,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hbb ,,new ,,york1 ,october #c1 #ahia ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1 ,no4 #hbb4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,anthropology4--,the ,study of ,mankind4--,a review of ,prof4 ,max ,muller's recent address before the ,british ,association4 #acada ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4--,standards and ,methods for the ,polarimetric ,estimation of ,sugars4--,a ,u4,s4 internal revenue report on the titular subject4--#b illustrations4 #acach ,the ,formation of ,starch in ,leaves4--,an interesting examination into the physiological role of leaves4--#a illustration4 #acach ,the ,water ,molecule4--,by ,a4 ,,ganswindt4--,a very interesting contribution to structural chemistry4 #acacg ,,iii4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,demolition of ,rocks under ,water without ,explosives4--,lobnitz ,system4--,by ,,edward ,s4 ,,crawley4--,a method of removing rocks by combined dredging and ramming as applied on the ,suez ,canal4--#c illustrations4 #acabh ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,electrical ,standards4--,the ,english ,board of ,trade commission's standards of electrical measurements4 #acabi ,the ,london-,paris ,telephone4--,by ,w4,h4 ,,preece1 ,f4,r4,s4--,details of the telephone between ,london and ,paris and its remarkable success4--#f illustrations4 #acaca ,the ,manufacture of ,phosphorus by ,electricity4--,a new industry based on dynamic electricity4--,full details4 #acacb ,the ,two or ,three ,phase ,alternating ,current ,systems4--,by ,,carl ,,hering4--,a new industrial development in electricity fully described and graphically developed4--#ae illustrations4 #acacj ,v4 ,,geography ,,and ,,exploration4--,the ,grand ,falls of ,labrador4--,the ,bowdoin ,college exploring expedition and its adventures and discoveries in ,labrador4 #acadj ,,vi4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering4--,improved ,changeable ,speed ,gearing4--,an ingenious method of obtaining different speeds at will from a single driving shaft4--#b illustrations4 #acabi ,progress in ,engineering4--,notes on the progress of the last decade4 #acabi ,,vii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,eyesight4--,its ,care during ,infancy and ,youth4--,by ,l4 ,,webster ,,fox1 ,m4,d4--,a very timely article on the preservation of sight and its deterioration among civilized people4 #acace ,the ,use of ,compressed ,air in ,conjunction with ,medicinal ,solutions in the ,treatment of ,nervous and ,mental ,affections4--,by ,j4 ,,leonard ,,corning4--,the enhancement of the effects of remedies by subsequent application of compressed air4 #acacd ,,viii4 ,,mineralogy4--,a ,gem-,bearing ,granite ,vein in ,western ,connecticut4--,by ,l4,p4 ,,gratacap4--,a most interesting mineral fissure yielding mica and gems recently opened4 #acada ,,ix4 ,,natural ,,history4--,ants4--,by ,,ruth ,,ward ,,kahn4--,an interesting presentation of the economy of ants4 #acadj ,x4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,armor ,plating on ,battleships--,france and ,great ,britain4--,a comparison of the protective systems of the ,french and ,english navies4--#e illustrations4 #acabg ,the ,redoutable4--,an important member of the ,french ,mediterranean fleet described and illustrated4--#a illustration4 #acabg ,,xi4 ,,technology4--,new ,bleaching ,apparatus4--,a newly invented apparatus for bleaching pulp4--#b illustrations4 #acacc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,redoutable4 ,the central battery and barbette ship ,redoutable1 illustrated this week1 forms part of the ,french ,mediterranean squadron1 and although launched as early as #ahgf is still one of its most powerful ships4 ,below are some of the principal dimensions and particulars of this ironclad3 ,length #cah ft4 #b in4 ,beam #fd #h ,draught #be #f ,displacement #ibjj tons4 ,crew #gjf officers and men4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,french ,,central ,,battery ,,ironclad ,,redoutable4 ,the ,redoutable is built partly of iron and partly of steel and is similar in many respects to the ironclads ,devastation and ,courbet of the same fleet1 although rather smaller4 ,she is completely belted with #ad in4 armor1 with a #ae in4 backing1 and has the central battery armored with plates of #i in4 in thickness4 ,the engines are two in number1 horizontal1 and of the compound two cylinder type1 developing a horse power of #f1jga1 which on the trial trip gave a speed of #ad4ff knots per hour4 ,five hundred and ten tons of coal are carried in the bunkers1 which at a speed of #aj knots should enable the ship to make a voyage of #b1hjj knots4 ,torpedo defense netting is fitted1 and there are three masts with military tops carrying ,hotchkiss revolver machine guns4 ,the offensive power of the ship consists of seven breechloading rifled guns of #bg centimeters 7#aj4fc in471 and weighing #bd tons each1 six breechloading rifled guns of #ad centimeters 7#e4ea in471 and quick-firing and machine guns of the ,hotchkiss systems4 ,there are in addition four torpedo discharge tubes1 two on each side of the ship4 ,the positions of the guns are as follows3 ,four of #bg centimeters in the central battery1 two on each broadside2 three #bg centimeter guns on the upper deck in barbettes1 one on each side amidships1 and one aft4 ,the #ad centimeter guns are in various positions on the broadsides1 and the machine guns are fitted on deck1 on the bridges1 and in the military tops1 four of them also being mounted on what is rather a novelty in naval construction1 a gallery running round the outside of the funnel1 which was fitted when the ship was under repairs some months ago4 ,there are three electric light projectors1 one forward on the upper deck1 one on the bridge just forward of the funnel1 and one in the mizzen top4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,armor ,,plating ,,on ,,battleships3 ,,france ,,and ,,great ,,britain4 ,the visit of the ,french squadron under ,admiral ,gervais to ,england has revived in many a nautical mind the recollection of that oft-repeated controversy as to the relative advantages of armored belts and citadels4 ,now that a typical ,french battleship of the belted class has been brought so prominently to our notice1 it may not be considered an inappropriate season to dwell shortly upon the various idiosyncrasies of thought which have produced1 in our two nations1 types of war vessels differing so materially from each other as to their protective features4 ,in order to facilitate a study of these features1 the accompanying sketch has been prepared1 which shows at a glance the relative quantities of armored surface that afford protection to the ,nile1 the ,camperdown1 the ,marceau1 the ,royal ,sovereign1 and the ,dupuy de ,lme2 the first three of these vessels having been actually present at the review on the #bast of ,august and the two others having been selected as the latest efforts of shipbuilding skill in ,france and ,great ,britain4 ,nothing but the armored surface in each several class is shown1 the same scale having been adhered to in all cases4 ,illustration3 ,armored ,surface for ,various ,ships ,two impressions cannot fail to be made upon our minds1 both as to ,french and ,british armor plate disposition4 ,these two impressions1 as regards ,great ,britain1 point to the ,royal ,sovereign as embodying the idea of two protected stations with a narrow and partial connecting belt2 and to the ,nile as embodying the idea of a vast and absolutely protected raft4 ,for ,france1 we have the ,marceau as representing the wholly belted type with four disconnected but protected stations2 and the ,dupuy de ,lme1 in which the armor plating is thinned out to a substance of only #d in41 so as entirely to cover the sides of the vessel down to #e ft1 below the water line2 this thickness of plating being regarded as sufficient to break up upon its surface the dreaded mlinite or guncotton shell1 but permitting the passage of armor-piercing projectiles right through from side to side2 provision being made to prevent damage from these latter to engines and vitals by means of double-armored decks below1 with a belt of cellulose between them4 ,thus1 as we have explained1 two prominent ideas are present in the disposition of armor upon the battleships of ,great ,britain1 as well as in that of the battleships of ,france4 ,but1 while in our country these two ideas follow one another in the natural sequence of development1 from the ,inflexible to the ,royal ,sovereign1 the citadel being gradually extended into two redoubts1 and space being left between the redoubts for an auxiliary battery--this latter being1 however1 singularly placed above the armored belt1 and not within its shelter--in ,france1 on the other hand1 we find the second idea to be a new departure altogether in armored protection1 or rather to be a return to the original thought which produced the ,gloire and vessels of her class4 ,in point of fact1 while we have always clung to the armored citadel1 ,france has discarded the belt altogether1 and gone in for speed and light armor1 as well as for a much lighter class of armament4 ,time alone1 and the circumstances of actual warfare1 can prove which nation has adopted the wisest alternative4 ,a glance at the engraving will show the striking contrast between the existing service types as to armored surface4 ,the ,marceau appears absolutely naked by the side of the solidly armed citadel of the ,nile4 ,the contrast between the future types will be1 of course1 still more striking1 for the reasons given in the last paragraph4 ,but while remarking upon the paucity of heavy plating as exhibited in the service ,french battleships1 we would say one word for the angle at which it is placed4 ,the receding sides of the great vessels of ,france give two very important attributes in their favor4 ,in the first place1 a much broader platform at the water line is afforded to secure steadiness of the ship and stable equilibrium1 and the angle at which the armor rests is so great as to present a very oblique surface to the impact of projectiles4 ,the trajectory of modern rifled guns is so exceedingly flat that the angle of descent of the shot or shell is practically nil4 ,were the sides of the ,royal ,sovereign to fall back like those of the ,marceau or ,magenta1 we seriously doubt whether any projectile1 however pointed1 would effect penetration at all4 ,we conclude1 then1 that a comparison of the ,marceau with the ,nile as regards protective features is so incontestably in favor of the latter1 that they cannot be classed together for a moment4 ,in speed1 moreover1 though this is not a point under consideration1 the ,nile has the advantage4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to avoid the conviction that the ,dupuy de ,lme would be a most powerful and disagreeable enemy for either of the eight great ironclads of ,great ,britain now building to encounter on service4 ,the ,hood and ,royal ,sovereign have many vulnerable points4 ,at any position outside of the dark and light colored portions of armor plate indicated in our drawing1 they could be hulled with impunity with the lightest weapons4 ,it is true that gun detachments and ammunition will be secure within the internal crinolines1 but how about the other men and matriel between decks8 ,now1 the ,dupuy de ,lme may be riddled through and through bf a #ac in4 shell if a ,royal ,sovereign ever succeeds in catching her2 but from lighter weapons her between decks is almost secure4 ,we cannot help feeling a sneaking admiration for the great ,french cruising battleship1 with her #f1cjj tons and #ad1jjj horse power1 giving an easy speed of #bj knots in almost any weather1 and protected by a complete #d in4 steel panoply1 which will explode the shells of most of our secondary batteries on impact1 or prevent their penetration4 ,in fact1 there is little doubt that the interior of the ,trafalgar1 whether as regards the secondary batteries or the unarmored ends1 would be probably found to be a safer and pleasanter situation1 in the event of action with a ,dupuy de ,lme1 than either of the naked batteries or the upper works of the ,royal ,sovereign4 ,this is what ,sir ,e4,j4 ,reed was so anxious to point out at the meeting of naval architects in #ahhi1 when he described the modern ,british battleship as a spoiled ,trafalgar4 ,there was perhaps some reason in what he said4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,demolition ,,of ,,rocks ,,under ,,water ,,without ,,explosives-,,lobnitz ,,system4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read before the ,engineer's ,club1 ,philadelphia4 ,translated from ,nouvelles ,anodes de la ,construction1 ,march1 #ahij4 ,by ,,edwin ,s4 ,,crawley4 ,the methods of demolishing rocks by the use of explosives are always attended by a certain amount of danger1 while at the same time there is always more or less uncertainty in regard to the final result of the operation4 ,especially is this the case when the work must be carried on without interrupting navigation and in the vicinity of constructions that may receive injury from the explosions4 ,such were the conditions imposed in enlarging the ,suez ,canal in certain parts where the ordinary dredges could not be used4 ,mr4 ,henry ,lobnitz1 engineer at ,renfrew1 has contrived a new method of procedure1 designed for the purpose of enlarging and deepening the canal in those parts between the ,bitter ,lakes and ,suez1 where it runs over a rocky bed4 ,it was necessary to execute the work without interrupting or obstructing traffic on the canal4 ,the principle of the system consists in producing a shattering of the rock by the action of a heavy mass let fall from a convenient height1 and acting like a projectile of artillery upon the wall of a fortress4 ,from experiments made in the quarry of ,craigmiller1 near ,edinburgh1 with a weight of two tons shod with a steel point1 it was found that with a fall of about #e4e meters 7#ah4jd ft47 there was broken up on an average more than #j4aac cubic meter 7#j4adh cubic yard7 of hard rock per blow4 ,the first blow1 delivered #ij centimeters 7#b ft4 #aa in47 from the wall face1 produced an almost imperceptible rent1 a second or a third blow applied at the same place extended this opening often to a length of #a4ej meters 7#d ft4 #aa in47 and to a depth of from #ij to #abj centimeters 7#b ft4 #aa in4 to #c ft4 #aa in47 ,the next blow opened the fissure and detached the block of rock4 ,the application of the same system under water upon an unknown surface would obviously modify the conditions of the experiment4 ,nevertheless1 the results obtained with the ,derocheuse1 the first dredging machine constructed upon this principle1 have realized the hopes of the inventor4 ,this dredging machine was launched on the ,clyde and reached ,port ,said in twenty days4 ,it measures #ee meters 7#ahj ft4 #e in47 in length1 #ab4bj meters 7#dj ft4 #a in47 in breadth1 and #c4fe meters 7#ab ft47 in depth4 ,its mean draught of water is #b4ge meters 7#i ft4 #b in47 ,it is divided into eighteen watertight compartments4 ,five steel-pointed battering rams1 each of four tons weight1 are arranged in line upon each side of the chain of buckets of the dredging machine4 ,see ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,the battering rams1 suspended by chains1 are raised by hydraulic power to a height varying from #a4ej to #f meters 7#d ft4 #aa in4 to #ai ft4 #h in471 and are then let fall upon the rock4 ,the mechanism of the battering rams is carried by a metallic cage which can be moved forward or backward by the aid of steam as the needs of the work require4 ,a series of five battering rams gives from #bjj to #cjj blows per hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,longitudinal ,,section4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,plan ,a dredging machine combined with the apparatus just described1 raises the fragments of rock as they are detached from the bottom4 ,a guide wheel is provided1 which supports the chain carrying the buckets1 and thus diminishes the stress upon the axles and bearings4 ,with this guide wheel or auxiliary drum there is no difficulty in dredging to a depth of #ab meters 7#ci ft4 #d in471 while without this accessory it is difficult to attain a depth of #i meters 7#bi ft4 #f in47 ,a compound engine1 with four cylinders of #bjj indicated horse power1 drives1 by means of friction gear1 the chain1 which carries the buckets4 ,if the buckets happen to strike against the rock1 the friction gear yields until the excess of resistance has disappeared4 ,fig4 #c indicates the manner in which the dredge is operated during the work4 ,it turns alternately about two spuds which are thrust successively into the bottom and about which the dredge describes a series of arcs in a zigzag fashion4 ,these spuds are worked by hydraulic power4 ,a three ton hand crane is placed upon the bridge for use in making repairs to the chain which carries the buckets4 ,a six ton steam crane is placed upon the top of the cage which supports the hydraulic apparatus for raising the battering rams1 thus permitting them to be easily lifted and replaced4 ,the dredging machine is also furnished with two screws driven by an engine of #cjj indicated horse power1 as well as with two independent boilers4 ,two independent series of pumps1 with separate connections1 feed the hydraulic lifting apparatus1 thus permitting repairs to be made when necessary1 without interrupting the work4 ,a special machine with three cylinders drives the pumps of the condenser4 ,an accumulator regulates the hydraulic pressure and serves to raise or lower the spuds4 ,at the end of the ,suez ,canal next to the ,red ,sea1 the bottom consists of various conglomerates containing gypsum1 sandstone and sometimes shells4 ,it was upon a bed of this nature that the machine was first put to work4 ,the mean depth of water1 originally #h4be meters 7#bf ft4 #c in471 was for a long time sufficient for the traffic of the canal2 but as the variations in level of the ,red ,sea are from #a4h to #c meters 7#e ft4 #aa in4 to #i ft4 #aj in471 the depth at the moment of low water is scarcely adequate for the constantly increasing draught of water of the steamers4 ,attempts were made to attack the rocky surface of the bottom with powerful dredges1 but this method was expensive because it necessitated constant repairs to the dredges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,dredge ,,movement4 ,these last1 although of good construction1 seldom raised more than #aec cubic meters 7#bjj cubic yards7 in from eight to fifteen days4 ,their daily advance was often only from sixty to ninety centimeters 7about #b to #c ft471 while with the ,derocheuse it was possible to advance ten times as rapidly in dredging to the same depth4 ,the bottom upon which the machine commenced its work was clean and of a true rocky nature4 ,it was soon perceived that this conglomerate1 rich in gypsum1 possessed too great elasticity for the pointed battering rams to have their proper effect upon it4 ,each blow made a hole of from fifteen to sixty centimeters 7#f in4 to #b4 ft47 in depth4 ,a second blow1 given even very near to the first1 formed a similar hole1 leaving the bed of the rock to all appearances intact between the two holes4 ,this result1 due entirely to the special nature of the rock1 led to the fear that the action of the battering rams would be without effect4 ,after some experimentation it was found that the best results were obtained by arranging the battering rams very near to the chain of buckets and by working the dredge and battering rams simultaneously4 ,the advance at each oscillation was about #ij centimeters 7about #c ft47 ,the results obtained were as follows3 ,at first the quantity extracted varied much from day to day2 but at the end of some weeks1 on account of the greater experience of the crew1 more regularity was obtained4 ,the nature of the conglomerate was essentially variable1 sometimes hard and tenacious1 like malleable iron1 then suddenly changing into friable masses surrounded by portions more elastic and richer in gypsum4 ,during the last five weeks at ,port ,tewfik1 the expense1 including the repairs1 was #h1hej francs 7#a1ggj4jj7 for #a1fjj cubic meters 7#b1jic cubic yards7 extracted4 ,this would make the cost #e4eb francs per cubic meter1 or #j4hd per cubic yard1 not including the insurance1 the interest and the depreciation of the plant4 ,after some improvements in details1 suggested by practice1 the machine was put in operation at ,chalouf upon a hard rock1 from #a4ej to #c meters 7#d ft4 #aa in4 to #i ft4 #aj in47 thick4 ,the battering rams were given a fall of #a4hj meters 7#e ft4 #aa in474 ,to break the rock into fragments small enough not to be rejected by the buckets of the dredge1 the operations of dredging and of disintegration were carried on separately1 permitting the battering rams to work at a greater distance from the wall face4 ,the time consumed in thus pulverizing the rock by repeated blows was naturally found to be increased4 ,it was found more convenient to use only a single row of battering rams4 ,the production was from about seven to eleven cubic meters 7#i4b to #ad4d cubic yards7 per hour4 ,toward the close of ,september1 after it had been demonstrated that the ,derocheuse was capable of accomplishing with celerity and economy the result for which it was designed1 it was purchased by the ,suez ,canal ,company4 ,during the month of ,september1 an experiment1 the details of which were carefully noted1 extending over a period of sixteen days1 gave the following results3 ,crew 7#cc men71 #adj hours4 #b1jab4ej francs #djb4ej ,coal1 #hg4ej francs 7#g4ej7 per ton #ghg4ej francs #aeg4ej ,oil and supplies #bbj4jj francs #dd4jj ,fresh water1 #af days #baj4jj francs #db4jj ,sundries #db4ej francs #h4ej ---------------- --------- ,total expense for removing #gfd cubic meters 7#iii4b cubic yards71 #c1bgb4ej francs #fed4ej ,average1 #d4bh francs per cubic meter 7#j4fe per cubic yard74 ,this result cannot be taken as a universal basis1 because after a year's use there are numerous repairs to make to the plant1 which would increase the average net cost4 ,this1 besides1 does not include the cost of removal of the dredged material1 nor the depreciation1 the interest and the insurance4 ,it should be added on the other hand1 however1 that the warm season was far from being favorable to the energy and perseverance necessary to carry on successfully experiments of this kind4 ,the temperature1 even at midnight1 was often #ch ,c4 7#ajj4d ,f474 ,still further1 the work was constantly interrupted by the passage of ships through the canal4 ,on an average not more than forty minutes' work to the hour was obtained4 ,notwithstanding this1 there were extracted at ,chalouf1 on an average1 #ch4bbe cubic meters 7#ej cubic yards7 per day without interrupting navigation4 ,at ,port ,tewfik1 where there was much less inconvenience from the passage of ships1 the work was carried on from eight to eleven hours per day and the quantity extracted in this time was generally more than #gf cubic meters 7#ii4d cubic yards74 ,in most cases the system could be simplified4 ,the engine which works the dredge could1 when not thus employed1 be used to drive the pumps4 ,the propelling engine could also be used for the same purpose4 ,the results obtained at ,suez indicate the appreciable advantages arising from the application of this system to the works of ports1 rivers and canals1 and ever1 to the work of cutting in the construction of roads and railroads4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,progress ,,in ,,engineering4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,forster ,brown1 in his address to the ,mechanical ,science ,section of the ,british ,association1 said that great progress had been made in mechanical science since the ,british ,association met in the principality of ,wales eleven years ago2 and some of the results of that progress were exemplified in our locomotives1 and marine engineering1 and in such works as the ,severn ,tunnel1 the ,forth and ,tay ,bridges1 and the ,manchester ,ship ,canal1 which was now in progress of construction4 ,in mining1 the progress had been slow1 and it was a remarkable fact that1 with the exception of pumping1 the machinery in use in connection with mining operations in ,great ,britain had not1 in regard to economy1 advanced so rapidly as had been the case in our manufactures and marine4 ,this was probably due1 in metalliferous mining1 to the uncertain nature of the mineral deposits not affording any adequate security to adventurers that the increased cost of adopting improved appliances would be reimbursed2 while in coal mining1 the cheapness of fuel1 the large proportion which manual labor bore to the total cost of producing coal1 and the necessity for producing large outputs with the simplest appliances1 explained the reluctance with which high pressure steam compound engines1 and other modes embracing the most modern and approved types of economizing power had been adopted4 ,metalliferous mining1 with the exception of the working of iron ore1 was not in a prosperous condition2 but in special localities1 where the deposits of minerals were rich and profitable1 progress had been made within a recent period by the adoption of more economical and efficient machinery1 of which the speaker quoted a number of examples4 ,reference was also made to the rapid strides made in the use of electricity as a motive power1 and to the mechanical ventilation of mines by exhaustion of the air4 ,,coal ,,mines4 ,summarizing the position of mechanical science1 as applied to the coal mining industry in this country1 ,mr4 ,brown observed that there was a general awakening to the necessity of adopting1 in the newer and deeper mines1 more economical appliances4 ,it was true it would be impracticable1 and probably unwise1 to alter much of the existing machinery1 but1 by the adoption of the best known types of electrical plant1 and air compression in our new and deep mines1 the consumption of coal per horse power would be reduced1 and the extra expense1 due to natural causes1 of producing minerals from greater depths would be substantially lessened4 ,the consumption of coal at the collieries of ,great ,britain alone probably exceeded #aj1jjj1jjj tons per annum1 and the consumption per horse power was probably not less than #f lb4 of coal1 and it was not unreasonable to assume that1 by the adoption of more efficient machinery than was at present in general use1 at least one-half of the coal consumed could be saved4 ,there was1 therefore1 in the mines of ,great ,britain alone a wide and lucrative field for the inventive ingenuity of mechanical engineers in economizing fuel1 and especially in the successful application of new methods for dealing with underground haulage1 in the inner workings of our collieries1 more especially in ,south ,wales1 where the number of horses still employed was very large4 ,,steam ,,trams ,,and ,,electric ,,trams4 ,considerable progress had within recent years been made in the mechanical appliances intended to replace horses on our public tram lines4 ,the steam engine now in use in some of our towns had its drawbacks as as well as its good qualities1 as also had the endless rope haulage1 and in the case of the latter system1 anxiety must be felt when the ropes showed signs of wear4 ,the electrically driven trams appeared to work well4 ,he had not1 however1 seen any published data bearing on the relative cost per mile of these several systems1 and this information1 when obtained1 would be of interest4 ,at the present time1 he understood1 exhaustive trials were being made with an ammonia gas engine1 which1 it was anticipated1 would prove both more economical and efficient than horses for tram roads4 ,the gas was said to be produced from the pure ammonia1 obtained by distillation from commercial ammonia1 and was given off at a pressure varying from #ajj to #aej lb4 per square inch4 ,this ammonia was used in specially constructed engines1 and was then exhausted into a tank containing water1 which brought it back into its original form of commercial ammonia1 ready for redistillation1 and1 it was stated1 with a comparatively small loss4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,changeable ,,speed ,,gearing4 ,this is the invention of ,lawrence ,heath1 of ,macedon1 ,n4,y41 and relates to that class of changeable speed gearing in which a center pinion driven at a constant rate of speed drives directly and at different rates of speed a series of pinions mounted in a surrounding revoluble case or shell1 so that by turning the shell one or another of the secondary pinions may be brought into operative relation to the parts to be driven therefrom4 ,the aim of my invention is to so modify this system of gearing that the secondary pinions may receive a very slow motion in relation to that of the primary driving shaft1 whereby the gearing is the better adapted for the driving of the fertilizer-distributers of grain drills from the main axle1 and for other special uses4 ,fig4 #a is a side elevation4 ,fig4 #b is a vertical cross section4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,a represents the main driving shaft or axle1 driven constantly and at a uniform speed1 and ,b is the pinion-supporting case or shell1 mounted loosely on and revoluble around the axle1 but held normally at rest by means of a locking bolt1 ,c1 or other suitable locking device adapted to enter notches1 c1 in the shell4 ,d is the primary driving pinion1 fixed firmly to the axle and constantly engaging the pinion1 ,e1 mounted on a stud in the shell4 ,the pinion1 ,e1 is formed integral with or firmly secured to the smaller secondary pinion1 ,f1 which in turn constantly engages and drives the center pinion1 ,g1 mounted to turn loosely on the axle within the shell1 so that it is turned in the same direction as the axle1 but at a slower speed4 ,f'1 ,f#b1 ,f#c1 ,f#d1 etc41 represent additional secondary pinions grouped around the center pinion1 mounted on studs in the shell1 and made of different diameters1 so that they are driven by the center pinion at different speeds4 ,each of the secondary pinions is formed with a neck or journal1 f1 projected out through the side of the shell1 so that the external pinion1 ,h1 may be applied to any one of the necks at will in order to communicate motion thence to the gear1 ,i1 which occupies a fixed position1 and from which the fertilizer or other mechanism is driven4 ,in order to drive the gear1 ,i1 at one speed or another1 as may be demanded1 it is only necessary to apply the pinion1 ,h1 to the neck of that secondary pinion which is turning at the appropriate speed and then turn the shell bodily around the axle until the external pinion is carried into engagement with gear ,i1 when the shell is again locked fast4 ,the axle communicates motion through ,d1 ,e1 and ,p to the center pinion1 which in turn drives all the secondary pinions except ,f4 ,if the external pinion is applied to ,f1 it will receive motion directly therefrom2 but if applied to either of the secondary pinions1 it will receive motion through or by way of the center pinion4 ,it will be seen that all the pinions are sustained and protected within the shell4 ,the essence of the invention lies in the introduction of the pinions ,d and ,e between the axle and the series of secondary pinions to reduce the speed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,standards4 ,nature states that the ,queen's ,printers are now issuing the ,report 7dated ,july #bc1 #ahia7 to the ,president of the ,board of ,trade1 of the ,committee appointed to consider the question of constructing standards for the measurement of electricity4 ,the committee included ,mr4 ,courtenay ,boyle1 ,c4,b41 ,major ,p4 ,cardew1 ,r4,e41 ,mr4 ,e4 ,graves1 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,preece1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,lord ,rayleigh1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,prof4 ,g4 ,carey ,foster1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,mr4 ,r4,t4 ,glazebrook1 ,f4,r4 ,s41 ,dr4 ,john ,hopkinson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,prof4 ,w4,e4 ,ayrton1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,in response to an invitation1 the following gentlemen attended and gave evidence3 ,on behalf of the ,association of ,chambers of ,commerce1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,parker and ,mr4 ,hugh ,erat ,harrison2 on behalf of the ,london ,council1 ,prof4 ,silvanus ,thompson2 on behalf of the ,london ,chamber of ,commerce1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,e4 ,crompton4 ,the ,committee were indebted to ,dr4 ,j4,a4 ,fleming and ,dr4 ,a4 ,muirhead for valuable information and assistance2 and they state that they had the advantage of the experience and advice of ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,chaney1 the ,superintendent of ,weights and ,measures4 ,the ,secretary to the ,committee was ,sir ,t4,w4 ,p4 ,blomefield1 ,bart4 ,the following are the resolutions of the ,committee3 ,resolutions4 7#a7 ,that it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the measurement of electricity should be made and approved by ,her ,majesty in ,council as ,board of ,trade standards4 7#b7 ,that the magnitudes of these standards should be determined on the electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the centimeter as unit of length1 the gramme as unit of mass1 and the second as unit of time1 and that by the terms centimeter and gramme are meant the standards of those denominations deposited with the ,board of ,trade4 7#c7 ,that the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated the ohm1 and should have the value #a1jjj1jjj1jjj in terms of the centimeter and second4 7#d7 ,that the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of #a square millimeter1 and of a length of #ajf4c centimeters at the temperature of melting ice may be adopted as #a ohm4 7#e7 ,that the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a committee of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science in the years #ahfc and #ahfd1 and known as the ,british ,association unit1 may be taken as #j4ihff of the ohm4 7#f7 ,that a material standard1 constructed in solid metal1 and verified by comparison with the ,british ,association unit1 should be adopted as the standard ohm4 7#g7 ,that for the purpose of replacing the standard1 if lost1 destroyed1 or damaged1 and for ordinary use1 a limited number of copies should be constructed1 which should be periodically compared with the standard ohm and with the ,british ,association unit4 7#h7 ,that resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as ,board of ,trade standards for multiples and sub-multiples of the ohm4 7#i7 ,that the standard of electrical current should be denominated the ampere1 and should have the value one-tenth 7#j4a7 in terms of the centimeter1 gramme1 and second4 7#aj7 ,that an unvarying current which1 when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water1 in accordance with the specification attached to this report1 deposits silver at the rate of #j4jjaaah of a gramme per second1 may be taken as a current of #a ampere4 7#aa7 ,that an alternating current of #a ampere shall mean a current such that the square root of the time-average of the square of its strength at each instant in amperes is unity4 7#ab7 ,that instruments constructed on the principle of the balance1 in which1 by the proper disposition of the conductors1 forces of attraction and repulsion are produced1 which depend upon the amount of current passing1 and are balanced by known weights1 should be adopted as the ,board of ,trade standards for the measurement of current1 whether unvarying or alternating4 7#ac7 ,that the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated the volt1 being the pressure which1 if steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is #a ohm1 will produce a current of #a ampere4 7#ad7 ,that the electrical pressure at a temperature of #fb ,f4 between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as ,clark's cell may be taken as not differing from a pressure of #a4dcc volts by more than an amount which will be determined by a sub-committee appointed to investigate the question1 who will prepare a specification for the construction and use of the cell4 7#ae7 ,that an alternating pressure of #a volt shall mean a pressure such that the square root of the time average of the square of its value at each instant in volts is unity4 7#af7 ,that instruments constructed on the principle of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's quadrant electrometer used idiostatically1 and for high pressure instruments on the principle of the balance1 electrostatic forces being balanced against a known weight1 should be adopted as ,board of ,trade standards for the measurement of pressure1 whether unvarying or alternating4 ,we have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined by the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 and we have found in its recent researches1 as well as in the deliberations of the ,international ,congress on ,electrical ,units1 held in ,paris1 valuable guidance for determining the exact magnitudes of the several units of electrical measurement1 as well as for the verification of the material standards4 ,we have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm and the unit of resistance originally determined by the ,british ,association1 and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted by the ,international ,conference4 ,we find that considerations of practical importance make it undesirable to adopt a mercurial standard2 we have1 therefore1 preferred to adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal4 ,it appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between buyer and seller1 a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the units of electrical measurement now suggested2 and with this view1 that the issue of an ,order in ,council should be recommended1 under the ,weights and ,measures ,act1 in the form annexed to this report4 ,specification referred to in ,resolution #aj4 ,in the following specification the term silver voltameter means the arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water4 ,the silver voltameter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the time of the experiment1 and by noting this time the time average of the current1 or if the current has been kept constant1 the current itself1 can be deduced4 ,in employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about #a ampere1 the following arrangements should be adopted4 ,the kathode on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum bowl not less than #aj cm4 in diameter1 and from #d to #e cm4 in depth4 ,the anode should be a plate of pure silver some #cj square cm4 in area and #b or #c millimeters in thickness4 ,this is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solution by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite corners4 ,to prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the anode from falling on to the kathode1 the anode should be wrapped round with pure filter paper1 secured at the back with sealing wax4 ,the liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate1 containing about #ae parts by weight of the nitrate to #he parts of water4 ,the resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current passes4 ,to prevent these changes having too great an effect on the current1 some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted in the circuit4 ,the total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be less than #aj ohms4 ,method of making a ,measurement4--,the platinum bowl is washed with nitric acid and distilled water1 dried by heat1 and then left to cool in a desiccator4 ,when thoroughly dry1 it is weighed carefully4 ,it is nearly filled with the solution1 and connected to the rest of the circuit by being placed on a clean copper support1 to which a binding screw is attached4 ,this copper support must be insulated4 ,the anode is then immersed in the solution1 so as to be well covered by it1 and supported in that position2 the connections to the rest of the circuit are made4 ,contact is made at the key1 noting the time of contact4 ,the current is allowed to pass for not less than half an hour1 and the time at which contact is broken is observed4 ,care must be taken that the clock used is keeping correct time during this interval4 ,the solution is now removed from the bowl1 and the deposit is washed with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours4 ,it is then rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol1 and dried in a hot-air bath at a temperature of about #afj ,c4 ,after cooling in a desiccator1 it is weighed again4 ,the gain in weight gives the silver deposited4 ,to find the current in amperes1 this weight1 expressed in grammes1 must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has been passed1 and by #j4jjaaah4 ,the result will be the time average of the current1 if during the interval the current has varied4 ,in determining by this method the constant of an instrument the current should be kept as nearly constant as possible1 and the readings of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of time4 ,these observations give a curve from which the reading corresponding to the mean current 7time average of the current7 can be found4 ,the current1 as calculated by the voltameter1 corresponds to this reading4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,two ,,or ,,three ,,phase ,,alternating ,,current ,,systems4 ,by ,,carl ,,hering4 ,the occasion of the transmission of power from ,lauffen to ,frankfort has brought to the notice of the profession more than ever before the two or three phase alternating current system1 described as early as #ahhg-hh by various electricians1 among whom are ,tesla1 ,bradley1 ,haselwander and others4 ,as to who first invented it1 we have nothing to say here1 but though known for some years it has not until quite recently been of any great importance in practice4 ,within the last few years1 however1 ,mr4 ,m4 ,von ,dolivo-,dobrowolsky1 electrical engineer of the ,allgemeine ,elektricitats ,gesellschaft1 of ,berlin1 has occupied himself with these currents4 ,his success with motors run with such currents was the origin of the present great transmission of power exhibit at ,frankfort1 the greatest transmission ever attempted4 ,his investigation in this new sphere1 and his ability to master the subject from a theoretical or mathematical standpoint1 has led him to find the objections1 the theoretically best conditions1 etc4 ,this1 together with his ingenuity1 has led him to devise an entirely new and very ingenious modification1 which will no doubt have a very great effect on the development of alternating current motors4 ,it is doubtless well known that if1 as in ,fig4 #a1 a ,gramme ring armature is connected to leads at four points as shown and a magnet is revolved inside of it 7or if the ring is revolved in a magnetic field and the current led off by contact rings instead of a commutator71 there will be two alternating currents generated1 which will differ from each other in their phases only4 ,when one is at a maximum the other is zero4 ,when such a double current is sent into a similarly constructed motor it will produce or generate what might be called a rotary field1 which is shown diagrammatically in the six successive positions in ,fig4 #b4 ,the winding here is slightly different1 but it amounts to the same thing as far as we are concerned at present4 ,this is what ,mr4 ,dobrowolsky calls an elementary or simply rotary current1 as used in the ,tesla motors4 ,a similar system1 but having three different currents instead of two1 is the one used in the ,lauffen transmission experiment referred to above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,in investigating this subject ,mr4 ,dobrowolsky found that the best theoretical indications for such a system would be a large number of circuits instead of only two or three1 each differing from the next one by only a small portion of a wave length2 the larger their number the better theoretically4 ,the reason is that with a few currents the resulting magnetism generated in the motor by these currents will pulsate considerably1 as shown in ,fig4 #c1 in which the two full lines show the currents differing by #ij degrees4 ,the dotted line above these shows how much the resulting magnetism will pulsate4 ,with two such currents this variation in magnetism will be about #dj degrees above its lowest value4 ,now1 such a variation in the field is undesirable1 as it produces objectionable induction effects1 and it has the evil effect of interfering with the starting of the motor loaded1 besides affecting the torque considerably if the speed should fall slightly below that for synchronism4 ,a perfect motor should not have these faults1 and it is designed to obviate them by striving to obtain a revolving field in which the magnetism is as nearly constant as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,if there are two currents differing by #ij degrees1 this variation of the magnetism will be about #dj per cent42 with three currents differing #fj degrees1 about #ad per cent2 with six currents differing #cj degrees it will be only about #d per cent41 and so on4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that by doubling the three-phase system the pulsations are already very greatly reduced4 ,but this would require six wires1 while the three-phase system requires only three wires 7as each of the three leads can readily be shown to serve as a return lead for the other two in parallel74 ,it is to combine the advantages of both that he designed the following very ingenious system4 ,by this system he can obtain as small a difference of phase as desired1 without increasing the number of wires above three1 a statement which might at first seem paradoxical4 ,before explaining this ingenious system1 it might be well to call attention to a parallel case to the above in continuous current machines and motors4 ,the first dynamos were constructed with two commutator bars4 ,they were soon found to work much better with four1 and finally still better as the number of commutator bars 7or coils7 was increased1 up to a practical limit4 ,just as the pulsations in the continuous current dynamos were detrimental to proper working1 so are these pulsations in few-phased alternating current motors1 though the objections manifest themselves in different ways--in the continuous current motors as sparking and in the alternating current motors as detrimental inductive effects4 ,the underlying principle of this new system may be seen best in ,figs4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g and #h4 ,in ,fig4 #d are shown two currents1 ,i#a and ,i#b1 which differ from each other by an angle1 ,d4 ,suppose these two currents to be any neighboring currents in a simple rotary current system4 ,now1 if these two currents be united into one1 as shown in the lower part of the figure1 the resulting current1 ,i1 will be about as shown by the dotted line2 that is1 it will lie between the other two and at its maximum point1 and for a difference of phases equal to #ij degrees it will be about #a4d times as great as the maximum of either of the others2 the important feature is that the phase of this current is midway between that of the other two4 ,fig4 #e shows the winding of a cylinder armature and ,fig4 #g that1 of a ,gramme armature for a simple three-phase current with three leads1 with which system we assume that the reader is familiar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the two figures1 #d and #e 7or #g71 correspond with each other in so far as the currents in the three leads1 shown in heavy lines1 have a phase between those of the two which compose them4 ,referring now to ,fig4 #f 7or #h71 which is precisely like ,fig4 #e 7or #g71 except that it has an additional winding shown in heavy lines1 it will be seen that each of the three leads1 shown in heavy lines1 is wound around the armature before leaving it1 forming an additional coil lying between the two coils with which it is in series4 ,the phase of the heavy line currents was shown in ,fig4 #d to lie between the other two4 ,therefore1 in the armature in ,fig4 #f 7or #h7 there will be six phases1 while in ,fig4 #e there are only three1 the number of leads 7three7 remaining the same as before4 ,this is the fundamental principle of this ingenious invention4 ,to have six phases in ,fig4 #e would require six leads1 but in ,fig4 #f precisely the same result is obtained with only three leads4 ,in the same way the three leads in ,fig4 #f might again be combined and passed around the armature again1 and so on forming still more phases1 without increasing the number of leads4 ,figs4 #g and #h compound with #e and #f and show the same system for a ,gramme ring instead of a cylinder armature4 ,as was stated in the early part of this description1 the main object in a rotary current motor is to have a magnetic field which is as nearly constant in intensity as possible1 and which changes only its position1 that is1 its axis4 ,but in ,fig4 #d it was shown that the current ,i 7in dotted lines7 is greater than the others 7about as #a4d to #a for a phase difference of #ij degrees74 ,if therefore the coils in ,fig4 #f or #h were all alike1 the magnetism generated by the heavy line coils would be greater than that generated by the others1 and would therefore produce very undesirable pulsations in the magnetic fields2 but as the magnetism depends on the ampere turns1 it is necessary merely to have correspondingly fewer turns on these coils1 as compared with the others4 ,this is shown diagrammatically in ,figs4 #f and #h1 in which the heavy line coils have less windings than the others4 ,in practice it is not always possible to obtain the exact ratio of #a to #a4d1 for instance1 but even if this ratio is obtained only approximately1 it nevertheless reduces the pulsations very materially below what they would be with half the number of phases4 ,it is therefore not necessary in practice to have more than an approximation to the exact conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,fig4 #i shows a multiple phase armature having double the number of phases as ,fig4 #a1 and would according to the old system1 therefore1 require eight leads4 ,fig4 #aj shows the new system with the same number of phases as in ,fig4 #i1 but requiring only four leads instead of eight4 ,figs4 #aa and #ab correspond with ,figs4 #g and #h and show the windings for a multipolar motor in the two systems4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,these figures show how a motor may be wound so as to be a multiple phase motor1 although the current entering the motor is a simple1 elementary three or two phase current1 which can be transformed by means of a simple three or two phase current transformer1 before entering the motor1 such transformers as are used at present in the ,lauffen-,frankfort transmission4 ,but the same principle as that for the motor may also be applied to transformers themselves1 as shown in ,figs4 #ac and #ad4 ,fig4 #ac shows a set of transformers which are fed by a simple three-phase current shown in heavy lines1 and which gives in its secondary circuit a multiple phase rotary current4 ,the connections for the primary circuit of a transformer with six coils are shown diagrammatically in ,fig4 #ae1 the numbers #a to #f representing the succession of the phases4 ,fig4 #ad shows a transformer for a two-phase current with four leads1 transforming into a multiple phase current of #af leads4 ,the transformer in this figure is a single interlocked transformer in which the fields are magnetically connected and not independent of each other as in ,fig4 #ac4 ,this has advantages in the regulation of currents1 which do not exist in ,fig4 #ac1 but which need not be entered into here4 ,the transformers used in the ,lauffen-,frankfort transmission are similar1 magnetically1 to ,fig4 #ad1 only that they are for a simple three-phase current in both primary and secondary circuits4 ,attention is also called to the difference in the connections of secondary circuits in ,figs4 #ac and #ad2 in the former they are connected in a closed circuit similarly to an ordinary closed circuit armature1 while in ,fig4 #ad they are independent as far as the currents themselves are concerned1 though magnetically their cores are connected4 ,it is not the intention to enter into a discussion of the relative values of these various connections1 but merely to draw attention to the wide range of the number of combinations which this system admits of4--,electrical ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,london ,,paris ,,telephone4#a ,footnote #a3 ,paper read before the ,british ,association4--,elec4 ,engineer4 ,by ,w4,h4 ,preece1 ,f4,r4,s4 #a4 ,i have already on two occasions1 at ,newcastle and at ,leeds1 brought this subject before ,section ,g1 and have given the details of the length and construction of the proposed circuit4 ,i have now to report not only that the line has been constructed and opened to the public1 but that its success1 telephonic and commercial1 has exceeded the most sanguine anticipations4 ,speech has been maintained with perfect clearness and accuracy4 ,the line has proved to be much better than it ought to have been1 and the purpose of this paper is to show the reason why4 ,the lengths of the different sections of the circuit are as follows3 ,london to ,st4 ,margaret's ,bay #hd4e miles4 ,st4 ,margaret's ,bay to ,sangatte 7cable74 #bc4j ,sangatte to ,paris4 #aii4j ,paris underground4 #d4h ----- ,total4 #caa4c ,the resistances are as follows3 ,paris underground4 #gj ohms4 ,french line4 #bid ,cable4 #adc ,english line4 #ahc --- ,total 7,r7 #fic ,the capacities are as follows3 ,paris underground4 #j4dc microfarads4 ,french line4 #c4cc ,cable4 #e4eb ,english line4 #a4cb ---- ,total 7,k74 #aj4fb #fic #aj4fb #g1cei ,k ,r a product which indicates that speech should be very good4 #b4 ,trials of ,apparatus4--,the preliminary trials were made during the month of ,march between the chief telegraph offices of the two capitals1 and the following microphone transmitters were compared3 ,ader4 ,pencil form4 ,berliner4 ,granular form4 ,d',arsonval4 ,pencil ,de,jongh4 ,gower ,bell4 ,post office switch instrument4 ,granules and lamp filaments4 ,roulez4 ,lamp filaments4 ,turnbull4 ,pencil form4 ,western ,electric4 ,granular4 ,the receivers consisted of the latest form of double-pole ,bell telephones with some ,ader and ,d',arsonval receivers for comparison4 ,after repeated trials it was finally decided that the ,ader1 ,d',arsonval1 ,gower-,bell 7with double-pole receivers instead of tubes71 ,roulez1 and ,western ,electric were the best1 and were approximately equal4 ,these instruments were1 therefore1 selected for the further experiments1 which consisted of using local extensions in ,paris and ,london4 ,the wires were in the first instance extended at the ,paris end to the ,observatory through an exchange at the ,avenue des ,gobelines4 ,the length of this local line is #g kms4 ,the wires are guttapercha-covered1 placed underground1 and not suitable for giving the best results4 ,the results were1 however1 fairly satisfactory4 ,the wires were extended to the ,treasury in ,london by means of the ordinary underground system4 ,the distance is about two miles1 and although the volume of sound and clearness of articulation were perceptibly reduced by these additions to the circuit1 conversation was quite practicable4 ,further trials were also made from the ,avenue des ,gobelines on underground wires of five kilometers long1 and also with some renters in ,paris with fairly satisfactory results4 ,the selected telephones were equally efficient in all cases1 which proves that to maintain easy conversation when the trunk wires are extended to local points it is only necessary that the local lines shall be of a standard not lower than that of the trunk line4 ,the experiments also confirm the conclusion that long-distance speaking is solely a question of the circuit and its environments1 and not one of apparatus4 ,the instruments finally selected for actual work were ,gower-,bell for ,london and ,roulez for ,paris4 #c4 ,the results are certainly most satisfactory4 ,there is no circuit in or out of ,london on which speech is more perfect than it is between ,london and ,paris4 ,in fact1 it is better than ,i anticipated1 and better than calculation led me to expect4 ,speech has been possible not only to ,paris but through ,paris to ,bruxelles1 and even1 with difficulty1 through ,paris to ,marseilles1 a distance of over #ijj miles4 ,the wires between ,paris and ,marseilles are massive copper wires specially erected for telephone business between those important places4 #d4 ,business ,done4--,the charge for a conversation between ,london and ,paris is #h s4 for three minutes' complete use of the wire4 ,the demand for the wire is very considerable4 ,the average number of talks per day1 exclusive of ,sunday1 is #hf4 ,the maximum has been #ajh4 ,we have had as many as #ai per hour--the average is #ae during the busy hours of the day4 ,as an instance of what can be done1 #aej words per minute have been dictated in ,paris and transcribed in ,london by shorthand writing4 ,thus in three minutes #dej words were recorded1 which at #h s4 cost five words for a penny4 #e4 ,difficulties4--,the difficulties met with in long-distance speaking are several1 and they may be divided into 7a7 those due to external disturbances and 7b7 those due to internal opposition4 7a47 ,every current rising and falling in the neighborhood of a telephone line within a region1 say1 of #ajj yards1 whether the wire conveying it be underground or overground1 induces in the telephone circuit another current1 producing in the telephone a sound which disturbs speech1 and if the neighboring wires are numerous and busy1 as they are on our roads and railways1 these sounds became confusing1 noisy1 and ultimately entirely preventive of speech4 ,this disturbance is1 however1 completely removed by forming the telephone circuit of two wires placed as near to each other as possible1 and twisted around each other without touching1 so as to maintain the mean average distance of each wire from surrounding conductors the same everywhere4 ,thus similar currents are induced in each of the two wires1 but being opposite in direction1 as far as the circuit is concerned1 they neutralize each other1 and the circuit1 therefore1 becomes quite silent4 ,in ,england we make the two wires revolve completely round each other in every four poles1 but in ,france it is done in every six poles4 ,the reason for the change is the fact that in the ,english plan the actual crossing of the wires takes place in the span between the poles1 while in the ,french plan it takes place at the poles4 ,this is supposed to reduce the liability of the wires to be thrown into contact with each other by the wind1 but1 on the other hand1 it diminishes the geometrical symmetry of the wires--so very essential to insure silence4 ,as a matter of fact1 contacts do not occur on well constructed lines1 and ,i think our ,english wires1 being more symmetrical1 are freer from external disturbance than those in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7b47 ,the internal opposition arises from the resistance1 ,r1 the capacity1 ,k1 and the electromagnetic inertia1 ,l1 of the circuit4 ,a current of electricity takes time to rise to its maximum strength and time to fall back again to zero4 ,every circuit has what is called its time constant1 t1 ,fig4 #a1 which regulates the number of current waves which can be transmitted through it per second4 ,this is the time the current takes to rise from zero to its working maximum1 and the time it takes to fall from this maximum to zero again1 shown by the shaded portions of the figure2 the duration of the working current being immaterial1 and shown by the unshaded portion4 ,the most rapid form of quick telegraphy requires about #aej currents per second1 currents each of which must rise and fall in #a_/aej of a second1 but for ordinary telephone speaking we must have about #a1ejj currents per second1 or the time which each current rises from zero to its maximum intensity must not exceed #a_/cjjj part of a second4 ,the time constant of a telephone circuit should therefore not be less than #j4jjjc second4 ,resistance alone does not affect the time constant4 ,it diminishes the intensity or strength of the currents only2 but resistance1 combined with electromagnetic inertia and with capacity1 has a serious retarding effect on the rate of rise and fall of the currents4 ,they increase the time constant and introduce a slowness which may be called retardance1 for they diminish the rate at which currents can be transmitted4 ,now the retardance due to electromagnetic inertia increases directly with the amount of electromagnetic inertia present1 but it diminishes with the amount of resistance of the conductor4 ,it is expressed by the ratio ,l_/,r while that due to capacity increases directly1 both with the capacity and with the resistance1 and it is expressed by the product1 ,k ,r4 ,the whole retardance1 and1 therefore1 the speed of working the circuit or the clearness of speech1 is given1 by the equation ,l --- ,k ,r t ,r or ,l ,k ,r ,r t ,now in telegraphy we are not able altogether to eliminate ,l1 but we can counteract it1 and if we can make ,rt #j1 then ,l - ,k ,r which is the principle of the shunted condenser that has been introduced with such signal success in our post office service1 and has virtually doubled the carrying capacity of our wires4 ,k ,r t ,this is done in telephony1 and hence we obtain the law of retardance1 or the law by which we can calculate the distance to which speech is possible4 ,all my calculations for the ,london and ,paris line were based on this law1 which experience has shown it to be true4 ,how is electromagnetic inertia practically eliminated8 ,first1 by the use of two massive copper wires1 and secondly by symmetrically revolving them around each other4 ,now ,l depends on the geometry of the circuit1 that is1 on the relative form and position of the different parts of the circuit1 which is invariable for the same circuit1 and is represented by a coefficient1 lambda4 ,it depends also on the magnetic qualities of the conductors employed and of the space embraced by the circuit4 ,this specific magnetic capacity is a variable quantity1 and is indicated by mu for the conductor and by mu#j for air4 ,it depends also on the rate at which currents rise and fall1 and this is indicated by the differential coefficient d,c _/ dt4 ,it depends finally on the number of lines of force due to its own current which cut the conductor in the proper direction2 this is indicated by beta4 ,combining these together we can represent the electromagnetic inertia of a metallic telephone circuit as ,l lambda 7mu mu#j7 d,c_/dt beta ,now1 lambda #b log 7d_/a7 ,hence the smaller we make the distance1 d1 between the wires1 and the greater we make their diameter1 a1 the smaller becomes lambda4 ,it is customary to call the value of mu for air1 and copper1 #a1 but this is purely artificial and certainly not true4 ,it must be very much less than one in every medium1 excepting the magnetic metals1 so much so that in copper it may be neglected altogether1 while in the air it does not matter what it is1 for by the method of twisting one conductor round the other1 the magnetization of the air space by the one current of the circuit rotating in one direction is exactly neutralized by that of the other element of the circuit rotating in the opposite direction4 ,now1 beta1 in two parallel conductors conveying currents of the same sense1 that is flowing in the same direction1 is retarding1 ,fig4 #b1 and is therefore a positive quantity1 but when the currents flow in opposite directions1 as in a metallic loop1 ,fig4 #c1 they tend to assist each other and are of a negative character4 ,hence in a metallic telephone circuit we may neglect ,l in toto as ,i have done4 ,illustration3 ,fig #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,i have never yet succeeded in tracing any evidence of electromagnetic inertia in long single copper wires1 while in iron wires the value of ,l may certainly be taken at #j4jje henry per mile4 ,in short metallic circuits1 say of lengths up to #ajj miles1 this negative quantity does not appear1 but in the ,paris-,london circuit this helpful mutual action of opposite currents comes on in a peculiar way4 ,the presence of the cable introduces a large capacity practically in the center of the circuit4 ,the result is that we have in each branch of the circuit between the transmitter1 say1 at ,london and the cable at ,dover1 extra currents at the commencement of the operation1 which1 flowing in opposite directions1 mutually react on each other1 and practically prepare the way for the working currents4 ,the presence of these currents proved by the fact that when the cable is disconnected at ,calais1 as shown in ,fig4 #e1 and telephones are inserted in series1 as shown at ,d and ,d'1 speech is as perfect between ,london and ,st4 ,margaret's ,bay as if the wires were connected across1 or as if the circuit were through to ,paris4 ,their effect is precisely the same as though the capacity of the aerial section were reduced by a quantity1 ,m1 which is of the same dimension or character as ,k4 ,hence1 our retardance equation becomes ,r 7,k - ,m7 t ,illustration3 ,fig #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig #e4 ,thus it happens that the ,london-,paris telephone works better than was expected4 ,the nature of ,m is probably equivalent to about #j4jjge phi per mile1 and therefore ,k should be also about #j4jjge phi instead of #j4jaef phi per mile4 ,this helpful action of mutual induction is present in all long circuits1 and it is the reason why we were able to speak to ,brussels and even to ,marseilles4 ,it also appears in every metallic loop1 and vitiates the measurements of electromagnetic inertia and of capacity of loops4 ,thus1 if we measure the capacity of a loop as compared with a single wire1 the amount per mile may be #ej per cent4 greater than it ought to be2 while if we measure the capacity of one branch of a circuit under the conditions of the ,london-,paris telephone line1 it may be #ej per cent4 less than it ought to be4 ,this effect of ,m is shown by the dotted line in ,fig4 #a4 ,telephonic currents--that is1 currents induced in the secondary wire of an induction coil due to the variation of microphonic currents in the primary wire--are not alternating currents4 ,they do not follow the constant periodic law1 and they are not true harmonic sine functions of the time4 ,the microphonic currents are intermittent or pulsatory1 and always flow in the same direction4 ,the secondary currents are also always of the same sign1 as are the currents in a ,ruhmkorff coil1 and as are the currents in high vacua with which ,crookes has made us so familiar4 ,moreover1 the frequency of these currents is a very variable quantity1 not only due to the various tones of voices1 but to the various styles of articulation4 ,hence the laws of periodic alternate currents following the sine function of the time fail when we come to consider microphones and telephones4 ,it is important to bear this in mind1 for nearly everything that has hitherto been written on the subject assumes that telegraphic currents follow the periodic sine law4 ,the currents derived from ,bell's original magneto-transmitters are alternate1 and comply more nearly with the law4 ,the difference between them and microphones is at once perceptible4 ,muffling and disturbance due to the presence of electromagnetic inertia become evident1 which are absent with microphones4 ,i tested this between ,london and ,st4 ,margaret's1 and found the effect most marked4 #g4 ,lightning4--,a metallic telephone circuit may have a static charge induced upon it by a thunder cloud1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,such a charge is an electric strain which is released when the charged cloud flashes into the earth or into a neighboring cloud4 ,if there be electromagnetic inertia present1 the charge will surge backward and forward through the circuit until it dies out4 ,if there be no ,e4,m4,f4 present it will cease suddenly1 and neutrality will be attained at once4 ,telephone circuits indicate the operation by peculiar and characteristic sounds4 ,an iron wire circuit produces a long swish or sigh1 but a copper wire circuit like the ,paris-,london telephone emits a short1 sharp report1 like the crack of a pistol1 which is sometimes startling1 and has created fear1 but there is no danger or liability to shock4 ,indeed1 the start has more than once thrown the listener off his stool1 and has led to the belief that he was knocked down by lightning4 ,illustration3 ,fig #f4 #h4 ,the future of telephone working1 especially in large cities1 is one of underground wires1 and the way to get over the difficulties of this kind of work is perfectly clear4 ,we must have metallic circuits1 twisted wires1 low resistance1 and low capacity4 ,in ,paris a remarkable cable1 made by ,fortin-,herman1 gives an exceedingly low capacity--viz41 only #j4jfi phi per mile4 ,in the ,united ,states they are using a wire insulated with paper which gives #j4jh phi per mile4 ,we are using in ,london ,fowler-,waring cable giving a capacity of #a4h phi per mile1 the capacity of gutta-covered wire being #c phi per mile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,phosphorus ,,by ,,electricity4 ,one of the most interesting of the modern applications of electricity to the manufacture of chemicals is to be found in the recently perfected process known as the ,readman-,parker process1 after the inventors ,dr4 ,j4,b4 ,readman1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 etc41 of ,edinburgh1 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,parker2 the well known practical electrician1 of ,wolverhampton4 ,before giving an account of this process1 which has advanced beyond the experimental to the industrial stage1 it may be well to recall the fact that for several years past ,dr4 ,readman has been devoting an enormous expenditure of labor1 time and money to the perfection of a process which shall cheapen the production of phosphorus by dispensing altogether with the use of sulphuric acid for decomposing the phosphate of lime which forms the raw material of the phosphorus manufacturer1 and also with the employment of fire clay retorts for distilling the desiccated mixture of phosphoric acid and carbon which usually forms the second stage of the operation4 ,the success of the recent applications of electricity in the production of certain metals and alloys led ,dr4 ,readman to try this source of energy in the manufacture of phosphorus1 and the results of the first series of experiments were so encouraging that he took out provisional protection on ,october #ah1 #ahhh1 for preparing this valuable substance by its means4 ,the experiments were carried on at this time on a very small scale1 the power at disposal being very limited in amount4 ,yet the elements of success appeared to be so great1 and the decomposition of the raw material was so complete1 that the process was very soon prosecuted on the large scale4 ,after a good deal of negotiation with several firms that were in a position to supply the electric energy required1 ,dr4 ,readman finally made arrangements with the directors of the ,cowles ,company1 limited1 of ,milton1 near ,stoke-on-,trent1 the well known manufacturers of alloys of aluminum1 for a lease of a portion of their works and for the use of the entire electrical energy they produced for certain portions of the day4 ,the experiments on the large scale had not advanced very far before ,dr4 ,readman became aware that another application for letters patent for producing phosphorus had been made by ,mr4 ,thomas ,parker1 of ,wolverhampton1 and his chemist1 ,mr4 ,a4,e4 ,robinson4 ,their joint patent is dated ,december #e1 #ahhh1 and was thus applied for only seven weeks after ,dr4 ,readman's application had been lodged4 ,it appeared that ,mr4 ,parker had conducted a number of experiments simultaneously but quite independently of those carried on by ,dr4 ,readman1 and that he was quite unaware--as the latter was unaware--of any other worker in this field4 ,it was no small surprise1 therefore1 to find during an interview which took place between these rival inventors some time after the date referred to1 that the two patents were on practically the same lines1 namely1 the production of phosphorus by electricity4 ,their interests lay so much together that1 after some delay1 they arranged to jointly work out the process1 and the result has been the formation of a preliminary company and the erection on a large scale of experimental plant in the neighborhood of ,wolverhampton to prove the commercial success of the new system of manufacturing phosphorus4 ,before describing these experimental works it may be as well to see with what plant ,dr4 ,readman has been working at the ,cowles ,company's works4 ,and here we may remark that we are indebted to a paper read by ,dr4 ,readman at the ,philosophical ,institution1 ,edinburgh1 a short time ago2 this paper being the third of a series which during the last year or two have been read by the same scientist on this branch of chemical industry4 ,here is an abstract giving a description of the plant4 ,the works are near the ,milton ,station1 on the ,north ,staffordshire ,railway4 ,the boilers for generating the steam required are of the ,babcock-,wilcox type1 and are provided with mechanical stokers2 the steam engine is of #fjj horse power1 and is a compound condensing horizontal tandem1 made by ,messrs4 ,pollitt ,wigzel1 of ,sowerby ,bridge4 ,the fly wheel of this engine is #bj feet in diameter1 and weighs #cj tons1 and is geared to the pulley of the dynamo1 so that the latter makes five revolutions for each revolution of the engine by rope driving gear1 consisting of eighteen ropes4 ,the engine is an extremely fine specimen of a modern steam engine2 it works so silently that a visitor standing with his back to the engine railings1 at the time the engine is being started1 cannot tell whether it is in motion or not4 ,with regard to the dynamo1 the spindle is of steel1 #ah feet long1 with three bearings1 one being placed on either side of the driving pulley4 ,the diameter is #g inches in the bearings and #aj inches in the part within the core4 ,this part in the original forgings was #ad inches in diameter1 and was planed longitudinally1 so as to leave four projecting ribs or radial bars on which the core disks are driven1 each disk having four key ways corresponding to these ribs4 ,there are about #ijj of these disks1 the external diameter being #bj inches and the total length of the core #cf inches4 ,the armature winding consists of #abh copper bars1 each #g_/h in4 deep1 measured radially1 by #c_/h in4 wide4 ,these bars are coupled up so as to form thirty-two conductors only2 this arrangement has been adopted to avoid the heating from the ,foucault currents1 which1 with #a in4 conductors1 would have been very considerable4 ,the bars are coupled at the ends of the core across a certain chord and are insulated4 ,the commutator is #bj inches long1 and has sixty-four parts4 ,the current is collected by eight brushes mounted on a separate ring1 placed concentric to the commutator2 and the current is led away from these brushes by a large number of thin bands of sheet copper strapped together into convenient groups4 ,the field magnets are of the horizontal double type4 ,as this machine is virtually a series wound machine1 the magnet coils each consist of a few turns only of forged copper bars1 #a in4 wide by #a in4 thick1 forged to fit the magnet cores4 ,there is no insulation other than mica wedges to keep the bars from touching the core4 ,the dynamo furnishes a current of about #e1jjj amperes1 with an ,e4,m4,f4 of #ej to #fj volts1 and three years ago was claimed to be the largest machine1 at least as regards quantity of current1 in the world4 ,the current from the dynamos is led by copper bars to an enormous cut out1 calculated to fuse at #h1jjj amperes4 ,this is probably one of the largest ever designed1 and consists of a framework carrying twelve lead plates1 each #c in4 #a_/afth in4 thick4 ,a current indicator is inserted in the circuit consisting of a solenoid of nine turns4 ,the range of this indicator is such that the center circle of #cfjh1jjj amperes4 ,the electrodes consisted of a bundle of nine carbons1 each #b in4 in diameter1 attached by casting into a head of cast iron4 ,each carbon weighs #bj lb1 and1 when new1 is about #dh inches long4 ,the head of the electrode is screwed to the copper rods or leads1 which can be readily connected with the flexible cable supplying the current4 ,the electric furnaces are rectangular troughs built of fire brick1 their internal dimensions being #fj in4 #bj in4 #cf in4 deep4 ,into each end is built a cast iron tube1 through which the carbon electrodes enter the furnace4 ,the electrodes are so arranged that it is possible by means of screwing to advance or withdraw them from the furnace4 ,the whole current generated by the great dynamo of the ,cowles ,company was passed through the furnace4 ,in the experiments raw materials only were used1 for it was evident that it was only by the direct production of phosphorus from the native minerals which contain it1 such as the phosphates of lime1 magnesia1 or alumina that there was any hope of superseding1 in point of economy1 the existing process of manufacture4 ,in the furnaces as used at ,milton much difficulty was experienced in distributing the heat over a sufficiently wide area4 ,so locally intense indeed was the heat within a certain zone1 that all the oxygen contained in the mixture was expelled and alloys of iron1 aluminum1 and calcium combined with more or less silicon1 and phosphorus were produced4 ,some of these were of an extremely interesting nature4 ,we now turn to a short account of the works and plant which have been erected near ,wolverhampton to prove the commercial success of the new system of manufacturing phosphorus4 ,the ground is situated on the banks of a canal and extends to about #aj acres1 which are wholly without buildings except those which have been erected for the purposes of these industrial experiments4 ,these consist of boiler and engine houses1 and large furnace sheds4 ,there are three ,babcock ,wilcox steam boilers of #afj horse power each1 and each capable of evaporating #e1jjj lb4 of water per hour4 ,the water tubes are #ah ft4 long #d inches diameter1 and the steam and water drums #dc in4 in diameter and #bc ft4 long1 of steel #g_/af ths4 in4 thick1 provided with a double dead head safety valve1 stop valves1 blow-off cock1 water gauges1 and steam gauge4 ,the total heating surface on each boiler is #a1fai square feet and the total grate surface is #cj square feet4 ,the boilers are worked at #afj lb4 pressure4 ,the engine is a triple compound one of the type supplied for torpedo boats1 and built by the ,yarrow ,shipbuilding ,company4 ,it is fitted with a ,pickering governor for constant speed4 ,the engine is capable of delivering 7with condenser7 #a1bjj indicated horse power1 and without condenser #bej indicated horse power less4 ,with steam at #agj lb4 pressure the engine worked at #cej revolutions per minute1 but it has been rearranged so as to deliver #gjj indicated horse power with #afj lb4 steam pressure without condenser1 and at #cjj revolutions per minute3 ,the high pressure cylinder is #ad inches diameter4 intermediate #be low pressure #cb stroke is #af inches4 ,the dynamo for producing the requisite amount of electric current supplied to the furnaces is one of the well known ,elwell-,parker type of alternating current dynamos1 designed to give #djj units of electrical energy1 equivalent to #ecf indicated horse power4 ,the armature in the machine is stationary1 with double insulation between the armature coils and the core1 and also between the core and the frame1 and is so arranged that its two halves may be readily connected in series or in parallel in accordance with the requirements of the furnaces1 e4g41 at an electromotive force of #hj volts it will give #e1jjj amperes1 and at #afj volts1 #b1ejj amperes when running at #cjj revolutions per minute4 ,the exciting current of the alternator is produced by an ,elwell-,parker shunt wound machine1 driven direct from a pulley on the alternator shaft1 and so arranged as to give #ij amperes at #bej volts when running at a speed of #hjj revolutions per minute4 ,from #fj to #gj amperes are utilized in the alternator1 the remainder being available for lighting purposes 7which is done through accumulators7 and general experimental purposes4 ,the process is carried out in the following way3 ,the raw materials1 all intimately and carefully mixed together1 are introduced into the furnace and the current is then turned on4 ,shortly afterward1 indications of phosphorus make their appearance4 ,the vapors and gases from the furnace pass away to large copper condensers--the first of which contains hot and the second cold water--and finally pass away into the air4 ,as the phosphorus forms1 it distills off from the mixture1 and the residue forms a liquid slag at the bottom of the furnace4 ,fresh phosphorus yielding material is then introduced at the top4 ,in this way the operation is a continuous one1 and may be continued for days without intermission4 ,the charges for the furnace are made up with raw material1 i4e41 native phosphates without any previous chemical treatment1 and the only manufactured material necessary--if such it may be called--is the carbon to effect the reduction of the ores4 ,the crude phosphorus obtained in the condensers is tolerably pure1 and is readily refined in the usual way4 ,dr4 ,readman and ,mr4 ,parker have found that it is more advantageous to use a series of furnaces instead of sending the entire current through one furnace4 ,these furnaces will each yield about #a cwt4 of phosphorus per day4 ,analyses of the slag show that the decomposition of the raw phosphates is very perfect1 for the percentage of phosphorus left in the slag seldom exceeds #a per cent4--,chemical ,trade ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,bleaching ,,apparatus4 ,the apparatus forming the subject of this invention was designed by ,francis ,a4 ,cloudman1 ,erwin ,b4 ,newcomb1 and ,frank ,h4 ,cloudman1 of ,cumberland ,mills1 ,me41 and comprises a series of tanks or chests1 two or more in number1 through which the material to be bleached is caused to pass1 being transferred from one to the next of the series in order1 while the bleaching agent is caused to pass through the series of chests in the reverse order1 and thus acts first and at full strength upon the materials which have previously passed through all but the last one of the series of chests and have already been subjected to the bleaching agent of less strength4 ,for convenience1 the chest in which the material is first introduced will be called the first of the series and the rest numbered in the order in which the material is passed from one to the other1 and it will be understood that any desired number may be used1 two1 however1 being sufficient to carry on the process4 ,the invention is shown embodied in an apparatus properly constructed for treating pulp used for the manufacture of paper1 and for convenience the material to be bleached will be hereinafter referred to as the pulp1 although it is obvious that similar apparatus might be used for bleaching other materials1 although the apparatus might have to be modified to adapt it for conveying other materials of different nature than pulp from one bleaching chest to the other and for separating out the bleaching liquid and conveying it from one chest to the other in the reverse order to that in which the material passes from one chest to the next4 ,the pulp material with which the apparatus herein illustrated is intended to be used is retained in suspension in the bleaching liquid and flows readily through ducts or passages provided for it in the apparatus in which the pulp to be bleached and the bleaching liquid are introduced together at the bottom of each chest and flow upward therethrough1 while at the top of each chest there are two conveyors1 one for carrying the pulp from one chest to the next in order1 while the other carries the bleaching liquid from one tank to the next in the reverse order1 the said conveyors also acting to partially separate the pulp from the liquid in which it has been suspended during its upward passage through the chest4 ,suitable agitators may be employed for thoroughly mixing the materials in the chest and in the apparatus shown the bleaching agent and material to be bleached pass through each chest in the same direction--namely from the bottom to the top--although they are carried from one chest to the next in the reverse order1 the material to be bleached being primarily introduced into the chest at one end of the series1 while the bleaching agent or solution is introduced primarily into the chest at the other end of the series4 ,fig4 #a is a plan view of an apparatus for bleaching in accordance with this invention1 comprising a series of four chests1 and ,fig4 #b is a vertical longitudinal section of a modified arrangement of two chests in line with one another1 and with the conveyor for the material to be bleached and the passage through which said material passes from the top of one chest into the bottom of the next chest in the plane of section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,the chests1 a a#b a#c a#d1 may be of any desired shape and dimensions and any desired number may be used4 ,each of said chests is provided with an inlet passage1 b1 opening into the same near its bottom1 and through this passage the materials are introduced4 ,the unbleached material1 which may be paper pulp or material which is readily held in suspension in a liquid and is capable of flowing or being conveyed from one point to another in a semi-fluid condition1 is introduced through the inlet passage1 b1 to the first chest1 a1 of the series1 said pulp preferably having had as much as possible of the liquid in which it was previously suspended removed without1 however1 drying it1 and1 together with the said pulp1 the bleaching agent which has previously passed through the other chests of the series1 as will be hereinafter described1 is introduced so that both enter together at the lower portion of the first chest1 a1 of the series4 ,the said materials are caused to flow into the chest continuously1 so that the portion at each moment entering tends to displace that which has already entered1 thus causing the materials to rise gradually or flow upward from the bottom to the top of the chest4 ,suitable stirring devices or agitators1 c1 may be employed to keep the pulp in suspension and to expose it thoroughly and uniformly to the liquid introduced with it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,when the materials 7the pulp and the bleaching liquid7 arrive at or near the top of the chest1 they are partially separated from one another and removed from the chest at substantially the same rate that they are introduced1 as follows3 ,each chest is provided at its upper part with a liquid conveyor1 d1 having a construction similar to that of the device known as a washer in paper making machinery1 consisting of a rotating drum1 the periphery of which is covered with gauze1 which permits the liquid to pass into it1 but excludes the pulp suspended in the liquid1 the said drum containing blades or buckets that raise the liquid which thus enters through the gauze and discharges it at d#b near the axis of said drum4 ,there is one of these washers in each one of the series of chests1 and each discharges the liquid taken from its corresponding chest into the inlet pipe of the next preceding chest of the series1 the washer in the chest1 a#d1 for example1 delivering into the inlet passage1 b1 of the chest1 a#b1 and so on1 while the washer of the first chest1 a1 of the series delivers into a discharge pipe1 e1 through which the liquid may be permitted to run to waste or conveyed to any suitable receptacle1 if it is desired to subject it to chemical action for the purpose of renewing its bleaching powers or obtaining the chemical agents that may be contained within it4 ,the operation of the washers in removing the liquid from the upper part of the chest tends to thicken the pulp therein1 and the said thickened pulp is conveyed from one chest to the next in the series by any suitable conveying device1 f 7shown in this instance as a worm working in a trough or case1 f#b71 which may be made foraminous for the purpose of permitting the liquid to drain out of the pulp that is being carried through by the worm1 in order that the pulp may be introduced into the next chest of the series as free as possible from the liquid in which it has been suspended while in the chest from which it is just taken4 ,the pulp is thus conveyed from one chest in the series to the inlet passage leading to the next chest of the series1 and in the said inlet passage it meets the liquid coming in the reverse order from the next chest beyond in the series1 the pulp and liquid thus commingling in the inlet pipe and entering the chest together1 and being thoroughly mixed by the agitators in passing through the chest by the continued action of fresh material entering and of the conveyors taking the material out from the chests4 ,in the last of the series of chests into which the pulp is introduced the fresh or strong bleaching liquid is introduced through a suitable inlet pipe1 g1 and the pulp conveyor1 f1 that takes the pulp from the last chest1 delivers it into a pipe1 h1 by which it may be conveyed to any desired point1 the said pulp having been sufficiently bleached before arriving at the said pipe1 h4 ,it will be seen that by these means all the pulp is thoroughly and uniformly subjected to the bleaching agent and that the bleaching is gradually performed in all parts of the pulp1 which is first acted upon by the weaker bleaching agent that has previously operated upon the pulp before treated1 and that finally1 when nearly bleached1 the pulp is acted upon by the bleaching material of full strength1 this action being far more efficient than when the materials are simply mixed together1 the unbleached material with the strong bleaching agent1 and allowed to remain together until the bleaching operation is finished1 in which plan the bleaching agent loses its strength as the bleaching operation approaches completion1 so that when the pulp is nearly bleached it is operated upon by a very weak bleaching agent4 ,by having the pulp transferred from one chest to the next in the reverse order to that in which the liquid is transferred it will be seen that all parts of the pulp are acted upon uniformly and equally and that the operation may go on continuously for an indefinite period of time without necessitating stopping to empty the vats1 as is the case when the liquor only is transferred from one vat to the next4 ,a pump may be used for lifting the bleaching liquid1 as shown1 for example1 at k1 ,fig4 #a4 where said pump is used to raise the liquid delivered from the chest1 a#b1 and discharge it into the trough1 m1 by which the pulp is carried to the inlet pipe1 b4 ,by the use of the pump1 h1 a stronger flow of the liquid into the pipe b1 of the first chest1 a1 is effected than if it were taken directly from the washer of the chest1 a#b1 which is desirable1 as the pulp is delivered in the trough1 m1 with but little moisture4 ,it is obvious that the construction of the apparatus may be varied considerably without materially changing the essential features of operation4 ,for example1 the washers might be dispensed with and the liquid permitted to flow through suitable strainers from one chest to the next in order1 by gravity1 the successive chests in the order of the passage of the pulp being placed each at a higher level than the preceding one1 and it is also obvious that the construction of the pulp conveyors might be widely varied1 it being essential only that means should be provided for removing the pulp from one chest and delivering it into the next while carrying only a small amount of the liquid from one chest to the next with the pulp4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,compressed ,,air ,,in ,,conjunction ,,with ,,medicinal ,,solutions ,,in ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,nervous ,,and ,,mental ,,affections4 ,,being ,a ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,cerebro-,,spinal ,,therapeutics4 ,by ,j4 ,,leonard ,,corning1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,new ,york1 ,consultant in ,nervous ,diseases to ,st4 ,francis ,hospital1 ,st4 ,mary's ,hospital1 the ,hackensack ,hospital1 etc4 ,to merely facilitate the introduction of medicinal agents into the system by way of the air passages1 in the form of gases1 medicated or non-medicated1 has heretofore constituted the principal motive among physicians for invoking the aid of compressed air4 ,the experiments of ,paul ,bert with nitrous oxide and oxygen gas1 performed over fourteen years ago1 and the more recent proposals of ,see1 are illustrations in point4 ,the objects of which ,i have been in search are quite different from the foregoing1 and have reference not to the introduction of the remedy1 but to the enhancement of its effects after exhibition4 ,let me be more explicit on this point1 by stating at once that1 in contradistinction to my predecessors1 ,i shall endeavor to show that by far the most useful service derivable from compressed air is found in its ability to enhance and perpetuate the effects of soluble remedies 7introduced hypodermically1 by the mouth1 or otherwise7 upon the internal organs1 and more especially upon the cerebro-spinal axis4 ,some chemical affinity between the remedy employed and the protoplasm of the nerve cell is1 of course1 assumed to exist2 and it is with the enhancement of this affinity--this bond of union between the medicinal solution and the nervous element--that we shall chiefly concern ourselves in the following discussion4 ,by way of introduction1 ,i may recall the fact that my attention was directed several years since to the advisability of devising some means by the aid of which medicinal substances1 and more especially ansthetics1 might be made to localize1 intensify1 and perpetuate their action upon the peripheral nerves4 ,the simple problem in physiology and mechanics involved in this question ,i was fortunate enough to solve quite a long time ago2 and ,i must confess that in the retrospect these undertakings in themselves do not seem to me of great magnitude1 though in their practical application their significance appears more considerable4 ,herein lies1 it may be1 the explanation of the interest which these studies excited in the profession at the time of their publication4 ,these things are1 however1 a part of medical history2 and ,i merely refer to them at this time because they have led me to resume the solution of a far greater problem--that of intensifying1 perpetuating1 and 7to some extent at least7 localizing the effects of remedies upon the brain and spinal cord4 ,i speak of resuming these studies because1 as far back as #ahhj and #ahhb1 ,i made some attempts--albeit rather abortive--in the same direction4 ,in constructing the argument for the following study1 ,i am beholden more especially to three facts1 the knowledge of which came to me as the direct result of experimental tests4 ,one may place confidence1 therefore1 in the procedure which ,i have based upon these premises1 for at no point1 ,i think1 in the following argument will mere affirmation be found to have usurped the place of sound induction4 ,without anticipating further1 then1 let me specify as briefly as may be the nature of these facts4 ,,premises ,,of ,,argument4 ,first ,fact4--,the amount of ether1 chloroform1 chloral hydrate1 the bromides1 strychnine1 and many other remedies1 required to produce physiological effects upon the cerebro-spinal mechanism may be reduced by first securing a ligature around the central portion of one or several of the limbs of an animal1 so as to interrupt both the arterial and venous circulation4 ,the proof and explanation of this may be thus presented3 ,in the first place1 it is well known that children and small animals are affected by much smaller quantities of ansthetics and other medicinal substances than are required to produce equal effects in men and large animals4 ,at first sight1 there appears to exist a certain definite relation between the weight of the animal and the quantity of medicament required to produce physiological effects4 ,on closer inquiry1 however1 we find behind this proposition the deeper truth that the real proportion is between the magnitude of the blood-mass and the amount of medicament4 ,thus1 if we withdraw a considerable amount of blood from a large dog1 we may be able to affect him by much smaller doses than those required under ordinary circumstances2 and1 among human beings1 we find the anmic much more susceptible to remedies than the full-blooded of equal weight4 ,the degree of saturation of the blood-mass with the remedy is obviously1 then1 the principal thing2 the greater the amount of blood1 the more remedy--everything else being equal--we shall have to give in order to obtain definite results4 ,if we wish to embody the proposition in a mathematical statement1 we may do so in the following simple manner3 ,let a represent the total quantity of blood1 b1 the amount of remedy exhibited1 and x the magnitude of the physiological effect4 ,we shall then have the simple formula1 x b _/ a4 ,again1 if we withdraw a certain quantity of blood from the circulation by venesection1 and call that amount d1 we shall then have the formula x b _/ 7a-d74 ,but1 if we wish to act upon the organs of the trunk1 and more especially upon those contained within the cerebro-spinal canal1 it is not necessary to resort to such a drastic expedient as copious blood-letting2 for1 in place of this1 we may dam up and effectually eliminate from the rest of the body a certain amount of blood by passing a ligature around the central portion of one or several extremities1 so as to interrupt the circulation in both artery and vein4 ,when this has been done it is clear that we may introduce a remedy into the system by way of the stomach1 or hypodermically into some portion of the trunk2 and it is equally certain that a remedy so introduced will be diluted only in the ratio of the amount of blood freely circulating1 and more especially by that contained within the trunk and head4 ,that which is incarcerated behind the ligatures is as effectually withdrawn from the realm of physiological action as though it had been abstracted by the surgeon's knife4 ,elimination by the knife and elimination by the ligature are1 for present purposes1 then1 one and the same thing4 ,hence1 if we let d' represent the amount of blood incarcerated behind the ligatures1 x the magnitude of the physiological effect which we are seeking1 b the amount of remedy exhibited1 and a the total amount of blood contained in the whole organism1 we shall have the formula1 b b x ------ ----- a - d' a - d ,several years since1 ,i had an excellent opportunity of proving the truth of the foregoing1 in connection with the administration of ether in the case of a patient who resisted all attempts to ansthetize him in the ordinary way4 ,the case in question was a man under treatment at the ,manhattan ,eye and ,ear ,hospital1 upon whom it was deemed advisable to perform an operation4 ,as has been said1 the ordinary means of inducing ansthesia had proved ineffectual1 for the man was a confirmed drunkard2 and it was at this juncture that ,i was called in consultation and requested by my friend1 ,dr4 ,david ,webster1 one of the surgeons of the hospital1 to endeavor to devise some means of getting the man under the influence of the ansthetic4 ,the procedure which ,i suggested was this3#c ,around the upper part of each thigh a flat rubber tourniquet was tightly drawn and secured in place in the usual manner4 ,by this means the sequestration of all the blood contained in the lower limbs was accomplished2 but1 inasmuch as both artery and vein were compressed1 only the amount of blood usually contained in each limb was shut off from the rest of the body--which would not have been the case had we contented ourselves with merely compressing the veins1 as some have done4 ,footnote #c3 ,on the ,effective and ,rapid ,induction of ,general ,ansthesia1 the ,new ,york ,medical ,journal1 ,october #bb and ,december #bd1 #ahhg4 ,in subsequently commenting on my published report of this case1 that most accomplished writer and physician1 ,henry ,m4 ,lyman--than whom there is no greater authority on ansthesia--observes that the plan proposed and adopted by me on this occasion 7that of compressing both vein and artery7 is far preferable to compression of the vein alone4 ,the reason for this is not far to seek4 ,when we compress the veins alone there is a rapid accumulation of blood in the extremities through the accessions derived from the uninterrupted arteries4 ,now1 as this blood is derived from the trunk1 and consequently also from the organs contained within the cerebro-spinal canal1 there is danger of syncope and even heart failure4 ,when1 on the other hand1 both artery and vein are compressed no such derivative action occurs1 and all danger is1 consequently1 removed4 ,with an apology for this brief digression1 ,i now return to the interesting case which has given rise to it4 ,having1 as previously stated1 applied tourniquets to the central portion of the lower limbs1 the ether cap was placed over the mouth and nose of the patient1 and in an incredibly short time he was unconscious1 and the surgeons were able to go on with the operation4 ,the late ,dr4 ,cornelius ,r4 ,agnew and many other members of the staff of the hospital were present1 and gave emphatic expressions of approval4 ,dr4 ,f4,w4 ,ring1 assistant surgeon to the ,manhattan ,eye and ,ear ,hospital1 declared that both the amount of ether and the time consumed in its administration were infinitesimal when compared with what had been expended in previous efforts at inducing ansthesia in the usual way4 ,the facts brought out on this occasion with regard to the administration of ether have since been repeatedly verified by different observers2 so that at the present day their validity cannot be questioned4 ,i will merely add1 however1 that ,i have long known that the dosage of phenacetin1 antipyrine1 morphine1 chloralamid1 chloral1 the bromides1 and many other remedies might be reduced by resort to the same procedure2 all of which is merely equivalent to stating that their pharmaco-dynamic energy may be increased in this way4 ,and this brings us to the second fact1 which requires no special elaboration1 and may be stated thus3 ,second ,fact4--,the duration of the effect of a remedy upon the cerebro-spinal axis is in the inverse ratio of its volatility2 and this is equally true whether the remedy be given with or without the precautions previously detailed4 ,for example1 the ansthetic effects of ether disappear shortly after removal of the inhaler1 whether we apply tourniquets to the extremities or not2 but1 on the other hand1 the analgesic influence of antipyrin1 phenacetin1 morphine1 and other like remedies lasts very much longer1 and their dose may be reduced1 or--what is the same thing--their pharmaco-dynamic potency may be enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained within the extremities4 ,so far as ,i know1 ,i was the first to announce this fact4 ,in so far as a simple expression of the above truth is concerned1 we may employ the following formula3 ,let a represent the normal blood-mass contained in the entire body1 d the amount of blood sequestrated by the ligatures1 b the amount of the remedy1 c the volatility of the remedy1 and x the pharmaco-dynamic potency of which we are in search2 we shall then have b x ----------- 7a - d'7 c ,we now arrive at our third fact1 which will require more extensive elaboration4 ,third ,fact4--,the pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants1 sedatives1 analgesics1 and probably of all remedies which possess a chemical affinity for nervous matter1 is enhanced by exhibiting them 7the remedies7 in solution or soluble form--hypodermically1 by the mouth1 or per rectum--while the subject remains in a condensed atmosphere4 ,and1 as a corollary1 it may be stated that this increase1 this enhancement of the potency of the remedy is1 within certain limits1 in the ratio of the atmospheric condensation4 ,to express this truth mathematically is not difficult4 ,thus1 when a represents the amount of blood of the whole body1 b the amount of the remedy1 e the amount of atmospheric compression1 and x the pharmaco-dynamic potentiality which we are seeking1 we shall then have the simple formula3 b x e x ----- a ,a definite conception of the truth of this proposition will1 ,i think1 be more readily attained by the presentation of the steps which led me to its discovery4 ,let me begin1 then1 by stating that my attention was attracted several years ago by that unique complex of symptoms known as the caisson or tunnel disease4 ,as most physicians are aware1 the caisson disease is an affection of the spinal cord1 due to a sudden transition from a relatively high atmospheric pressure to one much lower4 ,hence1 those who work in caissons1 or submerged tunnels1 under an external pressure of two atmospheres or even more1 are liable to be attacked by the disease shortly after leaving the tunnel4 ,the seizure never1 however1 occurs while the subject is in the caisson1 or in other words1 while he remains under pressure4 ,moreover1 when the transition from the condensed atmosphere to that of ordinary density is gradually accomplished1 which may be done by letting the air escape from the lock very slowly1 the caisson disease is rarely if ever set up4 ,it is the systematic disregard of this principle by those who work in compressed air that is responsible1 or largely responsible1 for the occurrence of the disease4 ,the chief clinical features of the caisson disease are pain1 which may be relatively mild1 as when confined to a circumscribed area of one extremity1 or of frightful intensity1 as when it appears in the ears1 knees1 back1 or abdomen2 ansthesia and paralysis1 usually of paraplegic type2 bladder symptoms1 assuming the form of retention or incontinence2 and1 more rarely1 rectal disturbances 7usually incontinence74 ,these phenomena1 or rather some of them1 appear some time within half an hour after the subject has left the compressed atmosphere4 ,it was while investigating this most interesting affection as it occurred in the course of the construction of the ,hudson ,river tunnel1 that ,i was able1 at the same time1 to study the effects of compressed air upon the organism1 and especially upon the nervous system1 as exhibited in a large number of persons4 ,the results of these studies ,i now submit without hesitation1 and in all candor1 to the judgment of the profession1 believing1 as ,i certainly do1 that their practical significance from a neuro-therapeutic standpoint is assured4 ,without anticipating1 however1 let me state that the first thing which impressed me about compressed air was its extraordinary effect upon cerebral and cerebro-spinal function4 ,those who remain for a certain length of time1 not too long1 however1 in the condensed atmosphere1 exhibit a most striking exacerbation of mental and physical vigor4 ,they go up and down ladders1 lift heavy weights1 are more or less exhilarated1 and1 in short1 behave as though under the influence of a stimulant4 ,hardly had ,i observed these things1 which are perfectly well known to those who have been able to familiarize themselves with the ordinary effects of compressed air as used in caissons and submarine works of various kinds1 when my attention became attracted by what at first appeared to be a phenomenon of trivial importance4 ,in a word1 ,i observed that some of the men exposed to the effects of the compressed air were more exhilarated by it than others4 ,upon superficial reflection one might have supposed that this discrepancy in physiological effect was to be accounted for merely on the basis of constitutional idiosyncrasy2 maturer thought1 however1 convinced me that the exaggerated effects of the condensed air were both too numerous and too constant to be amenable to such an explanation4 ,this led me to study the habits of the men2 and thus it was that ,i arrived at a discovery of real practical value to neurotherapy4 ,to be brief1 ,i found that a certain percentage of the men1 before entering the compressed air employed in the construction of the ,hudson ,river tunnel1 were in the habit of drinking a quantity of alcohol1 usually in the form of whisky4 ,so long as these men remained outside the tunnel1 where the atmospheric conditions were normal1 they were not visibly affected by their potations4 ,when1 however1 they entered the compressed air of the tunnel1 but a short time elapsed before they became exhilarated to an inordinate degree1 acting1 as one of the foremen graphically expressed it1 as though they owned the town4 ,on the other hand1 when the customary draught of alcohol was withheld from them1 these same men were no more1 if as much1 exhilarated on entering the compressed air as were their fellows4 ,the effects of alcohol1 then1 are enhanced by exposing the subject to the influence of an atmosphere condensed to a considerable degree beyond that of the normal atmosphere4 ,acting on the hint derived from this discovery1 ,i proceeded to administer absinthe1 ether1 the wine of coca1 vermouth1 champagne1 and other stimulants1 before exposing the subject to the influence of the condensed atmosphere1 and invariably observed analogous effects1 i4e41 palpable augmentation of the physiological effects of the remedy4 ,upon what principle does this augmentation of physiological effect depend8 how is it to be accounted for8 ,in my opinion1 the answer to this question may be given as follows3 ,in the first place1 we know that the primary effect of the compressed air upon the organism must be to force the blood from the surface of the body toward the interior1 and especially into the cerebro-spinal canal4 ,or1 to express it more succinctly1 the blood will be forced in the direction of the least resistance1 that is1 into the soft organs inclosed by bony walls1 which latter completely shut out the element of counter-pressure4 ,now1 when the blood stream is freighted with a soluble chemical of some sort--let us say1 for the present1 with alcohol--this medicated blood will exert its greatest chemical effect where the tension--the pressure--is greatest1 that is1 in the cerebro-spinal canal4 ,the reason for this is found in the fact that endosmosis is most pronounced where the blood pressure is greatest4 ,this explanation of why the effects of alcohol are enhanced by exposing the individual who has taken it to the effects of a condensed atmosphere will1 ,i believe1 appeal to the physiological conceptions of most medical men4 ,it was the above course of reasoning which1 at this stage of the argument1 led me to the idea that1 just as the effects of stimulating substances are enhanced by exposing the subject to the influence of compressed air1 so1 inversely1 sedatives and analgesics1 when brought in solution into the blood stream1 either hypodermically or by the stomach1 might be greatly enhanced in effect by causing the subject to remain1 while under their influence1 in a condensed atmosphere4 ,when ,i came to investigate the validity of these predictions1 as ,i did shortly after the introduction of antipyrin1 phenacetin1 and the other members of the same group of compounds1 ,i found my predictions verified1 and1 indeed1 exceeded4 ,to summarize the whole matter1 ,i ascertained that not only could therapeutic effects be obtained from much smaller doses by exposing the subject to the influence of a condensed atmosphere1 but1 what was of equal interest1 ,i found that the analgesic influence of the remedies was much more permanent1 was prolonged1 in short1 by this mode of administration4 ,when we consider how great must be the nutritive changes in the nervous system1 and especially in the cerebro-spinal axis1 consequent upon increasing the blood pressure in this way1 ,i hardly think that these things should be matters of astonishment4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,practical ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,facts4--,truths like the foregoing possess1 however1 much more than a theoretical interest1 and we should be greatly lacking in perspicuity did we not seek to derive from them something further than a foundation for mere speculation4 ,indeed1 the whole tenor of these facts is opposed to such a course1 for1 view them as we may1 the thought inevitably arises that here are things which contain the germ of some practical acquisition4 ,this1 at least1 is the impression which they engendered in my own mind--an impression which1 being unable to rid myself of1 ,i have allowed to fructify4 ,nor has regret followed this tenacity of purpose1 since1 by the combination of the three principles previously enunciated1 ,i have been able to devise a procedure which1 in my hands1 has yielded flattering results in the treatment of a wide range of nervous affections1 and notably so in melancholia1 chorea1 insomnia1 neurasthenia1 and painful conditions of various kinds4 ,,recapitulation ,,of ,,argument4--,the method in question consists1 then1 in the combination of the three facts already elucidated4 ,to recapitulate1 they are3 #a4 ,that the effects of remedies upon the cerebro-spinal axis may be enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained in one or more extremities1 previous to the administration of the medicament4 ,this is only another way of saying that the quantity of a remedy required to produce a given physiological effect may be reduced by any expedient which suspends1 or sequestrates1 the blood in one or more extremities4 ,as has been previously said1 however1 care should be exercised to avoid dangerous exsanguination of the trunk1 and consequently of the respiratory and cardiac centers contained in the medulla4 ,this may be done by compressing the central portion of both artery and vein2 but ,i shall presently indicate a better way of accomplishing the same thing4 #b4 ,the duration of the effect of a remedy upon the cerebro-spinal axis is in the inverse ratio of its volatility4 ,for this reason the ansthetic effects of ether disappear shortly after removal of the inhaler1 whereas solutions of antipyrin1 phenacetin1 morphine1 and other salts possessing an affinity for nervous tissue exert much more permanent effects upon the cerebro-spinal system4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the administration of remedies designed to exert an influence upon the central nervous system in the form of gases must be far inferior to the exhibition of potent solutions hypodermically or by the mouth4 #c4 ,the pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants1 sedatives1 analgesics1 and probably of all remedies possessing a chemical affinity for nervous matter1 is enhanced by exhibiting them 7the remedies7 in solution1 or at least in soluble form while the subject remains in a condensed atmosphere4 ,and1 as a corollary to this1 it may be stated that this increase--this enhancement of therapeutic effect--is1 within physiological limits1 in the ratio of the atmospheric condensation4 ,by physiological limits we mean simply that there is a degree of atmospheric condensation beyond which we cannot go without jeopardizing the well-being of the subject4 7,to be continued47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,eyesight3 ,,its ,,care ,,during ,,infancy ,,and ,,youth4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a lecture delivered before the ,franklin ,institute1 ,december #e1 #ahij4--;,from the ,journal of the ,institute4 ,by ,l4 ,,webster ,,fox1 ,m4,d4 ,medical science1 as taught in our medical colleges to-day1 has two objects in view3 7#a7 the prevention of disease2 7#b7 the amelioration of disease and its cure4 ,some of our advanced thinkers are suggesting a new mode of practice1 that is the prevention of disease by proper hygienic measures4 ,chairs are being established and professors appointed to deliver lectures on hygiene4 ,of what value is the application of therapeutics if the human economy is so lowered in its vital forces that dissolution is inevitable8 ,is it not better to prevent disease than to try the cure after it has become established1 or has honeycombed the constitution8 ,these few preliminary remarks are apropos to what is to follow in the subject which ,i have selected as the topic for discussion this evening4 ,vision is the most useful of all the senses4 ,it is the one gift which we should cherish and guard the most4 ,and at no time in one's life is it more precious than in infancy and youth4 ,in infancy1 when the child is developing1 the one great avenue to the unfolding1 or more properly speaking1 the development1 of the intellect is through the eye4 ,the eye at this period holds in abeyance all the other senses4 ,the child1 when insensible to touch1 taste1 smell or hearing1 will become aroused to action by a bright light or bright colors1 or the movement of any illuminated object1 proving to all that light is essential to the development of the first and most important sense4 ,again1 the infant of but six days of age will recognize a candle flame1 while its second sense and second in importance to its development--hearing--will not be recognized for six weeks to two months4 ,taste1 touch and smell follow in regular sequence4 ,inasmuch as light makes thus early an impression on the delicate organ of vision1 how necessary it behooves us to guard the infant from too bright lights or too much exposure in our bright climate4 ,mothers--not only the young mother with her first child1 but also those who have had several children--are too apt to try to quiet a restless child by placing it near a bright flame2 much evil to the future use of those eyes is the outgrowth of such a pernicious habit4 ,light throws into action certain cells of that wonderful structure of the eye1 the retina1 and an over stimulus perverts the action of those cells4 ,the result is that by this over-stimulation the seeds of future trouble are sown4 ,let the adult gaze upon the arc of an electric light or into the sun1 and for many moments1 nay hours1 that individual has dancing before his vision scintillations and phosphenes4 ,his direct vision becomes blurred1 and as in the case of a certain individual ,i have in mind1 there may be a permanent loss of sight4 ,parents should take the first precaution in the child's life1 and not expose it to a light too bright or glaring4 ,when in the open air let the child's eyes be protected from the direct rays of the sun4 ,while it is impossible to give all children the advantage of green fields and outdoor ramblings1 yet nature never intended that civilization should debar the innocent child from such surroundings4 ,an anecdote is related of a ,french ophthalmic surgeon1 that a distinguished patient applied to him for relief from a visual defect2 the surgeon advised him to go into the country and look out upon the green fields4 ,the green color with its soothing effect soon brought about a restoration of vision4 ,what ,i wish to illustrate by this anecdote is that children should be allowed the green fields as their best friend in early life4 ,it tones up the system and rests the eye4 ,after outdoor exercise and plenty of it1 we should turn our attention to the home surroundings of our little ones4 ,the overheated rooms of the average ,american home ,i am sure have more to do with the growing tendency of weak eyes than we feel like admitting4 ,look at these frail hot-house plants1 and can any one believe that such bodies nourished in almost pestilential atmosphere can nourish such delicate organs of vision1 and keep them ready for the enormous amount of work each little eye performs daily8 ,the brain developing so rapidly wills with an increasing rapidity the eye to do increasing duties2 note the result--a tendency to impoverished circulation first1 and the eye with its power to give the brain a new picture in an infinitesimal short space of time means lightning-like circulation--the eye must give way by its own exhaustion4 ,civilization is the progenitor of many eye diseases4 ,after a boy has grown to that age when it becomes necessary for him to begin the education prescribed by the wise men1 obstacles are placed in his way to aid again in causing deterioration of vision4 ,it is not so much the overcrowded condition of our school rooms as the enormous amount of work that causes deterioration of sight4 ,our children begin their school life at a time when they are too young4 ,a child at six years of age who is forced to study all day or even a part of a day will not run the same race that one will who commences his studies at ten--all things being equal4 ,the law prescribes that so much time must be devoted to study1 so many forms must be passed1 so many books must be read1 so many pages of composition written--all probably in badly lighted rooms1 or by artificial light4 ,note the effect4 ,first1 possibly1 distant vision gives way2 the teacher1 sympathizing with the overburdened child1 tries to make the burden lighter by changing his position in the room or placing him under the cross light from a window2 as the evil progresses1 the child is taken to an ophthalmic surgeon1 and the inevitable result1 glasses1 rightly called crutches for the eyes1 are given4 ,what would be thought of a cause which would weaken the legs of that boy so that he would have to use crutches to carry him through life8 ,if civilization be responsible for an evil1 let our efforts be put forth in finding a remedy for that evil4 ,a discussion1 in a recent number of the ,british ,medical ,journal1#b on ,the ,claims and ,limitations of ,physical ,education in ,schools1 has many valuable hints which should be followed by educators in this country4 ,dr4 ,carter1 in the leading paper on this subject1 makes the pregnant remark3 ,if the hope is entertained of building up a science of education1 the medical profession must combine with the profession of teaching1 in order to direct investigation and to collect material essential to generalization4 ,without such co-operation educational workers must continue to flounder in the morasses of empiricism1 and be content to purchase relative safety at the cost of slow progress1 or no progress at all4 ,in other words1 an advisory medical board should coexist with our board of public education1 to try to hold in check or prevent a further cruelty in trying to be kind4 ,private institutions of education recognize the importance of physical training and development1 and in such institutions the deterioration of vision is in proportion less than in institutions where physical training is not considered4 ,in one school of over #bjj middle class girls1 ,dr4 ,carter found that1 during a period of six years1 no fewer than ten per cent4 of the total number of girls admitted during that time have been compelled to take one or more terms' leave of absence1 and of the present number twenty-eight per cent4 have medical certificates exempting them from gymnastic exercise and #aj4be per cent4 of the total present number wear eye glasses of some kind or other4 ,from my own experience the same number of students in our schools would show about the same percentage of visual defects4 ,these questions are of such growing importance that not only instructors1 but the medical fraternity1 should not rest until these evils are eradicated4 ,footnote #b3 ,nov4 #a1 #ahij4 ,dr4 ,j4,w4 ,ballantyne1 of ,edinburgh1 in a lecture#c on diseases of infancy and childhood1 says3 ,the education of the young people of a nation is to that nation a subject of vital importance4 ,the same writer quotes the startling statement made by ,prof4 ,pfluger1 that of #de1jjj children examined in ,germany more than one-half were suffering from defective eyesight1 while in some schools the proportion of the short sighted was seventy or eighty per cent41 and1 crowning all1 was the ,heidelberg ,gymnasium1 with #ajj per cent4 ,these figures1 the result of a careful examination1 are simply startling1 and almost make one feel that it were better to return to the old ,greek method of teaching by word of mouth4 ,footnote #c3 ,lancet4 ,nov4 #a1 #ahij4 ,prof4 ,pfluger attributes this large amount of bad sight to insufficient lighting of school rooms1 badly printed books1 etc4 ,one must agree with a certain writer1 who says3 ,schools are absolute manufactories of the short sighted1 a variety of the human race which has been created within historic time1 and which has enormously increased in number during the present century4 ,granting that many predisposing causes of defective vision cannot be eliminated from the rules laid down by our city fathers in acquiring an education1 it would be well if the architects of school buildings would bear in mind that light when admitted into class rooms should not fall directly into the faces of children1 but desks should be so arranged that the light must be sufficiently strong and fall upon the desk from the left hand side4 ,my attention has repeatedly been called to the cross lights in a school room4 ,the light falling directly into the eyes contracts the pupil which is already contracted by the action of the muscle of accommodation in its effort to give a clearer picture to the brain4 ,this has a tendency to elongate the eyeball1 and as a permanent result we have near sightedness4 ,where the eyeball has an unnatural shortness this same action manifests itself by headaches1 chorea1 nausea1 dyspepsia1 and ultimately a prematurely breaking down of health4 ,the first symptom of failing sight is a hyper-secretion of tears1 burning of the eyelids1 loss of eyelashes1 and congestion either of the eyelids or the eyeball proper4 ,the natural condition of aboriginal man is far sighted4 ,his wild life1 his nomadic nature1 his seeking for game1 his watching for enemies1 his abstention from continued near work1 have given him this protection4 ,humboldt speaks of the wonderful distant vision of the ,south ,american ,indians2 another traveler in ,russia of the power of vision one of his guides possessed1 who could see the rings of ,saturn4 ,my recent examinations among ,indian children of both sexes also confirm this4 ,while the comparison is not quite admissible1 yet the recent investigations carried on by ,lang and ,barrett1 who examined the eyes of certain mammalia1 found that the larger number were hypermetropic or far sighted4 ,with all the difficulties which naturally surround such an examination they found that in fifty-two eyes of rabbits1 thirty-six were hypermetropic and astigmatic1 eight were hypermetropic only1 five were myopic and astigmatic1 and others presented mixed astigmatism4 ,in the eyes of the guinea pig about the same proportion of hypermetropia existed4 ,the eyes of five rats examined gave the following result3 ,some were far sighted1 others were hypermetropic and astigmatic1 one was slightly myopic and one had mixed astigmatism4 ,of six cows1 five were hypermetropic and astigmatic and one was slightly myopic4 ,six horses were also examined1 of which one had normal sight1 three were hypermetropic and astigmatic1 and two had a slight degree of astigmatism4 ,they also examined other animals1 and the same proportion of hypermetropia existed4 ,these gentlemen found that as an optical instrument the eye of the horse1 cow1 cat and rabbit is superior to that of the rat1 mouse and guinea pig4 ,i have for the last five years devoted considerable attention to the vision of the ,indian children who are pupils at two institutions in this city4 ,i have at various times made careful records of each individual pupil and have from time to time compared them4 ,up to the present there is a growing tendency toward myopia or short sightedness1 i4e41 more pupils from year to year require near sighted glasses4 ,the natural condition of their eyes is far sighted and the demands upon them are producing many nervous or reflex symptoms1 pain over the frontal region and headaches4 ,a good illustration of the latter trouble is showing itself in a young ,indian boy1 who is at present undergoing an examination of his vision as a probable cause for his headaches4 ,this boy is studying music2 one year ago he practiced two hours daily on the piano and studied from three to five hours besides4 ,this year his work has been increased2 he is now troubled with severe headaches1 and after continued near work for some time letters become blurred and run together4 ,this boy is far sighted and astigmatic2 glasses will correct his defect1 and it will be interesting to note whether his eyes will eventually grow into near sighted ones4 ,i have several cases where the defective vision has been due entirely to other causes1 such as inflammation of the cornea1 weakening this part of the eye1 and the effect in trying to see producing an elongation of the anterior portion of the eyeball1 and this in turn producing myopia4 ,the eye of the ,indian does not differ materially from that of any deeply pigmented race4 ,the eyeball is smaller than in the ,caucasian1 but when we examine the interior we find the same distribution of the blood vessels and same shape of the optic nerves4 ,the pigment deposit in the choroid is excessive and gives1 as a background to the retina1 a beautiful silvery sheen when examined with the ophthalmoscope4 ,one thing which ,i noticed particularly was the absence of this excessive deposit of pigment and absence of this watered silk appearance in the half breeds1 they taking after the white race4 ,many of the intraocular diseases common among the white children were also absent1 especially those diseases which are the result of near work4 ,it is a well known fact among breeders of animals that where animals are too highly or finely bred1 the eye is the organ first to show a retrogression from the normal4 ,in an examination by myself some years ago among deaf mutes1 ,i found the offspring of consanguineous marriages much affected1 and while not only were many afflicted with inflammatory conditions of the choroid and retina1 their average vision was much below the normal4 ,my quoting ,messrs4 ,lang and ,barrett's figures was to bring more prominently to the notice of my hearers the fact that the eyes of primitive man resembled the eyes of the lower mammalia and that the natural eye as an organ of vision was hypermetropic1 or far sighted1 and that civilization was the cause of the myopic or near sighted eye4 ,nature always compensates in some way4 ,i grant that the present demands of civilization could not be filled by the far sighted eye1 but the evil which is the outgrowth of present demands does not stop when we have reached the normal eye1 but the cause once excited1 the coats of this eye continue to give way1 and myopia or a near sighted condition is the result4 ,among three hundred ,indians examined1 ,i found when ,i got to the ,creeks1 a tribe which has been semi-civilized for many years1 myopia to be the prevailing visual defect4 ,without going into statistics1 ,i am convinced from my experience that the ,state must look into this subject and give our public school system of education more attention1 or we1 as a people1 will be known as a spectacled race4 ,myopia or short-sightedness among the ,germans is growing at a tremendous rate4 ,while ,i do not believe that the ,german children perform more work than our own children1 there is one cause for this defect which has never been touched upon by writers1 and that is the shape of the head4 ,the broad1 flat face1 or ,german type1 as ,i would call it1 has not the deep orbit of the more narrow1 sharp-featured face of the ,american type4 ,the eye of the ,german standing out more prominently1 and1 in consequence1 less protected1 is thereby more prone to grow into a near-sighted eye4 ,one of the significant results of hard study was recently brought to my notice by looking over the statistics on the schools of ,munich in #ahhi4 ,in those schools #b1cbg children suffered from defective sight1 #iif boys and #a1cca girls4 ,of #a1jjj boys in the first or elementary class1 #cf are short-sighted2 in the second1 #di2 in the third1 #gj2 in the fourth1 #id2 in the fifth1 #ajh2 in the sixth1 #ajd2 and in the last and seventh1 #ajh4 ,the number of short-sighted boys1 therefore1 from the first class to the seventh increases about three-fold4 ,in the case of girls1 the increase is from #cg to #aai4 ,these statistics in themselves show us the effects of overwork1 incessant reading or study by defective gas or lamp light1 or from an over-stimulating light1 as the arc light1 late hours1 dissipation1 and frequent rubbing of the eye1 also fatigue1 sudden changes from darkness to light1 and1 what is probably worse than all1 reading on railway trains4 ,the constant oscillations of the car cause an over-activity of the muscle of accommodation1 which soon becomes exhausted2 the brain willing the eye to give it a clear photograph continues to force the ciliary muscle1 which muscle governs the accommodation1 in renewed activity1 and the result may easily be foretold4 ,the fond parents finding that the vitiated air of the city is making their once rosy-cheeked children turn pale1 seek a remedy in the fresh air of the country4 ,the children find their way to city schools2 this necessitates traveling so many miles a day in railway cars4 ,the children take this opportunity of preparing their studies while en route to the city1 and here is where they get their first eye-strain4 ,children have the example set them by their parents or business men1 who read the daily papers on the trains4 ,children are great imitators1 and when their attention is called to the evil1 quote their parents' example1 and they follow it4 ,no wonder each generation is growing more effeminate4 ,the light in sick rooms should never fall directly on the eyes1 nor should the rooms be either too dark or too light4 ,the ,esquimaux and ,indians long ago noted the fact that sunlight reflected from freshly fallen snow would soon cause blindness4 ,the natives of northern ,africa blacken themselves around the eyes to prevent ophthalmia from the glare of the hot sand4 ,in ,fiji the natives1 when they go fishing1 blacken their faces4 ,my friend4 ,dr4 ,bartelott1 presented me with a pair of eye protectors1 which he brought from ,alaska4 ,the natives use them to protect themselves from snow blindness4 ,these snow spectacles1 or snow eyes1 as they are called1 are usually made out of pine wood1 which is washed upon their shores1 drift wood from southern climes4 ,the posterior surface is deeply excavated1 to prevent its obstructing the free motion of the eye lids2 on each side a notch is cut at the lower margin to allow a free passage for the tears4 ,the upper margin of the front surface is more prominent than the under1 to act as a shade to the eyes4 ,the inner surface is blackened to absorb the excessive light4 ,the openings are horizontal slits4 ,the eyes are thus protected from the dazzling effect of the light4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,grady1 of ,omaha1 communicated to me a history of three hunters who almost lost their eyesight by too long exposure to the bright rays of the sun falling on snow4 ,the abuse of tobacco leads to impairment of vision in the growing youth4 ,cigarette smoking is an evil4 ,i am inclined to believe that the poison inhaled arrests the growth of boys2 surely it prevents a mental development1 and1 when carried to excess1 affects vision more by lessening the power of nerve conduction than acting directly on the eye4 ,it is not the one cigarette which the boy smokes that does the harm1 but it is the one1 two1 or three packages smoked daily4 ,this excessive smoking thoroughly perverts all the functions which should be at their best to aid this growing youth4 ,first we have failing digestion1 restless nights1 suspension of growth1 lack of mental development1 the loss of nerve tone1 loss of the power of accommodation in vision1 failing sight1 headaches1 enfeeblement of the heart4 ,let a man who is a habitual smoker of cigars attempt to smoke even one package of cigarettes and he will complain of nausea1 dry throat1 and loss of appetite4 ,if a strong man is so much affected by this poison1 how much less can a boy resist the inroads of such poisons8 ,in ,germany the law forbids the sale of cigarettes to growing boys4 ,new ,york ,state has a similar law1 and why should our own or any other ,state be behind in passing prohibitory laws against this evil8--and this is a growing evil4 ,i have never seen a case of tobacco amblyopia in boyhood1 but such a condition is not infrequent in adults4 ,in boys the action of nicotine acts especially upon the heart1 the impulse is rendered weaker and intermittent1 and many young boys lay the seeds of organic disease which sooner or later culminates fatally4 ,boys should be prohibited from smoking1 first by their parents1 second by law1 but not such laws whose enforcement is a failure1 third by placing a heavy fine upon dealers who sell to minors4 ,the pernicious evil of intoxication is no less an evil upon the nervous system of a youth than is the habit of cigarette smoking1 but1 fortunately1 this habit is less common4 ,having traced from aboriginal man to the present civilized individual the cause of his myopia1 what must we do to prevent a further deterioration of vision8 ,unfortunately1 the physician of our country is not1 as ,i am told1 like the ,japanese physician4 ,our medical men are called to attend people who are ill and to try to get them well--the ,japanese physician is paid only to keep his patients in health4 ,the first effort parents should make is to see that their children have plenty of outdoor exercise4 ,good1 warm clothing in winter1 and light texture cloth in summer4 ,a great difference of opinion exists as to the age at which a child should begin its studies4 ,i feel sure that the boy who commences his studies at ten will far outrun the one who commences study at six4 ,every child should commence his lessons in the best kindergarten1 the nursery4 ,let object lessons be his primer--let him be taught by word of mouth--then1 when his brain is what it should be for a boy of ten1 his eyes will be the better able to bear the fatigue of the burdens which will be forced upon him4 ,listen to what ,milton has left on record as a warning to those young boys or girls who insist upon reading or studying at night with bad illumination4 ,my father destined me1 from a child1 for the pursuits of polite learning1 which ,i prosecuted with such eagerness that1 after ,i was twelve years old1 ,i rarely retired to bed1 from my lucubrations1 till midnight4 ,this was the first thing which proved pernicious to my eyes1 to the natural weakness of which were added frequent headaches4 ,milton went blind when comparatively a young man1 and it was always to him a great grief4 ,galileo1 the great astronomer1 also went blind by overwork4 ,it was written of him1 ,the noblest eye which ever nature made is darkened--an eye so privileged1 and gifted with such rare powers1 that it may truly be said to have seen more than the eyes of all that are gone1 and to have opened the eyes of all that are to come4 ,when the defect of far sightedness or near sightedness exists1 we have but one recourse--spectacles4 ,some time ago ,i published1 in the ,medical and ,surgical ,reporter an article on the history of spectacles4 ,the widespread interest which this paper created has stimulated me to continue the research1 and since this article appeared ,i have been able to gather other additional historical data to what has been described as an invention for poor old men when their sight grows weak4 ,the late ,wendell ,phillips1 in his lecture on the ,lost ,arts1 speaks of the ancients having magnifying glasses4 ,cicero said that he had seen the entire ,iliad1 which is a poem as large as the ,new ,testament1 written on a skin so that it could be rolled up in the compass of a nut shell2 it would have been impossible either to have written this1 or to have read it1 without the aid of a magnifying glass4 ,in ,parma1 a ring #b1jjj years old is shown which once belonged to ,michael ,angelo4 ,on the stone are engraved the figures of seven women4 ,you must have the aid of a glass in order to distinguish the forms at all4 ,another intaglio is spoken of--the figure is that of the god ,hercules2 by the aid of glasses1 you can distinguish the interlacing muscles and count every separate hair on the eyebrows4 ,mr4 ,phillips again speaks of a stone #bj inches long and #aj wide containing a whole treatise on mathematics1 which would be perfectly illegible without glasses4 ,now1 our author says1 if we are unable to read and see these minute details without glasses1 you may suppose the men who did the engraving had pretty strong spectacles4 ,the ,emperor ,nero1 who was short sighted1 occupied the imperial box at the ,coliseum1 and1 to look down into the arena1 a space covering six acres1 the area of the ,coliseum1 was obliged1 as ,pliny says1 to look through a ring with a gem in it--no doubt a concave glass--to see more clearly the sword play of the gladiators4 ,again1 we read of ,mauritius1 who stood on the promontory of his island and could sweep over the sea with an optical instrument to watch the ships of the enemy4 ,this tells us that the telescope is not a modern invention4 ,lord ,kingsborough1 speaking of the ancient ,mexicans1 says3 ,they were acquainted with many scientific instruments of strange invention1 whether the telescope may not have been of the number is uncertain1 but the thirteenth plate of ,dupaix's ,monuments1 part second1 which represents a man holding something of a similar nature to his eye1 affords reason to suppose that they knew how to improve the powers of vision4 ,our first positive knowledge of spectacles is gathered from the writings of ,roger ,bacon1 who died in #abib4c ,bacon says3 ,this instrument 7a plano-convex glass or large segment of a sphere7 is useful to old men and to those who have weak eyes1 for they may see the smallest letters sufficiently magnified4 ,footnote #c3 ,med4 and ,surg4 ,reporter4 ,alexander de ,spina1 who died in #acac1 had a pair of spectacles made for himself by an optician who had the secret of their invention4 ,de ,spina was so much pleased with them that he made the invention public4 ,monsieur ,spoon fixes the date of the invention between #abhj and #acaa4 ,in a manuscript written in #abii by ,pissazzo1 the author says3 ,i find myself so pressed by age that ,i can neither read nor write without those glasses they call spectacles1 lately invented1 to the great advantage of poor old men when their sight grows weak4 ,friar ,jordan1 who died in ,pisa in #acaa1 says in one of his sermons1 which was published in #acje1 that it is not twenty years since the art of making spectacles was found out1 and is indeed one of the best and most necessary inventions in the world4 ,in the fourteenth century spectacles were not uncommon and ,italy excelled in their manufacture4 ,from ,italy the art was carried into ,holland1 then to ,nuremberg1 ,germany4 ,in a church in ,florence is a fresco representing ,st4 ,jerome 7#adhj74 ,among the several things represented is an inkhorn1 pair of scissors1 etc4 ,we also find a pair of spectacles1 or pince-nez--the glasses are large and round and framed in bone4 ,it was not until #aege that ,maurolicus1 of ,messina1 pointed out the cause of near sightedness and far sightedness and explained how concave glasses corrected the former and convex glasses the latter defect4 ,in the wake of advanced1 education stalks the spectacle age4 ,any one watching a passing crowd cannot fail but note the great number of people wearing spectacles4 ,unfortunately it is not limited to adults1 but our youths of both sexes go to make up this army of ametropes4 ,at what age should children first wear glasses8 ,this is a much debatable question4 ,where there is simply a defect of vision ,i should never prescribe a pair of glasses for a child under ten years of age4 ,a child under this age runs many risks of injury to the eyeball by accident to the glasses1 and to cut the eye with glass is a very serious affair4 ,rather let a child go without study1 or even with impaired vision1 than run the risk of a permanent loss of sight4 ,another source of evil ,i must call your attention to1 and that is the indiscriminate use of glasses given by itinerant venders of spectacles who claim a thorough knowledge of the eye1 who make examination free1 but charge double price for glasses4 ,persons1 before submitting themselves into the hands of opticians1 should know that they are not suffering from any incipient disease of their eyes4 ,i do not1 for a moment1 claim that a practical optician cannot give you a pair of glasses which will make you see--he does nothing more than hand you a number of pairs of glasses and you select the one pair which you think answers the purpose4 ,how can anyone but a medical man know that the impairment of vision does not arise from diminished sensibility of the retina8 ,if so1 the glasses just purchased1 which may be comfortable for a time1 may cause an irreparable loss of vision4 ,every ophthalmic surgeon will tell you that he has had a number of such cases4 ,do not be misguided by purchasing cheap spectacles4 ,glasses advertised as having remarkable qualities are always to be passed by4 ,they have remarkable qualities2 they always leave the person wearing them worse at the end of a few months4 ,whenever an eye finds relief in a shaded or colored glass1 something is going wrong with the interior of that eye4 ,seek advice1 but do not trust the eyes of yourself1 much less those of your children1 in the hands of the opticians who advertise their examinations free4 ,such individuals should be brought before a tribunal and the matter sifted as to whether the sense of sight is less to be taken care of than if that same patient were ill with pneumonia and a druggist were to prescribe remedies which might or might not aid this patient4 ,if one man must comply with the law1 why should not the other8 ,our medical colleges are lengthening the course of studies2 the advances in the various departments of science demand this4 ,it is by the aid of the ophthalmoscope that many obscure diseases are diagnosed1 and while it is impossible for every young man who obtains a diploma to become thoroughly proficient in the use of this instrument1 yet the eye shows to him many conditions which guide him to the road of successful treatment4 ,think of a case of optic neuritis--inflammation of the optic nerve--going to an optician and fitting one set of glasses after another until the patient suddenly discovers that blindness is inevitable4 ,many individuals1 and very intelligent ones at that1 think that so long as a glass makes them see1 that is all they need4 ,when we know that scarcely two eyes are alike1 we can at once feel that it is very important that each eye should be properly adjusted for a glass2 by this we are sure of having comfort in reading and preserving vision4 ,there is a very important defect in vision which should be detected as early in life as possible1 and that is color blindness4 ,the boy who is a color blind will always remain a color blind1 and as forty in every #a1jjj of the male sex are color blind1 it is essential that they know their defect1 and train their course accordingly4 ,it would be to the advantage of all boys to undergo such an examination once in their school life2 a color blind would be useless where the selection of color entered into his life work4 ,if a boy had a talent for drawing or engraving1 and were color blind1 he would make a success of his life1 whereas if he would attempt to mix paints of different colors he would be a failure4 ,i shall not dwell upon the scientific part of color blindness1 nor discuss either the ,young-,helmholtz or the ,hering theories of color defect1 but shall deal with its practical use in everyday life4 ,until the year #ahec1 very little was known about color blindness1 and much less written about it4 ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 in #ahec1 wrote several articles1 which were published in the ,edinburgh ,monthly ,journal of ,medical ,science4 ,these articles created such an interest in the scientific world that ,dr4 ,wilson brought out a book1 entitled ,researches on ,color ,blindness1 two years later4 ,so thoroughly did ,dr4 ,wilson sift this subject that no writer up to the present day has added anything practical to what was then known4 ,dr4 ,wilson writes in his preface3 ,the most practical relation of color blindness is that which it has to railway and ship signals4 ,he further states3 ,the professions for which color blindness most seriously disqualifies are those of the sailor and railway servant1 who have daily to peril human life and property on the indication which a colored flag or a lamp seems to give4 ,dr4 ,bickerton1 in an article on this same subject1 speaking of the careless way in which lights were used on ships at sea1 says3 ,until the year #aheb1 there were no definite rules regarding the carrying of lights at night by vessels at sea4444 ,at this time the subject of color blindness had not awakened the attention of practical observers1 and had the fact been known that between three and four per cent4 of the whole male population are color blind1 some other mode might have been devised to indicate the positions of vessels at night than by showing red and green lights4 ,if it is so very important to have sailors with good color perception1 where1 at least1 four men are on the lookout1 how much more important is it to have our engine drivers with perfect color perception1 where one man alone watches the signal of safety or danger4 ,the growth of our railway system is constantly increasing4 ,we have to-day probably #aej1jjj men employed in this service4 ,the boys attending public schools to-day in a few years will have to fill the ranks of these men4 ,how important for these boys to know that they have not this defect4 ,if the forty boys in every #a1jjj are found1 what is to be done with them8 ,the engraver1 the wood cut engraver1 the etcher1 all wish apprentices4 ,i am also informed that these occupations pay well4 ,it requires talent to fill them1 and here is an opening for the color blind4 ,hear what a color blind writes3#d ,i beg to offer some particulars of my own case1 trusting it may be of use to you4 ,i am an engraver1 and strange as it may appear1 my defective vision is1 to a certain extent1 a useful and valuable quality4 ,thus1 an engraver has two negative colors to deal with1 i4e41 white and black4 ,now1 when ,i look at a picture1 ,i see it only in white and black1 or light and shade1 and any want of harmony in the coloring of a picture is immediately made manifest by a corresponding discord in the arrangement of its light and shade or1 as artists term it1 the effect4 ,i find at times many of my brother engravers in doubt how to translate certain colors of pictures which to me are matters of decided certainty and ease4 ,thus1 to me it is valuable4 ,having already spoken about the importance of having all boys undergo an examination for color blindness once in their school lives1 we have two very good reasons for making this suggestion4 ,footnote #d3 ,wilson1 p4 #bg4 ,first1 prevent a boy following a trade or occupation where he is incapacitated1 and1 secondly1 let him be trained for a certain trade or occupation when the defect exists4 ,the savage races possess the perception of color to a greater degree than do civilized races4 ,i have just concluded an examination of #bej ,indian children2 #ajj were boys4 ,had ,i selected #ajj white boys from various parts of the ,united ,states ,i would have found at least five color blinds2 among the ,indian boys ,i did not find a single one4 ,some years ago ,i examined #bej ,indian boys and found two color blind1 a very low percentage when compared with the whites4 ,among the ,indian girls ,i did not find any4 ,when we know that only two females in every #a1jjj among whites are color blind1 it is not surprising that ,i did not find any examples among the ,indian girls4 ,the usual tests for color blindness are the matching of wools2 the common error the color blind falls into is matching a bright scarlet with a green4 ,on one occasion1 a color blind gentleman found fault with his wife for wearing1 as he thought1 a bright scarlet dress1 when in point of fact she was wearing a bright green4 ,another color blind who was very fond of drawing1 once painted a red tree in a landscape without being aware that he had done so4 ,among the whites it affects all classes4 ,it is found as relatively common among the intelligent as the illiterate1 and unfortunately1 up to the present1 we have not discovered any remedy for this defect4 ,without quoting many instances where a color blind man was responsible for accidents at sea1 ,i must quote a case where an officer on the watch issued an order to port his vessel1 which1 if his order had been carried out1 would have caused a collision1 and a probable serious loss of life4 ,the letter was written by ,capt4 ,coburn1 and is to be found in the ,mercantile ,marine ,reporter1 vol4 xiv4 ,the steamer ,neera was on a voyage from ,liverpool to ,alexandria4 ,one night1 shortly after passing ,gibraltar1 at about #aj4cj p4m41 ,i went on the bridge1 which was then in charge of the third officer1 a man of about forty-five years of age1 and who up to that time ,i had supposed to be a trustworthy officer1 and competent in every way4 ,i walked up and down the bridge until about #aa p4m41 when the third officer and ,i almost simultaneously saw a light at about two points on the starboard bow4 ,i at once saw it was a green light1 and knew that no action was called for4 ,to my surprise1 the third officer called out to the man at the wheel1 'port1' which he was about to do1 when ,i countermanded the order1 and told him to steady his helm1 which he did1 and we passed the other steamer safely about half a mile apart4 ,i at once asked the third officer why he had ported his helm to a green light on the starboard bow1 but he insisted it was a red light which he had first seen4 ,i tried him repeatedly after this1 and although he sometimes gave a correct description of the color of the light1 he was as often incorrect1 and it was evidently all guesswork4 ,on my return1 ,i applied to have him removed from the ship1 as he was1 in my opinion1 quite unfit to have charge of the deck at night1 and this application was granted4 ,after this occurrence ,i always1 when taking a strange officer to sea1 remained on the bridge with him at night until ,i had tested his ability to distinguish colors4 ,i cannot imagine anything more dangerous or more likely to lead to fatal accidents than a color blind man on a steamer's bridge4 ,a similar experience is thus related by ,capt4 ,heasley1 of ,liverpool3 ,after passing through the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 the second officer1 who had charge of the deck1 gave the order to 'port1' much to my astonishment1 for the lights to be seen about a point on the starboard bow were a masthead and green light1 but he maintained that it was a masthead and red1 and not until both ships were nearly abreast would he acknowledge his mistake4 ,i may add that during the rest of the voyage ,i never saw him making the same mistake4 ,as a practical seaman ,i consider a great many accidents at sea arise from color blindness4 ,dr4 ,farquharson has brought this subject before the ,house of ,commons in ,england and measures are being taken which will insure to the traveling public immunity from accidents at sea4 ,i need not mention that the majority of railways of our country have a system of examinations which prevents a color blind entering their service4 ,dr4 ,wilson makes the suggestion that he noticed a singular expression in the eyes of certain of the color blind difficult to describe4 ,in some it amounted to a startled expression1 as if they were alarmed2 in others1 to an eager1 aimless glance1 as if seeking to perceive something but unable to find it2 and in certain others to an almost vacant stare1 as if their eyes were fixed upon objects beyond the limit of vision4 ,the expression referred to1 which is not at all times equally pronounced1 never altogether leaves the eyes which it seems to characterize4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,joy ,jeffries1 of ,boston1 has recently written an article on this same topic1 but unfortunately ,i have not his pamphlet at hand to quote his views on this subject4 ,in this lecture ,i have shown that the normal eye is far sighted4 ,the mammalia have this kind of an eye2 the ,indian the same4 ,the white man is fast becoming near sighted4 ,the civilized ,indian is also showing the effects of continuous near work2 and now the question arises4 ,what are we to do to prevent further deterioration of vision8 ,the fault lies at our own doors4 ,let us try to correct these now existing evils1 so that future generations will1 instead of censuring us1 thank us for our wisdom4 ,to aid in a feeble way for the protection of posterity ,i have formulated ten rules on the preservation of vision3 7#a7 ,do not allow light to fall upon the face of a sleeping infant4 7#b7 ,do not allow babies to gaze at a bright light4 7#c7 ,do not send children to school before the age of ten4 7#d7 ,do not allow children to keep their eyes too long on a near object1 at any one time4 7#e7 ,do not allow them to study much by artificial light4 7#f7 ,do not allow them to use books with small type4 7#g7 ,do not allow them to read in a railway carriage4 7#h7 ,do not allow boys to smoke tobacco1 especially cigarettes4 7#i7 ,do not necessarily ascribe headaches to indigestion4 ,the eyes may be the exciting cause4 7#aj7 ,do not allow the itinerant spectacle vender to prescribe glasses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,water ,,molecule4#a ,footnote #a3 ,translated from the ,pharmaceutische ,centralhalle1 by ,a4,g4 ,vogeler4--,western ,druggist4 ,by ,a4 ,,ganswindt4 ,water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen4 ,this proposition will not be disputed in the least by the author2 still1 it may be profitable to indulge in a few stereo-chemic speculations as to the nature of the water molecule and to draw the inevitable conclusions4 ,from the time of the discovery1 some #aaj years ago1 that water is a compound body1 made up of oxygen and hydrogen1 the notion prevailed up to within a quarter of a century that it was composed of even equivalents of the elements named1 and all but the youngest students of chemistry well remember how its formula was written ,,ho1 the atomic weight of oxygen being expressed by #h1 making the molecular weight of water 7,h#a ,o#h7 #i4 ,but the vapor density of water1 referred to air1 is #j4fce1 and this number multiplied by the constant #bh4hg1 gives #ah as the molecular weight of water1 or exactly twice that accepted by chemists4 ,this discrepancy led to closer observations1 and it was eventually found that in decomposing water1 by whatever method 7excepting only electrolysis71 not more than the eighteenth part in hydrogen of the water decomposed was ever obtained1 or1 in other words1 only just one-half the weight deducible from the formula ,,ho #i4 ,the conclusion was irresistible that in a water molecule two atoms of hydrogen must be assumed1 and1 as a natural sequence1 followed the doubling of the molecular weight of water to #ah1 represented by the modern formula ,h#b,o4 ,both the theory and the practice of substitution enable us to further prove the presence of two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule4 ,decomposing water by sodium1 only one-half of the hydrogen contained is eliminated1 the other half1 together with all of the oxygen1 uniting with the metal to form sodium hydroxide1 ,h#b,o ,na ,h ,na,h,o4 ,doubling the amount of sodium does not alter the result1 for decomposition according to the equation ,h#b,o #b,na ,h#b ,na#b,o never happens4 ,introducing the ethyl group into the water molecule and reacting under appropriate conditions with ethyl iodide upon water1 the ethyl group displaces one atom of hydrogen1 and1 uniting with the hydroxyl residue1 forms ethyl alcohol1 thus3 ,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#e;,i ,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,,hi4 ,halogens do not act directly on water1 hence we may not properly speak of halogen substitution products4 ,by the action1 however1 of phosphorus haloids on water an analogous splitting of the water molecule is again observed1 one-half of the hydrogen uniting with the halogen to form an acid1 the hydroxyl residue then forming a phosphorus compound1 thus3 ,p,cl#c #c;,h#b,o #c;,h,cl ,p7,,oh7#c4 ,now these examples1 which might readily be multiplied1 prove not only the presence of two hydrogen atoms in the water molecule1 but they further demonstrate that these two atoms differ from each other in respect to their form of combination and power of substitution4 ,the two hydrogen atoms are certainly not of equal value1 whence it follows that the accepted formula for water3 ,h ,o ,h or as preferred by some3 ,h-,o-,h1 is not in conformity with established facts4 ,expressed as here shown1 both hydrogen atoms are assigned equal values1 when in fact only one of the atoms is united to oxygen in form of hydroxyl1 while the second is loosely attached to the univalent hydroxyl group4 ,viewed in this light1 water then is decomposed according to the equation3 ,h#b,o ,h 7,,oh71 never in this manner3 ,h#b,o #b;,h ,o4 ,hence1 water must be considered as a combination of one hydrogen atom with one molecule of hydroxyl1 expressed by the formula ,h7,,oh71 and it is this atom of hydrogen not united to oxygen which is eliminated in the generation of oxygen or substituted by metals and alkyl groups4 ,the hydrogen in the hydroxyl group cannot be substituted1 excepting it be the entire group as such2 this is proved by the action of the halogens1 in their phosphorus compounds1 upon water1 when the halogen takes the place of the hydroxyl group1 but never that of the hydrogen4 ,now as to some logical deductions from the foregoing considerations4 ,hydrogen is by many looked upon as a true metal4 ,this theory cannot be directly proved by the above1 but it is certainly greatly strengthened thereby4 ,to compare4 ,hydrogen is a powerful reducing agent2 it is similarly affected by the halogens1 the hydroxyl group1 the acid radicals1 oxygen and sulphur2 hydrogen and members of the univalent alkali metals group are readily interchangeable2 it forms superoxides analogous to the metals2 its analogy to the alkali metals as exhibited in the following3 ,h ,h7,,oh7 ,h,cl ,,hno#c ,h#b,,so#d ,h#b,s ,h#b,o#b ,k ,k7,,oh7 ,k,cl ,,kno#c ,na#b,,so#d ,na#b,s ,k#b,o ,but if we consider hydrogen as a gasiform metal1 we naturally arrive at the conclusion that water is the hydroxide of this gasiform metal1 that is hydrogen hydroxide1 while gaseous hydrochloric and hydrosulphuric acids would be looked upon as respectively the chloride and the sulphide of the metal hydrogen4 ,this would then lead to curious conclusions concerning the hydroxyl group4 ,this group would1 by this theory1 become an oxygenated metal radical similar to the hypothetical bismuthyl and uranyl1 and yet one in which the metallic character has disappeared as completely as in the ferrocyanic group4 ,an entirely new light is shed by this view upon the composition of hydrogen peroxide1 which would be looked at as two free hydroxyl groups joined together thus3 7,,oh7--7,,oh71 analogous to our di-ethyl1 diphenyl1 dicyanogen1 etc4 ,considered as dihydroxyl1 it would explain the instability of this compound4 ,the ethers proper would also be placed in a new light by this new conception of the constitution of the water molecule4 ,the hydrogen in the hydroxyl group1 as is known1 may be substituted by an alkyl group4 ,for instance1 an alkyl may be substituted for the hydroxyl hydrogen in an alcohol molecule1 when an ether results4 ,according to the new theory this ether will no longer be considered as two alkyl groups connected by an oxygen atom1 but as a compound built up on the type of water by the union of an alkyl group and an alkoxyl group4 ,thus ethylic ether would not be represented by ,c#b;,h#e ,o1 ,c#b;,h#e as heretofore1 but by the formula ,c#b;,h#e7,,oc#b;,h#e71 which is ethyl-ethoxol4 ,acetone would admit of a similar explanation4 ,finally the assumption of dissimilarity in character of the hydrogen atoms in the water molecule possibly may lead to the discovery of a number of unlocked for isomerides4 ,thus1 by appropriate methods1 it ought to become possible to introduce the alkyl groups solely into the hydroxyl group 7instead of into the place of the loosely attached ,h-atom74 ,in that case chemists might arrive at an isomeride of methyl alcohol of the formula ,h47,,och#c71 or at methoxyl hydride1 a compound not alcoholic in character1 or at a nitroxyl hydride1 ,h7,,ono#b71 not of an acidic nature4 ,oxychlorides would be classed with this latter category1 that is1 they would be looked on as water in which the free hydrogen atom has been substituted by the metal1 and the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl by chlorine4 ,this example1 indeed1 furnishes a most characteristic illustration of our theory4 ,in the case just now assumed we arrive at the oxychloride2 when1 however1 the metal and chlorine change places in the water molecule1 the isomeric hypochlorous salts are the result4 ,it is true that such cases of isomerism are as yet unknown1 but we do know that certain metals1 in our present state of knowledge1 yield oxychlorides only1 while others only form hypochlorous salts4 ,this condition also explains why hypochlorites still possesses the bleaching power of chlorine1 while the same is not true of oxychlorides4 ,however1 it seems needless to multiply examples in further illustration of the theory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,starch ,,in ,,leaves4 ,in #agej1 ,bonnet1 a ,genevese naturalist1 remarked that leaves immersed in water became covered in the sun with small bubbles of a gas that he compared to small pearls4 ,in #aggb1 ,priestley1 after discovering that the sojourn of animals in a confined atmosphere renders it irrespirable1 investigated the influence of plants placed in the same conditions1 and he relates1 in these words1 the discovery that he made on the subject3 ,i put a sprig of mint in a quantity of air in which a candle had ceased to burn1 and ,i found that1 ten days later1 another candle was able to burn therein perfectly well4 ,it is to him1 therefore1 that is due the honor of having ascertained that plants exert an action upon the atmosphere contrary to that exerted by animals4 ,priestley1 however1 was not completely master of his fine experiment2 he was ignorant of the fact1 notably1 that the oxygen is disengaged by plants only as long as they are under the influence of light4 ,this important discovery is due to ,ingenhouse4 ,finally1 it was ,sennebier who showed that oxygen is obtained from leaves only when carbonic acid has been introduced into the atmosphere where they remain4 ,later on1 ,t4 ,de ,saussure and ,boussingault inquired into the conditions most favorable to assimilation4 ,boussingault demonstrated1 in addition1 that the volume of carbonic acid absorbed was equal to that of the oxygen emitted4 ,now we know1 through a common chemical experiment1 that carbonic acid contains its own volume of oxygen4 ,it was supposed1 then1 that carbonic acid was decomposed by sunlight into carbon and oxygen4 ,things1 however1 do not proceed so simply4 ,in fact1 it is certain that1 before the complete decomposition into carbon and oxygen1 there comes a moment in which there is oxygen on the one hand and oxide of carbon 7,,co#b ,o ,,co7 on the other4 ,the decomposition1 having reached this point1 can go no further1 for the oxide of carbon is indecomposable by leaves1 as the following experiment proves4 ,if we put phosphorus and some leaves into an inert gas1 such as hydrogen1 we in the first place observe the formation of the white fumes of phosphoric acid due to the oxidation of the phosphorus by the oxygen contained in the leaves4 ,this phosphoric acid dissolves in the water of the test glass and the latter becomes transparent again4 ,if1 now1 we introduce some oxide of carbon1 we remark in the sun no formation of phosphoric acid1 and this proves that there is no emission of oxygen4 ,illustration3 ,,demonstration ,,that ,,starch ,,is ,,formed ,,in ,,leaves ,,only ,,at ,,the ,,points ,,touched ,,by ,,light4 ,this latter hypothesis of the decomposition of carbonic acid into a half volume of vapor of carbon and one volume of oxygen being rejected1 the idea occurred to consider the carbonic acid in a hydrated state and to write it ,,co#b;,,ho4 ,in this case1 we should have by the action of chlorophyl3 #b;,,co#b;,,ho 7carbonic acid7 #d,o 7oxygen7 ,c#b;,h#b,o#b 7methylic aldehyde74 ,this aldehyde is a body that can be polymerized1 that is to say1 is capable of combining with itself a certain number of times to form complexer bodies1 especially glucose4 ,this formation of a sugar by means of methylic aldehyde is not a simple hypothesis1 since1 on the one hand1 ,mr4 ,loew has executed it by starting from methylic aldehyde1 and1 on the other1 we find this glucose in leaves by using ,fehling's solution4 ,the glucose formed1 it is admissible that a new polymerization with elimination of water produces starch4 ,the latter1 in fact1 through the action of an acid1 is capable of regenerating glucose4 ,it may1 therefore1 be supposed that the decomposition of carbonic acid by leaves brings about the formation of starch through the following transformations3 7#a7 ,the decomposition of the carbonic acid with emission of oxygen and production of methylic aldehyde2 7#b7 polymerization of methylic aldehyde and formation of glucose2 7#c7 combination of several molecules of glucose with elimination of water2 formation of starch4 ,starch is thus the first stable product of chlorophylian activity4 ,is there1 in fact1 starch in leaves8 ,it is easy to reveal its presence by the blue coloration that it assumes in contact with iodine in a leaf bleached by boiling alcohol4 ,mr4 ,deherain has devised a nice method of demonstrating that this formation of starch1 and consequently the decomposition of carbonic acid1 can occur only under the influence of sunlight4 ,he pointed it out to us in his course of lectures at the ,school of ,grignon1 and asked us to repeat the experiment4 ,we succeeded1 and now make the modus operandi known to our readers4 ,the leaf that gave the best result was that of the ,aristolochia ,sipho4 ,the leaf1 adherent to the plant1 is entirely inclosed between two pieces of perfectly opaque black paper4 ,that which corresponds to the upper surface of the limb bears cut-out characters1 which are here the initials of ,mr4 ,deherain4 ,the two screens are fastened to the leaf by means of a mucilage of gum arabic that will easily cede to the action of warm water at the end of the experiment4 ,the exposure is made in the morning1 before sunrise4 ,at this moment1 the leaf contains no starch2 that which was formed during the preceding day has emigrated during the night toward the interior of the plant4 ,after a few hours of a good insolation1 the leaf is picked off4 ,then the gum which holds the papers together is dissolved by immersion in warm water4 ,the decolorizing is easily effected through boiling alcohol1 which dissolves the chlorophyl and leaves the leaf slightly yellowish and perfectly translucent4 ,there is nothing more to do then but dip the leaf in tincture of iodine4 ,if the insolation has been good1 and if the screens have been well gummed so that no penumbra has been produced upon the edge of the letters1 a perfectly sharp image will be instantly obtained4 ,the excess of iodine is removed by washing with alcohol and water1 and the leaf is then dried and preserved between the leaves of a book4 ,it is well before decolorizing the leaf to immerse it in a solution of potassa2 the chlorophylian starch then swells and success is rendered easier4--,lartigue and ,malpeaux1 in ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,standards ,,and ,,methods ,,for ,,the ,,polarimetric ,,estimation ,,of ,,sugars4#a ,footnote #a3 ,report to the ,united ,states ,internal ,revenue ,department by ,c4,a4 ,crampton1 ,chemist of ,u4,s4 ,internal ,revenue2 ,h4,w4 ,wiley1 ,chief ,chemist of ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture2 and ,o4,h4 ,tittmann1 ,assistant in ,charge of ,weights and ,measures1 ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,section #a1 paragraph #bca1 of the act entitled ,an act to reduce revenue and equalize duties on imports and for other purposes1 approved ,october #a1 #ahij1 provides3 #bca4 ,that on and after ,july #a1 eighteen hundred and ninety-one1 and until ,july #a1 nineteen hundred and five1 there shall be paid1 from any moneys in the ,treasury not otherwise appropriated1 under the provisions of section three thousand six hundred and eighty-nine of the ,revised ,statutes1 to the producer of sugar testing not less than ninety degrees by the polariscope1 from beets1 sorghum1 or sugar cane grown within the ,united ,states1 or from maple sap produced within the ,united ,states1 a bounty of two cents per pound2 and upon such sugar testing less than ninety degrees by the polariscope1 and not less than eighty degrees1 a bounty of one and three-fourth cents per pound1 under such rules and regulations as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 shall prescribe4 ,it is the opinion of this ,commission that the expression testing 444 degrees by the polariscope1 used with reference to sugar in the act1 is to be considered as meaning the percentage of pure sucrose the sugar contains1 as ascertained by polarimetric estimation4 ,it is evident that a high degree of accuracy is necessary in the examination of sugars by the ,bureau of ,internal ,revenue1 under the provisions of this act1 inasmuch as the difference of one-tenth of one per cent4 in the amount of sucrose contained in a sugar may1 if it is on the border line of #hj1 decide whether the producer is entitled to a bounty of #a cents per pound 7an amount nearly equivalent to the market value of such sugar7 or to no bounty whatever4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 that the highest possible degree of accuracy should be secured in the work1 for while many sugars will doubtless vary far enough from either of the two standard percentages fixed upon in the act1 viz41 #hj and #ij1 to admit of a wide margin of error without material consequences1 yet a considerable proportion will approximate to them so closely that a difference of a few tenths of a degree in the polarization will change the classification of the sugar4 ,a very high degree of accuracy may be obtained in the optical estimation of sugars1 if the proper conditions are observed4 ,such conditions are 7#a7 accurately graded and adjusted instruments1 weights1 flasks1 tubes1 etc42 7#b7 skilled and practiced observers2 7#c7 a proper arrangement of the laboratories in which the work is performed2 and 7#d7 a close adherence to the most approved methods of manipulation4 ,on the other hand1 if due observance is not paid to these conditions1 the sources of error are numerous1 and inaccurate results inevitable4 ,we will endeavor to point out in this report the best means of meeting the proper conditions for obtaining the highest degree of accuracy consistent with fairly rapid work4 ,it would be manifestly impossible to observe so great a refinement of accuracy in this work as would be employed in exact scientific research4 ,this would be unnecessary for the end in view1 and impossible on account of the amount of time that would be required4 ,i4--,,instruments ,,and ,,apparatus4 ,it is of the greatest importance that the polariscopes and all apparatus used in the work shall be carefully and accurately adjusted and graduated1 and upon a single and uniform system of standardization4 ,recent investigations of the polarimetric work done in the customs branch of the ,treasury ,department have shown that a very considerable part of the want of agreement in the results obtained at the different ports was due to a lack of uniformity in the standardization of the instruments and apparatus4 7a47 ,the ,polariscope4--,there are many different forms of this instrument used4 ,some are adapted for use with ordinary white light1 and some with monochromatic light1 such as sodium ray4 ,they are graduated and adjusted upon various standards1 all more or less arbitrary4 ,some1 for example1 have their scales based upon the displacement of the polarized ray produced by a quartz plate of a certain thickness2 others upon the displacement produced by an arbitrary quantity of pure sucrose1 dissolved and made up to a certain volume and polarized in a certain definite length of column4 ,it would be very desirable to have an absolute standard set for polariscopic measurements1 to which all instruments could be referred1 and in the terms of which all such work could be stated4 ,this commission has information that an investigation is now in progress under the direction of the ,german imperial government1 having for its end and purpose the determination of such data as will serve for the establishment of an absolute standard4 ,when this is accomplished it can easily be made a matter of international agreement1 and all future forms of instruments be based upon it4 ,this commission would suggest that the attention of the proper authorities should be called to the desirability of official action by this government with a view to co-operation with other countries for the adoption of international standards for polarimetric work4 ,until this is done1 however1 it will be necessary for the ,internal ,revenue ,bureau to adopt1 provisionally1 one of the best existing forms of polariscope1 and by carefully defining the scale of this instrument1 establish a basis for its polarimetric work which will be a close approximation to an absolute standard1 and upon which it can rely in case of any dispute arising as to the results obtained by the officers of the bureau4 ,for the instrument to be provisionally adopted by the ,internal ,revenue ,bureau1 this commission would recommend the half shadow instrument made by ,franz ,schmidt ,haensch1 ,berlin4 ,this instrument is adapted for use with white light illumination1 from coal oil or gas lamps4 ,it is convenient and easy to read1 requiring no delicate discrimination of colors by the observer1 and can be used even by a person who is color blind4 ,this form of instrument is adjusted to the ,ventzke scale1 which1 for the purposes of this report1 is defined to be such that #a of the scale is the one hundredth part of the rotation produced in the plane of polarization of white light in a column #bjj mm4 long by a standard solution of chemically pure sucrose at #ag4e ,c4 ,the standard solution of sucrose in distilled water being such as to contain1 at #ag4e ,c4 in #ajj c4c41 #bf4jdh grms4 of sucrose4 ,in this definition the weights and volumes are to be considered as absolute1 all weighings being referred to a vacuum4 ,the definition should properly be supplemented with a statement of the equivalent circular rotation in degrees1 minutes1 and seconds that would be produced by the standard solution of sugar used to read #ajj on the scale4 ,this constant is now a matter of investigation1 and it is thought best not to give any of the hitherto accepted values4 ,when this is established1 it is recommended that it be incorporated in a revision of the regulations of the internal revenue relative to sugar1 in order to make still more definite and exact the official definition of the ,ventzke scale4 ,the instruments should be adjusted by means of control quartz plates1 three different plates being used for complete adjustment1 one reading approximately #ajj on the scale1 one #ij1 and one #hj4 ,these control quartz plates should have their exact values ascertained in terms of the ,ventzke scale by the office of weights and measures by comparison with the standard quartz plates in possession of that office1 in strict accordance with the foregoing definition1 and should also be accompanied by tables giving their values for temperatures from #aj to #ce4 7b47 ,weights4--,the weights used should be of solid brass1 and should be standardized by the office of weights and measures4 7c47 ,flask4--,the flasks used should be of such a capacity as to contain at #ag4e ,c4 #ajj4jf cubic centimeters1 when filled in such a manner that the lowest point of the meniscus of the surface of the liquid just touches the graduation mark4 ,the flasks will be standardized to contain this volume in order that the results shall conform to the scale recommended for adoption without numerical reduction of the weighings to vacuo4 ,they should be calibrated by the office of weights and measures4 7d47 ,tubes4--,the tubes used should be of brass or glass1 #bjj and #ajj millimeters in length1 and should be measured by the office of weights and measures4 7e47 ,balances4--,the balances used should be sensitive to at least one milligramme4 ,,ii4--,,skilled ,,observers4 ,the commission recommends that the work of polarizing sugars be placed in the hands of chemists1 or at least of persons who are familiar with the use of the polariscope and have some knowledge of the theory of its construction and of chemical manipulations4 ,to this end we would suggest that applicants for positions where such work is to be done should be obliged to undergo a competitive examination in order to test their fitness for the work that is to be required of them4 ,,iii4--,,arrangement ,,of ,,laboratories4 ,the arrangement of the rooms in which polarizations are performed has an important bearing upon the accuracy of the results obtained4 ,polariscopic observations are made more readily and accurately if the eye of the observer is screened from diffused light2 therefore1 a partial darkening of the room1 which may be accomplished by means of curtains or hangings1 is an advantage4 ,on the other hand1 the temperature at which the observation is made has a very considerable influence upon the results obtained1 so that the arrangements for darkening the room must not be such as will interfere with its proper ventilation4 ,otherwise the heat from the lamps used1 if confined within a small room1 will cause considerable variations in the temperature of the room from time to time4 ,the proper conditions will best be met1 in our opinion1 by placing the lamps either in a separate room from that in which the instruments are1 and perforating the wall or partition between the two rooms for the light to reach the end of the instruments1 or in a ventilated hood with the walls perforated in a like manner4 ,by lining the wall or partition on both sides with asbestos paper1 and inserting a plate of plane glass in the aperture through which the light passes1 the increase of temperature from the radiation of the lamp will be still further avoided4 ,with the lamps separated from the instruments in this manner1 the space in which the instruments are contained is readily darkened without much danger of its temperature being unduly raised4 ,some light1 of course1 is necessary for reading the scales1 and if artificial light is employed for this purpose1 the sources chosen should be such that as little heat as possible will be generated by them4 ,small incandescent electric lights are best for such purpose4 ,refinements of this kind cannot always be used1 of course1 but the prime requisite with reference to the avoidance of temperature errors is that all operations--filling the flasks and tubes1 reading the solutions1 controlling the instrument with standard quartz plates1 etc4--should be done at one and the same temperature1 and that this temperature be a constant one1 that is1 not varying greatly at different hours of the day4 ,for example1 the room should not be allowed to become cold at night1 so that it is at low temperature in the morning when work is begun1 and then rapidly heated up during the day4 ,the polariscope should not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun during part of the day1 and should not be near artificial sources of heat1 such as steam boilers1 furnaces1 flues1 etc4 ,the tables upon which the instruments stand should be level4 ,,iv4--,,methods ,,of ,,manipulation4 ,the methods of manipulation used in the polarization of sugar are of prime importance4 ,they consist in weighing out the sugar1 dissolving it1 clarifying the solution1 making it up to standard volume1 filtering1 filling the observation tube1 regulating the illumination1 and making the polariscopic reading4 ,the proper conduct of these processes1 in connection with the use of accurately graduated apparatus1 is the only surety against the numerous sources of error which may be encountered4 ,different sugars require different treatment in clarification1 and much must necessarily be left to the judgment and experience of the operator4 ,the following directions are based upon various official procedures such as the one used in the ,united ,states custom houses1 the method prescribed by the ,german government1 etc4 ,they embody also the result of recent research in regard to sources of error in polarimetric estimation of sugar3 ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,polarization ,,of ,,sugar4 #a4--;,description of ,instrument and ,manner of ,using4 ,the instrument employed is known as the half shadow apparatus of ,schmidt and ,haensch4 ,it is shown in the following cut4 ,illustration ,the tube ,n contains the illuminating system of lenses and is placed next to the lamp2 the polarizing prism is at ,o1 and the analyzing prism at ,h4 ,the quartz wedge compensating system is contained in the portions of the tube marked ,f1 ,e1 ,g1 and is controlled by the milled head ,m4 ,the tube ,j carries a small telescope1 through which the field of the instrument is viewed1 and just above is the reading tube ,k1 which is provided with a mirror and magnifying lens for reading the scale4 ,the tube containing the sugar solution is shown in position in the trough between the two ends of the instrument4 ,in using the instrument the lamp is placed at a distance of at least #bjj mm4 from the end2 the observer seats himself at the opposite end in such a manner as to bring his eye in line with the tube ,j4 ,the telescope is moved in or out until the proper focus is secured1 so as to give a clearly defined image1 when the field of the instrument will appear as a round1 luminous disk1 divided into two halves by a vertical line passing through the center1 and darker on one half of the disk than on the other4 ,if the observer1 still looking through the telescope1 will now grasp the milled head ,m and rotate it1 first one way and then the other1 he will find that the appearance of the field changes1 and at a certain point the dark half becomes light1 and the light half dark4 ,by rotating the milled head delicately backward and forward over this point he will be able to find the exact position of the quartz wedge operated by it1 in which the field is neutral1 or of the same intensity of light on both halves4 ,illustration ,the three different appearances presented by the field are best shown in the above diagram4 ,with the milled head set at the point which gives the appearance of the middle disk as shown1 the eye of the observer is raised to the reading tube1 ,k1 and the position of the scale is noted4 ,it will be seen that the scale proper is attached to the quartz wedge1 which is moved by the milled head1 and attached to the other quartz wedge is a small scale called a vernier which is fixed1 and which serves for the exact determination of the movable scale with reference to it4 ,on each side of the zero line of the vernier a space corresponding to nine divisions of the movable scale is divided into ten equal parts4 ,by this device the fractional part of a degree indicated by the position of the zero line is ascertained in tenths2 it is only necessary to count from zero1 until a line is found which makes a continuous line with one on the movable scale4 ,with the neutral field as indicated above1 the zero of the movable scale should correspond closely with the zero of the vernier unless the zero point is out of adjustment4 ,if the observer desires to secure an exact adjustment of the zero of the scale1 or in any case if the latter deviates more than one-half of a degree1 the zero lines are made to coincide by moving the milled head and securing a neutral field at this point by means of the small key which comes with the instrument1 and which fits into a nipple on the left hand side of ,f1 the fixed quartz wedge of the compensating system4 ,this nipple must not be confounded with a similar nipple on the right hand side of the analyzing prism1 ,h1 which it fits as well1 but which must never be touched1 as the adjustment of the instrument would be seriously disturbed by moving it4 ,with the key on the proper nipple it is turned one way or the other until the field is neutral4 ,unless the deviation of the zero be greater than #j4e1 it will not be necessary to use the key1 but only to note the amount of the deviation1 and for this purpose the observer must not be content with a single setting1 but must perform the operation five or six times1 and take the mean of these different readings4 ,if one or more of the readings show a deviation of more than #j4c from the general average1 they should be rejected as incorrect4 ,between each observation the eye should be allowed #aj to #bj seconds of rest4 ,the setting of the zero having been performed as above1 the determination of the accurate adjustment of the instrument by means of the control quartz plates is proceeded with4 ,three such plates will be furnished with each polariscope1 which have sugar values respectively approximating #hj1 #ij1 and #ajj4 ,these values may vary with the temperature1 and tables are furnished with them which give their exact value at different temperatures1 from #aj to #ce ,c4 ,one of these plates is placed in the instrument1 and the field observed2 it will be seen that the uniform appearance of the field is changed4 ,the milled head is turned to the right until the exact point of neutrality is re-established1 just as described above in setting the zero4 ,the scale is read1 the observation repeated1 the reading taken again1 and so on until five or six readings have been made4 ,the average is taken1 readings being rejected which show a divergence of more than #j4c1 and the result corrected for the deviation of the zero point1 if any was found1 the deviation being added if it was to the left1 and subtracted if to the right4 ,if the adjustment of the instrument be correct1 the result should be the value of the control plate used1 as ascertained from the table1 for the temperature of #bj4 ,each of the three plates is read in the instrument in this way4 ,a variation of #j4c from the established values may be allowed for errors of observation1 temperature1 etc41 but in the hands of a careful observer a deviation greater than this with one of the three plates1 after a careful setting of the zero1 shows that the instrument is not accurately adjusted4 ,the complete verification of the accurate adjustment of the polariscope by means of three control plates1 as given above1 should be employed whenever it is set up for the first time by the officer using it1 whenever it has sustained any serious shock or injury1 and whenever it has been transported from one place to another4 ,it should also be done at least once a week while the instrument is in active use4 ,after the complete verification has been performed as described1 further checking of the instrument is done by means of one control plate alone1 the one approximating #ij1 and the setting of the zero point is dispensed with1 the indication of the scale for sugar solutions being corrected by the amount of deviation shown in the reading of the #ij control plate from its established value as ascertained from the table1 at the temperature of the room4 ,for example3 ,a sugar solution polarizes #hj4e2 the control plate just before had given a polarization of #ia4d1 the temperature of the room during both observations being #be ,c4 ,according to the table the value of the control plate at #be ,c4 is #ia4g2 the reading is1 therefore1 #j4c too low1 and #j4c is added to the reading of the sugar solution1 making the corrected result #hj4h4 ,the temperature of the room should be ascertained from a standardized thermometer placed close to the instrument and in such a position as to be subject to the same conditions4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,sugar ,,solution ,,for ,,polarization4 ,if the sample is not entirely uniform it must be thoroughly mixed before weighing out1 after all the lumps are broken up1 best with a mortar and pestle4 ,then #bf4jdh grammes are weighed out on the balance in the tared ,german silver dish furnished for this purpose4 ,care must be taken that the operations of mixing and weighing out are not unduly prolonged1 otherwise the sample may easily suffer considerable loss of moisture1 especially in a warm room4 ,the portion of sugar weighed out is washed by means of a jet from a wash bottle into a #ajj c4c4 flask1 the dish being well rinsed three or four times and the rinsings added to the contents of the flask4 ,the water used must be either distilled water or clear water which has been found to have no optical activity4 ,after the dish has been thoroughly rinsed1 enough water is added to bring the contents of the flask to about #hj c4c4 and it is gently rotated until all the sugar has dissolved4 ,the flask should be held by the neck with the thumb and finger1 and the bulb not handled during this operation4 ,care must be taken that no particle of the sugar or solution is lost4 ,to determine if all the sugar is dissolved1 the flask is held above the level of the eye1 in which position any undissolved crystals can be easily seen at the bottom4 ,the character of the solution is now observed4 ,if it be colorless or of a very light straw color1 and not opalescent1 so that it will give a clear transparent liquid on filtration through paper1 the volume is made up directly with water to the #ajj c4c4 mark on the flask4 ,most sugar solutions1 however1 will require the addition of a clarifying or decolorizing agent in order to render them sufficiently clear and colorless to polarize4 ,in such case1 before making up to the mark1 a saturated solution of subacetate of lead is added4 ,the quantity of this agent required will vary according to the quality of the sugar2 for sugar which has been grained in the strike pan and washed in the centrifugals1 from #c to #ae drops will be required2 for sugar grained in the strike pan but not well washed in the centrifugals1 that is1 sugar intended for refining purposes1 from #ae to #cj drops will be required2 for sugar not grained in the strike pan1 that is1 wagon or string sugar1 second sugar1 etc41 from #a to #c c4c4 will be required4 ,after adding the solution of subacetate of lead the flask must be gently shaken1 so as to mix it with the sugar solution4 ,if the proper amount has been added1 the precipitate will usually subside rapidly1 but if not1 the operator may judge of the completeness of the precipitation by holding the flask above the level of the eye and allowing an additional drop of subacetate of lead to flow down the side of the flask into the solution2 if this drop leaves a clear track along the glass through the solution it indicates that the precipitation is complete2 if1 on the other hand1 all traces of the drop are lost on entering the solution1 it indicates that an additional small quantity of the subacetate of lead is required4 ,the operator must learn by experience the point where the addition should cease2 a decided excess of subacetate of lead solution should never be used4 ,the use of subacetate of lead should1 in all cases1 be followed by the addition of alumina cream 7aluminic hydrate suspended in water7#b in about double the volume of the subacetate solution used1 for the purpose of completing the clarification1 precipitating excess of lead1 and facilitating filtration4 ,in many cases of high grade sugars1 especially beet sugars1 the use of alumina alone will be sufficient for clarification without the previous addition of subacetate of lead4 ,footnote #b3 ,prepared as follows3 ,shake up powdered commercial alum with water at ordinary temperature until a saturated solution is obtained4 ,set aside a little of the solution1 and to the residue add ammonia1 little by little1 stirring between additions1 until the mixture is alkaline to litmus paper4 ,then drop in additions of the portion left aside1 until the mixture is just acid to litmus paper4 ,by this procedure a cream of aluminum hydroxide is obtained suspended in a solution of ammonium sulphate1 the presence of which is not at all detrimental for sugar work when added after subacetate of lead1 the ammonium sulphate precipitating whatever excess of lead may be present4 ,the solution is now made up to the mark by the addition of distilled water in the following manner4 ,the flask1 grasped by the neck between the thumb and finger1 is held before the operator in an upright position1 so that the mark is at the level of the eye1 and distilled water is added drop by drop from a siphon bottle or wash bottle1 until the lowest point of the curve or meniscus formed by the surface of the liquid just touches the mark4 ,if bubbles hinder the operation1 they may be broken up by adding a single drop of ether1 or a spray from an ether atomizer1 before making up to the mark4 ,the mouth of the flask is now tightly closed with the thumb1 and the contents of the flask are thoroughly mixed by turning and shaking4 ,the entire solution is now poured upon the filter1 using for this purpose a funnel large enough to contain all the #ajj c4c4 at once1 and a watch glass is placed over the funnel during filtration to prevent a concentration of the solution by evaporation4 ,the funnel and vessel used to receive the filtrate must be perfectly dry4 ,the first portion of the filtrate1 about #bj to #cj c4c41 should be rejected entirely1 as its concentration may be affected by a previous hygroscopic moisture content of the filter paper4 ,it may also be necessary to return subsequent portions to the filter until the liquid passes through perfectly clear4 ,if a satisfactory clarification has not been obtained1 the entire operation must be repeated1 since only with solutions that are entirely clear and bright can accurate polarimetric observations be made4 ,when a sufficient quantity of the clear liquid has passed through the filter1 the #bjj mm4 observation tube is filled with it4 ,the #ajj mm4 tube should never be used except in rare cases1 when notwithstanding all the means used to effect the proper decolorization of the solution1 it is still too dark to polarize in the #bjj mm4 tube4 ,in such cases the shorter tube may be used1 and its reading multiplied by two4 ,the zero deviation must then be determined and applied to the product4 ,this will give the reading which would have been obtained if a #bjj mm4 tube could have been used1 and it only remains to apply the correction determined by the use of the control plate as previously described4 ,example3 ,solution reads in #ajj mm4 tube #dg4j ,multiplied by #b #b4j ---- ,product #id4j ,zero reads plus #j4c #j4c ---- ,solution would read in #bjj mm4 tube #ic4g ,reading of control plate #ij4d ,sugar value of control plate #ij4e ---- ,instrument too low by #j4a ,add #j4a to #ic4g ---- ,correct polarization of solution #ic4h ,before filling the tube it must either be thoroughly dried by pushing a plug of filter paper through it1 or it must be rinsed several times with the solution itself4 ,the cover glasses must also be clean and dry1 and without serious defects or scratches4 ,unnecessary warming of the tube by the hand during filling should be avoided2 it is closed at one end with the screw cap and cover glass1 and grasped by the other end with the thumb and finger4 ,the solution is poured into it until its curved surface projects slightly above the opening1 the air bubbles allowed time to rise1 and the cover glass pushed horizontally over the end of the tube in such a manner that the excess of liquid is carried over the side1 leaving the cover glass exactly closing the tube with no air bubbles beneath it1 and with no portion of the liquid upon its upper surface4 ,if this result is not attained1 the operation must be repeated1 the cover glass being rubbed clean and dry1 and the solution again brought up over the end by adding a few more drops4 ,the cover glass being in position1 the tube is closed by screwing on the cap4 ,the greatest care must be observed in screwing down the caps that they do not press too tightly upon the cover glasses2 by such pressure the glasses themselves may become optically active1 and cause erroneous readings when placed in the instrument4 ,it should therefore be ascertained that the rubber washers are in position over the cover glasses1 and the caps should be screwed on lightly4 ,it must also be remembered that a cover glass1 once compressed1 may part with its acquired optical activity very slowly1 and some time must be allowed to elapse before it is used again4 ,the polariscopic reading may now be taken1 an observation on the #ij control plate having been made immediately before as previously described4 ,then without altering the position of the instrument relative to the light1 or changing the character of the latter in any way1 the tube filled with the sugar solution is substituted for the control plate4 ,the telescope is adjusted1 if necessary1 so as to give a sharply defined field1 which must appear round and clear4 7,this condition must be fulfilled before the observation is performed1 as it is essential to accuracy47 ,the milled head is turned until the neutral point is found1 and the reading is taken exactly as previously described1 the operation repeated five or six times1 the average taken with the rejection of aberrant readings1 the average figure corrected for the deviation shown by the control observation from the sugar value of the control plate at the temperature of observation as given in the table1 and the result taken as the polarization of the sugar4 ,when a series of successive polarizations is made under the same conditions as regards temperature1 position of the instrument with relation to the high intensity1 of the light1 etc41 the control observation need not be made before each polarization1 one such observation being sufficient for the entire series4 ,the control must be repeated at least once an hour1 however1 and oftener when the operator has reason to think that any of the factors indicated above have been altered1 for any such alteration of conditions may change the zero point of the instrument4 ,in the polarization of the quartz plates1 as also in the polarization of very white sugars1 difficulty may be experienced in obtaining a complete correspondence of both halves of the field4 ,with a little practice this may be overcome and the neutral point found1 but when it cannot1 the ordinary telescope of the instrument may be replaced by another1 which is furnished with the polariscope and which carries a yellow plate4 ,this removes the difficulty and renders it possible1 even for one not well accustomed to the instrument1 to set it at the exact point of neutrality4 ,,summarized ,,sources ,,of ,,error4 ,the following principal sources of error must be especially guarded against3 #a4 ,drying out of sample during weighing4 #b4 ,excess of subacetate of lead solution in clarification4 #c4 ,incomplete mixing of solution after making up to mark4 #d4 ,imperfect clarification or filtration4 #e4 ,concentration of solution by evaporation during filtration4 #f4 ,undue compression of the cover glass4 #g4 ,alteration of the temperature of room1 position of instrument1 or intensity of light while the observation or control observation is being performed4 #h4 ,performances of polarization with a cloudy1 dim1 or not completely round or sharply defined field4 ,in closing this report the members of this commission hereby signify their intention to promote uniformity and accuracy by adopting and using the standards and general plan of procedure recommended in this report in the polarimetric determinations over which1 in their respective branches of government work1 they have control4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,grand ,,falls ,,of ,,labrador4 ,hamilton ,inlet1 or ,ionektoke1 as the ,esquimaus call it1 is the outlet to the largest river on the ,labrador ,peninsula1 and of great importance to commerce1 ,rigolet1 the headquarters of the ,hudson ,bay ,company in this region1 being situated on its shores4 ,this inlet is the great waterway to ,central ,labrador1 extending into the interior for nearly #bjj miles4 ,this immense basin is undoubtedly of glacial origin1 evidences of ice erosion being plainly seen4 ,it is divided into two general basins1 connected by the narrows1 a small strait1 through which the water rushes with frightful rapidity at each tide4 ,into the head of the inlet flows the ,hamilton1 or ,grand ,river1 an exploration of which1 though attended with the greatest danger and privation1 has enticed many men to these barren shores4 ,perhaps the most successful expedition thus far was that of ,mr4 ,holme1 an ,englishman1 who1 in the summer of #ahhh1 went as far as ,lake ,waminikapon1 where1 by failure of his provisions1 he was obliged to turn back1 leaving the main object of the trip1 the discovery of the ,grand ,falls1 wholly unaccomplished4 ,it has been left for ,bowdoin ,college to accomplish the work left undone by ,mr4 ,holme1 to do honor to herself and her country by not only discovering1 measuring1 and photographing the falls1 but making known the general features of the inland plateau1 the geological structure of the continent1 and the course of the river4 ,on ,sunday1 ,july #bf1 a party of the ,bowdoin expedition1 consisting of ,messrs4 ,cary1 ,cole1 ,young1 and ,smith1 equipped with two ,rushton boats and a complement of provisions and instruments1 left the schooner at the head of the inlet for a five weeks' trip into the interior1 the ultimate object being the discovery of the ,grand ,falls4 ,the mouth of the river1 which is about one mile wide1 is blockaded by immense sand bars1 which have been laid down gradually by the erosive power of the river4 ,these bars extend far out into ,goose ,bay1 at the head of ,lake ,melville1 and it is impossible to approach the shores except in a small boat4 ,twenty-five miles up the river are the first falls1 a descent of the water of twenty-five feet1 forming a beautiful sight4 ,here a cache of provisions was made1 large enough to carry the party back to the appointed meeting place at ,northwest ,river4 ,the carry around the first falls is about one and a half miles in length1 and very difficult on account of the steep sides of the river4 ,from the first falls to ,gull ,island ,lake1 forty miles above1 the river is alternately quick and dead water4 ,part of it is very heavy rapids1 over which it was necessary to track1 and in some places to double the crews4 ,each boat had a tow line of fifty feet1 and in tracking the end was taken ashore by one of the crew of two1 while the boat was kept off the bank by the other man with an oar4 ,at the ,horseshoe ,rapids1 ten miles above ,gull ,island ,lake1 an accident happened which threatened to put a stop to further progress of the expedition4 ,while tracking around a steep point in crossing these rapids the boat which ,messrs4 ,cary and ,smith were tracking was overturned1 dumping barometer1 shotgun1 and ax into the river1 together with nearly one-half the total amount of provisions4 ,in the swift water of the rapids all these things were irrevocably lost1 a very serious loss at this stage in the expedition4 ,on this day so great was the force of the water that only one mile was made1 and that only with the greatest difficulty4 ,just above the mouth of the ,nimpa ,river1 which enters the ,grand ,river twenty-five miles above ,gull ,island ,lake1 a second cache of provisions was made1 holding enough to carry the party to their first cache at the first falls4 ,one of the boats was now found to be leaking badly1 and a stop was made to pitch the cracks and repair her1 making necessary the loss of a few hours4 ,from ,nimpa ,river to the ,mouni ,rapids1 at the entrance to ,lake ,waminikapon1 the water was found to be fairly smooth1 and good progress was made4 ,the change in the scenery1 too1 is noticeable1 becoming more magnificent and grand4 ,the mountains1 which are bolder and more barren1 approach much nearer to each other on each side of the river1 and at the base of these grim sentinels the river flows silvery and silently4 ,the ,mouni ,rapids1 through which the water passes from ,lake ,waminikapon1 presented the next obstacle to further progress1 but the swift water here was soon passed1 and well repaid the traveler with the sight here presented almost unexpectedly to his view4 ,the lake was entered about #d o'clock in the afternoon1 and1 as the narrow entrance was passed1 the sun poured its full rich light on rocky mountains stretching as far away as the eye could reach1 on each side of the lake1 and terminating in rocky cliffs from #fjj to #hjj feet in perpendicular height1 which formed the shores or confines of the lake4 ,across ,lake ,waminikapon1 which is1 more properly speaking1 not a lake at all1 but rather a widening of the river bed1 the progress was very good1 the water having no motion to retard the boats1 and forty miles were made during the day4 ,here a misfortune1 which had been threatening for several days1 came upon the party4 ,mr4 ,young's arm was so swollen1 from the shoulder to finger tips1 that he could scarcely move it1 the pain being excessive4 ,it had been brought on doubtless by cold and exposure4 ,seeing that he could be of no further use to the party1 it was decided to divide forces1 ,mr4 ,smith returning with the sick man to ,rigolet for medical assistance4 ,the separation took place ,august #h1 when the party had been on the river eleven days4 ,the party were very sorry to return at this point1 since from the best information which they could get in regard to the distance1 the falls were but fifty miles above them4 ,under the circumstances1 however1 there was no help for it4 ,so ,smith and ,young1 bidding their friends good fortune1 started on their return trip4 ,the mouth of the river was reached in three days1 a little less than one-third the time consumed in going up1 and that1 too1 with only one man to handle the boat4 ,on the way down the river another party1 composed of ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,kenaston of ,philadelphia1 was met1 who were on the same business as the ,bowdoin party1 the discovery of the falls4 ,mr4 ,bryant handed to ,mr4 ,young a twenty-five pound can of flour1 which1 he said1 he had found in the whirlpool below the first falls4 ,it had been in the boat which was overturned in the ,horseshoe ,rapids1 and had made the journey to the first falls1 a distance of over fifty miles1 without denting or injuring the can in any way4 ,it was a great relief to the ,bryant party to learn the cause of the mishap1 as they had feared a more serious calamity4 ,after the departure of the other two1 ,messrs4 ,cary and ,cole encountered much rapid water1 so that their progress was necessarily slow4 ,on the third day1 when they had proceeded sixty-five miles above ,lake ,waminikapon1 and had seen no indications of any falls1 the rapidity of the current forced them to leave the river and make any further progress on foot4 ,the boat was cached at this point1 together with all that was left of provisions and instruments except the compass and food for six days4 ,they left just enough provisions to carry them to their last cache at ,ninipi ,river1 and hoped1 by careful use of the remainder1 to find the object of their search4 ,if they had not enough provisions1 then they must turn back1 leaving reports of falls as destitute of confirmation as ever4 ,the land bordering the river at this point was heavily wooded1 and in places where the river shore could not be followed on account of the cliffs1 their progress was necessarily slow4 ,finding an elevation of land at no great distance from them1 they ascended it for a general survey of the country4 ,far away in the distance could be seen the current of the ,grand ,river flowing sluggishly but majestically on its course to the sea4 ,lakes on all sides were visible1 most of them probably of glacial origin4 ,descending from this mountain1 which the explorers christened ,mount ,bowdoin1 a course was laid on the river bank1 where camp was made that night4 ,being now somewhat weak from hard labor and insufficient food1 their progress was slow through the thick wood1 but on the next night camp was made on the edge of the plateau or table land of ,labrador4 ,after proceeding a short distance on the next day1 ,aug4 #ac1 a loud roar was heard in the distance1 and a course was laid for the river at the nearest point4 ,the river at this point1 about one mile above the falls1 was #ejj yards wide1 narrowing to fifty yards a short distance below1 where great clouds of spray floating in the air warned the weary travelers that their object had been attained4 ,quickly they proceeded to the scene1 and a magnificent sight burst upon their view4 ,grand ,falls1 though not approaching the incredible height attributed to it by legendary accounts of the ,indians1 is a grand fall of water4 ,its total descent is accomplished in a series of falls aggregating nearly #ejj feet4 ,the greatest perpendicular descent is not over #bjj feet4 ,the half dozen falls between this grand descent and the bed of the river on the plateau vary from ten to twenty-five feet1 adding to the majesty and grandeur of the scene4 ,it was with great difficulty that the bottom of the falls was reached and a photograph of the scene taken4 ,after leaving the plateau and plunging over the falls1 the waters enter an immense caon or gorge1 nearly #dj miles long and #cjj yards wide1 the perpendicular sides of which rise to a height of from #cjj to #ejj feet4 ,the sides of this caon show it to be hollowed out of solid ,archan rock4 ,through this caon the water rushes with terrific rapidity1 making passage by boat wholly impossible4 ,many erroneous stories have been told in regard to the height of these falls1 all of them greatly exaggerating the descent of the water4 ,the ,indians of this locality of the tribe of the ,nascopee or the race of ,crees have long believed the falls to be haunted by an evil spirit1 who punished with death any one who might dare to look upon them4 ,the height of land or plateau which constitutes the interior of the ,labrador peninsula is from #b1jjj to #b1ejj feet above the sea level1 fairly heavily wooded with spruce1 fir1 hackmatack1 and birch1 and not at all the desolate waste it has been pictured by many writers4 ,the barrenness of ,labrador is confined to the coast1 and one cannot enter the interior in any direction without being struck by the latent possibilities of the peninsula were it not for the abundance of flies and mosquitoes4 ,their greed is insatiable1 and at times the two men were weakened from the loss of blood occasioned by these insects4 ,the object of the expedition being attained1 the return trip was begun1 and the sight of the cached boat and provisions eagerly watched for4 ,on ,aug4 #ae the camp was sighted1 but to their horror they saw smoke issuing from the spot4 ,it at once flashed upon their minds what had taken place1 and when they arrived they found that their fears had been all too truly realized4 ,charred remains of the boat1 a burned octant1 and a few unexploded cartridges were all that remained of the meager outfit upon which they depended to take them to the mouth of the river1 a distance of over #bej miles4 ,the camp fire1 not having been completely extinguished1 had burned the boat and destroyed all their provisions4 ,it was truly a hard outlook for them1 but no time must be lost if provisions were to be obtained4 ,hastily a raft was constructed1 the logs being bound together with spruce roots4 ,in this way1 by alternately walking and rafting1 the mouth of the river was reached ,aug4 #bi4 ,on the way down the river five rafts had been made and abandoned4 ,the only weapon was a small pocket revolver1 and with the products of this weapon1 mostly red squirrels and a few fish1 they lived until they reached the different caches4 ,many a meal was made of one red squirrel divided between them1 and upon such food they were compelled to make the best time possible4 ,on the way up the river the shoes of one of the party had given wholly out1 and he was obliged to make a rude pair of slippers from the back of a leather pack4 ,with torn clothes and hungry bodies they presented a hard sight indeed when they joined their friends at ,rigolet on the #ast of ,september4 ,the party composed of ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,kenaston was passed by ,cary and ,cole while on the way down1 but was not seen4 ,probably this occurred on ,lake ,waminikapon1 the width of the lake preventing one party from seeing the other4 ,it seemed a waste of time and energy that two expeditions in the same summer should be sent upon the same object1 but neither party knew of the intention of the other until it was too late to turn back4 ,grand ,river has long been a highway for the dependents of the ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,the company formerly had a post on ,lake ,waminikapon1 and another1 called ,height of ,land1 on the plateau4 ,provisions were carried to these posts1 and furs brought from them by way of ,grand ,river1 the parties proceeding as far as the lake1 and then1 leaving ,grand ,river some distance below the caon1 no longer being able to follow it on account of the swiftness of the water1 they carried their canoes across the land to a chain of lakes connecting with the post4 ,this station has been given up many years1 and the river is used now chiefly be ,indians and hunters in the winter4 ,it has long been known that ,hamilton ,inlet was of glacial origin1 the immense basin hollowed out by this erosive agent being #aej miles in length4 ,how much further this immense valley extended has never been known4 ,mr4 ,cary says that the same basin which forms ,hamilton ,inlet and enters ,lake ,melville1 the two being connected by twelve miles of narrows1 extends up the ,grand ,river ,valley as far as ,gull ,island ,lake1 the whole forming one grand glacial record4 ,from ,lake ,melville to ,gull ,island the bed was being gradually filled in by the deposits of the river1 but the contour of the basin is the same here as below4 ,the bed of the country here is ,archan rock1 and many beautiful specimens of labradorite dot the shores4 ,in the distance the grim peaks of the ,mealy ,mountains stand out in bold relief against the sky4 ,the country about this interior basin is heavily wooded1 and spars of #ge feet can be obtained in generous numbers4 ,were it not for the native inhabitants1 mosquitoes1 and flies1 the interior would present conditions charming enough to tempt any lover of nature4 ,it is the abundance of these invincible foes which make interior life a burden and almost an impossibility4 ,to these inhabitants alone ,grand ,falls has ceased to chant its melodious tune4 ,hereafter its melodious ripple will be heard by ,bowdoin ,college1 which1 in the name of its explorers1 ,cary and ,cole1 claims the honor of its discovery4--,new ,york ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ants4 ,by ,,ruth ,,ward ,,kahn4 ,astronomy has made us all familiar with the conception of the world over our heads4 ,we no longer speculate with ,epicurus and ,anaxagoras whether the sun may be as large as a quoit1 or even as large as ,peloponnesus4 ,we are satisfied that the greater and the lesser lights are worlds1 some of them greatly exceeding our own in magnitude4 ,in a little poem of ,dante ,rossetti's1 he describes a mood of violent grief in which1 sitting with his head bowed between his knees1 he unconsciously eyes the wood spurge growing at his feet1 till from those terrible moments he carries away the one trivial fact cut into his brain for all time1 that the wood spurge has a cup of three4 ,in some such mood of troubled thought1 flung perhaps full length on the turf1 have we not as unconsciously and intently watched a little ant1 trudging across our prostrate form1 intent upon its glorious polity3 a creature to which we1 with our great spiritual world of thought and emotion and will1 have no existence except as a sudden and inconvenient upheaval of parti-colored earth to be scaled1 of unknown geological formation1 but wholly worthless as having no bearing upon the one great end of their life--the care of larv4 ,if we hold with ,mr4 ,wallace that the chief difference between man and the lower animals is that of kind and not of degree--that man is possessed of an intelligent will that appoints its own ends1 of a conscience that imposes upon him a categorical imperative1 of spiritual faculties that apprehend and worship the invisible--yet we must admit that his lower animal nature1 which forms1 as it1 were1 the platform of the spiritual1 is built up of lower organisms4 ,if we hold with ,professor ,allman that thought1 will1 and conscience1 though only manifesting themselves through the medium of cerebral protoplasm1 are not its properties any more than the invisible earth elements which lie beyond the violet are the property of the medium which1 by altering their refrangibility1 makes them its own--then the study of the exact nature and properties of the transmitting medium is equally necessary4 ,indeed1 the whole position can only be finally established of defining experimentally the necessary limitation of the medium1 and proving the inefficiency of the lower data to account with the higher4 ,it is these considerations of the wider issues that give such a peculiar interest to the patient observations which have recently been brought to bear upon the habits of the social insects1 especially of ants1 which1 living in communities1 present so many of the conditions of human life1 and the development of the tribal self from these conditions1 to which ,professor ,clifford attributed the genesis of moral sense4 ,in order to pass in review these interesting observations and bring out their significance1 ,i must go over ground which is doubtless familiar to most of my readers4 ,the winged ants1 which often excite surprise1 are simply the virgin queens and the males4 ,they are entirely dependent upon the workers1 and are reared in the same nest4 ,september is the month usually selected as the marriage season1 and in the early twilight of a warm day the air will be dark with the winged lovers4 ,after the wedding trip the female tears off her wings--partly by pulling1 but mostly by contortions of her body--for her life under ground would render wings not only unnecessary1 but cumbersome2 while the male is not exposed to the danger of being eaten by his cannibal spouse1 as among spiders1 nor to be set upon and assassinated by infuriated spinsters1 as among bees1 but drags out a precarious existence for a few days1 and then either dies or is devoured by insectivorous insects4 ,there is reason to believe that some females are fertilized before leaving the nest4 ,i have observed flights of the common ,formica rufa1 in which the females flew away solitary and to great distances before they descended4 ,in such cases it is certain that they were fertilized before their flight4 ,when a fertilized queen starts a colony it proceeds much in this way3 ,when a shaft has been sunk deep enough to insure safety1 or a sheltered position secured underneath the trunk of a tree or a stone1 the queen in due time deposits her first eggs1 which are carefully reared and nourished4 ,the first brood consists wholly of workers1 and numbers between twenty-five and forty in some species1 but is smaller in others4 ,the mother ant seeks food for herself and her young till the initial brood are matured1 when they take up the burden of life1 supply the rapidly increasing family with food1 as well as the mother ant1 enlarge the quarters1 share in the necessary duties1 and1 in short1 become the real workers of the nest before they are scarcely out of the shell4 ,the mother ant is seldom allowed to peer beyond her dark quarters1 and then only in company with her body guard4 ,she is fed and cared for by the workers1 and she in turn assists them in the rearing of the young1 and has even been known to give her strength for the extension of the formicary grounds4 ,several queens often exist in one nest1 and ,i have seen workers drag newly fertilized queens into a formicary to enlarge their resources4 ,as needs be1 the quantity of eggs laid is very great1 for the loss of life in the ranks of the workers is very large2 few survive the season of their hatching1 although queens have been known to live eight years4 7,lubbock47 ,the ant life has four well marked periods3 ,first1 the egg2 second1 the grub or larva2 third1 the chrysalis or pupa2 fourth1 the imago1 or perfect insect4 ,the eggs are small1 ovate1 yellowish white objects1 which hatch in about fifteen to thirty days4 ,the larv are small legless grubs1 quite large at the apex of the abdomen and tapering toward the head4 ,both eggs and pupa are incessantly watched and tended1 licked and fed1 and carried to a place of safety in time of danger4 ,the larv are ingeniously sorted as regards age and size1 and are never mixed4 ,the larv period generally extends through a month1 although often much longer1 and in most species when the larv pass into pup they spin a cocoon of white or straw color1 looking much like a shining pebble4 ,other larv do not spin a cocoon1 but spend the pupal state naked4 ,when they mature they are carefully assisted from their shells by the workers1 which also assist in unfolding and smoothing out the legs4 ,the whole life of the formicary centers upon the young1 which proves they have reached a degree of civilization unknown even in some forms of higher life4 ,it is curious that1 notwithstanding the labor of so many excellent observers1 and though ants swarm in every field and wood1 we should find so much difficulty in the history of these insects1 and that so much obscurity should rest upon some of their habits4 ,forel and ,ebrard1 after repeated observations1 maintain that in no single instance has an isolated female been known to bring her young to maturity4 ,this is in direct contradiction to ,lubbock's theory1 who repeatedly tried introducing a new fertile queen into another nest of ,lasius flavus1 and always with the result that the workers became very excited and killed her1 even though in one case the nest was without a queen4 ,of the other kinds1 he isolated two pairs of ,myrmica ruginodis1 and1 though the males died1 the queens lived and brought their offspring to perfection2 and nearly a year after their captivity1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock watched the first young workers carrying the larv about1 thereby proving the accuracy of ,huber's statement1 with some species at least4 ,in spite of this convincing testimony1 ,lepeletier ,st4 ,fargeau is of the opinion that the nests originate with a solitary queen1 as was first given4 ,the ants indigenous to ,leadville1 besides feeding on small flies1 insects1 and caterpillars--the carcasses of which they may be seen dragging to their nests--show the greatest avidity for sweet liquids4 ,they are capable of absorbing large quantities1 which they disgorge into the mouths of their companions4 ,in winter time1 when the ants are nearly torpid and do not require much nourishment1 two or three ants told off as foragers are sufficient to provide for the whole nest4 ,we all know how ants keep their herds in the shape of aphides1 or ant cows1 which supply them with the sweet liquid they exude4 ,i have often observed an ant gently stroking the back of an aphide with its antenn to coax it to give down its sweet fluid1 much in the same way as a dairy maid would induce a cow to give down its milk by a gentle manipulation of its udders4 ,some species1 principally the masons and miners1 remove their aphides to plants in the immediate vicinity of their nest1 or even introduce them into the ant home4 ,in the interior of most nests is also found the small blind beetle 7,claviger7 glistening1 and of a uniform red1 its mouth of so singular a conformation that it is incapable of feeding itself4 ,the ants carefully feed these poor dependent creatures1 and in turn lick the sweet liquid which they secrete and exude4 ,these little ,coleoptera are only found in the nests of some species2 when introduced into the nests of others they excite great bewilderment1 and1 after having been carefully turned over and examined1 are killed in a short time as a useless commodity4 ,another active species of ,coleoptera1 of the family ,staphylini1 is also found in ant nests4 ,i have discovered one in the nest of ,formica rufa in the ,jewish cemetery in ,leadville4 ,furnished with wings1 it does not remain in the nest1 but is forced to return thither by the strange incapacity to feed itself4 ,like the ,claviger1 it repays its kind nurses by the sweet liquid it exudes1 and which is retained by a tuft of hair on either side of the abdomen beneath the wings1 which the creature lifts in order that the ant may get at its honeyed recompense4 ,such mutual services between creatures in no way allied is a most curious fact in the animal world4--,popular ,science ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,gem-,,bearing ,,granite ,,vein ,,in ,,western ,,connecticut4 ,by ,l4,p4 ,,gratacap4 ,in the county of ,litchfield1 ,conn41 in the midst of some of the most attractive hill country of that region1 a very striking mineral fissure has been opened by ,mr4 ,s4,l4 ,wilson1 which1 in both its scientific and commercial aspects1 is equally important and interesting4 ,it is a broad crevice1 widened at the point of excavation into something like a pocket and filled1 between its inclosing walls of gneiss1 with a granitic mass whose elements have crystallized separately1 so that an almost complete mineralogical separation has been effected of quartz1 mica1 and feldspar1 while associated aggregates1 as beryl and garnet1 have formed under conditions that make them valuable gem fabrics4 ,the vein has a strike south of west and north of east and a distinct dip northwest1 by which it is brought below the gneiss rock1 which forms an overhanging wall1 on the northerly side of the granitic mass1 while on the southerly edge the same gneiss rock makes an almost vertical foot wall1 and exhibits a sharp surface of demarkation and contact4 ,the rock has been worked as an open cut through short lateral plunges1 or tunnels have been used for purposes of exploration in the upper part of its extent4 ,its greatest width appears to be fifty-one feet1 and the present exposure of its length three hundred4 ,it undergoes compression at its upper end1 and its complete extinction upon the surface of the country at that point seems probable4 ,at its lower end at the foot of the slope wherein the whole mass appears1 it reveals considerable development1 and affords further opportunities for examination1 and1 possibly1 profitable investment4 ,it has been formed by a powerful thrust coincident with the crumpling of the entire region1 whereby deeply seated beds have become liquefied1 and the magma either forced outward through a longitudinal vent or brought to the surface by a process of progressive fusion as the heated complex rose through superincumbent strata dissipated by its entrance and contributing their substance to its contents4 ,the present exposure of the vein has been produced by denudation1 as the coarsely crystalline and dismembered condition of the granite1 with its large individuals of garnet and beryl1 and the dense1 glassy texture of the latter1 indicate a process of slow cooling and complete separation1 and for this result the congealing magma must necessarily have been sealed in by strata through which its heat was disseminated slowly4 ,for upon the most cursory inspection of the vein1 the eye is arrested at once by the large masses of crystalline orthoclase1 the heavy beds of a gray1 brecciated quartz and the zones and columns of large leaved mica4 ,it was to secure the latter that ,mr4 ,wilson first exploited this locality1 and only latterly have the more precious contents of the vein imparted to it a new and more significant character4 ,the mica1 called by ,mr4 ,atwood1 the superintendent of the work1 book mica1 occurs in thick crystals1 ranged heterogeneously together in stringers and chimneys1 and brilliantly reflecting the sunlight from their diversely commingled lamin4 ,this mica yields stove sheets of about two to three by four or five inches1 and is of an excellent1 transparent quality4 ,it seems to be a true muscovite1 and is seldom marred by magnetic markings or crystalline inclusions that would interfere with its industrial use4 ,seams of decomposition occur1 and a yellowish scaly product1 composed of hydrated mica flakes1 fills them4 ,the mica does not everywhere present this coarsely crystalline appearance1 but in flexures and lines of union with the quartz and orthoclase is degraded to a mica schist upon whose surfaces appear uranates of lime and copper 7autunite and torbernite71 and in which are inclosed garnet crystals of considerable size and beauty4 ,the enormous masses of clean feldspar made partially graphic by quartz inclosures are a conspicuous feature of the mine4 ,in one part of the mine1 wooden props support an overhanging ledge almost entirely composed of feldspar1 which underneath passes into the gray brecciated quartz1 which again grades into a white1 more compact quartz rock4 ,it is in this gray brecciated quartz that the beryls are found4 ,these beautiful stones vary extremely in quality and color4 ,many of the large crystals are opaque1 extensively fractured1 and irregular in grain1 but are found to inclose1 especially at their centers1 cores of gem-making material4 ,the colors of the beryls grade from an almost colorless mineral 7goshenite7 though faintly green1 with blue reflections1 yellowish green of a peculiar oily liquidity 7davidsonite71 to honey yellows which form the so-called golden beryls of the trade1 and which have a considerable value4 ,these stones have a hardness of #h1 and when cut display much brilliancy4 ,many assume the true aquamarine tints1 and others seem to be almost identical with the ,diamond of the ,rhine1 which as early as the end of the fifteenth century was used as a fraudulent substitute for the true diamond 7,king74 ,few1 very few1 belong to the blue grades1 and the best of these cannot compare with those from ,royalston1 ,mass4 ,those of amber and honey shades are beautiful objects1 and under artificial light have a fascination far exceeding the olivine or chrysoberyl4 ,these are not as frequent as the paler varieties1 but when found excite the admiration of visitor and expert4 ,it seems hardly probable that any true emeralds will be uncovered and the yellow beryls may not increase in number4 ,their use in the arts will be improved by combining them with other stones and by preparing the larger specimens for single stone rings4 ,very effective combinations of the aquamarine and blue species with the yellow may be recommended4 ,tourmaline appears in some quantity1 forming almost a schist at some points1 but no specimens of any value have been extracted1 the color being uniformly black4 ,the garnets are large trapezohedral-faced crystals of an intense color1 but penetrated with rifts and flaws4 ,many1 no doubt1 will afford serviceable gem material1 but their resources have not yet been tested by the lapidary4 ,while granite considered as a building stone presents a complex of quartz1 mica1 and feldspar so confusedly intercrystallized as to make a homogeneous composite1 in the present mass1 like the larger and similar developments in ,north ,carolina1 these elements have excluded each other in their crystallization1 and are found as three separate groups only sparingly intermingled4 ,the proportions of the constituent minerals which form granite1 according to ,prof4 ,phillips1 are twenty parts of potash feldspar 7orthoclase71 five parts of quartz1 and two parts of potash mica 7muscovite71 and a survey of ,mr4 ,wilson's quarry exhibits these approximate relations with surprising force4 ,there can be but little doubt that this vein is a capital example of hydrothermal fusion1 whereby in original gneissic strata1 at a moderate temperature and considerable depth1 through the action of contained water1 with the physical accompaniment of plication1 a solution of the country rock has been accomplished4 ,and the cooling and recrystallization has gone on so slowly that the elements of granite have preserved a physical isolation1 while the associated silicates formed in the midst of this magma have attained a supremely close and compact texture1 owing to the favorable conditions of slow growth giving them gem consistencies4 ,the further development of the vein may reveal interesting facts1 and especially the following downward of the rock mass1 which we suspect will contract into a narrower vein4 ,at present the order of crystallization and separation of the mineralogical units seems to have been feldspar1 mica1 garnet1 beryl1 quartz4 ,in the artificial preparation of crystals it is invariably found that perfect and symmetrical crystals1 and crystals of large size1 are produced by slow1 undisturbed cooling of solutions2 the quiet accretion permits complete molecular freedom and the crystal is built up with precision4 ,nor is this all4 ,in mixtures of chemical compounds it is presumable that the separate factors will disengage themselves from each other more and more completely1 and form in purer masses as the congelation is slowly carried on4 ,a sort of concretionary affinity comes into play1 and the different chemical units congregate together4 ,at least such has been the case in the granitic magma of which ,mr4 ,wilson now possesses the solidified results4 ,the feldspar1 the quartz1 the mica1 have approximately excluded each other1 and appear side by side in unmixed purity4 ,and does it not seem probable that this deliberate process of solidification has produced in the beryls1 found in the center of the vein at the points of slowest radiation1 the glassy gem texture which now makes them available for the purposes of art and decoration8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,mankind4 ,professor ,max ,muller1 who presided over the ,anthropological ,section of the ,british ,association1 said that if one tried to recall what anthropology was in #ahdg1 and then considered what it was now1 its progress seemed most marvelous4 ,these last fifty years had been an age of discovery in ,africa1 ,central ,asia1 ,america1 ,polynesia1 and ,australia1 such as could hardly be matched in any previous century4 ,but what seemed to him even more important than the mere increase of material was the new spirit in which anthropology had been studied during the last generation4 ,he did not depreciate the labors of so-called dilettanti1 who were after all lovers of knowledge1 and in a study such as that of anthropology1 the labors of these volunteers1 or franc-tireurs1 had often proved most valuable4 ,but the study of man in every part of the world had ceased to be a subject for curiosity only4 ,it had been raised to the dignity and also the responsibility of a real science1 and was now guided by principles as strict and rigorous as any other science4 ,many theories which were very popular fifty years ago were now completely exploded2 nay1 some of the very principles by which the science was then guided had been discarded4 ,among all serious students1 whether physiologists or philologists1 it was by this time recognized that the divorce between ethnology and philology1 granted if only for incompatibility of temper1 had been productive of nothing but good4 ,,classification4 ,instead of attempting to classify mankind as a whole1 students were now engaged in classifying skulls1 hair1 teeth1 and skin4 ,many solid results had been secured by these special researches2 but as yet1 no two classifications1 based on these characteristics1 had been made to run parallel4 ,the most natural classification was1 no doubt1 that according to the color of the skin4 ,this gave us a black1 a brown1 a yellow1 a red1 and a white race1 with several subdivisions4 ,this classification had often been despised as unscientific2 but might still turn out far more valuable than at present supposed4 ,the next classification was that by the color of the eyes1 as black1 brown1 hazel1 gray1 and blue4 ,this subject had also attracted much attention of late1 and1 within certain limits1 the results have proved very valuable4 ,the most favorite classification1 however1 had always been that according to the skulls4 ,the skull1 as the shell of the brain1 had by many students been supposed to betray something of the spiritual essence of man2 and who could doubt that the general features of the skull1 if taken in large averages1 did correspond to the general features of human character8 ,we had only to look around to see men with heads like a cannon ball and others with heads like a hawk4 ,this distinction had formed the foundation for a more scientific classification into brachycephalic1 dolichocephalic1 and mesocephalic skulls4 ,if we examined any large collection of skulls we had not much difficulty in arranging them under these three classes2 but if1 after we had done this1 we looked at the nationality of each skull1 we found the most hopeless confusion4 ,pruner ,vey1 as ,peschel told us in his ,volkerkunde1 had observed brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls in children born of the same mother2 and if we consider how many women had been carried away into captivity by ,mongolians in their inroads into ,china1 ,india1 and ,germany1 we could not feel surprised if we found some long heads among the round heads of those ,central ,asiatic hordes4 ,,differences ,,in ,,skulls4 ,only we must not adopt the easy expedient of certain anthropologists who1 when they found dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls in the same tomb1 at once jump to the conclusion that they must have belonged to two different races4 ,when1 for instance1 two dolichocephalic and three brachycephalic skulls were discovered in the same tomb at ,alexanderpol1 we were told at once that this proved nothing as to the simultaneous occurrence of different skulls in the same family2 nay1 that it proved the very contrary of what it might seem to prove4 ,it was clear1 we were assured1 that the two dolichocephalic skulls belonged to ,aryan chiefs and the three brachycephalic skulls to their non-,aryan slaves1 who were killed and buried with their masters1 according to a custom well known to ,herodotus4 ,this sounded very learned1 but was it really quite straightforward8 ,besides the general division of skulls into dolichocephalic1 brachycephalic1 and mesocephalic1 other divisions had been undertaken1 according to the height of the skull1 and again according to the maxillary and the facial angles4 ,this latter division gave us orthognatic1 prognathic1 and mesognathic skulls4 ,lastly1 according to the peculiar character of the hair1 we might distinguish two great divisions1 the people with woolly hair 7,ulotriches7 and people with smooth hair 7,lissotriches74 ,the former were subdivided into ,lophocomi1 people with tufts of hair1 and ,eriocomi1 or people with fleecy hair4 ,the latter were divided into ,euthycomi1 straight haired1 and ,euplocomi1 wavy haired4 ,it had been shown that these peculiarities of the hair depended on the peculiar form of the hair tubes1 which in cross sections were found to be either round or elongated in different ways4 ,all these classifications1 to which several more might be added1 those according to the orbits of the eyes1 the outlines of the nose1 and the width of the pelvis1 were by themselves extremely useful4 ,but few of them only1 if any1 ran strictly parallel4 ,now let them consider whether there could be any organic connection between the shape of the skull1 the facial angle1 the conformation of the hair1 or the color of the skin on one side1 and what we called the great families of language on the other4 ,,connection ,,of ,,language ,,and ,,physical ,,conformation4 ,that we spoke at all might rightly be called a work of nature1 opera naturale1 as ,dante said long ago2 but that we spoke thus or thus1 cosi o cosi1 that1 as the same ,dante said1 depended on our pleasure--that was our work4 ,to imagine1 therefore1 that as a matter of necessity1 or as a matter of fact1 dolichocephalic skulls had anything to do with ,aryan1 mesophalic with ,semitic1 or brachycephalic with ,turanian speech1 was nothing but the wildest random thought4 ,it could convey no rational meaning whatever2 we might as well say that all painters were dolichocephalic1 and all musicians brachycephalic1 or that all lophocomic tribes worked in gold1 and all lisocomic tribes in silver4 ,if anything must be ascribed to prehistoric times1 surely the differentiation of the human skull1 the human hair and the human skin would have to be ascribed to that distant period4 ,no one1 he believed1 had ever maintained that a mesocephalic skull was split or differentiated into a dolichocephalic and a brachycephalic variety in the bright sunshine of history4 ,nevertheless1 he had felt for years that knowledge of languages must be considered in future as a sine qua non for every anthropologist4 ,how few of the books in which we trusted with regard to the characteristic peculiarities of savage races had been written by men who had lived among them for ten or twenty years1 and who had learned their languages till they could speak them as well as the natives themselves4 ,it was no excuse to say that any traveler who had eyes to see and ears to hear could form a correct estimate of the doings and sayings of savage tribes4 ,,travelers' ,,impressions4 ,it was not so1 as anthropologists knew from sad experience4 ,suppose a traveler came to a camp where he saw thousands of men and women dancing round the image of a young bull4 ,suppose that the dancers were all stark naked1 that after a time they began to fight1 and that at the end of their orgies there were three thousand corpses lying about weltering in their blood4 ,would not a casual traveler have described such savages as worse than the negroes of ,dahomey8 ,yet these savages were really the ,jews1 the chosen people of ,god4 ,the image was the golden calf1 the priest was ,aaron1 and the chief who ordered the massacre was ,moses4 ,we might read the #cb;d chapter of ,exodus in a very different sense4 ,a traveler who could have conversed with ,aaron and ,moses might have understood the causes of the revolt and the necessity of the massacre4 ,but without this power of interrogation and mutual explanation1 no travelers1 however graphic and amusing their stories might be1 could be trusted2 no statements of theirs could be used by the anthropologist for truly scientific purposes4 ,if anthropology was to maintain its high position as a real science1 its alliance with linguistic studies could not be too close4 ,its weakest points had always been those where it trusted to the statements of authorities ignorant of language and of the science of language4 ,its greatest triumphs had been achieved by men such as ,dr4 ,hahn1 ,bishops ,callaway and ,colenso1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,gill and last1 not least1 ,mr4 ,man1 who had combined the minute accuracy of the scholar with the comprehensive grasp of the anthropologist1 and were thus enabled to use the key of language to unlock the perplexities of savage customs1 savage laws and legends1 and1 particularly1 of savage religions and mythologies4 ,if this alliance between anthropology and philology became real1 then1 and then only1 might we hope to see ,bunsen's prophecy fulfilled1 that anthropology would become the highest branch of that science for which the ,british ,association was instituted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,valuable ,,papers ,contained in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 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