,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hbi ,,new ,,york1 ,november #ba1 #ahia4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1 ,no4 #hbi4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,astronomy4--,the ,sun's ,motion in ,space4--,by ,a4,m4 ,,clerke4-- ,a very interesting article on the determination of this hitherto uncertain factor4 ,,ii4 ,,botany4--,hemlock and ,parsley4--,by ,w4,w4 ,,bailey4--,economic botany of ,umbellifer4 ,raphides--the ,cause of the ,acridity of ,certain ,plants4--,by ,r4,a4 ,,weber4--,effect of these crystals on the expressed juice from calla and ,indian turnip and other plants4 ,the ,eremuri4--,a very attractive flower plant for gardens4--#a illustration4 ,,iii4 ,,decorative ,,art4--,the ,decorative ,treatment of ,natural ,foliage4--,by ,,hugh ,,stannus4 ,the first of a series of lectures before the ,london ,society of ,arts1 giving an elaborate classification of the principles of the subject4--#e illustrations4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,the ,independent--,storage or ,primary ,battery--,system of ,electric ,motive ,power4--,by ,,knight ,,neftel4--,abstract of a recent paper read before the ,american ,street ,railway ,association on the present aspect of battery car traction4 ,v4 ,,geography4--,the ,colorado ,desert ,lake4--,a description of the new overflow into the ,colorado ,desert1 with the prognosis of its future4 ,,vi4 ,,geology4--,animal ,origin of ,petroleum and ,paraffine4--,a plea for the animal origin of geological hydrocarbons based on chemical and geological reasons4 ,the ,origin of ,petroleum4--,by ,o4,c4,d4 ,ross4--,a further and more lengthy discussion in regard to petroleum and theory of its production by volcanic action4 ,,vii4 ,,gunnery4--,weldon's ,range ,finder4--,an instrument for determining distances1 with description of its use4--#c illustrations4 ,,viii4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering4--,mercury ,weighing ,machine4--,a type of weighing machine depending on the displacement of mercury4--#a illustration4 ,wheels ,linked with a ,bell ,crank4--,curious examples of mechanical constructions in the communication of motion between wheels4--#c illustrations4 ,,ix4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,cold and ,mortality4--,by ,dr4 ,b4,w4 ,,richardson4--,the effect of cold upon the operation of the animal system1 with practical rules4 ,on the ,occurrence of ,tin in ,canned ,food4--,by ,h4,a4 ,,weber4--,a very valuable and important series of analyses of ,american and other food products for tin and copper4 ,the ,treatment of ,glaucoma4--,note on the treatment of this disease fatal to vision4 ,x4 ,,metallurgy4--,on the ,elimination of ,sulphur from ,pig ,iron4 ,by ,j4 ,,massenez4--,the desulphurization of pig iron by treatment with manganese1 with apparatus employed4--#e illustrations4 ,,xi4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,california ,raisin ,industry4--,how raisins are grown and packed in ,california1 with valuable figures and data4 ,the ,recent ,battles in ,chile4--,the recent battles of ,concon and ,vina del ,mar4--#b illustrations4 ,,xii4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,whale-headed ,stork4--,a curious bird1 a habitant of ,africa and of great rarity4--#a illustration4 ,,xiii4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,a ,twin ,screw ,launch ,run by a ,compound ,engine4--,the application of a single compound tandem engine to driving twin screws4--#b illustrations4 ,improvements in the ,construction of ,river and ,canal ,barges4--,by ,m4 ,,ritter4--,a very peculiar and ingenious system of construction1 enabling the same vessel to be used at greater or less draught according to the requirements and conditions of the water4--#e illustrations4 ,reefing ,sails from the ,deck--,an effective method of reefing1 one which has been subjected to actual trial repeatedly in bad weather off ,cape ,horn4--#c illustrations4 ,,xiv4 ,,physics4--,the ,cyclostat4--,an apparatus for observing bodies in rapid rotary motion4--#e illustrations4 ,,xv4 ,,technology4--,a ,new ,process for the ,bleaching of ,jute4--,by ,messrs4 ,,leykam and ,,tosefothal4--,a method of rendering the fiber of jute perfectly white1 with full details4 ,a ,violet ,coloring ,matter from ,morphine4--,the first true coloring matter obtained from a natural alkaloid4 ,liquid ,blue for ,dyeing4--,treatment of the ,dornemann liquid blue4 ,new ,process for the ,manufacture of ,chromates4--,by ,j4 ,,massignon and ,e4 ,,vatel4--,manufacture of chromates from chromic iron ore by a new process4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,concon1 ,,chile4 ,august #ba1 #ahia4 ,the ,congressional troops advancing4 ,the river ,aconcagua4 ,balmaceda's troops retreating4 ,the ,esmeralda4 ,concon ,point4 ,the ,magellanes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,vi,a ,,del ,,mar1 ,,chile1 ,,august #ahia4 ,esmeralda firing shell at ,fort ,callao4 ,almirante ,cochrane firing at ,balmaceda's artillery behind ,fort ,callao4 ,battery of ,congress artillery trying to silence government troops at ,via del ,mar4 ,balmaceda's field batteries at back of ,fort ,callao4 ,fort ,callao4 ,congress infantry firing at troops at ,vina del ,mar1 ,balmaceda's infantry returning fire of ,congress troops opposite4 ,english1 ,american1 ,german1 and ,french men-of-war watching the battle of ,via del ,mar4 ,,the ,,recent ,,battles ,,in ,,chile4 ,the battle of ,concon took place ,aug4 #ba1 #ahia4 ,nine thousand ,congressional troops advancing toward ,valparaiso from ,quinteros ,bay1 where they had landed the day previous1 were met by ,balmaceda's troops on the other side of the river ,aconcagua4 ,the ,esmeralda and the ,magellanes1 co-operating from the sea1 made fearful havoc among the ,balmacedists with their machine guns and shell4 ,after a stubborn fight the ,balmacedists were totally defeated1 and were pursued by the victorious cavalry1 losing #d1jjj out of #ab1jjj in killed1 wounded and deserters4 ,all their field pieces were captured1 and thus the road was left open for the ,congressionalists to advance on ,via del ,mar4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,vi,a ,,del ,,mar1 ,,chile4 ,a general engagement took place on ,aug4 #bc1 #ahia1 between divisions of ,balmaceda's and the ,congressional troops1 with the ,esmeralda and the ,almirante ,cochrane aiding the latter by firing at ,fort ,callao1 endeavoring to silence the field batteries at the back4 ,the ,congressional troops failed to capture ,via del ,mar1 but eventually cut the railway line a few miles out1 and crossed over to the back of ,valparaiso1 which was soon captured4--,the ,graphic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sun',s ,,motion ,,in ,,space4 ,by ,a4,m4 ,,clerke4 ,science needed two thousand years to disentangle the earth's orbital movement from the revolutions of the other planets1 and the incomparably more arduous problem of distinguishing the solar share in the confused multitude of stellar displacements first presented itself as possibly tractable a little more than a century ago4 ,in the lack for it as yet of a definite solution there is1 then1 no ground for surprise1 but much for satisfaction in the large measure of success attending the strenuous attacks of which it has so often been made the object4 ,approximately correct knowledge as to the direction and velocity of the sun's translation is indispensable to a profitable study of sidereal construction2 but apart from some acquaintance with the nature of sidereal construction1 it is difficult1 if not impossible1 of attainment4 ,one1 in fact1 presupposes the other4 ,to separate a common element of motion from the heterogeneous shiftings upon the sphere of three or four thousand stars is a task practicable only under certain conditions4 ,to begin with1 the proper motions investigated must be established with general exactitude4 ,the errors inevitably affecting them must be such as pretty nearly1 in the total upshot1 to neutralize one another4 ,for should they run mainly in one direction1 the result will be falsified in a degree enormously disproportionate to their magnitude4 ,the adoption1 for instance1 of system of declinations as much as #a of arc astray might displace to the extent of #aj north or south the point fixed upon as the apex of the sun's way 7see ,l4 ,boss ,astr4 ,jour41 ,no4 #bac74 ,risks on this score1 however1 will become less formidable with the further advance of practical astronomy along a track definable as an asymptote of ideal perfection4 ,besides this obstacle to be overcome1 there is another which it will soon be possible to evade4 ,hitherto1 inquiries into the solar movement have been hampered by the necessity for preliminary assumptions of some kind as to the relative distances of classes of stars4 ,but all such assumptions1 especially when applied to selected lists1 are highly insecure2 and any fabric reared upon them must be considered to stand upon treacherous ground4 ,the spectrographic method1 however1 here fortunately comes into play4 ,proper motions are only angular velocities4 ,they tell nothing as to the value of the perspective element they may be supposed to include1 or as to the real rate of going of the bodies they are attributed to1 until the size of the sphere upon which they are measured has been otherwise ascertained4 ,but the displacement of lines in stellar spectra give directly the actual velocities relative to the earth of the observed stars4 ,the question of their distances is1 therefore1 at once eliminated4 ,now the radial component of stellar motion is mixed up1 precisely in the same way as the tangential component1 with the solar movement2 and since complete knowledge of it1 in a sufficient number of cases1 is rapidly becoming accessible1 while knowledge of tangential velocity must for a long time remain partial or uncertain1 the advantage of replacing the discussion of proper motions by that of motions in line of sight is obvious and immediate4 ,and the admirable work carried on at ,potsdam during the last three years will soon afford the means of doing so in the first1 if only a preliminary investigation of the solar translation based upon measurements of photographed stellar spectra4 ,the difficulties1 then1 caused either by inaccuracies in star catalogues or by ignorance of star distances may be overcome2 but there is a third1 impossible at present to be surmounted1 and not without misgiving to be passed by4 ,all inquiries upon the subject of the advance of our system through space start with an hypothesis most unlikely to be true4 ,the method uniformly adopted in them--and no other is available--is to treat the inherent motions of the stars 7their so-called motus peculiares7 as pursued indifferently in all directions4 ,the steady drift extricable from them by rules founded upon the science of probabilities is presumed to be solar motion visually transferred to them in proportions varying with their remoteness in space1 and their situations on the sphere4 ,if this presumption be in any degree baseless1 the result of the inquiry is pro tanto falsified4 ,unless the deviations from the parallactic line of the stellar motions balance one another on the whole1 their discussion may easily be as fruitless as that of observations tainted with systematic errors4 ,it is scarcely1 however1 doubtful that law1 and not chance1 governs the sidereal revolutions4 ,the point open to question is whether the workings of law may not be so exceedingly intricate as to produce a grand sum total of results which1 from the geometrical side1 may justifiably be regarded as casual4 ,the search for evidence of a general plan in the wanderings of the stars over the face of the sky has so far proved fruitless4 ,local concert can be traced1 but no widely diffused preference for one direction over any other makes itself definitely felt4 ,some regard1 nevertheless1 must be paid by them to the plane of the ,milky ,way2 since it is altogether incredible that the actual construction of the heavens is without dependence upon the method of their revolutions4 ,the apparent anomaly vanishes upon the consideration of the profundities of space and time in which the fundamental design of the sidereal universe lies buried4 ,its composition out of an indefinite number of partial systems is more than probable2 but the inconceivable leisureliness with which their mutual relations develop renders the harmony of those relations inappreciable by short-lived terrestrial denizens4 ,proper motions1 if this be so1 are of a subordinate kind2 they are indexes simply to the mechanism of particular aggregations1 and have no definable connection with the mechanism of the whole4 ,no considerable error may then be involved in treating them1 for purposes of calculation1 as indifferently directed1 and the elicited solar movement may genuinely represent the displacement of our system relative to its more immediate stellar environment4 ,this is perhaps the utmost to be hoped for until sidereal astronomy has reached another stadium of progress4 ,unless1 indeed1 effect should be given to ,clerk ,maxwell's suggestion for deriving the absolute longitude of the solar apex from observations of the eclipses of ,jupiter's satellites 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx41 p4 #aji74 ,but this is far from likely4 ,in the first place1 the revolutions of the ,jovian system cannot be predicted with anything like the required accuracy4 ,in the second place1 there is no certainty that the postulated phenomena have any real existence4 ,if1 however1 it be safe to assume that the solar system1 cutting its way through space1 virtually raises an ethereal counter-current1 and if it be further granted that light travels less with than against such a current1 then indeed it becomes speculatively possible1 through slight alternate accelerations and retardations of eclipses taking place respectively ahead of and in the wake of the sun1 to determine his absolute path in space as projected upon the ecliptic4 ,that is to say1 the longitude of the apex could be deduced together with the resolved part of the solar velocity2 the latitude of the apex1 as well as the component of velocity perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic1 remaining1 however1 unknown4 ,the beaten track1 meanwhile1 has conducted two recent inquirers to results of some interest4 ,the chief aim of each was the detection of systematic peculiarities in the motions of stellar assemblages after the subtraction from them of their common perspective element4 ,by varying the materials and method of analysis1 ,prof4 ,lewis ,boss1 ,director of the ,albany ,observatory1 hopes that corresponding variations in the upshot may betray a significant character4 ,thus1 if stars selected on different principles give notably and consistently different results1 the cause of the difference may with some show of reason be supposed to reside in specialties of movement appertaining to the several groups4 ,prof4 ,boss broke ground in this direction by investigating #bhd proper motions1 few of which had been similarly employed before 7,astr4 ,jour41 ,no4 #bac74 ,they were all taken from an equatorial zone #d #bj' in breadth1 with a mean declination of #c1 observed at ,albany for the catalogue of the ,astronomische ,gesellschaft1 and furnished data accordingly for a virtually independent research of a somewhat distinctive kind4 ,it was carried out to three separate conclusions4 ,setting aside five stars with secular movements ranging above #ajj1 ,prof4 ,boss divided the #bgi left available into two sets--one of #ahe stars brighter1 the other of #add stars fainter than the eighth magnitude4 ,the first collection gave for the goal of solar translation a point about #d north of alpha ,lyr1 in ,r4,a4 #bhj1 ,decl4 #dc2 the second1 one some thirty-seven minutes of time to the west of delta ,cygni1 in ,r4,a4 #bhf1 ,decl4 #de4 ,for a third and final solution1 twenty-six stars moving #dj-ajj were rejected1 and the remaining #bec classed in a single series4 ,the upshot of their discussion was to shift the apex of movement to ,r4,a4 #bhi1 ,decl4 #ea4 ,so far as the difference from the previous pair of results is capable of interpretation1 it would seem to imply a predominant set toward the northeast of the twenty-six swifter motions subsequently dismissed as prejudicial1 but in truth the data employed were not accurate enough to warrant so definite an inference4 ,the ,albany proper motions1 as ,prof4 ,boss was careful to explain1 depend for the most part upon the right ascensions of ,bessel's and ,lalande's zones1 and are hence subject to large errors4 ,their study must be regarded as suggestive rather than decisive4 ,a better quality and a larger quantity of material was disposed of by the latest and perhaps the most laborious investigator of this intricate problem4 ,m4 ,oscar ,stumpe1 of ,bonn 7,astr4 ,nach41 ,nos4 #b1iii1 #c1jjj71 took his stars1 to the number of #a1jed1 from various quarters1 if chiefly from ,auwers' and ,argelander's lists1 critically testing1 however1 the movement attributed to each of not less than #af a century4 ,this he fixed as the limit of secure determination1 unless for stars observed with exceptional constancy and care4 ,his discussion of them is instructive in more ways than one4 ,adopting1 the additional computative burden imposed by it notwithstanding1 ,schonfeld's modification of ,airy's formul1 he introduced into his equations a fifth unknown quantity expressive of a possible stellar drift in galactic longitude4 ,a negative result was obtained4 ,no symptom came to light of rotation in the plane of the ,milky ,way4 ,m4 ,stumpe's intrepid industry was further shown in disregard of customary scamping subterfuges4 ,expedients for abbreviation vainly spread their allurements2 every one of his #b1ajh equations was separately and resolutely solved4 ,a more important innovation was his substitution of proper motion for magnitude as a criterion of remoteness4 ,dividing his stars on this principle into four groups1 he obtained an apex for the sun's translation corresponding to each as follows3 ,number of ,proper motion4 ,apex4 ,group included stars4 ,i4 #eea #j4af to #j4cb ,r4,a4 #bhg4d ,decl4 #db4 ,,ii4 #cdj #j4cb to #j4fd #bgi4g #dj4e ,,iii4 #aje #j4fd to #a4bh #bhg4i #cb4a ,,iv4 #eh #a4bh and upward #bhe4b #cj4d ,here again we find a marked and progressive descent of the apex toward the equator with the increasing swiftness of the objects serving for its determination1 leading to the suspicion that the most northerly may be the most genuine position1 because the one least affected by stellar individualities of movement4 ,by nearly all recent investigations1 moreover1 the solar point de mire has been placed considerably further to the east and nearer to the ,milky ,way than seemed admissible to their predecessors2 so that the constellation ,lyra may now be said to have a stronger claim than ,hercules to include it2 and the necessity has almost disappeared for attributing to the solar orbit a high inclination to the medial galactic plane4 ,from both the ,albany and the ,bonn discussions there emerged with singular clearness a highly significant relation4 ,the mean magnitudes of the two groups into which ,prof4 ,boss divided his #bgi stars were respectively #f4f and #h4f1 the corresponding mean proper motions #ba4i and #bj4i4 ,in other words1 a set of stars on the whole six times brighter than another set owned a scarcely larger sum total of apparent displacement4 ,and that this approximate equality of movement really denoted approximate equality of mean distance was made manifest by the further circumstance that the secular journey of the sun proved to subtend nearly the same angle whichever of the groups was made the standpoint for its survey4 ,indeed1 the fainter collection actually gave the larger angle 7#ac4gc as against #ab4ci71 and so far an indication that the stars composing it were1 on an average1 nearer to the earth than the much brighter ones considered apart4 ,a result similar in character was reached by ,m4 ,stumpe4 ,between the mobility of his star groups1 and the values derived from them for the angular movement of the sun1 the conformity proved so close as materially to strengthen the inference that apparent movement measures real distance4 ,the mean brilliancy of his classified stars seemed1 on the contrary1 quite independent of their mobility4 ,indeed1 its changes tended in an opposite direction4 ,the mean magnitude of the slowest group was #f4j1 of the swiftest #f4e1 of the intermediate pair #f4g and #f4a4 ,and these are not isolated facts4 ,comparisons of the same kind1 and leading to identical conclusions1 were made by ,prof4 ,eastman at ,washington in #ahhi 7,phil4 ,society ,bulletin1 vol4 xii1 p4 #adc2 ,proceedings ,amer4 ,association1 #ahhi1 p4 #ga74 ,what meaning can we attribute to them8 ,uncritically considered1 they seem to assert two things1 one reasonable1 the other palpably absurd4 ,the first--that the average angular velocity of the stars varies inversely with their distance from ourselves--few will be disposed to doubt2 the second--that their average apparent luster has nothing to do with greater or less remoteness--few will be disposed to admit4 ,but1 in order to interpret truly1 well ascertained if unexpected relationships1 we must remember that the sensibly moving stars used to determine the solar translation are chosen from a multitude sensibly fixed2 and that the proportion of stationary to traveling stars rises rapidly with descent down the scale of magnitude4 ,hence a mean struck in disregard of the zeros is totally misleading2 while the account is no sooner made exhaustive than its anomalous character becomes largely modified4 ,yet it does not wholly disappear4 ,there is some warrant for it in nature4 ,and its warrant may perhaps consist in a preponderance1 among suns endowed with high physical speed1 of small or slightly luminous over powerfully radiative bodies4 ,why this should be so1 it would be futile1 even by conjecture1 to attempt to explain4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,animal ,,origin ,,of ,,petroleum ,,and ,,paraffin4 ,r4 ,zaloziecki1 in ,dingl4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 gives a lengthy physical and chemical argument in favor of the modern view that petroleum and paraffin owe their origin to animal sources2 that they are formed from animal remains in a manner strictly analogous to that of the formation of ordinary coal from wood and other vegetable debris4 ,for geological as well as chemical reasons1 the author holds that ,mendeleeff's theory of their igneous origin is untenable1 pointing out that the hydrocarbons could not have been formed by the action of water percolating through clefts in the gradually solidifying crust until it reached the molten metallic carbides1 as these clefts could only occur where complete solidification had taken place1 and between this point and the metallic stratum a considerable space would be taken up by semi-solid1 slag-like material which would be quite impervious to water4 ,under the conditions1 too1 existing beneath the surface of the earth1 such polymerization as is necessary to account for the presence of the different classes of hydrocarbons found in petroleum is scarcely credible4 ,on the other hand it is to be specially noticed that1 with a few unimportant exceptions1 all bituminous deposits are found in the sedimentary rocks1 and that just as these are constantly changing in composition1 so the organic matter present changes1 there being a definite relationship between the chemical constitution of the petroleum and the age of the strata in which it is found4 ,it is almost certain that in the most recent alluvial formations no oil is ever found1 its latest appearance being in the rocks of the tertiary period1 the place where the solid paraffin is almost exclusively met with2 thus helping to show that the latter has been formed from the decomposition of the oil1 and is not a residue remaining after the oil has been distilled off4 ,to this conclusion the fact also strongly points1 that the paraffin is much simpler in constitution1 purer1 and often of far lighter color than the crude oil1 which could not be the case if it were the original substance4 ,on examining by the aid of a map the position of the chief oil-bearing localities it will be noticed that the most prolific spots follow fairly accurately the contour lines of the country1 so that at one time they formed in all probability a coast line whereon would be concentrated for climatic reasons most of the animal life both of the land and sea4 ,during succeeding generations their dead bodies would accumulate in enormous quantities and be buried in the slowly depositing sand and mud1 till1 owing to the gradual alterations of level1 the sea no longer reached the same point4 ,this theory is borne out by the fact that oil deposits are usually found in marine sediments1 sea fossils being frequently met with4 ,the first process of the decomposition of the animal remains would consist in the formation of ammonia and nitrogenous bases1 the action being aided by the presence of air1 moisture1 and micro-organisms1 at the same time1 owing to the well known antiseptic properties of salt1 the decomposition would go on slowly1 allowing time for more sand and inorganic matter to be deposited4 ,in this way the decomposing matter would be gradually protected from the action of the air1 and finally the various fatty substances would be found mixed with large amounts of salt1 under considerable pressure1 and at a somewhat high temperature4 ,from this adipocere1 fatty acids would be gradually formed1 the glycerol being washed away1 and finally the acids would be decomposed by the pressure into hydrocarbons and free carbonic acid gas4 ,that many of these hydrocarbons would be solid at ordinary temperatures1 forming the so-called mineral wax1 which exists in many places in large quantities1 is much easier to imagine1 in the light of modern chemical knowledge1 than that the fatty acids were at once split up into the simpler liquid hydrocarbons1 to be afterward condensed into the more complex molecular forms of the solid substance4 ,in this way from animal matter are in all probability formed the vast petroleum deposits1 the three substances1 adipocere1 ozokerite1 and petroleum oil being produced in chronological order1 just as lignite1 brown coal and coal are formed by the gradual decomposition of vegetable remains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,petroleum4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of a paper read before the ,british ,association1 ,cardiff meeting1 #ahia1 ,section ,g4 ,by ,o4,c4,d4 ,ross1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,petroleum is one of the most widely distributed substances in nature1 but the question how it was originally produced has never yet been satisfactorily determined1 and continues a problem for philosophers4 ,in #ahhi the total production exceeded #b1fjj1jjj1jjj gallons1 or about #aj1jjj1jjj tons1 and1 at fourpence per gallon1 was worth about #dd1jjj1jjj1 while the recognition of its superior utility as an economical source of light1 heat1 and power steadily increases2 but1 notwithstanding its importance in industry1 the increasing abundance of the foreign supply1 and the ever-widening area of production1 practical men in ,england continue to distrust its permanence1 and owing to the mystery surrounding its origin1 and the paucity of indications where and how to undertake the boring of wells1 they hesitate to seek for it in this country1 or even to extend the use of it whenever that would involve alterations of existing machinery4 ,the object of this paper is to suggest an explanation of the mystery which seems calculated to dissipate that distrust1 since it points to very abundant stores1 both native and foreign1 yet undiscovered1 and even in some localities to daily renovated provisions of this remarkable oil4 ,the theories of its origin suggested by ,reichenbach1 ,berthelot1 ,mendeleeff1 ,peckham1 and others1 made no attempt to account for the exceeding variety in its chemical composition1 in its specific gravity1 its boiling points1 etc41 and are all founded on some hypothetical process which differs from any with which we are acquainted2 but modern geologists are agreed that1 as a rule1 the records of the earth's history should be read in accordance with those laws of nature which continue in force at the present day1 e4g41 the decomposition of fish and cetaceous animals could not now produce oil containing paraffin4 ,hence we can hardly believe it was possible thousands or millions of years ago1 if it can be proved that any of the processes of nature with which we are familiar is calculated to produce it4 ,the chief characteristics of petroleum strata are enumerated as3 ,i4 ,the existence of adjoining beds of limestone1 gypsum1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,the evidence of volcanic action in close proximity to them4 ,,iii4 ,the presence of salt water in the wells4 ,i4 ,all writers have noticed the presence of limestone close to petroleum fields in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 in the ,caucasus1 in ,burma1 etc41 but they have been most impressed by its being fossiliferous1 or shell limestone1 and have drawn the erroneous inference that the animal matter once contained in those shells originated petroleum2 but no fish oil ever contained paraffin4 ,on the other hand1 the fossil shells are carbonate of lime1 and1 as such1 capable of producing petroleum under conditions such as many limestone beds have been subjected to in all ages of the earth's history4 ,all limestone rocks were formed under water1 and are mainly composed of calcareous shells1 corals1 encrinites1 and foraminfera--the latter similar to the foraminfera of ,atlantic ooze and of ,english chalk beds4 ,everywhere1 under the microscope1 the original connection of limestone with organic matter--its organic parentage1 so to speak1 and cousinship with the animal and vegetable kingdoms--is conspicuous4 ,when pure it contains #ab per cent4 of carbon4 ,now petroleum consists largely of carbon1 its average composition being #he per cent4 of carbon and #ae per cent4 of hydrogen1 and in the limestone rocks of the ,united ,kingdom alone there is a far larger accumulation of carbon than in all the coal measures the world contains4 ,a range of limestone rock #ajj miles in length by #aj miles in width1 and #a1jjj yards in depth1 would contain #gdc1jjj million tons of carbon1 or sufficient to provide carbon for #hge1jjj million tons of petroleum4 ,deposits of oil-bearing shale have also limestone close at hand2 e4g41 coral rag underlies ,kimmeridge clay1 as it also underlies the famous black shale in ,kentucky1 which is extraordinarily rich in oil4 ,,ii4 ,as evidence of volcanic action in close proximity to petroleum strata1 the mud volcanoes at ,baku and in ,burma are described1 and a sulphur mine in ,spain is mentioned 7with which the writer is well acquainted71 situated near an extinct volcano1 where a perpetual gas flame in a neighboring chapel and other symptoms indicate that petroleum is not far off4 ,while engaged in studying the geological conditions of this mine1 the author observed that ,dr4 ,christoff ,bischoff records in his writings that he had produced sulphur in his own laboratory by passing hot volcanic gases through chalk1 which1 when expressed in a chemical formula1 leads at once to the postulate that1 in addition to sulphur1 ethylene1 and all its homologues 7,cn,h#bn71 which are the oils predominating at ,baku1 would be produced by treating3 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e equivs4 of carbonate of lime 7limestone7 with #b1 #c1 #d1 #e sulphurous acid 7,,so#b7 and #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj sulphureted hydrogen 7,h#b,s72 and that marsh gas and its homologues1 which are the oils predominating in ,pennsylvania1 would be produced by treating3 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e equivs4 of carbonate of lime with #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e sulphurous acid and #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa sulphureted hydrogen4 ,thus we find that3 ,carbonate of lime1 #b;,ca,c,o#c1 #b7;,ca,s,o4,h#b,o7 7gypsum71 ,sulphurous acid1 #b,,so#b1 and yield #d,s 7sulphur71 and ,sulphureted hydrogen1 #d;,h#b,s1 ,c#b;,h#d1 which is ethylene4 ,and that3 ,carbonate of lime1 ,ca,c,o#c 7,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 7gypsum71 ,sulphurous acid1 ,,so#b1 and yield #c,s 7sulphur7 and ,sulphureted hydrogen1 #c;,h#b,s1 ,,ch#d1 which is marsh gas4 ,so that these and all their homologues1 in fact petroleum in all its varieties1 would be produced in nature by the action of volcanic gases on limestone4 ,but much the most abundant of the volcanic gases appear at the surface as steam1 and petroleum seems to have been more usually produced without sulphurous acid1 and with part of the sulphureted hydrogen 7,h#b,s7 replaced by ,h#b,o 7steam7 or ,h#b,o#b 7peroxide of hydrogen71 which is the product that results from the combination of sulphureted hydrogen and sulphurous acid3 7,h#b,s ,,so#b ,h#b,o#b #b,s74 ,it is a powerful oxidizing agent1 and it converts sulphurous into sulphuric acid4 ,thus3 ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o 7gypsum7 ,h#b,s1 yield and #b;,h#b,o1 ,,ch#d1 which is marsh gas4 ,and #b;,ca,c,o#c1 #b;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o #b;,h#b,s1 yield and #b;,h#b,o#b1 ,c#b;,h#d1 which is ethylene4 ,tables are given showing the formul for the homologues of ethylene and marsh gas resulting from the increase in regular gradation of the same constituents4 ,formul ,showing how ,ethylene and its ,homologues 7,cn,h#bn7 are ,produced by the ,action of the ,volcanic ,gases ,h#b,s and ,h#b,o#b on ,limestone4 ,carbonate ,sulphureted ,peroxide of ,ethylene and of lime4 hydrogen4 hydrogen4 ,gypsum4 its homologues4 #b;,ca,c,o#c #b;,h#b,s #b;,h#b,o#b yield #b7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#b;,h#d ethylene 7gaseous74 #c;,ca,c,o#c #c;,h#b,s #c;,h#b,o#b #c7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#c;,h#f #d;,ca,c,o#c #d;,h#b,s #d;,h#b,o#b #d7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#d;,h#h #e;,ca,c,o#c #e;,h#b,s #e;,h#b,o#b #e7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#e;,h#aj #f;,ca,c,o#c #f;,h#b,s #f;,h#b,o#b #f7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#f;,h#ab ,boiling point4 #g;,ca,c,o#c #g;,h#b,s #g;,h#b,o#b #g7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#g;,h#ad -- #h;,ca,c,o#c #h;,h#b,s #h;,h#b,o#b #h7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#h;,h#af #ahi;,c4 #i;,ca,c,o#c #i;,h#b,s #i;,h#b,o#b #i7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#i;,h#ah #acf;,c4 #aj;,ca,c,o#c #aj;,h#b,s #aj;,h#b,o#b #aj7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#aj;,h#bj #afj;,c4 #aa;,ca,c,o#c #aa;,h#b,s #aa;,h#b,o#b #aa7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#aa;,h#bb #ahj;,c4 #ab;,ca,c,o#c #ab;,h#b,s #ab;,h#b,o#b #ab7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#ab;,h#bd #aif;,c4 #ac;,ca,c,o#c #ac;,h#b,s #ac;,h#b,o#b #ac7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#ac;,h#bf #bdj;,c4 #ad;,ca,c,o#c #ad;,h#b,s #ad;,h#b,o#b #ad7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#ad;,h#bh #bdg;,c4 #ae;,ca,c,o#c #ae;,h#b,s #ae;,h#b,o#b #ae7;,ca,s,o#d4;,h#b,o7 ,c#ae;,h#cj -- ,it is explained that these effects must have occurred1 not at periods of acute volcanic eruptions1 but in conditions which maybe1 and have been1 observed at the present time1 wherever there are active solfataras or mud volcanoes at work4 ,descriptions of the action of solfataras by the late ,sir ,richard ,burton and by a ,british consul in ,iceland are quoted1 and also a paragraph from ,lyall's ,principles of ,geology1 in which he remarks of the mud volcanoes at ,girgenti 7,sicily7 that carbureted hydrogen is discharged from them1 sometimes with great violence1 and that they are known to have been casting out water1 mixed with mud and bitumen1 with the same activity as now for the last fifteen centuries4 ,probably at all these solfataras1 if the gases traverse limestone1 fresh deposits of oil-bearing strata are accumulating1 and the same volcanic action has been occurring during many successive geological periods and millions of years2 so that it is difficult to conceive limits to the magnitude of the stores of petroleum which may be awaiting discovery in the subterranean depths4#b ,footnote #b3 ,professor ,j4 ,le ,conte1 when presiding recently at the ,international ,geological ,congress at ,washington1 mentioned that in the ,united ,states extensive lava floods have been observed1 covering areas from #aj1jjj to #ajj1jjj square miles in extent and from #b1jjj to #d1jjj feet deep4 ,we have similar lava flows and ashes in the ,north of ,england1 in ,scotland1 and in ,ireland1 varying from #c1jjj to #f1jjj feet in depth4 ,in the ,lake ,district they are nearly #ab1jjj feet deep4 ,solfataras are active during the intermediate1 or so-called dormant1 periods which occur between acute volcanic eruptions4 ,gypsum may also be an indication of oil-bearing strata1 for the substitution in limestone of sulphuric for carbonic acid can only be accounted for by the action of these hot sulphurous gases4 ,gypsum is found extensively in the petroleum districts of the ,united ,states1 and it underlies the rock salt beds at ,middlesboro1 where1 on being pierced1 it has given passage to oil gas1 which issues abundantly1 mixed with brine1 from a great depth4 ,,iii4 ,besides the space occupied by natural gas1 which is very extensive1 #ag1jjj million gallons of petroleum have been raised in ,america since #ahfj1 and that quantity must have occupied more than #ajj1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 a space equal to a subterranean cavern #ajj yards wide by #bj feet deep1 and #hb miles in length1 and it is suggested that beds of porous sandstone could hardly have contained so much2 while vast receptacles may exist1 carved by volcanic water out of former beds of rock salt adjoining the limestone1 which would account for the brine that usually accompanies petroleum4 ,it is further suggested that when no such vacant spaces were available1 the hydrocarbon vapors would be absorbed into1 and condensed in1 contiguous clays and shales1 and perhaps also in beds of coal1 only partially consolidated at the time4 ,there is an extensive bituminous limestone formation in ,persia1 containing #bj per cent4 of bitumen1 and the theory elaborated in the paper would account for bitumen and oil having been found in ,canada and ,tennessee embedded in limestone1 which fact is cited by ,mr4 ,peckham as favoring his belief that some petroleums are a product of the decomposition of animal remains4 ,above all1 this theory accounts for the many varieties in the chemical composition of paraffin oils in accordance with ordinary operations of nature during successive geological periods4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,colorado ,,desert ,,lake4 ,mr4 ,j4,j4 ,mcgillivray1 who has been for many years in the ,united ,states mineral survey service1 has some interesting things to say about the overflow of the ,colorado desert1 which has excited so much comment1 and about which so many different stories have been told3 ,none of the papers1 so far as ,i know1 said ,mr4 ,mc,gillivray1 have described with much accuracy or detail the interesting thing which has happened in the ,colorado desert or have stated how it happened4 ,the ,colorado desert lies a short distance northwest of the upper end of the ,gulf of ,california1 and contains not far from #b1ejj square miles4 ,the ,colorado ,river1 which has now flooded it1 has been flowing along to the east of it1 emptying into the ,gulf of ,california4 ,the surface of the desert is almost all level and low1 some of it below the sea level4 ,some few hundreds of years ago it was a bay making in from the ,gulf of ,california1 and then served as the outlet of the ,colorado ,river4 ,but the river carried a good deal of sediment1 and in time made a bar1 which slowly and surely shut off the sea on the south1 leaving only a narrow channel for the escape of the river1 which cut its way out1 probably at some time when it was not carrying much sediment4 ,then the current became more rapid and cut its way back into the land1 and1 in doing this1 did not necessarily choose the lowest place1 but rather the place where the formation of the land was soft and easily cut away by the action of the water4 ,while the river was cutting its way back it was1 of course1 carrying more or less sediment1 and this was left along the banks1 building them all the time higher1 and confining the river more securely in its bounds4 ,that is the ,colorado ,river as we have known it ever since its discovery4 ,meantime1 the water left in the shallow lake1 cut off from the flow of the river1 gradually evaporated--a thing that would take but a few years in that country1 where the heat is intense and the humidity very low4 ,that left somewhere about #b1jjj miles of desert land1 covered with a deposit of salt from the sea water which had evaporated1 and most of it below the level of the sea4 ,that is the ,colorado desert as it has been known since its discovery4 ,then1 last spring1 came the overflow which has brought about the present state of affairs4 ,the river was high and carrying an enormous amount of sediment in proportion to the quantity of water4 ,this gradually filled up the bed of the stream and caused it to overflow its banks1 breaking through into the dry lake where it had formerly flowed4 ,the fact that the water is salt1 which excited much comment at the time the overflow was first discovered1 is1 of course1 due to the fact that the salt in the sea water which evaporated hundreds of years ago has remained there all the time1 and is now once more in solution4 ,the desert will1 no doubt1 continue to be a lake and the outlet of the river unless the breaks in the banks of the river are dammed by artificial means1 which seems hardly possible1 as the river has been flowing through the break in the stream #bjj feet wide1 four feet deep1 and flowing at a velocity of five feet a second4 ,it is an interesting fact to note that the military survey made in #ahec went over this ground and predicted the very thing which has now happened4 ,the flooding of the desert will be a good thing for the surrounding country1 for it does away with a large tract of absolutely useless land1 so barren that it is impossible to raise there what the man in ,texas said they mostly raised in his town1 and it will increase the humidity of the surrounding territory4 ,nature has done with this piece of waste land what it has often been proposed to do by private enterprise or by public appropriation4 ,congress has often been asked to make an appropriation for that purpose4 ,mr4 ,mc,gillivray had also some interesting things to say about ,death ,valley1 which he surveyed4 ,it has been called a terra incognita and a place where no human being could live4 ,well1 it is bad enough1 but perhaps not quite so bad as that4 ,the great trouble is the scarcity of water and the intense heat4 ,but many prospecting parties go there looking for veins of ore and to take out borax4 ,the richest borax mines in the world are found there4 ,the valley is about #ge miles long by #aj miles wide4 ,the lowest point is near the center1 where it is about #aej ft4 below the level of the sea4 ,just #ae miles west of this central point is ,telescope peak1 #aa1jjj ft4 above the sea1 and #ae miles east is ,mt4 ,le ,count1 in the ,funeral mountains1 #h1jjj ft4 high4 ,the valley runs almost due north and south1 which is one reason for the extreme heat4 ,the only stream of water in or near the valley flows into its upper end and forms a marsh in the bed of the valley4 ,this marsh gives out a horrible odor of sulphureted hydrogen1 the gas which makes a rotten egg so offensive4 ,where the water of this stream comes from is not very definitely known1 but in my opinion it comes from ,owen's lake1 beyond the ,telescope mountains to the west1 flowing down into the valley by some subterranean passage4 ,the same impurities found in the stream are also found in the lake1 where the water is so saturated with salt1 boracic acid1 etc41 that one can no more sink in it than in the water of the ,great ,salt lake2 and ,i found it so saturated that after swimming in it a little while the skin all over my body was gnawed and made very sore by the acids4 ,another reason why ,i think the water of the stream enters the valley by some fixed subterranean source is the fact that1 no matter what the season1 the flow from the springs that feed the marsh is always exactly the same4 ,the heat there is intense4 ,a man cannot go an hour without water without becoming insane4 ,while we were surveying there1 we had the same wooden cased thermometer that is used by the signal service4 ,it was hung in the shade on the side of our shed1 with the only stream in the country flowing directly under it1 and it repeatedly registered #acj2 and for #dh hours in #ahhc1 when ,i was surveying there1 the thermometer never once went below #ajd4--;,boston ,herald4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hemlock ,,and ,,parsley4 ,by ,w4,w4 ,,bailey4 ,the study of the order ,umbellifer presents peculiar difficulties to the beginner1 for the flowers are uniformly small and strikingly similar throughout the large and very natural group4 ,the family distinctions or features are quite pronounced and unmistakable1 and it is the determination of the genera which presents obstacles--serious1 indeed1 but not insurmountable4 ,by their fruits shall ye know them4 ,the ,umbellifer1 as we see them here1 are herbaceous1 with hollow1 often striated stems1 usually more or less divided leaves1 and no stipules4 ,occasionally we meet a genus1 like ,eryngium or ,hydrocotyle1 with leaves merely toothed or lobed4 ,the petioles are expanded into sheaths2 hence the leaves wither on the stem4 ,the flowers are usually arranged in simple or compound umbels1 and the main and subordinate clusters may or may not be provided with involucres and involucels4 ,to this mode of arrangement there are exceptions4 ,in marsh-penny-wort 7,hydrocotyle7 the umbels are in the axils of the leaves1 and scarcely noticeable2 in ,eryngium and ,sanicula they are in heads4 ,the calyx is coherent with the two-celled ovary1 and the border is either obsolete or much reduced4 ,there are five petals inserted on the ovary1 and external to a fleshy disk4 ,each petal has its tip inflexed1 giving it an obcordate appearance4 ,the common colors of the corolla are white1 yellow1 or some shade of blue4 ,alternating with the petals1 and inserted with them1 are the five stamens4 ,the fruit1 upon which so much stress is laid in the study of the family1 is compound1 of two similar parts or carpels1 each of which contains a seed4 ,in ripening the parts separate1 and hang divergent from a hair-like prolongation of the receptacle known as the gynophore4 ,each half fruit 7mericarp7 is tipped by a persistent style1 and marked by vertical ribs1 between or under which lie1 in many genera1 the oil tubes or vitt4 ,these are channels containing aromatic and volatile oil4 ,in examination the botanist makes delicate cross sections of these fruits under a dissecting microscope1 and by the shape of the fruit and seed within1 and by the number and position of the ribs and oil tubes1 is able to locate the genus4 ,it1 of course1 requires skill and experience to do this1 but any commonly intelligent class can learn the process4 ,it goes without saying1 and as a corollary to what has already been stated1 that these plants should always be collected in full fruit2 the flowers are comparatively unimportant4 ,any botanist would be justified in declining to name one of the family not in fruit4 ,an attempt would often be mere guesswork4 ,in this family is found the poison hemlock 7,conium7 used by the ancient ,greeks for the elimination of politicians4 ,it is a powerful poison4 ,the whole plant has a curious mousy odor4 ,it is of ,european origin4 ,our water hemlock is equally poisonous1 and much more common4 ,it is the ,cicuta maculata of the swamps--a tall1 coarse plant which has given rise to many sad accidents4 thusa cynapium1 another poisonous plant1 known as fool's parsley1 is not uncommon1 and certainly looks much like parsley4 ,this only goes to show how difficult it is for any but the trained botanist to detect differences in this group of plants4 ,side by side may be growing two specimens1 to the ordinary eye precisely alike1 yet the one will be innocent and the other poisonous4 ,the drug asafetida is a product of this order4 ,all the plants appear to form three different principles3 the first1 a watery acid matter2 the second1 a gum-resinous milky substance2 and the third1 an aromatic1 oily secretion4 ,when the first of these predominates they are poisonous2 the second in excess converts them into stimulants2 the absence of the two renders them useful as esculents2 the third causes them to be pleasant condiments4 ,so that besides the noxious plants there is a long range of useful vegetables1 as parsnips1 parsley1 carrots1 fennel1 dill1 anise1 caraway1 cummin1 coriander1 and celery4 ,the last1 in its wild state1 is said to be pernicious1 but etiolation changes the products and renders them harmless4 ,the flowers of all are too minute to be individually pretty1 but every one knows how charming are the umbels of our wild carrot1 resembling as they do the choicest old lace4 ,frequently the carrot has one central maroon colored floret4 ,though most of the plants are herbs1 ,dr4 ,welwitsch found in ,africa a tree-like one1 with a stem one to two feet thick1 much prized by the natives for its medicinal properties1 and also valuable for its timber4 ,in ,kamschatka also they assume a sub-arboreous type1 as well as on the steppes of ,afghanistan4 ,as mistakes often occur by confounding the roots of ,umbellifer with those of horse radish or other esculents1 it is well1 when in doubt1 to send the plants1 always in fruit1 if possible1 for identification4 ,none of them are poisonous to the touch--at least to ordinary people4 ,cases of rather doubtful authenticity are reported from time to time of injury from the handling of wild carrot4 ,we have always suspected the proximity of poison ivy2 still1 it is unwise to dogmatize on such matters4 ,some people cannot eat strawberries--more's the pity6--while the rest of us get along with them very happily4 ,lately the ,primula obconica has acquired an evil reputation as an irritant1 so there is no telling what may not happen with certain constitutions4 ,difficult as is the study of ,umbellifer1 it becomes fascinating on acquaintance4 ,to hunt up a plant and name it by so scientific a process brings to the student a sufficient reward4--,american ,naturalist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,eremuri4 ,illustration3 ,,eremurus ,,himalaicus4 7,flowers white47 ,it has often been a matter of astonishment to me that eremuri are not more frequently seen in our gardens4 ,there are certainly very few plants which have a statelier or more handsome appearance during the summer months4 ,both in point of brightness of color and their general habit and manner of growth they are very much to be recommended4 ,for some reason or other they have the character of being difficult plants1 but they do not deserve it at all1 and a very slight attention to their requirements is enough to ensure success4 ,they can stand a good many degrees of frost1 and they ask for little more than a soil which has been deeply worked and well enriched with old rotten manure4 ,give them this1 and they are certain to be contented with it1 and the cultivator will be well rewarded for his pains4 ,only one thing should perhaps be added by way of precaution4 ,if an eremurus appears too soon above ground1 it is well just to cover it over with loose litter of some sort1 so that it may not be nipped by spring frosts2 and one experienced grower has said that it answers to lift them after blossoming1 and to keep them out of the ground for a few weeks1 so that they may be sufficiently retarded4 ,but ,i have not yet been able to try this plan myself1 and ,i do not speak from experience about it4 ,my favorite is ,eremurus ,bungei1 which ,i think is one of the handsomest plants ,i have in my garden4 ,the clear yellow color of the blossom is so very good1 and ,i like the foliage also2 but of course it is not the most imposing by any means and if height and stateliness are especially regarded1 ,e4 robustus or ,e4 robustus nobilis would carry off the palm4 ,this commonly rises to the height of eight or nine feet above the ground1 and on one occasion ,i have known it to be greatly in excess even of that2 but such an elevation cannot be attained for more than a single year1 and it afterward is contented with more moderate efforts4 ,e4 ,himalaicus is of the purest possible white1 and the spike is very much to be admired when it is seen at its best4 ,it can be very easily raised from seed1 but a good deal of patience is needed before its full glory has come4 ,e4 ,olg is the last of all1 and it shows by its arrival that summer is hastening on4 ,it is of a peach-colored hue1 and very pretty indeed4 ,altogether it is a pity that eremuri are not more commonly grown4 ,i think they are certain to give great satisfaction1 if only a moderate degree of attention and care be bestowed upon them4--,h4 ,ewbank1 in ,the ,gardeners' ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,raphides1 ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,acridity ,,of ,,certain ,,plants4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,,weber1 ,ph4,d4 ,at the last meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,prof4 ,w4,r4 ,lazenby reported his studies on the occurrence of crystals in plants4 ,in this report he expressed the opinion that the acridity of the ,indian turnip was due to the presence of these crystals or raphides4 ,this opinion was opposed by ,prof4 ,burrill and other eminent botanists1 who claimed that other plants1 as the fuchsia1 are not at all acrid1 although they contain raphides as plentifully as the ,indian turnip4 ,here the matter was allowed to rest4 ,the ,united ,states ,dispensatory and other works on pharmacy ascribe the acridity of the ,indian turnip to an acrid1 extremely volatile principle insoluble in water1 and alcohol1 but soluble in ether4 ,heating and drying the bulbs dissipates the volatiles principle1 and the acridity is destroyed4 ,at a recent meeting of ,ohio ,state ,microscopical ,society this subject was again brought up for discussion4 ,it was thought by some that the raphides in the different plants might vary in chemical composition1 and thus the difference in their action be accounted for4 ,this question the writer volunteered to answer4 ,accordingly1 four plants containing raphides were selected1 two of which1 the ,calla cassia and ,indian turnip1 were highly acrid1 and two1 the ,fuchsia and ,tradescantia1 or ,wandering ,jew1 were perfectly bland to the taste4 ,a portion of each plant was crushed in a mortar1 water or dilute alcohol was added1 the mixture was stirred thoroughly and thrown upon a fine sieve4 ,by repeated washing with water and decanting a sufficient amount of the crystals was obtained for examination4 ,from the calla the crystals were readily secured by this means in a comparatively pure state4 ,in the case of the ,indian turnip the crystals were contaminated with starch1 while the crystals from the fuschia and tradescantia were embedded in an insoluble mucilage from which it was found impossible to separate them4 ,the crystals were all found to be calcium oxalate4 ,having determined the identity in chemical composition of the crystals1 it was thought that there might be a difference of form of the crystals in the various plants1 from the fact that calcium oxalate crystallizes both in the tetragonal and the monoclinic systems4 ,a laborious microscopic examination1 however1 showed that this theory also had to be abandoned4 ,the fuchsia and tradescantia contained bundles of raphides of the same form and equally as fine as those of the acrid plants4 ,at this point in the investigation the writer was inclined to the opinion that the acridity of the ,indian turnip and calla was due to the presence of an acrid principle4 ,since the works on pharmacy claimed that the active principle of the ,indian turnip was soluble in ether1 the investigation was continued in this direction4 ,a large stem of the calla was cut into slices1 and the juice expressed by means of a tincture press4 ,the expressed juice was limpid and filled with raphides4 ,a portion of the juice was placed into a cylinder and violently shaken with an equal volume of ether4 ,when the ether had separated a drop was placed upon the tongue4 ,as soon as the effects of the ether had passed away1 the same painful acridity was experienced as is produced when the plant itself is tasted4 ,this experiment seemed to corroborate the assumption of an acrid principle soluble in ether4 ,the supernatant ether1 however1 was slightly turbid in appearance1 a fact which was at first ignored4 ,wishing to learn the cause of this turbidity1 a drop of the ether was allowed to evaporate on a glass slide4 ,under the microscope the slide was found to be covered with a mass of raphides4 ,a portion of the ether was run through a ,munktell filter4 ,the filtered ether was clear1 entirely free from raphides1 and had also lost every trace of its acridity4 ,the same operations were repeated upon the ,indian turnip with exactly similar results4 ,these experiments show conclusively that the acridity of the ,indian turnip and calla is due to the raphides of calcium oxalate only4 ,the question of the absence of acridity in the other two plants still remained to be settled4 ,for this purpose some recent twigs and leaves of the fuchsia were subjected to pressure in a tincture press4 ,the expressed juice was not limpid1 but thick1 mucilaginous and ropy4 ,under the microscope the raphides seemed as plentiful as in the case of the two acrid plants4 ,when diluted with water and shaken with ether1 there was no visible turbidity in the supernatant ether1 and when a drop of the ether was allowed to evaporate on a glass slide1 only a few isolated crystals could be seen4 ,from this it will be seen that in this case the raphides did not separate from the mucilaginous juice to be held in suspension in the ether4 ,a great deal of time and labor were spent in endeavoring to separate the crystals completely from this insoluble mucilage1 but without avail4 ,with the tradescantia similar results were obtained4 ,from these experiments the absence of acridity in these two plants1 in spite of the abundance of raphides1 may readily be explained by the fact that the minute crystals are surrounded with and embedded in an insoluble mucilage1 which prevents their free movement into the tongue and surface of the mouth1 when portions of the plants are tasted4 ,the reason why the ,indian turnip loses its acridity on being heated can be explained by the production of starch paste from the abundance of starch present in the bulbs4 ,this starch paste would evidently act in a manner similar to the insoluble mucilage of the other two plants4 ,so also it can readily be seen that when the bulbs of the ,indian turnip have been dried1 the crystals can no longer separate from the hard mass which surrounds them1 and consequently can exert no irritant action when the dried bulbs are placed against the tongue4--,jour4 ,am4 ,chem4 ,soc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,whale-,,headed ,,stork4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,whale-,,headed ,,stork--,,bal,,niceps ,,rex4 ,of all the wonders that inhabit the vast continent of ,africa1 the most singular one is undoubtedly the ,balniceps1 or whale-headed stork4 ,it is of relatively recent discovery1 and the first description of it was given by ,gould in the early part of #ahea4 ,it is at present still extremely rare4 ,the ,paris ,museum possesses three specimens of it1 and the ,boulogne ,museum possesses one4 ,these birds always excite the curiosity of the public by their strange aspect4 ,at first sight1 says ,w4,p4 ,parker1 in his notes upon the osteology of the balniceps1 this bird recalls the boatbill1 the heron1 and the adjutant4 ,other birds1 too1 suggest themselves to the mind1 such as the pelican1 the toucan1 the hornbills1 and the podarges4 ,the curious form of the bill1 in fact1 explains this comparison with birds belonging to so different groups1 and the balniceps would merit the name of boatbill equally well with the bird so called1 since its bill recalls the small fishing boats that we observe keel upward high and dry on our seashores4 ,this bill is ten inches in length1 and four inches in breadth at the base4 ,the upper mandible1 which is strongly convex1 exhibits upon its median line a slight ridge1 which is quite wide at its origin1 and then continues to decrease and becomes sensibly depressed as far as to the center of its length1 and afterward rises on approaching the anterior extremity1 where it terminates in a powerful hook1 which seems to form a separate part1 as in the albatrosses4 ,throughout its whole extent1 up to the beginning of the hook1 this mandible presents a strong convexity over its edge1 which is turned slightly inward4 ,the lower mandible1 which is powerful1 and is indented at its point to receive the hook1 has a very sharp edge1 which1 with that of the upper mandible1 constitutes a pair of formidable shears4 ,the color of the bill is pale yellow1 passing to horn color toward the median ridge1 and the whole surface is sprinkled with dark brown blotches4 ,the nostrils are scarcely visible1 and are situated in a narrow cleft at the base of the bill1 and against the median ridge4 ,the tongue is very small and entirely out of proportion to the vast buccal capacity4 ,this is a character that might assimilate the balniceps to the pelican4 ,the robust head1 the neck1 and the throat1 are covered with slate-colored feathers verging on green1 and not presenting the repulsive aspect of the naked skin of the adjutant4 ,as in the latter1 the skin of the throat is capable of being dilated so as to form a voluminous pouch4 ,upon the occiput the feathers are elongated and form a small crest4 ,the body is robust and covered upon the back with slate-colored feathers bordered with ashen gray4 ,upon the breast the feathers are lanceolate1 and marked with a dark median stripe4 ,finally1 the lower parts1 abdomen1 sides1 and thighs1 are pale gray1 and the remiges and retrices are black4 ,according to ,verreaux1 the feathers of the under side of the tail are soft and decompounded1 but at a distance they only recall the beautiful plumes of the adjutant4 ,the well-developed wings indicate a bird of lofty flight1 yet of all the bones of the limbs1 anterior as well as posterior1 the humerus alone is pneumatized4 ,the strong feet terminate in four very long toes deprived at the interdigital membrane observed in most of the ,ciconid4 ,the claws are powerful and but slightly curved1 and that of the median toe is not pectinated as in the herons4 ,the balniceps is met with only in or near water1 but it prefers marshes to rivers4 ,it is abundant upon the banks of the ,nile only during the hot season which precedes the rains and when the entire interior is dried up4 ,during the rest of the year it inhabits natural ponds and swamps1 where the shallow water covers vast areas and presents numerous small islands1 of easier access than the banks of the ,nile1 which always slope more or less abruptly into deep water4 ,in such localities it is met with in pairs or in flocks of a hundred or more1 seeking its food with tireless energy1 or else standing immovable upon one leg1 the neck curved and the head resting upon the shoulder4 ,when disturbed1 the birds fly just above the surface of the water and stop at a short distance4 ,but when they are startled by the firing of a gun1 they ascend to a great height1 fly around in a circle and hover for a short time1 and then descend upon the loftiest trees1 where they remain until the enemy has gone4 ,water turtles1 fish1 frogs and lizards form the basis of their food4 ,according to ,petherick1 they do not disdain dead animals1 whose carcasses they disembowel with their powerful hooked beak4 ,they pass the night upon the ground1 upon trees and upon high rocks4 ,as regards nest-making and egg-laying1 opinions are most contradictory4 ,according to ,verreaux1 the balniceps builds its nest of earth1 vegetable debris1 reeds1 grass1 etc41 upon large trees4 ,the female lays two eggs similar to those of the adjutant4 ,it is quite difficult to reconcile this opinion with that of ,petherick1 who expresses himself as follows3 ,the balniceps lays in ,july and ,august1 and chooses for that purpose the tall reeds or grasses that border the water or some small and slightly elevated island4 ,they dig a hole in the ground1 and the female deposits her eggs therein4 ,i have found as many as twelve eggs in the same nest4 ,the whale-headed stork is still so little known that there is nothing in these contradictions that ought to surprise us4 ,authors are no more in accord on the subject of the affinities of this strange bird4 ,gould claims that it presents the closest affinities with the pelican and is the wading type of the ,pelicanid4 ,verreaux believes that its nearest relative is the adjutant1 whose ways it has1 and that it represents in this group what the boatbill represents in the heron genus4 ,bonaparte regards it as intermediate between the pelican and the boatbill4 ,if we listen to ,reinhurdt1 we must place it1 not alongside of the boatbill1 but alongside of the ,african genus ,scopus4 ,the boatbill1 says he1 is merely a heron provided with a singular bill1 which has but little analogy with that of the balniceps1 and not a true resemblance4 ,the nostrils differ in form and position in those two birds1 and in the boatbill there exists beneath the lower mandible a dilatable pouch that we do not find in the balniceps4 ,an osteological examination leads ,parker to place the balniceps near the boatbill1 and the present classification is based upon that opinion4 ,the family of ,ardeid is1 therefore1 divided into five sub-families1 the three last of which each comprises a single genus4 ,ardeid4--,ardeine 7herons74 ,botaurine 7bitterns74 ,scopine 7ombrette74 ,cancomine 7boatbill74 ,balnicepine 7whale-headed stork74 ,all the whale-headed storks that have been received up to the present have come from the region of the ,white ,nile2 but ,mr4 ,h4 ,johnston1 who traveled in ,congo in #ahhb1 asserts that he met with the bird on the ,river ,cunene between ,benguela and ,angola1 where it was even very common4 ,mr4 ,johnston's assertion has been confirmed by other travelers worthy of credence1 but1 unfortunately1 the best of all confirmations is wanting1 and that is a skin of this magnificent wader4 ,we can1 therefore1 only make a note of ,mr4 ,johnston's statement1 and hope that some traveler may one day enrich our museums with some balniceps from these regions4 ,the presence of this bird in the southwest of ,africa is1 after all1 not impossible2 yet there is one question that arises3 ,was the balniceps observed by ,mr4 ,johnston of the same species as that of the ,white ,nile1 or was it a new type that will increase this family1 which as yet comprises but one genus and one species--the ,balniceps rex8--,le ,naturaliste4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,california ,,raisin ,,industry4 ,fresno ,county1 for ten miles about ,fresno1 furnishes the best example of the enormous increase in values which follows the conversion of wheat fields and grazing land into vineyards and orchards4 ,not even ,riverside can compare with it in the rapid evolution of a great source of wealth which ten years ago was almost unknown4 ,what has transformed ,fresno from a shambling1 dirty resort of cowboys and wheat ranchers into one of the prettiest cities in ,california is the raisin grape4 ,though nearly all fruits may be grown here1 yet this is pre-eminently the home of the raisin industry1 and it is the raisin which in a single decade has converted #ej1jjj acres of wheat fields into vineyards4 ,no other crop in ,california promises such speedy returns or such large profits as the raisin grape1 and as the work on the vineyards is not heavy1 the result has been a remarkable growth of the infant industry4 ,it is estimated that in this county1 which contains #e1jjj1jjj acres and is nearly as large as ,massachusetts1 there are #djj1jjj acres that may be irrigated and are specially adapted to the grape4 ,as the present crop on about #be1jjj acres in full bearing is valued at #f1jjj1jjj1 some idea may be formed of the revenue that will come to the ,fresno vineyardists when all this choice valley land is planted and in full bearing4 ,and what makes the prospect of permanent prosperity surer is the fact that nine out of ten new settlers are content with twenty-acre tracts1 as one of these is all which a man can well care for1 while the income from this little vineyard will average #d1jjj above all expenses1 a larger income than is enjoyed by three-quarters of the professional men throughout the country4 ,the raisin industry in ,california is very young4 ,to be sure1 dried grapes have been known since the time of the ,mission ,fathers1 but the dried mission grape is not a raisin4 ,the men who thirty years ago sent over to ,europe for the choicest varieties of wine grapes imported among other cuttings the ,muscatel1 the ,muscat of ,alexandria1 and the ,feher ,zagos2 the three finest raisin grapes of ,spain4 ,but the raisin1 like the fig1 requires skillful treatment1 and for years the ,california grower made no headway4 ,he read all that had been written on the curing of the raisin2 several enterprising men went to ,spain to study the subject at first hand2 but despite all this no progress was made4 ,finally several of the pioneer raisin men of ,fresno cut loose from all precedent1 dried their grapes in the simple and natural manner and made a success of it4 ,from that time1 not over ten years ago1 the growth of the industry has eclipsed that of every other branch of horticulture in the ,state1 and the total value of the product promises soon to exceed the value of the orange crop or the yield of wine and brandy4 ,it required a good deal of nerve for the pioneers of ,fresno ,county to spend hundreds of thousands of dollars in bringing water upon what the old settlers regarded as a desert1 fit only to grow wheat in a very wet season4 ,in other parts of the ,state the ,mission ,fathers had dug ditches and built aqueducts1 so that the settlers who came after them found a well devised water system1 which they merely followed4 ,but in ,fresno no one had ever tried to grow crops by irrigation4 ,when ,fremont came through there from the mountains he found many wild cattle feeding on the rank grass that grew as high as the head of a man on horseback4 ,the herds of the native ,californians were almost equally wild4 ,the country was one vast plain which in summer glowed under a sun that was tropical in its intensity4 ,as late as #ahfj one could travel for a day without seeing a house or any sign of habitation4 ,the country was owned by great cattle growers1 who seldom rode over their immense ranches1 except at the time of the annual round-up of stock4 ,about thirty years ago a number of large wheat growers secured big tracts of land around ,fresno4 ,at their head was ,isaac ,friedlander1 known as the wheat king of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,friedlander would have transformed this country had not financial ruin overcome him4 ,his place was taken by others1 like ,chapman1 ,easterby1 ,eisen and ,hughes--men who believed in fruit growing and who had the courage to carry on their operations in the face of repeated failures4 ,the great development of ,fresno has been due entirely to the colony system1 which has also built up most of the flourishing cities of ,southern ,california4 ,in #ahgd the first ,fresno colony was started by ,w4,s4 ,chapman4 ,he cut up six sections of land into #bj-;acre tracts1 and brought water from ,king's ,river4 ,the colonists represented all classes of people1 and though they made many disastrous experiments1 with poor varieties of grapes and fruit1 still there is no instance of failure recorded1 and all who have held on to their land are now in comfortable circumstances4 ,some of the settlers in this colony were ,san ,francisco school teachers4 ,they obtained their #bj-;acre tracts for #djj1 and many of them retired on their little vineyards at the end of five or six years4 ,one lady1 named ,miss ,austen1 had the foresight to plant all her property in the best raisin grapes1 and for many years drew a larger annual revenue from the property than the whole place cost her4 ,the central colony now has an old established look4 ,the broad avenues are lined with enormous trees2 many of the houses are exceedingly beautiful country villas4 ,what a transformation has been wrought here may be appreciated when it is said that #aej families now produce #djj1jjj a year on the same land which twenty years ago supported but one family1 which had a return of only #ce1jjj from wheat4 ,the history of this one colony of six sections of old wheat land is the key to ,fresno's prosperity4 ,it proves better than columns of argument1 or facts or figures1 the immense return that careful1 patient cultivation may command in this home of the grape4 ,near this colony are a half-dozen others which were established on the same general plan4 ,the most noteworthy is the ,malaga colony1 founded by ,g4,g4 ,briggs1 to whom belongs the credit of introducing the raisin grape into ,fresno4 ,fresno ,city is the center from which one may drive in three directions and pass through mile after mile of these colonies1 all showing signs of the wealth and comfort that raisin making has brought4 ,only toward the west is the land still undeveloped1 but another five years promise to see this great tract1 stretching away for twenty miles1 also laid out in small vineyards and fruit farms4 ,fresno is the natural railroad center of the great ,san ,joaquin ,valley4 ,it is on the main line of the ,southern ,pacific and is the most important shipping point between ,san ,francisco and ,los ,angeles4 ,the new line of the ,santa ,fe1 which has been surveyed from ,mojave up through the valley1 passes through ,fresno4 ,then there are three local lines that have the place for a terminus1 notably the mountain railway1 which climbs into the ,sierra1 and which it is expected will one day connect with the ,rio ,grande system and give a new transcontinental line4 ,here are also building round houses and machine shops of the ,southern ,pacific ,company4 ,these1 with new factories1 packing houses1 and other improvements1 go far to justify the sanguine expectations of the residents4 ,there has never been a boom in ,fresno1 but a high railroad official recently1 in speaking of the growth of the city1 said3 ,fresno in five years will be the second city in ,california4 ,this prediction he based on the wonderful expansion of its resources in the last decade and the substantial character of all the improvements made4 ,it is a pretty town1 with wide1 well-paved streets1 handsome modern business blocks1 and residence avenues that would do credit to any old-settled town of the ,east4 ,the favorite shade tree is the umbrella tree1 which has the graceful1 rounded form of the horse chestnut1 but with so thick a foliage that its shadow is not dappled with sunlight4 ,above it is an intensely dark green1 while viewed from below it is the most delicate shade of pea green4 ,rivaling this in popularity is the pepper tree1 also an evergreen1 and the magnolia1 fan palm1 eucalyptus1 or ,australian blue gum1 and the poplar4 ,all these trees grow luxuriantly4 ,it has also become the custom in planting a vineyard to put a row of the white ,adriatic fig trees around the place1 and to mark off ten or twenty acre tracts in the same way4 ,the dark green foliage of the fig is a great relief to the eye when the sun beats down on the sandy soil4 ,leading out of ,fresno are five driveways4 ,the soil makes a natural macadam1 which dries in a few hours4 ,throughout the year these roads are in good condition for trotting1 and nearly every raisin grower is also an expert in horseflesh1 and has a team that will do a mile in less than #b3cj4 ,the new race course is one of the finest in the ,state4 ,toward the west from ,fresno has recently been opened a magnificent driveway1 which promises in a few years to rival the ,magnolia ave4 of ,riverside4 ,this is called ,chateau ,fresno ave4 ,it has two driveways separated by fan palms and magnolias1 while along the outer borders are the same trees with other choice tropical growths1 that will one day make this avenue well worth traveling many miles to see4 ,this is the private enterprise of ,mr4 ,theodore ,kearney1 who made a fortune in real estate1 and it is noteworthy as an illustration of the large way in which the rich ,californian goes about any work in which he takes an interest4 ,probably the finest avenue in ,fresno is the poplar-lined main driveway through the ,barton vineyard4 ,it is a mile in length1 and the trees1 fully fifty feet high1 stand so thickly together that when in full leaf they form a solid wall of green4 ,the vineyard1 which is a mile square1 is also surrounded by a single row of these superb poplars4 ,a visit to one of the great raisin vineyards near ,fresno is a revelation in regard to the system that is necessary in handling large quantities of grapes4 ,the largest raisin vineyard in the ,state1 if not in the world1 is that of ,a4,b4 ,butler4 ,it comprises #fdj acres1 of which a trifle over #fjj acres is planted to the best raisin grapes4 ,butler was a ,texas cowboy1 and came to ,fresno with very little capital4 ,he secured possession of a section of land1 planted it to grapes2 he read everything he could buy on raisin making1 but found little in the books that was of any value4 ,so he made a trip to ,spain1 and inspected all the processes in the ,malaga district4 ,he gathered many new ideas4 ,one of the most valuable suggestions was in regard to prunings and keeping the vine free from the suckers that sap its vitality4 ,when he returned from this trip and passed through ,los ,angeles ,county he saw that the strange disease which was killing many hundred acres of vines was nothing else than the result of faulty prunings--the retention of suckers until they gained such lusty growth that their removal proved fatal to the vine4 ,his vineyard is as free from weeds and grass as a corner of a well kept kitchen garden4 ,the vine leaves have that deep glossy look which betrays perfect health4 ,when my visit was made the whole crop was on trays spread out in the vineyard4 ,these trays had been piled up in layers of a dozen--what is technically known as boxed--as a shower had fallen the previous night1 and ,mr4 ,butler was uncertain whether he would have a crop of the choicest raisins or whether he would have to put his dried grapes in bags1 and sell them for one-third of the top price4 ,fortunately the rain clouds cleared away4 ,the crop was saved and the extreme hot weather that followed made the second crop almost as valuable as the first4 ,the method of drying and packing the raisin is peculiar and well worth a brief description4 ,when the grape reaches a certain degree of ripeness and develops the requisite amount of saccharine matter a large force is put into the vineyard and the picking begins4 ,the bunches of ripe grapes are placed carefully on wooden trays and are left in the field to cure4 ,the process requires from seven days to three weeks1 according to the amount of sunshine4 ,this climate is so entirely free from dew at night that there is no danger of must4 ,the grape cures perfectly in this way and makes a far sweeter raisin than when dried by artificial heat4 ,when the grapes are dried sufficiently the trays are gathered and stacked in piles about as high as a man's waist4 ,then begins the tedious but necessary process of sorting into the sweat boxes4 ,these boxes are about eight inches deep and hold #abe pounds of grapes4 ,around the sorter are three sweat boxes for the three grades of grapes4 ,in each box are three layers of manila paper which are used at equal intervals to prevent the stems of the grapes from becoming entangled1 thus breaking the fine large bunches when removed4 ,the sorter must be an expert4 ,he takes the bunches by the stem1 placing the largest and finest in the first grade box1 those which are medium sized in the second grade1 and all broken and ragged bunches in the third class4 ,when the boxes are filled they are hauled to the brick building known as the equalizer4 ,this is constructed so as to permit ventilation at the top1 but to exclude light and air as much as possible from the grapes4 ,the boxes are piled in tiers in this house and allowed to remain in darkness for from ten to twenty days4 ,here they undergo a sweating process1 which diffuses moisture equally throughout the contents of each box4 ,this prevents some grapes from retaining undue moisture1 and it also softens the stems and makes them pliable4 ,from the equalizing room the sweat boxes are taken to the packing room4 ,here they are first weighed4 ,the first and second grades are passed to the sorter1 while the third grade raisins are placed in a big machine that strips off the stems and grades the loose raisins in three or four sizes4 ,these are placed in sacks and sold as loose raisins4 ,the higher grades are carefully sorted into first and second class clusters4 ,after this sorting the boxes are passed to women and girls1 who arrange the clusters neatly in small five pound boxes with movable bottoms4 ,these boxes are placed under slight pressure1 and four of them fill one of the regular twenty pound boxes of commerce4 ,the work of placing the raisins in the small boxes requires much practice1 but women are found to be much swifter than men at this labor1 and1 as they are paid by the box1 the more skillful earn from #b to #c a day4 ,it is light1 pleasant work1 as the room is large1 cool and well ventilated1 and there is no mixing of the sexes1 such as may be found in many of the ,san ,francisco canneries4 ,for this reason the work attracts nice girls1 and one may see many attractive faces in a trip through a large packing house4 ,one heavy shouldered1 masculine-looking ,german woman1 who1 however1 had long1 slender fingers1 was pointed out as the swiftest sorter in the room4 ,she made regularly #c a day4 ,the assurance of steady work of this kind for three months draws many people to ,fresno1 and the regular disbursement of a large sum as wages every week goes far to explain the thrift and comfort seen on every hand4 ,the five pound boxes of grapes are passed to the pressing machine1 where four of them are deftly transferred to a twenty pound box4 ,the two highest grades of raisins are the ,dehesa and the ,london layers4 ,it has always been the ambition of ,california's raisin makers to produce the ,dehesa brand4 ,they know that their best raisins are equal in size and quality to the best ,spanish raisins1 but heretofore they have found the cost of preparing the top layer in the ,spanish style very costly1 as the raisins had to be flattened out 7or thumbed1 as it is technically called7 by hand4 ,in ,spain1 where women work for #bj cents a day1 this hand labor cuts no figure in the cost of production1 but here1 with the cheapest labor at #a4ej a day1 it has proved a bar to competition4 ,american ingenuity1 however1 is likely to overcome this handicap of high wages4 ,t4,c4 ,white1 an old raisin grower1 has invented a packing plate of metal1 with depressions at regular intervals just the size of a big raisin4 ,this plate is put at the bottom of the preliminary packing box1 and when the work of packing is complete the box is reversed and the top layer1 pressed into the depressions of the plate1 bears every mark of the most careful hand manipulation4 ,mr4 ,butler used this plate for the first time this season1 and found it a success1 and there is no question of its general adoption4 ,every year sees more attention paid to the careful grading of raisins1 as upon this depends much of their marketable value4 ,the large packing houses have done good work in enforcing this rule1 and the chief sinners who still indulge in careless packing are small growers with poor facilities4 ,probably the next few years will see a great increase in the number and size of the packing houses which will prepare and market most of ,fresno's raisin crop4 ,the growers also will avail themselves of the co-operative plan1 for which the colony system offers peculiar advantages4 ,geometrical progression is the only thing which equals the increase of ,fresno's raisin product4 ,eighteen years ago it was less than #c1jjj boxes4 ,last year it amounted to #a1jej1jjj boxes1 while this year the product cannot fall below #a1bej1jjj boxes4 ,new vineyards are coming into bearing every year1 and this season has seen a larger planting of new vineyards than ever before4 ,this was due mainly to the stimulus and encouragement of the ,mc,kinley bill1 which was worth an incalculable sum to those who are developing the raisin industry in ,california4 ,besides raisins1 ,fresno produced last year #b1ejj1jjj gallons of wine1 a large part of which was shipped to the ,east4 ,the railroad figures show the wealth that is produced here every year from these old wheat fields4 ,the dried fruit crop last year was valued at #a1abc1ebj2 raisins1 #a1bde1gfh2 and the total exports were #h1ieg1hii4 ,the largest bearing raisin vineyard in ,fresno is that of ,a4,b4 ,butler1 who has over #fjj acres in eight year-old vines4 ,the pack this year will be fully #abj1jjj boxes4 ,as each box sells for an average of #a4ge1 the revenue from this vineyard will not fall far below a quarter of a million4 ,one of the finest places in the county is ,colonel ,forsythe's #afj-;acre vineyard1 from which #dj1jjj boxes are packed4 ,forsythe has paid so much attention to the packing of his raisins that his output commands a fancy price4 ,this year he wanted to go to ,europe1 so he sold his crop on the vines to a packing house1 receiving a check for #bj1jjj4 ,these1 of course1 are the great successes1 but nearly every small raisin grower has made money1 for it costs not over #a cents per pound to produce the raisin1 and the price seldom falls below #f cents per pound4 ,good land can be secured in ,fresno at from #ej to #bjj per acre4 ,the average is #ge an acre for first-class raisin land that is within ten miles of any large place4 ,it costs #ge an acre to get a raisin vineyard into bearing4 ,in the third year the vines pay for cultivation1 and from that time on the ratio of increase is very large4 ,much of the work of pruning1 picking1 and curing grapes is light1 and may be done by women and children4 ,the only heavy labor about the vineyard is the plowing and cultivating4 ,fresno is a hot place in the summer1 the mercury running up to #aaj degrees in the shade1 but this is a dry heat1 which does not enervate1 and1 with proper protection for the head1 one may work in the sun all day1 without any danger of sunstroke4 ,the colony system1 which has been brought to great perfection around ,fresno1 permits a family of small means to secure a good home without much capital to start with4 ,where no money is paid for labor1 a vineyard may be brought to productiveness with very small outlay4 ,at the same time there is so great a demand for labor in the large vineyards1 that the man who has a five or ten acre tract may be sure of work nearly all the year4 ,in some places special inducements have been held out to people of small means to secure a five-acre vineyard while they are at work in other business4 ,one colony of this sort was started eighteen months ago near ,madera1 in ,fresno ,county4 ,a tract of #c1jjj acres was planted to ,muscat grapes1 and then sold out in five and ten acre vineyards1 on five years' time1 the purchaser paying only one-fifth cash4 ,the price of the land was #ge an acre1 and it was estimated that an equal sum per acre would put the vineyard into full bearing4 ,thus1 for #gej1 or1 with interest1 for #a1jjj1 a man working on a small salary in ,san ,francisco will have in five years a vineyard which should yield him a yearly revenue of #ejj4 ,from the present outlook there can be no danger of over-production of raisins1 any more than of ,california wine or dried fruits4 ,the grower is assured of a good market for every pound of raisins he produces1 and the more care he puts into the growing and packing of his crop1 the larger his returns will be4 ,for those who love life in the open air1 there is nothing in ,california with greater attractions than raisin growing in ,fresno ,county4--,n4,y4 ,tribune4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cold ,,and ,,mortality4 ,by ,dr4 ,b4,w4 ,,richardson4 ,during the seven weeks of extreme atmospheric cold in which the last year ended and with which the present year opened1 every one has been startled by the mortality that has prevailed among the enfeebled and aged population4 ,friends have been swept away in a manner most painful to recall1 under the influence of an external agency1 as natural as it is fatal in its course1 and over which science1 as yet1 holds the most limited control4 ,in the presence of these facts questions occur to the mind which have the most practical bearing4 ,why should a community wake up one day with catarrh or with the back of the throat unduly red and the tonsils large8 ,why1 in a particular village or town1 shall the medical men be summoned on some particular day to a number of places to visit children with croup8 ,what is the reason that cases of sudden death1 by so-called apoplexy1 crowd together into a few hours8 ,why1 in a given day or week1 are shoals of the aged swept away1 while the young live as before8 ,these are questions which curative and preventive medicine have not yet mastered as might be desired4 ,curative medicine1 at the name of them1 too often stands abashed1 if her interpreter be honest2 and preventive medicine says1 if her interpreter be honest1 ,the questions wait as yet for full interpretation4 ,still1 we are not altogether ignorant2 some circumstances appear to be followed by effects so definite1 that we may almost consider we have before us1 in true position1 cause and effect4 ,let us look at this position in reference to the simple influence of temperature on the value of life4 ,if we observe the fluctuation of the thermometer by the side of the mortality of the nation at large1 no calculable relationship seems1 at first sight1 to be traceable between the one and the other4 ,but if1 in connection with the mortality1 care be taken to isolate cases1 and to divide them into groups according to the ages of those who die1 a singular and significant series of facts follow1 which show that after a given age a sudden decline of the temperature influences mortality by what may be considered a definite law4 ,the law is1 that variations of temperature exert no marked influence on the mortality of the population under the age of thirty years2 but after the age of thirty is reached1 a fall of temperature1 sufficient to cause an increased number of deaths1 acts in a regular manner1 as it may be said1 in waves or lines of intensity1 according to the ages of the people4 ,if we make these lines nine years long1 we discover that they double in effect at each successive point4 ,thus1 if the1 fall in the temperature be sufficient to increase the mortality at the rate of one person of the age of thirty1 the increase will run as follows3 #a death at #cj years of age will become #b deaths at #ci years of age1 #d at #dh years1 #h at #eg years1 #af at #ff years1 #cc at #ge years1 and #fd at #hd years4 ,in these calculations nothing seems to be wanting that should render them trustworthy2 they resulted from inquiries conducted on the largest scale2 they were computed by one of our greatest authorities in vital statistics1 the late ,dr4 ,william ,farr1 and they accord with what we gather from common daily observation4 ,they supply1 in a word1 the scientific details and refinements of a rough estimate founded on universal experience1 and they lead us to think very gravely on many subjects which may not have occurred to us before1 and which are as curious as they are important4 ,we often hear persons who know little about vital phenomena1 by which term ,i mean nothing mysterious1 but simply the physics embraced in those phenomena which we connect with form and motion under the term life1 harping on the one string1 that man knows nothing of the laws of life and death4 ,but what an answer to such presumption do the facts rendered above supply4 ,life and death are here reduced1 on given conditions1 to reasonings as clear and positive as are the reasonings on the development of heat by the combustion of fuel4 ,it is not necessary for the vital philosopher to go out into the towns and villages to take a new census of deaths to enable him to give us his readings of the general mortality under the conditions specified4 ,he may sit in his cabinet1 and1 as he reads his thermometer day by day1 predict results4 ,there is a fall of temperature that shall be known by experience to be sufficiently deep and prolonged to cause an increase of one death among those members of the community who have reached thirty years4 ,then1 rising by a definite rule1 there have died sixty-four1 in proportion to that one1 of those who have reached eighty-four years4 ,this is sound calculation1 and it leads to reflection4 ,it leads one to ask1 what1 if the law be so definite1 are curative and preventive medicine doing meanwhile1 that they shall not disturb it8 ,i fear that they hardly produce perturbations1 and ,i do not see why they should2 because1 as the truth opens itself to the mind1 the tremendous external change in the forces of the universe that leads to the result1 is not to be grappled with nor interfered with by any specific method of human invention4 ,the cause is too general1 too overwhelming1 too grasping4 ,it is like the lightning stroke in its distance from our command2 but it is widely spread1 not pointed and concentrate2 prolonged1 not instantaneous2 and1 by virtue of these properties1 is so much the more subtile and devastating4 ,at first it seems easy to explain the reason why a sudden fall in temperature should lead to an increase in the number of deaths1 and it is to be admitted that1 to a certain extent1 the reason is clear4 ,,animal ,,power ,,at ,,different ,,periods ,,of ,,life4 ,without entering on the question whether heat is the animating principle of all living organisms1 we may accept that in the evolution of heat in the body we have a measurement of the capacity of the body to sustain motion1 which is only another phrase for expressing the resistance of the body to death4 ,for example1 if we assume that a healthy man of thirty respires sufficient air per day to produce as much heat as would raise fifty pounds of water at #cb ,fahr4 to #bab ,fahr41 and if we assume that a man of sixty in the same temperature is only able to respire so much air as shall cause him to evolve so much heat as would raise forty pounds of water from #cb to #bab1 we see a general reason why the older man should feel an effect from a sudden change in the temperature of the air which the younger would not feel2 and if we assume1 further1 that a man of eighty could in the same time produce as much heat as would raise only twenty pounds of water from #cb to #bab1 we see a good reason why the oldest should suffer more from a decrease of external temperature than the other two4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to know more than this general statement of an approximate fact2 we ought to understand the method by which the reduction of temperature influences1 and the details of the physiological process connected with the phenomena4 ,when a human body is living after the age when the period of its growth is completed and before the period of its decay has commenced1 it produces1 when it is quite healthy1 by its own chemical processes1 so much heat or force as shall enable it1 within given bounds1 7#a7 to move its own machinery2 7#b7 to call forth1 at will1 a limited measure of extra force which has been lying latent in its organism2 and 7#c7 to supply a fluctuating loss that must be conveyed away by contact with the surrounding air1 by the earth1 and by other bodies that it may touch1 and which are colder than itself4 ,there is thus produced in the body1 applied force1 reserve force1 and waste force1 and these distributions of the whole force generated1 when correctly applied1 maintain the perfect organism in such balance that life is true and steady4 ,so much active force carries with it the power to perform so much labor2 so much reserve force carries with it the power to perform a measure of new or extra labor to meet emergencies2 so much waste force enables the body to resist the external vicissitudes without trenching on the supply that is always wanted to keep the heart pulsating1 the chest breathing1 the glands secreting or excreting1 the digestive apparatus moving1 and the brain thinking or absorbing4 ,let us1 even in the prime of manhood1 disturb the distribution of force ever so little1 and straightway our life1 which is the resultant of force1 is disturbed4 ,if we use the active force too long1 we become exhausted1 and call on the reserve2 if we continue the process1 the result is failure more or less perfect1 sleep1 and1 in the end1 the last long sleep4 ,let us1 instead of exhausting the force1 cut it off at the sources where it is generated2 let us remove the carbon or coal that should go in as fuel food1 and we create prostration1 and in continuance a waning animal fire1 sleep1 and death2 or let us1 instead of removing or withdrawing the supply of fuel1 cut off the supply of air1 as by immersion of the body in water1 or by making it breathe a vapor that weakens the combination of oxygen with carbon--such a vapor as chloroform--and again we produce1 at once1 prostration1 sleep1 or death1 according to the extent to which we have conducted the process4 ,lastly1 if instead of using up unduly the active and reserve force1 or of suppressing the evolution of force by the withdrawal of its sources1 we expose the body to such an external temperature that it is robbed of its heat faster than it can generate it2 if to supply the waste heat we draw upon the active and reserve forces1 we call forth immediately the same condition as would follow extreme over-exertion1 or suppression of the development of force2 we call forth exhaustion and sleep1 and1 if we go far enough1 death4 ,we have had in view1 in the above description1 a man in the prime of life1 in the center of growth1 and decay4 ,in regard to the force of animation in him1 let us look at him now retrospectively and prospectively4 ,in the past his has been a growing1 developing body1 and in the course of development he has produced an excess of force commensurate with the demands of his growth2 this has enabled him gradually to bear more fatigue and more exposure1 without exhaustion1 and even with ease1 until he has reached his maximum4 ,when he has stopped in development1 when he stands on a fair level with the external forces that are opposed to him1 then his own force1 for a short time balanced1 soon stands second in command4 ,he feels cold more tenderly2 if his rest be broken1 the demand for artificial heat is more urgent2 if he lose or miss food1 he sinks quickly2 and1 returning to our facts1 as to the influence of the external temperature on mortality1 these are the reasons why a fall in the thermometer sweeps away our population according to age so ruthlessly and decisively4 ,if we analyze the facts further by the side of the diseases which kill the old1 we find those diseases to be numerous in name1 but all of two types4 ,they are diseases which of themselves tend either to produce undue loss of force1 or that tend to prevent the development of force at its origin4 ,thus affections which are accompanied with exhaustive loss of fluids from the body1 such as diabetes1 dropsies1 and hmorrhages1 are of the first class2 affections in which due supply of air to the lungs is prevented are of the second class1 especially bronchitis1 a disease so commonly assigned as the cause of the deaths among the members of the aged and enfeebled population1 that succeed immediately on an extreme fall of the thermometer4 ,,fall ,,of ,,temperature--,,mode ,,of ,,action4 ,in what has been written above ,i have stated simply and in open terms the fact that the fall of temperature produces a specified series of results1 by reducing the force of the living organism1 and disposing it to die4 ,we may from this point investigate1 from a physiological point of view1 the mode by which the effect is produced in the economy4 ,how does the decline of temperature act8 ,is the process simple or compound8 ,,extraction ,,of ,,heat4 ,the process is compound1 and into it there enter three elements4 ,in the first place1 the body is robbed rapidly of its waste force1 and the reserve and active elements of force are1 consequently1 called upon to the depression of the organism altogether4 ,this obtains because the medium surrounding the body1 the air1 unless it be artificially heated1 removes from its contact with the body a larger proportion of heat than can be spared2 and it might be possible to produce such an influence on the body by sudden extraction of its heat as to destroy it at once by the mere act4 ,if a man could be surrounded with frozen mercury he would die instantaneously1 as from shock1 by the immediate extraction of his heat4 ,but in ordinary cases1 and under ordinary circumstances1 the mere rapid extraction of waste heat is not sufficient to account for all the mischief produced by a low temperature2 for by artificial warmth and non-conducting garments1 we counteract the influence1 and that1 too1 in a manner which proves pretty successful4 ,we may1 therefore1 leave this element of extraction of heat as a most important1 but not as the sole1 agent of evil4 ,,suppressed ,,oxidation4 ,the second element is the effect on the process of oxidation of blood under the influence of cold4 ,we all are aware that if a portion of dead animal or vegetable matter be placed at a low temperature1 it keeps for a considerable time2 and we have evidence of dead animals which1 clothed in thick ribbed ice1 have been retained from putrefaction for centuries4 ,hence we say that cold is an antiseptic as alcohol is1 and chloroform1 and ammonia1 and other similar bodies4 ,cold is an antiseptic then1 but why8 ,because it prevents1 even in the presence of a ferment1 the union of oxygen gas with combustible matter4 ,the molecules of oxygen1 in order that they shall combine1 and in their combination evolve heat1 require to be distributed1 and to be distributed by the form of motion known as heat2 deprive them of this activity1 and they come into communion with themselves1 are attracted to each other1 and lose to the extent of this attraction their power of combining with the molecules of other bodies for which they have an affinity4 ,in an analogous1 but more obvious way1 we may see the same effect of motion in the microscopic examination of blood4 ,in the blood1 while it is circulating briskly in its vessels1 there are distributed through it1 without contact with each other1 the millions of oxygen carriers called blood corpuscles4 ,in the circulation in the free channels of the body1 the arteries and veins1 it is motion that keeps these corpuscles apart2 we draw a drop of blood and let it come to rest on the microscope glass1 and as the motion ceases the separated corpuscles run together1 and adhere so firmly that we cannot easily separate them without their disintegration4 ,if we were able to drive them in this state round the body1 through the vessels1 they would not combine readily with the tissues2 they have1 in fact1 forfeited the condition necessary for such combination4 ,so with the oxygen they carry2 when its invisible molecules are deprived of the force called heat1 which is motion1 they do not readily combine with new matter4 ,but perfect combination of oxygen and carbon in the blood is essential to every act of life4 ,in the constant clash of molecule of oxygen with molecule of carbon in the blood lies the mainspring of all animal motion2 the motion of the heart itself is secondary to that4 ,destroy that union1 however slightly1 and the balance is lost1 and the animal body is1 in a plain word1 ill4 ,cold or decreased temperature1 below a given standard1 which for sake of comparison we may take at a mean of #dj ,fahr41 reduces this combination of oxygen and carbon in blood4 ,in my ,lettsomian lectures to the ,medical ,society of ,london1 delivered in #ahfj1 ,i entered very fully into this subject1 and illustrated points of it largely by experiment4 ,since then ,i have done more1 and although ,i have not time here to state the details of these researches1 ,i will epitomize the principal facts4 ,i found then that1 by exposing blood in chambers into which air can pass in and out1 the blood could be oxidized at temperatures of #gj if the distribution of air and blood were effectually secured1 and ,i also found a proper standard of oxidation from a proper temperature4 ,afterward ,i proceeded to test for combination at lower temperatures1 and discovered a gradually decreasing scale until ,i arrived at #dj ,fahr41 when efficient combination ceased4 ,of course1 my method was a very crude imitation of nature1 but it was sufficient to show this fair and reliable result1 that the oxidation of blood decreases as the temperature of the oxygen decreases4 ,from this point ,i went to animal life itself4 ,i exposed animals to pure cold oxygen and to cold atmospheric air1 and compared the results with other experiments in which animals of similar weight were exposed to warm air and warm oxygen4 ,the facts gleaned were most important1 for they proved conclusively that the products of combustion1 that is to say1 the products resulting from the union of oxygen and carbon1 were reduced in proportion as the temperature of the oxygen was reduced4 ,in the course of this inquiry another singular and instructive fact was elicited4 ,it has been long known that at ordinary temperature1 say #fj1 pure neutral oxygen does not support animal life so well as oxygen that is diluted with nitrogen4 ,in the nitrogen the molecules of oxygen are more freely distributed under the influence of motion1 that is the meaning of the observed fact4 ,what1 then1 would be the respective influence of low and high temperatures on the respiration of pure oxygen8 ,to settle this question1 animals of the same size and weight were placed in equal measures of oxygen gas and common air at a temperature of #cj ,fahr41 and with the inevitable result that the animal in the pure oxygen ceased to respire one-third sooner than did the animal in common air4 ,carrying the inquiry further1 ,i found that if the oxygen gas were warmed to #ej ,fahr41 the respiration was continued six times as long as in the previous experiment1 while if the warming were carried to #gj1 it was sustained twenty-four times as long4 ,i reversed the experiment2 ,i made oxygen with cold produce ansthetic sleep in a warm-blooded animal4 ,i need not carry this argument further2 it is the easiest of the demonstrative facts of physiological science that reduction of temperature lessens the combining power of oxygen for blood1 and therewith causes a reduction of animal force1 and a tendency to arrest of that force1 which1 in the end1 means death4 ,,mechanical ,,cold4 ,the third element in the action of cold is more purely mechanical1 and this1 though in a sense secondary1 is of immense import4 ,when any body1 capable of expansion by heat1 that is to say1 by radiant motion of its own particles1 is reduced in temperature1 it loses volume1 contracts1 or shrinks4 ,the animal body is no exception to this rule2 a ring that will fit tightly to the warm finger will fall off the same finger after exposure to cold4 ,the whole of the soft parts shrink1 and the vessels contract and empty themselves of their blood4 ,cold applied to the skin in an extreme degree blanches the skin1 and renders it insensible and bloodless1 so that if you prick it it does not bleed1 neither does it feel4 ,in cases where the body altogether is exposed to extreme cold this shrinking of the external parts is universal2 the whole surface becomes pale and insensible2 the blood in the small vessels superficially placed is forced inward upon the heart and vessels of the interior organs2 the brain is oppressed with blood2 sleep1 or coma1 as it is technically called1 follows1 and at last life is suspended4 ,in exposure to the lowest wave of temperature in this country these extreme effects are not commonly developed2 but minor effects are brought out which are most significant4 ,in particular1 the effect on the lungs is strongly marked4 ,the capillary vessels of the lungs1 making up that fine network which plays over the computed six hundred millions of air vesicles1 undergo paralysis when the cold air enters1 and in proportion as such obstruction from this cause is decisive1 the blood that should be brought to the air vesicles is impeded1 and the process of oxidation is mechanically as well as chemically suppressed4 ,the same contraction is also exerted on the vessels of the skin1 driving the blood into the interior and better protected organs4 ,hence the reason why on leaving a warm room to enter a cold frosty air there is an immediate action of the visceral organs from pressure of blood on them1 and not unfrequently a tendency to diarrhoea from temporary congestion of the digestive tract4 ,three factors are at work1 in fact1 whenever the low wave of temperature affects the animal body2 abstraction of heat from the body1 beyond what is natural2 arrest of chemical action and of combustion2 paralysis of the minute vessels exposed to the cold4 ,,combined ,,effects4 ,we cannot view the extent of change in the organic life induced by the low wave of heat without seeing at once the sweep of mischief which exposure to the wave may effect4 ,it exerts an influence on healthy life in the middle-aged man1 and ,i know of no disease which it does not influence disastrously4 ,is the healthy man exhausted1 it favors internal congestion2 has he a weak point in the vascular system of his brain1 it renders that point liable to pressure and rupture1 with apoplexy as the sequence2 is he suffering from bronchial disease1 and obstruction1 already1 in his air passages1 here is a means by which the evils are doubled2 has he a feeble1 worn-out heart1 it is unable to bear the pressure that is put upon it2 has he partial obstruction of the kidney circulation1 he is threatened with complete obstruction2 is he indifferently fed1 he is weakened generally4 ,it is from this extent of action that the mortality of all diseases runs up so fast when the low wave of heat rolls over the population1 affecting1 as we have seen1 the feeblest first4 ,another danger sometimes follows which is remote1 but may be fatal1 even to persons who are in health4 ,it is one of the best known facts in science that when a part of the surface of the body has been exposed long to cold1 the greatest risk is run in trying suddenly to warm it4 ,the vessels become rapidly dilated1 their coats relax1 and extreme congestion follows4 ,but what is true of the skin is true equally1 and with more practical force1 of the lungs4 ,a man1 a little below par1 goes out when the wave of temperature is low1 and feels oppressed1 cold1 weak1 and miserable2 the circulation through his lungs has been suppressed1 and he is not duly oxidizing2 he returns to a warm place1 he rushes to the fire1 breathes eagerly and long the heated air1 and adds to the warmth by taking perchance a cup of stimulant2 then he goes to bed and wakes in a few hours with what is called pneumonia1 or with bronchitis1 or with both diseases4 ,what has happened8 ,the simple physical fact of reaction under too sudden an exposure to heat after exposure to cold4 ,the capillaries of the lungs have become engorged1 and the circulation static1 so that there must be reaction of heat1 inflammation1 before recovery can occur4 ,nearly all bronchial affections are induced in this manner1 not always nor necessarily in the acute form1 but more frequently by slow degrees1 by repetition and repetition of the evil4 ,colds are often taken in this same way1 from the exposed mucous surfaces of the nose and throat being subjected first to a chill1 then to heat4 ,the wave of low temperature affecting a mixed population finds inevitably a certain number of persons of all ages and conditions on whom to exert its power4 ,it catches them too often when they least expect it4 ,an aged man1 with sluggish heart1 goes to bed and reclines to sleep in a temperature1 say1 of #ej or #ee4 ,in his sleep1 were it quite uninfluenced from without1 his heart and his breathing would naturally decline4 ,gradually1 as the night advances1 the low wave of heat steals over the sleeper1 and the air he was breathing at #ee falls and falls to #dj1 or it may be to #ce or #cj4 ,what may naturally follow less than a deeper sleep8 ,is it not natural that the sleep so profound shall stop the laboring heart8 ,certainly4 ,the great narcotic never travels without fastening on some victims in this wise1 removing them1 imperceptibly to themselves1 into sleep ending in absolute death4 ,,some ,,simple ,,rules4 ,the study of the physiological influence of the wave of low temperature1 and of its relation to the wave of mortality1 suggests a few rules1 simple1 and easily remembered4 #a4 ,clothing is the first thing to attend to4 ,to have the body1 during variable weather1 such as now obtains1 well enveloped from head to foot in non-conducting substance is essential4 ,who neglects this precaution is guilty of a grievous error1 and who helps the poor to clothe effectively does more for them than can readily be conceived without careful attention to the subject we have discussed4 #b4 ,in sitting-rooms and in bedrooms it is equally essential to maintain an equable temperature2 a fire in a bedroom is of first value at this season4 ,the fire sustains the external warmth1 encourages ventilation1 and gives health not less than comfort4 #c4 ,in going from a warm into a cold atmosphere1 in breasting the wave of low temperature1 no one can harm by starting forth thoroughly warm4 ,but in returning from the cold into the warm the act should always be accomplished gradually4 ,this important rule may readily be carried in mind by connecting it with the fact that the only safe mode of curing a frozen part is to rub it with ice1 so as to restore the temperature slowly4 #d4 ,the wave of low temperature requires to be met by good1 nutritious1 warm food4 ,heat-forming foods1 such as bread1 sugar1 butter1 oatmeal porridge1 and potatoes1 are of special use now4 ,it would be against science and instinct alike to omit such foods when the body requires heat4 #e4 ,it is an entire mistake to suppose that the wave of cold is neutralized in any sense by the use of alcoholics4 ,when a glass of hot brandy and water warms the cold man1 the credit belongs to the hot water1 and any discredit that may follow to the brandy4 ,so far from alcohol checking the cold in action1 it goes with it1 and therewith aids in arresting the motion of the heart in the living animal1 because it reduces oxidation4 #f4 ,excessive exercise of the body1 and overwork either of body or of mind1 should be avoided1 especially during those seasons when a sudden fall of temperature is of frequent occurrence4 ,for exhaustion1 whether physical or mental1 means loss of motion in the organism2 and loss of motion is the same as loss of heat4 ,one further consideration1 suggested by the subject of this paper1 has reference to the bearing of the public toward the labors of the medical man in meeting the effects of the low wave of heat4 ,the public1 looking on the doctor as a sort of mystical high priest who ought to save1 may often be dissatisfied with his work4 ,let the dissatisfied think of what is meant by saving when there is a sudden fall in the thermometer4 ,let them recall that it is not bronchitis as a cause of death1 nor apoplexy1 nor heart disease1 as such1 that the doctor is called on to meet2 but an all-pervading influence which overwhelms like the sea1 and against which1 in the mass1 individual effort stands paralyzed and helpless4 ,when the doctor is summoned the mischief has at least commenced1 and1 it may be1 is so far over that treatment by mere medicines sinks into secondary significance4 ,then he1 true minister of health1 candid enough to bow humbly before the great and inevitable truth1 and professing no specific cure by nostrum or symbol1 can only try to avert further danger by teaching elementary principles1 and by making the unlearned the participators in his own learning4--,the ,asclepiad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,glaucoma4 ,as this disease is so fatal to vision1 any remedy that may be suggested to diminish the frequency of its termination in blindness cannot fail to be read of with interest4 ,m4 ,nicati1 in the ,revue generate de clinique et de therapeutique1 has had marked success in the treatment of glaucoma by drainage of the posterior chamber1 either by sclerotomy or by sclero-iritomy1 as the conditions of the individual case may require4--,n4,y4 ,med4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,twin ,,screw ,,launch ,,run ,,by ,a ,,compound ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,twin ,,screw ,,steam ,,launch ,,gemini4 ,the launch shown in our illustration was built in ,new ,westminster1 ,british ,columbia1 ,canada4 ,she is #db ft4 keel and #g ft4 beam1 and has #d ft4 depth of hold4 ,she has an improved ,clarke compound engine1 also shown in an accompanying illustration1 with a high pressure piston four inches in diameter1 and a low pressure piston eight inches in diameter1 the stroke being six inches1 and the engine driving two twenty-six inch screws4 ,with #acj pounds of steam1 and making #bge revolutions per minute1 the launch attains a speed of nine miles per hour1 thus fully demonstrating the adaptability of this engine to the successful working of twin screws4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clarke ,,compound ,,twin-,,screw ,,operating ,,engine4 ,in the ,clarke engine1 the exhaust pipe from the high pressure cylinder leads to the steam chest of the low pressure cylinder1 while the piston in the upper cylinder is secured on a piston rod extending downward and connected with a piston operating in the lower cylinder1 the exhaust pipe from the latter leading to the outside4 ,on the piston rod common to both cylinders is secured a crosshead pivotally connected by two pitmen with opposite crank arms on crank shafts mounted to turn in suitable bearings on the base1 which also supports a frame carrying the low pressure cylinder1 on top of which is a frame supporting the high pressure cylinder4 ,the valves in the two steam chests are connected with each other by a valve rod connected at its lower end in the usual manner with the reversing link1 operated from eccentrics secured on one of the crank shafts4 ,the crank arms stand at angles to each other1 so that the crank shafts are turned in opposite directions1 and the position of the link is such that it can be readily changed by the reversing lever to simultaneously reverse the motion of the crank shafts4 ,on the crank shafts are also formed two other crank arms pivotally connected by opposite pitmen with a slide mounted in vertical guideways1 supported on a frame erected on the base1 the motion of the crank shafts causing the vertical sliding motion of the slide traveling loosely in the guideways1 and thus serving as a governor1 as1 in case one of the propellers becomes disabled1 the power of the shaft carrying the disabled propeller is directly transferred to the other shaft through the crank arms1 pitmen1 and slide1 and the other propeller is caused to do all the work4 ,all the parts of the engine are within easy reach of the engineer1 and there are so few working parts in motion that the friction is reduced to a minimum4 ,it is said that the plan of construction and the operation of this engine have been carefully observed by practical engineers1 and that1 considering the dimensions of the boat1 her speed1 the smallness of the power1 the ease with which she passes the centers1 the absence of vibration while running1 and the very few working parts in motion1 the engine is a notable success4 ,she can be run at a very high velocity without injury or risk1 and is designed to be very economical in cost and in weight and space4 ,this engine has been recently patented in the ,united ,states and foreign countries by ,mr4 ,james ,a4 ,clarke1 of ,new ,westminster4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,river ,,and ,,canal ,,barges4 ,by ,m4 ,,ritter 7,,knight7 ,,von ,,szabel1 late ,austrian ,naval ,officer1 of ,vienna4 ,this innovation consists essentially in an arrangement by which two distinct vessels1 on being revolved round their longitudinal axis to an angle of #ij1 can be combined into one single duplex vessel1 or1 to put it in different words1 a larger vessel is arranged so that it can be parted into two halves 7called semi-barges71 which can be used and navigated with equal facility as two distinct vessels1 as if combined into one4 ,by the combination of the two semi-barges into one duplex barge the draught of the vessel is nearly doubled1 the ratio existing between the draught of a loaded semi-vessel and the equally loaded duplex vessels being #e3h 7up to #h4e7 ,the advantage of the invention consists3 #a4 ,in this difference of draught4 #b4 ,in the smaller width of the semi-vessel as compared with the duplex vessel4 #c4 ,in the fact that the combination and separation of the vessels can be effected1 without the least disturbance of the cargo1 in a minimum of time4 ,it facilitates the utilization1 to the highest possible extent1 of the varying conditions and dimensions of canal locks and rivers4 ,the transition from rivers to canals1 and from larger canals to smaller ones1 is expedited by the possibility afforded of1 on the arrival at the locks1 dividing the vessel in a space of a few minutes2 of passing with the semi-vessel1 singly1 the various smaller locks or the shallow canal1 after which the two sections may be re-combined and navigated again as one vessel4 ,the process of folding up the two vessels will of course take longer than that of separation4 ,on rivers1 the channels of which are interrupted by sand banks and rapids1 the same operation may be carried out1 thus avoiding the expense and delay necessitated by1 perhaps1 repeated lightering1 i4e41 reduction of the cargo4 ,thus1 the through traffic on large rivers like the ,danube1 with its repeated obstacles to navigation1 such as the iron gate1 and several sand-banks known and dreaded by bargemen1 would be materially facilitated1 any necessity for unloading part of the cargo being obviated2 moreover1 such a duplex vessel composed of two semi-vessels affords the advantage of utilizing to a fuller degree the power of traction1 and one large vessel will be more convenient for traffic than two smaller ones4 ,further1 the mode of construction of the semi-vessels--both ends of which are of a similar pattern--allows of their being navigated up and down a water channel without the necessity of turning them round2 provision having also been made for the fixing of the rudder at either end1 which would therefore merely require exchanging4 ,this is of some advantage in narrow river beds and canals1 and applies equally to the duplex vessel as to the single semi-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,each semi-barge on its part is also constructed of two equal halves--which are1 however1 inseparable--and as there is no distinct stem or stern1 any one of these semi-vessels will fit any other semi-vessels of the same dimensions1 and can be attached to the same by means of the coupling apparatus1 and the two folded up into one duplex vessel4 ,this process does not present any material difficulties4 ,the two single boats on being coupled together can be made to lean over toward each other1 by filling their lateral water compartments1 to such an extent that the further closing up can be easily effected by means of specially constructed windlasses4 ,in the case of petroleum vessels the folding up operation is facilitated by the circumstance that the petroleum may be made to serve the purposes of water ballast4 ,as regards the size and tonnage of the new vessels1 this will of course depend on the local condition of the rivers and canals to be navigated4 ,thus a vessel destined for traffic on canals with locks of varying dimensions will have to be adapted to the dimensions of the smallest existing lock4 ,supposing the size of the latter to be such as found in the case of the ,rhine-,marne or the ,rhine-,rhone ,canal1 or on the ,neckar down to ,cannstadt1 or in the ,danube-,main ,canal and some smaller canals in the ,weser district1 etc41 viz43 ,length of lock #cd4e meters4 ,width #e4b ,depth #a4f to #b4j meters4 ,the semi-barge may be made #cb meters in length1 #d meters in breadth and #b4e meters total depth1 and with a draught of #a4e meters will be capable of carrying a load of #ajj tons 7of #a1jjj kilos each74 ,correspondingly the duplex vessel will be able to carry #bjj tons1 with a minimum draught of #b4d meters and a width of #e4d meters1 but1 with a favorable height of the water level1 the draught of the semi-barge may be increased to #a4fe and that of duplex vessels to #b4g meters4 ,where not limited to certain proportions by the dimensions of the locks to be passed1 the vessel may in the first place be made longer2 the width and height may also be increased accordingly 7provided that the proportion of breadth to width is kept within the ratio #d3b4e71 so that the semi-barges may be constructed for a single burden up to #cjj tons1 or #fjj for the duplex vessel4 ,as regards the nature of the cargo1 parcels would not be admissible in this instance1 but any kind of homogeneous cargo would be suitable which would bear laying over on one side4 ,thus this style of vessel would be well adapted for petroleum tank vessels1 for the transport of all kinds of cereals1 flour1 coffee1 and sugar in sacks--these latter being held in position by an arrangement of planking and boards so as to prevent any overturning of the goods on the vessels being folded up or taken apart4 ,similarly in the case of a cargo of loose grain or other loose produce1 the same must be prevented from being upset by a kind of wooden casing4 ,two semi-vessels loaded with different cargoes may be coupled together1 provided that there is not too much difference between their respective draughts4 ,slight differences may be balanced by the water compartments being filled to a greater or smaller extent4 ,the peculiar position of the hatches allows of loading the semi-vessels separately as well as when coupled together4 ,if there is for the time being no necessity for using the vessels in their capacity of separate and duplex barges1 any kind of cargo might be loaded that does not require large hatches4 ,the vessels1 on account of their more complicated construction1 will be somewhat more expensive1 but wherever the advantage offered by them outweighs the extra expenditure1 they can be used with success4 ,the innovation might be of particular importance where a new canal system is being constructed1 since the latter might be subdivided into main canals and branch canals--similarly as in the case of ordinary and narrow gauge railways--the main canal being built of a larger section and with larger locks to suit the duplex barges1 while the branch canals could be planned of smaller dimensions calculated to suit the semi-barge4 ,thus the first cost of such a canal system would be materially reduced as compared with a canal installation of one uniform section throughout4 ,likewise in mountainous districts with rock soil it would be an important consideration whether a canal had to be blasted out of the solid rock or a tunnel cut1 in dimensions suitable for a vessel of #f or of #ad square meters section below the water line4 ,in this case1 even in certain portions of a main canal--where rendered desirable by the rocky nature of the ground--a smaller section might be adopted1 which would only be large enough for single semi-barges1 so that the duplex vessel would in these instances have to be taken apart in the same way as in a branch canal4 ,the saving to be effected by constructing a canal on this principle1 as compared with a canal of one uniform section throughout1 must be considerable1 and the advantages of the arrangement are apparent4 ,the appended figures will further illustrate the arrangement4 ,fig4 #a shows two separate semi-barges ready to pursue their journey independently4 ,fig4 #b shows two semi-barges coupled together ready to be folded up by means of ropes and specially constructed windlasses--their lateral water compartments having previously been filled4 ,fig4 #c shows the duplex vessel after the folding up operation just described2 and ,figs4 #d and #e show the cross section of two loaded semi-barges as outlined in ,figs4 #b and #c4 ,these ,figs4 #d and #e will also serve to illustrate the manner in which sacks and loose produce should be loaded4 ,fig4 #d also shows the filled water compartments1 and the effect of their weight in making the boats lean toward each other4 ,the materials most suited for this new style of vessel will be iron and steel such as generally used in the construction of canal and river vessels4 ,the new ship can be moved by any motor or driving implement1 nor could there technically a great difficulty be found for making the boilers move on a quadrant-like rail base in the shape of a circle segment's quarter1 or for building a double screw steamer by combining two single screw propellers4 ,may be a ship owner is willing to submit the innovations to an attempt1 so much the more as there is running no great risk by doing so2 for in case the ships should not answer the expectations1 both separable as well as joinable1 they can be used like single ships1 without any further alteration being made1 except as to the loading gaps4 ,the above invention is covered by ,united ,states patent ,no4 #dce1ajg4 ,any further information may be had by addressing ,m4 v4 ,szabel1 ix ,bezirk1 ,beethovengasse #aj1 ,wien1 ,austria4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,weldon',s ,,range ,,finder4 ,colonel ,weldon has recently considerably modified and improved his ingenious range finder1 and we illustrate herewith from ,engineering the form in which it is now manufactured4 ,it consists of a metal box1 the lid of which is shown open in the engraving1 and on this lid are fitted three prisms which are the essential constituents of the instrument4 ,when the lid is closed1 these1 with the compass and level1 also attached to the lid1 lie inside the metal box1 and are thus thoroughly protected4 ,the upper prism marked #a is a right-angled one and is mounted with the right angle outward2 looking into the left-hand corner of this prism one will see in it1 by double reflection1 objects lying on one's right hand4 ,below this is a second prism with a principal angle of #hh deg4 #ea min4 #ae sec41 and below this a third with a principal angle of #gd deg4 #ec min4 #ae sec4 ,a level and a compass are also mounted on the lid as shown4 ,to use the instrument the observer stands so that the object the range of which is required lies on his right hand1 and looking into the left-hand corner of the upper prism views it there by double reflection from the internal faces of the prism4 ,at the same time looking through the opening shown in the lid below the prism he selects some object1 which appears nearly in line with the image seen in the prism4 ,he then shifts his position till these two images coincide1 in which case lines joining him with the two objects will make right angles with each other4 ,in ,fig4 #b1 ,o is the object whose range is required1 ,d the object seen by direct vision1 and ,a the position of the observer4 ,the observer now marks his position on the ground1 and shifting the instrument looks into the left-hand corner of the second prism1 when he again sees the image of the object1 whose range is required1 by double reflection1 but lying now to the right of the object1 ,d4 ,he then retires1 keeping in line with ,a and ,d1 till he reaches ,b1 when the two images again coincide2 the lines joining them and the observer now make an angle of #hh deg4 #ea min4 #ae sec4 ,then in the triangle1 ,,oba1 ,,oa tan #hh deg4 #ea min4 #ae sec4 ,x ,a ,b #ej ,,ab4 ,the length ,,ab is easily paced1 and the distance ,,oa is #ej times this length4 ,a longer base1 and probably greater accuracy1 can be obtained by using the second prism only1 as indicated in ,fig4 #c1 in which case the distance of the object is #be times the distance ,,bc4 ,this second prism is1 however1 best adapted for predicting the range of moving objects4 ,three observers are required4 ,two of them have finders1 while the other measures the distance between the two4 ,the first two observers separate1 and ,no4 #b takes a position such that the object is reflected to one side of observer ,no4 #a1 whom he views by direct vision4 ,as the object continues to move1 its image gets nearer and nearer ,no4 #a1 who during the whole of the time moves a little to one side or the other1 so as to keep the image of the object constantly in line with ,no4 #b4 ,just as the image of the object gets very near ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b calls out ,ready1 the distance between the two observers is taken by the third1 and when the image of the object actually falls on ,no4 #a its distance is just #be times the distance between them1 and the guns set to this range are fired by word of command from ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,by using the third prism in conjunction with the second a still longer base of one-fourth the distance of the object can be employed4 ,the range finder can also be used as a depleidoscope for transit observations4 ,for this purpose it is mounted on a block of wood by means of elastic band and leveled by the level on its lid1 being at the same time set in the meridian of the place4 ,the lid is opened to make an angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place of observation4 ,on looking into the upper prism two images of the sun will be seen on each side of the apex of the prism1 which gradually approach each other as the sun nears the meridian1 and finally coincide as it passes it1 the time of which being noted gives the longitude of the place4 ,extensive trials of the instrument have been made both in this country and in ,india1 which agree in showing that the average error in using the instrument is about #b to #c per cent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wheels ,,linked ,,with ,a ,,bell ,,crank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,there are four ways in which a connecting rod is made use of in machine work4 ,the first is in linking two wheels together that stand in the same position1 but a slight distance off centers4 ,the rod in this case has only to lead the driven wheel around by connecting it with the driver1 and consequently has only to endure a pulling strain in the direction of its length4 ,the second is when the rod is called upon to stand a pull and a push at every revolution4 ,the third takes in the matter of the twisting strain that a rod can manage2 but the fourth brings the hardest usage that a connecting rod can be called upon to endure1 and that is by making a lever of the rod to get a driving action by prying on a fulcrum in the center4 ,in ,fig4 #a is seen a case of this kind taken from a machine in which a disk engine was made use of4 ,the rod has a chance to turn about on its center from a ball and socket joint1 and engages with both wheels in nicely fitted journals1 and boxes set in line with the center of the socket joint1 so that when one wheel turns1 the rod pries the other around by using the rod as a lever and the ball joint for a fulcrum1 giving a uniform leverage all the while1 with no dead centers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,to set this arrangement around at right angles1 or where the shafts will bring the wheels together1 as for bevel gears1 a bent lever arm would need to be used1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 but the bend in the connecting arms brings in another feature that must be provided1 as it allows the wheels to turn either with or against each other1 and leaves two places where the bent arms will come to a dead center4 ,what is needed here is another element that will take all the twisting strain on the rod and keep the pitch of both arms alike in every portion of a revolution4 ,to do this the ball and socket joint will need to be replaced by a gambrel joint like a ship's compass1 and arranging the bent driving arms as shown in ,fig4 #c2 then the driving end of the connecting frame will move about in a true circle1 producing as great a tendency to turn the driving wheel in one position as another4 ,in this arrangement there must be at least six nicely fitted journals and their bearings1 four of which will be required to take care of the forked connecting rod that joins the wheels together4 ,besides all this the bearings must all line up with the same center that the shafts are centered from or there will be a pinch somewhere in the system4 ,it may seem at first that there must be more or less end-on movement provided for1 and that the bearings should be spherical2 but that it is not the case will be noticed when all the points are understood to be working from one center similar to that provided for in bevel gears4--,boston ,journal of ,commerce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,decorative ,,treatment ,,of ,,natural ,,foliage4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lectures before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,by ,,hugh ,,stannus4 ,lecture ,i4 #a4--,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,decoration4 ,the chief impelling ,motives which have caused that treatment of objects which is now termed ,decorative1 have been3 7a7 ,that necessitated by the ,usage1 which is ,,functional2 7b7 ,that resulting from the ,instinct to please the eye1 which is ,,sthetic2 7c7 ,that arising from the ,desire to record or to teach1 which is the ,,didactic motive2 ,the ,,sthetic instinct of the early peoples was gratified by3 7a7 ,the forms of their weapons or tools2 7b7 ,the patterns with which they are decorated2 7c7 ,the imitation of the surrounding animals1 e4g4 the ,deer scratched on the horn at the ,british ,museum4 ,imitation was afterward applied to the vegetable creation2 and much of what is termed ,ornament was derived from that class of elements4 ,the ,,elements ,,of ,,decoration are the material used by the ,artist4 ,they might be considered to include everything that is visible2 but since ,decoration is a result of the sthetic instinct1 the field is narrowed to such as are pleasing at the first glance4 ,and the selection is further limited to such as are suitable to the shape and size of objects4 ,they may be classified according to their relative ,dignity1 as follows3 ,the ,human form1 ,animal forms1 ,natural foliage1 ,artificial objects1 ,artificial foliage1 and ,geometrical figures4 #b4--,,the ,,two ,,kinds ,,of ,,foliage4 ,a ,distinction is made between natural and artificial foliage4 ,they have much in common2 and consequently many have supposed that our ,western artificial foliage is merely a very-much-conventionalized version of natural foliage4 ,the supposition is correct with regard to ,eastern ,pattern work1 but not in ,western ,architectural ornamentation4 ,a simple generalization may make this clear4 ,the ordinary stock foliage of the ,ornamentist was evolved in connection with3 7,in the ,west7 7,in the ,east7 ,,architecture1 ,,textiles1 as in ,greece4 as in ,persia4 ,hence the primary ,elements of decoration were derived from3 7,in the ,west7 7,in the ,east7 ,,geometrical ,,lines1 ,,natural ,,flowers and ,,leaves1 e4g4 the meander1 spiral1 etc4 e4g4 the pine1 pomegranate1 etc4 ,further1 it may be observed that the ,method of treating these ,elements has been different3 7,in the ,west7 7,in the ,east7 ,the ,geometrical lines ,the natural foliage was were enriched by the introduction codified by the introduction of the details of of ,geometrical arrangement2 ,natural vegetation2 thus thus becoming becoming gradually more gradually more naturalesque4 artificial4 ,an ,,approximation between the two treatments1 sometimes appears2 but the two kinds--,artificial1 and ,natural--are essentially different in origin2 and should be kept distinct in their application4 ,this approximation may be shown1 in a tabular arrangement1 thus3 ,,geometry444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444444444444,,nature ,the patterns are merely ,the plants are copied as straight lines1 dots1 and accurately as possible4 portions of circles4 ,the lines become stems4 ,the plant is applied without repetition4 ,leaves are added to the ,repetition is used with the stems4 plants4 ,serration is added to the ,weaving economy induces leaf-edge4 symmetry4 ,similarity of serrated ,symmetry induces ,geometrical leaf-edge to the ,akanthos ,severity1 and the ,omission plant1 is observed2 of all details of the ,imitation becomes more original plant which are not direct2 and this artificial easily worked in connection foliage becomes termed with geometrical ,acanthus4 arrangement4 ,flowers generally circular ,the ,flowers and ,leaves in mass-shape1 are added 7only7 survive2 the growth at the ends of the spiral of the stems is forgotten2 stems4 and tradition does the rest4 #c4--;,,application ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,kinds4 ,each of these two kinds of foliage has its own proper use4 ,artificial foliage is appropriate to the enrichment of ,architecture2 and ,natural foliage to those objects which are not architectural1 but are termed movables1 including under this term1 ,furniture1 and more especially ,hangings and other applications of the ,textile art4 ,this may be seen on comparing the two columns below1 of which the ,l4,h4 one refers to ,architecture1 and the ,r4,h4 one to ,natural foliage4 7,architecture7 7,natural foliage7 ,,rules3 ,governed by severe ,exhibits apparent playful rules of ,repetition1 ,freedom4 ,there are ,axiality1 ,symmetry1 etc41 underlying ,rules1 which which are apparent to are detected by the scientific the passer-by4 ,hence ,botanist2 but these ,artificial foliage1 being are not seen by the casual regular in its structure1 observer4 is more appropriate than the 7apparently7 irregular growth of ,natural foliage4 ,,characteristics3 ,rigidity and ,stability4 ,elasticity and ,tremulousness in every breeze4 ,,lines ,,of ,,composition3 ,geometrical lines4 ,in determinate curves1 ,the geometrical lines which are very subtile1 and spirals of ,artificial and varied1 and therefore foliage demand an unmoving suitable to a hanging and surface for proper view4 swaying material4 ,the curves of ,nature ,they would generally be spoiled are not spoiled when on a if not on a plane surface4 folded material4 ,,distribution3 ,symmetrical4 ,the ,balanced4 ,the growth symmetry of artificial of natural foliage is generally foliage is appropriate to symmetrical2 but that of ,architecture4 this is not apparent4 ,,beauty3 ,depends on form1 with ,more appropriate to objects color as a secondary adjunct4 which depend on color for their principal charm4 ,there have been waves of the desire to introduce ,natural foliage into ,architecture 7e4g4 in the ,decorated period of ,gothic architecture72 but the ,artificial elements have always proved too strong1 and the two have never mixed4 ,in ,architecture1 everything has three dimensions2 and the artificial foliage is carved with leaves1 etc41 of a suitable thickness3 in ,natural foliage the tenuity of leaves1 etc41 is such that it cannot be reproduced4 ,even in the architraves round the glorious doors of ,florence the natural foliage is not always a success2 and where ,ghiberti has stopped short in the ductile bronze1 it is not probable that the modern carver will succeed in stone4 ,it may therefore be suggested that the close imitation of ,natural foliage should be confined to objects of two dimensions1 i4e41 to plane surfaces and figured materials4 ,this selection of the ,elements of ,decoration1 according to their association1 is analogous to the selection made use of by the ,poet1 from the words and ideas1 which are his ,materials4 ,it will be observed that1 as on a ,classic or ,heroic subject1 the choice is of learned words and classical ideas1 and on a ,domestic or ,pastoral one1 simple words and homely similes are used--so1 in conjunction with the severe forms of ,architecture1 the formal character of artificial foliage is suitable2 and for decorating ,textiles and other movable ,accessories1 the ,natural foliage1 with which the earth is clothed and beautified1 is appropriate4 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,surface may be beautiful for one reason2 ,,imitation ,,of ,,nature is beautiful for another4 ,when imitations of natural foliage are introduced decoratively on a surface1 then may it be twice beautiful--first1 in the principles according to which the distribution is arranged2 and secondly1 because of the elements which are worked in being beautiful in themselves4 ,geometrical elements might be so used as to serve the first end1 but can never fulfill the second3 ,storiation fulfills the second2 but its increase of interest absorbs the first4 ,this course of ,lectures is intended to treat of ,natural foliage1 leaving ,artificial foliage to be dealt with at another opportunity4 ,it is not ,historical4 ,the ,history of the ,decorative treatment of ,natural foliage1 showing its evolution in the past1 is a large and interesting theme2 but1 unless this were accompanied by critical remarks based on given principles1 the method might be barren of results4 ,tradition is not to be undervalued2 but the student should be led to ,tradition through ,principles4 ,it is further intended more especially to apply to the sthetic use4 ,when natural foliage is used sthetically 7i4e41 decoratively71 then the ,shape of the surface should govern the ,mass shape of the foliage1 and there should be ,parallelism between them 7see #bi74 ,when used ,didactically 7i4e41 symbolically71 then the foliage may be treated more freely4 #d4--,,the ,,four ,,treatments4 ,there are1 broadly speaking1 four methods of treating ,natural foliage4 ,these may be arranged in a ,chart1 according to their relation to the two poles of ,art and ,science2 from ,realism 7which is all ,art and no ,science7 to the ,botanical ,analysis method 7in which is a little ,science but no ,art71 thus3 ,the first two of these methods are ,artistic and legitimate3 the others are inartistic and misleading4 ,before treating of the artistic methods it will be well to clear the ground by dismissing the others4 ,,art ,,pole4444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444,,science ,,pole ,realism ,conventionalism ,disguised ,botanical 7,see #aj74 7,see #ad74 ,artificialism ,analysis 7,see #f74 7,see #e74 #e4--,,the ,,botanical ,,analysis ,,treatment4 ,in this method the student was taught 7i7 to draw each plant with the ,stem straightened out1 the ,leaves flattened out1 and the ,flowers represented as in side elevation or plan4 7ii7 ,the ,flowers were further pulled in pieces1 and the ,petals were flattened out in a manner similar to the ,entomologists' practice of displaying their specimens scientifically4 ,often1 also 7iii7 the ,stems and ,buds were cut through2 and patterns were made with the ,sections4 ,with regard to the first of these practices 7i73 it should be observed that much of the beauty of appearance of natural foliage results from the variety of view1 the subtile curvature1 and the foreshortening1 as seen in perspective2 and that to sacrifice all these for the sake of a diagram would be a wasted opportunity4 ,with regard to the other practices 7ii7 and 7iii73 it is obvious that these statements of the facts of the plant are useful as a part of the ,science of ,botany2 but can no more be considered as making ,decoration than ,anatomical diagrams can be looked upon as ,pictures4 ,some knowledge of external ,botany is useful to a ,pattern artist as some knowledge of external ,anatomy is useful to the ,pictorial artist4 ,in each of these cases1 the ,science1 which discovers and records facts1 is subservient to its sister1 ,art1 which uses the facts to interpret appearances2 and1 when scientific diagrams are put forth as ,art1 the ,science is in its wrong place3 it has then been treated as if it were the ,building instead of being only the ,scaffolding2 and the results of such attempts cannot be considered as complete or final4 ,examples of this method are given in ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,it was officially encouraged about twenty-five years ago2 and books like ,plants1 their ,natural ,growth and ,ornamental ,treatment1 and ,suggestions in ,floral ,design1 both by ,f4 ,edward ,hulme1 ,f4,l4,s41 etc41 show it at its best4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,in criticising this method1 there is no desire to cast any slight upon those who were responsible for it4 ,they were groping in the dark1 and did the best they knew1 according to their lights4 ,but ,japanese work was not known at that time1 and1 but for that1 the ,pattern artist of to-day might still be occupied in pinning leaves and flowers against the wall4 ,it was1 moreover1 a protest against the ,cabbage ,rose on the ,hearth rug1 that some may still remember with shuddering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 #f4--,,the ,,disguised ,,artificiality ,,treatment4 ,in this method the student was taught to sketch out what he considered to be good ,curves and ,spirals2 and then 7i7 to bend the selected plant so that its stem might coincide with them1 regardless of its own proper natural growth2 or 7ii7 to deck out the first drawn spirals with the leaves and flowers of the selected plant4 ,with regard to the first of these practices3 it is much more foolish than the ,analysis method2 and is little short of blasphemy against the ,great ,designer4 ,he has determined how each plant shall grow3 how1 within limits of cultivation1 its stems and branches shall separate1 each to seek its own share of air and sunshine2 how its leaves shall stand erect or droop1 each according to its function2 and always in perfect beauty4 ,and further3 how each family of plants shall have its own method of branching2 which is as much a part of its character and often of its beauty as are the ,flowers and ,leaves4 ,the second practice1 which generally produces a result similar to the first1 is quite as unthinking4 ,it is more often practiced2 and is responsible for many of the labored and uninteresting designs which are common4 ,if the ,pattern-artist deck-out the old worn-out and common place spirals with leaves and flowers borrowed from ,nature--the result is like the voice of ,jacob and the hands of ,esau2 it is merely a ,disguise of ,artificiality4 ,an example of this method is given in ,fig4 #c4 ,it was generally practiced in ,germany2 and books like ,das ,vegetabile ,ornamente1 by ,k4 ,krumbholz1 show it at its best4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,if this treatment were universally followed--there would soon be an end to design with natural foliage4 ,the spectator might observe one border which appeared to be a ,rose1 another a ,tulip1 the third a ,thistle1 and the fourth a ,fuchsia2 and1 on examination1 discover that these were not ,rose1 ,tulip1 ,thistle1 and ,fuchsia2 but merely that very artificial old friend--the ,spiral-scroll--in disguise4 ,an apologist for this method remarks3-- 444 ,in such matters as the ramification of plants1 444 nature is always making angles and elbows sic which we are obliged1 in decorative treatment1 to change into curves for our purpose24444 ,this opinion needs only to be applied to animals in order to exhibit its absurdity2 and with regard to plants1 it will be seen that this tampering has not even the poor merit of success4 #g4--,,note ,,on ,,symmetry4 ,a desire for ,symmetry often accompanies these two treatments4 ,this is a quality to be avoided whenever possible in ,natural foliage design4 ,the so-called ,turn-over patterns are an economy in ,weaving-design1 but the economy is of the wrong kind4 ,an artist should spend his thought to spare material or cost in working4 ,when he spares his thought--making the least amount of thought cover the greatest amount of surface--then is his work worth to the world just what it has cost him1 i4e41 very little4 ,so injurious is the influence of ,symmetry in ,natural foliage design1 that it might almost be a test question--,is the design symmetrical8 ,when the exigencies of ,machine-reproduction necessitate this with ,natural foliage--it is a hardship which the ,artist regretfully accepts1 and no one would willingly make a design for ,hand-reproduction which was symmetrical2 rather would he spend himself to insure the worthier result which ensues from ,balance4 ,an example of ,symmetry is given in ,fig4 #d2 and of ,balance in ,fig4 #e4 ,each panel contains two classes of ,elements3--,natural foliage 7i4e41 two branches of the ,bay tree71 and an ,artificial object 7i4e41 a ,ribbon which ties them74 ,the lower ,element 7i4e41 the ,ribbon7 is treated symmetrically in both panels3 the higher ,element 7i4e41 the ,branches7 are symmetrical in the former panel1 and balanced in the latter4 ,this latter treatment1 will be seen to be not only the more interesting1 but the more like the infinite variety of ,nature2 while the former is a wasted opportunity1 and contrary to ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the ,student will observe by experience that the mind soon tires of ,artificiality1 both in ,curvature and in ,symmetry2 the lines of ,nature have a pleasant freshness and inexhaustible variety2 and the ,natural method of treating ,nature is not only the most true1 but also the most beautiful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 #h4--,,realism ,,and ,,conventionalism3 ,,definitions4 ,,realism--the result of ,realistic treatment1 i4e41 the attempt to render the reproduction as like the reality as is possible1 even to the verge of deception--is the aim of the ,pictorial-,artist4 ,in ,pictures the surface appears to have been annihilated1 and the spectator beholds the scene as if there were a hole through the wall4 ,it is not the highest1 and should not be the only aim in ,art2 but it has always been sought for and admired4 ,it requires perfect conditions1 of materials and tools2 i4e41 complete ,technical appliances4 ,,conventionalism--the result of incomplete ,technical appliances1 and the attempt to render so much of the ,beauty of the original as is possible1 with due regard to their capabilities--is the aim of the ,decorative-,artist4 ,it is not the highest aim2 though a necessary curb in ,decorative-,art1 both for the technical reason1 and also as a result of the ,position or ,function of the object4 ,it will thus be seen that the two words1 when used with regard to foliage of any kind1 refer to the ,method of representing it1 and not to its ,kind or its manner of ,growth4 #i4--,,scales ,,from ,,realism ,,to ,,conventionalism4 ,these two methods1 when applied absolutely1 form the two extremes3--,the most complete ,,realism being at one end1 and the most limited ,,conventionalism at the other4 ,there are scales of gradual reduction between them1 which may be shown on two charts3 7i7 ,reduction in the ,,number ,,of ,,parts which preserve their ,realistic rendering4 7ii7 ,reduction in the ,,degree ,,of ,,realism through all parts4 7i7 ,according to the number of the features or parts of the design which are treated with less than realism4 ,thus there might be a panel representing a ,window-opening with an architectural framing1 with a ,flower-vase on the sill1 and a ,landscape-background4 ,the first part to be reduced in realistic rendering would be the ,background1 the second would be the ,framing1 leaving the third1 the ,flower-vase1 as the survival4 ,this is a ,scale of reduction in ,number of ,parts4 ,it may be shown1 in tabular arrangement1 thus3-- ,,realism4444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444,,conventionalism4 ,,complete ,,pictorial ,,realism1 in which all parts are realistically represented 7see #aj74 ,,semi-,,pictorial ,,realism1 in which the ,back-ground is reduced to a flat-tint1 while all the remaining parts are realistically represented 7see #aa74 ,,decorative ,,realism1 in which the chief ,feature 7only7 is realistically represented1 and all the other parts are reduced to conventional renderings 7see #ab74 ,,complete ,,conventionalism1 in which all parts are reduced to conventional renderings 7see ,conventionalism74 ,inasmuch as there is some realistic part remaining in each of the first three methods--these are classified under the heading of ,,realism4 7ii7 ,according to the ,degree in which color1 gradation1 or shading1 is sacrificed1 in consequence of the limited ,means at the disposal of the ,artist2 resulting in the gradual departure from ,realism to the most severe ,conventionalism4 ,the reduction is applied to all parts of the work4 ,this is a scale of reduction in ,degree4 ,there are two ,varieties in each degree2 and they are marked with italic letters4 ,it may be shown1 in tabular arrangement1 thus3-- ,,realism4444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444,,conventionalism4 ,,complete ,,realism1 in which all parts are represented1 in proper colors1 and perfect gradation1 with correct light and shade 7see #aj74 ,,first ,,degree ,,of ,,conventionalism1 in which all parts are represented3 7a7 ,by a reduced number of ,pigments1 the other qualities remaining2 7b7 ,by reduction in gradation and shading to ,flat-tints of several pigments 7see #ae74 ,,second ,,degree ,,of ,,conventionalism1 in which all parts are represented3 7c7 ,by a reduction to ,monochrome of color1 with ,gradation 7only7 remaining2 7d7 ,by reduction to ,monochrome of ,white and ,black1 with ,gradation 7only7 remaining 7see #af74 ,,third ,,degree ,,of ,,conventionalism1 in which all parts are represented3 7e7 ,by reduction to a ,flat-tint of one pigment on a ground of another2 7f7 ,by reduction to a ,flat-tint of ,white on ,black1 or vice versa 7see #ag74 ,,ultimate ,,conventionalism1 in which all parts are represented2 7g7 ,by reduction to ,outline of several pigments2 7h7 ,reduction to ,outline of one pigment 7see #ah74 ,inasmuch as ,realism ceases so soon as any reduction in the three qualities 7of color1 gradation1 and shadow7 is introduced2 and the treatment becomes more ,conventional in each method after the first--these are classified under the heading of ,,conventionalism4 ,there is an analogous scale of reduction in ,form1 from the ,complete-relief of an isolated ,statue to the ,flatness of a ,floor-plate2 but this does not belong to the present subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cyclostat4 ,the various processes commonly employed for the observation of bodies in motion 7intermittent light or vision7 greatly fatigue the observer1 and1 as a general thing1 give only images1 that are difficult to examine4 ,we are going to show how ,prof4 ,marc ,thury1 upon making researches in a new direction1 has succeeded in constructing an apparatus that permits of the continuous observation of a body having a rapid rotary motion4 ,the principle of the method is of extreme simplicity4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #a1 #b1 ,,and #c4--;,,diagrams ,,explanatory ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,cyclostat4 ,let us consider 7,fig4 #a7 a mirror1 ,a ,b1 reflecting an object1 ,c ,d1 and revolving around it3 when the mirror will have made a half revolution1 the image1 ,c' ,d'1 of the object will have made an entire one4 ,the figure represents three successive positions of the mirror1 distant by an eighth of a revolution4 ,the structure of the image shows that it has made a quarter revolution in an opposite direction in each of its positions4 ,but if 7,fig4 #b7 the body itself has revolved in the same direction with an angular velocity double that of the mirror1 its image will have described a circle in remaining constantly parallel with itself4 ,the image will be just as insensible as the object itself2 but it is very easy to bring it back to a state of rest4 ,let us suppose 7,fig4 #c;a7 the observer placed at ,o1 the revolving object at ,t1 the axis of rotation being this time the line ,o ,f4 ,let us place a mirror at ,a ,b and cause it to revolve around the same axis2 but1 instead of looking at the image directly in the mirror1 let us receive it1 before and after its reflection upon ,a ,b1 upon two mirrors1 ,c ,d and ,d ,e1 inclined #cj upon the axis of rotation of the system2 the image1 instead of being observed directly in the mirror1 ,a ,b1 will always be seen in the axis1 ,o ,f1 and will consequently appear immovable4 ,the same result may be obtained 7,fig4 #c;b7 with a rectangular isosceles prism whose face1 ,a ,b1 serves as a mirror1 while the faces1 ,a ,c and ,b ,d1 break the ray--the first deflecting it from the axis to throw it on the mirror1 and the second throwing it back to the axis of rotation1 which is at the same time the line of direction of the sight4 ,the principle of the instrument1 then1 consists in causing the revolution1 around the axis of rotation of the object to be observed1 of a mirror parallel with such axis1 and in observing it in the axis itself after sending the image to it by two reflections or two refractions4 ,in reality1 the entire instrument is contained in the small prism above1 properly mounted upon a wheel that may be revolved at will2 and1 in this form1 it may serve1 for example1 to determine the rotary velocity of an inaccessible axis4 ,for this it will suffice to modify its velocity until the axis appears to be at rest1 and to apply the revolution counter to the wheel upon which the prism is mounted1 or to another wheel controlling the mechanism4 ,but ,mr4 ,thury has constructed a completer apparatus1 the cyclostat 7,fig4 #d71 which1 opposite the prism1 has a second plate whose actuating wheel is mounted upon the same axis as the first1 the gearing being so calculated that the prism shall revolve with twice less velocity than the second plate4 ,this latter1 observed through the prism1 will be always seen at rest1 and be able to serve as a support for the object that it is desired to examine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,the ,,cyclostat4 #a4 ,general view of the apparatus4 #b4 ,section of the ocular1 ,o4 ,the applications are multitudinous4 ,in the first place1 in certain difficult cases1 it may serve for the observation of a swinging thermometer1 which is then read during its motion4 ,then it may be employed for the continuous observation of a body submitted to centrifugal force4 ,apropos of this1 we desire to add a few words4 ,most of the forces at our disposal1 applied to a body1 are transmitted from molecule to molecule1 and produce tension1 crushing1 etc4 ,gravity and magnetic attraction form an exception2 their point of application is found in all the molecules of the body1 and they produce pressures and slidings of a peculiar kind4 ,but these forces are of a very limited magnitude2 but it might nevertheless be of great interest to amplify them in a strong measure4 ,let us1 for example1 suppose that a magician has found a means of increasing the intensity of gravity tenfold in his laboratory4 ,all the conditions of life would be modified to the extent of being unrecognizable4 ,a living being borne in this space would remain small and squat4 ,all objects would be stocky and be spread out in width or else be shattered4 ,viscid or semi-solid bodies1 such as pitch1 would rapidly spread out and take on a surface as plane and smooth as water under the conditions of gravity upon the earth4 ,on still further increasing the gravity1 we would see the soft metals behaving in the same way1 and lead1 copper and silver would in turn flow away4 ,these metals1 in fact1 are perfectly moulded under a strong pressure1 just like liquids1 through the simple effect of the attraction of the earth applied to all their molecules4 ,upon causing an adequate attractive force to act upon the molecules of metals they will be placed under conditions analogous to those to which they are submitted in strong presses or in the mills that serve for coining money4 ,the sole difference consists in the fact that the action of gravity is infinitely more regular1 and purer1 from a physical standpoint1 than that of the press or coining mill4 ,through very simple considerations1 we thus reach the principle which was enunciated1 we believe1 by the illustrious ,stokes1 that our idea of solid and liquid bodies is a necessary consequence of the intensity of gravity upon the earth4 ,upon a larger or smaller planet1 a certain number of solid bodies would pass to a liquid state1 or inversely4 ,let us return to the cyclostat4 ,in default of gravity1 centrifugal force gives us a means of realizing certain conditions that we would find in the laboratory of our magician4 ,the cyclostat permits us to observe what is going on in that laboratory without submitting ourselves to forces that might cause us great annoyance4 ,we have hitherto been content to put poor frogs therein and study upon them the effect of the central anmia and peripheral congestion produced on their organism by the unrestrained motion of the liquids carried along by centrifugal force4 ,the results1 it seems1 have proved very curious4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mercury ,,weighing ,,machine4 ,we illustrate herewith a novel type of weighing machine4 ,hitherto the weighing machines in common use have either been designed with some kind of steelyard apparatus1 upon which weights could be moved to different distances from a fixed fulcrum1 or springs have been so applied as to be compressed to different degrees by different weights put upon the scale pan1 or table1 of the machine4 ,in other instances more complicated mechanism is used1 and various movable counterpoises are usually required in order to balance the moving parts of the machine4 ,illustration ,the type of machine which we now illustrate has been recently brought out by ,mr4 ,g4,e4 ,rutter1 and the system has given very satisfactory results with platform weighing machines4 ,the engraving illustrates a form of balance which may be applied to strength testing machines1 or for any work where an apparatus of the type of a ,salter's balance would be of use4 ,it is simple in construction1 and consists of a tube ,a closed at the bottom and forming a reservoir for mercury4 ,the body which it is required to weigh is hung upon the hook ,b carried by the crossbar ,c1 which is connected by rigid rods to the upper part of the tube1 and by means of the internal rods ,d is attached to the cross head ,e1 which works freely inside the tube ,a4 ,the top part of the tube is1 as will be clearly understood from the illustration1 cut away to allow of the descent of the rods4 ,to the cross head ,e is attached the piston ,f1 which may be made of wood or of a hollow metal tube closed at the end1 or other suitable material4 ,it will be easily understood that when a weight is hung upon the hook ,b1 the piston ,f is caused to descend into the mercury which rises in the annular space between the piston and the tube4 ,the weight of the volume of displaced mercury is proportional to the weight of the body hung upon the hook1 and the buoyancy of the piston in the mercury forms the upward force which balances the downward pull of gravity4 ,when the apparatus is at rest the piston ,f descends into the mercury to such a distance as will balance the weight of the rods1 hook1 and piston itself4 ,if1 now1 the cross bar ,g1 provided with a pointer ,h1 be fixed to the rods1 it should at that time register zero1 upon the scale ,j fixed to the outside of the tube1 and as the descent of the piston into the mercury is directly proportional to the weight of the body attached to the hook ,b1 the divisions of the scale will all be equal4 ,it will thus be seen that the apparatus is extremely simple in theory1 and it only remains to construct it in such a form that the mercury may not easily be spilt in moving the instrument from place to place4 ,this is effected by causing the cross head ,e to fill the tube while working freely therein1 and a small valve is arranged to allow for the passage of air4 ,the cross bar ,g can be regulated upon the rods by means of set screws4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,reefing ,,sails ,,from ,,the ,,deck4 ,while this method may be applied to topsails and top-gallant-sails1 ,i especially apply it to courses1 which1 being so difficult to reef the old way1 may by this method be reefed from the deck in a few minutes4 ,after several years of trial by myself and others1 on voyages around ,cape ,horn under all circumstances of weather1 of sleet and snow1 this method has always given the utmost satisfaction4 ,illustration3 ,,reefing ,,sails ,,from ,,the ,,deck4 ,front ,view4 ,rear ,view4 ,the average time required for reefing and setting was noted for five years1 being seven and one-half minutes4 ,this trial was made on a mainsail1 the yard being seventy-one feet long1 and reefyard sixty-six feet long1 eleven inches diameter at center and nine at yard-arms4 ,by reference to the drawing it will be seen that it is not necessary to have clewgarnets or buntlines in reefing4 ,the operation is performed by easing of the sheet and hauling the lee reef-tackle first1 also the midship reef tackle4 ,when the yardarm of the reefspar is up at the lee side1 the sail cannot sag to leeward when the tack is eased away4 ,now haul the weather reef-tackle likewise midship1 snug up to the yard1 belay all down the tack1 and sheet aft4 ,as all the reef-tackles lead to the slings of the yard1 there is no impediment in swinging the yard when the reef-tackles are taut and belayed4 ,the slack sail will not chafe1 as it remains quiet1 but if so desired may be stopped up at leisure with only a few hands with stops provided for that purpose4 ,in case of a sudden squall the sail may be hauled up the usual way4 ,the buntlines will draw the part of the sail below the reef well up on the part above the reefyard1 and remain becalmed1 while the weight of the reefspar will prevent any slatting or danger of losing the sail any more than any other sail clewed up4 ,in case there is steam power at hand1 all three reef-tackles may be hauled simultaneously1 easing sheet and tack sufficiently to let the wind out of the sail without shaking4 ,there are other advantages gained by this method2 while its essentials are positive1 quick reefing from the deck in all weathers1 it is also better reefed than by the old method4 ,for by this new method the sail is not strained or torn1 and the sail will wear longer1 not being subject to such straining4 ,it may be carried longer1 as the spar supports the sail like a band1 especially an old sail4 ,this method does not interfere with the use of the so called midship-tack1 but change of putting on bands1 from the leech of the sail at the reef to the center tack would be necessary4 ,the weight of the spar may be considered by some as objectionable1 7an old argument against double-topsail yards74 ,the spar used for the reef may be about one-half the diameter of the yard on which it is to be used4 ,such critics do not consider that a crew of men aloft on the yard are several times heavier than such a spar4 ,l4,k4 ,,morse4 ,rockport1 ,me41 ,oct4 #bh1 #ahia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,bleaching ,,of ,,jute4 ,by ,messrs4 ,,leykam and ,,tosefothal4 ,jute is well known as a very cheap fiber1 and its employment in textile industry is consequently both extensive and always increasing4 ,accompanying this increase is a corresponding one in the amount of old waste jute1 which can be employed for the manufacture of paper4 ,up to the present time1 only very little use has been made of jute for the manufacture of thread and the finer fabrics1 because the difficulty of bleaching the fiber satisfactorily has proved a very serious hindrance to its improvement by chemical means4 ,all the methods hitherto proposed for bleaching jute are so costly that they can scarcely be made to pay2 and1 moreover1 in many cases1 the jute is scarcely bleached1 and loses considerably in firmness and weight1 owing to the large quantities of bleaching agents which have to be applied4 ,in consequence of this difficulty1 the enormous quantities of jute scraps1 which are always available1 are utilized in paper making almost entirely for the production of ordinary wrapping paper1 which is1 at the best1 of medium quality4 ,in the well known work of ,hoffmann and ,muller1 the authors refer to the great difficulty of bleaching jute1 and therefore recommend that it be not used for making white papers4 ,messrs4 ,leykam and ,tosefothal have succeeded in bleaching it1 and rendering the fiber perfectly white1 by a new process1 simple and cheap 7which we describe below71 so that their method can be very advantageously employed in the paper industry4 ,the jute fiber only loses very little of its original firmness and weight2 but1 on the other hand1 gains largely in pliability and elasticity1 so that the paper made from it is of great strength1 and not only resists tearing1 but especially crumpling and breaking4 ,the jute may be submitted to the process in any form whatever1 either crude1 in scraps1 or as thread or tissue4 ,the material to be bleached is first treated with gaseous chlorine or chlorine water1 in order to attack the jute pigment1 which is very difficult to bleach1 until it takes an orange shade4 ,after having removed the acids1 etc41 formed by this treatment1 the jute is placed in a weak alkaline bath1 cold or hot1 of caustic soda1 caustic potash1 caustic ammonia1 quicklime1 sodium or potassium carbonate1 etc41 or a mixture of several of these substances1 which converts the greatest part of the jute pigment1 already altered by the chlorine1 into a form easily soluble in water1 so that the pigment can be readily removed by a washing with water4 ,after this washing the jute can be bleached as easily as any other vegetable fiber in the ordinary manner1 by means of bleaching powder1 etc41 and an excellent fibrous material is obtained1 which can be made use of with advantage in the textile and paper industries4 ,the application of the process may be illustrated by an example3 ,one hundred kilos4 of waste jute scraps are first of all treated in the manner usually employed in the paper industry2 #ae per cent4 of quicklime is added1 and they are treated for #aj hours at a pressure of #a atmospheres4 ,the scraps are then freed from water by means of a hydro-extractor1 or a press1 and finally saturated with chlorine in a gas chamber for #bd hours or less1 according to the requirements of the case4 ,every #ajj kilos4 of jute requires #ge kilos4 of hydrochloric acid 7#bj ,b47 and #bj kilos4 of manganese peroxide 7#gh-hj per cent474 ,the jute then takes an orange color1 and is subsequently washed in a tank1 a kilo4 of caustic soda being added per #ajj kilos4 of jute2 this amount of alkali is sufficient to dissolve the pigment1 which colors the water flowing from the washer a deep brown4 ,after washing1 the jute can be completely bleached by the use of #e-g kilos4 of bleaching powder per #ajj kilos4 of jute4--,mon4 de la ,teinture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,independent--,,storage ,,or ,,primary ,,battery--,,system ,,of ,,electric ,,motive ,,power4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of a paper read before the ,american ,streel ,railway ,association1 ,oct4 #bc1 #ahia4 ,by ,,knight ,,neftel4 ,owing to a variety of causes1 the system which was assigned to me at the last convention to report on has made less material progress in a commercial way than its competitors4 ,,primary ,,batteries4 ,so far1 primary batteries have been applied only to the operation of the smallest stationary motors4 ,their application in the near future to traction may1 ,i think1 be entirely disregarded4 ,were it not a purely technical matter1 it might be easily demonstrated1 with our knowledge of electro-chemistry1 that such an arrangement as an electric primary battery driving a car is an impossibility4 ,in view of the claims of certain inventors1 ,i regret to be obliged to make so absolute a statement2 but the results so far have produced nothing of value4 ,,secondary ,,batteries4 ,the application of secondary or storage batteries to electrical traction has been accomplished in a number of cities1 with a varying amount of success4 ,roads equipped by batteries have now been sufficiently long in operation to allow us to draw some conclusions as to the practical results obtained and what is possible in the near future4 ,the advantages which have been demonstrated on ,madison ,avenue1 in ,new ,york2 ,dubuque1 ,iowa2 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 and elsewhere1 may be summarized as follows3 ,first4 ,the independent feature of the system4 ,the cars independent of each other1 and free from drawbacks of broken trolley wires2 temporary stoppages at the power station2 the grounding of one motor affecting other motors1 and sudden and severe strains upon the machinery at the power station1 such as frequently occur in direct systems2 the absence of all street structures and repairs to the same1 and the loss by grounds and leakages1 are also very considerable advantages1 both as to economy and satisfactory operation4 ,second4 ,the comparatively small space required for the power station4 ,each car being provided with two or more sets of batteries1 the same can be charged at a uniform rate without undue strain on the machinery of the power station1 and as it can be done more rapidly than the discharge required for the operation of the motors1 a less amount of general machinery is necessary for a given amount of work4 ,another and important advantage of the system is the low pressure of the current used to supply the motors1 and the consequent increased durability of the motor1 and practically absolute safety to life from electrical shock4 ,it has been demonstrated also that the cars can be easily handled in the street2 run at any desired speed1 and reversed with far more safety to the armature of the motor than in the direct system4 ,the increased weight requires simply more brake leverage4 ,the modern battery1 improved in many of its details during the last year1 is still an unknown quantity as to durability4 ,there is the same doubt concerning this as there was at the time incandescent lamps were first introduced4 ,at that time some phenomenal records were made by lamps grouped with other lamps4 ,similarly1 some plates appeared to be almost indestructible1 while others1 made practically in the same manner1 deteriorate within a very short time4 ,it is1 consequently1 very difficult to exactly and fairly place a limit on the life of the positive plates as yet4 ,speaking simply from observation of a large number of plates of various kinds1 ,i am inclined to put the limit at about eight months2 though it is claimed by some of the more prominent manufacturers--and undoubtedly it is true in special cases--that entire elements have lasted ten months1 and even longer4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the jolting and handling to which these batteries are subjected1 in traction work1 increases the tendency to disintegrate1 buckle and short circuit1 and that the record for durability for this application can never be the same as for stationary work4 ,a serious inconvenience to the use of batteries in traction work is the necessary presence of the liquid in the jars4 ,this causes the whole equipment to be somewhat cumbersome1 and unless arranged with great care1 and with a variety of devices lately designed1 a source of considerable annoyance4 ,the connections between the plates1 which formerly gave so much trouble by breaking off1 have been perfected so as to prevent this difficulty1 and the shape of the jars has been designed to prevent the spilling of the acid while the car is running4 ,the car seats are now practically hermetically sealed1 so that the escaping gases are not offensive to the passengers4 ,the handling of the batteries is an exceedingly important consideration4 ,many devices have been invented to render this easy and cheap4 ,i have witnessed the changing of batteries in a car1 one set being taken out and a charged set replaced by four men in the short space of three minutes4 ,this is accomplished by electrical elevators1 which move the batteries opposite the car1 and upon the platforms of which the discharged elements are again charged4 ,the general conclusions which the year's experience and progress have afforded us an opportunity to make may be summarized as follows3 ,storage battery cars are as yet applicable only to those roads which are practically level2 where the direct system cannot be used1 and where cable traction cannot be used2 and applicable to those roads only at about the same cost as horse traction4 ,i feel justified in making this statement in view of the guarantees which some of the more prominent manufacturers of batteries are willing to enter into1 and which practically insure the customer against loss due to the deterioration of plates3 leaving the question of the responsibility of the company the only one for him to look into4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,elimination ,,of ,,sulphur ,,from ,,pig ,,iron4#a ,footnote #a3 ,paper read before the ,iron and ,steel ,institute4 ,by ,j4 ,,massenez1 ,hoerde4 ,if in the acid and the basic ,bessemer processes the molten pig iron is taken direct to the converter from the blast furnace1 there is the disadvantage that the running of the individual blast furnaces can hardly ever be kept so uniform as it is desirable should be the case in order to secure regularity in the converter charges4 ,in the manufacture of ,bessemer steel the variable proportions of silicon and of carbon here come chiefly under consideration1 while in the basic process it is chiefly the varying proportions of silicon and of sulphur2 and in cases where either ores containing variable percentages of phosphorus1 or puddle slags1 are treated1 the varying proportion of phosphorus has also to be considered4 ,this disadvantage of the irregular composition of the individual blast furnace charges is obviated in a simple and effective manner by ,w4,r4 ,jones's mixing process4 ,in this as much pig iron from the various blast furnaces of a works as is sufficient for a large number of ,bessemer charges1 say from seven to twelve charges1 or1 in other words1 from #gj to #abj tons of pig iron1 is placed in a mixing vessel4 ,only a portion of pig iron placed in the mixer is taken for further treatment for steel1 while new supplies of pig iron are brought from the blast furnace4 ,in this way homogeneity sufficient for practical purposes is obtained4 ,in the treatment of phosphoric pig iron1 which is employed in the production of basic steel1 it is1 however1 not sufficient merely to conduct the molten pig iron in large quantities to the converter in a mixed condition1 but the problem here is to render the proportion of sulphur also independent of the blast furnace process to such an extent that the proportion of sulphur in the finished steel is so low that the quality of the steel is in no way influenced by it4 ,the question of desulphurization has1 especially of late years1 become of the utmost importance1 at any rate for the iron industry of the ,continent4 ,by the great strike of #ahhi1 the ,german colliers have succeeded in greatly improving their wages2 and with this increase in wages not only is there a distinct diminution in the amount of coal wrought1 but1 unfortunately1 the coal produced since then is raised in a much less pure condition than was formerly the case4 ,consequently the proportion of sulphur in the coke has considerably increased4 ,whereas formerly this proportion did not exceed one per cent41 it has now in many cases risen to #ah per cent42 so that an unpleasant ratio exists between the wages of the workmen and the amount of sulphur in the coal raised4 ,it is therefore not remarkable that1 even when ores fairly free from sulphur are treated1 it easily happens that a sulphureted pig iron is obtained4 ,in order to effect satisfactory desulphurization1 attention has been bestowed on the fact that iron sulphide is converted by manganese into manganese sulphide and iron4 ,if sulphureted pig iron1 poor in manganese1 is added in a fluid condition to manganiferous molten pig iron1 poor in sulphur1 the metal is desulphurized1 and a manganese sulphide slag is formed4 ,it may be urged that it does not seem necessary to effect the desulphurization by means of the reaction of the manganese and iron sulphide outside of the blast furnace1 as it is possible1 by suitably directing the blast furnace1 by the employment of manganiferous ores or highly basic slag1 so to desulphurize the iron in the blast furnace itself that it would be unnecessary further to lower the percentage of sulphur4 ,every blast furnace manager1 however1 will have observed that1 even with every precaution in the blast furnace practice1 pig iron will often be obtained with so high a percentage of sulphur as to render it useless for the ,bessemer acid or basic processes4 ,if the desulphurization in the blast furnace is carried sufficiently far1 it is always necessary to work the furnace hot1 and thus to obtain hotter iron than is desirable for further treatment in the converter4 ,on the other hand1 the method of further desulphurization outside the blast furnace1 described in this paper1 presents the double advantage that part of the blast furnace can be kept cooler1 and thus lime and coke be saved1 and that there is a certainty that no red-short charges are obtained in the treatment in the converter1 while the pig iron passes to the converter at a suitable temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #a through #e ,a further advantage presented by the direct process described in this paper is that the ,bessemer works is independent of the time at which the individual blast furnaces are tapped1 as the pig iron required for the ,bessemer process can be taken at any moment from the desulphurizing plant4 ,in ,hoerde1 where the mixing and desulphurizing process has for a considerable time been regularly in use1 it has been found that all the chief difficulties formerly encountered in the method of taking the fluid pig iron direct from the various blast furnaces to the converter have been obviated4 ,at ,hoerde the mixing and desulphurizing plant shown in the accompanying engravings is employed4 ,this apparatus holds #gj tons of pig iron4 ,it is1 however1 advisable to have an apparatus of greater capacity1 say #abj tons4 ,the apparatus has the shape of a converter1 and the hydraulic machinery by which it is moved is simple and effective4 ,an hydraulic pressure of eight atmospheres is sufficient to set it in motion4 ,the vessel is provided with a double lining of firebricks of the same quality as those used for the lining of blast furnaces4 ,this lining is gradually attacked only along the slag line1 and does not require repair until it has been in use for some six weeks4 ,further repairs are then necessary every three weeks4 ,only the few courses of spoilt bricks are renewed1 and for the repairs1 including the cooling of the vessel1 a period of two or three days is required4 ,at the end of the week the vessel is kept filled1 so that its contents suffice for the last charge to be blown on ,saturday4 ,on ,sunday night the vessel is again filled4 ,the consumption of manganese is very low2 theoretically1 it is the quantity required for the formation of manganese sulphide1 and in practice it has been found that this amounts to about #j4b per cent4 ,the proportion of manganese which the desulphurized pig iron coming from the vessel should contain is best kept at about #a4e per cent4 in order to render the desulphurization as complete as possible4 ,thus1 a mean proportion of #a4g per cent4 of manganese in the pig iron passing into the vessel is more than sufficient to effect a thorough desulphurization4 ,indeed1 #a to #a4b per cent4 of manganese is sufficient to effect a satisfactory desulphurization4 ,for the extent of the removal of the sulphur1 the temperature and the duration of the reaction are of importance4 ,it has been found that if highly sulphureted pig iron is poured from the blast furnace into the desulphurizing vessel1 fifteen to twenty minutes are sufficient to effect the desulphurization requisite for the steel process4 ,the part played by the duration of the process is seen from the results obtained with the last charges1 if the vessel is emptied at the end of the week without fresh pig iron being added from the blast furnace4 ,if1 for example1 #fj tons of pig iron with #j4jfe per cent4 of sulphur remain in the vessel1 the proportion of sulphur with the last charges falls to #j4jc per cent4 ,the iron in the vessel remains sufficiently fluid for several hours4 ,when necessary1 a little wood is thrown in4 ,it has been found quite unnecessary to obtain heat by passing and burning a current of gas above the bath of metal4 ,a number of results1 showing the separation of sulphur at the ,hoerde ,works1 was published a few months ago#b by ,professor ,p4 ,tunner1 one of our honorary members4 ,footnote #b3 ,oesterreichische ,zeitschrift fur ,berg und ,huttenwesen1 #ahia1 ,no4 #ai4 ,the totals represent1 respectively1 #ach1ejj kilogrammes of pig iron and #ih1fed kilogrammes of sulphur4 ,thus1 from #ach1ejj kilogrammes of pig iron there has been eliminated #agi1egg-ih1fed #hj1ibc kilogrammes of sulphur1 or1 in other words1 #de4jfc per cent4 ,the proportion of sulphur in the slags rises with that in the iron from the blast furnace to #ag per cent41 an inappreciable portion of the sulphur of the slag being oxidized to sulphurous anhydride by access of air4 ,an analysis of the slag yielded the following results3 ,per cent4 ,sulphur #ag4jg ,manganese #cj4ca ,phosphoric anhydride #j4fa ,iron #g4ac ,bases #ce4jd ,an analysis of an average sample gave3 ,per cent4 ,manganese sulphide #bh4ja ,manganous oxide #bj4bc ,ferrous oxide #be4df ,silica #ah4ij ,alumina #e4jj ,lime #c4ec ,magnesia #j4dc ,the great convenience and certainty presented by the method described in this paper will in all probability lead to its general adoption4 ,as a matter of fact1 several works are now occupied with the installation of this mixing and desulphurizing plant4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,occurrence ,,of ,,tin ,,in ,,canned ,,food4 ,by ,h4,a4 ,,weber1 ,ph4,d4 ,the following investigation of the condition of foods packed in tin cans was prompted by an alleged case of poisoning1 which occurred at ,mansfield1 ,ohio1 in ,april1 #ahij4 ,a man and woman were reported to the writer as having been made sick by eating pumpkin pie made from canned pumpkin4 ,the attending physician pronounced the case one of lead poisoning4 ,the wholesale dealer from whose stock the canned pumpkin originally came1 procured a portion of the same at the house where the poisoning occurred1 and sent it to the writer for examination4 ,the results of the examination as reported in ,serial ,no4 #eeb1 below1 showed that the canned pumpkin contained an amount of stannous salts equivalent to #f4d maximum doses and #ea4d minimum doses of stannous chloride per pound4 ,on being notified of this fact1 the dealer sent a can of the same brand of pumpkin from his stock4 ,the inner coating of the can was found to be badly eroded1 and upon examination1 as reported in ,serial ,no4 #efc1 below1 one pound of the pumpkin contained tin salts equivalent to #g maximum and #ef minimum doses of stannous chloride4 ,the unexpected large amount of tin salts in such an insipid article as canned pumpkin1 and the claimed ill effects of the consumption of the same1 suggested the advisability of extending the investigation to other canned goods in common use4 ,accordingly a line of articles was purchased in open market as sold to consumers1 no pains being taken to procure old samples4 ,the collection embraced fruits1 vegetables1 fish and condensed milk4 ,with the exception of the condensed milk1 every article examined was contaminated with salts of tin4 ,in most cases the amount of tin salts present was so large that there can be no doubt of danger to health from the consumption of the food1 especially if several kinds are consumed at the same meal4 ,,method4 ,the method employed in the determination of the tin was simply as follows3 ,the contents of each can were emptied into a large porcelain dish1 and the condition of the inner coating of the can noted4 ,after thoroughly mixing the contents1 fifty grammes were weighed off and incinerated in a porcelain dish of suitable size4 ,the residue was treated with a large excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid1 evaporated to dryness1 moistened with hydrochloric acid1 water was added1 and the mass was filtered and washed1 the insoluble matter being all washed upon the filter4 ,after drying the filter with its contents1 the whole was again incinerated in a porcelain dish and the residue treated as before4 ,the solution thus obtained was properly diluted and saturated with hydrogen sulphide4 ,after standing about twelve hours in a covered beaker the precipitate was filtered off and the tin weighed as stannic oxide4 ,,results ,,of ,,examination4 ,serial ,no4 #eeb4--,sample of canned pumpkin1 received of ,f4,a4 ,derthick1 ,april #bb1 #ahij1 sent by ,albert ,f4 ,remy ,co41 ,mansfield1 ,ohio4 ,pie made from it supposed to have made a man and woman sick4 ,the attending physician pronounced the case one of lead poisoning4 ,per cent4 ,tin dioxide with trace of lead #j4jdbd ,grains per pound #b4ig ,equivalent to stannous chloride #c4gd ,minimum doses #ea4d ,maximum doses #f4d ,serial ,no4 #efc4--,sample of canned pumpkin1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,june #bg1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,choice ,pie ,pumpkin1 packed at ,salem1 ,columbiana ,county1 ,ohio1 by ,g4,b4 ,mc,nabb1 sent by ,a4,f4 ,remy ,co41 ,mansfield1 ,ohio4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jddd ,grains per pound #c4aa ,equivalent to stannous chloride #c4ia ,minimum doses #ef ,maximum doses #g ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #efe4--,sample of canned pumpkin1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,belpre ,pumpkin1 ,golden4 ,george ,dana ,sons1 ,belpre1 ,ohio4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jjed ,grains per pound #j4ch ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4dh ,minimum doses #g4g ,maximum doses #a4j ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #eff4--,sample of canned ,hubbard ,squash1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,ladd ,brand1 ,l4 ,ladd1 ,adrian1 ,michigan4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jbf ,grains per pound #a4he ,equivalent to stannous chloride #b4cc ,minimum doses #cg4jj ,maximum doses #d4g ,can badly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #efg4--,sample of canned tomatoes1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,extra ,fine ,tomatoes4 ,blue ,label4 ,curtice ,bros4 ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jab ,grains per pound #j4hd ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4jf ,minimum doses #af4jj ,maximum doses #b4jj ,inner coating eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #efh4--,sample of canned tomatoes1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,fresh ,tomatoes1 ,curtice ,bros4 ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jad ,grains per pound #j4ih ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4bc ,minimum doses #ai4jj ,maximum doses #b4e ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #efi4--,sample of canned peas1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,petites ,pois1 ,p4 ,emillien1 ,bordeaux4 ,per ,cent4 ,copper oxide #j4jbid ,grains per pound #b4jf ,equivalent to copper sulphate #c4ie ,tin dioxide #j4jjfh ,grains per pound #j4dh ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4f ,minimum doses #i4f ,maximum doses #a4b ,no visible erosion4 ,serial ,no4 #egj4--,sample of canned mushroom1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled ,champignons de ,choix4 ,boston fils4 ,paris4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jb ,grains per pound #a4dj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4gf ,minimum doses #bh4jj ,maximum doses #c4ej ,inner coating highly discolored4 ,serial ,no4 #ega4--,sample of canned blackberries1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,lawton ,blackberries4 ,curtice ,bros4 ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jaad ,grains per pound #j4hj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4ja ,minimum doses #af4jj ,maximum doses #b4jj ,inner coating eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #egb4--,sample of canned blueberries1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure1 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,blueberries4 ,eagle ,brand1 packed by ,a4 ,r4 ,loggie1 ,black ,brook1 ,n4,b4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jc ,grains per pound #b4aj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #b4fd ,minimum doses #db4jj ,maximum doses #e4cj ,can badly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #egd4--,sample of canned salmon1 bought of ,t4,b4 ,vaure4 ,july #aa1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,best ,fresh ,columbia ,river ,salmon1 ,eagle ,canning ,co41 ,astoria ,clatsop ,co41 ,oregon4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jacd ,grains per pound #j4id ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4ah ,minimum doses #ah4ij ,maximum doses #b4cj ,inner coating eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #egh4--,sample of canned pears1 received of ,mr4 ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,bartlett ,pears4 ,solan's ,brand1 packed in ,solano ,co41 ,california4 ,juice4 ,fruit4 ,per ,ct4 ,per ,ct4 ,tin dioxide #j4jjgd #j4jjgd ,grains per pound #j4eahj #j4eahj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4fe #j4fe ,minimum doses #aj4dj #aj4dj ,maximum doses #a4cj #a4cj ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #egi4--,sample of canned peaches1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi4 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,peaches1 ,wm4 ,maxwell1 ,baltimore1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,juice4 ,fruit4 ,per ,ct4 ,per ,ct4 ,tin dioxide #j4jcbd #j4jdad ,grains per pound #b4bfhj #b4hihj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #b4he #c4fe ,minimum doses #de4fj #eh4dj ,maximum doses #e4gj #g4cj ,can badly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehj4--,sample of canned blackberries1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,blackberries1 ,clipper ,brand1 ,wm4 ,munson ,sons1 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jf ,grains per pound #d4bj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #e4bh ,minimum doses #hd4jj ,maximum doses #aj4fj ,can badly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #eha4--,sample of canned cherries1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,red ,cherries1 ,cloverdale ,brand1 ,g4,c4 ,mournaw ,co41 ,cloverdale1 ,va4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jdad ,grains per pound #b4hihj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #c4fe ,minimum doses #eh4dj ,maximum doses #g4cj ,can badly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehb4--,sample of canned pumpkin1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,royal ,pumpkin1 ,urbana ,canning ,co41 ,urbana1 ,o4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jahd ,grains per pound #a4biij ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4fb ,minimum doses #be4ij ,maximum doses4 #c4bj ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehc4--,sample of canned baked sweet potatoes1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,tennessee ,baked ,sweet ,potatoes1 ,capital ,canning ,co41 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jacb ,grains per pound #j4ib ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4af ,minimum doses #ah4ej ,maximum doses #b4cj ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehd4--,sample of canned peas1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,marrowfat ,peas1 ,parson ,bros41 ,aberdeen1 ,maryland4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jjdd ,grains per pound #j4cj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4ch ,minimum doses #f4bj ,maximum doses #j4hj ,can slightly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehe4--,sample of string beans1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,string ,beans4 ,packed by ,h4,p4 ,hemingway ,co41 ,baltimore ,city1 ,md4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jaed ,grains per pound #a4jh ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4cf ,minimum doses #ba4gj ,maximum doses #b4gj ,can eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehf4--,sample of canned salmon1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,puget ,sound ,fresh ,salmon1 ,puget ,sound ,salmon ,co41 ,w4,t4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jjdd ,grains per pound #j4cj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4ch ,minimum doses #j4bj ,maximum doses #j4hj ,can slightly eroded4 ,serial ,no4 #ehg4--,sample of condensed milk1 received of ,edward ,bethel1 ,july #bi1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,borden's ,condensed ,milk4 ,the ,gail ,borden ,eagle ,brand1 ,new ,york ,condensed ,milk ,co41 #ga ,hudson ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,tin dioxide none4 ,no visible erosion4 ,serial ,no4 #eib4--,sample of canned pineapples1 bought of ,mr4 ,brown1 ,fifth ,avenue1 ,august #d1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,pineapples1 ,first ,quality4 ,packed by ,martin ,wagner ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jjih ,grains per pound #j4fhfj ,equivalent to stannous chloride #j4hfdj ,minimum doses #ac4f ,maximum doses #a4g ,can eroded ,serial ,no4 #eic4--,sample of canned pineapples1 bought of ,mr4 ,brown1 ,fifth ,avenue1 ,august #d1 #ahij4 ,labeled3 ,florida ,pineapple1 ,oval ,brand4 ,extra ,quality4 ,a ,booth ,packing ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,per ,cent4 ,tin dioxide #j4jaeh ,grains per pound #a4aa ,equivalent to stannous chloride #a4dj ,minimum doses #bb4dj ,maximum doses #b4hj ,can eroded4 --,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,chromates4 ,by ,j4 ,,massignon and ,e4 ,,vatel4 ,the ordinary method of manufacturing the bichromates consists in making an intimate mixture of finely pulverized chrome ore1 lime in large excess1 potash or soda1 or corresponding salts of these two bases4 ,this mixture is placed in a reverberatory furnace1 and subjected to a high temperature1 while plenty of air is supplied4 ,during the operation the mass is constantly puddled to bring all the particles into contact with the hot air1 so that all the sesquioxide of chromium of the ore will be oxidized4 ,after the oxidation is finished1 the mass is taken from the furnace and cooled2 the bichromate is obtained by lixiviation1 treated with sulphuric acid and crystallized4 ,this method of manufacture has several serious objections4 ,the authors1 after research and experiment1 have devised a new process1 following an idea suggested by ,pelouze4 ,the ore very finely pulverized is mixed with chloride of calcium or lime1 or carbonate of calcium1 in such proportions that all the base1 proceeding from the caustic lime or the carbonate of calcium put in the mixture1 shall be in slightly greater quantity than is necessary to transform into chromate of calcium all the sesquioxide of chromium of the ore1 when this sesquioxide will be by oxidation changed into the chromic acid state4 ,the chloride of calcium employed in proportion of one equivalent for three of the total calcium is most convenient for the formation of oxychloride of calcium4 ,if the mixture is made with carbonate of lime 7pulverized chalk71 it will not stiffen in the air2 but if lime and carbonate of calcium are employed at the same time1 the mass stiffens like cement1 and can be moulded into bricks or plates4 ,the best way to operate is to mix first a part of the ore and well pulverized chalk1 and slake it with the necessary concentrated chloride of calcium solution2 then to make up a lime dough1 and mix the two1 moulding quickly4 ,the loaves or moulds thus formed are partially dried in the air1 then completely dried in a furnace at a moderate temperature1 and finally baked1 to effect the reduction of the carbonate of calcium into caustic lime4 ,it is only necessary then to expose the loaves to the air at the ordinary temperature1 for the oxidation of the sesquioxide of chromium will go on by degrees without any manipulation1 by the action of the atmospheric air1 the matter thus prepared having a sufficient porosity to allow the air free access to the interior of the mass4 ,under ordinary conditions the oxidation will be completed in a month4 ,the division of this work--mixing1 slaking or thinning1 roasting or baking1 and subjection to the air--is analogous to the work of a tile or brick works4 ,the advance of the oxidation can be followed by the appearance of the matter1 which after baking presents a deep green color1 which passes from olive green into yellow1 according to the progress of calcium chromate formation4 ,when the oxidation is completed1 the mass contains3 ,chromate of calcium1 chloride of calcium1 carbonate of lime and caustic lime in excess1 sesquioxide of iron and the gangue1 part of which is united with the lime4 ,this mass is washed with water by the ordinary method of lixiviation1 and there is obtained a concentrated solution containing all the chloride of calcium1 and a small quantity only of chromate of calcium1 the latter being about #ajj times less soluble in water4 ,this solution can be used in the following ways3 #a4 ,it can be concentrated and used in preparing a new charge1 the small quantity of calcium chromate present being an assistance1 or3 #b4 ,it can be used for making chromate of lead 7chrome yellow71 by precipitating the calcium chromate with a lead salt2 this being a very economical process for the manufacture of this color4 ,the mass after lixiviation1 being treated with a solution of sulphate or carbonate of potash or soda1 will yield chromate of potash or soda1 and by the employment of sulphuric acid1 the corresponding bichromates4 ,the solutions are then filtered1 to get rid of the insoluble deposits1 concentrated1 and crystallized4 ,if1 instead of chromate or bichromate of potash or soda1 chromic acid is sought1 the mass after lixiviation is treated with sulphuric acid1 and the chromic acid is obtained directly without any intermediate steps4 ,this process has the following advantages3 #a4 ,the oxidation can be effected at the ordinary temperature1 thus saving expense in fuel4 #b4 ,the heavy manual labor is avoided4 #c4 ,the loss of potash and soda by volatilization and combination with the gangue is entirely avoided4 #d4 ,it is not actually necessary to use rich ores2 silicious ores can be used4 #e4 ,the intimate mixture of the material before treatment being made mechanically1 the puddling is avoided1 and in consequence a greater proportion of the sesquioxide of chromium in the ores is utilized4--,bull4 ,soc4 ,chem4 #e1 #cga4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,violet ,,coloring ,,matter ,,from ,,morphine4 ,a violet coloring matter is formed1 together with other substances1 by boiling for #ajj hours in a reflux apparatus a mixture of morphine 7seven grammes71 p-nitrosodimethylaniline hydrochloride 7five grammes71 and alcohol 7#ejj c4c474 ,the solution gradually assumes a red brown color1 and a quantity of tetramethyldiamidoazobenzene separates in a crystalline state4 ,after filtering from the latter1 the alcoholic solution is evaporated to dryness1 and the residue boiled with water1 a deep purple colored solution being so obtained4 ,this solution1 which contains at least two coloring matters1 is evaporated almost to dryness1 acidulated with hydrochloric acid1 and then rendered alkaline with sodium hydrate1 the coloring matters being precipitated and the unchanged morphine remaining in solution4 ,the precipitate is collected on a filter1 washed with dilute sodium hydrate1 dried1 and extracted in the cold with amyl alcohol1 which dissolves out a violet coloring matter1 and leaves in the residue a blue coloring matter or mixture of coloring matters4 ,the violet coloring matter is obtained in a pure state on evaporating the amyl alcohol4 ,its platinochloride has the formula ,pt,cl#d4;,c#be;,h#bi,n#c,o#d4;,h,cl1 and has the characteristic properties of the platinochlorides of the majority of alkaloids4 ,the coloring matter1 of which the free base has the formula-- 7,c#f;,h#d,n7,,ch#c7b7--,n7,c#ag;,h#ai,, no#d7 forms an amorphous mass with a bronze-like luster2 it is sparingly soluble in water1 freely so in alcohol1 its alcoholic solution being strongly dichroic2 its green colored solution in concentrated sulphuric acid becomes successively blue and violet on dilution with water2 it dyes silk1 wool1 and gun cotton1 but is not fast to light4 ,morphine violet is the first true coloring matter obtained from the natural alkaloids1 the morphine blue of ,chastaing and ,barillot 7,compt4 ,rend41 #aje1 #ajab7 not being a coloring matter properly so called4 --,p4 ,cazeneuve1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,chim4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,liquid ,,blue ,,for ,,dyeing4 ,the new liquid blue of ,m4 ,dornemann is intended to avoid the formation of clots1 etc41 which lead to irregularity in shade1 if not to the formation of spots on the textile4 ,in addition to accomplishing this end1 the process is accelerated by subjecting the blue to a previous treatment4 ,in this preliminary treatment of the blue1 the object is to remove the sulphur which retards the solution of the color4 ,the liquid is prepared as follows3 ,the pigment1 previously dried at #aej ,c41 is crushed and finely ground1 and contains about #dg per cent4 of coloring matter2 to this is added #ec per cent4 of water4 ,to this mixture1 or slurry1 the inventor adds an indefinite quantity of glucose and glycerine of #dc ,b41 having a specific gravity of #a4dbe4 ,it is then ready for use4--,le ,moniteur de la ,teinture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,valuable ,,papers ,contained in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej ,a ,,year4 ,,single ,,copies1 #be ,,cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on 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