,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hai      
,,new ,,york1 ,,september #ab1 #ahia4   
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xxxii1 ,no4 #hai4  ,scientific       
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
   ,i4    ,,astronomy4--,the ,story of  
the ,universe4--,by ,dr4 ,,william      
,,huggins4--,a valuable account of      
modern views of the formation       of  
the universe1 and of modern methods of  
studying the problem4--#a               
illustration4  ,,ii4                    
,,electricity4--,the ,production of     
,hydrogen and ,oxygen through       the 
,electrolysis of ,water4--,a valuable   
paper on the electrolysis       of water
 on a large scale1 with apparatus       
employed therefor4--#d                  
illustrations4  ,,iii4  ,,mechanical    
,,engineering4--,an ,english ,steam     

,fire ,engine4--,a       light fire     
engine built for ,east ,indian          
service4--#a illustration4  ,,iv4       
,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,a ,case of
 ,drowning1 with ,resuscitation4--,by   
,f4,a4 ,,burrall1 ,m4,d4--,a full       
account of a remarkable       case of   
resuscitation from drowning1 with full  
details       of treatment4  ,v4        
,,metallurgy4--,how ,gas ,cylinders are 
,made4--,the manufacture       of       
cylinders for highly compressed gases1 a
 comparatively       new and growing    
industry4--#f illustrations4            
,refining ,silver ,bullion4--,the       
,gutzkow process in refining silver     
bullion with sulphuric acid4--#a        
illustration4        ,the ,treatment of 
,refractory ,ores4--,a new process for  
the extraction       of metal from      
refractory ore4--#a illustration4       
,weldless ,steel ,chains4--,an          
exhaustive examination of this curious  
process1 and very full                  
illustrations4--#dc illustrations4      

,,vi4   ,,meteorology4--,climatic       
,changes in the ,southern ,hemisphere4  
--,by ,c4,a4,m4 ,,taber4--,causes of the
 climatic changes the       southern    
hemisphere has undergone4  ,,vii4       
,,military ,,tactics4--,the ,system of  
,military ,dove ,cotes in               
,europe4--,continuation of this paper1  
treating of the pigeon service       in 
,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy4  ,,viii4 
,,naval ,,engineering4--,the ,isle of   
,man ,twin ,screw       ,steamer        
,tynwald4--,a high speed steamer1 with a
 steady sea-going       speed of between
 #ah and #ai knots4--#b illustrations4  
,,ix4   ,,technology4--,ammonia4--,the  
manufacture of ammoniacal       gas for 
technical uses4--,full details of its   
production4        ,musical             
,instruments4--,their construction and  
capabilities4--,by       ,a4,j4         
,,hipkins4--,second installment of this 
highly interesting       series of      
lectures treating of different kinds of 
instruments4        ,note on            

,refrigerating ,apparatus4        ,sheet
 ,glass from ,molten ,metal4--,the      
method of making sheets       of glass  
from the molten material and manufacture
 of metal plates       by the same      
method4  ,x4    ,,veterinary            
,,science4--,historical ,development of 
the       ,horseshoe4--,by ,district    
,veterinarian ,,zippelius4--,very       
curious       investigation of the      
development of the horseshoe4--#bb      
illustrations4         99       99      
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,production ,,of ,,hydrogen ,,and      
,,oxygen ,,through ,,the ,,electrolysis 
,,of ,,water4   ,all attempts to prepare
 gaseous fluids industrially were       
premature as long as there were no means
 of carrying them under a sufficiently  
diminished volume4 ,for a few years     
past1 the trade has been delivering     
steel cylinders that permit of storing1 
without the least danger1 a gas under a 
pressure of from #abj to #bjj           
atmospheres4 ,the problem of delivery   

without pipe laying having been         
sufficiently solved1 that of the        
industrial production of gases could be 
confronted in its turn4 ,liquefied      
sulphurous acid1 chloride of methyl1 and
 carbonic acid have been successively   
delivered1 to commerce4 ,the carbonic   
acid is now being used right along in   
laboratories for the production of an   
intense coldness1 through its expansion4
 ,oxygen and nitrogen1 prepared by      
chemical processes1 soon followed1 and  
now the industrial electrolysis of water
 is about to permit of the delivery1 in 
the same manner1 of very pure oxygen and
 hydrogen at a price within one's reach4
  ,before describing the processes      
employed in this preparation1 we must   
answer a question that many of our      
readers might be led to ask us1 and that
 is1 what can these gases be used for8  
,we shall try to explain4 ,a prime and  
important application of pure hydrogen  
is that of inflating balloons4          
,illuminating gas1 which is usually     

employed for want of something better1  
is sensibly denser than hydrogen and    
possesses less ascensional force1 whence
 the necessity of lightening the balloon
 or of increasing its volume4 ,such     
inconveniences become serious with      
dirigible balloons1 whose surface1 on   
the contrary1 it is necessary to        
diminish as much as possible4 ,when the 
increasing interest taken in aerostation
 at ,paris was observed1 an assured     
annual output of some hundreds of cubic 
meters of eras for the sole use of      
balloons was foreseen1 the adoption of  
pure hydrogen being only a question of  
the net cost4  ,pure or slightly        
carbureted hydrogen is capable of being 
substituted to advantage for coal gas   
for heating or lighting4 ,such an       
application is doubtless somewhat       
premature1 but we shall see that it has 
already got out of the domain of        
,utopia4 ,finally the oxyhydrogen       
blowpipe1 which is indispensable for the
 treatment of very refractory metals1   

consumes large quantities of hydrogen   
and oxygen4  ,for a few years past1     
oxygen has been employed in             
therapeutics2 it is found in commerce   
either in a gaseous state or in solution
 in water 7in siphons72 it notably      
relieves persons afflicted with asthma  
or depression2 and the use of it is     
recommended in the treatment of         
albumenuria4 ,does it cure1 or at least 
does it contribute to cure1 anmia1 that 
terrible affection of large cities1 and 
the prime source of so many other       
troubles8 ,here the opinions of         
physicians and physiologists are        
divided1 and we limit ourselves to a    
mention of the question without         
discussing it4  ,only fifteen years ago 
it would have been folly to desire to   
obtain remunerative results through the 
electrolysis of water4 ,such research   
was subordinated to the industrial      
production of electric energy4  ,we     
shall not endeavor to establish the     
priority of the experiments and         

discoveries4 ,the question was in the   
air1 and was taken up almost            
simultaneously by three able            
experimenters--a ,russian physicist1    
,prof4 ,latchinof1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 
,dr4 ,d',arsonval1 the learned professor
 of the ,college of ,france1 and        
,commandant ,renard1 director of the    
military establishment of aerostation at
 ,chalais4 ,mr4 ,d',arsonval collected  
oxygen for experiments in physiology1   
while ,commandant ,renard naturally     
directed his attention to the production
 of pure hydrogen4 ,the solutions of the
 question are1 in fact1 alike in        
principle1 and yet they have been       
developed in a very different manner1   
and we believe that ,commandant         
,renard's process is the completest from
 an industrial standpoint4 ,we shall    
give an account of it from a            
communication made by this eminent      
military engineer1 some time ago1 to the
 ,french ,society of ,physics4          
,transformations of the                 

,voltameter4--,in a laboratory1 it is of
 no consequence whether a liter of      
hydrogen costs a centime or a franc4 ,so
 long as it is a question of a few      
liters1 one may1 at his ease1 waste his 
energy and employ costly substances4    
,the internal resistance of a voltameter
 and the cost of platinum electrodes of 
a few grammes should not arrest the     
physicist in an experiment2 but1 in a   
production on a large scale1 it is      
necessary to decrease the resistance of 
the liquid column to as great a degree  
as possible--that is to say1 to increase
 its section and diminish its thickness4
 ,the first condition leads to a        
suppression of the platinum1 and the    
second necessitates the use of new      
principles in the construction of the   
voltameter4 ,a laboratory voltameter    
consists either of a ,u-shaped tube or  
of a trough in which the electrodes are 
covered by bell glasses 7,fig4 #a1 ,a   
and ,b74 ,in either case1 the electric  
current must follow a tortuous and      

narrow path1 in order to pass from one  
electrode to the other1 while1 if the   
electrodes be left entirely free in the 
bath1 the gases1 rising in a spreading  
form1 will mix at a certain height4 ,it 
is necessary to separate them by a      
partition 7,fig4 #a1 ,c74 ,if this is   
isolating and impermeable1 there will be
 no interest in raising the electrodes  
sensibly above its lower edge4 ,now1 the
 nearer together the electrodes are1 the
 more it is necessary to lower the      
partition4 ,the extension of the        
electrodes and the bringing of them     
together is the knotty part of the      
question4 ,this will be shown by a very 
simple calculation4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #a4--;,a1 ,b1 ,,commonest ,,forms
 ,,of ,,laboratory ,,voltameters4 ,c1   
,,diagram ,,showing ,,ascent ,,of       
,,bubbles ,,in ,a ,,voltameter4  ,the   
visible electrolysis of water begins at 
an ,e4,m4,f4 of about #a4g ,v4 ,below   
this there is no disengagement of       
bubbles4 ,if the ,e4,m4,f4 be increased 

at the terminals of the voltameter1 the 
current 7and consequently the production
 of gas7 will become proportional to the
 excess of the value over #a4g ,v2 but1 
at the same time1 the current will heat 
the circuit--that is to say1 will       
produce a superfluous work1 and there   
will be waste4 ,at #a4g ,v the rendering
 is at its maximum1 but the useful      
effect is nil4 ,in order to make an     
advantageous use of the instruments1 it 
is necessary to admit a certain loss of 
energy1 so much the less1 moreover1 in  
proportion as the voltameters cost less2
 and as the saving is to be effected in 
the current1 rather than in the         
apparatus1 we may admit the use of three
 volts as a good proportion--that is to 
say1 a loss of about half the disposable
 energy4 ,under such conditions1 a      
voltameter having an internal resistance
 of #a ohm produces #j4fe liter of      
hydrogen per hour1 while it will        
disengage #f4ejj liters if its          
resistance be but #j4jjja of an ohm4 ,it

 is true that1 in this case1 the current
 would be in the neighborhood of #ae1jjj
 amperes4 ,laboratory voltameters       
frequently have a resistance of a       
hundred ohms2 it would require a million
 in derivation to produce the same      
effect4 ,the specific resistance of the 
solutions that can be employed in the   
production of gases by electrolysis is1 
in round numbers1 twenty thousand times 
greater than that of mercury4 ,in order 
to obtain a resistance of #j4jjja of an 
ohm1 it is necessary to sensibly satisfy
 the equation              #bj1jjj l_/s 
#a_/aj1jjj  l expressing the thickness  
of the voltameter expressed in meters1  
and s being the section in square       
millimeters4 ,for example3 ,for l       
#a_/aj1 s  #bj1jjj1jjj1 say #bj square  
meters4 ,it will be seen from this      
example what should be the proportions  
of apparatus designed for a production  
on a large scale4  ,the new principles  
that permit of the construction of such 
voltameters are as follows3 7#a7 the    

substitution of an alkaline for the acid
 solution1 thus affording a possibility 
of employing iron electrodes2 7#b7 the  
introduction of a porous partition      
between the electrodes1 for the purpose 
of separating the gases4  ,electrolytic 
,liquid4--,commandant ,renard's         
experiments were made with #ae per cent1
 solution of caustic soda and water     
containing #bg per cent4 of acid4 ,these
 are the proportions that give the      
maximum of conductivity4 ,experiments   
made with a voltameter having platinum  
electrodes separated by an interval of  
#c or #d centimeters showed that for a  
determinate ,e4,m4,f4 the alkaline      
solution allows of the passage of a     
slighter intenser current than the      
acidulated water1 that is to say1 it is 
less resistant and more advantageous    
from the standpoint of the consumption  
of energy4  ,porous ,partition4--,let us
 suppose that the two parts of the      
trough are separated by a partition     
containing small channels at right      

angles with its direction4 ,it is these 
channels alone that must conduct the    
electricity4 ,their conductivity        
7inverse of resistance7 is proportional 
to their total section1 and inversely   
proportional to their common length1    
whatever be their individual section4   
,it is1 therefore1 advantageous to      
employ partitions that contain as many  
openings as possible4  ,the separating  
effect of these partitions for the gas  
is wholly due to capillary phenomena4   
,we know1 in fact1 that water tends to  
expel gas from a narrow tube with a     
pressure inversely proportional to the  
tube's radius4 ,in order to traverse the
 tube1 the gaseous mass will have to    
exert a counter-pressure greater than   
this capillary pressure4 ,as long as the
 pressure of one part and another of the
 wet wall differs to a degree less than 
the capillary pressure of the largest   
channel1 the gases disengaged in the two
 parts of the trough will remain        
entirely separate4 ,in order that the   

mixing may not take place through the   
partition above the level of the liquid 
7dry partition71 the latter will have to
 be impenetrable in every part that     
emerges4 ,the study of the partitions   
should be directed to their separating  
effect on the gases1 and to their       
electric resistance4 ,in order to study 
the first of these properties1 the      
porous partition1 fixed by a hermetical 
joint to a glass tube1 is immersed in   
the water 7,fig4 #b74 ,an increasing    
pressure is exerted from the interior   
until the passage of bubbles is         
observed4 ,the pressure read at this    
moment on the manometer indicates       
7transformed above the electrolytic     
solution7 the changes of level that the 
bath may undergo4 ,the different        
porcelains and earths behave1 from this 
point of view1 in a very unequal manner4
 ,for example1 an earthen vessel from   
the ,pillivayt establishment supports   
some decimeters of water1 while the     
porcelain of ,boulanger1 at             

,choisy-le-,roi1 allows of the passage  
of the gas only at pressures greater    
than one atmosphere1 which is much more 
than is necessary4 ,wire gauze1 canvas1 
and asbestos cloth resist a few         
centimeters of water4 ,it might be      
feared1 however1 that the gases1        
violently projected against these       
partitions1 would not pass1 owing to the
 velocity acquired4 ,upon this point    
experiment is very reassuring4 ,after   
filling with water a canvas bag fixed to
 the extremity of a rubber tube1 it is  
possible to produce in the interior a   
tumultuous disengagement of gas without 
any bubbles passing through4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#b4--;,,arrangement ,,for ,,the ,,study 
,,of ,,capillary ,,reaction ,,in        
,,porous ,,vessels4  ,from an electrical
 point of view1 partitions are of very  
unequal quality4 ,various partitions    
having been placed between electrodes   
spaced three centimeters apart1 currents
 were obtained which indicated that1    

with the best of porcelains1 the        
rendering of the apparatus is diminished
 by one-half4 ,asbestos cloth introduces
 but an insignificant resistance4  ,to  
this inconvenience of porous vessels is 
added their fragility1 their high price1
 and the impossibility of obtaining them
 of the dimensions that large apparatus 
would call for4 ,the selection of       
asbestos cloth is therefore clearly     
indicated2 but1 as it does not entirely 
separate the gases1 except at a pressure
 that does not exceed a few centimeters 
of water1 it was always necessary to    
bring back the variation of the level to
 these narrow limits by a special       
arrangement4 ,we cannot1 in fact1 expect
 that the entire piping shall be always 
in such conditions that no difference in
 pressure can occur4 ,the levels are    
brought back to equality within the     
effective limits by interposing between 
the voltameter and the piping an        
apparatus called a compensator1 which   
consists of two vessels that communicate

 in the interior part through a large   
tube4 ,the gases enter each vessel      
through a pipe that debouches beneath   
the level of the water4 ,if a momentary 
stoppage occurs in one of the conduits1 
the water changes level in the          
compensator1 but the pressure remains   
constant at the orifice of the tubes4   
,the compensator is1 as may be seen1    
nothing more than a double ,mariotte    
flask4 ,when it is desired to obtain    
pure gases1 there is introduced into the
 compensator a solution of tartaric     
acid1 which retains the traces of       
alkalies carried along by the current of
 gas4 ,the alkaline solution1 moreover1 
destroys the ozone at the moment of its 
formation4  ,it will be seen that       
laboratory studies have furnished all   
the elements of a problem which is now  
capable of entering the domain of       
practice4 ,the cheapness of the raw     
materials permits of constructing       
apparatus whose dimensions will no      
longer be limited except by reasons of  

another nature4 ,the electrodes may be  
placed in proximity at will1 owing to   
the use of the porous partition4 ,it may
 be seen1 then1 that the apparatus will 
have a considerable useful effect       
without its being necessary to waste the
 electric energy beyond measure4        
,industrial ,apparatus4--,we have shown 
how the very concise researches of      
,commandant ,renard have fixed the best 
conditions for the construction of an   
industrial voltameter4 ,it remains for  
us to describe this voltameter itself1  
and to show the rendering of it4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,plant ,,for
 ,,the ,,industrial ,,electrolysis ,,of 
,,water4  ,the industrial voltameter    
consists of a large iron cylinder4 ,a   
battery of such voltameters is shown to 
the left of ,fig4 #c1 and one of the    
apparatus1 isolated1 is represented in  
,fig4 #d4 ,the interior electrode is    
placed in an asbestos cloth bag1 which  
is closed below and tied at its upper   
part4 ,it is provided with apertures    

which permit of the ascent of the gases 
in the interior of the cylinder4 ,the   
apparatus is hermetically sealed at the 
top1 the two electrodes being naturally 
insulated with rubber4 ,above the level 
of the liquid the interior electrode is 
continuous and forms a channel for the  
gas4 ,the hydrogen and oxygen1 escaping 
through the upper orifices1 flow to the 
compensator4 ,the apparatus is provided 
with an emptying cock or a cock for     
filling with distilled water1 coming    
from a reservoir situated above the     
apparatus4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#d4--;,,details ,,of ,,an ,,industrial  
,,voltameter4  ,the constants of the    
voltameter established by ,commandant   
,renard are as follows3        ,height  
of external electrode       #c4dje m4   
internal                #c4bij          
,diameter of external                   
#j4cjj                   internal       
#j4agd   ,the iron plate employed is #b 
millimeters in thickness4 ,the electric 
resistance is about #j4jjge ohm4 ,the   

apparatus gives #cfe amperes under #b4g 
volts1 and consequently nearly #a       
kilowatt4 ,its production in hydrogen is
 #aeh liters per hour4  ,it is clear    
that1 in an industrial exploitation1 a  
dynamo working under #c volts is never  
employed4 ,in order to properly utilize 
the power of the dynamo1 several        
voltameters will be put in series--a    
dozen1 for example1 if the generating   
machine is in proximity to the          
apparatus1 or a larger number if the    
voltameters are actuated by a dynamo    
situated at a distance1 say in the      
vicinity of a waterfall4 ,fig4 #c will  
give an idea of a plant for the         
electrolysis of water4  ,it remains for 
us to say a few words as to the net cost
 of the hydrogen and oxygen gases       
produced by the process that we have    
just described4 ,we may estimate the    
value of a voltameter at a hundred      
francs4 ,if the apparatus operates      
without appreciable wear1 the           
amortizement should be calculated at a  

very low figure1 say #aj per cent41     
which is large4 ,in continuous operation
 it would produce more than #a1ejj cubic
 meters of gas a year1 say a little less
 than one centime per cubic meter4 ,the 
caustic soda is constantly recuperated  
and is never destroyed4 ,the sole       
product that disappears is the distilled
 water4 ,now one cubic meter of water   
produces more than #b1jjj cubic meters  
of gas4 ,the expense in water1 then1    
does not amount to a centime per cubic  
meter4 ,the great factor of the expense 
resides in the electric energy4 ,the    
cost of surveillance will be minimum and
 the general expenses ad libitum4  ,let 
us take the case in which the energy has
 to be borrowed from a steam engine4    
,supposing very small losses in the     
dynamo and piping1 we may count upon a  
production of one cubic meter of        
hydrogen and #ejj cubic decimeters of   
oxygen for #aj horse-power taken upon   
the main shaft1 say an expenditure of   
#aj kilogrammes of coal or of about #be 

centimes--a little more in ,paris1 and  
less in coal districts4 ,if1            
consequently1 we fix the price of the   
cubic meter of gas at #ej centimes1 we  
shall preserve a sufficient margin4 ,in 
localities where a natural motive power 
is at our disposal1 this estimate will  
have to be greatly reduced4 ,we may1    
therefore1 expect to see hydrogen and   
oxygen take an important place in       
ordinary usages4 ,from the standpoint   
alone of preservation of fuel1 that is  
to say1 of potential energy upon the    
earth1 this new conquest of electricity 
is very pleasing4 ,waterfalls furnish   
utilizable energy in every locality1    
and1 in the future1 will perhaps console
 our great-grandchildren for the        
unsparing waste that we are making of   
coal4--,la ,nature4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,continued from   
,,supplement1 ,no4 #hah1 page #acjff4   
,,musical ,,instruments3 ,,their        
,,construction ,,and ,,capabilities4    
,by ,a4,j4 ,,hipkins1 ,f4,s4,a4         

,,lecture ,,ii4   ,i will now invite    
your attention to the wind instruments1 
which1 in ,handel's time1 were chiefly  
used to double in unison the parts of   
stringed instruments4 ,their modern     
independent use dates from ,haydn2 it   
was extended and perfected by ,mozart1  
,beethoven1 and ,weber2 and the         
extraordinary changes and improvements  
which have been effected during the     
present century have given wind         
instruments an importance that is hardly
 exceeded by that of the stringed1 in   
the formation of the modern orchestra4  
,the military band1 as it now exists1 is
 a creation of the present century4     
,the so-called wood wind instruments are
 the flute1 oboe1 bassoon1 and clarinet4
 ,it is as well to say at once that     
their particular qualities of tone do   
not absolutely depend upon the materials
 of which they are made4 ,the form is   
the most important factor in determining
 the distinction of tone quality1 so    
long as the sides of the tube are       

equally elastic1 as has been submitted  
to proof by instruments made of various 
materials1 including paper4 ,i consider 
this has been sufficiently demonstrated 
by the independent experiments of ,mr4  
,blaikley1 of ,london1 and ,mr4 ,victor 
,mahillon1 of ,brussels4 ,but we must   
still allow ,mr4 ,richard ,shepherd     
,rockstro's plea1 clearly set forth in a
 recently published treatise on the     
flute1 that the nature and the substance
 of the tube1 by reciprocity of         
vibration1 exercise some influence1     
although not so great as might have been
 expected1 on the quality of the tone4  
,but ,i consider this influence is      
already acknowledged in my reference to 
equality of elasticity in the sides of  
the tube4  ,the flute is an instrument  
of embouchure--that is to say1 one in   
which a stream of air is driven from the
 player's lips against an edge of the   
blow hole to produce the sound4 ,the    
oboe and bassoon have double reeds1 and 
the clarinet a single reed1 made of a   

species of cane1 as intermediate agents 
of sound production4 ,there are other   
flutes than that of embouchure--those   
with flageolet or whistle heads1 which1 
having become obsolete1 shall be        
reserved for later notice4 ,there are no
 real tenor or bass flutes now1 those in
 use being restricted to the upper part 
of the scale4 ,the present flute dates  
from #ahcb1 when ,theobald ,boehm1 a    
,bavarian flute player1 produced the    
instrument which is known by his name4  
,he entirely remodeled the flute1 being 
impelled to do so by suggestions from   
the performance of the ,english         
flautist1 ,charles ,nicholson1 who had  
increased the diameter of the lateral   
holes1 and by some improvements that had
 been attempted in the flute by a       
,captain ,gordon1 of ,charles the       
,tenth's ,swiss ,guard4 ,boehm has been 
sufficiently vindicated from having     
unfairly appropriated ,gordon's ideas4  
,the ,boehm flute1 since #ahdf1 is a    
cylindrical tube for about three-fourths

 of its length from the lower end1 after
 which it is continued in a curved      
conical prolongation to the cork        
stopper4 ,the finger holes are disposed 
in a geometrical division1 and the      
mechanism and position of the keys are  
entirely different from what had been   
before4 ,the full compass of the ,boehm 
flute is chromatic1 from middle ,c to   
,c1 two octaves above the treble clef   
,c1 a range of three octaves1 which is  
common to all concert flutes1 and is not
 peculiar to the ,boehm model4 ,of      
course this compass is partly produced  
by altering the pressure of blowing4    
,columns of air inclosed in pipes       
vibrate like strings in sections1 but1  
unlike strings1 the vibrations progress 
in the direction of length1 not across  
the direction of length4 ,in the flute1 
all notes below ,d1 in the treble clef1 
are produced by the normal pressure of  
wind2 by an increasing pressure of      
overblowing the harmonics1 ,d in the    
treble clef1 and ,a and ,b above it1 are

 successively attained4 ,the fingerholes
 and keys1 by shortening the tube1 fill 
up the required intervals of the scale4 
,there are higher harmonics still1 but  
flautists generally prefer to do without
 them when they can get the note        
required by a lower harmonic4 ,in       
,boehm's flute1 his ingenious mechanism 
allows the production of the eleven     
chromatic semitones intermediate between
 the fundamental note of the flute and  
its first harmonic1 by holes so disposed
 that1 in opening them successively1    
they shorten the column of air in exact 
proportion4 ,it is1 therefore1 ideally1 
an equal temperament instrument and not 
a ,d major one1 as the conical flute was
 considered to be4 ,perhaps the most    
important thing ,boehm did for the flute
 was to enunciate the principle that1 to
 insure purity of tone and correct      
intonation1 the holes must be put in    
their correct theoretical positions2 and
 at least the hole below the one giving 
he sound must be open1 to insure perfect

 venting4 ,boehm's flute1 however1 has  
not remained as he left it4             
,improvements1 applied by ,clinton1     
,pratten1 and ,carte1 have introduced   
certain modifications in the fingering1 
while retaining the best features of    
,boehm's system4 ,but it seems to me    
that the reedy quality obtained from the
 adoption of the cylindrical bore which 
now prevails does away with the sweet   
and characteristic tone quality of the  
old conical ,german flute1 and gives us 
in its place one that is not            
sufficiently distinct from that of the  
clarinet4  ,the flute is the most facile
 of all orchestral wind instruments2 and
 the device of double tonguing1 the     
quick repetition of notes by taking a   
staccato ,t-stop in blowing1 is well    
known4 ,the flute generally goes with   
the violins in the orchestra1 or        
sustains long notes with the other wood 
wind instruments1 or is used in those   
conversational passages with other      
instruments that lend such a charm to   

orchestral music4 ,the lower notes are  
not powerful4 ,mr4 ,henry ,carte has1   
however1 designed an alto flute in ,a1  
descending to violin ,g1 with excellent 
results4 ,there is a flute which        
transposes a minor third higher than the
 ordinary flute2 but it is not much used
 in the orchestra1 although used in the 
army1 as is also a flute one semitone   
higher than the concert flute4 ,the     
piccolo1 or octave flute1 is more       
employed in the orchestra1 and may      
double the melody in the highest octave1
 or accentuate brilliant points of      
effect in the score4 ,it is very shrill 
and exciting in the overblown notes1 and
 without great care may give a vulgar   
character to the music1 and for this    
reason ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan has       
replaced it in the score of ,ivanhoe by 
a high ,g flute4 ,the piccolo is exactly
 an octave higher than the flute1       
excepting the two lowest notes of which 
it is deficient4 ,the old cylindrical   
ear-piercing fife is an obsolete        

instrument1 being superseded by a small 
army flute1 still1 however1 called a    
fife1 used with the side drum in the    
drum and fife band4  ,the transverse or 
,german flute1 introduced into the      
orchestra by ,lulli1 came into general  
use in the time of ,handel2 before that 
the recorders1 or flute douces1 the     
flute  bec with beak or whistle head1   
were preferred4 ,these instruments were 
used in a family1 usually of eight      
members1 viz41 as many sizes from treble
 to bass2 or in three1 treble1 alto or  
tenor1 and bass4 ,a fine original set of
 those now rare instruments1 eight in   
number1 was shown in #ahij in the music 
gallery of the ,royal ,military         
,exhibition1 at ,chelsea2 a loan        
collection admirably arranged by        
,captain ,c4,b4 ,day4 ,they were        
obtained from ,hesse ,darmstadt1 and had
 their outer case to preserve them      
exactly like the recorder case          
represented in the painting by ,holbein 
of the ambassadors1 or rather1 the      

scholars1 recently acquired for the     
,national ,gallery4 ,the flageolet was  
the latest form of the treble1 beak1 or 
whistle head flute4 ,the whistle head is
 furnished with a cavity containing air1
 which1 shaped by a narrow groove1      
strikes against the sharp edge and      
excites vibration in the conical pipe1  
on the same principle that an organ pipe
 is made to sound1 or of the action of  
the player's mouth and lips upon the    
blowhole of the flute4 ,as it will      
interest the audience to hear the tone  
of ,shakespeare's recorder1 ,mr4 ,henry 
,carte will play an air upon one4  ,the 
oboe takes the next place in the wood   
wind band4 ,the principle of sound      
excitement1 that of the double reed1    
originating in the flattening of the end
 of an oat or wheat straw1 is of great  
antiquity1 but it could only be applied 
by insertion in tubes of very narrow    
diameter1 so that the column of air     
should not be wider than the tongue     
straw or reed acting upon it4 ,the      

little reed bound round and contracted  
below the vibrating ends in this        
primitive form permitted the adjustment 
of the lower open end in the tube1 it   
might be another longer reed or pipe    
which inclosed the air column2 and thus 
a conical pipe that gradually narrows to
 the diameter of the tongue reed must   
have been early discovered1 and was the 
original type of the pastoral and       
beautiful oboe of the modern orchestra4 
,like the flute1 the oboe has only the  
soprano register1 extending from ,b flat
 or natural below middle ,c to ,f above 
the treble clef1 two octaves and a      
fifth1 which a little exceeds the flute 
downward4 ,the foundation of the scale  
is ,d major1 the same as the flute was  
before ,boehm altered it4 ,triebert1 a  
skillful ,parisian maker1 tried to adapt
 ,boehm's reform of the flute to the    
oboe1 but so far as the geometrical     
division of the scale was concerned1 he 
failed1 because it altered the          
characteristic tone quality of the      

instrument1 so desirable for the balance
 of orchestral coloration4 ,but the     
fingering has been modified with        
considerable success1 although it is    
true by a much greater complication of  
means than the more simple contrivances 
that preceded it1 which are still       
preferred by the players4 ,the oboe reed
 has been much altered since the earlier
 years of this century4 ,it was formerly
 more like the reed of the shawm1 an    
instrument from which the oboe has been 
derived2 and that of the present        
bassoon4 ,it is now made narrower1 with 
much advantage in the refinement of the 
tone4 ,as in the flute1 the notes up to 
,c sharp in the treble clef are produced
 by the normal blowing1 and simply      
shortening the tube by opening the sound
 holes4 ,beyond that note1 increased    
pressure1 or overblowing1 assisted by a 
harmonic speaker key1 produces the first
 harmonic1 that of the octave1 and so   
on4 ,the lowest notes are rough and the 
highest shrill2 from ,a to ,d above the 

treble clef1 the tone quality of the    
oboe is of a tender charm in melody4    
,although not loud1 its tone is         
penetrating and prominent4 ,its staccato
 has an agreeable effect4 ,the place of 
the oboe in the wood wind band between  
the flute and the clarinet1 with the    
bassoon for a bass1 is beyond the       
possibility of improvement by any       
change4  ,like the flute1 there was a   
complete family of oboes in the         
sixteenth and early in the seventeenth  
century2 the little schalmey1 the       
discant schalmey1 from which the present
 oboe is derived2 the alto1 tenor1      
pommer1 and bass pommers1 and the double
 quint or contrabass pommer4  ,in all   
these old finger hole instruments the   
scale begins with the first hole1 a note
 in the bagpipe with which the drones   
agree1 and not the entire tube4 ,from   
the bass and double quint pommers came  
ultimately the bassoon and              
contra-bassoon1 and from the alto       
pommer1 an obsolete instrument for which

 ,bach wrote1 called the oboe di caccia1
 or hunting oboe1 an appellation        
unexplained1 unless it had originally a 
horn-like tone1 and was1 as it has been 
suggested to me by ,mr4 ,blaikley1 used 
by those who could not make a real      
hunting horn sound4 ,it was bent to a   
knee shape to facilitate performance4   
,it was not exactly the cor ,anglais or 
,english horn1 a modern instrument of   
the same pitch which is bent like it1   
and of similar compass1 a fifth below   
the usual oboe4 ,the tenoroon1 with     
which the oboe di caccia has been       
compared1 was a high bassoon really on  
octave and a fifth below4 ,it has been  
sometimes overlooked that there are two 
octaves in pitch between the oboe and   
bassoon1 which has led to some confusion
 in recognizing these instruments4      
,there was an intermediate instrument a 
third lower than the oboe1 used by      
,bach1 called the oboe d'amore1 which   
was probably used with the cornemuse or 
bagpipe1 and another1 a third higher    

than the oboe1 called musette 7not the  
small bagpipe of that name74 ,the cor   
,anglais is in present use4 ,it is a    
melancholy1 even mournful instrument1   
its sole use in the orchestra being very
 suitable for situations on the stage1  
the effect of which it helps by         
depressing the mind to sadness4 ,those  
who have heard ,wagner's ,tristan und   
,isolde will remember1 when the faithful
 ,kurwenal sweeps the horizon1 and sees 
no help coming on the sea for the dying 
,tristan1 how pathetically the reed pipe
 of a careless peasant near1 played in  
the orchestra on a cor ,anglais1 colors 
the painful situation4  ,the bassoon is 
the legitimate bass to the oboe and to  
the wood wind in general4 ,it was       
evolved in the sixteenth century from   
the pommers and bombards3 the tenors and
 basses of the shawm or oboe family4    
,with the older instruments1 the reeds  
were not taken hold of immediately by   
the lips1 but were held in a kind of    
cup1 called pirouette1 which only       

allowed a very small part of the reed to
 project4 ,in the oboe and bassoon the  
player has the full control of the reed 
with the lips1 which is of great        
importance1 both in expression and      
intonation4 ,the bassoon economizes     
length1 by being turned back upon       
itself1 and1 from its appearance1       
obtains in ,italy and ,germany the      
satirical appellation of fagotto or     
fagott4 ,it is made of wood1 and has    
not1 owing to many difficulties as yet  
unsurmounted1 undergone those changes of
 construction that have partly          
transformed other wood wind instruments4
 ,from this reason--and perhaps the     
necessity of a bassoon player becoming  
intimately familiar with his            
instrument--bassoons by some of the     
older makers--notably1 ,savory--are     
still sought after1 in preference to    
more modern ones4 ,the instrument1      
although with extraordinary advantages  
in tone1 character1 and adaptability1   
that render it valuable to the composer1

 is yet complicated and capricious for  
the performer2 but its very             
imperfections remove it from the        
mechanical tendencies of the age1 often 
damaging to art2 and1 as the player has 
to rely very much upon his ear for      
correct intonation1 he gets1 in reality1
 near to the manipulation of the        
stringed instruments4 ,the bassoons play
 readily with the violoncellos1 their   
united tone being often advantageous for
 effect4 ,when not so used1 it falls    
back into its natural relationship with 
the wood wind division of the orchestra4
 ,the compass of the bassoon is from ,b 
flat1 an octave below that in the bass  
clef1 to ,b flat in the treble clef1 a  
range of three octaves1 produced by     
normal pressure1 as far as the bass clef
 ,f4 ,the ,f below the bass clef is the 
true lowest note1 the other seven       
semitones descending to the ,b flat     
being obtained by holes and keys in the 
long joint and bell4 ,these extra notes 
are not overblown4 ,the fundamental     

notes are extended as in the oboes and  
flutes by overflowing to another octave1
 and afterward to the twelfth4 ,in      
modern instruments yet higher notes1 by 
the contrivance of small harmonic holes 
and cross fingerings1 can be secured4   
,long notes1 scales1 arpeggios1 are all 
practicable on this serviceable         
instrument1 and in full harmony with    
clarinets1 or oboes and horns1 it forms 
part of a rich and beautiful            
combination4 ,there is a very telling   
quality in the upper notes of the       
bassoon of which composers have made    
use4 ,structurally1 a bassoon consists  
of several pieces1 the wing1 butt1 long 
joints1 and bell1 and when fitted       
together1 they form a hollow cone of    
about eight feet long1 the air column   
tapering in diameter from               
three-sixteenths of an inch at the reed 
to one and three-quarter inches at the  
bell end4  ,the bending back at the butt
 joint is pierced in one piece of wood1 
and the prolongation of the double tube 

is usually stopped by a flattened oval  
cork1 but in some modern bassoons this  
is replaced by a properly curved tube4  
,the height is thus reduced to a little 
over four feet1 and the holes1 assisted 
by the artifice of piercing them        
obliquely1 are brought within reach of  
the fingers4 ,the crook1 in the end of  
which the reed is inserted1 is about    
twelve inches long1 and is adjusted to  
the shorter branch4  ,the contra-bassoon
 is an octave lower than the bassoon1   
which implies that it should go down to 
the double ,b flat1 two octaves below   
that in the bass clef1 but it is        
customary to do without the lowest as   
well as the highest notes of this       
instrument4 ,it is rarely used1 but     
should not be dispensed with4 ,messrs4  
,mahillon1 of ,brussels1 produce a reed 
contra-bass of metal1 intended to       
replace the contra-bassoon of wood1 but 
probably more with the view of          
completing the military band than for   
orchestral use4 ,it is a conical brass  

tube of large proportions1 with         
seventeen lateral holes of wide diameter
 and in geometrical relation1 so that   
for each sound one key only is required4
 ,the compass of this contra-bass lies  
between ,d in the double bass octave and
 the lower ,f of the treble clef4  ,the 
sarrusophones of ,french invention are a
 complete family1 made in brass and with
 conical tubes pierced according to     
geometric relation1 so that the         
sarrusophone is more equal than the oboe
 it copies and is intended1 at least for
 military music1 to replace4 ,being on a
 larger scale1 the sarrusophones are    
louder than the corresponding           
instruments of the oboe family4 ,there  
are six sarrusophones1 from the         
sopranino in ,e flat to the contra-bass 
in ,b flat2 and to replace the          
contra-bassoon in the orchestra there is
 a lower contrabass sarrusophone made in
 ,c1 the compass of which is from the   
double bass octave ,b flat to the higher
 ,g in the bass clef4  ,before leaving  

the double reed wind instruments1 a few 
words should be said of a family of     
instruments in the sixteenth century as 
important as the schalmeys1 pommers1 and
 bombards1 but long since extinct4 ,this
 was the cromorne1 a wooden instrument  
with cylindrical column of air2 the name
 is considered to remain in the cremona 
stop of the organ4 ,the lower end is    
turned up like a shepherd's crook       
reversed1 from whence the ,french name  
tournebout4 ,cromorne is the ,german    
krummhorn2 there is no ,english         
equivalent known4  ,the tone1 as in all 
the reed instruments of the period1 was 
strong and often bleating4 ,the double  
reed was inclosed in a pirouette1 or    
cup1 and the keys of the tenor or bass1 
just the same as with similar flutes and
 bombards1 were hidden by a             
barrel-shaped cover1 pierced with small 
openings1 apparently intended to modify 
the too searching tone as well as to    
protect the touch pieces which moved the
 keys4 ,the compass was limited to      

fundamental notes1 and from the         
cylindrical tube and reed was an octave 
lower in pitch than the length would    
show4 ,in all these instruments         
provision was made in the holes and keys
 for transposition of the hands         
according to the player's habit of      
placing the right or left hand above the
 other4 ,the unused hole was stopped    
with wax4 ,there is a fine and complete 
set of four cromornes in the museum of  
the ,conservatoire at ,brussels4  ,we   
must also place among double-reed       
instruments the various bagpipes1       
cornemuses1 and musettes1 which are     
shawm or oboe instruments with          
reservoirs of air1 and furnished with   
drones inclosing single reeds4 ,i shall 
have more to say about the drone in the 
third lecture4 ,in restricting our      
attention to the ,highland bagpipe1 with
 which we are more or less familiar1 it 
is surprising to find the peculiar scale
 of the chaunter1 or finger pipe1 in an 
old ,arabic scale1 still prevailing in  

,syria and ,egypt4 ,dr4 ,a4,j4 ,ellis'  
lecture on ,the ,musical ,scales of     
,various ,nations1 read before the      
,society of ,arts1 and printed in the   
,journal of the ,society1 ,march #bg1   
#ahhe1 ,no4 #afhh1 vol4 xxxiii41 and in 
an appendix1 ,october #cj1 #ahhe1 in the
 same volume1 should be consulted by any
 one who wishes to know more about this 
curious similarity4  ,we have now       
arrived at the clarinet4 ,although      
embodying a very ancient principle--the 
squeaker reed which our little children 
still make1 and continued in the        
,egyptian arghool--the clarinet is the  
most recent member of the wood wind     
band4 ,the reed initiating the tone by  
the player's breath is a broad1 single1 
striking or beating reed1 so called     
because the vibrating tongue touches the
 edges of the body of the cutting or    
framing4 ,a cylindrical pipe1 as that of
 the clarinet1 drops1 approximately1 an 
octave in pitch when the column of air  
it contains is set up in vibration by   

such a reed1 because the reed virtually 
closes the pipe at the end where it is  
inserted1 and like a stopped organ pipe 
sets up a node of maximum condensation  
or rarefaction at that end4 ,this       
peculiarity interferes with the         
resonance of the even-numbered partials 
of the harmonic scale1 and permits only 
the odd-numbered partials1 #a1 #c1 #e1  
and so on1 to sound4 ,the first         
harmonic1 as we find in the clarinet1 is
 therefore the third partial1 or twelfth
 of the fundamental note1 and not the   
octave1 as in the oboe and flute4  ,in  
the oboe the shifting of the nodes in a 
conical tube open at its base1 and      
narrowing to its apex1 permits the      
resonance of the complete series of the 
harmonic scale1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and 
upward4 ,the flute has likewise the     
complete series1 because through the    
blowhole it is a pipe open at both ends4
 ,but while stating the law which       
governs the pitch and harmonic scale of 
the clarinet1 affirmed equally by       

observation and demonstration1 we are   
left at present with only the former    
when regarding two very slender1 almost 
cylindrical reed pipes1 discovered in   
#ahhi by ,mr4 ,flinders ,petrie while   
excavating at ,fayoum the tomb of an    
,egyptian lady named ,maket4 ,mr4       
,petrie dates these pipes about #aajj   
,b4,c41 and they were the principal     
subject of ,mr4 ,southgate's recent     
lectures upon the ,egyptian scale4  ,now
 ,mr4 ,j4 ,finn1 who made these ancient 
pipes sound at these lectures with an   
arghool reed of straw1 was able upon the
 pipe which had1 by finger holes1 a     
tetrachord1 to repeat that tetrachord a 
fifth higher by increased pressure of   
blowing1 and thus form an octave scale1 
comprising eight notes4 ,against the    
laws of nature1 says a friend of mine1  
for the pipe having dropped more than an
 octave through the reed1 was at its    
fundamental pitch1 and should have      
overblown a twelfth4  ,but ,mr4 ,finn   
allows me to say with reference to those

 reeds1 perhaps the oldest sounding     
musical instruments known to exist1 that
 his experiments with straw reeds seem  
to indicate low1 medium1 and high octave
 registers4 ,the first and last         
difficult to obtain with reeds as made  
by us4 ,he seeks the fundamental tones  
of the ,maket pipes in the first or low 
register1 an octave below the normal    
pitch4 ,by this the fifths revert to    
twelfths4 ,i offer no opinion1 but will 
leave this curious phenomenon to the    
consideration of my friends1 ,mr4       
,blaikley1 ,mr4 ,victor ,mahillon1 and  
,mr4 ,hermann ,smith1 acousticians      
intimate with wind instruments4  ,the   
clarinet was invented about ,a4,d4      
#agjj1 by ,christopher ,denner1 of      
,nuremberg4 ,by his invention1 an older 
and smaller instrument1 the chalumeau1  
of eleven notes1 without producible     
harmonics1 was1 by an artifice of       
raising a key to give access to the air 
column at a certain point1 endowed with 
a harmonic series of eleven notes a     

twelfth higher4 ,the chalumeau being a  
cylindrical pipe1 the upper partials    
could only be in an odd series1 and when
 ,denner made them speak1 they were     
consequently not an octave1 but a       
twelfth above the fundamental notes4    
,thus1 an instrument which ranged1 with 
the help of eight finger holes and two  
keys1 from ,f in the bass clef to ,b    
flat in the treble had an addition given
 to it at once of a second register from
 ,c in the treble clef to ,e flat above 
it4 ,the scale of the original          
instrument is still called chalumeau by 
the clarinet player2 about the middle of
 the last century it was extended down  
to ,e4 ,the second register of notes1   
which by this lengthening of pipe       
started from ,b natural1 received the   
name of clarinet1 or clarionet1 from the
 clarino or clarion1 the high solo      
trumpet of the time it was expected that
 this bright harmonic series would      
replace4  ,this name of clarinet1 or    
clarionet1 became accepted for the      

entire instrument1 including the        
chalumeau register4 ,it is the          
communication between the external air  
and the upper part of the air column in 
the instrument which1 initiating a      
ventral segment or loop of vibration1   
forces the air column to divide for the 
next possible partial1 the twelfth1 that
 ,denner has the merit of having made   
practicable4 ,at the same time the      
manipulation of it presents a difficulty
 in learning the instrument4 ,it is in  
the nature of things that there should  
be a difference of tone quality between 
the lower and upper registers thus      
obtained2 and that the highest          
fundamental notes1 ,g sharp1 ,a and ,b  
flat1 should be colorless compared with 
the first notes of the overblown series4
 ,this is a difficulty the player has to
 contend with1 as well as the complexity
 of fingering1 due to there being no    
less than eighteen sound holes4 ,much   
has been done to graft ,boehm's system  
of fingering upon the clarinet1 but the 

thirteen key system1 invented early in  
this century by ,iwan ,muller1 is still 
most employed4 ,the increased           
complication of mechanism is against a  
change1 and there is even a stronger    
reason1 which ,i cannot do better than  
translate1 in the appropriate words of  
,m4 ,lavoix fils1 the author of a       
well-known and admirable work upon      
instrumentation3      ,many things have 
still to be done1 but inventors must not
 lose     the point in view1 that no    
tone quality is more necessary to the   
composer than that of the clarinet in   
its full extent2 that it     is very    
necessary especially to avoid melting   
together the two     registers of       
chalumeau and clarinet1 so distinct from
 each     other4 ,if absolute justness  
for these instruments is to be          
acquired at the price of those          
inestimable qualities1 it would     be  
better a hundred times to leave it to   
virtuosi1 thanks to     their ability1  
to palliate the defects of their        

instrument1     rather than sacrifice   
one of the most beautiful and intensely 
colored voices of our orchestra4  ,there
 are several clarinets of various       
pitches1 and formerly more than are used
 now1 owing to the difficulty of playing
 except in handy keys4 ,in the modern   
orchestra the ,a and ,b flat clarinets  
are the most used2 in the military band1
 ,b flat and ,e flat4 ,the ,c clarinet  
is not much used now4 ,all differ in    
tone and quality2 the ,a one is softer  
than the ,b flat2 the ,c is shrill4 ,the
 ,b flat is the virtuoso instrument4 ,in
 military bands the clarinet takes the  
place which would be that of the violin 
in the orchestra1 but the tone of it is 
always characteristically different4    
,although introduced in the time of     
,handel and ,bach those composers made  
no use of it4 ,with ,mozart it first    
became a leading orchestral instrument4 
,the ,basset horn1 which has become the 
sensuously beautiful alto clarinet in ,e
 flat1 is related to the clarinet in the

 same way that the cor ,anglais is to   
the oboe4 ,basset is equivalent to      
,baryton 7there is a ,basset flute      
figured in ,prtorius71 and this         
instrument appears to have been invented
 by one ,horn1 living at ,passau1 in    
,bavaria1 about #aggj4 ,his name given  
to the instrument has been mistranslated
 into ,italian as ,corno di ,bassetto4  
,there is a bass clarinet employed with 
effect by ,meyerbeer in the ,huguenots1 
but the characteristic clarinet tone is 
less noticeable2 it is1 however1 largely
 used in military bands4 ,the ,basset   
horn had the deep compass of the bass   
clarinet which separates it from the    
present alto clarinet1 although it was  
more like the alto in caliber4 ,the alto
 clarinet is also used in military      
bands2 and probably what the ,basset    
horn would have been written for is     
divided between the present bass and    
alto clarinets4  ,preceding the         
invention of the sarrusophone1 by which 
a perfected oboe was contrived in a     

brass instrument1 a modified brass      
instrument1 the saxophone1 bearing a    
similar relation to the clarinet1 was   
invented in #ahdf by ,sax1 whose name   
will occur again and again in connection
 with important inventions in military  
band instruments4 ,the saxophone is     
played like the clarinet with the       
intervention of a beating reed1 but is  
not cylindrical2 it has a conical tube  
like the oboe4 ,the different shape of  
the column of air changes the first     
available harmonic obtained by          
overblowing to the octave instead of the
 twelfth2 and also in consequence of the
 greater strength of the even harmonics1
 distinctly changing the tone quality4  
,the sarrusophone may fairly be regarded
 as an oboe or bassoon2 but the         
saxophone is not so closely related to  
the clarinet4 ,there are four sizes of  
saxophone now made between high soprano 
and bass4 ,starting from the fourth     
fundamental note1 each key can be       
employed in the next higher octave1 by  

the help of other two keys1 which1 being
 opened successively1 set up a vibrating
 loop4 ,the saxophones1 although        
difficult to play1 fill an important    
place in the military music of ,france  
and ,belgium1 and have been employed    
with advantage in the ,french orchestra4
 ,the fingering of all saxophones is    
that attributed to ,boehm4  ,the cup    
shaped mouthpiece must now take the     
place of the reed in our attention4     
,here the lips fit against a hollow cup 
shaped reservoir1 and1 acting as        
vibrating membranes1 may be compared    
with the vocal chords of the larynx4    
,they have been described as acting as  
true reeds4 ,each instrument in which   
such a mouthpiece is employed requires a
 slightly different form of it4 ,the    
,french horn is the most important brass
 instrument in modern music4 ,it        
consists of a body of conical shape     
about seven feet long1 without the      
crooks1 ending in a large bell1 which   
spreads out to a diameter of fifteen    

inches4 ,the crooks are fitted between  
the body and the mouthpiece2 they are a 
series of smaller interchangeable       
tubings1 which extend in length as they 
descend in pitch1 and set the instrument
 in different keys4 ,the mouthpiece is a
 funnel shaped tube of metal1 by        
preference silver2 and1 in the horn1 is 
exceptionally not cup shaped1 but the   
reverse3 it tapers1 as a cone1 from     
three-quarters of an inch diameter to   
about a minimum of three-sixteenths of  
an inch1 and is a quarter of an inch    
where the smaller end of the mouthpiece 
is inserted in the upper opening of the 
crook4 ,the first horn has a mouthpiece 
of rather less diameter than the second4
 ,the peculiar mouthpiece and narrow    
tubing have very much to do with the    
soft voice-like tone quality of the     
horn4 ,for convenience of holding1 the  
tubing is bent in a spiral form4 ,there 
is a tuning slide attached to the body1 
and1 of late years1 valves have been    
added to the horn1 similar to those     

applied to the cornet and other wind    
instruments4 ,they have1 to a           
considerable extent1 superseded hand    
stopping1 by which expedient the        
intonation could be altered a semitone  
or whole tone1 by depression of the     
natural notes of the instrument4 ,in    
brass1 or other instruments1 the natural
 harmonics depend on the pressure of    
blowing2 and the brass differs entirely 
from the wood wind1 in this respect1    
that it is rare1 or with poor effect1   
the lowest or fundamental note can be   
made to sound4 ,stopping the horn is    
done by extending the open hand some way
 up the bore2 there is half stopping and
 whole stopping1 according to the       
interval1 the half tone or whole tone   
required4 ,as may be imagined1 the      
stopped notes are weak and dull compared
 with the open4 ,on the other hand1 the 
tubing introduced for valves not being  
quite conformable in curve with the     
instrument1 and hampered with           
indispensable joins1 unless in the best 

form of modern valve1 affects the       
smoothness of tone4 ,no doubt there has 
been of late years a great improvement  
in the manufacture of valves4 ,many     
horns are still made with crooks        
covering an octave from ,b flat to ,b   
flat1 #h feet #f inches to #ag feet2 but
 most players now use only the ,f crook1
 and trust to the valves1 rather than to
 change the crooks1 so that we lose the 
fullness of sound of those below ,f4    
,the natural horn was originally in ,d1 
but was not always restricted to that   
key2 there have been horns for ,f1 ,g1  
high ,a1 and ,b flat4 ,this may1        
however1 be said for the valve horn1    
that it does not limit or restrict      
composers in writing for the open or    
natural notes1 which are always more    
beautiful in effect4  ,valves were      
invented and first introduced in        
,prussia about ,a4,d4 #ahae4 ,at first  
there were two1 but there are now       
generally three4 ,in this country and   
,france they are worked by pistons1     

which1 when pressed down1 give access   
for the air into channels or            
supplementary tubings on one side of the
 main bore1 thus lengthening it by a    
tone for the first valve1 a semitone for
 the second1 and a tone and a semitone  
for the third4 ,when released by the    
finger1 the piston returns by the action
 of a spring4 ,in large bass and        
contralto instruments1 a fourth piston  
is added1 which lowers the pitch two    
tones and a semitone4 ,by combining the 
use of three valves1 lower notes are    
obtained--thus1 for a major third1 the  
second is depressed with the third2 for 
a fourth1 the first and third2 and for  
the tritone1 the first1 second1 and     
third4 ,but the intonation becomes      
imperfect when valves are used together1
 because the lengths of additional      
tubing being calculated for the single  
depressions1 when added to each other1  
they are too short for the deeper notes 
required4 ,by an ingenious invention of 
compensating pistons1 ,mr4 ,blaikley1 of

 ,messrs4 ,boosey's1 has practically    
rectified this error without extra      
moving parts or altered fingering4 ,in  
the valve section1 each altered note    
becomes a fundamental for another       
harmonic scale4 ,in ,germany a rotary   
valve1 a kind of stop cock1 is preferred
 to the piston4 ,it is said to give     
greater freedom of execution1 the       
closeness of the shake being its best   
point1 but is more expensive and liable 
to derangement4 ,the invention of ,m4   
,adolphe ,sax1 of a single ascending    
piston in place of a group of descending
 ones1 by which the tube is shortened   
instead of lengthened1 met1 for a time1 
with influential support4 ,it is        
suitable for both conical and           
cylindrical instruments1 and has six    
valves1 which are always used           
independently4 ,however1 practical      
difficulties have interfered with its   
success4 ,with any valve system1        
however1 a difficulty with the ,french  
horn is its great variation in length by

 crooks1 inimical to the principle of   
the valve system1 which relies upon an  
adjustment by aliquot parts4 ,it will1  
however1 be seen that the invention of  
valves has1 by transforming and         
extending wind instruments1 so as to    
become chromatic1 given many advantages 
to the composer4 ,yet it must1 at the   
same time1 be conceded1 in spite of the 
increasing favor shown for valve        
instruments1 that the tone must issue   
more freely1 and with more purity and   
beauty1 from a simple tube than from    
tubes with joinings and other           
complications1 that interfere with the  
regularity and smoothness of vibration1 
and1 by mechanical facilities1 tend to  
promote a dull uniformity of tone       
quality4  ,owing to the changes of pitch
 by crooks1 it is not easy to define the
 compass of the ,french horn4 ,between  
,c in the bass clef and ,g above the    
treble will represent its serviceable   
notes4 ,it is better that the first horn
 should not descend below middle ,c1 or 

the second rise above the higher ,e of  
the treble clef4 ,four are generally    
used in modern scores4 ,the place of the
 horn is with the wood wind band4 ,from 
,handel1 every composer has written for 
it1 and what is known as the small      
orchestra of string and wood wind bands 
combined is completed by this beautiful 
instrument4  ,the most prominent        
instruments that add to the splendor of 
the full orchestra are trumpets and     
trombones4 ,they are really members of  
one family1 as the name trombone--big   
trumpet--implies1 and blend well        
together4 ,the trumpet is an instrument 
of court and state functions1 and1 as   
the soprano instrument1 comes first4 ,it
 is what is known as an eight foot      
instrument in pitch1 and gives the      
different harmonics from the third to   
the twelfth1 and even to the sixteenth4 
,it is made of brass1 mixed metal1 or   
silver1 and is about five feet seven    
inches in real length1 when intended for
 the key of ,f without a slide2 but is  

twice turned back upon itself1 the first
 and third lengths lying contiguous1 and
 the second about two inches from them4 
,the diameter is three-eighths of an    
inch along the cylindrical length2 it   
then widens out for about fifteen       
inches1 to form the bell4  ,when fitted 
with a slide for transposition--an      
invention for the trumpet in the last   
century--this double tubing1 about five 
inches in length on each side1 is       
connected with the second length4 ,it is
 worked from the center with the second 
and third fingers of the right band1    
and1 when pulled back1 returns to its   
original position by a spring4 ,there   
are five crooks4 ,the mouthpiece is     
hemispherical and convex1 and the exact 
shape of it is of great importance4 ,it 
has a rim with slightly rounded surface4
 ,the diameter of the mouthpiece varies 
according to the player and the pitch   
required4 ,with the first crook1 or     
rather shank1 and mouthpiece1 the length
 of the trumpet is increased to six     

feet1 and the instrument is then in the 
key of ,f4 ,the second shank transposes 
it to ,e1 the third to ,e flat1 and the 
fourth to ,d4 ,the fifth1 and           
largest--two feet one and a half inches 
long--extends the instrument to eight   
feet1 and lowers the key to ,c4 ,the    
slide is used for transposition by a    
semitone or a whole tone1 thus making   
new fundamentals1 and correcting certain
 notes of the natural harmonic scale1 as
 the seventh1 eleventh1 and thirteenth1 
which do not agree with our musical     
scale4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,wyatt has recently     
taken out a patent for a double-slide   
trumpet1 which possesses a complete     
chromatic scale4 ,in the required length
 of slide the ear has always to assist4 
,it is clear that the very short shifts 
of a double slide demand great nicety of
 manipulation4 ,it is1 of course1       
different with the valve trumpet4 ,the  
natural trumpets are not limited to one 
or two keys1 but those in ,f1 ,e1 ,e    
flat1 ,d1 ,b flat1 and even ,a have been

 employed2 but1 usually1 the valve      
trumpets are in ,f1 and the higher ,b   
flat1 with a growing inclination1 but an
 unfortunate one1 to be restricted to   
the latter1 it being easier for cornet  
players4 ,the tone of the high ,b flat  
trumpet cannot1 however1 compare with   
the ,f one1 and with it the lowest notes
 are lost4 ,of course1 when there are   
two or three trumpets1 the high ,b flat 
one finds a place4 ,however1 the valve  
system applied to the trumpet is not    
regarded with satisfaction1 as it makes 
the tone dull4 ,for grand heroic effect1
 valve trumpets cannot replace the      
natural trumpets with slides1 which are 
now only to be heard in this country4   
,the simple or field trumpet appears to 
exist now in one representative only1   
the ,e flat cavalry trumpet4 ,bach wrote
 for trumpets up to the twentieth       
harmonic--but for this the trumpet had  
to be divided into a principal1 which   
ended at the tenth harmonic--and the    
clarino in two divisions1 the first of  

which went from the eighth harmonic up  
to as high as the player could reach1   
and the second clarino1 from the sixth  
to the twelfth4 ,the use of the clarinet
 by composers about the middle of the   
last century seems to have abolished    
these very high trumpets4 ,so completely
 had they gone1 by the time of ,mozart1 
that he had to change ,handel's trumpet 
parts1 to accommodate them to performers
 of his own time1 and transfer the high 
notes to the oboes and clarinets4       
,having alluded to the cornet  piston1  
it may be introduced here1 particularly 
as from being between a trumpet and a   
bugle1 and of four foot tone1 it is     
often made to do duty for the more noble
 trumpet4 ,but the distinctive feature  
of this1 as of nearly all brass         
instruments since the invention of      
valves1 tends to a compromise           
instrument1 which owes its origin to the
 bugle4 ,the cornet  piston is now not  
very different from the valve bugle in  
,b flat on the one hand and from the    

small valve trumpet in the same key on  
the other4 ,it is a hybrid between this 
high pitch trumpet and the bugle1 but   
compared with the latter it has a much  
smaller bell4 ,by the use of valves and 
pistons1 with which it was the first to 
be endowed1 the cornet can easily       
execute passages of consecutive notes   
that in the natural trumpet can only be 
got an octave higher4 ,it is a facile   
instrument1 and double tonguing1 which  
is also possible with the horn and      
trumpet1 is one of its popular means for
 display4 ,it has a harmonic compass    
from middle ,c to ,c above the treble   
clef1 and can go higher1 but with       
difficulty4 ,a few lower notes1 however1
 are easily taken with the valves4  ,we 
now come to the trombones1 grand1       
sonorous tubes1 which1 existing in three
 or four sizes since the sixteenth      
century1 are among the most potent      
additions on occasion to the full       
orchestra4 ,their treble can be regarded
 as the ,english slide trumpet1 but it  

is not exactly so4 ,there appears to    
have been as late as ,bach a soprano    
trombone1 and it is figured by ,virdung1
 ,a4,d4 #aeaa1 as no larger than the    
field trumpet4 ,the trumpet is not on so
 large a caliber1 and in the seventeenth
 century had its own family of two      
clarinos and three tubas4 ,the old      
,english name of the trombone is        
sackbut4 ,the old wooden cornet1 or     
,german zinke1 an obsolete1 cupped      
mouthpiece instrument1 the real bass of 
which1 according to family1 is the now  
obsolete serpent1 was used in the       
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as  
the treble instrument in combination    
with alto1 tenor1 and bass trombones4   
,the leading features of the trumpet are
 also found1 as already inferred1 in the
 trombone2 there is the cupped          
mouthpiece1 the cylindrical tubing1 and1
 finally1 a gradual increase in diameter
 to the bell4 ,the slide used for the   
trumpet appears for four centuries1 and 
probably longer1 in the well known      

construction of the trombone4 ,in this  
instrument it consists of two           
cylindrical tubes parallel with each    
other1 upon which two other tubes       
communicating by a pipe at their lower  
ends curved in a half circle glide      
without loss of air4 ,the mouthpiece is 
fitted to an upper end1 and a bell to a 
lower end of the slide4 ,when the slide 
is closed1 the instrument is at its     
highest pitch1 and as the column of air 
is lengthened by drawing the slide out1 
the pitch is lowered4 ,by this          
contrivance a complete chromatic scale  
can be obtained1 and as the             
determination of the notes it produces  
is by ear1 we have in it the only wind  
instrument that can compare in accuracy 
with stringed instruments4 ,the player  
holds a cross bar between the two       
lengths of the instrument1 which enables
 him to lengthen or shorten the slide at
 pleasure1 and in the bass trombone1 as 
the stretch would be too great for the  
length of a man's arm1 a jointed handle 

is attached to the cross bar4 ,the      
player has seven positions1 each a      
semitone apart for elongation1 and each 
note has its own system of harmonics1   
but in practice he only occasionally    
goes beyond the fifth4 ,the present     
trombones are the alto in ,e flat       
descending to ,a in the seventh         
position2 the tenor in ,b flat          
descending to ,e2 the bass in ,f        
descending to ,b1 and a higher bass in  
,g descending to ,c sharp4 ,wagner1 who 
has made several important innovations  
in writing for bass brass instruments1  
requires an octave bass trombone in ,b  
flat2 an octave lower than the tenor    
one1 in the ,nibelungen4 ,the           
fundamental tones of the trombone are   
called pedal notes4 ,they are difficult 
to get and less valuable than harmonics 
because1 in all wind instruments1 notes 
produced by overblowing are richer than 
the fundamental notes in tone quality4  
,valve trombones do not1 however1 find  
favor1 the defects of intonation being  

more prominent than in shorter          
instruments4 ,but playing with wide bore
 tubas and their kindred is not         
advantageous to this noble instrument4  
,the serpent has been already mentioned 
as the bass of the obsolete zinken or   
wooden cornets1 straight or curved1 with
 cupped mouthpiece4 ,it gained its      
serpentine form from the facility given 
thereby to the player to cover the six  
holes with his fingers4 ,in course of   
time keys were added to it1 and when    
changed into a bassoon shape its name   
changed to the ,russian bass horn or    
basson ,russe4 ,a ,parisian instrument  
maker1 ,halary1 in #ahag1 made this a   
complete instrument1 after the manner of
 the keyed bugle of ,halliday1 and      
producing it in brass called it the     
ophicleide1 from two ,greek words       
meaning serpent and keys--keyed         
serpent--although it was more like a    
keyed bass bugle4 ,the wooden serpent   
has gone out of use in military bands   
within recollection1 the ophicleide from

 orchestras only recently4 ,it has been 
superseded by the development of the    
valved tubas4 ,the euphonium and        
bombardon1 the basses of the important  
family of saxhorns1 now completely cover
 the ground of bass wind instrument     
music4 ,the keyed bugle1 invented by    
,joseph ,halliday1 bandmaster of the    
,cavan militia1 in #ahaj1 may be        
regarded as the prototype of all these  
instruments1 excepting that the keys    
have been entirely replaced by the valve
 system1 an almost contemporary         
invention by ,stlzel and ,blumel1 in    
,prussia1 in #ahae4 ,the valve          
instruments began to prevail as early as
 #ahej4 ,the sound tube of all bugles1  
saxhorns1 and tubas is conical1 with a  
much wider curve than the horn4 ,the    
quality of tone produced is a general   
kind of tone1 not possessing the        
individuality of any of the older       
instruments4 ,all these valve           
instruments may be comprehended under   
the ,french name of saxhorn4 ,there is a

 division between them of the higher    
instruments or bugles1 which do not     
sound the fundamental note1 and of the  
lower1 or tubas1 which sound it readily4
 ,properly military band instruments1   
the second or bass division1 has been   
taken over to the orchestra2 and ,wagner
 has made great use of it in his great  
scores4 ,the soprano cornets1 bugles1 or
 flugelhorns and saxhorns are in ,e     
flat2 the corresponding alto instruments
 in ,b flat1 which is also the pitch of 
the ordinary cornet4 ,the tenor1        
baryton1 and bass instruments follow in 
similar relation2 the bass horns are1 as
 ,i have said1 called tubas2 and that   
with four valves1 the euphonium4 ,the   
bombardon1 or ,e flat tuba1 has much    
richer lower notes4  ,for military      
purposes1 this and the contrabass--the  
helicon--are circular4 ,finally1 the    
contrabass tubas in ,b flat1 and in ,c1 
for ,wagner1 have immense depth and     
potentiality of tone2 all these         
instruments are capable of pianissimo4  

,there are many varieties now of these  
brass instruments1 nearer particulars of
 which may be found in ,gevaert1 and    
other eminent musicians' works on       
instrumentation4 ,one fact ,i will not  
pass by1 which is that1 from the use of 
brass instruments 7which rise in pitch  
so rapidly under increase of            
temperature1 as ,mr4 ,blaikley has      
shown1 almost to the coefficient of the 
sharpening under heat in organ pipes7   
has come about that rise in pitch which1
 from #ahaf to #ahdf--until repressed by
 the authority of the late ,sir ,michael
 ,costa1 and1 more recently1 by the     
action of the ,royal ,military ,college 
at ,kneller ,hall--is an extraordinary  
feature in musical history4 ,all        
previous variations in pitch--and they  
have comprised as much as a fourth in   
the extremes--having been due either to 
transposition1 owing to the requirements
 of the human voice1 or to national or  
provincial measurements4 ,the           
manufacture of brass instruments is a   

distinct craft1 although some of the    
processes are similar to those used by  
silversmiths1 coppersmiths1 and         
braziers4  ,i have only time to add a   
few words about the percussion          
instruments which the military band     
permits to connect with the wind4 ,drums
 are1 with the exception of kettle      
drums1 indeterminate instruments1       
hardly1 in themselves1 to be regarded as
 musical1 and yet important factors of  
musical and especially rhythmic effect4 
,the kettle drum is a caldron1 usually  
of brass or copper1 covered with a      
vellum head bound at the edge round an  
iron ring1 which fits the circle formed 
by the upper part of the metal body4    
,screws working on this ring tune the   
vellum head1 or vibrating membrane as we
 may call it1 by tightening or          
slackening it1 so as to obtain any note 
of the scale within its compass4 ,the   
tonic and dominant are generally        
required1 but other notes are1 in some  
compositions1 used2 even octaves have   

been employed4 ,the use ,beethoven made 
of kettle drums may be regarded among   
the particular manifestations of his    
genius4 ,two kettle drums may be        
considered among the regular            
constituents of the orchestra1 but this 
number has been extended2 in one        
remarkable instance1 that of ,berlioz in
 his ,requiem1 to eight pairs4          
,according to ,mr4 ,victor de ,pontigny1
 whose article ,i am much indebted to   
7in ,sir ,george ,grove's dictionary7   
upon the drum1 the relative diameters1  
theoretically1 for a pair of kettle     
drums are in the proportion of #cj to   
#bf1 bass and tenor2 practically the    
diameter of the drums at the ,french    
opera is #bi and #be inches1 and of the 
,crystal ,palace band1 #bh and #bd      
inches4 ,in cavalry regiments the drums 
are slung so as to hang on each side of 
the drummers horse's neck4 ,the best    
drum sticks are of whalebone1 each      
terminating in a small wooden button    
covered with sponge4 ,for the bass drum 

and side drum ,i must be content to     
refer to ,mr4 ,victor de ,pontigny's    
article1 and also for the tambourine1   
but the ,provencal tambourines ,i have  
met with have long1 narrow sound bodies1
 and are strung with a few very coarse  
strings which the player sounds with a  
hammer4 ,this instrument is the rhythmic
 bass and support to the simple         
galoubet1 a cylindrical pipe with two   
holes in front and one behind1 sounded  
by the same performer4 ,the ,english    
pipe and tabor is a similar combination1
 also with one player1 of such a pipe   
and a small drum-head tambourine4       
,lastly1 to conclude percussion         
instruments1 cymbals are round metal    
plates1 consisting of an alloy of copper
 and tin--say #hj parts to #bj--with    
sunk hollow centers1 from which the     
,greek name4 ,they are not exactly      
clashed together to elicit their sound1 
but rubbed across each other in a       
sliding fashion4 ,like the triangle1 a  
steel rod1 bent into the form indicated 

by the name1 but open at one corner so  
as to make it an elastic rod1 free at   
both ends2 the object is to add to the  
orchestral matter luminous crashes1 as  
it were1 and dazzling points of light1  
when extreme brilliancy is required4    
,in conclusion1 ,i must be allowed to   
express my obligations to ,dr4 ,w4,h4   
,stone and ,mr4 ,victor ,mahillon1 to   
,mr4 ,ebenezer ,prout1 ,mr4 ,richard    
,shepherd ,rockstro1 ,mr4 ,lavoix fils1 
and ,dr4 ,h4 ,riemann1 whose writings   
concerning wind instruments have        
materially helped me2 to ,messrs4       
,boosey  ,co41 and to ,messrs4 ,rudall1 
,carte  ,co41 for the loan of the       
instruments used in the illustrations2  
and also to ,mr4 ,d4,j4 ,blaikley and   
,mr4 ,henry ,carte1 for valuable        
personal aid on the present occasion4   
,their kindness in reading through my   
manuscript--,mr4 ,blaikley              
throughout--and in offering friendly and
 generous criticisms2 also their        
presence and assistance by trial of the 

various instruments1 ,i cannot          
adequately thank them for1 or           
sufficiently extol4  7,in the course of 
this lecture1 ,mr4 ,henry ,carte played 
upon a concert flute1 also a ,b flat and
 a ,g flute1 an eight-keyed flute1 and a
 recorder4 ,mr4 ,d4,j4 ,blaikley        
continued the illustrations upon the    
oboe1 bassoon1 clarinet1 ,french horn1  
slide trumpet1 valve tenor horn1 cornet 
piston1 ,b flat tenor slide trombone1 ,b
 flat euphonium1 ,b flat contrabass     
tuba1 and ,b flat contrabass double     
slide trombone47         99       99    
99       99       99     ,,how ,,gas    
,,cylinders ,,are ,,made4   ,the supply 
of compressed gas in metal cylinders has
 now assumed the proportions of an      
important industry1 more especially     
since it was found possible1 by the     
,brin process1 to obtain oxygen direct  
from the atmosphere4 ,the industry is   
not exactly a new one1 for carbon       
dioxide and nitrous oxide 7the latter   
for the use of dentists7 have been      

supplied in a compressed state for many 
years4 ,now1 with the creation of the   
modern amateur photographer1 who can    
make lantern slides1 and the more       
general adoption of the optical lantern 
for the purposes of demonstration and   
amusement1 there has arisen a demand for
 the limelight such as was never        
experienced before1 and as the limelight
 is dependent upon the two gases1       
hydrogen and oxygen1 for its support1   
these gases are now supplied in large   
quantities commercially4 ,at first the  
gas cylinders were made of wrought iron2
 they were cumbrous and heavy1 and the  
pressure of the inclosed gas was so low 
that a receptacle to hold only ten feet 
was a most unwieldy concern4 ,but times 
have changed1 and a cylinder of about   
the same size1 but half the weight1 is  
now made to hold four times the quantity
 of gas at the enormous initial pressure
 of #a1hjj pounds on every square inch4 
,this means the pressure which an       
ordinary locomotive boiler has to       

withstand multiplied by twelve4 ,the    
change is due to improved methods of    
manufacture and to the employment of    
mild steel of special quality in lieu of
 the wrought iron previously employed4  
,the cylinders are now made without     
joint or seam1 and the process of       
manufacture is most interesting4 ,a     
short time ago we had an opportunity of 
watching the various necessary          
operations involved in making these     
cylinders at the ,birmingham works of   
,messrs4 ,taunton1 ,delamard  ,co41 by  
whose courtesy we were enabled to make  
notes of the process4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #a4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4   
,beginning with the raw material1 we    
were shown a disk of metal like that    
shown in ,fig4 #a1 and measuring thirty 
inches in diameter and three-quarters of
 an inch in thickness4 ,from such a     
blank a cylinder destined to hold #ajj  
feet of compressed gas can be           
constructed1 and the first operation is 
to heat the blank in a furnace1 and     

afterward to stamp it into the cup-like 
form shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,to all intents 
and purposes this represents the end of 
a finished cylinder1 but it is far too  
bulky to form the end of one of the size
 indicated2 indeed1 it in reality       
contains enough metal to make the entire
 vessel4 ,by a series of operations it  
is now heated and drawn out longer and  
longer1 while its thickness diminishes  
and its diameter grows less4 ,these     
operations are carried out by means of a
 number of hydraulic rams1 which        
regularly decrease in size4 ,fig4 #c    
roughly represents one of these rams    
with the plunger ready to descend and   
force its way into the partially formed 
red hot gas cylinder1 ,c1 and further   
into the well1 ,w4 ,the plunger may be  
compared to a finger and the cylinder to
 a glove1 while the well may represent a
 hole into which both are thrust in     
order to reduce the thickness of the    
glove4 ,with huge tongs the cylinder1   
fresh from the furnace1 is placed in    

position1 but just before the plunger   
presses into the red hot cup1 one of the
 workmen empties into the latter a      
little water1 so as to partially cool   
the bottom and prevent its being thrust 
out by the powerful plunger4 ,oil is    
also used plentifully1 so that as the   
plunger works slowly down the red hot   
mass1 it is surrounded by smoky flames4 
,it presently forces the cylinder into  
the well1 and when the end of the stroke
 is reached1 a stop piece is inserted   
through an opening in the upper part of 
the well1 so as to arrest the edge of   
the cylinder while the reverse action of
 drawing out the plunger is proceeded   
with4 ,directly the finger is drawn out 
of the glove--in other words1           
immediately the plunger is raised out of
 the cylinder--the latter drops down    
below with a heavy thud1 still in a red 
hot condition4  ,illustration3 ,,fig #c4
  ,this operation of hot drawing is     
repeated again and again in rams of     
diminishing size until the cylinder     

assumes the diameter and length         
required4 ,this hot drawing leaves the  
surface of the metal marked with        
longitudinal lines1 not unlike the      
glacier scratches on a rock1 albeit they
 are straighter and more regular4 ,but  
the next operation not only obliterates 
these markings1 and gives the metal a   
smooth surface like that of polished    
silver1 but it also confers upon the    
material a homogeneity which it did not 
before possess1 and without which it    
would never bear the pressure which it  
is destined to withstand when finished4 
,this operation consists in a final     
application of the hydraulic ram while  
the metal remains perfectly cold1       
instead of red hot1 as in the previous  
cases4  ,as the result of these various 
hydraulic operations1 we have a         
perfectly formed cylinder closed at one 
end1 and we now follow it into another  
department of the works1 when its open  
end is once more brought in a furnace to
 a red heat4 ,the object of this is to  

make the metal soft while the shoulder  
and neck of the vessel are formed4 ,to  
accomplish this1 the heated open end of 
the cylinder is laid horizontally upon a
 kind of semicircular cradle1 and is    
held there by tongs handled by two men4 
,another workman places over the open   
end a die of the form shown in ,fig4 #d1
 and while the cylinder is slowly turned
 round in its cradle1 two sledge hammers
 are brought down with frequent blows   
upon the die1 closing in the end of the 
cylinder1 but leaving a central hole as 
shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,further operations  
reduce the opening still more until it  
is closed altogether1 and a projection  
is formed as shown at ,fig4 #f4 ,this   
projection is now bored through1 and the
 cylinder is ready for testing4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4  ,the cylinder
 is submitted to a water test1 the      
liquid being forced in until the gauge  
shows a pressure of two tons to the     

square inch4 ,cylinders have been known 
to give way under this ordeal1 but      
without any dangerous consequences4 ,the
 metal simply rips up1 making a report  
at the moment of fracture as loud as a  
gun4 ,the wonderful strength of the     
metal employed may be gauged by the     
circumstance that the walls of the      
cylinder designed to hold #ajj feet of  
gas are only five-sixteenths of an inch 
in thickness4  ,during the manufacture  
of the cylinder1 as we have already     
indicated1 much oil is used1 and1 so far
 as steel can be saturated with that    
fluid--in the popular sense--the metal  
is in that state4 ,it is essential that 
this oil should be completely got rid   
of1 and this is carefully done before   
the cylinder is charged with gas4       
,previous to such charging1 the vessel  
has to be fitted with its valve4 ,of    
these valves there are three kinds1     
known respectively as the ,brin1 the    
,birmingham1 and the ,manchester4 ,each 
has its admirers1 but we cannot here    

discuss their individual merits4  ,the  
charging of the cylinder is brought     
about by a powerful pump having three   
cylinders so arranged that the          
compressed contents of the first        
cylinder are still further compressed in
 the second1 and still more highly in   
the third4 ,the filling of a #ajj ft4   
cylinder occupies about half an         
hour4--,photographic ,news4         99  
99       99       99       99           
,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,the   
,,horseshoe4  ,,by ,,district           
,,veterinarian ,,zippelius1 ,,of        
,,wurtzburg4  ,translated by ,s4,e4     
,weber1 ,v4,s4#a     ,footnote #a3 ,from
 ,theirarztliche ,mittheilungen1 organ  
des    ,vereins badischer ,theirarzte1  
,karlsruhe1 ,no4 ,,iv41 ,april1         
#ahia4--,veterinary ,archives4          
,kind1 gentle steed1 nobly standing1    
,four shoes will ,i put on your feet1   
,firm and good1 that you'll be fleet1   
,that is ,donar's hammer saying4        
,to the woods and homeward go1          

,always on the straight road thro'1     
,far from what is bad1 still fleeing1   
,that is ,donar's hammer saying4        
,should wounds and pain become          
distressing1       ,blood to blood shall
 flow1       ,bone to bone shall grow1  
,that is ,donar's hammer saying4        
,carry the rider1 true little steed1    
,onward to all good luck bringing2      
,carry him thence and back with speed1  
,that is ,donar's hammer saying4        
--,old ,meresburger ,song4  ,the horse  
appeared comparatively late in the group
 of domestic animals4 ,in searching the 
monuments of the ancients1 which have   
furnished the foundation for our present
 culture1 that is1 of the littoral      
inhabitants of the ,mediterranean1 and  
of the people of ,mesopotamia1 we find  
in ,egypt the first traces of the horse4
 ,but even here it appears late1 on the 
monuments of the first ruling patricians
 of human origin4#b ,especially during  
the period of ,memphis 7,i-,x ,dynasty71
 then under the rules of ,thebes        

7,,xi-,,xvi ,dynasty71 there is no trace
 of the horse4     ,footnote #b3 ,until 
the time ,menes1 with whom historical   
times    begin1 ruled in ,egypt among   
visionary heroes or mythological        
gods4  ,it is first in the transition   
period1 from the late rule of ,thebes   
7,,xvii-,,xx ,dynasty7 to the so-called 
period of ,sut 7,,xxi-,,xxx ,dynasty7   
that there appears1 in the wall pictures
 of the ,pharaohs' tombs1               
representations of the horse4 ,the      
oldest1 now known1 picture of the horse 
is found on the walls of the tombs of   
,seti ,i4 7#adeh-aejg ,b4,c47 under     
whose reign the ,israelite wandered from
 ,egypt4 ,the horses of the mortuary    
pictures are very well drawn1 and have  
an unmistakable oriental type4 ,there   
has therefore undoubtedly existed in    
,egypt high culture1 for over #d1jjj    
years1 without representation of the    
horse1 which was the next animal        
domesticated after the cat4  ,from this 
time on we find the horse frequently    

represented both by the vainglorious    
despots of ,mesopotamia and on the      
so-called ,etruscan vases1 which        
appeared after the influence of ,greek  
art1 when1 on almost every urn1 horses  
in lively action and in various forms of
 bodily development1 almost always of an
 oriental type1 are to be recognized4   
,but neither here1 nor in ,homer1 nor in
 the many later representations of the  
horse on the ,roman triumphal arches1   
etc41 are to be found horses whose hoofs
 have any trace of protection4 ,records1
 which describe to us the misfortunes of
 armies1 whose horses had run their feet
 sore1 we find on the contrary at a very
 early time1 as in ,diodorus1 regarding 
the cavalry of ,alexander the ,great1 in
 ,xenophon1 regarding the retreat of the
 ten thousand1 in ,polybius1 regarding  
the cavalry of ,hannibal in ,etruria1   
etc4 ,it is also known that the cavalry 
of the linguist ,king of ,pontus1       
,mithridates the ,great1 at times and   
specially at the siege of ,cyzicus were 

delayed1 in order to let the hoofs of   
the horses grow4  ,on the contrary it   
seems strange that of the ,huns alone1  
whose horsemen swept over whole         
continents from the ,asiatic highlands  
like a thunderstorm1 such trouble had   
not become known either through the     
numerous authors of the eastern and     
western ,roman empire or from ,gallia4  
,horseshoeing1 very likely1 was invented
 by different nations at about the same 
period during the migration of the      
nations1 and the various kinds of new   
inventions were brought together in     
,germany only1 after each had acquired a
 national stamp according to climate and
 usefulness4  ,in this way come from the
 south the thin1 plate-like horseshoes1 
with staved rim1 covering the whole     
hoof2 from the ,mongolian tribes of     
middle ,asia the ,stolleneisen 7calk    
shoe72 while to our northern ancestors1 
and indeed the ,normans1 must be        
ascribed with great probability the     
invention of the ,griffeneisen 7gripe   

shoe71 especially for the protection of 
the toes4  ,all varieties of the        
horseshoe of southern ,europe are easily
 distinguished from the ,roman so-called
 ,kureisen 7cure shoe71 of which several
 have been unearthed at various         
excavations and are preserved at the    
,romo-,germanic ,museum in ,mentz       
7,mainz71 ,germany4 ,the shoes1 ,figs4  
#a and #b1 each represent thin iron     
plates1 covering the whole hoof1 which  
in some cases have an opening in the    
middle1 of several centimeters in       
diameter4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4     
,these plates1 apparently set forth to  
suit oriental and occidental body       
conformation1 are either directly       
provided with loops or have around the  
outer margin a brim several centimeters 
high1 in which rings are fastened4      
,through the loops or rings small ropes 
were drawn1 and in this way the shoe was
 fastened to the crown of the hoof and  
to the pastern4 ,sufficient securing of 
the toe was wanting in all these shoes1 

and1 on account of this1 the movement of
 the animal with the same must have been
 very clumsy1 and we can see from this  
that the ropes must have made the crown 
of the hoof and pastern sore in a short 
time4 ,one of these shoes#c evidently   
was the object of improvement1 to       
prevent the animal from slipping as well
 as from friction1 and we therefore find
 on it three iron cubes #a centimeters  
high1 which were fastened corresponding 
to our toes and calks of to-day1 and    
offer a very early ready proof1 from our
 climatic and mountainous conditions1   
which later occur1 principally in       
southern ,germany1 that this style of   
horseshoeing was not caused by error1   
but by a well founded local and national
 interest or want4     ,footnote #c3    
,not illustrated4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #b4  ,aside from the so-called         
,kureisen 7cure shoe7 for diseased      
hoofs1 we find very little from the     
,romans on horseshoeing or hoof         
protection1 and therefore we must       

observe special precautions with all    
their literature on the subject4 ,it is 
because of this that ,i excuse ,prof4   
,sittl's communication in the preface of
 ,winckelmann's ,geschichte der ,kunst  
in ,alterthum 7,history of ,ancient     
,art71 which contains a notice that     
,fabretti1 in some raised work in       
,plazzo ,matti1 of a representation of a
 hunt by the ,emperor ,gallienus        
7,bartoli ,admirand ,ant4 ,tab4 #bd71   
showed that at that time horseshoes     
fastened by nails1 the same as to-day1  
were used 7,fabretti de ,column4 ,traj4 
,c4 #g pag4 #bbe2 ,conf4 ,montlanc4     
,antiq4 ,explic4 ,t4 #d1 pag4 #gi74     
,this statement proves itself erroneous1
 because he was not aware that the foot 
of the horse was repaired by an         
inexperienced sculptor4  ,how then did  
out of this ,roman cure shoe develop the
 horseshoeing of southern ,europe8  ,it 
was to be expected1 with the ,roman     
horseshoe1 that the mode of fastening   
became unsatisfactory and necessitated a

 remedy or change4 ,an attempt of this  
kind has been preserved in the so-called
 ,asiatischen ,koppeneisensole 7,asiatic
 cap-iron-sole7 7,fig4 #c71 which the   
,hon4 ,mr4 ,lydtin at ,karlsruhe had    
made according to a model of the        
,circassian ,horse ,tribe ,shaloks1 and 
also according to the reverse of ,lycian
 coins 7called ,triguetra74             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4  ,this        
horseshoe plate1 likely originating in  
the twelfth century1 covers the whole   
surface of the sole1 like the ,roman    
shoes1 with the exception of the wall   
region1 which contains a rim #a         
centimeter high1 and above this rises at
 one side toward the heel three         
beak-like projections1 about #d         
centimeters high and #a centimeter wide 
at the base1 being pointed above and    
turned down1 which were fastened in the 
wall of the hoof1 in the form of a hook4
  ,this mode of fastening evidently was 
also insufficient1 and so the fastening 
of the shoe by nails was adopted4 ,these

 iron plates used for shoes were too    
thin to allow nails with sunken heads to
 be used1 so only nails with blades and 
cubical shaped heads were applicable4   
,these nail heads1 #f to #h in number1  
which left the toe and the back part of 
the heel free1 served at the same time  
to secure the horse from slipping1 which
 the smooth plates1 covering the whole  
hoof surface1 without doubt facilitated4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4  ,shoes of  
this kind1 after the old ,roman style1  
with a very strong rim bent upward1     
likely proved very comfortable for the  
purpose of protection1 in the ,sierras  
of the ,pyrenean peninsula1 where they  
seem to have been in use for a long     
time2 for in the twelfth century we find
 in ,spain the whole form of the ,roman 
shoe1 only fastened by nails 7,figs4 #d 
and #e74 ,at first the shoe seems to    
have been cut off at the heel end1 but  
as apparently after being on for some   
time1 bruises were noticed1 the shoe was
 made longer at the heel1 and this part 

was turned up so as to prevent them from
 becoming loose too soon1 as both the   
,spanish horseshoes of this period show1
 and the acquisition was even later     
transferred to ,england 7,fig4 #g74     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4  ,the shoe    
containing a groove 7,fig4 #f71 which we
 shall see later1 made its appearance in
 ,germany in the fifteenth century4     
,from this time1 according to our       
present knowledge1 ceases the period of 
the ,roman horseshoe4 ,its influence1   
however1 lasted a great deal longer1 and
 has even remained until our present    
day4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4  ,its   
successor became partly the             
,arabo-,turkomanic and partly the       
,southwest ,european horseshoe4  ,for   
the descendants of the ,numidian light  
cavalry1 the ,roman and old ,spanish    
horseshoe was evidently too heavy for   
their sandy1 roadless deserts1 so they  
made it thinner and omitted the bent-up 
rim1 because it prevented the quick     
movement of the horse4 ,for the         

protection of the nail heads the outer  
margin of the shoe was staved1 so as to 
form a small rim on the outer surface of
 the shoe1 thus preventing the nail     
heads from being worn and the shoe lost 
too soon4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4  ,a horseshoe 
of that kind is shown by ,fig4 #h1 which
 was used in ,north ,africa in the      
twelfth century1 and became the model   
for all forms of horseshoes of the      
,mahometan tribes4 ,even now quite      
similar shoes 7,fig4 #i7 are made south 
and east from the ,caspian ,sea1 at the 
,amu-,darja1 in ,samarkand1 etc41 which 
were probably introduced under          
,tamerlane1 the conqueror of nearly the 
whole of ,asia ,minor in the fourteenth 
century4  ,the so-called ,sarmatische   
7,sarmatian7 horseshoe 7,figs4 #aj and  
#aa71 of ,south ,russia1 shows in its   
form1 at the same time1 traces of the   
last named shoe1 however1 greatly       
influenced by the ,mongolian shoe1 the  

,goldenen ,horde1 which at the turn of  
the sixteenth to the seventeenth century
 played havoc at the ,volga and the     
,aral4 ,the unusual width of the toe1   
and especially the lightness of the     
iron1 reminds us of the ,turkomanic     
horseshoe1 whereas1 on the contrary1 the
 large bean-shaped holes1 as well as the
 calks1 were furnished through          
,mongolian influence4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #aj4  ,the ,sarmatian tribes were
 principally horsemen1 and it is not    
surprising1 therefore1 that the coat of 
arms of the former kingdom of ,poland in
 the second and third quadrate shows a  
silver rider in armor on a silver       
running horse shod with golden shoes1   
and that at present about #a1jjj        
families in #be lineages of the ,polish 
,counts ,jastrzembiec ,bolesezy1 the    
so-called ,polnische ,hufeisen ,adel    
7,polish ,horseshoe ,nobility71 at the  
same time also carried the horseshoe on 
their coats of arms4 ,the silver        
horseshoe in a blue field appears here  

as a symbol of the ,herbestpfardes      
7autumnal horse71 to which1 after the   
christianization of ,poland1 was added  
the golden cross4 ,the noblemen         
participating in the murder of the holy 
,stanislaus in #ajhd had to carry the   
horseshoe reversed on their escutcheon4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4  ,from the   
,african and ,turkomanic horseshoe1     
through the turning up of the toes and  
heels1 originated later the ,turkish1   
,grecian and ,montenegrin horseshoe of  
the present as shown by ,fig4 #ab4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4  ,by the     
,moorish invasion in ,spain1 the        
,spanish-,gothic horseshoeing was also  
modified1 through which the shoe became 
smooth1 staved at the margin1 very broad
 in the toe1 and turned up at toe and   
heel1 and at a later period the old open
 ,spanish national horseshoe 7,fig4 #ac7
 was developed4 ,as we thus see1 we can 
in no way deny the ,arabian-,turkish    
origin of this shoe4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #ac4  ,as ,france had received   

her whole culture from the south1 and as
 the crusades especially brought the    
,roman nation in close contact with them
 for centuries1 so it cannot appear     
strange that the old ,french horseshoe1 
a form of which has been preserved by   
,bourgelat and is represented by ,fig4  
#ad1 still remained in the smooth1      
turned up in front and behind1 like the 
shoe of the southern climates1 with     
,asiatic traces1 which hold on the      
ground1 the same as all southern        
shoeing1 by the nail heads4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4  ,the transit
 of the ,german empire1 in order to keep
 up the historical course1 once more    
brings us back to the middle of the     
fifth century4 ,at this time ,attila1   
the ,godegisel 7gods' scourge71 left his
 wooden capitol in the lowlands near the
 river ,theis1 to go to the ,roman      
empire and to the ,german and ,gallican 
provinces1 there to spread indescribable
 misery to the horrors of judgment day4 
,the following is a prayer in those days

 of horror3        ,kleiner ,huf1       
kleines ,ross1       ,krummer ,sabel1   
spitz ,geschoss--       ,blitzesschnell 
und sattlefest3       ,schrim uns ,herr 
von ,hunnenpest4  ,we are at present    
reminded of those times of fright1 when 
during the clearing and tilling of the  
soil1 a small roughly made horseshoe is 
found in ,southern ,germany1 about as   
far as the water boundary of the        
,thuringian forest1 and occasionally on1
 but principally around ,augsburg1 and  
in ,france as far as the ,loire4  ,these
 shoes1 covering the margin or wall of  
the foot1 show slight traces of having  
been beveled on the lower surface1 and  
contain two bent calks very             
superficially placed4 ,occasionally they
 are sharpened and turned in two        
directions4 ,the characteristic wide    
bean-shaped nail holes are conical on   
the inside1 and are frequently placed so
 near the outer margin of the shoe that 
from the pressure the hoofs were likely 
to split open4 ,the nail heads were     

shaped like a sleigh runner1 and almost 
entirely sunk into the shoe4 ,it        
evidently was not bent up at the toe1   
like the old form of these kinds of     
shoes4  ,these shoes1 according to our  
conception of to-day1 were so carelessly
 finished that in the scientific circles
 of historical researches they were1    
until very recently1 looked upon as     
saddle mountings or something similar1  
and not as horseshoes4  ,this shoe was  
for some time1 while it was plentifully 
found in ,france1 regarded as of ,celtic
 make2 but this is certainly not the    
case1 as it is of ,hunish and ,hungarian
 nationalitat 7nationality74 ,an exactly
 scientific proof1 it is true1 according
 to our present knowledge1 cannot be    
furnished2 however1 it will stand well  
enough until the error is proved4  ,this
 peculiar kind of horseshoe has been    
found in ,south ,germany and ,northeast 
,france1 as far as the region of        
,orleans1 where1 as it has been proved1 
the ,huns appeared4 ,this1 therefore1   

speaks for their descendants3 #ast1 the 
far extended and yet sharply limited    
places of finding the shoe2 #b;d1 the   
small size corresponds to the           
historically proved smallness of the    
,hunish horse2 #c;d1 the hasty and      
careless make1 which does not indicate  
that it was made by settled workmen2    
#dth1 the horseshoe 7,fig4 #ae7 bespeaks
 the ,hunish workmanship of the present 
,chinese shoe1 which1 in making of the  
nail holes1 shows to-day related touches
 of the productions of the ,mongolian   
ancestors4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4  
,aside from the peculiar shaped nail    
holes1 the characteristic of the ,hunish
 shoe consists in the changes of the    
calks for summer and winter shoeing1 as 
well as in the sinking of the nail      
heads4 ,the ,huns1 therefore1 aside from
 the indistinctly marked attempts of the
 ,romans in this direction1 which are   
the only ones known to me1 must be      
regarded as the inventors not only of   
the calks1 but partly1 next to the      

,normans1 also of the sharpened winter  
shoeing1 and of the not unimportant     
invention of sinking the nail heads     
observed in ,fig4 #ae4  ,the ,hunish    
shoeing was therefore an important      
invention for the ,germans4 ,after      
centuries later1 wherever horseshoeing  
was practiced1 it was done solely       
according to ,hunish methods2 whereby   
the shoe was very possibly made heavier1
 was more carefully finished and in     
course of time showed an attempt to bend
 the toe 7,fig4 #af;a74  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #af4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#af;,a4  ,in the ,bomberg ,dom we find  
an equestrian statue1 not unknown in the
 history of art1 which was formerly held
 to be that of ,emperor ,conrad ,,iii4  
,at present however the opinion prevails
 generally that it represents ,stephen  
,i41 den ,heiligen 7,stephen ,i41 the   
,saint74  ,stephen ,i41 the first king  
of ,hungary1 formerly was a heathen1 and
 was named ,najk4 ,he reigned from #iig 
to #ajch4 ,his important events were the

 many victorious wars led against       
rebellious chieftains of his country1   
and he was canonized in #ajhg4 ,his     
equestrian monument in ,bomberg ,dom    
was1 in consequence1 hardly made before 
the year #ajhg4 ,notwithstanding that   
the ,huns had been defeated #ejj years  
before on the plains of ,catalania1 the 
horse of the above mentioned monument   
carries1 as ,i have convinced myself    
personally1 ,hunish horseshoes1         
modified1 however1 by blade-shaped calks
 just then coming into use4 ,this is    
proof that1 at least in ,hungary1 the   
,hunish method of shoeing was preserved 
an extraordinary long time4 ,by this it 
has not become improbable that at least 
the many shoes of this kind which were  
found on the ,lechfield come1 not       
directly from the ,huns1 but from their 
successors1 the ,hungarians1 whose      
invasions took place in the first half  
of the tenth century4  ,about the same  
time of the ,hungarian invasions1 the   
,normans began to disturb the           

southwestern part of ,europe with their 
,viking expeditions4 ,their sea kings   
seem to have been equestrians at very   
early times1 and to have had their      
horses shod1 although perhaps only in   
winter2 at least the excavation of the  
,viking ship in #ahha disclosed the     
remains of a horse which was shod4 ,the 
shoeing consisted only of a toe         
protection--,brodder 7,bruder1          
,brother7--provided with a small sharp  
calk1 and fastened by two nails4  ,when 
later1 in the year #aacj1 the ,norwegian
 king ,sigard ,yorsalafar1 during his   
journey to ,jerusalem1 entered          
,constantinople1 his horse is said to   
have carried only the small             
toe-protecting shoes4  ,the art of      
horseshoeing1 immediately after the     
migration of the nations1 came near our 
improvement of the same to-day2         
especially near the reputed discoveries 
met with1 which consist simply of iron  
protection for the margin of the hoof1  
fastened by nails4 ,the heads were sunk 

into the shoe so as to increase its     
firmness4 ,special consideration was    
given to local and climatic conditions  
through the introduction of toes and    
heels4  ,the mechanism of the hoof also 
found remarkable consideration1 inasmuch
 as they apparently avoided driving     
nails too close to the heel end of the  
shoe4 ,notwithstanding this early       
improvement in the art of horseshoeing1 
the ,huns 7as stated before7 took a     
prominent part4 ,it appears to have     
taken a long time after the migration of
 the nations for shoeing to become      
general1 as is shown by various         
descriptions of tournaments1 pictures of
 horses1 etc4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ah4  ,we will mention in the first     
place the ,percival des ,wolfram von    
,eschenbach1 as well as ,christ von     
,troies1 where there is a great deal    
said about horses1 horse grooms1 and    
tournaments1 but nowhere in those works 
is any mention made of horseshoeing4    
,likewise is found the horse on the coat

 of arms of ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 in
 the ,manessi collection in ,paris1     
which was begun in ,switzerland in the  
fourteenth century2 but1 although we    
find this horse most beautifully        
finished1 it was not shod4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4  ,during the 
time of the crusades1 #ajif-abia1       
however1 there appeared suddenly in     
,germany a plate-like horseshoe of      
southern character 7,figs4 #ah and #ai71
 which was occasionally bent upward at  
the heel end1 and was very heavy4 ,the  
toe was very broad sometimes1 and was   
also bent upward4 ,in this form we have 
seen the shoes of the ,balkan and       
,pyrean peninsula4 ,the shoe was        
remarkably narrow at the heel1 and was  
supplied with calks1 which accounts for 
the highness of the back part of the    
shoe4 ,frequently we find one calk set  
diagonally1 but the other drawn out     
wedge shaped1 and sharp2 so that there  
existed a great similarity between this 
iron shank and that used by ,count      

,einsiedel for winter shoeing4          
,sometimes both shanks were sharpened in
 this way1 or were provided with        
blade-shaped calks well set forward4    
,the form of nail holes used was very   
characteristic of that of the ,huns1 but
 they were decidedly smaller and square1
 as were seen in the ,african shoe of   
the twelfth century4 ,the nail heads    
were slightly sunk1 which was according 
to southern customs4  ,that this shoe   
really belongs to the period of the     
crusades is proved by the numerous horse
 pictures which have been preserved from
 that time2 of which we will mention the
 manuscript of ,heinrich von ,veldecka  
7,eneidt7#d in the year #aahj1 which    
belongs to the most valuable parts of   
,german history of art4     ,footnote   
#d3 ,wanderungen des ,aeneas 7,travels  
of ,aeneas74  ,this south ,european     
,hunish horseshoe had remained the      
standard form during the middle ages and
 until the thirty years war1 at least in
 ,south ,germany4 ,the shoe was         

continually improved1 and reached its   
highest point of perfection about the   
time of the ,bauern-krieg 7,revolution  
of the ,peasants71 at a time when1 under
 the leadership of the ,renaissance1 the
 whole art of mechanics1 and especially 
that of blacksmithing1 had taken an     
extraordinarily great stride 7,figs4 #bj
 and #ba74  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4  ,the shoe   
7,figs4 #bb and #bc7 is found in        
,franconia1 in all places where1 in the 
sixteenth century1 battles had been     
fought with the rebellious peasants4 ,we
 may1 therefore1 be justified in fixing 
its origin mainly from that period1 for 
which also speaks its high perfection of
 form4 ,we find here still the bent-up  
heel and toe 7the latter broad and thin7
 of the south ,european form4  ,the     
staved rim of the ,spanish ,arabic      
,turkomanic shoe is observed to be      
undergoing a change to that of a groove4
 ,the broad surface of the shoe         
evidently led to the beveling of the    

same1 so as to lessen sole pressure4    
,the size of the nail holes remains     
still like that of the ,huns2 but the   
unsunk southern nail heads yet serve to 
improve the hold on the ground4 ,the    
calks were next placed forward1 perhaps 
from an uncultivated sense of beauty1 or
 from the high bending up of the hind   
part of the shoe1 which would           
necessitate a high and heavy unsightly  
calk4  ,from this time on horseshoeing  
in south ,germany fell back very        
quickly1 and loses all scientific holds 
of support after the thirty years war4  
,in the mean time toe protection in the 
form of a calk had spread from the      
colder north over southern ,germany2    
whereas this north ,german invention did
 not find favor in ,england in          
consequence of her mild oceanic climate4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb  ,also1 the 
calks in ,england1 as well as in the    
southern countries1 on the same ground1 
therefore1 with good reason1 could at no
 time be adopted4 ,this did1 however1   

not interfere with the use of the calk  
in the colder south ,germany1 where     
after a use of nearly #a1ejj years it   
has maintained its local and climatic   
adaptation4 ,notwithstanding the        
occasional aping by foreigners1 it has  
remained victorious in its original     
form1 and has been chosen in many       
countries4  ,the historical development 
of the horseshoe in general1 from about 
the time of ,emperor ,maximilian until  
the seven years war1 furnishes a true   
picture of the confused condition of    
things at that period of time1 which1 to
 make intelligible1 would require a     
separate and complete treatise4         
,interesting as it is to the scientist  
to follow up this development and mode  
of present ,german horseshoeing1 which1 
aside from the national toe and calk1 is
 the ,english form and has become       
influential1 and with full right1 for a 
periodical of this kind further1 more   
comprehensive1 statement would under all
 circumstances take up too much room2   

therefore ,i must drop the pen1 although
 reluctantly4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#bc4         99       99       99       
99       99     ,,sheet ,,glass ,,from  
,,molten ,,metal4   ,the present        
practice in making metal sheets is to   
cast ingots or slabs and then reduce    
these by repeated rollings and          
reheating4 ,attempts have been          
previously made to produce sheets       
directly from molten metal by pouring   
the metal3 7#a7 between two revolving   
rollers2 or 7#b7 between a revolving    
wheel and the surface of an inclosing   
fixed semicircular segment4 ,by these   
means none but very thin plates could be
 satisfactorily produced4 ,in this      
invention by ,c4,m4 ,pielsticker1       
,london1 the machinery consists of a    
large receiving roller of #e ft4        
diameter more or less1 and of a length  
equal to that of the plate to be        
produced4 ,with this are combined small 
forming rollers arranged in succession  
part way round the periphery of the     

large roller1 and revolving at the same 
rate as the large roller4 ,the rollers  
can be cooled by a current of water     
circulating through them4 ,the molten   
metal flows on to the surface of the    
large roller and is prevented from      
escaping sideways by flanges with which 
the large roller is provided4 ,these    
flanges embrace the small rollers and   
are of a depth greater than that of the 
thickest plate which it is proposed to  
roll4 ,the distance between the large   
roller and the small rollers can be     
adjusted according to the desired       
thickness of the plate4 ,when dealing   
with metals of high melting point1 such 
as steel1 the first small roller is made
 of refractory material and is heated   
from inside by the flame of a blow pipe4
 ,the rollers are coated with plumbago  
or other material to prevent adhesion to
 the molten metal4 ,in the case of      
metals of high melting point the machine
 is fed direct from a furnace divided   
into two compartments by a wall or      

bridge in which is a stopper which can  
be operated so as to regulate the flow  
of metal4 ,when applied to forming      
sheets of glass1 the rollers should be  
warmed by a blow pipe flame as above    
described1 and the sheet of glass       
stretched and annealed as it leaves the 
last roller4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,weldless     
,,steel ,,chains4   ,at the ,royal      
,naval ,exhibition1 ,london1 ,messrs4   
,william ,reid  ,co4 are exhibiting     
their weldless steel chains1 which we   
now illustrate4  ,of the many advantages
 claimed for steel chains1 it may be    
prominently noted that a very important 
saving of weight is effected on account 
of their possessing such a high breaking
 strain1 compared with the ordinary     
welded iron chains4 ,to illustrate this1
 it may be stated that a given length of
 the weldless steel chain is #ce to #dj 
per cent4 less in weight than an        
equivalent length of iron chain1 will   
stand the same breaking strain as the   

latter1 and indeed1 where steel of      
special quality is used in making the   
weldless chains1 this difference can be 
increased as much as #gj to #hj per     
cent4 ,whereas superior iron chains     
break at a strain at #ag tons per square
 inch1 these weldless steel chains will 
stand a strain of #bh to #cj tons1 with 
#bj to #bf per cent4 elongation4        
,illustration3 ,figures #a4 ,through    
#i41 #a;a1 #a;b and #c;a                
,,manufacture ,,of ,,weldless ,,chains4 
,again1 there is greater security in    
their use from the fact that there are  
no welds1 and they give warning of the  
limit of strain to which they can bear  
being approached1 by elongation1 which  
can be carried to a considerable extent 
before the chain breaks4 ,moreover1     
over1 in chains made by this process1   
the links are all exactly alike4 ,though
 the life of a weldless steel chain is  
said to be twice that of an ordinary    
one1 the price per length is little more
 than that of best iron chains4  ,they  

are made in lengths of from #dj to #ej  
feet1 being compressed from a solid     
rolled steel bar1 the section of which  
is shaped like a four-pointed star4 ,in 
the first place holes are pierced at    
intervals down the length of the bar1   
thus determining the length of the      
several links4 ,then the bar is notched 
between the holes so as to give the     
external form of the links4 ,the next   
step is flattening out1 which presses   
the links into shape on their inner     
side1 but leaves the openings still     
closed by a plate of metal4 ,they are   
then stamped out so as to round them up1
 and the metal inside them is punched   
out1 and the edges cleaned1 or trimmed  
off4 ,the links are now parted from one 
another and stamped again1 to insure    
equal thickness in all parts of the     
chain4 ,the only processes now to be    
gone through are dressing and finishing4
 ,according to the die used1 the shape  
of the links can be varied to suit any  
required pattern4 ,the lengths of chain 

thus made are joined by spiral rings    
made of soft steel1 the convolutions    
being afterward hammered together till  
they become solid4 ,a ring of this      
description1  inch diameter1 underwent a
 strain of #df1bjj lb41 that is1 #bc    
tons to the square inch1 its elongation 
being #ba per cent4  ,these chains have 
passed satisfactorily the tests of the  
,bureau ,veritas1 and both that         
association and ,lloyd's have accepted  
their use on the same conditions and    
under the same tests as ordinary chains4
  ,so much for the general idea of      
punching steel chains4 ,we will now     
describe a recent invention by which    
superior steel chains are produced1 the 
author of which is ,mr4 ,hippolyte      
,rongier1 of ,birmingham1 ,eng4 ,he     
says3  ,my invention has for its object 
the manufacture of weldless stayed      
chains1 whereof each link1 together with
 its cross strut or stay1 is made of one
 piece of metal without any weld or     
joint2 and the invention consists in    

producing a chain of stayed links from a
 bar of cruciform section by the        
consecutive series of punching1 twisting
 and stamping operations hereinafter    
described1 the punching operations being
 entirely performed on the metal when in
 the cold state4  ,figs4 #a to #aj show 
the progressive stages in the           
manufacture of the chain1 and the       
remaining figures show the series of    
tools that are employed4  ,the general  
method of operation of making stayed    
chains according to my invention is so  
far similar to the methods heretofore   
proposed for making unstayed chains from
 the bar of cruciform section that the  
links are formed alternately out of the 
one and the other pair of diametrically 
opposite webs of the rod1 the links1    
when severed and completed1 being       
already enchained together at the time  
of their formation4 ,the successive     
operations differ1 however1 in many     
important practical respects from those 
heretofore proposed1 as will appear from

 the following detailed description of  
the successive steps in the process     
illustrated by ,figs4 #a to #aj4  ,i    
will distinguish the one pair of        
diametrically opposite webs of the bar  
and the notches and mortises punched    
therein and the links formed therefrom  
from the other pair by an index figure  
#a affixed to the reference letters     
appertaining thereto4  a a are one pair 
of diametrically opposite webs1 and a'  
a' the other pair of webs of the bar4   
,illustration3 ,figures #b;a-b1 #f;a1   
#d;a-b1 #g a-b and #aj a-b              
,,manufacture ,,of ,,weldless ,,chains  
,the first operation illustrated in     
,fig4 #a is to punch out of the edge of 
one of the webs1 a1 a series of shallow 
notches1 b1 at equal intervals apart1   
corresponding to the pitch of the links 
to be formed out of that pair of webs   
and situated where the spaces will      
ultimately be formed between the ends of
 that series of links4 ,the notches are 
made with beveled ends1 and are no      

deeper than is absolutely necessary 7for
 the purpose of a guide stop in the     
subsequent operations1 as hereinafter   
described71 so as to avoid1 as far as   
possible1 weakening the bar             
transversely4 ,this operation is        
repeated upon one of the pairs of webs  
a'2 but whereas in the first operation  
of notching the web the pitch of the    
notches is determined by the feed       
mechanism1 in this second operation of  
notching the notches1 b1 cut in the web1
 a1 serve as guides to influence and    
compensate for any inaccuracy of the    
feed mechanism1 so that the second set  
of notches1 b'1 shall be intermediate of
 and rigorously equidistant from the    
first set of notches1 b4 ,this          
compensation is effected by the notches1
 b1 fitting on to a beveled stop on the 
bed of the punching tool by which the   
notches1 b'1 are cut1 the beveled ends  
of the notches1 b1 causing the bar under
 the pressure of the punch to adjust    
itself in the longitudinal direction 7if

 necessary7 sufficiently to rectify any 
inaccuracy of feed4 ,these notches1 b   
b'1 similarly serve as guides to insure 
uniformity of spacing in the subsequent 
operations of punching out the links4   
,the second operation 7illustrated in   
,fig4 #b7 is to punch out of the pair of
 opposite webs1 a a1 pairs of oblong    
mortises--two pairs1 c c1 and one pair1 
d d4 ,these three pairs of mortises     
7which might be punched at separate     
operations1 but are preferably punched  
at one stroke of the press7 are situated
 as close as possible up to the faces of
 the other pairs of webs1 a' a'1 the    
pairs of mortises1 c c1 being so spaced 
as to correspond in position to the eyes
 of the links to be formed1 to which    
they correspond approximately in form1  
while the pair1 d1 correspond in        
position to the notches1 b1 and         
therefore to the intervals by which the 
links formed out of the same pair of    
webs1 a a1 will be separated when       
completed4 ,this operation is continued 

along the whole length of the pair of   
webs1 a4 ,it will be observed that a    
considerable thickness of metal is left 
at a99 between the notches1 b1 and the  
mortises1 d4 ,this is of primary        
importance and is one of the essential  
features of my method of manufacture1   
inasmuch as by first punching out the   
mortises1 d1 the subsequent removal of  
the metal from between the outer ends of
 the links is greatly facilitated1 while
 by leaving the solid metal1 a991 the   
transverse strength of the webs1 a a1 is
 not materially diminished1 so that when
 the operation of punching the mortises1
 c and d1 in the other pair of webs1 a'1
 is performed the bar will not be bent  
and crippled1 as would inevitably be the
 case were the whole of the metal       
opposite the notches1 b1 which is       
ultimately to be removed1 to be punched 
out at so early a stage of the          
manufacture4 ,the operation of punching 
the pairs of mortises1 c' and d1 having 
been repeated along the other pair of   

webs1 a'1 it will be observed that like 
the notches1 b1 the mortises1 c d1 in   
the one pair of webs alternate with     
those1 c' d'1 in the other pair of webs4
  ,the third operation 7illustrated in  
,fig4 #c7 is to elongate the mortises1 c
 d1 and bring the mortises1 c c'1 more  
nearly to the final form4 ,this is      
performed by punches similar to but     
larger 7in the direction of the length  
of the rod7 than those used in the      
second operation4  ,the third operation1
 which is repeated upon both pairs of   
webs1 a a a' a'1 may be considered as a 
second stage of the second operation1 it
 being preferable to punch out the      
mortises in two stages in order to      
remove sufficient metal without unduly  
straining the bar4  ,the fourth         
operation 7illustrated in ,fig4 #d7     
consists in roughly shaping the ends of 
the links externally by punching out the
 portions1 a991 of the webs1 a1 between 
the links lying in the same plane or    
formed out of the same pair of webs4    

,this operation is repeated on the other
 pair of webs1 a'4 ,up to this point a  
continuous core of metal has been left  
at the intersection of the two pairs of 
webs4  ,the fifth operation 7illustrated
 in ,fig4 #e7 consists in punching out  
the portions1 e1 of the core at each    
side of the cross stay of the link1 so  
as to separate the cross stay from the  
outer ends of the adjacent links4 ,this 
operation is performed by removing a    
portion only of the metal of the core   
which intervenes between the cross stay 
and the outer ends of the adjacent links
 enchained with the link under          
operation--that is to say1 portions1    
e991 of the core are temporarily left   
attached to the outer ends of the links 
in order to avoid crippling or bending  
the bar1 which might occur were the     
whole of this metal1 which is ultimately
 to be removed1 to be punched out at    
once1 these portions1 e991 being        
supported by the bed die in the         
operation of punching out the spaces1 e1

 as hereinafter described4 ,this        
operation having been repeated upon both
 pairs of webs1 it will be observed that
 the rod-like form of the chain is now  
only maintained by the portion of the   
core at the points1 f1 where the inner  
side of the eye or bow of one link is   
united with that of the next one4 ,the  
severing of these intervening portions  
of the core and the breaking up of the  
rod into the constituent links of the   
chain constitute the sixth operation4   
,the sixth operation 7illustrated in    
,fig4 #f7 is performed by torsion1 and  
for this purpose one end of the rod is  
held fixed while the other is twisted   
once or twice in opposite directions1   
until by fatigue of the metal at the    
points1 f1 the whole of the links are   
severed almost at the same instant1 and 
a chain of roughly formed stayed links  
is produced4  ,the seventh operation    
7illustrated in ,fig4 #g7 is to remove  
the superfluous projecting pieces of    
metal both from the inside and outside  

of the ends of the links4 ,for this     
purpose the two ends of each link are   
operated on at the same time by two     
pairs of punches corresponding to the   
outline of the ends of the link4  ,the  
eighth operation 7illustrated in ,fig4  
#h7 is to bring the ends of the links to
 their finished rounded form4 ,this is  
performed by stamping both ends of each 
link at the same time between pairs of  
shaping dies or swages4  ,the ninth     
operation 7illustrated in ,fig4 #i7 is  
to bring the middle portion of each     
link--that is to say1 the side members  
and the cross stay--to the finished     
rounded form1 which is also performed by
 means of a pair of dies or swages4     
,the tenth and last operation           
7illustrated in ,fig4 #aj7 is to        
contract the link slightly in the       
lateral direction in order to correct   
any imperfections at the sides left by  
the two previous operations and bring   
the link to a more perfect and stronger 
form1 as shown4 ,this operation has the 

important result of strengthening the   
link considerably by contracting or     
rendering more pointed the arched form  
of the bow or end of the link1 and also 
by thickening the metal at that part    
where the wear is greatest1 this        
thickening of the metal at the ends of  
the link occurring in the direction of  
the line of strain 7as indicated by x in
 ,fig4 #aj7 and being brought about by  
the compression or upsetting of the     
metal at the end of the link4 ,it may be
 preferable to perform this operation   
immediately after the seventh operation1
 and ,i reserve the right to do so4  ,in
 the case of large cables only the metal
 is preferably heated for the eighth1   
ninth1 and tenth operations4  ,i will   
now refer to the figures which          
illustrate the series of tools whereby  
the above mentioned operations are      
performed4  ,fig4 #a;a shows a plan 7the
 punch being in section7 and ,fig4 #a;b 
an elevation of the bed die of the tool 
by which the notches b of the first     

operation are performed4 ,the feed      
mechanism is not shown1 but might be of 
any ordinary intermittent kind4 g is a  
groove in the bed1 in which lies the    
lower vertical web of the rod1 of       
cruciform section1 the two horizontal   
webs lying upon the bed with the edge of
 the web to be notched lying just over  
the die1 in which works the punch1 ,b1  
of which ,b' is the cutting edge4 ,the  
punch is operated in the usual way1 its 
lower end1 which does not rise out of   
the die1 acting as a guide4 ,b99 is the 
beveled stop in the groove1 g1 which by 
fitting in the notches1 b or b'1        
corrects inaccuracies of the feed4      
,fig4 #b;a is a sectional plan and ,fig4
 #b;b an elevation of the tool by which 
the second operation is performed1 the  
same tool being also used for performing
 the third operation4 7,illustrated in  
,fig4 #c;a47 h h are a pair of bed-dies 
having a space h' between them to       
receive the lower web of the bar1 and   
having notches1 ,c ,c and ,d ,d1 in     

their inner ends1 forming counterparts  
of the punches by which the pairs of    
mortises1 c d1 ,fig4 #b1 are punched in 
the pair of webs lying upon the         
bed-dies1 h4 ,these bed-dies are fitted 
to slide a little in opposite directions
 upon a suitable bed plate and are      
caused by the inclined cams1 i'1 on the 
guides1 i1 of the press head 7which pass
 through corresponding apertures in the 
bed-dies1 h7 to approach each other at  
the moment the punches come down on the 
work1 so as to grip the lower web of the
 rod and support the pair of webs being 
operated on close up to the sides of the
 lower web lying in the space h'1 while 
when the punches rise the bed-dies move 
apart1 so that the web is quite free in 
said space h' and the rod may be easily 
fed forward for a fresh stroke of the   
press4 ,b99 is the beveled stop in the  
space1 k'1 as in the tool first         
described4 ,the bed-dies h have a second
 set of notches ,c' ,d' at their outer  
ends1 similar to but longer than those  

,c ,d1 so that by reversing the bed-dies
 they will form counterparts for a      
second set of punches corresponding     
thereto for performing the third        
operation--i4e41 enlarging the mortises1
 c d1 as represented in ,figs4 #c and   
#c;a2 or1 instead of adapting the dies1 
h1 to perform the two operations1       
separate tools may be used for the      
second and third operations4  ,fig4 #d;a
 is an elevation and ,fig4 #d;b a       
sectional plan of the tool for          
performing the fourth operation--namely1
 removing the portion a991 ,figs4 #c1   
#c;a1 #d;a1 and #d;b4 ,this is done by a
 pair of punches1 ,a991 corresponding in
 shape to the ends of the link in the   
rough and to the aperture shown in the  
bed-die1 k1 ,fig4 #d;b1 which has a     
groove1 k'1 to admit the lower web of   
and to guide the rod4 ,the beveled stop1
 ,b991 used in operating on the pair of 
webs1 a1 corresponds to the notches1 b'2
 but in operating on the webs1 a'1 the  
stop must be replaced by one            

corresponding to the aperture left by   
the removal of the portion1 a994  ,fig4 
#e;a is an elevation1 ,fig4 #e;b a plan1
 and ,fig4 #e;c a longitudinal vertical 
section of the tool for performing the  
fifth operation1 the work being shown in
 section in the latter figure4 ,it      
consists of a bed-die1 l1 with groove1  
m1 to receive the lower web1 but        
terminating at a distance from the die  
apertures1 so as to leave supports1 n1  
for the parts1 e991 of the rod to resist
 the downward pressure of the punches1  
,e1 which remove the portions1 e1 from  
each side of the cross stay1 as shown in
 ,figs4 #e;b and #e;c4 ,the correct     
position of the work in regard to the   
punches is insured by these supporting  
parts1 n1 which terminate the grooves1  
m4  ,fig4 #f;a is an elevation of the   
winch for performing the sixth          
operation4  ,fig4 #g;a is an elevation  
and ,fig4 #g;b a plan of the tool for   
performing the seventh operation4 ,p ,p 
are the punches for trimming the outside

 and ,q ,q those for trimming the inside
 of the ends of the links4 ,the links   
adjacent to the one to be operated on   
are brought together into the position  
shown in dotted lines1 the bed-die      
having an aperture in it to admit of    
this1 so that both ends of the link to  
be trimmed may be operated on together4 
,the tool for performing the eighth     
operation consists of a pair of swages1 
the bottom one only being shown in ,fig4
 #h;a4 ,the swages correspond to the    
intended rounded sectional form of the  
ends of the link1 which is placed in    
position between the swages in a similar
 manner to that described for ,fig4     
#g;b1 so that both ends are rounded or  
finished off at once4  ,fig4 #i;a is a  
plan of the bottom swage of the tool for
 performing the ninth operation1 the    
upper swage corresponding thereto at    
least in so far as the middle part of   
the link to be operated on is concerned4
  ,the tool for performing the tenth    
operation is represented in elevation   

and plan in ,figs4 #aj;a and #aj;b4 ,it 
consists of a pair of bed-dies1 ,r1     
fitted to slide together and operated by
 the cams1 s1 on the guide rods1 ,s1 the
 operation being similar to that of the 
tool shown in ,figs4 #b;a and #b;b1     
except that there are no punches1 and   
that the link which lies in the cavity  
of the dies is merely compressed in the 
lateral direction by the inward motion  
of the bed-dies4  ,my invention further 
comprises a modification of the above   
described process1 which has for its    
object to enable the weldless stayed    
links to be made as short and           
particularly as narrow as may be        
necessary in order to adapt the chain to
 run over the sheaves of pulley blocks  
and to suit other purposes for which    
short-link welded chain has heretofore  
only been available4  ,illustration3    
,figures #e;a-c1 #h;a1 #i;a1 #aj-ab     
,,manufacture ,,of ,,weldless ,,chains4 
,in the manufacture of chains by the    
aforesaid process of punching there is a

 practical minimum limit for the        
dimensions of the punches which cannot  
be reduced without compromising their   
efficiency1 and consequently the width  
7and therefore the length7 of the link  
must necessarily bear a certain         
proportion to the thickness of the web  
of metal out of which it is formed1     
since the breadth of the link depends on
 the length of the cross stay1 which is 
determined by the breadth of the        
mortises forming the eyes of the link4  
,the present modification enables these 
dimensions to be reduced without        
reducing the dimensions1 and            
consequently the efficiency1 of the     
punches which form the eyes of the link4
 ,the modification applies to what ,i   
have designated the fifth operation of  
the above described process2 and it     
consists in punching out the middle of  
the cross stay 7so as to leave only two 
short stumps jutting inward from the    
side members of the link71 this         
operation serving to interrupt the      

continuity of the core1 which was the   
object of the fifth operation4 ,for this
 purpose ,i substitute for the pair of  
punches illustrated in ,figs4 #e;a and  
#e;c a single punch1 which removes that 
part of the core of the cruciform bar   
which is situated at the middle of the  
strut4 ,this tool is represented in     
,fig4 #aa1 and the effect of its        
operation is shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the   
subsequent operations1 herein designated
 the sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 and ninth  
operations1 are performed as            
hereinbefore described2 but the tenth   
operation has the effect of closing     
together the two stumps1 g g1 until they
 abut together at the middle of the link
 and together constitute a cross strut  
or stay1 which prevents any further     
lateral collapse of the link4 ,in the   
operation of closing up the gap between 
the stumps1 g g1 the link is brought to 
the narrow form shown in ,fig4 #ab1 the 
eyes of the links being only just wide  
enough to receive the end of the        

adjacent link enchained therewith       
without gripping it4 ,this operation is 
performed by a tool similar to that     
shown in ,figs4 #aj;a and #aj;b1 above  
referred to4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,an ,,english 
,,steam ,,fire ,,engine4   ,the steam   
fire engine of which we give an         
engraving is one specially built for the
 ,indian government by ,messrs4 ,shand1 
,mason  ,co41 ,london4 ,it has the      
distinction of being the first steam    
fire engine supplied for the province of
 ,upper ,burma1 having been purchased   
primarily for the royal palace1 and to  
serve for the protection of the         
cantonment of ,mandalay4 ,the engine is 
placed vertically in front of the       
boiler1 and consists of a double acting 
pump with valves which can be taken out 
for renewal or examination in two or    
three minutes4 ,the capacity is #bjj    
gallons per minute1 and the height of   
jet #adj ft4 ,as shown in the engraving1
 the fore part of the machine forms a   

hose reel and tool box1 and can be      
instantly separated from the engine to  
allow of the independent use of the     
latter at a fire4  ,illustration3       
,,improved ,,steam ,,fire ,,engine4     
,the engine is constructed with wrought 
iron side frames1 fore carriage and     
wheels1 and steel axles1 springs1 etc4  
,the tool box1 coachman's seat1 and     
other parts are of teak4 ,it is provided
 with ,messrs4 ,shand1 ,mason  ,co4's   
quick steaming boiler1 in which #ajj lb4
 pressure can be raised from cold water 
in from five to seven minutes1 an extra 
large fire box for burning wood1 with   
fire door at the back1 feed pump1 and   
injector1 fresh water tank1 coal bunker1
 and other fittings and arrangements for
 carrying the suction pipe4 ,a pole and 
sway bars are fitted for two ponies1 and
 wood cross bars to pass over the backs 
of the animals at the tops of the       
collars4 ,two men are carried on the    
machine1 a coachman on the box seat and 
a stoker on the footboard at the rear of

 the engine4 ,the whole forms a very    
light and readily transportable fire    
engine4--,the ,engineer4         99     
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,system ,,of ,,military ,,dove ,,cotes 
,,in ,,europe4#a     ,footnote #a3      
,continued from ,scientific ,american of
 ,july #aa1 p4 #bc4   ,france4--,the    
history of the aerial postal service and
 of the carrier pigeons of the siege of 
,paris has been thoroughly written1 and 
is so well known that it is useless to  
recapitulate it in this place4 ,it will 
suffice to say that sixty-four balloons 
crossed the ,prussian lines during the  
war of #ahgj-ahga1 carrying with them   
#cfj pigeons1 #cjb of which were        
afterward sent back to ,paris1 during a 
terrible winter1 without previous       
training1 and from localities often     
situated at a distance of over #abj     
miles4 ,despite the shooting at them by 
the enemy1 #ih returned to their cotes1 
#ge of them carrying microscopic        
dispatches4 ,they thus introduced into  

the capital #aej1jjj official dispatches
 and a million private ones reduced by  
photo-micrographic processes4 ,the      
whole1 printed in ordinary characters1  
would have formed a library of #ejj     
volumes4 ,one of these carriers1 which  
reached ,paris on the #bast of ,january1
 #ahga1 a few days previous to the      
armistice1 carried alone nearly #dj1jjj 
dispatches4  ,the pigeon that brought   
the news of the victory of ,coulmiers   
started from ,la ,loupe at ten o'clock  
in the morning on the tenth of          
,november1 and reached ,paris a few     
minutes before noon4 ,the account of the
 ,villejuif affair was brought from     
,paris to ,tourcoing 7,nord7 by a white 
pigeon belonging to ,mr4 ,descampes4    
,this pigeon is now preserved in a      
stuffed state in the museum of the city4
 ,the carrier pigeon service was not    
prolonged beyond the #ast of ,february1 
and our winged brothers of arms were    
sold at a low price at auction by the   
government1 which1 once more1 showed    

itself ungrateful to its servants as    
soon as it no longer had need of their  
services4 ,after the commune1 ,mr4 ,la  
,perre de ,roo submitted to the         
president of the republic a project for 
the organization of military dove cotes 
for connecting the ,french strongholds  
with each other4 ,mr4 ,thiers treated   
the project as chimerical1 so the       
execution of it was delayed up to the   
time at which we saw it applied in      
foreign countries4  ,in #ahgg1 the      
government accepted a gift of #dbj      
pigeons from ,mr4 ,de ,roo1 and had the 
,administration of ,post ,offices       
construct in the ,garden of             
,acclimatization a model pigeon house1  
which was finished in #ahgh1 and was    
capable of accommodating #bjj pairs4    
,at present1 the majority of our        
fortresses contain dove cotes1 which are
 perfectly organized and under the      
direction of the engineer corps of the  
army4  ,the map in ,fig4 #a gives the   
approximate system such as it results   

from documents consulted in foreign     
military reviews4  ,according to        
,lieutenant ,grigot1 an officer of the  
,belgian army1 who has written a very   
good book entitled ,science             
,colombophile1 a rational organization  
of the ,french system requires a central
 station at ,paris and three secondary  
centers at ,langres1 ,lyons and ,tours1 
the latter being established in view of 
a new invasion4  ,as the distance of    
,paris from the frontier of the north is
 but #adc miles at the most1 the city   
would have no need of any intermediate  
station in order to communicate with the
 various places of the said frontier4   
,langres would serve as a relay between 
,paris and the frontier of the          
northeast4 ,for the places of the       
southeast it would require at least two 
relays1 ,lyons and ,langres1 or ,dijon4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,theoretic  
,,map ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,system ,,of 
,,military ,,dove ,,cotes4  ,as ,paris  
has ten directions to serve1 it should  

therefore possess ten different dove    
cotes1 of #gbj birds each1 and this     
would give a total of #g1bjj pigeons4   
,according to the same principle1       
,langres1 which has five directions to  
provide for1 should have #c1fjj pigeons4
  ,continuing this calculation1 we find 
that it would require #be1jjj pigeons   
for the dove cotes as a whole           
appropriated to the frontiers of the    
north1 northeast1 east1 and southeast1  
without taking into account our         
frontiers of the ocean and the          
,pyrenees4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#b4--;,,basket ,,for ,,carrying         
,,pigeons4  ,a law of the #c;d of ,july1
 #ahgg1 supplemented by a decree of the 
#aeth of ,november1 organized the       
application of carrier pigeons in       
,france4  ,one of the last enumerations 
shows that there exist in ,paris #aa1jjj
 pigeons1 #e1jjj of which are trained1  
and1 in the suburbs1 #g1jjj1 of which   
#c1jjj are trained4 ,at ,roubaix1 a city
 of #ajj1jjj inhabitants1 there are     

#ae1jjj pigeons4 ,watrelos1 a small     
neighboring city of #aj1jjj inhabitants1
 has no less than #c1jjj carrier pigeons
 belonging to three societies1 the      
oldest of which1 that of ,saint-,esprit1
 was founded in #ahfi4  ,in entire      
,france1 there are about #ajj1jjj       
trained pigeons1 and forty-seven        
departments having pigeon-fancying      
societies4  ,germany4--,after the war of
 #ahgj1 ,prussia1 which had observed the
 services rendered by pigeons during the
 siege of ,paris1 was the first power to
 organize military dove cotes4  ,in the 
autumn of #ahga1 the ,minister of ,war  
commissioned ,mr4 ,leutzen1 a very      
competent amateur of ,cologne1 to study 
the most favorable processes for the    
recruitment1 rearing1 and training of   
carrier pigeons1 as well as for the     
organization of a system of stations    
upon the western frontier4  ,in #ahgb1  
,mr4 ,bismarck having received a number 
of magnificent ,belgian pigeons as a    
present1 a rearing station was          

established at the ,zoological ,garden  
of ,berlin1 under the direction of ,dr4 
,bodinas4  ,in #ahgd military dove cotes
 were installed at ,cologne1 ,metz1     
,strassburg1 and ,berlin4 ,since that   
time there have been organized1 or at   
least projected1 about fifteen new      
stations upon the frontier of ,france1  
upon the maritime coasts of the north1  
or upon the ,russian frontier4  ,berlin 
remains the principal rearing station1  
with two pigeon houses of #ejj pigeons  
each2 but it is at ,cologne that is     
centralized the general administration  
of military dove cotes under ,mr4       
,leutzen's direction4 ,the other        
stations are directly dependent upon the
 commandant of the place1 under the     
control of the inspector of military    
telegraphy4 ,the ,wilhelmshaven dove    
cote1 by way of exception1 depends upon 
the ,admiralty4 ,in each dove cote there
 is a subofficer of the engineer corps  
and an experienced civil pigeon fancier1
 on a monthly salary of ninety marks1   

assisted by two orderlies4 ,in time of  
war1 this personnel has to be doubled   
and commanded by an officer4  ,the      
amount appropriated to the military dove
 cotes1 which in #ahge was about #ac1jjj
 francs1 rose in #ahhh to more than     
#fj1jjj francs4  ,as a rule1 each dove  
cote should be provided with #a1jjj     
pigeons1 but this number does not appear
 to have been yet reached except at     
,thorn1 ,metz1 and ,strassburg4         
,germany has not confined herself to the
 organization of military dove cotes1   
but1 like other nations1 has endeavored 
to aid and direct pigeon fancying1 so as
 to be able1 when necessary1 to find    
ready prepared resources in the civil   
dove cotes4 ,the generals make it their 
duty to be present1 as far as possible1 
at the races of private societies1 and  
the ,emperor awards gold medals for     
flights of more than #abj miles4  ,on   
the #acth of ,january1 #ahha1 nineteen  
of these societies1 at the head of which
 must be placed the ,columbia1 of       

,cologne1 combined into a federation4   
,at the end of the year the association 
already included sixty-six societies4   
,on the #ast of ,december1 #ahhh1 it    
included seventy-eight1 with #eb1bdj    
carrier pigeons ready for mobilization4 
,the first two articles of the statutes 
of the ,federation are as follows3  ,i4 
,the object of the ,federation is to    
unite in one organization all societies 
of pigeon fanciers in order to improve  
the service of carrier pigeons1 which1  
in case of war1 the country must put to 
profit4  ,,ii4 ,the ,federation         
therefore proposes3 7a7 ,to aid the     
activity of pigeon-fancying societies   
and to direct the voyages of the        
societies according to a determined     
plan2 7b7 to form itinerent societies   
and on this occasion to organize        
expositions and auction sales of        
pigeons2 7c7 to maintain relations with 
the ,prussian ,minister of ,war2 7d7 to 
obtain diminutions and favors for       
transportation2 7e7 to make efforts for 

the extermination of vultures2 7f7 to   
obtain a legal protection for pigeons2  
and 7g7 to publish a special periodical 
for the instruction of fanciers4        
,italy4--,the first military dove cote  
in ,italy was installed in #ahgf at     
,ancona by the twelfth regiment of      
artillery4 ,in #ahgi1 a second station  
was established at ,bologna4 ,at present
 there are in the kingdom1 besides the  
central post at ,rome1 some fifteen dove
 cotes1 the principal ones of which are 
established at ,naples1 ,gaeta1         
,alexandria1 ,bologna1 ,ancona and      
,placenza4 ,there are at least two on   
the ,french frontier at ,fenestrella and
 ,exilles1 and two others in ,sardinia1 
at ,cagliari and ,maddalena4 ,the       
complete system includes twenty-three2  
moreover1 there are two in operation at 
,massoua and ,assab4  ,the cost of each 
cote amounts to about #a1jjj francs4    
,the pigeons are registered and taken   
care of by a pigeon breeder 7a          
subofficer7 assisted by a soldier4 ,the 

head of the service is ,commandant of   
,engineers ,malagoli1 one of the most   
distinguished of pigeon fanciers4  ,we  
represent in ,fig4 #b one of the baskets
 used in ,france for carrying the birds 
to where they are to be set free4--,la  
,nature4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,man 
,,twin ,,screw ,,steamer ,,tynwald4     
,we place on record the details of the  
first high speed twin screw steamer     
built for the service4 ,of this vessel1 
named the ,tynwald1 we give a profile   
and an engraving of stern1 showing the  
method of supporting the brackets for   
propeller shafting4  ,illustration3     
,twin screws--rear view  ,the ,tynwald  
is #bfe feet long1 #cd feet #f inches   
beam1 and #ad feet #f inches depth      
moulded1 the gross tonnage being #idf   
tons4 ,the desire of the owners to put  
the vessel alternately on two distinct  
services required special arrangement of
 the saloons4 ,running between          
,liverpool and the island there was no  

necessity for sleeping accommodation1 as
 the passage is made in about three     
hours2 and the ship had to be suited to 
carry immense crowds4 ,but as the owners
 wished on special occasions to run the 
vessel from ,glasgow to ,manxland it was
 necessary to so arrange the saloons as 
to admit of sleeping accommodation being
 provided on these occasions4 ,on the   
,liverpool run the vessel will carry    
from #hjj to #ijj passengers4 ,a        
spacious promenade is an indispensable  
desideratum1 and the upper or shelter   
deck has been made flush from stem to   
stern1 the only obstructions in addition
 to the engine and boiler casings1 and  
the deck and cargo working machinery1   
being a small deck house aft with       
special state rooms1 ticket and post    
offices1 and the companion way to the   
saloons below4 ,on the main deck forward
 is a sheltered promenade for second    
class passengers1 while on the lower    
deck below are dining saloons1 the sofas
 of which may be improvised for sleeping

 accommodation4 ,at the extreme after   
end of the main deck is the first class 
saloon1 with the ladies' room forward on
 the starboard side1 and1 there being no
 alley way forward1 the ladies'         
lavatories are provided on the starboard
 side of the engine casing4 ,on the port
 side are the gentlemen's lavatories1   
and smoking saloon and bar4 ,the dining 
saloon is aft on the lower deck1 with   
ladies' room forward4 ,in the two       
saloons and ladies' rooms sofa berths   
can be arranged to accommodate #beb     
passengers4 ,the crew and petty officers
 are accommodated in the forward part of
 the ship4 ,as the profile shows1 the   
vessel is divided by transverse         
bulkheads into seven watertight         
compartments1 and there are double      
bottoms4 ,she has six large boats and   
several rafts4  ,illustration3 ,,the    
,,liverpool ,,and ,,isle ,,of ,,man     
,,twin ,,screw ,,steamer ,,tynwald4     
,the twin screws are revolved by        
separate triple expansion engines1 steam

 being supplied by two double-ended     
boilers4 ,each boiler is placed fore and
 aft1 and each has a separate uptake and
 funnel4 ,there are three stokeholds1   
and to ventilate them and supply        
sufficient air for the furnaces there is
 in each a #f foot fan driven by an     
independent engine running at #bej      
revolutions4 ,these have been supplied  
by ,messrs4 ,w4,h4 ,allen  ,co41        
,london4 ,the boilers are of steel and  
adapted for a working pressure of #afj  
lb4 to the square inch4 ,they are #af   
feet in diameter and #ah feet long1 and 
there are eight furnaces in each boiler1
 sixteen in all1 the diameter of each   
furnace being #c feet #d inches4  ,the  
cylinders of the main engines are #bb   
in41 #cf in41 and #eg in4 in diameter   
respectively1 with a piston stroke of #c
 ft4 ,the high-pressure cylinders are   
each fitted with a piston valve1 and the
 intermediate and low-pressure cylinders
 with double-ported slide valves1 all of
 which are worked by the usual double   

eccentric and link motion valve gear1 by
 which the cut-off can be varied as     
required4 ,all the shafting is forged of
 ,siemens-,martin mild steel of the best
 quality1 each of the three separate    
cranks being built up4 ,the condensers  
are placed at the outsides of the engine
 room1 and the air1 feed1 and bilge     
pumps are between the engines and the   
condensers and worked by levers from the
 low-pressure engine crosshead4 ,there  
are two centrifugal pumps1 each worked  
by a separate engine for circulating    
water through the condenser1 and these  
are so arranged that they can be        
connected to the bilges in the event of 
an accident to the ship4 ,in the engine 
room there is fitted an auxiliary feed  
donkey of the duplex type and made by   
the ,fairfield ,company4  ,this pump has
 all the usual connections1 so that it  
can be used for feeding the boilers from
 the hot well1 for filling the fresh    
water tanks1 for pumping from the       
bilges1 or from the sea as a fire       

engine4 ,the engines are arranged in the
 ship with the starting platform between
 them2 and the handles for working the  
throttle valves1 starting valves1       
reversing gear 7,brown's combined steam 
and hydraulic71 and drain cocks are     
brought together at one end of the      
platform1 so that the engineer in charge
 can readily control both engines4 ,the 
two sets of engines are bound together  
by two beams bolted to the framing of   
each engine4 ,this feature was          
introduced into the design for          
steadiness4  ,the method of supporting  
the propeller shaft brackets is         
interesting1 and we reproduce a         
photograph that indicates the           
arrangement adopted4 ,instead of the ,a 
frame forming part of the same forging  
as the stern frame1 the ,fairfield      
,company have built up the supporting   
arms of steel plates riveted together1  
as is clearly shown4 ,there is an       
advantage in cost and with less risk in 
undiscovered flaws in material4  ,an    

interesting change has been made in the 
steam pipes4 ,cases of copper steam     
pipes bursting when subjected to high   
pressure have not been infrequent1 and  
,mr4 ,a4 ,laing1 the engineering        
director on the ,fairfield ,board1 with 
characteristic desire to advance        
engineering practice1 has been devoting 
much attention to this question lately4 
,he has made very exhaustive tests with 
lap welded iron steam pipes of all      
diameters1 but principally of #aj in4   
diameter and #c_/h in4 thickness of     
material1 made by ,messrs4 ,a4  ,j4     
,stuart  ,clydesdale1 ,limited1 and the 
results have been such as to induce him 
to introduce these into vessels recently
 built by the company4 ,it may be stated
 that the pipes only burst at a         
hydraulic pressure of #c1jjj lb4 to the 
square inches4  ,the ,tynwald was tried 
on the ,clyde about a month ago1 and on 
two runs on the mile1 the one with and  
the other against the tide1 the mean    
speed was #ai4ch knots--the maximum was 

#ai knots--and the indicated horse power
 developed was #e1bjj1 the steam        
pressure being #afj lb41 and the vacuum 
#bh lb4 ,since that time the vessel has 
made several runs from ,liverpool and   
from ,glasgow to the ,isle of ,man1 and 
has maintained a steady seagoing speed  
of between #ah and #ai                  
knots4--,engineering4         99        
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,treatment ,,of ,,refractory ,,ores4   
,mr4 ,jas4 ,j4 ,shedlock1 with the      
assistance of ,mr4 ,t4 ,denny1 of       
,australia1 has constructed on behalf of
 the ,metallurgical ,syndicate1 of #aje 
,gresham ,house1 ,london1 an apparatus  
on a commercial scale1 which1 it is     
said1 effects at the smallest expense1  
and with the best economical results1   
the entire separation of metals from    
their ores4 ,in treating ores by this   
process1 the stone is crushed in the    
usual way1 either by rolls or stamps1   
the crushed ore being conveyed into an  
apparatus1 where each atom is subjected 

to the action of gases under pressure1  
whereby the whole of the sulphur and    
other materials which render the ore    
refractory are separated4 ,the ore is   
then conveyed into a vessel containing  
an absorbing fluid metal1 so constructed
 that every particle of the ore is      
brought into contact with the metal4    
,for the production of reducing gases1  
steam and air are passed through highly 
heated materials1 having an affinity for
 oxygen1 and the gases so produced are  
utilized for raising the ore to a high  
temperature4 ,by this means the sulphur 
and other metalloids and base metals are
 volatilized and eliminated1 and the    
gold in the ore is then in such a       
condition as to alloy itself or become  
amalgamated with the fluid metal with   
which it is brought into close contact4 
,the tailings passing off1 worthless1   
are conveyed to the dump4  ,the         
apparatus in the background is that in  
which the steam is generated1 and which1
 in combination with the due proportion 

of atmospheric air1 is first superheated
 in passing through the hearth or bed on
 which the fire is supported4 ,the      
superheated steam and air under pressure
 are then forced through the fire1 which
 is automatically maintained at a       
considerable depth1 by which means the  
products of combustion are mainly       
hydrogen and carbonic oxide4 ,these     
gases are then conveyed by means of the 
main and branch pipes to the cylindrical
 apparatus in the foreground1 into which
 the ore to be acted upon is driven     
under pressure by means of the gases1   
which1 being ignited1 raise the ore to a
 high temperature4 ,the ore is          
maintained in a state of violent        
agitation4 ,each particle being kept    
separate from its fellows is            
consequently very rapidly acted upon by 
the gases4 ,the ore freed from its      
refractory constituents is then fed into
 a vessel containing the fluid metal1 in
 which each particle of ore is separated
 from the others1 and being acted upon  

by the fluid metal is absorbed into it1 
the tailings or refuse passing off freed
 from any gold which may have been in   
the ore4  ,illustration3 ,,apparatus    
,,for ,,the ,,treatment ,,of            
,,refractory ,,ores4  ,quantities of    
refractory ores treated by this process 
are said to have demonstrated that the  
whole of the gold in the ore is         
extracted4 ,the successful outcome of   
these trials is stated to have resulted 
in the ,anglo-,french ,exploration ,co4 
acquiring the right to work the process 
on the various gold fields of ,south    
,africa4 ,it is anticipated that the    
process will thus be immediately brought
 to a test by means of apparatus erected
 on the gold fields under circumstances 
and conditions of absolute practical    
work4 ,as is well known1 gold-bearing   
ores in ,south ,africa which are below  
the water line are1 by reason of the    
presence of sulphur1 extremely difficult
 to deal with1 and are consequently of  
small commercial value4 ,the gold in    

these ores1 it is maintained1 will1 by  
the new process1 be extracted and saved1
 and make all the difference between    
successful and unsuccessful mining in   
that country4  ,it will have been seen  
that the peculiar and essential features
 of the invention consist in subjecting 
every particle of the ore under         
treatment to the process in all its     
stages instead of in bulk1 thereby      
insuring that no portion shall escape   
being acted upon by the gases and the   
absorbing metal4 ,this is done          
automatically and in a very rapid       
manner4 ,it is stated that this method  
of treatment is applicable to all ores1 
the most refractory being readily       
reducible by its means4 ,the advantages 
claimed for this process are3 simplicity
 of the apparatus1 it being practically 
automatic2 that every particle of the   
ore is separately acted upon in a rapid 
and efficient manner2 that the apparatus
 is adaptable to existing milling       
plants2 and that there is an absence of 

elaborate and expensive plant and of the
 refinements of electrical or chemical  
science4 ,these advantages imply that   
the work can be done so economically as 
to commend the new process to the       
favorable consideration of all who are  
interested in mines or mining           
property4--,iron4         99       99   
99       99       99     ,,refining     
,,silver ,,bullion4   ,a number of years
 ago the author devised a method for    
refining silver bullion by sulphuric    
acid1 in which iron was substituted for 
copper as precipitant of silver1 the    
principal feature being the separation  
of pure crystals of silver sulphate4 ,a 
full description of this process may be 
found in ,percy's ,metallurgy1 ,silver  
and ,gold1 page #dgi4 ,the process has  
been extensively worked in ,san         
,francisco and in ,germany in refining  
bullion to the amount of more than a    
hundred million dollars' worth of       
silver4 ,its more general application   
has been hampered1 however1 by the      

circumstance that the patent had been   
secured by one firm which limited itself
 to its utilization in its ,california  
works4 ,the patent having expired1 the  
author lately introduced a modification 
of the process by which the apparatus   
and manipulations are greatly cheapened 
and simplified4 ,in the following       
account is given a short description of 
the process in its present shape4       
,preparing the ,silver ,sulphate4--,the 
bullion1 containing1 essentially1       
silver1 copper and gold1 is dissolved by
 boiling with sulphuric acid in cast    
iron pots4 ,the difference between the  
new process and the usual practice      
consists in the use of a much larger    
quantity of acid4 ,thus1 in refining    
ordinary silver dore1 four parts of acid
 are used to one part of bullion4 ,of   
this acid one part is chemically and    
mechanically consumed in the dissolving 
process1 and the remaining three parts  
are fully recovered and at once ready   
for reutilization1 as will be described 

hereafter4 ,in the usual                
process--understanding thereby1 here and
 in the following1 the process practiced
 at the ,united ,states mints1 for      
instance--two parts of acid are employed
 for one of bullion2 all of this is     
lost1 partly through the dissolving and 
partly in being afterward mixed with    
water1 previous to the precipitation of 
the silver by copper4 ,economy in acid  
being therefore imperative1 the silver  
solution finally becomes much           
concentrated1 and it requires high heat 
and careful management to finish the    
solution of the bullion4 ,bars          
containing more than about #aj per cent4
 of copper cannot be dissolved at all1  
owing to the separation of copper       
sulphate insoluble in the small amount  
of free acid finally remaining4 ,the    
advantage gained by dissolving bullion  
with abundance of free acid in the      
improved process is so evident that it  
merely requires to be pointed out4 ,for 
bullion containing #bj per cent4 of     

copper the author employs six parts of  
acid to one of bullion2 for baser metal 
still more acid1 and so on1 never losing
 more than the stochiometrical          
percentage of acid and recovering the   
remainder4 ,in this description he1     
however1 confines himself to the        
treatment of ordinary silver ore with   
less than #aj per cent4 of copper4  ,in 
the diagram ,a ,a represent two refining
 pots1 #d ft4 in diameter and #c ft4 in 
depth1 each capable of dissolving at one
 operation as much as #djj pounds of    
bullion4 ,the acid is stored in the cast
 iron reservoir1 ,b1 which is placed on 
a level sufficiently high to charge into
 ,a by gravitation1 and is composed of  
fresh concentrated acid mixed with the  
somewhat dilute acid regained from a    
previous operation4 ,after the bullion  
is fully dissolved all the acid still   
available is run from ,b into ,a ,a4    
,the temperature and strength are       
thereby reduced1 the fuming ceases1 any 
still undissolved copper sulphate       

dissolves1 and the gold settles4 ,in    
assuming that the settling of the gold  
takes place in ,a itself1 the author    
follows the practice of the ,united     
,states mints4 ,in private refineries1  
where refining is carried on            
continuously1 the settling may take     
place in an intermediate vessel1 and ,a 
,a be at once recharged4 ,owing to the  
large amount of free acid present1 the  
temperature must fall considerably      
before the separation of silver sulphate
 commences1 and sufficient time may be  
allowed for settling if the intermediate
 vessel be judiciously arranged4        
,illustration  ,separating the ,silver  
,sulphate4--,the clarified solution is  
siphoned off the gold from ,a ,a into   
,c1 which is an open cast iron pan1 say 
#h ft4 by #d ft4 and #a ft4 deep4 ,it is
 supported by means of a flange in      
another larger pan--not shown in the    
diagram--into which water may be        
admitted for cooling4 ,steam is blown   
into the acid solution1 still very hot1 

as soon as ,c is filled4 ,the steam is  
introduced about #a in4 below the       
surface of the liquid1 blowing          
perpendicularly downward from a nozzle  
made of lead pipe through an aperture   
#a_/h in4 in diameter4 ,under these     
circumstances the absorption of the     
steam is nearly perfect1 and takes place
 without any splashing4 ,the temperature
 rises with the increasing dilution1 and
 may be regulated by the less           
experienced by manipulating the cooling 
tank4 ,an actual boiling is not desired1
 because it protracts unnecessarily the 
operation by the less perfect           
condensation of the steam4 ,no          
separation of silver sulphate occurs    
during this operation 7and1             
consequently1 there is no clotting of   
the steam nozzle71 the large amount of  
free acid1 combined with the increase of
 temperature1 compensating for the      
diminution of the solubility of the     
sulphate by the dilution4 ,the most     
important point in this procedure is to 

know when to stop the admission of      
steam4 ,to determine this1 the operator 
takes a drop or two of the solution upon
 a cold iron plate by means of a glass  
rod and observes whether after cooling  
the sample congeals partly or wholly    
into a white mass of silver bisulphate1 
or whether the silver separates as a    
monosulphate in detached yellow         
crystals1 leaving a mother liquor       
behind4 ,as soon as the latter point has
 been reached1 steam is shut off and the
 solution is allowed to crystallize1    
cold water being admitted into the outer
 pan4 ,the operator may now be certain  
that the liquid will no longer congeal  
into a soft mass of silver bisulphate1  
which on contact with water will        
disintegrate into powder1 obstinately   
retaining a large amount of free acid2  
but the silver will separate as a       
monosulphate in hard and large yellow   
crystals retaining no acid and          
preserving their physical               
characteristics when thrown into water4 

,after cooling to1 say1 #hj ,f41 the    
silver sulphate will have coated the pan
 ,c about #a in4 thick4 ,there will also
 be found a deposit of copper sulphate  
when the mother acid1 after having been 
used over and over again1 has been      
sufficiently saturated therewith4 ,lead 
sulphate separates in a cloud1 which1   
however1 will hardly settle at this     
stage4  ,the whole operation just       
described1 which constitutes the most   
essential feature of the author's       
improvement upon his old process        
described in ,dr4 ,percy's work1 is a   
short one1 as the acid requires by no   
means great dilution4 ,the steam has    
merely to furnish enough water to dilute
 the free acid present to1 say1 #fb ,b4 
,areometrical determination is1 of      
course1 not possible1 on account of the 
dissolved sulphates4  ,reducing the     
,silver ,sulphate to ,fine              
,silver4--,the mother acid is pumped    
from ,c to the reservoir1 ,b1 for this  
purpose an iron pipe connecting the top 

of ,b with a recess in the bottom of ,c4
 ,the tank1 ,b1 is cast as a closed     
vessel1 with a manhole in the top1 which
 is ordinarily kept closed by an iron   
plate resting on a rubber packing4 ,the 
air is exhausted from ,b by a steam     
injector1 and the acid rises from ,c and
 enters ,b without coming in contact    
with any valves4 ,the volume of fresh   
commercial acid necessary for another   
dissolving operation1 say #hjj pounds1  
more or less1 for refining #hjj pounds  
of bullion in ,a ,a1 is lifted from some
 other receptacle into ,b in the same   
manner4 ,the mixture of the two acids in
 ,b now represents the volume of acid to
 be employed for dissolving and settling
 the next charge of #hjj pounds of      
bullion in ,a ,a4 ,in this reservoir1   
,b1 the cloud of lead sulphate mentioned
 above finds an opportunity for         
settling4  ,the crystals of silver      
sulphate are detached from ,c by an iron
 shovel and thrown into ,d4 ,d is a lead
 lined tank about #d ft4 by #d ft4 and  

#c ft4 deep4 ,it is divided into two    
compartments by means of a horizontal1  
perforated false bottom made of wood4   
,from the lower compartment a lead pipe 
discharges into the lead lined          
reservoir1 ,e4 ,warm distilled water is 
allowed to percolate the crystals until 
the usual ammonia test indicates that   
the copper sulphate has been            
sufficiently dissolved4 ,then the       
outflow is closed1 sheets of iron are   
thrown on and into the crystals1 the    
apparatus is filled with hot distilled  
water1 and steam is moderately admitted 
into the lower compartment4 ,ferrous    
sulphate is formed1 and in connection   
with the iron rapidly reduces the silver
 sulphate to the metallic state1 the    
reduced silver retaining the heavy      
compact character of the crystals4 ,when
 the reaction is completed1 as indicated
 by the chlorine test1 the liquid is    
discharged into ,e1 the iron sheets are 
removed and the silver is sweetened     
either in the same vessel1 ,d1 or in a  

special filtering vessel which rests on 
wheels and may be run directly to the   
hydraulic press4  ,the vat1 ,e1 is the  
great reservoir where all liquids       
holding silver sulphate in solution are 
collected2 for instance1 that from      
sweetening the gold and from washing the
 tools4 ,sheets of iron here precipitate
 all silver and copper1 and the         
resulting solution of ferrous sulphate  
is1 with the usual precautions1         
discharged into the sewer4 ,occasionally
 when copper and silver have accumulated
 in ,e in sufficient amount the mass is 
thrown into ,d1 silver sulphate crystals
 are added and sheet copper is thrown   
in1 instead of sheet iron4 ,there       
results a hot1 neutral1 concentrated    
solution of copper sulphate1 which may  
be run at once into a crystallizing vat 
for the separation of commercial        
crystals of copper sulphate4 ,it will be
 readily understood1 of course1 that if 
there should be any advantage in        
manufacturing that commercial article1  

besides the amount prepared as          
described1 which represents merely the  
copper contained in the bullion1 copper 
sheets may be regularly employed for    
reducing the silver sulphate in ,d4 ,the
 author trusts that the practical       
refiner will recognize that the         
manufacture of commercial copper        
sulphate is thus effected in a more     
rational and economical manner than by  
the present method of evaporating from  
#be ,b4 to #ce ,b41 and of saturating by
 oxidized copper1 generally in a very   
incomplete manner1 the large amount of  
free acid left from the refining by the 
usual process4 ,however1 the sale of    
copper sulphate is but rarely so        
profitable that a refinery should not   
gladly dispense with that troublesome   
and bulky manufacture1 especially the   
government establishments1 which1       
besides1 waste much valuable space with 
the crystallizing vats4  ,the great     
saving in sulphuric acid1 amounting to  
about #ej per cent4 of the present      

consumption1 has already been pointed   
out4 ,another advantage the author      
merely mentions1 namely1 the easier     
condensation of the sulphurous fumes in 
refineries situated in cities1 because  
the larger amount of acid available for 
dissolving greatly facilitates working  
and makes the usual frequent admission  
of air into the refining pot for the    
purpose of stirring and testing         
unnecessary4  ,the more air is excluded 
from the refining fumes the easier they 
can be condensed4  ,work may be carried 
on continuously1 the vessels ,c and ,d  
being empty by the time a new solution  
is finished in ,a ,a4 ,thus1 the plant  
shown in the diagram1 covering #bf ft4  
by #af ft41 allows the refining of      
#dj1jjj ounces of fine silver in #bd    
hours2 that is1 four charges in ,a ,a of
 #hjj pounds each4--,f4 ,gutzkow1 ,eng4 
and ,mining ,j4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,a ,,case ,,of 
,,drowning1 ,,with ,,resuscitation4  ,by
 ,f4,a4 ,,burrall1 ,m4,d41 ,new ,york4  

,as is usual at this season1 casualties 
from drowning are of frequent           
occurrence4 ,no class of emergencies is 
of a more startling character1 and ,i   
think that a history of the case which  
,i now present offers some peculiar     
features1 and will not be without       
interest to physicians4  ,the accident  
which forms the subject of this paper   
occurred ,august #bi1 #ahij1 at ,south  
,harpswell1 ,casco ,bay1 ,me41 where ,i 
was passing my vacation4  ,at about     
#i4cj ,a4,m41 ,m4 ,b----1 an ,american1 
aged eighteen1 the son of a fisherman1 a
 young man of steady habits and a good  
constitution1 with excellent muscular   
development1 and who had never before   
required the aid of a physician1 was    
seen by the residents of the village to 
fall forward from a skiff into the water
 and go down with uplifted hands4 ,i    
could not learn that he rose at all     
after the first submersion4 ,two men    
were standing near a bluff which        
overlooked the bay1 and after an        

instant's delay in deciding that an     
accident had occurred1 they ran over an 
uneven and undulating pasture for a     
distance of two hundred and fifty paces 
to the shore4 ,one of them1 after a     
quick decision not to swim out to where 
the young man had fallen in and dive for
 him1 removed trousers and boots and    
waded out five yards to a boat1 which he
 drew into the shore and entered with   
his companion1 taking him to a yacht    
which lay two hundred and forty yards   
from the shore1 in the padlocked cabin  
of which was a boat hook4 ,the padlock  
was unfastened1 the boat hook taken1 and
 they proceeded by the boat directly to 
where the young man lay4 ,he was seen   
through the clear water1 lying at a     
depth of nine feet at the bottom of the 
bay1 on his back1 with upturned face and
 arms extended from the sides of the    
body4 ,he was quickly seized by the boat
 hook1 drawn head upward to the surface1
 and with the inferior portion of the   
body hanging over the stern of the boat1

 and the superior supported in the arms 
of his rescuer1 was rowed rapidly to the
 shore1 where he was rolled a few times1
 and then placed prone upon a tub for   
further rolling4 ,i was told that much  
water came from his mouth4 ,meantime ,i 
had been sent for to where ,i was       
sitting1 one hundred and fifty-one yards
 from the scene1 and ,i arrived to find 
him apparently lifeless on the tub1 and 
to be addressed with the remark1 ,well1 
doctor1 ,i suppose we are doing all that
 can be done4  ,i have given these      
details1 as from a study of them ,i was 
aided in deciding the time of           
submersion1 as well as the intervals    
which transpired before the intelligent 
use of remedies4 ,it is also remarkable 
that1 notwithstanding all which has been
 written about ready remedies for       
drowning1 no one present knew anything  
about them1 although living in a        
seafaring community4  ,i immediately    
directed that the patient should at once
 be placed upon the ground1 which was   

sloping1 and arranged his rubber boots  
under the back of the head and nape of  
the neck1 so that the head should be    
slightly elevated and the neck extended1
 while the head was turned somewhat upon
 the side1 that fluids might drain from 
the mouth4 ,the day was clear and       
moderately warm4 ,respiration had       
ceased1 but no time was lost in         
commencing artificial respiration4 ,the 
patient had on a shirt and pantaloons1  
which were immediately unbuttoned and   
made loose1 and placing myself at his   
head1 ,i used the ,silvester method1    
because ,i was more accustomed to it    
than any other4 ,it seems to me more    
easy of application than any other1 and 
,i have often found it of service in the
 asphyxia of the newly born4  ,the      
patient's surface was cold1 there was   
extensive cyanosis1 and his expression  
was so changed that he was not          
recognized by his fellow townsmen1 but  
supposed to be a stranger4 ,the eyelids 
were closed1 the pupils contracted1 and 

the inferior maxilla firmly set against 
the superior4 ,one of the men who had   
brought him ashore had endeavored to    
find the heart's impulse by placing his 
hand upon the chest1 but was unable to  
detect any motion4  ,i continued the    
artificial respiration from #i4de until 
#aj1 when ,i directed one of his        
rescuers to make pressure upon the ribs1
 as ,i brought the arms down upon the   
chest4 ,this assistance made expiration 
more complete4 ,when nature resumed the 
respiratory act ,i am unable to say1 but
 the artificial breathing was continued 
in all its details for three-quarters of
 an hour1 and then expiration was aided 
by pressure on the chest for half an    
hour longer4 ,friction upward was also  
applied to the lower extremities1 and   
the surface became warm about half an   
hour after the beginning of treatment4  
,about twenty minutes after ten1 two    
hypodermic syringefuls of brandy were   
administered1 but ,i did not repeat     
this1 since ,i think alcohol is likely  

to increase rather than diminish        
asphyxia1 if given in any considerable  
quantity4 ,a thermometer1 with the      
mercury shaken down below the scale1 at 
this time did not rise4 ,at #aa4h the   
pulse was #hb2 respiration1 #bg2        
temperature1 #ig4  ,after a natural     
respiration had commenced1 the wet      
clothing was removed1 and the patient   
was placed in blankets4 ,ammonia was    
occasionally applied to the nostrils1   
since1 although respiration had         
returned1 there was no sign of          
consciousness2 the natural respiration  
was at first attended by the expulsion  
of frothy fluid from the lips1 which    
gradually diminished1 and auscultation  
revealed the presence of a few pulmonary
 rales1 which also passed away4 ,there  
were efforts at vomiting1 and pallor    
succeeded cyanosis2 there were also     
clonic contractions of the flexors of   
the forearm4 ,the pupils dilated        
slightly at about one hour after        
beginning treatment4 ,unconsciousness   

was still profound1 and loud shouting   
into the ear elicited no response4      
,mustard sinapisms were applied to the  
prcordium1 and the ,faradic current to  
the spine4  ,coffee was also            
administered by a ready method which1 as
 a systematic procedure1 was1 ,i        
believe1 novel when ,i introduced it to 
the profession in the ,medical ,record1 
in #ahgf4 ,i take the liberty of        
referring to this1 since ,i think it is 
now sometimes overlooked4 ,it was       
described as follows3      ,a simple    
examination which any one can make of   
his own buccal     cavity will show that
 posterior to the last molar teeth1 when
     the jaws are closed1 is an opening 
bounded by the molars1 the     body of  
the superior1 and the ramus of the      
inferior maxilla4 ,if     on either side
 the cheek is held well out from the    
jaw1 a     pocket1 or gutter1 is formed1
 into which fluids may be poured1       
and they will pass into the mouth       
through the opening behind the          

molars1 as well as through the          
interstices between the teeth4     ,when
 in the mouth they tend to create a     
disposition to swallow1     and by this 
method a considerable quantity of liquid
 may be     administered4  ,after ,i had
 worked with the patient in the open    
air1 for four and three-quarter hours1  
he was carried to a cottage near by and 
placed1 still unconscious1 in bed4      
,there had been an alvine evacuation    
during the time in which he lay in the  
blankets4  ,consciousness began to      
return in the early part of the         
following morning1 and with its advent  
it was discovered that the memory of    
everything which had occurred from half 
an hour previous to the accident1 up to 
the return of consciousness1 had been   
completely obliterated4 ,with this      
exception the convalescence was steady  
and uncomplicated1 and of about a week's
 duration4 ,from a letter which ,i      
recently received from my patient1 ,i   
learned that the lapse of memory still  

remains4  ,my experience with this case 
has taught me that1 unless the data have
 been taken very accurately1 we cannot  
depend upon any statements as to the    
time of submersion in cases of drowning4
 ,my first supposition was that my      
patient had been from thirteen to       
fifteen minutes under water1 but a      
careful investigation reduced the       
supposed time by one-half4 ,this makes  
the time of submersion about six        
minutes1 and that which elapsed before  
the intelligent use of remedies about   
three minutes longer4  ,for a long time 
the opinion of ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie   
concerning the presence of water in the 
lungs of the drowned was accepted1 who  
says that the admission of water into   
the lungs is prevented by a spasm of the
 muscles of the glottis cannot1 however1
 be doubted1 since we are unable to     
account for it in any other manner4     
,later experiments made by a committee  
of the ,royal ,medico-,chirurgical      
,society1 of ,london1 demonstrated1 on  

the contrary1 that in drowned animals   
not only were all the air passages      
choked with frothy fluid1 more or less  
bloody1 but that both lungs were highly 
gorged with blood1 so that they were    
heavy1 dark colored1 and pitted on      
pressure1 and on being cut exuded an    
abundance of blood-tinged fluid with    
many air bubbles in it4 ,dr4 ,r4,l4     
,bowles#a also holds that the lungs of  
the drowned contain water1 and supports 
his views by a list of cases4 ,in his   
words1 ,these examples show very        
conclusively that in cases of drowning  
in man1 water does exist in the lungs1  
that the water only very gradually and  
after a long time is effectually        
expelled1 and that it is absolutely     
impossible that any relief should be    
afforded in that way by the ,silvester  
method4 ,dr4 ,bowles believes that the  
method of ,dr4 ,marshall ,hall is       
superior to any other in this class of  
cases4 ,he thinks that on account of the
 immediate adoption and continued use of

 the prono-lateral position1 this method
 is more to be trusted than any other   
for keeping the pharynx clear of        
obstruction4 ,it also empties the       
stomach and gradually clears the lungs  
of the watery and frothy fluids1 and    
will surely and gently introduce        
sufficient air at each inspiration to   
take the place of the fluid which has   
been expelled4 ,in the light of even my 
limited experience ,i cannot but feel   
that ,dr4 ,bowles' opinion concerning   
the ,silvester method would admit of    
some modification4 ,this is often the   
case with very positive statements      
concerning medical matters4 ,in my own  
case the ,silvester method answered     
well1 but ,i was much impressed with    
,dr4 ,bowles' claims for the ,marshall  
,hall method1 and should bear them in   
mind were ,i called upon to attend      
another case of drowning4     ,footnote 
#a3 ,resuscitation of the ,apparently   
,drowned1 by ,r4,l4    ,bowles1 ,m4,d41 
,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,medico-,chirurgical      

,transactions1 vol4    lxxii41 #ahhi4   
,i think it must be admitted that       
pulling the tongue forward as a means of
 opening the glottis1 which has become a
 standard treatment in asphyxia1 is     
unscientific1 and not warranted by the  
results of experiments made to determine
 its value4#b     ,footnote #b3         
,dragging on the tongue's tip would not 
affect its    base or the epiglottis    
sufficiently to make it a praiseworthy  
procedure4 ,medico-,chirurgical         
,transactions1 vol4 lxxii4 ,see also    
,medical ,record1 ,april #d1 #ahia4     
,pulling out the tongue is a    mistake1
 since irritation of nerves of          
deglutition stops the                   
diaphragm4--,medical ,times and         
,gazetteer4  ,dr4 ,bowles also believes 
that the safety of the patient is most  
perfectly secured by keeping him on one 
side during the whole treatment1 one    
lung being thus kept quite free4 ,with  
the account of my case ,i have brought  
forward such views of other writers as  

it seemed to me would be of practical   
service and throw light on a subject    
which is of great importance1 since the 
yearly record of mortality from drowning
 is by no means inconsiderable4 ,i      
think1 however1 that a knowledge of what
 ought to be done in cases of drowning  
should be much more generally diffused  
than is the case at present4 ,it should 
be one of the items of school           
instruction1 since no one can tell when 
such knowledge may be of immense        
importance in saving life1 and the time 
lost in securing medical aid would      
involve a fatal result4  ,it is also    
very desirable that all doubt should be 
removed1 by the decision of competent   
medical authorities1 as to which ready  
method or methods are the best1 since   
there are several in the field4 ,with   
this should be decided what is the best 
means for securing patency of the air   
passages1 and1 in short1 a very careful 
revision of the treatment now           
recommended for drowning1 in order that 

there may be no doubt as to the course  
which should be adopted in such a       
serious emergency4--,medical ,record4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,universe4#a  
,footnote #a3 ,presidential address     
before the ,british ,association1       
,cardiff1 #ahia4  ,by ,dr4 ,,william    
,,huggins4   ,the opening meeting of the
 ,british ,association was held in ,park
 ,hall1 ,cardiff1 ,august #ah1 where a  
large and brilliant audience assembled1 
including1 in his richly trimmed        
official robes1 the ,marquis of ,bute1  
who this year holds office as mayor of  
,cardiff4 ,at the commencement of the   
proceedings ,sir ,frederick ,abel took  
the chair1 but this was only pro forma1 
and in order that he might1 after a few 
complimentary sentences1 resign it to   
the president-elect1 ,professor         
,huggins1 the eminent astronomer1 who at
 once1 amid applause1 assumed the       
presidency and proceeded to deliver the 
opening address4  ,dr4 ,huggins said    

that the very remarkable discoveries in 
our knowledge of the heavens which had  
taken place during the past thirty      
years--a period of amazing and          
ever-increasing activity in all branches
 of science--had not passed unnoticed in
 the addresses of successive presidents2
 still1 it seemed to him fitting that he
 should speak of those newer methods of 
astronomical research which had led to  
those discoveries1 and which had become 
possible by the introduction into the   
observatory1 since #ahfj1 of the        
spectroscope and the modern photographic
 plate4 ,spectroscopic astronomy had    
become a distinct and acknowledged      
branch of the science1 possessing a     
large literature of its own1 and        
observatories specially devoted to it4  
,the more recent discovery of the       
gelatine dry plate had given a further  
great impetus to this modern side of    
astronomy1 and had opened a pathway into
 the unknown of which even an enthusiast
 thirty years ago would scarcely have   

dared to dream4   ,,herschel',s         
,,theory4  ,it was now some thirty years
 since the spectroscope gave us for the 
first time certain knowledge of the     
nature of the heavenly bodies1 and      
revealed the fundamental fact that      
terrestrial matter is not peculiar to   
the solar system1 but is common to all  
the stars which are visible to us4      
,professor ,rowland had since shown us  
that if the whole earth were heated to  
the temperature of the sun1 its spectrum
 would resemble very closely the solar  
spectrum4 ,in the nebul1 the elder      
,herschel saw portions of the fiery mist
 or shining fluid1 out of which the     
heavens and the earth had been slowly   
fashioned4 ,for a time this view of the 
nebul gave place to that which regarded 
them as external galaxies--cosmical sand
 heaps1 too remote to be resolved into  
separate stars1 though1 indeed1 in      
#aheh1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer showed    
that the observations of nebul up to    
that time were really in favor of an    

evolutional progress4 ,in #ahfd he 7the 
speaker7 brought the spectroscope to    
bear upon them2 the bright lines which  
flashed upon the eye showed the source  
of the light to be glowing gas1 and so  
restored these bodies to what is        
probably their true place1 as an early  
stage of sidereal life4 ,at that early  
time our knowledge of stellar spectra   
was small4 ,for this reason partly1 and 
probably also under the undue influence 
of theological opinions then widely     
prevalent1 he unwisely wrote in his     
original paper in #ahfd1 that in these  
objects we no longer have to do with a  
special modification of our own type of 
sun1 but find ourselves in presence of  
objects possessing a distinct and       
peculiar plan of structure4 ,two years  
later1 however1 in a lecture before this
 association1 he took a truer position4 
,our views of the universe1 he said1 are
 undergoing important changes2 let us   
wait for more facts with minds          
unfettered by any dogmatic theory1 and1 

therefore1 free to receive the teaching1
 whatever it may be1 of new             
observations4   ,,the ,,nebular         
,,hypothesis4  ,let them turn aside for 
a moment from the nebul in the sky to   
the conclusions to which philosophers   
had been irresistibly led by a          
consideration of the features of the    
solar system4 ,we had before us in the  
sun and planets obviously not a         
haphazard aggregation of bodies1 but a  
system resting upon a multitude of      
relations pointing to a common physical 
cause4 ,from these considerations ,kant 
and ,laplace formulated the nebular     
hypothesis1 resting it on gravitation   
alone1 for at that time the science of  
the conservation of energy was          
practically unknown4 ,these philosophers
 showed how1 on the supposition that the
 space now occupied by the solar system 
was once filled by a vaporous mass1 the 
formation of the sun and planets could  
be reasonably accounted for4 ,by a      
totally different method of reasoning1  

modern science traced the solar system  
backward step by step to a similar state
 of things at the beginning4 ,according 
to ,helmholtz1 the sun's heat was       
maintained by the contraction of his    
mass1 at the rate of about #bbj feet a  
year4 ,whether at the present time the  
sun was getting hotter or colder we did 
not certainly know4 ,we could reason    
back to the time when the sun was       
sufficiently expanded to fill the whole 
space occupied by the solar system1 and 
was reduced to a great glowing nebula4  
,though man's life1 the life of the race
 perhaps1 was too short to give us      
direct evidence of any distinct stages  
of so august a process1 still the       
probability was great that the nebular  
hypothesis1 especially in the more      
precise form given to it by ,roche1 did 
represent broadly1 notwithstanding some 
difficulties1 the succession of events  
through which the sun and planets had   
passed4  ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,william 
,,huggins1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41         

,,president ,,of ,,the ,,british        
,,association4  ,dr4 ,huggins is one of 
the most eminent astronomers of the     
present day1 and his spectroscopic      
researches on the celestial bodies have 
had the most important results4 ,he is a
 ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford1 ,,ll4,d4 of      
,cambridge1 and ,ph4,d of ,leyden4 ,dr4 
,huggins was born in #ahbd and educated 
at the ,city of ,london ,school4 ,he    
continued his studies1 giving much of   
his time to experiments in natural      
philosophy and physical science4 ,in    
#ahee ,dr4 ,huggins erected a private   
observatory at his residence on ,tulse  
,hill1 where he has carried out valuable
 prismatic researches with the          
spectroscope4--,daily ,graphic4         
,,other ,,speculations4  ,the nebular   
hypothesis of ,laplace required a       
rotating mass of fluid which at         
successive epochs became unstable from  
excess of motion1 and left behind rings1
 or more probably1 perhaps1 lumps1 of   
matter from the equatorial regions4 ,to 

some thinkers was suggested a different 
view of things1 according to which it   
was not necessary to suppose that one   
part of the system gravitationally      
supported another4 ,the whole might     
consist of a congeries of discrete      
bodies1 even if these bodies were the   
ultimate molecules of matter4 ,the      
planets might have been formed by the   
gradual accretion of such discrete      
bodies4 ,on the view that the material  
of the condensing solar system consisted
 of separate particles or masses1 we had
 no longer the fluid pressure which was 
an essential part of ,laplace's theory4 
,faye1 in his theory of evolution from  
meteorites1 had to throw over his       
fundamental idea of the nebular         
hypothesis1 and formulated instead a    
different succession of events of which 
the outer planets were formed last1 a   
theory which had difficulties of its    
own4 ,professor ,george ,darwin had     
recently shown1 from an investigation of
 the mechanical conditions of a swarm of

 meteorites1 that on certain assumptions
 a meteoric swarm might behave as a     
coarse gas1 and in this way bring back  
the fluid pressure exercised by one part
 of the system on the other1 which was  
required by ,laplace's theory4 ,one     
chief assumption consisted in supposing 
that such inelastic bodies as meteoric  
stones might attain the effective       
elasticity of a high order which was    
necessary to the theory through the     
sudden volatilization of a part of their
 mass at an encounter1 by which what was
 virtually a violent explosive was      
introduced between the two colliding    
stones4 ,professor ,darwin was careful  
to point out that it must necessarily be
 obscure as to how a small mass of solid
 matter could take up a very large      
amount of energy in a small fraction of 
a second4   ,,helmholtz',s ,,discovery4 
,the old view of the original matter of 
the nebul1 that it consisted of a fiery 
mist1              a tumultuous cloud1  
,instinct with fire and niter1  fell at 

once with the rise of the science of    
thermodynamics4 ,in #ahed1 ,helmholtz   
showed that the supposition of an       
original fiery condition of the nebulous
 stuff was unnecessary1 since in the    
mutual gravitation of widely separated  
matter we had a store of potential      
energy sufficient to generate the high  
temperature of the sun and stars4 ,we   
could scarcely go wrong in attributing  
the light of the nebul to the conversion
 of the gravitational energy of         
shrinkage into molecular motion4 ,the   
inquisitiveness of the human mind did   
not allow us to remain content with the 
interpretation of the present state of  
the cosmical masses1 but suggested the  
question--                       ,what  
see'st thou else       ,in the dark     
backward and abysm of time8  ,what was  
the original state of things8 ,how had  
it come about that by the side of ageing
 worlds we had nebul in a relatively    
younger stage8 ,had any of them received
 their birth from dark suns1 which had  

collided into new life1 and so belonged 
to a second or later generation of the  
heavenly bodies8   ,,looking ,,backward4
  ,during the short historic period     
there was no record of such an event2   
still it would seem to be only through  
the collision of dark suns1 of which the
 number must be increasing1 that a      
temporary rejuvenescence of the heavens 
was possible1 and by such ebbings and   
flowings of stellar life that the       
inevitable end to which evolution in its
 apparently uncompensated progress was  
carrying us could1 even for a little1 be
 delayed4 ,we could not refuse to admit 
as possible such an origin for nebul4   
,in considering1 however1 the formation 
of the existing nebul we must bear in   
mind that1 in the part of the heavens   
within our ken1 the stars still in the  
early and middle stages of evolution    
exceeded greatly in number those which  
appeared to be in an advanced condition 
of condensation4 ,indeed1 we found some 
stars which might be regarded as not far

 advanced beyond the nebular condition4 
,it might be that the cosmical bodies   
which were still nebulous owed their    
later development to some conditions of 
the part of space where they occurred1  
such as conceivably a greater original  
homogeneity1 in consequence of which    
condensation began less early4 ,in other
 parts of space condensation might have 
been still further delayed1 or even have
 not yet begun4 ,if light matter were   
suggested by the spectrum of these      
nebul1 it might be asked further1 as a  
pure speculation1 whether in them we    
were witnessing possibly a later        
condensation of the light matter which  
had been left behind1 at least in a     
relatively greater proportion1 after the
 first growth of worlds into which the  
heavier matter condensed1 though not    
without some entanglement of the lighter
 substances4 ,the wide extent and great 
diffuseness of this bright-line         
nebulosity over a large part of the     
constellation of ,orion might be        

regarded1 perhaps1 as pointing in this  
direction4 ,the diffuse nebulous matter 
streaming round the ,pleiades might     
possibly be another instance1 though the
 character of its spectrum had not yet  
been ascertained4   ,,the ,,motions ,,of
 ,,the ,,stars4  ,besides its more      
direct use in the chemical analysis of  
the heavenly bodies1 the spectroscope   
had given to us a great and unexpected  
power of advance along the lines of the 
older astronomy4 ,in the future a higher
 value might1 indeed1 be placed upon    
this indirect use of the spectroscope   
than upon its chemical revelations4 ,by 
no direct astronomical methods could    
motions of approach or of recession of  
the stars be even detected1 much less   
could they be measured4 ,a body coming  
directly toward us or going directly    
from us appeared to stand still4 ,in the
 case of the stars we could receive no  
assistance from change of size or of    
brightness4 ,the stars showed no true   
disks in our instruments1 and the       

nearest of them was so far off that if  
it were approaching us at the rate of a 
hundred miles in a second of time1 a    
whole century of such rapid approach    
would not do more than increase its     
brightness by the one-fortieth part4    
,still it was formerly only too clear   
that1 so long as we were unable to      
ascertain directly those components of  
the stars' motions which lay in the line
 of sight1 the speed and direction of   
the solar motion in space1 and many of  
the great problems of the constitution  
of the heavens must have remained more  
or less imperfectly known4 ,now the     
spectroscope had placed in our hands    
this power1 which1 though so essential1 
had previously appeared almost in the   
nature of things to lie forever beyond  
our grasp2 it enabled us to measure     
directly1 and1 under favorable          
circumstances1 to within a mile per     
second1 or even less1 the speed of      
approach or of recession of a heavenly  
body4 ,this method of observation had   

the great advantage for the astronomer  
of being independent of the distance of 
the moving body1 and was1 therefore1 as 
applicable and as certain in the case of
 a body on the extreme confines of the  
visible universe1 so long as it was     
bright enough1 as in the case of a      
neighboring planet4   ,,algol ,,and     
,,spica4  ,by observations with the     
,potsdam spectograph1 ,professor ,vogel 
found that the bright star of ,algol    
pulsated backward and forward in the    
visual direction in a period            
corresponding to the known variation of 
its light4 ,the explanation which had   
been suggested for the star's           
variability1 that it was partially      
eclipsed at regular intervals of #fh4h  
hours by a dark companion large enough  
to cut off nearly five-sixths of its    
light1 was1 therefore1 the true one4    
,the dark companion1 no longer able to  
hide itself by its obscureness1 was     
brought out into the light of direct    
observation by means of its             

gravitational effects4 ,seventeen hours 
before minimum ,algol was receding at   
the rate of about #bd miles a second1   
while seventeen hours after minimum it  
was found to be approaching with a speed
 of about #bh miles4 ,from these data1  
together with those of the variation of 
its light1 ,vogel found1 on the         
assumption that both stars have the same
 density1 that the companion1 nearly as 
large as the sun1 but with about        
one-fourth his mass1 revolved with a    
velocity of about fifty-five miles a    
second4 ,the bright star of about twice 
the size and mass moved about the common
 center of gravity with the speed of    
about #bf miles a second4 ,the system of
 the two stars1 which were about #c     
millions of miles apart1 considered as a
 whole1 was approaching us with a       
velocity of #b4d miles a second4 ,the   
great difference in luminosity of the   
two stars1 not less than fifty times1   
suggested rather that they were in      
different stages of condensation1 and   

dissimilar in density4 ,it was obvious  
that if the orbit of a star with an     
obscure companion was inclined to the   
line of sight1 the companion would pass 
above or below the bright star and      
produce no variation of its light4 ,such
 systems might be numerous in the       
heavens4 ,in ,vogel's photographs1      
,spica1 which was not variable1 by a    
small shifting of its lines revealed a  
backward and forward periodical         
pulsation due to orbital motion4 ,as the
 pair whirled round their common center 
of gravity1 the bright star was         
sometimes advancing1 at others receding4
 ,they revolved in about four days1 each
 star moving with a velocity of about   
#ef miles a second in an orbit probably 
nearly circular1 and possessed a        
combined mass of rather more than two   
and one-half times that of the sun4     
,taking the most probable value for the 
star's parallax1 the greatest angular   
separation of the stars would be far too
 small to be detected with the most     

powerful telescopes4   ,,the ,,value    
,,of ,,photography4  ,referring to the  
new and great power which modern        
photography had put into the hands of   
the astronomer1 the president said that 
the modern silver bromide gelatine      
plate1 except for its grained texture1  
met his needs at all points4 ,it        
possessed extreme sensitiveness1 it was 
always ready for use1 it could be placed
 in any position1 it could be exposed   
for hours1 lastly it did not need       
immediate development1 and for this     
reason could be exposed again to the    
same object on succeeding nights1 so as 
to make up by several installments1 as  
the weather might permit1 the total time
 of exposure which was deemed necessary4
 ,without the assistance of photography1
 however greatly the resources of genius
 might overcome the optical and         
mechanical difficulties of constructing 
large telescopes1 the astronomer would  
have to depend in the last resource upon
 his eye4 ,now1 we could not by the     

force of continued looking bring into   
view an object too feebly luminous to be
 seen at the first and keenest moment of
 vision4 ,but the feeblest light which  
fell upon the plate was not lost1 but   
taken in and stored up continuously4    
,each hour the plate gathered up #c1fjj 
times the light energy which it received
 during the first second4 ,it was by    
this power of accumulation that the     
photographic plate might be said to     
increase1 almost without limit1 though  
not in separating power1 the optical    
means at the disposal of the astronomer 
for the discovery or the observation of 
faint objects4   ,,two ,,examples4  ,two
 principal directions might be pointed  
out in which photography was of great   
service to the astronomer4 ,it enabled  
him within the comparatively short time 
of a single exposure to secure          
permanently with great exactness the    
relative positions of hundreds or even  
of thousands of stars1 or the minute    
features of nebul or other objects1 or  

the phenomena of a passing eclipse1 a   
task which by means of the eye and hand 
could only be accomplished1 if done at  
all1 after a very great expenditure of  
time and labor4 ,photography put it in  
the power of the astronomer to          
accomplish in the short span of his own 
life1 and so enter into their fruition1 
great works which otherwise must have   
been passed on by him as a heritage of  
labor to succeeding generations4 ,the   
second great service which photography  
rendered was not simply an aid to the   
powers the astronomer already possessed4
 ,on the contrary1 the plate1 by        
recording light waves which were both   
too small and too large to excite vision
 in the eye1 brought him into a new     
region of knowledge1 such as the        
infra-red and the ultra-violet parts of 
the spectrum1 which must have remained  
forever unknown but for artificial help4
   ,a ,,photographic ,,chart4  ,the     
present year would be memorable in      
astronomical history for the practical  

beginning of the photographic chart and 
catalogue of the heavens which took     
their origin in an international        
conference which met in ,paris in #ahhg4
 ,the decisions of the conference in    
their final form provided for the       
construction of a great chart with      
exposures corresponding to forty        
minutes' exposure at ,paris1 which it   
was expected would reach down to stars  
of about the fourteenth magnitude4 ,as  
each plate was to be limited to four    
square degrees1 and as each star1 to    
avoid possible errors1 was to appear on 
two plates1 over #bb1jjj photographs    
would be required4 ,a second set of     
plates for a catalogue was to be taken1 
with a shorter exposure1 which would    
give stars to the eleventh magnitude    
only4 ,the plans were to be pushed on as
 actively a possible1 though as far as  
might be practicable plates for the     
chart were to be taken concurrently4    
,photographing the plates for the       
catalogue was but the first step in this

 work1 and only supplied the data for   
the elaborate measurements which would  
have to be made1 which were1 however1   
less laborious than would be required   
for a similar catalogue without the aid 
of photography4   ,a ,,delicate         
,,operation4  ,the determination of the 
distances of the fixed stars from the   
small apparent shift of their positions 
when viewed from widely separated       
positions of the earth in its orbit was 
one of the most refined operations of   
the observatory4 ,the great precision   
with which this minute angular quantity1
 a fraction of a second only1 had to be 
measured1 was so delicate an operation  
with the ordinary micrometer1 though1   
indeed1 it was with this instrument that
 the classical observations of ,sir     
,robert ,ball were made1 that a special 
instrument1 in which the measures were  
made by moving the two halves of a      
divided object glass1 known as a        
heliometer1 had been pressed into this  
service1 and quite recently1 in the     

skillful hands of ,dr4 ,gill and ,dr4   
,elkin1 had largely increased our       
knowledge in this direction4 ,it was    
obvious that photography might be here  
of great service1 if we could rely upon 
measurements of photographs of the same 
stars taken at suitable intervals of    
time4 ,professor ,pritchard1 to whom was
 due the honor of having opened this new
 path1 aided by his assistants1 had     
proved by elaborate investigations that 
measures for parallax might be safely   
made upon photographic plates1 with1 of 
course1 the advantages of leisure and   
repetition2 and he had already by this  
method determined the parallax for      
twenty-one stars with an accuracy not   
inferior to that of values previously   
obtained by purely astronomical methods4
   ,,photographic ,,revelations4  ,the  
remarkable successes of astronomical    
photography1 which depended upon the    
plate's power of accumulation of a very 
feeble light acting continuously through
 an exposure of several hours1 were     

worthy to be regarded as a new          
revelation4 ,the first chapter opened   
when1 in #ahhj1 ,dr4 ,henry ,draper     
obtained a picture of the nebula of     
,orion2 but a more important advance was
 made in #ahhc1 when ,dr4 ,common1 by   
his photographs1 brought to our         
knowledge details and extensions of this
 nebula hitherto unknown4 ,a further    
disclosure took place in #ahhe1 when the
 ,brothers ,henry showed for the first  
time in great detail the spiral         
nebulosity issuing from the bright star 
,maia of the ,pleiades1 and shortly     
afterward nebulous streams about the    
other stars of this group4 ,in #ahhf    
,mr4 ,roberts1 by means of a photograph 
to which three hours' exposure had been 
given1 showed the whole background of   
this group to be nebulous4  ,in the     
following year ,mr4 ,roberts more than  
doubled for us the great extension of   
the nebular region which surrounds the  
trapezium in the constellation of       
,orion4 ,by his photographs of the great

 nebula in ,andromeda1 he had shown the 
true significance of the dark canals    
which had been seen by the eye4 ,they   
were in reality spaces between          
successive rings of bright matter1 which
 appeared nearly straight1 owing to the 
inclination in which they lay relatively
 to us4 ,these bright rings surrounded  
an undefined central luminous mass4     
,recent photographs by ,mr4 ,russell    
showed that the great rift in the ,milky
 ,way in ,argus1 which to the eye was   
void of stars1 was in reality uniformly 
covered with them4   ,,the ,,story ,,of 
,,the ,,heavens4  ,the heavens were     
richly but very irregularly inwrought   
with stars4 ,the brighter stars         
clustered into well known groups upon a 
background formed of an enlacement of   
streams and convoluted windings and     
intertwined spirals of fainter stars1   
which became richer and more intricate  
in the irregularly rifted zone of the   
,milky ,way4 ,we1 who formed part of the
 emblazonry1 could only see the design  

distorted and confused2 here crowded1   
there scattered1 at another place       
superposed4 ,the groupings due to our   
position were mixed up with those which 
were real4 ,could we suppose that each  
luminous point had no relation to the   
others near it than the accidental      
neighborship of grains of sand upon the 
shore1 or of particles of the wind-blown
 dust of the desert8 ,surely every star 
from ,sirius and ,vega down to each     
grain of the light dust of the ,milky   
,way had its present place in the       
heavenly pattern from the slow evolving 
of its past4 ,we saw a system of        
systems1 for the broad features of      
clusters and streams and spiral windings
 marking the general design were        
reproduced in every part4 ,the whole was
 in motion1 each point shifting its     
position by miles every second1 though  
from the august magnitude of their      
distances from us and from each other1  
it was only by the accumulated movements
 of years or of generations that some   

small changes of relative position      
revealed themselves4   ,,the ,,work ,,of
 ,,the ,,future4  ,the deciphering of   
this wonderfully intricate constitution 
of the heavens would be undoubtedly one 
of the chief astronomical works of the  
coming century4 ,the primary task of the
 sun's motion in space1 together with   
the motions of the brighter stars1 had  
been already put well within our reach  
by the spectroscopic method of the      
measurement of star motions in the line 
of sight4 ,astronomy1 the oldest of the 
sciences1 had more than renewed her     
youth4 ,at no time in the past had she  
been so bright with unbounded           
aspirations and hopes4 ,never were her  
temples so numerous1 nor the crowd of   
her votaries so great4  ,the ,british   
,astronomical ,association formed within
 the year numbered already about #fjj   
members4 ,happy was the lot of those who
 were still on the eastern side of      
life's meridian6 ,already1 alas6 the    
original founders of the newer methods  

were falling out--,kirchhoff1 ,angstrom1
 ,d',arrest1 ,secchi1 ,draper1          
,becquerel2 but their places were more  
than filled2 the pace of the race was   
gaining1 but the goal was not and never 
would be in sight4 ,since the time of   
,newton our knowledge of the phenomena  
of nature had wonderfully increased1 but
 man asked perhaps more earnestly now   
than in his days1 what was the ultimate 
reality behind the reality of the       
perceptions8 ,were they only the pebbles
 of the beach with which we had been    
playing8 ,did not the ocean of ultimate 
reality and truth lie beyond8         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,climatic ,,changes ,,in ,,the         
,,southern ,,hemisphere4  ,by ,c4,a4,m4 
,,taber4   ,having had occasion to      
cruise a considerable time over the     
,southern ,ocean1 ,i have had my        
attention directed to its prevailing    
winds and currents1 and the way in which
 they affect its temperature1 and also  
to the ice-worn appearance of its       

isolated lands4  ,it is now generally   
conceded that the lands situated in the 
high latitudes of the southern          
hemisphere have in the remote past been 
covered with ice sheets1 similar to the 
lands which lie within the antarctic    
circle4 ,the shores of ,southern ,chile1
 from latitude #dj to ,cape ,horn1 show 
convincing evidence of having been      
overrun by heavy glaciers1 which scoured
 out the numerous deep channels that    
separate the ,patagonian coast from its 
islands4 ,the ,falkland ,islands and    
,south ,georgia abound with deep friths2
 ,new ,zealand and ,kerguelen ,land also
 exhibit the same evidence of having    
been ice-laden regions2 and it is said  
that the southern lands of ,africa and  
,australia show that ice accumulated at 
one time to a considerable extent on    
their shores4 ,at this date we find the 
southern ice sheets mostly confined to  
regions within the antarctic circle2    
still the lands of ,chile1 ,south       
,georgia1 and ,new ,zealand possess     

glaciers reaching the low lands1 which  
are probably growing in bulk2 for it    
appears that the antarctic cold is      
slowly on the increase1 and the reasons 
for its increase are the same as the    
causes which brought about the frigid   
period which overran with ice all lands 
situated in the high southern latitudes4
  ,why there should be a slow increase  
of cold on this portion of the globe is 
because of the independent circulation  
of the waters of the ,southern ,ocean4  
,the strong westerly winds of the       
southern latitudes are constantly       
blowing the surface waters of the sea   
from west to east around the globe4     
,this causes an effectual barrier1 which
 the warm tropical currents cannot      
penetrate to any great extent4 ,for     
instance1 the tropical waters of the    
high ocean levels1 which lie abreast    
,brazil in the ,atlantic and the east   
coast of ,africa in the ,indian ,ocean1 
are not attracted far into the southern 
sea1 because the surface waters of the  

latter sea are blown by the westerly    
winds from west to east around the      
globe4 ,consequently the tropical waters
 moving southward are turned away by the
 prevailing winds and currents from     
entering the ,southern ,ocean4 ,thus the
 ice is accumulating on its lands1 and  
the temperature of its waters slowly    
falling through their contact with the  
increasing ice2 and such conditions will
 continue until the lands of the high   
southern latitudes are again covered    
with glaciers1 and a southern ice period
 perfected4 ,but while this gathering of
 ice is being brought about1 the        
antarctic continent1 now nearly covered 
with an ice sheet1 will1 through the    
extension of glaciers out into its      
shallow waters1 cover a larger area than
 now2 for where the waters are shoal the
 growing glaciers1 resting on a firm    
bottom1 will advance into the sea1 and  
this advancement will continue wherever 
the shallow waters extend4 ,especially  
will this be the case where the snowfall

 is great4  ,under such conditions1 it  
appears that the only extensive body of 
shallow water extending from the        
ice-clad southern continent is the shoal
 channel which separates the ,south     
,shetlands from ,cape ,horn1 which is a 
region of great snowfall4 ,therefore1   
should the antarctic ice gain sufficient
 thickness to rest on the bottom of this
 shallow sea1 it would move into the    
,cape ,horn channel1 and eventually     
close it4 ,the ice growth would not be  
entirely from the southern continent1   
but also from lands in the region of    
,cape ,horn4 ,thus the antarctic        
continent and ,south ,america would be  
connected by an isthmus of ice1 and     
consequently the independent circulation
 of the ,southern ,ocean arrested4      
,hence it will be seen that the westerly
 winds1 instead of blowing the surface  
waters of the ,southern ,ocean          
constantly around the globe1 as they are
 known to do to-day1 would instead blow 
the surface waters away from the        

easterly side of the ice-formed isthmus1
 which would cause a low sea level along
 its ,atlantic side1 and this low sea   
level would attract the tropical waters 
from their high level against ,brazil   
well into the southern seas1 and so wash
 the antarctic continent to the eastward
 of the ,south ,shetlands4  ,the        
tropical waters thus attracted southward
 would be cooler than the tropical      
waters of to-day1 owing to the great    
extension of cold in the southern       
latitudes4 ,still they would begin the  
slow process of raising the temperature 
of the ,southern ,ocean1 and would in   
time melt the ice in all southern lands4
 ,not only the ,brazil currents would   
penetrate the southern seas1 as we have 
shown1 but also the waters from the high
 level of the tropical ,indian ,ocean   
which now pass down the ,mozambique     
,channel would reach a much higher      
latitude than now4  ,the ice-made       
isthmus uniting ,south ,america to the  
antarctic continent would on account of 

its location be the last body of ice to 
melt from the southern hemisphere1 it   
being situated to windward of the       
tropical currents and also in a region  
where the fall of snow is great2 yet it 
would eventually melt away1 and the     
independent circulation of the ,southern
 ,ocean again be established4 ,but it   
would require a long time for ice sheets
 to again form on southern lands1       
because of the lack of icebergs to cool 
the southern waters4 ,still1 their      
temperature would gradually lower with  
the exclusion of the tropical waters1   
and consequently ice would slowly gather
 on the antarctic lands4  ,the above    
theory thus briefly presented to account
 for the climatic changes of the high   
southern latitudes is in full accord    
with the simple workings of nature as   
carried on to-day2 and it is probable   
that the formation of continents and    
oceans1 as well as the earth's motions  
in its path around the sun1 have met    
with little change since the cold era   

iced the lands of the high latitudes4   
,at an early age1 previous to the       
appearance of frigid periods1 the ocean 
waters of the high latitudes probably   
did not possess an independent          
circulation sufficient to lower the     
temperature so that glaciers could form4
 ,this may have been owing to the       
shallow sea bottom south of ,cape ,horn 
having been above the surface of the    
water1 the channel having since been    
formed by a comparatively small change  
in the ocean's level4 ,for1 while       
considering this subject1 it is well to 
keep in mind that whenever the western  
continent extended to the antarctic     
circle it prevented the independent     
circulation of the ,southern ,ocean     
waters1 consequently during such times  
ice periods could not have occurred in  
the southern hemisphere4  ,it will be   
noticed that according to the views     
given above1 the several theories which 
have been published to account for great
 climatic changes neglect to set forth  

the only efficacious methods through    
which nature works for conveying and    
withdrawing tropical heat sufficient to 
cause temperate and frigid periods in   
the high latitudes4 ,while lack of space
 forbids an explanation of the causes   
which would perfect an ice period in the
 northern hemisphere1 ,i will say that  
it could be mainly brought about through
 the independent circulation of the     
arctic waters1 which now largely prevent
 the tropical waters of the ,north      
,atlantic from entering the arctic seas1
 thus causing the accumulation of ice   
sheets on ,greenland4 ,but before a     
northern ice period can be perfected1 it
 seems that it will need to co-operate  
with a cold period in the southern      
hemisphere2 and in order to have the ice
 of a northern frigid period melt away1 
it would require the assistance of a    
mild climate in the high southern       
latitudes4--,science4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,,ammonia4   ,in the majority of        

refrigerating and ice machines ammonia  
gas is the substance used for producing 
the refrigeration1 although there are   
other machines in which other material  
is employed1 one of these being         
anhydrous sulphurous acid1 which is also
 a gas4 ,ammonia of itself is a         
colorless gas1 but little more than one 
half as heavy as air4 ,in its           
composition ammonia consists of two     
gases1 nitrogen and hydrogen1 in the    
proportion by weight of one part        
nitrogen and three parts hydrogen4 ,the 
gas hydrogen is one of the constituents 
of water and is highly inflammable in   
the presence of air or oxygen1 while the
 other component of ammonia1 nitrogen1  
forms the bulk or about four-fifths of  
the atmosphere4 ,nitrogen by itself is  
an inert gas1 colorless and             
uninflammable4 ,ammonia1 although       
composed of more than three-fourths its 
weight of hydrogen1 is not inflammable  
in air1 on account of its combination   
with the nitrogen4 ,this combination1 it

 will be understood1 is not a simple    
mixture1 but the two gases are          
chemically combined1 forming a new      
substance which has characteristics and 
properties entirely different from      
either of the gases entering into its   
composition when taken alone or when    
simply mixed together without chemical  
combustion4 ,ammonia cannot be produced 
by the direct combination of these      
elements1 but it has been found that it 
is sometimes made or produced in a very 
extraordinary manner1 which goes to show
 that there is yet considerable to be   
learned in regard to the chemistry of   
ammonia4 ,animal or vegetable substances
 when putrefying or suffering           
destructive distillation almost         
invariably give rise to an abundant     
production of this substance4  ,the     
common method for the manufacture of    
ammonia is to produce it from the salt  
known as sal-ammoniac4 ,sal-ammoniac as 
a crystal is obtained in various ways1  
principally from the ammoniacal liquor  

of gas works1 also from the condensed   
products of the distillation of bones   
and other animal refuse in the          
preparation of animal charcoal1 and     
which is of a highly alkaline nature4   
,this liquid is then treated with a     
slight excess of muriatic acid to       
neutralize the free alkali1 and at the  
same time the carbonates and sulphides  
are decomposed with the evolution of    
carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen4 
,all animal matter1 the meat1 bones1    
etc41 contain considerable carbon1 while
 the nitrogen from which the ammonia is 
produced forms a smaller portion of the 
substance4 ,the object is then to get   
rid of the carbon and sulphur1 leaving  
the nitrogen to combine1 through        
chemical affinity1 with a portion of the
 hydrogen of the water1 the oxygen which
 is set free going to form the carbonic 
acid by combining with the carbon4 ,the 
liquor after being neutralized is       
evaporated to dryness1 leaving a        
crystallized salt containing a portion  

of tarry matter4  ,the salt is then     
purified by sublimation1 that is1 it is 
heated in a closed iron vessel until it 
is transformed into a gas which         
separates and leaves1 in a carbonized   
state1 all foreign substance4 ,after    
this gas is cooled1 it condenses and    
again forms crystals which are in a much
 purer condition4 ,if necessary to      
further purify it1 it is again sublimed4
 ,the iron vessels in which the         
sublimation takes place are lined with  
clay and covered with lead4 ,the clay   
lining and lead covering are necessary1 
for if the gas evolved during the       
process of sublimation came in contact  
with the iron surface1 the gas would be 
contaminated and the iron corroded4     
,sublimed sal-ammoniac has a fibrous    
texture and is tough and difficult to   
powder4 ,it has a sharp1 salty taste and
 is soluble in two and a half parts of  
cold and in a much smaller quantity of  
hot water4 ,during the process of       
sublimation the ammonia is not          

decomposed4 ,but there are several ways 
in which the gas may be decomposed1 and 
a certain portion of it is decomposed in
 the ordinary use of it in refrigerating
 machines4 ,if electric sparks are      
passed through the gas1 it suffers      
decomposition1 the nitrogen and hydrogen
 then being in the condition of a simple
 mixture4 ,when decomposed in this      
manner1 the volume of the gas is doubled
 and the proportion is found to be three
 measures of hydrogen to one of         
nitrogen1 while the weight of the two   
constituents is in the proportion of    
three parts hydrogen to fourteen of     
nitrogen4  ,the ammonia gas may also be 
decomposed by passing through a red hot 
tube1 and the presence of heated iron   
causes a slight degree of decomposition4
 ,this sal-ammoniac is powdered and     
mixed with moist slaked lime and then   
gently heated in a flask1 when a large  
quantity of gaseous ammonia is          
disengaged4 ,the gas must be collected  
over mercury or by displacement4 ,the   

gas thus produced has a strong1 pungent 
odor1 as can easily be determined by any
 one working around the ammonia ice or  
refrigerating machines1 for as our      
friend1 ,otto ,luhr1 says1 ,it is the   
worst stuff ,i ever smelled in my life4 
,the gas is highly alkaline and combines
 readily with acids1 completely         
neutralizing them1 and the aqua ammonia 
is one of the best substances to put on 
a place burned by sulphuric acid1 as has
 been learned by those working with that
 substance1 for although aqua ammonia of
 full strength is highly corrosive and  
of itself will blister the flesh1 yet   
when used to neutralize the effect of a 
burn from sulphuric acid its great      
affinity for the acid prevents it from  
injuring the skin under such conditions4
  ,the distilled gas1 such as has just  
been described1 is the anhydrous ammonia
 used in the compressor system of       
refrigeration1 while it is the aqua     
ammonia that is used in the absorption  
system of refrigeration4 ,aqua ammonia  

or liquor ammonia is formed by          
dissolving the ammonia gas in water4    
,one volume of water will dissolve seven
 hundred times its bulk of this gas1 and
 is then known as aqua ammonia1 in      
contradistinction to anhydrous ammonia1 
the latter designating term meaning     
without water1 while the term aqua is   
the ,latin word for water4  ,anhydrous  
ammonia1 the gas1 may be reduced to the 
liquid form at ordinary temperatures    
when submitted to a pressure of about   
#ie pounds4 ,during the process of      
liquefaction the ammonia gives up a     
large amount of heat1 which if absorbed 
or radiated while the ammonia is in the 
liquid condition1 the gas when allowed  
to expand will absorb from its          
surroundings an amount of heat equal to 
that radiated1 producing a very great   
lowering of temperature4 ,it is this    
principle that is utilized in           
refrigeration and ice making4 ,in the   
absorption system1 where aqua ammonia is
 used1 the liquor is contained in a     

retort to which heat is applied by means
 of a steam coil1 and a great part of   
the gas which was held in solution by   
the water is expelled1 and carries with 
it a small amount of water or vapor4    
,this passes into a separator in the top
 of a condenser1 from which the water   
returns again to the retort1 the ammonia
 gas1 under considerable pressure1      
passing into the coolers4 ,these are    
large receptacles in which the gas is   
permitted to expand4 ,by such expansion 
heat is absorbed and the temperature of 
the surroundings is lowered4 ,from the  
coolers the gas returns to the absorber1
 from which it is pumped1 in liquid     
form1 into the retort1 to be again      
heated1 the gas expelled and the process
 repeated4 ,as the gas passes through   
the different processes1 being heated   
under pressure1 cooled1 expanded again1 
more or less decomposition takes place1 
presumably from a combination of a small
 portion of the nitrogen with vegetable1
 animal1 or mineral matter that finds   

its way into the system4 ,such          
decomposition1 with the loss of         
nitrogen1 leaves a small portion of free
 hydrogen1 which is the gas that can be 
drawn from the top of the absorber1     
ignited and burned4 ,the presence of    
hydrogen gas in the absorber is not     
necessarily detrimental to the          
effectiveness of the system1 but as     
hydrogen does not possess the qualities 
of absorbing heat in the same way and to
 the same extent as ammonia1 the        
presence of hydrogen makes the operation
 of the apparatus somewhat less         
efficient4--,stationary ,engineer4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the refrigerating apparatus illustrated
 and described in the ,,scientific      
,,american ,,supplement of ,june #be1   
,no4 #hab1 is substantially that        
patented by ,messrs4 ,erny1 ,subers     
,hoos1 of ,philadelphia4 ,the           
illustration was copied from their      
patents of ,november and ,february last4
         99       99       99       99  

99   ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of          
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