bj3 ,roxburgh on the ,culture of ,sugar and ,jaggary in the ,rajahmundry ,circar2 ,third ,ap4 to ,report on ,east ,india ,sugar1 p4 #b4 ,footnote #ba3 ,l',exploitation de ,sucreries4 ,porter on the ,sugar ,cane1 #ec1cba4 ,footnote #bb3 ,that the above application would be beneficial1 is rendered still more worthy of credit from the following experience3--,in the ,dhoon1 the white ant is a most formidable enemy to the sugar planter1 owing to the destruction it causes to the sets when first planted4 ,mr4 ,g4,h4 ,smith says1 that there is a wood very common there1 called by the natives ,butch1 through1 which1 they say1 if the irrigating waters are passed in its progress to the beds1 the white ants are driven away4 7,trans4 ,agri-,hort4 ,soc4 of ,india1 v4 #fe47 ,footnote #bc3 ,fitzmaurice on the ,culture of the ,sugar ,cane4 ,footnote #bd3 ,the kilogramme is equal to #b lb1 #c oz4 avoirdupois4 ,footnote #be3 ,a lecture on the nutritive value of different articles of food1 by ,c4 ,daubeny1 ,m4,d41 ,gardener's ,chronicle 7,london71 ,january #bjth1 #ahdi1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #bf3 ,transactions of the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society1 #ahdi1 p4 #fdf4 ,footnote #bg3 ,a lecture ,on the ,geographical ,distribution of ,corn ,plants1 by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,sidney--,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution 7,london71 ,may #ahth1 #ahdi4 ,footnote #bh3 ,boussingault's ,rural ,economy1 ,american edition1 pp4 #he and #hf4 ,footnote #bi3 ,zenas ,coffin1 one of the oldest whalemen in ,nantucket1 states that corn meal in tight rum puncheons when sent to the ,went ,indies will keep sweet1 while in common flour barrels it will spoil4 ,report of the ,commissioner of ,patents for #ahdg1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #cj3 ,from remarks of ,col4 ,skinner1 and others1 at a meeting of the ,american ,institute1 held in ,april #ahdf4 ,transactions of ,american ,institute1 #ahdf1 p4 #eji et seq4 ,footnote #ca3 ,comptes ,rendus des ,sances de ,l',academie des ,sciences1 ,february #eth1 #ahai4 ,footnote #cb3 ,a ,treatise on ,diet and ,regimen1 by ,wm4 ,henry ,robertson1 ,m4,d41 vol4 i4 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the ,plant3 a ,biography2 by ,m4,h4 ,schleiden1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,jena4 ,english translation1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #cd3 ,transactions of the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society for #ahdg1 p4 #aij4 ,in this communication1 ,mr4 ,bentz does not describe the process which he adopts1 but enumerates some of its supposed advantages4 ,footnote #ce3 ,quoted by ,boussingault1 ,rural ,economy1 ,amer4 edition1 p4 #daj4 ,footnote #cf3 ,a ,treatise on ,diet and ,regimen1 by ,wm4 ,henry ,robertson1 ,m4,d41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #cg3 ,experimental ,researches on the ,food of ,animals1 c41 by ,r4,d4 ,thomson1 ,m4,d41 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #ch3 ,chemistry of ,vegetable and ,animal ,physiology1 translated by ,prof4 ,j4,f4,w4 ,johnston1 p4 #fhd4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,dr4 ,r4,d4 ,thomson's ,experimental ,researches on the ,food of ,animals1 c4 ,footnote #dj3 ,mulder's ,chemistry of ,vegetable and ,animal ,physiology2 ,english ,translation1 p4 #haf4 ,footnote #da3 ,i have had no opportunity of analysing samples of flour from the ,south-,western ,states1 and therefore cannot extend this comparison to them4 ,footnote #db3 ,transactions of ,agri4-,hort4 ,society1 of ,calcutta1 vol4 iv4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #dc3 ,dict4 of ,arts and ,manufacture4 ,footnote #dd3 ,pharmaceutical ,journal1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #de3 ,the glasses used were all of the sort described in ,griffin's catalogue under the name of ,clark's test-glasses4 ,they were all1 as nearly as possible1 of the same size and shape4 ,footnote #df3 ,i have determined the amount of nitrogen contained in the meal made from the whole maize1 the growth of the colony1 as also from plantain meal2 ,i have also ascertained its amount in cassava meal1 prepared in the manner mentioned in the text1 and in meal prepared from the cassava sliced1 dried1 and ground without expressing the juice4 ,assuming ,liebig's formula of ,proteine1 namely1 ,c-#dh ,n-#f ,h-#cf #j-d the results stand thus3-- ,nitrogen4 ,proteine compounds4 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,maize meal 7unhusked7 #a4gc #aj4gb ,plantain meal 4#hh #e4de ,cassava meal 7juice expressed7 4#cf #b4bc ,ditto from the sliced and dried roots 4#gh #d4hc ,footnote #dg3 ,les ,moyens de prvenir la ,maladie des ,pommes de ,terre4 ,expriences et ,conclusions de ,a4,n4,c4 ,bollman1 ,conseiller d'tat1 ,professeur1 c4 #hvo1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahec4 ,footnote #dh3 ,if cinnamon seeds after washing be exposed to the sun1 even for twenty minutes1 the shells will crack in two1 and this prevents the seeds from growing4 ,footnote #di3 ,no export duties exist in the ,straits ,settlements4 ,footnote #ej3 ,since these remarks were written1 the duty has been wholly abolished4 ,footnote #ea3 ,although this was the amount of produce for #ahdb1 it must be remarked that that crop was a complete failure1 and the average crop for some years past has been #df1fff pounds4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,footnote #ec3 ,the vernacular name for stale or putrid urine4 ,footnote #ed3 ,lit was the name applied to the plant1 from which the dye was to be prepared1 and pig is the ,scotch synonym for any kind of earthenware vessel---in which the maceration was generally carried on4 ,footnote #ee3 ,pitkins' ,statistics of the ,united ,states4 ,footnote #ef3 ,a great portion of the crop ,i grew had leaves measuring two feet nine inches in length and eighteen inches wide1 being larger than ,i ever knew to have been grown in ,america4 ,the average weight ,i obtained per acre1 was #be cwt42 whereas ,i see by the public returns1 the average of what is grown here is only #ag #a-gth cwt4 ,,index4 ,albrus precatorius1 #fdc ,acacia bark1 #dic ,catechu1 #die1 #egg dealbata1 #eje ,acer saccharinum1 #bje ,acre1 coffee trees to the1 #fi ,achira plant1 #cee ,achote1 a name for arnotto1 #ddg ,acrocomia fusiformis1 #eai ,adeps ,myristica1 #djb ,adme cyperus1 #fbf ,adenanthera ,pavonina1 #cgh ,adansonia digitata1 #cgh ,african arrowroot1 #cec lard1 #ebe purple millet1 #cjg ,africa1 pepper grown in1 #dbb tobacco culture in1 #fae ,agar-,agar moss1 #cgh1 #cgi ,agi or ,guinea pepper1 #dbi ,agave ,americana--a substitute for soap1 #egd ,agaiti oil1 #ebj ,agricultural wealth of tropical regions1 #b ,aipi1 #cgf ,akyab1 exports of rice from1 #big ,aleurites triloba1 #eba1 #ech ,alexandrian senna1 #fdh ,algaroba beans1 #cac bark1 #ejc ,algiers1 tobacco culture in1 #fae ,alizaine1 #dgh ,alkanet root1 #ddb ,allspice1 the common name for pimento1 #dcj ,almond oil1 #eaj1 #ecc ,aloes1 statistics of exports from the ,cape1 #fcb varieties of1 #fbh ,alpinia ,galanga1 #dai ,cardamomum1 #dai racemosa1 #dad ,alstrmeria pallida1 #ccj ,althea rosea1 #ddb ,amaranthus gangiticus1 #dcd ,american arrowroot1 #ceb flour1 countries to which1 shipped1 #bbc ,americans consume most coffee1 #dj ,amboyna wood1 #dci ,amomum1 species of1 #dai ,zingiber1 #dad ,anacardium occidentale1 #die1 #eba ,analyses1 various1 of tobacco1 #eib-ic ,analysis of the coffee plant1 #di ashes of the coffee tree1 #dc of catechu1 #egi of ,havana tobacco1 #eia1 #fae of other varieties1 #fae of oil cake1 #edf of soils1 #fag of soils1 not so requisite abroad1 #g of the sugar cane1 by ,dr4 ,evans1 #aed of sugar soils in the ,east1 #agb ,anethum graveolens1 #cgf ,sowa1 seeds of1 #dcd ,angola weed1 #dhf ,aniseed1 #dcg ,antigua arrowroot1 statistics of1 #cec cost of cultivating sugar1 #ahi ,ants1 remedy for1 #aha ,anchusa tinctoria1 #ddb ,andropogon1 species of1 #egb ,anileria1 a manufactory for indigo1 #dfj ,apricot oil1 #eaa1 #ecf ,apios1 #cee1 #cga ,aquilaria1 species of1 #dci ,arghel leaves1 #fdg ,arachis hypogoea1 #eac ,arenga saccharifera1 the gomutus saccharifera of ,rumphius1 #acf1 #cad ,areometer1 an instrument for testing oil1 #ecb ,arbor alba1 #eff ,areca nuts1 value of the exports from ,ceylon1 #egi palm1 #egg ,argemone ,mexicana1 #eaa1 #eba1 #fbf ,arnotto1 #ddg ,arpent1 a ,french land measure1 about one-seventh less than an acre1 #bea ,arracan1 exports of rice from1 #big ,arracacha esculenta1 #cee1 #cge ,arrack1 #eef used to flavor tobacco1 #fba ,arroba1 a ,spanish weight of #be lbs41 the fourth part of a quintal4 ,arrowroot1 ,benzon's analysis of1 #cdh culture and commerce of1 #cde made from the ,palmyra shoots1 #cgf starch of1 #cca1 #ccd-ce1 #ccg ,arsenic for steeping grain1 poisonous effects from1 #bcc ,artocarpus incisa1 #cah1 #ccj ,arum colocasia1 #cfd esculentum1 #cfd ,rumphii1 #cfe ,asafoetida1 #fcc ,asclepias curassavica1 #fbe gigantea1 #did tingens1 #ddb ,assamee1 an ,indian name for the ryot or cultivator1 #dfg ,assam1 introduction of tea culture1 #id tea sales1 #ih ,company1 origin of1 #ih manufacture of tea in1 #abf ,assaroo1 rain sowing1 #dfh ,astoria theiformis1 used as tea at ,santa ,fe1 #hj ,attap leaf for thatching1 #dje1 #eei ,attar of roses1 #egj ,aucklandia1 #dch ,auracaria ,bidwillii1 #cgg ,australia1 consumption of tea in1 #hg1 #hh sugar cultivation recommended1 #aci ,austria production of beet-root sugar in1 #aig1 #bjj ,avicenna tomentosa1 #ddd ,avocado seed yields a dye stuff1 #ddd ,awl tree1 #ddc ,babool wood1 #dic ,bahu1 a land measure in ,java1 equal to #ga acres4 ,bajree1 the ,indian name for ,holcus ,spicatus1 #cjf ,bales of ,cuba tobacco1 size of1 #fac ,balfour 7,prof47 on the starch in potatoes1 #ccj on species of rhubarb1 #fdg ,ball's account of the cultivation1 c41 of tea1 #ajc ,banana1 starch in1 #cca used as a shade for the cacao1 #ae ,baptista tinctoria1 #dec ,barbacue1 a platform for coffee drying1 #fi ,baphia nitida1 #ddg ,barbados arrowroot1 #ccg1 #cec culture of aloes in1 #fcj cost of cultivating sugar1 #ahi ginger1 #dae sugar crops of1 #adi yam1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccg1 #cch1 #cfb ,barcelona1 exports of cacao from1 #ac ,bark of the larch1 its utility1 #cgf ,barks for tanning1 #dib ,barley1 history and consumption of1 #bee imported1 #bah meal imported1 #bah produce of in ,england and ,wales1 #bdh1 #bef average prices of1 #bef ,barrel of rice weighs #fjj lbs4 net1 #bia ,barus camphor1 #fcd ,barwood1 #dde1 #ddg ,basket of rice1 a measure equal to #ee lbs41 ,english1 ,bassia butyracea1 #acf1 #eab longifolia1 #eaa oil seeds of1 #ecg ,batatas edulis1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ceg ,bauhinia variegata1 #dib ,bayley 7,mr471 on consumption of tea in the manufacturing districts ,bay rush or tapioca1 #cgf ,beans1 analysis of1 #bfd and peas1 quantities imported1 #cac imported1 #bah ,bearing time of different plants1 #i ,beck 7,prof47 on various wheats1 #bbb on the ,american breadstuffs1 #bbf ,beet root sugar produced on the ,continent1 #add cost of producing1 #ahi1 #bjd ,beet1 varieties of the root1 #aia ,belgians1 large consumers of coffee1 #dj ,belgium1 production of beet root sugar in1 #bjj ,benares1 production of indigo in1 #dge ,ben1 oil of1 #ebc ,bencoolen1 pepper grown in1 #dbc spice culture in1 #dab ,bengal1 cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi indigo1 #dfd introduction of the coffee tree into1 #dj production of indigo in1 #dge production of opium in1 #ehj rice1 #bif ,bennet on ,ceylon1 #caf ,bennett 7,dr471 description of gambier1 #ejj ,berar1 edible root of1 #cgg ,berberry1 a dye stuff1 #ddb ,berbice1 exports of coffee from1 #gc ,bergamot1 essence of1 #eff ,berger's process of making rice starch1 #cdd ,bermuda arrowroot1 statistics of1 #cec mode of cultivating arrowroot1 #cdf ,berry wax1 #edj ,betel leaf1 #egg ,bhoe ,moong1 the ,indian name for the ground nut1 #eae ,bhull rice lands1 #bic ,biggah1 distinction between this land measure1 #dga ,bignonia ,chica1 #ddd ,bihai1 #cbj ,bitter cassava1 #cca ,bixa orellana1 #ddg ,black ginger1 #dae pepper1 statistics of1 #dbh tea1 imports of the last fifteen years1 #hb mode of manufacturing1 #aab ,blood tree1 #fbe ,bollman 7,prof471 on the potato rot1 #cei ,bolitus used as food1 #cgg ,bonynge 7,mr4 ,f47 promotes tea culture in ,america1 #ig ,borassus gomutus1 #cae ,borneo1 pepper produced in1 #dbb ,bourbon1 cacao grown in1 #cf produce of rice in1 #bic ,bousa1 an ,african beer1 #cjh ,boussingault's analysis of wheat1 #bdd ,boyams1 food plant1 #cgg ,bran1 analysis of1 #bca ,brassica oleracea1 oil from the seed1 #eci ,brazilian arrowroot1 #ccj1 #cfg1 #cfi ,brazil1 exports of coffee to ,america1 #fc cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi culture of ginger1 #dah production of coffee in1 #dj1 #da1 #fc introduction of the tea plant1 #abh statistics of sugar production1 #ahb tobacco export from1 #eid wood1 #dhe ,bread fruit1 #cah1 #ccj made from millet1 #cjf nut of ,jamaica1 #cai stuffs of commerce1 #bag ,brick tea of ,thibet1 #ib ,british ,guiana1 coffee produced in1 #gc ,west ,indies1 decline of coffee culture in1 #dj1 #fc1 #fg exports of coffee from1 #gc ,brood-boon1 #cai ,bromelia ,pinguin1 fruit of1 used for soap1 #egd ,broom corn1 #cjg1 #cjh sedge1 #cjh ,brosimum ,alicastrum1 edible nuts of1 #cai ,broussonitia tinctoria1 #dhe ,brown bread1 its wholesomeness1 #bcj ,bruce1 7,mr4 ,c4,a47 on the manufacture of tea in ,assam1 #abf ,buchanania latifolia1 #did1 #eba ,buckwheat1 average weight of crop in ,new ,brunswick1 #bec oil from1 #eaj culture of1 #bei analysis of1 #bfj ,buck yam1 #ccc1 #cce1 #cfb ,bullhoof1 yields a narcotic1 #ehi ,bunbury 7,mr47 on ,cape aloes1 #fcb ,butch wood1 used to keep off ants1 #aha ,butea frondosa1 #ejg varieties of1 #ddb tannin from1 #did ,butter of cacao1 #aa1 #ab obtained from the dolichos bean1 #cac ,cabacinha1 the ,portuguese name for a purgative plant1 #fbf ,caballine aloes1 #fcj ,cacao beans or seeds1 analysis of1 #ab age at which may be transplanted1 #f expenses of a plantation1 #cc information respecting1 #i plantation1 enormous returns formerly obtained from1 #cd quantity consumed in the ,united ,kingdom1 #aa total imports into the ,united ,kingdom1 #ce total imports from ,america and the ,west ,indies1 #ce trees1 where indigenous1 #cc oppressive duties levied on1 #cd ,cacomite1 a species of ,tigridia1 #cgd ,cacoon1 oil from1 #eaa ,cadet's analysis of barks1 #die ,csalpinia1 species of1 #ddf ,brasiliensis1 #dhe ,csalpinia ,coriari1 #dic oleospermum1 #eaa ,caffeine1 analysis of1 #hj ,cajeput oil1 #eff ,caladium costatium1 #cgg esculentum1 #cca sagittifolium1 #ccd ,calambak wood1 #dci ,calandra oryza1 #bgi ,calcutta1 exports of castor oil1 #ede ,calidad1 the best kind of ,cuba tobacco1 #fac ,california1 tea proposed to be cultivated in1 #ig ,callistemon ellipticum1 #eje ,calophyllum ,inophyllum1 #eac ,calumba plant1 #fch ,calumbin1 #fch ,calystegia sepium1 #fdb ,camassia esculenta1 #cgf ,camata1 a variety of valonia1 #ejh ,camelina sativa1 #eji1 #eaa1 #efd ,camotes1 a ,spanish name for the sweet potato1 #cge ,camladia ilicifolia1 #fbh ,campbell 7,dr4 ,a471 on the tea culture at ,darjeeling1 #aaf ,camphor1 on the collection of1 #fcc obtained from the roots of the cinnamon1 #chi ,cannabis indica1 #fdc ,camwood1 #ddg ,canada1 production of maple sugar in1 #bjf ,west1 grain exports of1 #bea ,canadian yellow root1 #fbf ,canary ,isles1 millet exported from1 #cjf moss1 #dhf seed1 #caa ,candleberry myrtle1 #edj ,candlewood1 #eci ,candles made of cinnamon suet1 #cij ,candle tree1 #eba1 #ech ,cane sugar1 composition of1 #acf1 #aee1 #aeg ,canella alba1 #cif ,canna1 species of1 #cee ,canothus ,americanus1 used as tea1 #hj ,caoutchouc1 #eci ,capa1 a term in ,cuba for good tobacco1 #fad ,cape aloes1 manufacture of1 #fca weed1 #dhf ,capsicum1 #dbh ,carapa1 species yielding oil1 #eah oil1 #dda1 #eai guianensis1 #eab ,caracas1 large produce of cacao in1 #ac ,caraveru1 a red pigment1 #ddd ,carraway seed oil1 #dcg1 #eff ,cardomoms1 bastard1 #dai plants furnishing1 #dai ,carduus ,virginianus1 #cgf ,carob bean1 #cab1 #cac ,carolina rice1 shipments of1 #bhe ,carrageen1 #cgi ,carrots1 average weight per bushel in ,new ,brunswick1 #bec ,carthamus tinctoria1 #dej oil from1 #eab ,caruto1 a name for the ,lana dye1 #ddd ,carver's treatise on tobacco culture1 #fjg ,carum carui1 #eff ,caryophyllus aromaticus1 #cig ,caryota urens1 #cad ,cascarilla bark1 #cif ,cashew bark1 #die nut oil1 #eab ,cassareep1 an antiseptic1 #cci1 #cdc1 #cfi ,cassava cakes1 #cdb culture of1 #cfg fecula of1 #ccj flour exports from ,st4 ,lucia1 #cfi meal1 #cda roots1 information respecting1 #i starch1 yield per acre1 #cgj ,cassia1 a rival to cinnamon1 #cia auriculata1 #did bark of ,china1 superiority of1 #cic1 #cid buds1 #cif lignea1 #cid1 #cif statistics of imports and consumption of1 #cid ,castor oil1 #eaj1 #eaa1 #ebg1 #ecf1 #edb1 #efc ,catechu or ,cutch1 #egi tannin in1 #die ,cattle1 consumption of ,indian corn by1 #bga ,catty1 a ,chinese weight1 #djj ,cayenne1 nutmeg introduced1 #dab pepper grown in1 #dbg pepper1 #dbi pottage1 #dbi ,celastrus paniculatus1 #eba ,celebes1 coffee grown in1 #fb production of coffee in1 #da rice culture in1 #cjb tobacco1 #fba ,centrifugal machine for sugar1 #adj ,cephlis ,ipecacuanh1 #fda ,ceratonia siliqua1 #cab1 #cac ,cereal grasses1 #baf ,ceroxyion andicola1 #eda ,cersium virginianum1 #cgf ,cetraria islandica1 #cdc1 #cgi ,ceylon arrowroot1 #cec cardamoms1 #dai1 #dba coco-nut culture in1 #eef culture of rice in1 #bie ,ceylon1 exports of castor oil from1 #ede adapted for indigo culture1 #dge gamboge1 #fci the great seat of cinnamon culture1 #chc pepper exported from1 #dbf imports of ,terra ,japonica1 #ejb moss1 #cgi produce of tobacco in1 #fai production of coffee in1 #da tea plant introduced1 #ie ,value of the betel nuts exported1 #egi ,chay-root1 #ddi1 #dgh ,chamarops ,palmetto1 #die ,chandu1 the prepared extract of the opium1 #ehe ,chenopodium quinon1 #caj ,cherrots1 ,manilla1 #fai ,chesnuts1 consumed in ,france1 #cfa ,chest of opium1 about #adj lbs41 #eh ,chick pea1 #cab the inspissated juice of the poppy1 #ehb ,chicory1 extensive consumption of1 #cg ,chillies1 growth of1 #dbh ,chimo1 powdered potatoes1 #cfa ,china1 population of1 #hf shipments of tea from1 #hd ,chinese arrowroot1 #ceb ,chironia sapinda1 #eba ,chloranthus1 flowers used to flavor tea1 #he ,chocolate nuts1 #aa imported1 #ce paste1 as prepared by the ,marienna1 #ah ,christison 7,prof471 analysis of gamboge1 #fdj ,chiretta1 #fda ,chrysoptranic acid1 #dhh ,cibotium ,billardieri1 #chj ,cigars1 consumption of1 #eif duty received on1 #eig large consumption of in ,new ,york1 #eii profit on manufacture of1 #fab number exported from ,cuba1 #fad exported from ,siam1 #fai ,cinchona bark1 #fce ,cinnamon1 #chb export duty on1 #cia oil1 #efe properties of good1 #chg statistics of export from ,ceylon1 #cij1 #cia suet1 #ebb varieties of the tree1 #chf ,citronella oil1 #efe1 #egc ,clagett and ,co4's 7,messrs47 tobacco circulars1 #fja ,clarifying cane juice1 #aee ,clark1 7,mr47 on a new variety of tobacco1 #fac ,classification and arrangement adopted in the work1 #e ,claytonia acutiflora1 #cga ,clerihew's coffee apparatus1 #eb ,climate suited for various plants1 #i ,clove bark1 #chc ,cloves1 #cig oil1 #cij1 #cih statistics of1 #daa varieties of the tree1 #cih where grown1 #djb ,cobres a first quality of indigo1 #def ,coca plant1 #egf ,cocculus indicus1 #egf palmatus1 #fch ,cochin ,china1 coco nut oil exported from1 #eef culture of rice1 #bih exports of cinnamon1 #cic tea considered inferior1 #id ,cochineal1 value of the dye stuff1 #ddj ,cocoa1 see ,cacao1 #i fat1 #eai nut butter1 #efj information respecting1 #i oil1 #ebg palm1 #edg ,cocos nucifera1 #edg fusiformis1 #eai or eddoes1 #cfd ,cocum oil1 #eba ,coffee1 adulteration of1 and substitutes for1 #cg consumption of1 #ci1 #eif cultivation in ,ceylon1 #df in ,africa1 #gg in ,india1 #dd information respecting1 #i manures suited for1 #ej tree1 description of1 #dc production in various countries1 #da produce per tree and per acre1 #fi1 #dha leaf1 suited for making a beverage by infusion1 #gh ,dr4 ,hooker's opinion thereon1 #gi plantation1 beauty of1 #fg prices of1 in ,london1 #dg signs of its being properly cured1 #ga trade1 progress of1 #cf ,coimbatore1 culture of tobacco in1 #fah4 ,coir1 ,coco nut1 #eea1 #eeb1 #eee1 #eef4 ,colman 7,mr471 on grain production1 #bai on sugar1 #bjd ,colocasia1 varieties of cultivated1 #cfd ,colocynth1 #fch oil1 #eaa ,colombo root1 #fch shipments of coffee from1 #dh ,coloring principles of the lichens1 #dhg teas in ,china1 #ajd ,colza oil1 #eaj1 #eac1 #eci ,conium ,arracacha1 #cge ,connecticut1 culture of tobacco in1 #fjf ,consumption of rhubarb1 #fde ,convolvulus ,jalapa1 #fda ,scammonia1 #fdb ,conquin tay1 plantain meal1 #cbd ,constantinople opium1 #ehe ,consumption of arrowroot1 #ced of arnotto1 #ddi cacoa in the ,united ,kingdom1 #cf cassia bark1 #cid castor oil1 #edd coco nut oil1 #efb coffee1 #cf1 #fd1 #eif coffee in various countries1 #da cinnamon1 #cia cloves1 #dja ginger1 #dah indigo1 #dgg mace1 #dad nutmegs1 #dad opium1 #ehj palm oil1 #ebg pepper1 #dbh pimento1 #dca sago in the ,united ,kingdom1 #cah sugar in ,india1 #adj ,great ,britain1 #aci tea1 statistics of1 #hb1 #eif tobacco1 #eif1 #eie ,convolvulus batatas1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cef ,coolies employed in ,mauritius1 #aej ,copey1 a ,cuba dye wood1 #dhe ,copperah1 #ecf1 #edi1 #eef1 #efj1 #ffa ,corakan flour1 #cjd ,coriander seed1 #dcg ,coriaria myrtifolia1 #dic ,cork tree bark1 #ejd ,corn1 the common name for maize in ,america1 #bgj ,cortes1 a description of indigo1 #def ,corypha umbraculifera1 #caf ,costus ,arabicus1 #dch indicus1 c41 #fch ,costa ,rica1 production of coffee in1 #da1 #fd ,cotton1 information respecting1 #i seed oil1 #efd cake1 #efd ,courida bark1 #die ,cow-itch1 #fbe ,crane potato1 #cgb ,crawfurd 7,mr4 ,j471 estimate of pepper produce1 #dbb ,croix lachryma1 #cjd ,crop hogshead of tobacco1 weight of1 #fje ,croton ,cascarilla1 #cif ,eleuteria1 #cig gossypifolia1 #fbe oil1 #ebb ,tiglium1 #ebb ,cuba1 coffee plantations in1 #gg culture of tobacco in1 #fac exports of coffee to ,america1 #fc cost of producing sugar in1 #adg1 #ahi exports of coffee from1 #gc progress of sugar cultivation in1 #adh production of coffee in1 #da rice grown in1 #bib statistics of coffee exported1 #gf tobacco plantations in1 #fad ,cubebs1 medicinal1 #fci ,cucumber seed oil1 #eab ,cucumis ,colocynthus1 #fch ,cudbear1 imports of1 #dhf #deb ,culilaban bark1 #chc ,curcuma longa1 #dai species of1 #dcd varieties of1 yielding ,e4,i4 arrowroot1 #cea ,curry stuff1 imports into ,ceylon1 #dcd ,cush1 an ,indian name for millet1 #cjf ,cutch1 the ,indian name for catechu1 or gambier1 #fjj exported from ,pinang1 #ejc imports of1 #ejb ,cuyupa1 an ,indian tuber1 #cgd ,cycas circinalis1 #cad ,cynamchum leaves1 #fdi ,cynosurus corocanus1 #cjf ,cytisus ,cajan1 #cjd ,dacrydium cupressinum1 #eje ,dadap1 a prop for the pepper1 #dbe1 #db a name given in ,java to the ,erythrina1 #ee1 #eh ,datisca cannabina1 #ddb ,davis' 7,dr471 analysis of maize1 #bfe ,day's analysis of barks1 #die ,demerara1 exports of coffee from1 #gc rice grown in1 #bib ,dholl1 the ,indian name for varieties of ,cajanus1 #cab ,dhak tree1 bark of1 #ejg ,dhurra1 the ,egyptian name for millet1 #cjf ,dicypellium caryophyllatum1 #chd ,didynamia gymosperma1 #ebj ,dietetic articles used for the preparation of popular beverages1 #aa ,dillock1 a preparation with cayenne1 #dbi ,dioscorea aculeata1 #ccd1 #cfb ,diospyros glutinosa1 #did ,dipterix odorata1 #dcd ,dipterocarpus1 oil from1 #eaa ,divi-divi1 #ejc ,division of seasons in the tropics1 #f ,dodder cake1 #efd ,dogwood1 bark of1 #fbg ,dolichos biflorus1 varieties of1 #cab bulbosus1 roots used as food1 #cgg oil1 #eba ,domba oil1 #eac ,dominica1 exports of coffee from1 #gc introduction of the clove tree1 #cii ,dracna terminalis1 #cee ,drimys bark1 #fcf ,dryobalanops1 species furnishing camphor1 #fcd ,dubranfaut's process of sugar making1 #aig1 #bja ,dunsterville 7,mr471 on ,cape aloes1 #fca ,duquesne 7,m471 process of making sugar from beet1 #bjb ,duration of various plants1 #i ,dutch pound1 lighter than the ,english avoirdupoise pound2 #ajj ,dutch pounds equal to #aja and #a-eth lbs4 ,dutch ,west ,indies1 production of coffee in1 #da ,duty1 large1 levied on tobacco1 #eih ,dye stuffs1 various1 #ddj from ,british plants1 #deb furnished by the cacao bean1 #ab ,dye woods1 #dde1 #ddg ,eagle wood1 #dci ,earth mouse1 #cgd ,earth-nut oil1 #eac ,east ,india ginger1 #daf1 #dah sugar1 #aci cultivation in1 #aeb ,east ,indies1 imports of indigo from1 #dgg rhubarb1 #fde ,eddoes or cocos1 #cfd ,edward's preserved potatoes1 #cfa ,egyptian corn1 #cjg opium1 #ehe ,elais1 species furnishing palm oil1 #ebd ,elate sylvestris fruit1 a masticatory1 #egi ,elettaria ,cardomomum1 #dba ,eleusine corocana1 #cjd ,encephalartos cafer1 #cai ,english opium1 #ehf ,eno bark1 a black dye1 #ddd ,epidendrum1 species of1 #dca ,ervum lens1 #cab ,erythric acid1 #dhi ,erythrina1 a shade tree for the cacao1 #ae ,erysimum perfoliatum1 oil from1 #eab ,essences1 #efe ,essential oils1 #efe ,ethiopian pepper1 #dba ,eucalyptus1 bark of1 for tanning1 #did resinifera1 #ejf ,eugenia caryophyllata1 #cig ,pimento1 #dcj ,eulophia virens1 #ced ,eupatorium glutinosum1 #fdc ,euphorbia ,lathyris1 #eaj ,euterpe montana1 #edi ,evans' 7,dr47 ,sugar ,planter's ,manual1 #adj ,evernia vulpina1 #dhh ,evodia triphylla1 used as a perfume1 #eej ,factory maund1 about #gj pounds1 #dga ,fagara piperita1 #dba ,fanega1 a ,spanish measure1 the fifth part of an ,english quarter1 equal to #ab quarrees1 or #fb and #b-eths acres1 #ac1 #cbg ,fanegada1 a ,spanish land measure1 #i ,farinaceous plants1 #baf ,fennel flower1 #dba ,ferula asafoetida1 #fcc ,fern roots as food1 #cgg1 #chj ,fevillea scandens1 #eaa ,finlayson's description of gambier manufacture1 #ejj ,fish oils consumed1 #eji poison1 #fbg ,fitzmaurice on the sugar cane1 #ahj ,fixed oils1 #eaj ,flax seed oil1 #eji1 #eja ,flores1 a commercial classification of indigo1 #def ,florida1 tobacco culture in1 #fji ,flour1 damaged1 shipped from ,america1 #bbg and meal1 our imports of1 #bah obtained from spurry seed1 #cgg ,flowering of the sugar cane1 #ahb ,food plants of commerce1 #bag nutritious properties of various kinds1 #bcb ,foo-foo1 the dough of the plantain1 #cbd ,fortune 7,mr4 ,r47 on the tea districts1 #hi engaged by the ,east ,india ,company1 #ajj report on the ,indian tea plantations1 #ajf1 #aag ,fortune's 7,mr4 ,r47 wanderings in ,china1 #ajc ,fownes 7,mr47 on clarifying cane juice1 #afd ,france1 production of beet sugar in1 #aid1 #bjj rice cultivated in1 #bib ,frazla1 the ,arabian name for a bale of variable weight1 in ,mocha about #af lbs4 avoirdupoise1 ,free trade policy1 effects of1 #b ,french berries for dyeing1 #ddc ,slave ,colonies1 cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi ,west ,indies1 production of coffee in1 #da ,fucus amylaceus1 #chj tenax1 furnishes glue1 #cgh as food for cattle1 #cgi ,fundi or ,fundungi1 an ,african grain1 #caj ,fustic1 #dde1 #ddg1 #dhe ,gallipoli oil1 #eca ,gallo tannic acid1 #dib ,galidupa arborea1 #eba ,garancine1 quantity and value of1 #dhc1 #dhd ,gambier plant1 #dif ,gamboge1 #dea plants furnishing1 #fci ,garcinea elliptica1 #dea ,garbelled1 a term for sorted or picked ,gabilla1 a finger or hank of tobacco1 #fac ,galangale root1 #cea1 #dah ,garcinea ,gambogia1 #fdj ,garnett 7,mr4 ,a47 on the culture of the plantain1 #cbj ,galam butter1 #ech ,gastrodia sesamoides1 #cge ,gesner 7,dr471 plants recommended by1 for cultivation1 #cga ,genipa ,americana1 #ddd ,genista tinctorea1 #dec tomentosa1 #dhf ,gentian1 plants furnishing it1 #fdj ,ghee1 #ech ,ginger1 culture of1 #dad ,gin1 made from rye in ,holland1 #beh ,gigartina ,iichenoides1 #cgi ,gingelie seed oil1 #eaa1 #ecc oil1 used to adulterate almond oil1 #ecd ,ginseng1 #dcf ,glen 7,mr4 ,j471 his experiments on ,cassava starch1 #cgj ,gloves made from bark1 #cgf ,gluten contained in various grain crops1 #bfd definition of1 #bcd ,gluten1 composition of1 #bba ,glycirrhiza1 #fdc ,glyrine ,apios1 #cga subterranea1 #cga ,glycerine1 #fdc ,glycirrhiza glabra1 #fdb ,gnizotia oleifera1 #ece ,gohyan1 an ,indian name for upland rice1 #bhb ,gold of pleasure oil1 #eji cake of1 #efd ,gomuti palm sugar1 #acf #cae ,gomatus saccharifer1 #cad ,goor1 the ,indian name for half-made sugar1 #cjh ,gorham's 7,prof47 analysis of maize1 #bfd ,gourds used for packing aloes1 #fcj ,gracelaria lichenoides1 #cgi ,graham 7,dr471 on gamboge1 #fci ,gram1 the ,indian name for the ,ervum lens1 and ,cicer arietinum1 #cab ,grain crops1 #bag produce per acre in ,england1 #bai of ,paradise1 #dai1 #dbj average prices of in ,new ,brunswick1 #bed ,grape sugar1 properties of1 #acf sugar1 analysis of1 #aee ,grater for rasping arrowroot1 #cch ,grenada1 cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi ,great ,exhibition1 results of1 #b ,green tea1 mode of manufacturing1 #aac tea1 imports of the last #ae years1 #hb ,griffith 7,dr47 on tea plants in ,assam1 #aaa ,groundnut oil1 #eaa ,guano1 not much required in tropical countries1 #g ,guayaquil1 large exports of cocoa from1 #ac ,guazuma ulmifolia1 #afd ,guillemen's 7,m47 report on the tea plantations of ,brazil1 #abh ,guiana1 cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi ,guinea pepper1 #dbi grains1 #dbj yam1 #cca1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccg1 #cfb corn1 #cjf ,gums used by the dyers1 #dec ,gum tree of ,australia1 #did ,gun stock tree1 #afd ,gunnera scabra1 #die ,gunny bags1 rough canvas bags1 #cib ,guntang1 an ,indian dry measure of rather more than #ae pounds1 #big ,guaco1 or snake plant1 #fbg as a fertilizer1 #bgh ,gynerium saccharoides1 #acf ,gyrophora murina1 #dhf ,hamatoxylon campechianum1 #dhd ,hamilton 7,dr471 on oil of ben1 #ebc notices by1 #fag ,havana tobacco1 classification of1 #fac exports of tobacco from1 #fad shipments of sugar from1 #adg ,hayti1 exports of tobacco1 #fae exports of ginger1 #dah coffee from1 #fg indigo from1 #dfj ,hazel nut1 oil from1 #eaj ,hebradendron ,cambogoides1 #dea1 #fci ,heather1 dye from1 #dec ,hectare1 a ,french land measure1 equal to about #b acres1 #bjd ,hectolitre1 a ,french measure #aib bushel's ,helot's lichen test1 #deb ,herreria sarsaparilla1 #fdf ,heliconia humilis1 #cbj ,hemlock tree1 bark of1 #did ,hemp seed oil1 #eji ,henna1 a dye stuff1 #dhf ,hepatic aloes1 #fcj ,herring's palm kernel oil1 #ebe ,hernandez 7,mr47 on ,cuba tobacco1 #fjh ,heuchera ,americana1 #did ,hibiscus rosa sinensis1 #did ,hingalee1 the best ,bengal tobacco1 #fag ,hino bark1 #fjf ,hogs1 large consumption of maize by1 #bga ,holcomb 7,mr47 on the wheat crop of ,america1 #bde ,holcus avenaceus1 #cjg spicatus1 #cff saccharatum1 #cjf ,holland1 tea sent to1 #hf ,honduras1 export of indigo from1 #dfj ,hooker 7,dr47 on brick tea1 #ib ,hops1 cascarilla bark used to adulterate1 #cig ,horse gram1 #cab ,hungary1 production of beet sugar in1 #aig ,hura crepitans1 #eab1 #fbf ,husking rice1 #bij ,hydraulic press for coco nut oil1 #eeg press1 #cbi ,hydrastica canadensis1 #fbe ,hymenoea ,courbaril1 #cac ,hyperanthera ,moringa1 #ebc ,hypericum1 species of1 furnishes gamboge1 #ded1 #fdj ,iceland moss1 #cdc1 #cgi ,illepe oil1 #ecg1 #eaa ,ilex ,paraguayensis1 indigenous to ,brazil1 #acj description of1 #acc ,illicum anisatum1 #dch ,impey 7,dr47 on ,malwa opium1 #ehg on ,indian drugs1 #fbf ,implements of colonial agriculture few and simple1 #f requisite for manufacturing tea1 #aae ,imports of arrowroot1 #cea1 #ced arnotto1 #ddi cacao1 from ,america and the ,west ,indies1 #ce cloves1 #dja cinchona bark1 #fcf tea into ,great ,britain1 #hb tobacco1 #eig coco-nut oil1 #efb palm oil1 #ebe1 #ebg pimento1 #dca opium1 #ehj nutmegs1 #dad pepper1 #dbh castor oil1 #edd sago1 #cah indigo1 #dgg coffee1 #cg ,import commerce1 our principal1 articles furnished by the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 #d ,incense wood1 #dci ,indigo1 details of1 #dec plants yielding1 #ddb information respecting1 #aj mode of manufacturing1 #deg production of in ,india1 #dgd in ,natal1 #dfc ,indigofera1 species of1 #dec ,india1 tea culture in1 #ih culture of indigo in1 #dfc ,indiana1 tobacco culture in1 #fjg ,indian aloes1 #fcj berries1 #egf corn1 imports of1 #bfc information respecting1 #i analysis of1 #bfd sources of supply1 #bfb1 #bfc starch1 #cdc meal imported1 #bah yield per acre1 #cef compared with ,guinea corn1 #cjg meal1 composition of1 #cjg opium1 #ehf root1 #fbe shot1 #cde ,indian corn1 weight of1 #bhj madder1 #dhd ,intoxicating liquors made from ,cassava1 #cfi ,iodine1 #cgh ,ipecacuan1 bastard1 #fec #fda ,ipomoea batatas1 #cfe brachypodo1 #ebb ,jalapa1 #fda ,ireland1 tobacco consumed in1 #eif cost of producing beet root sugar in1 #aic ,irish rock moss1 #cgi ,iron1 quantity of1 in tobacco1 #fag bark tree1 #ejf ,irrigation for the tea plant never practised in ,china1 #abb ,isatis ,indigotica1#ajd tinctoria1 #deb ,jaggery sugar1 #eee ,japanese camphor1 #fcc tobacco1 #fbj ,japan1 tea culture1 #id ,jatropha curcas1 oil from1 #eab ,jacobson's 7,mr47 work on tea culture in ,java1 #ajb ,jalap1 #fda ,jamaica1 cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi culture of coffee in1 #fg culture of ,guinea corn1 #cjf decline of sugar production1 #adh1 #adi exports of coffee from1 #gc ginger1 #dae1 #dag sarsa1 #fdf1 #dg ,jameson 7,dr47 on the culture of tea in ,india1 #ajf ,java1 cinnamon cultivated in1 #chc1 #cib clove does not succeed there1 #cii coffee exported to the ,united ,states1 #fc coco-nut oil exported from1 #eef cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi culture of coffee in1 #ec culture of rice in1 #bii cultivation of indigo in1 #dgf gambier grown in1 #ejb nutmegs exported from1 #dac pepper grown in1 #dbb-bc production of coffee in1 #da statistics of1 #cjj statistics of indigo exported1 #dgf statistics of tea culture in1 #ajb sugar culture in1 #aeb tea plantations1 #id tobacco1 #fba ,jack fruit tree1 #cai ,janipha1 starch in1 #cca ,manihot1 #cae ,jasmine oil1 #egj1 #egd ,jatropha gossypyfolia1 #fbe cureas1 oil from1 #ebc ,jellies1 clearness of1 #ccg ,jesuit's bark1 #fce ,joar1 the ,indian name of the ,sorghum vulgare or millet1 #cjd1 #cjf ,job's tears1 #cjd ,johnson 7,dr47 on manufacture of rose water1 #egj 7,mr47 on indigo culture1 #dff 7,prof47 analyses of grain crops1 #bfd 7,prof47 on grain crops of ,new ,brunswick1 #bec ,jones's process for making rice starch1 #cdd ,jumowah1 irrigated sowings1 #dfh ,juniperus1 oil of1 #efe ,kafir bread1 #cai ,kamas root1 an edible1 #cgf ,kanari kernels made into cakes1 #edg oil1 #edf ,katjang oil1 produce of the ground nut1 #eae1 #bii ,kawan1 the ,java tallow tree1 #eaa ,kashmir1 culture of rice in1 #bie ,kemmayes1 an ,arabian truffle1 #cha ,kew ,gardens1 tea plant grows in1 #aja ,kekune oil1 #eci ,kentucky tobacco1 statistics of1 #eih1 #fjj ,keora oil1 #efe ,khoonte1 the ,indian name for a second cutting1 #dga ,kiln-drying madder1 #dha of bread stuffs1 #bba1 #bbi ,kilogramme1 a ,french weight1 equal to #ba;bs4 #coz4 avoird41 #aid ,kino1 ,australian1 #ejf ,east ,india1 #ejg ,knowltonia vessicatoria1 #fbf ,koster's ,travels in ,brazil1 #ahf ,kous-kous1 #caa ,kooyah plant1 #cgf ,kukui oil1 #eci ,kumaon1 tea plantations in1 #aag ,laudanum1 #ehd ,lawsonia inermis1 #dhf ,laminaria saccharina1 #cgi ,lathyrus tuberosus1#cgd ,larch bark edible1 #cgf ,laurus camphora1 #fcc1 #ce ,la ,guayra1 cacao from1 #ac production of coffee in1 #da exports of coffee from1 #fb ,lana dye1 #ddd ,lecythis ,tabucajo1 #eab ,lemon grass oil1 #fgb ,legumes1 varieties of1 #cab ,lecanora1 species of1 #dcb ,lentils1 #cab ,leaf tobacco shipped from the ,havana1 #fad ,liberia1 suitability for coffee culture1 #gg ,lichen tribe as food1 #cgh ,lichens1 #dhf ,lichenin1 #cdc ,licospermun racemosum1 #fje ,lindley 7,dr47 on the cinchonas1 #fce ,litmus1 #deb ,lignum aloes1 #dci ,litre1 a ,french measure1 equal to #a ,english pint nearly1 #bjb ,lime1 its influence on cane juice1 #afa ,lindley 7,prof47 on the wheat of ,south ,australia1 #bba ,lindley's classification of the plantain tribe1 #cbb ,liptospermum1 oil of1 #efe ,lilium ,pomponium1 #cef ,lindley 7,dr47 on the lichens1 #dhf ,linseed1 #ece oil1 #eji1 #ecg imported1 #efc cake imported1 #efd ,little 7,mr47 on opium1 #ehg ,libra1 a ,spanish kind of tobacco1 #fac ,liquorice1 #fdb paste1 #fdc ,logwood1 #dde1 #ddg1 #dhd ,lotus seeds1 used as food1 #cef ,locust tree1 #cac pods1 #ejc ,louisiana1 cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi production of sugar in1 #adf ,loxa bark1 #fcf ,luffas1 properties of1 #fbf ,luggie1 a measuring rod1 #dga ,lucca oil1 #eca ,macfarlane 7,mr4 ,a47 on the tea plant1#aag ,madder1 culture of1 #dgh ,indian1 #dhd statistics of imports1 #dhd ,madia sativa oil1 #ebj sativa1 #ddd ,mahowa oil1 #ecg ,maclura tinctoria1 #dhe ,mauritius weed1 #dhf ,mangrove bark1 for tanning1 #dic ,mac ,micking 7,mr47 on making cigars1 #fbj ,margose oil1 #ecg ,macaw tree1 #eai ,maxwell 7,dr47 on ,neem oil1 #ecg ,marc of olives1 #eca ,mango1 kernel of1 for bread1 #cgh ,marmala water1 #egd ,malabar cardamoms1 #dai ,manila1 exports of indigo from1 #dgf exports of sugar from1 #aec cigar making1 #fbj hemp1 whence obtained1 #cba ,mattrasses1 stuffed with blades of ,indian corn1 #bha ,macculloch's 7,mr47 estimate of indigo1 #dgh ,maize1 number of varieties cultivated1 #bgh analysis of1 #bfd imported1 #bah meal1 imported1 #bah on the culture of1 #bfj sugar1 #bae information respecting1 #i ,dr4 ,phillip's analysis of1 #cjg starch of1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccg1 #cdc system of culture in ,america1 #bgc culture in the ,east ,indies1 #bhb immense produce per acre1 #bha varieties grown in1 ,peru1 #bha statistics of production in ,america1 #bfi statistics of exports from the ,united ,states1 #bgb ,malphigia bark1 for tanning1 #die ,maslin1 quantity grown in ,france1 #bej ,mace1 imports of1 #dad false color of1 #dji proportion of1 to nutmegs1 #djh ,malt1 quantity made1 #bee ,mahoe1 furnishes a dye stuff1 #ddd ,mauritius1 exports of pepper1 #dbf nutmeg introduced in1 #dab pepper grown in1 #dbb cost of sugar cultivation in1 #ahg1 #ahi tea culture in1 #id progress of sugar culture in1 #aej clove culture of1 #cih1 #dja black beans1 #cjd ,mangrove bark1 #dej1 #ejf ,madagascar cardamoms1 #dai ,mangostana ,gambogia1 #dea1 #fdj ,maple sugar1 #bje ,manettia glabra1 #fda ,madeira1 introduction of the tea plant1 #id ,madras1 tea culture suitable for1 #aja exports of indigo from1 #dfd cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi ,marah 7,mr47 prize essay on coffee culture1 #fi ,malambo bark1 #fcf ,machinery for sugar1 #adj for coffee1 #ea for arrowrot1 #cej1 #cdh required for the plantain1 #cbd required for sago1 #cah ,magdalena river1 cacao indigenous on its shores1 #ad ,magnolia fuseata1 used to flavor tea1 #he ,majoon1 an opium confection1 #ehe ,malabar1 production of coffee in1 #da cassia1 #cid ginger1 #dae pepper produced in1 #dbb ,malwa opium1 #ehj ,manure1 a special for tobacco1 #eib ,manures1 suited to the coffee tree1 #ej for the nutmeg1 #djf suited for arrowroot1 #cdg scarcely required in tropical countries1 #f suited for the sugar cane1 #agb suited to maize #bgh ,manioc1 see ,cassava ,manihot1 species of1 #cfg utilissima1 #cae ,mansana1 a land measure of #ajj square yards1 or nearly two ,british statute acres1 #dee ,manyroot1 #fbe ,maranta arundinacea1 juice of an antidote to poisons1 #fbg ,marattia alata1 #chj ,maryland tobacco1 statistics of1 #eih1 #fjj ,mate1 a name for the ,paraguay tea1 #acc ,matico1 #fdc ,matias bark1 #fcf ,maund of ,surat1 #ci lbs4 an ,indian weight of varable quantity ,melaleuca minor1 #eff ,metrosideros tomentosa1 #eje ,mesembryanthemum nodiflorum1 #did ,menispermum coceulus1 #egf palmatum1 #fch ,megass1 a name given to the dried cane stems1 or trash used for fuel1 #afh ,meleguetta pepper1 #dbj ,melsen's process of sugar boiling1 #bjc ,mespilus ,bengalensis1 #ddc ,mendo1 a wild sweet potato of ,north ,america1 #cgb ,menomine1 an ,indian edible root1 #cgb ,mexican thistle1 #fbf ,mexico1 imports of indigo from1 #dgg ,metroxylon sagus1 #cad ,millet1 varieties of1 cultivated1 #cjd the great ,indian1 #cjf ,miller on tobacco culture1 #fjh ,mill1 rude one1 used in ,siam for hulling paddy1 #cjb for crushing plantain stems1 #cbg ,mills for cleaning rice1 #bhf1 #bhh ,minot1 a ,canadian grain measure about one-eighth less than a bushel1 #bea ,milloco1 a tuberous plant1 #cgd ,mint1 culture of1 #efg ,mimosa bark1 #ejd ,mico or mijo1 a vegetable butter made in ,java1 #cac1 #eab ,monkey bread1 #cgh pot seed oil1 #eab ,morinda1 species of1 #ddc1 #ddi ,morewood 7,mr4 ,e471 his exertions in ,natal1 #adj experiments in sugar culture1 #ahg ,mocha1 production of coffee in1 #da cultivation of coffee in1' #dc ,mother cloves1 definition of1 #cig ,moussache1 the fecula of the manioc1 #cae ,mountain rice1 #bhe1 #bij1 #bif ,morphia1 proportion in opium1 #ehd1 #ehe ,mora excelsa1 #die ,morinda citrifolia1 #dgh ,moringa oil1 #ebc species of1 #ebc ,musa1 species of1 #cai ,musquash root of the ,micmacs1 #cga ,mustard seed1 #dcg ,muscovado sugar1 cost of producing1 #ahi ,mucuna pruriens1 #fbe utilis1 #cjd ,muchowa oil1 #eaa ,musa textilis1 #cba ,mustard oil1 #eaj1 #eaa seed1 #eji1 #ece ,munjeet1 #ddi ,munjestha1 #dhd ,muracuja ocellata1 a narcotic1 #dhi ,myrica cerifera1 #did1 #edj macrocarpa1 #edb ,myrtus carophyllata1 #bhd ,pimenta1 #dcj ,myristica1 varieties of the tree1 #dja sebifera1 #eab ,myrobolans1 #ejf ,myrtle wax1 #edj ,mysore1 production of coffee in1 #da ,napoota oil1 #fbj ,nauclea ,gambir1 #dif ,namur oil1 #egb ,natal ,agricultural ,society1 its endeavours to promote sugar cultivation1 #aci indigo culture in1 #dfc sugar culture in1 #ahf ,narthex asafoetida1 #fcc ,nelumbium1 seed of1 as food1 #cgh speciosum1 the source of ,chinese arrowroot1 #ceb ,new ,south ,wales1 suited for madder1 #dhb tobacco culture in1 #fba ,negrohead tobacco1 #fja ,new ,orleans1 capabilities for rice culture1 #bhg exports of castor oil from1 #ede ,nerium1 #dec oleander1 #die ,neem tree oil1 #eaa1 #ecg ,nicaragua wood1 #dde1 #ddg ,nipa fruticana1 #acf ,nipah1 leaf for thatching1 #eei ,nicotine1 #eij ,nicotium1 species of the plant1 #eij ,nitrogen1 in grain1 #cjg in the starch plants1 #cdb #bcd1 #caj in the plantain1 #cbc ,nigella1 species of1 #dba ,north ,west ,provinces1 tea culture in1 #aag ,nostoe edulis1 #cgh ,northern ,australia1 directions for growing tobacco1 #fbc ,nut oil1 price of1 #eag ,nutgall1 tannin in1 #dib1 #die ,nut pine1 #cgg ,nutmeg tree1 #dja curing of1 #dji wild1 #dab ,nux vomica1 #egg ,nyctanthes arbortristes1 #did ,nympha lotus1 starch obtained from1 #ceb ,oats1 proportion of oil in1 #efd production of in the ,united ,kingdom1 #beg imported1 #bah ,oatmeal1 imported #bah ,oats and beans1 produce of in ,england1 #bdh ,oak bark1 tannin in1 #dib ,ocas1 a tuberous plant1 #cgd ,ocoes or taniers1 #cca ,ocymum tuberosum1 #cef1 #cfg ,ohio tobacco1 statistics of1 #eih1 #fjj ,oil of aniseed1 #dch ,oil1 proportions of in various crops1 #bfd obtained from the ,cacao seeds #aa1 #ab ,oil of cubebs1 #fci of camphor1 #fcd of cassia1 #cif ,oil of cloves1 #cih of mace1 #djb of cinnamon1 #chi1 #cij spikenard1 #efe of ,ben1 #ebc cake1 #eac1 #eca mills of ,india1 #ece cakes of the castor seed1 #ede cake from coco-nut1 #eeb1 #efc coco-nut1 #eea1 #eef1 #efa1 #efb from maize1 #efd of sandal wood1 #efe cake imported1 #efd cake1 ,american1 #efe ,oilcake as a manure1 #ej used in ,china1 #cac ,oil palm1 #ebe ,oils1 burning properties of various1 #ejh ,oldenlandia umbellata1 #ddi ,oleaginous plants1 #eji ,olea fragrans1 #ebh ,europea1 #ebg ,olives1 mode of preserving the fruit1 #ecj ,olive oil1 prices of1 #eca #eji1 #ebg sources of supply1 #efc ,omen-e-chah1 the ,indian name for a wild bean1 #cgb ,onions1 planted with arrow root1 #cdg ,ophelia chitrata1 #fda ,opium1 history and trade of1 #ehj ,orceine1 #dhh ,orchilla weed1 #deb weed1 imports of1 #dhf ,orchids furnishing salep1 #ced an edible species of1 #cge roots of some used as food1 #cgg ,orituco cacao1 superior quality of1 #ad ,oryza1 varieties of1 #bhd ,orlong1 a land measure in the ,east1 equal to #a-a_/c acre1 #big ,o',shaughnessy's analysis of ,ceylon moss1 #chj on opium1 #ehd ,oswego starch factory1 #cdc ,otto of khuskhus1 #egc ,otaheite cane1 #aec ,oude1 production of indigo in1 #dfd1 #dge ,oxalic acid1 used for vinegar1 #cab ,oxley 7,dr47 on nutmeg culture1 #djb ,paddy1 a name for rice in the husk1 #big ,patchouly1 #ecg ,pannam kilingoes1 #cgf ,parchment coffee1 #fj ,pao ,crava1 one of the spice barks1 #chd ,pachyrrhizus angulatus1 #cgg ,palm oil1 imports of1 #ebg sources of supply1 #efc ,palm oil1 #eji1 #ebd wine1 #cad sugar1 #acf ,palma ,christi1 #edb ,palmetto palm1 #die ,palmyra nut1 first shoot of1 edible1 #cgf ,pan1 a masticatory1 #egg ,pancratium1 species of1 #fbe ,pandanus1 fruit of eaten as food1 #cgg odoratissimus1 #efe ,panicum1 various species of1 #cjd spicatum1 of ,roxburgh1 #cjh ,panax quinquefolium1 #dcf ,palos de ,velas1 #eba ,paper made from plantain fibre1 #cce ,papsalum exile1 #caj ,papaver somniferum1 #ehj ,paraguay tea plant common in ,brazil4 #acj description of1 #acc extent of the trade1 #acc ,parietinic acid1 #dhh ,parmenteira cerifera1 #eba ,parmelia1 species of lichens1 #dhf a dye-stuff1 #dhh ,peas1 analysis of1 #bfd ,peeling coffee1 #ea1 #fj cinnamon1 #caf ,peligot 7,mr47 on the composition of wheat1 #bcj ,pepper1 black1 #dba pot1 a ,west ,indian dish1 #cfi prices of1 #dac duty on1 #dbd ,peppermint oil1 #eff ,peon1 the ,spanish term for a laborer1 #ace ,persea gratissima1 #ddd ,perfumed oils1 #efi ,persian berries1 #ddc ,peas imported1 #bah ,pessaloo1 an ,indian name for the ,phaseolus mungo ,pereira's classification of the cinchonas1 #fcf ,peruvian bark1 #fce ,pearl sago1 #cah of ,persia1 #caf ,piper angustifolium1 #fdc ,petty rice1 #caj ,pekea1 species of1 yielding oil1 #eab ,pea-nut1 #eaf ,persian tobacco1 #fae ,phaseolus1 varieties of1 #cab ,phaseolus ,mungo max1 #aga ,phalaris caniesis1 #cad ,phlomis1 #fdc ,philippines1 cassia brought from1 #cid ,philippine ,islands1 sugar cultivation in1 #aec production of coffee in1 #da varieties of rice grown in1 #cjb ,philippines1 export of indigo from1 #dgf cigars made in1 #fbj ,phillip's 7,dr47 analyses of ,guinea corn1 #cjg ,phyllodadus trichomanoides1 #eje ,physic nut1 #eab1 #fbe ,picul1 a ,dutch weight of #acc-a_/c ,english pounds1 #cf ,piddington's 7,mr47 analyses of tobacco1 #fag ,pigeon-pea1 #cjd ,pignons1 use of as food1 #cgg ,pimpinella ,anisitm1 #dcg ,pimento1 #dcj ,pinang1 nutmegs in1 #dab tea culture attempted1 #ie clove culture in1 #cii1 #djj pepper culture in1 #dbe ,piper ,betel1 #egg ,cubebi1 #fci species of1 #dba ,pinus ,pinea1 seeds of the cones used for food1 #cgg ,piney tallow1 #eab ,plantation sugar1 imports1 #aci ,plantado passado1 #cbc ,plantain1 dye stuffs obtained from1 #ddd juice recommended for clarifying sugar1 #afb information respecting1 #i starch in1 #cca blight1 #cba #cai leaves1 bags made of1 #caf meal1 #cbd1 #cda ,planche1 his memoir on the sagos1 #cae ,plumeria1 essences of1 #ebd ,plectranthus graveolens1 #egc ,plough used in ,brazil1 #ahd ,polygonum fagopyrum1 #bfj ,poa ,abyssinica1 #cjh ,pomegranates1 for dyeing1 #ddj ,potash an important element in maize1 #bfg large quantity in maize1 #bfd ,potatoes1 mode of keeping in ,peru1 #cfa average weight per bushel in ,new ,brunswick1 #bec composition of1 #bbg imported1 #bah composition of1 #bfd analysis of varieties1 #cfb yield per acre1 #cef ,potato1 information respecting1 #aj meal1 syrup made from1 #aig the wild1 of ,north ,america1 #cgb starch in1 #ccj starch1 used to adulterate arrowroot1 #cdi test for detecting1 #cdi starch1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccg1 #cfb crop of the ,united ,states1 #cfa disease1 #ceh proposed cure for1 #cei1 #fj crop in ,ireland1 #ceh varieties of1 #ceh imports of1 #cei crop in ,france1 #cfa ,poisons1 #fbg ,pomme des ,prairies1 of the ,canadians1 #cgc ,pounding coffee1 #fa ,population of ,great ,britain1 c41 #hg of ,china1 #hf1 #ia1 #bih ,porto ,rico1 exports of coffee1 #gg cost of producing sugar in1 #ahi production of coffee in1 #da exports of tobacco1 #fae ,poonac1 as manure1 #ej #edi1 #eeb1 #efa ,pomegranate bark1 #dic1 #die ,poonay oil1 #eaa-ac ,polygonum tinctorium1 #dec ,pongamia glabra1 #eba ,pogostemon patchouly1 #egc ,poppy1 culture of1 #eha oil1 used to adulterate olive1 #ecb #eji-aj-aa-ah ,polypodium crassifolium1 used as a perfume1 #eej ,preserved ,plantains1 #cbc ,prices1 average of sugar1 #ade ,prickly poppy1 #fbf ,princeza snuff1 #eid ,prince of ,wales ,island1 clove culture in1 #cii ,prosopis pallida1 #cac ,protein compounds1 #cjg1 #caj1 #cdb ,produce of various plants1 #i ,production1 average of various plants1 #i ,provence oil1 #eca ,province ,wellesley1 clove culture in1 #djj ,prussia1 tobacco consumed by1 #eif production of beet sugar in1 #aig-ih ,pruning coffee tree1 #fi ,psoralia1 varieties of1 #cgb ,pteris esculenta1 #chj ,pterocarpus marsupium1 #dic santalinus1 #dde species of1 #ejg ,pulping mill for coffee1 #ea ,purging nut1 #fbe ,pulse1 culture of1 #cab ,putchuk or ,costus1 #dch #fch ,punjaub1 proposed culture of tea in1 #aja ,pustulatus moss1 #dhf ,qually1 an iron vessel for drying sago1 #cag ,quarree1 a ,spanish land measure1 about #e ,english acres1 #cbf ,quassia wood1 #fdc ,quas1 a fermented ,russian beverage1 #cjh ,quercitron1 #ddc #dhe ,quercus tinctoria1 #ddc1 #dhe suber1 #ejd ,quintal1 the ,spanish cwt41 equal to #aja lbs4 ,english1 ,quinine1 imports of1 #fcf manufacture of1 #fce ,quillai1 bark of1 used for soap1 #egd ,quinoa1 #caj species of1 #ejg ,railways1 large consumption of oil for1 #eac ,ramos 7,mr47 his dessicating agent for sugar1 #adj1 #afb ,ramalina fufuracea1 #dhf ,ram-til1 #ece ,ramsay 7,mr4 ,c4 ,j47 on beet sugar manufacture1 #bjj ,ranunculus1 properties of1 #fbf ,rape oil1 #fji ,rape seed1 quantity imported1 #efc oil1 #eac cake1 #efd ,raphis fabelliformis1 #cad ,red pepper1 #dbi ,sanders wood1 #dde ,sandal wood1 #cgh ,reseda lutea1 #deb ,revenue from sugar1 #adc ,rhamnus1 varieties of1 #ddb leaves of1 used for tea in ,china1 #aje ,rhizaphora mangle1 #dic1 #ejf ,rhubarb1 #fdd ,rhus1 species of1 #dej ,ricinus communis1 #edb ,rial1 a ,spanish coin worth #f;d41 #ace ,rice starch1 #cdd imports of1 #cjc produce per acre1 #cef meal for feeding pigs1 #chc ,rice imported1 #bah starch1 ,jones's process1 #cjc consumption per head in the ,east #big price of in ,china1 #bih time it may be kept1 #bib threshing mill for1 #bhh grown in ,demerara1 #bib history of1 #bhc ,american crop of1 #bhe returns of produce in ,carolina1 #bia weight per bushel1 #bij ,richardsonia scabra1 #fda ,rimu1 or red pine1 #eje ,robertson 7,mr47 on the collection of ,paraguay tea1 #acc ,robiquet 7,e47 analysis of aloes1 #fbi ,rocella dye1 #deb species of lichens1 #dhf ,room1 an ,indian dye stuff1 #ddc ,roucou1 a name for arnotto1 #ddg ,rotation of crops1 #bdc ,root crops1 #cee prices of in ,new ,brunswick1 #bed ,rollers1 proportionate advantages of those with #c #d1 #afh ,roxburgh on the sugar cane1 #agi ,roses1 cultivation of1 #egj ,rottlera tinctoria1 #ddb ,royle's 7,prof47 productive resources of ,india1 #ajc ,rubia cordifolia1 #dhd tinctorium1 #dgh ,ruellia tuberosa1 #fbe ,ruellia1 a dye stuff1 #ddc ,rupee1 an ,indian coin worth about1 #bs ,russia1 production of beet sugar in1 #aii consumption of tea in1 #ib tea sent to1 #hg ,rye1 analysis of1 #beh imported1 #bah meal1 imported1 #bah ,sappan wood1 #dde1 #ddf1 #ddg ,salisbury 7,dr471 analysis of maize1 #bfe ,saxony1 beet sugar manufacture in1 #aii ,salt1 recommended as a fertiliser1 #agb ,santalum album1 #efe ,saa-ga-ban root of the ,indians1 #cga ,saga1 the ,java name for bread1 #cad imported1 #bah flour1 exports of1 #cah palms1 #cad millet used for1 #cjf ,saccharum sinensis of ,roxburgh1 #acf1 #afi violacum1 #acf ,safflower1 #dej ,salangore sugar cane1 an excellent variety1 #aed ,sandwich ,islands1 arrowroot made in1 #ceb ,sandbox1 seeds of1 emetic1 #fbf tree1 #eab ,saul tree1 wood useful for tea boxes1 #aad ,sarsaparilla1 #fde ,saguerus ,rumphii1 #cad1 #caf inermis1 #cad lvis1 #cad farinifera1 #caf ,salep1 #ced ,samshing1 a refuse produce of opium1 #ehe ,sandoway in ,arracan produces superior tobacco1 #faf ,saponaceous plants1 #fgd ,sapindus1 varieties of1 #egd ,salvadora persica1 #eba ,sapindus marginatus1 #eba ,saouari oil1 #eab ,sanguinaria canadensis1 #eaa ,scammony1 #fdb ,scharling's 7,dr47 test for adulterated arrowroot1 #cdi ,schomburgk 7,sir ,r471 arrowroot forwarded by1 #ceb discovers a new tuberous plant1 #cgd discovers wild plantains1 #cbj ,scotland1 produce of grain in1 #bdi ,seed leaf tobacco1 #fjf wheat in ,france1 #bai ,senna1 varieties of1 #fdg ,sesame oil1 #eaa1 #ecc ,setaria italica1 #cje germanica1 #cjd ,shanghae oil1 #eaa ,sheet lead1 manufacture of for tea cases1 #aad ,shorea robusta1 #aad1 #eba ,shier 7,dr471 his opinion on cassava starch1 #cgj analysis of the plantain1 #cbc on the starch producing plants1 #cca ,shea butter1 #ech ,shiraz tobacco1 #fac ,sicily oil1 #eca ,siam gamboge1 #fci pepper produced in1 #dbb indigo found wild in1 #dgf exports of cardamoms1 #dai ,sidu lanceolata1 #egd ,sugar1 obtained from the palm tree1 #cad made from millet1 #cjf ,simaruba amara1 #fdc ,singapore1 produce of gambier in1 #eja exports of sago1 #cah nutmeg trade of1 #dac pepper grown in1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbg nutmeg trees in1 #djj produce of mace1 #dad extent of clove culture in1 #cii ,sinapis1 species of1 yielding oil1 #eab ,silica1 essential for wheat soils1 #bdj ,singhara nuts1 #cgh ,sinde1 culture of rice in1 #bic ,smith 7,dr471 his experiments in tea culture in ,america1 #ie ,snuff1 duty received on1 #eig ,sorghum officinarum1 #acf saccharatum1 #acf avenaceum1 #cjg vulgare1 #cjd1 #cjf ,soap1 made from coco-nut oil1 #eei1 #efb worts1 #ege ,soil suited to coffee1 #fh for the nutmeg1 #djc for cinnamon1 analysis of1 #chd best suited for wheat1 #bdg a due consideration and knowledge of1 requisite to the planter1 #g suited for tobacco1 #ehf1 #ehg1 #fjg suited for indigo1 #dfh ,solly 7,prof47 on the want of a hand-hook for the cultivator1 #a on barks for tanning1 #dic ,society of ,arts1 premiums offered by1 #b ,soconusco1 the finest cacao1 #ac ,socotrine aloes1 analysis of1 #fbi ,soja hispida1 #cac ,soy1 mode of making1 #cac ,sohrinjee oil1 #dgh1 #ebc ,south ,australia1 tobacco culture in1 #fbd ,south ,carolina1 exports of rice from1 #bhe ,sooranjee1 #dgh1 #ebc ,spergula sativa1 flour from the seed1 #cgg ,sphoeroccus crispus1 #cgi ,spanish moss1 #chj tobacco1 on the mannagement of1 #fab oil1 #eca ,spices1 plants which furnish1 #chb ,spikenard oil1 #egb ,spondius lutea1 #die ,spergula sativa1 #eab ,stalagmites cambogoides1 #dea gambogoides1 #fc ,star anise1 #dch ,starch producing plants1 #cbi ,starch contained in various grain crops1 #bfd made from maize1 #bfe plants1 comparative yield per acre1 #cci process of manufacture1 #cdb large proportion of in rice1 #cjc proportion of in potatoes1 #cfb ,statice coriaria1 #ddd ,caroliniana1 #did ,stenhouse 7,dr47 on the lichens1 #dij ,stillingia sebifera1 #eab ,st4 ,john's bread1 #cab-ac ,st4 ,lucia1 cost of cultivating sugar1 in1 #ahi exports of coffee from1 #gc shipment of cassava flour1 #cfi ,st4 ,kitt's1 cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi ,st4 ,domingo1 exports of coffee to the ,united ,states1 #fc ,st4 ,vincent1 introduction of the clove to1 #cii production of arrowroot in1 #cdg production of coffee in1 #da cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi arrowroot shipped from1 #cea ,straits settlements1 nutmeg culture in1 #djg cinnamon culture recommended1 #chg ,sumbul root1 #fdi ,surat maund1 #ci lbs41 #dja ,sumach1 #dej tannin in1 #die ,sunflower oil1 #eji-aj-cf ,sullivan 7,mr47 on cost of beet root sugar1 #aia ,sugar1 cost of producing in different countries1 #ahi ,sugar cane1 varieties of1 #acg1 #aec1 #afh mills1 relative advantages of different ones1 #afh supply1 demand and production1 #ada plants from which it is obtained1 #acf1 #baf ,sugar1 information respecting1 #aj ,sugar maple1 #bje ,sumatra1 production of coffee in1 #da ,sumatra1 production of pepper in1 #dbb ,sweet cassava1 #cca ,sweet potato1 #ccj-ca-cg-fe ,swift 7,mr47 on the culture of madder1 #dhj ,swamp potato1 #cgc ,sxygium carophyllum1 #chd ,sylvanus surinamensis1 #bgi ,symplocos1 varieties of1 #ddb ,tacca plant1 species of1 #ced ,tahiti arrowroot1 #ced ,talipot palm1 furnishes sago1 #caf ,tallicoonah oil1 #eah ,tallow tree of ,china1 #eab tree of ,java1 #eaa burning properties of1 #eji ,tanping1 a ,chinese oil cake1 #cab ,tannin of nutgalls1 #dib ,tannia1 #ccd-ce-cf-cg ,tanahaka bark1 #eje ,tapioca sago1 #cae #cfi ,tasmannia aromatica1 #dba ,taro1 #cfd ,tartareous moss1 #dhf ,taniers1 or ocoes1 #cca ,taurine1 ,leibig on1 #hj ,tea1 total outlay for by the ,british public1 #hf extent to which the consumption might be pushed1 #hi local consumption of in ,china1 #hf1 #ia tannin in1 #die consumption of1 #eif oil1 #eah range of prices1 #hc consumption of in the ,british empire1 #hd in all other countries1 #hd ,mr4 ,montgomery ,martin's statistics of1 #hd quantity that might be used free of duty1 #hd value of the exports from ,china1 high priced1 used in the ,china market1 #he various ,chinese names for1 #aje immense trade in1 #hj names of the green1 #ha black1 #ha original cost in ,china1 #he duty received on1 #hc ,teel or ,til oil1 #eaa1 #ecc ,teff1 an ,african bread1 #cjh ,teinsing1 a ,chinese vegetable dye1 #ajd ,temperature requisite for various plants1 #h1 #i ,tempering cane juice1 #aeh ,tenacity of starches1 #ccf ,terminalia angustifolia1 #did species of1 #ejf ,terra ,japonica1 a misnomer1 #dij statistics of imports1 #ejb ,teuss1 a ,chinese legume1 #cab oil1 #bae ,texas1 production of sugar in1 #adg ,thespesia populnea1 #ddd ,thea viridis1 #ajc1 #aaj ,bohea1 #ajc1 #aaj ,theine1 analysis of1 #hj ,thistle oil1 #eaa1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #fbf roots as food1 #cgf ,theobromine1 #aa ,theobroma1 description of the tree1 #aa ,tikoor1 a local name for ,indian arrowroot1 #cea ,til oil1 #eaa ,tip-sin-ah1 a wild prairie turnip of ,north ,america1 #cgb ,tinnevelly senna1 #fdh ,ti plant1 #cee ,tirhoot1 production of indigo in1 #dge ,tobacco1 memorial of ,american ,chamber of ,commerce1 #eie culture of in the ,east1 #fae duty paid on1 #eid leaf1 ,prof4 ,johnston's analysis1 #eib plant1 #ehi sources of supply1 #fja fly1 cure for1 #fjg statistics of ,american exports1 #fjj prohibited to be grown in ,england1 #eih method of curing1 #fje manufacture increasing in the ,united ,states1 #eii number of persons engaged in the culture in ,america1 #eii worm1 #faj stems1 trade in1 #eih information respecting1 #i seed oil1 #eaj-ah prices in ,london1 #fjb root1 a wild edible plant1 #cgf cost of cultivating sugar in1 #ahi ,tonquin beans1 #dcd ,tous-les-mois1 starch of1 #ccj-cc-ce-cg-dj ,topinam bar1 #cfe-gf ,topping the coffee tree1 #fh ,towai bark1 #eje ,toddy1 #eee ,travers 7,mr4 ,j4,i47 on consumption of tea1 #hg ,trinidad1 exports of coffee from1 #gc indigo in1 #dfj culture of coffee in1 #gb cost of cultivating sugar1 #ahi ,tropolum tuberosum1 #ecf ,tripa1 a name for damaged tobacco leaves1 #faa ,tripolium alpinum1 #fdc ,truffle1 #cha ,tuberous plants1 new1 recommended1 #cgj ,tuber cibarium1 #cha ,turkey berries1 #ddb opium1 #ehe ,turmeric1 #dai1 #dcd1 #ddb used for coloring tea1 #dcf ,turnips1 average weight of crop in ,new ,brunswick1 #bec ,turpentine1 spirits of1 #efe ,typha bread1 #chj ,tye1 a preparation of opium1 #ehe ,unearia ,gambier1 #dif ,united ,states1 production of sugar in1 #ade supplies of coffee to1 #fc imports of tea and value1 #ib value of its agricultural produce1 #bbb former culture of indigo1 #dfa production of maple sugar in1 #bae tea plant introduced1 #ie ,upland rice1 #cjb grown in ,texas1 #bhe ,ure 7,dr471 on arrowroot manufacture1 #cdg on manioc starch1 #cfh on tannin in barks1 #die on indigo manufacture1 #dgb ,urania guianensis1 #ddd ,valenaria edulis1 #cgf ,valonia1 #ejg ,van ,diemen's ,land1 culture of oats in1 #beh ,vanilla1 #dca plant1 grows in ,brazil1 #acj ,vara1 a ,spanish land measure1 #i ,variolaris1 species of lichens1 #dhf ,varzeas1 a ,portuguese name for low and marshy ground1 #ahc ,vateria indica1 #eab ,vegetable butter1 #ech wax1 #edj soap1 #egd ,velvet moss1 #dhf ,venezuela1 coffee culture in1 #fb ,verbesena sativa1 #ece ,vernonia anthelmentica1 #eba ,vinegar1 made from millet1 #cjf ,virginian tobacco1 statistics of1 #eih1 #fjj method of culture1 #fjd ,virola sebifera1 #dja1 #eab ,voandzou1 #cga ,voelcker 7,dr471 analysis of quinoa1 #caj ,volatile or essential oils1 #efe ,vuelta abajo1 the best class of ,cuba tobacco1 #fac arribo1 the inferior kind of ditto1 #fac ,vulpinic acid1 #dhh ,wabessepin1 a wild ,american potato1 #cgb ,wages paid in the ,mauritius1 #aej ,walnut1 oil from1 #eaj ,wangle1 oil seed1 #ecc ,watappinee1 an ,indian edible root1 #cgb ,water1 proportion of in different kinds of wheat1 #bba quantity in potatoes1 #bbg for making starch1 #cda ,wax berries1 #edf palm1 #eda ,weinmaunia1 bark of1 #dii racemosa1 #eje ,weight per bushel of crops in ,new ,brunswick1 #bec of coffee per bushel1 #dg ,wellstead 7,lt47 on ,socotro aloes1 #fbi ,westring 7,dr47 on the ,swedish lichens1 #dhi-ij ,west ,india ginger1 #dah ,wheat1 weight of1 as an index of value1 #bcf imported1 #bah flour do41 #bah culture1 statistics of1 #bbj annual produce of1 #bai analysis of1 by ,boussingault1 #bdd average price of1 #bdi best soil for1 #bdg consumption of in ,england1 #bdh produce of in ,england and ,wales1 #bdh information respecting1 #aj starch of1 #cca-ce-cf-cg1 #cdc composition of the ash of1 #bda yield per acre1 #bdj flour1 various analyses of1 #bcg ,white pepper1 statistics of1 #dbh ,whisky1 quantity of maize used for1 #bga ,wilcockes on ,paraguay tea trade1 #ace ,williams's ,middle ,kingdom1 extract from1 #aje ,willoughbeia edulis1 #cgh ,wilson 7,mr4 ,t47 on the cost of producing sugar1 #ahi ,wilson's rice-cleaning machine1 #bij ,winnowing coffee1 #ea machine for tea1 #aaf ,woad1 #deb ,wood dyes1 #ddi oil1 #eaa 7,mr47 on indigo culture1 ,wool manufacture1 oil consumed in1 #eaj ,wray's practical sugar planter1 #adj ,wrightia tinctoria1 #dfc ,xanthoxylum piperitum1 #dba ochroxylon1 #dfj ,xiguilite1 the indigo shrub1 #dfj ,xylocarpus granatum1 #eai ,xylopia aromatica1 #dba ,yam1 back1 #ccc1 #cce1 #ccg-ch-ci1 #cfb ,yams1 varieties of cultivated1 #cfb ,yampah root1 #cgf ,yellow berries1 #ddc ,yerba1 ,spanish and native name for the ,paraguay tea tree1 #acc ,yucca amarga1 #cca ,yucca1 the ,peruvian name for cassava1 #cfg1 #cge ,zamia1 arrowroot obtained from1 #cai1 #ceb pumila1 #ccj ,zanzibar1 clove plantations in1 #djj ,zea ,mays1 description of1 #bfj ,zingiber officinale1 #dad ,zizania aquatica1 #bhd ,zones1 ,meyen's division of1 #be ,zollverein1 production of beet root sugar in1 #aih