,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hcb ,,new ,,york1 ,december #ab1 #ahia4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1 ,no4 #hcb4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,arch,,ology4--,archological ,discoveries at ,cadiz4--,the discovery of ,phenician relics in ,spain1 with the possibility of future important research in that region4--#b illustrations ,prehistoric ,horse in ,america4--,curious discovery of an aboriginal drawing in ,nicaragua4--#a illustration ,,ii4 ,,astronomy4--,a ,plea for the ,common ,telescope4--,by ,g4,e4 ,,lumsden4--,the increasing interest in astronomy and instances of work done by telescopes of moderate power1 giving examples from the work of celebrated observers ,,iii4 ,,biography4--,alfred ,tennyson4--,biographical note of the great poet1 now past his #hjth year1 with portrait4--#a illustration ,fiftieth ,year of the ,prince of ,wales4--,the ,prince of ,wales and his family1 with notes of his life and habits4--#a illustration ,,iv4 ,,chemistry4--,american ,association--,ninth ,annual ,report of the ,committee on ,indexing ,chemical ,literature4--,a very important report upon the titular subject1 with probabilities of future advance in this line4--,the chemical index of the ,,scientific ,,american and ,,supplement ,apparatus for the ,estimation of ,fat in ,milk4--,by ,e4 ,,molinari4-- ,details of a method of determining fat in milk1 with illustration of the apparatus employed ,further ,researches upon the ,element ,fluorine4--,by ,a4,e4 ,,tutton4-- ,additional researches upon this element1 following up the work outlined by ,m4 ,,moissan4--#c illustrations ,the ,allotropic ,conditions of ,silver4--,a recent letter from ,m4 ,,carey ,,lea on this subject1 with note of its presentation before the ,french ,academy by ,m4 ,,berthelot ,the ,french ,wine ,law4--,recent enactment as to the adulterations of wine ,v4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,modern ,methods of ,quarrying4--,a recent paper of great value to all interested in exploiting quarries4--,the most recent methods described1 tending now to replace the cruder processes4--#ab illustrations ,the ,trotter ,curve ,ranger4--,a surveying instrument for laying off railroad curves1 with full details of its theory1 construction1 and use in the field4--#d illustrations ,,vi4 ,,metallurgy4--,the ,great ,bell of the ,basilica of the ,sacred ,heart of ,montmartre4--,the founding of the great bell ,la ,savoyarde at the ,paccard foundry in ,france4--,description of the bell1 its inscriptions1 and decorations4--#c illustrations ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,duck ,hunting in ,scotland4--,a curious method of approaching ducks under the guise of a donkey4--#c illustrations ,,viii4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,hints to ,shipmasters4--,a very practical view of the proper personal habits of the commander of a merchant ship ,the ,british ,cruiser olus4--,details of dimensions and armament of this recently launched ,british ship ,trials of ,h4,m4 ,cruiser ,blake4--,trial trip of this celebrated cruiser4--,her horse power as developed1 with the somewhat disappointing results obtained as regards speed4--#a illustration ,,ix4 ,,photography4--,development with ,sucrate of ,lime4--,development formulas1 involving the use of sugar solution saturated with lime4--,accelerating influences of certain chemicals ,x4 ,,railroad ,,engineering4--,the ,rail ,spike and the ,locomotive4--,a most interesting article on an old time railroad4--,curious incidents in the construction of the ,camden ,amboy ,railroad1 by the celebrated ,robert ,l4 ,stevens4--,a most graphic account of early difficulties ,,xi4 ,,technology--,american ,workshops4--,the care of tools and practice in ,american workshops1 as viewed from an ,english standpoint ,new ,sugar ,items4--,interesting points in the cultivation of sugar beets and manufacture of sugar therefrom in ,france1 ,germany1 and other countries 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,great ,,bell ,,of ,,the ,,basilica ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,heart ,,of ,,montmartre4 ,the main work on the basilica of the ,sacred ,heart is now completed and the bell tower surmounts it4 ,so we have now a few words to say about ,la ,savoyarde--the name of the great bell which is designed for it1 and which has just been cast at ,annecy-le-,vieux1 in ,upper ,savoy1 in the presence of ,mgr4 ,leuilleux1 ,archbishop of ,chambery1 ,mgr4 ,isoar1 ,bishop of ,annecy1 and of all the clergy united1 at the foundry of ,messrs4 ,g4 ,f4 ,paccard1 especially decorated for the occasion4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,bell4 ,one of the ,latin inscriptions that ornament the metal of ,la ,savoyarde at once explains to us its name and tells us why a bell designed for the capital was cast at ,annecy-le-,vieux4 ,the following is a translation of it3 ,in the year #ahhh1 in the course of the solemnities of the sacerdotal jubilee of the ,sovereign ,pontifex ,leo ,,xiii41 ,i1 ,frances ,margaret of the ,sacred ,heart of ,jesus1 on the initiative of ,francis ,albert ,leuilleux1 ,archbishop of ,chambery1 with the co-operation of the bishops of the province1 at the common expense of the clergy and upper and lower classes of ,savoy1 was offered as a gift1 as a testimonial of piety toward the divine heart1 in order to repeat through the ages1 from the top of the holy hill1 to the city1 to the nation and to the entire world1 ',hail ,jesus6' ,let us now witness the casting of the bell4 ,over there1 at the back of the foundry1 in the reverberatory furnace1 the alloy of copper and tin1 in the proportions of #gh and #bb per cent41 is in fusion4 ,from the huge crucible runs a conduit to the pit1 at the side of which the furnace is constructed1 and in which is placed the mould4 ,a metallic plug intercepts communication4 ,a quick blow with an iron rod removes this plug and the tapping is effected4 ,this operation1 which seems simple at first sight1 is extremely delicate in practice and requires a very skillful workman4 ,a host of technical words designates the dangers that it presents4 ,before the tapping1 it is necessary to calculate at a glance the function of the gate pit4 ,and what accidents afterward6 ,but we need not dwell upon these4 ,after the cooling of the metal comes the cleaning1 which is done with scrapers and special instruments4 ,the casting is preceded by two operations--the designing and the moulding4 ,the design rests upon a basis generally furnished by experience1 and which the founders have transmitted from generation to generation4 ,the thickness of the rim of the bell taken as unity determines the diameters and dimensions4 ,the outline most usually followed gives #ae rims to the large diameter1 #g to the upper part of the bell1 and #cb to the large radius that serves to trace the profiles of the external sides4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,casting ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,bell ,,of ,,the ,,basilica ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,heart4 ,the moulding is done as follows3 ,in the pit where the casting is to be done there is constructed a core of bricks and a clay shell1 separated from each other by a thickness of earth1 called false bell4 ,this occupies provisionally the place of the metal1 and will be destroyed at the moment of the casting4 ,now let us give a brief description of ,la ,savoyarde4 ,its total weight is #be1jjj kilogrammes1 divided as follows3 #af1ejj kilogrammes of bronze1 #hjj kilogrammes for the clapper1 and the rest for the suspension gear4 ,its height is #c4jf meters and its width at the base is #c4jc4 ,it is therefore as high as it is wide1 and1 as may be seen from our engraving1 two men can easily seat themselves in its interior4 ,in weight1 it exceeds the bell of ,notre ,dame1 of ,paris1 which weighs #ag1agj kilogrammes1 that of the ,cathedral of ,sens1 which weighs #af1bcj1 and that of the ,amiens bell1 which weighs #aa1jjj4 ,but it cannot be compared to the famous bell given by ,eudes ,rigauit1 ,archbishop of ,rouen1 to the cathedral of that city1 and which was so big and heavy that it was necessary to give a copious supply of stimulants to those who rang it1 in order to encourage them4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,bell ,,of ,,the ,,basilica ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,heart4 ,la ,savoyarde will appear small also if we compare it with some celebrated bells1 that of the ,kremlin of ,moscow1 for example1 which weighs #bja1baf kilogrammes4 ,one detail in conclusion3 ,la ,savoyarde sounds in counter ,c4 ,this had been desired and foreseen4 ,the number of vibrations1 that is to say1 the timbre of a bell1 is in inverse ratio of its diameter or of the cubic root of its weight1 so that in calculating the diameters and in designing ,la ,savoyarde the timbre was calculated at the same time4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,the ,,sugar ,,beet4 ,,new ,,sugar ,,items4 ,,france4 ,water that has been used to wash frozen beets contains a small percentage of sugar4 ,as the washing period1 in such cases1 is longer than with normal beets1 the sugar in beet cells has time to pass through the outer walls by osmosis4 ,the sugar loss is said to be #j4ff per cent4 787 of the weight of beets washed4 ,well conducted experiments show that in small but well ventilated silos1 beets lose considerable weight1 but very little sugar4 ,on the other hand1 in large silos with poor ventilation1 the sugar loss frequently represents four to six per cent4 ,when fermentation commences1 the mass of roots is almost ruined4 ,sodic nitrate1 if used upon soil late in the season1 may overcome a difficulty that has been recently noticed4 ,beet fields located near swamps that are dry a portion of the year have suffered from a malady that turns leaves from green to yellow1 even before harvesting period2 such beets have lost a considerable amount of sugar4 ,a new method for the analysis of saccharose and raffinose1 when in the presence of inverted sugar1 is said to give accurate results4 ,the process consists in adding sulphate of copper and lime to hot molasses1 so that the oxide of copper is changed to a protoxide1 and the invert sugar becomes water and carbonic acid4 ,the whole is neutralized with phosphoric acid4 ,there follow a great number of precipitates2 the exact volume of liquid in which these are found is determined after two polariscopic observations4 ,it has been constantly noticed that samples of carbonatated juice vary in composition with the part of tank from which they are taken4 ,if some arrangement could be made assuring a thorough mixing during the passage of carbonic acid1 results would be more satisfactory than they now are4 ,if gas could be distributed in every part of the tank1 the lime combination could be made perfect4 ,notwithstanding the new law regulating quantity of sugar to be used in wines1 ciders1 etc41 there has been1 during #ahij1 an increase of nearly #ac1jjj tons1 as compared with #ahhi4 ,consumption of sugar for these special industries was #cc1jjj tons2 alcohol thus added to wine was about #ga1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,beets cultivated without extra fertilizers1 and that are regular in shape and in good condition1 without bruises1 are the ones which give the best results in silos4 ,it is recommended to construct silos of two types2 one which is to be opened before first frost1 the other where beets remain for several months and are protected against excessive cold4 ,great care should be taken that a thorough ventilation be given in the first mentioned type4 ,in the other1 more substantial silos1 ventilation must be watched1 and all communication with the exterior closed as soon as the temperature falls to or near freezing4 ,during the last campaign many manufacturers experienced great difficulty in keeping the blades of slicers sufficiently sharp to work frozen beets4 ,sharpening of blades is an operation attended to by special hands at the factory2 and under ordinary circumstances there need be no difficulty4 ,however1 it is now proposed to have central stations that will make a specialty of blade sharpening4 ,under these circumstances manufacturers located in certain districts need give the matter no further thought1 let the coming winter be as severe as it may4 ,some success has been obtained by the use of sulphurous acid in vacuum pans4 ,great care is required2 the operation cannot be done by an ordinary workman4 ,it is claimed that graining thereby is more rapid and better than is now possible4 ,chemists agree that the operation is more effectual by bringing sulphurous acid in contact with sirups rather than juices2 it is in the sirups that the coloring pigments are found4 ,sulphurous acid is run into the pan until the sirups cover the second coil4 ,in all cases the work must be done at a low temperature4 ,height of juice in carbonatating tanks is only three feet in ,france1 while in ,austria it is frequently twelve feet4 ,the question of a change in existing methods is being discussed2 it necessitates an increase in the blowing capacity of machine2 since carbonic acid gas has a greater resistance to overcome in ,austrian than in ,french methods4 ,longer the period juices are in contact with carbonic acid1 greater will be the effect produced4 ,ferric sulphate has been very little used for refuse water purification1 owing to cost of its manufacture4 ,if roasted pyrites1 a waste product of certain chemical factories1 are sprinkled with sulphuric acid of #ff ,b41 and thoroughly mixed for several hours1 at a temperature of #ajj to #aef ,f41 the pyrites will soon be covered with a white substance which is ferric sulphate4 ,precipitates from ferric sulphate1 unlike calcic compounds1 do not subsequently enter into putrefaction4 ,efforts are being made to convince manufacturers of the mistake in using decanting vats1 in connection with first and second carbonatation4 ,in ,germany filter presses are used1 decanting vats are obsolete4 ,the main objection to them is cooling of saccharine liquors1 which means an ultimate increase in fuel4 ,cooling is frequently followed by partial fermentation4 ,further changes in the proposed combined baryta-soda method for juice purification consist in using powdered soda carbonate #ij-ib1 upon beet cossettes as they leave the slicer1 before entering the diffusor4 ,the quantity of chemical to be used is #a_/ajjj of weight of beet slices being treated4 ,if a diffusor has a capacity of #b1ejj lb41 there would be added #b4e lb4 soda carbonate4 ,from the diffusor is subsequently taken #caf gallons juice at #d-e density1 this is rapidly heated to #ahe;,f41 then #b4d of a pure baryta solution is added2 temperature is kept at #ahe ,f4 for a short time2 resulting precipitates fall to bottom of tank2 then #ac gallons milk of lime #be ,b4 are added4 ,other operations that follow are as usual4 ,it is contended that the cost of baryta is #aj cents per ton beets worked4 ,the most important advantage is gain in time2 a factory working #bj1jjj during a #ajj-;day campaign1 by the foregoing process can accomplish the same work in #hj days1 thus decreasing wear and tear of plant and diminishing percentage of sugar lost in badly constructed silos4 ,the exact influence of a low temperature upon beet cells has never been satisfactorily settled4 ,considerable light has recently been thrown upon the subject by a well known chemist4 ,it is asserted that living cells containing a saccharine liquid do not permit infiltration from interior to exterior2 this phenomenon occurs only when cell and tissue are dead4 ,it is necessary that the degree of cold should be sufficiently intense1 or that a thaw take place1 under certain conditions1 to kill tissue of walls of said cells4 ,an interesting fact is that when cells are broken through the action of freezing1 it is not those containing sugar that are the first affected4 ,the outer cells containing very little sugar are the first to expand when frozen1 which expansion opens the central cells4 ,experiments to determine the action of lime upon soils apparently prove that it does not matter in what form calcic salts are employed2 their effect1 in all cases1 is to increase the yield of roots to the acre4 ,on the other hand1 very secondary results were obtained with phosphoric and sulphuric acids4 ,a micro-mushroom1 a parasite that kills a white worm1 enemy of the beet1 has been artificially cultivated4 ,as soon as the worm is attacked1 the ravage continues until the entire body of the insect is one mass of micro-organisms4 ,spores during this period are constantly formed4 ,if it were possible to spread this disease in districts infected by the white worm1 great service could be rendered to beet cultivation4 ,in sugar refining it is frequently desirable to determine the viscosity of sirups1 molasses1 etc4 ,methods founded upon the rapidity of flow through an orifice of a known size are not mathematical in their results4 ,a very simple plan1 more accurate than any hitherto thought of1 is attracting some attention4 ,sensitive scales and a thermometer suspended in a glass tube are all the apparatus necessary4 ,the exact weight of thermometer1 with tube1 is determined2 they are immersed in water and weighed for the second time2 the difference in weight before and afterward gives the weight of adhering water4 ,if the operation is repeated in molasses1 we in the same way obtain the weight of adhering liquid1 which1 if divided by the weight of adhering water1 gives the viscosity as compared with water4 ,sugar refineries located at ,marseilles claim that it is cheaper for them to purchase sugar in ,java than beet sugar of northern ,europe4 ,on the other hand1 the argument of ,paris refiners is just the reverse4 ,the total refined sugar consumed is #cge1jjj tons1 the colonial and indigenous production of raw sugar is nearly #a1jjj1jjj tons more than sufficient to meet the demands of the entire refining industry of the country4 ,there appears to have been considerable manipulation1 foreign sugar being imported with the view of producing a panic1 followed by a decline of market prices1 after which ,marseilles refiners would buy4 ,all sound arguments are in favor of protecting the home sugar industry4 ,it has been suggested that manufacturers weigh the fuel used more carefully than hitherto2 the extra trouble would soon lead to economy for all interested in sugar production at ruinous cost4 ,some chemists advocate that coal be purchased only after having been analyzed4 ,efforts to have a unification in methods of analysis of all products of factory is a move in the right direction2 the ,association of ,sugar ,chemists have adopted a series of methods that are in the future to be considered as standard4 ,copper solutions are destined to render great service in the destruction of micro-organisms that attack the beet field4 ,the liquid used should be composed of #c per cent4 copper sulphate and #c per cent4 lime1 dissolved in water2 fifty gallons are sufficient for one acre2 cost per acre1 every item included1 is #ef cents4 ,the normal vitality of the plant being restored1 there follows an increased sugar percentage4 ,ordinary liquid ammonia may be advantageously used to kill white worms and insects that attack beets2 two quarts of the diluted chemical are used per square yard1 and the cost is #ab per acre 787 ,,germany4 ,calcic salt elimination from beet juices is a problem not yet satisfactorily solved4 ,since the early history of beet sugar making1 it has been noticed that calcic salts render graining in the pan most tedious2 hence repeated efforts to reduce to a minimum percentage the use of lime during defecation4 ,in all cases it is essential to get rid of inverted sugar4 ,the difficulty from excess of lime is overcome by adding it now and then during carbonatation2 but other means are found desirable2 and phosphoric acid1 magnesia1 soda1 etc41 have been used with success4 ,recent observations relating to the action of soda upon calcic sulphates1 calcic glucates1 etc41 are most important4 ,certain citrates have a retarding influence upon calcic sulphates4 ,an alarm contrivance to announce the passage of juices into condensing pipes has rendered considerable service in beet sugar factories4 ,a process for refining sugar in the factory1 at less cost than it is possible to make raw sugar by existing processes1 deserves notice4 ,sugars by this new method test #ii4h1 and sirups from the same have a purity coefficient of #gj4 ,weight of dry crystals obtained is said to represent #ff per cent4 of masse cuite used4 ,the additional cost of the process is #cj to #dj per centrifugal4 ,concentrated juice or sirup may be used as cleare in centrifugals2 this sirup should have a density of #a4cbe 7#cf ,b47 at #aac to #abb ,f41 so as not to redissolve the sugar4 ,sirup should not be used until all adhering sirup of masse cuite has been swung out4 ,the sirup1 after passing through centrifugals1 may be sent to second carbonatation tanks and mixed with juices being treated4 ,the larva of an insect1 known as sylpha1 has attacked beet fields in several parts of ,saxony4 ,the effect upon the root is a decrease in foliage1 followed by late development of the beet1 with corresponding reduction in sugar percentage4 ,chickens may render excellent service1 as they eat these worms with considerable relish4 ,a solution of ,schweinfurt green has been used with some success2 its cost is #b4ej per acre4 ,none of the chemical remains on the leaves after a rain 787 ,white worms have done some damage2 they should be collected from the fields during plowing4 ,when they become beetles in the spring1 they may be destroyed by a solution of sulphide of carbon2 #j4bj worth of this chemical is sufficient to kill #aj1jjj of them4 ,these beetles contain #ej per cent of fatty and nitric elements2 when pulverized they may be used as good for pigs and chickens4 ,if the ground mass of beetles is sprinkled with sulphuric acid and a reasonable amount of lime and earth be added1 the combination forms an excellent fertilizer for certain crops4 ,a disease that blackens young beet leaves is found to be due to a microscopic insect4 ,if the beet seed be saturated in a phenic solution before planting1 the difficulty may be overcome4 ,we are soon to have a new method for selecting mothers for seed production4 ,details of the same are not yet public4 ,it is claimed that it will be possible to grow seed that will yield beets of a given quality determined in advance1 a problem which has hitherto been thought impossible4 ,it will surprise many of our readers to learn that if tops or even half beets are planted1 they will give seed1 the quality of which is about same2 showing that as soon as seed stalks commence to appear1 the role of the root proper is of secondary consideration1 as it serves simply as a medium between the beet and soil787 ,sprayed water may be used with considerable success in washing sugar in centrifugals2 it is claimed that this new process offers many advantages over either steam1 water1 or use of cleare4 ,white sugar to be washed is thoroughly mixed with a sugar sirup supersaturated4 ,the whole is run into centrifugals4 ,the sirup swung from the same is used in next and following operations2 when it becomes too thick it is sent to the vacuum pan to be regrained4 ,the operation of washing lasts less than two minutes2 three quarts of water are necessary for #bjj lb4 sugar4 ,the water spray at a pressure of #e to #aj atmospheres is produced by a very simple appliance4 ,total weight of refuse cossettes obtained during last campaign was #d1jjj1jjj tons1 about #gjj1jjj tons of which were sold for #a1jjj1jjj2 if what remains is dried1 it would be worth #e1jjj1jjj4 ,several sodic-baryta methods have been recently invented4 ,of these we will mention one where #a_/djjj to #a_/bjjj part of calcined soda is added to the beet slices in diffusors4 ,the juice when drawn from the battery is heated to #aed ,f41 and defecated with hydrate of baryta and milk of lime4 ,nearly all foreign substances are thus eliminated4 ,carbonatation then follows4 ,government taxation upon the sugar industry is destined within a few years to be withdrawn4 ,the new law recently put into operation no longer taxes beets worked at factory1 but the sugar manufactured4 ,the rate of taxation is about #b cents per pound on all sugar made4 ,recent data from northeast ,germany give the work during campaign #ahij-ia of #ed associated beet sugar factories4 ,they used #b1acj1jjj tons beets1 obtained from #adb1fjb acres of land1 average yield #ab tons4 ,the total sugar amounted to #bea1jjj tons1 of which #bda1jjj were from beets and #aj1jjj tons from molasses worked by special processes4 ,the polarization of beet juices averaged #ac4ji2 masse cuite1 #ad4ca2 extraction of sugar of all grades1 #aa4gi4 ,it required #hdh lb4 beets to produce #ajj lb4 sugar4 ,in every center where beet sugar is made there exists some local society2 each year members from these societies meet to exchange views upon the sugar situation of the empire4 ,of late1 there has been a general complaint respecting quality of sugar sold on the ,magdeburg market4 ,at one time the sugars averaged more organic substances than ash2 now there is more ash than organic substances4 ,such sugars are most difficult to work1 and cause much loss of time in centrifugals4 ,the most desirable temperature for diffusion batteries is not yet definitely settled4 ,some manufacturers recommend #hb to #hf ,f4 ,on the other hand1 satisfactory results have been obtained at #ade ,f41 followed by cold water in the diffusors4 ,the use of hydrofluoric acid1 even in small quantities to prevent fermentation1 should not be allowed4 ,it is proposed to use hydrogen dioxide for saccharine juice purification4 ,the alkalinity of juice is reduced to #j4jg by a judicious use of lime4 ,precaution must be taken to keep the temperature at #hg ,f4 ,after a preliminary filtration about #d per cent4 hydrogen dioxide is added4 ,the whole is then heated to the boiling point1 after which to #a per cent4 lime is added4 ,when alkalinity of filtrate is #j4jc phosphoric acid and magnesia are added1 in quantities representing #j4jc per cent4 of sugar in juice for magnesia1 and #j4f per cent4 for the phosphoric acid4 ,in working beet juices hydrogen dioxide may be used in the diffusor or during any phase of the sugar manufacturing process1 even upon sugars in centrifugals4 ,in all cases the results obtained are said to be most satisfactory4 ,a method to crystallize the sugar contained in the mother liquor of a masse cuite consists in mixing during #bd hours the hot product1 direct from the pan1 with low grade molasses4 ,gradual cooling follows4 ,the crystals of masse cuite effect a crystallization of the otherwise inactive product contained in the molasses4 ,the separation of crystals from adhering molasses is done in a special washing appliance arranged in battery form4 ,it has been frequently asked if the existing and accepted formula for determining in advance the amount of refined sugar that may be extracted from either beets1 masse cuite or raw sugar1 is to be considered exact1 without special allowance being made for raffinose4 ,an intelligent discussion upon the subject shows that the sugar in question1 whether present or not1 in no way influences the formula under consideration4 ,,austria-,,hungary4 ,the committee on exhibition at ,prague has issued several interesting pamphlets1 from which we learn that in ,bohemia1 in #ahai1 there existed one beet sugar factory4 ,in #ahij the total number of factories was #adj2 last year #cgj1jjj acres were planted in beets1 and the yield was #c1gjj1jjj tons2 yield of sugar averaged #b1gjj lb4 per acre2 #dj1jjj hands were employed4 ,during the past #bd years #ag1ijj1jjj tons of coal have been consumed1 and the working capacity per factory is now far greater than formerly4 ,there are at present seven sugar refineries in ,bohemia4 ,commercial arrangements with ,germany having terminated favorably1 great pressure is being brought to bear upon ,italy1 ,roumania1 ,servia and ,switzerland1 to induce them to enter into a treaty4 ,sugars imported by the country last named were #ce1hib tons in #ahhi and #dc1cjj tons during #ahij4 ,,belgium4 ,if fresh cossettes are fed to cows1 in quantities per diem representing #bj per cent4 of the animal's weight1 they have a thinning effect4 ,when the refuse has been siloed for eight months1 and #ab per cent4 of the animal's weight is used1 there will follow a slight daily increase in weight4 ,better results may be obtained from cossettes that have been kept for two years2 with the latter1 if cows eat only #g per cent4 of their weight1 considerable fattening follows4 ,consequently1 while beet refuse1 after long keeping1 loses #ej per cent4 of its weight1 it appears in the end to be more economical for feeding purposes than fresh cossettes direct from the battery4 ,during this period of keeping the percentage of water remains nearly constant2 fatty substances which were #j4jh per cent4 become #j4gd2 and the percentage of carbohydrates diminishes4 ,chemists are unable to explain the changes that have taken place2 if they are desirable1 as they appear to be1 judging from the practical results just cited1 there is this question to be solved3 ,what future have dried cossettes8 ,evidently they offer advantages1 as no one can doubt1 such as a decrease in weight and bulk1 easy keeping for an indefinite time1 etc4 ,at present1 there is building a silo to contain #d1jjj tons fresh cossettes2 this is to have the best possible system of drainage4 ,during the coming season it is proposed to analyze the water draining from this mass of fermenting refuse2 and we may then learn more than we now know about the chemical changes above mentioned4 ,a correspondent of ,m4 ,sachs asks why it is not possible to use live steam in defecating tanks4 ,a simple calculation shows that the water to be subsequently evaporated would be increased #aj per cent4 ,this evaporation would cost more than cleaning of copper coils1 etc41 combined with other difficulties existing appliances offer4 ,the question as to the most desirable number of beets necessary to analyze to obtain an average has been in part settled4 ,factories working #ejj tons per diem should make at least #bjj analyses of beets received1 which work offers no difficulty by the rapid methods now used4 ,several samples should be taken from every cart load delivered1 then make average selections from the same4 ,,russia4 ,weak currents of electricity1 #j4jc to #j4jd ampere1 have been passed through sirups for fourteen hours without any special increase in purity coefficient4 ,experiments made upon diluted molasses or with raw beet juices were not encouraging4 ,mixing of filter press scums with diffusion juices is said to offer special advantages for the preliminary purification4 ,not over one to two per cent4 of scums should be used4 ,if in too great quantity1 the raw juices will yield inferior results4 ,during operations that follow1 experiments are not yet sufficiently advanced to determine with certainty within what limits the refuse scum utilization process is to be recommended4 ,we have great doubts as to the wisdom of introducing foreign elements1 eliminated from other juices in a previous operation1 into a juice fresh from the battery4 ,,other ,,countries4 ,the beet sugar factory in ,japan is said to be working with considerable success4 ,this year in ,europe over #c1jjj1jjj acres are devoted to beet cultivation4 ,if the yield averages #ab tons1 the crop of roots to be worked during campaign #ahia-ib will certainly not be less than #cf1jjj1jjj tons1 with a total yield of first grade sugar of about #g1cjj1jjj1jjj lb4 ,sugar sells for #i cents per pound in ,persia1 where ,russia has almost a monopoly of that business4 ,finland imported1 during #ahhi1 #i1daf tons sugar1 valued at #a1jjj1jjj4 ,germany supplied two-thirds of this at cheaper rates than ,russia1 owing to facilities of transportation4 ,two refineries are working2 one of these uses exclusively cane sugar1 while the other employs both cane and beet sugar4 ,a beet sugar factory in ,england1 that has been idle for many years1 is to resume operations under a new company1 adopting the plan of growing a sufficient quantity of beets for an average campaign1 independently of what all the farmers of the locality propose to do4 ,siberia is to have a beet sugar factory4 ,experiments in beet cultivation have shown excellent beets may be raised there4 ,special advantages are offered by the ,russian government1 and factories are to be exempt from taxation daring a period of ten years4 ,sugar in ,siberia is now considered an article of luxury1 owing to distance and difficulties of transportation from manufacturing centers4 ,a special delegation from ,canada has been sent to ,europe1 to study and subsequently report upon the true condition of the beet sugar industry4 ,a correspondent writes from ,farnham1 ,canada1 that the ,canadian government grants a bounty of #b cents per pound on beet sugar during campaign #ahia-ib4 ,duties on raw sugar were abolished last ,june4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,american ,,workshops4 ,an interesting paper on some of the leading ,american workshops was lately read before the members of the ,manchester ,association of ,engineers on ,saturday by ,mr4 ,hans ,renold4 ,after expressing his opinion that the ,english people did not sufficiently look about them or try to understand what other nations were doing1 ,mr4 ,renold stated that he had visited that portion of ,america known as ,new ,england1 and the works he had inspected were among the best in the ,united ,states4 ,among the many special features he had noticed he mentioned that in a ,boston establishment where milling machine cutters were made he had found that #a spent in wages produced as much as #cj to #dj worth of goods1 the cutters being made at the rate of about sixty-four per hour by about a dozen men4 ,another noticeable feature was the exceptional care taken in storing tools in ,american workshops4 ,these1 in fact1 were treated as if they were worth their weight in gold2 they were stored in safes much in the same manner as we in ,england stored our money4 ,he was1 however1 impressed by the fact that the mere understanding of the method of ,american working would not enable them to do likewise in ,england1 because the ,american workmen had gone through a special training1 and a similar training would be necessary to enable ,english workmen to adapt themselves to ,american machines4 ,one very noticeable feature in ,american engineering shops which he visited was that all the machine men and turners were seated on blocks or stools at their machines1 and the question naturally arose in his mind what would ,english engineers say if such a practice were adopted in their shops4 ,in other ways he was also struck by the special attention devoted to the comfort of the workmen1 and he was much impressed by the healthy condition of the emery polishing shops as compared with similar shops in this country4 ,in ,england these shops in most cases were simply deathtraps to the workmen1 and he urged that the superior method of ventilation carried out in the ,states should be adopted in this country by introducing a fan to each wheel to take away the particles1 etc41 which were so injurious4 ,one very special feature in the ,united ,states was that works were devoted to the manufacture of one particular article to an almost inconceivable extent1 and that heavy machine tools complete and ready to be dispatched were kept in stock in large numbers4 ,american enterprise was not hampered as it too frequently was in ,england by want of capital2 while in ,england we were ready to put our savings in ,south ,american railways or fictitious gold mines1 but very chary about investing capital which would assist an engineer in bringing out an honest improvement1 in ,america1 on the other hand1 it was a common practice among the best firms to invest their savings over and over again in their works1 which were thus kept in a high state of perfection4 ,the above paper came in for some pretty severe criticism4 ,mr4 ,john ,craven remarked that although ,mr4 ,renold had gone over a wide field of subjects1 he had practically confined his remarks to ,messrs4 ,brown ,sharpe's establishment1 and while he 7,mr4 ,craven7 was ready to admit that so far as high class work and sanitary arrangements were concerned1 ,messrs4 ,brown ,sharpe's were a model1 they could not be put forward as representative of ,american establishments generally4 ,as a matter of fact1 many of the ,american workshops were not as good as a large number of similar workshops in ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,renold had referred to the extensive use of gear cutters in the ,united ,states1 but he might point out that it was in ,manchester that the milling machine was first made4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,dixon said he had certainly come to the conclusion that no better work was done in ,america than could be and was being done in this country2 while as regards the enormous production of milling cutters1 that was simply an example of what could be done where large firms devoted themselves to the production of one specialty4 ,with regard to the statement made by ,mr4 ,renold that the ,american thread was preferable to the ,whitworth thread1 he might say he entirely disagreed with such a conclusion1 and he might add that after visiting a variety of ,continental and ,american workshops he should certainly not1 if he were called upon to award the palm of superiority in workmanship1 go across the ,atlantic for that purpose4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,nasmith remarked that whether ,english engineers were the inventors of the milling machine or not1 it must be admitted that it was through this type of cutter being taken up by the ,americans that milling had become the success it was at the present time4 ,english engineers were very conservative1 and it was only through the pressure of circumstances that milling machines came into general use in this country4 ,when ,american inventions were brought to ,england they were generally improved to the highest degree1 but he thought the chief fault of both ,american and ,continental engineers was what one might call over-refinement2 there was such a thing as over-finishing an object and overdoing it4 ,if1 however1 ,american machinery was so much superior to what we had in this country1 as asserted by the reader of the paper1 how was it that cotton machinery1 with all its intricacies1 could be sent to the ,united ,states1 in the face of ,american manufacturers1 even though the cost was increased from #dj to #fj per cent48 ,at the present time it was possible for ,english machinists to secure contracts for the whole of the machinery in an ,american mill1 and inclusive of freight charges and high tariff1 deliver and erect it in ,america at a lower cost than ,american engineers with all the advantages of their immeasurably superior tools were able to do4 ,another speaker1 ,mr4 ,barstow1 ridiculed the idea that the ,americans could be so pre-eminent in the manufacture of emery wheels as might be inferred from ,mr4 ,renold1 when they had before them the fact that from the neighborhood of ,manchester thousands of emery wheels were every year exported to the ,united ,states4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,methods ,,of ,,quarrying4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,l4 ,saunders1 for many years the engineer of the ,ingersoll ,rock ,drill ,co41 and hence thoroughly familiar with modern quarrying practice1 read a paper before the last meeting of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers on the above subject1 containing many interesting points1 given in the ,engineering ,news1 from which we abstract as follows4 ,as a preliminary to describing the new ,knox system of quarrying1 which even yet is not universally known among quarrymen1 ,mr4 ,saunders gives the following in regard to older methods3 ,the ,knox system is a recent invention2 no mention was made of it in the tenth census1 and no description has yet been given of it in any publications on quarrying4 ,the first work done by this method was in #ahhe1 and at the close of that year #b quarries had adopted it4 ,in #ahhf it was used in #bj quarries2 in #ahhg in #dd1 in #ahhh in upward of #ajj1 and at the present time about #cjj quarries have adopted it4 ,its purpose is to release dimension stone from its place in the bed1 by so directing an explosive force that it is made to cleave the rock in a prescribed line without injury4 ,the system is also used for breaking up detached blocks of stone into smaller sizes4 ,quarrymen have1 ever since the introduction of blasting1 tried to direct the blast so as to save stock4 ,holes drilled by hand are seldom round4 ,the shape of the bit and their regular rotation while drilling usually produce a hole of somewhat triangular section4 ,it was observed1 many years ago1 that when a blast was fired in a hand-drilled hole the rock usually broke in three directions1 radiating from the points of the triangle in the hole4 ,this led quarrymen to look for a means by which the hole might be shaped in accordance with a prescribed direction of cleavage4 ,the oldest sandstone quarries in ,america are those at ,portland1 ,conn4 ,it was from these quarries that great quantities of brownstone were shipped for buildings in ,new ,york4 ,the typical brownstone front is all built of ,portland stone4 ,as the ,portland quarries were carried to great depths the thickness of bed increased1 as it usually does in quarries4 ,with beds from #aj to #bj ft4 deep1 all of solid and valuable brownstone1 it became a matter of importance that some device should be applied which would shear the stone from its bed without loss of stock and without the necessity of making artificial beds at short distances4 ,a system was adopted and used successfully for a number of years which comprised the drilling of deep holes from #aj to #ab in4 in diameter1 and charging them with explosives placed in a canister of peculiar shape4 ,the drilling of this hole is so interesting as to warrant a passing notice4 ,the system was similar to that followed with the old fashioned drop drill4 ,the weight of the bit was the force which struck the blow1 and this bit was simply raised or lowered by a crank turned by two men at the wheel4 ,the bit resembled a broad ax in shape1 in that it was extremely broad1 tapering to a sharp point1 and convex along the edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #a illustrates in section one of the ,portland drills1 and a drill hole with the canister containing the explosive in place4 ,the canister was made of two curved pieces of sheet tin with soldered edges1 cloth or paper being used at the ends4 ,it was surrounded with sand or earth1 so that the effect of the blast was practically the same as though the hole were drilled in the shape of the canister4 ,in other words1 the old ,portland system was to drill a large1 round hole1 put in a canister1 and then fill up a good part of the hole4 ,were it possible to drill the hole in the shape of the canister1 it would obviously save a good deal of work which had to be undone4 ,the ,portland system was1 therefore1 an extravagant one1 but the results accomplished were such as to fully warrant its use4 ,straight and true breaks were made1 following the line of the longer axis of the canister section1 as in ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,it was found that with the old ,portland canister two breaks might be made at right angles by a single blast1 when using a canister shaped like a square prism4 ,in some of the larger blasts1 where blocks weighing in the neighborhood of #b1jjj tons were sheared on the bed1 two holes as deep as #bj ft4 were drilled close together4 ,the core between the holes was then clipped out and large canisters measuring #b ft4 across from edge to edge were used4 ,in regard to another of the older systems of blasting1 known as ,lewising1 ,mr4 ,saunders says3 ,a ,lewis hole is made by drilling two or three holes close together and parallel with each other1 the partitions between the holes being broken down by using what is known as a broach4 ,thus a wide hole or groove is formed in which powder is inserted1 either by ramming it directly in the hole1 or by puling it in a canister1 shaped somewhat like the ,lewis hole trench4 ,a complex ,lewis hole is the combination of #c drill holes1 while a compound ,lewis hole contains #d holes4 ,lewising is confined almost entirely to granite4 ,in some cases a series of ,lewis holes is put in along the bench at distances of #aj and #be ft4 apart1 or even greater1 each ,lewis hole being situated equidistant from the face of the bench4 ,the holes are blasted simultaneously by the electric battery4 ,after noting another system used to a limited extent1 and not to be commended1 viz41 the use of inverted plugs and feathers 7the plugs and feathers being inserted as a sort of tamping which the blast drives upward to split the rock71 ,mr4 ,saunders continues in substance as follows3 ,it is thus seen that the state of the art has been progressive1 though it was imperfect4 ,mr4 ,sperr1 in his reference to this subject1 made in the report of the tenth census1 says3 ,the influence of the shape of the drill hole upon the effects of the blast does not seem to be generally known1 and a great waste of material necessarily follows4 ,this was written but a few years before the introduction of the new system1 and it is doubtless true that attention was thus widely directed to the conspicuous waste1 due to a lack of knowledge of the influence of the shape of a drill hole on the effect of a blast4 ,the system developed by ,mr4 ,knox practically does all and more than was done by the old ,portland system1 and it does it at far less expense4 ,it can best be described by illustrations4 ,illustrations3 ,figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f ,fig4 #c is a round hole drilled either by hand or otherwise1 preferably otherwise1 because an important point is to get it round4 ,fig4 #d is the improved form of hole1 and this is made by inserting a reamer1 ,figs4 #e and #f1 into the hole in the line of the proposed fracture1 thus cutting two ,v-shaped grooves into the walls of the hole4 ,the blacksmith tools for dressing the reamers are shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,the usual method of charging and tamping a hole in using the new system is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the charge of powder is shown at ,c1 the air space at ,b and the tamping at ,a4 ,fig4 #i is a special hole for use in thin beds of rock4 ,the charge of powder is shown at ,c1 the rod to sustain tamping at ,d1 air space at ,,bb1 and tamping at ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,let us assume that we have a bluestone quarry1 in which we may illustrate the simplest application of the new system4 ,the sheet of stone which we wish to shear from place has a bed running horizontally at a depth of say #aj ft4 ,one face is in front and a natural seam divides the bed at each end at the walls of the quarry4 ,we now have a block of stone1 say #ej ft4 long1 with all its faces free except one--that opposite and corresponding with the bench4 ,one or more of the specially formed holes are put in at such depth and distance from each other and from the bench as may be regulated by the thickness1 strength and character of the rock4 ,no man is so good a judge of this as the quarry foreman who has used and studied the effect of this system in his quarry4 ,great care should be taken to drill the holes round and in a straight line4 ,in sandstone of medium hardness these holes may be situated #aj1 #ab or #ae ft4 apart4 ,if the bed is a tight one the hole should be run entirely through the sheet and to the bed2 but with an open free bed holes of less depth will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h1 #i ,the reamer should now be used and driven by hand4 ,several devices have been applied to rock drills for reaming the hole by machinery while drilling2 that is1 efforts have been made to combine the drill and the reamer4 ,such efforts have met with only partial success4 ,the perfect alignment of the reamer is so important that where power is used this point is apt to be neglected4 ,it is also a well known fact that the process of reaming by hand is not a difficult or a slow one4 ,the drilling of the hole requires the greatest amount of work4 ,after this has been done it is a simple matter to cut the ,v-shaped grooves4 ,the reamer should be applied at the center1 that is1 the grooves should be cut on the axis or full diameter of the hole4 ,the gauge of the reamer should be at least #a diameters4 ,great care should be taken that the reamer does not twist1 as the break may be thereby deflected2 and the reaming must be done also to the full depth of the hole4 ,the hole is now ready for charging4 ,the powder should be a low explosive1 like black or ,judson powder or other explosives which act slowly4 ,no definite rule can be laid down as to the amount of powder to be used1 but it should be as small as possible4 ,very little powder is required in most rocks4 ,hard and fine grained stone requires less powder than soft stone4 ,mr4 ,knox tells of a case which came under his observation1 where a block of granite more than #djj tons weight1 split clear in two with #ac oz4 of ,,ff powder4 ,he compares this with a block of sandstone of less than #ajj tons weight barely started with #b lb4 of the same grade of powder1 and requiring a second shot to remove it4 ,it is obvious that enough powder must be inserted in the hole to produce a force sufficient to move the entire mass of rock on its bed4 ,in some kinds of stone1 notably sandstone1 the material is so soft that it will break when acted upon by the force necessary to shear the block4 ,in cases of this kind a number of holes should be drilled and fired simultaneously by the electric battery4 ,in such work it is usual to put in the holes only #d or #e ft4 apart4 ,the powder must1 of course1 be provided with a fuse or preferably a fulminating cap4 ,it is well to insert the cap at or near the bottom of the cartridge1 as shown in ,figs4 #h and #i4 ,after the charge the usual thing to do is to insert tamping4 ,in the improved form of hole the tamping should not he put directly upon the powder1 but an air space should be left1 as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #h4 ,the best way to tamp1 leaving an air space1 is first to insert a wad1 which may be of oakum1 hay1 grass1 paper or other similar material4 ,the tamping should be placed from #f to #ab in4 below the mouth of the hole4 ,in some kinds of stone a less distance will suffice1 and as much air space as practicable should intervene between the explosive and the tamping4 ,if several holes are used on a line they should be connected in series and blasted by electricity4 ,the effect of the blast is to make a vertical seam connecting the holes1 and the entire mass of rock is sheared several inches or more4 ,the philosophy of this new method of blasting is simple1 though a matter of some dispute4 ,the following explanation has been given4 ,see ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,the two surfaces1 a and b1 being of equal area1 must receive an equal amount of the force generated by the conversion of the explosive into gas4 ,these surfaces being smooth and presenting no angle between the points1 ,a and ,b1 they furnish no starting point for a fracture1 but at these points the lines meet at a sharp angle including between them a wedge-shaped space4 ,the gas acting equally in all directions from the center is forced into the two opposite wedge-shaped spaces1 and the impact being instantaneous the effect is precisely similar to that of two solid wedges driven from the center by a force equally prompt and energetic4 ,all rocks possess the property of elasticity in a greater or less degree1 and this principle being excited to the point of rupture at the points1 ,a and ,b1 the gas enters the crack and the rock is split in a straight line simply because under the circumstances it cannot split in any other way4 ,another theory which is much the same in substance is then given1 and after some general discussion of the theory of the action of the forces under the several systems1 the paper continues3 ,the new form of hole is1 therefore1 almost identical in principle with the old ,portland canister1 except that it has the greater advantage of the ,v-shaped groove in the rock1 which serves as a starting point for the break4 ,it is also more economical than the ,portland canister1 in that it requires less drilling and the waste of stone is less4 ,it is1 therefore1 not only more economical than any other system of blasting1 but it is more certain1 and in this respect it is vastly superior to any other blasting system1 because stone is valuable1 and anything which adds to the certainty of the break also adds to the profit of the quarryman4 ,it is doubtless true that1 notwithstanding the greater area of pressure in the new form of hole1 the break would not invariably follow the prescribed line but for the ,v-shaped groove which virtually starts it4 ,a bolt1 when strained1 will break in the thread whether this be the smallest section or not1 because the thread is the starting point for the break4 ,a rod of glass is broken with a slight jar provided a groove has been filed in its surface4 ,numerous other instances might be cited to prove the value of the groove4 ,elasticity in rock is a pronounced feature1 which varies to a greater or less extent2 but it is always more or less present4 ,a sandstone has recently been found which possesses the property of elasticity to such an extent that it may be bent like a thin piece of steel4 ,when a blast is made in the new form of hole the stone is under high tension1 and being elastic it will naturally pull apart on such lines of weakness as grooves1 especially when they are made1 as is usually the case in this system1 in a direction at right angles with the lines of least resistance4 ,horizontal holes are frequently put in and artificial beds made by lofting4 ,in such cases where the rock has a rift parallel with the bed1 one hole about half way through is sufficient for a block about #ae ft4 square1 but in liver rock the holes must be drilled nearly through the block and the size of the block first reduced4 ,a more difficult application of the system1 and one requiring greater care in its successful use1 is where the block of stone is so situated that both ends are not free1 one of them being solidly fixed in the quarry wall4 ,a simple illustration of a case of this kind is a stone step on a stairway which leads up and along a wall1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,each step has one end fixed to the wall and the other free4 ,each step is also free on top1 on the bottom and on the face1 but fixed at the back4 ,we now put one of the new form of holes in the corner at the junction of the step and the wall4 ,the shape of the hole is as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,it is here seen that the grooves are at right angles with each other1 and the block of stone is sheared by a break made opposite and parallel with the bench1 as in the previous case1 and an additional break made at right angles with the bench and at the fixed end of the block4 ,sometimes a corner break is made by putting in two of the regular ,v-shaped holes in the lines of the proposed break and without the use of the corner hole4 ,a useful application of this system is in splitting up large masses of loose stone4 ,for this purpose the ,v-shaped grooves are sometimes cut in four positions and breaks are made in four directions radiating from the center of the hole as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,in this way a block is divided into four rectangular pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,though the new system is especially adapted to the removal of heavy masses of rock1 yet it has been applied with success in cases where several light beds overlie each other4 ,in one such instance #aj sheets1 measuring in all only #f ft41 were broken by a blast1 but in cases of this kind the plug and feather process applies very well1 and the new system1 when used1 must be in the hands of an expert1 or the loss will be serious4 ,referring again to our stone step1 let us imagine a case where this stairway runs between two walls4 ,we have here each step fixed at each end and free only on the top1 the bottom1 and one face4 ,let us assume that there is a back seam1 that is1 that the step is not fixed at the back4 ,in a quarry1 this seam1 unless a natural one1 should be made by a channeling machine4 ,in order to throw this step put of place it must be cut off at both ends1 and for this purpose the ,v-shaped holes are put in at right angles to the face4 ,it is well1 however1 to put the first two holes next the back seam in a position where the grooves will converge at the back so as to form a sort of key1 which serves a useful purpose in removing the block after the blast4 ,in quarries where there are no horizontal beds a channeling machine should be used to free the block on all sides and to a suitable depth1 and then the ledge may be lofted by holes placed horizontally4 ,where pressure exists in quarries1 the new system has certain limitations4 ,after determining the line of pressure it is only practicable to use the system directly on the line of thrust1 or at right angles to it4 ,it is much better1 however1 to release the pressure from the ledge by channeling1 after which a single end may be detached by a ,knox blast4 ,it is well to bear in mind that the holes should invariably be of small diameter4 ,in no case should the diameter of a hole be over #a in4 in any kind of rock4 ,this being the case1 the blocks of stone are delivered to the market with but little loss in measurement4 ,it is a noticeable fact that stone quarried by the new system shows very little evidence of drill marks1 for the faces are frequently as true as though cut with a machine4 ,a further gain is the safety of the system4 ,the blasting is light and is confined entirely within the holes4 ,no spalls or fragments are thrown from the bast4 ,the popular idea that the system is antagonistic to the channeling process is a mistaken one4 ,there are1 of course1 some quarries which formerly used channeling machines without this system1 but which now do a large part of the work by blasting4 ,instances1 however1 are rare where the system has replaced the channeler4 ,the two go side by side1 and an intelligent use of the new system in most quarries requires a channeling machine4 ,there are those who may tell of stone that has been destroyed by a blast on the new system1 but investigation usually shows that either the work was done by an inexperienced operator1 or an effort was made to do too much4 ,a most interesting illustration of the value of this system1 side by side with the channeler1 is shown in the northern ,ohio sandstone quarries4 ,a great many channeling machines are in use there1 working around the new form of holes1 and when used together in an intelligent and careful manner1 the stone is quarried more cheaply than by any other process that has yet been devised4 ,to a limited extent the system has been used in slate4 ,the difficulty is that most of the slate quarries are in solid ledges1 where no free faces or beds exist2 but it has been used with success in a slate quarry at ,cherryville1 ,pa41 since #ahhh4 ,among notable blasts made by this system are the following3 ,at the mica schist quarries1 at ,conshohocken1 ,pa41 a hole #a in4 in diameter was drilled in a block which was #bg ft4 long1 #ae ft4 wide and #f ft4 thick4 ,the blast broke the stone across the rift1 only #h oz4 of black powder being used4 ,at the ,portland1 ,conn41 quarries a single blast was fired by electricity1 #ae holes being drilled with #b lb4 of coarse ,no4 ,c powder in each hole1 and a rock was removed #aaj ft4 long1 #bj ft4 wide and #aa ft4 thick1 containing #bd1bjj cu4 ft41 or about #b1djj tons1 the fracture being perfectly straight4 ,this large mass of stone was moved out about #b in4 without injury to itself or the adjoining rock4 ,another blast at ,portland removed #c1cjj tons a distance of #d in4 ,seventeen holes were drilled1 using #b lb4 of powder in each hole1 the size of the block being #aej #bj #aa ft4 ,in a ,lisbon1 ,o41 quarry a block of sandstone #bjj ft4 long1 #bh ft4 wide and #ae ft4 thick was moved about in4 by a blast4 ,this block was also afterward cut up by this system in blocks #f ft4 square4 ,a sandstone bowlder #gj ft4 long1 average width #ej ft41 average thickness #ac ft41 was embedded in the ground to a depth of about #g ft4 ,a single hole #h ft4 deep was charged with #bj oz4 of powder and the rock was split in a straight line from end to end and entirely to the bottom4 ,a ledge of sandstone open on its face and two ends1 #aaj #ac #h ft41 was moved by a blast about #c in4 without wasting a particle of rock1 #h holes being used1 drilled by three men in just one day1 and #ae oz4 of powder being used in each hole4 ,a sandstone ledge1 open on the face and end only1 #bjj #bh #ae ft41 containing #hd1jjj cu4 ft4 stone1 was moved in4 by #be holes1 each containing #a lb4 of powder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,trotter ,,curve ,,ranger4 ,this little instrument was exhibited in a somewhat crude state at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,newcastle in #ahhi4 ,it has since been modified in several respects1 and improvements suggested by practical use have been introduced1 bringing it into a practical form1 and enabling a much greater accuracy to be attained4 ,the principle is one which is occasionally employed for setting out circles with a pocket sextant1 viz41 the property of a circle that the angle in a segment is constant4 ,the leading feature of the invention is the arrangement of scales1 which enables the operation of setting put large curves for railway or other work to be carried out without requiring any calculations1 thereby enabling any intelligent man to execute work which would otherwise call for a knowledge of the use of a theodolite and the tables of tangential angles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--,,perspective ,,view ,,of ,,instrument ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,staff4 ,the instrument is intended to be thoroughly portable2 so much so1 indeed1 that it is not necessary or even desirable to use a tripod4 ,it may be held in the hand like a sextant1 or may be carried on a light staff4 ,the general appearance is shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,it will be seen that a metal plate1 on which two scales are engraved1 carries a mirror at one end and an eye piece at the other4 ,the mirror is mounted on a metal plate1 which is shaped to a peculiar curve4 ,a clamp and slow motion provide for rapid and for fine adjustment4 ,the eye piece is set at an angle1 and contains a half silvered mirror1 the upper portion being transparent4 ,this allows direct vision along the axis of the eye piece1 and at the same time vision in another direction1 after two reflections1 one in the eye piece and the other at the adjustable mirror4 ,fig4 #b is an outline plan of the instrument when closed4 ,in the first form of the instrument only one mirror was provided1 but by the double reflection in the improved pattern1 any accidental twisting of the rod or handle produces no displacement of the images1 since the inclination of one mirror neutralizes the equal and opposite inclination of the other4 ,no cross line is required with the new arrangement1 since it is only necessary that the two images should coincide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,outline ,,of ,,instrument ,,showing ,,the ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,direct ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,reflected ,,ray4 ,the dotted line ,a ,b represents the direct ray1 and the line ,a ,c ,d the reflected one4 ,fig4 #c shows the different geometrical and trigonometrical elements of the curve1 which can be read upon the various scales1 or to which the instrument may be set4 ,an observer standing at ,c sights the point ,b directly and the point ,a by reflection4 ,a staff being set up at each point1 he will see them simultaneously1 and in coincidence if the instrument be properly set for the curve4 ,if any intermediate position be taken up on the curve1 both ,a and ,b will be seen in coincidence4 ,if the two rods do not appear superimposed1 the operator must move to the right or the left until this is the case4 ,the instrument will then be over a point in the curve4 ,any number of points at any regular or irregular distances along the curve can thus be set out4 ,one of the simplest elements which can be taken as a datum is the ratio of the length of the chord to the radius1 ,,ab_/,,ao1 ,fig4 #c4 ,this being given1 the value of the ratio is found on the straight scale on the body of the instrument1 and the curved plate is moved until the beveled edge cuts the scale at the desired point4 ,the figure of this curve is a polar curve1 whose equation is r a b sin4 #b theta1 where a is the distance from the zero graduation to the axis of the mirror1 and b is the length of the scale from zero to #b1 and theta is the inclination of the mirror4 ,in the perspective view1 ,fig4 #a1 the curved edge cuts the scale at #a4 ,the instrument being thus set1 the following elements may be read either directly on the scales or by simple arithmetical calculation3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,the radius #a4 ,,ab1 the chord1 read direct on the straight scale4 ,,afb1 the length of the arc1 read direct on the back or under surface of the plate4 ,,fh1 the versed sine1 read direct on the curved scale4 ,,acb1 the angle in the segment1 read direct on the graduated edge4 ,,eab1 the angle between the chord and the tangent1 read direct on the graduated edge4 ,,gab1 the tangential angle #ahj deg4 - ,,acb4 ,,aob1 the angle at the center #b;,,gab4 ,,agb1 the angle between the tangents #ahj deg4 - ,,aob4 ,,oab1 the angle between the chord and the radius ,,eab - #ij deg4 ,,ah#b ,,gf --------- - ,,fh4 ,,ho ,the foregoing elements are contained in a very simple diagram1 ,fig4 #d1 which is engraved on the instrument1 together with the following references3 ,b #ahj deg4 - ,a4 ,c #b;,b4 ,d #ahj deg4 - ,c4 ,e ,a - #ij4 ,only one adjustment is necessary1 and this is provided by means of the screws which fix the inclination of the eyepiece4 ,this is set at such an angle that the instrument1 when closed and reading #ij on the divided limb1 acts as an optical square4 ,it is not necessary1 as in the ordinary method with a theodolite1 that one end of the curve should be visible from the other4 ,if an obstacle intervenes1 all that part of the curve which commands a view of both ends can be set out1 and a ranging rod can be set up at any point of the curve so found1 and the instrument may be reset to complete the curve4 ,to set out a tangent to the curve at ,a1 ,fig4 #c1 set up a rod at ,a and another at any point ,c1 and take up a position on the curve at some point between them4 ,adjust the mirror until the rods are seen superimposed4 ,then moving back to ,a1 observe ,c direct1 and set up a rod at ,e in the line observed by reflection4 ,then ,a ,e is the tangent required4 ,similarly1 on completing the setting out of a curve1 and arriving at the end of the chord1 the remote end being seen by reflection1 the direction observed along the axis of the eyepiece is the new tangent4 ,any of the angles or other ratios already mentioned may be used for setting the instrument1 but if no data whatever are given1 as in the rough surveys for colonial railways where no previous surveys exist1 it is only necessary to select points through which the curve must pass1 to set up ranging rods either at the extremities of the desired curve1 or at any points thereon1 to take up a position on the desired curve between two rods1 and to adjust the instrument until they are seen in coincidence4 ,the curve can then be set out1 and fully marked1 and the elements of the curve can be read on the scales and recorded for reference4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,diagram ,,engraved ,,on ,,the ,,instrument4 ,various other cases which may occur in practice can be rapidly met by one or other of the various scales4 ,suppose the angle ,a ,g ,b between the tangents be given1 together with the middle point ,f on the curve1 ,fig4 #c4 ,subtract this angle from #ahj deg41 the difference gives the angle at the center ,a ,o ,b4 ,take half this1 and set the instrument to the angle thus found4 ,walk along the tangent until a rod set up at some point in the tangent1 say ,e1 is seen in coincidence with a rod set up at ,b4 ,the position of the instrument then marks the point of departure ,a4 ,a rod being placed at ,a1 the first half of the curve may be set out2 or1 if ,b is invisible1 the instrument may be reset for the angle ,e ,a ,b1 and the whole curve set out up to ,b4 ,no cutting of hedges is necessary1 as with theodolite work1 for a curve can easily be taken piece by piece4 ,inclination of the whole instrument introduces no appreciable error4 ,if the eye piece be pointed up or down hill1 the instrument is thrown a little to one side or other of the tip of the staff1 but in a plane tangent to the circle4 ,errors made in setting out a curve with the ,trotter curve ranger are not cumulative1 as in the method of tangential angles with a theodolite4 ,no corrections for inaccurate hitting of the final rod can occur1 for the curve must necessarily end at that point4 ,it should be observed that the instrument is not intended to supersede a theodolite1 but it has the great advantage over the older instrument that no assistant or chains or trigonometrical tables or any knowledge of mathematics are required4 ,the data being given1 by a theodolite or otherwise1 an intelligent platelayer can easily set out the curve1 while the trained engineer proceeds in advance with the theodolite4 ,no time is lost2 as in chaining1 since the marks may be made wherever and as often as convenient4 ,in work where high accuracy is required this instrument is well adapted for filling in1 and where a rough idea of the nature of a given curve is required1 the mirror being adjusted for any three points upon it1 the various elements may be read off on the scales4 ,a telescope is provided1 but the errors not being cumulative1 it is rarely required4 ,the curve ranger weighs #a lb4 #aj oz41 and is manufactured by ,messrs4 ,elliott ,bros41 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 ,london4 ,it is the invention of ,mr4 ,alex4 ,p4 ,trotter1 ,westminster4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,rail ,,spike ,,and ,,the ,,locomotive4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract from the ,history of the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad4 ,by ,j4 ,elfreth ,watkins1 of the ,national ,museum1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,early in ,october1 #ahcj1 and shortly after the surveys of the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad were completed1 ,robert ,l4 ,stevens 7born #aghg7 sailed for ,england1 with instructions to order a locomotive and rails for that road4 ,at that time no rolling mill in ,america was able to take a contract for rolling ,t rails4 ,robert ,stevens advocated the use of an all-iron rail in preference to the wooden rail or stone stringer plated with strap iron1 then in use on one or two short ,american railroads4 ,at his suggestion1 at the last meeting held before he sailed1 after due discussion1 the ,board of ,directors of the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad passed a special resolution authorizing him to obtain the rails he advocated4 ,,robert ,l4 ,,stevens ,,invents ,,the ,,american ,,rail ,,and ,,spike4 ,during the voyage to ,liverpool he whiled away the hours on shipboard by whittling thin wood into shapes of imaginary cross sections until he finally decided which one was best suited to the needs of the new road4 ,he was familiar with the ,berkenshaw rail1 with which the best ,english roads were then being laid1 but he saw that1 as it required an expensive chair to hold it in place1 it was not adapted to our country1 where metal workers were scarce and iron was dear4 ,he added the base to the ,t rail1 dispensing with the chair4 ,he also designed the hook-headed spike 7which is substantially the railroad spike of to-day7 and the iron tongue 7which has been developed into the fish bar71 and the rivets 7which have been replaced by the bolt and nut7 to complete the joint4 ,a fac-simile of the letter#b which he addressed to the ,english iron masters a short time after his arrival in ,london is preserved in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,it contains a cross section1 side elevation and ground plan of the rail for which he requested bids4 ,the base of the rail which he first proposed was to be wider where it was to be attached to the supports than in the intervening spaces4 ,this was afterward modified1 so that the base was made the same width 7three inches7 throughout4 ,footnote #b3 ,this letter reads3 ,,liverpool1 ,november #bfth1 #ahcj4 ,,gentlemen1--,at what rate will you contract to deliver at ,liverpool1 say from #ejj to #fjj tons of railway1 of the best quality of iron rolled to the above pattern in #ab or #af feet lengths1 to lap as shown in the drawing1 with one hole at each end1 and the projections on the lower flange at every two feet1 cash on delivery8 ,how soon could you make the first delivery1 and at what rate per month until the whole is complete8 ,should the terms suit and the work give satisfaction a more extended order is likely to follow1 as this is but about one-sixth part of the quantity required4 ,please to address your answer 7as soon as convenient7 to the care of ,francis ,b4 ,ogden1 ,consul of the ,united ,states at ,liverpool4 ,i am ,your obedient servant1 ,,robert ,l4 ,,stevens1 ,president and ,engineer of the ,camden and ,south ,amboy ,railroad and ,transportation ,company4 ,,difficulty ,,of ,,rolling ,,the ,,american ,,rail4 ,mr4 ,stevens received no favorable answer to his proposals1 but being acquainted with ,mr4 ,guest 7afterward ,sir ,john ,guest71 a member of ,parliament1 proprietor of large iron works in ,dowlais1 ,wales1 he prevailed upon him to have rails rolled at his works4 ,mr4 ,guest became interested in the matter and accompanied ,mr4 ,stevens to ,wales1 where the latter gave his personal supervision to the construction of the rolls4 ,after the rolls were completed the ,messrs4 ,guest hesitated to have them used1 through fear of damage to the mill machinery1 upon hearing which ,mr4 ,stevens deposited a handsome sum guaranteeing the expense of repairing the mill in case it was damaged4 ,the receipt for this deposit was preserved for many years among the archives of the ,camden and ,amboy ,company4 ,as a matter of fact1 the rolling apparatus did break down several times4 ,at first1 as ,mr4 ,stevens in a letter to his father1 which ,i have seen1 described it1 the rails came from the rolls twisted and as crooked as snakes1 and he was greatly discouraged4 ,at last1 however1 the mill men acquired the art of straightening the rail while it cooled4 ,the first shipment1#c consisting of five hundred and fifty bars eighteen feet long1 thirty-six pounds to the yard1 arrived in ,philadelphia on the ship ,charlemagne1 ,may #af1 #ahca4 ,over thirty miles of this rail was laid before the summer of #ahcb4 ,a few years after1 on much of the ,stevens rail laid on the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad1 the rivets at the joints were discarded1 and the bolt with the screw thread and nut1 similar to that now used1 was adopted as the standard4 ,the rail was first designed to weigh thirty-six pounds per yard1 but it was almost immediately increased in weight to between forty and forty-two pounds1 and rolled in lengths of sixteen feet4 ,it was then three and a half inches high1 two and one-eighth inches wide on the head and three and a half inches wide at the base1 the price paid in ,england being #h per ton4 ,the import duty was #a4he4 ,the first shipment of rail1 having arrived in ,america1 was transported to ,bordentown1 and here1 upon the ground on which we stand1 and which this monument is erected to mark forever1 was laid the first piece of track 7about five-sixths of a mile long7 in ,august1 #ahca4 ,the ,camden and ,amboy ,company1 following the example of the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railroad1 laid their first track upon stone blocks two feet square and ten to thirteen inches deep4 ,these blocks were purchased from the prison authorities at ,sing ,sing1 ,n4,y4 ,some of these stone blocks have been used in constructing the foundation for this monument4 ,footnote #c3 ,a list of the vessels chartered to transport the rails1 with dates1 tonnage1 etc41 is given below3 ,no4 of ,tonnage4 ,rate of ,date4 ,ship4 ,bars4 tons4 cwt4 lb4 ,duty4 ,may #af1 #ahca4 ,charlemagne #eej #ejd #j #ad #a4he ,may #ai1 #ahca4 ,salem #ifc #gdd #b #ad #a4he ,april #g1 #ahcb4 ,caledonia #ch #fc #c #jg #a4he ,april #bc1 #ahcb4 ,armadilla #ebe #a1jjj #c #ba #a4he ,may #d1 #ahcb4 ,george ,clinton #fbd #ihf #b #ad #a4he ,june #b-ah1 #ahcc4 ,henry ,kneeland #bjd #cgg #c #ba #a4he ,may #h1 #ahcb4 ,cumberland #a1dfd #b1gij #a #jj #a4he ,june #b1 #ahcb4 ,gardiner #fja #a1acf #j #jj #a4he ,june #e1 #ahcb4 ,globe #dii #idc #a #ad #a4he ,june #f1 #ahcb4 ,jubilee #gj #acj #j #ba #a4he ,july #ah1 #ahcb4 ,hellen #a1jhj #b1jjd #c #ba #a4he ,july #ai1 #ahcb4 ,nimrod #icg #a1gde #c #jj #a4he ,aug4 #b1 #ahcb4 ,emery #bdj #ded #b #jj #a4he ,aug4 #g1 #ahcc4 ,ajax #cfd #gjj #j #ba #a4he ,aug4 #ac1 #ahcb4 ,concordia #fbb #a1agd #c #ad #a4he ,aug4 #ad1 #ahcj4 ,william ,byrny #a1abj #b1ach #a #jg #a4he ,aug4 #bj1 #ahcb4 ,mary ,howland #icb #a1gee #c #jg #a4he ,aug4 #bc1 #ahcb4 ,pulaski #dhh #ibd #a #jj #a4he ,aug4 #bd1 #ahcb4 ,robert ,morris #a1ihe #c1gcb #j #ad #a4he ,aug4 #bg1 #ahcb4 ,ann #ejf #ifa #b #bg #a4he ,sept4 #c1 #ahcb4 ,montgomery #a1cfi #b1iei #j #ad #a4he ,sept4 #d1 #ahcb4 ,marengo #ecd #a1jjd #b #jg #a4he ,oct4 #ab1 #ahcb4 ,vestal #bcg #dfj #b #jg #a4he ,this iron proved to be of such superior quality that after it was worn out in the track1 the company's mechanics preferred it to new iron in making repairs4 ,some of this rail is still in use in side tracks4 ,it is pronounced equal in durability to much of the steel rail of to-day4 ,,first ,,joint ,,fixtures4 ,mr4 ,stevens ordered the first joint fixtures also from an ,english mill1 at the same time4 ,the ends of the rails were designed to rest upon wrought iron plates or flat cast plates4 ,the rails were connected at the stems by an iron tongue five inches long1 two inches wide1 and five-eighths of an inch thick4 ,a rivet1 put on hot1 passing through the stem of each rail near the ends of the bar1 fastened it to the tongue and completed the joint4 ,a hole oblong in shape1 to allow for expunctral contraction1 was punched in the stem at each end of the rail4 ,,the ,,first ,,railroad ,,spikes4 ,the first spikes six inches long1 with hooked heads1 were also ordered at the same time4 ,these were undoubtedly the first railroad spikes 7as they are known to the trade7 ever manufactured4 ,mr4 ,stevens neglected to obtain a patent for these inventions1 although urged to do so by ,mr4 ,ogden1 ,american ,consul at ,liverpool1 and the credit of being the inventor of the ,american rail was for a time claimed for others1 but the evidence brought forward in late years fully established the fact that he was the originator of the ,american system of railway construction4 ,the ,stevens rail and spike gradually found great favor everywhere in ,america--all the roads being relaid with it as the original ,t or strap rail became worn out4 ,in ,england the ,t rail still continues to be used4 ,the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 opened in #ahch1 was laid with ,berkenshaw rails2 part with the straight and part with the fish-bellied rail1 and the remainder with reversible bull-headed rail1 both types being supported by chairs4#d ,footnote #d3 ,the experiment of laying the ,stevens rail in chairs was tried on the ,albany and ,schenectady road in #ahcg1 on the ,hudson ,river ,railroad #ahdh1 but the chairs were soon afterward discarded1 nothing but spikes being used to attach the rail to the tie4 ,sixty years have elapsed since this rail was adopted by the ,camden and ,amboy ,company1 and with the exception of slight alterations in the proportions incident to increased weight1 no radical change has been made in the ,stevens rail1 which is now in use on every railroad in ,america4 ,many improvements have been made in the joint fixture1 but the tongue or fish plate improved into the angle splice bar is in general use1 and nothing has yet been found to take the place of the hook-headed railroad spike which ,robert ,stevens then designed4 ,the track upon which we stand was the first in the world that was laid with the rail and spike now in general use4 ,,mr4 ,,stevens ,,examines ,,english ,,locomotives4 ,mr4 ,stevens divided his time while abroad between arranging for the manufacture of track material and examining the ,english locomotives that were being constructed or had been in service4 ,a year had elapsed since the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 and the ,english mechanics had not been idle4 ,the ,rocket1 although successful in the ,rainhill contest1 when put to work had shown many defects that ,stephenson ,co4 were striving to correct in subsequent locomotives4 ,the ,planet1 built by that firm1 was tried in public ,december #d1 #ahcj1 shortly after ,mr4 ,stevens arrived in ,england1 and at that time was undoubtedly the best locomotive in the world4 ,,the ,,john ,,bull ,,ordered4 ,mr4 ,stevens was present at a trial when the ,planet showed most satisfactory properties1 and he at once ordered a locomotive of similar construction1 from the same manufacturers1 for the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad4 ,this engine1 afterward called the ,john ,bull and ,no4 #a1 was completed in ,may and shipped by sailing vessel from ,newcastle-on-,tyne in ,june1 #ahca1 arriving in ,philadelphia about the middle of ,august of that year4 ,it was then transferred to a sloop at ,chestnut ,street wharf1 ,philadelphia1 whence it was taken to ,bordentown4 ,,the ,,john ,,bull ,,arrives ,,at ,,bordentown4 ,the following circumstances connected with the arrival of the engine at ,bordentown1 ,n4,j41 are related by ,isaac ,dripps1 ,esq41 for many years master mechanic of the ,camden and ,am boy ,railroad1 and afterward superintendent of motive power of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 who is now1 after a busy life1 enjoying a peaceable retirement at his pleasant home in ,west ,philadelphia4 ,mr4 ,dripps1 who is now in the eighty-second year of his age1 was employed by ,robert and ,edwin ,stevens in repairing and assisting with their steamboats on the ,delaware ,river and at ,hoboken as early as #ahbi4 ,when the ,john ,bull arrived in ,philadelphia he was detailed by ,robert ,stevens to attend to the transportation of the engine to ,bordentown1 where it was landed safely the last week in ,august1 #ahca4 ,the boiler and cylinders were in place1 but the loose parts--rods1 pistons1 valves1 etc4--were packed in boxes4 ,no drawings or directions for putting the engine together had come to hand1 and young ,dripps1 who had never seen a locomotive1 found great difficulty in discovering how to put the parts in place1 alone and unassisted1 as ,robert ,stevens1 who had returned from ,europe1 was absent at ,hoboken at the time attending to other matters4 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,engine ,,and ,,parts4 ,the bronze bass-relief upon the monument1 made from the working drawing furnished by ,mr4 ,dripps1 is an exact representation of the locomotive when it arrived in ,america4 ,the engine originally weighed about ten tons4 ,the boiler was thirteen feet long and three feet six inches in diameter4 ,the cylinders were nine inches by twenty inches4 ,there were four driving wheels1 four feet six inches in diameter1 arranged with outside cranks for connecting parallel rods1 but owing to the sharp curves on the road these rods were never used4 ,the driving wheels were made with cast iron hubs and wooden 7locust7 spokes and felloes4 ,the tires were of wrought iron1 three quarters of an inch thick1 the tread being five inches and the depth of flange one and a half inches4 ,the gauge was originally five feet from center to center of rails4 ,the boiler was composed of sixty-two flues seven feet six inches long1 two inches in diameter2 the furnace was three feet seven inches long and three feet two inches high1 for burning wood4 ,the steam ports were one and one-eighth inches by six and a half inches2 the exhaust ports one and one-eighth by six and a half inches2 grate surface1 ten feet eight inches2 fire box surface1 thirty-six feet2 flue surface1 two hundred and thirteen feet2 weight1 without fuel or water1 twenty-two thousand four hundred and twenty-five pounds4 ,after the valves were in gear and the engine in motion1 two levers on the engineman's side moved back and forth continuously4 ,when it was necessary to put the locomotive on the turntable1 enginemen who were skilled in the handling of the engines first put the valves out of gear by turning the handle down1 and then worked the levers by hand1 thus moving the valves to the proper position and stopping the engine at the exact point desired4 ,the reversing gear was a very complicated affair4 ,the two eccentrics were secured to a sleeve or barrel1 which fitted loosely on the crank shaft1 between the two cranks1 so as to turn freely4 ,a treadle was used to change the position of this loose eccentric sleeve on the shaft of the driving wheel 7moving it to the right or left7 when it was necessary to reverse4 ,two carriers were secured firmly to the body of this shaft 7one on each side of the eccentrics72 one carrier worked the engine ahead1 the other back4 ,the small handle on the right side of the boiler was used to lift the eccentric rod 7which passed forward to the rock shaft on the forward part of the engine7 off the pin1 and thus put the valves out of gear before it was possible to shift the sleeve and reverse the engine4 ,great similarity will be noticed in the ,american locomotives built for many years after the arrival of the ,john ,bull1 especially in the matter of making the keys1 brasses1 etc41 on the connecting rods1 and in the construction of valves1 fire box and tubes4 ,even the old plan of setting the ends of the exhaust nozzle high up in the smoke box1 which was discontinued when the petticoat pipe came in use1 is now again resorted to in connection with the extended smoke box of modern locomotives4 ,,first ,,trial ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,mr4 ,dripps informs me that1 after many attempts1 he succeeded in putting the parts of the engine together1 and when it was placed in position upon the track he notified ,robert ,stevens of the fact4 ,mr4 ,stevens came at once to ,bordentown1 as his anxiety to see it in operation was very great4 ,upon his arrival the boiler was pumped full of water1 by hand1 from the hogshead in which it was brought4 ,benjamin ,higgins made the fire with pine wood1 and when the scale#e showed thirty pounds steam pressure1 ,isaac ,dripps opened the throttle1 ,robert ,stevens standing by his side1 and the first locomotive on this great highway moved4 ,it would be difficult to describe the feeling of these three men as they stood upon the moving engine--the first human freight drawn by steam on what was afterward destined to be the great highway connecting the two most populous cities of the ,american continent2 a most important link in the chain of intercommunication between the ,north and ,south and ,west4 ,what possibilities must have dawned upon them if they cared to lift the veil of the future6 ,footnote #e3 ,the dial gauge was not in use at that time4 ,during the next few days after this preliminary trial the engine was again taken apart1 and as a few of the parts needed modification some time intervened before it was again in running order4 ,it will be remembered that young ,dripps had never seen a locomotive before and there were no old engineers to consult in regard to the construction or management of the engine4 ,a ,,tender ,,improvised4 ,as no tender came with the locomotive1 one was improvised from a four-wheel flat car that had been used on construction work1 which was soon equipped to carry water and wood4 ,the water tank consisted of a large whisky cask which was procured from a ,bordentown storekeeper1 and this was securely fastened on the center of this four-wheeled car4 ,a hole was bored up through the car into the barrel and into it a piece of two-inch tin pipe was fastened1 projecting below the platform of the car4 ,it now became necessary to devise some plan to get the water from the tank to the pump and into the boiler around the turns under the cars1 and as a series of rigid sections of pipe was not practicable1 young ,dripps procured four sections of hose two feet long1 which he had made out of shoe leather by a ,bordentown shoemaker4 ,these were attached to the pipes and securely fastened by bands of waxed thread4 ,the hogshead was filled with water1 a supply of wood for fuel was obtained1 and the engine and tender were ready for work4 ,,steam ,,or ,,horse ,,power8 ,at that time the question whether the railroad should be operated by steam locomotives or horse power had already become a political issue4 ,the farmers and other horse owners and dealers1 who had made money by selling hay and grain and horses to the stage and freight wagon lines1 were discussing the possibilities of loss of business4 ,,trial ,,of ,,the ,,engine ,,before ,,the ,,legislature4 ,many of the members of the ,new ,jersey ,legislature were farmers4 ,the management of the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad was anxious to give these gentlemen and other prominent citizens an opportunity to examine a steam locomotive at work and to ride in a railway train4 ,sixty years ago to-day1 on the #abth of ,november1 #ahca1 by special invitation1 the members of the ,legislature and other ,state officials were driven from ,trenton to ,bordentown in stages to witness the trial4 ,among them were ,john ,p4 ,jackson 7father of the present general superintendent of the ,united ,railroads of ,new ,jersey division of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 who afterward took a prominent part in the affairs of the ,new ,jersey ,railroad1 whose termini were at ,new ,brunswick and ,jersey ,city72 ,benjamin ,fish 7director for fifty years for the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad71 afterward president of the ,freehold and ,jamesburg ,agricultural ,railroad2 ,ashbel ,welch1 chief engineer and superintendent of the ,belvidere and ,delaware ,railroad for many years1 and president of the ,united ,railroads of ,new ,jersey during the years immediately preceding the lease to the ,pennsylvania ,railroad2 ,edwin ,a4 and ,robert ,l4 ,stevens1 afterward managers of the road4 ,,first ,,cars4 ,two coaches built so that they might be drawn by horses were attached to the locomotive4 ,these coaches were of the ,english pattern4 ,they had four wheels and resembled three carriage bodies joined together1 with seats in each facing each other4 ,there were three doors at each side4 ,these cars were made by a firm of carriage manufacturers1 ,m4,p4 and ,m4,e4 ,green1 of ,hoboken1 and were thought to be very handsome4 ,the ,new ,jersey law makers were somewhat dubious1 it is said1 about risking their lives in this novel train1 but at last they concluded to do so and the train started and made many trips back and forth without accident or delay4 ,madam ,murat1 wife of ,prince ,murat1 a nephew of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 who was then living in ,bordentown1 insisted on being the first woman to ride on a train hauled by a steam locomotive in the ,state4 ,in the evening a grand entertainment was given to the ,legislature by the railroad company at ,arnell's ,hotel1 ,bordentown1 and it has been whispered that the festivities kept up until a late hour in the night4 ,whether that be true or not1 it is generally conceded that from that time to this the ,legislature of ,new ,jersey have always been more or less interested in the affairs of the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad and its successors1 or vice versa4 ,this first movement of passengers by steam in the ,state of ,new ,jersey was regarded as a success from every point of view1 and in commemoration of the important events here enacted the boundaries of this first piece of railway laid between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 which were identified and staked out by ,isaac ,dripps a half century afterward1 have been definitely marked for all time by the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company1 who have erected these handsome stones4 ,,early ,,difficulties4 ,among the earliest troubles of the young engineer and his employer1 ,robert ,l4 ,stevens1 was the fact that as there were only four wheels under the engines1 they were derailed frequently in going around curves2 so it was necessary to provide an appliance to prevent this4 ,,the ,,first ,,pilot4 ,the first pilot was planned1 #ahcb1 by ,robert ,l4 ,stevens4 ,a frame made of oak1 eight by four feet1 pinned together at the corners1 was made4 ,under one end of it a pair of wheels twenty-six inches in diameter were placed in boxes1 and the other end was fastened to an extension of the axle outside of the forward driving wheels1 it having been found by experience that a play of about one inch on each side on the pedestals of the front wheels of the pilot or engine was necessary in order to get around the curves then in the tracks4 ,for years afterward there was very little change in constructing the pilots from that originally applied to the ,john ,bull4 ,the spiral spring1 which held the front wheels of the pilot in place1 acted substantially as the center pin of a truck4 ,the turntables in use on the road were so short that it was necessary to unconnect and take off these pilots before turning the engine4 ,after the pilot was adopted the forward large wheel on right of the engine was made loose on the shaft in order to afford additional play in going around curves4 ,other#f changes and additions were also made in the locomotive4 ,footnote #f3 ,changes in the locomotive ,john ,bull since date of construction1 #ahcj3 ,steam dome changed from rear of boiler forward to a part over what was called the man-hole1 and throttle valve placed therein4 ,steam pipes changed to outside of boiler1 connecting new dome with smoke box1 entering it on each side4 ,in the beginning the reverse gear was changed from one single eccentric rod on each side to two on each side1 connecting on to the same eccentric wheel1 and the lifting rod1 in pulling back1 lifted the forward gear hook off the rocker arm1 and the back motion hook then connecting on the rocker arm reversed the engine4 ,side rods were never used4 ,driver spring was changed from a bearing under the pedestal boxes to a point over the boxes4 ,the pilot was attached in this manner3 ,right forward wheel being loose1 forward axle extended eight inches beyond box on each side2 to this was attached the beam of the pilot1 having play of about one inch between box and pedestal plate to act while going around curves4 ,the weight of forward part of engine rested upon a cross brace of the two-wheel pilot1 which took bearing by a screw pin surrounded by a spring1 by turning which pin the weight on the drivers could be adjusted4 ,a brace used as a hand rail was added on top of the frame1 bracing frame and acting as a guide to the driving springs4 ,water-cocks changed from right to left side of the boiler4 ,bell1 whistle and headlight were added4 ,balance safety valve scale was changed forward to a point over barrel of boiler1 the secret valve being over the new dome4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,locomotive ,,building4 ,during #ahca-ce the company's shops were located at ,hoboken1 ,n4,j41 and during the winter of #ahcb-cc1 three locomotives were commenced at these shops 7two completed before ,march1 #ahcc1 the other in ,april71 the valves1 cylinders1 pistons1 etc41 coming from ,england1 the boilers being made under the direction of ,robert ,l4 ,stevens4 ,it was his opinion that the ,john ,bull was too heavy1 and the new boilers were built smaller and lighter1 so that the engines1 when completed1 weighed eight instead of ten tons4 ,with these three engines1 which were delivered to the railroad company at ,south ,amboy1 the stone blocks and other material for the permanent track was delivered along the line of the road4 ,,baldwin',s ,,first ,,locomotives4 ,the importation of the locomotive ,john ,bull was destined to have a far-reaching influence in moulding the types of early ,american locomotives4 ,after the demonstration of ,november #ab1 #ahca1 the engine was taken from the track and stored in a shed constructed to protect it until such time as the track should be completed4 ,it was about this time that the proprietor of ,peale's ,museum1 in ,philadelphia1 applied to ,matthias ,baldwin1 an ingenious mathematical instrument maker1 for a small locomotive to run upon a circular track on the floor of the museum4 ,mr4 ,baldwin had heard of this locomotive4 ,he came to ,bordentown and applied to ,isaac ,dripps for permission to inspect it4 ,mr4 ,dripps tells me he remembers very well the day that he explained to ,mr4 ,baldwin the construction of the various working parts4 ,mr4 ,baldwin built a toy engine for ,mr4 ,peale1 which was so successful1 that in #ahcb he was called upon by the ,philadelphia and ,germantown ,railroad ,company to construct the old ,ironsides1#g which was similar in many ways to the ,john ,bull1 as an examination of the model preserved in the ,national ,museum will show4 ,the success of this engine laid the foundation for the great ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 which is in existence to-day1 sending locomotives to every part of the globe4 ,footnote #g3 ,a handsome model of the ,ironsides was presented to the ,united ,states ,national ,museum by the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,company in #ahhh4 ,,the ,,line ,,from ,,bordentown ,,to ,,south ,,amboy4 ,the ,camden and ,amboy ,company having obtained control of the steamboat routes between ,philadelphia and ,bordentown1 and between ,south ,amboy and ,new ,york1 directed their energies to completing the railway across the ,state4 ,although the grading of the road from ,bordentown to ,camden had been commenced in the summer of #ahca1 work on that end of the line was abandoned for about two years1 the entire construction force being put on the work between ,bordentown and ,south ,amboy4 ,the road from ,bordentown to ,hightstown was completed by the middle of ,september1 #ahcb1 and from ,hightstown to ,south ,amboy in the ,december following4 ,the deep cut at ,south ,amboy1 and the curves of the track there1 gave the civil engineers great trouble4 ,,the ,,first ,,american ,,standard ,,track4 ,the laying of the track through the deep cut led to an event of great importance to future railway construction4 ,the authorities at ,sing ,sing having failed to deliver the stone blocks rapidly enough1 ,mr4 ,stevens ordered hewn wooden cross ties to be laid temporarily1 and the rail to be directly spiked thereto4 ,a number of these ties were laid on the sharpest curves in the cut4 ,they showed such satisfactory properties when the road began to be operated that they were permitted to remain1 and the stone blocks already in the track were replaced by wooden ties as rapidly as practicable4 ,without doubt the piece of track in deep cut was the first in the world to be laid according to the present ,american practice of spiking the rail directly to the cross tie4 ,,the ,,line ,,opened ,,between ,,bordentown ,,and ,,south ,,amboy4 ,among the memoranda compiled by ,benjamin ,fish1 published in his memoir1 ,i find the following3 ,first cars were put on the ,camden and ,amboy ,railroad ,september #ai1 #ahcb4 ,they were drawn by two horses4 ,they took the directors and a few friends from ,bordentown to ,hightstown and back4 ,on ,december #ag1 #ahcb1 the first passengers were taken from ,bordentown through to ,south ,amboy4 ,fifty or sixty people went4 ,it was a rainy day4 ,on ,january #bd1 #ahcc1 the first freight cars were put on the railroad4 ,there were three cars1 drawn by one horse each1 with six or seven thousand pounds of freight on each car4 ,freight came from ,new ,york by steam boat to ,south ,amboy4 ,i drove the first car1 ,john ,twine drove the second car and ,edmund ,page the third one4 ,we came to the ,sand ,hills 7near ,bordentown7 by railroad1 there loaded the goods on wagons 7it was winter1 and the river was frozen over71 arriving in ,philadelphia by sunrise next morning4 ,the goods left ,new ,york at #ab o'clock1 noon4 ,this was done by the old firm of ,hill1 ,fish ,abbe4 ,immediately after the road from ,bordentown to ,south ,amboy was completed1 and as late as the summer of #ahcc1 passengers were brought from ,philadelphia to the wharf at ,white ,hill by steamboat1 and from there were rapidly driven to ,amboy4 ,two horses were hitched to each car1 and as they were driven continuously on the run1 three changes of horses were required1 the finest horses obtainable being purchased for this purpose4 ,the time consumed in crossing the ,state 7thirty-four miles7 was from two and a half to three hours4 ,early in ,september1 #ahcc1 the locomotive ,john ,bull was put on the train leaving ,bordentown about #g o'clock in the morning1 and returning leaving ,south ,amboy at #d ,p4,m4 ,this was the first passenger train regularly run by steam on the route between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,british ,,cruiser ,,olus4 ,the new twin screw cruiser olus was launched from the ,devonport ,dockyard on the #acth ,november4 ,the first keel plate of the olus was laid in position on the #ajth ,march last year1 and up to the present time fully two thirds of the estimated weight has been worked into her structure4 ,says ,industries3 ,she is built of steel1 with large phosphor bronze castings for stern post1 shaft brackets1 and stem1 the latter terminating in a formidable ram4 ,the hull is sheathed with wood1 and will be covered with copper to enable her to keep the seas for a lengthened period on remote stations1 where there is a lack of docking accommodation4 ,all the vital portions1 such as machinery1 boilers1 magazines1 and steering gear1 are protected by a steel deck running fore and aft1 terminating forward in the ram1 of which it virtually forms a part4 ,subdivision has been made a special feature in this type of vessel1 and the hull under the upper deck is divided into nearly #ajj water tight compartments4 ,between perpendiculars the olus measures #cjj ft4 in length1 the extreme breadth being #dc ft4 #h in41 and moulded depth #bb ft4 #i in41 with a displacement of #c1fjj tons on a mean draught of water of #ag ft4 #f in4 ,she will be supplied by ,messrs4 ,hawthorn1 ,leslie ,co41 of ,newcastle on ,tyne1 with two sets of vertical triple-expansion engines1 capable of developing collectively #i1jjj h4p41 which is estimated to realize a speed of #ai4ge knots4 ,as vertical engines have been adopted1 the necessary protection of the cylinders1 which project above the steel protective deck1 is obtained by fitting an armored breastwork of steel #e in4 thick1 supported by a #g in4 teak backing1 around the engine hatchway4 ,provision is made for a bunker coal capacity of #djj tons1 and this is calculated to give a radius of action of #h1jjj knots at a reduced speed of #aj knots4 ,the armament of the ship will consist of two #f in4 breech-loading guns on central pivot stands1 one mounted on the poop and another on the forecastle2 six quick-firing #d4g in4 guns1 mounted three on each broadside2 eight quick-firing #f-pounder guns1 four on each broadside2 besides one #c-pounder ,hotchkiss and four #e-;barrel ,nordenfeldt guns4 ,in addition four torpedo tubes are fitted1 one forward1 one aft1 and one on each broadside4 ,all the necessary appliances for manipulating the engines1 guns1 steering gear1 etc41 when in action1 are placed in a conning tower built of steel #c in4 thick1 and situated at the after end of the forecastle4 ,the olus will be rigged with two pole mast1 carrying light fore and aft sails only4 ,her total cost is estimated at #ahh1cej1 of which #ajj1jjj is regarded as the cost of hull4 ,when complete she will be manned by a complement of #bed officers and men4 ,in the slipway vacated by the olus a second class cruiser1 to be named the ,hermione1 will be laid down forthwith4 ,the ,hermione may be regarded as an enlarged olus1 and will measure #cbj ft4 in length1 #di ft4 #f in4 in breadth1 with a displacement of #d1cfj tons1 on a mean draught of water of #ai ft4 ,the new cruiser will be supplied with propelling machinery of the same power as the olus1 to be constructed in the dockyard from ,admiralty designs4 ,the coal capacity of the ,hermione is to be #djj tons1 and her estimated speed is #ai4e knots4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,trials ,,of ,h4,m4 ,,cruiser ,,blake4 ,special interest1 says ,engineering1 attaches to the trials of the protected cruiser ,blake1 in view of the assertion frequently made by ,admiralty authorities1 from the first lord downward1 to the effect that with her sister ship ,blenheim she would surpass anything hitherto attempted4 ,the condition of steaming continuously for long periods and over great distances at #bj knots per hour was made a ruling condition in the design1 and with forced draught she was to be able to attain #bb knots when occasion required4 ,but all idea of getting these high results has been abandoned4 ,our readers do not need to be reminded of the frequent failure of boilers in the navy4 ,although in the newer ships1 profit has been gained by experience1 larger boilers being provided with separate combustion chambers for each furnace2 the ,blake's boilers belong to the type of defective design1 with the result that1 were they pressed under forced draught1 the tubes would leak4 ,it was1 therefore1 decided some time ago to be content with natural draught results1 and on ,wednesday1 ,nov4 #ah1 the vessel was taken out from ,portsmouth1 and ran for seven hours with satisfactory results1 considerably exceeding the contract power4 ,but the speed was but #ai4ab knots1 and #bb knots can never be attained1 except1 of course1 new boilers be provided1 and when an expenditure of #e or #f per cent4 of the first cost of the vessel 7#dcc1geel47 would give her new boilers1 it seems a pity to be content with the lesser speed1 more particularly as the vessel is well designed and the engines efficient4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,british ,,cruiser ,,blake4 ,before dealing with the engines and their trials1 it may be stated that the vessel is of #ijjj tons displacement at #be ft4 #i in4 mean draught4 ,her length is #cge ft4 and her beam #fe ft4 ,she was built at ,chatham1 and the armament consists of two #ib in4 #bb-ton breech-loading guns1 ten #f-;in4 #e-ton guns and sixteen #c-pounder quick-firing1 and eight machine guns1 with torpedo launching carriages and tubes4 ,the propelling engines were manufactured by ,messrs4 ,maudslay ,sons ,field1 ,lambeth4 ,they were designed to develop #ac1jjj horses with natural1 and #bj1jjj with forced draught4 ,they consist of four distinct sets of triple expansion inverted cylinder engines1 and occupy with boilers1 etc41 nearly two-thirds of the length of the ship4 ,they are placed in four separate compartments1 two sets being coupled together on the starboard and port sides respectively for driving each screw4 ,there are four high pressure cylinders1 #cf in4 in diameter2 four intermediate cylinders1 #eb in42 and four low pressure cylinders1 #hj in42 with a stroke of #d ft4 ,each set of engines has an air pump #cc in4 in diameter and #b ft4 stroke1 and a surface condenser having #ab1hjj tubes and an aggregate surface of #bbej square feet1 the length of the tubes between the tube plates being #i ft4 ,there is also in each compartment one centrifugal circulating pump driven by a small independent engine1 of the diameter of #c ft4 #i in41 and capable of pumping from the bilge as well as the sea4 ,the screw propellers are #ah ft4 #c in4 in diameter with a mean pitch of #bd ft4 #f in4 ,steam is furnished by six main double-ended boilers1 having four furnaces at each end1 and one auxiliary boiler1 with a heating surface of #ijj sq4 ft41 the dimensions of the former being #ae ft4 #b in4 by #ah ft41 and of the latter #aj ft4 by #i ft4 long4 ,the total area of firegrate surface is #hfc sq4 ft1 and of heating surface #bf4icf sq4 ft4 ,each engine room is kept cool by four #d ft4 #f in4 fans4 ,forced draught is produced by twelve #e ft4 #f in4 fans1 three being stationed in each stokehold4 ,the electric lighting machinery consists of three dynamos of ,siemens manufacture driven by a ,willans engine1 each of which is capable of producing a current of #djj amperes4 ,the after main engines can be easily disconnected and worked separately for slow speeds4 ,the ,blake had her steering gear tested on ,tuesday1 ,nov4 #ag4 ,with both engines going full power ahead and turning to starboard1 with her helm hard over #ce deg41 she completed the circle in #d min4 #dj sec41 the port circle being completed in #e min4 #e sec4 ,the diameter was estimated approximately to be about #ege yards4 ,forty-five seconds were required to change from engine steering to steering by hand4 ,by manual gear the helm was moved from midships to hard a-starboard in #dj sec41 from starboard to hard a-port in #b min4 #aj sec41 and from hard a-port to midships in #b min4 #bj sec4 ,the heavy balanced rudder and the speed of the ship throwing great labor upon the crew manning the wheels1 the hand gear was afterward disconnected and the connection with the steering engine completed in #dj sec4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,british ,,cruiser ,,blake ,on ,nov4 #ah1 when the vessel went on speed trials1 the draught of the vessel was #bd ft4 #h in4 forward and #bf ft4 #h in4 aft1 which gave her the mean load immersion provided for in her design4 ,there was a singular absence of vibration1 said to be due to the space over which the machinery is spread1 but perhaps also due1 in part at least1 to the number of cranks1 as the cylinders deliver six throws throughout the circle of revolution4 ,the results of each hour's steaming are as under3 ,hours4 ,revolutions4 ,steam4 ,power4 #ast hour #hf4hf #abj4f #ac1efh #b;d #hi4bf #abh4j #ae1bih #c;d #hh4ee #abe4j #ad1bea #dth #hi4eh #abg4f #ad1gei #eth #hi4dj #abe4j #ad1cid #fth #hi4ee #abe4j #ad1eab #gth #hi4ae #abf4j #ad1hic ,the trial was originally intended to continue for eight hours1 but at the end of the seventh1 as the light began to fade1 and as1 moreover1 the engines were working with a smoothness and efficiency that showed no signs of flagging1 it was considered expedient to terminate the run4 ,steam pressure in boilers #abe4e lb4 ,air pressure in stoke holds #j4db in4 ,revolutions per minute1 starboard #hh4da ,revolutions per minute1 port #hi4ci ,starboard4 ,port4 --------------------------------- ,forward ,aft ,forward ,aft ,vacuum in condensers4 #bg4he #bg4he #bh4a #bi4a ,mean pressure in cylinders1 high #dc4jd #ch4ie #db4cf #db4de ,mean pressure in cylinders1 inter4 #ca4di #cj4hb #cj4ag #bh4ch ,mean pressure in cylinders1 low #aa4fh #ab4d #ab4he #ab4cb ,indicated horse power each engine #cfca4db #cehi4jg #cgba4cg #cehc4ej ,total #gbbj4ci #gcjd4hh ,collectively #adebe4cg ,as will be seen1 the collective power exceeds the contract power under natural draught by #a1ebe4cg horses1 and was obtained with less than the ,admiralty limit of air pressure4 ,the coal used on the occasion was ,harris' deep navigation1 but no account was taken of the amount consumed4 ,four runs were made on the measured mile with and against the tide1 the mean of means disclosing a speed of #ai4ab knots4 ,the average speed of the seven hours' steaming1 as measured by patent log1 was #ai4bh knots4 ,this fell short by over three-quarters of a knot of what was anticipated in proportion to the power indicated by the engines4 ,up to the limit of air pressure used the boilers answered admirably4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hints ,,to ,,shipmasters4 ,a ,master in charge of a tramp steamer in these days must1 if he wishes for any comfort in life1 take good care of himself1 for the pressure and hurry which is inseparable from his position1 combined with the responsibilities and anxieties of his calling1 put a very great strain upon him1 and will1 in time1 unless he takes special care1 have a serious effect on his health2 this is more particularly the case with men of the nervous temperament4 ,it cannot be expected that in this age1 when so many thousands of people on shore fail from overwork and high pressure1 steamship masters1 who as a class1 are overworked and harrassed to a serious extent1 should altogether escape4 ,again1 unless a shipmaster takes an interest in the health1 comfort1 and well-being of his crew1 he1 in the first place1 neglects one of his duties1 and1 secondly1 sows the seeds of discomfort and annoyance to himself4 ,let us consider his duties to himself personally4 ,first1 then1 he must prepare himself to undergo1 periodically1 the discomfort of want of proper rest and irregularity in times of meals2 he may1 for instance1 not be able to leave the bridge for over forty-eight hours or more on a stretch1 and1 of course1 any shipmaster who may read this will know that this is no uncommon occurrence2 during this time he may be unable to get regular meals1 and what he does get may have to be eaten in a hurry and at an anxious time when he cannot properly enjoy and digest it4 ,a time like this may be followed by a period of rest1 when the days will hang heavily on his hands1 and he will be tempted to long afternoon sleeps merely to get through the weary hours4 ,now1 as a course of this kind of thing is bound1 unless care be exercised1 to act unfavorably on the digestion and bring on some form of dyspepsia1 so also the nights and days of great anxiety and moments of great strain will1 besides increasing the dyspeptic tendency1 be apt to bring on nervousness in some form or other4 ,it is a fact that in these times1 and often from want of attention to health1 nearly every shipmaster long in harness is more or less nervous4 ,there are people in the present day who have actually talked of making their chief engineer 7who exercises his special trade at sea or on shore as suits himself and is in no sense a seaman7 the master of the vessel1 and turning the shipmaster into a mere pilot4 ,those who talk in this way forget that to do this the responsibility must be shifted on to the engineer4 ,of course such a change as this cannot happen1 the country would not stand it2 but ,i merely mention it to show the vast amount of ignorance there is1 even among those who should be well informed1 as to the real strain and responsibility on the modern shipmaster4 ,the master then1 if anxious to do the best for himself1 should1 if possible1 be a total abstainer1 for two reasons3 first1 because1 as he will be obliged to be irregular in his feeding1 alcohol in any form will do him harm and tend to augment the dyspepsia4 ,secondly1 because1 often in times of great mental strain1 combined with exposure1 a glass of spirits will give great temporary relief 7which is of itself a dangerous fact for a weak-minded man71 but this will always be followed by depression1 and will in reality be doing great harm instead of lasting good4 ,spirituous liquor may be necessary for a few1 but these should use it under medical advice if at all4 ,it is a hard thing for many men to give up their grog1 but there is not a man of any experience in the merchant service who has not seen its blasting effects on many a master and officer4 ,it is almost impossible to find a substitute for it which shall recommend itself to anyone who has really a liking for it1 about the only things being coffee1 lime juice1 or lemonade and ginger ale4 ,so-called temperance drinks are all of them very nasty stuff1 besides containing a large percentage of alcohol2 rather than swallow these one had better not change his habits4 ,the master then1 being an abstainer1 should also give some care to his diet4 ,very heavy meals of meat and strong food should not be taken at sea1 because there are no means of taking proper exercise1 and it is impossible to work them off properly4 ,again1 long1 heavy1 after-dinner sleeps should not be indulged in2 a quiet nap of ten minutes would in many cases be beneficial1 but the long sleep up to five o'clock is positively harmful to any man4 ,one of the best things a master can do is to take up some work4 ,no matter what it is so long as he takes an interest in it1 such as joiner work1 fret work1 painting1 writing1 learning a musical instrument or a foreign language1 or anything of that sort4 ,it will be of incalculable benefit to both mind and body4 ,on occasions when it is absolutely necessary to be on deck for long periods1 the steward ought to have orders to attend himself personally to the master's wants--to see that his meals are properly cooked and brought up to him at regular intervals1 and that there is always a well made cup of coffee to be had when wanted4 ,the ordinary cup of coffee as made at sea is generally a beastly mixture and not worth drinking4 ,the steward has an easy life and should not be spared at these times1 but should always be turned out when wanted1 night or day1 and made to look after these things himself1 and a man who growls at having this to do or who will not take the proper trouble to see things well cooked and served up nicely with cheerfulness should at once be discharged1 and a good man1 of whom there are plenty1 shipped in his place4 ,the master1 of course1 should always be on the bridge when required1 and in fog certainly all the time2 but many men are over-cautious in this respect through sheer nervousness1 and oftentimes expose and fatigue themselves to no purpose1 harass their officers1 and make them unreliable1 so that when the time comes that their presence on deck is absolutely necessary1 they are1 through exhaustion of mind and body1 in anything but a fit state to take charge of the ship1 or be cool and collected in a moment of sudden emergency4 ,should a man feel that through hard work and exposure he is becoming shaky1 he should at once leave off entirely the false relief which drink gives and consult a physician4 ,a good man with experience will in almost any case be able to help him1 and1 besides medicine1 give him such hints for regulating his diet and mode of living as will enable him to bear better than before the strain and wear and tear of his life4#a ,footnote #a3 ,for the fluttering1 unsteady feeling often felt1 the following1 if not abused1 will be found beneficial3 ,take as much bromide of potassium as will lie1 not heaped up1 on a shilling1 and half a teaspoonful of sal volatile 7aromatic spirits of ammonia74 ,mix in a wine glass full of water2 but this should only be taken when absolutely necessary1 and not habitually4 ,as to the crew4 ,a master who has full command of himself ought to be able to rule judiciously even the most unruly crew1 but before he is in a really strong position to do this1 he must treat them fairly and honestly4 ,in many cases a bad start is made with a new set of men 7of course this will not apply to the high class mail steamers1 nor perhaps to what are termed weekly boats74 ,they come on board and find their forecastle just as the last crew left it1 full of a week's filth1#b possibly lumbered up with hauling lines and what-not1 wanting painting badly1 and often showing unmistakable signs of overhead leakage4 ,this is quite enough to make a respectable man discontented1 and naturally so4 ,in common fairness1 the often wretched place that the men have to occupy ought to be put in decent order to receive the new crew4 ,again1 they should be distinctly made to understand1 when signing articles1 what their food will be1 and what their pay and allowances will come to4 ,it is to be feared that bad feeding is the cause of much trouble in these days4 ,from first coming on board discipline should be enforced2 many officers1 both young and old1 are greatly remiss in enforcing this1 with the consequence that day by day it is harder to do1 till at last it is impossible1 and anarchy reigns triumphant4 ,if a seaman finds that he is fairly treated1 and that he must obey orders1 he will in nine cases out of ten conduct himself well1 and give no trouble4 ,the more high class type of man the master is the better he will treat his men1 and the more exacting he will be in compelling discipline1 both in his officers and crew4 ,footnote #b3 ,this should not be4 ,it is most decidedly one of the master's duties to see that the men on both sides of the forecastle keep their places clean1 and for this purpose it is a very good plan to give them an hour or two every week1 and it is only right that if a crew fled a forecastle clean to receive them1 they should be made to leave it in the same state4 ,engineers and firemen are often sources of annoyance in these days4 ,firemen are a lower class generally than seamen1 and more inclined to insubordination2 in many cases the engineers are quite incapable of keeping them in proper order1 and it sometimes happens that in an engine room row it falls to the lot of the deck officers to restore discipline4 ,the master should remember that his engineers are officers of the ship1 with their own responsibility1 that his chief engineer is of some importance on board1 and that it is necessary in the owner's interests that they should work together amicably4 ,in ordinary cargo vessels1 the engineer is often better educated than the master himself1 and should never be treated as an inferior while he behaves with proper respect to the master4 ,to his own deck officers the master should behave with ordinary courtesy1 and1 if he finds them trustworthy1 should not spoil them and render them unreliable by always keeping on or about the bridge2 an officer who is never left by himself in charge will soon fancy himself incapable4 ,it is to be feared that many young officers are spoiled in this way4 ,familiarity with the men before the mast is always unwise4 ,it is not a good practice in ordinary vessels1 where a new crew is shipped each voyage1 to begin by calling the men ,tom and ,jack4 ,an officer to have any real command over the men must keep himself apart from them and show them the difference of their positions4 ,a judicious shipmaster will warn his young mates about this4 ,the usual system of mess room for engineers1 the officers messing in the cabin with the master1 is a good one1 though it is a question whether it would not be a very good thing if the chief engineer always messed with the master so long as he was a decent1 respectable man4 ,it is often one of the causes of ill health in the master that he keeps too much to himself1 seldom if ever speaking to his officers except on business connected with the ship4 ,a man who does this has far too much time to think1 and if he has any trivial illness is apt to brood over it and actually make himself ill4 ,it is much wiser and better for all concerned that the master should1 within certain limits1 be on friendly terms at any rate with his first mate1 if not with all his officers4 ,any man with common tact can always find means for checking undue familiarity1 and it will generally be found that officers treated as equals instead1 as is often the case1 as though they were an inferior race of beings1 will be much more inclined to do their work with zeal1 and to back up the master in all his troubles4 ,many men when they get command seem to forget that they ever were officers themselves4 ,it is the general opinion that the strict ship is the most comfortable one1 and as a rule the master who will take the trouble to enforce proper discipline fore and aft is just the very man who will also be considerate and courteous to those who sail under his command--whatever be their rank4 ,to govern others well a man must first have learned to govern himself4 ,the first lesson for a young seaman to learn is obedience1 and unless he does learn this lesson he will not know how to enforce it when he becomes an officer1 and still less will he be fit for his position when he obtains command4 ,it is to be feared that many never learn this lesson1 and that this is the cause of much of the insubordination rife in these days4 ,if the modern hard-driven shipmaster would exercise greater care as to his health and habits1 and would strive more after being a true master over his ship's company1 and this is easier to be gained by respect than fear1 things would go on more smoothly1 and when he did get away for a time from all the petty annoyances of shore1 which are more especially felt in his home port1 he would have a time of comparative comfort1 would live longer and happier1 and1 possibly1 escape the terrible attacks of nervous depression which have finished the career of many a too finely strung fin de siecle shipmaster4 --,nautical ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alfred ,,tennyson4 ,alfred ,tennyson1 the poet laureate of ,england1 was born at ,sornersby1 ,lincolnshire1 ,april #i1 #ahaj1 and was the third of a large family of children1 eight of whom were boys and three girls4 ,his father was a clergyman1 a man of remarkably fine abilities2 his mother1 as should be the mother of a great poet1 was a deeply religious woman with a sensitive spirit that was keenly attuned to the aspects of nature4 ,it was from her that ,tennyson inherited his poetic temperament combined with the love of study that was a characteristic of his father4 ,tennyson's brother1 ,charles1 superintended the construction of his younger brother's first poetic composition1 which was written upon a slate when the great laureate was a child of seven4 ,tennyson's parents were people who had sufficient of this world's wealth to educate their sons well1 and ,alfred was sent to ,trinity ,college1 where he as a mere lad won the gold medal for a poem in blank verse entitled ,timbuctoo1 which is to be found in all the volumes of his collected works1 though many of the other poems produced in that period are not given place4 ,illustration3 ,,alfred ,,tennyson1 ,,poet ,,laureate ,,of ,,england4 ,his first volume of poems was published in #ahbg1 and in them the influence of ,byron1 whom he passionately admired1 is everywhere visible4 ,in #ahcj he issued another volume1 which defined his position as a poet of great promise1 but which was criticised by ,christopher ,north with the most biting sarcasm1 and which was held up to ridicule by the great ,lockhart4 ,more than ten years followed in which the poet wrote nothing1 then he began a literary career which lifted him to the highest place in the literary world1 a place which he has since held1 and as a lyric poet he has never been equaled4 ,in #ahej he issued that most wonderful production in any language1 ,in ,memoriam1 which has enriched the ,english language by hundreds of quotations and which in its delicate sentiment1 its deep sorrow1 its reflective tenderness1 has been the voice of many a soul similarly bereft4 ,had ,tennyson never written anything but ,in ,memoriam1 his fame would have been assured1 but ,the ,idylls of the ,king1 ,enoch ,arden1 ,the ,princess1 and other great compositions will stand forever to his credit4 ,of ,tennyson's personal character much has been said and written4 ,as pure and sweet as his poetry1 beloved by a large circle of friends1 active still in literary work1 it may be said of him that he has always worn without reproach ,the grand old name of gentleman1 and that his mellow old age is the ripening into fruit of the white flower of a blameless life4--,chicago ,graphic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fiftieth ,,year ,,of ,,the ,,prince ,,of ,,wales4 ,in the case of a distinguished person whose public life has a claim to be regarded with national and social interest1 his fiftieth birthday must be considered a jubilee2 and ,monday1 ,nov4 #i1 in the present year1 completing that number of anniversaries for the eldest son of her ,majesty the ,queen1 the heir apparent to the crown of the ,united ,kingdom1 is manifestly an occasion demanding such congratulations as must arise from sentiments of loyalty to the monarchical constitution and of respect for the reigning family4 ,his ,royal ,highness1 it is understood1 has preferred to have it treated simply as a private and domestic affair1 entertaining a party of his personal friends1 and not inviting any formal addresses from the representatives of municipal corporations or other public bodies4 ,nevertheless1 it may be permitted to journalists1 taking note of this period in the life of so important a contemporary personage1 to express their continued good wishes for his health and happiness1 and to indulge in a few retrospective observations on his past career4 ,born on ,nov4 #i1 #ahda1 second of the offspring of ,queen ,victoria by her marriage with the late ,prince ,consort1 ,albert ,edward1 ,prince of ,wales1 inherited the greatest blessing of humanity1 that of having good parents and wise guardians of his childhood and youth4 ,his instruction at home was1 no doubt1 wider in range of studies than that of ordinary ,english boys1 including an acquaintance with several ,european languages and with modern history1 needful to qualify him for the duties of a prince4 ,he was further educated at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 and at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge2 was enrolled a law student of the ,middle ,temple and held a commission in the army4 ,his earliest appearance in a leading part on any public occasion was in #aheh or #ahei1 we think at the laying of the foundation stone of the ,lambeth ,school of ,art at ,vauxhall2 but after the lamented death of his father1 in ,december1 #ahfa1 the ,prince of ,wales naturally became the most eminent and desirable performer of all ceremonies in which beneficent or useful undertakings were to be recognized by royal approval4 ,this work has occupied a very large share of his time during thirty years2 and we can all testify that it has been discharged with such frank good will1 cordiality1 and unaffected graciousness1 with such patient attention1 diligence1 and punctuality1 as to deserve the gratitude of large numbers of her ,majesty's subjects in almost every part of the kingdom4 ,no prince of any country in any age has ever personally exerted himself more constantly and faithfully1 in rendering services of this kind to the community1 than the ,prince of ,wales4 ,the multiplicity and variety of his engagements1 on behalf of local and special objects of utility1 would make a surprising list1 and they must have involved a sacrifice of ease and leisure1 and endurance of self-imposed restraint1 a submission to tedious repetitions of similar acts and scenes1 and to continual requests and importunities1 which few men of high rank would like to undergo4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,prince ,,of ,,wales ,,and ,,family--,,from ,,the ,,photograph ,,of ,,messrs4 ,,byrne1 ,,richmond4 ,the marriage of his ,royal ,highness to ,princess ,alexandra of ,denmark1 on ,march #aj1 #ahfc1 was one of the happiest events within the memory of this generation4 ,it tended visibly1 of course1 to raise and confirm his position as leader of ,english society1 and as the active dispenser of that encouragement which royalty can bestow on commendable public objects4 ,charity1 education1 science1 art1 music1 industry1 agriculture1 and local improvements are in no small measure advanced by this patronage4 ,the ,prince of ,wales may not be so learned in some of these matters as his accomplished father1 but he has taken as much trouble to assist the endless labors of the immediate agents1 in doing which he has shown good judgment and discretion1 and a considerable degree of business talent--notably1 in the ,british preparations for the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg1 the ,indian and ,colonial ,exhibition of #ahhf in ,london1 and the organization of the ,imperial ,institute4 ,the last-named institution and the ,royal ,college of ,music will be permanent memorials of the directing energy of the ,prince of ,wales4 ,these are but a few examples or slight indications of the work he has actually done for us all4 ,it is unnecessary to mention the incidental salutary influences of his visits to ,canada and to ,india1 which have left an abiding favorable impression of ,english royalty in those provinces of the empire4 ,nor can it be requisite to observe the manner in which the prince's country estate and mansion at ,sandringham1 with his care of agricultural improvement1 of stock breeding1 studs1 and other rural concerns1 has set an example to landowners1 the value of which is already felt4 ,we refrain upon this occasion from speaking of the ,princess of ,wales1 or of the sons and daughters1 whose lives1 we trust1 will be always good and happy4 ,it is on the personal merits and services of the head of their illustrious house1 with reference only to public interests1 that we have thought it needful to dwell1 in view of the fiftieth birthday of his ,royal ,highness2 and very heartily to wish him1 in homely ,english phrase1 ,many happy returns of the day6--,illustrated ,london ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,development ,,with ,,sucrate ,,of ,,lime4 ,i have experimented with carbonate of lithia as an accelerator1 and ,i have obtained with it rather favorable results4 ,however1 in opposition to ,mr4 ,wickers1 ,i have always found that carbonate of lithia1 used even in larger doses than those recommended by this author1 was not sufficiently active1 and that development had to be too much prolonged in order to obtain prints of good intensity4 ,i have also observed that the prints developed by this process were as often fogged as when ,i made use of carbonate of potash4 ,the oxides of alkaline metals or their alkaline salts are not the only accelerators susceptible of being used in pyro development4 ,two oxides of the earthy alkaline metals1 lime and hydrate of barytes1 may also be used as accelerators4 ,i will not insist upon the second1 which1 although giving some results1 should be rejected from photographic practice on account of its caustic properties1 and of its too great affinity for the carbonic acids in the air1 which prevents the keeping of its solutions4 ,this objection does not obtain for the first1 provided1 however1 that ordinary lime water is not used1 but a solution of succharate or sucrate of lime4 ,in my experiments ,i have made use of the following solutions3 ,solution ,a4 ,pyrogallic acid4 #aj grms4 ,sulphite of soda4 #bj ,citric acid4 #b ,water4 #abj ,solution ,b4 ,water4 #ajjj ,sugar4 sufficient quantity to triturate4 ,to which add a sufficient quantity of pure lime to saturate the sugar solution4 ,in this manner we get a highly concentrated liquid1 very alkaline1 and which keeps for a considerable time4 ,to develop1 ,i mix3 ,water4 #hj cubic cent4 ,solution ,a4 #b ,i throw this over the plate1 and allow it to remain for a few moments1 agitating1 then ,i add to this bath gradually and according to the results obtained1 from one to two cubic centimeters of the solution ,b4 ,these solutions should be made with a great deal of care and prudence1 as the sucrate of lime is an accelerator of very great energy4 ,moreover1 according as the plate has been more or less exposed1 we may add to the developing bath a few drops of a solution of citric acid1 or of a solution of an alkaline bromide4 ,we obtain in this way very soft prints1 sometimes too soft1 which1 however1 are not more free from fogging than plates developed with hydrochinon 7new bath71 or pyro having for accelerators ammonia1 potash1 soda1 carbonate of potash1 of soda1 or of lithia4 ,i do not give this process with sucrate of lime as perfect1 but ,i give it as perfectable and susceptible of application4 ,if ,i have undertaken to write these few lines it is because it has never been brought to my knowledge that up to the present time the oxides and the alkaline salts of the earthy alkaline metals have been studied from a photographic point of view4--,leon ,degoix in ,photo4 ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,duck ,,hunting ,,in ,,scotland4 ,the wild duck is a shy bird1 apt to spread his wings and change his quarters when a noble sportsman is seen approaching his habitation with a fowling piece4 ,you have heard of the ass who put on a lion's skin1 and wandered out into the wilderness and brayed4 ,i have elaborated a device of equal ingenuity and more convincing realism4 ,it is my habit during the duck-shooting season to put on the skin of a ,blondin donkey and so roam among the sedges bordering on the lakes where wild ducks most do congregate4 ,i have cut a hole in the face to see through1 and other holes in the legs to put my hands through4--,london ,graphic ,illustration3 ,,wildfowl ,,shooting ,,in ,,scotland4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,the ,,common ,,telescope4#a ,by ,g4,e4 ,,lumsden4 ,footnote #a3 ,paper read before the ,astronomical and ,physical ,society of ,toronto1 ,canada1 ,april #ah1 #ahia4 ,these are the palmiest days in the eventful history of physical and observational astronomy4 ,along the whole line of professional and amateur observation substantial progress is being made1 but in certain new directions1 and in some old ones1 too1 the advance is very rapid4 ,as never before1 public interest is alive to the attractions and value of the work of astronomers4 ,the science itself now appeals to a constituency of students and readers daily increasing in numbers and importance4 ,evidence of this gratifying fact is easily obtained4 ,there is at the libraries an ever-growing demand for standard astronomical works1 some of them by no means intended to be of a purely popular character4 ,some of the most influential and conservative magazines on both sides of the ,atlantic now find it to be in their interest to devote pages of space to the careful discussion of new theories1 or to the results of the latest work of professional observers4 ,even the daily press in some cities has caught the infection1 if infection it may be called4 ,there are in ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,st4 ,louis1 and other centers of population on this continent leading newspapers which1 every week or so1 publish columns of original matter contributed by writers evidently able to place before their readers in an attractive form articles dealing accurately1 and yet in a popular vein1 with the many-sided subject of astronomy4 ,in scientific matters generally1 there is abroad in this and other countries a spirit of inquiry1 never more apparent than at the present time4 ,readers and thinkers may1 no doubt1 be numbered by thousands4 ,so far1 however1 as astronomy is concerned1 the majority of readers and thinkers is composed of non-observers1 most of whom believe they must be content with studying the theoretical side of the subject only4 ,they labor under the false impression that unless they have telescopes of large aperture and other costly apparatus1 the pleasures attaching to practical work are denied them4 ,the great observatories1 to which every intelligent eye is directed1 are1 in a measure1 though innocently enough1 responsible for this4 ,anticipation is ever on tiptoe4 ,people are naturally awaiting the latest news from the giant refracting and reflecting telescopes of the day4 ,under these circumstances1 it may be that the services rendered1 and capable of being rendered1 to science by smaller apertures may be overlooked1 and1 therefore1 ,i ask to be permitted to put in a modest plea for the common telescope4 ,what little ,i shall have to say will be addressed to you more for the purpose of arousing interest in the subject than for communicating to you any information of a novel or special character4 ,when making use of the term common telescope1 ,i would like to be understood as referring to good refractors with object glasses not exceeding three or three and one-half inches in diameter4 ,in some works on the subject telescopes as large as five inches or even five and one-half inches are included in the description common1 but instruments of such apertures are not so frequently met with in this country as to justify the classing of them with smaller ones1 and1 perhaps1 for my purpose1 it is well that such is the fact1 for the expense connected with the purchase of first rate telescopes increases very rapidly in proportion to the size of the object glass1 and soon becomes a serious matter4 ,should ever the larger apertures become numerous on this continent1 let us hope it shall be found to have been as one of the results of societies like this1 striving to make more popular the study of astronomy4 ,it is not by any means proposed to inflict upon you a history of the telescope1 but your indulgence is asked for a few moments while reference is made to one or two matters connected with its invention1 or1 rather1 its accidental discovery and subsequent improvement4 ,the opening years of the seventeenth century found the world without a telescope1 or1 at least1 such an instrument as was adapted for astronomical work4 ,it is true that long years before1 ,arabian and some other eastern astronomers1 for the purpose1 possibly1 of enabling them to concentrate their gaze upon celestial objects and follow their motions1 had been accustomed to use a kind of tube consisting of a long cylinder without glasses of any kind and open at both ends4 ,for magnifying purposes1 this tube was of no value4 ,still1 it must have been of some kind of service1 or else the first telescopes1 as constructed by the spectacle makers1 who had stumbled upon the principle involved1 were exceedingly sorry affairs1 for1 soon after their introduction1 the illustrious ,kepler1 in his work on ,optics1 recommended the employment of plain apertures1 without lenses1 because they were superior to the telescope on account of their freedom from refraction4 ,but as soon as the principle by which distant objects could1 apparently1 be brought nearer the eye became known and its value recognized by philosophers1 telescopes ceased to be regarded as toys1 and underwent material improvements in the hands of such men as ,galilei1 and1 later1 even of ,kepler himself1 ,cassini1 ,huyghens1 and others4 ,galilei's first telescope magnified but three times1 and his best not much above thirty times4 ,if ,i comprehend aright what has been written upon the subject1 ,i am justified in saying that this little instrument in my hand1 with an aperture of one inch and one-quarter1 and a focus1 with an astronomical eye-piece1 of about ten inches1 is a better magnifier than was ,galilei's best4 ,with it ,i can see the moons of ,jupiter1 some spots on the sun1 the phases of ,venus1 the composition1 in some places1 of the ,milky ,way1 the seas1 the valleys1 the mountains1 and1 when in bold relief upon the terminator1 even some of the craters and cones of the moon4 ,indeed1 ,i am of opinion ,i can see even more than he could1 for ,i can readily make out a considerable portion of the ,great ,nebula in ,orion1 some double stars1 and enough of the ,saturnian system to discern the disk of the planet and see that there is something attached to its sides4 ,for nearly one hundred and fifty years all refracting telescopes labored under one serious difficulty4 ,the images formed by them were more or less confused by rainbow tints1 due to the bending1 or refracting1 by the object glass of the rays of light4 ,to overcome this obstacle to clear vision1 and also to secure magnification1 the focal lengths of the instruments were greatly extended4 ,telescopes #ch1 #ej1 #gh1 #acj1 #afj1 #baj1 #djj1 and even #fjj feet long were constructed4 ,i can1 however1 find nothing on record indicating that the object glasses of these enormously attenuated instruments ever exceeded in diameter two and one-half inches4 ,yet1 with unwieldy and ungainly telescopes1 nearly always defining badly1 wonders were accomplished by the painstaking and indomitable observers of the time4 ,in #afeh1 ,huyghens1 using a telescope twenty-three feet long and two and one-third inches in diameter1 with a power of #ajj1 solved the mystery of ,saturn's rings1 which had resisted all of ,galilei's efforts as well as his own with a shorter instrument1 though he had discovered ,titan1 ,saturn's largest moon1 and fixed correctly its period of revolution at sixteen days4 ,fifteen years later1 ,ball1 with a telescope thirty-eight feet long1 discovered the principal division in the rings4 ,ten years still later1 ,cassini1 with an instrument twenty feet long and an object glass two and one-half inches in diameter1 rediscovered the division1 which was named after him1 rather than after ,ball1 who had taken no pains to make widely known his discovery1 which1 in the meantime1 had been forgotten4 ,though we have no record1 there is no doubt that the lamented ,horrocks and ,crabtree1 in ,england1 in #afci1 with glasses no better than these1 watched with exultant emotions the first transit of ,venus ever seen by human eyes4 ,in #agbb1 ,bradley1 with a telescope #bbc feet long1 succeeded in measuring the diameter of the same planet4 ,yet ,grant assures us that1 in spite of all their difficulties1 such was the industry of the astronomers that when1 at the commencement of this century1 it became possible to construct larger refracting telescopes1 there was nothing to be discovered that could have been discovered with the means at their disposal4 ,so far as we now know1 a good three-inch telescope1 nay1 a first-rate two inch one1 will show far more than our great-grandfathers ever saw1 or dreamed of seeing1 with their refractors4 ,toward the middle of the seventeenth century the reflecting telescope had been so much improved as nearly to crowd out its refracting rival1 but1 just as its success seemed to be assured1 ,dollond1 working along lines partially followed up by ,hall1 found a combination of lenses by which the chromatic aberration of the refractor could be very perfectly corrected4 ,while ,dollond's invention was of immense value1 it remained that flint object glasses larger than two and one-half inches in diameter could not1 for some years1 be manufactured1 but about the opening of the nineteenth century1 ,guinand1 a ,swiss1 discovered a process of making masses of optical flint glass sufficiently large as to admit of the construction from them of excellent lenses of sizes gradually increasing as time and experimenting went on4 ,the making of three-inch objectives1 achromatic and of short focus1 wrought a revolution in telescopes and renewed the demand for refractors1 though prices1 as compared with those of the present day1 were very great4 ,but improvement was succeeded by improvement4 ,larger and still larger objectives were made1 yet progress was not so rapid as not to justify ,grant1 in #aheb1 in declaring to be a munificent gift the presentation1 about #ahch1 to ,greenwhich ,observatory1 of a six and seven-tenths object glass alone1 and so it was esteemed by ,mr4 ,airy1 the astronomer royal4 ,improvement is still the order of the day1 and1 as a result of keen competition1 very excellent telescopes of small aperture can be purchased at reasonable prices4 ,great telescopes are enormously expensive1 and will probably be so until they are superseded by some simple invention which shall be as superior to them as they are to the mighty instruments which1 from time to time1 caused such sensations in the days of ,galilei1 ,cassini1 ,huyghens1 ,bradley1 ,dollond1 and those who came after them4 ,but1 notable as are the services rendered to science by giant telescopes1 it remains that by far the greater bulk of useful work has been done by apertures of less than twelve inches in diameter4 ,indeed1 it may be asserted that most of such work has been done by instruments of six inches or less in size4 ,after referring with some detail to this1 ,denning tells us that nearly all the comets1 planetoids1 double stars1 etc41 owe their detection to small instruments2 that our knowledge of sun spots1 lunar and planetary features is also very largely derived from similar sources2 that there is no department which is not indebted to the services of small telescopes1 and that of some thousands of drawings of celestial objects1 made by observers employing instruments from three to seventy-two inches in diameter1 a careful inspection shows that the smaller instruments have not been outdone in this interesting field of observation1 owing to their excellent defining powers and the facility with which they are used4 ,aperture for aperture1 the record is more glorious for the common telescope than for its great rivals4 ,let us for a moment recall something of what has been done with instruments which may be embraced under the designation common as such a statement may serve to remove impressions that small telescopes are but of little use in astronomical work4 ,in his unrivaled book1 ,webb declares that his observations were chiefly made with a telescope five and one-half feet long1 carrying an object glass of a diameter of three and seven-tenths inches4 ,the instrument was of fair defining quality1 and one has but to read his delightful pages in order to form an idea of the countless pleasures ,webb derived from observation with it4 ,speaking of it1 he says that smaller ones will1 of course1 do less1 especially with faint objects1 but are often very perfect and distinct1 and that even diminutive glasses1 if good1 will1 at least1 show something never seen without them4 ,he adds3 ,i have a little hand telescope twenty-two and one-quarter inches long1 when fully drawn out1 with a focus of about fourteen inches1 and one and one-third inches aperture2 this1 with an astronomical eye-piece1 will show the existence of sun spots1 the mountains in the moon1 ,jupiter's satellites and ,saturn's ring4 ,in another place1 speaking of the sun1 he says that an object glass of only two inches will exhibit a curdled or marbled appearance over the whole solar disk1 caused by the intermixture of spaces of different brightness4 ,and ,i may add here that ,dawes recommends a small aperture for sun work1 including spectroscopic examinations1 he himself1 like ,mr4 ,miller1 our librarian1 preferring to use for that purpose a four inch refractor4 ,as you know1 the ,north ,star is a most beautiful double4 ,its companion is of the ninth order of magnitude1 that is1 three magnitudes smaller than the smallest star visible to the naked eye on a dark night4 ,there was a time when ,polaris1 as a double1 was regarded as an excellent test for a good three inch telescope2 that is any three inch instrument in which the companion could be seen was pronounced to be first-class4 ,but so persistently have instruments of small aperture been improved that that star is no longer an absolute test for three inch objectives of fine quality1 or any first-rate objective exceeding two inches for which ,dawes proposed it as a standard of excellence1 he having found that if the eye and telescope be good1 the companion to ,polaris may be seen with such an aperture armed with a power of eighty4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,dawes1 who was1 like ,burnham1 blessed with most acute vision1 saw the companion with an instrument no larger than this small one in my hand--one inch and three-tenths4 ,ward saw it with an inch and one-quarter objective1 and ,dawson with so small an aperture as one inch4 ,t4,t4 ,smith has seen it with a reflector stopped down to one inch and one-quarter1 while in the instrument still known as the great ,dorpat reflector1 it has been seen in broad daylight4 ,this historic telescope has1 ,i believe1 a twelve inch object glass1 but the difficulty of seeing in sunshine so minute a star is such that the fact may fairly be mentioned here4 ,another interesting feature is this4 ,objects once discovered1 though thought to be visible in large telescopes only1 may often be seen in much smaller ones4 ,the first ,herschel said truly that less optical power will show an object than was required for its discovery4 ,the rifts1 or canals1 in the ,great ,nebula in ,andromeda is a case in point1 but two better illustrations may be taken from the planets4 ,though ,saturn was for many years subjected to most careful scrutiny by skilled astronomers using the most powerful telescopes in existence1 the crape ring eluded discovery until ,november1 #ahej1 when it was independently seen by ,dawes1 in ,england1 and ,bond1 in the ,united ,states4 ,both were capital observers and employed excellent instruments of large aperture1 and it was naturally presumed that only such instruments could show the novel ,saturnian feature4 ,not so4 ,once brought to the attention of astronomers1 ,webb saw the new ring with his three and seven-tenths telescope and ,ross with an aperture not exceeding three and three-eighths in diameter4 ,nay1 ,i am permitted to say that a venerable member of this society made drawings of it with a three inch refractor4 ,with a two inch objective1 ,grover not only saw the crape ring1 but ,saturn's belts1 as well1 and the shadow cast by the ball of the planet upon its system of rings4 ,titan1 ,saturn's largest moon1 is merely a point of light as compared with the planet1 as it appears in a telescope1 yet it has been seen1 so it is said1 with a one inch glass4 ,the shadow of this satellite1 while crossing the face of ,saturn1 has been observed by ,banks with a two and seven-eighths objective4 ,by hiding the glare of the planet behind an occulting bar1 some of ,saturn's smallest moons were seen by ,kitchener with a two and seven-tenths aperture and by ,capron with a two and three-fourths one4 ,banks saw four of them with a three and seven-eighths telescope1 ,grover two of them with a three and three-quarter inch1 and four inches of aperture will show five of them1 so ,webb says4 ,rhea1 ,dione and ,tethys are more minute than ,japetus1 yet ,cassini1 with his inferior means1 discerned them and traced their periods4 ,take the instance of ,mars next4 ,it was long believed that ,mars had no satellites4 ,but in #ahgg1 during one of the highly favorable oppositions of that planet which occur but once in about sixteen years1 the able ,hall1 using the great #bf inch refractor at ,washington1 discovered two tiny moons which had never been seen before4 ,one of these1 called ,deimos1 is only six miles in diameter1 the other1 named ,phobos1 is only seven1 and both are exceedingly close to the primary and in rapid revolution4 ,the diameter of these satellites is really less than the distance from ,high ,park1 on the west of ,toronto1 to ,woodbine race course1 on the east of the city4 ,no wonder these minute objects--seldom1 if ever1 nearer to us than about forty millions of miles--are difficult to see at all4 ,newcomb and ,holden tell us that they are invisible save at the sixteen year periods referred to1 when it happens that the earth and ,mars1 in their respective orbits1 approach each other more nearly than at any other time4 ,but once discovered1 the rule held good even in the case of the satellites of ,mars4 ,pratt has seen ,deimos1 the outermost moon1 with an eight and one-seventh inch telescope2 ,erek has seen it with a seven and one-third inch achromatic2 ,trouvellot1 the innermost one1 with a six and three-tenths glass1 while ,common believes that any one who can make out ,enceladus1 one of ,saturn's smallest moons1 can see those of ,mars by hiding the planet at or near the elongations1 and that even our own moonlight does not prevent the observations being made4 ,it chances for the benefit of observers1 in the northern hemisphere especially1 that one of the sixteen year periods will culminate in #ahic1 when ,mars will be most advantageously situated for close examination4 ,no doubt every one will avail himself of the opportunity1 and may we not reasonably hope that scores of amateur observers throughout the ,united ,states and ,canada will experience the delight of seeing and studying the tiny moons of our ruddy neighbor8 ,and so ,i might proceed until ,i had wearied you with illustrations showing what can be done with telescopes so small that they may fairly be classed as common1 ,webb says that such apertures1 with somewhat high powers1 will reveal stars down to the eleventh magnitude4 ,the interesting celestial objects more conspicuous than stars of that magnitude are sufficiently numerous to exhaust much more time than any amateur can give to observing4 ,indeed1 the lot of the amateur is a happy one4 ,with a good1 though small1 telescope1 he may have for subjects of investigation the sun with his spots1 his facul1 his prominences and spectra2 the moon1 a most superb object in nearly every optical instrument1 with her mountains1 valleys1 seas1 craters1 cones1 and ever-changing aspects renewed every month1 her occupations of stars1 her eclipses1 and all that2 the planets1 some with phases1 and other with markings1 belts1 rings1 and moons with scores of occupations1 eclipses and transits due to their easily observed rotation around their primaries2 the nebul1 the double1 triple and multiple stars with sometimes beautifully contrasted colors1 and a thousand and one other means of amusing and instructing himself4 ,nature has opened in the heavens as interesting a volume as she has opened on the earth1 and with but little trouble any one may learn to read in it4 ,i trust it has been shown that expensive telescopes are not necessarily required for practical work4 ,my advice to an intending purchaser would be to put into the objective for a refractor1 or into the mirror for a reflector1 all the money he feels warranted in spending1 leaving the mounting to be done in the cheapest possible manner consistent with accuracy of adjustment1 because it is in the objective or in the mirror that the value of the telescope alone resides4 ,in the shops may be found many telescopes gorgeous in polished tubes and brass mountings which1 for effective work1 are absolutely worthless4 ,on this subject1 ,i consulted the most eminent of all discoverers of double stars1 an observer who1 even as an amateur1 made a glorious reputation by the work done with a six inch telescope4 ,i refer to ,mr4 ,s4,w4 ,burnham1 of the ,lick ,observatory1 who1 in reply1 kindly wrote3 ,you will certainly have no difficulty in making out a strong case in favor of the use of small telescopes in many departments of important astronomical work4 ,most of the early telescopic work was done with instruments which would now be considered as inferior to modern instruments1 in quality as well as in size4 ,you are doubtless familiar with much of the amateur work1 in this country and elsewhere1 done with comparatively small apertures4 ,the most important condition is to have the refractor1 whatever its size may be1 of the highest optical perfection1 and then the rest will depend on the zeal and industry of the observer4 ,the italics are mine4 ,incidentally1 it may be mentioned that much most interesting work may be done even with an opera glass1 as a few minutes' systematic observation on any fine night will prove4 ,newcomb and ,holden assure us that if ,hipparchus had had even such an optical instrument1 mankind need not have waited two thousand years to know the nature of the ,milky ,way1 nor would it have required a ,galilei to discover the phases of ,venus or the spots on the sun4 ,to amplify the thought1 if that mighty geometer and observer and some of his contemporaries had possessed but the common telescope1 is it not probable that in the science of astronomy the world would have been to-day two thousand years in advance of its present position8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,arch,,ological ,,discoveries ,,at ,,cadiz4 ,those who have had the good fortune to visit ,andalusia1 that privileged land of the sun1 of light1 songs1 dances1 beautiful girls1 and bull fighters1 preserve1 among many other poetical and pleasing recollections1 that of election to antique and smiling ,cadiz--the pearl of the ocean and the silver cup1 as the ,andalusians say in their harmonious and imaginative language4 ,there is1 in fact1 nothing exaggerated in these epithets1 for they translate a true impression4 ,especially if we arrive by sea1 there is nothing so thrilling as the dazzling silhouette which1 from afar1 is reflected all white from the mirror of a gulf almost always blue4 ,the ,cadiz peninsula has for centuries been legitimately renowned1 for1 turn by turn1 ,phenicians1 properly so called1 ,carthaginians1 ,romans1 ,goths1 ,arabs and ,spaniards have made of it the preferred seat of their business and pleasure4 ,in his so often unsparing verses1 ,martial1 even1 celebrates with an erotic rapture the undulating suppleness of the ballet dancers of ,gades1 who are continued in our day by the majas and chulas4 ,illustration3 ,,phenician ,,tombs ,,discovered ,,at ,,cadiz4 ,for an epoch anterior to that of the ,latin poet1 we have the testimony1 among others1 of ,strabo1 who describes the splendors1 formerly and for a long time famous1 of the temple of ,hercules1 and who gives many details1 whose accuracy can still be verified1 concerning various questions of topography or ethnography4 ,thus the superb tree called ,dracna draco is mentioned as growing in the vicinity of ,gadeira1 the ,greek name of the city4 ,now1 some of these trees still exist in certain public and private gardens1 and attract so much the more attention in that they are not met with in any other ,european country4 ,however1 although historically ,cadiz finds her title to nobility on every page of the ,greek and ,latin authors1 and although her ,phenician origin is averred1 nowhere has such origin1 in a monumental and epigraphic sense1 left fewer traces than in the ,andalusian peninsula4 ,a few short legends1 imperfectly read upon either silver or bronze coins1 and that was all1 at least up to recent times4 ,such penury as this distressed savants and even put them into pretty bad humor with the ,cadiz archologists4 ,to-day1 it seems that the ancient ,semitic civilization1 which has remained mute for so long in the ,iberic territory1 is finally willing to yield up her secret1 as is proved by the engravings which we present to our readers from photographs taken in situ4 ,it is necessary for us to enter into some details4 ,in #ahhg there were met with at the gates of ,cadiz1 at about five meters beneath the surface of the earth1 three rude tombs of shelly limestone1 in which were found some skeletons1 a few small bronze instruments and some trinkets--the latter of undoubted oriental manufacture4 ,in one of these tombs was also inclosed a monolithic sarcophagus of white marble of the form called anthropoid and measuring #b4ae m4 in length by #j4fg in width4 ,this sarcophagus is now preserved in the local museum1 whose director is the active1 intelligent and disinterested ,father ,vera4 ,although this is not the place to furnish technical or scientific explanations1 it will be permitted us to point out the fact that although it is of essentially oriental manufacture1 our anthropoid has undoubtedly undergone the ,hellenistic influence1 which implies an epoch posterior to that of ,pericles1 who died in #dbi ,b4,c4 ,the personage represented1 a man of mature age with noble lineaments and aquiline nose1 has thick hair corned up on the forehead in the form of a crown1 and a beard plaited in the ,asiatic fashion4 ,as for the head1 which is almost entirely executed in round relief1 that denotes in an undoubted manner the ,hellenistic influence1 united1 however1 with the immutable and somewhat hierarchical traditions of ,phenician art4 ,the arms are naked as far as to the elbow1 and the feet1 summarily indicated1 emerge from a long sheath-form robe4 ,as for the arms and hands1 they project slightly and are rather outlined than sculptured4 ,the left hand grasps a fruit1 the emblem of fecundity1 while the right held a painted crown1 the traces of which have now entirely disappeared4 ,it suffices to look at this sarcophagus to recognize the exclusively ,phenician character of it1 and the complete analogy with the monuments of the same species met with in ,phenicia1 in ,cyprus1 in ,sicily1 in ,malta1 in ,sardinia1 and everywhere where were established those of ,tyre and ,sidon1 but never until now in ,spain4 ,on another hand1 for those of our readers who are interested in archology1 we believe it our duty to point out as a source of information a memoir published last year by our ,national ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,let us limit ourselves1 therefore1 to fixing attention upon one important point3 ,the marble anthropoid was protected by a tomb absolutely like the rude tombs contiguous to it4 ,the successive discoveries since the third of last ,january at nearly the same place1 and at a depth of from #c to #f meters beneath the surface1 of numerous ,inculi absolutely identical as to material and structure with those of which we have just spoken1 is therefore a scientific event of high importance4 ,those discoveries1 which were purely accidental1 were brought about by the work on the foundations of the ,maritime ,arsenal now in course of construction at the gates of ,cadiz4 ,our ,fig4 #a represents the unearthing of the loculi on the #adth of ,april1 and on the value of which there is no need to dwell4 ,as to the dimensions1 it is easy to judge of these1 since the laborer standing to the left of the spectator holds in his hand a meter measure serving as a scale4 ,it will suffice to state that the depth of each tomb is about two meters1 and that upon the lower part of three of the parallelopipeds there exist pavements of crucial appearance4 ,finally1 nothing denoted externally the existence of these sarcophagi jealously hidden from investigation according to a usage that is established especially by the imprecations graven upon the basaltic casket now preserved in the ,museum of the ,louvre1 and which contained the ashes of ,eshmanazar1 ,king of ,sidon4 ,illustration3 ,,anthropoid ,,sarcophagus ,,discovered ,,at ,,cadiz4 ,space is wanting to furnish ampler information4 ,our object is simply to call attention to a zone which is somewhat neglected from a scientific point of view1 and which1 however1 seems as if it ought to offer a valuable field of investigation to students of things ,semitic1 among whom1 as well known1 our compatriots hold a rank apart1 since it is to them that falls the laborious and very honorable duty of collecting and editing the inscriptions in ,semitic languages4 ,on another hand1 although in the beginning the sepulchers were taken to pieces and carried away 7two of them imperfectly reconstructed may be seen in the garden of the ,cadizian ,museum71 there will be an opportunity of making prevail the system of maintaining in situ the various monuments that may hereafter be discovered4 ,thus only could one1 at a given moment1 obtain an accurate idea of what the ,phenician necropolis of ,cadiz was1 and allow the structures that compose it to preserve their imposing stamp of rustic indestructibility4 ,the excavation is being carried on at this very moment1 and a bronze statuette of an oriental god and various trinkets of more or less value have just enriched the municipal collection4 ,let us hope1 then1 as was recently predicted by ,mr4 ,clermont ,ganneau1 of the ,institute1 that some day or another some ,semitic inscription will throw a last ray of light upon the past1 which is at present so imperfectly known1 of ,phenician ,cadiz4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,prehistoric ,,horse ,,in ,,america4 ,to the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american3 ,apropos to ,professor ,cope's remarks before the ,a4,a4,a4,s4 at ,washington1 reported in ,,scientific ,,american1 ,september #ab1 inclose sketch of a mounted man1 whether on a horse or some other mammal1 is a question open to criticism4 ,illustration3 ,height1 #dc in42 length1 #fc in4 ,san ,rafiel del ,sur1 #ahgh ,drawn for and forwarded to ,peabody ,museum--,no4 #ec4 ,the figure seems incomplete--whether a cloven foot or toes were intended1 cannot say4 ,a large fossil horse was exhumed in the marsh north of ,granada1 when ditching in #ahfc4 ,then ,lake ,managua's outlet at ,fipitapa ceased its usual supply of water to ,lake ,nicaragua4 ,when notified of the discovery the spot was under water4 ,only one of the very large teeth was given to me1 which was forwarded to ,prof4 ,baird1 of ,smithsonian--,private ,no4 #cd4 ,when ,lake ,nicaragua was an ocean inlet1 its track extended to foot hills northward4 ,its waterworn pebbles and small bowlders were subsequently covered by lake deposit1 during the time between the inclosure and break out at ,san ,carlos4 ,in this deposit around the lake 7now dry7 fossil bones occur--elephas1 megatherium1 horse1 etc4 ,the large alluvium plains north of lake1 cut through by rivers1 allow these bones to settle on their rocky beds4 ,this deposit is of greater depth in places west of lake4 ,now1 if we suppose these animals were exterminated in glacial times1 it remains for us to show when this was consummated4 ,subsequent to the lake deposit and exposure no new proofs of its continuance are found4 #a4 ,this deposit occurred after the coast range was elevated4 #b4 ,elevation was caused by a volcanic ash eruption1 #e or #f of a series4 7,geologically demonstrated in my letters to ,antiquarian and ,science47 #c4 ,coast hills inclosed sea sediment1 now rock containing fossil leaves4 #d4 ,wash from this sediment1 carried with care1 formed layers of sandstone1 up to ceiling4 #e4 ,this ceiling was covered with elaborate inscriptions4 #f4 ,the inscription sent you was a near neighbor to cave4 #g4 ,another representing a saurian reptile on large granite bowlder is also a neighbor 7a glacial dropping74 #h4 ,old river emptying into ,lake ,managua reveals fossil bones2 moraines east of it are found4 ,from these data we see the glacial action was prior to the sedimentary rock here1 and had spent its force when elevation of coast range occurred4 ,no nearer estimate is possible4 ,as the fossil horse occurs here1 our mounted man may have domesticated him1 and afterward slaughtered for food like the modern ,frenchman4 ,unfortunately ,prof4 ,cope did not find a similar inscription4 ,,earl ,,flint4 ,rivas1 ,nicaragua1 ,october #bg1 #ahia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,further ,,researches ,,upon ,,the ,,element ,,fluorine4 ,by ,a4,e4 ,,tutton4 ,since the publication by ,m4 ,moissan of his celebrated paper in the ,annales de ,chime et de ,physique for ,december1 #ahhg1 describing the manner in which he had succeeded in isolating this remarkable gaseous element1 a considerable amount of additional information has been acquired concerning the chemical behavior of fluorine1 and important additions and improvements have been introduced in the apparatus employed for preparing and experimenting with the gas4 ,m4 ,moissan now gathers together the results of these subsequent researches--some of which have been published by him from time to time as contributions to various ,french scientific journals1 while others have not hitherto been made known--and publishes them in a long but most interesting paper in the ,october number of the ,annales de ,chime et de ,physique4 ,inasmuch as the experiments described are of so extraordinary a nature1 owing to the intense chemical activity of fluorine1 and are so important as filling a long existing vacancy in our chemical literature1 readers of ,nature will doubtless be interested in a brief account of them4 ,,improved ,,apparatus ,,for ,,preparing ,,fluorine4 ,in his paper of #ahhg1 the main outlines of which were given in ,nature at the time 7#ahhg1 vol4 xxxvii41 p4 #agi71 ,m4 ,moissan showed that pure hydrofluoric acid readily dissolves the double fluoride of potassium and hydrogen1 and that the liquid thus obtained is a good conductor of electricity1 rendering electrolysis possible4 ,it will be remembered that1 by passing a strong current of electricity through this liquid contained in a platinum apparatus1 free gaseous fluorine was obtained at the positive pole and hydrogen at the negative pole4 ,the amount of hydrofluoric acid employed in these earlier experiments was about fifteen grms41 about six grms4 of hydrogen potassium fluoride1 ,,hf4,,kf1 being added in order to render it a conductor4 ,since the publication of that memoir a much larger apparatus has been constructed1 in order to obtain the gas in greater quantity for the study of its reactions1 and important additions have been made1 by means of which the fluorine is delivered in a pure state1 free from admixed vapor of the very volatile hydrofluoric acid4 ,as much as a hundred cubic centimeters of hydrofluoric acid1 together with twenty grms4 of the dissolved double fluoride1 are submitted to electrolysis in this new apparatus1 and upward of four liters of pure fluorine is delivered by it per hour4 ,this improved form of the apparatus is shown in the accompanying figure 7,fig4 #a71 which is reproduced from the memoir of ,m4 ,moissan4 ,it consists essentially of two parts--the electrolysis apparatus and the purifying vessels4 ,the electrolysis apparatus1 a sectional view of which is given in ,fig4 #b1 is similar in form to that described in the paper of #ahhg1 but much larger4 ,the ,u-tube of platinum has a capacity of #afj c4c4 ,it is fitted with two lateral delivery tubes of platinum1 as in the earlier form1 and with stoppers of fluorspar1 ,f1 inserted in cylinders of platinum1 p1 carrying screw threads1 which engage with similar threads upon the interior surfaces of the limbs of the ,u-tube4 ,a key of brass1 ,e1 serves to screw or unscrew the stoppers1 and between the flange of each stopper and the top of each branch of the ,u-tube a ring of lead is compressed1 by which means hermetic closing is effected4 ,these fluorspar stoppers1 which are covered with a coating of gum lac during the electrolysis1 carry the electrode rods1 t1 which are thus perfectly insulated4 ,m4 ,moissan now employs electrodes of pure platinum instead of irido-platinum1 and the interior end of each is thickened into a club shape in order the longer to withstand corrosion4 ,the apparatus is immersed during the electrolysis in a bath of liquid methyl chloride1 maintained in tranquil ebullition at -#bc4 ,in order to preserve the methyl chloride as long as possible1 the cylinder containing it is placed in an outer glass cylinder containing fragments of calcium chloride2 by this means it is surrounded with a layer of dry air1 a bad conductor of heat4 ,the purifying vessels are three in number4 ,the first consists of a platinum spiral worm-tube of about #dj c4c4 capacity1 immersed also in a bath of liquid methyl chloride1 maintained at as low a temperature as possible1 about -#ej4 ,as hydrofluoric acid boils at #ai4e 7,moissan71 almost the whole of the vapor of this substance which is carried away in the stream of issuing fluorine is condensed and retained at the bottom of the worm4 ,to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric acid1 advantage is taken of the fact that fused sodium fluoride combines with the free acid with great energy to form the double fluoride ,,hf4,na,f4 ,sodium fluoride also possesses the advantage of not attracting moisture4 ,after traversing the worm condenser1 therefore1 the fluorine is caused to pass through two platinum tubes filled with fragments of fused sodium fluoride1 from which it issues in an almost perfect state of purity4 ,the junctions between the various parts of the apparatus are effected by means of screw joints1 between the nuts and flanges of which collars of lead are compressed4 ,during the electrolysis these leaden collars become1 where exposed to the gaseous fluorine1 rapidly converted into lead fluoride1 which being greater in bulk causes the joints to become hermetically sealed4 ,in order to effect the electrolysis1 twenty-six to twenty-eight ,bunsen elements are employed1 arranged in series4 ,an ampere meter and a commutator are introduced between the battery and the electrolysis apparatus2 the former affording an excellent indication of the progress of the electrolysis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,fluorine ,,apparatus4 ,as the ,u-tube contains far more hydrofluoric acid than can be used in one day1 each lateral delivery tube is fitted with a metallic screw stopper1 so that the experiments may be discontinued at any time1 and the apparatus closed4 ,the whole electrolysis vessel is then placed under a glass bell jar containing dry air1 and kept in a refrigerator until again required for use4 ,in this way it may be preserved full of acid for several weeks1 ready at any time for the preparation of the gas4 ,considerable care requires to be exercised not to admit the vapor of methyl chloride into the ,u-tube1 as otherwise violent detonations are liable to occur4 ,when the liquid methyl chloride is being introduced into the cylinder1 the whole apparatus becomes surrounded with an atmosphere of its vapor1 and as the platinum ,u-tube is at the same instant suddenly cooled the vapor is liable to enter by the abducting tubes4 ,consequently1 as soon as the current is allowed to pass and fluorine is liberated within the ,u-tube1 an explosion occurs4 ,fluorine instantly decomposes methyl chloride1 with production of flame and formation of fluorides of hydrogen and carbon1 liberation of chlorine1 and occasionally deposition of carbon4 ,in order to avoid this unpleasant occurrence1 when the methyl chloride is being introduced the ends of the lateral delivery tubes are attached to long lengths of caoutchoue tubing1 supplied at their ends with calcium chloride drying tubes1 so as to convey dry air from outside the atmosphere of methyl chloride vapor4 ,if great care is taken to obtain the minimum temperature1 this difficulty may be even more simply overcome by employing a mixture of well pounded ice and salt instead of methyl chloride2 but there is the counterbalancing disadvantage to be considered1 that such a cooling bath requires much more frequent renewal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,chemical ,,reactions ,,occurring ,,during ,,the ,,electrolysis4 ,in the paper of #ahhg1 ,m4 ,moissan adopted the view that the first action of the electric current was to effect the decomposition of the potassium fluoride contained in solution in the hydrofluoric acid1 fluorine being liberated at the positive pole and potassium at the negative terminal4 ,this liberated potassium would at once regenerate potassium fluoride in presence of hydrofluoric acid1 and liberate its equivalent of hydrogen3 ,,kf ,k ,f4 ,k ,,hf ,,kf ,h4 ,but when the progress of the electrolysis is carefully followed1 by consulting the indications of the amperemeter placed in circuit1 it is found to be by no means as regular as the preceding formul would indicate4 ,with the new apparatus1 the decomposition is quite irregular at first1 and does not attain regularity until it has been proceeding for upward of two hours4 ,upon stopping the current and unmounting the apparatus1 the platinum rod upon which the fluorine was liberated is found to be largely corroded1 and at the bottom of the ,u-tube a quantity of a black1 finely divided substance is observed4 ,this black substance1 which was taken at first to be metallic platinum1 is a complex compound containing one equivalent of potassium to one equivalent of platinum1 together with a considerable proportion of fluorine4 ,moreover1 the hydrofluoric acid is found to contain a small quantity of platinum fluoride in solution4 ,the electrolytic reaction is probably therefore much more complicated than was at first considered to be the case4 ,the mixture of acid and alkaline fluoride furnishes fluorine at the positive terminal rod1 but this intensely active gas1 in its nascent state1 attacks the platinum and produces platinum tetrafluoride1 ,pt,f#d2 this probably unites with the potassium fluoride to form a double salt1 possibly #b,kl4,pt,f#d1 analogous to the well known platinochloride #b,k,cl4,pt,cl#d2 and it is only when the liquid contains this double salt that the electrolysis proceeds in a regular manner1 yielding free fluorine at the positive pole1 and hydrogen and the complex black compound at the negative pole4 ,,physical ,,properties ,,of ,,fluorine4 ,fluorine possesses an odor which ,m4 ,moissan compares to a mixture of hypochlorous acid and nitrogen peroxide1 but this odor is usually masked by that of the ozone which it always produces in moist air1 owing to its decomposition of the water vapor4 ,it produces most serious irritation of the bronchial tubes and mucous membrane of the nasal cavities1 the effects of which are persistent for quite a fortnight4 ,when examined in a thickness of one meter1 it is seen to possess a greenish yellow color1 but paler1 and containing more of yellow1 than that of chlorine4 ,in such a layer1 fluorine does not present any absorption bands4 ,its spectrum exhibits thirteen bright1 lines in the red1 between wave lengths #gdd and #fbc4 ,their positions and relative intensities are as follows3 lambda #gdd very feeble4 lambda #fhe4e feeble #gdj #fhc4e #gcd #fgg strong #gad feeble4 #fdj4e #gjd #fcd #fia #fbc #fhg4e ,at a temperature of -#ie at ordinary atmospheric pressure1 fluorine remains gaseous1 no sign of liquefaction having been observed4 ,,methods ,,of ,,experimenting ,,with ,,fluorine4 ,when it is desired to determine the action of fluorine upon a solid substance1 the following method of procedure is adopted4 ,a preliminary experiment is first made1 in order to obtain some idea as to the degree of energy of the reaction1 by bringing a little of the solid1 placed upon the lid of a platinum crucible held in a pair of tongs1 near the mouth of the delivery tube of the preparation apparatus4 ,if a gaseous or liquid product results1 and it is desirable to collect it for examination1 small fragments of the solid are placed in a platinum tube connected to the delivery tube by flexible platinum tubing or by a screw joint1 and the resulting gas may be collected over water or mercury1 or the liquid condensed in a cooled cylinder of platinum4 ,in this manner the action of fluorine upon sulphur and iodine has been studied4 ,if the solid1 phosphorus for instance1 attacks platinum1 or the temperature of the reaction is sufficiently high to determine the combination of platinum and fluorine 7toward #ejj71 a tube of fluorspar is substituted for the platinum tube4 ,the fluorspar tubes employed by ,m4 ,moissan for the study of the action of phosphorus were about twelve to fourteen centimeters long1 and were terminated by platinum ends furnished with flanges and screw threads in order to be able to connect them with the preparation apparatus4 ,if it is required to heat the fluorspar tubes1 they are surrounded by a closely wound copper spiral1 which may be heated by a ,bunsen flame4 ,in experimenting upon liquids1 great care is necessary1 as the reaction frequently occurs with explosive violence4 ,a preliminary experiment is therefore always made1 by allowing the fluorine delivery tube to dip just beneath the surface of the liquid contained in a small glass cylinder4 ,when the liquid contains water1 or when hydrofluoric acid is a product of the reaction1 cylinders of platinum or of fluorspar are employed4 ,if it is required to collect and examine the product1 the liquid is placed along the bottom of a horizontal tube of platinum or fluorspar1 as in case of solids1 connected directly with the preparation apparatus1 and the product is collected over water or mercury if a gas1 or in a cooled platinum receiver if a liquid4 ,during the examination of liquids a means has accidentally been discovered by which a glass tube may be filled with fluorine gas4 ,a few liquids1 one of which is carbon tetrachloride1 react only very slowly with fluorine at the ordinary temperature4 ,by filling a glass tube with such a liquid1 and inverting it over a platinum capsule also containing the liquid1 it is possible to displace the liquid by fluorine1 which1 as the walls are wet1 does not attack the glass4 ,or the glass tube may be filled with the liquid1 and then the latter poured out1 leaving the walls wet2 the tube may then be filled with fluorine gas1 which being slightly heavier than air1 remains in the tube for some time4 ,in one experiment1 in which a glass test tube had been filled with fluorine over carbon tetrachloride1 it was attempted to transfer it to a graduated tube over mercury1 but in inclining the test tube for this purpose the mercury suddenly came in contact with the fluorine1 and absorbed it so instantaneously and with such a violent detonation that both the test tube and the graduated tube were shattered into fragments4 ,indeed1 owing to the powerful affinity of mercury for fluorine1 it is a most dangerous experiment to transfer a tube containing fluorine gas1 filled according to either the first or second method1 to the mercury trough2 the tube is always shattered if the mercury comes in contact with the gas1 and generally with a loud detonation4 ,fluorine may1 however1 be preserved for some time in tubes over mercury1 provided a few drops of the non-reacting liquid are kept above the mercury meniscus4 ,for studying the action of fluorine on gases1 a special piece of apparatus1 shown in ,fig4 #c1 has been constructed4 ,it is composed of a tube of platinum1 fifteen centimeters long1 closed by two plates of clear1 transparent1 and colorless fluorspar1 and carrying three lateral narrower tubes also of platinum4 ,two of these tubes face each other in the center of the apparatus1 and serve one for the conveyance of the fluorine and the other of the gas to be experimented upon4 ,the third1 which is of somewhat greater diameter than the other two1 serves as exit tube for the product or products of the reaction1 and may be placed in connection with a trough containing either water or mercury4 ,the apparatus is first filled with the gas to be experimented upon1 then the fluorine is allowed to enter1 and an observation of what occurs may be made through the fluorspar windows4 ,one most important precaution to take in collecting the gaseous products over mercury is not to permit the platinum delivery tube to dip more than two or at most three millimeters under the mercury1 as otherwise the levels of the liquid in the two limbs of the electrolysis ,u-tube become so different1 owing to the pressure1 that the fluorine from one side mixes with the hydrogen evolved upon the other1 and there is a violent explosion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,action ,,of ,,fluorine ,,upon ,,the ,,non-,,metallic ,,elements4 ,hydrogen4--,as just described1 hydrogen combines with fluorine1 even at -#bc and in the dark1 with explosive force4 ,this is the only case in which two elementary gases unite directly without the intervention of extraneous energy4 ,if the end of the tube delivering fluorine is placed in an atmosphere of hydrogen1 a very hot blue flame1 bordered with red1 at once appears at the mouth of the tube1 and vapor of hydrofluoric acid is produced4 ,oxygen4--,fluorine has not been found capable of uniting with oxygen up to a temperature of #ejj4 ,on ozone1 however1 it appears to exert some action1 as will be evident from the following experiment4 ,it was shown in #ahhg that fluorine decomposes water1 forming hydrofluoric acid1 and liberating oxygen in the form of ozone4 ,when a few drops of water are placed in the apparatus shown in ,fig4 #c1 and fluorine allowed to enter1 the water is instantly decomposed1 and on looking through the fluorspar ends a thick dark cloud is seen over the spot where each drop of water had previously been4 ,this cloud soon diminishes in intensity1 and is eventually replaced by a beautiful blue gas--ozone in a state of considerable density4 ,if the product is chased out by a stream of nitrogen as soon as the dense cloud is formed1 a very strong odor is perceived1 different from that of either fluorine or ozone1 but which soon gives place to the unmistakable odor of ozone4 ,it appears as if there is at first produced an unstable oxide of fluorine1 which rapidly decomposes into fluorine and ozone4 ,nitrogen and chlorine appear not to react with fluorine4 ,sulphur4--,in contact with fluorine gas1 sulphur rapidly melts and inflames4 ,a gaseous fluoride of sulphur is formed1 which possesses a most penetrating odor1 somewhat resembling that of chloride of sulphur4 ,the gas is incombustible1 even in oxygen4 ,when warmed in a glass vessel1 the latter becomes etched1 owing to the formation of silicon tetrafluoride1 ,si,f#d4 ,selenium and tellurium behave similarly1 but form crystalline solid fluorides4 ,bromine vapor combines with fluorine in the cold with production of a very bright but low temperature dame4 ,if the fluorine is evolved in the midst of pure dry liquid bromine1 the combination is immediate1 and occurs without flame4 ,iodine4--,when fluorine is passed over a fragment of iodine contained in the horizontal tube1 combination occurs1 with production of a pale flame4 ,a very heavy liquid1 colorless when free from dissolved iodine1 and fuming strongly in the air1 condenses in the cooled receiver4 ,this liquid fluoride of iodine attacks glass with great energy and decomposes water when dropped into that liquid with a noise like that produced by red-hot iron4 ,its properties agree with those of the fluoride of iodine prepared by ,gore by the action of iodine on silver fluoride4 ,phosphorus4--,immediately phosphorus1 either the ordinary yellow variety or red phosphorus1 comes in contact with fluorine1 a most lively action occurs1 accompanied by vivid incandescence4 ,if the fluorine is in excess1 a fuming gas is evolved1 which gives up its excess of fluorine on collecting over mercury1 and is soluble in water4 ,this gas is phosphorus pentafluoride1 ,,pf#e1 prepared some years ago by ,prof4 ,thorpe4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the phosphorus is in excess1 a gaseous mixture of this pentafluoride with a new fluoride1 the trifluoride1 ,,pf#c1 a gas insoluble in water1 but which may be absorbed by caustic potash1 is obtained4 ,the trifluoride1 in turn1 combines with more fluorine to form the pentafluoride1 the reaction being accompanied by the appearance of a flame of comparatively low temperature4 ,arsenic combines with fluorine at the ordinary temperature with incandescence4 ,if the current of fluorine is fairly rapid1 a colorless fuming liquid condenses in the receiver1 which is mainly arsenic trifluoride1 ,as,f#c1 but which appears also to contain a new fluoride1 the pentafluoride1 ,as,f#e1 inasmuch as the solution in water yields the reactions of both arsenious and arsenic acids4 ,carbon4--,chlorine does not unite with carbon even at the high temperature of the electric arc1 but fluorine reacts even at the ordinary temperature with finely divided carbon4 ,purified lampblack inflames instantly with great brilliancy1 as do also the lighter varieties of wood charcoal4 ,a curious phenomenon is noticed with wood charcoal2 it appears at first to absorb and condense the fluorine1 then quite suddenly it bursts into flame with bright scintillations4 ,the denser varieties of charcoal require warming to #ej or #fj before they inflame1 but it once the combustion is started at any point it rapidly propagates itself throughout the entire piece4 ,graphite must be heated to just below dull redness in order to effect combination2 while the diamond has not yet been attacked by fluorine1 even at the temperature of the ,bunsen flame4 ,a mixture of gaseous fluorides of carbon are produced whenever carbon of any variety is acted upon by fluorine1 the predominating constituent being the tetrafluoride1 ,,cf#d4 ,boron4--,the amorphous variety of boron inflames instantly in fluorine1 with projection of brilliant sparks and liberation of dense fumes of boron trifluoride1 ,,bf#c4 ,the adamantine modification behaves similarly if powdered4 ,when the experiment is performed in the fluorspar tube1 the gaseous fluoride may be collected over mercury4 ,the gas fumes strongly in the air1 and is instantly decomposed by water4 ,silicon4--,the reaction between fluorine and silicon is one of the most beautiful of all these extraordinary manifestations of chemical activity4 ,the cold crystals become immediately white-hot1 and the silicon burns with a very hot flame1 scattering showers of star-like1 white-hot particles in all directions4 ,if the action is stopped before all the silicon is consumed1 the residue is found to be fused4 ,as crystalline silicon only melts at a temperature superior to #a1bjj1 the heat evolved must be very great4 ,if the reaction is performed in the fluorspar tube1 the resulting gaseous silicon tetrafluoride1 ,si,f#d1 may be collected over mercury4 ,amorphous silicon likewise burns with great energy in fluorine4 ,,action ,,of ,,fluorine ,,upon ,,metals4 ,sodium and potassium combine with fluorine with great vigor at ordinary temperatures1 becoming incandescent1 and forming their respective fluorides1 which may be obtained crystallized from water in cubes4 ,metallic calcium also burns in fluorine gas1 forming the fused fluoride1 and occasionally minute crystals of fluorspar4 ,thallium is rapidly converted to fluoride at ordinary temperatures1 the temperature rising until the metal melts and finally becomes red hot4 ,powdered magnesium burns with great brilliancy4 ,iron1 reduced by hydrogen1 combines in the cold with immediate incandescence1 and formation of an anhydrous1 readily soluble1 white fluoride4 ,aluminum1 on heating to low redness1 gives a very beautiful luminosity1 as do also chromium and manganese4 ,the combustion of slightly warmed zinc in fluorine is particularly pretty as an experiment1 the flame being of a most dazzling whiteness4 ,antimony takes fire at the ordinary temperature1 and forms a solid white fluoride4 ,lead and mercury are attacked in the cold1 as previously described1 the latter with great rapidity4 ,copper reacts at low redness1 but in a strangely feeble manner1 and the white fumes formed appear to combine with a further quantity of fluorine to form a perfluoride4 ,the main product is a volatile white fluoride4 ,silver is only slowly attacked in the cold4 ,when heated1 however1 to #ajj1 the metal commences to be covered with a yellow coat of anhydrous fluoride1 and on heating to low redness combination occurs1 with incandescence1 and the resulting fluoride becomes fused1 and afterward presents a satin-like aspect4 ,gold becomes converted into a yellow deliquescent volatile fluoride when heated to low redness1 and at a slightly higher temperature the fluoride is dissociated into metallic gold and fluorine gas4 ,the action of fluorine on platinum has been studied with special care4 ,it is evident1 in view of the corrosion of the positive platinum terminal of the electrolysis apparatus1 that nascent fluorine rapidly attacks platinum at a temperature of -#bc4 ,at #ajj1 however1 fluorine gas appears to be without action on platinum4 ,at #ejj-fjj it is attacked strongly1 with formation of the tetrafluoride4 ,pt,f#d1 and a small quantity of the protofluoride1 ,pt,f#b4 ,if the fluorine is admixed with vapor of hydrofluoric acid1 the reaction is much more vigorous1 as if a fluorhydrate of the tetrafluoride1 perhaps #b;,,hf4,pt,f#d1 were formed4 ,the tetrafluoride is generally found in the form of deep-red fused masses1 or small yellow crystals resembling those of anhydrous platinum chloride4 ,the salt is volatile and very hygroscopic4 ,its behavior with water is peculiar4 ,with a small quantity of water a brownish yellow solution is formed1 which1 however1 in a very short time becomes warm and the fluoride decomposes2 platinic hydrate is precipitated1 and free hydrofluoric acid remains in solution4 ,if the quantity of water is greater1 the solution may be preserved for some minutes without decomposition4 ,if the liquid is boiled1 it decomposes instantly4 ,at a red heat platinic fluoride decomposes into metallic platinum and fluorine1 which is evolved in the free state4 ,this reaction can therefore be employed as a ready means of preparing fluorine1 the fluoride only requiring to be heated rapidly to redness in a platinum tube closed at one end1 when crystallized silicon held at the open end will be found to immediately take fire in the escaping fluorine4 ,the best mode of obtaining the fluoride of platinum for this purpose is to heat a bundle of platinum wires to low redness in the fluorspar reaction tube in a rapid stream of fluorine4 ,as soon as sufficient fluoride is formed on the wires1 they are transferred to a well stoppered dry glass tube1 until required for the preparation of fluorine4 ,,action ,,of ,,fluorine ,,upon ,,non-,,metallic ,,compounds4 ,sulphureted ,hydrogen4--,when the horizontal tube shown in ,fig4 #c is filled with sulphureted hydrogen gas and fluorine is allowed to enter1 a blue flame is observed on looking through the fluorspar windows playing around the spot where the fluorine is being admitted4 ,the decomposition continues until the whole of the hydrogen sulphide is converted into gaseous fluorides of hydrogen and sulphur4 ,sulphur dioxide is likewise decomposed in the cold1 with production of a yellow flame and formation of fluoride of sulphur4 ,hydrochloric acid gas is also decomposed at ordinary temperatures with flame1 and1 if there is not a large excess of hydrochloric acid present1 with detonation4 ,hydrofluoric acid and free chlorine are the products4 ,gaseous hydrobromic and hydriodic acids react with fluorine in a similar manner1 with production of flame and formation of hydrofluoric acid4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as bromine and iodine combine with fluorine1 as previously described1 these halogens do not escape1 but burn up to their respective fluorides4 ,when fluorine is delivered into an aqueous solution of hydriodic acid1 each bubble as it enters produces a flash of flame1 and if the fluorine is being evolved fairly rapidly there is a series of very violent detonations4 ,a curious reaction also occurs when fluorine is similarly passed into a #ej per cent4 aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid itself1 a flame being produced in the middle of the liquid1 accompanied by a series of detonations4 ,nitric acid vapor reacts with great violence with fluorine1 a loud explosion resulting4 ,if fluorine is passed into the ordinary liquid acid1 each bubble as it enters produces a flame in the liquid4 ,ammonia gas is decomposed by fluorine with formation of a yellow flame1 forming hydrofluoric acid and liberating nitrogen4 ,with a solution of the gas in water1 each bubble of fluorine produces an explosion and flame1 as in case of hydriodic acid4 ,phosphoric anhydride1 when heated to low redness1 burns with a pale flame in fluorine1 forming a gaseous mixture of fluorides and oxyfluoride of phosphorus4 ,pentachloride and trichloride of phosphorus both react most energetically with fluorine1 instantly producing a brilliant flame1 and evolving a mixture of phosphorus pentafluoride and free chlorine4 ,arsenious anhydride also affords a brilliant combustion1 forming the liquid trifluoride of arsenic1 ,as,f#c4 ,this liquid in turn appears to react with more fluorine with considerable evolution of heat1 probably forming the pentafluoride1 ,as,f#e4 ,chloride of arsenic1 ,as,cl#c1 is converted with considerable energy to the trifluoride1 free chlorine being liberated4 ,carbon bisulphide inflames in the cold in contact with fluorine1 and if the fluorine is led into the midst of the liquid a similar production of flame occurs under the surface of the liquid1 as in case of nitric acid4 ,no carbon is deposited1 both the carbon and sulphur being entirely converted into gaseous fluorides4 ,carbon tetrachloride1 as previously mentioned1 reacts only very slowly with fluorine4 ,the liquid may be saturated with gaseous fluorine at #ae1 but on boiling this liquid a gaseous mixture is evolved1 one constituent of which is carbon tetrafluoride1 ,,cf#d1 a gas readily capable of absorption by alcoholic potash4 ,the remainder consists of another fluoride of carbon1 incapable of absorption by potash and chlorine4 ,a mixture of the vapors of carbon tetrachloride and fluorine inflames spontaneously with detonation1 and chlorine is liberated without deposition of carbon4 ,boric anhydride is raised to a most vivid incandescence by fluorine1 the experiment being rendered very beautiful by the abundant white fumes of the trifluoride which are liberated4 ,silicon dioxide1 one of the most inert of substances at the ordinary temperature1 takes fire in the cold in contact with fluorine1 becoming instantly white-hot1 and rapidly disappearing in the form of silicon tetrafluoride4 ,the chlorides of both boron and silicon are decomposed by fluorine1 with formation of fluorides and liberation of chlorine1 the reaction being accompanied by the production of flame4 ,,action ,,of ,,fluorine ,,upon ,,metallic ,,compounds4 ,chlorides of the metals are instantly decomposed by fluorine1 generally at the ordinary temperature1 and in certain cases1 antimony trichloride for instance1 with the appearance of flame4 ,chlorine is in each case liberated1 and a fluoride of the metal formed4 ,a few require heating1 when a similar decomposition occurs1 often accompanied by incandescence1 as in case of chromium sesquichloride4 ,bromides and iodides are decomposed with even greater energy1 and the liberated bromine and iodine burn in the fluorine with formation of their respective fluorides4 ,cyanides react in a most beautiful manner with fluorine1 the displaced cyanogen burning with a purple flame4 ,potassium ferrocyanide in particular affords a very pretty experiment1 and reacts in the cold4 ,ordinary potassium cyanide requires slightly warming in order to start the combustion4 ,fused potash yields potassium fluoride and ozone4 ,aqueous potash does not form potassium hypofluorite when fluorine is bubbled into it1 but only potassium fluoride4 ,lime becomes most brilliantly incandescent1 owing partly to the excess being raised to a very high temperature by the heat developed during the decomposition1 and partly to the phosphorescence of the calcium fluoride formed4 ,sulphides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are also immediately rendered incandescent1 fluorides of the metal and sulphur being respectively formed4 ,boron nitride behaves in an exceedingly beautiful manner1 being attacked in the cold1 and emitting a brilliant blue light which is surrounded by a halo of the fumes of boron fluoride4 ,sulphates1 nitrates and phosphates generally require the application of more or less heat1 when they too are rapidly and energetically decomposed4 ,calcium phosphate is attacked in the cold like lime1 giving out a brilliant white light1 and producing calcium fluoride and gaseous oxyfluoride of phosphorus1 ,,pof#c4 ,calcium carbonate also becomes raised to brilliant incandescence when exposed to fluorine gas1 as does also normal sodium carbonate2 but curiously enough the bicarbonates of the alkalies do not react with fluorine even at red heat4 ,perhaps this may be explained by the fact that fluorine has no action at available temperatures upon carbon dioxide4 ,,action ,,of ,,fluorine ,,upon ,a ,,few ,,organic ,,compounds4 ,chloroform4--,when chloroform is saturated with fluorine1 and subsequently boiled1 carbon tetrafluoride1 hydrofluoric acid and chlorine are evolved4 ,if a drop of chloroform is agitated in a glass tube with excess of fluorine1 a violent explosion suddenly occurs1 accompanied by a flash of flame1 and the tube is shattered to pieces4 ,the reaction is very lively when fluorine is evolved in the midst of a quantity of chloroform1 a persistent flame burns beneath the surface of the liquid1 carbon is deposited1 and fluorides of hydrogen and carbon are evolved together with chlorine4 ,methyl chloride is decomposed by fluorine1 even at -#bc1 with production of a yellow flame1 deposition of carbon1 and liberation of fluorides of hydrogen and carbon and free chlorine4 ,with the vapor of methyl chloride1 as pointed out in the description of the electrolysis1 violent explosions occur4 ,ethyl alcohol vapor at once takes fire in fluorine gas1 and the liquid is decomposed with explosive violence without deposition of carbon4 ,aldehyde is formed to a considerable extent during the reaction4 ,acetic acid and benzene are both decomposed with violence1 their cold vapors burn in fluorine1 and when the latter is bubbled through the liquids themselves1 flashes of flame1 and often most dangerous explosions1 occur4 ,in the case of benzene1 carbon is deposited1 and with both liquids fluorides of hydrogen and carbon are evolved4 ,aniline likewise takes fire in fluorine1 and deposits a large quantity of carbon1 which1 however1 if the fluorine is in excess1 burns away completely to carbon tetrafluoride4 ,such are the main outlines of these later researches of ,m4 ,moissan1 and they cannot fail to impress those who read them with the prodigious nature of the forces associated with those minutest of entities1 the chemical atoms1 as exhibited at their maximum1 in so far as our knowledge at present goes1 in the case of the element fluorine4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,estimation ,,of ,,fat ,,in ,,milk4 ,by ,e4 ,,molisabi4 ,illustration ,the author1 after criticising the various methods for estimating fat in milk which have been proposed from time to time1 agrees with ,stokes 7,analyst1 #ahhe1 p4 #dh71 ,eustace ,hill 7,analyst1 #ahia1 p4 #fg71 and ,bondzynsky 7,landwirth ,jahrb4 der ,schweiz1 #ahhi71 that the method of ,werner ,schmid is the simplest1 most rapid1 and convenient hitherto introduced4 ,the conditions tending to inaccuracy are3 ,the employment of ether containing alcohol2 boiling the mixture of milk and acid too long1 when a caramel-like body is formed1 soluble in ether2 the difficulty of reading off the volume of ether left in the tube1 owing to the gradations of the instrument being obscured by the flocculent layer of casein2 when only a portion of the ether is used1 fat may be left behind in the acid mixture1 as shown by ,allen 7,chem4 ,zeit41 #ahia1 p4 #cca74 ,the author believes that by the invention of the simple apparatus represented in the accompanying figure1 he has rendered the process both accurate and convenient4 ,this consists of a flask ,b of about #ge c4c4 capacity1 which has a glass tap fused on1 with two capillary tubes attached1 the one passing upward1 the other downward4 ,the neck of flask ,b is ground into the neck of flask ,a1 which holds about #ij c4c4 ,either of the flasks can be placed in communication with the external air by the opening a4 ,the ether must be previously washed with one or two tenths of its volume of water1 to remove traces of alcohol4 ,the operation is performed as follows3 #aj c4c4 of well mixed milk are weighed in 7or measured into7 flask ,a1 #aj c4c4 of hydrochloric acid added1 and the mixture heated to boiling on an asbestos sheet4 ,the boiling must not exceed a minute and a half1 the fluid being shaken from time to time1 and not allowed to become of a deeper color than a dark brown not black4 ,the flask is cooled1 and #be c4c4 of ether added4 ,the two flasks are connected as shown in the figure1 the tap closed1 and the whole shaken for a few minutes1 the flask being vented two or three times by the opening a4 ,the apparatus is now inverted1 allowed to stand five or six minutes1 the tap turned1 and the dark acid liquid drawn off into flask ,b4 ,by a little shaking of the ether the whole of the acid liquid may be easily got into the lower flask4 ,the apparatus is again inverted1 then separated1 #aj c4c4 of ether are introduced into the flask ,b1 the tap closed1 and the fluids well shaken4 ,when the ether layer is distinct1 the acid liquor is run off1 and the ether solution transferred to ,a4 ,the whole of the ether solution is washed in the apparatus two or three times with a little water1 the flask ,a removed to the water bath1 the ether driven off1 the last traces of ether and water being removed by placing the flask in a drying oven heated from #ajg to #aaj ,c41 where it must remain at least twenty minutes4 ,the usual cooling in the exsiccator and weighing concludes the operation4 ,examples are given showing its concordance with the ,adams and other recognized processes4 ,sour milk1 which must be weighed in the flask1 can be conveniently analyzed2 also cream1 using #e grammes cream and #aj c4c4 hydrochloric acid4 7,berichte ,deutsch4 ,chem4 ,gesell41 #bd1 p4 #bbjd74--,the ,analyst4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,american ,,association--,,ninth ,,annual ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,indexing ,,chemical ,,literature4#a ,footnote #a3 ,from advance proof sheets of the ,proceedings of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science2 ,washington meeting1 #ahia4 ,the ,committee on ,indexing ,chemical ,literature respectfully presents to the ,chemical ,section its ninth annual report4 ,since our last meeting the following bibliographies have been printed3 #a4 ,a ,bibliography of ,geometrical ,isomerism4 ,accompanying an address on this subject to the ,chemical ,section of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at ,indianapolis1 ,august1 #ahij1 by ,professor ,robert ,b4 ,warder1 ,vice ,president4 ,proceedings ,a4,a4,a4,s41 vol4 xxxix4 ,salem1 #ahij4 #hvo4 #b4 ,a ,bibliography of the ,chemical ,influence of ,light1 by ,alfred ,tuckerman4 ,smithsonian ,miscellaneous ,collections ,no4 #ghe4 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 #ahia4 ,pp4 #bb4 #hvo4 #c4 ,a ,bibliography of ,analytical ,chemistry for the year #ahij1 by ,h4 ,carrington ,bolton4 ,j4 ,anal4 ,appl4 ,chem41 v41 ,no4 #c4 ,march1 #ahia4 ,we chronicle the publication of the following important bibliography3 #d4 ,a ,guide to the ,literature of ,sugar4 ,a book of reference for chemists1 botanists1 librarians1 manufacturers and planters1 with comprehensive subject index4 ,by ,h4 ,ling ,roth4 ,london3 ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trubner ,co4 ,limited4 #ahij4 #hvo4 ,pp xvi-#aei4 ,this work contains more than #a1bjj titles of books1 pamphlets1 and papers relating to sugar4 ,many of the titles are supplemented with brief abstracts4 ,the alphabetical author catalogue is followed by a chronological table and an analytical subject index4 ,the compilation extends to the beginning of the year #ahhe1 and the author promises a supplement and possibly an annual guide4 ,the ambitious work is useful but very incomplete4 ,it does not include glucose4 ,the author gives a list of fifteen periodicals devoted to sugar1 and omits exactly fifteen more recorded in ,bolton's ,catalogue of ,scientific and ,technical ,periodicals 7#affe-ahhb74 ,angelo ,sala's ,saccharologia is not named1 though mentioned in ,roscoe and ,schorlemmer and elsewhere4 ,notwithstanding some blemishes1 this work is indispensable to chemists desirous of becoming familiar with the literature of sugar4 ,it is to be hoped that a second edition brought down to date may be issued by the author4 #e4 ,a ,bibliography of ,ptomaines accompanies ,professor ,victor ,c4 ,vaughan's work1 ,ptomaines and ,leucomaines4 ,philadelphia1 #ahhh4 7,pages #bif-had47 #hvo4 ,chemists will hail with pleasure the announcement that a new dictionary of solubilities is in progress by a competent hand4 ,professor ,arthur ,m4 ,comey1 of ,tufts ,college1 ,college ,hill1 ,mass41 writes that the work he has undertaken will be as complete as possible4 ,the very old matter which forms so large a part of ,storer's ,dictionary will be referred to1 and in important cases fully given4 ,abbreviations will be freely used and formul will be given instead of the chemical names of substances1 in the body of the book4 ,this is found to be absolutely necessary in order to bring the work into a convenient size for use 4441 ,the arrangement will be strictly alphabetical4 ,references to original papers will be given in all cases 444 ,professor ,comey estimates his work will contain over #gj1jjj entries1 and will make a volume of #a1ejj-a1gjj pages4 ,the following letter from ,mr4 ,howard ,l4 ,prince1 ,librarian of the ,united ,states ,patent ,office1 explains itself3 ,,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,february #aa1 #ahia ,dr4 ,h ,carrington ,bolton4 ,university ,club1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y43 ,,dear ,,sir--,in response to your request ,i take pleasure in giving you the following information regarding the past accomplishments and plans for the future of the ,scientific ,library in the matter of technological indexing4 ,the work of indexing periodicals has been carried on in the library for some years in a somewhat desultory fashion1 taking up one journal after another1 the object being1 apparently1 more to supply clerks with work than the pursuance of any well defined plan4 ,however1 one important work has been substantially completed1 viz41 a general index to the whole set of the ,,scientific ,,american and ,,supplement from #ahdf to date4 ,it is unnecessary for me to point out to you the importance of this work1 embracing a collection which has held the leading place in the line of general information on invention and progress1 the labor of compiling which has been so formidable that no movement in that direction has been attempted by the publishers except in regard to the ,,supplement only1 and that very imperfectly4 ,this index embraces now #ahd1fjj cards1 not punched1 and at present stored in shallow drawers and fastened by rubber bands1 and of course they are at present unavailable for use4 ,there is little prospect of printing this index1 and ,i have been endeavoring for some time to throw the index open to the public by punching the cards and fastening them with guard rods1 but as yet have made no perceptible impression upon the authorities1 although the expense of preparation would be only about #gj4 ,there has also been completed an index to the ,english journal ,engineering1 comprising #hd1jjj cards1 from the beginning to date4 ,an index to ,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal was also commenced as long ago as #ahgh1 carried on for six or seven years and then dropped4 ,i hope1 however1 at no remote date1 to bring this forward to the present time4 ,on taking charge of the library ,i was at once impressed with the immense value of the periodical literature on our shelves and the great importance of making it more readily accessible1 and have had in contemplation for some time the beginning of a card index to all our periodicals on the same general plan as that of ,rieth's ,repertorium4 ,i have1 however1 been unable to obtain sufficient force to cover the whole ground1 but have selected about one hundred and fifty journals1 notably those upon the subjects of chemistry1 electricity and engineering1 both in ,english and foreign languages1 the indexing of which has been in progress since the first of ,january4 ,this number includes substantially all the valuable material in our possession in the ,english language1 not only journals1 but transactions of societies1 all the electrical journals and nearly all the chemical in foreign languages4 ,this index will be kept open to the public as soon as sufficient material has accumulated4 ,in general plan it will be alphabetical1 following nearly the arrangement of the periodical portion of the surgeon general's catalogue4 ,i shall depart from the strictly alphabetical plan sufficiently to group under such important subjects as chemistry1 electricity1 engineering1 railroads1 etc41 all the subdivisions of the art1 so that the electrical investigator1 for instance1 will not be obliged to travel from one end of the alphabet to the other to find the divisions of generators1 conductors1 dynamos1 telephones1 telegraphs1 etc41 and in the grouping of the classes of applied science the office classification of inventions will1 as a rule1 be adhered to1 the subdivisions being1 of course1 arranged in alphabetical order under their general head and the title of the several articles also arranged alphabetically by authors or principal words4 ,with many thanks for the kind interest and valuable information afforded me1 ,i remain1 very truly yours1 ,,howard ,l4 ,,prince1 ,librarian ,scientific ,library4 ,the committee much prefers to record completed work than to mention projects1 as the latter sometimes fail4 ,it is satisfactory1 however1 to announce that the indefatigable indexer1 ,dr4 ,alfred ,tuckerman1 is engaged on an extensive ,bibliography of ,mineral ,waters4 ,the chairman of the committee expects to complete the ,,ms4 of a ,select ,bibliography of ,chemistry during the year1 visiting the chief libraries of ,europe for the purpose this summer4 ,h4 ,,carrington ,,bolton1 ,chairman4 ,f4,w4 ,,clarke1 ,,albert ,r4 ,,leeds1 ,,alexis ,a4 ,,julien1 ,,john ,w4 ,,langley1 ,,albert ,b4 ,,prescott4 ,dr4 ,alfred ,tuckerman was added to the committee at the ,washington meeting to fill a vacancy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,french ,,wine ,,law4 ,the ,french wine law 7,journ4 ,officiel1 ,july #aa1 #ahia7 includes the following provisions3 ,sect4 #a4 ,the product of fermentation of the husks of grapes from which the must has been extracted with water1 with or without the addition of sugar1 or mixed with wine in whatever proportion1 may only be sold1 or offered for sale1 under the name of husk wine or sugared wine4 ,sect4 #b4 ,the addition of the following substances to wine1 husk wine1 sugared wine1 or raisin wine will be considered an adulteration3 #a4 ,coloring matters of all descriptions4 #b4 ,sulphuric1 nitric1 hydrochloric1 salicylic1 boric acid1 or similar substances4 #c4 ,sodium chloride beyond one gramme per liter4 ,sect4 #c4 ,the sale of plastered wines1 containing more than two grammes of potassium1 or sodium sulphate1 is prohibited4 ,offenders are subject to a fine of #af to #ejj francs1 or to imprisonment from six days to three months1 according to circumstances4 ,barrels or vessels containing plastered wine must have affixed a notice to that effect in large letters1 and the books1 invoices1 and bills of lading must likewise bear such notice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,allotropic ,,conditions ,,of ,,silver4 ,m4 ,berthelot recently called the attention of the ,academy 7,paris7 to the memoirs of ,carey ,lea on the allotropic states of silver1 and exhibited specimens of the color of gold and others of a purple color sent him by the author4 ,he explained the importance of these results1 which remind us of the work of the ancient alchemists1 but he reserved the question whether these substances are really isomeric states of silver or complex and condensed compounds1 sharing the properties of the element which constituted the principal mass 7#ig-ih per cent471 conformably to the facts known in the history of the various carbons1 of the derivatives of red phosphorus1 and especially of the varieties of iron and steel4 ,between these condensed compounds and the pure elements the continuous transition of the physical and chemical properties is often effected by insensible degrees1 by a mixture of definite compounds4 ,the following letter appears in a recent number of the ,chemical ,news4 ,sir3 ,in a recently published lecture1 ,mr4 ,meldola seems to call in question the existence of allotropic silver4 ,this opinion does not appear1 however1 to be based on any adequate study of the subject1 but to be somewhat conjectural in its nature4 ,no experimental support of any sort is given1 and the only argument offered 7if such it can be called7 is that this altered form of silver is analogous to that of metals whose properties have been greatly changed by being alloyed with small quantities of other metals4 ,does1 then1 ,mr4 ,meldola suppose that a silver alloy can be formed by precipitating silver in the presence of another metal from an aqueous solution1 or that one can argue from alloys1 which are solutions1 to molecular compounds or lakes8 ,moreover1 he has overlooked the fact that allotropic silver can be obtained in the absence of any metal with which silver is capable of combining1 as in the case of its formation by the action of soda and dextrine4 ,silver cannot be alloyed with sodium4 ,mr4 ,meldola cites ,prange as having shown that allotropic silver obtained with the aid of ferrous citrate contains traces of iron1 a fact which was published by me several years earlier1 with an analytical determination of the amount of iron found4 ,mr4 ,prange repeated and confirmed this fact of the presence of iron 7in this particular case71 and my other observations generally1 and was fully convinced of the existence of both soluble and insoluble allotropic silver4 ,mr4 ,meldola's quotation of ,mr4 ,prange would not convey this impression to the reader4 ,of the many forms of allotropic silver1 two of the best marked are the blue and the yellow4 ,blue allotropic silver is formed in many reactions with the aid of many wholly different reagents4 ,to suppose that each of these many substances is capable of uniting in minute quantity with silver to produce in all cases an identical result1 the same product with identical color and properties1 would be an absurdity4 ,gold-colored allotropic silver in thin films is converted by the slightest pressure to normal silver4 ,a glass rod drawn over it with a gentle pressure leaves a gray line behind it of ordinary silver4 ,if the film is then plunged into solution of potassium ferricyanide it becomes red or blue1 while the lines traced show by their different reaction that they consist of ordinary silver4 ,heat1 electricity1 and contact with strong acids produce a similar change to ordinary gray silver4 ,these reactions afford the clearest proof that the silver is in an allotropic form4 ,to account for them on suppositions like ,mr4 ,meldola's would involve an exceedingly forced interpretation1 such as no one who carefully repeated my work could possibly entertain4 ,i am1 etc41 ,m4 ,,carey ,,lea4 ,philadelphia1 ,october #bb1 #ahia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,architects and ,builders ,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 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