file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #aejah-;h4htm or #aejah-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/j_/a_/aejah_/aejah-;h_/#aejah-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ e_/j_/a_/aejah_/aejah-;h4zip7 ,,elements ,,of ,,civil ,,government ,a ,text-,book for ,use in ,public ,schools1 ,high ,schools and ,normal ,schools and a ,manual of ,reference for ,teachers by ,,alex4 ,l4 ,,peterman ,late ,principal and ,professor of ,civil ,government in the ,normal ,school of the ,kentucky ,state ,college1 and ,member of the ,kentucky ,state ,senate ,new ,york ,cincinnati ,chicago ,american ,book ,company ,revised to #aiaf4 ,,dedication4 ,to the thousands of devoted ,teachers in every part of the land1 who are training the boys and girls of to-day to a true conception of ,american citizenship1 and to a deeper love for our whole country1 this little book is dedicated by a ,brother in the work4 ,,preface4 ,this text-book begins at home4 ,the starting-point is the family1 the first form of government with which the child comes in contact4 ,as his acquaintance with rightful authority increases1 the school1 the civil district1 the township1 the county1 the ,state1 and the ,united ,states are taken up in their order4 ,the book is especially intended for use in the public schools4 ,the plan is the simplest yet devised1 and is1 therefore1 well adapted to public school purposes4 ,it has been used by the author for many years1 in public schools1 normal schools1 and teachers' institutes4 ,it carefully and logically follows the much praised and much neglected synthetic method4 ,all students of the science of teaching agree that beginners in the study of government should commence with the known1 and gradually proceed to the unknown4 ,yet it is believed this is the first textbook that closely follows this method of treating the subject4 ,the constant aim has been to present the subject in a simple and attractive way1 in accordance with sound principles of teaching--that children may grow into such a knowledge of their government that the welfare of the country may come home to the business and bosoms of the people4 ,the recent increase of interest among the people upon the subject of government is a hopeful sign4 ,it will lead to a better knowledge of our political institutions1 and hence give us better citizens4 ,good citizenship is impossible unless the people understand the government under which they live4 ,it is certainly strange that every ,state in the ,union maintains a system of public schools for the purpose of training citizens1 and that the course of study in so many ,states omits civil government1 the science of citizenship4 ,the author's special thanks are due ,hon4 ,joseph ,desha ,pickett1 ,ph4,d41 ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction of ,kentucky1 for the suggestion which led to the preparation of the work and for excellent thoughts upon the plan4 ,the author also desires to confess his obligation to ,president ,james ,k4 ,patterson1 ,ph4,d41 and ,professor ,r4 ,n4 ,roark1 ,a4,m41 of the ,kentucky ,state ,college1 ,lexington1 for valuable suggestions as to the method of treatment and the scope of the book4 ,the author has derived much assistance from the many admirable works upon the same subject1 now before the country4 ,but he has not hesitated to adopt a treatment different from theirs when it has been deemed advisable4 ,he submits his work to a discriminating public1 with the hope that he has not labored in vain in a field in which so many have wrought4 ,,alex4 ,l4 ,,peterman4 ,a ,,few ,,words ,,to ,,teachers4 #a4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,study4--,every school should teach1 and every child should study1 the principles of our government1 in order3 #a4 ,that by knowing his country better he may learn to love it more4 ,the first duty of the school is to teach its pupils to love ,god1 home1 and native land4 #b4 ,that the child may learn that there is such a thing as just authority2 that obedience to it is right and manly2 that we must learn to govern by first learning to obey4 #c4 ,that he may know his rights as a citizen1 and1 knowing1 dare maintain2 that he may also know his duties as a citizen1 and1 knowing1 may perform them intelligently and honestly4 #d4 ,that he may understand the sacredness of the right of suffrage1 and aid in securing honest elections and honest discharge of official duties4 #e4 ,that he may better understand the history of his country1 for the history of the ,united ,states is largely the history of our political institutions4 #b4 ,,oral ,,instruction4--,there is no child in your school too young to learn something of geography1 of history1 and of civil government4 ,these three subjects are so closely related that it is easier and better to teach them together4 ,all pupils not prepared for the text-book should1 at least on alternate days1 be instructed by the teacher in a series of familiar talks1 beginning with ,the ,family1 and proceeding slowly to ,the ,school1 ,the ,civil ,district or ,township1 ,the ,county1 ,the ,state1 and ,the ,united ,states4 ,in this system of oral instruction1 which is the best possible preparation for the formal study of civil government1 the plan and outlines of this book may be used by the teacher with both profit and pleasure4 #c4 ,,proper ,,age ,,for ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,text-,,book4--,the plan and the style of this book are so simple that the subject will be readily understood by pupils reading in the ,fourth ,reader4 ,even in our ungraded country schools the average pupil of twelve years is well prepared to begin the study of the text-book in civil government4 ,it is a serious mistake to postpone this much neglected subject until a later age4 ,let it be introduced early1 that the child's knowledge of his government may grow with his growth1 and strengthen with his strength4 #d4 ,,two ,,parts4--,it will be observed that the book is divided into two parts3 the former treating the subject concretely1 the latter treating it abstractly4 ,beginners should deal with things1 not theories2 hence1 the abstract treatment of civil government is deferred until the pupil's mind is able to grasp it4 ,for the same reason1 definitions in the first part of the book are few and simple1 the design of the author being to illustrate rather than to define2 to lead the child to see1 rather than to burden his mind with fine-spun statements that serve only to confuse4 ,in an elaborate work for advanced students the method of treatment would1 of course1 be quite different4 #e4 ,,topical ,,method4--,the subject of each paragraph is printed in bold-faced type1 thus specially adapting the book to the topical method of recitation4 ,this feature also serves as a guide to the pupil in the preparation of his lesson4 #f4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4--,in deference to the best professional thought1 the author has omitted all questions upon the text1 knowing that every live teacher prefers to frame his own questions4 ,the space usually allotted to questions upon the text is devoted to suggestive questions1 intended to lead the pupil to think and to investigate for himself4 ,the author sincerely hopes that the teacher will not permit the pupil to memorize the language of the book1 but encourage him to express the thought in his own words4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,family4 ,introductory2 ,definition2 ,purposes2 ,members2 ,rights2 ,duties2 ,officers2 ,powers2 ,duties2 ,responsibility2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,school ,,district4 ,introductory2 ,definition and ,purposes2 ,formation2 ,functions2 ,members2 ,children2 ,rights2 ,duties2 ,parents2 ,rights and ,duties2 ,government2 ,officers2 ,appointment2 ,duties2 ,teacher2 ,powers2 ,duties2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,civil ,,district4 ,introductory2 ,civil ,unit ,defined2 ,general ,classes2 ,civil ,district2 ,number2 ,size2 ,purposes2 ,government2 ,citizens2 ,rights2 ,duties2 ,officers2 ,justice of the ,peace2 ,election2 ,term of ,office2 ,duties2 ,constable2 ,election2 ,term of ,office2 ,duties2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,township1 ,,or ,,town4 ,introductory2 ,formation2 ,number2 ,size2 ,purposes2 ,citizens2 ,rights2 ,duties2 ,government2 ,corporate ,power2 ,officers2 ,legislative ,department2 ,people2 ,trustees2 ,executive ,department2 ,clerk2 ,treasurer2 ,school ,directors2 ,assessors2 ,supervisors2 ,constables2 ,other ,officers2 ,judicial ,department2 ,justices2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,county4 ,introductory2 ,purposes2 ,formation2 ,area2 ,county ,seat2 ,government2 ,corporate ,power2 ,departments2 ,officers2 ,legislative ,department2 ,county ,commissioners1 or ,board of ,supervisors2 ,executive ,department2 ,county1 ,attorney1 or ,prosecuting ,attorney2 ,county ,superintendent of ,schools2 ,sheriff2 ,treasurer2 ,auditor2 ,county ,clerk1 or ,common ,pleas ,clerk2 ,recorder1 or ,register2 ,surveyor2 ,coroner2 ,other ,officers2 ,judicial ,department2 ,county ,judge1 or ,probate ,judge2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,municipal ,,corporations--,,villages1 ,,boroughs1 ,,and ,,cities4 ,the ,village or ,borough2 ,incorporation2 ,government2 ,officers2 ,duties2 ,the ,city2 ,incorporation2 ,wards2 ,city ,institutions2 ,finances2 ,citizens2 ,rights and ,duties2 ,government2 ,officers2 ,duties2 ,commission ,plan of ,city ,government2 ,recall2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,state ,introductory2 ,definition2 ,formation of ,original ,states2 ,admission of ,new ,states2 ,purposes2 ,functions2 ,institutions2 ,citizens2 ,rights2 ,duties2 ,constitution2 ,formation and ,adoption2 ,purposes2 ,value2 ,contents2 ,bill of ,rights2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,government ,departments2 ,legislative ,department2 ,qualifications2 ,privileges2 ,power2 ,sessions2 ,functions2 ,forbidden ,powers2 ,the ,senate2 ,house of ,representatives2 ,direct ,legislation2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,executive ,department2 ,governor2 ,term2 ,qualifications2 ,powers2 ,duties2 ,lieutenant-,governor2 ,secretary of ,state2 ,auditor2 ,comptroller2 ,treasurer2 ,attorney-,general2 ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction2 ,other ,officers2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,judicial ,department2 ,purposes2 ,supreme ,court2 ,district1 or ,circuit ,court2 ,territories2 ,executive ,department2 ,legislative ,department2 ,judicial ,department2 ,representation in ,congress2 ,laws2 ,local ,affairs2 ,purposes2 ,hawaii and ,alaska2 ,district of ,columbia2 ,porto ,rico and the ,philippines2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,introductory2 ,formation2 ,form of ,government2 ,purposes2 ,functions2 ,citizens2 ,naturalization2 ,rights2 ,aliens2 ,constitution2 ,formation2 ,necessity2 ,amendment2 ,departments2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,legislative ,department2 ,congress2 ,privileges of the ,houses2 ,privileges and ,disabilities of ,members2 ,powers of ,congress2 ,forbidden ,powers2 ,senate2 ,house of ,representatives2 ,the ,speaker2 ,other ,officers2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,executive ,department2 ,president2 ,qualifications2 ,election2 ,inauguration2 ,official ,residence2 ,dignity and ,responsibility2 ,messages2 ,duties and ,powers2 ,cabinet2 ,department of ,state2 ,diplomatic ,service2 ,consular ,service2 ,treasury ,department2 ,bureaus2 ,war ,department2 ,bureaus2 ,military ,academy2 ,navy ,department2 ,naval ,academy2 ,post-,office ,department2 ,bureaus2 ,interior ,department2 ,department of ,justice2 of ,agriculture2 of ,commerce2 of ,labor2 ,separate ,commissions2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,judicial ,department2 ,jurisdiction of ,u4,s4 ,courts2 ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states2 ,jurisdiction2 ,dignity2 ,united ,states ,circuit ,courts of ,appeals2 ,united ,states ,district ,court2 ,court of ,customs ,appeals2 ,court of ,claims2 ,other ,courts2 ,term of ,service2 ,officers of ,courts2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,government4 ,origin and ,necessity2 ,for the ,people2 ,kinds2 ,forms of ,civil ,government2 ,monarchy2 ,aristocracy2 ,democracy2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,justice4 ,rights and ,duties2 ,relation of ,rights and ,duties2 ,civil ,rights and ,duties2 ,industrial ,rights and ,duties2 ,social ,rights and ,duties2 ,moral ,rights and ,duties2 ,political ,rights and ,duties2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,law ,,and ,,liberty4 ,origin2 ,kinds of ,law2 ,courts2 ,suits2 ,judges2 ,grand ,jury2 ,trial ,jury2 ,origin of ,juries2 ,officers of ,courts2 ,legal ,proceedings2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,suffrage ,,and ,,elections4 ,suffrage2 ,importance2 ,elections2 ,methods of ,voting2 ,officers of ,elections2 ,bribery2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,australian ,,ballot ,,system1 ,origin2 ,in the ,united ,states2 ,principles2 ,requirements2 ,voting2 ,advantages2 ,forms of ,ballots2 ,in ,louisville2 ,in ,massachusetts2 ,in ,indiana2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,parties ,,and ,,party ,,machinery4 ,origin2 ,necessity2 ,party ,machinery2 ,committees2 ,conventions2 ,calling ,conventions2 ,local and ,state ,conventions2 ,national ,convention2 ,platform2 ,nominations2 ,primary ,elections2 ,caucuses2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,legislation4 ,bills2 ,introduction2 ,committees2 ,reports2 ,amendments2 ,passage2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,revenue ,,and ,,taxation4 ,revenue2 ,taxation2 ,necessity of ,taxation2 ,direct ,taxes2 ,indirect ,taxes2 ,customs or ,duties2 ,internal ,revenue2 ,suggestive ,questions ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,index ,,elements ,,of ,,civil ,,government ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,family4 ,,introductory4#a--,people living in the ,united ,states owe respect and obedience to not less than four different governments2 that is1 to four forms of organized authority4 ,they have duties1 as citizens of a township or civil district1 as citizens of a county1 as citizens of some one of the ,states1 and as citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,all persons are1 or have been1 members of a family2 some also live under a village or city government2 and most children are subject to the government1 of some school4 ,many people in this country live under six governments--namely1 the family1 the township or civil district1 the village or city1 the county1 the ,state1 and the ,united ,states2 while children who live in villages or cities1 and attend school1 are subject to seven different governments4 ,these organizations are so closely related that the duties of the people as citizens of one do not conflict with their duties as citizens of the others4 ,the better citizen a person is of one of these governments the better citizen he is of all governments under which he lives4 ,,definition4--,each of us is a member of some family4 ,we were born into the family circle1 and our parents first taught us to obey4 ,by insisting upon obedience1 parents govern their children1 and thus keep them from evil and from danger4 ,the family1 then1 is a form of government1 established for the good of the children themselves1 and the first government that each of us must obey4 ,,purposes4--,the family exists for the rearing and training of children1 and for the happiness and prosperity of parents4 ,all children need the comforts and restraints of home life4 ,they are growing up to be citizens and rulers of the country1 and should learn to rule by first learning to obey4 ,the lessons of home prepare them for life and for citizenship4 ,,members4 ,the members of the family are the father1 the mother1 and the children2 and the family government exists for all1 especially for the children1 that they may be protected1 guided1 and taught to become useful men and women4 ,the welfare of each and of all depends upon the family government1 upon the care of the parents and the obedience of the children4 ,,rights4--,the members have certain rights2 that is1 certain just claims upon the family4 ,each has a right to all the care and protection that the family can give3 a right to be kindly treated2 a right to be spoken to in a polite manner2 a right to food1 clothing1 shelter1 and an opportunity to acquire an education2 a right to the advice and warning of the older members2 a right to the respect of all4 ,,duties4--,as each of the members has his rights1 each also has his duties2 for where a right exists1 a duty always exists with it4 ,it is the duty of each to treat the others kindly2 to teach them what is right and what is wrong2 to aid them in their work2 to comfort them in their sorrows2 and to rejoice with them in their gladness4 ,it is the duty of the children to love their parents2 to obey them in all things2 to respect older persons2 and to abstain from bad habits and bad language4 ,,officers4 ,the officers of the family government are the father and the mother4 ,they were made officers when they were married1 so that the rulers of the family are also members of the family4 ,the office of a parent is a holy office1 and requires wisdom for the proper discharge of its duties4 ,,powers4--,the parents have power to make rules1 to decide when these have been broken1 and to insist that they shall be obeyed4 ,they make the law of the family1 enforce the law1 and explain the law4 ,they have supreme control over their children in all the usual affairs of life1 until the children arrive at the legal age--twenty-one years4 ,,duties1 ,,responsibility4--,parents should be firm and just in their rulings2 they should study the welfare of their children1 and use every effort to train them to lives of usefulness and honor4 ,it is the duty of parents to provide their children with food1 clothing1 shelter1 and the means of acquiring an education4 ,there is no other responsibility so great as the responsibility of fathers and mothers4 ,they are responsible for themselves1 and the law makes them partly responsible for the conduct of their children4 ,therefore1 one of the highest duties of a parent to his children is to exact obedience in all right things1 in order that the children may be trained to true manhood and womanhood4 #a,to the teacher--,do not assign to the average class more than two or three pages of the text as a lesson4 ,make haste slowly4 ,when each chapter is completed let it be reviewed at once1 while the pupil's interest is fresh4 ,see that the ,suggestive ,questions at the end of the chapter are not neglected4 ,if necessary1 devote special lessons to their consideration4 ,assign the questions to the members of the class1 to be answered on the following day1 giving not more than two questions to any pupil4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,name some of the restraints of home life4 #b4 ,why does the welfare of all depend upon the family government8 #c4 ,why do rights and duties always exist together8 #d4 ,name some bad habits4 #e4 ,why should children abstain from bad habits8 #f4 ,what is true manhood8 #g4 ,are disobedient children apt to make good citizens8 #h4 ,should a father permit his bad habits to be adopted by his children8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,school4 ,,introductory4--,when children reach the age of six or seven years1 they enter the public school and become subject to its rules4 ,we are born under government1 and we are educated under it4 ,we are under it at home1 in school1 and in after life4 ,law and order are everywhere necessary to the peace1 safety1 liberty1 and' happiness of the people4 ,true liberty and true enlightenment can not exist unless regulated by law4 ,,definition ,,and ,,purposes4--,a school district or sub-district is a certain portion of the town or county laid off and set apart for the purpose of establishing and maintaining a public school4 ,it exists for educational reasons only1 and is the unit of educational work4 ,the public schools are supported by funds raised partly by the ,state1 and partly by the county or the township4 ,they are frequently called common schools or free schools4 ,it is the duty of the ,state to provide all children with the means of acquiring a plain ,english education1 and the ,state discharges this duty by dividing the county into districts of such size that a school-house and a public school arc within reach of every child4 ,,formation4--,the limits of the school district are usually fixed by the chief school officer of the county1 by the town1 by the school board1 or by the people living in the neighborhood4 ,in most of the ,states districts vary greatly in size and shape2 but in some of the ,states they have a regular form1 each being about two miles square4 ,,functions4--,the functions1 or work1 of the school are solely educational4 ,the ,state supports a system of public schools in order that the masses of the people may be educated4 ,the country needs good citizens3 to be good citizens the people must be intelligent1 and to be intelligent they must attend ,school4 ,,members4 ,the members of the school district are the people living in it4 ,all are interested1 one way or another1 in the success of the school4 ,in most ,states the legal voters elect the school board1 or trustees1 and in some ,states levy the district school taxes4 ,those who are neither voters nor within the school age are interested in the intelligence and good name of the community1 and are therefore interested in the public school4 ,,children4--,the children within the-school age are the members of the school1 and they are the most important members of the school district4 ,it is for their good that the school exists4 ,the ,state has provided schools in order that its children may be educated1 and thus become useful men and women and good citizens4 ,,rights4--,children1 as members of the school1 have important rights and duties4 ,it is the right1 one of the highest rights1 of every child to attend the full session of the public school4 ,whoever prevents him from exercising this right commits an offense against the child and against the ,state4 ,the ,state taxes its citizens to maintain a system of schools for the benefit of every child1 and so every child has a right to all the ,state has provided for him4 ,,duties4--,as it is the right1 it is also the duty of all children to attend the full session of the public school1 or of some other equally good4 ,they should be regular and punctual in their attendance2 they should yield prompt and cheerful obedience to the school government1 and try to avail themselves of all advantages that the school can give4 ,as it is the duty of the ,state to offer a plain ,english education to every child1 so it is the duty of all children to make the most of all means the ,state has provided for their education4 ,,parents1 ,,their ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,all parents have the right to send their children to the public school1 and it is also their duty to patronize the public school1 or some other equally as good4 ,fathers and mothers who deprive their children of the opportunities of acquiring an education do them lasting injury4 ,parents should use every effort to give their children at least the best education that can be obtained in the public schools4 ,,government4 ,the school has rules to govern it1 that the pupil may be guided1 directed1 and protected in the pursuit of knowledge4 ,schools can not work without order1 and there can be no order without government4 ,the members of the school desire that good order be maintained1 for they know their success depends upon it2 so that school1 government1 like all other good government1 exists by the consent and for the good of the governed4 ,,officers4--,the school1 like all other governments1 has its officers4 ,these are the school board1 or trustees1 and the teacher4 ,they are responsible for the government and good conduct of the school4 ,there are1 in most governments1 three kinds of officers1 corresponding to the three departments of government--the legislative1 the judicial1 and the executive4 ,the legislative department of the government makes the laws1 the judicial department explains them1 and the executive department executes them4 ,school officers are mostly executive2 that is1 their chief duties are to enforce the laws made by the legislature for the government of the public schools4 ,as they also make rules for the school1 their duties are partly legislative4 ,,appointment1 ,,term ,,of ,,office4--,the district officers are usually elected by the legal voters of the school district2 but in some ,states they are appointed by the county superintendent1 or county school commissioner as he is often called4 ,in most ,states the term of office is three years1 but in some it is two years1 and in others it is only one year4 ,trustees or directors usually receive no pay for their services4 ,,duties4--,in most ,states it is the duty of the district officers to raise money by levying taxes for the erection of school-buildings1 and to superintend their construction2 to purchase furniture and apparatus2 to care for the school property2 to employ teachers and fix their salaries2 to visit the school and direct its work2 to take the school census2 and to make reports to the higher school officers4 ,in some ,states1 as in ,indiana1 most of these duties belong to the office of township trustee4 ,,the ,,teacher4--,the teacher is usually employed by the directors or trustees1 but in some ,states he is employed by the township trustee or by the county superintendent4 ,he must first pass an examination before an examiner1 or board of examiners1 and obtain therefrom a certificate or license entitling him to teach in the public schools4 ,,powers4--,the teacher has the same power and right to govern the school that the parent has to govern the family4 ,the law puts the teacher in the parent's place and expects him to perform the parent's office1 subject to the action of the directors or trustees4 ,it clothes him with all power necessary to govern the school1 and then holds him responsible for its conduct1 the directors having the right to dismiss him at any time for a failure to perform his duty4 ,,duties4--,the teacher is one of our most important officers4 ,the ,state has confided to him the trust of teaching1 of showing boys and girls how to be useful men and women1 of training them for citizenship4 ,this is a great work to do4 ,the ,state has clothed him with ample power for the purpose1 and it is his duty to serve the ,state faithfully and well4 ,the teacher should govern kindly and firmly4 ,every pupil in school1 of whatever age or size1 owes him cheerful and ready obedience4 ,it is his duty1 the duty for which he is paid1 to insist upon this obedience2 to govern the school2 to teach the pupils to obey while they are children1 in order that they may rule well when they become rulers2 that is1 when they become citizens4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why are law and order necessary to the peace and happiness of the people8 #b4 ,why are public schools sometimes called free schools or common schools8 #c4 ,about how many square miles are there in a school district in this county8 #d4 ,what is the official title1 and what the name1 of the chief school officer of this county8 #e4 ,why does the ,state want its people educated8 #f4 ,why should children be regular and punctual in their attendance8 #g4 ,what can parents do to aid their children to acquire an education8 #h4 ,what number of directors do you think would be best for the school district8 ,why8 #i4 ,should directors receive compensation8 ,how much8 #aj4 ,why should the teacher pass an examination8 #aa4 ,should he be examined every year8 #ab4 ,why does the law place the teacher in the parent's place8 #ac4 ,why are citizens said to be rulers8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that it is right for a man without children to pay school taxes4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,civil ,,district4 ,,introductory4--,in our study1 thus far1 we have had to do with special forms of government as exercised in the family and in the school4 ,these are1 in a sense1 peculiar to themselves4 ,the rights of government as administered in the family1 and the rights of the members of a family1 as well as their duties to each other1 are natural rights and duties2 they do not depend upon society for their force4 ,in fact1 they are stronger and more binding in proportion as the bands of society are relaxed4 ,in the primitive state1 before there was organized civil society1 family government was supreme2 and likewise1 if a family should remove from within the limits of civil society and be entirely isolated1 family government would again resume its power and binding force4 ,school government1 while partaking of the nature of civil government1 is still more closely allied to family government4 ,in the natural state1 and in the isolated household1 the education of the child devolves upon the parents1 and the parent delegates a part of his natural rights and duties to the teacher when he commits the education of his child to the common school4 ,the teacher is said to stand in loco parentis 7in the place of the parent71 and from this direction1 mainly1 are his rights of government derived4 ,the school1 therefore1 stands in an intermediate position between family government and civil government proper1 partaking of some features of each1 and forming a sort of stepping-stone for the child from the natural restraints of home to the more complex demands of civil society4 ,the school district1 also1 while partaking of the nature of a civil institution1 is in many respects to be regarded as a co-operative organization of the families of the neighborhood for the education of their children1 and its government as a co-operative family government4 ,,the ,,civil ,,unit ,,defined4 ,in nearly every part of the ,united ,states there is a unit of civil society in which the people exercise many of the powers of government at first hand4 ,this civil unit is variously named in the different ,states1 and its first organization may have been for some minor purpose2 but it has grown to be an important sphere of government in many ,states1 and throughout the entire country it is the primary school of the citizen and the voter4 ,there are many different names by which this civil unit is known4 ,in the ,state of ,mississippi it is called the ,beat1 and this name is no doubt derived from the original purpose of the organization1 as the jurisdiction of a watchman or constable4 ,in ,delaware it is called the ,hundred1 which is the old ,english subdivision of a county1 supposed to contain one hundred families1 or one hundred men able to bear arms in the public service4 ,in the ,new ,england ,states1 in ,new ,york1 and in ,wisconsin it is called the ,town1 from the old ,anglo-,saxon civil unit1 which antedates the settlement of ,england by its ,saxon invaders1 and is probably older than the ,christian era4 ,in ,arkansas1 ,indiana1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,missouri1 ,montana1 ,new ,jersey1 the ,carolinas1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and parts of ,illinois1 ,nebraska1 and the ,dakotas1 it is called the ,township1 only a variation of name from the town1 and having the same origin4 ,in ,california it is called the ,judicial ,township1 and in parts of the ,dakotas it is called the ,school ,township4 ,in ,alabama1 ,colorado1 ,florida1 ,idaho1 ,oregon1 ,utah1 ,washington1 and parts of ,illinois and ,nebraska1 it is called the ,election ,precinct1 from the fact that it was the subdivision made for the convenience of voters4 ,in ,georgia it is called the ,militia ,district1 from the fact that each subdivision furnished a certain proportionate number of men for the militia service of the ,state4 ,in ,kentucky1 ,virginia1 and ,west ,virginia1 it is called the ,magisterial ,district1 from the fact that it was constituted as the limit of the jurisdiction of a local magistrate4 ,in ,louisiana it is called the ,police ,jury ,ward1 perhaps for the reason that from each one of these subdivisions a warden was elected to administer the parish government4 ,in ,maryland and ,wyoming it is called the ,election ,district1 from the fact that it was the subdivision made for the convenience of voters4 ,in ,tennessee it is called the ,civil ,district--probably1 next to town or township1 the most fitting name for the smallest subdivision of civil government4 ,in ,texas it is called the ,justice's ,precinct1 as being the limit of a justice's jurisdiction4 ,in some of the ,new ,england ,states1 also1 districts which have not the entire town organization are provisionally called ,plantations or ,grants1 being subject to the administration1 in some local affairs1 of other towns4 ,but under whatever name the civil unit may exist1 it is the primary seat of government4 ,in many cases the original reason for the name has disappeared1 while the character of the government has greatly changed1 and been modified and developed from the first crude forms4 ,,three ,,general ,,classes4--,as a result1 there are at present but three general classes into which we need subdivide the civil unit in the various ,states3 these are the ,civil ,district1 which would include the ,beat1 ,hundred1 ,election ,precinct1 ,militia ,district1 and numerous other classes1 embracing about one half the ,states of the ,union2 the ,town1 which has its fullest development in the ,new ,england ,states2 and the ,township1 which in some ,states has nearly the full development of a ,new ,england town1 while in other ,states it has a looser organisation1 approximating the civil district of the ,southern and ,southwestern ,states4 ,,the ,,civil ,,district1 ,,proper4 ,we shall treat of the various forms of the civil unit which we have classed under the general name of civil district before we speak of the town and the township1 because they are simpler and much less developed1 and therefore naturally constitute the simplest form of the civil unit4 ,,number1 ,,size4--,in number and size1 civil districts vary widely in different ,states and in different counties of the same ,state4 ,there are rarely less than five or more than twelve districts to the county4 ,,purposes4--,the division of the county into districts1 each with its own court of law1 brings justice to the people's doors4 ,it secures officers to every part of the county1 thus affording better means for the punishment of crimes4 ,it provides a speedy trial for minor offences and minor suits4 ,it aids the higher courts by relieving them of a multitude of small cases4 ,as each district has one or more polling-places1 it secures convenience to the electors in casting their votes4 ,,government4--,the functions of the civil district arc judicial and executive1 and lie within a narrow range4 ,its government possesses no legislative or corporate power whatever2 it can not make a single law1 however unimportant4 ,within a narrow jurisdiction or sphere1 it applies the law to particular cases1 and this is the chief purpose for its existence4 ,whenever the civil unit possesses more powers than are herein set forth1 it is more properly described under the township in the next chapter1 no matter what name it may go by locally4 ,,citizens4 ,the citizens of the civil district are the people residing within it4 ,it exists for their benefit1 that they may be secure in life1 liberty1 and property4 ,in a certain sense they constitute the district1 since its government concerns them directly1 and others only remotely4 ,,rights4--,all citizens have a right to the full and equal protection of the laws4 ,each has a right to be secure in his person and property2 to demand that the peace be preserved2 to do all things according to his own will1 provided he does not trespass upon the rights of others4 ,no one in the family1 in the school1 in the civil district1 in the county1 in the ,state1 or in the nation1 has the right to do or say any thing which interferes with the life1 liberty1 property1 or happiness of another4 ,any act which interferes with the rights of others is an offence against the common good and against the law4 ,it is chiefly for the prevention and punishment of these unlawful acts that the civil district exists1 with its court and its officers4 ,all legal voters of the district have the right to participate in its government by exercising a free choice in the selection of its officers1 except in ,states where these officers are appointed4 ,they have the right to cast their votes without fear or favor4 ,this is one of the most important and sacred rights that freemen possess4 ,free government can not exist without it4 ,the law guarantees it1 and all the power of the ,state may be employed to maintain it4 ,therefore1 whoever prevents a voter from exercising the right of suffrage does it at his own peril4 ,,duties4--,as the citizens of the civil district have rights1 they also have corresponding duties4 ,as they may demand protection and the preservation of the peace1 so it is their duty to obey the law and assist the officers in its enforcement1 in order that the same protection may be extended to the whole people4 ,each should abstain from acts that injure others1 and render cheerful aid to all in securing their rights through the law4 ,all qualified voters have the right1 and it is also their duty1 to vote4 ,the voters elect the officers of the district1 and are therefore its rulers4 ,when they fail to vote1 they fail to rule--fail in their duty to the people and to themselves4 ,the duty to vote implies the duty to vote right1 to vote for good men and for good measures4 ,therefore1 citizens should study their duty as voters1 that they may elect honest1 capable1 faithful officers1 and support the parties and principles that will best promote the good of the country8 ,every one should study his political duty with the best light that he can obtain1 decide what is right1 and then vote his sentiments honestly and fearlessly4 ,if the district has good government1 the voters deserve the credit2 if it has bad government1 the voters deserve the blame4 ,,officers4 ,the officers of the district are the justices of the peace and the constable4 ,in some ,states there is only one justice to each district1 in other ,states there are two1 and in others there are three4 ,,justice ,,of ,,the ,,peace4--,the office of justice of the peace is one of dignity and importance4 ,justices can render great service to society by the proper discharge of their duties4 ,they may have much to do with enforcing the law1 and therefore the best men should be elected to this office4 ,,election1 ,,term ,,of ,,office4--,justices of the peace are usually elected by the qualified voters of the district4 ,in some ,states the governor appoints them4 ,the term of office is two1 three1 four1 or even seven years1 varying in different ,states4 ,,duties4--,the duties of justices of the peace are principally judicial1 and their jurisdiction extends throughout the county4 ,upon the sworn statement of the person making complaint1 they issue warrants for the arrest of offenders4 ,with the aid of juries1 they hold court for the trial of minor offences--such as the breach of the peace--punishable by fine or brief imprisonment4 ,they sometimes try those charged with higher crimes1 and acquit2 or1 if the proof is sufficient1 remand the accused to trial by a higher court4 ,this is called an examining trial4 ,they try civil suits where the amount involved does not exceed a fixed amount--fifty dollars in some ,states1 and one hundred dollars in others--and prevent crime by requiring reckless persons to give security to keep the peace4 ,justices sometimes preside1 instead of the coroner1 at inquests1 and in some ,states they have important duties as officers of the county4 ,,constable1 ,,election1 ,,term ,,of ,,office4--,there is usually one constable--in some ,states more--in each civil district4 ,constables1 like the justices1 are elected in most ,states2 but in some they are appointed4 ,the term of office is usually the same as that of the justice in the same ,state4 ,,duties4--,the constable is termed a ministerial officer because it is his duty to minister to1 or wait upon1 the justice's court4 ,he serves warrants1 writs1 and other processes of the justice1 and sometimes those of higher courts4 ,he preserves the public peace1 makes arrests for its violation1 and in some ,states collects the taxes apportioned to his civil district4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,in what respect does civil government differ from family or school government8 #b4 ,why does the government of the civil district concern its people directly and others remotely8 #c4 ,what is meant by the civil unit8 ,by what names is it known in the various ,states8 #d4 ,what are the three general classes under which the civil unit may be considered8 #e4 ,why can not free government exist without the right to vote8 #f4 ,why should the people try to secure their rights through the law8 #g4 ,what is the purpose of the subdivision of a county into districts8 #h4 ,define in general terms the rights and duties of the citizens of civil districts4 #i4 ,by what other names are justices of the peace sometimes called8 #aj4 ,why is the jurisdiction of a justice's court limited8 #aa4 ,who are the justices of this civil district8 #ab4 ,when elected1 and what is their term of office8 #ac4 ,who is constable of this district8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the government of the civil district should have a legislative department4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,township ,,or ,,town4 ,,introduction4--,we have learned that in the ,southern ,states the civil unit under various names may be described under the common name of the civil district2 that in the ,new ,england ,states it is called the town1 and in many of the ,western ,states it is known as the township4 ,as the powers and functions of the town and the township are the same in kind1 differing only in extent1 and as the two names are so often used1 the one for the other1 we shall consider both under the head of the township4 ,as a rule1 the township possesses more extensive governmental functions in the ,eastern than in the ,western ,states1 and in the ,west it possesses functions much more extensive than those of the civil district in the ,south4 ,many of the most important powers that belong to the county in the ,southern ,states belong to the township in the ,eastern and the ,western ,states4 ,,formation4--,in the ,eastern ,states the townships were formed in the first settlement of the country1 and afterward a number of townships were combined to form the county4 ,in the ,western ,states the townships were surveyed1 and their boundaries marked1 by agents of the general government1 before the ,territories became ,states of the ,union4 ,as a natural result1 the townships of the ,eastern ,states are irregular in shape and size1 while those of the ,western ,states have a regular form1 each being about six miles square4 ,in the ,western ,states the township is usually composed of thirty-six sections1 each section being one mile square1 and containing six hundred and forty acres of land4 ,,purposes4--,it is an old and true maxim that government should be brought as near the people as possible4 ,this the township system does4 ,in our country all power resides in the people1 and the township provides a convenient means of ascertaining their wishes and of executing their will4 ,the farther away the government1 the less will be the people's power2 the nearer the government1 the greater will be the people's power4 ,the township system enables each community to attend to its own local affairs--a work which no other agency can do so well--to remove readily and speedily its local public grievances1 and to obtain readily and speedily its local public needs4 ,,citizens4 ,the citizens of the township are the people living in it1 whether native or foreigners who have become citizens4 ,it exists for their benefit1 to afford them a means of securing their rights and of redressing their wrongs4 ,it is these persons that the law has in view when setting forth the privileges and immunities of citizenship4 ,,rights4--,all citizens of the township arc entitled to enjoy the rights of life1 liberty1 property1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,the township government exists for the purpose of securing these rights to the people4 ,all have equal claims to the fullest protection of the law4 ,they may use their own property as they choose1 and do whatever pleases them1 so long as they do not interfere with the rights of others4 ,whenever one's act1 speech1 or property interferes with the rights of others1 he falls under the censure of the law and becomes subject to its penalty4 ,all male inhabitants born in the ,united ,states1 and foreigners who have become citizens1 who have resided within the ,state1 county1 and township the time required by law1 are entitled to vote at all township1 county1 state1 and national elections4 ,several ,states require ability to read1 or the payment of poll-tax1 as a qualification to vote2 a few permit the subjects of foreign countries to vote2 and in some ,states women are permitted to vote in school elections or in all elections4 ,lunatics1 idiots1 paupers1 and persons convicted of certain high crimes are disfranchised2 that is1 are not permitted to vote4 ,the right of suffrage is one of great power and value1 being the basis of all free government1 and is jealously guarded by the laws of the land4 ,,duties4--,the people have extensive rights and they have equally extensive duties4 ,each citizen has rights that others must respect4 ,it is the duty of each to observe and regard the rights of all other persons2 and when he does not1 the law interferes by its officers and deprives him of his own rights by fine or imprisonment1 and in some instances by a still more severe penalty4 ,it is the duty of the people to love and serve the country2 to be good citizens2 to labor for the public good2 to obey the law1 and to assist the officers in its enforcement4 ,it is the duty of the qualified voters to give the township good government by electing good officers4 ,a vote cast for a bad man or a bad measure is an attack upon the rights of every person in the community4 ,the power of suffrage is held for the public good2 but it is used for the public injury when incompetent or unfaithful men are elected to office4 ,good government and the happiness and prosperity of the country depend upon an honest and intelligent vote4 ,,government4 ,the township government possesses legislative1 judicial1 and executive functions4 ,it has a legislative department to make local laws1 a judicial department to apply the laws to particular cases1 and an executive department to enforce these and other laws4 ,the three functions are of nearly equal prominence in the ,eastern ,states1 but in the ,west the executive function is more prominent than the legislative and the judicial4 ,,corporate ,,power4--,each township is a corporation2 that is1 in any business affair it may act as a single person4 ,in its corporate capacity it can sue and be sued2 borrow money2 buy1 rent1 and sell property for public purposes4 ,when it is said that the township possesses these powers1 it is meant that the people of the township1 acting as a single political body1 possess them4 ,,officers4--,the officers of the township are more numerous1 and their functions are more extensive than those of the civil district4 ,many officers are the same in name1 and others have the same duties as those of the county in the ,southern ,states4 ,,legislative ,,department2 ,,the ,,people4--,in the ,eastern ,states the legislative department of the township government has more extensive functions than in the ,west4 ,in the ,new ,england ,states most local affairs belong to the township government1 and the county is of minor importance4 ,in these and a few other ,states the people make their own local laws instead of delegating this power to representatives4 ,the electors of the township meet annually at a fixed place1 upon a day appointed by law1 discuss questions of public concern1 elect the township officers1 levy township taxes1 make appropriations of money for public purposes1 fix the salaries and hear the reports of officers1 and decide upon a course of action for the coming year4 ,thus the people themselves1 or more strictly speaking1 the qualified voters1 are the government4 ,in some ,states special town meetings may be called for special purposes4 ,the town meeting places local public affairs under the direct control of the people1 and thus gives them a personal interest in the government1 and makes them feel a personal responsibility for its acts4 ,another benefit of the system is that it trains the people to deal with political matters1 and so prepares them to act intelligently in all the affairs of the ,state and the nation4 ,in the ,western ,states the county government is more important1 and township legislation is confined to a narrow range4 ,in power and importance the township of most ,western ,states is intermediate between the town of the ,east and the civil district of the ,south4 ,,selectmen ,,or ,,trustees4--,the legislative power of the township is vested in the trustees1 town council1 or selectmen1 as they are variously termed4 ,the number of trustees or selectmen is not the same in all parts of the ,union1 being fixed at three in most ,states of the ,west1 and varying in ,new ,england with the wishes of the electors4 ,the trustees1 councilmen1 or selectmen are elected by the qualified voters of the township for a term of one1 two1 or three years1 varying in different ,states4 ,they are the legal guardians of the public interests of the township1 and make laws or ordinances1 sometimes called by-laws1 expressly pertaining to the local wants of the community1 and to a limited extent may levy taxes4 ,in some ,states1 especially those of the ,east1 the principal duties of the trustees or selectmen are executive4 ,they divide the township into road districts2 open roads on petition2 select jurors2 build and repair bridges and town halls1 where the expenditure is small2 act as judges of elections2 purchase and care for cemeteries2 have charge of the poor not in the county charge2 and act for the township in its corporate capacity4 ,if any thing goes wrong in the public affairs of the town1 complaint is made to these officers4 ,,executive ,,department4--,most of the public affairs of the township1 as well as of all other governments1 pertain to the executive department4 ,its duties are far more extensive1 and its officers are more numerous1 than those of the other departments4 ,the executive officers of the township are the clerk1 the treasurer1 the school directors1 the assessor1 the supervisors1 and the constables4 ,in most ,states all these officers are elected by the qualified voters2 but in some the clerk1 the treasurer1 and the constables are elected by the town council4 ,,clerk4--,the clerk of the township is clerk of the trustees1 council1 or selectmen1 and in some ,states of the school board4 ,he attends the meetings of the trustees1 and makes a careful record of the proceedings4 ,he keeps the poll-lists and other legal papers of the township1 administers oaths1 and notifies officers of their election4 ,in the ,new ,england ,states1 and some others1 he keeps a record of the marriages1 births1 and deaths1 calls the town meeting to order1 reads the warrant under which it is held1 presides until a moderator is chosen1 and then acts as clerk of the meeting4 ,,treasurer4--,taxes collected from the people for local purposes are paid to the treasurer4 ,he receives all fines1 forfeitures1 and license-fees paid to the township4 ,he is the keeper of the township funds1 giving bond for the faithful performance of his duties1 and pays out money upon the written order of the trustees1 attested by the clerk4 ,in some ,states1 as in ,new ,york1 there is no separate township treasurer1 the above and other duties being performed by the supervisor1 who is the chief officer of the township4 ,,school ,,directors4--,the school directors have charge of the public schools of the township4 ,the number of directors varies widely1 being usually three1 five1 or more4 ,in a few of the ,states1 the clerks of the district trustees constitute the township school directors1 or township board of education4 ,the directors levy taxes for school purposes1 visit and inspect the public schools1 adopt text-books1 regulate the order of studies and length of the term1 fix salaries1 purchase furniture and apparatus1 and make reports to the higher school officers4 ,in some ,states they examine teachers and grant certificates to teach4 ,in many ,states a part of these duties falls to the county superintendent4 ,,assessor4--,the assessor makes a list of the names of all persons subject to taxation1 estimates the value of their real and personal property1 assesses a tax thereon1 and in some ,states delivers this list to the auditor1 and in others to the collector of taxes4 ,in most ,states there1 is also a poll-tax of from one to three dollars1 sometimes more1 laid upon all male inhabitants more than twenty-one years of age4 ,in some ,states there are two or more assessors to the township1 and in others real estate is valued only once in ten years4 ,,commissioners1 or surveyors of highways1 have charge of the construction and repair of highways1 summon those subject to labor on the road1 and direct their work4 ,,supervisor4--,in some ,states the chief executive duties of the town fall upon the supervisor1 but his principal duties are rather as a member of the county board of supervisors4 ,,constables4--,constables are ministerial and police officers4 ,there are usually two or three in each township4 ,they wait upon the justice's court1 and are subject to his orders4 ,they preserve the public peace1 serve warrants and other processes1 and in some ,states act as collectors of taxes4 ,,collector1 ,,etc4--,in some ,states the township has a collector and three or more auditors4 ,they are usually elected by the trustees1 or council1 but in a few of the ,states they are elected by the town meeting4 ,the collector collects the township taxes1 giving bond for the faithful performance of his duties4 ,in order to secure honesty and efficiency in public office1 and to exhibit the financial condition of the township1 the auditors annually examine the books of the treasurer and the collector1 and publish a report showing the receipts and expenditures of public money4 ,in a few ,states the township has a field-driver and a pound-keeper1 whose respective duties are to take stray animals to the pound1 an enclosure kept for the purpose1 and to retain them with good care until the owner is notified and pays all expenses2 two or more fence-viewers1 who decide disputes about fences2 surveyors of lumber1 who measure and mark lumber offered for sale2 and sealers1 who test and certify weights and measures used in trade4 ,these officers are usually appointed by the selectmen4 ,,judicial ,,department2 ,,justices4--,the judicial power is vested in the justices1 who are elected by the qualified voters of the town4 ,there are usually two or three justices1 but in some ,states there is only one in each township4 ,the term of office is one1 two1 three1 four1 or more years1 varying in different ,states4 ,justices preside in the justice's court to hear and determine suits at law4 ,this is the humblest court in the land1 the court of greatest antiquity1 and the court upon which all other courts are founded4#a ,the justice's court tries petty offences and civil suits for small amounts4 ,in some ,states the justices preside at the town meetings1 and in others they perform the duties of coroner in the township4 #a,thorpe's ,civil ,government4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,has this ,state the township system8 ,if so1 give the name and number of your township4 #b4 ,how does the township system provide a convenient means of ascertaining and of executing the people's will8 #c4 ,why is the people's power greater when the government is near8 #d4 ,why can the community manage its own affairs better than any other agency can manage them8 #e4 ,how do people secure their rights8 #f4 ,what is meant by falling under the censure of the law8 #g4 ,what is a naturalized person8 #h4 ,is it right for subjects of foreign governments to vote8 ,why8 #i4 ,is it right for women to vote8 #aj4 ,why is suffrage the basis of all free government8 #aa4 ,what is a more severe penalty than imprisonment8 #ab4 ,how can people serve the country8 #ac4 ,what is a good citizen8 #ad4 ,why is a bad vote an attack on the rights of the people8 #ae4 ,what other laws than those made by the legislative department of the township does the executive department enforce8 #af4 ,how do you like the ,new ,england town meeting8 ,why8 #ag4 ,name some duties that belong to the executive department4 #ah4 ,what is a poll-list8 #ai4 ,what are the duties of judges of election8 #bj4 ,of what use is a record of marriages1 births1 and deaths8 #ba4 ,what is meant by license-fees8 #bb4 ,what persons are subject to taxation8 #bc4 ,what is a poll-tax1 and is it right8 ,why8 #bd4 ,who are subject to road duty in this ,state8 #be4 ,give the names of the officers of this township4 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the town meeting is the best system of local government yet devised4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,county4 ,,intruductory4--,the county is a political division of the ,state1 and is composed of civil districts or of townships4 ,it bears the name of county in all parts of the country except in ,louisiana1 where a similar organization is known as a parish4 ,in ,new ,england the county has less power than the town2 in the ,western ,states it has more than the township2 and in the ,southern ,states it has far more than the civil district1 being there the unit of political influence4 ,,purposes4--,the county organization brings justice near the people1 enables them to attend to local affairs too extensive for a smaller community1 and affords a medium by which they may transact business with the ,state4 ,it serves as a convenient basis of apportioning members of the legislature among the people4 ,it maintains local officers1 such as sheriff and prosecuting attorney1 whose duties would be too narrow if confined to a township4 ,it secures a competent and higher tribunal than the justice's court for the trial of suits at law4 ,this was the original purpose1 and is still the controlling reason for the division of the ,states into counties4 ,,formation1 ,,area4--,counties are formed1 their rights are conferred1 and their duties imposed1 by act of the ,state legislature4 ,in most ,states counties vary greatly in shape and size1 but in some of the ,western ,states they have a regular form4 ,the average area of counties in the ,united ,states is eight hundred and thirty square miles2 the average area of those east of the ,mississippi ,river is only three hundred and eighty square miles4 ,,county ,,seat4--,the county government resides at the county seat1 county town1 or shire town1 as it is variously called4 ,the court-house1 the jail1 the public offices1 and sometimes other county buildings are located at the county seat4 ,here are kept the records of the courts2 also1 usually copies of the deeds1 wills1 mortgages1 and other important papers of the people4 ,,county ,,government4 ,the county1 like the ,united ,states1 the ,state1 and the township1 has a republican form of government2 that is1 it is governed by representatives elected by the people4 ,in nearly all ,states the county government has three departments1 legislative1 executive1 and judicial2 but the functions of making1 of executing1 and of explaining the laws1 are not always kept separate and distinct4 ,in a few ,states the county does not have a judicial department4 ,,officers4--,county officers and township officers have duties similar in kind1 but the former have charge of the larger interests4 ,the usual officers of the county are the commissioners or supervisors1 the county attorney or prosecuting attorney1 the county superintendent of schools or school commissioner1 the sheriff1 the treasurer1 the auditor1 the county clerk or common pleas clerk1 the surveyor1 the coroner1 and the county judge and surrogate1 or probate judge4 ,in the counties of many ,states one or more of these officers are lacking1 and others have different names from those here given4 ,in the ,western and the ,southern ,states county officers are elected by the direct vote of the people2 in most of the ,new ,england ,states some of them are chosen in other ways4 ,the terms of county officers vary in different parts of the ,union1 being usually two1 three1 or four years2 but in some ,states certain officers are elected for a longer term4 ,,legislative ,,department3 ,,county ,,commissioners1 ,,or ,,board ,,of ,,supervisors4--,in most ,states the public interests of the county are intrusted to a board of officers1 three or five in number1 called county commissioners4 ,in some ,states the board consists of one or more supervisors from each township1 and is called the board of supervisors4 ,in a few ,states the board consists of all the justices of the county1 with the county judge as presiding officer4 ,the county commissioners1 or board of supervisors1 have charge of the county property1 such as the court-house1 the jail1 and the county infirmary2 make orders and raise funds for the erection of county buildings1 and for the construction and improvement of highways and bridges2 provide polling-places2 make appropriations of money for public purposes2 and act as the chief agents of the county in its corporate capacity4 ,in some ,states they fix the salaries of county officers2 in others they have power to form new townships and to change the township boundaries4 ,in several ,states the functions of the board are almost wholly executive4 ,,executive ,,department3 ,,county ,,attorneys1 ,,or ,,prosecutin ,,attorneys4--,the county attorney1 or prosecuting attorney1 is the county's counsellor at law1 and when requested gives legal advice to all the county officers4 ,it is his duty to prosecute the accused in the trial of crimes and offences1 in the justice's court1 the county court1 and in some ,states in the circuit court or district court2 to represent the county in all civil suits to which it is a party2 and to act for it in all cases in which its legal interests are involved4 ,,county ,,superindentent ,,of ,,schools4--,in some ,states there is no county superintendent of schools4 ,in most ,states there is such an officer elected by the township school directors or by the people of the county1 or appointed by the ,state superintendent of public instruction4 ,in a few ,states the county is divided into two or more districts1 each having a commissioner of schools4 ,the county superintendent1 or school commissioner1 is the chief school officer of the county4 ,he administers the public school system1 condemns unfit school-houses and orders others built1 examines teachers and grants certificates1 holds teachers' institutes1 visits and directs the schools1 instructs teachers in their duties1 interests the people in education1 and reports the condition of the schools to the ,state superintendent of public instruction4 ,he is one of the most important officers of the county1 a capable administration of his duties being of the greatest benefit to the whole people4 ,,sheriff4--,the sheriff is the guardian of the peace of the county and the executive officer of its courts4#a ,he preserves the peace1 arrests persons charged with crime1 serves writs and other processes in both civil and criminal cases1 makes proclamation of all elections1 summons jurors1 and ministers to the courts of his county4 ,in ,states having no county jailer1 the sheriff has charge of the prisons and prisoners1 and is responsible for their safe-keeping4 ,when persons refuse to pay their taxes1 he seizes and sells enough property to pay the sum assessed2 and in some ,states he is the collector of all ,state and county revenue4 ,,county ,,treasurer4--,the duties of the treasurer are indicated by the title of his office4 ,he receives all county taxes1 licenses1 and other money paid into the county treasury4 ,in most ,states he is custodian of the county's financial records1 and of the tax-collector's books1 and in others he collects all the taxes assessed in the county4 ,he gives bond for the faithful performance of his duties1 and pays out funds upon the warrant of the county commissioners4 ,in most ,states having no county treasurer1 the sheriff is keeper of the public money4 ,,auditor4--,the auditor is the guardian of the county's financial interests4 ,he examines the books and papers of officers who receive or disburse county funds2 keeps a record of receipts and expenditures2 draws all warrants for the payment of public money2 and publishes a report of the county's financial transactions4 ,in some ,states he receives the assessor's returns1 apportions taxes among the people1 and prepares the tax-collector's duplicate list4 ,in ,states having no county auditor1 these duties are performed by other officers4 ,,county ,,clerk1 ,,or ,,common ,,pleas ,,clerk4--,the county clerk1 or common pleas clerk1 is the recording officer of the county court1 or probate court1 and in some ,states of the circuit court4 ,he issues writs1 preserves papers1 and records judgments4 ,in many ,states he issues licenses1 preserves election returns1 and records wills1 deeds1 mortgages1 and other important papers4 ,,recorder1 ,,or ,,register4--,in many ,states the county has a recorder1 or register1 instead of the county clerk1 and in some ,states it has both4 ,the recorder1 or register1 makes a record in books kept for that purpose1 of wills1 deeds1 mortgages1 village plats1 and powers of attorney4 ,some of these instruments must be recorded in order to make them valid in law4 ,in some ,states having no recorder1 these duties are performed by the township clerk1 and in others by the county clerk4 ,,surveyor4--,the county surveyor1 or engineer1 surveys tracts of land to locate lines1 determine areas1 and to settle conflicting claims4 ,in some ,states his services are frequently needed in the transfer of real estate4 ,in most ,states he makes plots of surveys1 issues maps of the county1 and has charge of the construction of roads and bridges4 ,,coroner4--,the coroner investigates the death of persons who have died by violence1 or in prison1 or from causes unknown4 ,he receives notice of the death2 a jury is summoned2 witnesses testify2 and the jury renders a verdict in writing1 stating the cause and the manner of the death4 ,this inquiry is known as the coroner's inquest4 ,in some ,states when the office of sheriff is vacant1 the coroner performs the duties4 ,,other ,,officers4--,in some ,states there are superintendents of the poor1 or infirmary directors1 who have charge of the county infirmary in which the dependent poor are maintained2 in others the township overseers of the poor support these unfortunates with funds furnished for that purpose by the county4 ,in some ,states there is a collector who collects all the taxes of the county2 a county jailer who holds prisoners in custody and has charge of the county buildings1 under the commissioners' directions2 and also a circuit clerk1 or district clerk1 who is the recording officer of the circuit court1 or district court as it is often called4 ,,judicial ,,department3 ,,county ,,judge ,,or ,,probate ,,judge4--,the judicial power of the county is vested in the county judge1 or probate judge1 who in many ,states is its most prominent and important officer4 ,he has jurisdiction of wills and estates1 appoints administrators and guardians1 and settles their accounts4 ,in many states he grants licenses2 presides over the legislative body of the county2 makes orders opening roads and appointing overseers of the public highway3 appoints officers of elections2 holds examining trials2 sits in the county court to try minor offences and civil suits for small amounts2 and in a few ,states acts as county superintendent of schools4 ,in some ,states there is a probate judge1 or judge of the orphan's court1 in addition to the county judge4 #a,thorpe's ,civil ,government4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,what is meant by unit of political influence8 #b4 ,what affairs are too extensive for a smaller community than the county8 #c4 ,why is the county seat so called8 #d4 ,state the terms and the names of the officers of this county4 #e4 ,why do the officers of the county need legal advice8 #f4 ,what is meant by the sheriff administering to the courts8 #g4 ,what are licenses8 #h4 ,of what use is the treasurer's bond8 #i4 ,what is the collector's duplicate list8 #aj4 ,what is a writ8 #aa4 ,what is the plot of a survey8 #ab4 ,what is a will8 an administrator8 #ac4 ,what is an examining trial8 #ad4 ,do you think the county judge or probate judge should act as superintendent of schools8 ,why8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that a poll-tax is unjust4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,municipal ,,corporations4 ,,villages1 ,,boroughs1 ,,and ,,cities4--,the county usually has within its limits villages or cities1 organized under separate and distinct governments4 ,when the people become so thickly settled that the township and county government do not meet their local public wants1 the community is incorporated as a village4 ,villages are often called towns1 and incorporated as such1 especially in the ,southern ,states2 but the word taken in this sense must not be confounded with the same word1 denoting a political division of the county in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and ,wisconsin4 ,,the ,,village1 ,,or ,,borough4 ,,incorporation4--,in most ,states1 villages1 boroughs1 and towns are incorporated under general laws made by the ,state legislature4 ,a majority of the legal voters living within the proposed limits must first vote in favor of the proposition to incorporate4 ,in some ,states1 villages are incorporated by special act of the legislature4 ,,government ,,purposes4--,the purposes of the village or borough government are few in number1 and lie within a narrow limit4 ,it is a corporate body1 having the usual corporate powers4 ,under the village organization1 local public works1 such as streets1 sidewalks1 and bridges1 are maintained more readily and in better condition than under the government1 of the township and county4 ,the presence of the village officers tends to preserve the peace and make crime less frequent4 ,,officers4--,the usual officers of the village or borough are the trustees or councilmen1 whose duties are mostly legislative2 the marshal1 and sometimes a president or mayor2 a collector and a treasurer1 whose duties are executive2 and the recorder1 or police judge1 or justices of the peace1 whose duties are judicial4 ,the officers are usually elected by the legal voters1 and serve for a term of one or two years4 ,in many villages the president and the collector are elected by the trustees1 the former from among their own number4 ,,duties4--,the trustees or council pass laws1 called ordinances1 relating to streets1 fast driving1 lamps1 water-works1 the police system1 public parks1 public health1 and the public buildings4 ,they appoint minor officers1 such as clerk1 regular and special policemen1 keeper of the cemetery1 and fire-wardens2 prescribe the duties1 and fix the compensation of these officers4 ,the president or mayor is the chief executive officer1 and is charged with seeing that the laws are enforced4 ,in villages having no president or mayor1 this duty devolves upon the trustees4 ,the marshal is a ministerial officer1 with the same duties and often the same jurisdiction as the constable1 and is sometimes known by that name4 ,he preserves the peace1 makes arrests1 serves processes1 and waits upon the recorder's court4 ,the collector collects the village taxes4 ,the treasurer receives all village funds1 and pays out money upon the order of the trustees4 ,the recorder or police judge tries minor offences1 such as breach of the peace1 and holds examining trials of higher crimes4 ,his jurisdiction is usually equal to that of justices of the peace in the same ,state4 ,in some ,states the village has two justices of the peace instead of the recorder1 these being also officers of the county4 ,,the ,,city4 ,when the village1 borough1 or town becomes so large that its government does not meet the people's local public needs1 it is incorporated as a city4 ,where the country is sparsely settled the peace is seldom broken1 private interests do not conflict1 the people's public needs are small1 and therefore the functions of government are few and light4 ,as the population grows dense1 the public peace is oftener disturbed1 crime increases1 disputes about property arise1 the public needs become numerous and important1 and the officers of the law must interfere to preserve order and protect the people4 ,the fewer the people to the square mile1 the fewer and lighter are the functions of government2 the more people to the square mile1 the more and stronger must be the functions of government4 ,,incorporation4--,cities and villages or boroughs differ principally in size and in the scope of their corporate authority4 ,a city is larger in area and population1 and the powers and privileges of its government are more extensive4 ,in most ,states cities may be incorporated under general laws1 but some cities are incorporated by special acts of the ,state legislature4 ,the act or deed of incorporation is called the city charter4 ,the charter names the city1 fixes its limits1 erects it as a distinct political corporation1 sets forth its powers and privileges1 names its officers1 prescribes their duties1 and authorizes the city to act as an independent government4 ,the legislature may amend the charter at any time1 and the acts and laws of the city must not conflict with the constitution of the ,state or of the ,united ,states4 ,,wards4--,the city is usually divided into wards for convenience in executing the laws1 and especially in electing representatives in the city government4 ,wards vary greatly in area and population1 and their number depends in a measure upon the size of the city4 ,each usually elects a member of the board of education1 and one or more members of each branch of the city council4 ,each ward is subdivided into precincts for convenience in establishing polling-places4 ,,city ,,institutions4--,cities maintain a number of institutions1 peculiar to themselves1 for the public welfare4 ,the frequency of destructive fires causes the formation of a fire department4 ,a police force must be organized to protect life and property4 ,a system of sewerage is necessary to the public health4 ,there must be gas-works or electric-light works1 that the streets may be lighted1 and water-works to supply water for public and private use4 ,in many cities gas-works and water-works are operated by private parties or by private corporations4 ,,finances4--,each city has an independent financial system1 which requires skillful management4 ,the city borrows money1 issuing interest-bearing bonds in payment1 and engages in extensive public improvements4 ,the large outlays for paving the streets1 constructing water-works1 laying out parks1 erecting public buildings1 and for maintaining police systems and fire departments1 cause cities to incur debts often amounting to many millions of dollars4 ,as the result of the greater expense of its government1 and as its people also pay ,state and county taxes1 the rate of taxation in a city is far greater than in rural districts and villages4 ,,citizens3 ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,the qualifications1 the rights1 and the duties of citizens of the city are the same as those of citizens of the township and the county4 ,the qualifications of voters are also usually the same4 ,the duties of voters are the same in all elections1 whether in the school district1 the civil district1 the city1 the county1 the ,state1 or the ,united ,states2 namely1 to vote for the best men and the best measures4 ,under whatever division of government the people are living1 they always have the same interest in the maintenance of order1 in the enforcement of the laws1 in the triumph of right1 principles1 and in the election of good men to office4 ,,government4--,a city often has a more complex government than that of the ,state in which the city is situated4 ,the massing of so many people1 representing so many interests1 requires a government with strong legislative1 executive1 and judicial functions4 ,one of the great questions of our time is how to secure economy and efficiency in city government2 and1 as our cities are growing with great rapidity1 the problem is daily becoming more difficult to solve4 ,,officers4--,the legislative power is vested in the city council1 in many cases composed of a board of aldermen and of a common council4 ,the executive authority is vested in the mayor1 the city attorney or solicitor1 the city clerk1 the assessor1 the collector1 the treasurer1 the city engineer or surveyor1 the board of public works1 the street commissioner1 the school board or board of education1 and the superintendent of schools4 ,the judicial power is vested in the city court1 police court1 or recorder's court1 as it is variously termed2 in a number of justices' courts2 and in the higher courts1 which are also courts of the county in which the city is located4 ,the officers of the city are usually elected by the legal voters1 but in some cities the collector1 the city engineer1 the street commissioner1 and a number of subordinate officers are appointed by the mayor or city council4 ,the superintendent of schools is elected by the school board4 ,,duties4--,in many small cities1 and in several of the larger cities1 such as ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,san ,francisco1 the council consists only of the board of aldermen4 ,when the council is composed of two branches1 a law can not be made by one of them alone2 it must be passed by both2 and if vetoed by the mayor1 it must be passed again1 and in most cities by a two thirds vote1 or it is void4 ,the council makes laws1 or ordinances1 regulating the police force2 fixing the rate of city taxation2 ordering the issue of bonds and the construction of public works2 and making appropriations for public purposes4 ,the mayor is the chief executive of the city4 ,it is his duty to see that the laws are enforced4 ,he appoints a number of subordinate officers1 and in most cities may veto the acts of the city council4 ,the duties of the city attorney1 the city clerk1 the assessor1 the collector1 the treasurer1 the school board1 and the superintendent of schools are similar to those of township and county officers of the same name4 ,the city engineer has charge of the construction of sewers and the improvement of parks4 ,the street commissioner attends to the construction and repair of the streets1 crossings1 and sidewalks4 ,there are a number of officers appointed by the mayor or the council1 such as chief of police1 chief of the fire department1 and the city physician1 who have duties connected with their special departments4 ,the city judge1 police judge1 or recorder1 has duties similar to those of the same officer in an incorporated village4 ,cities also have higher courts1 variously named1 whose judges have duties and jurisdiction equivalent to those of county officers of the same grade4 ,because offenses against the law are more frequent1 officers are more numerous in cities than in the rural districts4 ,,commission ,,plan ,,of ,,city ,,government4--,in recent times the commission plan of government has been adopted for many cities1 in a number of different ,states4 ,this plan gives full control of the city government and its minor officials to a commission or council composed of a few men 7usually five7 elected by the voters of the whole city4 ,this commission exercises both legislative and executive functions4 ,it is composed of a mayor1 and councilmen or commissioners who act also as heads of administrative departments4 ,,recall4--,in a few ,states a mayor or councilman 7or other local or ,state officer elected by the people7 may be displaced before the expiration of his term of office4 ,if a sufficient number of voters petition to have this done1 a new election is held to decide whether he or some one else shall have the office for the rest of the term4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,what is meant by incorporating a village8 #b4 ,what is a breach of the peace8 #c4 ,what are polling-places8 #d4 ,to what ,state officer does the mayor of a city or town correspond8 #e4 ,why are offenses against the laws more frequent in the cities than in the rural districts8 #f4 ,what is the largest city of this ,state8 ,is its council composed of one body or of two8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the legislative department of a city government should consist of only one deliberative body4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,state4 ,,introductory4--,after the county1 the government nearest us is that of the ,state4 ,the political divisions which we have considered are subject to the ,state1 holding their powers as grants from its government4 ,the ,state can make and unmake them1 and we owe them obedience because the ,state has commanded it4 ,as we sometimes express it1 the sovereignty or supreme sway of these local divisions resides in the ,state4 ,,definition4--,a ,state is a community of free citizens living within a territory with fixed limits1 governed by laws based upon a constitution of their own adoption1 and possessing all governmental powers not granted to the ,united ,states4 ,each ,state is a republic and maintains a republican form of government1 which is guaranteed by the ,united ,states4 ,the ,state is supreme within its own sphere1 but its authority must not conflict with that of the national government4 ,a ,state is sometimes called a commonwealth because it binds the whole people together for their common weal or common good4 ,,formation ,,of ,,original ,,states4--,the thirteen original colonies were principally settled by people from ,europe4 ,the colonial rights were set forth and boundaries fixed by charters granted by the crown of ,england4 ,in the ,declaration of ,independence these colonies declared themselves free and independent ,states4 ,after the treaty of peace which acknowledged their independence1 they framed and adopted the national constitution1 and thereby became the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,admission ,,of ,,new ,,states4--,new ,states are admitted into the ,union by special acts of the ,congress of the ,united ,states4 ,an organized ,territory having the necessary population sends a memorial to ,congress asking to be admitted as a ,state4 ,congress then passes a law called an enabling act1 authorizing the people of the ,territory to form a ,state constitution4 ,when the people have framed and adopted a ,state constitution not in conflict with the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 ,congress passes another act admitting the new ,state into the ,union upon an equal footing with the original ,states in all respects whatever4 ,sometimes the enabling act provides for admission on proclamation of the ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,several of the ,territories adopted ,state constitutions and were admitted as ,states without enabling acts4 ,,purposes4--,the ,state keeps power near the people1 and thus makes them more secure in their liberty4 ,the powers not granted to the ,united ,states1 nor prohibited to the ,states1 are reserved to the ,states respectively or to the people4 ,if the whole country were a single republic without ,state divisions1 power would be withdrawn from the people and become centralized in the national government4 ,our political system leaves the various functions of government to the smallest political communities that can perform them efficiently4 ,the county has charge of all public interests that can be managed by it as well as by the ,state4 ,many public affairs1 such as popular education1#a private corporations1 and the organization of the smaller political divisions1 can be better managed by the ,state than by the ,national ,government1 and are therefore properly left to the ,state's direction4 ,parts of the country widely separated differ in climate and soil1 giving rise to different industries and occupations1 which require different laws1 made and administered by different ,states4 ,the ,state serves as a convenient basis for the apportionment of members of both houses of ,congress1 and ,state institutions preserve and develop the local individuality and self-reliance of the people4 ,,functions4--,the functions of the ,state are very extensive1 including the greater part of those acts of government which preserve society by affording security to life1 liberty1 property1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,the ,state government touches the citizens at most points2 that is1 all those laws that concern the body of the people in their ordinary daily life are made and enforced by the ,state1 or by the smaller political divisions of the ,state1 acting under the ,state's directions4 ,officers discharge their duties1 arrests are made1 courts are held1 offenders are punished1 justice is meted out1 and taxes are collected1 by the authority of the ,state4 ,the ,national ,government has similar functions to perform in every part of the country1 but they are far less frequent than those of the ,state4 ,,institutions4--,the ,state maintains a number of charitable and other institutions for the public welfare4 ,it makes appropriations of land or money for the support of asylums1 prisons1 reformatories1 scientific institutions1 schools1 colleges1 and universities4 ,the support of these institutions1 the payment of salaries1 the administration of justice1 and the conduct of other public interests1 involve large annual expenditures1 often amounting to several millions of dollars4 ,,citizens4 ,the citizens of a ,state are the people who live in it1 whether natives of the ,united ,states1 or foreigners who have been adopted4 ,persons who are citizens of the ,united ,states are thereby citizens of the ,state in which they reside4 ,they have all the rights that freemen can possess1 and enjoy a larger freedom than do the people of any other country4 ,the legal voters1 often called electors1 are the male citizens who have resided in the ,state1 the county1 and the township1 or voting precinct1 the time required by law to entitle them to vote4 ,the length of residence required in the ,state varies1 being two years in some1 six months in others1 and one year in most ,states4 ,several ,states permit citizens of foreign countries to vote1 and a few permit women to vote4 ,,rights4--,every citizen has the right to be secure in his person2 to be free from attack and annoyance2 to go when and where he may choose2 to keep1 enjoy1 and dispose of his property2 and to provide in his own way for the welfare of himself and of those dependent upon him4 ,the rights of the people are set forth at length and with great precision in a portion of the ,state constitution called the ,bill of ,rights4 ,these rights must be exercised under the restrictions of the law1 and with due regard for the same rights held by others4 ,the legal voters have the right to vote in all local1 ,state1 and national elections4 ,they are voters in national elections by virtue of being voters in ,state elections4 ,the right to vote implies the right to be voted for1 and the right to hold office2 but for many officers the ,state requires a longer residence and other qualifications than those prescribed for voters4 ,,duties4--,for every right1 the people have a corresponding duty2 and for every privilege they enjoy1 there is a trust for them to discharge4 ,the large personal freedom possessed by the ,american citizens imposes equally as large public responsibilities4 ,it is the duty of every citizen to obey the law1 to aid in securing justice1 to respect authority1 to love his country1 and to labor for the public good4 ,no one can be a useful member of society unless he respects the laws and institutions of the land4 ,the people themselves have established this government1 both ,state and national2 it exists for them1 and therefore they owe it honor and obedience4 ,it is the duty of every voter to study the interests of the country1 and to vote for persons and measures that1 in his opinion1 will best promote the general welfare4 ,in this country1 government is intrusted to the whole people1 and they can govern only by expressing their will in elections4 ,therefore the majority must rule4 ,the majority will sometimes make mistakes1 but these will be corrected after a time4 ,in order that good government may ensue1 good citizens must take part in elections4 ,the privilege of suffrage is conferred upon an implied contract that it will be used for the public good4 ,he who fails to vote when he can1 fails to perform his part of the contract1 fails to fulfill his promise1 and fails to respect the government that protects him4 ,,constitution4 ,the constitution is often called the supreme law of the ,state4 ,in other words1 it is the supreme act of the people1 for the purpose of organizing themselves as a body politic1 of formulating their government1 and of fixing the limits of its power4 ,it is a contract between the whole society as a political body1 and each of its members4 ,each binds himself to the whole body1 and the whole body binds itself to each1 in order that all may be governed by the same laws for the common good4 ,the constitution of each ,state is a written instrument1 modeled after the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 with which it must not conflict4 ,the constitutions of ,england and most other countries of ,europe are unwritten4 ,they consist of the common usages and maxims that have become fixed by long experience4 ,in those countries1 when a new political custom grows into common practice it thereby becomes a part of the national constitution4 ,,formation ,,and ,,adoption4--,as the whole people can not assemble in one place to frame and adopt a constitution1 they elect delegates to a constitutional convention4 ,the convention usually meets at the capital1 deliberates1 frames articles for a proposed constitution1 and in nearly all cases submits them to the people4 ,the people make known their will in a general election1 and if a majority vote in favor of adopting the proposed constitution1 it becomes the constitution of the ,state4 ,if the proposed constitution is rejected1 another convention must be called to propose other articles to be voted upon by the people4 ,,purposes4--,the purposes of the constitution are to guard the rights of the people1 to protect the liberties of the minority1 to grant authority to the government1 to separate the functions of the three departments1 to prescribe the limits of each1 and to fix in the public policy those maxims of political wisdom that have been sanctioned by time4 ,the special tendency in recent amendments of ,state constitutions has been to limit the power of the legislature4 ,constitutions1 like other political institutions1 are largely matters of growth1 and from time to time must be revised to meet the changing wants of society4 ,for this purpose the constitution of almost every ,state contains a provision1 called the open clause1 which authorizes the legislature1 under certain restrictions1 to propose amendments to the constitution to be adopted or rejected by a vote of the people4 ,,value4--,the people of any ,state may1 at their pleasure1 frame and adopt a new constitution1 which must be in harmony with the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,the right to make their own constitution is one of the highest and most important rights that freemen can possess4 ,it is in this and in the right of suffrage that their freedom principally consists4 ,the constitution protects the people by prescribing the limits of official authority4 ,the legislature can not legally pass a law which the constitution of the ,state forbids1 and when such a law is passed it is declared unconstitutional by the ,state courts4 ,a provision of a ,state constitution becomes void when declared by the supreme court of the ,united ,states to be in conflict with the national ,constitution4 ,,contents4--,the constitutions of the several ,states are based upon the ,constitution of the ,united ,states as a model1 and are therefore much alike in their general provisions4 ,each contains3 ,a preamble setting forth the purposes of the constitution2 ,a lengthy declaration called the bill of rights2 ,provisions for distributing the powers of government into three departments2 and ,articles relating to suffrage1 debt1 taxation1 corporations1 public schools1 militia1 amendments1 and other public affairs4 ,,bill ,,of ,,rights4 ,the bill of rights usually declares various rights of the citizen which may be classified under the heads of republican principles1 personal security1 private property1 freedom of conscience1 freedom of speech and of the press1 freedom of assembly1 and freedom from military tyranny4 ,,republican ,,principles4--,under this head the bill declares3 ,that all power is inherent in the people2 ,that governments exist for their good1 and by their consent2 ,that all freemen are equal2 ,that no title of nobility shall be conferred2 ,that exclusive privileges shall not be granted except in consideration of public services2 ,that all elections shall be free and equal4 ,,personal ,,security4--,in the interests of the personal security of the citizen it is provided3 ,that the people shall be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and possessions1 from unreasonable seizures and searches2 ,that warrants to seize and to search persons and things must describe them by oath or affirmation2 ,that there shall be no imprisonment for debt1 except in cases of fraud4 ,,private ,,property4--,to secure the rights of private property1 the bill declares3 ,that private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation2 ,and1 in some ,states1 that long leases of agricultural lands shall not be made4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,conscience4--,to induce the entire freedom of conscience of the citizen it is declared3 ,that there shall be perfect religious freedom1 but not covering immoral practices2 ,that there shall be no ,state church2 ,that no religious test shall be required for performing any public function2 ,that the rights of conscience are free from human control4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,speech ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,press4--,to maintain the rightful freedom of the press1 the bill guarantees3 ,that printing-presses may be used by all2 ,that every citizen may freely speak1 write1 and print upon any subject--being responsible for the abuse of the right4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,assembly4--,the right of assembly is secured by the provision3 ,that the people may peaceably assemble for the public good1 to discuss questions of public interest2 and ,that they may petition the government for redress of grievances4 ,,freedom ,,from ,,military ,,tyranny4--,to guard against abuses by the military1 it is declared3 ,that the military shall be in strict subordination to the civil power2 ,that no standing army shall be maintained in time of peace2 ,that in time of peace no soldier shall be quartered in any house without the owner's consent2 ,that the right of people to bear arms shall not be questioned4 ,this does not authorize the carrying of concealed weapons4 ,,forbidden ,,laws4--,to insure the people against improper legislation1 the bill of rights provides3 ,that no ex post facto law or law impairing the validity of contracts1 shall be made2 ,that no bill of attainder shall be passed2 ,that no power of suspending laws shall be exercised except by the legislature4 ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,accused4--,among the worst abuses of tyranny in all ages have been the corruption of the courts and the denial of the rights of common justice4 ,to guard against these it is expressly provided3 ,that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except when1 in cases of rebellion or invasion1 the public safety may require it2 ,that1 except in capital cases1 persons charged with crime may give bail2 ,that no excessive bail shall be required2 ,that all courts shall be open2 ,that the accused shall have a speedy trial in the district in which the offense was committed2 ,that the ancient mode of trial by jury shall be maintained2 but civil suits1 by consent of the parties1 may be tried without a jury2 ,that all persons injured in lands1 goods1 person1 or reputation shall have remedy by course of law2 ,that the accused shall be informed of the nature of the charges against him2 ,that he shall be confronted by the witnesses against him2 ,that he shall be heard in his own defense1 and may have the benefit of counsel2 ,that he shall not be required to testify against himself2 ,that he shall not be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property except by due process of law2 ,that no cruel or unusual punishment shall be inflicted2 ,that no one shall be twice placed in jeopardy for the same offense4 ,no citizen of the ,united ,states would deny the justice of these declarations4 ,they are so reasonable it seems strange that they should ever have been questioned4 ,but in enumerating them we are treading on sacred ground4 ,their establishment cost our ancestors hundreds of years of struggle against arbitrary power1 in which they gave their blood and treasure4#b ,it was to secure and maintain a part of these rights that the ,american colonies went to war with ,great ,britain1 and made good their ,declaration of ,independence by an appeal to arms4 ,most of these rights are preserved in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 to prevent encroachments upon the liberties of the people by the ,general ,government4 ,they are repeated in the ,state constitution in order that they may not be invaded by the ,state ,government4 ,there is also a provision in the constitution of the ,state which declares that the enumeration of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 #a,popular education must command the sympathy and respect of the people in each locality in order to remain popular4 ,while the ,state1 therefore1 enforces a general system of public schools1 it leaves all the details of local management with the people most closely related to the particular school4 ,the people esteem that which they create and control4 #b,mc,cleary's ,studies in ,civics4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why are the smaller political communities subject to the ,state8 #b4 ,give the names of the thirteen original ,states4 #c4 ,what is meant by ,states having different industries and occupations8 #d4 ,how do ,state institutions develop the self-reliance of the people8 #e4 ,name some acts of government which you have seen the ,state perform4 #f4 ,what are charitable institutions8 #g4 ,how is justice administered8 #h4 ,wherein are the people of this country freer than other people8 #i4 ,how long must a person live in this ,state to entitle him to vote8 #aj4 ,what is meant by being secure in person8 #aa4 ,read the bill of rights in the constitution of your ,state4 #ab4 ,what is a body politic8 #ac4 ,why can not the whole people assemble to form a ,state constitution8 #ad4 ,what is meant by taking private property for public use8 #ae4 ,how may the right to speak and print be abused8 #af4 ,what is meant by the military being subordinate to the civil power8 #ag4 ,are all cases tried by jury8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that there should be an educational qualification for suffrage4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,,government ,,departments4--,the ,state government is based upon the ,state constitution4 ,it has a legislative department charged with the making of the laws1 an executive department to enforce the laws1 and a judicial department to explain and apply the laws4 ,each of the departments is independent of the others1 being supreme within its own sphere4 ,the ,american people believe that the functions of making1 of enforcing1 and of explaining the laws1 should forever be separate and distinct4 ,experience has shown that it is dangerous to the liberties of the people to permit either of the three departments of government to trespass upon the functions of the others4 ,therefore1 the limits of each department are well defined1 and its power closely guarded1 by the constitution and laws of the ,state4 ,,legislative ,,department4 ,the legislative or law-making power of the ,state is vested in the legislature1 sometimes called the general assembly1 and in some ,states known as the general court1 or legislative assembly4 ,the legislature is composed of two bodies1 or houses1 called respectively the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives4 ,in ,new ,york the latter body is known as the ,assembly1 in ,new ,jersey it is called the ,general ,assembly and in some ,states the ,house of ,delegates4 ,a bill must be passed by both branches of the legislature in order to become a law4 ,the proceedings of the legislature should be made public1 and therefore the sessions are open1 and the constitution requires each house to keep and publish a daily record1 called the ,journal4 ,,qualifications4--,the ,state constitution prescribes the age1 the length of residence1 and other legal qualifications for membership in each branch of the legislature4 ,the constitutions of most ,states fix a longer term of office and require a more mature age for senators than for representatives4 ,in addition to these legal qualifications a legislator should be a man of unswerving honesty1 of broad information1 of close thought1 well versed in the principles of government1 acquainted with the needs of the country1 and faithful to the interests of the whole people4 ,,privileges4--,each branch of the legislature consists of members elected by the people4 ,senators and representatives are responsible for their official acts to the people1 and to the people alone4 ,except for treason1 felony1 and breach of the peace1 members of the legislature are privileged from arrest while attending the sessions of their respective houses1 and while going thereto and returning therefrom4 ,for any speech or debate in either house1 a member thereof can not be questioned in any other place4 ,each house adopts rules for its own government4 ,each house also elects its own officers1 except that in most ,states the people elect a lieutenant-governor1 who is also president of the ,senate4 ,these various privileges are granted in the ,state constitution in order that the actions of the legislature may be free from all outside influences4 ,,power4--,the constitution of the ,state defines the limits of the power vested in the legislative department4 ,the legislature may enact any law not forbidden by the ,constitution of the ,state or of the ,united ,states4 ,every act passed is binding upon the people unless it is declared by the courts to be unconstitutional4 ,an act of the legislature1 when declared to be unconstitutional1 thereby becomes void2 that is1 it ceases to have any legal force4 ,,sessions4--,the legislature meets at the ,state ,capitol4 ,in a few ,states the legislature holds annual sessions1 but in far the greater number it meets biennially2 that is1 once every two years4 ,in many ,states the constitution limits the session to a certain number of days1 but in a few of these ,states the legislature may extend its session by a special vote of two-thirds of each house4 ,a majority constitutes a quorum for business1 but a smaller number may meet and adjourn from day to day in order that the organization may not be lost4 ,,functions4--,the legislature enacts laws upon a great variety of subjects4 ,it fixes the rate of ,state taxation1 it provides for the collection and distribution of ,state revenue1 creates offices and fixes salaries1 provides for a system of popular education1 and makes laws relating to public works1 the administration of justice1 the conduct of elections1 the management of railways and other corporations1 the maintenance of charitable and other institutions1 the construction and repair of public roads1 the organization of the militia1 the conduct of prisons and reformatories1 and a number of other public interests4 ,,forbidden ,,powers4--,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states forbids any ,state to exercise certain powers3 7#a7 ,no ,state can enter into any treaty1 alliance1 confederation1 contract1 or agreement with any other ,state1 or with a foreign power2 issue commissions to vessels authorizing them to capture and destroy the merchant ships of other nations2 coin money2 issue paper money2 make any thing but gold and silver coin a legal tender for the payment of debts2 pass any bill inflicting the penalty of death without a regular trial1 or any law fixing a penalty for acts done before its adoption1 or any law affecting the provisions of contracts made before its passage2 or grant any title of nobility4 7#b7 ,no ,state can1 without the consent of ,congress1 lay a tax or duty on imports or exports1 except what is necessary in executing its inspection laws4 ,the net proceeds of all duties laid by any ,state for this purpose must be paid into the treasury of the ,united ,states2 and all such laws are subject to the revision and control of ,congress4 ,without the consent of ,congress1 no ,state can tax ships1 keep troops or ships of war in time of peace1 or engage in war unless invaded or in imminent danger4 7#c7 ,no ,state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states2 nor shall any ,state deprive any person of life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law1 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 7#d7 ,no ,state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for loss or emancipation of any slave4 ,,the ,,senate4--,the ,senate is a less numerous body than the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the presiding officer is addressed as ,mr4 ,president or ,mr4 ,speaker1 the title varying in different ,states4 ,there is also a chief clerk1 with assistants1 who keeps the records2 a sergeant-at-arms1 who preserves order on the floor2 a doorkeeper1 who has charge of the senate chamber and its entrances1 and a number of subordinate officers4 ,the ,senate has two functions not belonging to the ,house of ,representatives3 #a4 ,when the governor nominates persons for appointment as officers of the ,state1 unless the ,senate advises and consents to the nominations1 the appointments are void2 #b4 ,when the ,house of ,representatives presents articles of impeachment against an officer of the ,state1 the ,senate sits as a court to try the charges4 ,,house ,,of ,,representatives4--,the ,house of ,representatives is often called the popular branch of the legislature4 ,it is sometimes designated as the ,house4 ,the title of the presiding officer is ,mr4 ,speaker4 ,the other officers usually have the same titles and duties as those of the ,senate4 ,in many ,states bills raising revenue1 and in some ,states bills making appropriations1 must originate in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,this body also has the sole power of impeachment4 ,usually when charges affecting the official conduct of an officer of the ,state are brought before the legislature1 the ,house of ,representatives appoints a committee to investigate the charges and report4 ,if the report warrants further action1 the ,house adopts charges of official misconduct1 or of high crimes and misdemeanors in office4 ,this proceeding is called an impeachment4 ,the ,senate sits as a court of impeachment1 hears the evidence1 listens to the argument by the managers and the counsel for the accused1 and then condemns or acquits4 ,the judgment in cases of impeachment is removal from office and disqualification to hold any office of honor1 trust1 or profit under the ,state4 ,,direct ,,legislation4--,in order to give fuller and quicker effect to the will of the people in law making1 recent provisions in the constitutions of some ,states provide for the initiative and referendum4 ,by the initiative a certain number of voters may petition for the enactment of a law set forth in the petition4 ,if the legislature does not pass the act petitioned for1 it may be enacted by the people1 voting on it in a general or special election--the referendum4 ,on petition of a certain number of voters also1 a referendum may be ordered as to a bill passed by the legislature1 to which the petitioners object1 giving the people the opportunity to ratify or reject the proposed law4 ,these methods of direct legislation have been applied also to the making of constitutional amendments1 and to some city1 as well as some state governments4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why is the ,state legislature composed of two houses8 #b4 ,why should the proceedings of the legislature be public8 #c4 ,why should senators and representatives be free from arrest while discharging their public duties8 #d4 ,how often does the legislature of this ,state meet8 #e4 ,what is the limit of its session8 #f4 ,can its session be extended8 #g4 ,what is a reformatory8 #h4 ,what are the age and number of years of residence required of a ,state senator in this ,state8 ,who is the senator from this district8 #i4 ,what is a bill for raising revenue8 #aj4 ,what are the age and number of years of residence required of a representative in this ,state8 ,who is the representative from this district8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate ,resolved1 ,that a ,state legislature should not have more than forty senators and one hundred representatives4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,when the laws are enacted it becomes necessary that some one be charged with seeing that they are duly executed and obeyed4 ,the people's representatives in the legislative department make the laws4 ,the people's servants in the executive department execute the laws4 ,,executive ,,department4 ,the chief executive officers of the ,state are the governor1 the lieutenant-governor1 the secretary of state1 the auditor or comptroller1 the treasurer1 the attorney-general1 and the superintendent of public instruction1 who1 in most ,states1 are elected by the people4 ,besides these1 an adjutant-general1 a commissioner of agriculture1 a commissioner of insurance1 railway commissioners1 a register of the land office or land commissioner1 and in some ,states other subordinate officers1 are usually appointed by the governor1 and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,the higher ,state offices are provided for in the constitution1 while the subordinate offices are created by act of the legislature4 ,several ,states have no lieutenant-governor2 in some the secretary of state and the superintendent of public instruction are appointed by the governor1 and in others some of the subordinate officers are elected by the people4 ,the titles of many of these officers vary in different ,states4 ,the terms of the ,state officers elected by the people are usually alike in the same ,state1 but in some ,states there are differences4 ,in several ,states the terms of the auditor and the treasurer are less than those of the other officers4 ,,governor3 ,,term1 ,,qualifications4--,the supreme executive authority is vested in the governor1 who is therefore sometimes called the chief executive of the ,state4 ,his position is one of great dignity and influence4 ,the term of office is one1 two1 three1 or four years1 varying in different ,states1 and in some the constitution prohibits any person from serving two terms in succession4 ,the legal qualifications of the office of governor vary in different ,states4 ,he must be a citizen of the ,united ,states2 must have resided in the ,state at least a fixed term of years2 must not be under a certain age1 usually thirty years2 and in some ,states must own property of a given value4 ,,powers1 ,,duties4--,the governor is commander-in-chief of the military forces of the ,state1 and represents it in its dealings with other ,states4 ,he may call on all other executive officers for written information concerning their respective duties4 ,he is presumed to be well informed upon the affairs of the people1 and is therefore required to give the legislature information as to the condition of the ,state1 and to recommend the passage of such laws as he deems proper and expedient4 ,the governor may call special meetings of the legislature to consider questions of great and immediate public concern4 ,at the opening of each session he addresses a regular message to the legislature1 and from time to time submits special messages upon various subjects4 ,all acts of the legislature are presented for his approval and signature4 ,if he approves and signs them1 they become laws2 if he retains them for a certain number of days without signing them1 they become laws without his signature2 if he refuses to approve them1 he returns them within the specified time to the house in which they originated1 with a statement of his objections4 ,this action is called a veto1 and the vetoed measure1 in order to become a law1 must pass both houses again1 and in some ,states must secure a two thirds vote of each house4 ,the governor may grant reprieves and pardons1 except in cases of impeachment1 and in some ,states1 of treason4 ,in some ,states this power is limited by a board of pardons1 which must recommend a pardon before it can be granted by the governor2 and in others the consent of one branch of the legislature must be obtained4 ,treason against the ,states consists in an open or overt act of levying war against them1 or in adhering to their enemies1 giving them aid and comfort4 ,to reprieve is to delay or postpone for a time the execution of the sentence of death upon a criminal4 ,to pardon is to annul a sentence by forgiving the offense against the law1 and by releasing the offender4 ,the governor may also commute the sentence of an offender by exchanging the penalty for one less severe4 ,,lieutenant-,,governor3--,the term and qualifications of the lieutenant-governor are the same as those of the governor4 ,the lieutenant-governor is also president or speaker of the ,senate1 but votes only in case of a tie4 ,in ,states having no lieutenant-governor1 the ,senate elects its presiding officer4 ,in case of the death or resignation of the governor1 the lieutenant-governor becomes governor of the ,state4 ,in ,states having no lieutenant-governor1 special laws provide for filling vacancies in the office of governor4 ,when the chief executive is absent from the ,state1 or disabled1 the lieutenant-governor performs the duties of the office4 ,,secretary ,,of ,,state4--,the secretary of state is the keeper of all ,state papers1 and usually of the great seal of the ,state4 ,in some ,states he is ex officio auditor4 ,he keeps a record of the proceedings and acts of the legislature and of the executive department of the ,state government4 ,he certifies to the correctness of ,state documents and commissions1 indexes the laws1 and attends to their printing and distribution1 except in ,states having a superintendent of printing4 ,he receives and preserves the returns of elections1 and in some ,states has charge of the ,state buildings at the capital4 ,,auditor1 ,,or ,,comptroller4--,the auditor is the financial agent of the ,state1 and in some ,states acts as register of the land office1 and in others as commissioner of insurance4 ,he is also the ,state's bookkeeper1 and attends to the collection of its revenue4 ,he examines and adjusts claims and accounts against the ,state1 and orders the payment of such as he approves4 ,he receives moneys paid to the ,state1 deposits them with the treasurer1 and takes receipt therefor4 ,no funds can be paid out of the ,state treasury except upon the auditor's warrant4 ,he makes an annual or biennial report1 showing the financial condition of the ,state4 ,in some ,states having no auditor1 these various duties fall to other officers1 chiefly to the secretary of state4 ,,treasurer4--,the treasurer is custodian of the funds of the ,state4 ,he receives the ,state's revenues from the auditor1 and pays them out only upon the auditor's warrant1 keeping an accurate account of all sums paid4 ,the treasurer and the auditor 7and also the secretary of state when he handles ,state funds7 give heavy bonds for the faithful performance of their duties4 ,,attorney-,,general4--,the attorney-general is a lawyer who acts as attorney for the ,state in law cases to which the ,state is a party4 ,his duties pertain chiefly to the higher courts of the ,state4 ,he is the legal adviser of the ,state officers1 and1 when requested by them1 gives opinions upon points of law4 ,he prosecutes persons who are indebted to the ,state1 and assists in bringing to justice those charged with crime4 ,he represents the ,state in its legal business in the supreme court at ,washington1 and in the other courts of the ,united ,states4 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,public ,,instruction4--,the superintendent of public instruction has charge of the public school system1 and thus superintends one of the largest interests of the ,state4 ,he has the general management of ,state teachers' institutes1 and in some ,states he has an official connection with the ,state university and the ,state normal schools1 either as a member of the faculty or as president or secretary of the board of trustees4 ,he is an officer of1 and usually president of1 the ,state board of education1 a body generally consisting of from three to seven members1 and in most ,states composed1 in part1 of other high officers of the ,state4 ,the ,state board of education decides questions of school law1 and performs other important duties varying in different ,states4 ,the superintendent of public instruction makes an annual or biennial report to the legislature1 showing the condition of the public schools and suggesting amendments to the system4 ,in many ,states the superintendent is elected by the people2 in some he is appointed by the governor2 in others he is elected by the ,state board of education1 and1 as president or secretary of that board1 is ex efficio superintendent of public instruction4 ,,other ,,officers4--,the adjutant-general is the active officer of the ,state militia4 ,the commissioner of agriculture1 sometimes called the secretary of the board of agriculture1 looks after the agricultural interests of the ,state4 ,the commissioner of insurance oversees the insurance companies doing business in the ,state4 ,the railway commissioners assess the value of railway property1 and to a limited extent regulate charges on railway lines4 ,the register of the land office1 or land commissioner1 keeps in his office the patents or title-deeds of land issued by the ,state in its early settlement1 and furnishes copies of land patents and warrants to those who desire them4 ,in a few ,states this officer is elected by the people4 ,the ,state librarian has charge of the ,state library1 and in some ,states is superintendent of the ,state buildings at the capital4 ,in a few ,states there are other executive officers1 among whom may be named3 ,a surveyor-general1 who surveys the public lands1 and keeps in his office maps of counties and townships2 ,a ,state engineer1 who superintends the construction and repair of canals and levees2 ,a commissioner of statistics1 who collects statistics relating to public interests2 ,a commissioner of immigration1 who attends to the interests of immigrants2 ,a labor commissioner1 who looks after the interests of the laboring classes2 ,a bank inspector1 or superintendent of banking1 who inspects ,state banks for the protection of the public2 and ,a ,state examiner1 who investigates the conduct of ,state institutions1 and inspects the ,state offices1 in order to secure honesty and efficiency in public affairs4 ,in some ,states two or more of these offices are combined1 and in others their duties are performed by the higher officers of the ,state4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,what is the term of office and what the name of the governor of this ,state8 #b4 ,what are the age and the length of residence required of him8 #c4 ,how many terms can he serve in succession8 #d4 ,has this ,state a lieutenant-governor8 #e4 ,if so1 name his qualifications4 #f4 ,what is the great seal of the ,state8 #g4 ,what is the necessity of an auditor8 #h4 ,why should the superintendent of public instruction make a report8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate ,resolved1 ,that the governor should hold the power of veto4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,state--7,continued74 ,,judicial ,,department4 ,,purposes4--,the judicial department of the ,state government exists for the sole purpose of administering justice2 that is1 for the purpose of interpreting the laws and of applying them to particular cases4 ,the legislature makes the laws1 but it can not execute them4 ,the governor recommends the passage of certain laws1 and holds the veto power2 but he has no law-making power1 nor can he try the most trivial suit4 ,so the judiciary has no voice in making or in executing the laws1 its sole function being to decide their meaning and to apply them in securing justice4 ,the legislative and executive departments may assist1 but it is the peculiar province of the judiciary to protect society and to maintain the rights of the people4 ,,supreme ,,court4--,the higher courts of the ,state are of two classes--those whose jurisdiction includes the entire ,state1 and those whose jurisdiction is confined to particular districts4 ,the ,supreme ,court1 called in some ,states the ,court of ,appeals1 is the highest court of the ,state4 ,the number of the judges of the supreme court varies in the different ,states1 there being a chief justice and from two to eight associate justices in each ,state4 ,in some ,states the ,justices are elected by the people2 in others they are elected by the legislature2 and in some they are appointed by the governor1 and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,the term of office is lengthy1 not less than four years in any ,state1 except ,vermont1 where it is two years2 six1 seven1 eight1 nine1 ten1 twelve1 fourteen1 or fifteen years in most ,states2 twenty-one years in ,pennsylvania2 during good behavior in ,massachusetts2 until the judges are seventy years of age in ,new ,hampshire2 and practically for life in ,rhode ,island4 ,the jurisdiction of the supreme court1 or court of appeals1 extends over the entire ,state4 ,it holds sessions at the ,state capital1 and in some ,states at other prominent places1 and is chiefly engaged in the trial of cases in which appeals have been taken from the decisions of the lower courts4 ,its decision is final1 but in cases in which it is alleged that the ,state law is in conflict with the constitution or laws of the ,united ,states1 appeals may be taken to the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court at ,washington4 ,,district1 ,,or ,,circuit ,,court4--,the people most commonly resort to the district court1 circuit court1 or superior court1 as it is variously called in different ,states1 to secure justice4 ,in it are tried the great body of important civil and criminal cases1 and also appeals from the lower courts4 ,the jurisdiction of the district court is limited to a district created by the ,state constitution or by act of the ,state legislature4 ,in some cases the district consists of a single county2 usually it includes two or more counties1 the court being held successively in each county of the district4 ,in each district there is usually one district judge1 who is elected by the people1 appointed by the governor1 or elected by the legislature4 ,the term of office in most ,states is four1 six1 or eight years4 ,in some of the districts of certain ,states there are criminal courts having jurisdiction in criminal cases1 and chancery courts or courts of common pleas having jurisdiction in certain civil cases4 ,in some ,states there is a high court of chancery having ,state jurisdiction1 and in others there is a superior court which has ,state jurisdiction1 and whose rank is between the supreme court and the district courts4 ,,territories4 ,,organization4--,congress organizes the public domain into ,territories1 fixes their boundaries1 and establishes their governments4 ,the act of organization is passed as soon as the population is dense enough to require governmental authority4 ,,executive ,,department4--,the governor and the secretary of the ,territory are appointed by the ,president of the ,united ,states1 with the consent of the ,united ,states ,senate1 and serve for four years1 unless removed4 ,the governor appoints a treasurer1 an auditor or comptroller1 a superintendent of public instruction1 an attorney-general1 and several other territorial officers4 ,,legislative ,,department4--,the legislature consists of a senate of eight or fifteen members1 and a house of representatives of sixteen or thirty members elected by the people of the ,territory4 ,the senate is sometimes called the upper house of the legislature4 ,although the governor and the legislature rule the ,territory1 all laws passed by them must be submitted to ,congress1 and1 if disapproved1 they become null and void4 ,,judicial ,,department4--,the judiciary consists of a supreme court and inferior courts4 ,the chief justice and two or more associate justices of the supreme court are appointed for four years by the ,president1 with the consent of the ,senate4 ,the inferior courts are established by the territorial legislature4 ,,representation ,,in ,,congress4--,each ,territory elects a delegate to the ,congress of the ,united ,states4 ,territorial delegates serve upon committees1 and have the right to debate1 but not to vote4 ,their real duties are as agents of their respective ,territories4 ,,laws4--,territories are governed by the laws of ,congress1 by the common law1 and by the laws passed by the territorial legislatures4 ,the governor may pardon offenses against territorial laws1 and may grant reprieves for offenses against the laws of ,congress1 until the cases can be acted upon by the ,president4 ,,local ,,affairs4--,the local interests of a ,territory are similar to those of a ,state4 ,taxation1 schools1 public works1 and the administration of justice are supported by the people4 ,the people of the ,territories have no voice in the election of ,president1 and none in the government of the ,united ,states except through their delegates in ,congress4 ,,purposes4--,the chief purposes of the territorial government are to give the people the protection of the law1 and to prepare the ,territory for admission into the ,union as a ,state4 ,a ,state is a member of the ,union1 with all the rights and privileges of self-government2 a ,territory is under the ,union1 subject at all times1 and in all things1 to regulation by the government of the ,united ,states4 ,all the ,states1 except the original thirteen 7including ,maine1 ,vermont1 ,kentucky1 and ,west ,virginia7 and ,california and ,texas1 have had territorial governments4 ,a ,territory is not entirely self-governing2 it may be called a ,state in infancy1 requiring the special care of the ,united ,states to prepare it for statehood and for admission into the ,union upon an equal footing with the original ,states in all respects4 ,hawaii and ,alaska illustrate the territorial form of government described above4 ,the following are exceptions to the rule3 ,the ,district of ,columbia is neither a ,state nor a ,territory4 ,it resembles a ,territory in being directly governed by ,congress in such manner as that body may choose1 but it differs from a ,territory since it can never become a ,state4 ,it is not represented in the government of the ,united ,states1 and its inhabitants have no voice in local matters4 ,its affairs are administered by three commissioners1 appointed by the ,president1 with the consent of the ,senate1 and they are subject to the laws of ,congress4 ,porto ,rico and ,philippines have each a legislature and are governed much like a ,territory2 but their people are not citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,they are practically colonies4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,is it better that judges be elected1 or that they be appointed8 ,why8 #b4 ,why should a judge's term of office be lengthy8 #c4 ,who is chief justice of this ,state8 #d4 ,who is the judge of the circuit or district court of this district8 #e4 ,at what dates does this court hold sessions in this county8 #f4 ,how many organized ,territories now in the ,united ,states8 ,give their names4 #g4 ,when did this ,state cease to be a ,territory8 #h4 ,why should delegates from the ,territories not have the privilege of voting in ,congress8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the judges of the higher courts should be appointed by the governor1 and hold their positions during life and good behavior4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,introductory4--,each division of government which we have considered exists for only a part of the whole people4 ,the government of one ,state has no authority over the people of other ,states2 but the government of the ,united ,states1 often called the national government or federal government1 is for the good of the entire country1 and its authority is over the whole people4 ,all these divisions of government--the family1 the school1 the township or civil district1 the county1 the ,state1 and the ,united ,states--are dependent upon one another4 ,if family government were destroyed1 society would be ruined and other governments would be worthless4 ,if there were no schools1 the people would be so ignorant that free government would be impossible4 ,if the township or civil district were neglected1 local government would be inefficient4 ,if the ,states were blotted out1 the national government would assume all power1 and the freedom of the people would be greatly abridged1 and perhaps finally lost4 ,if the national government were dismembered1 the ,states would be weak1 helpless1 at war with one another1 and at the mercy of foreign nations4 ,the distribution of power among the several political organizations prevents any of them from assuming too much authority1 and thus tends to preserve the liberties of the people4 ,,formation4--,the national government is based upon the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,it was formed by the union of the several ,states under the ,constitution1 and its powers are set forth in that instrument4 ,the thirteen original ,states ratified the ,constitution of the ,united ,states between ,december #g1 #aghg1 and ,may #bi1 #agij1 and thus organized the national government4 ,it thus became1 and has continued to be1 the government of the whole people1 by the people and for the people4 ,,form ,,of ,,government4 ,the national government1 like the government of each ,state1 is a republic2 that is1 the authority is exercised by the representatives of the people4 ,as all power resides in the people1 our government is called a democracy4 ,as the people elect officers or representatives to act for them in the performance of public duties1 it is called a representative democracy4 ,our system of government is different from those of all other nations1 because part of the political power is vested in the ,state1 and part in the nation2 that is1 in the ,united ,states4 ,the national ,constitution enumerates the powers which may be exercised by the national government1 and reserves all other powers to the ,states respectively1 or to the people4 ,because of this dual or double character of our system of government1 ,john ,quincy ,adams called it a complicated machine4 ,,purposes4--,the purposes of the national government are clearly and forcibly set forth in the preamble1 or opening clause1 of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states2 #a4 ,to form a more perfect union2 #b4 ,to establish justice2 #c4 ,to insure domestic tranquillity2 #d4 ,to provide for the common defense2 #e4 ,to promote the general welfare2 #f4 ,to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity4 ,before the ,revolutionary war1 the ,american colonies were subject to ,great ,britain4 ,by the ,declaration of ,independence these colonies became free and independent ,states4 ,during the period between the ,declaration of ,independence and the adoption of the national ,constitution1 the union between the ,states was weak and unsatisfactory4 ,instead of there being domestic tranquillity1 the ,states were engaged in constant quarrels4 ,there was no power to provide for the common defense of the people against foreign enemies2 each ,state must protect itself as best it could4 ,no provision could be made for the general welfare by the passage and enforcement of broad measures for the whole country4 ,under the ,articles of ,confederation1 as was said at that time1 the ,states might declare everything1 but do nothing4 ,the adoption of the national ,constitution and the formation of the national government made the inhabitants of the ,states one people1 and have since brought the ,united ,states to be the first of the nations of the earth4 ,,functions4--,the functions of the national government are numerous and important4 ,in adopting the national ,constitution1 the ,states delegated or ceded to the ,united ,states those powers which are necessary to the strength and greatness of a nation4 ,the national government administers those public affairs which concern the whole people1 such as the regulation of commerce1 the granting of patents1 and the coinage of money2 and also those which pertain to the ,united ,states as a nation dealing with other nations1 such as declaring war and making treaties of peace4 ,the subjects upon which the national ,congress may enact laws1 and consequently the subjects included in the functions of the national government1 are enumerated in ,section #h1 ,article ,i4 of the ,constitution4 ,,citizens4 ,the people who reside in the ,united ,states are either citizens or aliens4 ,the national ,constitution declares that ,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the ,state wherein they reside4 ,women and children are citizens1 though not entitled to vote4 ,a citizen is a member of the body politic1 bound to allegiance1 and entitled to protection at home and abroad4 ,he can renounce his allegiance--that is1 lay down his citizenship--by becoming the subject of some other country4 ,wherever he goes1 until he renounces his allegiance1 he is a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and is shielded from insult by the might and majesty of the whole nation4 ,citizenship is therefore valuable for its protection abroad1 as well as for its rights and privileges at home4 ,,naturalization4--,naturalized citizens are persons of foreign birth who have become citizens by naturalization1 after a continuous residence of at least five years in the ,united ,states4 ,a foreigner is naturalized by appearing in court1 declaring his intention to become a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and his purpose to renounce all allegiance to foreign governments4 ,after two years more1 he must appear in open court1 renounce upon oath all foreign allegiance1 and swear to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,if he bears any title of nobility1 he must renounce it4 ,naturalized citizens have all the rights and privileges that belong to native-born citizens1 except that no naturalized person can become ,president or ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,,rights4--,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states does not contain a formal bill of rights1 as do most of the ,state constitutions1 but it names the following as among the rights of citizens3 7#a7 ,the citizens of each ,state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens of the several ,states2 ,that is1 a citizen who removes into another ,state shall enjoy all the rights and privileges that belong to its citizens4 7#b7 ,a person charged in any ,state with treason1 felony1 or other crime1 who shall flee from justice1 and be found in another ,state1 shall1 on demand of the executive authority of the ,state from which he fled1 be delivered up1 to be removed to the ,state having jurisdiction of the crime4 ,a demand for the delivery of a fugitive criminal is called a requisition4 7#c7 ,no person held to service or labor in one ,state under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall1 in consequence of any law or regulation therein1 be discharged from such service or labor2 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due4 ,this provision refers to the capture and return of fugitive slaves1 and is rendered void by the abolition of slavery4 7#d7 ,a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free ,state1 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed4 ,this clause does not authorize the carrying of concealed weapons4 7#e7 ,no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner1 nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law4 7#f7 ,the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated2 and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause1 supported by oath or affirmation1 and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized4 7#g7 a4 ,no person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime1 unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury1 except in cases arising in the land or naval forces1 or in the militia when in actual service1 in time of war or public danger2 b4 ,nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb1 nor shall be compelled1 in any criminal case1 to be a witness against himself2 c4 ,nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law2 d4 ,nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation4 ,the first part of this clause secures a civil trial to every private citizen4 ,the land and naval forces1 and the militia when in actual service1 are under military law1 usually called martial law4 7#h7 ,in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right a4 ,to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the ,state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed1 which district shall have been previously ascertained by law2 b4 ,to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 c4 ,to be confronted with the witnesses against him2 d4 ,to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor2 e4 ,and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense4 7#i7 ,in suits at law where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars1 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved1 and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the ,united ,states than according to the rules of the common law4 7#aj7 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted4 7#aa7 ,neither slavery nor involuntary servitude1 except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted1 shall exist within the ,united ,states or any place subject to their jurisdiction4 7#ab7 ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states1 or by any ,state1 on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 7#ac7 ,the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,,aliens4 ,aliens are subjects of foreign governments4 ,they are not citizens of this country1 and1 in general1 have no right to take part in its political affairs4 ,throughout the ,union aliens have full social and moral rights2 in some ,states their property rights are restricted2 and in a few ,states they have certain political rights4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,constitution4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states is the supreme law of the whole land4 ,it is a written instrument1 and is often called the fundamental law4 ,neither the laws of any ,state nor the laws of the ,united ,states must conflict with the ,constitution4 ,it is the basis of our system of government1 the model upon which all ,state constitutions are framed1 and the foundation of our greatness as a people4 ,it defines the limits of the national government1 and enumerates the powers of each of its departments4 ,it declares what public interests are within the scope of the national government1 reserves certain powers to the ,states1 and provides that neither ,state nor nation shall enact certain specified laws4 ,,formation4--,the national ,constitution was framed by a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen original ,states1 ,rhode ,island alone being unrepresented4 ,the convention was called for the purpose of revising the ,articles of ,confederation under which the ,states were at the time united4 ,the convention met at ,philadelphia1 on ,monday1 ,may #ad1 #aghg1 and organized on the #beth day of the same month by electing as its president ,george ,washington1 one of the delegates from ,virginia4 ,the ,articles of ,confederation were readily seen to be inadequate to the purposes of a national government1 and the convention proceeded to draught a ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the convention completed its labors1 submitted the ,constitution to the several ,states for their ratification1 and adjourned on the #agth of ,september1 #aghg4 ,all the ,states ratified the ,constitution1 the last being ,rhode ,island1 whose convention1 called for the purpose1 passed the ordinance of ratification1 ,may #bi1 #agij4 ,,necessity4--,the necessity for a written national constitution is readily seen4 ,the preamble states the purposes of the ,constitution1 which are also the purposes of the national government4 ,the ,constitution defines the limits of ,state and of national power1 and thus prevents conflicts of authority which would otherwise arise between the ,state and the ,united ,states4 ,through the ,constitution1 the people1 who are the sources of all just authority1 grant to the government certain powers1 and reserve all other powers to themselves4 ,the ,constitution prescribes the functions of each department of the government1 and thus preserves the liberties of the people by preventing either ,congress1 the executive department1 or the judiciary from exercising powers not granted to it4 ,,amendment4--,the ,constitution prescribes two methods by which it may be amended3 #a4 ,by a two thirds vote of both houses ,congress may propose to the several ,states amendments to the ,constitution4 #b4 ,upon the application of two thirds of the ,states1 ,congress shall call a convention of delegates from the several ,states for proposing amendments4 ,an amendment proposed by either method1 when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the ,states1 or by conventions in three fourths thereof1 shall be valid to all intents and purposes as a part of this ,constitution4 ,twenty-one amendments have been proposed by ,congress1 and seventeen of these have been ratified by three fourths of the ,state legislatures1 and have become parts of the ,constitution4 ,the other four proposed amendments were rejected4 ,congress has never called a convention to propose amendments1 and no ,state has ever called a convention to consider those amendments proposed by ,congress4 ,,departments4--,the functions of each branch of government are carefully marked in the ,constitution1 and the people and their representatives jealously guard the rights of each department4 ,they believe that the duties of the law-making power1 those of the law-enforcing power1 and those of the law-explaining power can not be too clearly separated4 ,if the same officers could make the law1 enforce the law1 and explain the law1 there would be no limit to their authority1 and therefore no security to the people4 ,the framers of the ,constitution were wise men2 they had seen the abuse of power by ,great ,britain while the colonies were under her sway1 and they determined to guard the liberties of the people by forever separating the legislative1 the executive1 and the judicial functions4 ,their example has been followed in the constitutions of all the ,states4 ,the ,president has no right to interfere with the decisions of the courts1 and1 except by his veto1 can not interfere with the action of ,congress4 ,congress can not question the decisions of courts1 nor can it interfere with the legal actions of the ,president1 except that the ,senate may refuse to confirm his appointments to office4 ,even the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states can not call in question the official acts of the ,president1 so long as he conforms to the law2 nor has it any power over the acts of ,congress1 except merely to decide upon the constitutionality of the laws when they are properly brought before it4 ,while1 therefore1 ,congress and the ,president have some remote influence upon the actions of each other1 neither has the slightest right to invade the functions of the ,supreme ,court1 or of any other court1 even the humblest in the land4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why do foreigners become naturalized8 #b4 ,what is a title of nobility8 #c4 ,what officer of a ,state makes requisition for the delivery of a criminal held by another ,state8 #d4 ,when was slavery abolished in the ,united ,states8 #e4 ,what is the purpose of a militia force8 #f4 ,what is a capital crime8 #g4 ,why is the accused entitled to a speedy and public trial8 #h4 ,why is the ,constitution called the fundamental law8 #i4 ,read in the history of the ,united ,states the account of the formation of the ,constitution4 #aj4 ,how many ,states were needed to ratify the ,constitution in order that it might go into effect8 #aa4 ,read the amendments to the ,constitution4 #ab4 ,can you name any proposed amendments that have been recently advocated8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that a written constitution is best for a free country4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,,legislative ,,department4 ,,congress4--,the legislative authority of the national government is vested in the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 consisting of a senate and a house of representatives4 ,the senators represent the ,states1 and the representatives represent the people4 ,congress holds annual sessions at the city of ,washington1 the seat of the national government4 ,a measure must pass both houses1 and be approved by the ,president1 in order to become a law2 or if vetoed1 it fails1 unless it again passes both houses by a two thirds vote4 ,senators and representatives receive an annual salary of seven thousand five hundred dollars each2 and are allowed mileage1 or traveling expenses1 of twenty cents for each mile in going to and returning from the session of ,congress4 ,,privileges ,,of ,,the ,,houses4--,there are certain constitutional privileges guaranteed to ,congress in order that its action in legislation may be free from undue influence from other departments of the government4 ,the times1 places1 and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each ,state by the legislature thereof2 but the ,congress may1 at any time1 by law1 make or alter such regulations1 except as to the places of choosing senators4 ,each house shall be the judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members2 that is1 each ,house declares who are entitled to membership therein4 ,each house may determine the rules of its proceedings1 punish its members for disorderly conduct1 and with the concurrence of two thirds expel a member4 ,each house keeps and publishes a journal of its proceedings1 excepting such parts as may1 in their judgment1 require secrecy2 and the yeas and nays of the members of either house1 on any question1 shall1 at the desire of one fifth of those present1 be entered on the journal4 ,neither house1 during the session of ,congress1 shall1 without the consent of the other1 adjourn for more than three days1 nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting4 ,,privileges ,,and ,,disabilities ,,of ,,members4--,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states sets forth the following privileges and disabilities relating to membership in both the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives3 7#a7 ,the senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services1 to be ascertained by law1 and paid out of the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,they shall in all cases except treason1 felony1 and breach of the peace be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses1 and in going to and returning from the same2 and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place4 7#b7 ,no senator or representative shall1 during the time for which he was elected1 be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the ,united ,states which shall have been created1 or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased1 during such time2 and no person holding any office under the ,united ,states shall be a member of either house during his continuance of office4 ,the purpose of the first part of this clause is to prevent members of ,congress from voting to create offices1 or to affix high salaries to offices1 with the hope of being appointed to fill them4 7#c7 ,the senators and representatives before mentioned1 and the members of the several ,state legislatures1 and all executive and judicial officers both of the ,united ,states and of the several ,states1 shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this ,constitution2 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the ,united ,states4 7#d7 ,no person shall be a senator or representative in ,congress1 or elector of ,president and ,vice ,president1 or hold any office1 civil or military1 under the ,united ,states1 or under any ,state1 who1 having previously taken an oath as a member of ,congress1 or as an officer of the ,united ,states1 or as a member of any ,state legislature1 or as an executive or judicial officer of any ,state1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same1 or given aid and comfort to the enemies thereof4 ,but ,congress may1 by a vote of two thirds of each ,house1 remove such disability4 ,the purpose of the clause was to exclude from office all those who had sworn1 as officers of the ,state or the nation1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 and who afterward engaged in war against the ,union4 ,an act of ,congress enabling them to hold office was called a removal of their disabilities4 ,this clause of the ,constitution is practically void as regards all past offenses1 as the disabilities of nearly all to whom it applied have been removed by ,congress4 ,,powers ,,of ,,congress4--,congress has power3 7#a7 ,to levy and collect taxes1 duties on imported goods1 and revenues from articles of manufacture1 to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the ,united ,states4 7#b7 ,to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states4 ,the usual method of borrowing money is to issue government bonds1 which are promises to pay the sums specified in them at a given time1 with interest at a given rate4 ,the bonds are sold1 usually at their face value1 and the proceeds applied to public purposes4 ,united ,states bonds can not be taxed by a ,state4 7#c7 ,to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several ,states1 and with the ,indian tribes4 7#d7 ,to establish a uniform rule of naturalisation1 and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies1 throughout the ,united ,states4 7#e7 ,to coin money2 regulate the value thereof1 and of foreign coin2 and fix the standard of weights and measures4 7#f7 ,to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the ,united ,states4 7#g7 ,to establish post-offices and post-roads4 7#h7 ,to promote the progress of science and useful arts1 by securing for limited times1 to authors and inventors1 the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries2 ,that is1 to grant copyrights to authors1 and to issue patents to inventors4 7#i7 ,to constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court4 7#aj7 ,to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas1 and offenses against the law of nations4 ,piracy is robbery committed at sea4 7#aa7 ,to declare war2 grant letters of marque and reprisal1 and make rules concerning captures on land and water4 ,letters of marque are commissions issued to private parties1 authorizing them to cross the frontiers of another nation1 and to seize the persons and property of its subjects4 ,reprisal is the forcible taking of the property or persons of the subjects of another nation1 in return for injuries done to the government granting the letters4 ,vessels carrying letters of marque and reprisal are called privateers4 7#ab7 ,to raise and support armies4 7#ac7 ,to provide and maintain a navy4 7#ad7 ,to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces4 7#ae7 ,to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the ,union1 suppress insurrection and repel invasions4 7#af7 ,to provide for organizing1 arming1 and disciplining the militia1 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the ,united ,states4 7#ag7 ,to exercise exclusive legislation over the ,district of ,columbia1 and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the ,state in which the same shall be1 for the erection of forts1 magazines1 arsenals1 dockyards1 and other needful buildings4 7#ah7 ,to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers and all other powers vested by this ,constitution in the government of the ,united ,states1 or in any department or officer thereof4 7#ai7 ,congress may determine the time of choosing the electors for ,president and ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states1 and the day on which they shall give their votes1 which day shall be the same throughout the ,united ,states4 7#bj7 ,congress may1 by law1 provide for the case of removal1 death1 resignation1 or inability of both the ,president and ,vice ,president1 declaring what officer shall then act as ,president4 7#ba7 ,the ,congress may1 by law1 vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper1 in the ,president alone1 in the courts of law1 or in the heads of departments4 7#bb7 ,the ,congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason4 7#bc7 ,full faith and credit shall be given in each ,state1 to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other ,state4 ,and the ,congress may1 by general laws1 prescribe the manner in which such acts1 records1 and proceedings shall be proved1 and the effect thereof4 7#bd7 ,new ,states may be admitted by the ,congress into this ,union1 but no new ,state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other ,state1 nor any ,state be formed by the junction of two or more ,states1 or parts of ,states1 without the consent of the legislatures of the ,states concerned1 as well as of the ,congress4 7#be7 ,the ,congress shall have power to dispose of1 and to make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the ,united ,states2 and nothing in this ,constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the ,united ,states or of any particular ,state4 7#bf7 ,congress has power to enforce1 by appropriate legislation1 all provisions of the ,constitution4 ,under the authority to provide for the general welfare of the ,united ,states1 ,congress exercises powers which are implied--that is1 understood--but which are not expressly named in the ,constitution4 ,the grants of public lands to railway and canal companies1 the annual appropriations for the improvement of rivers and harbors1 and numerous similar laws are based upon implied powers4 ,,forbidden ,,powers4--,the following powers are expressly denied to the national government3 7#a7 ,the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless when1 in cases of rebellion or invasion1 the public safety may require it4 ,habeas corpus means ,thou mayst have the body4 ,a person in prison1 claiming to be unlawfully detained1 or the friend of such a person1 applies to the judge of a court for a writ of habeas corpus4 ,the judge issues the writ1 which directs the officer to bring the body of the prisoner into court at a certain time and place1 in order that the legality of the imprisonment may be tested4 ,the case against the prisoner is not tried under the writ of habeas corpus1 but the judge inquires whether any crime is charged1 or whether there is a legal cause for the arrest4 ,if the imprisonment is illegal1 the judge orders the prisoner released2 if the prisoner is lawfully held1 the judge remands him to prison4 ,this writ secures the freedom of every person unless detained upon legal charges4 ,therefore1 there is no power in this wide country that can arrest and imprison even the humblest citizen except upon legal grounds4 ,the writ of habeas corpus is the most famous writ known to the law1 the strongest safeguard of the personal liberty of the citizens1 and is regarded with almost a sacred reverence by the people4 7#b7 ,no bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed by ,congress4 ,a bill of attainder is an act of a legislative body inflicting the penalty of death without a regular trial4 ,an ex post facto law is a law which fixes a penalty for acts done before the law was passed1 or which increases the penalty of a crime after it is committed4 ,laws for punishing crime more severely can take effect only after their passage2 they can not affect a crime committed before they were passed4 7#c7 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any ,state4 ,no preference shall be given1 by any regulation of commerce or revenue1 to the ports of one ,state over those of another2 nor shall vessels bound to or from one ,state be obliged to enter1 clear1 or pay duties in another4 7#d7 ,no money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law1 and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time4 7#e7 ,no title of nobility shall be granted by the ,united ,states1 and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 accept of any present1 emolument1 office1 or title of any kind whatever1 from any king1 prince1 or foreign ,state4 7#f7 ,congress shall make no law respecting establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof2 or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble1 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances4 7#g7 ,the validity of the public debt of the ,united ,states1 authorized by law1 including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion shall not be questioned4 ,but neither the ,united ,states nor any ,state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave2 but all such debts1 obligations1 and claims shall be held illegal and void4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states forbids the national government from exercising certain other powers1 relating principally to slavery2 but such denials are rendered useless by the freedom of the slaves4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,senate4 ,the ,senate is composed of two senators from each ,state1 elected by direct vote of the people2#a and therefore each ,state has an equal representation1 without regard to its area or the number of its people4 ,the term of a ,united ,states senator is six years1 and one third of the ,senate is elected every two years4 ,a senator must be thirty years old1 for nine years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and must be an inhabitant of the ,state for which he shall be chosen4 ,a vacancy which occurs in any ,state's representation in the ,united ,states ,senate is filled by an election for the unexpired term2 but the legislature of any ,state may empower the governor to make temporary appointments until such election is held4 ,the ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states is ex officio president of the ,senate1 but has no vote except when the ,senate is equally divided upon a question4 ,the ,senate elects its other officers1 including a president pro tempore1 or temporary president1 who presides when the ,vice ,president is absent4 ,the ,senate is a continuous body2 that is1 it is always organized1 and when it meets it may proceed at once to business4 ,when the ,house of ,representatives impeaches an officer of the ,united ,states1 the impeachment is tried before the ,senate sitting as a court4 ,the ,senate has the sole power to try impeachments1 and it requires two thirds of the senators present to convict4 ,judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office1 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor1 trust1 or profit under the ,united ,states2 but the party convicted shall1 nevertheless1 be liable and subject to indictment1 trial1 judgment1 and punishment according to law4 ,all treaties made by the ,president of the ,united ,states with foreign countries must be laid before the ,senate for ratification4 ,if two thirds of the ,senate vote for the treaty1 it is ratified2 otherwise1 it is rejected4 ,treaties are compacts or contracts between two or more nations made with a view to the public welfare of each1 and are usually formed by agents or commissioners appointed by the respective governments of the countries concerned4 ,,house ,,of ,,representatives4 ,the ,house of ,representatives1 often called the lower ,house of ,congress1 is a much larger body than the ,senate4 ,the last apportionment of representatives1 made in #aiaa1 gave the ,house four hundred and thirty-five members1 and this went into effect with the ,sixty-third ,congress1 beginning on the #dth of ,march1 #aiac4 ,a census of the people is made every ten years1 and upon this as a basis ,congress fixes the number of representatives for the entire country1 and the number to which each ,state shall be entitled for the next ten years thereafter4 ,each legislature divides the ,state into as many ,congress districts as the ,state is entitled to representatives1 and each district elects a representative by direct vote of the people4 ,the term of office is two years1 and the terms of all representatives begin and end at the same time4 ,a representative must be twenty-five years old1 must have been a citizen of the ,united ,states seven years1 and must be an inhabitant of the ,state in which he is elected4 ,a vacancy in a ,state's representation in the lower house of ,congress is filled by special election called by the governor for that purpose4 ,all bills for raising revenue--that is1 all bills providing for taxation--must originate in the ,house of ,representatives2 but the ,senate may propose or concur with amendments1 as in other bills4 ,taxation is called the strongest function of government1 and therefore the ,constitution provides that the first step must be taken by the ,house of ,representatives1 because all its members are elected every two years by the people1 and are supposed to represent the people's views4 ,the ,constitution provides that the ,house of ,representatives shall have the sole power of impeachment2 that is1 the ,house of ,representatives must formulate and present the charges to the ,senate1 and prosecute the accused at its bar4 ,an impeachment by the ,house of ,representatives corresponds to an indictment by a grand jury2 specific charges must be made before a trial can be held in any court4 ,,the ,,speaker4--,the speaker is elected by the representatives4 ,he is a member of the ,house1 and is nominated for the speakership by a convention1 or caucus1 of the representatives who are of his political party4 ,in rank he is the third officer of the government4 ,he presides over the ,house1 preserves decorum1 decides points of order1 and directs the business of legislation4 ,he is the organ of the ,house1 and because he speaks and declares its will is called the ,speaker4 ,he formerly appointed the standing committees of the ,house1 and thus largely shaped legislation2 but this power was taken from him in #aiaa4 ,as almost all laws are matured by the committees1 and are passed as the result of their work1 the power to appoint the committees was considered too important to leave in the hands of one man4 ,the speaker's salary is #ab1jjj annually4 ,the clerk of the preceding ,house presides during the election of the speaker4 ,immediately after his election1 the speaker is sworn into office by the representative of the longest service in the ,house4 ,he then assumes the direction of business1 and administers the oath to the members as they present themselves by ,states4 ,the ,house of ,representatives is reorganized every two years at the opening of the first session of each ,congress4 ,,other ,,officers4--,the other officers of the ,house are the clerk1 the sergeant-at-arms1 the doorkeeper1 the postmaster1 and the chaplain4 ,they are not members of the ,house4 ,the sergeant-at-arms and the doorkeeper appoint numerous subordinates4 ,the sergeant-at-arms is the ministerial and police officer of the ,house4 ,he preserves order1 under the direction of the speaker1 and executes all processes issued by the ,house or its committees4 ,the symbol of authority of the ,house is the mace1 consisting of a bundle of ebony rods surmounted by a globe1 upon which is a silver eagle with outstretched wings4 ,in scenes of disturbance1 when the sergeant-at-arms bears the mace through the hall of the ,house at the speaker's command1 the members immediately become quiet and order is restored4 ,the doorkeeper has charge of the hall of the ,house and its entrances4 ,the postmaster receives and distributes the mail matter of the members4 ,the chaplain opens the daily sessions of the ,house with prayer4 #a;,after #aiac4 ,before #aiac the senators of each ,state were elected by the legislature4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why do not the people of the ,united ,states make their laws in person1 instead of delegating this power to ,congress8 #b4 ,is it right that the ,president should hold the veto power8 #c4 ,why is each ,house judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members8 #d4 ,why are the yeas and nays entered on the ,journal8 #e4 ,why are senators and representatives privileged from arrest during the session1 except for certain specified offenses8 #f4 ,is it right to grant copyrights and patents8 #g4 ,what is counterfeiting8 #h4 ,should ,united ,states senators be elected by the legislature or by the people8 #i4 ,how many senators in ,congress now8 #aj4 ,who are the two ,united ,states senators from this ,state8 #aa4 ,what is an impeachment8 #ab4 ,how many representatives in ,congress from this ,state8 #ac4 ,give the name of the representative from this district4 #ad4 ,who at present is speaker of the national ,house of ,representatives8 #ae4 ,of what ,state is he a representative8 #af4 ,name six of the most important committees of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the members of the ,president's cabinet should be members of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,,executive ,,department4 ,,president3 ,,qualifications4--,the executive power of the national government is vested in the ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,president and the ,vice ,president must be natural born citizens of this country1 must have attained the age of thirty-five years1 and must have resided fourteen years in the ,united ,states4 ,in case of the ,president's death1 resignation1 or removal from office1 his duties devolve upon the ,vice ,president2 and if a vacancy occurs in the office1 the ,vice ,president becomes ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,at other times the only duty of the ,vice ,president is to preside over the ,senate4 ,the ,president receives a salary of seventy-five thousand dollars per year2 the annual salary of the ,vice ,president is twelve thousand dollars4 ,,election4--,the ,president holds his office for a term of four years1 and1 together with the ,vice ,president chosen for the same term1 is elected in the following manner3 ,during the earlier part of the regular year for the election of a ,president1 each of the political parties in each state appoints delegates to the national convention of the party1 either by means of conventions1 or by vote at primary elections4 ,each party meets in national convention later on in the year1 and nominates the candidates whom it will support for ,president and ,vice ,president1 and puts forth a declaration of principles called a platform4 ,on ,tuesday after the first ,monday in ,november the people of the several ,states meet at their usual polling-places1 and elect as many electors of ,president and ,vice ,president as the ,state has senators and representatives in ,congress4 ,for this purpose candidates for electors have previously been nominated by the several parties naming candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,the election returns are forwarded to the ,state capital1 where they are compared1 and the result declared by the election board of the ,state4 ,the governor and secretary ,of ,state issue certificates to the persons chosen as electors of ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,on the second ,monday in ,january the electors of each ,state meet at the ,state capital and cast their votes for the candidates of their party for ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,they make1 sign1 certify1 and seal three separate lists of their votes for ,president and ,vice ,president2 transmit two lists to the president of the ,united ,states ,senate--one by mail and the other by special messenger--and file the remaining list with the judge of the ,united ,states district court of the district in which the electors meet4 ,on the second ,wednesday in ,february the ,united ,states ,senate and ,house of ,representatives meet in joint session4 ,the president of the ,senate opens the certificates of votes from all the ,states1 and the votes are then counted4 ,the person having the highest number of votes for ,president is declared elected ,president1 if his votes are a majority of all the electors elected in the whole ,union4 ,if no person receives a majority of all the electoral votes1 then the ,house of ,representatives elects the ,president from the three candidates receiving the highest numbers of votes4 ,a quorum for the purpose is a representative or representatives from two thirds of the ,states4 ,each ,state has one vote1 cast as a majority of its representatives present directs2 and a majority of ail the ,states is necessary to elect4 ,the person receiving the highest number of votes for ,vice ,president is elected ,vice ,president1 if his votes are a majority of the whole number of electors chosen4 ,if his votes are not a majority of all the electors1 then the ,senate proceeds to elect the ,vice ,president from the two candidates receiving the highest number of votes for ,vice ,president4 ,a quorum for the purpose consists of two thirds of the senators from all the ,states4 ,each senator has one vote1 and a majority of the whole number is necessary to elect4 ,the people do not vote directly for ,president and ,vice ,president1 but for electors by whom the ,president and the ,vice ,president are chosen4 ,the electors of all the ,states are called collectively the electoral college4 ,the electors may vote for some other person than the candidate nominated by their respective parties2 but no elector has ever chosen to exercise this privilege4 ,they consider themselves in honor pledged and instructed to cast their votes for the candidate of their own political faith4 ,the vote of the people for electors is called the popular vote1 and the vote of the electors for ,president is called the electoral vote4 ,as has several times happened in our history1 a candidate may be elected ,president or ,vice ,president and yet be in a minority of the popular vote4 ,,inauguration4--,on the #dth of ,march following the election the ,president and the ,vice ,president assume the duties of their respective offices amid imposing ceremonies4 ,the ,vice ,president is first sworn into office in the presence of the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,the following oath of office is then administered to the ,president-elect by the ,chief ,justice of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court3 ,i do solemnly swear 7or affirm7 that ,i will faithfully execute the office of ,president of the ,united ,states2 and will1 to the best of my ability1 preserve1 protect1 and defend the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,in the presence of a vast concourse of citizens the ,president delivers an address1 outlining the public policy to be pursued during his term of office4 ,there is usually a display of civil and military organizations representing all sections of the country4 ,the political differences of the people are in great part forgotten in the enthusiasm attending the inauguration of the ,president4 ,,official ,,residence4--,the presidential mansion in the city of ,washington is called the ,white ,house4 ,it was erected and is maintained by the national government at public expense4 ,here the ,president resides with his family1 and receives private citizens1 members of ,congress1 officers of other departments of the government1 and foreign ministers and dignitaries4 ,at his public receptions1 held at stated times1 he may be called upon by the humblest person in the land4 ,this shows the spirit of equality which prevails even in the highest station under our system of government4 ,our institutions are based upon the principle embodied in the ,declaration of ,independence1 ,that all men are created equal4 ,,dignity ,,and ,,responsibility4--,the office of ,president of the ,united ,states is the highest in the gift of the people4 ,he represents the unity1 power1 and purpose of the nation4 ,he is the first citizen of the ,united ,states1 holding the position of highest dignity1 influence1 and responsibility in the whole country4 ,he directs the machinery of the government1 and is therefore held responsible by the people for the conduct of public affairs1 and largely for the condition of the country4 ,his term of office is called an administration4 ,he and his official advisers have the appointment of more than one hundred and fifteen thousand officers of the national government4 ,,messages4--,at the opening of each regular session of ,congress the ,president sends or delivers to both houses his annual message1 in which he reviews events of the previous year1 gives information of the state of the ,union1 and recommends the passage of such laws as he deems necessary and expedient4 ,from time to time he gives information upon special subjects1 and recommends the passage of measures of pressing importance4 ,the heads of departments make yearly reports to the ,president1 which are printed for the information of ,congress4 ,,duties ,,and ,,powers4--,the duties of the ,president are so extensive1 the burdens of his office so heavy1 and his power so great1 that the people believe that no man1 however wise and eminent1 should hold the office for more than two terms4 ,washington set the example of voluntary retirement at the end of the second term1 and it seems to be an unwritten law that no ,president shall serve more than eight years in succession4 ,the duties of the office1 so various and so burdensome1 are summed up in the provision of the ,constitution3 ,he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed4 ,the ,president approves or vetoes all bills and joint-resolutions passed by ,congress1 except those relating to questions of adjournment4 ,all measures vetoed must1 within ten days after they are received1 be returned to the house in which they originated4 ,the power to veto acts of ,congress is called the legislative power of the ,president4 ,he is commander-in-chief of the army and the navy of the ,united ,states1 and of the militia of the several ,states when engaged in the national service4 ,he does not command in person1 but places the forces under the orders of officers of his choice4 ,he may require information in writing from the heads of departments upon subjects relating to their respective offices4 ,as he appoints these officers1 and may remove them at his pleasure1 the people hold him responsible for their official conduct4 ,he is held responsible for the official actions of all officers of the executive department of the government4 ,he may grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the ,united ,states1 except in cases of impeachment4 ,frequent appeals are made to his pardoning power4 ,he may make treaties with foreign countries1 but before a treaty can have any effect it must be submitted by him to the ,senate1 and must be ratified by a vote of two thirds of the senators present4 ,with the consent of the ,senate1 he appoints ministers to foreign courts1 consuls to foreign countries1 judges of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 and other officers1 of the national government4 ,he fills vacancies in office which occur during recesses of the ,senate1 by granting commissions which expire at the close of the next session of the ,senate4 ,he may1 in cases of extreme necessity1 call special session of ,congress1 or of either house4 ,if the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives fail to agree upon a time to which they shall adjourn1 the ,president may adjourn them to such time as he may think proper4 ,such a necessity has never arisen1 and therefore this power has never been exercised4 ,the ,president may receive or refuse to receive ministers and other agents of foreign governments4 ,to receive a minister is to recognize the nation which he represents4 ,he may also dismiss foreign ministers who do not prove acceptable to our government4 ,he commissions all officers of the ,united ,states4 ,the power to make appointments of office is called his patronage4 ,a civil service commission1 consisting of three commissioners1 has been established by act of ,congress1 to secure efficiency in the public service1 and to prevent the appointment of men to office as a reward for party work4 ,before applicants for certain offices can be appointed they must pass an examination prescribed by the civil service commission4 ,,cabinet4 ,the ,president's cabinet is a council of ten official advisers1 appointed by him and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,they are often called heads of departments4 ,the members of the cabinet are the secretary of state1 secretary of the treasury1 secretary of war1 secretary of the navy1 postmaster-general1 secretary of the interior1 attorney-general1 secretary of agriculture1 secretary of commerce1 and secretary of labor4 ,they may be removed by the ,president at pleasure1 and are directly responsible to him for the conduct of their respective departments4 ,the ,president holds frequent meetings of the cabinet for the purpose of conferring upon official business2 but he may1 if he choose1 disregard their advice and act upon his own judgment4 ,in case of the death1 resignation1 removal1 or disability of both ,president and ,vice ,president1 the presidential office would be filled by a member of the cabinet1 in this order3 ,the secretary of state1 the secretary of the treasury1 the secretary of war1 the attorney-general1 the postmaster-general1 the secretary of the navy1 the secretary of the interior4 ,each of the cabinet officers receives a salary of twelve thousand dollars per year4 ,,department ,,of ,,state4--,the secretary of state is the head of the department of state1 formerly called the department of foreign affairs4 ,his office is the highest rank in the cabinet1 and is next in importance to that of the ,president4 ,he preserves the original draughts of all treaties1 laws1 public documents1 and correspondence with foreign countries4 ,he keeps the great seal of the ,united ,states1 and fixes it to all commissions signed by the ,president4 ,he furnishes copies of records and papers kept in his office1 impressed with the seal of his department1 and authenticates all proclamations and messages of the ,president4 ,he has charge of the negotiation of treaties and other foreign affairs1 conducts correspondence with foreign ministers1 issues instructions for the guidance of our ministers and other agents to foreign countries1 and from time to time reports to ,congress the relations of the ,united ,states with other governments4 ,he is the organ of communication between the ,president and the governors of the ,states4 ,he issues traveling papers1 called passports1 to citizens wishing to travel in foreign countries4 ,when foreign criminals take refuge in this country1 he issues warrants for their delivery according to the terms of existing treaties4 ,he presents to the ,president all foreign ministers1 and is the only officer authorized to represent him in correspondence with foreign governments4 ,the secretary of state has three assistants1 called respectively1 first assistant secretary of state1 second assistant secretary of state1 and third assistant secretary of state4 ,the department of state conducts the foreign affairs of the government chiefly through the diplomatic service and the consular service4 ,,the ,,diplomatic ,,service4--,the officers of the diplomatic service are called ministers1 and represent the ,united ,states in a political capacity4 ,they negotiate treaties under the direction of the secretary of state1 and maintain friendly relations between the ,united ,states and the countries to which they are accredited4 ,they are forbidden to engage in any commercial transaction1 or to exercise any control over the commercial interests of the ,united ,states4 ,by the laws of nations1 foreign ministers in all countries enjoy many rights and privileges not accorded to other foreign persons4 ,they are assisted by interpreters1 who explain speeches made in foreign tongues2 and by secretaries of legation1 who keep the records1 and attend to the minor duties of the ministers4 ,the diplomatic service consists of ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary1 of envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary1 and of ministers resident4 ,these officials rank in the order named1 but the duties are the same2 the chief difference being in the rank and influence of the countries to which they are accredited4 ,the ambassadors and ministers of the higher rank receive salaries ranging from seven thousand five hundred dollars to seventeen thousand five hundred dollars each1 the latter sum being paid to the ambassadors to such important countries as ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,mexico1 ,japan1 etc4 ,there are very few ministers resident4 ,they generally serve also as consuls general1 and receive from four thousand dollars to seven thousand dollars each4 ,ministers sent to foreign countries upon special service1 such as the negotiation of special treaties1 are sometimes called commissioners4 ,,consular ,,service4--,the consular service includes about sixty consuls general1 some of whom are inspectors of consulates1 about two hundred and fifty consuls1 and many deputies and other assistants4 ,the chief duties of consuls are to enforce the commercial laws1 and to protect the rights of ,american citizens4 ,consuls reside at the principal cities of the consular districts to which they are accredited4 ,the interests of ,american shipping and ,american seamen are specially intrusted to their care4 ,they keep the papers of ,american vessels while in port2 they record the tonnage1 the kind and value of the cargo1 and the number and condition of the sailors4 ,they hear the complaints of seamen1 cause the arrest of mutinous sailors1 send them home for trial1 and care for mariners in destitute condition4 ,they take possession of the property of ,american citizens dying abroad1 and forward the proceeds to the lawful heirs4 ,they collect valuable information relating to the commerce and manufactures of foreign countries1 which is distributed among our people by the department of commerce4 ,in ,turkey and ,china1 ,american citizens who are charged with crime are tried by the ,american consul4 ,consuls and consuls general receive salaries ranging from two thousand dollars to twelve thousand dollars each1 according to the importance of the cities where they are located4 ,,treasury ,,department4--,the secretary of the treasury is the head of the treasury department4 ,he manages the entire financial system of the national government4 ,he suggests to ,congress plans for raising revenue and maintaining the credit of the ,united ,states1 and makes detailed reports on all the operations of his department4 ,he superintends the collection of revenue2 the coinage of money2 the operation of national banks2 the conduct of custom-houses1 where taxes on imported foreign goods are collected4 ,the schedule or table showing the duties levied on foreign goods is called the tariff2 this is fixed by act of ,congress4 ,the management of the public health service1 and the operation of the coast guard1 maintained along the seacoast for the rescue of persons from drowning and for the enforcement of navigation laws1 are also under the charge of the secretary of the treasury4 ,his greatest responsibility is the management of the national debt1 which still amounts to many hundred millions of dollars4 ,,bureaus4--,the secretary of the treasury is assisted by three assistant secretaries of the treasury1 a comptroller1 six auditors1 a treasurer1 a register of the treasury1 and numerous other responsible officers in charge of the bank currency1 internal revenue1 the mint1 the erection of public buildings1 and other important bureaus and divisions of the treasury department4 ,the comptroller directs the work of the six auditors1 and superintends the recovery of debts due the ,united ,states4 ,the auditor for the treasury department settles--that is1 examines and passes on--all accounts in the collection of customs duties and internal revenue1 the national debt1 and other accounts immediately connected with the operations of the treasury department4 ,the auditor for the war department settles the army accounts4 ,the auditor for the interior department settles pension accounts1 accounts with the ,indians1 and all other accounts arising in the department of the interior4 ,the auditor for the navy department settles the accounts of the navy4 ,the auditor for the state and other departments has charge of the accounts of the secretary of state1 the attorney-general1 the secretary of agriculture1 the secretary of commerce1 and the secretary of labor1 and of all the officials under their direction2 the accounts of the ,united ,states courts2 and those of various institutions which are not under the control of any department4 ,the auditor for the post-office department examines and passes on the accounts of the postal service4 ,the treasurer is custodian of the funds of the ,united ,states4 ,all funds and securities are kept in vaults made for the purpose1 or deposited in reliable banks for safe keeping4 ,the register of the treasury has charge of the account-books of ,united ,states bonds and paper money4 ,they show the exact financial condition of the ,united ,states at all times4 ,the register's name is upon all bonds and notes issued by the government4 ,the comptroller of the currency supervises the national banks4 ,a bank is a place for the safe keeping and lending of money4 ,a bank holding its charter--that is1 its power to do business--from a ,state government is called a ,state bank4 ,two kinds of banks are chartered by the national government3 the national banks and the federal reserve banks4 ,by the laws of the ,united ,states1 any five or more persons with sufficient capital may organize a national bank4 ,a national bank may issue its notes--that is1 its promises to pay--as currency1 to an amount not exceeding the amount of ,united ,states bonds deposited by the bank with the national government4 ,each federal reserve bank is a large central bank organized by the banks of a certain district4 ,it issues notes as currency1 secured by commercial notes1 drafts1 etc4 ,the commissioner of internal revenue supervises the collection of income taxes and of taxes laid upon tobacco2 liquors1 etc41 manufactured in this country4 ,the director of the mint has charge of the coinage of money1 and reports to ,congress upon the yield of precious metals4 ,there are mints at ,philadelphia1 ,carson1 ,san ,francisco1 ,denver1 and ,new ,orleans1 and assay offices also at other places4 ,the ,constitution vests the power to coin money in the national government alone4 ,the director of the bureau of engraving and printing supervises the execution of designs and the engraving and printing of revenue and postage stamps1 national bank notes1 and the notes1 bonds1 and other financial paper of the ,united ,states4 ,the supervising architect selects plans for the erection of custom-houses1 court-houses1 post-offices1 mints1 and other public buildings of the ,united ,states4 ,the surgeon-general of the public health service has charge of the marine hospitals1 and helps to enforce the laws which aim to prevent the introduction of contagious diseases into the country4 ,he calls conferences of state health boards4 ,the solicitor of the treasury is the chief lawyer for the department4 ,he has charge of prosecutions for violations of the customs laws1 and other crimes against the financial interests of the ,united ,states4 ,like similar lawyers for other departments1 he is included in the department of justice1 under the attorney-general4 ,,war ,,department4--,the secretary of war is the head of the war department4 ,he has charge of the land forces1 under the direction of the ,president4 ,he supervises the expenditure of money voted by ,congress for the improvement of rivers and harbors1 and for the ,united ,states ,military ,academy at ,west ,point1 as well as for the support and operations of the army4 ,in the management of his department he is aided by an assistant secretary of war4 ,,bureaus4--,the war department has numerous offices and bureaus1 each in the charge of a responsible officer1 and all under the supervision of the ,chief of ,staff1 who is the military adviser of the secretary of war4 ,the adjutant-general issues the military orders of his superiors1 conducts the army correspondence1 issues commissions1 and keeps the army records4 ,the quartermaster-general provides quarters1 food1 clothing1 and transportation for the army1 and has charge of barracks and national cemeteries4 ,he also supervises the payment of the army and the military academy4 ,the surgeon-general superintends the army hospitals1 and the distribution of medical stores for the army4 ,the inspector-general attends to inspection of the arms and equipments of the soldiers4 ,the chief of engineers supervises the construction of forts1 the improvement of rivers and harbors1 and the surveys relating to them4 ,the chief of ordnance furnishes guns and ammunition to the army and to forts1 and has charge of armories and arsenals4 ,the judge-advocate-general1 who is chief of the bureau of military justice1 prosecutes crimes committed in the army1 and reviews all sentences passed by military courts and military commissions4 ,,military ,,academy4--,the military academy at ,west ,point is maintained for the education of officers for the army4 ,each member of ,congress appoints two cadets to the academy1 and the ,president appoints four from the ,district of ,columbia and eighty from the ,united ,states at large4 ,there are also appointed two from each territory1 two from ,porto ,rico1 and a certain number of enlisted men from the army4 ,the academy is under the charge of an army officer1 appointed by the secretary of war4 ,each cadet receives from the government an allowance sufficient to pay all necessary expenses4 ,,navy ,,department4--,the secretary of the navy presides over the navy department4 ,he has control of all affairs relating to vessels of war1 the naval forces1 and naval operations4 ,he has charge of the ,naval ,observatory at ,washington1 and of the ,united ,states ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis4 ,there is an assistant secretary of the navy4 ,the naval department issues sailing charts1 sailing directions1 and other publications for the use of seamen4 ,among these is the nautical almanac used in navigating ships4 ,,bureaus4--,the naval department has a number of bureaus1 which are in charge of competent officers detailed from the naval service4 ,the bureau of navigation gives out and enforces the secretary's orders to the officers of the navy1 enlists sailors1 keeps the records of the service1 and has charge of the naval academy4 ,it has charge of the training and education of line officers and enlisted men of the navy4 ,the bureau of yards and docks attends to the navy yards1 docks1 wharves1 their buildings and machinery4 ,the bureau of ordnance superintends the forging and testing of cannon1 guns1 and other military equipments1 and the construction of naval torpedoes4 ,the bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of the naval laboratory1 the eight naval hospitals1 and the purchase and distribution of surgical instruments and medical stores for the naval department4 ,the bureau of supplies and accounts purchases and distributes provisions and clothing for the navy4 ,the bureau of steam engineering superintends the construction and repair of engines and machinery for the vessels of war4 ,the bureau of construction and repair has charge of all matters relating to the construction and repair of all vessels and boats used in the naval service4 ,,naval ,,academy4--,the naval academy at ,annapolis is maintained by the national government for the purpose of educating and training officers for the navy4 ,it bears the same relation to the navy that the military academy bears to the army4 ,at the academy there are three midshipmen for each member of ,congress2 the ,president appoints two from the ,district of ,columbia and ten a year from the ,united ,states at large2 and fifteen enlisted men of the navy are appointed each year on competitive examination4 ,the academy is under the charge of a superintendent1 appointed by the secretary of the navy4 ,each midshipman receives from the government an annual sum of money sufficient to pay all necessary expenses incurred at the academy4 ,,post-,,office ,,department4--,the postmaster-general presides over the post-office department4 ,he has control of all questions relating to the management of post-offices and the carrying of the mails1 and appoints all postmasters whose annual salaries are less than a thousand dollars each4 ,postmasters whose salaries exceed this sum are appointed by the ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,,bureaus4--,the postmaster-general has four assistants1 who1 under him1 are in charge of the various details of the vast establishment devoted to the postal service4 ,the first assistant postmaster-general has general charge of post-offices and postmasters1 and makes preparations for the appointment of all postmasters4 ,he also controls the free delivery of mail matter in cities1 and the dead letter office4 ,the second assistant postmaster-general attends to the letting of contracts for carrying the mails1 decides upon the mode of conveyance1 and fixes the time for the arrival and departure of mails at each post-office4 ,he also has charge of the foreign mail service4 ,the ,united ,states has postal treaties with all the other civilized countries in the world1 by which regular mail lines are maintained4 ,the third assistant postmaster-general has charge of financial matters4 ,he provides stamps1 stamped envelopes1 and postal cards for post-offices1 and receives the reports and settlements of postmasters4 ,he also superintends the registered mail service1 the postal savings system1 and the post-office money-order business4 ,by means of money orders people may deposit money in the post-office at which they mail their letters1 and have it paid at the office to which their letters are addressed4 ,the fourth assistant postmaster-general has charge of the rural free delivery system1--a very important service4 ,he also furnishes blanks and stationery to post-offices throughout the ,united ,states1 and supervises the making of the various post-route maps1 such as those used for rural delivery and for the parcel post4 ,,interior ,,department4--,the secretary of the interior is the chief officer of the interior department4 ,the former name1 home department1 suggests the character of the subjects under its control4 ,its duties relate to various public interests which have been transferred to it from other departments4 ,the department of the interior has charge of pensions1 public lands1 ,indian affairs1 patents1 education1 and the geological survey4 ,the commissioner of pensions has charge of the examination of pension claims and the granting of pensions and bounties for service in the army and the navy4 ,there are about a million names on the pension rolls of the ,united ,states1 and the annual payment of pensions amounts to about one hundred and forty million dollars4 ,the commissioner of the general land office superintends the surveys and sales of the lands belonging to the national government4 ,the ,united ,states surveys divide the public lands into ranges1 townships1 sections1 and fractions of sections4 ,ranges are bounded by north and south lines1 six miles apart1 and are numbered east and west4 ,ranges are divided into townships1 each six miles square1 numbered north and south4 ,a township is divided into thirty-six sections1 each one mile square1 and containing six hundred and forty acres of land2 and sections are divided into quarter sections4 ,the commissioner of ,indian affairs has charge of questions relating to the government of the ,indians4 ,its agents make treaties1 manage lands1 issue rations and clothing1 and conduct trade with the ,indians4 ,the commissioner of patents conducts all matters pertaining to the granting of patents for useful inventions1 discoveries1 and improvements4 ,a patent gives the inventor the exclusive right to manufacture1 sell1 and use the patented article for a period of seventeen years4 ,a copyright1 which is somewhat similar to a patent1 gives the author of a book the exclusive right to print1 publish1 and sell it for a period of twenty-eight years1 with the privilege at the expiration of that time of renewing for twenty-eight years more4 ,an inventor or author may sell a patent or copyright1 as well as other property4 ,the commissioner of education investigates the condition and progress of education in the several ,states and ,territories1 and collects information relating to schools1 school systems1 and methods of teaching4 ,the facts collected are distributed among the people in annual reports published by the office4 ,the director of the geological survey sends out parties of scientific men1 who explore various parts of the ,union1 trace the sources of rivers1 measure the heights of lands1 and gather other facts relating to the natural resources of the country4 ,he publishes excellent maps of the regions that have been explored4 ,,department ,,of ,,justice4--,the attorney-general presides over the department of justice4 ,he is the chief law officer of the government1 and the legal adviser of all the departments4 ,he is assisted by the solicitor-general1 who is the second officer in rank2 by nine assistant attorney-generals1 and by several solicitors for particular departments4 ,the department of justice conducts before the supreme court all suits to which the ,united ,states is a party2 conducts suits arising in any of the departments1 when requested by the head thereof2 exercises supervision over the district attorneys and marshals of the ,united ,states district courts2 examines the titles of lands proposed to be purchased by the ,united ,states1 as sites for forts1 arsenals1 barracks1 dockyards1 customhouses1 post-offices1 and other public purposes2 examines and reports upon applications for judicial offices and other positions requiring legal ability4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture4--,the department of agriculture was reorganized in #ahhi4 ,previous to that time it had been a bureau of the interior department4 ,the secretary of agriculture is the chief officer of the department of agriculture4 ,this department collects and diffuses among the people useful knowledge relating to agriculture and agricultural products4 ,experiments are conducted upon farm and garden products1 and the seeds of choice varieties are distributed among the people4 ,similar attention is given to stock-raising and the care of forests4 ,the bureau of chemistry assists in the enforcement of the pure food law4 ,the department also includes the weather bureau1 which collects and publishes telegraphic reports of storms and the condition of the weather1 in the interest of agriculture and commerce4 ,,department ,,of ,,commerce4--,the department of commerce and labor was created in #aijc1 and ten years later was divided into two departments4 ,the secretary of commerce presides over the department of commerce4 ,its duty is to promote and develop commerce1 mining1 manufacturing1 and fisheries4 ,it collects and publishes facts and figures on all these subjects2 supplies exactly true weights and measures for any one to copy2 controls stations for stocking waters with valuable fish2 inspects and licenses steamships1 rejecting any that are unseaworthy2 surveys the seacoast of the ,united ,states1 and maintains lighthouses at dangerous points4 ,the work of the department is divided among a number of bureaus1 many of which were already in existence when the new department was formed4 ,among these is the census office1 which takes a census of the ,united ,states every ten years1 besides collecting other statistics at shorter intervals4 ,,department ,,of ,,labor4--,the secretary of labor presides over the department of labor4 ,its duty is to promote the welfare of wage earners4 ,it makes important investigations1 and publishes statistics concerning laborers4 ,this department includes the children's bureau1 which studies problems1 affecting children's welfare4 ,it also includes the bureau of immigration and the bureau of naturalisation1 which supervise the enforcement of ,united ,states laws regarding immigration and naturalization4 ,,separate ,,commissions4--,in addition to the civil service commission1 ,congress has created two other important commissions not connected with any department4 ,the interstate commerce commission1 consisting of seven members appointed by the ,president1 supervises interstate railroads1 express companies1 etc41 and enforces the laws which control them4 ,the federal trade commission1 consisting of five members appointed by the ,president1 supervises the business of persons and companies engaged in interstate commerce1 except those under the control of the interstate commerce commission4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does the ,constitution require that the ,president shall be a native of the ,united ,states8 #b4 ,who is now ,president1 and of what ,state is he a citizen8 #c4 ,when was he elected8 #d4 ,should the ,president be eligible for reelection8 #e4 ,do you think he should have the veto power8 #f4 ,of what use is a passport in traveling8 #g4 ,what is internal revenue8 #h4 ,what was the principal cause of the national debt8 #i4 ,how many soldiers1 including officers1 in the army of the ,united ,states8 #aj4 ,of what value are the weather reports8 #aa4 ,why is it right for the government to grant pensions8 #ab4 ,why should a census be taken8 #ac4 ,what is the population of the ,united ,states1 and what the population of this ,state1 by the last census8 #ad4 ,what is meant by conducting a suit before the supreme court8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the ,president and the ,vice ,president should be elected by the popular vote4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,united ,,states--7,continued74 ,,judicial ,,department4 ,the judicial department is one of the three great departments of the government1 being coordinate with ,congress1 the legislative power1 and with the ,president1 the executive power4 ,the principle of three coordinate departments of government is new1 the ,united ,states being the first nation that ever embodied it in its constitution4 ,the judicial system of the ,united ,states includes the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 the circuit courts of appeals1 district courts1 the courts of the ,district of ,columbia1 the court of claims1 the court of customs appeals1 a territorial court for each of the ,territories1 and several commissioners' courts in each of the ,states4 ,,jurisdiction ,,of ,,united ,,states ,,courts4--,the jurisdiction of ,united ,states courts extends to the following classes of suits at law3 #a4 ,to all cases arising under laws passed by ,congress4 #b4 ,those affecting ministers1 consuls1 and other agents of the ,united ,states and foreign countries4 #c4 ,suits arising on the high seas4 #d4 ,all suits to which the ,united ,states is a party4 #e4 ,controversies between a ,state and the citizens of another ,state4 #f4 ,cases between citizens of different ,states4 #g4 ,suits between citizens of the same ,state claiming lands under grants by different ,states4 #h4 ,cases between a ,state or its citizens and a foreign ,state or its citizens4 ,it will be seen that all cases at law to which a ,state is a party must be tried in the courts of the ,united ,states4 ,a direct suit can not be brought against the ,united ,states except by authority of a special act of ,congress2 nor can a suit be brought against a ,state by a citizen of another ,state1 or by one of its own citizens1 except by the special permission of its legislature4 ,,supreme ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states is the highest judicial tribunal in the country4 ,it consists of the ,chief ,justice and eight associate justices1 nominated by the ,president and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,the country is divided into nine circuits1 each represented by a ,justice of the ,supreme ,court4 ,the justices hold their offices during life1 unless impeached2 but they have the privilege of retiring upon full pay1 at seventy years of age1 provided they have served in the court for ten years4 ,a quorum consists of any six justices1 and if a majority agree upon a decision it becomes the decision of the court4 ,the court holds annual sessions in the ,capitol building at ,washington1 beginning upon the second ,monday in ,october4 ,the annual salary of the ,chief ,justice is fifteen thousand dollars2 that of the associate justices is fourteen thousand five hundred dollars each4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states creates and names the ,supreme ,court1 and provides that the ,judicial power shall be vested in it and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish4 ,,jurisdiction4--,the ,supreme ,court has original jurisdiction in all cases affecting ministers1 consuls1 and other agents of the ,united ,states and foreign countries1 and in cases to which a ,state is a party4 ,most cases tried by it are brought before it upon appeals from the inferior courts of the ,united ,states4 ,they involve chiefly the questions of jurisdiction of the inferior courts1 the constitutionality of laws1 the validity of treaties1 and the sentences in criminal and prize causes4 ,an appeal from a ,state court can be carried to the ,supreme ,court only upon the ground that the decision of the ,state court is in conflict with the ,constitution or laws of the ,united ,states4 ,the peculiar province of the ,supreme ,court is to interpret the ,constitution1 and in all conflicts between a ,state and the nation the final decision rests with the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4 ,it may1 and does1 modify its own judgments2 but until it modifies or reverses a decision1 it is final1 and from it there is no appeal4 ,whether its decree be against a private citizen1 a ,state1 the ,congress1 or the ,president1 that decree is the end of the whole matter1 and must be obeyed4 ,the ,supreme ,court is more admired and praised by foreign critics than is any other of our institutions4 ,it is conceded by all to be one of the strongest and best features in our system of government4 ,in a free country like ours1 such a tribunal is necessary to prevent the legislative and executive departments from trespassing upon the ,constitution1 and invading the rights of the people4 ,therefore the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states has been appropriately called the balance-wheel in our system of government4 ,,united ,,states ,,circuit ,,courts ,,of ,,appeals4--,each ,united ,states circuit embraces several ,states1 and has two or more circuit judges4 ,one justice of the ,supreme ,court is also assigned to each circuit4 ,there are nine circuit courts of appeals1 one for each ,united ,states circuit4 ,all appeals from the district courts must be made to the circuit courts of appeals1 except in cases expressly provided by law to be taken direct to the ,supreme ,court2 but provision is also made for appeal from the decision of the circuit courts of appeals to the ,supreme ,court in certain classes of cases4 ,,united ,,states ,,district ,,court4--,each ,state has one or more ,united ,states district courts1 each presided over by a district judge4 ,the district court has both civil and criminal jurisdiction in all cases under the national law which are not required to be brought in other courts4 ,before #aiab there were so-called circuit courts usually held by the district judges1 for the trial of certain important kinds of cases2 but these were abolished by an act of #aiaa4 ,in each ,state a large majority of the civil and criminal cases must be tried and finally decided in the ,state courts4 ,however1 among the important cases tried in ,united ,states courts are those concerning patents1 copyrights1 and bankruptcy1 those involved in the regulation of interstate and foreign commerce1 and offenses committed against the postal and revenue laws4 ,interstate commerce cases are often in the form of appeals from the orders issued by the interstate commerce commission1 fixing the freight and passenger rates of railroads1 etc4 ,such a case is heard by three judges sitting together1 and an appeal from their decision can be taken directly to the ,supreme ,court4 ,if the circuit and district judges desire1 they may retire upon full pay at the age of seventy1 after ten years of consecutive service4 ,,court ,,of ,,customs ,,appeals4--,the customs court consists of a chief judge and four associate judges4 ,it decides disputes over the rates of duty payable on imported goods4 ,it holds sessions both at ,washington and in other cities4 ,,court ,,of ,,claims4--,the court of claims holds its sessions at ,washington1 and consists of a chief justice and four associate justices4 ,it hears and determines claims against the ,united ,states4 ,no one could bring suit against the national government without permission from ,congress2 but a person having a claim against it may submit the claim to the court of claims for trial1 and1 if the claim is declared to be legal and just1 it is almost always paid by act of ,congress4 ,,other ,,courts4--,the ,district of ,columbia has six supreme court justices and three justices of a court of appeals4 ,their jurisdiction is similar to that of the ,united ,states district courts and circuit courts of appeals1 but is confined to the ,district of ,columbia4 ,territorial courts consist of a chief justice and two associate justices1 who hold their offices for a term of four years1 unless removed by the ,president4 ,a territorial court holds its sessions in the ,territory for which it is constituted1 and has jurisdiction of cases arising under the laws of ,congress and the laws passed by the territorial legislature4 ,appeals are taken from the courts of the ,district of ,columbia and from the territorial courts to the supreme court of the ,united ,states4 ,a ,united ,states commissioner's court consists of a commissioner appointed by the judge of the district court4 ,the chief duties of this court are to arrest and hold for trial persons charged with offenses against the ,united ,states1 and to assist in taking testimony for the trial of cases4 ,a judge of a ,state court or a justice of the peace may act as ,united ,states commissioner1 but while engaged in such duties he is an officer of the ,united ,states1 and not of the ,state4 ,,term ,,of ,,service4--,justices of circuit courts1 district courts1 the customs court1 the court of claims1 the courts of the ,district of ,columbia1 and of the territorial courts1 are appointed by the ,president and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,the justices of these courts1 except of the territorial courts1 hold their offices during life1 unless impeached4 ,this life tenure of office1 and the provision that a salary of a justice shall not be reduced during his term1 render the courts of the ,united ,states independent of ,congress and public opinion1 and tend to preserve the purity and dignity of their decisions4 ,the salary of a judge of the circuit court is seven thousand dollars2 that of a judge of a district court is six thousand dollars2 that of a judge of the customs court is seven thousand dollars2 and that of a justice of the court of claims is six thousand dollars1 except the chief justice1 who receives six thousand five hundred dollars4 ,,officers ,,of ,,courts4--,the ,united ,states district courts have grand juries and trial juries1 who perform duties similar to those of juries in ,state courts4 ,with the consent of the ,senate1 the ,president appoints for each district a ,united ,states district attorney and a ,united ,states marshal4 ,the district attorney represents the ,united ,states in all civil cases to which it is a party1 and is the prosecuting officer in criminal cases4 ,the marshal is the executive and ministerial officer of the court1 with duties similar to those of a sheriff4 ,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states appoints a reporter1 who reports--that is1 edits and publishes--its decisions4 ,this court also appoints its own marshal4 ,the decisions of the district court are reported by the ,judge1 or by an attorney under the judge's sanction4 ,each court appoints a clerk1 who keeps a record of its proceedings2 gives a history of each case2 notes all orders1 decisions1 and judgments2 has charge of all money paid2 and keeps and fixes the seal of the court4 ,the circuit courts of appeals appoint their own marshals and clerks4 ,the duties of these officers are similar to those performed by the marshal and clerk of the ,supreme ,court4 ,the circuit courts of appeals have no reporters4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,who is chief justice of the ,united ,states1 and of what ,state is he a citizen8 #b4 ,why should a judge hold his position during a long term of years8 #c4 ,this ,state is a part of what ,united ,states circuit8 #d4 ,what justice represents this circuit in the supreme court8 #e4 ,who is judge of the ,united ,states district court of this district8 #f4 ,why can no person bring suit against the ,united ,states except by special act of ,congress8 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,resolved1 ,that the jury system should be abolished4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,government4 ,government is defined as rule or control4 ,it is that which governs1 and also the act of governing4 ,in its political sense1 it means the supreme authority of a ,state or other political community1 or the act by which this authority is applied4 ,it is sometimes said to be a system of institutions for the restraint of people living in the social state or social condition4 ,the word govern is derived from a ,latin word which first meant to steer the ship1 and then very naturally came to mean to guide1 to direct1 to command4 ,the comparison of governing with steering is a very happy one1 for the interest of him who steers is the same as that of the people in the ship3 all must float or sink together4 ,so the interest of those that govern1 of those that guide the ship of state1 as we often express it1 is the same as that of the people4#a ,,origin ,,and ,,necessity4--,the origin of government is unknown2 its beginning can not be traced4 ,people everywhere1 in all the varying degrees of civilization1 recognize the necessity of a supreme authority1 to whom all owe and render obedience4 ,men can not long live in the same vicinity without some kind of political organization4 ,without some sort of government--that is1 some supreme power to settle disputes--the people would be in continual warfare2 there could be no security to person or property2 each individual could look to himself alone for safety2 his hand would be against every man1 and every man's hand against him4 ,wherever men are found they live under some form of government1 however rude and imperfect4 ,in all parts and in all ages of the world they have seen the necessity of some power to protect the weak and restrain the strong1 and have therefore set up a supreme authority for the common welfare4 ,a body of people living under government is called society1 and the agreement existing between them1 for their common welfare1 is called the social compact4 ,men are so constituted that society is necessary to their happiness4 ,therefore they seek the social state and join the social compact1 thus agreeing to be governed by law and order4 ,,for ,,the ,,people4--,government is for the people1 and not for the rulers4 ,officers1 the highest and the lowest1 are merely the servants of the people4 ,all governments derive their just powers from the consent of the people1 and are established and maintained for their good4 ,all powers which are exercised without the consent of the people are unjust and tyrannical4 ,,kinds4--,government is of two kinds1 civil and military4 ,civil government is the government of civil society1 or the government of the people in a peaceful state4 ,military government is the government of men in a state of war4 ,it prevails in the army and the navy1 and sometimes in districts which are the scenes of military operations4 ,military government is conducted by the rules of martial law1 and in its penalties and exactions is much more severe than civil government4 ,,forms ,,of ,,civil ,,government4 ,there are many forms of civil government1 but they may be reduced to three principal systems3 #a4 ,monarchy3 government by one person4 #b4 ,aristocracy3 government by a few persons4 #c4 ,democracy3 government by the people4 ,every government is either one of these forms or is composed of two or more of them4 ,,monarchy4--,a monarchy is a government whose chief authority is vested in one person1 usually called king1 queen1 emperor1 empress1 or prince4 ,monarchies are absolute or limited4 ,in an absolute monarchy there is no limit to the power of the monarch2 his wishes are the laws of the people4 ,the people are his property1 and in his person are combined all the powers of government1 legislative1 executive1 and judicial4 ,russia is the only civilized nation whose government is still an absolute monarchy4 ,in a constitutional monarchy the sovereign1 or chief ruler1 must govern by laws made by a representative body elected by the people4 ,england and ,germany are constitutional monarchies4 ,in an hereditary monarchy the sovereign inherits the ruling power1 usually from his father4 ,in an elective monarchy the sovereign is elected for life1 usually by the dignitaries of other nations4 ,a patriarchy is a monarchy in which the chief power is exercised by a patriarch1 or father4 ,the authority of the patriarch is confined to his tribe4 ,this form of government was common in ancient times1 before tribes were combined into nations4 ,a theocracy is a monarchy whose rulers claim to be under the direct guidance of ,god4 ,the government of the ancient ,hebrews was a theocracy4 ,,aristocracy4--,an aristocracy1 sometimes called oligarchy1 is a government in which the supreme authority is vested in a privileged few1 distinguished by their wealth and social position4 ,the privileged class are usually called nobles4 ,they are above the common people in rank and bear titles of honor4 ,these titles are mostly inherited1 but are sometimes conferred upon persons by the sovereign4 ,an aristocracy never exists by itself2 it is always combined with some other form of government1 usually with a constitutional monarchy4 ,the government of ,england is partly aristocratic2 the ,house of ,lords1 one of the bodies of ,parliament1 being composed of nobles4 ,,democracy4--,a democracy is a government of the people1 by the people1 for the people4 ,it is a government by many1 instead of by one or by a few4 ,hereditary titles are inconsistent with democratic government1 and therefore never exist in a democracy4 ,a pure democracy is a government conducted by the people in person4 ,it is practicable only in a political community so small that all the people may assemble at the seat of government4 ,the ,new ,england town meeting is almost the only example of a pure democracy in the world at the present time2 certainly the only example in the ,united ,states4 ,a republic1 or representative democracy1 is a government conducted by representatives elected by the people4 ,the ,united ,states1 ,mexico1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 and all ,south ,american nations are republics1 and the republican principle of government is growing in popularity throughout the civilized world4 ,no form of government is equally good for all peoples4 ,a certain form may be good for one country and bad for another country4 ,a republic1 which is the best government for a well-educated and virtuous people1 is the worst for an ignorant and depraved people4 ,the excellence of a republican government depends upon the knowledge and virtue of its citizens4 ,the people are the rulers1 and1 if they are wise and virtuous1 they will rule well2 if they are ignorant and depraved1 they will rule ill4 ,therefore the hope of a republic like ours is1 that its people will continue to grow wiser and better4 #a;,fiske's ,civil ,government of the ,united ,states4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why is military government more severe than civil government8 #b4 ,could society exist without law8 ,why8 #c4 ,why is a republic a bad form of government for an ignorant people8 #d4 ,are the people of the ,united ,states growing wiser and better8 #e4 ,is this ,state improving in civilization8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,justice4 ,the object of government is to protect the people1 and to render justice to them4 ,justice is the security of rights4 ,a right is a well-founded claim2 that is1 a just claim of one person upon other persons4 ,rights are the most important things that a person can possess1 because his happiness depends upon them4 ,they are real things1 for whose protection governments are instituted4 ,the kind and extent of the rights recognized and protected in any country determine the form of its government4 ,as a rule1 there is more freedom among citizens of a republic than among those of other governments1 because a republic guarantees more rights4 ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4 ,people have many rights1 and they have as many duties4 ,each right given to a person is a trust placed in his hands for him to discharge4 ,a right implies a duty1 and a duty implies a right4 ,rights and duties go hand in hand4 ,for example1 children have a right to the protection of their parents1 and this implies that it is the duty of children to obey their parents4 ,,civil ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,rights and duties are civil and political4 ,civil rights are sometimes called inalienable rights1 because they can not be justly taken away except as a punishment for crime4 ,they are chiefly those rights with which we are endowed by nature4 ,they are not conferred by any earthly power1 but are given to every human being at his birth4 ,they are called civil rights1 because they belong to the citizen in his ordinary daily life4 ,among civil rights are3 #a4 ,the right to personal security2 that is1 the right to be free from attack and annoyance2 #b4 ,the right of personal liberty2 that is1 to go when and where he pleases1 provided he does not trespass upon the rights of others2 and #c4 ,the right of private property2 that is1 the right to use1 enjoy1 and dispose of what he has acquired by labor1 purchase1 gift1 or inheritance4 ,the greater part of these rights belong to men whether living in society1 that is1 under government1 or living without government4 ,their natural rights are more extensive without society than with it1 but are far less secure4 ,without government natural rights are unlimited2 each person may lay claim to all land and to all it produces1 provided he is strong enough to maintain his claim by force4 ,when men join the social compact1 they agree to abandon some of their natural rights1 in order to be protected by the government in those which they retain2 that is1 each person agrees that in making his own claims he will have due regard for the similar claims of others4 ,in entering the social compact1 men also agree to submit their personal claims to settlement by the law1 instead of going to war to maintain them4 ,they agree to refer their disputes to courts established for that purpose4 ,as a rule1 under government1 right prevails2 without government1 might prevails4 ,civil rights are divided into industrial rights1 social rights1 and moral or religious rights4 ,,industrial ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,it is the right and duty of each person to provide in his own way1 providing it is legal and honest1 for himself and those dependent upon him4 ,all business transactions2 the search for homes1 comforts1 and wealth2 agriculture1 manufacturing1 mining1 and commerce2 the conduct of all professions1 occupations1 and industries2 the interests of farm laborers1 operatives in factories1 miners1 clerks1 and all persons engaged in mental or physical labor1 are based upon industrial rights and duties4 ,the wages of people1 the hours of labor1 railway and telegraph lines1 canals1 express companies1 other common carriers1 the various kinds of employment1 and the organization of men in different branches of industry to advance their interests1 are questions affecting industrial rights4 ,these rights underlie all efforts of people to improve their financial condition4 ,,social ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,each member of society has rights as such1 and these are called social rights4 ,they include the rights of personal security and protection4 ,they underlie all efforts for the improvement of the social condition of the people4 ,society is interested in better schools1 in public health1 in the reformation of criminals1 in good highways and streets1 in safe buildings1 in well-lighted cities and villages1 in the maintenance of charitable institutions1 in the establishment of sources of harmless amusement1 and in the preservation of peace and order4 ,the comfort and convenience of the public are even more important than the comfort and convenience of any person4 ,therefore1 individual rights must yield to public rights when the two conflict4 ,for example1 the land of a private citizen may be condemned by the proper authorities1 and be used for public highways or other public purposes4 ,the government pays the owner of the property condemned1 but usually less than his estimate of the value4 ,this right of society1 existing above the right1 of any of its members1 is called the ,,right ,,of ,,eminent ,,domain4 ,by it individual rights must yield to the rights of society1 of the government1 or of a corporation4 ,a corporation is an association of individuals authorized by law to transact business as a single natural person4 ,railway companies1 banks1 chartered cities and villages1 and the counties of some ,states are corporations4 ,,moral ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,man is a moral being2 that is1 he is conscious of good and evil4 ,therefore he has moral rights and duties4 ,he has rights of conscience1 with which it is not the province of government to interfere4 ,he naturally worships a ,being superior to himself1 and feels the obligation to deal justly with his fellow-men4 ,he has a right to do and say all things which are not unlawful or wrong within themselves4 ,it is his right to worship when he pleases1 whom he pleases1 and as he pleases4 ,the moral rights and duties of the people are concerned in the maintenance of religion1 the support of churches1 in reverence for things sacred1 in acts of charity and benevolence1 in living an upright life1 and in teaching lessons of morality1 honesty1 industry1 and usefulness4 ,whatever is implied in the word ought1 correctly used1 is a moral duty4 ,,political ,,rights ,,and ,,duties4--,by the social compact1 men also agree to abandon a part of their natural rights in order to participate in the government4 ,they agree in part to be governed by others1 in order that in part they may govern others4 ,the rights of participation in the government1 such as voting and holding office1 are called political rights1 because they affect the public policy of society4 ,political rights do not belong to men by nature1 but are conferred by government4 ,within reasonable bounds1 they may be enlarged or restricted without injustice4 ,since they are conferred by the government1 the power to vote and to hold office is a privilege to be enjoyed rather than a right to be asserted4 ,in the ,united ,states the political rights of the people are carefully set forth in the ,constitution4 ,the smallest functions of government1 such as the size and color of a postage stamp1 or the employment of a page in the ,state legislature1 touch the political rights of the citizen4 ,appointment and elections to public office1 the enactment of laws1 and the performance of public duties are questions of political concern4 ,good laws1 good administrations1 and the perpetuity of the government itself1 depend upon the manner in which the people discharge their public duties4 ,a man who habitually fails to vote and to take interest in the political affairs of his country may be a good man1 but he is certainly a bad citizen4 ,to be a good citizen is to aid intelligently in giving the people good government4 ,for a man to hold himself aloof from politics1 unless his action is based upon conscientious scruples1 shows his interest in himself1 and his lack of interest in his country4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does happiness depend upon the maintenance of rights8 #b4 ,how do persons born under government agree to be governed by the laws8 #c4 ,if the claims of people as to their rights conflict1 how is the difference settled8 #d4 ,what is meant by the phrase common carrier8 #e4 ,is it right for men to hold aloof from public affairs because there is corruption in politics8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,law ,,and ,,liberty4 ,through law rights are secured1 and the performance of some duties is enforced4 ,law is a rule of action1 prescribing what shall be done and what shall not be done4 ,laws exist for the purpose of securing the rights of the people4 ,the enjoyment of rights is liberty4 ,as the enjoyment of rights depends upon their security1 and as they are secured by law1 therefore liberty is based upon law4 ,without law there could be no political liberty1 and the civil liberty of the people would be narrow and uncertain4 ,it may be said1 therefore1 that there can be no true liberty without law2 but laws may be so many and so stringent that there can be no liberty4 ,liberty and just laws are inseparable4 ,liberty and rights are of the same kinds1 industrial1 social1 moral or religious1 and political4 ,the words rights1 law1 and liberty are full of meaning1 and in a free country suggest ideas of the deepest reverence4 ,,origin4--,the laws of the country are partly human and partly divine4 ,they were framed by man1 but some of them are based upon the laws of ,god4 ,some are of recent origin1 and many are so ancient that their beginning can not be traced4 ,when men began1 to live in society1 they began to make laws1 for laws at once became necessary4 ,laws are undergoing constant changes1 as new conditions arise and new customs prevail4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,law4 ,the moral law prescribes our duties to men1 and also to ,god4 ,it is summed up and revealed in the ,ten ,commandments1 and is the same as the law of nature taught us by our consciences4 ,the common law consists of the principles and rules of action applied by the courts in cases not regulated by express legislative acts4 ,it is the unwritten law which has been practiced for ages in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,in all ,states of the ,union1 except ,louisiana1 cases not covered by the acts of the legislature are tried by the common law4 ,the civil law is the law that prevailed among the ancient ,romans4 ,it is still in use among most of the nations of continental ,europe4 ,in ,louisiana it is applied to cases not covered by the laws of the legislature4 ,the words civil law are sometimes used to denote the law governing civil suits4 ,statute law consists of the acts passed by legislative assemblies4 ,the words are used to denote the opposite of common law4 ,the enactment of a statute by a ,state legislature repeals the common law previously in force upon the same subject4 ,international law1 often called the law of nations1 consists of the rules and customs prevailing between civilized nations in their relations with one another4 ,it is based upon the law of nature1 the law of right and wrong4 ,criminal law is the law governing criminal cases4 ,it is partly common law and partly statute law4 ,ignorance of the law excuses no one4 ,parliamentary law consists of the rules and customs governing parliamentary assemblies4 ,it prevails in all law-making bodies1 in conventions and deliberative meetings4 ,martial law is the law which regulates men in military service4 ,it prevails in the army and the navy4 ,the courts which apply it are called courts martial4 ,martial law is noted for its severity4 ,maritime law1 or marine law1 is the law especially relating to the business of the sea1 to ships1 their crews1 and navigation4 ,the courts of maritime law are admiralty courts4 ,commercial law is a system of rules for the regulation of trade and commerce4 ,it is deduced from the customs of merchants4 ,,courts4--,laws are administered1 that is1 explained and applied1 by means of courts4 ,a court is a body organized for the public administration of justice4 ,a court may consist of a single judge or justice1 or of a number of judges acting together4 ,a court can administer the laws only in cases which are brought before it4 ,the highest court in the land can not make an order or render a judgment until the question comes to trial in a regular way4 ,,suits4--,suits at law are called causes1 cases1 or actions4 ,a civil cause is a suit between persons1 brought to recover rights or to secure compensation for their infraction4 ,a criminal cause is a charge brought by a ,state or by the ,united ,states against a person for the commission of a crime4 ,the plaintiff is the person who brings the suit4 ,the defendant is the person against whom the suit is brought4 ,in all criminal cases in ,state courts1 the ,state is the plaintiff2 in other words1 society prosecutes the offender in the name of the ,state4 ,in criminal cases in the ,united ,states courts1 the ,united ,states is the plaintiff4 ,,judges4--,the judge represents the majesty of the law1 and is often called the court4 ,he maintains the dignity of the trial1 determines the method of procedure1 interprets the law1 instructs the juries1 renders judgment1 and in criminal cases passes sentence upon the offender4 ,judges are presumed to be learned in the law1 and to be perfectly just and impartial in their rulings4 ,,juries4--,most of the courts of this country have two juries1 called respectively1 grand jury and trial jury 7or petit jury74 ,the purpose of the grand jury is to investigate crime1 and to present charges1 called indictments1 for trial by the court4 ,the number of grand jurors to the court varies in different ,states1 being not more than twenty-four and not less than twelve4 ,the grand jury has a foreman1 elected by it1 or appointed by the judge of the court4 ,the grand jury inquires into violations of the law1 and if1 in the judgment of twelve jurors1 the evidence in a particular case warrants a trial1 a formal written charge is prepared1 and the foreman indorses thereon1 ,a true bill4 ,upon this indictment the offender is tried by the court4 ,in a few ,states grand juries are rarely if ever called1 the indictment being found on information or on evidence presented to a court commissioner4 ,a trial jury usually consists of twelve men1 but in some ,states a smaller number may be accepted by the judge of the court1 in certain cases1 by the agreement of the counsel upon the opposing sides4 ,the trial jury hears the testimony and argument1 and then decides upon the truth of the facts in dispute1 and renders a verdict or decision in the suit1 and in criminal cases convicts or acquits4 ,in some ,states all the jurors must agree1 or there is no verdict4 ,in other ,states the jury may render a verdict by the agreement of less than the whole number of jurors4 ,under certain regulations a party to a suit may challenge1 that is1 reject1 a part or all of the jurors1 and have others selected in their stead4 ,,origin ,,of ,,juries4--,grand juries and trial juries are of great antiquity4 ,it is thought that they existed among the ,saxons in the north of ,europe before they invaded and settled ,england1 more than fourteen hundred years ago4 ,the jury system and many other political institutions of the ,united ,states are derived from ,england4 ,both the grand jury and the trial jury are firmly grounded in this country1 being recognized1 in the constitutions of nearly all the ,states and the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 and are regarded as among the strongest supports of a free government4 ,,officers ,,of ,,courts4--,each court has one or more ministerial officers1 variously designated as constable1 sheriff1 tipstaff1 or marshal4 ,each court also has one or more clerks1 and sometimes other officers4 ,attorneys are considered officers of the courts in which they practice4 ,they usually represent the plaintiff and the defendant in court and are then called counsel4 ,,legal ,,proceedings in civil cases begin by the court issuing a writ1 at the instance of plaintiff1 summoning defendant to appear4 ,the defendant responding1 pleadings are filed--the claims of plaintiff1 and answer or demurrer of defendant4 ,if these disagree as to facts1 the court subpoenas witnesses4 ,in the presence of judge and jury1 the plaintiff states his case and the defendant his defense1 witnesses are examined and cross-examined1 and the case is argued4 ,the judge then charges the jury--summarizing the evidence and indicating points to be decided2 the jury retire to prepare their verdict1 which is announced and recorded as the judgment of the court4 ,in criminal cases the accused may be arrested on a grand jury indictment or a magistrate's warrant4 ,unless the crime is murder1 the accused may be released upon bail until trial1 which proceeds as in civil cases4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does the ,state prosecute offenses1 instead of leaving this duty to private persons8 #b4 ,what is meant by passing sentence upon an offender8 #c4 ,do you believe in the jury system1 or in the trial by several judges sitting together8 ,why8 #d4 ,have you ever seen a court in session8 #e4 ,in this ,state a grand jury has how many members8 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,suffrage ,,and ,,elections4 ,,suffrage4--,the most important political right is the right of suffrage2 that is1 the right to vote4 ,as the government exists for the benefit of the governed1 the purpose of suffrage is to place it under their control4 ,it gives each qualified voter a voice in public affairs1 and places the country under the rule of the people4 ,as the interests of the voters and their families are the same1 and as the voters represent these interests1 the whole people1 including women and children1 have an influence in the government4 ,the whole machinery of the ,state and of the ,united ,states is in the hands of those who do the voting4 ,,importance4--,the importance of this right can scarcely be overestimated4 ,it constitutes the difference between a free country and a despotism4 ,there can be no freedom unless the right to vote resides in the people2 nor can there be good government unless this right is exercised with an intelligent regard for the public welfare4 ,yet vast numbers of voters never realize the power they wield or the great responsibility it entails upon them4 ,,elections4--,the right of suffrage is exercised by means of elections4 ,an election is the direct method of ascertaining the will of the people upon public affairs4 ,they are held for the purpose of giving the people opportunity to express their choice in the selection of officers1 and thus to make known their will upon questions of public concern4 ,,methods ,,of ,,voting4--,there are three methods of voting--viva voce1 by ballot1 and by machine4 ,a man votes viva voce by announcing to the election officers the name of the candidate of his choice1 and having it recorded upon the polling-list4 ,a man votes by ballot by handing to the officers a slip of paper containing the name of the candidate voted for4 ,the officers deposit the ballots in a box called the ballot-box4 ,a voting machine has a knob or lever for each candidate1 and is so arranged that the voter can record one vote4 ,the viva voce method was once considered the best2 but voting by ballot or by machine has supplanted it generally in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,australian system provides at each polling-place a private apartment1 called a booth1 where each voter in private prepares his ballot from a printed list of all the candidates1 and then hands it to the officers1 who deposit it in the ballot-box4#a ,,officers ,,of ,,elections4--,the officers of elections at each polling-place are usually two or more supervisors1 inspectors1 or judges2 a clerk2 and a sheriff1 marshal1 or other officer of the peace4 ,the supervisors or inspectors decide who are entitled to vote under the law1 and in elections by ballot they deposit the ballots in the ballot-box4 ,the clerk makes a list of the names of voters1 and when the election is viva voce he records the votes4 ,the sheriff or other peace officer preserves order at the polls1 has charge of the ballot-box and polling-list after the election closes1 and delivers them to the proper authorities4 ,in most ,states1 at the close of the election the officers canvass1 that is1 examine the votes cast1 and certify the number of votes received by each candidate4 ,in some ,states the ballot-box is sealed at the close of the election1 and delivered to the canvassing board of the county4 ,in such cases the canvassing board of the county canvasses the vote1 and in ,state and national elections sends returns to the canvassing board of the ,state at the ,state capital4 ,in some ,states election officers are appointed by the county officers1 usually by the county judge or probate judge2 in other ,states they are elected by the people4 ,,bribery4--,bribery in elections is one of the serious evils of politics4 ,bribery is offering or receiving a reward for voting4 ,in most ,states1 in addition to other penalties1 persons convicted of giving or taking bribes are disfranchised2 that is1 are not permitted to vote thereafter4 ,in ancient ,athens a man convicted of corrupting a voter suffered the penalty of death4 ,the selling of a vote is regarded as one of the most infamous crimes that men can commit4 ,not even the conviction of theft so lowers a man in public esteem as a conviction of selling his vote1 for bribery savors of both theft and treason4 ,to sell his suffrage is to sell his manhood1 his country1 and his convictions4 ,most men who sell their votes do it through ignorance2 they are not aware of the enormity of the crime4 ,he who knows its infamy1 and yet barters his suffrage for money1 is unworthy of the smallest trust1 or even of the recognition of honest men4 #a;,for details regarding this system see ,chapter ,,xix4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,in what way are voters responsible for the government of the country8 #b4 ,do you believe in frequent elections8 ,why8 #c4 ,do you believe in public voting or in secret voting8 ,why8 #d4 ,why should election officers be fair and honest men8 #e4 ,what do you think of vote-buying and vote-selling8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,australian ,,ballot ,,system4 ,,origin4--,the idea of the secret ballot system1 now known under its various modifications as the ,australian ,ballot ,system1 was first proposed by ,francis ,s4 ,dutton1 member of the legislature of ,south ,australia from #ahea to #ahfe4 ,at that time the vices frequently accompanying open elections had begun to flourish in ,australia4 ,bribery1 intimidation1 disorder1 and violence were the order of all election days4 ,the plan was elaborated1 and became a law under the name of the ,elections ,act in #aheg4 ,the beneficial results of this method soon became evident to other countries1 and the movement spread to ,europe1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states4 ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,a similar system to that originally adopted in ,australia was first introduced into the ,united ,states by its adoption in #ahhh in the ,state of ,massachusetts and in the city of ,louisville1 ,kentucky4 ,the next year the legislatures of ,indiana1 ,montana1 ,rhode ,island1 ,wisconsin1 ,tennessee1 ,minnesota1 ,missouri1 ,michigan1 and ,connecticut passed laws providing for new systems of voting1 more or less resembling the ,australian system2 and now their example has been followed by almost all the other ,states4 ,,principles4--,although there are many modifications of detail in the statutes of the various ,states1 there are two essential features of the ballot-reform system which are everywhere observed3 ,first1 ,an arrangement of polling1 by which compulsory secrecy of voting is secured1 and intimidation or corruption of voters is prevented4 ,second1 ,one or more official ballots1 printed and distributed under authority1 on which the names of all candidates are found4 ,,requirements4--,the following are the requirements of the system3 ,ballots must be provided by public expense1 and none but these ballots may be used4 ,on these ballots should be printed the names of all candidates who have been nominated previously to the election1 with the names of the offices for which they have been nominated and of the parties they represent4 ,there are two forms of ballots3 the blanket ballot and the individual ballot4 ,the former is arranged in some ,states so as to group candidates by parties1 and in other ,states by the offices for which they are nominated4 ,in many cases the names of candidates are alphabetically arranged1 so that there can be no accusation of giving one party or candidate precedence as to position on the ticket4 ,in a few cases1 the name of the party to which the candidate belongs does not appear on the ballot at all1 but only the name of the office for which he has been nominated2 but in most cases the name of each party is printed either at the head of the ticket or opposite the name of each candidate1 or in both places4 ,where individual ballots are used1 a separate ballot is printed for each party or independent ticket4 ,,voting4--,special sworn clerks are engaged to distribute these ballots to voters at the polls4 ,the voter is allowed a limited time--say five or ten minutes--to retire into an election booth erected for the purpose1 to make his choice of candidates or ballots4 ,if the blanket ballot is in use1 he does this by placing a cross opposite the name of the desired candidate or list of candidates2 or by crossing out all others2 or by means of pasters for the substitution of names4 ,if individual ballots are provided1 he selects the one he prefers1 or corrects it to his liking by pasting upon it a single name or an entire ticket4 ,if he prefers1 he may write the names of candidates of his own nomination in place of those already printed4 ,he1 then1 without communicating with any one1 deposits his ballot as his vote4 ,only one man is allowed to enter a booth at a time1 and none but the ballot clerks and the man about to deposit his ballot are allowed within the enclosure erected for the purpose4 ,in some ,states the booths are separated one from the other merely by partitions1 as indicated in the cut1 page #aha2 but in other ,states each booth is a separate compartment with a door1 which is closed to prevent even a suspicion of any external observation4 ,illustration3 7,page #aha7 ,arrangement of polling place as required by ,massachusetts law4 ,in many ,states1 assistance is rendered to the illiterate or the blind4 ,in some cases1 in order to aid those who can not read1 each party adopts a device1 as an eagle or a flag1 which is printed on the ballot4 ,in most ,states a voter who declares that he can not read1 or that by some physical disability he is unable to mark his ballot1 may receive the assistance of one or two of the election officers in marking it4 ,every ballot must be strictly accounted for4 ,if any person in preparing a ballot should spoil it1 he may obtain others1 one at a time1 not exceeding three in all1 provided he returns each spoiled one4 ,all ballots thus returned are either immediately burned or else cancelled and preserved by the clerk4 ,,advantages4--,the advantages which have already accrued from the adoption of these laws are manifold3 ,first1 ,a secret ballot offers an effectual preventive against bribery1 since no man will place his money corruptly without satisfying himself that the vote is placed according to agreement4 ,second1 ,it secures the voter against the coercion1 solicitation1 or intimidation of others1 and enables him to vote according to the dictates of his conscience4 ,third1 ,bargaining and trading at the polls is prevented1 and with these much tumult1 riot1 and disorder must of necessity disappear4 ,fourth1 ,money is made less of a factor in politics1 and the poor man is placed on a plane of equality with the rich as a candidate4 ,in addition to these obvious advantages1 the ballot reform movement promises to have much wider effects1 and to pave the way and lay the foundation for other political reforms4 ,,forms ,,of ,,ballots4--,on pages #ahe1 #ahf1 and #ahg are given forms of ballots and other matter illustrating various methods employed in carrying out the ballot laws of the ,states4 ,it will be observed that each of these three ballots is representative of a different method4 ,in the first ballot shown1 no party name appears1 and the names of candidates for each office are arranged in alphabetical order4 ,on this form of ballot1 which most resembles that used in ,australia1 the individual candidate is made prominent1 and party connection does not appear at all4 ,second1 ,in the ,massachusetts ballot1 the names of the candidates are arranged alphabetically under each office1 but in addition to this1 the party name appears opposite the name of each candidate4 ,on this form of ballot1 while the party connection of each candidate is indicated1 greater prominence is given to the individual1 and the voter is required to make choice of a candidate for each office separately4 ,he cannot vote a straight ticket by a single mark4 ,third1 ,in the ,indiana ticket1 the names are grouped according to party1 not according to office1 the party name appearing at the head of the ballot as well as at the side of each name4 ,on this form of ballot1 the party connection of the candidate is made most prominent1 and while provision is made for voting for individuals representing different parties1 still the voting of a straight ticket is made most easy4 ,many ,states use the party-column principle of the ,indiana ticket1 but modify the form of the ticket in various details4 ,the party emblem is sometimes omitted from the circle used in voting a straight picket1 or placed just above that circle4 ,the square opposite each candidate's name is sometimes placed after the name instead of before it2 and is usually left blank4 ,a fourth form1 namely1 that of the individual ballot as used in the ,state of ,new ,jersey1 can not be here shown1 as a separate ballot is required for each party or each independent nomination4 ,these separate ballots are all official1 and are furnished at public expense2 but the use of an unofficial ballot is practically allowed1 since the voter is permitted to take to the voting booth a paster ballot containing a complete party ticket1 printed and furnished at party expense4 ,this he can paste over the official ballot and deposit as his vote4 ,illustration #a3 ,first form of ballot type3 ,city ,ballot--no party names1 candidate names in alphabetic order4 ,illustration #b3 ,second form of ballot type3 ,massachusetts ,official ,ballot4 ,illustration #c3 ,third form of ballot type3 ,indiana ,state ,ballot4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,what is meant by the ,australian ballot system8 #b4 ,name some places in the ,united ,states in which a similar system of reform has been adopted4 #c4 ,what are the essential principles of the system8 #d4 ,what are the necessary requirements for carrying out the law8 #e4 ,what is the object in providing official ballots8 #f4 ,describe two kinds of polling booths used4 #g4 ,what are the obvious advantages of the reform8 #h4 ,describe the characteristic forms of ballot used in various ,states which have adopted the reform4 #i4 ,mention the advantages and the disadvantages of the city ballot shown on page #ahe4 #aj4 ,compare the ,massachusetts ballot with the ,indiana ballot1 and note their differences4 ,,question ,,for ,,debate4 ,which system of voting is likely to secure the best public officers3 that represented in the city ballot of #ahij1 in the ,massachusetts ballot1 or in the ,indiana ballot8 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,parties ,,and ,,party ,,machinery4 ,wherever the right to vote exists1 the people naturally form themselves into political parties4 ,a political party is an organization of voters maintained for the purpose of impressing its principles upon the public policy of the country4 ,men have divers views as to the duties1 scope1 and proper measures of the government1 and these divers views lead to the formation of opposing parties4 ,in a free country the majority must rule1 and parties are the means by which majorities are ascertained4 ,,origin4--,parties usually grow out of questions of legislation1 rather than out of questions of executive management or judicial interpretation4 ,in other words1 a party is formed to influence the passage of laws1 rather than their execution or their application by the courts4 ,but1 when parties are once formed1 they usually extend their influence to the selection of officers of all grades and all departments1 even the least important officials of a township or civil district4 ,the presidential election has come to be the most exciting and bitter of all political contests1 because of the large influence which the ,president exerts upon national legislation1 and because of the immense patronage of his office4 ,,necessity4--,parties appear to be a necessity in all free governments4 ,they serve as check upon one another1 as the party in power is responsible for the public policy of the country4 ,if the people are dissatisfied with the party in power1 they can displace it and elect another in its stead4 ,parties are therefore placed upon their good behavior1 and made to feel their responsibility to the people4 ,if there were no party organizations1 many of the views of a candidate would not be known1 and there could be no assurance that he would be true to the interests of the majority electing him4 ,the fact that a public man is a member of a certain party shows many of the views which he entertains and the principles which he may be expected to support4 ,party government is often bad1 but as the party is responsible for the conduct of all officers elected by it1 party government1 especially in legislative affairs1 is better than personal government1 in which no one but the officer himself is responsible for his official conduct4 ,,party ,,machinery4--,the machinery of parties in this country is very complex1 and is closely interwoven with our system of government4 ,each party must select candidates for the various offices in the gift of the people1 in order that it may exert its greatest power in elections and in public affairs4 ,the people in each party must have a voice in the selection of candidates for township offices1 district offices1 county offices1 ,state offices1 and ,president and ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,therefore each party has a system of committees1 conventions1 primary elections1 and caucuses1 for ascertaining the choice of its members for these various offices4 ,parties and party machinery are not generally provided for in the law1 but they exist by a custom almost as old as the government1 and are firmly fixed in our political system4 ,,committees4--,each of the great parties has a national committee1 consisting of one member from each ,state and ,territory1 chosen by its national convention4 ,the national committee is the chief executive authority of the party4 ,it calls the national convention1 fixes the time and place for holding it1 and the representation to which each ,state and ,territory is entitled4 ,it appoints a sub-committee of its members1 called the campaign or executive committee1 which conducts the political canvass or campaign1 for the party4 ,the campaign committee distributes pamphlets1 speeches1 newspapers1 and other political documents among the voters of the country2 selects public speakers2 makes appointments for them to speak2 arranges for party meetings2 collects funds to bear the expenses of the campaign1 and has a general oversight of the party work in all the ,states4 ,each party also has a ,state committee in each ,state1 usually consisting of a member from each congressional district1 in some ,states consisting of a member from each county2 a district committee in each congressional1 judicial1 senatorial1 and representative district1 consisting of a member from each county composing the district2 a county committee1 consisting of a member from each township or civil district2 and in some ,states1 various other committees4 ,each of these committees performs for the division for which it is selected duties similar to those which the national committee performs for the whole ,union4 ,,conventions4--,the method of ascertaining the choice of a party in the selection of candidates is either by a primary election or by a convention4 ,a political convention is an assemblage of the voters of a party1 either in person or by representatives called delegates4 ,if the voters assemble in person1 the convention is called a primary or mass meeting4 ,the purpose of a convention may be to select candidates for office1 to send delegates to a higher convention1 to adopt a declaration of principles1 or to decide upon a party policy4 ,it is common for two or more of these purposes to come before the same convention4 ,,calling ,,conventions4--,in the year of the presidential election1 the national committee calls a national convention1 naming the time and place1 and the representation of each ,state4 ,the ,state committee calls a ,state convention to send delegates to the national convention2 and1 if a ,state election is approaching1 it may direct that the convention shall also select candidates for ,state offices4 ,in response to this call1 the county committees order county conventions in all the counties of the ,state to send delegates to the ,state convention1 and perhaps to select candidates for county offices4 ,in some ,states the township committees order township conventions in all townships for the purpose of sending delegates to the county conventions1 and perhaps to name candidates for township offices4 ,it will be seen that the calling of the various conventions connected directly or indirectly with the selection of candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president proceeds from the highest downward4 ,the same order is observed in other conventions1 the call always beginning with the highest committee concerned and proceeding to the lowest4 ,,local ,,and ,,state ,,conventions4--,the order of holding a system of conventions1 however1 proceeds from the lowest to the highest4 ,the township holds a convention and sends delegates to the county convention4 ,the county convention sends delegates to the ,state convention1 and the ,state convention sends delegates to the national convention4 ,,delegates ,,chosen ,,by ,,primaries4--,in many states the delegates to all conventions are elected by the members of the party at primary elections4 ,in some states even the delegates to the national convention are chosen in this manner4 ,,national ,,convention4--,a national convention is an important assemblage4 ,it contains many distinguished men1 and exerts great influence on the history of the country4 ,a national convention usually consists of more than a thousand delegates4 ,in a ,democratic convention1 for instance1 there are four delegates from each ,state1 two from each congressional district1 and a few from the ,territories4 ,in the selection of delegates to the national convention1 the ,state convention often selects four1 representing the two ,united ,states senators1 and the members of the convention from each congressional district select two1 representing the lower house of ,congress4 ,for each delegate the ,state convention also selects an alternate delegate1 who attends the national convention in case the regular delegate can not be present4 ,the national convention is called to order by the chairman of the national committee4 ,it then elects a temporary chairman1 and afterward a permanent president4 ,the convention appoints the national committee1 calling upon the delegation from each ,state to name its member2 adopts a declaration of principles1 called a platform1 for the approaching campaign2 nominates candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president1 and performs various other work connected with the party organization4 ,,platform4--,the declaration of party principles adopted and issued by a convention is called a platform1 and each separate statement of a principle is popularly called a plank4 ,the platform is an announcement of the policy to be pursued by the party if its candidates are elected1 and is presumed to contain all the important principles upon which the voters of the party are agreed4 ,upon these principles the party claims the right to administer the public affairs of the country4 ,the platforms of ,state and local conventions are usually based upon the national platform of the same party1 but also contain statements of principles upon local questions4 ,,nominations4--,to nominate a candidate is to name him for office2 that is1 to place his name before the public4 ,the person nominated is called the nominee1 and all the nominees for a certain election constitute a ticket4 ,a nomination usually secures to a candidate the general support of the party4 ,voters may vote for other persons than the nominees1 but the great body of voters usually support the tickets of their respective parties4 ,nomination serves to prevent a great number of candidates1 and thus simplifies the election4 ,,primary ,,elections4--,candidates for township1 county1 and other offices are frequently chosen by means of primary elections4 ,a primary election is an election in which the members of a party choose their candidates for office4 ,as a rule1 none but the members of the party holding it can vote in a primary election4 ,many persons prefer the primary1 to a convention1 believing the former to be a fairer and more impartial method of ascertaining the choice of the party4 ,the voting is usually by ballot4 ,in many ,states primary elections are under the control of the law1 and are guarded by the same restrictions that pertain to other elections4 ,,caucuses4--,a meeting composed of the members of a legislative body who are of the same party1 and assembled for party purposes1 is called a caucus4 ,ward conventions in cities are sometimes called by the same name4 ,the usual purpose of a caucus is to nominate candidates for offices within the gift of the legislative body1 or to consider questions of legislation4 ,a caucus elects a chairman and other officers1 but rarely if ever adopts a platform of principles4 ,the great political parties of the country have caucuses in each branch of ,congress1 and usually in the legislatures of the several ,states4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,name the great parties that have existed in the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,who are the respective chairmen of the national executive committees of the two great parties8 #c4 ,read the last national platforms of the two great parties4 #d4 ,which do you like better1 primary elections or conventions8 ,why8 #e4 ,should a member of a legislative body be influenced in his vote by the decision of the caucus of his party8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,legislation4 ,legislation1 the act or process of making laws1 is the most important function of government4 ,it is the most important1 because it is the first step1 and the enforcement and interpretation of laws depend upon their enactment4 ,the laws of a country should be as few in number1 as simple in construction1 and as uniform in their application1 as will meet the needs of the people4 ,it is a great misfortune for the laws to bear unequally upon the people2 to grant special privileges to one class1 or to impose special hardships upon another class4 ,the great variety and volume of laws made by the national and the ,state legislatures of the ,united ,states have led to a close study of legislation4 ,in no other country is the process of making laws so thoroughly mastered1 or parliamentary law so generally understood4 ,,bills4--,the process of enacting a law1 from its introduction to its final approval1 is an intricate and interesting study4 ,until its passage and final approval1 a measure is called either a bill or a resolution4 ,bills and resolutions are very similar1 the latter usually being simpler1 and beginning with the words1 ,be it resolved or simply ,resolved1 while the former begin with the words1 ,be it enacted4 ,a joint resolution as well as a bill requires the concurrence of both houses of a legislative assembly to make it a law4 ,,introduction4--,the introduction of a bill is the first presentation of it to a legislative body for action4 ,this is usually done by asking leave of the body1 either orally or in writing1 to bring the measure before it4 ,this leave to present is rarely if ever refused4 ,the rules require that after its introduction it shall be three times read aloud before its passage4 ,these three readings do not refer to readings for information as to its provisions4 ,the constitutions of nearly all ,states require that the three readings shall be on three different days2 but in most of them this rule1 may be suspended by a two thirds1 three fourths1 four fifths1 or unanimous vote1 the requisite majority varying in different ,states4 ,,committees4--,when a bill or resolution is introduced1 it is usual to refer it to a committee for a critical consideration4 ,a committee usually consists of from three to thirteen members1 of whom the first named is usually chairman1 presumably selected for their knowledge of the subjects to come before them4 ,a standing committee lasts during the entire session4 ,most legislative bodies have from twenty to forty standing committees4 ,a special or select committee is raised for a special purpose1 and is usually adjourned when its report is made4 ,a committee of the whole consists of all the members of a body sitting as a committee4 ,in committees of the whole the regular presiding officer usually vacates the chair1 calling some other member of the body to act as chairman4 ,the principal part of the work of a legislative body is perfected by its committees4 ,they discuss the merits and demerits of bills1 and perfect such as1 in their judgment1 should pass4 ,,reports4--,the committee to whom a bill has been referred critically examines it1 and usually reports it to the body1 either favorably or unfavorably1 recommending that it should pass or should not pass4 ,if the members of a committee are equally or nearly equally divided as to the merits of the bill1 it may be reported without an expression of opinion4 ,when important bills are reported by a committee they are usually discussed by the members of the body4 ,the debate on the measure usually brings out the reasons for1 and those against1 its passage4 ,many bills are several times recommitted--that is1 again referred to a committee--before their passage4 ,in some legislative bodies1 especially in the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 a great many bills are pigeon-holed by committees2 that is1 are filed away and never reported4 ,the reports of the committees1 whether favorable or unfavorable1 are usually adopted by the body1 and therefore have an important bearing upon legislation4 ,,amendments4--,in most legislative bodies a bill may be amended at the pleasure of the majority1 before it is read the third time4 ,amendments are made for the purpose of perfecting the measure4 ,a bill may be amended by striking out some of its provisions1 by striking out and inserting1 or by inserting4 ,a bill passed by one house of a legislature maybe amended by the other house1 but1 if amended1 must be returned with the amendment to the house in which it originated1 in order that the amendment may be considered4 ,if one house amends and the other refuses to accept1 the bill is often referred to a conference committee of members of both houses4 ,if this does not secure agreement1 and both adhere to their original action1 the bill fails4 ,,passage4--,when a bill passes the house in which it originated1 the clerk transmits and reports it to the other house for action4 ,the house to which it is transmitted may pass it without commitment1 but usually refers it to a committee1 and1 when reported1 may pass it or reject it1 or amend it and return it with the amendment to the house in which it originated4 ,when passed by both houses1 the bill is engrossed--that is1 rewritten without blots or erasures--and transmitted to the ,president or governor1 as the case may be1 for his approval4 ,if approved and signed1 or if not returned within a fixed time1 the bill becomes a law4 ,if vetoed1 it must be again considered by both bodies1 and is lost unless again passed by each1 and in ,congress and in many ,states by a two thirds vote4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,obtain from any convenient source and present in the recitation a sample of a bill1 and also of a resolution4 #b4 ,why should a bill have three separate readings on three different days8 #c4 ,why is the report of a committee generally adopted by the body8 #d4 ,why are chairmanships of committees usually much sought after in legislative bodies8 #e4 ,present in the recitation a copy of the report of a legislative committee upon some subject4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,revenue ,,and ,,taxation4 ,revenue4--,the regulation of revenue and taxation is one of the most important and difficult questions of government4 ,one of the wisest of modern statesmen has said that the management of finance is government4 ,government1 whatever its form1 is an intricate and expensive machine1 and therefore sure and ample sources of revenue are as necessary to it as blood is to the human body4 ,the necessary expenses of a local community1 such as a village1 a city1 or a county1 are heavy2 while those of a ,state are immense1 and those of a nation almost beyond conception4 ,these expenses must be promptly met1 or the government becomes bankrupt1 lacking in respect1 without power to enforce its rights even among its own people1 and finally ceases to exist4 ,,taxation4--,the chief source of revenue in all governments is taxation4 ,a tax is a portion of private property taken by the government for public purposes4 ,taxation1 the act of laying taxes1 is regarded as the highest function of government4 ,it is also one of the most delicate1 because it touches the people directly1 and is therefore frequently the cause of discontent among the masses4 ,the government makes no direct return to the citizen for the taxes it exacts1 and in this respect only does taxation differ from the exercise of the right of eminent domain4 ,how much revenue must be raised8 what articles should be taxed8 what should be the rate of taxation8 are questions that concern every government4 ,as a person may be at the same time a citizen of a village1 a township1 a county1 a ,state1 and the ,united ,states1 so he may1 during the same year1 pay a separate tax to each of these five governments4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,taxation4--,taxation is one of the necessary burdens of society4 ,a government as well as an individual must have money to pay its expenses1 and the principal part1 if not all1 of this money must be raised by taxation of one kind or another4 ,men may differ as to the kind and the rate of taxation1 but taxes must be paid in order that government may exist4 ,the tax payer receives no immediate return for his taxes1 but has a constant return in the way of protection to life1 liberty1 and property1 the enjoyment of public conveniences1 and the improvement of society4 ,by means of taxes each person bears his part in the cost of maintaining the social compact4 ,he gives up a portion of his property in order that what remains may be the more secure and valuable1 and that he may enjoy many other blessings that would otherwise be impossible4 ,although the rate is often high1 even higher than necessary1 it is safe to say that every tax payer of the country receives from the government more than he contributes by taxation4 ,taxes are direct or indirect4 ,,direct ,,taxes4--,a direct tax is levied directly at a given rate upon property or polls4 ,taxes levied by villages1 towns1 townships1 cities1 counties1 and ,states are for the most part direct taxes4 ,a poll tax is levied upon the polls1 or heads1 of the male inhabitants who have attained a certain age1 usually twenty-one years4 ,a property tax1 as the name indicates1 is levied upon property4 ,property is of two kinds1 real and personal4 ,real property1 usually called real estate1 consists of lands and buildings4 ,personal property is that which can be moved from place to place1 and includes everything that a person can own except real estate4 ,in all systems of taxation1 much real estate1 such as churches1 cemeteries1 colleges1 charitable institutions1 and public buildings1 is exempt from taxes4 ,five times in its history--namely1 in #agih1 #ahac1 #ahae1 #ahaf1 and #ahfa--the ,united ,states levied a direct tax upon the people1 but in each case the law was in force but a single year4 ,from #ahfa to #ahga there was also an income tax2 that is1 a tax of a given per cent4 upon all annual incomes that exceeded a certain amount4 ,in #aiac1 ,congress passed a new income tax law1 with additional taxes on very large incomes4 ,,indirect ,,taxes4--,an indirect tax is assessed upon the property of one person1 but is indirectly paid by another4 ,the owner of the property at the time of assessment pays the tax to the government1 but a part or all of the tax is ultimately paid by the consumer of the goods4 ,all taxes now levied by the national government are indirect4 ,the indirect taxes levied by the national government are customs1 or duties1 and internal revenue4 ,,customs1 ,,or ,,duties4--,customs1 or duties1 are taxes levied upon certain goods imported from foreign countries4 ,the ,constitution prohibits the taxation of exports4 ,the schedule or list of articles taxed and of duties to be paid is called the tariff4 ,custom dues are collected by officers of the national government at the custom-houses1 located at the ports of entry1 usually1 but not always1 on or near the sea-coast4 ,by far the larger portion of the national revenue is derived from customs4 ,,internal ,,revenue4--,internal revenue1 sometimes called excise1 is a tax levied upon certain articles produced in this country1 such as tobacco and spirituous liquors4 ,it is collected by officers of the national government1 called collectors1 stationed in different parts of the country4 ,,suggestive ,,questions4 #a4 ,name some of the items of expense in village government4 #b4 ,in township government4 #c4 ,in city government4 #d4 ,in county government4 #e4 ,in ,state government4 #f4 ,in national government4 #g4 ,what is the rate of property taxation in this country8 #h4 ,what is the rate in this ,state8 #i4 ,where is the nearest custom-house8 ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,preamble4 ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defense1 promote the general welfare1 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity1 do ordain and establish this ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,article ,i4 ,,legislative ,,department4 ,,section ,i4 ,congress in ,general4 ,all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a ,congress of the ,united ,states1 which shall consist of a ,senate and ,house of ,representatives4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,house of ,representatives4 ,clause #a4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states2 and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the ,state ,legislature4 ,clause #b4 ,no person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years1 and been seven years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen4 ,clause #c4 ,representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this ,union1 according to their respective numbers1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons1 including those bound to service for a term of years1 and excluding ,indians not taxed1 three-fifths of all other persons4 ,the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 and within every subsequent term of ten years1 in such manner as they shall by law direct4 ,the number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand1 but each state shall have at least one representative2 and until such enumeration shall be made1 the state of ,new ,hampshire shall be entitled to choose three1 ,massachusetts eight1 ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations one1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,jersey four1 ,pennsylvania eight1 ,delaware one1 ,maryland six1 ,virginia ten1 ,north ,carolina five1 ,south ,carolina five1 and ,georgia three4 ,clause #d4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation from any state1 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies4 ,clause #e4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers1 and shall have the sole power of impeachment4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,senate4 ,clause #a4 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two senators from each state1 chosen by the ,legislature#a thereof for six years1 and each senator shall have one vote4 ,clause #b4 ,immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election1 they shall be divided1 as equally as may be1 into three classes4 ,the seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year1 of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year1 and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year1 so that one-third may be chosen every second year2 and if vacancies happen1 by resignation or otherwise1 during the recess of the ,legislature of any state1 the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the ,legislature1 which shall then fill such vacancies4#a ,clause #c4 ,no person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years1 and been nine years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen4 ,clause #d4 ,the ,vice-president of the ,united ,states shall be ,president of the ,senate1 but shall have no vote1 unless they be equally divided4 ,clause #e4 ,the ,senate shall choose their other officers1 and also a president pro tempere1 in the absence of the ,vice-president1 or when he shall exercise the office of ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,clause #f4 ,the ,senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments4 ,when sitting for that purpose1 they shall be on oath or affirmation4 ,when the ,president of the ,united ,states is tried1 the chief justice shall preside2 and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present4 ,clause #g4 ,judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office1 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor1 trust1 or profit under the ,united ,states2 but the party convicted shall1 nevertheless1 be liable and subject to indictment1 trial1 judgment1 and punishment according to law4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,both ,houses4 ,clause #a4 ,the times1 places1 and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the ,legislature thereof2 but the ,congress may at any time1 by law1 make or alter such regulations1 except as to the places of choosing senators4 ,clause #b4 ,the ,congress shall assemble at least once in every year1 and such meeting shall be on the first ,monday in ,december1 unless they shall by law appoint a different day4 ,,section ,v4 ,the ,houses separately4 ,clause #a4 ,each house shall be the judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members1 and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business2 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day1 and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members1 in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide4 ,clause #b4 ,each house may determine the rules of its proceedings1 punish its members for disorderly behavior1 and1 with the concurrence of two-thirds1 expel a member4 ,clause #c4 ,each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings1 and from time to time publish the same1 excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy2 and the yeas and nays of the members of either house1 on any question1 shall1 at the desire of one-fifth of those present1 be entered on the journal4 ,clause #d4 ,neither house during the session of ,congress shall1 without the consent of the other1 adjourn for more than three days1 nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,disabilities of ,members4 ,clause #a4 ,the senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services1 to be ascertained by law1 and paid out of the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,they shall in all cases1 except treason1 felony1 and breach of the peace1 be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses1 and in going to and returning from the same2 and for any speech or debate in either house1 they shall not be questioned in any other place4 ,clause #b4 ,no senator or representative shall1 during the time for which he was elected1 be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the ,united ,states1 which shall have been created1 or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased1 during such time2 and no person holding any office under the ,united ,states shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,mode of passing ,laws4 ,clause #a4 ,all bills for raising revenue shall originate in the ,house of ,representatives2 but the ,senate may propose or concur with amendments1 as on other bills4 ,clause #b4 ,every bill which shall have passed the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate shall1 before it become a law1 be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 if he approve1 he shall sign it2 but if not1 he shall return it1 with his objections1 to that house in which it shall have originated1 who shall enter the objections at large on their journal1 and proceed to reconsider it4 ,if1 after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill1 it shall be sent1 together with the objections1 to the other house1 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered1 and if approved by two-thirds of that house1 it shall become a law4 ,but in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays1 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively4 ,if any bill shall not be returned by the ,president within ten days 7,sundays excepted7 after it shall have been presented to him1 the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it1 unless the ,congress by their adjournment prevent its return1 in which case it shall not be a law4 ,clause #c4 ,every order1 resolution1 or vote to which the concurrence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives may be necessary 7except on a question of adjournment7 shall be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 and before the same shall take effect1 shall be approved by him1 or1 being disapproved by him1 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,powers granted to ,congress4 ,the ,congress shall have power-- ,clause #a4 ,to lay and collect taxes1 duties1 imposts1 and excises1 to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the ,united ,states2 but all duties1 imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the ,united ,states2 ,clause #b4 ,to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states2 ,clause #c4 ,to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several states1 and with the ,indian tribes2 ,clause #d4 ,to establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies1 throughout the ,united ,states2 ,clause #e4 ,to coin money1 regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin1 and fix the standard of weights and measures2 ,clause #f4 ,to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the ,united ,states2 ,clause #g4 ,to establish post-offices and post-roads2 ,clause #h4 ,to promote the progress of science and useful arts1 by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries2 ,clause #i4 ,to constitute tribunals inferior to the ,supreme ,court2 ,clause #aj4 ,to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas1 and offenses against the law of nations2 ,clause #aa4 ,to declare war1 grant letters of marque and reprisal1 and make rules concerning captures on land and water2 ,clause #ab4 ,to raise and support armies2 but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years2 ,clause #ac4 ,to provide and maintain a navy2 ,clause #ad4 ,to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces2 ,clause #ae4 ,to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the ,union1 suppress insurrections1 and repel invasions2 ,clause #af4 ,to provide for organizing1 arming1 and disciplining the militia1 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the ,united ,states1 reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by ,congress2 ,clause #ag4 ,to exercise exclusive legislation1 in all cases whatsoever1 over such district 7not exceeding ten miles square7 as may1 by cession of particular states and the acceptance of ,congress1 become the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 and to exercise like authority over all places purchased1 by the consent of the ,legislature of the ,state in which the same shall be1 for the erection of forts1 magazines1 arsenals1 dock-yards1 and other needful buildings2 and ,clause #ah4 ,to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers1 and all other powers vested by this ,constitution in the government of the ,united ,stales1 or in any department or officer thereof1 ,,section ,,ix4 ,powers denied to the ,united ,states4 ,clause #a4 ,the migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit1 shall not be prohibited by the ,congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight2 but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation1 not exceeding ten dollars for each person4 ,clause #b4 ,the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless when1 in cases of rebellion or invasion1 the public safety may require it4 ,clause #c4 ,no bill of attainder1 or ex-post-facto law1 shall he passed4 ,clause #d4 ,no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid1 unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken4 ,clause #e4 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state4 ,clause #f4 ,no preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another2 nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter1 clear1 or pay duties in another4 ,clause #g4 ,no money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law2 and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time4 ,clause #h4 ,no title of nobility shall be granted by the ,united ,states2 and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 accept of any present1 emolument1 office1 or title of any kind whatever1 from any king1 prince1 or foreign state4 ,,section ,x4 ,powers denied to the ,states4 ,clause #a4 ,no state shall enter into any treaty1 alliance1 or confederation2 grant letters of marque and reprisal2 coin money2 emit bills of credit2 make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts2 pass any bill of attainder1 ex-post-facto law1 or law impairing the obligation of contracts2 or grant any title of nobility4 ,clause #b4 ,no state shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws2 and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any state on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the ,united ,stales2 and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the ,congress4 ,clause #c4 ,no state shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 lay any duty of tonnage1 keep troops or ships of war in time of peace1 enter into any agreement or compact with another state or with a foreign power1 or engage in war1 unless actually invaded1 or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,executive ,,department4 ,,section ,i4 ,president and ,vice-president4 ,clause #a4 ,the executive power shall be vested in a ,president of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,he shall hold his office during the term of four years1 and1 together with the ,vice-president2 chosen for the same term1 be elected as follows3 ,clause #b4 ,each state shall appoint1 in such manner as the ,legislature thereof may direct1 a number of electors1 equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the ,congress2 but no senator or representative1 or person holding an office of trust or profit under the ,united ,states1 shall be appointed an elector4 ,clause #c4 ,the electors shall meet in their respective states1 and vote by ballot for two persons1 of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves4 ,and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for1 and of the number of votes for each2 which list they shall sign and certify1 and transmit1 sealed1 to the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the ,president of the ,senate4 ,the ,president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if there be more than one who have such majority1 and have an equal number of votes1 then the ,house of ,representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for ,president2 and if no person have a majority1 then1 from the five highest on the list1 the said ,house shall in like manner choose the ,president4 ,but in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by states1 the representation from each state having one vote1 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states1 and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,in every case1 after the choice of the ,president1 the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the ,vice-president4 ,but if there should remain two or more who have equal votes1 the ,senate shall choose from them by ballot the ,vice-president4#b ,clause #d4 ,the ,congress may determine the time of choosing the electors1 and the day on which they shall give their votes1 which day shall be the same throughout the ,united ,states4 ,clause #e4 ,no person except a natural-born citizen1 or a citizen of the ,united ,states at the time of the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be eligible to the office of ,president2 neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years1 and been fourteen years a resident within the ,united ,states4 ,clause #f4 ,in case of the removal of the ,president from office1 or of his death1 resignation1 or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office1 the same shall devolve on the ,vice-president2 and the ,congress may by law provide for the case of removal1 death1 resignation1 or inability1 both of the ,president and ,vice-president1 declaring what officer shall then act as ,president2 and such officer shall act accordingly1 until the disability be removed1 or a ,president shall be elected4 ,clause #g4 ,the ,president shall1 at stated times1 receive for his services a compensation1 which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected1 and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the ,united ,states1 or any of them4 ,clause #h4 ,before he enter on the execution of his office1 he shall take the following oath or affirmation3 ,i do solemnly swear 7or affirm7 that ,i will faithfully execute the office of ,president of the ,united ,states1 and will1 to the best of my ability1 preserve1 protect1 and defend the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,powers of the ,president4 ,clause #a4 ,the ,president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the ,united ,states and of the militia of the several states1 when called into the actual service of the ,united ,states2 he may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments1 upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices2 and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the ,united ,states1 except in cases of impeachment4 ,clause #b4 ,he shall have power1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 to make treaties1 provided two-thirds of the senators present concur2 and he shall nominate1 and by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate shall appoint ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 judges of the ,supreme ,court1 and all other officers of the ,united ,states1 whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for1 and which shall be established by law2 but the ,congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the ,president alone1 in the courts of law1 or in the heads of departments4 ,clause #c4 ,the ,president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the ,senate1 by granting commissions1 which shall expire at the end of their next session4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,duties of the ,president4 ,he shall1 from time to time1 give to the ,congress information of the state of the ,union1 and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient2 he may1 on extraordinary occasions1 convene both houses1 or either of them2 and in case of disagreement between them1 with respect to the time of adjournment1 he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper2 he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers2 he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed1 and shall commission all the officers of the ,united ,states4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,impeachment of the ,president4 ,the ,president1 ,vice-president1 and all civil officers of the ,united ,states1 shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason1 bribery1 or other high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,judicial ,,department4 ,,section ,i4 ,united ,states ,courts4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall be vested in one ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish4 ,the judges1 both of the supreme and inferior courts1 shall hold their offices during good behavior2 and shall1 at stated times1 receive for their services a compensation1 which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,jurisdiction of the ,united ,states ,courts4 ,clause #a4 ,the judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this ,constitution1 the laws of the ,united ,states1 and treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under their authority2 to all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls2 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction2 to controversies to which the ,united ,states shall be a party2 to controversies between two or more states2 between a state and citizens of another state2 between citizens of different states2 between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states2 and between a state1 or the citizens thereof1 and foreign states1 citizens1 or subjects4#c ,clause #b4 ,in all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 and those in which a state shall be party1 the ,supreme ,court1 shall have original jurisdiction4 ,in all the other cases before mentioned1 the ,supreme ,court shall have appellate jurisdiction1 both as to law and fact1 with such exceptions1 and under such regulations as the ,congress shall make4 ,clause #c4 ,the trial of all crimes1 except in cases of impeachment1 shall be by jury2 and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed2 but when not committed within any state1 the trial shall be at such place or places as the ,congress may by law have directed4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,treason4 ,clause #a4 ,treason against the ,united ,states shall consist only in levying war against them1 or in adhering to their enemies1 giving them aid and comfort4 ,no person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act1 or on confession in open court4 ,clause #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason2 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood1 or forfeiture1 except during the life of the person attainted4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,section ,i4 ,state ,records4 ,full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other state4 ,and the ,congress may1 by general laws1 prescribe the manner in which such acts1 records1 and proceedings shall be proved1 and the effect thereof4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,privileges of ,citizens1 etc4 ,clause #a4 ,the citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states4 ,clause #b4 ,a person charged in any state with treason1 felony1 or other crime1 who shall flee from justice and be found in another state1 shall1 on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled1 be delivered up1 to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime4 ,clause #c4 ,no person held to service or labor in one state1 under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall1 in consequence of any law or regulation therein1 be discharged from such service or labor1 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,new ,states and ,territories4 ,clause #a4 ,new states may be admitted by the ,congress into this ,union1 but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state3 nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states1 or parts of states1 without the consent of the ,legislatures of the states concerned1 as well as of the ,congress4 ,clause #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to dispose of1 and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other properly belonging to the ,united ,states2 and nothing in this ,constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the ,united ,states or of any particular state4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,guarantee to the ,states4 ,the ,united ,states shall guarantee to every state in this ,union a republican form of government1 and shall protect each of them against invasion2 and1 on application of the ,legislature1 or of the executive 7when the ,legislature can not be convened71 against domestic violence4 ,,article ,v4 ,,power ,,of ,,amendment4 ,the ,congress1 whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary1 shall propose amendments to this ,constitution1 or1 on the application of the ,legislatures of two-thirds of the several states1 shall call a convention for proposing amendments1 which1 in either case1 shall be valid to all intents and purposes1 as part of this ,constitution1 when ratified by the ,legislatures of three-fourths of the several states1 or by conventions in three-fourths thereof1 as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the ,congress2 provided1 that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first ,article2 and that no state1 without its consent1 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the ,senate4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,public ,,debt1 ,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,constitution1 ,,oath ,,of ,,office1 ,,religious ,,test4 ,clause #a4 ,all debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be as valid against the ,united ,states under this ,constitution as under the ,confederation4 ,clause #b4 ,this ,constitution1 and the laws of the ,united ,states which shall be made in pursuance thereof1 and all treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under the authority of the ,united ,states1 shall be the supreme law of the land2 and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby1 any thing in the ,constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,clause #c4 ,the senators and representatives before mentioned1 and the members of the several state ,legislatures1 and all executive and judicial officers1 both of the ,united ,states and of the several states1 shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this ,constitution2 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,ratification ,,of ,,the ,,constitution4 ,the ratification of the ,conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this ,constitution between the states so ratifying the same4 ,done in ,convention1 by the unanimous consent of the states present1 the seventeenth day of ,september1 in the year of our ,lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven1 and of the ,independence of the ,united ,states of ,america the twelfth4 ,in witness whereof1 we have hereunto subscribed our names4 ,,george ,,washington1 ,president and ,deputy from ,virginia4 ,new ,hampshire4--,john ,langdon1 ,nicholas ,gilman4 ,massachusetts4--,nathaniel ,gorham1 ,rufus ,king4 ,connecticut4--,wm4 ,samuel ,johnson1 ,roger ,sherman4 ,new ,york4--,alexander ,hamilton4 ,new ,jersey4--,william ,livingston1 ,william ,patterson1 ,david ,brearley1 ,jonathan ,dayton4 ,pennsylvania1--,benjamin ,franklin1 ,robert ,morris1 ,thomas ,fitzsimons1 ,james ,wilson1 ,thomas ,mifflin1 ,george ,clymer1 ,jared ,ingersoll1 ,gouverneur ,morris4 ,delaware4--,george ,read1 ,john ,dickinson1 ,jacob ,broom1 ,gunning ,bedford1 ,jr41 ,richard ,bassett4 ,maryland4--,james ,m',henry1 ,daniel ,carroll1 ,daniel of ,st4 ,tho4 ,jenifer4 ,virginia4--,john ,blair1 ,james ,madison1 ,jr4 ,north ,carolina4--,william ,blount1 ,hugh ,williamson1 ,richard ,dobbs ,spaight4 ,south ,carolina4--,john ,rutledge1 ,charles ,cotesworth ,pinckney1 ,pierce ,butler4 ,georgia4--,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldwin4 ,attest1 ,,william ,,jackson1 ,secretary4 ,,amendments ,,to ,,the ,,constitution4 ,,articles ,i--,x4 ,bill of ,rights4 ,,article ,i4 ,congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof2 or abridging the freedom of speech1 or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble1 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state1 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner1 nor in time of war1 but in a manner to be prescribed by law4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated2 and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause1 supported by oath or affirmation1 and particularly describing the place to be searched1 and the persons or things to be seized4 ,,article ,v4 ,no person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime1 unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury1 except in cases arising in the land or naval forces1 or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger2 nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb2 nor shall be compelled1 in any criminal case1 to be a witness against himself2 nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law2 nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,in all criminal prosecutions1 the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial1 by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed1 which district shall have been previously ascertained by law1 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 to be confronted with the witnesses against him2 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor2 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,in suits at common law1 where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars1 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved2 and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the ,united ,states than according to the rules of the common law4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive1 fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 ,,article ,,ix4 ,the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,,article ,x4 ,the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the states1 are reserved to the states respectively or to the people4 ,,article ,,xi4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the ,united ,states by citizens of another state1 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state4 ,,article ,,xii4 ,mode of choosing the ,president and ,vice-president4 ,clause #a4 ,the electors shall meet in their respective states1 and vote by ballot for ,president and ,vice-president1 one of whom1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves2 they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as ,president1 and in distinct ballots the person voted for as ,vice-president2 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as ,president1 and of all persons voted for as ,vice-president1 and of the number of votes for each1 which list they shall sign and certify1 and transmit1 sealed1 to the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the ,president of the ,senate2 the ,president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted2 the person having the greatest number of votes for ,president shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if no person have such majority1 then from the persons having the highest numbers1 not exceeding three1 on the list of those voted for as ,president1 the ,house of ,representatives shall choose immediately by ballot the ,president4 ,but in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by states1 the representation from each state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states1 and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,and if the ,house of ,representatives shall not choose a ,president1 whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them1 before the fourth day of ,march next following1 then the ,vice-president shall act as ,president1 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the ,president4 ,clause #b4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes as ,vice-president shall be the ,vice-president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed1 and if no person have a majority1 then from the two highest numbers on the list the ,senate shall choose the ,vice-president2 a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators1 and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice4 ,clause #c4 ,but no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of ,president shall be eligible to that of ,vice-president of the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,xiii4 ,,section ,i4 ,neither slavery nor involuntary servitude1 except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted1 shall exist within the ,united ,states1 or any place subject to their jurisdiction4 ,,section #b4 ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv4 ,,section #a4 ,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the state wherein they reside4 ,no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states2 nor shall any state deprive any person of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law1 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 ,,section #b4 ,representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers1 counting the whole number of persons in each state1 excluding ,indians not taxed4 ,but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for ,president and ,vice-president of the ,united ,states1 representatives in ,congress1 the executive and judicial officers of a state1 or the members of the ,legislature thereof1 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state1 being twenty-one years of age1 and citizens of the ,united ,states1 or in any way abridged1 except for participation in rebellion or other crime1 the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state4 ,,section #c4 ,no person shall be a senator or representative in ,congress1 or elector of ,president and ,vice-president1 or hold any office1 civil or military1 under the ,united ,states1 or under any state1 who1 having previously taken an oath1 as a member of ,congress1 or as an ,officer of the ,united ,states1 or as a member of any ,state ,legislature1 or as an executive or judicial officer of any state1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same1 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof4 ,but ,congress may1 by a vote of two-thirds of each house1 remove such disability4 ,,section #d4 ,the validity of the public debt of the ,united ,states1 authorized by law1 including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion1 shall not be questioned4 ,but neither the ,united ,states nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave2 but all such debts1 obligations1 and claims shall he held illegal and void4 ,,section #e4 ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article4 ,,article ,,xv4 ,,section #a4 ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states or by any state on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,,section #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xvi4 ,the ,congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived1 without apportionment among the several states1 and without regard to any census or enumeration4 ,,article ,,xvii4 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two senators from each state1 elected by the people thereof1 for six years2 and each senator shall have one vote4 ,the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the ,senate1 the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies3 ,provided1 ,that the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct4 ,this amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the ,constitution4 #a;,altered by the #agth ,amendment4 #b;,altered by the #abth ,amendment4 #c;,altered by the #aath ,amendment4 ,absolute monarchy1 #aei ,academy1 naval1 #adb4 ,accused1 rights of1 #gd4 ,actions1 #aga4 ,adjutant general1 #hd1 #adf4 functions of1 #hi4 ,administrators1 #ed4 ,admiralty courts1 #aga4 ,agriculture1 commissioner of1 #hd1 #hi4 ,alaska1 #if4 ,aldermen1 board 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#aiad1 by ,,american ,,book ,,company1 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,georgia4 ,in the people of ,georgia is vested the power of government and with them lies the supreme authority in the ,state1 except in this3 the people of ,georgia can pass no law which conflicts with the provisions of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,as a safeguard and for the better administration of their affairs1 the people of ,georgia have established a ,constitution4 ,the present ,constitution was adopted by delegates selected from ,senatorial districts4 ,the delegates met in convention and adopted the present ,constitution in #ahgg4 ,all laws in ,georgia must be made in accordance with the ,constitution of the ,united ,states and the ,constitution of ,georgia4 ,they must also be executed according to the provisions of these ,constitutions4 ,the ,constitution of ,georgia can be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of the ,general ,assembly1 but the action of the ,general ,assembly in amending the ,constitution must be ratified by the voters at the next election of members of the ,general ,assembly2 or1 a new ,constitution can be made by another constitutional convention1 which can be called only by two thirds of the members of each house of the ,general ,assembly4 ,the ,constitution of ,georgia places the administration of the civil government of the ,state in three departments1 the ,legislative1 the ,executive1 and the ,judicial4 ,,legislative4--,the ,legislative department consists of two bodies1 namely1 the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,senate is composed of forty-four members1 one from each ,senatorial district4 ,the ,senatorial districts consist of three or more counties4 ,no one can be elected a ,state ,senator who is not a citizen of the ,united ,states1 who has not attained the age of twenty-five years1 and who has not been a resident of the ,state four years4 ,the ,house of ,representatives consists of one hundred and eighty-six members1 apportioned among the different counties according to population4 ,the six counties having the largest population have three representatives each2 the twenty-six counties having the next largest population have two representatives each2 the remaining one hundred sixteen counties have one representative each4 ,a member of the ,house of ,representatives must be twenty-one years of age1 and must have resided in the ,state four years1 and in the county from which elected one year4 ,the members of the ,legislature are elected biennially on the first ,wednesday in ,october4 ,both members of the ,senate and the ,house are chosen for terms of two years at the general ,state elections4 ,the ,general ,assembly meets annually on the fourth ,wednesday in ,june1 and can make all laws deemed by its members proper and necessary for the welfare of the ,state not in conflict with the ,constitution of the ,state or ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,a majority of each ,house constitutes a quorum for the transaction of business4 ,neither branch of the ,legislature has the right to adjourn for a longer time than three days without the consent of the other1 but should they disagree upon a question of adjournment1 the ,governor may adjourn either or both of them4 ,the ,acts of the ,legislature which are approved by the ,governor and become laws are published each year for the information of the public4 ,when the ,legislature is called upon to elect some officer1 both branches meet in the hall of the ,house of ,representatives1 and the ,president of the ,senate presides over the joint body and declares the result4 ,no bill can be passed by the ,legislature unless it receives a majority vote of all members elected to each house of the ,general ,assembly1 and this fact must be shown by the journals of both houses4 ,it is also necessary for a measure to receive the signature of the ,governor before becoming a law4 ,when a bill is vetoed by the ,governor it may be passed by a two-thirds vote of the members of each house1 thus making his approval unnecessary4 ,the most important appointments made by the ,governor must be confirmed by the ,senate before the appointments become effective4 ,the ,senate has the sole power to hear impeachment proceedings4 ,it requires a two-thirds vote of the ,senate to sustain articles of impeachment before there can be a conviction4 ,the ,house of ,representatives must first pass all bills for raising revenue and appropriating money1 but the ,senate may propose or concur in amendments to such bills4 ,the right to institute impeachments is vested in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,,franchise4--,every male citizen of this ,state and of the ,united ,states twenty-one years old1 who has resided in the ,state one year prior to the election1 and in the county in which he offers to vote six months1 who has paid all taxes required of him by law since #ahgg1 is an elector1 and if registered1 may vote4 ,those who have not paid their taxes1 idiots1 insane persons1 illiterates of poor character who are neither ex-soldiers nor descendants of soldiers nor owners of a certain amount of property1 and persons convicted of serious crime1 unless pardoned1 are disqualified from voting4 ,,registration4--,before a citizen can become entitled to vote he is required to register4 ,on the first day of ,january of every year the tax collector opens a voters' book in which every person wishing to vote subscribes his name1 showing that he is entitled to vote4 ,from this book the tax collector prepares a list of registered voters of the county1 which he files with the county registrars4 ,the county registrars are appointed by the ,judge of the ,superior ,court for a term of two years4 ,the county registrars take this list and compare it with the list of disqualified voters prepared by the tax collector1 the ordinary1 and the clerk of the ,superior ,court1 and from the two prepare a final list of registered voters4 ,only those whose names appear on the list of voters prepared by the registrars1 are entitled to vote4 ,on or before the hour for opening the election a copy of the list of registered voters is furnished the election managers4 ,all elections are presided over by three superintendents4 ,votes are cast by ballot4 ,,executive ,,department4--,the ,executive ,department of the ,state consists of the ,governor1 ,secretary of ,state1 ,state ,treasurer1 and ,comptroller-,general4 ,their powers and duties were originally vested in the ,governor and his ,council1 but now the duties of each office are separate and distinct4 ,they are elected for a term of two years by the people of the ,state1 at the same time the members of the ,legislature are elected4 ,the qualifications for these offices are3 twenty-five years of age 7for ,governor thirty71 a citizen of the ,united ,states ten years 7for ,governor fifteen71 and of the ,state six years4 ,the ,governor is commander in chief of the army and naval forces of the ,state4 ,he has revision of all bills passed by the ,general ,assembly1 and1 a two-thirds majority in each house is necessary to pass a bill over his disapproval4 ,the ,governor can commute sentences1 and grant pardons to criminals1 except in cases of treason or impeachment4 ,he is empowered to fill many important offices by appointment4 ,he issues commissions to all officers in the ,state4 ,he may issue proclamations of rewards for the apprehension of criminals4 ,he reports to the ,legislature on the financial condition of the ,state1 and gives suggestions as to any general law that should be passed4 ,the ,secretary of ,state has the custody of the ,great ,seal of ,state and all ,state papers4 ,he preserves all the original bills and acts passed by the ,general ,assembly4 ,he affixes the ,great ,seal to all ,state grants1 and public documents executed by the ,governor1 keeps correct maps of surveys2 and plats of lands granted by the ,state1 and records all grants4 ,the ,secretary of ,state grants charters to banking1 insurance1 railroad1 canal1 navigation1 express1 telephone1 and telegraph companies4 ,the ,secretary of ,state is ex-officio ,commissioner of ,corporations4 ,all ,state and foreign corporations are required to file an annual statement in his office4 ,he is also the official who passes upon the legality of all stocks1 bonds1 debentures1 and other securities offered for sale in the ,state of ,georgia4 ,he is the legal officer of the ,state who issues licenses for automobiles4 ,the ,secretary of ,state is ex-officio ,surveyor-,general who acts in disputed boundary lines of counties4 ,he is the officer to whom election returns of all officers elected by the people are submitted for certification4 ,he keeps a record in his office of the subdivisions of the ,state into counties1 and all records pertaining to the original subdivisions of the ,state into counties and land districts4 ,the ,state ,treasurer has custody of all ,state funds1 and pays out moneys only on warrants issued by the ,governor4 ,the members of the ,general ,assembly receive their pay from the ,treasurer upon drafts drawn by the ,speaker of the ,house or ,president of the ,senate4 ,he has control of the funds pledged to the payment of the public debt1 and keeps accounts of all receipts and expenditures4 ,he acts also as ,state ,bank ,examiner4 ,the ,comptroller-,general audits all accounts against the ,state4 ,he examines the digests of all tax returns1 receives and collects all evidences of debts due the ,state from any other source than taxes1 issues executions against defaulting tax collectors1 and countersigns all warrants drawn on the ,treasury by the ,governor4 ,he must keep a record of all tax collectors' and receivers' bonds4 ,he must make an annual report to the ,governor1 showing the currents account between the ,treasurer and the ,state4 ,the report must include a statement of taxes paid in by each county1 the annual income from the educational fund1 and the amounts paid out of said fund1 the condition of the public debt1 and accounts of all officers and agents disbursing public money4 ,for the use of the members of the ,general ,assembly he must prepare a table of the taxable property in each county of the ,state1 a table of the polls and number of voters in each county1 the number of children in each county returned for participation in the educational fund1 and the amount drawn by each county out of that fund4 ,he is ex-officio ,insurance ,commissioner1 and has general supervision over all insurance companies doing business in ,georgia4 ,this properly ends the executive department as fixed by the ,constitution1 but there are other ,state officers whose duties are such that they really belong to the same class1 and may be considered under this head4 ,the ,attorney-,general is the legal adviser of the executive department4 ,he represents the ,state in all capital felonies in the ,supreme ,court1 and in all civil and criminal cases in any court when required to do so by the ,governor4 ,he is elected by the people for a term of two years1 and the same qualifications for this office apply as do those for judges of the ,supreme ,court4 ,the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools is elected at the time when the ,governor is elected1 for a term of two years4 ,he is charged with the administration of the school laws4 ,he has general superintendence of the business relating to public schools4 ,it is his duty to instruct all officers under him as he thinks necessary for the better discharge of their duties1 and to inspect the various schools of the ,state4 ,he disburses the school fund according to the number of children between the ages of six and eighteen years in each county4 ,he is the ,secretary and ,executive ,agent of the ,state ,board of ,education4 ,with the consent and approval of the ,state ,board of ,education1 he may appoint three ,state ,school ,supervisors to act under his direction and give normal instruction and training in each county2 to grade1 when required1 the papers of applicants for professional certificates2 and to aid him generally in supervising1 systematizing1 and improving the schools of the ,state4 ,he appoints1 with the advice and consent of the ,state ,board of ,education1 an experienced auditor to examine and report on the accounts of all schools and colleges receiving ,state aid4 ,the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools is ex-officio a member of the ,state ,board of ,education1 the ,state ,school-,book ,commission1 the ,state ,geological ,board1 the ,board of ,trustees of the ,state ,normal ,school at ,athens1 and the ,south ,georgia ,normal ,school at ,valdosta4 ,the ,commissioner of ,agriculture is elected by the people of the ,state for a term of two years1 at the same time that the governor is elected4 ,he has charge and control of the inspection and sale of all fertilizers sold in the ,state4 ,the law requires all manufacturers and dealers in fertilizers in ,georgia to first register all the brands to be sold4 ,the law authorizes the ,commissioner to appoint six inspectors for a term of one year each1 and such other additional inspectors as may be required1 to be paid for the actual time they are in service4 ,after the samples are taken by these inspectors1 they are forwarded to the ,commissioner1 who turns them over to the ,state ,chemist1 he making an analysis of the goods4 ,if the analysis shows anything radically wrong1 the ,commission takes it up with the fertilizer manufacturers who sold the fertilizer1 and the party who bought it4 ,the ,commissioner of ,agriculture is also charged with the inspection of foods1 drugs1 feeding stuffs1 and of all oils of illuminating quality sold in the ,state4 ,it is his duty to enforce the provisions of the ,pure ,food and ,drug ,laws1 and he appoints a food inspector and a drug inspector4 ,both of these inspectors make their report to the ,commissioner1 and all samples taken are sent to the ,state ,chemist for analysis4 ,the ,commissioner also has charge of the inspection of cattle in ,georgia to protect them against diseases of all kinds4 ,this department is called the ,bureau of ,animal ,inspection1 and is in the charge of the ,state ,veterinarian1 with a corps of assistants1 all of whom are appointed by the ,commissioner4 ,this ,bureau cooperates with the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture in ,tick ,eradication and ,hog ,cholera ,contagion2 and the general development of live stock industry4 ,the ,commissioner of ,agriculture also has charge of the horticultural interests1 peaches1 apples1 fruits1 and vines1 of all description4 ,under the law he appoints an entomologist who may visit all the orchards and vineyards1 and inspect them for the purpose of keeping down all diseases affecting the fruit in ,georgia4 ,in a general way the ,commissioner of ,agriculture is expected to look after the common good of the ,state connected with the varied farming interests4 ,by virtue of his office1 the ,commissioner of ,agriculture is ex-officio a member of the board of ,trustees of the ,state ,board of ,agriculture1 ,chairman of the ,board of ,trustees of the ,georgia ,experiment ,station1 and also ,chairman of the ,state ,board of ,entomology4 ,the ,state ,chemist is in charge of the laboratory in connection with the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,he is appointed by the ,commissioner of ,agriculture1 and his assistants are also appointed by the ,commissioner on the recommendation of the ,state ,chemist4 ,a ,state ,geologist is appointed by the ,governor1 who holds his office during good conduct4 ,he is removable by the ,governor for inefficiency or misconduct4 ,it is his duty to make a geological1 mineralogical1 and physical survey of the ,state2 to make records of the survey2 to make a record of the general physical characteristics of the different counties2 to locate the deposits of mineral ores and phosphates1 collect and classify specimens and preserve them in a museum4 ,the ,state ,game and ,fish ,commissioners appointed by the ,governor for a term of two years4 ,it is his duty to see that all laws for the protection of game animals1 game birds1 and fish in the ,state are observed and enforced4 ,he appoints game and fish wardens and deputy wardens in each county of the ,state to assist him in enforcing the laws1 and in issuing licenses to proper persons to hunt and fish in the open season1 in accordance with certain restrictions and regulations4 ,the ,state ,tax ,commissioner is appointed by the ,governor1 with the approval of the ,senate1 for a term of six years4 ,his office is at the ,state ,capitol in connection with the ,comptroller-,general4 ,he acts as assistant to the ,comptroller-,general4 ,he investigates all matters relative to taxation1 and makes recommendations to the ,general ,assembly1 as to any alterations or changes that may bring about a more perfect and equitable system of taxation4 ,it is his duty to examine carefully and compare the tax digests of the several counties of the ,state1 to the end that property located in different counties may bear its equitable burden of taxation4 ,the ,adjutant ,general is appointed by the ,governor for the term of the ,governor's tenure4 ,he is at the head of the ,military ,department of the ,state1 subordinate only to the ,governor as ,commander in ,chief of the military forces of the ,state4 ,he is custodian of all militia records and of all ,state and ,united ,states ,military ,equipment in the ,state4 ,he renders an annual report to the ,governor of the condition of the militia and accounts for all moneys received and disbursed for military purposes4 ,he issues all orders relative to carrying into execution and perfecting the military establishment under the laws of the ,state and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,commissioner of ,commerce and ,labor is elected at the same time and in the same manner as the ,governor and the ,state ,house ,officers for a term of two years4 ,he is aided by an assistant commissioner and chief clerk4 ,his duties are to provide for the collection and dissemination of authentic statistics pertaining to the various industries and resources of the ,state2 also to collect data relative to the condition and welfare of laboring people and such other statistics concerning the industrial welfare of the citizens of the ,state as he may deem of interest and benefit to the public3 ,he is especially required to investigate the operation and enforcement of various laws relative to the employment of child labor and of women4 ,he may act as a mediator between employers and employees in the case of strikes1 and tender his good offices to the opposing parties with a view to bringing about friendly and satisfactory adjustments4 ,he makes a full report to the ,governor1 with such recommendations as may be likely to promote the efficiency of his ,department4 ,the ,railroad ,commission consists of five members1 one or two being elected every second year1 for a term of six years4 ,it is the duty of the ,commission to protect the people from excessive passenger or freight rates on the various railroads operating in the ,state1 and to prevent unjust discrimination4 ,the ,commissioners have the power to examine the books of any railroad company1 to examine its officers and agents as to their methods of conducting the business of the road1 and to examine the road to see that it is not in an unsafe and dangerous condition1 and when any part is found to be unsafe1 to require the company to put it in such condition as will render travel safe and expeditious4 ,the ,commission also has a similar control over street railroads1 wharves1 docks1 gas1 electric light and power1 terminal1 express1 telephone1 telegraph1 and cotton compress companies4 ,the ,commission is called upon to consider1 hear1 and adjust multitudes of differences and complaints that arise in reference to services1 rates1 and practices of more than two hundred public service corporations that are within its supervisory and regulatory jurisdiction4 ,each of the companies1 or corporations1 over which the ,railroad ,commission has authority1 before issuing stocks1 bonds1 notes1 or other evidence of debt payable more than twelve months after the date thereof1 must secure the approval and authority of the ,commission2 also they must show the purpose and use for which such issues are authorized4 ,the ,prison ,commission consists of three ,commissioners elected by the people for a term of six years4 ,the ,commissioners elect one of their number chairman4 ,all convicts1 all convict camps1 and the ,state ,farm are under the direct supervision of the ,prison ,commission1 which provides rules and regulations1 subject to the approval of the ,governor1 for their management1 discipline1 and sanitation4 ,some member of the ,prison ,commission makes personal visits to the various convict camps of the ,state every six months and makes a thorough inspection of every detail of management1 plan of operation1 sanitation1 and treatment of the convicts4 ,the ,commission apportions the convicts to the various counties desiring to use convict labor on the public roads4 ,the ,prison ,commission hears applications for pardons and makes recommendations for executive clemency to the ,governor1 but he may reject their advice4 ,,judicial ,,system4--,the judicial branch of our ,state government is vested in the ,supreme ,court1 the ,court of ,appeals1 superior courts1 county1 and city courts1 courts of ordinary1 justice courts1 and courts recently established in certain cities in lieu of justice courts4 ,the difference in the courts consists of their varied jurisdiction4 ,jurisdiction is the power to hear and determine cases4 ,two questions are usually involved in determining the jurisdiction of a court4 ,first1 the residence of the defendant1 and1 second1 the amount involved and the subject matter of the litigation4 ,the jurisdiction of a court is usually limited to a particular territory1 and1 with the exception of the superior courts1 it is limited as to the character of the litigation4 ,in each militia district of every county of the ,state1 except in certain cities1 there is a justice court4 ,this court was established for the trial of cases involving small amounts1 and for the preliminary trials of persons charged with offenses against the laws of the ,state4 ,the justice is elected for a term of four years by the voters of the county4 ,to be eligible for this office one must have been a resident of the district for three months1 and such other qualifications apply as do to voters for members of the ,general ,assembly4 ,this court holds its sessions monthly4 ,upon the recommendation of the grand jury of the county1 a notary public and ex-officio justice of the peace may be appointed by the judge of the superior court and commissioned by the ,governor4 ,his powers are the same as a regularly elected justice1 and his term of office is for the same number of years4 ,the jurisdiction of the court extends to all cases arising from contracts1 or injuries1 or damages to personal property1 when the amount claimed does not exceed #ajj4 ,contests for the possession of personal property1 when the title is not involved1 may also be tried in justice courts4 ,when the amount involved is less than #ej an appeal may be had to a jury of five men2 if the amount exceeds #ej1 an appeal may be had to the superior court4 ,upon the arrest of any person charged with any offense against the laws of the ,state he can be brought before the justice of the peace for a preliminary trial4 ,if in the opinion of the justice there is sufficient evidence1 he is bound over to a higher court for trial4 ,the justice of the peace can issue warrants for the arrest of persons charged with crimes1 and is qualified to administer oaths4 ,the executive officer of the justice court is the constable1 who is elected by the people for a term of two years4 ,he serves subpoenas1 levies executions1 conducts the sales of the court1 and makes arrests4 ,in #aiab1 the provisions of the ,constitution recommending the establishment of justice courts in each militia district were amended so as to allow such justice courts1 the office of justice of the peace1 and of notary public1 ex-officio justice of the peace1 to be abolished in certain cities in ,georgia by the establishment in lieu thereof of such court1 or system of courts1 as the ,general ,assembly may deem necessary4 ,such courts have been established in ,atlanta and ,macon4 ,the territory1 jurisdiction1 and power of these courts are set forth in the act creating them4 ,a county court is established upon the recommendation of a grand jury in a county4 ,the judge of the court is appointed by the ,governor for a term of four years4 ,the judge of a county court must be twenty-one years of age1 and must have been a resident of the county one year4 ,the court holds monthly and quarterly sessions at the county seat4 ,the jurisdiction of the court extends over the county where it is located4 ,the court has jurisdiction in all civil cases where the amount involved does not exceed #ejj1 save where exclusive jurisdiction is given to the superior courts4 ,criminal cases are also tried in county courts when the crime with which the defendant is charged is called a misdemeanor4 ,in some counties also there are county courts established by special acts of the ,legislature4 ,many city courts have been established by the ,legislature4 ,the judge of a city court is appointed by the ,governor1 or elected by the people1 according to the provisions of the act establishing the court4 ,the term and the qualifications of the judge1 and the jurisdiction of the city court1 are also fixed by the legislative act creating the court4 ,the term is sometimes four years and sometimes two4 ,the solicitor of the city court is appointed by the ,governor1 or elected by the people1 for a term of two or four years4 ,it is his duty to represent the ,state in all criminal cases tried in that court4 ,there is in each county of the ,state a court of ordinary4 ,the presiding officer of this court is styled the ordinary4 ,he is elected by the voters of the county for a term of four years4 ,the jurisdiction of the court of ordinary extends throughout the county over all matters relating to the administration of property of deceased persons1 orphans1 idiots1 lunatics1 and insane persons4 ,in the ordinary is vested the power of appointing guardians of the person of orphans and insane persons4 ,the ordinary also has charge of county roads and revenues where no board of county commissioners has been established4 ,the ordinary is clerk of his own court1 and the sheriff of the county is his executive officer4 ,the ,state is divided into twenty-six judicial circuits1 and each circuit has one superior court judge 7or mote than one if the ,legislature so provides74 ,this judge is elected by the people for a term of four years4 ,to be eligible he must be thirty years of age2 he must have been a citizen of the ,state for three years1 and must have practiced law seven years4 ,the superior courts have original and appellate jurisdiction4 ,actions may be begun in this court1 and actions may be appealed to this court4 ,the original jurisdiction of this court extends exclusively over all suits for divorce1 suits where titles to land are involved1 cases in equity1 and criminal cases where the person is accused of a crime the punishment for which is loss of life or imprisonment in the penitentiary4 ,offenses of a lesser grade are called misdemeanors4 ,the court has jurisdiction over all civil cases4 ,the judge of the superior court has the power to issue various writs for the enforcement of the law1 and grant charters to all corporations1 except banking1 insurance1 railroad1 canal1 navigation1 express1 telephone1 and telegraph companies4 ,cases appealed from justice courts1 county courts1 courts of ordinary1 and certain city courts lie to the superior courts4 ,the clerk of the ,superior court is elected by the people for a term of two years4 ,he has custody of all court papers1 records1 liens1 deeds1 mortgages1 and other conveyances1 issues executions1 subpoenas1 commissions to take interrogatories1 and other writs with the authority of the court4 ,he also has the power to administer oaths4 ,the sheriff of the county is properly a county officer1 but his duties are closely allied with the superior court4 ,he is elected by the people for a term of two years4 ,it is his duty to execute all orders of the court1 attend in person or by deputy all its sessions1 keep a record of all sales and executions1 publish advertisements of sales1 and conduct sales at the county seat4 ,he levies executions1 serves warrants1 and executes all the writs of the judge of the superior court4 ,the sheriff may appoint deputies to assist him in the performance of his duties4 ,the solicitor-general is elected by the people for a term of four years4 ,he must have been three years a citizen of the ,state1 he must be twenty-five years of age1 and must have practiced law three years4 ,he is the solicitor of the whole circuit1 and is not a county officer4 ,he advises the grand jury1 examines witnesses before that body1 and draws up all indictments and presentments4 ,it is his duty to prosecute or defend any civil action in his circuit in which the ,state is interested1 collect moneys arising from fines and forfeited bonds1 and all claims of the ,state1 as ordered by the ,comptroller-,general4 ,he represents the ,state in all criminal actions in the superior court1 of which he is the solicitor1 and in the ,court of ,appeals or the ,supreme ,court in cases appealed from his circuit4 ,the ,court of ,appeals consists of three judges1 elected one every second year for a term of six years4 ,the ,supreme ,court consists of a chief justice and five associate justices4 ,they are elected two every second year for a term of six years4 ,a judge of the ,court of ,appeals or a justice of the ,supreme ,court must be thirty years of age1 must have been a resident of the ,state three years1 and must have practiced law seven years4 ,the ,court of ,appeals has appellate jurisdiction in cases appealed from certain city courts1 and in criminal cases1 not capital1 appealed from the superior courts4 ,the ,supreme ,court has appellate jurisdiction in civil cases appealed from the superior courts1 and in all cases of conviction of capital crime4 ,the ,supreme ,court also settles any question as to the meaning of the ,constitution1 and as to the constitutionality of a ,state law4 ,it is the highest judicial authority in the ,state4 ,,counties4--,the ,state is divided into one hundred and forty-eight counties1 and each county into militia districts1 according to its size and population4 ,every militia district in the ,state must contain at the time of its organization at least one hundred male residents over twenty-one years of age who are subject to militia duty1 and no militia district can be reduced in population below this requirement by the formation of a new one4 ,while no additional counties can be created in the ,state except by a constitutional amendment1 one may be abolished or merged into adjoining counties by a two-thirds majority of the voters of the county4 ,each county in the ,state has an organized government1 with powers delegated to it by the ,state government4 ,these powers are largely administrative1 and have for their chief purpose the enforcement of general laws4 ,each county is a body corporate1 with the power to sue or be sued in any court1 make contracts1 and buy and sell real estate4 ,its debt cannot exceed seven per cent of the assessed valuation of the taxable property4 ,,ordinary4--,the office of ordinary is the most important in the county4 ,he is the principal administrative officer in the county4 ,when sitting for county purposes he has exclusive jurisdiction in directing and controlling all county property and in levying general and special taxes4 ,he has control over all roads and bridges1 establishes and alters election precincts and militia districts1 appoints officers to fill all vacancies in the county4 ,he audits the accounts of all county officers1 makes rules and regulations for the relief of the poor4 ,he issues marriage licenses1 pays pensions to ,confederate veterans1 licenses and regulates peddling1 and collects special taxes assessed by the ,state4 ,he is elected for a term of four years4 ,he is both a judicial and an administrative officer4 ,his judicial duties have been explained4 ,a part of his administrative duties as to roads and revenues is performed in some counties by a board of county commissioners4 ,,county ,,commissioners4--,a board of county commissioners may be created by the ,general ,assembly to administer the executive powers of the ordinary4 ,the powers of the commissioners differ in the various counties1 and their duties are prescribed by the act creating them4 ,they are called commissioners of roads and revenues4 ,when county commissioners are provided for by legislative enactment the ordinary ceases to perform the duties given to the commissioners4 ,,jury ,,commissioners4--,the board of jury commissioners is composed of six members1 who are appointed by the judge of the superior court for a term of six years4 ,two members are appointed every second year4 ,this body meets in ,august1 biennially1 to revise the jury list4 ,it selects from the books of the tax receiver upright and intelligent men to serve as jurors4 ,the most intelligent and experienced are selected for the grand jury4 ,the name of each person subject to serve on the jury is written on a separate slip of paper and placed in the jury box4 ,at each term of the superior court the judge draws out of this box from eighteen to thirty names1 from which the grand jury is impaneled4 ,in the same manner thirty-six names are drawn for the petit jury4 ,grand ,jury4--,the grand jury consists of not less than eighteen nor more than twenty-three members4 ,a foreman is elected by the jury4 ,it is their duty to indict or present for trial all persons who from their own knowledge1 or from evidence brought before them1 are charged with an offense against the laws1 and against whom sufficient evidence is produced to sustain the charge4 ,it is also their duty to inspect the books and accounts of all county officers1 examine the tax receiver's digest1 and inquire into the condition and management of the county roads1 jails1 and schoolhouses4 ,it advises the ordinary in the administration of the county tax1 determines the salary of the county judge1 jurors1 and bailiffs1 and appoints the members of the board of education4 ,county ,treasurer4--,all revenue paid into the county arising from taxes1 and all other sources1 is paid to the county treasurer1 who disburses it only upon warrants issued by the ordinary or board of county commissioners4 ,tax ,receiver4--,it is the duty of the tax receiver to secure from each taxpayer1 under oath1 a statement of the character and amount of his taxable property4 ,three digests are prepared from the full returns made to the tax receiver1 who must furnish one to the ,comptroller-,general1 the tax collector1 and the ordinary4 ,tax ,collector4--,it is the duty of the tax collector to collect all taxes due the ,state and county1 and to pay the same over to the ,comptroller-,general and ,county ,treasurer1 the portion due the ,state going to the ,comptroller-,general4 ,he is to search out and ascertain as far as possible all poll and professional taxes due and unpaid1 and all taxable property not found in the digest1 and to assess the same and collect thereon a double tax4 ,he also issues against all defaulters1 executions1 which are placed with the proper officials for collection4 ,road ,commissioners4--,each county is arranged into road districts in order that the labor and expense may be divided as equally as possible throughout the county4 ,three commissioners are appointed in every district for a term of two years1 and are excused only for providential causes2 but while serving they are exempt from jury1 militia1 and other road duty4 ,all male residents of the ,state between the ages of sixteen and fifty years are subject to work on the public roads1 with the exception of preachers1 cripples1 and employees of the ,insane ,asylum1 and the like4 ,no person1 however1 is required to work for a longer time than fifteen days in the year1 or for a longer time than five days in succession4 ,the commissioners have the power to fine or imprison defaulters4 ,counties may1 however1 adopt an alternative plan for working the roads3 in such counties a special tax is levied on property1 the proceeds of which are spent on the roads1 and able-bodied men between eighteen and fifty years of age are subject to road duty for not more than five days each year1 or they may pay a small commutation tax instead4 ,,coroner4--,the principal duty of the coroner is to hold inquests1 with a jury composed of six electors1 over the bodies of all persons who have died suddenly and under suspicious circumstances4 ,upon the verdict of the jury1 the coroner may commit to prison1 to await trial1 any person found guilty of homicide4 ,the coroner is also ex-officio sheriff when the latter is disqualified or absent from the county4 ,county ,surveyor4--,the county surveyor makes surveys of county and district lines1 and such other surveys as are required by the ,comptroller-,general4 ,,cities ,,and ,,towns4--,where the necessity demands it in very thickly populated districts1 and where the county government would be inadequate for the requirements of the community1 local governments are established1 which are termed municipal corporations4 ,such corporations are chartered by the ,general ,assembly1 and the form of government of each municipality is prescribed in the act creating it4 ,no distinction is drawn in ,georgia between towns and cities4 ,the form of the municipal government conforms to a large extent to that of the ,state government1 the legislative power being delegated to a council or board of aldermen1 the executive to the mayor1 and the judicial to a recorder1 or some one performing the duties usually given to this officer4 ,the council is composed of the mayor and a number of councilmen4 ,they are elected by the voters1 usually for a term of one or two years4 ,the councilmen in some places are elected from various city wards2 in others they are elected by the town or city at large4 ,in some cities the recorder is elected by the council1 and in some he is elected by the people4 ,in some the mayor performs the duties of the recorder4 ,under some charters1 the city comptroller1 tax collector1 treasurer1 and city attorneys are elected by the voters1 while the minor officers1 such as the city clerk1 tax assessors1 members of the board of health1 the board of education1 and the board of police commissioners1 are elected by the council4 ,the revenue of a city is derived from a general tax on all real and personal property1 which must be uniform1 and a license tax on all occupations1 which is varied with the occupation4 ,,education4--,there is a thorough system of public schools for the education of the children of the ,state1 the expenses of which are provided for by taxation or otherwise4 ,the schools are free to all children of the ,state1 but separate schools are provided for white and colored children4 ,the ,state appropriates money directly to the support of the public schools4 ,authority may be granted to counties1 school districts1 or to municipalities1 upon the recommendation of the corporate authority1 to maintain schools by local taxation1 levied in addition to the amount appropriated by the ,state4 ,but such a law takes effect in any county district1 or municipality1 only if ratified by a two-thirds majority of the citizens voting on the question4 ,the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools is the executive head of the school system of the ,state1 and to him are submitted reports from the county school superintendents4 ,he prepares the questions for teachers' examinations4 ,the ,state ,board of ,education is composed of the ,governor1 ,state ,superintendent of ,schools1 and four other persons who are appointed by the ,governor and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,at least three of these appointees must be men of practical experience in teaching schools and of high standing in educational work1 having had at least three years' practical experience in the schools of ,georgia4 ,the board is authorized to receive bequests for education1 and invest the principal sums when the interest only is to be expended4 ,the board is an appellate and advisory body4 ,the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools is required to advise with the board for the better performance of his duties1 and appeals from his decisions lie to the board4 ,it is the duty of the ,state ,board of ,education to provide rules and regulations for the supervision of all schools in the ,state2 to provide the course of study and select textbooks for all common and high schools of the ,state receiving ,state aid2 also to provide a system of certification for the teachers of the public schools4 ,the schools of each county are under the control of a ,county ,board of ,education4 ,the grand jury of a county selects five citizens to serve on the board for the term of four years4 ,the county is divided by the board into school districts1 and a school is established in each district which may have three trustees who act under the general supervision of the ,county ,board of ,education4 ,the board employs teachers1 rents property1 buys school furniture1 and makes all arrangements necessary for the efficient operation of the schools4 ,the ,county ,school ,superintendent is elected by the qualified voters of each county for a term of four years4 ,under a recent act the term of all these officials is uniform and expires ,january #a1 #aiag4 ,he must be a resident of the county in which he offers for election and be a person of good moral character4 ,in addition to the above there are four tests laid down by law and the ,county ,school ,superintendent must qualify under at least one of these3-- #a4 ,three years' experience in teaching1 one year of which shall have been in ,georgia1 and the possession of a first-grade license4 or #b4 ,a diploma from a reputable college or normal school4 or #c4 ,five years' experience in actual school supervision4 or #d4 ,an approved examination before the ,state ,board of ,education as to qualifications4 ,it is his duty to examine on a day advertised for that purpose all applicants for licenses to teach1 and to grade such applicants according to the instructions of the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,he is a medium between the ,state ,superintendent of ,schools and all subordinate school officers1 and acts as the agent of the ,county ,board of ,education in purchasing school furniture1 apparatus1 and all educational requisites4 ,besides partly supporting the public schools1 the ,state supports other institutions for higher learning4 ,these institutions1 though situated in different parts of the ,state1 are collectively known as the ,university of ,georgia1 which has its seat at ,athens4 ,the head of all these institutions is styled the ,chancellor1 but each has its ,president and separate board of trustees4 ,the trustees are appointed by the ,governor for various terms4 ,the ,university of ,georgia consists of the college at ,athens and the following branches3 ,the ,georgia ,normal and ,industrial ,college1 ,state ,normal ,school1 ,south ,georgia ,state ,normal ,school1 ,state ,college of ,agriculture1 ,north ,georgia ,agricultural ,college1 ,medical ,college1 ,technological ,school1 and ,georgia ,state ,industrial ,college for ,colored ,youths4 ,the educational system of ,georgia is being constantly improved by voluntary local taxation supplementing the ,state funds4 ,every child in ,georgia is entitled to receive a thorough education1 suited to the station in life to which he can reasonably aspire4 ,this much should be demanded4 ,nothing less should be accepted as sufficient4 ,may the time soon come when the people of ,georgia will realize that money spent to develop the minds and characters of their children is the best investment to be made for them in time and eternity4 ,,eleemosynary ,,institutions4--,at the expense of the whole people1 the ,state of ,georgia maintains the following eleemosynary institutions3 ,georgia ,academy for the ,blind1 ,macon2 ,georgia ,school for the ,deaf1 ,cave ,spring2 the ,soldiers' ,home of ,georgia1 ,atlanta1 ,georgia ,state ,sanitarium for the ,insane1 ,milledgeville2 ,georgia ,state ,tuberculosis ,sanitarium1 ,alto2 and the ,georgia ,training ,school for ,girls4