,,oriental ,,religions ,,and            
,,christianity  ,a ,,course ,,of        
,,lectures ,,delivered ,,on ,,the ,,ely 
,,foundation ,,before ,,the ,,students  
,,of ,,union ,,theological ,,seminary1  
,,new ,,york1 #ahia  ,,by ,,frank ,f4   
,,ellinwood1 ,d4,d4 ,,secretary ,,of    
,,the ,,board ,,of ,,foreign ,,missions 
,,of ,,the ,,presbyterian ,,church      
,u4,s4,a42 ,,lecturer ,,on ,,comparative
 ,,religion ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of
 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york  ,,new  
,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons   
#ahib     ,,preface  ,the following     
lectures1 prepared amid many cares and  
duties1 have aimed to deal only with    
practical questions which are demanding 
attention in our time4 ,they do not     
claim to constitute a treatise with     
close connections and a logical order4  
,each presents a distinct topic1 or a   
particular phase of the present conflict
 of ,christian truth with the errors of 
the non-,christian religions4 ,this     
independent treatment must constitute my

 apology for an occasional repetition of
 important facts or opinions which have 
a common bearing on different           
discussions4 ,no claim is made to       
scholarship in the ,oriental languages4 
,the ability to compare original sources
 and determine dates and intricate      
meanings of terms1 or settle points in  
dispute by a wide research in ,sanscrit 
or ,pali literatures1 can only be       
obtained by those who spend years in    
study along these special lines4 ,but so
 many specialists have now made known   
the results of their prolonged          
linguistic studies in the form of       
approved ,english translations1 that1 as
 ,professor ,max ,mueller has well said 
in his introduction to ,the ,sacred     
,books of the ,east1 there is no longer 
any excuse for ignorance of the rich    
treasures of ,oriental ,literature4     
,two considerations lend special        
importance to the topics here discussed4
 ,first1 that the false systems in      
question belong not merely to the past1 

but to our own time4 ,and second1 that  
the increased intercommunication of this
 age brings us into closer contact with 
them4 ,they are no longer afar off and  
unheard of1 nor are they any longer     
lying in passive slumber4 ,having       
received quickening influences from our 
,western civilization1 and various      
degrees of sympathy from certain types  
of ,western thought1 they have become   
aggressive and are at our doors4  ,on   
controverted points ,i have made        
frequent quotations1 for the reason that
 the testimonies or opinions of writers 
of acknowledged competency are best     
given in their own words4  ,i have      
labored under a profound conviction     
that1 whatever may be the merit and     
success of these modest efforts1 the    
general class of subjects treated is    
destined to receive increased attention 
in the near future2 that the ,christian 
,church will not long be content to     
miscalculate the great conquest which   
she is attempting against the heathen   

systems of the ,east and their many     
alliances with the infidelity of the    
,west4 ,and ,i am cheered with a belief 
that1 in proportion to the intelligent  
discrimination which shall be exercised 
in judging of the non-,christian        
religions1 and the skill which shall be 
shown in presenting the immensely       
superior truths of the ,christian faith1
 will the success of the great work of  
,missions be increased4  ,it scarcely   
needs to be said that ,i have not even  
attempted to give anything like a       
complete view of the various systems of 
which ,i have spoken4 ,only a few       
salient points have been touched upon1  
as some practical end has required4 ,but
 if the mere outline here given shall   
lead any to a fuller investigation of   
the subjects discussed1 ,i shall be     
content4 ,i am satisfied that the more  
thoroughly the ,gospel of ,redemption is
 compared with the futile systems of    
self-righteousness which man has        
devised1 the more wonderful it will     

appear4  ,f4,f4 ,,ellinwood4  ,,new     
,,york1 ,january #bj1 #ahib4     ,,the  
,,ely ,,lectures--#ahia4   ,the lectures
 contained in this volume were delivered
 to the students of ,union ,theological 
,seminary in the year #ahia1 as one of  
the courses established in the ,seminary
 by ,mr4 ,zebulon ,stiles ,ely1 in the  
following terms3       ,the undersigned 
gives the sum of ten thousand dollars to
 the ,union      ,theological ,seminary 
of the city of ,new ,york1 to found a   
lectureship in the same1 the title of   
which shall be ',the ,elias ,p4         
,ely ,lectures on the ,evidences of     
,christianity4'       ,the course of    
lectures given on this foundation is to 
comprise any      topics that serve to  
establish the proposition that          
,christianity is      a religion from   
,god1 or that it is the perfect and     
final form of      religion for man4    
,among the subjects discussed may be3   
,the ,nature and ,need of a ,revelation2
       ,the ,character and ,influence of

 ,christ and his ,apostles2       ,the  
,authenticity and ,credibility of the   
,scriptures1 ,miracles1 and             
,prophecy2       ,the ,diffusion and    
,benefits of ,christianity2 and         
,the ,philosophy of ,religion in its    
,relation to the ,christian             
,system4       ,upon one or more of such
 subjects a course of ten public        
lectures      shall be given1 at least  
once in two or three years4 ,the        
appointment of the lecturer is to be by 
the concurrent action of      the       
directors and faculty of said ,seminary 
and the undersigned2 and      it shall  
ordinarily be made two years in advance4
     ,,contents   ,,lecture ,i4  ,,the  
,,need ,,of ,,understanding ,,the       
,,false ,,religions #a       ,the ,new  
,science of ,religion to be ,viewed with
 ,discrimination--,the      ,study of   
the ,oriental ,systems too ,long a      
,monopoly of ,anti-,christian           
,scholars--,the ,changed ,aspects of the
 ,missionary ,work--,the                

,significant ,experience of             
,ziegenbalz--,fears ,entertained in     
,reference to this ,subject by ,timid   
,believers--,the ,different ,view       
taken of the ,old ,heathen ,systems of  
,greece and ,rome--,the ,subject        
,considered from the ,standpoint of     
,missionary ,candidates--,the           
,testimony of ,intelligent and          
,experienced ,missionaries--,reasons for
      ,studying ,oriental ,systems      
,found in the ,increased ,intercourse of
 the      ,nations2 in the ,intellectual
 ,quickening of ,oriental ,minds by     
,education2 in the ,resistance and even 
,aggressiveness of ,heathen             
,systems2 in the ,diversities of the    
,buddhist ,faith in ,different          
,lands--,false ,systems to be ,studied  
with a ,candid ,spirit--,the            
,distinction to be ,drawn between       
,religion and ,ethics--,reasons why a   
,missionary should ,pursue these        
,studies before ,arriving on his        
,field--,reasons why the ,ministry at   

,home ,should ,acquaint ,themselves     
with ,heathen ,systems--,their ,active  
,alliance with ,various ,forms of       
,western ,infidelity--,intellectual     
,advantages to be ,derived from such    
,studies--,a ,broader and ,warmer       
,sympathy with ,universal ,humanity to  
be ,gained--,a ,better ,understanding of
 the ,unique ,supremacy of the          
,gospel as the ,only ,hope of the       
,world--,pastors at ,home are also      
,missionaries to the ,heathen--,they are
 ,sharers in the ,conflict      through 
the ,press4   ,,lecture ,,ii4  ,,the    
,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,christian
 ,,church ,,in ,,dealing      ,,with    
,,heathenism #ci       ,the             
,coincidences of the ,present ,struggle 
with that of the ,first      ,christian 
,centuries--,the ,mediaeval ,missionary 
,work of a ,simple                      
,character--,that of ,india1 ,japan1    
,china1 and the ,turkish ,empire a      
,severe ,intellectual ,struggle as well 
as a ,spiritual                         

,conquest--,hinduism1 ,buddhism1        
,confucianism1 and ,islam1 present      
,obstacles and ,resistances ,similar to 
those of ,ancient ,greece and           
,rome--,how far ,contrasts ,appear      
between the ,early and the ,present     
,conquests--,the ,methods of ,paul--,his
 ,tact in ,recognizing ,truth           
wherever ,found1 and ,using it for his  
,purpose--,the ,attitude of the         
,early ,christian ,fathers toward the   
,heathen--,augustine's                  
,acknowledgment of the ,good which he   
,received from ,cicero and              
,plato--,the ,important ,elements which 
,platonism ,lacked1 and which      were 
,found ,only in the ,gospel of          
,christ--,the ,great ,secret of ,power  
in the ,early ,church ,found in its     
,moral ,earnestness1 as ,shown by       
,simplicity of ,life1 and especially by 
,constancy even ,unto a      ,martyr's  
,death--,the ,contrast between the      
,frugality of the ,early      ,church   
and the ,luxury and ,vice of ,roman     

,society--,the ,great ,need of      this
 ,element of ,success at the ,present   
,time--,the ,observance of a      ,wise 
,discrimination in the ,estimate of     
,heathen ,philosophy by the      ,great 
,leaders of the ,early ,church--,the    
,generality with which      ,classical  
,studies were ,pursued by the ,sons of  
the more ,enlightened      ,christian   
,fathers--,method ,among the            
,leaders--,the ,necessity for a         
thorough ,knowledge of the ,systems to  
be ,met1 as it was then                 
,recognized--,the thorough ,preparation 
of ,augustine1 ,ambrose1      ,iraeneus1
 and ,others for their ,work--,origen's 
,masterly and      ,successful ,reply to
 ,celsus--,the ,use ,made by the ,early 
,fathers and      by the ,churches of a 
,later ,day1 of the ,philosophy of      
,plato and      ,aristotle--,heathenism 
thus ,conquered with its ,own ,weapons4 
,,lecture ,,iii4  ,,the ,,successive    
,,developments ,,of ,,hinduism #gc      
,the ,great ,variety in ,india's        

,religious ,systems--,the ,early        
,monotheistic ,nature ,worship and its  
,gradual ,lapse ,into                   
,polytheism--,the ,influence of         
,environment on the ,development of     
,systems--,the ,distinction between     
,aryanism and ,brahmanism1 and the      
,abuses of the ,latter in its ,doctrines
 of ,sacrifice and ,caste--,the         
,causes which ,led to the ,overthrow of 
this ,system of                         
,sacerdotalism--,the ,upanishads and the
 ,beginnings of ,philosophy--,the       
,rise of ,buddhism and the ,six ,schools
 of ,philosophy--,points in      ,common
 between them--,the ,code of ,manu and  
its ,countercheck to                    
,rationalism--,its ,development and its 
,scope1 its ,merits and                 
,demerits--,the ,meaning of the ,word   
,hinduism as here ,used and the         
,means by which it ,gained              
,ascendency--,the ,place and ,influence 
of the      ,two ,great ,hindu ,epics1  
their ,origin1 the ,compromise which    

they      ,wrought1 and the ,new and    
,important ,doctrines which ,they       
,developed--,the ,trimurti and the      
,incarnations of ,vishnu--,the          
,deterioration of the ,literature and   
the ,faith of ,india--,the ,puranas     
and the ,tantras--,the ,parallels       
between ,hinduism and ,christianity4    
,,lecture ,,iv4  ,,the ,,bhagavad ,,gita
 ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,testament #aaa     
,the ,great ,interest ,felt in this     
,poem by a ,certain ,class of           
,readers--,its ,alleged ,parallels to   
the ,scriptures--,the ,plausibility     
of the ,recent ,translation by ,mr4     
,mohini ,m4 ,chatterji--,its            
,patronizing ,catholicity--,the ,same   
,claim to ,broad ,charity by ,chunder   
,sen and ,others--,pantheism ,sacrifices
 nothing to ,charity1 because      ,god 
is in ,all ,things--,all ,moral         
,responsibility ,ceases since ,god      
,acts in ,us--,mr4 ,chatterji's ,broad  
,knowledge of ,our ,scriptures1 and     
his ,skill in ,selecting ,passages for  

,his ,purpose--,his ,pleasing           
,style--,the ,story of ,krishna and     
,arjuna ,told in the ,interest of       
,caste and ,pantheism--,the ,growth of  
the ,krishna ,cult from ,popular        
,legends--,the ,origin of the ,bhagavad 
,gita and its ,place in the             
,mahabharata--,its ,use of the ,six     
,philosophies--,krishna's               
,exhortation--,the ,issue of the ,battle
 in which ,arjuna is ,urged to          
,engage--,the ,resemblances ,explained  
by their ,pantheistic                   
,interpretation--,fancied ,resemblances 
which are only in the ,sound of         
,words--,coincidences ,springing from   
,similar ,causes--,the ,totally         
,different ,meaning which ,pantheism    
gives them--,difference between         
,union with ,christ and the ,pantheistic
 ,pervasion of the      ,infinite--,the 
,differentials of ,christianity4        
,,lecture ,v4  ,,buddhism ,,and         
,,christianity #adj       ,new ,interest
 in ,old ,controversies ,concerning     

,buddhism--,max ,mueller's      ,reply  
to the ,alleged ,influence of the       
,system on ,christianity--,the          
,distinction to be made between the     
,credible ,history of ,gautama and      
,later ,legends--,the ,legends of the   
,pre-existent ,states and the           
,wonders ,attending the ,earthly        
,life--,the ,northern and the ,southern 
,buddhism--,the ,sources of the         
,principal ,legends--,the ,four         
,principal      ,doctrines of ,buddhism1
 ,skandas1 ,trishna1 ,kharma1 and       
,nirvana--,difficulties in the          
,doctrines of ,kharma and               
,nirvana--,various ,opinions of         
,scholars in ,regard to the ,nature of  
,nirvana--,buddha's ,final ,reticence on
 the ,subject--,the ,real ,goal at      
which the ,average ,buddhist ,aims--,the
 ,need of a ,careful ,estimate of       
the ,merits and ,demerits of ,buddhism1 
and of the ,hold which it is      likely
 to have on ,western ,minds--,its       
,points of ,contact with ,western       

,errors--,the ,fact that ,modern        
,buddhism1 like many other ,false       
,systems1 ,claims ,christ as a ,believer
 in its ,principles--,the ,theory       
that the ,life of ,christ is ,modelled  
after that of the ,buddha--,the         
,superior ,authenticity of the ,life of 
,christ--,the ,unreliable               
,character of ,buddhist ,legends--,the  
,intrinsic ,improbability that a        
,religion claiming a ,distinct          
,derivation from ,jewish ,sources would 
,borrow from a far-off ,heathen         
,system--,the ,contrast of ,christ's    
,loving ,recognition of the ,father in  
,heaven with the ,avowed ,atheism       
of ,buddhism--,the ,general ,spirit of  
the ,system ,forbids all ,thought       
of ,borrowing from it--,points of       
,contrast4   ,,lecture ,,vi4            
,,mohammedanism ,,past ,,and ,,present  
#agh       ,posthumous ,legends of      
,mohammed2 how they were                
,produced--,ancient      ,arabia and its
 ,religious ,systems--,the ,vale of     

,mecca and its ,former      ,uses--,the 
,birth of ,mohammed1 and his ,religious 
,associations--,his      ,temperament   
and ,character--,the ,beginnings of his 
,prophetic      ,mission--,jews and     
,christians in ,arabia and their        
,influence on                           
,mohammedanism--,their ,errors and      
,shortcomings a ,help to the            
,reformer--,strange ,doctrines of the   
,christian ,church in ,arabia--,the     
,lost ,opportunity of the ,early        
,christian ,sects and the ,fatal        
,neglect      of the ,surrounding       
,nations--,the ,nomads of ,arabia       
specially ,prepared      for ,conquest  
by their ,manner of ,life and their     
,enlistment as      ,mercenary          
,soldiers--,the ,question of ,mohammed's
 ,real ,character--,the      ,growth of 
his ,ambition and his ,increasing       
,sensuality and                         
,cruelty--,blasphemous ,revelations in  
,behalf of the ,prophet's ,own          
,lust--,discriminating ,judgment        

,required on his ,career as a           
,whole--,mohammedan ,schools--,noble    
,characters the ,exception--,general    
,corrupting ,influence of the           
,system--,its ,conquests in ,northern   
,africa and in the ,soudan--,the ,early 
,races of ,northern ,africa1 and        
the ,general ,deterioration of the      
,country--,the ,piracies of the         
,barbary ,states--,civilization in      
,modern ,egypt ,due to ,foreigners--,the
      ,bloody ,ravages of ,el ,mahdi in 
the ,east and the ,fanatic ,samadu in   
the ,west--,the ,testimony of a ,secular
 ,newspaper                             
,correspondent--,professor ,drummond and
 ,henry ,m4 ,stanley on the ,slave      
,traffic and ,mohammedan                
,civilization--,the ,alleged ,missionary
      ,operations of ,mohammedans in    
,west ,soudan--,the ,account ,given of  
,them      by ,bishop ,crowther1        
,schweinfurth1 and ,others--,canon      
,taylor and the      ,egyptian          
,pashas--,the ,effects of ,european     

,education--,palgrave on                
,mohammedan ,intolerance of             
,to-day--,mohammedanism and ,temperance2
      ,exaggerated ,accounts of it2     
,proofs to the ,contrary--,r4 ,bosworth 
,smith's ,protest against ,canon        
,taylor's ,extravagant ,glorification of
      ,islam--,his ,plea for ,missions4 
,,lecture ,,vii4  ,,the ,,traces ,,of ,a
 ,,primitive ,,monotheism #bbb          
,two ,conflicting ,theories on the      
,history of ,religion--,that of the     
,old and ,new ,testaments--,that of     
,modern ,evolution--,the ,importance of 
this ,question--,professor ,henry ,b4   
,smith's ,estimate of ,ebrard's         
,discussion of it--,ebrard's ,summing-up
 of the ,argument--,professor           
,naville's ,view of the                 
,subject--,conclusions of ,rev4         
,w4,a4,p4 ,martin1      ,d4,d41 and ,max
 ,mueller--,how far ,may we ,attempt to 
,establish the ,fact      of an ,early  
,monotheism from ,heathen               
,traditions8--,conceptions              

,differing in ,different                
,nations--,evidences of ,monotheism in  
the      ,vedas--,professor ,banergea's 
,testimony--,the ,views ,held by the    
,modern      ,somajes--,monotheism in   
,china--,monotheistic ,worship in the   
,days of      ,yao and ,shun1 #bcjj     
,b4,c4--,the ,prayer of an ,emperor of  
the ,ming      ,dynasty ,quoted by      
,professor ,legge--,remarkable ,monument
 of      ,monotheism in the ,temple of  
,heaven--,a ,taouist ,prayer--,zoroaster
 a      ,monotheistic ,reformer--,the   
,inscription at ,behistun--,testimony of
      the ,modern ,parsee               
,catechism--,no ,nation without some    
,notion of a ,god      ,supreme over    
,all--,buddhists in ,thibet--,egyptian  
,monotheism--,the      ,greek           
,poets--,old ,monotheism in ,mexico and 
,peru--,evidences of      ,ramification 
and ,decline in ,polytheism--,egypt and 
,india ,give      ,abundant             
,proofs--,hinduism1 ,buddhism1 and      
,taouism all ,show                      

,degeneration--,mohammedan ,corruption  
since the ,days of the ,early           
,caliphs--,the ,religions of ,greece and
 ,rome ,became ,effete--,even           
,israel1 in ,spite of ,instruction and  
,reproof1 ,lapsed into ,idolatry        
again and again--,even the ,christian   
,church has ,shown ,similar             
,tendencies4   ,,lecture ,,viii4        
,,indirect ,,tributes ,,of ,,heathen    
,,systems ,,to ,,the ,,doctrines        
,,of ,,the ,,bible #bff       ,the      
,universality and ,similarity of ,race  
,traditions--,their ,general            
,support of the ,old ,testament         
,history--,traditions of the ,creation  
,found in ,india1 ,china1 among the     
,northern ,turanians and some           
,african ,tribes--,the ,fall of ,man as 
,traced in ,assyria and among the       
,hindus--,the ,buddhists of ,ceylon1    
,mongolians1 ,africans and ,tahitans    
had ,similar ,traditions--,the          
,flood--,traditions of the ,chinese1 the
      ,iranians1 ,greeks1 ,assyrians1   

,chaldeans1 and ,peruvians--,the        
,prevalence of ,piacular ,sacrifice and 
,tokens of a ,sense of                  
,guilt--,traditions or ,traces of       
,substitution ,found in the             
,vedas--,faint ,traces in the ,religion 
of the ,egyptians--,traditions of       
the ,iroquois--,prophecies ,looking to  
,divine ,deliverers--,the ,tenth        
,avatar of ,vishnu yet to ,come as a    
,restorer of ,righteousness--,the       
,influence of the ,tradition as         
,utilized by a ,missionary--,a ,norse   
,deliverer and ,millennium--,the        
,prediction of the ,cumaean ,sibyl      
,forty      ,years before the ,birth of 
,christ--,prevailing ,conceptions of    
some      ,mediator between ,god and    
,man--,the ,hindu ,krishna as an        
,example--,changes in ,buddhism from the
 ,old ,atheism to ,theism1 and      even
 to a ,doctrine of ,salvation by        
,faith--,a ,trinity and at last a       
,saviour--,all the ,false ,systems      
,claiming the ,teachings and the        

,character of ,christ4   ,,lecture ,,ix4
  ,,ethical ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the     
,,eastern ,,and ,,the ,,western         
,,philosophies #bid       ,the          
,prevalence of ,speculation in all ,ages
 in ,regard to the ,great               
,questions of ,man's ,origin and        
,destiny1 and ,his ,relations to        
,god--,the ,various ,schemes which have 
,seemingly ,dispensed with the          
,necessity for a ,creator in ,accounting
 for the ,existence of the      ,visible
 ,world--,the ,ancient ,atomic ,theories
 and ,modern      ,evolution--,kanada1  
,lucretius1 ,herbert ,spencer--,darwin's
 ,theory of      the ,development of    
,species--,similar ,theories ,ascribed  
to the      ,chinese--,the ,ethical     
,difficulties ,attending ,many          
,philosophic      ,speculations1        
,ancient and ,modern--,hindu ,pantheism 
and ,moral      ,responsibility--,in the
 ,advance from ,instinct to ,conscience 
and      ,religion1 where does ,moral   
,sentiment ,begin8--,if ,it was ,right  

for      ,primeval ,man to ,maraud1 why 
,might not ,robbery again ,become ,his  
,duty      in ,case of ,extreme         
,deterioration8--,mr4 ,spencer's ,theory
 of the      ,origin of ,moral          
,intuition--,the ,nobler ,origin which  
the ,scriptures      ,assign to ,man's  
,moral ,nature--,the ,demonstrated      
,possibility of the      ,most ,radical 
and ,sudden ,moral ,changes ,produced by
 the ,christian      ,faith--,tendency  
of ,ancient and ,modern ,theories to    
,lower the ,general      ,estimate of   
,man--,the ,dignity with which the ,new 
,testament ,invests      ,him--,the     
,ethical ,tendency of the ,doctrine of  
,evolution--,the ,opinion               
,expressed on the ,subject by ,goldwin  
,smith--,peschel's ,frank               
,admission--,the ,pessimistic ,tendency 
of all ,anti-,biblical ,theories      of
 ,man's ,origin1 ,life1 and             
,destiny--,buddha1 ,schopenhauer1 and   
the      ,agnostics--,the more ,hopeful 
,influence of the ,bible--,the ,tendency

 of      all ,heathen ,religions and all
 ,anti-,christian ,philosophies toward  
,fatalism--,pantheism and the           
,philosophy of ,spinoza ,agreeing in    
this      ,respect with the ,hindu      
,vedantism--,the ,late ,samuel          
,johnson's ,piety      of ,pantheism1   
and ,his ,definition of ,fatalism--,what
 ,saves the      ,scriptural ,doctrine  
of ,fore-ordination from ,fatalism--,the
 ,province      of ,faith and of ,trust4
   ,,lecture ,x4  ,,the ,,divine        
,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,christian      
,,faith #cch       ,the ,claim that     
,christianity is the only ,true         
,religion--,the ,peculiar               
,tendencies of ,modern ,times to ,deny  
this ,supremacy and ,monopoly--,it      
is not ,enough in ,such ,times to       
,simply ,ignore the ,challenge--,the    
,unique ,claim must be                  
,defended--,first3 ,christianity is     
,differentiated from all ,other         
,religions by the ,fact of a ,divine    
,sacrifice for ,sin--,mohammedanism1    

though ,founded on a ,belief in the     
,true ,god and ,partly on the ,old      
,testament ,teachings1 ,offers no       
,saviour--,no ,idea of ,fatherhood is   
,found in any ,non-,christian           
,faith--,the ,gloom of ,buddhism and the
 ,terror of ,savage                     
,tribes--,hinduism a ,system of         
,self-,help ,merely--,the ,recognized   
,grandeur of the ,principle of          
,self-,sacrifice as ,reflected from     
,christ--,augustine ,found a ,way of    
,life only in ,his ,divine              
,sacrifice--,second3 ,no ,other ,faith  
than ,christianity is ,made             
,effectual by the ,power of a ,divine   
and ,omnipotent ,spirit--,the           
,well-,attested ,fact of ,radical       
,transformations of ,character--,other  
,systems have ,made ,converts only by   
,warlike ,conquest or by ,such          
,motives as might ,appeal to the        
,natural ,heart--,christianity ,rises   
above all ,other ,systems in the ,divine
 ,personality of ,christ--,the          

,contrast in this ,respect between ,him 
and the ,authors of the                 
,non-,christian ,systems--,his          
,attractions and ,his ,power            
,acknowledged      by all ,classes of   
,men--,the ,inferiority of ,socrates as 
,compared with      ,christ--,bushnell's
 ,tribute to the ,perfection of this    
,divine      ,personality--,its ,power  
,attested in the ,life of ,paul--,the   
,adaptation      of ,christianity to all
 the ,circumstances and ,conditions of  
,life--,abraham and the ,vedic          
,patriarchs1 ,moses and ,manu1 ,david's 
,joy      and ,gratitude1 and the ,gloom
 of ,hindu or ,buddhist                 
,philosophy--,only      ,christianity   
,brings ,man to ,true ,penitence and    
,humility--,the      ,recognized ,beauty
 and the ,convincing ,lesson of the     
,prodigal      ,son--,the ,contrast     
between ,mohammed's ,blasphemous ,suras1
 which      ,justify his ,lust1 and the 
,deep ,contrition of ,david in the      
,fifty-first ,psalm--,the ,moral ,purity

 of the ,old and ,new ,testaments       
as ,contrasted with all ,other ,sacred  
,books--,the ,scriptures ,pure          
though ,written in ,ages of ,corruption 
and ,surrounded by ,immoral             
,influences--,christ ,belongs to no     
,land or ,age--,the ,gospel ,alone is   
,adapted to all ,races and all ,time as 
the ,universal ,religion of             
,mankind--,only ,christianity           
,recognizes the ,true ,relation between 
,divine ,help and ,human ,effort--,it   
,encourages by ,omnipotent              
,co-operation--,the ,all-,comprehensive 
,presentation of the ,gospel4           
,,appendix #cha     ,,oriental          
,,religions ,,and ,,christianity        
,,lecture ,i4  ,,the ,,need ,,of        
,,understanding ,,the ,,false           
,,religions   ,it is said that the very 
latest among the sciences is the        
,science of ,religion4 ,without pausing 
to inquire how far it admits of         
scientific treatment1 certain reasons   
which may be urged for the study of the 

existing religions of the world will be 
considered in this lecture4 ,it must be 
admitted in the outset that those who   
have been the pioneers in this field of 
research have not1 as a rule1 been      
advocates of the ,christian faith4 ,the 
anti-,christian theory that all         
religions may be traced to common       
causes1 that common wants and           
aspirations of mankind have led to the  
development of various systems according
 to environment1 has until recently been
 the chief spur to this class of        
studies4 ,accordingly1 the religions of 
the world have been submitted to some   
preconceived philosophy of language1 or 
ethnology1 or evolution1 with the       
emphasis placed upon such facts as      
seemed to comport with this theory4     
,meanwhile there has been an air of     
broad-minded charity in the manner in   
which the apologists of ,oriental       
systems have treated the subject4 ,they 
have included ,christ in the same       
category with ,plato and ,confucius1 and

 have generally placed ,him at the head2
 and this supposed breadth of sentiment 
has given them a degree of influence    
with dubious and wavering ,christians1  
as well as with multitudes who are      
without faith of any kind4  ,in this    
country the study of comparative        
religion has been almost entirely in the
 hands of non-evangelical writers4 ,we  
have had ,the ,ten ,great ,religions1   
from the pen of ,rev4 ,james ,freeman   
,clarke2 ,the ,oriental ,religions1     
written with great labor by the late    
,samuel ,johnson2 and ,mr4 ,moncure ,d4 
,conway's ,anthology1 with its flowers1 
gathered from the sacred books of all   
systems1 and so chosen as to carry the  
implication that they all are equally   
inspired4 ,many other works designed to 
show that ,christianity was developed   
from ancient sun myths1 or was only a   
plagiarism upon the old mythologies of  
,india1 have been current among us4 ,but
 strangely enough1 the ,christian       
,church has seemed to regard this       

subject as scarcely worthy of serious   
consideration4 ,with the exception of a 
very able work on ,buddhism1#a and      
several review articles on ,hinduism1   
written by ,professor ,s4,h4 ,kellogg1  
very little has been published from the 
,christian standpoint4#b ,the term      
heathenism has been used as an          
expression of contempt1 and has been    
applied with too little discrimination4 
,there is a reason1 perhaps1 why these  
systems have been underestimated4 ,it so
 happened that the races among whom the 
modern missionary enterprise has carried
 on its earlier work were mostly simple 
types of pagans1 found in the wilds of  
,america1 in ,greenland and ,labrador1  
in the ,west ,indies1 on the ,african   
coast1 or in the islands of the         
,pacific2 and these worshippers of      
nature or of spirits gave a very        
different impression from that which the
 ,apostles and the ,early ,church gained
 from their intercourse with the        
conquering ,romans or the polished and  

philosophic ,greeks4 ,our missionary    
work has been symbolized1 as ,sir       
,william ,w4 ,hunter puts it1 by a band 
of half-naked savages listening to a    
missionary seated under a palm-tree1 and
 receiving his message with child-like  
and unquestioning faith4  ,but in the   
opening of free access to the great     
,asiatic nations1 higher grades of men  
have been found1 and with these we now  
have chiefly to do4 ,the pioneer of     
,india's missions1 the devoted          
,ziegenbalg1 had not been long in his   
field before he learned the mistake     
which the churches in ,europe had made  
in regard to the religion and philosophy
 of the ,hindus4 ,he laid aside all his 
old notions when he came to encounter   
the metaphysical subtleties of ,hindu   
thought1 when he learned something of   
the immense ,hindu literature1 the      
voluminous ethics1 the mystical and     
weird mythologies1 the tremendous power 
of tradition and social customs--when1  
in short1 he found his way hedged up by 

habits of thought wholly different from 
his own2 and he resolved to know        
something of the religion which the     
people of ,india already possessed4     
,for the benefit of others who might    
follow him he wrote a book on ,hinduism 
and its relations to ,christianity1 and 
sent it to ,europe for publication4 ,but
 so strong were the preconceived notions
 which prevailed among his brethren at  
home1 that his manuscript1 instead of   
being published1 was suppressed4 ,you   
were not sent to ,india to study        
,hinduism1 wrote ,franke1 but to preach 
the ,gospel4 ,but ,ziegenbalg certainly 
was not wanting in his estimate of the  
chief end in view1 and his success was  
undoubtedly far greater for the         
intelligent plan upon which he labored4 
,the time came when a change had passed 
over the society which had sent him     
forth4 ,others1 less friendly than he to
 the ,gospel of ,christ1 had studied    
,hinduism1 and had paraded it as a rival
 of ,christianity2 and in self-defence  

against this flank movement1 the        
long-neglected work of ,ziegenbalg was  
brought forth from obscurity and        
published4  ,it is partly in            
self-defence against similar influences1
 that the ,christian ,church everywhere 
is now turning increased attention to   
the study of ,comparative ,religion4 ,in
 ,great ,britain a wider interest has   
been felt in the subject than in this   
country4 ,and yet1 even there the       
,church has been far behind the enemies 
of evangelical truth in comparing       
,christianity with false systems4 ,dr4  
,james ,stalker1 of ,glasgow1 said a few
 months since that1 whereas it might be 
expected that the advocates of the true 
faith would be the first to compare and 
contrast it with the false systems of   
the world1 the work had been left rather
 to those who were chiefly interested in
 disparaging the truth and exalting     
error4 ,yet something has been done4    
,such men as ,sir ,monier ,williams1    
,sir ,william ,muir1 ,professors        

,rawlinson1 ,fairbairn1 and ,legge1     
,bishop ,carpenter1 ,canon ,hardwick1   
,doctors ,caird1 ,dodds1 ,mitchell1 and 
others1 have given the false systems of 
the ,east a thorough and candid         
treatment from the ,christian           
standpoint4 ,the ,church ,missionary    
,society holds a lectureship devoted to 
the study of the non-,christian         
religions as a preparation for          
missionary work4 ,and the               
representatives of that ,society in the 
,punjab have instituted a course of     
study on these lines for missionaries   
recently arrived1 and have offered      
prizes for the best attainments therein4
 ,though we are later in this field of  
investigation1 yet here also there is   
springing up a new interest1 and it is  
safe to predict that within another     
decade the real character of the false  
religions will be more generally        
understood4  ,the prejudice which has   
existed in regard to this subject has   
taken two different forms3 ,first1 there

 has been the broad assumption upon     
which ,franke wrote to ,ziegenbalg1 that
 all knowledge of heathenism is worse   
than useless4 ,good men are asking1 ,is 
not such a study a waste of energy1 when
 we are charged with proclaiming the    
only saving truth8 ,is not downright    
earnestness better than any possible    
knowledge of philosophies and           
superstitions8 ,and we answer1 ,yes3 by 
all means1 if only the one is possible4 
,another view of the subject is more    
serious4 ,may there not1 after all1 be  
danger in the study of false systems8   
,will there not be found perplexing     
parallels which will shake our trust in 
the positive and exclusive supremacy of 
the ,christian faith8  ,now1 even if    
there were at first some risks to a     
simple1 child-like confidence1 yet a    
timid attitude involves far greater     
risks3 it amounts to a half surrender1  
and it is wholly out of place in this   
age of fearless and aggressive          
discussion1 when all truth is           

challenged1 and every form of error must
 be met4 ,moreover1 in a thorough study 
there is no danger4 ,sir ,monier        
,williams tells us that at first he was 
surprised and a little troubled1 but in 
the end he was more than ever impressed 
with the transcendent truths of the     
,christian faith4 ,professor ,s4,h4     
,kellogg assures us that the result of  
his careful researches in the ,oriental 
systems is a profounder conviction of   
the great truths of the ,gospel as      
divine4 ,and even ,max ,mueller         
testifies that1 while making every      
allowance for whatever is good in the   
ethnic faiths1 he has been the more     
fully convinced of the great superiority
 of ,christianity4 ,really1 those are in
 danger who receive only the superficial
 and misleading representations of      
heathenism which one is sure to meet in 
our magazine literature1 or in works    
like ,robert ,elsmere and ,the ,light of
 ,asia4  ,one cannot fail to mark the   
different light in which we view the    

mythologies of the ,greeks and ,romans4 
,if their religious beliefs and         
speculations had remained a secret until
 our time1 if the high ethical precepts 
of ,seneca and ,marcus ,aurelius had    
only now been proclaimed1 and ,socrates 
had just been celebrated in glowing     
verse as the ,light of ,greece1 there   
would be no little commotion in the     
religious world1 and thousands with only
 weak and troubled faith might be       
disturbed4 ,but simply because we       
thoroughly understand the mythology of  
,greece and ,rome1 we have no fear4 ,we 
welcome all that it can teach us4 ,we   
cordially acknowledge the virtues of    
,socrates and assign him his true place4
 ,we enrich the fancy and awaken the    
intellectual energies of our youth by   
classical studies1 and ,christianity    
shines forth with new lustre by contrast
 with the heathen systems which it      
encountered in the ,roman ,empire ages  
ago4  ,and yet that was no easy         
conquest4 ,the early church1 when       

brought face to face with the culture of
 ,greece and the self-assertion of      
,roman power1 when confronted with      
profound philosophies like those of     
,plato and ,aristotle1 with the         
subtleties of the ,stoics1 and with     
countless admixtures of ,persian        
mysticism1 had1 humanly speaking1 quite 
as formidable a task as those that are  
presented in the heathen systems of     
to-day4 ,very few of the champions of   
modern heathenism can compare with      
,celsus1 and there are no more subtle   
philosophies than those of ancient      
,greece4 ,evidently1 the one thing      
needed to disenchant the false systems  
of our time is a clear and accurate     
knowledge of their merits and demerits1 
and of their true relation to           
,christianity4  ,it will be of          
advantage1 for one thing1 if we learn to
 give credit to the non-,christian      
religions for the good which they may   
fairly claim4 ,there has existed a      
feeling that they had no rights which   

,christian men were bound to respect4   
,they have been looked upon as systems  
of unmixed evil1 whose enormities it    
were impossible to exaggerate4 ,and all 
such misconceptions and exaggerations   
have only led to serious reactions4     
,anti-,christian writers have made great
 capital of the alleged                 
misrepresentations which zealous friends
 of missions have put upon heathenism2  
and there is always great force in any  
appeal for fair play1 on whichever side 
the truth may lie4 ,where the popular   
,christian idea has presented a low view
 of some system1 scarcely rising above  
the grade of fetichism1 the apologists  
have triumphantly displayed a profound  
philosophy4 ,where the masses of        
,christian people have credited whole   
nations with no higher notions of       
worship than a supreme trust in         
senseless stocks and stones1 some       
skilful defender has claimed that the   
idols were only the outward symbols of  
an indwelling conception of deity1 and  

has proceeded with keen relish to point 
out a similar use of symbols in the     
pictures and images of the ,christian   
,church4  ,from one extreme many people 
have passed to another1 and in the end  
have credited heathen systems with      
greater merit than they possess4 ,a     
marked illustration of this fact is     
found in the influence which was        
produced by ,sir ,edwin ,arnold's ,light
 of ,asia4 ,sentimental readers1 passing
 from surprise to credulity1 were ready 
to invest the gentle ,indian ,saint with
 ,christian conceptions which no real   
,buddhist ever thought of4 ,mr4 ,arnold 
himself is said to have expressed       
surprise that people should have given  
to his poem so serious an               
interpretation1 or should have imagined 
for a moment that he intended to compare
 ,buddhism with the higher and purer    
teachings of the ,new ,testament4  ,in  
considering some of the reasons which   
may be urged for the study of false     
systems1 we will first proceed from the 

standpoint of the candidate for the work
 of missions4 ,and here there is a broad
 and general reason which seems too     
obvious to require much argument4 ,the  
skilful general or the civil engineer is
 supposed1 of course1 to survey the     
field of contemplated operations ere he 
enters upon his work4 ,the late ,dr4    
,duff1 in urging the importance of a    
thorough understanding of the systems   
which a missionary expects to encounter1
 illustrated his point by a reference to
 the great ,akbar1 who before entering  
upon the conquest of ,india1 twice      
visited the country in disguise1 that he
 might gain a complete knowledge of its 
topography1 its strongholds1 and its    
points of weakness1 and the best methods
 of attack4  ,while all religious       
teachers must understand their tasks1   
the need of special preparation is      
particularly urgent in the foreign      
missionary1 owing to his change of      
environment4 ,many ideas and methods to 
which he has been trained1 and which    

would serve him well among a people of  
his own race1 might be wholly out of    
place in ,india or ,china1 ,ram ,chandra
 ,bose1 ,m4,a4--himself a converted     
,brahman--has treated with great        
discrimination the argument frequently  
used1 that the missionary need only to  
proclaim the ,glad ,tidings4 ,he says3  
,that the simple story of ,christ and   
him crucified is1 after all1 the truth  
on which the regeneration of the        
,christian and the non-,christian lands 
must hang1 no one will deny4 ,this      
story1 ever fresh1 is inherently fitted 
to touch the dead heart into life1 and  
to infuse vitality into effete          
nationalities and dead civilizations4   
,but a great deal of rubbish has to be  
removed in heathen lands1 ere its       
legitimate consequences can be realized4
 ,and a patient1 persistent study of the
 false religions1 and the complicated   
systems of philosophy associated with   
them1 enables the missionary to throw   
out of the way those heaps of prejudices

 and errors which make it impossible for
 the story of the cross to reach and    
influence the heart4#c ,it has been very
 wisely said that any fragment of truth 
which lies in a heathen mind            
unacknowledged is an insuperable barrier
 against conviction3 recognized and     
used1 it might prove a help2 neglected  
and ignored1 it is insurmountable4#d    
,the late ,dr4 ,mullens learned by      
careful observation1 that the           
intellectual power of the ,hindus had   
been so warped by false reasoning1 that 
they could scarcely understand how1 when
 two principles are contradictory1 one  
must be given up as false4 ,they are    
prepared to receive both sides of a     
contradiction as true1 and they feel at 
liberty to adopt that which seems the   
most comfortable4 ,and nothing but a    
full exposure of evil1 with a clear     
statement of the antagonistic truth1    
will suffice to awaken so perverted an  
intellect4#e  ,the missionary has often 
been surprised to find that the idea    

which he supposed was clearly           
understood1 was wholly warped by the    
medium of ,hindu thought1 as a rod is   
apparently warped when plunged into a   
stream1 or as a beautiful countenance is
 distorted by the waves and             
irregularities of an imperfect mirror4  
,to the preacher1 sin1 for example1 is  
an enormity in the sight of ,god2 but to
 his ,hindu listener it may be only a   
breach of custom1 or a ceremonial       
uncleanness4 ,the indwelling of the     
,holy ,spirit1 as it is set forth in    
,paul's ,epistles1 is to the missionary 
a union in which his personality is     
still maintained in blest fellowship    
with ,god1 while to his audience it may 
be only that out and out pantheism in   
which the deity within us supplants all 
individual personality1 and not only    
excludes all joy1 but all               
responsibility4  ,professor ,w4,g4,t4   
,shedd has clearly pointed out the fact 
that the modern missionary has a harder 
task in dealing with the perversions of 

the heathen mind than that to which the 
,apostles of the ,early ,church were    
called1 owing to the prevalence in      
,india and elsewhere of that pantheism  
which destroys the sense of moral       
responsibility4 ,he says3 ,the ,greek   
and ,roman theism left the human will   
free and responsible1 and thus the      
doctrine of sin could be taught4 ,but   
the pantheistic systems of the ,east    
destroy free will1 by identifying ,god  
and man2 and hence it is impossible to  
construct the doctrine of sin and       
atonement except by first refuting the  
pantheistic ethics4 ,the missionary can 
get no help from conscience in his      
preaching1 when this theory of ,god and 
the world has the ground4 ,but ,st4     
,paul appealed confidently 'to every    
man's conscience in the sight of ,god1' 
and called upon the ethics and theology 
of the ,greek and ,roman philosophers   
for a corroboration4 ,the early         
,apologists1 ,tertullian and others1 did
 the same thing4  ,the testimonies which

 have been given within the last few    
years1 by the most intelligent and      
observing missionaries in ,eastern      
lands1 are of such peculiar significance
 and force1 that ,i shall be justified  
in quoting a few at some length4 ,rev4  
,george ,william ,knox1 ,d4,d41 of      
,tokio1 ,japan1 in accepting an election
 to an honorary membership of the       
,american ,society of ,comparative      
,religion1 wrote1 ,december #ag1 #ahij3 
,i am deeply in sympathy with the       
objects of the ,society1 as indeed every
 missionary must be4 ,we have practical 
demonstrations of the value of research 
into the ethnic religions4 ,even at home
 the value of such research has already 
been great1 but in these non-,christian 
lands it is indispensable4 ,it is true  
that non-,christian systems1 as found   
among the people1 rarely exhibit the    
forms or the doctrines which we learn   
from books1 but ,i presume the same     
would be said by an intelligent         
,asiatic1 were he to study our sacred   

books and then compare results with much
 of the religion which calls itself     
,christian in the ,west4 ,and yet for   
the study even of the most debased forms
 of ,christianity in ,south ,america or 
,mexico1 let us say1 we must needs begin
 with our sacred books4 ,and so it is   
with debased ,buddhism in ,japan4 ,the  
,buddhism of ,ceylon and of the books is
 unknown to this people1 and when it is 
used as the basis of argument or        
exposition we do not hit the mark4 ,yet1
 after all1 our debt is immeasurable to 
the societies and scholars that have    
made accessible the sources that have   
yielded at last such systems as are     
dominant here4  ,the study of           
non-,christian systems is essential to  
the missionary1 even though he does not 
refer to them in his preaching1 but     
contents himself with delivering the    
,gospel message4 ,and that is the rule  
with missionaries1 so far as ,i know4   
,but a knowledge of the native systems  
is imperative1 that we may properly     

present our own4 ,otherwise we waste    
time in teaching over again that which  
is already fully known1 or we so speak  
that our truth takes on the form of     
error1 or we so underestimate the       
thought of those whom we address1 that  
the preaching of the wisdom of ,god     
sounds in their ears the preaching of   
foolishness4 ,the adaptation of         
preaching to the hearers of ,asiatic    
lands is a task that may well make us   
thankful for every help that may be     
furnished us4444 ,the missionary is far 
too apt to come from the ,west with     
exalted notions of his own superiority1 
and with a feeling of condescending pity
 for men who1 perhaps1 have pondered the
 deep things of the universe far more   
than he4 ,let him really master a       
philosophy like the ,confucian1 and he  
will better illustrate the ,christian   
grace of humility1 and be so much the   
better prepared for his work4 ,his study
 will show him how astonishing is the   
light that has shone upon those men whom

 he has thought of as wholly in         
darkness4 ,it will thus show him the    
true way of approach1 and enable him to 
follow the lines of least resistance4   
,it will also reveal to him what is the 
essential character of the divine       
message which he himself bears4 ,he will
 separate that peculiar and spiritual   
truth which is the ,word of ,life1 and  
will bring it as glad tidings of great  
joy4 ,surely no man can study these     
ethnic faiths1 no matter with what      
appreciation of their measure of truth1 
and rejoicing in it1 without a          
constantly growing conviction that the  
one power that converts men and         
establishes ,god's kingdom on earth is  
the ,word that is eternal1 the ,son of  
,god4 ,he gathers in ,himself all the   
truth of all the religions1 and ,he adds
 that divine ,salvation and ,life for   
which all the nations have waited1 and  
without which the highest and deepest   
thought remains unable to bring men into
 living communion with the ,god and     

,father of us all4  ,rev4 ,martyn       
,clark1 ,d4,d41 ,missionary of the      
,church ,missionary ,society at         
,umritsur1 ,india1 has given thorough   
study to the ,sanscrit1 and has thereby 
been enabled to expose the fallacies and
 misrepresentations which the ,arya     
,somaj1 in its bitter controversy with  
the ,gospel1 has put forth as to the    
real character of the ,vedic literature4
 ,no man is better able to judge of the 
importance of a correct understanding of
 the errors of the non-,christian       
systems than he4 ,in a letter accepting 
an honorary membership of the           
above-named ,society he says3 ,the      
object of the ,society is one in which  
,i am deeply interested1 and ,i shall at
 all times do what ,i can to further its
 aims4 ,i am convinced that there is    
much that is helpful to the cause of    
,christ to be learned in this field of  
research4  ,rev4 ,h4 ,blodgett1 ,d4,d41 
veteran ,missionary of the ,american    
,board in ,peking1 in accepting a       

similar honor1 says3 ,my interest in    
these studies has been deep and growing4
 ,it is high time that such a society as
 you represent should be formed4 ,the   
study of ,comparative ,religion has long
 enough been in the hands of those who  
hold all religions to be the outcome of 
the natural powers of the human mind1   
unaided by a revelation from ,god4 ,it  
is time that those who believe in the   
revelation from ,god in the ,old        
,testament1 and in the ,new ,testament  
founded upon the ,old1 should study the 
great ethnic religions in the light     
derived from the ,bible4  ,rev4 ,james  
,s4 ,dennis1 ,d4,d41 long a ,missionary 
of the ,presbyterian ,mission in        
,beyrout1 ,syria1 says in the same      
connection3 ,the great missionary       
movement of our age has brought us face 
to face with problems and conflicts     
which are far more deep and serious than
 those which confront evangelistic      
efforts in our own land1 and it is of   
the highest importance that the ,church 

at home should know as fully as possible
 the peculiar and profound difficulties 
of work in foreign fields4 ,these       
ancient religions of the ,east are      
behind intrenchments1 and they are      
prepared to make a desperate resistance4
 ,those who have never come into close  
contact with their adherents1 and       
discovered by experience the difficulty 
of dislodging them and convincing them  
of the truth of the ,gospel1 may very   
properly misunderstand the work of the  
foreign missionary and wonder at his    
apparent failure1 or at least his slow  
progress4 ,but ,i wonder at the success 
attained in the foreign field1 and      
consider it far more glorious and       
remarkable than it is generally         
accounted to be4 ,a fuller acquaintance 
with the strength1 and resources1 and   
local eclat1 and worldly advantages of  
these false religions1 will give the    
,church at home greater patience and    
faith in the great work of evangelizing 
the nations4#f  ,a specific reason for  

the study of the non-,christian         
religions is found in the changes which 
our intercourse with ,eastern nations   
has already wrought4 ,with our present  
means of intercommunication we are      
brought face to face with them1 and the 
contact of our higher vitality has      
aroused them from the comparative       
slumber of ages4 ,even our missionary   
efforts have given new vigor to the     
resistance which must be encountered4   
,we have trained up a generation of men 
to a higher intellectual activity1 and  
to a more earnest spirit of inquiry1 and
 they are by no means all won over to   
the ,christian faith4 ,and there are    
thousands in ,india whom a ,government  
education has left with no real faith of
 any kind1 but whose pride of race and  
venerable customs is raised to a higher 
degree than ever4 ,they have learned    
something of ,christianity2 they have   
also studied their own national systems2
 they have become especially familiar   
with all that our own sceptics have     

written against ,christianity2 still    
further1 they have added to their       
intellectual equipment all that ,western
 apologists have said of the superiority
 of the ,oriental faiths4 ,they are thus
 armed at every point1 and they are     
using our own ,english tongue and all   
our facilities for publication4 ,how is 
the young missionary1 who knows nothing 
of their systems or the real points of  
comparison1 to deal with such men8 ,it  
is very true that not all ranks of      
,hindus are educated2 there are millions
 who know nothing of any religion beyond
 the lowest forms of superstition1 and  
to these we owe the duty of a simple and
 plain presentation of ,christ and ,him 
crucified2 but in every community where 
the missionary is likely to live there  
are men of the higher class just named2 
and besides1 professional critics and   
opposers are now employed to harass the 
bazaar preacher with perplexing         
questions1 which are soon heard from the
 lips of the common people4 ,a young    

missionary recently wrote of the        
surprise which he felt when a low caste 
man1 almost without clothing1 met him   
with arguments from ,professor ,huxley4 
,missionary ,boards have sometimes sent 
out a specialist1 and in some sense a   
champion1 who should deal with the more 
intelligent classes of the heathen4 ,but
 such a plan is fraught with            
disadvantages4 ,what is needed is a     
thorough preparation in all             
missionaries1 and that involves an      
indispensable knowledge of the forces to
 be met4 ,the power of the press is no  
longer a monopoly of ,christian lands4  
,the ,arya ,somaj1 of ,india1 is now    
using it1 both in the vernacular and in 
the ,english1 in its bitter and often   
scurrilous attacks4 ,one of its tracts  
recently sent to me contained an        
,english epitome of the arguments of    
,thomas ,paine4 ,the secular papers of  
,japan present in almost every issue    
some discussion on the comparative      
merits of ,christianity1 ,buddhism1     

,evolution1 and ,theosophy1 and many of 
the young native ministry who at first  
received the truth unquestioningly as a 
child receives it from his mother1 are  
now calling for men whom they can follow
 as leaders in their struggle with      
manifold error4#g  ,even ,mohammedans   
are at last employing the press instead 
of the sword4 ,newspapers in            
,constantinople are exhorting the       
faithful to send forth missionaries to  
fortify ,africa against the whiskey and 
gunpowder of ,christian commerce1 by    
proclaiming the higher ethical          
principles of the ,koran4 ,great        
institutions of learning are also       
maintained as the special propaganda of 
the ,oriental religions4 ,el ,azar1     
established at ,cairo centuries ago1 now
 numbers ten thousand students1 and     
these when trained go forth to all      
,arabic speaking countries4#h ,the      
,sanskrit colleges and monasteries of   
,benares number scarcely less than four 
thousand students1#i who are being      

trained in the ,sankhyan or the ,vedanta
 philosophy1 that they may go back to   
their different provinces and maintain  
with new vigor the old faiths against   
the aggressions of ,christianity4 ,and  
in ,kioto1 the great religious centre of
 ,japan1 we find over against the       
,christian college of the ,american     
,board of ,missions1 a ,buddhist        
university with a ,japanese graduate of 
,oxford as its president4 ,in a great   
school at ,tokio1 also1 ,buddhist       
teachers1 aided by ,new ,england        
,unitarians1 are maintaining the        
superiority of ,buddhism over ,western  
,christianity as a religion for         
,japan4#aj  ,another reason why the     
missionary should study the false       
systems is found in the greatly         
diversified forms which these systems   
present in different lands and different
 ages4 ,and just here it will be seen   
that a partial knowledge will not meet  
the demand4 ,it might be even           
misleading4 ,buddhism1 for example1 has 

assumed an endless variety of forms--now
 appearing as a system of the baldest   
atheism1 and now presenting an          
approximate theism4 ,gautama was        
certainly atheistic1 and he virtually   
denied the existence of the human soul4 
,but in the northern development of his 
system1 theistic conceptions sprang up4 
,a sort of trinity had appeared by the  
seventh century ,a4,d41 and by the tenth
 century a supreme and celestial ,buddha
 had been discovered1 from whom all     
other ,buddhas were emanations4 ,to-day 
there are at least twelve ,buddhist     
sects in ,japan1 of which some are      
mystical1 others pantheistic1 while two 
hold a veritable doctrine of salvation  
by faith4#aa  ,china has several types  
of ,buddhism1 and ,mongolia1 ,thibet1   
,nepaul1 ,ceylon1 ,burmah1 and ,siam    
present each some special features of   
the system4 ,how important that one     
should understand these differences in  
order to avoid blundering1 and to wisely
 adapt his efforts6 ,in ,india1 under   

the common generic name of ,hinduism1   
there are also many sects3 worshippers  
of ,vishnu1 worshippers of ,siva1       
worshippers of ,krishna4 ,there are     
,sikhs1 and ,jains1 and devil           
worshippers2 among the ,dravidian and   
other pre-,aryan tribes there are       
victims of every conceivable            
superstition4  ,now1 a missionary must  
know something of these faiths if he    
would fight with weapons of precision4  
,paul1 in becoming all things to all    
men1 knew at least the differences      
between them4 ,he preached the gospel   
with a studied adaptation4 ,he tells us 
that he so strove as to win1 and not as 
those who beat the air4 ,how alert were 
the combatants in the arena from which  
his simile is borrowed6 ,how closely    
each athlete scanned his man1 watched   
his every motion1 knew if possible his  
every thought and impulse6 ,much more1  
in winning the souls of darkened and    
misguided men1 should we learn the      
inmost workings of their minds1 their   

habits of thought1 and the nature of the
 errors which are to be dislodged4  ,but
 how shall the false systems of         
religions be studied8 ,first1 there     
should be a spirit of entire candor4    
,truth is to be sought always1 and at   
any cost2 but in this case there is     
everything to be gained and nothing to  
be lost by the ,christian teacher1 and  
he can well afford to be just4 ,our     
divine ,exemplar never hesitated to     
acknowledge that which was good in men  
of whatever nationality or creed4 ,he   
could appreciate the faith of ,roman or 
,syro-,phoenician4 ,he could see merit  
in a ,samaritan as well as in a ,jew1   
and could raise even a penitent publican
 to the place of honor4 ,it was only the
 ,pharisees who hesitated to admit the  
truth1 until they could calculate the   
probable effect of their admissions4    
,the very best experience of            
missionaries has been found in the line 
of ,christ's example4 ,the surest way to
 bring a man to acknowledge his errors1 

says ,bishop ,bloomfield1 is to give him
 full credit for whatever he had learned
 of the truth4#ab ,what should we think1
 says a keen observer of the work of    
missions--what should we think of an    
engineer who1 in attempting to rear a   
light-house on a sandbar1 should fail to
 acknowledge as a godsend any chance    
outcropping of solid rock to which he   
might fasten his stays8#ac  ,but in     
urging the duty of candor1 ,i assume    
that an absolute freedom from bias is   
impossible on either side4 ,it is       
sometimes amusing to witness the        
assurance with which professed agnostics
 assume that they1 and they alone1 look 
upon questions of comparative religion  
with an unbiased and judicial mind4     
,they have no belief1 they say1 in any  
religion1 and are therefore entirely    
without prejudice4 ,but are they8 ,has  
the man who has forsaken the faith of   
his fathers and is deeply sensible of an
 antagonism between him and the great   
majority of those about him--has he no  

interest in trying to substantiate his  
position1 and justify his hostility to  
the popular faith8 ,of all men he is    
generally the most prejudiced and the   
most bitter4 ,we freely admit that we   
set out with a decided preference for   
one religious system above all others1  
but we insist that candor is possible1  
though an absolutely indifferent        
judgment is out of the question4 ,paul1 
who quoted to the ,athenians their own  
poet1 was fair-minded1 and yet no man   
ever arraigned heathenism so terribly as
 he1 and none was so intensely          
interested in the faith which he        
preached4  ,archbishop ,trench1 in      
discussing the exaggerations from which 
a careful study of the ,oriental        
religions would doubtless save us1 says1
 ,there is one against which we are     
almost unwilling to say a word4 ,i mean 
the exaggeration of those who1 in a deep
 devotion to the truth as it is in      
,christ ,jesus1 count themselves bound1 
by their allegiance to ,him1 to take up 

a hostile attitude to everything not    
distinctly and avowedly ,christian1 as  
though any other position were a        
treachery to his cause1 and a surrender 
of his exclusive right to the authorship
 of all the good which is in the world4 
,in this temper we may dwell only on the
 guilt and misery and defilements1 the  
wounds and bruises and putrefying sores 
of the heathen world2 or if aught better
 is brought under our eye1 we may look  
askant and suspiciously upon it1 as     
though all recognition of it were a     
disparagement of something better4 ,and 
so we may come to regard the fairest    
deeds of unbaptized men as only more    
splendid sins4 ,we may have a short but 
decisive formula by which to try and by 
which to condemn them4 ,these deeds1 we 
may say1 were not of faith1 and         
therefore they could not please ,god2   
the men that wrought them knew not      
,christ1 and therefore their work was   
worthless--hay1 straw1 and stubble1 to  
be utterly burned up in the day of the  

trial of every man's work4  ,yet there  
is indeed a certain narrowness of view1 
out of which alone the language of so   
sweeping a condemnation could proceed4  
,our allegiance to ,christ1 as the one  
fountain of light and life for the      
world1 demands that we affirm none to be
 good but ,him1 allow no goodness save  
that which has proceeded from ,him2 but 
it does not demand that we deny         
goodness1 because of the place where we 
find it1 because we meet it1 a garden   
tree1 in the wilderness4 ,it only       
requires that we claim this for ,him who
 planted1 and was willing that it should
 grow there2 whom it would itself have  
gladly owned as its author1 if1         
belonging to a happier time1 it could   
have known ,him by his name1 whom in    
part it knew by his power4  ,we do not  
make much of a light of nature when we  
admit a righteousness in those to whom  
in the days of their flesh the ,gospel  
had not come4 ,we only affirm that the  
,word1 though not as yet dwelling among 

us1 yet being the 'light which lighteth 
every man that cometh into the world1'  
had also lighted them4 ,some glimpses of
 his beams gilded their countenances1   
and gave to these whatever brightness   
they wore2 and in recognizing this      
brightness we are ascribing honor to    
,him1 and not to them2 glorifying the   
grace of ,god1 and not the virtues of   
man4#ad  ,in marked contrast with this1 
and tending to an extreme1 is the       
following1 from the pen of ,bishop      
,beveridge4 ,it is quoted by ,max       
,mueller1 in the opening volume of ,the 
,sacred ,books of the ,east1 as a model 
of candor4  ,the general inclinations   
which are naturally implanted in my soul
 to some religion1 it is impossible for 
me to shift off2 but there being such a 
multiplicity of religions in the world1 
,i desire now seriously to consider with
 myself which of them all to restrain   
these my general inclinations to4 ,and  
the reason of this my inquiry is not1   
that ,i am in the least dissatisfied    

with that religion ,i have already      
embraced2 but because 'tis natural for  
all men to have an overbearing opinion  
and esteem for that particular religion 
they are born and bred-up in4 ,that1    
therefore1 ,i may not seem biased by the
 prejudice of education1 ,i am resolved 
to prove and examine them all2 that ,i  
may see and hold fast to that which is  
best4444 ,indeed1 there was never any   
religion so barbarous and diabolical1   
but it was preferred above all other    
religions whatsoever by them that did   
profess it2 otherwise they would not    
have professed it4444 ,and why1 say     
they1 may you not be mistaken as well as
 we8 ,especially when there are1 at     
least1 six to one against your          
,christian religion2 all of which think 
they serve ,god aright2 and expect      
happiness thereby as well as you4444    
,and hence it is that in my looking out 
for the truest religion1 being conscious
 to myself how great an ascendancy      
,christianity holds over me beyond the  

rest1 as being that religion whereunto  
,i was born and baptized2 that the      
supreme authority has enjoined and my   
parents educated me in2 that which      
everyone ,i meet withal highly approves 
of1 and which ,i myself have1 by a      
long-continued profession1 made almost  
natural to me2 ,i am resolved to be more
 jealous and suspicious of this religion
 than of the rest1 and be sure not to   
entertain it any longer without being   
convinced by solid and substantial      
arguments of the truth and certainty of 
it4 ,that1 therefore1 ,i may make       
diligent and impartial inquiry into all 
religions and so be sure to find out the
 best1 ,i shall for a time look upon    
myself as one not at all interested in  
any particular religion whatsoever1 much
 less in the ,christian religion2 but   
only as one who desires1 in general1 to 
serve and obey ,him that made me in a   
right manner1 and thereby to be made    
partaker of that happiness my nature is 
capable of4#ae  ,second1 in studying the

 false systems it is important to       
distinguish between religion and ethics4
 ,in the sphere of ethics the different 
faiths of men may find much common      
ground1 while in their religious        
elements they may be entirely true or   
utterly false4 ,the teachings of        
,confucius1 though agnostic1 presented a
 moral code which places the relations  
of the family and state on a very firm  
basis4 ,and the very highest precepts of
 ,buddhism belong to the period in which
 it was virtually atheistic4 ,many great
 and noble truths have been revealed to 
mankind through the conscience and the  
understanding1 and these truths have    
found expression in the proverbs or     
ethical maxims of all races4 ,to this   
extent ,god has nowhere left himself    
without witness4 ,but all this is quite 
apart from a divinely revealed religion 
which may be cherished or be wholly     
lost4 ,the golden rule is found not only
 in the ,new ,testament1 but negatively 
at least in the ,confucian classics2#af 

and the ,shastras of the ,hindus present
 it in both the positive and the        
negative form4 ,and the still higher    
grace of doing good to those who injure 
us1 was proclaimed by ,laotze1 five     
hundred years before ,christ preached   
the ,sermon on the ,mount4  ,the immense
 superiority of the ethical standard in 
,christianity1 lies in its harmony and  
completeness4 ,confucius taught the     
active virtues of life1 ,laotze those of
 a passive kind2 ,christianity          
inculcates both4 ,in heathenism ethical 
truths exist in fragments--mere half    
truths1 like the broken and scattered   
remains of a temple once beautiful but  
now destroyed4 ,they hold no relation to
 any high religious purpose1 because    
they have no intelligent relation to    
,god4 ,christian ethics begin with our  
relations to ,god as supreme1 and they  
embrace the present life and the world  
to come4 ,the symmetry of the divine    
precept1 ,thou shalt love the ,lord thy 
,god with all thy heart1 and thy        

neighbor as thyself1 finds no           
counterpart in the false religions of   
the world4 ,nowhere else1 not even in   
,buddhism1 is found the perfect law of  
love4 ,the great secret of power in     
,christianity is ,god's unspeakable love
 to men in ,christ2 and the reflex of   
that love is the highest and purest ever
 realized in human hearts4  ,thirdly1   
the false systems should be studied by  
the ,christian missionary1 not for their
 own sakes so much as for an ulterior   
purpose1 and they should be studied in  
constant comparison with the religion   
which it is his business to proclaim4   
,his aim is not that of a savant4 ,let  
us not disguise it3 he is mainly        
endeavoring to gain a more thorough     
preparation for his own great work4 ,the
 professional scholar at ,oxford or     
,leipsic might condemn this acknowledged
 bias--this pursuit of truth as a means 
and not as an end--but if he would be   
entirely frank1 he would often find     
himself working in the interest of a    

linguistic theory1 or a pet hypothesis  
of social science4 ,it was in this      
spirit that ,spencer and ,darwin have   
searched the world for facts to support 
their systems4#ag  ,i repeat1 it is     
enough for the missionary that he shall 
be thoroughly candid4 ,he may exercise  
the burning zeal of ,paul for the       
,gospel which he proclaims1 if he will  
also exercise his clear discrimination1 
his scrupulous fairness1 his courtesy1  
and his tact4 ,let him not forget that  
he is studying religions comparatively2 
he should proceed with the ,bible in one
 hand1 and should examine the true and  
the false together4 ,contrasts will     
appear step by step as he advances1 and 
the great truths of ,christianity will  
stand out in brighter radiance1 for the 
shadows of the background4 ,if the      
question be asked1 when and where shall 
the missionary candidate study the false
 systems1 ,i answer at once2 before he  
leaves his native land2 and ,i assign   
three principal reasons4 ,first3 ,the   

study of a new and difficult language   
should engross his attention when he    
reaches his field4 ,this will prove one 
of the most formidable tasks of his     
life1 and it will demand resolute1      
concentrated1 and prolonged effort4     
,second3 ,in gaining access to the      
people1 studying their ways and winning 
their confidence1 the missionary will   
find great advantage in having gained   
some previous knowledge of their habits 
of thought and the intricacies of their 
beliefs4 ,third3 ,the means and         
appliances of study are far greater here
 at home than on the mission fields4 ,a 
very serious difficulty with most       
missionaries is the want of books on    
special topics2 they have no access to  
libraries1 and if one has imagined that 
he can best understand the faiths of the
 people by personal contact with them1  
he will soon learn with surprise how    
little he can gain from them1 and how   
little they themselves know of their own
 systems4 ,those who do know have       

learned for the purpose of baffling the 
missionary instead of helping him4 ,the 
accumulation and the arrangement of     
anything like a systematic knowledge of 
heathen systems has cost the combined   
effort of many missionaries and many    
,oriental scholars2 and now1 after three
 generations have pursued these studies1
 it is still felt that very much is to  
be learned from literatures yet to be   
translated4 ,such as there are1 are best
 found in the home libraries4  ,let us  
for a few moments consider the question 
how far those who are not to become     
missionaries may be profited by a study 
of false systems4 ,to a large extent1   
the considerations already urged will   
apply to them also1 but there are still 
others which are specially important to 
public teachers here at home4 ,dean     
,murray1 in an able article published in
 the ,homiletic ,review of ,september1  
#ahij1 recommended to active and        
careworn pastors a continued study of   
the ,greek classics1 as calculated to   

refresh and invigorate the mind1 and    
increase its capacity for the duties of 
whatever sphere4 ,all that he said of   
the ,greek may also be said of the      
,hindu classics1 with the added         
consideration that in the latter we are 
dealing with the living issues of the   
day4 ,sir ,monier ,williams1 in         
comparing the two great ,epics of the   
,hindus with those of ,homer1 names many
 points of superiority in the former4#ah
 ,it is safe to say that no poems of any
 other land have ever exercised so great
 a spell over so many millions of       
mankind as the ,ramayana and the        
,mahabharata1 of ,india1 and no other   
production is listened to with such     
delight as the story of ,rama as it is  
still publicly read at the ,hindu       
festivals4  ,of philosophies1 no system 
of ,india has approached so near to     
veritable divine revelation as that of  
,plato1 but in variety and subtlety1 and
 in their far-reaching influence upon   
human life1 the ,indian schools1        

especially the ,vedanta1 are scarcely   
excelled to this day4 ,and they are     
applied philosophies2 they constitute   
the religion of the people4 ,max        
,mueller has said truly that no other   
line of investigation is so fascinating 
as that which deals with the long and   
universal struggle of mankind to find   
out ,god1 and to solve the mystery of   
their relations to him4 ,unfortunately1 
human history has dealt mainly with wars
 and intrigues1 and the rise and fall of
 dynasties2 but compared with these     
coarse and superficial elements1 how    
much more interesting and instructive to
 trace in all races of men the common   
and ceaseless yearnings after some      
solution of life's mysteries6 ,one is   
stirred with a deeper1 broader sympathy 
for mankind when he witnesses this      
universal sense of dependence1 this fear
 and trembling before the powers of an  
unseen world1 this pitiful procession of
 unblest millions ever trooping on      
toward the goal of death and oblivion4  

,and from this standpoint1 as from no   
other1 may one measure the greatness and
 glory of the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ4
  ,to my mind there is nothing more     
pathetic than the spectacle of          
world-wide fetichism4 ,it is not to be  
contemplated with derision1 but with    
profoundest sympathy4 ,we all remember  
the pathos of ,scott's picture of his   
,highland heroine1 with brain disordered
 by unspeakable grief1 beguiling her    
woes with childish ornaments of gaudy   
broom and plumes from the eagle's wing4 
,but sadder far is the spectacle of     
millions of men made for fellowship with
 ,god1 building their hopes on the      
divinity dwelling in an amulet of       
tiger's teeth or serpent's fangs or     
curious shells4 ,and it ought to enlarge
 our natures with a ,christ-like        
sympathy when we contemplate those dark 
and desperate faiths which are but      
nightmares of the soul1 which see in all
 the universe only malevolent spirits to
 be appeased1 which1 looking heavenward 

for a father's face1 see1 as ,richter   
expressed it1 only a death's head with  
bottomless1 empty sockets instead of a  
loving smile4#ai  ,and what a field do  
the greater but equally false systems   
present for the study of the human mind 
and heart6 ,how was it that the simple  
nature worship of the ,indo-,aryans grew
 into the vast deposit of modern        
,hinduism1 and developed those social   
customs which have become walls of      
adamant8 ,how could ,buddhism grow out  
of such a soil and finally cast its     
spell over so many peoples8 ,what were  
the elements of power which enabled the 
great sage of ,china to rear a social   
and political fabric which has survived 
for so many centuries8 ,how was it that 
,islam gained its conquests1 and what is
 the secret of that dominion which it   
still holds8 ,these surely are questions
 worthy of those who are called to deal 
with human thought and human destiny4   
,and when by comparison we find the     
grand differentials which raise         

,christianity infinitely above them all1
 we shall have gained the power of      
presenting its truths more clearly and  
more convincingly to the minds and      
hearts of men4  ,there are some specific
 advantages flowing from the study of   
other religions of which ,i will give   
little more than an enumeration4  #a4   
,it impresses us with the universality  
of some more or less distinct conception
 of ,god4 ,i am aware that from time to 
time explorers imagine that they have   
found a race of men who have no notion  
of ,god1 but in almost every instance   
subsequent investigation has found a    
religious belief4 ,such mistakes were   
made concerning the aborigines of       
,australia1 the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 the  
,papuans1 the ,patagonians1 and even the
 ,american ,indians4 ,the unity of the  
race finds a new and striking proof in  
the universality of religion4  #b4 ,the 
study of false systems brings to light  
an almost unanimous testimony for the   
existence of a vague primeval           

monotheism1 and thus affords a strong   
presumptive corroboration of the        
,scriptural doctrine of man's apostasy  
from the worship of the true ,god4  #c4 
,the clearest vindication of the        
severities of the ,old ,testament       
,theocracy1 in its wars of extermination
 against the ,canaanites and            
,phoenicians1 is to be found in a       
careful study of the foul and cruel     
types of heathenism which those nations 
carried with them wherever their        
colonies extended4 ,a religion which    
enjoined universal prostitution1 and led
 thus to sodomy and the burning of young
 children in the fires of ,moloch1 far  
exceeded the worst heathenism of ,africa
 or the islands of the ,pacific4 ,the   
,phoenician settlements on the          
,mediterranean have not even yet        
recovered from the moral blight of that 
religion2 and had such a cultus been    
allowed to spread over all ,europe and  
the world1 not even a second ,deluge    
could have cleansed the earth of its    

defilement4 ,the extermination of the   
,canaanites1 when considered as a part  
of one great scheme for establishing in 
that same ,palestine a purer and nobler 
faith1 and sending forth thence1 not    
,phoenician corruption1 but the ,gospel 
of ,peace to all lands1 becomes a work  
of mercy to the human race4  #d4 ,the   
ethics of the heathen will be found to  
vindicate the doctrines of the ,bible4  
,this is a point which should be more   
thoroughly understood4 ,it has been     
common to parade the high moral maxims  
of heathen systems as proofs against the
 exclusive claims of ,christianity4 ,but
 when carefully considered1 the lofty   
ethical truths found in all sacred books
 and traditions1 corroborate the        
doctrines of the ,scriptures4 ,they     
condemn the nations who hold the truth  
in unrighteousness4 ,they enforce the   
great doctrine that by their own        
consciences all mankind are convicted of
 sin1 and are in need of a vicarious    
righteousness1--a full and free         

salvation by a divine power4 ,my own    
experience has been1 and it is          
corroborated by that of many others1    
that very many truths of the ,gospel1   
when seen from the stand-point of       
heathenism1 stand out with a clearness  
never seen before4  ,many prudential    
reasons like those which we have given  
for the study of false systems by       
missionaries1 pertain also to those who 
remain at home4 ,both are concerned in  
the same cause1 and both encounter the  
same assailments of our common faith4   
,we are all missionaries in an important
 sense3 we watch the conflict from afar1
 but we are concerned in all its issues4
 ,the bulletins of its battle-fields are
 no longer confined to missionary       
literature2 they are found in the daily 
secular press1 and they are discussed   
with favorable or unfavorable comments  
in the monthly magazines4 ,the          
missionary enterprise has come to       
attract great attention3 it has many    
friends1 and also many foes1 here at    

home2 it is misrepresented by scoffers  
at our doors4 ,the high merits of       
heathen systems1 set forth with every   
degree of exaggeration1 pass into the   
hands of ,christian families1 in books  
and magazines and secular papers4       
,apostles of infidelity are sent out to 
heathen countries to gather weapons     
against the truth4 ,natives of various  
,oriental lands1 once taught in our     
mission schools perhaps1 but still      
heathen1 are paraded on our lecture     
platforms1 where they entertain us with 
,english and ,american arguments in     
support of their heathen systems and    
against ,christianity4 ,young pastors1  
in the literary clubs of their various  
communities1 are surprised by being     
called to discuss plausible papers on   
,buddhism1 which some fellow-member has 
contributed1 and they are expected to   
defend the truth4 ,or some young        
parishioner has been fascinated by a    
plausible ,theosophist1 or has learned  
from ,robert ,elsmere that there are    

other religions quite as pure and sacred
 as our own4 ,or some chance lecturer   
has disturbed the community with a      
discourse on the history of religious   
myths4 ,and when some anxious member of 
a church learns that his religious      
instructor has no help for him on such  
subjects1 that they lie wholly outside  
of his range1 there is apt to be        
something more than disappointment3     
there is a loss of confidence4  ,it is  
an unfortunate element in the case that 
error is more welcome in some of our    
professedly neutral papers than the     
truth3 an article designed to show that 
,christianity was borrowed from         
,buddhism or was developed from         
fetichism will sometimes be welcomed as 
new sensation1 while a reply of half the
 length may be rejected4  ,there is     
something ominous in these facts4       
,whether the secular press 7not all     
papers are thus unfair7 are influenced  
by partisan hatred of the truth or      
simply by a reckless regard for whatever

 is most popular1 the facts are equally 
portentous4 ,and if it be true that such
 publications are what the people most  
desire1 the outlook for our country is  
dark indeed4 ,the saddest consideration 
is that the power of the secular press  
is so vast and far reaching4 ,when      
,celsus wrote1 books were few4 ,when    
,voltaire1 ,hume1 and ,thomas ,paine    
made their assailments on the ,christian
 faith1 the means of spreading the      
blight of error were comparatively few4 
,but now the accumulated arguments of   
,german infidels for the last           
half-century may be thrown into a       
five-cent ,sunday paper1 whose issue    
will reach a quarter of a million of    
copies1 which perhaps a million of men  
and women may read4 ,these articles are 
copied into a hundred other papers1 and 
they are read in the villages and       
hamlets2 they are read on the ranches   
and in the mining camps where no sermon 
is ever heard4  ,it is perfectly evident
 that in an age like this we cannot     

propagate ,christianity under glass4 ,it
 must grow in the open field where the  
free winds of heaven shall smite and    
dissipate every cloud of error that may 
pass over it1 and where its roots shall 
only strike the deeper for the          
questionings and conflicts that may     
often befall it4 ,error cannot be       
overcome either by ignoring it or by the
 cheap but imbecile scolding of an      
ignorant pulpit4  ,i cannot express the 
truth on this point more forcibly than  
by quoting the trenchant words of       
,professor ,ernest ,naville1 in his     
lectures on ,modern ,atheism4 ,after    
having admitted that one1 who can keep  
himself far from the strifes and        
struggles of modern thought1 will find  
solitude1 prayer1 and calm activity1    
pursued under the guidance of           
conscience1 most conducive to           
unquestioning faith and religious peace1
 he says3 ,but we are not masters of our
 own ways1 and the circumstances of the 
present times impose on us special      

duties4 ,the barriers which separate the
 school and the world are everywhere    
thrown down2 everywhere shreds of       
philosophy1 and very often of very bad  
philosophy1 scattered fragments of      
theological science1 and very often of a
 deplorable theological science1 are    
insinuating themselves into the current 
literature4 ,there is not a literary    
review1 there is scarcely a political   
journal1 which does not speak on        
occasion1 or without occasion1 of the   
problems relating to our eternal        
interests4 ,the most sacred beliefs are 
attacked every day in the organs of     
public opinion4 ,at such a juncture can 
men1 who preserve faith in their own    
souls1 remain like dumb dogs1 or keep   
themselves shut up in the narrow limits 
of the schools8 ,assuredly not4 ,we must
 descend to the common ground and fight 
with equal weapons the great battles of 
thought4 ,for this purpose it is        
necessary to state questions which run  
the risk of startling sincerely         

religious persons4 ,but there is no help
 for it if we are to combat the         
adversaries on their own ground2 and    
because it is thus only that we can     
prove to all that the torrent of        
negations is but a passing rush of      
waters1 which1 fret as they may in their
 channels1 shall be found to have left  
not so much as a trace of their passage 
upon the ,rock of ,ages4 ,the fact that 
,professor ,naville's lectures were     
delivered in ,geneva and ,lausanne1 to  
audiences which together numbered over  
two thousand five hundred people1       
affords abundant proof that the people  
are prepared to welcome the relief      
afforded by a clear and really able     
discussion of these burning questions4  
,in the ordinary teaching of the pulpit 
they would be out of place1 but every   
public teacher should be able to deal   
with them on suitable occasions4  ,in a 
single concluding word1 the struggle of 
truth and error has become world-wide4  
,there are no ethnic religions now4     

,there is ,christianity in ,calcutta1   
and there is ,buddhism in ,boston4 ,the 
line of battle is the parallel that     
belts the globe4 ,it is not a time for  
slumber or for mere pious denunciation4 
,there must be no blundering3 the       
warfare must be waged with weapons of   
precision1 and then victory is sure4 ,it
 is well if our missionary effort of a  
century has drawn the fire of the enemy2
 it is well if the time has come to hold
 up the truth face to face with error1  
and to fight out and over again the     
conflict of ,elijah and the ,priests of 
,baal4   ,,footnotes3  ,footnote #a3    
,the ,light of ,asia and the ,light of  
the ,world4 ,macmillan  ,co4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,the late ,professor ,moffat1 of    
,princeton ,theological ,seminary1      
published a ,comparative ,history of    
,religions1 but its field was too broad 
for a thorough treatment4  ,footnote #c3
 ,methodist ,quarterly4  ,footnote #d3  
,quoted in ,manual of ,india ,missions4 
,footnote #e3 ,manual of ,india         

,missions4  ,footnote #f3 ,similar      
views1 though in briefer terms1 have    
been presented by ,rev4 ,william ,a4,p4 
,martin1 ,d4,d41 of ,peking2 ,rev4 ,john
 ,l4 ,nevins1 ,d4,d41 of ,chefou2 ,rev4 
,a4,p4 ,happer1 ,d4,d41 and ,rev4 ,b4,c4
 ,henry1 ,d4,d41 of ,canton2 ,professor 
,john ,wortabet1 ,m4,d41 of ,beyrout2   
,rev4 ,jacob ,chamberlain1 ,d4,d41      
,missionary of the ,reformed ,church in 
,madras2 ,rev4 ,z4,j4 ,jones1 ,d4,d41   
,missionary of the ,american ,m4,e4     
,church at ,bareilly1 ,india2 ,rev4     
,k4,c4 ,chattergee and ,ram ,chandra    
,bose1 both converts from high caste    
,hinduism and both eminent ministers of 
the ,gospel in ,india2 and ,rev4 ,e4,w4 
,blyden1 ,d4,d41 the accomplished       
,african scholar of ,liberia4  ,footnote
 #g3 ,the ,japan ,mail of ,september    
#cj1 #ahia1 in reviewing the progress of
 religious and philosophic discussion as
 carried on by the native press of the  
,empire1 says3 ,the ,buddhist literature
 of the season shows plainly the extent 

to which the educated members of the    
7,buddhist7 priesthood are seeking to   
enlarge their grasp by contact with     
,western philosophy and religious       
thought4 ,we happen to know that a      
prominent priest of the ,shinsu sect is 
deeply immersed in ,comte's             
humanitarianism4 ,in ,kyogaku-roushu 7a 
native paper7 are published instalments 
of ,spencer's philosophy4 ,another      
paper1 the ,hauseikwai1 has an article  
urging the desirability of a general    
union of all the 7,buddhist7 sects1 such
 as ,colonel ,olcott brought about in   
,india between the northern and the     
southern ,buddhists4  ,footnote #h3     
,leaves from an ,egyptian ,note-book4   
,footnote #i3 ,papers of ,rev4 ,mr4     
,hewlett in the ,indian ,evangelical    
,review4  ,footnote #aj3 ,in an address 
given in ,tokio1 by ,rev4 ,mr4 ,knapp1  
of ,boston1 ,buddhists in ,japan were   
advised to build their religion of the  
future upon their own foundations1 and  
not upon the teachings of ,western      

propagandists4  ,footnote #aa3 ,the     
,twelve ,buddhist ,sects of ,japan1 by  
,bunyiu ,nanjio1 ,oxon4  ,footnote #ab3 
,quoted in ,manual of ,india ,missions4 
,footnote #ac3 ,quoted in ,manual of    
,india ,missions4  ,footnote #ad3       
,hulsean ,lectures1 #ahdf4  ,footnote   
#ae3 ,private ,thoughts on ,religion1   
,part ,i41 ,article #b4  ,footnote #af3 
,confucius not only taught that men     
should not do to others what they would 
not have done to them1 but when one of  
his disciples asked him to name one word
 which should represent the whole duty  
of man1 he replied ,reciprocity4        
,footnote #ag3 ,whoever will read the   
,preface of ,mr4 ,spencer's work on     
,sociology will be surprised at the     
means which have been used in collecting
 and verifying supposed facts2 a careful
 perusal of the book will show that all 
classes of testimony have been accepted1
 so far as they were favorable4         
,adventurers1 reporters1 sailors1 and   
that upon the briefest and most casual  

observation1 have been deemed capable of
 interpreting the religious beliefs of  
men4 ,even ,peschel doubts many of their
 conclusions4  ,footnote #ah3 ,see      
,indian ,wisdom4  ,footnote #ai3        
,archbishop ,trench1 after speaking in  
his ,hulsean lectures of the advantages 
which we may gain from an earnest study 
of the struggles of thoughtful men1 who 
amid heathen darkness have groped after 
a knowledge of the true ,god1 and of the
 gratitude which we ought to feel who   
have received a more sure word of       
prophecy1 adds in words of rare beauty3 
,and perhaps it shall seem to us as if  
that star in the natural heavens which  
guided those ,eastern sages from their  
distant home1 was but the symbol of many
 a star which1 in the world's mystical  
night1 such as1 being faithfully        
followed1 availed to lead humble and    
devout hearts from far-off regions of   
superstition and error1 till they knelt 
beside the cradle of the ,babe of       
,bethlehem1 and saw all their weary     

wanderings repaid in a moment1 and all  
their desires finding a perfect         
fulfilment in ,him4     ,,lecture ,,ii4 
,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,early      
,,christian ,,church ,,in ,,dealing     
,,with ,,heathenism   ,the coincidences 
of our present conquest of the          
non-,christian races with that to which 
the ,apostolic ,church was called are   
numerous and striking4 ,not even one    
hundred years ago was the struggle with 
heathen error so similar to that of the 
early ,church4  ,to a great extent the  
missionary efforts of the mediaeval     
centuries encountered only crude        
systems1 which it was comparatively easy
 to overcome4 ,the rude tribes of       
,northern ,europe were converted by the 
,christianity of the later ,roman       
,empire1 even though they were          
conquerors4 ,their gods of war and brute
 force did not meet all the demands of  
life4 ,as a source of hope and comfort1 
their religion had little to be compared
 with the ,christian faith1 and as to   

philosophy they had none4 ,they had     
inherited the simple nature worship     
which was common to all branches of the 
,aryan race1 and they had expanded it   
into various ramifications of           
polytheism2 but they had not fortified  
it with subtle speculations like those  
of the ,indo-,aryans1 nor had their     
mythologies become intrenched in        
inveterate custom1 and the national     
pride which attends an advanced         
civilization4  ,at a later day          
,christian missionaries in ,britain     
found the ,norse religion of the        
,saxons1 ,jutes1 and ,angles1 scarcely  
holding the confidence of either rulers 
or subjects4 ,they had valued their gods
 chiefly for the purposes of war1 and   
they had not always proved reliable4    
,the king of ,northumbria1 like ,clovis 
of ,france1 had vowed to exchange his   
deities for the ,god of the ,christians 
if victory should be given him on a     
certain battle-field2 and when he had   
assembled his thanes to listen to a     

discussion between the missionary       
,paulinus and the priests of ,woden on  
the comparative merits of their         
respective faiths1 the high priest      
frankly admitted his dissatisfaction    
with a religion which he had found      
utterly disappointing and useless2 and  
when other chief counsellors had given  
the same testimony1 and a unanimous vote
 had been taken to adopt the ,christian 
faith1 he was the first to commence the 
destruction of the idols4#bj  ,the still
 earlier missionaries among the ,druid  
,celts of ,britain and ,france1 though  
they found in ,druidism a more elaborate
 faith than that of the ,norsemen1      
encountered no such resistance as we    
find in the great religious systems of  
our day4 ,where can we point to so easy 
a conquest as that of ,patrick in       
,ireland1 or that of the ,monks of ,iona
 among the ,picts and ,scots8  ,the     
,druids claimed that they already had   
many things in common with the          
,christian doctrines1#ba and what was a 

still stronger element in the case1 they
 made common cause with the ,christians 
against the wrongs inflicted on both by 
pagan ,rome4 ,the ,roman emperors were  
not more determined to extirpate the    
hated and1 as they thought1 dangerous   
influences of ,christianity1 than they  
were to destroy every vestige of        
,druidism as their only hope of         
conquering the invincible armies of     
,boadicea4 ,and thus the mutual         
experience of common sufferings opened a
 wide door for the advancement of       
,christian truth4  ,the conquests of    
,welsh and ,irish missionaries in       
,burgundy1 ,switzerland1 and ,germany1  
encountered no elaborate book religions1
 and no profound philosophies4 ,they had
 to deal with races of men who were     
formidable only with weapons of warfare1
 and who1 intent chiefly on conquest and
 migration1 had few institutions and no 
written historic records4 ,the peaceful 
sceptre of the truth was a new force in 
their experience1 and the sympathetic   

and self-denying labors of a few        
missionaries tamed the fierce ,vikings  
to whom ,britain had become a prey1 and 
whose incursions even the armies of     
,charlemagne could not resist4  ,how    
different is our struggle with the races
 now under the sceptre of ,islam1 for   
example--inflated as they are with the  
pride of wide conquest1 and looking     
contemptuously upon that ,christian     
faith which it was their early mission  
to sweep away as a form of idolatry6    
,how different is our task in ,india1   
which boasts the antiquity of the noble 
,sanskrit and its sacred literature1 and
 claims1 as the true representative of  
the ,aryan race1 to have given to       
western nations their philosophy1 their 
religion1 and their civilization6 ,how  
much more difficult is our encounter    
with ,confucianism1 which claims to have
 laid the foundations of the most stable
 structure of social and political      
institutions that the world has ever    
known1 and which to-day1 after          

twenty-five centuries of trial1 appeals 
to the intellectual pride of all        
intelligent classes in a great empire of
 four hundred millions6 ,and finally1   
how different is our task with          
,buddhism1 so mystical and abstruse1 so 
lofty in many of its precepts1 and yet  
so cold and thin1 so flexible and easily
 adapted1 and therefore so varied and   
many sided6 ,the religious systems with 
which we are now confronted find their  
counterparts only in the heathenism with
 which the early ,church had to deal    
many centuries ago2 and for this reason 
the history of those early struggles is 
full of practical instruction for us    
now4 ,how did the early ,church succeed 
in its great conquest8 ,what methods    
were adopted1 and with what measures of 
success8  ,in one respect there is a    
wide difference in the two cases4 ,the  
,apostles were attempting to convert    
their conquerors4 ,they belonged to the 
vanquished race2 they were of a despised
 nationality4 ,the early fathers also   

were subjects of ,pagan powers4         
,insomuch as the ,roman emperors claimed
 divine honors1 there was an element of 
treason in their propagandism4 ,the     
terrible persecutions which so long     
devastated the early ,church found their
 supposed justification in the plea of  
self-defence against a system which     
threatened to subvert cherished and     
time-honored institutions4 ,candid      
writers1 like ,archdeacon ,farrar1 admit
 that ,christianity did hasten the      
overthrow of the ,roman ,empire4  ,but  
we find no conquering powers in our     
pathway4 ,christianity and ,christian   
civilization have become dominant in the
 earth4 ,the weakness of the ,christian 
,church in its conquests now is not in  
being baffled and crippled by tyranny   
and persecution1 but rather in the      
temptation to arrogance and the abuse of
 superior power1 in the overbearing     
spirit shown in the diplomacy of        
,christian nations and the unscrupulous 
aggressions of their commerce4 ,there is

 also a further contrast in the fact    
that in the early days the advantages of
 frugality and simple habits of life    
were on the side of the missionaries4   
,roman society especially was beginning 
to suffer that decay which is the       
inevitable consequence of long-continued
 luxury1 while the ,church observed     
temperance in all things and excelled in
 the virtues which always tend to moral 
and social victory4#bb  ,on the other   
hand1 we who are the ambassadors to the 
heathen of to-day1 are ourselves exposed
 to the dangers which result from wealth
 and excessive luxury4 ,our grade of    
life1 our scale of expenditure1 even the
 style in which our missionaries live1  
excites the amazement of the frugal     
heathen to whom they preach4 ,and as for
 the ,church at home1 it is hardly safe 
for a ,persian or a ,chinaman to see it4
 ,everyone who visits this wonderful    
eldorado carries back such romantic     
impressions as excite in others1 not so 
much the love of the ,gospel as the love

 of mammon4 ,when the ,church went forth
 in comparative poverty1 and with an    
intense moral earnestness1 to preach    
righteousness1 temperance1 and the      
judgment to come2 when those who were   
wealthy gave all to the poor--like      
,anthony of ,egypt1 ,jerome1 ,ambrose1  
and ,francis of ,assisi--and in simple  
garments bore the ,gospel to those who  
were surfeited with luxuries and        
pleasures1 and were sick of a life of   
mere indulgence1 then the truth of the  
,gospel conquered heathenism with all   
that the world could give4 ,but whether 
a ,church in the advanced civilization  
of our land and time1 possessed of      
enormous wealth1 enjoying every luxury1 
and ever anxious to gain more and more  
of this present world1 can convert      
heathen races who deem themselves more  
frugal1 more temperate1 and less worldly
 than we1 is a problem which remains to 
be solved4 ,we have rare facilities1 but
 we have great drawbacks4 ,god's grace  
can overcome even our defects1 and ,he  

has promised success4  ,but in the proud
 intellectual character of the systems  
encountered respectively by the ancient 
and by the modern ,church1 there are    
remarkable parallels4 ,the supercilious 
pride of ,brahminism1 or the lofty scorn
 of ,mohammedanism1 is quite equal to   
that self-sufficient ,greek philosophy  
in whose eyes the ,gospel was the merest
 foolishness4 ,and the immovable        
self-righteousness of the ,stoics has   
its counterpart in the ,confucianism of 
the ,chinese literati4 ,a careful       
comparison of the six schools of ,hindu 
philosophy with the various systems of  
,greece and ,rome1 will fill the mind   
with surprise at the numerous           
correspondences--one might almost say   
identities4 ,and that surprise is the   
greater from the fact that no proof     
exists that either has been borrowed    
from the other4  ,the atomic theory of  
creation advanced by ,lucretius is found
 also in the ,nyaya philosophy of the   
,hindus4 ,the pessimism of ,pliny and   

,marcus ,aurelius was much more         
elaborately worked out by ,gautama4 ,the
 ,hindus had their categories and their 
syllogisms as well as ,aristotle4 ,the  
conception of a dual principle in deity 
which the early ,church traced in all   
the religious systems of ,egypt1        
,phoenicia1 and ,assyria1 and whose     
influence poisoned the life of the      
,phoenician colonies1 and was so        
corrupting to the morals of ,greece and 
,rome1 was also elaborated by the       
,sankhya philosophy of ,kapila1 and it  
has plunged ,hindu society into as deep 
a degradation as could be found in      
,pompeii or ,herculaneum4#bc ,the       
,indian philosophy partook far more of  
the pantheistic element than that of    
,greece4 ,plato and ,aristotle had      
clearer conceptions of the personality  
of the deity and of the distinct and    
responsible character of the human soul 
than any school of ,hindu               
philosophers--certainly clearer than the
 ,vedantists1 and their ethics involved 

a stronger sense of sin4  ,german       
philosophy has borrowed its pantheism   
from ,india rather than from ,greece1   
and in its most shadowy developments it 
has never transcended the ancient       
,vedantism of ,vyasa4  ,as in the early 
centuries1 so in our time1 different    
systems of religion have been commingled
 and interwoven into protean forms of   
error more difficult to understand and  
dislodge than any one of the faiths and 
philosophies of which they were         
combined4 ,as the ,alexandrian ,jews    
intertwined the teachings of ,judaism   
and ,platonism2 as ,manichaeans and     
,gnostics corrupted the truths of the   
,old and ,new ,testaments with ideas    
borrowed from ,persian mysticism2 as    
various eclectic systems gathered up all
 types of thought which the wide        
conquests of the ,roman ,empire brought 
together1 and mingled them with         
,christian teachings2 so now the        
increased intercommunication1 and the   
quickened intellectual activity of our  

age have led to the fusion of different 
systems1 ancient and modern1 in a       
negative and nerveless religion of      
humanity4 ,we now have in the ,east not 
only ,indian1 but ,anglo-,indian1       
speculations4 ,the unbelieving ,calcutta
 graduate has ,hegel and ,spinoza       
interwoven with his ,vedantism1 and the 
eclectic leader of the ,brahmo ,somaj1  
while placing ,christ at the head of the
 prophets and recognizing the authority 
of all sacred bibles of the races1      
called on ,christians1 ,hindus1         
,buddhists and ,mohammedans to unite in 
one theistic church of the ,new         
,dispensation in ,india4 ,not even the  
old ,gnostics could present so striking 
an admixture as that of the ,arya       
,somaj4 ,it has appropriated many of    
those ,christian ethics which have been 
learned from a century of contact with  
missionaries and other ,christian       
residents4 ,it has approved the more    
humane customs and reforms of           
,christendom1 denouncing caste1 and the 

degradation of woman4 ,it has repudiated
 the corrupt rites and the degrading    
superstitions of ,hinduism4 ,at the same
 time its hatred of the ,christian faith
 is most bitter and intense4  ,and there
 are other alliances1 not a few1 between
 the ,east and the ,west4 ,in ,india and
 ,japan the old ,buddhism is compounded 
with ,american ,spiritualism and with   
modern ,evolution1 under a new          
application of the ancient name of      
,theosophy4 ,in ,japan representatives  
of advanced ,unitarianism are exhorting 
the ,japanese ,buddhists to build the   
religion of the future on their old     
foundations1 and to avoid the           
propagandists of western ,christianity4 
,the bland and easy-going catholicity   
which professes so much in our day1     
which embraces all faiths and unfaiths  
in one sweet emulsion of meaningless    
negations1 which patronizes the ,christ 
and ,his doctrines1 and applies the     
nomenclature of ,christianity to        
doctrines the very opposite of its      

teachings1 finds a counterpart in the   
smooth and vapid compromises of the old 
,gnostics4 ,gnosticism1 says ,uhlhorn1  
combined ,greek philosophies1 ,jewish   
theology1 and ancient ,oriental         
theosophy1 thus forming great systems of
 speculative thought1 all with the      
object of displaying the world's        
development4 ,from a pantheistic ,first 
,cause1 ,gnosticism traced the emanation
 of a series of aeons--beings of ,light4
 ,the source of evil was supposed to be 
matter1 which in this material world    
holds light in captivity4 ,to liberate  
the light and thus redeem the world1    
,christ came1 and thus ,christianity was
 added as the crowning and victorious   
element in this many-sided system of    
speculation4 ,but ,christ was regarded  
not so much as a ,saviour of individual 
souls as an emancipator of a disordered 
kosmos1 and the system which seemed to  
accord great honor to ,christianity     
threatened to destroy its life and      
power4 ,so1 according to some of our    

,modern ,systems1 men are to find their 
future salvation in the grander future  
of the race4#bd  ,not only do we        
encounter mixtures of truth and error1  
but we witness similar attempts to prove
 that whatever is best in ,christianity 
was borrowed from heathenism4 ,porphyry 
and others maintained that ,pythagoras  
and ,theosebius had anticipated many of 
the attributes and deeds of ,christ1 and
 ,philostratus was prompted by the wife 
of ,severus to write a history of       
,appolonius of ,tyana which should match
 the life of ,christ4 ,and in precisely 
the same way it has been variously      
claimed in our time that the story of   
,christ's birth1 childhood1 and ministry
 were borrowed from ,buddha and from    
,krishna1 and that the whole conception 
of his vicarious suffering for the good 
of men is a clever imitation of         
,prometheus ,bound4 ,now1 in the earlier
 conflict it was important to know the  
facts on both sides in order to meet    
these allegations of ,porphyry1         

,marinus1 and others1 and it is equally 
important to understand the precise     
ground on which similar charges are made
 with equal assurance now4#be ,the very 
same old battles are to be fought over  
again1 both with philosophy and with    
legend4  ,and it is very evident that1  
with so many points of similarity       
between the early struggle of           
,christianity with heathenism and that  
of our own time1 it is quite worth our  
labor to inquire what were the general  
methods then pursued4 ,then victory     
crowned the efforts of the ,church4     
,that which humanly speaking seemed     
impossible1 was actually accomplished4  
,from our finite standpoint1 no more    
preposterous command was ever given than
 that which ,christ gave to his little  
company of disciples gathered in the    
mountains of ,galilee1 or that last word
 before his ascension on ,mt4 ,olivet1  
in which ,he placed under their         
responsible stewardship1 not only       
,jerusalem1 but all ,judea and ,samaria1

 and the uttermost parts of the earth4  
,the disciples were without learning or 
social influence1 or political power4   
,they had no wealth and few facilities1 
and so far as they knew there were no   
open doors4 ,they were hated by their   
,jewish countrymen1 ridiculed by the    
ubiquitous and cultured ,greeks1 and    
frowned upon by the conquering powers of
 ,rome4 ,how then did they succeed8 ,how
 was it that in three or four centuries 
they had virtually emptied the ,roman   
,pantheon of its heathen deities1 and   
had gained the sceptre of the empire and
 the world8  ,it is easy to misapprehend
 the forces which won the victory4 ,the 
disciples first chosen to found the     
,church were fishermen1 but that affords
 no warrant for the belief that only    
untutored men were employed in the early
 ,church1 or for the inference that the 
,salvation ,army are to gain the        
conquest now4 ,they were inspired2 these
 are not2 and a few only were chosen1   
with the very aim of setting at naught  

the intolerant wisdom of the ,pharisees4
 ,but when the ,gospel was to be borne  
to heathen races1 to the great nations  
whose arrogance was proportionate to    
their learning and their power1 a very  
different man was selected4 ,saul of    
,tarsus had almost every needed         
qualification seen from a human point of
 view4 ,standing1 as he must1 between   
the stiff bigotry of ,judaism and the   
subtleties of ,greek philosophy1 he was 
fortunately familiar with both4 ,he was 
a man of rare courtesy1 and yet of      
matchless courage4 ,whether addressing a
 ,jewish governor or the assembled      
philosophers and counsellors of ,athens1
 he evinced an unfailing tact4 ,he knew 
how to conciliate even a common mob of  
heathen idolators and when to defy a    
high priest1 or plead the immunities of 
his ,roman citizenship before a ,roman  
proconsul4  ,in tracing the methods of  
the early ,church in dealing with       
heathenism1 we begin1 therefore1 with   
,paul2 for although he was              

differentiated from all modern parallels
 by the fact that he was inspired and   
endowed with miraculous power1 yet that 
does not invalidate the force of those  
general principles of action which he   
illustrated4 ,he was the first and      
greatest of all missionaries1 and       
through all time it will be safe and    
profitable to study his characteristics 
and his methods4 ,he showed the value of
 thorough training in his own faith1 and
 of a full understanding of all the     
errors he was to contend with4 ,he could
 reason with ,jews out of their own     
,scriptures1 or substantiate his        
position with ,greeks by citing their   
own poets4 ,he was certainly            
uncompromising in maintaining the       
sovereignty of the one ,god1 ,jehovah1  
but he was not afraid to admit that in  
their blind way the heathen were also   
groping after the same supreme ,father  
of all4 ,the unknown ,god at ,athens he 
accepted as an adumbration of ,him whom 
he proclaimed1 and every candid reader  

must admit that in quoting the words of 
,aratus1 which represent ,zeus as the   
supreme creator whose offspring we are1 
he conveys the impression of a real     
resemblance1 if not a partial and       
obscured identity4  ,the essential      
principle here is that ,paul frankly    
acknowledged whatever glimpses of truth 
he found in heathen systems1 and made   
free use of them in presenting the      
fuller and clearer knowledge revealed in
 the ,gospel4 ,no man ever presented a  
more terrible arraignment of heathenism 
than that which he makes in the first   
chapter of his epistle to the ,romans1  
and yet1 with marvellous discrimination 
he proceeds1 in the second chapter1 to  
show how much of truth ,god has imparted
 to the understandings and the          
consciences of all men4 ,and he seems to
 imply the ,holy ,spirit's regenerative 
work through ,christ's atonement1 when  
he maintains that whoever shall1 by     
patient continuance in well doing1 seek 
glory and immortality1 to him shall     

eternal life be given2 but tribulation  
and anguish upon every soul of man that 
doeth evil1 to the ,jew first1 and also 
to the ,gentile4 ,peter was not prepared
 to be a missionary till he had been    
divested of his ,jewish narrowness by   
witnessing the power of grace in the    
,roman centurion at ,cesarea4 ,that     
widened out his horizon immensely4 ,he  
saw that ,god in his ultimate plan was  
no respecter of persons or of races4    
,there has been great difference of     
opinion as to whether the annual worship
 of the supreme ,god of ,heaven in the  
great imperial temple at ,peking is in  
any degree a relic of the worship of the
 true ,god once revealed to mankind4    
,such ,chinese scholars as ,martin and  
,legge and ,douglass think that it is2  
others deny it4 ,some men raise a       
question whether the ,allah of the      
,mohammedan faith is identical with the 
,jehovah of the ,old ,testament4 ,sales1
 the profoundest expositor of ,islam1   
considers him the same4 ,moslems        

themselves have no doubt of it3 the     
intent of the ,koran is that and nothing
 else2 ,old ,testament teachings are    
interwoven with almost every sura of its
 pages4 ,i think that ,paul would have  
conceded this point at once1 and would  
the more successfully have urged the    
claims of ,jesus1 whom the ,koran       
presents as the only sinless prophet4   
,of course ,mohammedans do not recognize
 the ,triune ,god as we now apprehend   
,him1 from the ,new ,testament          
standpoint2 neither did ancient         
believers of ,israel fully conceive of  
,god as ,he has since been more fully   
revealed in the person and the sacrifice
 of his ,son--,jesus ,christ4  ,both the
 teachings and the example of ,paul seem
 to recognize the fact that conceptions 
of ,god1 sometimes clear and sometimes  
dim1 may exist among heathen nations2   
and many of the great ,christian fathers
 evidently took the same view4 ,they    
admitted that ,plato's noble teachings  
were calculated to draw the soul toward 

,god1 though they revealed no real      
access to ,him such as is found in      
,christ4 ,archbishop ,trench1 in his    
,hulsean lectures on ,christ the ,desire
 of the ,nations1 dwells approvingly    
upon ,augustine's well-known statement1 
that he had been turned from vice to an 
inspiring conception of ,god by reading 
the ,hortensius of ,cicero4 ,augustine's
 own reference to the fact is found in  
the fourth book of his ,confessions1    
where he says3 ,in the ordinary course  
of study ,i fell upon a certain book of 
,cicero whose speech almost all         
admire--not so his heart4 ,this book    
contains an exhortation to philosophy1  
and is called ',hortensius4' ,but this  
book altered my affections and turned my
 prayers to ,thyself1 ,o ,lord1 and made
 me have other purposes and desires4    
,every vain hope at once became         
worthless to me1 and ,i longed with an  
incredible burning desire for an        
immortality of wisdom1 and began now to 
arise that ,i might return to ,thee4    

,for not to sharpen my tongue did ,i    
employ that book3 nor did it infuse into
 me its style1 but its matter4  ,the    
,hortensius of ,cicero has not survived 
till our time1 and we know not what it  
contained2 but we cannot fail to notice 
this testimony of a mature and eminent  
saint to the spiritual benefit which he 
had received at the age of thirty-one1  
from reading the works of a heathen     
philosopher4 ,and a most interesting    
proof is here furnished for the freedom 
with which the ,spirit of ,god works    
upon the hearts of men1 and the great   
variety of means and agencies which ,he 
employs1--and that beyond the pale of   
the ,christian ,church1 and even beyond 
the actual knowledge of the historic    
,christ4 ,it would be interesting to    
know whether the regeneration of        
,augustine occurred just then1 when he  
says in such strong language1 that this 
book altered his affections and turned  
his prayers unto ,god1 and made him long
 with an indescribable burning desire   

for an immortality of wisdom4 ,all men  
are saved1 if at all1 by the blood of   
,christ through the renewing of the     
,holy ,ghost2 but what was the position 
of such men as ,augustine and ,cornelius
 of ,cesarea before they fully and      
clearly saw ,jesus as the actual        
,messiah1 and as the personal           
representative of that ,grace of ,god in
 which they had already reposed a       
general faith1 is at least an           
interesting question4  ,not less        
positive is the acknowledgment which    
,augustine makes of the benefits which  
he had received from ,plato4 ,and he    
mentions many others1 as ,virgininus1   
,lactantius1 ,hilary1 and ,cyprian1 who1
 like himself1 having once been heathen 
and students of heathen philosophy1 had1
 as he expresses it1 spoiled the        
,egyptians1 bringing away with them rich
 treasures from the land of bondage1    
that they might adorn therewith the true
 tabernacle of the ,christian faith4    
,augustine seems to have been fond of   

repeating both this argument and this   
his favorite illustration4 ,in his      
,doctrine of ,christ he expands it more 
fully than in his ,confessions4 ,he     
says3 ,whatever those called            
philosophers1 and especially the        
,platonists1 may have said conformable  
to our faith1 is not only not to be     
dreaded1 but is to be claimed from them 
as unlawful possessors1 to our use4     
,for1 as the ,egyptians not only had    
idols and heavy burdens which the people
 of ,israel were to abhor and avoid1 but
 also vessels and ornaments of gold and 
silver and apparel which that people at 
its departure from ,egypt privily       
assumed for a better use1 not on its own
 authority but at the command of ,god1  
the very ,egyptians unwittingly         
furnishing the things which themselves  
used not well2 so all the teaching of   
the ,gentiles not only hath feigned and 
superstitious devices1 and heavy burdens
 of a useless toil1 which we severally1 
as under the leading of ,christ we go   

forth out of the fellowship of the      
,gentiles1 ought to abhor and avoid1 but
 it also containeth liberal arts1 fitter
 for the service of truth1 and some most
 useful moral precepts2 as also there   
are found among them some truths        
concerning the worship of the ,one ,god 
,himself1 as it were their gold and     
silver which they did not themselves    
form1 but drew from certain veins of    
,divine ,providence running throughout1 
and which they perversely and wrongfully
 abuse to the service of demons4 ,these1
 the ,christian1 when he severs himself 
from their wretched fellowship1 ought to
 take from them for the right use of    
preaching of the ,gospel4 ,for what else
 have many excellent members of our     
faith done8 ,see we not how richly laden
 with gold and silver and apparel that  
most persuasive teacher and most blessed
 martyr1 ,cyprian1 departed out of      
,egypt8 ,or ,lactantius1 or ,victorinus1
 ,optatus1 ,hilary1 not to speak of the 
living1 and ,greeks innumerable8 ,and   

this1 ,moses himself1 that most faithful
 servant of ,god1 first did1 of whom it 
is written1 that 'he was learned in all 
the wisdom of the ,egyptians4'  ,let us 
for a moment pause and see of what these
 treasures of ,egypt consisted1 and     
especially what ,plato taught concerning
 ,god4 ,like ,socrates1 he ridiculed the
 absurd but popular notion that the gods
 could be full of human imperfections1  
could make war upon each other1 could   
engage in intrigues1 and be guilty of   
base passions4 ,and he earnestly        
maintained that it was demoralizing to  
children and youth to hold up such      
beings as objects of worship4 ,such was 
his condemnation of what he considered  
false gods4 ,he was equally opposed to  
the idea that there is no ,god4 ,all    
things1 he says1 are from ,god1 and not 
from some spontaneous and unintelligent 
cause4 ,now1 that which is created1 he  
adds1 must of necessity be created by   
some cause--but how can we find out the 
,father and maker of all this universe8 

,if the world indeed be fair1 and the   
artificer good1 then ,he must have      
looked to that which is external--for   
the world is the fairest of creatures1  
as ,he is the best of causes4  ,plato's 
representation of the mercy of ,god1 of 
his providential care1 of his unmixed   
goodness1 of his eternal beauty and     
holiness--are well-nigh up to the ,new  
,testament standard4 ,so is also his    
doctrine of the immortality of the soul4
 ,the fatal deficiency is that he does  
not know4 ,he has received no divine    
revelation4 ,we will wait1 he said in   
another passage1 for one1 be it a god or
 a god-inspired man1 to teach us our    
religious duties1 and as ,athene in     
,homer says to ,diomede1 to take away   
the darkness from our eyes4 ,and in     
still another place he adds3 ,we must   
lay hold of the best human opinion in   
order that1 borne by it as on a raft1 we
 may sail over the dangerous sea of     
life1 unless we can find a stronger     
boat1 or some word of ,god which will   

more surely and safely carry us4#bf     
,there is a deep pathos in the question 
which ,i have just quoted1 ,how can we  
find out the ,father and maker of all   
this universe8 ,and in the last sentence
 quoted1 ,plato seems to have felt his  
way to the very threshold of the        
revelation of ,christ4#bg  ,augustine   
shows a discrimination on this subject  
too important to be overlooked1 when he 
declares that while the noble philosophy
 of the ,platonists turned his thoughts 
away from his low gratifications to the 
contemplation of an infinite ,god1 it   
left him helpless4 ,he was profited both
 by what philosophy taught him and by   
what it could not teach3 it created     
wants which it could not satisfy4 ,in   
short1 he was prepared by its very      
deficiencies to see in stronger contrast
 the all-satisfying fulness of the      
,gospel of ,eternal ,life4 ,plato could 
tell him nothing of any real plan of    
redemption1 and he confesses with tender
 pathos that he found no ,revealer1 no  

divine sacrifice for sin1 no uplifted   
,cross1 no gift of the transforming     
,spirit1 no invitation to the weary1 no 
light of the ,resurrection4#bh ,now1    
just here is the exact truth2 and       
,augustine has conferred a lasting      
benefit upon the ,christian ,church by  
this grand lesson of just               
discrimination4 ,he and other ,christian
 fathers knew where to draw the lines   
carefully and wisely with respect to    
heathen errors4  ,we often have occasion
 to complain of the sharpness of the    
controversies of the early ,church1 but 
it could scarcely be otherwise in an age
 like that4 ,it was a period of         
transitions and of rude convulsions4    
,the foundations of the great deep of   
human error were being broken up4 ,it   
was no time for flabby1 jelly-fish      
convictions4 ,the training which the    
great leaders had received in philosophy
 and rhetoric had made them keen        
dialectics4 ,they had something of      
,paul's abhorrence of heathen           

abominations1 for they saw them on every
 hand4 ,they saw also the specious      
admixtures of ,gnosticism1 and they met 
them squarely4 ,tertullian's controversy
 with ,marcion1 ,augustine's sharp issue
 with ,pelasgius1 ,ambrose's bold and   
uncompromising resistance to ,arianism1 
,origen's able reply to ,celsus1 all    
show that the great leaders of the      
,church were not men of weak opinions4  
,the discriminating concessions which   
they made1 therefore1 were not born of  
an easy-going indifferentism and the    
soft and nerveless charity that regards 
all religions alike4 ,they found a      
medium between this pretentious extreme 
and the opposite evil of ignorant and   
narrow prejudgment2 and nothing is more 
needed in the missionary work of our day
 than that intelligent and well-poised  
wisdom which considers all the facts and
 then draws just distinctions2 which    
will not compensate for conscious       
ignorance with cheap misrepresentation  
or wholesale denunciation4  #a4 ,now1   

first of all1 in considering the methods
 of the early ,church and its secret of 
power in overcoming the errors of       
heathenism1 it must be borne in mind    
that the victory was mainly due to the  
moral earnestness which characterized   
that period4 ,in this category we must  
place the influence which sprang from   
the martyrdom of thousands who          
surrendered life rather than relinquish 
their faith4 ,that this martyr spirit   
did not always produce a true symmetry  
of ,christian character cannot be       
denied4 ,the tide of fanaticism swept   
in1 sometimes1 with the current of true 
religious zeal1 and inconsistencies and 
blemishes marred even the saintliest    
self-sacrifice2 but there was no        
resisting the mighty logic of the spirit
 of martyrdom as a whole4 ,the high and 
the low1 the wise and the unlettered1   
the rich and the poor1 the old and the  
young1 strong men and delicate women1   
surrendered themselves to the most cruel
 tortures for the love of ,christ4 ,this

 spectacle1 while it may have served    
only to enrage a ,nero and urge him on  
to even more ,satanic cruelty1 could not
 be wholly lost upon the more thoughtful
 ,marcus ,aurelius and others like him4 
,it was impossible to resist the moral  
force of so calm and resolute a         
surrender unto torture and death4       
,moreover1 an age which produced such   
relinquishment of earthly possessions as
 was shown by men like ,anthony and     
,ambrose1 who were ready to lay down the
 emoluments of high political position  
and distribute their large fortunes for 
the relief of the poor2 and such women  
as ,paula and others of high position1  
who were ready to sacrifice all for     
,christ and retire into seclusion and   
voluntary poverty--an age which could   
produce such characters and could show  
their steady perseverance unto the end1 
could not fail to be an age of          
resistless moral power2 and it would be 
safe to say that no heathen system could
 long stand against the sustained and   

persistent force of such influences4    
,were the ,christian ,church of to-day  
moved by even a tithe of that high      
self-renunciation1 to say nothing of    
braving the fires of martyrdom1 if it   
possessed in even partial degree the    
same sacrifice of luxury and ease1 and  
the same consecration of effort and of  
influence1 the conquest of benighted    
nations would be easy and rapid4  ,the  
frugality of the early ,christians1 the 
simplicity of life which the great body 
of the ,church observed1 and to which   
even wealthy converts more or less      
conformed1 was also1 doubtless1 a strong
 factor in the great problem of winning 
the heathen to ,christ4 ,probably in no 
age could ,christian simplicity find    
stronger contrasts than were presented  
by the luxury and extravagance1 the     
unbridled indulgence and profligacy1    
which characterized the later periods of
 the ,roman ,empire4 ,universal conquest
 of surrounding nations had brought     
untold wealth4 ,the ,government had     

hastened the process of decay by lavish 
distribution to the people of those     
resources which obviated the necessity  
of unremitting toil4 ,it had devoted    
large expenditures to popular           
amusements1 and demagogues had          
squandered the public funds for the     
purpose of securing their own           
preferment4 ,over against the moral     
earnestness of the persecuted ,christian
 ,church1 there was in the nation itself
 and the heathenism which belonged to   
it1 an utter want of character or       
conviction4 ,these conditions of the    
conquest1 as ,i have already indicated1 
do not find an exact counterpart with us
 now4 ,there is more of refined         
,christian culture than existed in the  
early ,church2 probably there is also   
more of organized ,christian effort4 ,in
 many points the comparison is in our   
favor1 but earnestness1 and the         
spiritual power which attends it1 are on
 a lower grade4 ,there is no escape from
 the conviction that just here lies the 

reason why the ,christian ,church1 with 
all her numbers1 her vast material      
resources1 and her unlimited            
opportunities1 cannot achieve a greater 
success4  #b4 ,but1 on the intellectual 
side1 and as relating to the methods of 
direct effort1 there are many points in 
which imitation of the early example is 
entirely practicable4 ,and first1 the   
wise discrimination which was exercised 
by ,augustine and other ,christian      
leaders is entirely practicable now4    
,there has prevailed in our time an     
indiscriminate carelessness in the use  
of terms in dealing with this subject4  
,the strong language which the ,old     
,testament employed against the         
abominations of ,baalism1 we have seemed
 to regard as having equal force against
 the ethics of ,confucius or ,gautama4  
,heathenism is the one brand which we   
have put upon all the non-,christian    
religions4 ,i wish it were possible to  
exchange the term for a better4#bi      
,baalism was undoubtedly the most       

besotted1 cruel1 and diabolical religion
 that has ever existed on the earth4    
,when we carefully study it we are not  
surprised at the strong language of     
denunciation which the ,old ,testament  
employs4 ,but as ,i have already shown1 
we find in the ,new ,testament a        
different spirit exercised toward the   
types of error which our ,saviour and   
his disciples were called to meet4      
,there is only gentleness in our ,lord's
 dealings with those who were without   
the ,jewish ,church4 ,his strongest     
denunciations were reserved for         
hypocrites who knew the truth and obeyed
 it not4 ,he declared that the men of   
,nineveh would rise up in judgment      
against those who rejected the clear    
message of ,god's own ,son4 ,the man who
 goes forth to the great mission fields 
with the feeling that it is his province
 to assail as strongly as possible the  
deeply-rooted convictions of men1       
instead of winning them to a more       
excellent way1 is worse than one who    

beats the air2 he is doing positive     
harm2 he is trifling with precious      
souls4 ,he does not illustrate the      
spirit of ,christ4  ,the wisest of the  
early ,fathers sometimes differed widely
 from each other in their methods2 some 
were denunciatory1 others were even too 
ready to excuse4 ,the great ,african    
controversialist1 ,tertullian1 was      
unsparing in his anathemas1 not only    
against heathen customs1 which were vile
 indeed1 but against the teachings of   
the noblest philosophy4 ,he had         
witnessed the former2 he had not        
candidly studied the latter4 ,with a    
blind zeal1 which has too often been    
witnessed in the history of good causes1
 he denounced ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and   
even ,socrates with a violence which    
marred the character of so great a man4 
,on the other hand1 ,justin ,martyr and 
,clement of ,alexandria were perhaps    
excessively broad4 ,of two noted        
,alexandrines1 ,archdeacon ,farrar says3
 ,they were philosophers in spirit2 they

 could enforce respect by their learning
 and their large1 rounded sympathy1     
where rhetorical denunciation and       
ecclesiastical anathemas would only have
 been listened to with a frown of anger1
 or a look of disdain4 ,pagan youths    
would have listened to ,clement when he 
spoke of ,plato as 'the truly noble and 
half-inspired1' while they would have   
looked on ,tertullian as an ignorant    
railer1 who could say nothing better of 
,socrates than to call him the ',attic  
buffoon1' and of ,aristotle than to     
characterize him as the 'miserable      
,aristotle4'  ,tatian and ,hermes also  
looked upon ,greek philosophy as an     
invention of the devil4 ,irenaeus was   
more discriminating4 ,he opposed the    
broad and lax charity of the            
,alexandrines1 but he read the ,greek   
philosophy1 and when called to the      
bishopric of ,lyons1 he set himself to  
the study of the ,gallic ,druidism1     
believing that a special adaptation     
would be called for in that remote      

mission field4#cj ,basil was an earnest 
advocate of the ,greek philosophy as    
giving a broader character to ,christian
 education4  ,there were among the      
,fathers many different types of men1   
some philosophically inclined1 others   
better able to use practical arguments4 
,some were more successful in appealing 
to the signs of the times1 the clear    
evidences of that corruption and decay  
to which heathenism had led4 ,they      
pointed to the degradation of women1 the
 prevalence of vice1 the inordinate     
indulgence in pleasures1 the love of    
excitement1 the cruel frenzy of the     
gladiatorial shows1 the unrest and      
pessimism and despair of all society4   
,one of the most remarkable appeals of  
this kind is found in a letter of       
,cyprian to his friend ,donatus4 ,he    
bids him seat himself in fancy on some  
mountain top and gaze down upon what he 
has abandoned 7for he is a ,christian71 
on the roads blocked by brigands1 the   
sea beset by pirates1 the camps         

desolated by the horrors of many wars1  
on the world reeking with bloodshed1 and
 the guilt which1 in proportion to its  
magnitude1 was extolled as a glory4     
,then1 if he would turn his gaze to the 
cities1 he would behold a sight more    
gloomy than all solitudes4 ,in the      
gladiatorial games men were fattened for
 mutual slaughter1 and publicly murdered
 to delight the mob4 ,even innocent men 
were urged to fight in public with wild 
beasts1 while their mothers and sisters 
paid large sums to witness the          
spectacle4 ,in the theatres parricide   
and infanticide were dealt with before  
mixed audiences1 and all pollution and  
crimes were made to claim reverence     
because presented under the guise of    
religious mythology4 ,in the homes was  
equal corruption2 in the forum bribery  
and intrigue ran rife2 justice was      
subverted1 and innocence was condemned  
to prison1 torture1 and death4 ,luxury  
destroyed character1 and wealth became  
an idol and a curse4#ca ,arguments of   

this kind were ready enough to hand     
whenever ,christian teachers were       
disposed to use them1 and their         
descriptions found a real corroboration 
in society as it actually appeared on   
every hand4 ,none could question the    
counts in the indictment4  #c4 ,while   
the ,christian ,fathers and the         
missionaries differed in their estimates
 of heathenism1 and in their methods of 
dealing with it1 one thing was          
recognized by all whom we designate as  
the great leaders1 namely1 the          
imperative necessity of a thorough      
knowledge of it4 ,they understood both  
the low superstition of the masses and  
the loftier teaching of the             
philosophers4 ,on the other hand1 they  
had the same estimate of the            
incomparable ,gospel of ,christ that we 
have2 they realized that it was the     
wisdom of ,god and the power of ,god    
unto salvation as clearly as the best of
 us1 but they did not claim that it was 
to be preached blindly and without      

adaptation4 ,the verities of the ,new   
,testament teachings1 the transforming  
power of the ,holy ,ghost1 the necessity
 for a new birth and for the            
preternatural influence of grace1 both  
in regeneration and in sanctification1  
were as strongly maintained as they have
 ever been in any age of the ,church2   
but the ,fathers were careful to know   
whether they were casting the good seed 
upon stony places1 or into good ground  
where it would spring up and bear fruit4
 ,the liberal education of that day was1
 in fact1 an education along the old    
lines of heathen philosophy1 poetry1    
history1 and rhetoric2 and a broad      
training was valued as highly as it has 
been in any subsequent period4 ,it was  
thoroughly understood that disciplined  
intellect1 other things being equal1 may
 expect a degree of influence which can 
never fall to the lot of ignorance1     
however sanctified its spirit4 ,there   
has never been a stronger type of men   
than the ,christian ,fathers4 ,they were

 learned men1 for the age in which they 
lived1 and their learning had special   
adaptations to the work assigned them4  
,many of them1 like ,cyprian1 ,clement1 
,hilary1 ,martin of ,tours1 had been    
born and educated in heathenism2 while  
others1 like ,basil1 ,gregory1 ,origen1 
,athanasius1 ,jerome1 and ,augustine1   
though born under ,gospel influences1   
studied heathen philosophy and poetry at
 the instance of their ,christian       
parents4  #d4 ,some of the leaders      
familiarized themselves with the        
speculations of the day1 not merely for 
the sake of a wider range of knowledge1 
but that they might the more            
successfully refute the assailants of   
the faith1 many of whom were men of     
great power4 ,they were fully aware that
 it behooved them to know their ground1 
for their opponents studied the points  
of comparison carefully4 ,the infidel   
,celsus studied ,christianity and its   
relation to the ,old ,testament         
histories and prophecies1 and he armed  

himself with equal assiduity with all   
the choicest weapons drawn from ,greek  
philosophy4 ,how was such a man to be   
met8 ,his able attack on ,christianity  
remained fifty years unanswered4 ,to    
reply adequately was not an easy task4  
,doubtless there were many1 then as now1
 who thought that the most comfortable  
way of dealing with such things was to  
let them alone4 ,but a wiser policy     
prevailed4 ,origen was requested to     
prepare an answer1 and1 although such   
work was not congenial to him1 he did so
 because he felt that the cause of the  
truth demanded it4 ,his reply outlived  
the attack which it was designed to     
meet1 and in all subsequent ages it has 
been a bulwark of defence4#cb  ,origen  
was not of a pugnacious spirit--it was  
well that he was not--but with wide and 
thorough preparation he summoned all his
 energies to meet the foe4 ,archdeacon  
,farrar says of him1 that he had been   
trained in the whole circle of science4 
,he could argue with the pupils of      

,plato1 or those of ,zeno1 on equal     
terms1 and he deems it fortunate that   
one who was called1 as he was1 to be a  
teacher at ,alexandria1 where men of all
 nations and all creeds met1 had a      
cosmopolitan training and a cosmopolitan
 spirit4  ,no less resolute was the     
effort of ,ambrose in resisting the     
errors of ,arianism1 and he also adapted
 himself to the work in hand4 ,he had   
not been afraid of ,platonism4 ,on the  
other hand1 we are told that ,plato1    
next to his ,bible1 constituted a part  
of his daily reading1 and that1 too1 in 
the period of his ripest ,christian     
experience1 and when he carried his     
studies and his prayers far into the    
hours of the night4 ,but in dealing with
 ,arianism he needed a special          
understanding of all its intricacies1   
and when among its advocates and        
supporters he encountered a powerful    
empress as well as her ablest advocates1
 he had need of all the powers within   
him--that power of moral earnestness    

which had led him to give all his       
property to the poor--that power of     
strong faith1 which prepared him1 if    
need be1 to lay down his life--the power
 of a disciplined intellect1 and a      
thorough knowledge of the whole issue4  
#e4 ,the early ,fathers not only studied
 the heathen philosophies of ,plato and 
,aristotle1 but they learned to employ  
them1 and their successors continued to 
employ them1 even to the ,middle ,ages1 
and the period of the ,reformation4 ,as 
an intellectual framework1 under which  
truth should be presented in logical    
order1 it became a strong resource of   
the early ,christian teachers4 ,let me  
refer you on this point to the clear    
statements of ,professor ,shedd4#cc ,he 
has well said that when ,christianity   
was revealed in its last and beautiful  
form by the incarnation of the ,eternal 
,world1 it found the human mind already 
occupied by human philosophy4 ,educated 
men were ,platonists1 or ,stoics1 or    
,epicureans4 ,during the age of         

,apologetics1 which extended from the   
end of the apostolic age to the death of
 ,origen1 the ,church was called to     
grapple with these systems1 to know as  
far as possible what they contained1 and
 to discriminately treat their contents1
 rejecting some things1 utilizing       
others4 ,we shall see1 he continues1    
that ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and ,cicero    
exerted more influence than all other   
philosophic minds united upon the       
greatest of ,christian ,fathers1 upon   
the greatest of the ,school men1 and    
upon the greatest of the theologians of 
the ,reformation1 ,calvin and           
,melancthon2 and if we look at ,european
 philosophy1 as it has been unfolded in 
,england1 ,germany1 and ,france1 we can 
perceive that all the modern philosophic
 schools have discussed the principles  
of human reason in very much the same   
manner in which ,plato and ,aristotle   
discussed them twenty-two centuries ago4
  ,i need hardly say1 in closing1 that  
it is not necessary to borrow from the  

heathen systems of to-day as extensively
 as the ,fathers did from the systems of
 ,greece and ,rome1 and it would be     
discordant with good taste to illustrate
 our sermons with quotations from the   
,hindu poets as lavishly as good ,jeremy
 ,taylor graced his discourses with gems
 from the poets of ,greece4 ,but ,i     
think that we may so far heed the wise  
examples furnished by ,church history as
 to face the false systems of our time  
with a candid and discriminating spirit1
 and by a more adequate knowledge to    
disenchant the bugbears with which their
 apologists would alarm the ,church4    
,we are entering upon the broadest and  
most momentous struggle with heathen    
error that the world has ever witnessed4
 ,again1 in this later age1 philosophy  
and multiform speculation are becoming  
the handmaids of ,hindu pantheism and   
,buddhist occultism1 as well as of      
,christian truth4 ,the resources of the 
,east and the ,west are combined and    
subsidized by the enemy as well as by   

the ,church4 ,as in old ,rome and       
,alexandria1 so now in ,london and      
,calcutta all currents of human thought 
flow together1 and truth is in full     
grapple with error4 ,it is no time to be
 idle or to take refuge in pious        
ignorance1 much less to fear heathen    
systems as so many haunted houses which 
superstitious people dare not enter--as 
if the ,gospel were not as potent a     
talisman now as it was ages ago4 ,let us
 fearlessly enter these abodes of       
darkness1 throw open the shutters1 and  
let in the light of day1 and the        
hobgoblins will flee4 ,let us explore   
every dark recess1 winnow out the miasma
 and the mildew with the pure air of    
heaven1 and the ,sun of ,righteousness  
shall fill the world4   ,,footnotes3    
,footnote #bj3 ,the ,norsemen1 ,maclear4
  ,footnote #ba3 ,the ,druid bard       
,taliesen says3 ,christ1 the ,word from 
the beginning1 was from the beginning   
our teacher1 and we never lost ,his     
teaching4 ,christianity was a new thing 

in ,asia1 but there never was a time    
when the ,druids of ,britain held not   
its doctrines4--,st4 ,paul in ,britain1 
p4 #hf4  ,footnote #bb3 ,uhlhorn's      
,conflict of ,christianity with         
,heathenism4  ,footnote #bc3 ,the same  
dualism of the male and the female      
principle is found in the ,shinto of    
,japan4 ,see ,chamberlain's translation 
of the ,kojiki4  ,footnote #bd3 ,the    
late ,george ,eliot has given expression
 to this grim solace1 and ,mr4 ,john    
,fiske1 in his ,destiny of ,man1 claims 
that the goal of all life1 from the     
first development of the primordial     
cell1 is the perfected future man4      
,footnote #be3 ,voltaire found great    
delight in the so-called ,ezour ,veda1 a
 work which claimed to be an ancient    
,veda containing the essential truths of
 the ,bible4 ,the distinguished ,french 
infidel was humbled1 however1 when it   
turned out that the book was the pious  
fraud of a ,jesuit missionary who has   
hoped thus to win the ,hindus to        

,christianity4  ,footnote #bf3 ,quoted  
by ,uhlhorn in ,the ,conflict of        
,christianity with ,heathenism1 p4 #gj4 
,he also quotes ,seneca as saying3 ,oh1 
if one only might have a guide to truth6
  ,footnote #bg3 ,plato showed by his   
writings and his whole life that he was 
a true seeker after the knowledge of    
,god1 whom he identified with the       
highest good4 ,though he believed in an 
efficient creatorship1 he held that     
matter is eternal4 ,ideas are also      
eternal1 but the world is generated4 ,he
 was not a ,pantheist1 as he clearly    
placed ,god outside of1 or above1 the   
universe4 ,he regarded the soul of man  
as possessed of reason1 moral           
sensibility1 and appetite4  ,on the     
doctrine of future immortality ,plato   
was most emphatic4  ,he also believed   
that the soul in a previous state had   
been pure and sinless1 but had fallen4  
,he taught that recovery from this      
fallen condition is to be accomplished  
by the pursuit of philosophy and the    

practice of virtue 7not as merit but as 
discipline71 by contemplating the       
highest ideal which is the character of 
,god1 and by thinking of eternity4      
,plato regarded suffering as            
disciplinary when properly improved4    
,true philosophy may raise the soul     
above the fear of death4 ,this was      
proved by ,socrates4 ,both ,socrates and
 ,plato seemed to believe in a good     
demon 7spirit7 whose voice was a        
salutary and beneficent guide4 ,as to   
eschatology1 ,plato looked forward to a 
heaven where the virtuous soul shall    
dwell in the presence of ,god1 and in   
the enjoyment of pure delights4         
,aristotle's idea of ,god was scarcely  
less exalted than that of ,plato4 ,he   
expressed it thus3 ,the principle of    
life is in ,god2 for energy of mind     
constitutes life1 and ,god is this      
energy4 ,he1 the first mover1 imparts   
motion and pursues the work of creation 
as something that is loved4 ,his course 
of life must be similar to what is most 

excellent in our own short career4 ,but 
he exists forever in this excellence1   
whereas this is impossible for us4 ,his 
pleasure consists in the exercise of his
 essential energy1 and on this account  
vigilance1 wakefulness1 and perception  
are most agreeable to him4 ,again1 the  
more we examine ,god's nature the more  
wonderful does it appear to us4 ,he is  
an eternal and most excellent being4 ,he
 is indivisible1 devoid of parts1 and   
having no magnitude1 for ,god imparts   
motion through infinite time1 and       
nothing finite1 as magnitude is1 can    
have an infinite capacity4 ,he is a     
being devoid of passions and            
unalterable4--,quoted in ,indian        
,wisdom1 p4 #abe4  ,footnote #bh3 ,those
 pages present not the image of this    
piety1 the tears of confession1 ,thy    
sacrifice1 a troubled spirit1 a broken  
and a contrite heart1 the salvation of  
the people1 the ,bridal city1 the       
earnest of the ,holy ,ghost1 the cup of 
our redemption4 ,no man sings there1    

',shall not my soul be submitted unto   
,god8 for of ,him cometh my salvation1  
for ,he is my ,god and my salvation1 my 
guardian1 ,i shall no more be grieved4' 
,no one there hears ,him call ',come    
unto me all ye that                     
labor4'--,confessions1 ,bk4 vii41 xxi4  
,but having then read those books of the
 ,platonists1 and thence being taught to
 search for incorporeal truth1 ,i saw   
,thy invisible things1 understood by the
 things which are made2 and though cast 
back1 ,i perceived what that was which1 
through the darkness of my mind1 ,i was 
hindered from contemplating1 being      
assured 'that ,thou wert and wert       
infinite1 and yet not diffused in space1
 finite or infinite1 and that ,thou     
truly art who art the same ever1 in no  
part nor motion varying2 and that all   
other things are from ,thee4444 ,of     
these things ,i was assured1 yet too    
insecure to enjoy ,thee4 ,i prated as   
one skilled1 but ,i had not sought ,thy 
way in ,christ our ,saviour2 ,i had     

proved to be not skilled but            
killed4--,confessions1 ,bk4 vii41 xx4   
,footnote #bi3 ,we may judge of the     
bearing of the common term heathen as   
applied to non-,christian nations1 when 
we consider that the ,greeks and ,romans
 characterized all foreigners as        
barbarians1 that ,mohammedans call all  
,christians infidels1 and the ,chinese  
greet them as foreign devils4 ,the      
missionary enterprise as a work of      
conciliation should illustrate a broader
 spirit4  ,footnote #cj3 ,the ,celts1   
,maclear4  ,footnote #ca3 ,lives of the 
,fathers1 ,farrar4  ,footnote #cb3      
,christianity1 says ,max ,mueller1      
enjoyed no privileges and claimed no    
immunities when it boldly confronted and
 confounded the most ancient and the    
most powerful religions of the world4   
,even at present it craves no mercy and 
it receives no mercy from those whom our
 missionaries have to meet face to face 
in every part of the world2 and unless  
our religion has ceased to be what it   

was1 its defenders should not shrink    
from this new trial of its strength1 but
 should encourage rather than depreciate
 the study of comparative               
theology4--,science of ,religion1 p4    
#bb4  ,footnote #cc3 ,history of        
,christian ,theology1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #eb4
     ,,lecture ,,iii4  ,,the            
,,successive ,,developments ,,op        
,,hinduism   ,the religious systems of  
,india1 like its flora1 display         
luxuriant variety and confusion4        
,hinduism is only another banyan-tree   
whose branches have become trunks1 and  
whose trunks have produced new branches1
 until the whole has become an          
intellectual and moral jungle of vast   
extent4 ,the original stock was a       
monotheistic nature worship1 which the  
,hindu ancestors held in common with    
other branches of the ,aryan family when
 dwelling together on the high          
table-lands of ,central ,asia1 or1 as   
some are now claiming1 in ,eastern      
,russia4 ,wherever may have been that   

historic cradle in which the infancy of 
our race was passed1 it seems certain   
from similarities of language1 that this
 ,aryan family once dwelt together1 and 
had a common worship1 and called the    
supreme deity by a common name4 ,it was 
a worship of the sky1 and at length of  
various powers of nature1 ,surya1 the   
sun3 ,agni1 fire3 ,indra1 rain1 etc4 ,it
 is maintained by many authors1 in      
,india as well as in ,europe1 that these
 designations were only applied as names
 of one and the same potential deity4   
,this is the ground held by the various 
branches of the modern ,somaj of ,india4
 ,yet we must not suppose that the      
monotheism of the early ,aryans was all 
that we understand by that term2 it is  
enough that the power addressed was one 
and personal4 ,even henotheism1 the last
 name which ,professor ,max ,mueller    
applies to the early ,aryan faith1      
denotes oneness in this sense4 ,the     
process of differentiation and          
corruption advanced more rapidly among  

the ,indo-,aryans than in the ,iranian  
branch of the same race1 and in all     
lands changes were wrought to some      
extent by differences of climate and by 
environment4#cd ,the ,norsemen1 for     
example1 struggling with the wilder and 
sterner forces of storm and wintry      
tempest1 would naturally differ in      
custom1 and finally in faith1 from the  
gentle ,hindu under his ,indian sky2 yet
 there were common elements traceable in
 the earliest traditions of these races1
 and the fact that religions are not    
wholly dependent upon local conditions  
is shown by both ,christianity and      
,buddhism1 which have flourished most   
conspicuously and permanently in lands  
where they were not indigenous4  ,in the
 ,vedas1 says ,sir ,monier ,williams1   
unity in the conception of deity soon   
diverged into various ramifications4    
,only a few of the hymns appear to      
contain the simple conception of one    
divine1 self-existent1 omnipresent      
,being1 and even in these1 the idea of  

one ,god1 present in all nature1 is     
somewhat nebulous and undefined4 ,one of
 the earliest deifications that we can  
trace was that of ,varuna1 who          
represented the overhanging sky4 ,the   
hymns addressed to ,varuna are not only 
the earliest1 but they are the loftiest 
and most spiritual in their aspirations4
 ,they find in him an element of        
holiness before which sin is an offence2
 and in some vague sense he is the      
father of all things1 like the ,zeus    
whom ,paul recognized in the poetry of  
,greece4  ,but1 as already stated1 this 
vague conception of ,god as one1 was    
already in a transition toward separate 
impressions of the different powers of  
nature4 ,if the idea of ,god was without
 any very clear personality and more or 
less obscure1 it is not strange that it 
should come to be thus specialized as   
men thought of objects having a         
manifestly benign influence--as the     
life-quickening sun or the reviving     
rain4 ,it is not strange that1 without a

 knowledge of the true ,god1 they should
 have been filled with awe when gazing  
upon the dark vault of night1 and should
 have rendered adoration to the moon and
 her countless retinue of stars4 ,if    
there must be idolatry1 let it be that  
sublime nature worship of the early     
,aryans1 though even that was sure to   
degenerate into baser forms4 ,one might 
suppose that the worship of the heavenly
 bodies would remain the purest and     
noblest2 and yet the sun-worship of the 
,assyrians and the ,phoenicians became  
unspeakably vile in its sensuousness1   
and finally the most wicked and         
abominable of all heathen systems4      
,india in her darkest days never sank so
 low1 and when her degradation came it  
was through other conceptions than those
 of nature worship4  ,in the early      
,vedic hymns are to be found many       
sublime passages which seem to suggest  
traces of those common traditions       
concerning the creation--the ,fall of   
man and the ,deluge1 which we believe to

 have been the earliest religious       
heritage of mankind4 ,they contrast     
strongly with the later and degrading   
cosmogonies of degenerate heathen       
systems1 and especially with the        
grotesque fancies of the subsequent     
,hindu mythology4 ,in the ,xth ,mandala 
of the ,rig ,veda we find the following 
account of primeval chaos1 which reminds
 one of the ,mosaic ,genesis3     ,in   
the beginning there was neither aught   
nor naught1     ,there was neither sky  
nor atmosphere above4     ,what then    
enshrouded all the teeming universe8    
,in the receptacle of what was it       
contained8     ,was it enveloped in the 
gulph profound of water8     ,there was 
then neither death nor immortality4     
,there was then neither day nor night1  
nor light nor darkness4     ,only the   
,existing ,one breathed calmly          
self-contained1     ,naught else but him
 there was1 naught else above1 beyond2  
,then first came darkness hid in        
darkness1 gloom in gloom1     ,next all 

was water1 chaos indiscreet     ,in     
which the ,one lay void1 shrouded in    
nothingness1     ,then turning inward by
 self-developed force     ,of inner     
fervor and intense abstraction grew4    
,in the early ,vedic period many of the 
corruptions of later times were unknown4
 ,there was no distinct doctrine of     
caste1 no transmigration1 no mist of    
pantheism1 no idol-worship1 no          
widow-burning1 and no authorized        
infanticide4 ,the abominable tyranny    
which was subsequently imposed upon     
woman was unknown2 the low superstitions
 of the aboriginal tribes had not been  
adopted2 nor1 on the other hand1 had    
philosophy and speculation taken        
possession of the ,hindu mind4 ,the     
doctrine of the ,trimurti and the       
incarnations had not appeared4#ce  ,the 
faith of the ,hindus in that early      
period may be called ,aryanism1 or      
,vedism4 ,it bore sway from the ,aryan  
migration1 somewhere about one thousand 
five hundred1 or two thousand1 years    

before ,christ1 to about eight hundred  
years before ,christ4#cf ,by that time  
the priestly class had gained great     
power over all other ranks4 ,they had   
begun to work over the ,vedas to suit   
their own purposes1 selecting from them 
such portions as could be framed into an
 elaborate ritual--known as the         
,brahmanas4 ,the period during which    
they continued this ritualistic         
development is known as the ,brahmana   
period4 ,this extended from about eight 
hundred to five hundred ,b4,c4#cg       
,these1 however1 are only the           
approximate estimates of modern         
scholarship3 such a thing as ancient    
history is unknown to the ,hindu race4  
,this ,brahmana period was marked by the
 intense and overbearing sacerdotalism  
of the ,brahmans1 and by an extreme     
development of the doctrine of caste4   
,never was priestly tyranny carried to  
greater length than by these lordly     
,brahmans of ,india4 ,one of the chief  
abuses of their system was their        

depravation of sacrifice4  ,the earliest
 conception of sacrifice represented in 
the ,vedas is that of a vicarious       
offering of ,parusha1 a ,divine being4  
,very obscure references to this are    
found in the oldest of the four ,vedas1 
dating probably not later than #abjj    
,b4,c4 ,it is brought out still more    
clearly in a ,brahmana which was        
probably composed in the seventh century
 ,b4,c4 ,it is there said that the ,lord
 of creatures offered himself a         
sacrifice for the ,gods4 ,principal     
,fairbairn finds ,vedic authority for   
the idea that the creation of the world 
was accomplished by the self-sacrifice  
of deity2 and ,manu ascribes the        
creation of mankind to the austerities  
of the gods4 ,sir ,monier ,williams1 the
 late ,professor ,banergea1 and many    
others1 have regarded these references  
to a ,divine sacrifice for the benefit  
of gods and men as dim traces of a      
revelation once made to mankind of a    
promised atonement for the sins of the  

world4#ch  ,but so far as the actual    
observances of the early ,hindus were   
concerned1 they seem to have made their 
offerings rather in the spirit of ,cain 
than in the faith of ,abel4 ,they simply
 fed the gods with their gifts1 and     
regaled them with soma juice1 poured    
forth in libations2 the savor of melted 
butter also was supposed to be specially
 grateful4 ,still there is reason to    
believe that the piacular idea of       
sacrifice was never wholly lost1 but    
that the ,hindus1 in common with all    
other races1 found occasion--especially 
when great calamities befell them--to   
appease the gods with the blood of      
sacrifice4 ,in the early days human     
sacrifices were offered1 and            
occasionally at least down to a late    
period4#ci ,it was a convenient policy  
of the priesthood1 however1 to          
hypothecate the claim for a human victim
 by accepting the substitution of a     
goodly number of horses or cows4 ,a     
famous tradition is given1 in the       

,aitareya ,brahmana1 of a prince#dj who 
had been doomed to sacrifice by a vow of
 his father1 but who bought as a        
substitute the son of a holy            
,brahman--paying the price of a hundred 
cows4 ,when none could be found to bind 
the lad on the altar1 the pious father  
offered to perform the task for another 
hundred cows4 ,then there was no one    
found to slay the victim1 and the father
 offered for still another hundred to do
 even that4 ,as the victim was of high  
caste the gods interposed1 and the      
,brahman was still the possessor of a   
son plus the cattle4 ,the incident will 
illustrate the greed of the priesthood  
and the depravation of sacrifice4 ,it   
had become a system of bargaining and   
extortion4 ,the sacrifices fed the      
priesthood more substantially than the  
gods4 ,there was great advantage in     
starting with the human victim as the   
unit of value1 and it is easy to see how
 substitution of animals became         
immensely profitable4 ,the people were  

taught that it was possible1 if one were
 rich enough in victims1 even to        
bankrupt heaven4 ,even demons by the    
value of their offerings might demand   
the sceptre of ,indra4#da  ,hand in hand
 with this growth of the sacrificial    
system was the development of caste2 the
 former was done away by the subsequent 
protest of ,buddhism and the philosophic
 schools2 but the latter has remained   
through all the stages of ,hindu        
history4#db ,such was ,brahmanism4 ,its 
thraldom has never been equalled4 ,the  
land was deluged with the blood of slain
 beasts4 ,all industries were paralyzed 
with discouragement4 ,social aspiration 
was blighted1 patriotism and national   
spirit were weakened1 and ,india was    
prepared for those disastrous invasions 
which made her the prey of all northern 
races4  ,it was in protest against these
 evils that ,gautama and many able      
philosophers arose about #ejj ,b4,c4    
,already the intellectual classes had   
matched the ,brahmans by drawing upon   

,vedic authority for their philosophy4  
,as the ,brahmans had produced a ritual 
from the ,vedas1 so the philosophers    
framed a sort of philosophic ,veda in   
the ,upanishads4 ,men had begun to ask  
themselves the great questions of human 
life and destiny1 ,whence am ,i8 ,what  
is this mysterious being of which ,i am 
conscious8 ,they had begun to reason    
about nature1 the origin of matter1 the 
relation of mortals to the ,infinite4   
,the school of the ,upanishads regarded 
themselves as an aristocracy of         
intellect1 and held philosophy as their 
esoteric and peculiar prerogative4 ,it  
was maintained that two distinct kinds  
of revelation had been made to men4     
,first1 that simple kind which was      
designed for priests and the common     
masses1 for all those who regarded only 
effects and were satisfied with         
sacerdotal assumption and merit-making4 
,but1 secondly1 there was a higher      
knowledge which concerned itself with   
the origin of the world and the hidden  

causes of things4 ,even to this day the 
,upanishads are the ,vedas of the       
thinking classes of ,india4#dc  ,as the 
,brahmanas gave first expression to the 
doctrine of caste1 so in the ,upanishads
 we find the first development of       
pantheism and the doctrine of           
transmigration4 ,the conclusion had     
already been reached that ,there is only
 one ,being who exists3 ,he is within   
this universe and yet outside this      
universe3 whoe'er beholds all living    
creatures as in ,him1 and ,him the      
universal spirit1 as in all1 thenceforth
 regards no creature with contempt4     
,the language of ,hindu speculation     
exhausts its resources in similes by    
which to represent personal             
annihilation4 ,man's origin and         
relations are accounted for very tersely
 by such illustrations as these3 ,as the
 web issues from the spider1 as little  
sparks proceed from fire1 so from the   
,one ,soul proceed all breathing        
animals1 all worlds1 all the gods1 all  

beings4 ,then as to destiny3 ,these     
rivers proceed from the east toward the 
west1 thence from the ocean they rise in
 the form of vapor1 and dropping again1 
they flow toward the south and merge    
into the ocean4 ,and as the flowing     
rivers are merged into the sea1 losing  
their names and forms1 so the wise1     
freed from name and form1 pass into the 
,divine spirit1 which is greater than   
the great4#dd ,another favorite         
illustration is that of the moon's      
reflection in the water-jar1 which      
disappears the moment the moon itself is
 hidden4 ,if the image in the water has 
no existence separate from that of the  
moon1 says the ,hindu1 how can it be    
shown that the human soul exists apart  
from ,god8  ,the ,mundaka ,upanishad1   
based upon the ,atharva ,veda 7one of   
the latest1--the ,upanishad being later 
still71 contains this account of the    
universe3 ,as the spider spins and      
gathers back 7its thread72 as plants    
sprout on the earth2 as hairs grow on a 

living person2 so is this universe here 
produced from the imperishable nature4  
,by contemplation the vast one          
germinates2 from him food 7or body7 is  
produced2 and thence successively1      
breath1 mind1 real 7elements7 worlds1   
and immortality resulting from 7good7   
deeds4  ,the ,omniscient is profound    
contemplation consisting in the         
knowledge of him who knows all2 and from
 that1 the 7manifested7 vast one1 as    
well as names1 forms1 and food proceed2 
and this is truth4#de  ,it is a great   
blemish upon the ,upanishads1 that while
 there are subtle1 and in some respects 
sublime1 utterances to be found here and
 there1 the great mass is fanciful and  
often puerile1 and in many instances too
 low and prurient to bear translation   
into the ,english language4 ,this is    
clearly alleged by ,mr4 ,bose1 and      
frankly admitted by ,max ,mueller4#df   
,in the common protest which finally    
broke down the system of ,brahmanical   
sacrifice1 and for a time relaxed the   

rigors of caste tyranny1 ,buddhism then 
just appearing 7say #ejj ,b4,c471 joined
 hand in hand with the philosophies4    
,men were tired of priestcraft1 and by a
 natural reaction they went to an       
opposite extreme2 they were tired of    
religion itself4 ,buddha became an      
undoubted atheist or agnostic1 and six  
distinct schools of philosophy arose on 
the basis of the ,upanishads--some of   
which were purely rationalistic1 some   
were conservative1 others radical4 ,some
 resembled the ,greek ,atomists in their
 theory1#dg and others fought for the   
authority1 and even the supreme         
divinity1 of the ,vedas4#dh ,all        
believed in the eternity of matter1 and 
the past eternity of the soul2 all      
accepted the doctrine of transmigration1
 and maintained that the spiritual      
nature can only act through a material  
body4 ,all were pessimistic1 and looked 
for relief only in absorption4  ,but the
 progress of ,hindu thought was marked  
by checks and counter-checks4 ,as the   

tyranny of the priesthood had led to the
 protest of philosophy1 so the extreme  
and conflicting speculations of         
philosophic rationalism probably gave   
rise to the conservatism of the ,code of
 ,manu4 ,no adequate idea of the drift  
of ,hindu thought can be gained without 
assigning due influence to this         
all-important body of laws4 ,they       
accomplished more in holding fast the   
power of the ,brahmans1 and enabling    
them to stem the tide of intellectual   
rebellion1 and finally to regain the    
sceptre from the hand of ,buddhism1 than
 all other literatures combined4 ,their 
date cannot be definitely known4 ,they  
were composed by different men and at   
different times4 ,they probably followed
 the ,upanishads1 but antedated the full
 development of the philosophic schools4
  ,many of the principles of ,manu's    
,code had probably been uttered as early
 as the seventh century ,b4,c4#di ,the  
ferment of rationalistic thought was    
even then active1 and demanded          

restraint4 ,the one phrase which        
expresses the whole spirit of the laws  
of ,manu is intense conservatism4 ,they 
stand for the definite authority of     
dogma2 they re-assert in strong terms   
the authority of the ,vedas2 they       
establish and fortify by all possible   
influences1 the institution of caste4   
,they enclose as in an iron framework1  
all domestic1 social1 civil1 and        
religious institutions4 ,they embrace   
not only the destiny of men upon the    
earth1 but also the rewards and         
punishments of the future life4         
,whatever they touched was petrified4   
,abuses which had crept in through the  
natural development of human            
depravity--for example1 the oppression  
of woman--the laws of ,manu stamped with
 inflexible and irreversible authority4 
,the evils which grow up in savage      
tribes are bad enough1 the tyranny of   
mere brute force is to be deplored1 but 
worst of all is that which is sanctioned
 by statute1 and made the very          

corner-stone of a great civilization4   
,probably no other system of laws ever  
did so much to rivet the chains of      
domestic tyranny4#ej  ,the ,code of     
,manu has been classified as1 #ast1     
sacred knowledge and religion2 #b;d1    
philosophy2 #c;d1 social rules and caste
 organization2 #dth1 criminal and civil 
laws2 #eth1 systems of penance2 #fth1   
eschatology1 or the doctrine of future  
rewards4 ,no uninspired or non-,vedic   
production has equal authority in       
,india4 ,we can only judge of its date  
by its relative place among other books4
 ,it applies ,vedic names to the gods1  
though it mentions ,brahma and ,vishnu1 
but it makes no reference to the        
,trimurti4 ,pantheism was evidently in  
existence and was made prominent in the 
code4 ,the influence of ,manu over the  
jurisprudence of ,india was a matter of 
growth4 ,at first the code appears to   
have been a guide in customs and        
observances1 but as it gained currency  
it acquired the force of law1 and       

extended its sway over all the tribes of
 ,india4 ,it was not1 however1          
maintained as a uniform code throughout 
the land1 but its principles were found 
underlying the laws of all the          
provinces4 ,its very merits were finally
 fruitful of evil4 ,human weal was      
sacrificed to the over-shadowing power  
of a system of customs cunningly wrought
 and established by ,brahmanical        
influence4 ,the author was evidently a  
,brahman1 and the whole work was        
prepared and promulgated in the         
interests of ,brahmanism as against all 
freedom of thought4 ,its support of the 
,vedas was fanatical4 ,thus3 ,a ,brahman
 by retaining the ,rig ,veda in his     
memory incurs no guilt1 though he should
 destroy the three worlds4 ,again3 ,when
 there is contradiction of two precepts 
in the ,veda1 both are declared to be   
law2 both have been justly promulgated  
by known sages as valid law4  ,the laws 
of ,manu make no mention of the doctrine
 of ,bakti or faith1 and there is no    

reference to the worship of the ,sakti2 
both of these were of later date4 ,the  
doctrine of transmigration1 however1 is 
fully stated1 and as a consequence of   
this the hells described in the code1   
though places of torture1 resolve       
themselves into merely temporary        
purgatories1 while the heavens become   
only the steps on the road to a union   
with deity4 ,there is reason to believe 
that the practice of employing idols to 
represent deity was unknown at the time 
the code was compiled4 ,there is no     
allusion to public services or to       
teaching in the temples1 the chief rites
 of religion were of a domestic kind1   
and the priests of that age were nothing
 more than domestic chaplains4  ,manu's 
theory of creation was this3 ,the       
,self-,existent1 having willed to       
produce various beings from his own     
substance1 first with a thought created 
the waters and placed on them a         
productive seed or egg4 ,then he himself
 was born in that egg in the form of    

,brahma4 ,next he caused the egg to     
divide itself1 and out of its two       
divisions there came the heaven above   
and the earth beneath4 ,afterward1      
having divided his own substance he     
became half male1 half female4 ,from    
that female was produced ,viraj1 from   
whom was created the secondary          
progenitor of all beings4 ,then from the
 ,supreme ,soul he drew forth ,manu's   
intellect4 ,this mixed cosmogony is     
supposed to indicate a diversity of     
authorship4  ,it will be seen that this 
is much less philosophical than the     
theory of creation quoted above from the
 ,mundaka ,upanishad4#ea ,if we compare 
,manu's account with the description of 
the ,beginning found in one of the hymns
 of the ,rig ,veda1#eb we shall see that
 there has been a downward trend of     
,hinduism from the simple and sublime   
conceptions of the early poets to that  
which is grotesque1 and which has       
probably been worked over to suit the   
purposes of the ,brahmans4 ,no          

mythological legend was too absurd if it
 promoted the notion of the divine      
origin of the ,manus 7sages7 and the    
,brahmans4  ,manu makes much of the     
,vedic passage which refers to the      
origin of caste4#ec ,he maintained that 
this distinction of caste was as much a 
law of nature and divine appointment as 
the separation of different classes of  
animals4 ,the prominence accorded to the
 ,brahmans was nothing short of divine4 
,even when ,brahmans employ themselves  
in all sorts of inferior occupations 7as
 poverty often compels them to do7 they 
must under all circumstances be honored1
 for they are to be regarded as supreme 
divinities4 ,a ,brahman's own power is  
stronger than the power of the king1    
therefore by his own might he may       
chastise his foes4 ,he who merely       
assails a ,brahman with intent to kill  
him1 will continue in hell for a hundred
 years1 and he who actually strikes him 
must endure a thousand years4  ,it is   
always the truth that is mingled with   

the errors of any system which          
constitutes its life and gives it       
perpetuity1 and there is much in the    
,code of ,manu to be admired4 ,like the 
,confucian ethics1 it laid its          
foundations in the respect due from     
childhood to parents1 and in guarding   
the sanctities of the home4 ,it aimed at
 fairness between ruler and subject1 in 
an age when over most of the ,asiatic   
continent the wildest caprice of rulers 
was the law of their respective realms4 
,manu taught the duty of kings toward   
their subjects in most emphatic terms4  
,they were to regard themselves as      
servants1 or rather as fathers1 of the  
people2 and rules were prescribed for   
their entire conduct4 ,they were the    
representatives of deity in             
administering the affairs of mortals1   
and must realize their solemn           
responsibility4#ed ,it must ever be     
acknowledged that the ,hindu laws       
respecting property were characterized  
by wisdom and equity4 ,taxation was not 

subject to caprice or injustice2 where  
discriminations occurred they were in   
favor of the poor1 and the heaviest     
burdens were laid where they should be  
laid1 upon the rich4 ,there were wise   
adaptations1 calculated to develop the  
industry and self-help of the weakest   
classes1 and care was taken that they   
never should become oppressive4 ,no     
political or civic tyranny could be     
allowed2 but that of the priesthood in  
its relations to all ranks1 and that of 
the householder toward his wife and     
toward all women1 were quite sufficient4
 ,in this last regard we scarcely know  
which was the greater--the heartless    
wickedness of the ,code1 or its blind   
and bigoted folly4 ,how it was that laws
 could be framed which indicated such   
rare sagacity1 which in many other      
respects were calculated to build up the
 very highest civilization1 and which1  
at the same time1 failed to foresee that
 this oppression of woman must result in
 the inevitable degeneracy of succeeding

 generations of men1 must ever remain a 
mystery4#ee  ,we have glanced at the    
purer and simpler ,aryanism of the early
 period1 at the bigoted1 tyrannical     
,brahmanism1 with its ritual1 its       
sacrifices1 its caste4 ,we have merely  
alluded to the rationalistic reaction of
 the philosophers and the ,buddhists4   
,we shall now see that the ,brahman     
power is not broken1 but that it will   
regain all and more than it has lost1   
that it will prove elastic enough to    
embrace all that has gone before2 that  
while ,buddhism will be banished1 many  
of its elements will be retained1 and   
the whole woven into one marvellous     
texture which we will call ,hinduism4#ef
 ,even during the period of ,buddhism's 
greatest triumphs1 say1 two or three    
centuries before ,christ1 changes of    
great moment were going on in the       
,brahmanical faith4 ,the old sacrificial
 system had lost its power1 but the     
flexible and inexhaustible resources of 
,brahmanical cunning were by no means   

dormant4 ,in the border wars of the     
,aryans1 with rival invaders on the one 
hand1 and with the conquered but ever   
restless aborigines on the other1 great 
and popular heroes had sprung up4 ,the  
exploits of these heroes had been       
celebrated in two great epics1 the      
,ramayana and the ,mahabharata1 and the 
popularity of these poems was immense4  
,the heroes were of the soldier caste1  
and gave to that caste a prestige which 
seemed to the ,brahmans formidable and  
dangerous4#eg ,the divine prerogatives  
of their order were all in jeopardy4    
,the remedy chosen by the ,brahmans was 
a bold and desperate one4 ,these heroes 
must be raised out of the soldier caste 
by making them divine4 ,as such they    
would hold a nearer relation to the     
divine ,brahmans than to the soldiers4  
,the legends were therefore worked      
over--,brahmanized--so to speak4#eh     
,rama1 who had overcome certain         
chieftains of ,ceylon1 and ,krishna1 who
 had won great battles in ,rajputana1   

were raised to the rank of gods and     
demi-gods4 ,by an equal exaggeration the
 hostile chiefs of rival invaders were  
transformed to demons1 and the black1   
repulsive hill tribes1 who were involved
 as allies in these conflicts1 were     
represented as apes4 ,as a part of this 
same ,brahmanizing process1 the doctrine
 of the ,trimurti was developed1 and    
also the doctrine of incarnation4 ,most 
conspicuous were the incarnations of    
,vishnu2 ,rama and ,krishna were finally
 placed among the ten incarnations of   
that deity4 ,this was a skilful stroke  
of policy1 for it was now no longer the 
heroes of the soldier caste who had won 
victory for the ,aryans2 it was ,vishnu1
 the preserver1 the care-taker1 and     
sympathizer with all the interests of   
mankind4 ,the development of the        
doctrines of the ,trimurti and of       
incarnation undoubtedly followed both   
the rise of ,buddhism and the           
promulgation of the ,laws of ,manu4     
,meanwhile the ,brahmans were shrewd    

enough to adapt themselves to certain   
other necessities4 ,the influence of    
,buddhism was still a force which was   
not to be disregarded4 ,it had          
demonstrated one thing which had never  
been recognized before1 and that was the
 need of a more human and sympathetic   
element in the divine objects of        
worship4 ,men were weary of worshipping 
gods who had no kindly interest in      
humanity4 ,they were weary of a religion
 which had no other element than that of
 fear or of bargaining with costly      
sacrifices4 ,they longed for something  
which had the quality of mercy4 ,buddha 
had demonstrated the value of this      
element1 and by an adroit stroke of     
policy the ,brahmans adopted ,gautama as
 the ninth avatar of ,vishnu4 ,meanwhile
 they adopted the heroic ,krishna as the
 god of sympathy--the favorite of the   
lower masses who were not too critical  
toward his vices4  ,we have now reached 
the fully developed form of             
,hinduism4#ei ,the ,brahmans had        

embraced every element that could give  
strength to their broad1 eclectic1 and  
all-embracing system4#fj ,the doctrine  
of the ,trimurti had become a strong    
factor1 as it furnished a sort of       
framework1 and gave stability4 ,as      
compared with the early ,aryanism1 it   
removed the idea of deity from merely   
natural forces to that of abstract      
thoughts1 principles1 and emotions1 as  
active and potent in the world4 ,at the 
same time it retained the old ,vedic    
deities under new names and with new    
functions1 and it did not abate its     
professed regard for ,vedic authority4  
,the ,brahmans had rendered their system
 popular in a sense with the            
intellectual classes by adopting all the
 philosophies4 ,they had stopped the    
mouth of ,buddhist protest by embracing 
the ,buddha among their incarnations4   
,they had shown an advance in the       
succession of incarnations from the     
early embodiments of brute force1 the   
fish1 the tortoise1 the boar1 up to     

heroes1 and from these to the ninth     
avatar1 the ,buddha1 as a moralist and  
philosopher4#fa ,they left on record the
 prediction that a tenth should         
come--and he is yet to come--who1 in a  
still higher range of moral and         
spiritual power1 should redeem and      
renovate the earth1 and establish a     
kingdom of righteousness4  ,meanwhile1  
in this renaissance of the ,hindu faith1
 this wide1 politic1 self-adapting      
system1 we find not only ,buddhism1     
,philosophy1 the early ,aryanism1 and   
the stiff cultus of ,brahmanism1 but    
there is also a large infusion of the   
original superstitions of the           
,dravidians1 ,kohls1 ,santals1 and other
 nature worshippers of the hill tribes4 
,much of the polytheism of the modern   
,hindus--the worship of hills1 trees1   
apes1 cattle1 the sun1 the moon1 unseen 
spirits1 serpents1 etc4--has been       
adopted from these simple tribes1 so    
that the present system embraces all    
that has ever appeared on the soil of   

,india--even ,mohammedanism to some     
extent2 and as some contend1 very much  
also has been incorporated from the     
early teachings of the so-called ,st4   
,thomas ,christians of ,malabar4 ,such  
is the immense composite which is called
 ,hinduism4 ,it continued its           
development through the early centuries 
of the ,christian era1 and down even to 
the ,middle ,ages4 ,since then there has
 been disintegration instead of growth4 
,the ,brahmans have not only retained   
the ,aryan deities1 and extended        
,vishnu's incarnate nature over the epic
 heroes1 but in the ,puranas they have  
woven into the alleged lives of the     
incarnate gods the most grotesque       
mythologies and many revolting vices4   
,it may be interesting to trace for a   
moment the influence of the different   
lines of ,hindu literature upon the     
general development of national         
character4 ,of course1 the early ,vedic 
literature has never lost its influence 
as the holy and inspired source of all  

knowledge to the ,hindu race2 but we    
have seen how much more potential were  
the ,brahmanas and the ,upanishad       
philosophy drawn from the ,vedas1 than  
were those sacred oracles themselves2   
how the ,brahmanas riveted the chains of
 priestcraft and caste1 and how the     
philosophies invigorated the intellect  
of the people at a time when they were  
most in danger of sinking into the      
torpor of ignorance and base            
subserviency to ritual and sacrifice2   
how it gave to the better classes the   
courage to rise up in rebellion and     
throw off every yoke1 and think for     
themselves4 ,we have seen how ,buddhism 
by its protest against sacerdotalism    
crippled for a time the power of the    
,brahmans and raised a representative of
 the soldier caste to the chief place as
 a teacher of men2 how its inculcation  
of pity to man and beast banished the   
slaughter and cruelty of wholesale and  
meaningless sacrifice1 and how its      
example of sympathy changed ,hinduism   

itself1 and brought it into nearer      
relations with humanity4 ,driven from   
,india1 though it was1 it left an       
immense deposit of influence and of     
power4 ,we have seen how1 as a          
counter-check to philosophy and         
,buddhism1 the ,code of ,manu reasserted
 the authority of the ,vedas1 and       
riveted anew the chains of caste1 and   
how it compensated for its              
oppressiveness by many wholesome and    
benign regulations--accomplishing more1 
perhaps1 than all other literatures     
combined to maintain the stability of   
,hinduism1 through its many             
vicissitudes1 and in spite of the       
heterogeneous elements which it received
 and incorporated4  ,scarcely less      
important was the influence of the great
 epics--the ,ramayana and the           
,mahabharata--with their doctrine of    
,trimurti and the incarnations of       
,vishnu in the national heroes4 ,this   
conciliated the soldier caste1          
subsidized the most popular characters  

in ,hindu tradition1 at the same time   
that it made them tenfold more glorious 
than before4 ,the ,epics widened out the
 field of ,hindu mythology immensely4   
,never before had there been such a     
boundless range for the imagination4    
,the early ,brahmans had cramped all    
intellectual growth1 and held mankind by
 the leash of priestly ritual4 ,the     
philosophies had been too strait and    
lofty for any but the higher class2     
,manu's laws had been a stern           
school-master to keep the people under  
curbs and restraints2 even the ,brahmans
 themselves were the slaves of their own
 ritual4 ,but all the people could      
understand and admire ,rama's wonderful 
victories over the demon ,ravana4 ,all  
could appreciate the devotion of the    
lovely ,sita1 and weep when she was     
kidnapped and borne away1 like ,grecian 
,helen1 to the demon court in ,ceylon2  
and they could be thrilled with         
unbounded joy when she was restored--the
 truest and loveliest of wives--to be   

the sharer of a throne4  ,the ,epics    
took such hold of the popular heart that
 any fact1 any theory1 any myth that    
could be attached to them found ready   
credence4 ,the ,mahabharata especially  
became a general texture upon which any 
philosophy1 or all the philosophies1    
might be woven at will4 ,and for a long 
period1 extending from three or four    
centuries ,b4,c4 onward far into the    
,christian era1 it was ever ready to    
receive modifications from the fertile  
brain and skilful hand of any devout    
,brahman4 ,a striking example of this   
was the introduction of the ,bhagavad   
,gita4 ,when this was composed1         
somewhere about the second or third     
century of our era1 there was no little 
conflict between the different schools  
of philosophy2 and its unknown author   
attempted to unite them all in a poem   
which should harmonize their            
contradictions and exalt the virtues of 
each1 and at the same time reiterate all
 the best maxims of ,hinduism4 ,some    

centuries later1 the pronounced         
,vedantist ,sancarakarya revamped the   
poem and gave its philosophy a more     
pantheistic character2 later still the  
demigod ,krishna was raised to full rank
 as the supreme ,vishnu--the ,creator   
and ,upholder of all things4#fb  ,it is 
important to notice that in the trend of
 ,hindu literature through so many ages 
there has been no upward movement1 but  
rather a decline4 ,nowhere do we find   
hymns of so pure and lofty a tone as in 
the early ,vedas4 ,no philosophy of the 
later times has equalled that of the    
,upanishads and the six ,darsanas4 ,no  
law-giver like ,manu has appeared for   
twenty-four centuries4 ,no ,sanskrit    
scholarship has equalled that of the    
great grammarian ,panini1 who lived in  
the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,and although 
no end of poetry has succeeded the great
 ,epics1 it has shown deterioration4    
,the ,puranas1 written at a later day1  
reveal only a reckless zeal to exalt the
 incarnate deities4 ,they may properly  

be called histories of the incarnations 
of ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 ,siva1 and         
glorifications of ,krishna4 ,and the    
very nature of the subjects with which  
they deal gives free scope to an        
unbridled imagination and to the most   
reckless exaggeration4  ,if anything    
more were wanting to insure their       
extravagance1 it may be found in the    
fact that they were inspired by the     
rivalry of the respective worshippers of
 different gods4 ,the ,puranas mark the 
development of separate sects1 each of  
which regarded its particular deity as  
the supreme and only god4 ,the          
worshippers of ,vishnu and the          
worshippers of ,siva were in sharp      
rivalry1 and they have continued their  
separation to this day4#fc ,those who   
came to worship ,vishnu as incarnate in 
,krishna1 gained an advantage in the    
popular element associated with a       
favorite hero4 ,yet this was matched by 
the influence of the ,sankhya           
philosophy1 which assigned to ,siva a   

male and female dualism1 a doctrine     
which finally plunged ,hinduism into    
deepest degradation4 ,it brought about a
 new development known as ,saktism1 and 
the still later and grosser literature  
of the ,tantras4 ,in these1 ,hinduism   
reached its lowest depths4 ,the modern  
,aryas discard both the ,tantras and the
 ,puranas1 and assert that the popular  
incarnations of ,vishnu were only good  
men4 ,they take refuge from the         
corruptions of modern ,hinduism in the  
purer teachings of the early ,vedas4    
,the ,contrasts of ,hinduism and        
,christianity4  ,hinduism has some      
elements in common with ,christianity   
which it is well to recognize4 ,it is   
theistic2 it is a religion1 as          
distinguished from the agnostic and     
ethical systems of ,india and ,china4#fd
 ,hinduism always recognized a direct   
divine revelation which it regards with 
profound reverence2 and through all its 
variations and corruptions it has       
inculcated in the minds of the ,indian  

races a deeply religious feeling4 ,it   
has been claimed that it has made the   
,hindus the most devotional people in   
the world4 ,like ,christianity1         
,hinduism appeals to man's intellectual 
nature1 and it is inwrought with        
profound philosophy4 ,it does not1      
however1 like some modern systems1 teach
 that divine truth has been revealed to 
man by natural processes2 rather it     
regards the early revelation as having  
suffered obscuration4#fe ,it also has   
its trinity1 its incarnations1 and its  
predictions of a ,messiah who shall     
restore the truth and establish         
righteousness4 ,the ,hindu traditions   
maintain that mankind descended from a  
single pair2#ff that the first estate of
 the race was one of innocence2 that man
 was one of the last products of        
creation2 that in the first ages he was 
upright1 and consequently happy4 ,the   
beings who were thus created by ,brahma 
are said to have been endowed with      
righteousness and perfect faith2 they   

abode wherever they pleased1 unchecked  
by any impediment2 their hearts were    
free from guile2 they were pure1 made   
exempt from toil by observance of sacred
 institutes4 ,in their sanctified minds 
,hari dwelt2 they were filled with      
perfect wisdom by which they            
contemplated the glory of ,vishnu4      
,hartwell has pointed out the fact that 
the early ,hindu traditions here unite  
with the ,scriptural account in         
virtually denying all those theories of 
evolution which trace the development of
 man from lower animals4#fg  ,but       
compared with ,christianity1 its        
contrasts are far greater than its      
resemblances4 ,first1 as to the nature  
of ,god1 there is an infinite difference
 between the cold and unconscious       
,brahman1 slumbering for ages without   
thought or emotion or any moral         
attribute1 and the ,god of ,israel1     
whose power and wisdom and goodness1    
whose mercy and truth and tender        
compassion1 are so constantly set forth 

in the ,bible4 ,the latter compares     
,himself to a ,father who cares for his 
children1 and who has redeemed the world
 by an infinite sacrifice4 ,even in the 
most popular emanation of ,brahman--even
 in ,vishnu--there is nothing of a      
fatherly spirit1 no appeal as to        
children1 no kindly remonstrance against
 sin1 no moral instruction1 or effort to
 encourage and establish character1 no  
promise of reward1 no enkindling of     
immortal hope4  ,second1 there is a     
striking contrast in the comparative    
estimates which ,hinduism and           
,christianity place upon the human soul4
 ,unlike ,buddhism1 ,hinduism does      
recognize the existence of a soul1 but  
it is only a temporary emanation1 like  
the moon's reflection in the water4 ,it 
resembles its source as does the moon's 
image1 but coldly and in a most         
unsatisfactory sense2 there is no       
capacity for fellowship1 and the end is 
absorption4#fh ,on the other hand1      
,christianity teaches us that we are    

created in ,god's image1 but not that we
 are his image4 ,we are separate1 though
 dependent1 and if reunited to him      
through ,christ we shall dwell in his   
presence forever4  ,third1 the two      
systems are in strong contrast in the   
comparative hopes which they hold out   
for the future4 ,the doctrine of        
transmigration casts a gloom over all   
conscious being2 it presents an outlook 
so depressing as to make life a burden1 
and the acme of all possible attainment 
is individual extinction1 or what       
amounts to the same thing1 absorption   
into deity4 ,the logic of it is that it 
would be better still not to have been  
born at all4 ,christianity promises an  
immediate transfer to a life of         
unalloyed blessedness1 and an endless   
growth of all our powers and capacities2
 but why should ,hinduism urge the      
cultivation of that whose real destiny  
is effacement8 ,hinduism finds the      
explanation of life's mysteries and     
inscrutable trials in the theory of sins

 committed in a previous existence4     
,christianity1 while recognizing the    
same trials1 relieves them with the hope
 of solutions in a future life of       
compensating joy4 ,the one turns to that
 which is past1 unchangeable and        
hopeless1 and finds only sullen despair2
 the other anticipates an inheritance   
richer than eye hath seen1 or ear heard1
 or heart conceived4  ,fourth1 ,hinduism
 has no ,saviour and no salvation4 ,it  
is not a religion in the highest sense  
of rescue and reconciliation4 ,it avails
 us of no saving power higher than our  
own unaided effort4 ,it implies the ruin
 of sin1 but provides no remedy4 ,it    
presents no omnipotent arm stretched    
forth to save4  ,its fatalism places man
 under endless disabilities1 and then   
bids him to escape from the nexus if he 
can2 but it reveals no divine helper1 no
 sacrifice1 no mediator1 no regenerating
 ,spirit4 ,it has no glad tidings to    
proclaim1 no comfort in sorrow1 no      
victory over the sting of death1 no     

resurrection unto ,life4 ,though at a   
period subsequent to the preaching of   
the ,gospel in ,india--perhaps the      
seventh or eighth century ,a4,d4--a     
doctrine of faith 7,bakti7 was engrafted
 upon ,hinduism1 yet it had no hint of a
 ,saviour from sin and death4#fi        
,fifth1 in ,hinduism there is no liberty
 for the free action of the human       
spirit4 ,though the life of a ,brahman  
is intensely religious1 yet it is       
cramped with exactions which are not    
only abortive but positively belittling4
 ,the code of ,brahmanism never deals   
with general principles in the          
regulation of conduct1 but fills the    
whole course of life with punctilious   
minutiae of observances4 ,instead of    
prescribing1 as ,christ did1 an         
all-comprehensive law of supreme love to
 ,god and love to our neighbor as       
ourselves1 it loads the mind with petty 
exactions1 puerile precepts1 inane      
prohibitions4 ,unlike ,christianity1    
which is all spirit and life1 says ,dr4 

,duff1 ,hinduism is all letter and      
death4 ,repression takes the place of   
inspiration and the encouragement of    
hope4  ,there are a thousand subtle     
principles in ,hinduism whose influence 
is felt in society and in the state1 and
 to which the faith and power of the    
,gospel present the very strongest      
contrasts4 ,for example1 while          
,christianity has raised woman to a     
position of respect and honor1 and made 
her influence felt as something sacred  
and potential in the family and in all  
society1 ,hinduism has brought her down 
even from the place which she occupied  
among the primitive ,aryans1 to an      
ever-deepening degradation4 ,it has made
 her life a burden and a curse4 ,pundita
 ,ramabai1 in her plea for high-caste   
,hindu women1 quotes a prayer of a child
 widow in which she asks1 ,o ,father of 
the world1 hast ,thou not created us8 or
 has perchance some other ,god made us8 
,dost ,thou only care for men8 ,o       
,almighty ,one1 hast ,thou not power to 

make us other than we are1 that we too  
may have some part in the blessings of  
life8 ,even in this last decade of the  
nineteenth century the priesthood of    
,bengal are defending against all humane
 legislation those old customs which    
render the girlhood of ,hindu women a   
living death4#gj  ,in its broad         
influence ,christianity has raised the  
once savage tribes of ,europe to the    
highest degree of culture1 and made them
 leaders and rulers of the world2 but   
,hinduism has so weakened and humbled   
the once conquering ,aryans that they   
have long been an easy prey to every    
invading race4 ,christianity shows in   
its sacred ,book a manifest progress    
from lower to higher moral              
standards--from the letter to the       
spirit1 from the former sins that were  
winked at to the perfect example of     
,christ1 from the narrow exclusiveness  
of ,judaism to the broad and            
all-embracing spirit of the ,gospel1    
from prophecy to fulfilment1 from types 

and shadows to the full light of        
,redemption2 the sacred books of        
,hinduism have degenerated from the     
lofty aspirations of the ,vedic         
nature-worship to the vileness of       
,saktism1 from the noble praises of     
,varuna to the low sensuality of the    
,tantras1 from ,vedic conceptions of the
 creation1 sublime as the opening of    
,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 to the myths of   
the divine turtle or the boar1 or the   
escapades of the supreme and adorable   
,krishna4#ga  ,christianity breaks down 
all barriers which divide and alienate  
mankind1 and establishes a universal    
brotherhood in ,christ2 ,hinduism has   
raised the most insurmountable barriers 
and developed the most inexorable social
 tyranny ever inflicted on the human    
race4 ,the ,hebrew economy also         
recognized a priestly class1 but they   
were chosen from among their brethren   
and were only a distinct family2 they   
made no claim to divine lineage1 and    
they were guiltless of social tyranny4  

,christianity enjoins a higher and purer
 ethic than it has ever found in the    
natural moral standards of any people2  
it aims at perfection2 it treats the    
least infraction as a violation of the  
whole law2 it regards even corrupt      
thoughts as sins2 it bids us be holy    
even as ,he is holy in whose sight the  
heavens are unclean4 ,hinduism1 on the  
other hand1 is below the ethical        
standard of respectable ,hindu society4 
,the better classes are compelled to    
apologize for it by asserting that that 
which is debasing in men may be sinless 
in the gods4 ,the offences of ,krishna  
and ,arjuna would not be condoned in    
mortals2 the vile orgies of the         
left-handed worshippers of ,siva would  
not be tolerated but for their religious
 character4 ,the murders committed by   
the ,thugs in honor of ,kali were winked
 at only because a goddess demanded     
them4 ,the naked processions of         
,chaitanya's followers would be         
dispersed by the police anywhere but in 

,india4  ,it is the peculiar distinction
 of ,india that it has been the theatre 
of nearly all the great religions4      
,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 and             
,mohammedanism have all made trial of   
their social and political power and    
have failed4 ,last of all came          
,christianity4 ,the systems which       
preceded it had had centuries of        
opportunity2 and yet ,christianity has  
done more for the elevation of ,hindu   
society in the last fifty years than    
they had accomplished in all the ages of
 their dominion4 ,neither ,buddhism nor 
,mohammedanism had made any serious     
impression on caste2 neither had been   
able to mitigate the wrongs which       
,brahmanism had heaped upon             
woman--,mohammedanism had rather        
increased them4 ,the horrors of the     
satti and the murder of female          
infants--those bitterest fruits of      
priestly tyranny--were left unchecked   
until the ,british ,government1 inspired
 by missionary influence and a general  

,christian sentiment1 branded them as   
infamous and made them crimes4 ,but now 
even the native sentiment of the better 
classes in ,india is greatly changed by 
these higher influences1 and the        
conventional morality is rising above   
the teachings of the national religion4 
,widow-burning and infanticide belong   
almost wholly to the past4              
,child-marriage is coming into          
disrepute1 and caste1 though not        
destroyed1 is crippled1 and its         
preposterous assumptions are falling    
before the march of social progress4    
,perhaps the very highest tribute which 
,hinduism has paid to ,christianity is  
seen in the fact that the modern ,arya  
,somaj has borrowed its ethics and some 
of its religious doctrines1 and is      
promulgating them under ,vedic labels   
and upon ,vedic authority4#gb ,it has   
renounced those corruptions of ,hinduism
 which can no longer bear the           
light--such as enforced widowhood and   
the general oppression of woman4 ,it    

denounces the incarnations of ,vishnu as
 mere inventions1 and therefore cuts up 
by the roots the whole ,krishna cult and
 dissipates the glory of the ,bhagavad  
,gita4 ,it abhors polytheism1 and not   
only proclaims the supremacy of one only
 true ,god1 self-existent1 the creator  
and upholder of all things1 but it      
maintains that such was the teaching of 
the ,vedas4 ,but although this modern   
eclectic system adopts the whole ethical
 outcome of ,christian civilization in  
,india for its own purposes1 it shows a 
most uncompromising hostility to        
,christianity4 ,though it claims to be  
positively theistic1 it seems ready to  
enter into alliance with any form of    
atheism or agnosticism1 ,eastern or     
,western1 against the spread of         
,christian influence in ,india4  ,in    
speaking of the movement of revived     
,aryanism ,i assume that with the more  
intelligent and progressive classes of  
,india the old ,hinduism is dead4 ,of   
course1 millions of men still adhere to 

the old corruptions4 ,millions in the   
remoter districts would retain the      
festival of ,juggernaut1 the            
hook-swinging1 even infanticide and     
widow-burning1 if they dared4 ,the      
revolting orgies of ,kali and ,doorga1  
and the vilest forms of ,siva worship1  
even the murderous rites of the ,thugs1 
might be revived by the fanatical1 if   
foreign influence were withdrawn2 but1  
taking ,india as a whole1 these things  
are coming to be discarded4 ,the people 
are ashamed of them2 they dare not      
undertake to defend them in the open day
 of the present civilization4 ,all      
intelligent ,hindus are persuaded to    
accept the situation1 and look to the   
future instead of the past4 ,the country
 is full of new influences which must be
 counted as factors4 ,british rule is   
there1 and is there to stay4 ,education 
has come--good1 bad1 and indifferent4   
,english ,university training is        
bringing forward a host of acute        
thinkers of native blood4 ,but the      

forces of ,western infidelity are also  
there1 grappling with ,western          
,christianity on ,indian soil1 and      
before the eyes of the conquered and    
still sullen people4 ,the vilest of     
,english books and the worst of ,french 
novels in ,english translations are in  
the markets4 ,all the worst phases of   
,european commerce are exhibited4 ,the  
opium monopoly1 the liquor traffic1 and 
all the means and methods of            
unscrupulous money-getting1 with the    
wide-spread example of drinking habits1 
and unbounded luxury and extravagance4  
,and1 in opinions1 the war of aggression
 is no longer on one side only4 ,while  
the foreigner speaks and writes of      
superstition1 of heathenism1 of         
abominable rites now passing away1 the  
native ,hindu press is equally emphatic 
in its condemnation of what it calls the
 swinish indulgence of the              
,anglo-,saxon1 his beer-drinking and his
 gluttony1 his craze for money and      
material power1 his disgust at          

philosophy and all intellectual         
aspiration1 his half-savage love for the
 chase and the destruction of animal    
life4 ,educated ,hindus throw back      
against the charge of idolatry our      
idolatry of pelf1 which1 as they claim1 
eclipses every other thought and        
aspiration1 leads to dishonesty1        
over-reaching1 and manifold crime1 and  
sinks noble ethics to the low level of  
expediency or self-interest2 the        
conquest is not yet won4  ,a hundred    
varieties of creed have sprung up       
beneath this banyan-tree which ,i have  
called ,hinduism4 ,there are worshippers
 of ,vishnu1 of ,siva1 of ,kali1 of     
,krishna as ,bacchus1 and of ,krishna as
 the supreme and adorable ,god4 ,there  
are ,sikhs1 and ,jains1 and ,buddhists2 
,theosophists1 ,vedantic ,philosophers1 
,mohammedans1 ,brahmos1 ,parsees1       
,evolutionists1 and ,agnostics2         
,devil-worshippers1 and worshippers of  
ghosts and serpents2 but in considering 
these as forces to be met by ,christian 

influence1 we must regard them all as in
 virtual alliance with each other4 ,they
 are all one in pride of race and of    
venerable custom4 ,they are all one in  
their hatred of foreign dominion1 and of
 the arrogance and overbearing          
assumption of the ,european4#gc  ,the   
,hindu religions1 therefore1 however    
divided1 and however weak and moribund  
they may be taken singly1 find a real   
vitality in the union of common         
interests1 in the sentiments of         
patriotism1 in the pride of their       
philosophy1 in the glory of their       
ancient history as the true and original
 ,aryans1 compared with whom ,western   
nations are mere offshoots4  ,their     
religious faith is mixed and involved   
with patriotism1 politics1 and race     
prejudice1 and on the other hand        
,christianity in ,india is handicapped  
by political and commercial interest and
 a hated domination4 ,on both sides     
these combined influences must be       
considered in estimating the future     

issues of the great conflict4 ,the      
question is not how ,christianity and   
,hinduism would fare in a conflict pure 
and simple1 unembarrassed by            
complications1 but how ,christianity    
with its drawbacks is likely to succeed 
against ,hinduism with its manifold     
intrenchments4  ,but1 while weighing    
well the obstacles1 how great are the   
encouragements6 ,what an auspicious fact
 that even a hostile organization has   
appropriated the ,christian cultus      
bodily1 and can find no better weapons  
than its blessed truths4 ,christianity  
is felt as a silent power1 even though  
under other names4 ,it is1 after all1   
the leaven that is working              
all-powerfully in ,india to-day4  ,there
 was a period in the process of creation
 when light beamed dimly upon the earth1
 though the sun1 its source1 had not yet
 appeared4 ,so through the present      
,hinduism there is a haze of ,christian 
truth1 though the ,sun of ,righteousness
 is not yet acknowledged as its source4 

,but the ,spirit of ,god broods over the
 waters1 and the true ,light of the     
world will break on ,india4             
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #cd3 ,the fact  
that environment has to a certain extent
 affected the religions of mankind is   
entirely overworked1 when men like      
,buckle make it formative and           
controlling4  ,footnote #ce3 ,instead of
 the later and universal pessimism1     
there was in the ,vedic religion a      
simple but joyous sense of life4        
,footnote #cf3 ,hinduism1 p4 #ca4       
,footnote #cg3 ,chips from a ,german    
,workshop1 vol4 i41 p4 #ae4  ,footnote  
#ch3 ,aryan ,witness1 p4 #bjd2 also     
,hinduism1 p4 #cf4  ,footnote #ci3      
,ibid41 p4 #cg4  ,footnote #dj3 ,a son  
of ,hariscandra4 ,hinduism1 p4 #cg4     
,footnote #da3 ,this is in strong       
contrast with the ,old ,testament       
precepts1 which everywhere had greater  
respect to the heart of the offerer than
 to the gifts4  ,footnote #db3 ,the     
,brahmans had found certain grades of   

population marked by color lines1 shaded
 off from the negroid aborigines to the 
,dravidians1 and from them to the more  
recent and nobler ,aryans1 and they were
 prompt also to seize upon a mere poetic
 and fanciful expression found in the   
,rig ,veda1 which seemed to give        
countenance to their fourfold caste     
distinction by representing one class as
 having sprung from the head of ,brahma1
 another from the shoulders1 the third  
from his thighs1 and a fourth from his  
feet4 ,altogether they founded a social 
system which has been the wonder of the 
ages1 and which has given to the        
,brahmans the prestige of celestial     
descent4 ,the ,kshatreych or soldier    
caste stands next1 and as it has        
furnished many military leaders and     
monarchs who disputed the arrogant      
claims of the ,brahmans1 conflicts of   
the upper castes have not been          
infrequent4  ,the ,vaishya1 or farmer   
caste1 has furnished the principal      
groundwork of many admixtures and       

subdivisions1 until at the present time 
there are endless subcastes1 to each of 
which a particular kind of employment is
 assigned4 ,the ,sudras are still the   
menials1 but there are different grades 
of degradation even among them4         
,footnote #dc3 ,hindu ,philosophy1      
,bose1 p4 #dg4  ,footnote #dd3 ,indian  
,wisdom on the ,brahmanas and           
,upanishads4 ,also ,hindu ,philosophy1  
,bose4  ,footnote #de3 ,colebrook's     
,essays1 foot-note1 p4 #he4  ,footnote  
#df3 ,see ,introduction to the ,sacred  
,books of the ,east1 vol4 i4  ,footnote 
#dg3 ,vaiseshika ,philosophy1 in ,indian
 ,wisdom4  ,footnote #dh3 ,mimansa      
,philosophy4 ,ibid4  ,footnote #di3 ,sir
 ,monier ,williams assigns the ,code of 
,manu in its present form to the sixth  
century ,b4,c4 ,indian ,wisdom1 p4 #bae4
 ,other ,oriental scholars consider it  
older4  ,footnote #ej3 ,these tendencies
 were more intensely emphasized in some 
of the later codes1 which1 however1 were
 only variations of the greater one of  

,manu4  ,footnote #ea3 ,see p4 #hb4     
,footnote #eb3 ,quoted on p4 #gf4       
,footnote #ec3 ,see note1 p4 #hj4       
,footnote #ed3 ,sir ,monier ,williams   
declares that some of ,mann's precepts  
are worthy of ,christianity4 ,indian    
,wisdom1 p4 #bab4  ,footnote #ee3 ,it   
should be set down to the credit of the 
,code of ,manu that with all its        
relentless cruelty toward woman it      
nowhere gives countenance to the        
atrocious custom of widow-burning which 
soon afterward became an important      
factor in the ,hindu system and         
desolated the homes of ,india for more  
than two thousand years4  ,there would  
seem to be some dispute as to whether or
 not widow-burning is sanctioned in the 
,rig ,veda4 ,colebrooke1 in his ,essays 
7,vol4 ,i41 p1 #ace71 quotes one or two 
passages which authorize the rite1 but  
,sir ,monier ,williams 7,indian ,wisdom1
 p4 #bei1 note7 has shown that changes  
were made in this text at a much later  
day for the purpose of gaining ,vedic   

authority for a cruel system1 of which  
even so late a work as the ,code of     
,manu makes no mention1 and 7page #bje  
,ibid47 he quotes another passage from  
the ,rig ,veda which directs a widow to 
ascend the pyre of her husband as a     
token of attachment1 but to leave it    
before the burning is begun4  ,footnote 
#ef3 ,as the spread of ,buddhism had    
owed much to the political triumph of   
,king ,ashoka1 so the revival of        
,hinduism was greatly indebted to the   
influence of a new dynasty about a      
century ,b4,c4  ,footnote #eg3 ,indian  
,wisdom1 p4 #cad4  ,footnote #eh3       
,ibid41 p4 #cag4  ,footnote #ei3        
,brahmanism and ,hinduism are often used
 interchangeably1 but all confusion will
 be avoided by confining the former to  
that intense sacerdotalism which        
prevailed during the ,brahmana period1  
while the latter is used more           
comprehensively1 or is referred         
particularly to the later and fully     
developed system4  ,footnote #fj3       

,hinduism1 pp4 #ab1 #ac4  ,footnote #fa3
 ,the ,brahmans were careful1 however1  
to brand the ,buddha1 while admitting   
him as an avatar4 ,their theory was that
 ,vishnu appeared in ,gautama for the   
purpose of deluding certain demons into 
despising the worship of the gods1 and  
thus securing their destruction4 ,this  
affords an incidental proof that        
,gautama was regarded as an             
atheist4--,see ,indian ,wisdom1 p4 #cce4
  ,footnote #fb3 ,see ,aryan ,witness1  
closing chapter2 also ,christ and ,other
 ,masters1 p4 #aih1 notes #a1 #b1 and   
#c4  ,footnote #fc3 ,see ,brahmanism and
 ,hinduism1 ,monier ,williams4          
,footnote #fd3 ,hardwick traces         
similarities between ,hindu traditions  
and ,christianity in such points as     
these3 #a1 ,the primitive state of man2 
#b1 his fall by transgression2 #c1 his  
punishment in the ,deluge2 #d1 the rite 
of sacrifice2 #e1 the primitive hope of 
restoration4--,christ and ,other        
,masters1 p4 #bji4  ,footnote #fe3 ,the 

,hindus hold that truth was originally  
deposited with men1 but gradually       
slumbered and was forgotten2 the        
knowledge of it returns like a          
recollection4--,humboldt's ,kosmos1 ii41
 p4 #aab4  ,footnote #ff3 ,professor    
,wilson's ,lectures1 p4 #eb4  ,footnote 
#fg3 ,vishnu ,puranas1 p4 #de1 note #d4 
,footnote #fh3 ,buddhism is still more  
disheartening1 since it denies the      
separate conscious existence of the ego4
 ,there cannot be divine fellowship1    
therefore1 but only the current of      
thoughts and emotions like the          
continuous flame of a burning candle4   
,not our souls will survive1 but our    
,karma4  ,footnote #fi3 ,christ and     
,other ,masters1 p4 #ahb4  ,footnote    
#gj3 ,yet in spite of ,manu and the     
inveteracy of old custom1 there gleams  
here and there in ,hindu literature and 
history a bright ideal of woman's       
character and rank2 while the ,ramayana 
has its model ,sita1 the ,mahabharata1  
i41 #cjbh1 has this peerless sketch3    

,a wife is half the man1 his truest     
friend2     ,a loving wife is a         
perpetual spring     ,of virtue1        
pleasure1 wealth2 a faithful wife       
,is his best aid in seeking heavenly    
bliss2     ,a sweetly-speaking wife is a
 companion     ,in solitude2 a father in
 advice2     ,a mother in all seasons of
 distress2     ,a rest in passing       
through life's wilderness4  ,this1      
however1 is a pathetic outburst3 the    
tyranny of the ages remains4  ,footnote 
#ga3 ,even in the later development of  
the doctrine of faith 7,bakti7 ,hinduism
 fails to connect with it any moral     
purification or elevation4 ,see         
quotations from ,elphinstone and ,wilson
 in ,christ and ,other ,masters1 p4     
#bcd4  ,footnote #gb3 ,see a recent     
,catechism published by the ,arya       
,somaj4  ,footnote #gc3 ,the following  
hymn1 quoted from the ,arya ,catechism1 
reveals the proud spirit of revived     
,aryanism3     ,we are the sons of brave
 ,aryas of yore1     ,those sages in    

learning1 those heroes in war4     ,they
 were the lights of great nations       
before1     ,and shone in that darkness 
like morning's bright star1     ,a      
beacon of warning1 a herald from far4   
,have we forgotten our ,rama and ,arjun1
     ,yudistar or ,bishma or ,drona the 
,wise8     ,are not we sons of the      
mighty ,duryodani8     ,where did       
,shankar and great ,dayananda arise8    
',in ,india1 in ,india6' the echo       
replies4     ,ours the glory of giving  
the world     ,its science1 religion1   
its poetry and art4     ,we were the    
first of the men who unfurled     ,the  
banner of freedom on earth's every part1
     ,brought tidings of peace and of   
love to each heart4     ,,lecture ,,iv4 
,,the ,,bhagavad ,,gita ,,and ,,the     
,,new ,,testament   ,no other portion of
 ,hindu literature has made so great an 
impression on ,western minds as the     
,bhagavad ,gita1 ,the ,lord's ,lay1 or  
the ,song of the ,adorable4 ,it has     
derived its special importance from its 

supposed resemblance to the ,new        
,testament4 ,and as it claims to be much
 older than the oldest of the ,gospels  
or the ,epistles1 it carries the        
inference that the latter may have      
borrowed something from it4  ,a         
plausible translation has been published
 in ,boston by ,mr4 ,mohini ,m4         
,chatterji1 who devoutly believes this  
to be the revealed word of the ,supreme 
,creator and ,upholder of the           
universe4#gd ,he admits that at a later 
day the same ,god1 worshipped alike by  
,hindus and ,christians1 appeared again 
in the person of ,jesus ,christ1 and    
that in the ,bible ,he revealed ,himself
 to ,western nations1 as the ,bhagavad  
,gita had proclaimed ,him to the people 
of the ,east4 ,and he draws the         
inference that ,if the ,scriptures of   
the ,brahmans and the ,scriptures of the
 ,jews and ,christians1 widely separated
 as they are by age and nationality1 are
 but different names for one and the    
same truth1 who can then say that the   

,scriptures contradict each other8 ,a   
careful and reverent collation of the   
two sets of ,scriptures will show forth 
the conscious and intelligent design of 
revelation4 ,the fact that the ,bhagavad
 ,gita is thoroughly pantheistic1 while 
the ,bible emphasizes the personality of
 ,god in fellowship with the distinct   
personality of human souls1 seems to    
interpose no serious difficulty in ,mr4 
,chatterji's view1 since he says ',the  
,lord's ,lay' is for philosophic minds1 
and therefore deals more at length with 
the mysteries of the being of ,god4 ,in 
the ,bhagavad ,gita1 he says1 consisting
 of seven hundred and seventy verses1   
the principal topic is the being of     
,god1 while scarcely the same amount of 
exposition is given to it in the whole  
,bible2 and he adds1 ,the explanation of
 this remarkable fact is found in the   
difference between the genius of the    
,hebrew and the ,brahman race1 and also 
in the fact that the teachings of ,jesus
 ,christ were addressed to 'the common  

people4'#ge  ,the air of intellectual   
superiority which is couched in these   
words is conspicuous4 ,mr4 ,chatterji   
also finds an inner satisfaction in what
 he considers the broad charity of the  
,brahmanical ,scriptures4 ,he quotes a  
passage from the ,narada ,pancharata    
which speaks of the ,buddha as the      
preserver of revelation for those       
outside of the ,vedic authority4 ,and he
 concludes that when one such revealer  
is admitted there can be no reason for  
excluding others2 therefore             
,christianity also should be allowed a  
place4 ,he declares on ,vedic authority 
that whosoever receives the true        
knowledge of ,god1 however revealed1    
attains eternal life4 ,and for a        
parallel to this he quotes the saying of
 ,christ1 that this is eternal life that
 they might know ,thee the only true    
,god1 and ,jesus ,christ whom ,thou hast
 sent4 ,the ,brahmanical ,scriptures1 he
 says1 are of one accord in teaching    
that when the heart is purified ,god is 

seen2 so also ,jesus ,christ declares   
that the pure in heart are blessed1 for 
they shall see ,god4  ,our translator   
discards the often-repeated theory that 
the ,christian ,scriptures have copied  
the wise sayings of ,krishna2 and it is 
very significant that an argument to    
which superficial apologists constantly 
resort is discarded by this real ,hindu1
 as he supports the theory that as both 
were direct revelations from ,vishnu1   
there was in his view no need of        
borrowing4 ,his contention is that ,god1
 who at sundry times and in divers      
manners has spoken to men in different  
ages1 made known his truth1 and         
essentially the same truth1 both on the 
plains of ,india and in ,judea4 ,and he 
reminds ,hindus and ,christians alike1  
that this knowledge of truth carries    
with itself an increased responsibility4
 ,he says3 ,the man who sees the        
wonderful workings of the ,spirit among 
the nations of the earth1 bringing each 
people to ,god by ways unknown to       

others1 is thereby charged with a duty4 
,to him with terrible precision applies 
the warning given by ,gamaliel to the   
,pharisees1 ',take heed to yourselves   
what ye intend to do 444 lest ye be     
found to fight even against ,god4' ,if  
one be a ,brahman1 let him reflect when 
opposing the religion of ,jesus what it 
is that he fights4 ,the truths of       
,christianity are the same as those on  
which his own salvation depends4 ,how   
can he be a lover of truth1 which is    
,god1 if he knows not his beloved under 
such a disguise8 ,and if he penetrates  
behind the veil1 which should tend only 
to increase the ardor of his love1 he   
cannot hate those who in obedience to   
the same truth are preaching the ,gospel
 of ,christ to all nations4 ,indeed he  
ought to rejoice at his brothers'       
devotion to the self-same ,god1 and to  
see that he is rendering service to ,him
 by helping others to carry out the     
behests given to them by the ,divine    
,master4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he be a

 ,christian1 let him remember that while
 he is commanded to preach repentance   
and remission of sins in the ,saviour   
,jesus1 he is also warned against       
'teaching for doctrines the commandments
 of men4' ,all this seems like charity1 
but really it is laxity4  ,and here is  
the very essence of ,hinduism4 ,its     
chief characteristic1 that which renders
 it so hard to combat1 is its easy      
indifference to all distinctions4 ,to   
reason with it is like grasping a       
jelly-fish4 ,its pantheism1 which       
embraces all things1 covers all sides of
 all questions4 ,it sees no difficulties
 even between things which are morally  
opposites4 ,contradictions are not      
obstacles1 and both sides of a dilemma  
may be harmonized4 ,and to a great      
extent this same vagueness of conviction
 characterizes all the heathen systems  
of the ,east4 ,the ,buddhists and the   
,shintoists in ,japan justify their     
easy-going partnership by the favorite  
maxim that1 while there are many paths  

by which men climb the sides of         
,fusyama1 yet upon reaching the summit  
they all behold the same glorious moon4 
,the question whether all do in fact    
reach the summit is one which does not  
occur to an ,oriental to ask4  ,this    
same pantheistic charity is seen in the 
well-known appeal of the late ,chunder  
,sen1 which as an illustration is worth 
repeating here3 ,cheshub ,chunder ,sen1 
servant of ,god1 called to be an apostle
 of the ,church of the ,new             
,dispensation1 which is in the holy city
 of ,calcutta2 to all the great nations 
of the world and to the chief religious 
sects in the ,east and ,west1 to the    
followers of ,moses and of ,jesus1 of   
,buddha1 ,confucius1 ,zoroaster1        
,mohammed1 ,nanak1 and of the various   
,hindu sects2 grace be to you and peace 
everlasting4 ,whereas sects1 discords1  
and strange schisms prevail in our      
father's family2 and whereas this       
setting of brother against brother has  
proved the prolific source of evil1 it  

has pleased ,god to send into the world 
a message of peace and reconciliation4  
,this ,new ,dispensation ,he has        
vouchsafed to us in the ,east1 and we   
have been commanded to bear witness to  
the nations of the earth 444 ,thus saith
 the ,lord3 ',i abominate sects and     
desire love and concord 444 ,i have at  
sundry times spoken through my prophets 
and my many dispensations4 ,there is    
unity4 ,there is one music but many     
instruments1 one body but many members1 
one spirit but many gifts1 one blood but
 many nations1 one ,church but many     
churches4 ,let ,asia and ,europe and    
,america and all nations prove this ,new
 ,dispensation and the true fatherhood  
of ,god and the brotherhood of men4'    
,this remarkable production--so ,pauline
 in style and so far from ,paul in      
doctrine--seems to possess everything   
except definite and robust conviction4  
,and its limp philosophy was not        
sufficient to withhold even ,chunder    
,sen himself from the abandonment of his

 principles not long afterward4 ,this   
sweet perfume of false charity1 with    
which he thus gently sprayed the sects  
and nations of mankind1 lost its flavor 
ere the ink of his message was fairly   
dry2 while he who in similar language   
announced his call to an ,apostleship   
eighteen centuries ago1 is still turning
 the world upside down4  ,charity is the
 watchword of indifferentism in the     
,west as well as in the ,east2 and the  
,east and the ,west are joining hands in
 their effort to soothe the world into  
slumber with all its sins and woes      
unhealed4 ,some months ago an advanced  
,unitarian from ,boston delivered a     
farewell address to the ,buddhists of   
,japan1 in which he presented three     
great ,unitarians of ,new               
,england--,channing1 ,emerson1 and      
,parker--in a sort of transfiguration of
 gentleness and charity4 ,he maintained 
that the lives of these men had been an 
unconscious prophecy of that mild and   
gentle ,buddhism which he had found in  

,japan1 but of which they had died      
without the sight4#gf  ,thus the        
transcendentalism of ,new ,england joins
 hands with the ,buddhism and the       
,shintoism of ,japan1 and the           
,brahmanism of ,calcutta1 and all are in
 accord with ,mr4 ,chatterji and the    
,bhagavad ,gita4 ,even the ,theosophists
 profess their sympathy with the ,sermon
 on the ,mount1 and claim ,christ as an 
earlier prophet4 ,the one refrain of all
 is ,charity4 ,all great teachers are   
avatars of ,vishnu4 ,the globe is belted
 with this multiform indifferentism1 and
 ,i am sorry to say that it is largely  
the gospel of the current literature and
 of the daily press4 ,in it all there is
 no ,saviour and no salvation4          
,religions are all ethnic and local1    
while the ignis fatuus of a mystic      
pantheism pervades the world4  ,mr4     
,chatterji's preface closes with a      
prayer to the merciful ,father of       
humanity to remove from all races of men
 every unbrotherly feeling in the sacred

 name of religion1 which is but one4    
,the prayer were touching and beautiful 
on the assumption that there were no    
differences between truth and error4    
,and there are thousands1 even among us1
 who are asking1 ,why may not           
,christians respond to this broad       
charity1 and admit this ,hindu eclectic 
poem to an equal place with the ,new    
,testament8 ,more or less indifferent to
 all religions1 and failing to          
understand the real principles on which 
they severally rest1 they are ready to  
applaud a challenge like that which we  
are considering1 and to contrast it with
 the alleged narrowness and intolerance 
of ,christian ,theism4  ,i have dwelt   
thus at length upon ,mr4 ,chatterji's   
introduction1 and have illustrated it by
 references to similar specious claims  
of other faiths1 in order that ,i might 
bring into clearer view the main issue  
which this book now presents to the     
,american public4 ,it is the softest1   
sweetest voice yet given to that gospel 

of false charity which is the fashion of
 our times4 ,emerson and others caught  
it from afar and discoursed to a        
generation now mostly gone of the gentle
 maxims of ,confucius1 ,krishna1 and    
,gautama4 ,but now ,krishna is among us 
in the person of his most devout        
apostle1 and a strange hand of          
fellowship is stretched out toward us   
from the land of the ,vedas4  ,it       
behooves us to inquire1 first1 into the 
pantheistic philosophy which underlies  
these sayings1 and to ask for their     
meaning as applied in real life2 and    
second1 we shall need to know something 
of ,krishna1 and whether he speaks as   
one having authority4 ,it should be     
borne in mind that pantheism sacrifices 
nothing whatever by embracing all       
religions1 since even false religions   
are a worship of ,vishnu in their way1  
while ,christianity by its very nature  
would sacrifice everything4 ,according  
to pantheism all things that exist1 and 
all events that transpire1 are          

expressions of the ,divine will4 ,the   
one only existent ,being embraces all   
causes and all effects1 all truth and   
all falsehood4 ,he is no more the source
 of good than of evil4 ,i am            
immortality1 says ,krishna4 ,i am also  
death4 ,man with all his thoughts and   
acts is but the shadow of ,god1 and     
moves as he is moved upon4 ,arjuna's    
divine counsellor says to him3 ,the     
soul1 existing from eternity1 devoid of 
qualities1 imperishable1 abiding in the 
body1 yet supreme1 acts not nor is by   
any act polluted4 ,he who perceives that
 actions are performed by ,prakriti     
alone1 and that the soul is not an      
actor1 sees the truth aright4  ,now1 if 
this reasoning be correct1 it is not we 
that sin2 not we that worship2 and in   
the last analysis all religions are     
alike2 they are only the varied         
expressions of the thought of ,god4 ,as 
,he manifests his power in nature in a  
thousand forms1 producing some objects  
that are beautiful to the eye and others

 that are repulsive1 so in his spiritual
 manifestations ,he displays a like     
variety4 ,the ignorance and degradation 
of fetichism are ,his1 as well as the   
highest revelations of spiritual truth4 
,a certain class of evolutionists tell  
us that ,god contrived the serpent's    
poison-fang and the mother's tender     
instinct with the same creative         
indifference4 ,and the broad pantheism  
which overrides the distinctions of     
eternal right and wrong1 and divests    
,god of all moral discriminations1 puts 
,vedantism and ,fetichism1 ,christianity
 and ,witchcraft1 upon the same basis4  
,the ,bhagavad ,gita and the ,gospel    
both enjoin the brotherhood of men1 but 
what are the meanings which they give to
 this term8 ,what are their aims1       
respectively8 ,one is endeavoring to    
enforce the rigid and insurmountable    
barriers of caste2 the other commends a 
mission of love which shall regard      
neither ,jew nor ,greek1 ,barbarian1    
,scythian1 bond nor free4 ,it will      

become apparent1 ,i think1 that there   
may be parallels or similarities which  
relate to mere phrases while their      
meanings are wide apart4  ,judging from 
,mr4 ,chatterji's own stand-point1 his  
work has been well done4 ,he has shown a
 careful study not only of his own      
literatures and philosophies1 but also  
of the scriptures of the ,old and ,new  
,testament--in this respect setting us  
an example worthy to be followed by     
,christian scholars4 ,such a man has in 
the outset an immense advantage over    
those who know nothing of the enemies'  
positions1 but regard them only with    
disdain4 ,before the high court of      
public opinion1 as represented by our   
current literature1 mere ex-parte       
assumption will go to the wall1 even    
though it has the better cause1 while   
adroit error1 intelligently put and     
courteously commended1 will win the day4
 ,this is a lesson which the ,christian 
,church greatly needs to learn4 ,mr4    
,chatterji's work is the more formidable

 for its charming graces of style4 ,he  
has that same facility and elegance in  
the use of the ,english language for    
which so many of his countrymen1        
,sheshadri1 ,bose1 ,banergea1 ,chunder  
,sen1 ,mozoomdar1 and others have been  
distinguished4 ,he is a model of        
courtesy1 and he seems sincere4  ,but   
turning from the translator to the book 
itself1 we shall now inquire who was    
,krishna1 ,arjuna's friend1 what was the
 origin of the ,lord's ,lay1 and what   
are its real merits as compared with the
 ,new ,testament8 ,krishna and          
,arjuna--like ,rama ,chandra--were real 
human heroes who distinguished          
themselves in the wars of the           
,indo-,aryans with rival tribes who     
contested the dominion of ,northern     
,india4 ,they did not live three        
thousand years before ,christ1 as our   
translator declares1 for they belonged  
to the soldier caste1 and according to  
the consensus of ,oriental scholarship  
the system of caste did not exist till  

about the beginning of the ,brahmanic   
period--say eight hundred years before  
,christ4 ,krishna was born in the       
,punjab1 near ,merut1 and it was near   
there that his chief exploits were      
performed4 ,the legends represent him as
 a genial but a reckless forester1 brave
 on the battle-field1 but leading a life
 of low indulgence4 ,the secret of his  
power lay in his sympathy4 ,his worship1
 even as a heroic demi-god1 brought a   
new and welcome element into ,hinduism  
as contrasted with the remorselessness  
of ,siva or the cold indifference of    
,brahma4 ,it was the dawn of a doctrine 
of faith1 and in this character it was  
probably of later date than the rise of 
,buddhism4 ,indeed1 the ,brahmans       
learned this lesson of the value of     
,divine sympathy from the ,buddha4 ,the 
supernatural element ascribed to        
,krishna1 as well as to ,rama1 was a    
growth1 and had its origin in the       
jealousy of the ,brahmans toward the    
warrior caste4 ,his exaltation as the   

,supreme was an after-thought of the    
inventive ,brahmans4 ,as stated in a    
former lecture1 these heroes had        
acquired great renown2 and their        
exploits were the glory and delight of  
the dazzled populace4 ,in raising them  
to the rank of deities1 and as such     
appropriating them as kindred to the    
divine ,brahmans1 the shrewd priesthood 
saved the prestige of their caste and   
aggrandized their system by a fully     
developed doctrine of incarnations4     
,thus1 by a growth of centuries1 the    
,krishna cult finally crowned the ,hindu
 system4  ,the ,mahabharata1 in which   
the ,bhagavad ,gita was incorporated by 
some author whose name is unknown1 is an
 immense literary mosaic of two hundred 
and twenty thousand lines4 ,it is       
heterogeneous1 grotesque1 inconsistent1 
and often contradictory--qualities which
 are scarcely considered blemishes in   
,hindu literature4  ,the ,bhagavad ,gita
 was incorporated as a part of this     
great epic probably as late as the      

second or third century of our era1 and 
by that time ,krishna had come to be    
regarded as divine1 though his full and 
extravagant deification as the ,adorable
 ,one probably did not appear till the  
author of ,narada ,pancharata of the    
eighth century had added whatever he    
thought the original author should have 
said five centuries before4 ,as it now  
stands the poem very cleverly weaves    
into one fabric many lofty aphorisms    
borrowed from the ,upanishads and the   
later philosophic schools1 upon the     
groundwork of a popular story of which  
,arjuna is the hero4 ,arjuna and his    
four brothers are about to engage in a  
great battle with their cousins for the 
possession of an hereditary throne4 ,the
 divine ,krishna1 once himself a hero1  
becomes ,arjuna's charioteer1 that in   
that capacity he may act as his         
counsellor4 ,as the battle array is     
formed1 ,arjuna is seized with          
misgivings at the thought of            
slaughtering his kindred for the glory  

of a sceptre4 ,i cannot--will not fight1
 he says2 ,i seek not victory1 ,i seek  
no kingdom2 what shall we do with regal 
pomp and power8 what with enjoyments1 or
 with life itself1 when we have         
slaughtered all our kindred here8       
,krishna then enters upon a long        
discourse upon the duties of caste and  
the indwelling of the ,infinite1 showing
 that the soul1 which is a part of      
deity1 cannot be slain though the body  
may be hewn to pieces4 ,the wise1 he    
says1 grieve not for the departed nor   
for those who yet survive4 ,never was   
the time when ,i was not1 nor thou1 nor 
yonder chiefs1 and never shall be the   
time when all of us shall not be4 ,as   
the embodied soul in this corporeal     
frame moves swiftly on through boyhood1 
youth1 and age1 so will it pass through 
other forms hereafter2 be not grieved   
thereat4444 ,as men abandon old and     
threadbare clothes to put on others new1
 so casts the embodied soul its worn-out
 frame to enter other forms4 ,no dart   

can pierce it2 flame cannot consume it1 
water wet it not1 nor scorching breezes 
dry it--indestructible1 eternal1        
all-pervading1 deathless4#gg  ,it may   
seem absurd to ,western minds that a    
long discourse1 which constitutes a     
volume of intricate pantheistic         
philosophy1 should be given to a great  
commander just at the moment when he is 
planning his attack and is absorbed with
 the most momentous responsibilities2 it
 seems to us strangely inconsistent also
 to expatiate elaborately upon the      
merits of the ,yoga philosophy1 with its
 asceticism and its holy torpor1 when   
the real aim is to arouse the soul to   
ardor for the hour of battle4 ,but these
 infelicities are no obstacle to the    
,hindu mind1 and the consistency of the 
plot is entirely secondary to the       
doctrine of caste and of philosophy     
which the author makes ,krishna         
proclaim4 ,gentle as many of its        
precepts are1 the ,bhagavad ,gita1 or   
the ,lord's ,lay1 is a battle-song      

uttered by the ,supreme ,being while the
 contending hosts awaited the signal for
 fratricidal carnage4  ,the             
grotesqueness which characterizes all   
,hindu literature is not wanting in this
 story of ,krishna and ,arjuna1 as given
 in the great poem of which the         
,bhagavad ,gita forms a part4 ,the five 
sons of ,pandu are representatives of   
the principle of righteousness1 while   
the hundred brothers of the rival branch
 are embodiments of evil4 ,yet1 when the
 victory had been gained and the sceptre
 was given to the sons of ,pandu1 they  
despised it and courted death1 though   
the ,adorable ,one had urged them on to 
strife4  ,bishma1 the leader of the     
hostile force1 in a personal encounter  
with ,arjuna1 had been filled so full of
 darts that he could neither stand nor  
lie down4 ,every part of his body was   
bristling with arrows1 and for          
fifty-eight days he lingered1 leaning on
 their sharp points4 ,meanwhile the     
eldest of the victors1 finding his      

throne only a delusion and a snare1 and 
being filled with remorse1 was urged by 
,krishna to visit his unfortunate       
adversary and receive instruction and   
comfort4 ,bishma1 lying upon his bed of 
spikes1 edified him with a series of    
long and tedious discourses on          
pantheistic philosophy1 after which he  
asked the tender-hearted ,krishna for   
permission to depart4 ,he is no longer  
the embodiment of evil3 the cruel arrows
 with which the ideal of goodness had   
pierced him fall away1 the top of his   
head opens1 and his spirit soars to     
heaven shining like a meteor4 ,how      
strange a reversal is here6 ,how strange
 that he who had been the representative
 of all evil should have been           
transformed by his suffering1 and should
 have been made to instruct and comfort 
the man of success4  ,mr4 ,chatterji    
falls into a fatal inconsistency when1  
in spite of his assumption that this    
poem is the very word of ,krishna spoken
 at a particular time1 in a particular  

place1 he informs us that all ,indian   
authorities agree in pronouncing it to  
be the essence of all sacred writings4  
,they call it an ,upanishad--a term     
applied to the wisdom1 as distinguished 
from the ceremonial1 part of the ,vedas1
 and to no book less sacred4 ,more      
accurately he might have said that it is
 a compend of all ,hindu literatures1   
the traditional as well as the inspired1
 and with a much larger share of the    
former than of the latter4 ,pantheism1  
which is its quintessence1 did not exist
 in the early ,vedic times4 ,krishna was
 not known as a god even in the period  
of the ,buddha4#gh ,and the ,epics1     
which are so largely drawn upon1 are    
later still4 ,and it is upon the basis  
of the ,epics1 and the still later      
,puranas1 that the common people of     
,india still worship him as the god of  
good-fellowship and of lust4 ,the masses
 longed for a god of human sympathies1  
even though he were a ,bacchus4  ,in the
 ,bhagavad ,gita as we now have it1 with

 its many changes1 ,krishna has become  
the supreme ,god1 though according to   
,lassen his actual worship as such was  
not rendered earlier than the sixth     
century2 and ,professor ,banergea claims
 that it was not at its zenith till the 
eighth century1 and that it then        
borrowed much from ,christian1 or at    
least ,hebrew1 sources4 ,webber and     
,lorinser have maintained a similar     
view4 ,krishna as the ,supreme and      
,adorable ,one has never found favor    
except with the pantheists1 and to this 
day the worship of the real ,krishna as 
a ,bacchus is the most popular of all   
,hindu festivals1 and naturally it is   
the most demoralizing4  ,we are now     
prepared to assume that the pantheistic 
groundwork of the poem on the one hand1 
and its borrowed ,christian conceptions 
and ,christian nomenclature on the      
other1 will explain its principal       
alleged parallels with the ,new         
,testament4 ,with his great familiarity 
with our ,bible1 and his rare ability in

 adjusting shades of thought and        
expression1 ,mr4 ,chatterji has         
presented no less than two hundred and  
fourteen passages which he matches with 
texts from the ,bible4 ,many of these   
are so adroitly worded that one not     
familiar with the peculiarities of      
,hindu philosophy might be stumbled by  
the comparisons4 ,mr4 ,r4,c4 ,bose tells
 us that this poem has wrought much evil
 among the foreign population of ,india2
 and in this country there are thousands
 of even cultivated people with whom    
this new translation will have great    
influence4 ,men with unsettled minds who
 have turned away with contempt from the
 crudities of spiritualism1 who are     
disgusted with the rough assailments of 
,ingersoll1 and who find only           
homesickness and desolation on the bleak
 and wintry moor of agnostic science1   
may yet be attracted by a book which is 
so elevated and often sublime in its    
philosophy1 and so chaste in its ethical
 precepts1 and which1 like              

,christianity1 has bridged the awful    
chasm between unapproachable deity and  
our human conditions and wants by giving
 to the world a ,god-man4  ,if the      
original author and the various         
expositors of the ,bhagavad ,gita have  
not borrowed from the ,christian        
revelation1 they have rendered an       
undesigned tribute to the great         
,christian doctrine of a divine and     
human mediator3 they have given striking
 evidence of a felt want in all humanity
 of a ,god with men4 ,if it was a deeply
 conscious want of the human heart which
 led the heathen of distant ,india to   
grope their way from the cheerless      
service of remorseless deities to one   
who could be touched with a feeling of  
their infirmities1 and could walk these 
earthly paths as a counsellor by their  
side1 how striking is the analogy to    
essential ,christian truth6  ,let us    
examine some of the alleged parallels4  
,they may be divided into three classes3
  #a4 ,those which are merely fanciful4 

,nine-tenths of the whole number are of 
this class4 ,they are such as would     
never occur to a ,hindu on hearing the  
gospel truth4 ,only one who had examined
 the two records in the keen search for 
parallels1 and whose wish had been the  
father of his thought1 would have seen  
any resemblance4 ,i shall not occupy    
much time with these4  #b4 ,those       
resemblances which are only accidental4 
,it may be an accident of similar       
circumstances or similar causes2 it may 
be a chance resemblance in the words    
employed1 while there is no resemblance 
in the thoughts expressed4  #c4 ,those  
coincidences which spring from natural  
causes4 ,for an example of these1 the   
closing chapter of the ,apocalypse      
speaks of ,christ as the ,alpha and the 
,omega1 the ,beginning and the ,end4 ,it
 is a natural expression to indicate his
 supreme power and glory as ,creator and
 final ,judge of all things4 ,in a      
similar manner ,krishna is made to say1 
,i am ,beginning1 ,middle1 ,end1        

,eternal ,time1 the ,birth and the      
,death of all4 ,i am the symbol ,a among
 the characters4 ,i have created all    
things out of one portion of myself4    
,there are two meanings in ,krishna's   
words4 ,he is in all things             
pantheistically1 and he is the first and
 best of all things4 ,in the tenth      
chapter he names with great             
particularity sixty-six classes of      
things in which he is always the first3 
the first of elephants1 horses1 trees1  
kings1 heroes1 etc4 ,among letters ,i am
 the vowel ,a4 ,among seasons ,i am     
spring4 ,of the deceitful ,i am the     
dice4  ,the late ,dr4 ,mullens calls    
attention to the fact that the ,orphic  
,hymns declare ,zeus to be the first and
 ,zeus the last4 ,zeus is the head and  
,zeus the centre4 ,in these three       
similar forms of description one common 
principle of supremacy rules4 ,the      
difference is that in the ,christian    
revelation and in the ,orphic ,hymns    
there is dignity1 while in ,krishna's   

discourse there is frivolous and vulgar 
particularity4 ,let us notice a few     
examples of the alleged parallels more  
particularly4  ,in ,chapter ,,ix4       
,krishna says3 ,whatever thou doest1    
whatever thou eatest1 whatever thou     
offerest in sacrifice1 etc41 commit that
 to me4 ,this is compared with #a       
,corinthians x4 #ca3 ,whether therefore 
ye eat or drink1 or whatsoever ye do1 do
 all to the glory of ,god4 ,also to     
,colossians x4 #ag3 ,whatsoever ye do in
 word or deed1 do all in the name of the
 ,lord ,jesus4  ,even if there were no  
pantheistic differential at the         
foundation of these utterances1 it would
 not be at all strange if exhortations  
to an all-embracing devotion should thus
 in each case be made to cover all the  
daily acts of life4 ,but aside from this
 there is a wide difference in the      
fundamental ideas which these passages  
express4 ,paul's thought is that of     
loving devotion to an infinite ,friend  
and ,saviour2 it is such an offering of 

loyalty and love as one conscious being 
can make to another and a higher4 ,but  
,krishna identifies the giver with the  
receiver1 and ,arjuna is taught to      
regard the gift itself as an act of     
,god4 ,the phrase commit that to me is  
equivalent to ascribe that to me4 ,in   
the context we read3 ,of those men1 who 
thinking of me in identity 7with        
themselves71 worship me1 for them always
 resting in me1 ,i bear the burden of   
acquisition and preservation of         
possessions4 ,even those the devotees of
 other gods1 who worship in faith1 they 
worship me in ignorance4 ,in other      
words1 the worshipper is to make no     
difference between himself and the      
,infinite4 ,he is to refer all his daily
 acts to the ,infinite as the real      
actor1 his own personal ego being       
ignored4 ,this is not ,paul's idea2 it  
is the very reverse of it4 ,it could    
give comfort only to the evil-doer who  
desired to shift his personal           
responsibility4  ,let us consider       

another alleged resemblance4 ,in the    
fifth chapter ,krishna declares that    
whoever knows him attains rest4 ,this is
 presented as a parallel to the words in
 ,christ's prayer3 ,this is life eternal
 that they might know ,thee the only    
true ,god1 and ,jesus ,christ whom ,thou
 hast sent4  ,in both passages the      
knowledge of ,god is made the chief     
blessing to be sought1 but in the one   
case knowledge means only a recognition 
of the ,infinite ,ego as existing in    
one's personal ego3 it is a mere        
acceptance of that philosophic theory of
 life4 ,thus one of the ,upanishads     
declares that whoever sees all things in
 ,god1 and ,god in all things1 sees the 
truth aright2 his philosophy is correct4
 ,on the other hand1 what ,christ meant 
was not the recognition of a pantheistic
 theory1 but a real heart-knowledge of  
the ,father's character1 a loving       
experience of his divine mercy1 his     
fatherly love1 his ineffable glory4 ,the
 one was cold philosophy1 the other was 

experience1 fellowship1 gratitude1      
filial love4  ,what pantheism taught was
 that ,god cannot be known              
practically--that ,he is without        
limitations or conditions that we can   
distinguish ,him from our finiteness    
only by divesting our conception of ,him
 of all that we are wont to predicate of
 ourselves4 ,he is subject to no such   
limitations as good or evil4 ,in        
,chapter ,,ix41 ,krishna says3 ,as air  
existing in space goes everywhere and is
 unlimited1 so are all things in me4444 
,i am the ,vedic rite1 ,i am the        
sacrifice1 ,i am food1 ,i am sacred     
formula1 ,i am immortality1 ,i am also  
death2 also the latent cause and the    
manifest effect4 ,to know the ,god of   
the ,bhagavad ,gita is to know that he  
cannot be known4 ,god is infinite in    
attributes1 says ,mr4 ,chatterji1 and   
yet devoid of attributes4 ,this is the  
,god whom the ,bhagavad ,gita proclaims4
  ,by a similar contradiction the more  
the devout worshipper knows of ,god the 

less he knows1 because the process of   
knowledge is a process of effacement2   
the closer the gradual union becomes the
 fainter is the self-personality1 till  
at length it fades away entirely1 and is
 merged and lost as a drop in the       
illimitable sea4 ,this is the so-called 
rest which ,krishna promises as the     
reward of knowing him4 ,it is rest in   
the sense of extinction2 it is death2   
while that which ,christ promises is    
eternal ,life with unending and         
rapturous activity1 with ever-growing   
powers of fellowship and of love4  ,take
 another alleged parallel4 ,chapter     
,,vi4 commends the man who has reached  
such a measure of indifference that his 
heart is even in regard to friends and  
to foes1 to the righteous and to        
evil-doers2 and this is held up as a    
parallel to the ,sermon on the ,mount1  
which commends love to enemies that we  
may be children of the heavenly ,father 
who sendeth rain upon the just and upon 
the unjust4 ,in the one case the apathy 

of the ascetic1 the extinction of       
susceptibility1 the ignoring of moral   
distinctions1 the crippling and         
deadening of our noblest powers2 in the 
other the use of these powers in all    
ways of beneficence toward those who    
injure us1 even as ,god1 though his     
heart is by no means even as between the
 righteous and the wicked1 stills shows 
kindness to both4 ,now1 in view of the  
great plausibility of the parallels     
which are thus presented to the         
public--parallels whose subtle fallacy  
the mass of readers are almost sure to  
overlook--one can hardly exaggerate the 
importance of thoroughly sifting the    
philosophy that underlies them1 and     
especially on the part of those who are1
 or are to become1 the defenders of the 
truth4#gi  ,but turning from particular 
parallels to a broader comparison1 there
 is a general use of expressions in the 
,new ,testament in regard to which every
 ,christian teacher should aim at clear 
views and careful discriminations2 for  

example1 when we are said to be temples 
of the ,holy ,ghost1 or when ,christ is 
said to be formed in us the hope of     
glory1 or it is no longer we that live1 
but ,christ that liveth in us4 ,it      
cannot be denied that defenders of the  
,bhagavad ,gita1 and of the whole       
,indo-pantheistic philosophy1 might make
 out a somewhat plausible case along    
these lines4 ,i recall an instance in   
which an honored pastor had made such   
extravagant use of these ,new ,testament
 expressions that some of his           
co-presbyters raised the question of a  
trial for pantheism4 ,but it is one     
thing to employ strong terms of         
devotional feeling1 as is often done1   
especially in prayer1 and quite another 
to frame theories and philosophies1 and 
present them as accurate statements of  
truth4 ,the ,new ,testament nowhere     
speaks of the indwelling ,spirit in such
 a sense as implies an obliteration or  
absorption of the conscious individual  
ego1 while effacement instead of        

fellowship is a favorite expression in  
the ,bhagavad ,gita4 ,paul in his most  
ecstatic language never gives any hint  
of extinction1 but1 on the contrary1 he 
magnifies the conception of a separate1 
conscious1 ever-growing personality1    
living and rejoicing in ,divine         
fellowship for evermore4  ,in the ,new  
,testament the expressions of our union 
with ,christ are often reversed3 instead
 of speaking of ,christ as abiding in   
the hearts and lives of his people1 they
 are sometimes said to abide in ,him1   
and that not in the sense of absorption4
 ,paul speaks of the saints in ,christ1 
of his own bonds in ,christ1 of being   
baptized in ,christ1 of becoming a new  
creature in ,christ1 of true ,christians
 as being one body in ,christ1 of their 
lives being hid with ,christ in ,god4   
,believers are spoken of as being buried
 with ,christ1 dead with ,christ4 ,every
 form of expression is used to represent
 fellowship1 intimacy1 spiritual union  
with ,him1 but always in a rational and 

practical sense1 and with full          
implication of our distinct and separate
 personality4 ,the essential hope of the
 ,gospel is that those who believe in   
,christ shall never die1 that even their
 mortal bodies shall be raised in his   
image1 and that they shall be like ,him 
and shall abide in his presence4 ,on the
 other hand1 ,the essence of this       
pantheistic system1 says ,mr4           
,chatterji1 is the denial of real       
existence to the individual spirit1 and 
the insistance upon its true identity   
with ,god 7,chapter ,,iv474  ,it only   
remains to be said that1 whatever may be
 the similarities of expression between 
this ,bible of pantheism and that of    
,christianity1 however they may agree in
 the utterance of worthy ethical maxims1
 that which most broadly differentiates 
the ,christian faith from ,hindu        
philosophy is the salient presentation  
of great fundamental truths which are   
found in the ,word of ,god alone4  #a4  
,the doctrine that ,god in ,christ is   

made sin for the redemption of sinful   
man--that ,he is the end of the law for 
righteousness for them that believe2    
this is indeed ,divine help3 this is    
salvation4 ,divinity does not here      
become the mere charioteer of human     
effort1 for the purpose of coaching it  
in the duties of caste and prompting it 
to fight out its destiny by its own     
valor4 ,christ is our expiation1 takes  
our place1 for our sakes becomes poor   
that we through his poverty may become  
rich4 ,what a boon to all fakirs and    
merit-makers of the world if they could 
feel that that law of righteousness     
which they are striving to work out by  
mortifications and self-tortures had    
been achieved for them by the ,son of   
,god1 and that salvation is a free gift6
 ,this is something that can be         
apprehended alike by the philosopher and
 by the unlettered masses of men4  #b4  
,another great truth found in our       
,scriptures is that the pathway by which
 the human soul returns to ,god is not  

the way of knowledge in the sense of    
philosophy1 but the way of intelligent  
confidence and loving trust4 ,with the  
heart man believeth unto righteousness1 
and with the mouth confession is made4  
,man by wisdom has never known ,god4    
,this has been the vain effort of ,hindu
 speculation for ages4 ,the author of   
the ,nyaya philosophy assumed that all  
evil springs from misapprehension1 and  
that the remedy is to be found in       
correct methods of investigation1 guided
 by skilfully arranged syllogisms4 ,this
 has been in all ages the chief         
characteristic of speculative ,hinduism4
 ,and the ,bhagavad ,gita furnishes one 
of its very best illustrations4 ,of its 
eighteen chapters1 fifteen are devoted  
to ,eight ,knowledge4 ,and by knowledge 
is meant abstract speculation4 ,it is a 
reaching after oneness with the deity by
 introspection and metaphysical         
analysis4  ,even if thou wert the       
greatest evil-doer among all the        
unrighteous1 says ,krishna1 thou shalt  

cross over all sins even by the ark of  
knowledge4 ,oh1 ,arjuna1 as blazing fire
 reduces fuel to ashes1 so the fire of  
knowledge turns all action into ashes4  
,but in the first place a knowledge of  
the infinite within us is unattainable1 
and in the second place it could not    
avail us even if attainable4 ,it is not 
practical knowledge2 it is not a belief 
unto righteousness4 ,faith is not an act
 of the brain merely1 but of the whole  
moral nature4 ,the wisdom of self must  
be laid aside1 self-righteousness cast  
into the dust1 the pride and rebellion  
of the will surrendered1 and the whole  
man become as a little child4 ,this is  
the way of knowledge that can be made   
experimental2 this is the knowledge that
 is unto eternal life4  #c4 ,another    
great differential of the ,new          
,testament is found in its true doctrine
 of divine co-operation with the human  
will4 ,our personality is not destroyed 
that the absolute may take its place1   
but the two act together4 ,for men of   

renunciation1 says the ,bhagavad ,gita1 
whose hearts are at rest from desire and
 anger1 and knowing the only self1 there
 is on both sides of death effacement   
7of the individual7 in the supreme      
spirit4 ,in such a person1 therefore1   
even on this side of death1 there is a  
cessation of the individual in the      
supreme4 ,over against this the ,gospel 
presents the doctrine of co-operative   
grace1 which instead of crippling our   
human energies arouses them to their    
highest and best exertion4 ,work out    
your own salvation with fear and        
trembling1 for it is ,god that worketh  
in you both to will and to do of his    
good pleasure4 ,the divine acts with and
 through the human1 but does not destroy
 it4 ,it imparts the greatest           
encouragement1 the truest inspiration4  
#d4 ,we notice but one more out of many 
points of contrast between the doctrines
 of the ,hindu and the ,christian       
,bibles1 viz41 the difference between   
ascetic inaction and the life of        

,christian activity as means of         
religious growth4 ,i am aware that in   
the earlier chapters of the ,bhagavad   
,gita1 ,krishna urges ,arjuna to valiant
 activity on the battle-field1 but that 
is for a special purpose1 viz41 the     
establishment of caste distinctions4 ,it
 is wholly foreign to ,hindu philosophy2
 it is even contradictory4 ,the author  
of the poem1 who seems to be aware of   
the inconsistency of arousing ,arjuna to
 the mighty activities of the           
battle-field1 and at the same time      
indoctrinating him in the spirit of a   
dead and nerveless asceticism1 struggles
 hard with the awkward task of bridging 
the illogical chasm with three chapters 
of mystification4  ,but we take the     
different chapters as they stand1 and in
 their obvious meaning4 ,the man of     
meditation is superior to the man of    
action1 says ,chapter ,i41 #df1         
therefore1 ,arjuna1 become a man of     
meditation4 ,how the man of meditation  
is to proceed is told in ,chapter ,,vi41

 #aj-ad4 ,let him who has attained to   
meditation always strive to reduce his  
heart to rest in the ,supreme1 dwelling 
in a secret place alone1 with body and  
mind under control1 devoid of           
expectation as well as of acceptance4   
,having placed in a clean spot one's    
seat1 firm1 not very high nor very low1 
formed of the skins of animals1 placed  
upon cloth and cusa grass upon that1    
sitting on that seat1 strive for        
meditation1 for the purification of the 
heart1 making the mind one-pointed1 and 
reducing to rest the action of the      
thinking principle as well as that of   
the senses and organs4 ,holding the     
body1 neck1 and head straight and       
unmoved1 perfectly determined1 and not  
working in any direction1 but as if     
beholding the end of his own nose1 with 
his heart in supreme peace1 devoid of   
fear1 with thought controlled and heart 
in me as the supreme goal1 he remains4  
,how different from all this is that    
prayer of ,christ1 ,i pray not that     

,thou shouldst take them out of the     
world1 but that ,thou shouldst keep them
 from the evil4 ,or those various words 
spoken to his disciples3 ,let your light
 so shine before men that others seeing 
your good works shall glorify your      
,father which is in heaven4 ,work while 
the day lasts1 for the night cometh in  
which no man can work4  ,who can imagine
 ,paul spending all those years of      
opportunity in sitting on a leopard     
skin1 watching the end of his nose      
instead of turning the world upside     
down6 ,in that true sense in which      
,christ lived within him1 ,he filled    
every avenue of his being with the      
aggressive spirit of ,god's own love for
 dying men4 ,the same spirit which      
brought ,christ from heaven to earth    
sent ,paul out over the earth4 ,he was  
not even content to work on old         
foundations1 but regarding himself as   
under sentence of death he longed to    
make the most of his votive life1 to    
bear the torch of the truth into all    

realms of darkness4 ,he was none the    
less a philosopher because he preferred 
the simple logic of ,god's love1 nor did
 he hesitate to confront the philosophy 
of ,athens or the threatenings of ,roman
 tyrants4 ,he was ready for chains and  
imprisonment1 for perils of tempests or 
shipwreck1 or robbers1 or infuriate     
mobs1 or death itself4  ,no ,hindu fakir
 was ever more conscious of the struggle
 with inward corruption than he1 and at 
times he could cry out1 ,oh1 wretched   
man that ,i am1 who shall deliver me    
from the body of this death8 but he did 
not seek relief in idleness and inanity1
 but in what ,dr4 ,chalmers called the  
expulsive power of new affections1 in   
new measures of ,christlike devotion to 
the cause of truth and humanity4 ,in a  
word1 ,christ and his kingdom displaced 
the power of evil4 ,he could do all     
things through ,christ who strengthened 
him4  ,nor was the peace which he felt  
and which he commended to others the    
peace of mere negative placidity and    

indifference4 ,it was loving confidence 
and trust4 ,be careful for nothing--we  
hear him saying to his friends at       
,philippi--be careful for nothing2 but  
in all things by prayer and             
supplication1 with thanksgiving1 make   
known your requests unto ,god3 and the  
peace of ,god1 which passeth            
understanding1 shall keep your minds and
 hearts through ,christ ,jesus4 ,and yet
 to show how this consists with devout  
activity1 he commends1 in immediate     
connection with it1 the cultivation of  
every active virtue known to men4 ,thus1
 ,whatsoever things are true1 whatsoever
 things are honest1 whatsoever things   
are just1 whatsoever things are pure1   
whatsoever things are lovely1 whatsoever
 things are of good report1 if there be 
any virtue1 if there be any praise1     
think on these things4   ,,footnotes3   
,footnote #gd3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin      
,co41 #ahhi4  ,footnote #ge3 ,the author
 seems to overlook the fact that the    
chief excellence of an evangel to lost  

men is that it appeals to the masses4   
,footnote #gf3 ,address published in the
 ,japan ,mail1 #ahij4  ,footnote #gg3   
,there is scarcely another passage in   
all ,hindu literature which is so full  
of half-truths as this1 or which turns  
the sublime powers of the human soul to 
so unworthy a purpose4  ,footnote #gh3  
,in an enumeration of ,hindu gods made  
in ,buddha's time ,krishna does not     
appear4  ,footnote #gi3 ,never before   
has there been so much danger as now    
that the lines of truth will be washed  
out by the flood-tides of sentimental   
and semi ,christian substitutes and     
makeshifts4 ,as with commodities1 so    
with religion1 dilution and adulteration
 are the order of the day and a little  
,christianity is made to flavor a       
thousand shams4     ,,lecture ,v4       
,,buddhism ,,and ,,christianity   ,new  
interest has recently been awakened in  
old controversies concerning the        
relations of ,christianity and          
,buddhism4 ,the so-called ,theosophists 

and ,esoteric ,buddhists are reviving   
exploded arguments against ,christianity
 as means of supporting their crude     
theories4 ,the charge of ,german        
sceptics1 that ,christianity borrowed   
largely from ,buddhism1 is made once    
more the special stock in trade of these
 new and fanatical organizations4 ,to   
this end books1 tracts1 and leaflets are
 scattered broadcast1 and especially in 
the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4
  ,professor ,max ,mueller says1 in a   
recent article published in ,longman's  
,new ,review3 ,who has not suffered     
lately from ,theosophy and ,esoteric    
,buddhism8 ,journals are full of it1    
novels overflow with it1 and one is     
flooded with private and confidential   
letters to ask what it all really means4
 ,many people1 no doubt1 are much       
distressed in their minds when they are 
told that ,christianity is but a second 
edition of ,buddhism4 ',is it really    
true8' they ask4 ',why did you not tell 
us all this before8 ,surely1 you must   

have known it1 and were only afraid to  
tell it4' ,then follow other questions3 
',does ,buddhism really count more      
believers than any other religion8' ',is
 ,buddhism really older than            
,christianity1 and does it really       
contain many things which are found in  
the ,bible8' ,and the learned professor 
proceeds to show that there is no       
evidence that ,christianity has borrowed
 from ,buddhism4 ,in this country these 
same ideas are perhaps more widely      
circulated than in ,england4 ,they are  
subsidizing the powerful agency of the  
secular press1 particularly the ,sunday 
newspapers1 and thousands of the people 
are confronting these puzzling          
questions4 ,there is occasion1          
therefore1 for a careful and candid     
review of ,buddhism by all leaders of   
thought and defenders of truth4  ,in the
 brief time allotted me1 ,i can only    
call attention to a few salient points  
of a general character4 ,in the outset1 
a distinction should be drawn between   

,buddhist history and ,buddhist legend1 
for just at this point the danger of    
misrepresentation lies4 ,it is true that
 the ,buddha lived before the time of   
,christ1 and therefore anything of the  
nature of real biography must be of an  
earlier date than the teachings of      
,jesus2 but whether the legends antedate
 ,his life and doctrines is quite       
another question4 ,the ,buddhist        
apologists all assume that they do1 and 
it is upon the legends that most of the 
alleged parallelisms in the two records 
are based4 ,how1 then1 shall we draw the
 line between history and legend8 ,the  
concensus of the best scholarship       
accepts those traditions in which the   
northern and southern ,buddhist records 
agree1 which the ,council of ,patna1    
,b4,c4 #bdb1 adopted as canonical1 and  
which are in themselves credible and    
consistent with the teachings of        
,gautama himself4 ,according to this    
standard of authority ,gautama was born 
about the sixth century ,b4,c41 as the  

son and heir of a rajah of the ,sakya   
tribe of ,aryans1 living about eighty   
miles north by northwest of ,benares4   
,his mother1 the principal wife of      
,kajah ,suddhodana1 had lived many years
 without offspring1 and she died not    
long after the birth of this her only   
son1 ,siddartha4 ,in his youth he was   
married and surrounded by all the       
allurements and pleasures of an         
,oriental court4 ,he1 too1 appears to   
have remained without an heir till he   
was twenty-nine years of age1 when1 upon
 the birth of a son1 certain morbid     
tendencies came to a climax1 and he left
 his palace secretly and sought true    
comfort in a life of asceticism4 ,for   
six years he tried diligently the       
resources of ,hindu self-mortification1 
but becoming exhausted by his           
austerities1 almost unto death1 he      
abandoned that mode of life1 having     
apparently become atheistic4 ,he        
renounced the idea of merit-making as a 
means of spiritual attainment1 and he   

was sorely tempted1 no doubt1 to return 
to his former life of ease4 ,but he     
withstood the temptation and resolved to
 forego earthly pleasure1 and teach     
mankind what he conceived to be the way 
of life1 through self-control4 ,he had  
tried pleasure2 next he had tried       
extreme asceticism2 he now struck out   
what he called ,the ,middle ,path1 as   
between self-indulgence on the one hand1
 and extreme bodily mortification as a  
thing of merit on the other4 ,this      
middle ground still demanded abstinence 
as favorable to the highest mental and  
moral conditions1 but it was not carried
 to such extremes as to weaken the body 
or the mind1 or impair the fullest      
operation of every faculty4#hj  ,there  
can be no doubt that ,gautama's         
relinquishment of ,hinduism marked a    
great and most trying crisis4 ,it       
involved the loss of all confidence in  
him on the part of his disciples1 for   
when he began again to take necessary   
food they all forsook him as a failure4 

,it was while sitting under the shade of
 an ,indian fig-tree 7,boddhi-tree7 that
 this struggle occurred and his victory 
was gained4 ,there his future course was
 resolved upon2 there was the real      
birth-place of ,buddhism as a system4   
,he thenceforth began to preach the law1
 or what he regarded as the way of      
self-emancipation1 and therefore the way
 of life4 ,he first sought his five     
followers1 who had abandoned him1 and   
succeeded in winning them back4 ,he     
gathered at length a company of about   
sixty disciples1 whom he trained and    
sent forth as teachers of his new       
doctrines4 ,yet1 still influenced by the
 old ,hindu notions of the religious    
life1 he formed his disciples into an   
order of mendicants1 and in due time he 
established an order of nuns4  ,it was  
when ,gautama rose up from his          
meditation and his high resolve under   
the ,bo-tree1 that he began his career  
as ,the ,enlightened4 ,he was now a     
,buddha1 and claimed to have attained   

,nirvana4 ,all that has been written of 
his having left his palace with the     
purpose of becoming a saviour of        
mankind1 is the sheer assumption of the 
later legends and their apologists4     
,buddhism was an after-thought1 only    
reached after six years of bootless     
asceticism4 ,there is no evidence that  
when ,siddartha left his palace he had  
any thought of benefiting anybody but   
himself4 ,he entered upon the life of   
the recluse with the same motives and   
aims that have influenced thousands of  
other monks and anchorets of all lands  
and ages--some of them princes like     
himself4 ,nevertheless1 for the noble   
decision which was finally reached we   
give him high credit4 ,it seems to have 
been one of the noblest victories ever  
gained by man over lower impulses and   
desires4 ,the passions of youth were not
 yet dead within him2 worldly ambition  
may be supposed to have been still in   
force2 but he chose the part of a       
missionary to his fellow-men1 and there 

is no evidence that he ever swerved from
 his purpose4 ,he had won a great       
victory over himself1 and that fact     
constituted a secret of great power4    
,gautama was about thirty-five years of 
age when he became a ,buddha1 and for   
forty-five years after that he lived to 
preach his doctrines and to establish   
the monastic institution which has      
survived to our time4 ,he died a natural
 death from indigestion at the age of   
eighty--greatly venerated by his        
disciples1 and the centre of what had   
already become a wide-spread system in a
 large district of ,india4  ,the legends
 of ,buddhism are a very different thing
 from the brief sketch which ,i have    
given1 and which is based upon the      
earlier ,buddhist literature4 ,these    
sprang up after ,gautama's death1 and   
their growth extended through many      
centuries--many centuries even of the   
,christian era4 ,the legends divide the 
life of the ,buddha into three periods3 
#a4 ,that of his pre-existent states4   

#b4 ,that part of his life which        
extended from his birth to his          
enlightenment under the ,bo-tree4 #c4   
,the forty-five years of his            
,buddhaship4 ,the legends have no more  
difficulty in dealing with the          
particular experiences of the           
pre-existent states than in enriching   
and adorning the incidents of his       
earthly life2 and both are doubtless    
about equally authentic4  ,gautama      
discarded the idea of a divine          
revelation2 he rejected the authority of
 the ,vedas totally4 ,he denied that he 
was divine1 but distinctly claimed to be
 a plain and earnest man4 ,all that he  
knew1 he had discovered by insight and  
self-conquest4 ,to assume that he was   
pre-existently divine and omniscient    
subverts the whole theory of his        
so-called discovery1 and is at variance 
with the idea of a personal conquest4   
,the chief emphasis and force of his    
teachings lay in the assumption that he 
did simply what other men might do2 for 

his mission was that of a teacher and   
exempler merely4 ,he was a saviour only 
in that he taught men how to save       
themselves4  ,the pre-existent states   
are set forth in the ,jatakas1 or ,birth
 ,stories of ,ceylon1 which represent   
him as having been born five hundred and
 thirty times after he became a ,bodisat
 7a predestined ,buddha74 ,as a specimen
 of his varied experience while becoming
 fitted for ,buddaship1 we read that he 
was born eighty-three times as an       
ascetic1 fifty-eight as a monarch1      
forty-three as a deva1 twenty-four as a 
,brahman1 eighteen as an ape2 as a deer 
ten1 an elephant six1 a lion ten2 at    
least once each as a thief1 a gambler1 a
 frog1 a hare1 a snipe4 ,he was also    
embodied in a tree4 ,but as a ,bodisat  
he could not be born in hell1 nor as    
vermin1 nor as a woman6 ,says ,spence   
,hardy1 with a touch of irony3 ,he could
 descend no lower than a snipe4         
,northern legends represent ,buddha as  
having incarnated for the purpose of    

bringing relief to a distressed world4  
,he was miraculously conceived--his     
mother's side in the form of a white    
elephant4 ,all nature manifested its joy
 on the occasion4 ,the ocean bloomed    
with flowers2 all beings from many      
worlds showed their wonder and sympathy4
 ,many miracles were wrought even during
 his childhood1 and every part of his   
career was filled with marvels4 ,at his 
temptation under the ,bo-tree1 ,mara    
7,satan7 came to him mounted on an      
elephant sixteen miles high and         
surrounded by an encircling army of     
demons eleven miles deep4#ha ,finding   
him proof against his blandishments1 he 
hurled mountains of rocks against him1  
and assailed him with fire and smoke and
 ashes and filth--all of which became as
 zephyrs on his cheek or as presents of 
fragrant flowers4 ,last of all1 he sent 
his three daughters to seduce him4      
,their blandishments are set forth at   
great length in the ,romantic ,legend4  
,in the ,northern ,buddhist             

literature--embracing both the ,romantic
 ,legend#hb and the ,lalita             
,vistara--many incidents of ,buddha's   
childhood are given which show a seeming
 coincidence with the life of ,christ4  
,it is claimed that his birth was       
heralded by angelic hosts1 that an aged 
sage received him into his arms and     
blessed him1 that he was taken to the   
temple for consecration1 that a jealous 
ruler sought to destroy him1 that in his
 boyhood he astonished the doctors by   
his wisdom1 that he was baptized1 or at 
least took a bath1 that he was tempted1 
transfigured1 and finally received up   
into heaven4 ,these will be noticed     
farther on2 it is only necessary to say 
here that the legends giving these      
details are first at variance with the  
early canonical history1 and second1    
that they are of such later dates as to 
place most of them probably within the  
,christian era4  ,the ,four ,peculiar   
and ,characteristic ,doctrines of       
,buddhism4  #a4 ,its peculiar conception

 of the soul4 #b4 ,its doctrine of      
,trishna and ,upadana4 #c4 ,its theory  
of ,kharma4 #d4 ,its doctrine of        
,nirvana4  #a4 ,the ,skandas1 five in   
number1 constitute in their interaction 
what all others than ,buddhists regard  
as the soul4 ,they consist of material  
properties2 the senses2 abstract ideas2 
tendencies or propensities2 and the     
mental powers4 ,the soul is the result  
of the combined action of these1 as the 
flame of a candle proceeds from the     
combustion of its constituent elements4 
,the flame is never the same for two    
consecutive moments4 ,it seems to have a
 perpetuated identity1 but that is only 
an illusion1 and the same unreality     
pertains to the soul4 ,it is only a     
succession of thoughts1 emotions1 and   
conscious experiences4 ,we are not the  
same that we were an hour ago4 ,in fact1
 there is no such thing as being--there 
is only a constant becoming4 ,we are    
ever passing from one point to another  
throughout our life2 and this is true of

 all beings and all things in the       
universe4 ,how it is that the succession
 of experiences is treasured up in      
memory is not made clear4 ,this is a    
most subtle doctrine1 and it has many   
points of contact with various          
speculations of modern times4 ,it has   
also a plausible side when viewed in the
 light of experience1 but its gaps and  
inconsistencies are fatal1 as must be   
seen when it is thoroughly examined4    
#b4 ,the second of the cardinal         
doctrines is that of ,trishna4 ,trishna 
is that inborn element of desire whose  
tendency is to lead men into evil4 ,so  
far1 it is a misfortune or a form of    
original sin4 ,whatever it may have of  
the nature of guilt hangs upon the      
issues of a previous life4 ,upadana is a
 further stage in the same development4 
,it is ,trishna ripened into intense    
craving by our own choice and our own   
action4 ,it then becomes uncontrollable 
and is clearly a matter of guilt4 ,now1 
the momentum of this ,upadana is such   

that it cannot be arrested by death4    
,like the demons of ,gadara it must     
again become incarnate1 even though it  
should enter the body of a brute4 ,and  
this transitional something1 this       
restless moral or immoral force which   
must work out its natural results       
somehow and somewhere1 and that in      
embodied form projects into future being
 a residuum which is known as ,kharma4  
#c4 ,what1 then1 is ,kharma8 ,literally 
it means the doing4 ,it is a man's      
record1 involving the consequences and  
liabilities of his acts4 ,it is a score 
which must be settled4 ,a question      
naturally arises1 how the record of a   
soul can survive when the soul itself   
has been blown out4 ,the illustration of
 the candle does not quite meet the     
case4 ,if the flame were something which
 when blown out immediately seized upon 
some other substance in which the work  
of combustion proceeded1 it would come  
nearer to a parallel4 ,one candle may   
light another before itself is          

extinguished1 but it does not do it by  
an inherent necessity4 ,but this flame  
of the soul1 this ,kharma1 must enter   
some other body of god1 or man1 or      
beast4  ,again1 the question arises1    
,how can responsibility be transferred  
from one to another8 ,how can the heavy 
load of a man's sin be laid upon some   
new-born infant1 while the departing    
sinner has himself no further concern in
 his evil ,kharma1 but sinks into       
non-existence the moment his            
conformations are touched with          
dissolution8 ,buddhism acknowledges a   
mystery here2 no real explanation can be
 given1 and none seems to have been     
attempted by ,buddhist writers4 ,to be  
consistent1 ,gautama1 in denying the    
existence of ,god and of the soul as an 
entity1 should have taught the          
materialistic doctrine of annihilation4 
,this1 however1 he could not do in the  
face of that deep-rooted idea of        
transmigration which had taken entire   
possession of the ,hindu mind4 ,gautama 

was compelled therefore to bridge a most
 illogical chasm as best he could4      
,kharma without a soul to cling to is   
something in the air4 ,it alights like  
some winged seed upon a new-born set of 
,skandas with its luckless boon of ill  
desert1 and it involves the fatal       
inconsistency of investing with         
permanent character that which is itself
 impermanent4  ,but the question may be 
asked1 ,do we not admit a similar       
principle when we speak of a man's      
influence as something that survives    
him8 ,we answer1 ,no4 ,influence is a   
simple radiation of impressions4 ,a man 
may leave an influence which men are    
free to accept or not1 but it is quite a
 different thing if he leaves upon a    
successor the moral liabilities of a    
bankrupt character4 ,gautama's own      
,kharma1 for example1 ceased to exist   
upon his entering ,nirvana2 there was no
 re-birth2 but his influence lives      
forever1 and has extended to millions of
 his fellow-men4  ,the injustice        

involved in the doctrine of ,kharma is  
startling4 ,the new-born soul that      
inherits its unsettled score has no     
memory or consciousness that connects it
 with himself2 it is not heredity2 it is
 not his father's character that invests
 him4 ,this ,kharma may have crossed the
 ocean from the death-bed of some       
unknown man of another race4 ,the       
doctrine is the more astonishing when we
 consider that no ,supreme ,being is    
recognized as claiming this retribution4
 ,there is no ,god2 it is a vague law of
 eternal justice1 a law without a       
law-giver or a judge4 ,there can        
therefore be no pardon1 no commutation  
of sentence1 no such thing as divine    
pity or help4 ,the only way in which one
 can disentangle himself is by breaking 
forever the connection between spirit   
and matter which binds him with the     
shackles of conscious being4  #d4       
,nirvana4 ,no doctrine of ,buddhism has 
been so much in dispute as this4 ,it has
 been widely maintained that ,nirvana   

means extinction4 ,but ,t4,w4 ,rhys     
,davids and others have held that it is 
the destruction of malice1 passion1 and 
delusion1 and that it may be attained in
 this life4 ,the definition is quoted   
from comparatively recent ,pali         
translations4#hc ,gautama1 therefore1   
reached ,nirvana forty-five years before
 his death4 ,it is claimed1 however1    
that insomuch as it cuts off ,kharma1 or
 re-birth1 it involves entire extinction
 of being upon the dissolution of the   
body4#hd ,it is held by still others    
that ,nirvana is a return to the        
original and all-pervading              
,boddhi-essence4 ,this theory1 which is 
really a concession to the ,brahmanical 
doctrine of absorption into the infinite
 ,brahma1 has a wide following among the
 modern ,buddhists in ,china and ,japan4
 ,it is a form of ,buddhist pantheism4  
,as to the teaching of ,gautama on this 
subject1 ,professor ,max ,mueller1 while
 admitting that the meta-physicians who 
followed the great teacher plainly      

taught that the entire personal entity  
of an arhat 7an enlightened one7 would  
become extinct upon the death of the    
body1 yet reasons1 in his lecture on    
,buddhistic ,nihilism1 that the ,buddha 
himself could not have taught a doctrine
 so disheartening4 ,at the same time he 
quotes the learned and judicial ,bishop 
,bigandet as declaring1 after years of  
study and observation in ,burmah1 that  
such is the doctrine ascribed to the    
great teacher by his own disciples4     
,gautama is quoted as closing one of his
 sermons in these words3 ,mendicants1   
that which binds the teacher to         
existence is cut off1 but his body still
 remains4 ,while his body still remains 
he shall be seen by gods and men1 but   
after the termination of life1 upon the 
dissolution of the body1 neither gods   
nor men shall see him4 ,t4,w4 ,rhys     
,davids expresses the doctrine of       
,nirvana tersely and correctly when he  
says3 ,utter death1 with no new life to 
follow1 is1 then1 a result of1 but it is

 not1 ,nirvana4#he ,professor ,oldenberg
 suggests1 with much plausibility1 that 
the ,buddha was more reticent in regard 
to the doctrine of final extinction in  
the later periods of his life2 that the 
depressing doctrine had been found a    
stumbling-block1 and that he came to    
assume an agnostic position on the      
question4 ,in his ,buddha1#hf ,professor
 ,oldenberg1 partly in answer to the    
grounds taken by ,professor ,max        
,mueller in his lecture on ,buddhistic  
,nihilism1 has very fully discussed the 
question whether the ego survives in    
,nirvana in any sense4 ,he claims that  
certain new translations of ,pali texts 
have given important evidence on the    
subject1 and he sums up with the        
apparent conclusion that the ,buddha1   
moved by the depressing influence which 
the grim doctrine of ,nirvana1 in the   
sense of extinction1 was producing upon 
his disciples1 assumed a position of    
reticence as to whether the ego survives
 or not4 ,the venerable ,malukya 7see p4

 #bge7 is said to have plied the ,master
 with questions4 ,does the perfect      
,buddha live on beyond death1 or does he
 not8 ,it pleases me not that all this  
should remain unanswered1 and ,i do not 
think it right4 ,may it please the      
,master to answer me if he can4 ,but    
when anyone does not understand a       
matter1 then a straightforward man says1
 ',i do not know that4' ,the ,buddha    
replies somewhat evasively that he has  
not undertaken to decide such questions1
 because they are not for spiritual     
edification4  ,the question1 ,what is   
,nirvana8 has been the object of more   
extensive discussion than its importance
 demands4 ,practically1 the millions of 
,buddhists are not concerned with the   
question4 ,they find no attraction in   
either view4 ,they desire neither       
extinction nor unconscious absorption   
into the ,boddhi essence 7or ,brahm74   
,what they anticipate is an improved    
transmigration1 a better birth4 ,the    
more devout may indulge the hope that   

their next life will be spent in one of 
the ,buddhist heavens2 others may aspire
 to be men of high position and         
influence4 ,the real heaven to which the
 average ,buddhist looks forward is apt 
to be something very much after his own 
heart1 or at least something indicated  
by the estimate which he himself places 
upon his own character and life4 ,there 
may be many transmigrations awaiting    
him1 but he is chiefly concerned for the
 next in order4 ,the very last object to
 excite his interest is that far-off    
shadow called ,nirvana4  ,in estimating 
the conflict of ,christianity with      
,buddhism we must not take counsel      
merely of our own sense of the absurdity
 of ,gautama's teachings2 we are to     
remember that in ,christian lands       
society is made up of all kinds of      
people2 that outside of the ,christian  
,church there are thousands1 and even   
millions1 who1 with respect to faith1   
are in utter chaos and darkness4 ,the   
,church therefore cannot view this      

subject from its own stand-point merely4
 ,let us glance at certain features of  
,buddhism which render it welcome to    
various classes of men who dwell among  
us in ,western lands4 ,first of all1 the
 system commends itself to many by its  
intense individualism4 ,paul's figure of
 the various parts of the human frame as
 illustrating the body of ,christ1      
mutual in the interdependence of all its
 members1 would be wholly out of place  
in ,buddhism4 ,even the ,buddhist monks 
are so many units of introverted        
self-righteousness4 ,and individualism  
differently applied is the              
characteristic of our age1 and therefore
 a bond of sympathy is supplied4 ,every 
man for himself1 appeals to modern      
society in many ways4  ,again1 ,gautama 
magnified the human intellect and the   
power of the human will4 ,o ,ananda1 he 
said1 be lamps unto yourselves2 depend  
upon no other4 ,he claimed to have      
thought out1 and thought through every  
problem of existence1 to have penetrated

 every secret of human nature in the    
present1 and in the life to come1 and   
his example was commended to all1 that  
they might follow in their measure4 ,so 
also our transcendental philosophers    
have glorified the powers and           
possibilities of humanity1 and have made
 genius superior to saintliness4#hg     
,there are tens of thousands who in this
 respect believe in a religion of       
humanity1 and who worship1 if they      
worship at all1 the goddess of reason4  
,all such have a natural affinity for   
,buddhism4  ,another point in common    
between this system and the spirit of   
our age is its broad                    
humanitarianism--beneficence to the     
lower grades of life4 ,when love        
transcends the bounds of the human      
family it does not rise up toward ,god1 
it descends toward the lower orders of  
the animal world4 ,show pity toward     
everything that exists1 is its motto1   
and the insect and the worm hold a      
larger relative place in the ,buddhist  

than in the ,christian view4 ,the       
question ,are ye not of more value than 
many sparrows8 might be doubtful in the 
,buddhist estimate1 for the teacher     
himself1 in his pre-existent states1 had
 often been incarnate in inferior       
creatures4 ,it is by no means conceded  
that ,jesus1 in asking his disciples    
this question1 had less pity for the    
sparrows than the ,buddha1 or that his  
beneficence was less thoughtful of the  
meanest thing that glides through the   
air or creeps upon the earth2 but the   
spirit of ,christianity is more         
discriminating1 and its love rises up to
 heaven1 where1 beginning with ,god1 it 
descends through every grade of being4  
,yet it is quite in accordance with the 
spirit and aim of thousands to magnify  
the charity that confines itself to     
bodily wants and distresses1 to sneer at
 the relief which religion may bring to 
the far greater anguish of the spirit1  
and to look upon love and loyalty to    
,god as superstition4 ,is it any wonder 

that such persons have a warm side      
toward ,buddhism8 ,again1 this system   
has certain points in common with our   
modern evolution theories4 ,it is       
unscientific enough certainly in its    
speculations1 but it gets on without    
creatorship or divine superintendence1  
and believes in the inflexible reign of 
law1 though without a law-giver4 ,it    
assigns long ages to the process of     
creation1 if we may call it creation1   
and in development through cycles it    
sees little necessity for the work of   
,god4  ,it can also join hands cordially
 with many social theories of the day4  
,the pessimism of ,buddhists1 ancient or
 modern1 finds great sympathy in the    
crowded populations of the ,western as  
well as the ,eastern world4 ,and1 almost
 as a rule1 ,esoteric ,buddhism1        
,american ,buddhism1 ,neo-,buddhism1 or 
whatever we may call it1 is a cave of   
,adullam to which all types of religious
 apostates and social malcontents       
resort4 ,the thousands who have made    

shipwreck of faith1 who have become     
soured at the unequal allotments of     
,providence1 who have learned to hate   
all who are above them and more         
prosperous than they1 are just in the   
state of mind to take delight in        
,buddha's sermon at ,kapilavastu1 as    
rehearsed by ,sir ,edwin ,arnold4 ,there
 all beings met--gods1 devas1 men1      
beasts of the field1 and fowls of the   
air--to make common cause against the   
relentless fate that rules the world1   
and to bewail the sufferings and death  
which fill the great charnel-house of   
existence1 while ,buddha voiced their   
common complaint and stood before them  
as the only pitying friend that the     
universe had found4 ,it was the first   
great ,communist meeting of which we    
have any record4#hh ,the wronged and    
suffering universe was there1 and all   
took the promise of his piteous speech1 
,so that their lives1 prisoned in the   
shape of ape1    ,tiger or deer1 shagged
 bear1 jackal or wolf1    ,foul-feeding 

kite1 pearled dove or peacock gemmed1   
,squat toad or speckled serpent1 lizard1
 bat1    ,yea1 or fish fanning the river
 waves1    ,touched meekly at the skirts
 of brotherhood    ,with man1 who hath  
less innocence than these3    ,and in   
mute gladness knew their bondage broke  
,whilst ,buddha spoke these things      
before the king4  ,there was no mention 
of sin1 but only of universal           
misfortune6  ,in contrast with the deep 
shadows of a brooding and all-embracing 
pessimism like this1 we need only to    
hint at that glow of hope and joy with  
which the ,sun of ,righteousness has    
flooded the world1 and the fatherly love
 and compassion with which the ,old     
,testament and the ,new are replete1 the
 divine plan of redemption1 the psalms  
of praise and thanksgiving1 the pity of 
,christ's words and acts1 and his       
invitations to the weary and            
heavy-laden4 ,in one view it is strange 
that pessimism should have comfort in   
the fellowship of pessimism1 but so it  

is2 there is luxury even in the sympathy
 of hate1 and so ,buddhist pessimism is 
a welcome guest among us1 though our    
,communistic querulousness is more      
bitter4  ,once more1 ,buddhist occultism
 has found congenial fellowship in      
,american spiritualism4 ,of late we hear
 less of spirit-rappings and far more of
 ,theosophy4 ,but this is only the same 
crude system with other names1 and      
rendered more respectable by the        
cast-off garments of old ,indian        
philosophy4 ,there is a disposition in  
the more intellectual circles to assume 
a degree of disdain toward the crudeness
 of spiritualism and its vulgar         
familiarity with departed spirits1 who  
must ever be disturbed by its beck and  
call2 but it is confidently expected    
that the thousands1 nay1 as some say1   
millions1 of ,american spiritualists    
will gladly welcome the name and the    
creed of ,buddha4#hi ,it will be idle   
therefore to assume that the old sleepy 
system of ,gautama has no chance in this

 wide-awake republic of the ,west4#ij   
,i have already called attention to the 
special tactics of ,buddhists just now  
in claiming that ,christianity1 having  
been of later origin1 has borrowed its  
principal facts and its teachings4 ,let 
us examine the charge4 ,it is a real    
tribute to the character of ,christ that
 so many sects of false religionists    
have in all ages claimed ,him either as 
a follower or as an incarnation of their
 respective deities4 ,others have       
acknowledged his teachings as belonging 
to their particular style and grade4    
,the bitter and scathing calumny of     
,celsus1 in the first centuries of our  
era1 did not prevent numerous attempts  
to prove the identity of ,christ's      
teachings with some of the most popular 
philosophies of the heathen world4      
,porphyry claimed that many of ,christ's
 virtues were copied from ,pythagoras4  
,with like concession ,mohammedanism    
included ,jesus as one of the six great 
prophets1 and confessedly the only      

sinless one among them all4 ,many a     
fanatic in the successive centuries has 
claimed to be a new incarnation of the  
,son of ,god4 ,hindus have named ,him as
 an incarnation of ,vishnu for the      
,western1 as was ,krishna for the       
,eastern ,world4 ,as was indicated in   
the opening of this lecture1 the        
,theosophists are making special claim  
to ,him1#ia and are reviving the        
threadbare theory that ,he was a        
follower of ,buddha4  ,so strong an     
effort is made to prove that            
,christianity has borrowed both its     
divine leader and its essential         
doctrines from ,india1 that a moment's  
attention may well be given to the      
question here4 ,one allegation is that  
the ,evangelists copied the ,buddhist   
history and legends in their account of 
,christ's early life4 ,another is that  
the leaders of the ,alexandrian ,church 
worked over the gospel story at a later 
day1 having felt more fully the         
influence of ,india at that great       

commercial centre4 ,the two theories are
 inconsistent with each other1 and both 
are inconsistent with the assumption    
that ,christ ,himself was a ,buddhist1  
and taught the ,buddhist doctrines1     
since this supposition would have       
obviated the need of any manipulation or
 fraud at any point4  ,in replying as   
briefly as possible ,i shall endeavor to
 cover both allegations4 ,in strong     
contrast with these cheap assertions of 
,alexandrian corruption and plagiarism  
is the frank admission of such keen     
critics as ,renan1 ,weiss1 ,volkmar1    
,schenkel1 and ,hitzig1#ib that the     
gospel record as we have it1 was written
 during a generation in which some of   
the companions of ,jesus still lived4   
,renan says of ,mark's ,gospel that it  
is full of minute observations1 coming  
doubtless from an eye-witness1 and he   
asserts that ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke 
were written in substantially their     
present form by the men whose names they
 bear4 ,these ,gospels were the work of 

men who knew ,jesus4 ,matthew was one of
 the ,twelve2 ,john in his ,epistle     
speaks of himself as an eye-witness4    
,they were written in a historic age and
 were open to challenge4 ,they were     
nowhere contradicted in contemporary    
history4 ,they fit their environment4   
,how is it with the authenticity of     
,buddhist literature8 ,oldenberg says1  
,for the when of things men of ,india   
have never had a proper organ1 and ,max 
,mueller declares to the same effect1   
that the idea of a faithful1 literal    
translation seems altogether foreign to 
,oriental minds4 ,he also informs us    
that there is not a single manuscript in
 ,india which is a thousand years old1  
and scarcely one that can claim five    
hundred years4 ,for centuries after     
,gautama's time nothing was written2 all
 was transmitted by word of mouth4      
,buddhists themselves say that the ,pali
 canonical texts were written about #hh 
,b4,c4#ic  ,any fair comparison of the  
two histories should confine itself to  

the writings which are regarded as      
canonical respectively1 and whose dates 
can be fixed4 ,no more importance should
 be attached to the later ,buddhist     
legends than to the ,apocryphal         
,gospels1 or to the absurd ,christian   
,legends which appeared in the middle   
ages4 ,the ,buddhist ,canon was adopted 
by the ,council of ,patna #bdb ,b4,c4   
,the legends which are generally        
compared with the canonical story of    
,christ are not included in that ,canon1
 or at most very few of them4 ,they are 
drawn from certain poetical books       
written much later1 and holding about   
the same relation to the ,buddhist      
,canon that the ,paradise ,lost and     
,paradise ,regained of ,milton bear to  
the scriptures of the ,old and ,new     
,testaments4 ,who would think of quoting
 ,paradise ,lost in any sober comparison
 of ,biblical truth with the teachings  
of other religions8#id  ,even the       
canonical literature1 that which is     
supposed to contain the true history and

 teachings of ,buddha1 is far from      
authoritative1 owing to the acknowledged
 habit--acknowledged even by the author 
of the ,dhammapada of adding            
commentaries1 notes1 etc41 to original  
teachings4 ,not only was this common    
among ,buddhist writers1 but even more  
surprising liberties were taken with the
 narrative4 ,for example3 ,the legend   
describing ,buddha's leave-taking of his
 harem is clearly borrowed from an      
earlier story of ,yasa1 a wealthy young 
householder of ,benares1 who1 becoming  
disgusted with his harem1 left his      
sleeping dancing girls and fled to the  
,buddha for instruction4 ,davids and    
,oldenberg1 in translating this legend  
from the ,mahavagga1 say in a note1 ,a  
well-known incident in the life of      
,buddha has evidently been shaped after 
the model of this story2 and they       
declare that nowhere in the ',pali      
,pitakas' is this scene of ,buddha's    
leave-taking mentioned4  ,as another    
evidence of the way in which fact and   

fiction have been mixed and manipulated 
for a purpose1 one of the legends1 which
 has often been presented as a parallel 
to the story of ,christ1 represents the 
,buddha as repelling the temptation of  
,mara by quoting texts of scripture1 and
 the scripture referred to was the      
,dhammapada4 ,but the ,dhammapada was   
compiled hundreds of years after        
,buddha's death4 ,besides1 there were no
 scriptures of any kind in his day1 for 
nothing was written till two or three   
centuries later2 and worse still1       
,buddha is made to quote his own        
subsequent teachings2 for the           
,dhammapada claims to consist of the    
sacred words of the enlightened one4    
,most of the legends of ,buddhism were  
wholly written after the beginning of   
the ,christian era1 and it cannot be    
shown that any were written in their    
present form until two or three         
centuries of that era had elapsed4      
,t4,w4 ,rhys ,davids says of the ,lalita
 ,vistara which contains a very large   

proportion of them1 and one form of     
which is said to have been translated   
into ,chinese in the first century      
,a4,d41 that there is no real proof that
 it existed in its present form before  
the year #fjj ,a4,d4 ,the ,romantic     
,legend cannot be traced farther back   
than the third century ,a4,d4 ,oldenberg
 says3 ,no biography of ,buddha has come
 down to us from ancient times1 from the
 age of the ,pali texts1 and we can     
safely say that no such biography was in
 existence then4 ,beal declares that the
 ,buddhist legend1 as found in the      
various ,epics of ,nepaul1 ,thibet1 and 
,china1 is not framed after any ,indian 
model of any date1 but is to be found   
worked out1 so to speak1 among northern 
peoples1 who were ignorant of1 or       
indifferent to1 the pedantic stories of 
the ,brahmans4 ,in the southern and     
primitive records the terms of the      
legend are wanting4 ,buddha is not born 
of a royal family2 he is not tempted    
before his enlightenment2 he works no   

miracles1 and he is not a ,universal    
,saviour4  ,the chances are decidedly   
that if any borrowing has been done it  
was on the side of ,buddhism4 ,it has   
been asserted that thirty thousand      
,buddhist monks from ,alexandria once   
visited ,ceylon on the occasion of a    
great festival4 ,this is absurd on the  
face of it2 but that a ,christian colony
 settled in ,malabar at a very early    
period is attested by the presence of   
thousands of their followers even to    
this day4  ,in discussing the specific  
charge of copying ,buddhist legends in  
the gospel narratives1 we are met at the
 threshold by insurmountable            
improbabilities4 ,to some of these ,i   
ask a moment's attention4 ,i shall not  
take the time to discuss in detail the  
alleged parallels which are paraded as  
proofs4 ,to anyone who understands the  
spirit of ,judaism and its attitude     
toward heathenism of all kinds1 it is   
simply inconceivable that the ,christian
 disciples1 whose aim it was to         

propagate the faith of their ,master in 
a ,jewish community1 should have        
borrowed old ,indian legends1 which1 by 
the terms of the supposition1 must have 
been widely known as such4 ,and         
,buddhist apologists must admit that it 
is a little strange that the ,scribes   
and ,pharisees1 who were intelligent1   
and as alert as they were bitter1 should
 never have exposed this transparent    
plagiarism4 ,the great concern of the   
,apostles was to prove to ,jews and     
,gentiles that ,jesus was the ,christ of
 ,old ,testament prophecy4 ,the whole   
drift of their preaching and their      
epistles went to show that the gospel   
history rested squarely and             
uncompromisingly on a ,jewish basis4    
,peter and ,john1 ,stephen and ,paul1   
constantly reasoned with the ,jews out  
of their own ,scriptures4 ,how          
unspeakably absurd is the notion that   
they were trying to palm off on those   
keen ,pharisees a ,messiah who1 though  
in the outset at ,nazareth he publicly  

traced his commission to ,old ,testament
 prophecy1 was all the while copying an 
atheistic philosopher of ,india6  ,it is
 equally inconceivable that the         
,christian fathers should have copied   
,buddhism4 ,they resisted ,persian      
mysticism as the work of the ,devil1 and
 it was in that mysticism1 if anywhere1 
that ,buddhist influence existed in the 
,levant4 ,whoever has read ,tertullian's
 withering condemnation of ,marcion may 
judge how far the fathers of the ,church
 favored the heresies of the ,east4     
,augustine had himself been a ,manichean
 mystic1 and when after his conversion  
he became the great theologian of the   
,church1 he must have known whether the 
teachings of the ,buddha were being     
palmed off on the ,christian world4 ,the
 great leaders of that age were men of  
thorough scholarship and of the deepest 
moral earnestness4 ,many of them gave up
 their possessions and devoted their    
lives to the promotion of the truths    
which they professed4 ,scores of them   

sealed their faith by martyr deaths4    
,but even if we were to accept the      
flippant allegation that they were all  
impostors1 yet we should be met by an   
equally insurmountable difficulty in the
 utter silence of the able and bitter   
assailants of ,christianity in the first
 two or three centuries4 ,celsus        
prepared himself for his well-known     
attack on ,christianity with the utmost 
care1 searching history1 philosophy1 and
 every known religion from which he     
could derive an argument against the    
,christian faith4  ,why did he not      
strike at the very root of the matter by
 exposing those stupid plagiarists who  
were attempting to play off upon the    
intelligence of the ,roman world a      
clumsy imitation of the far-famed       
,buddha8 ,it was the very kind of thing 
that the enemies of ,christianity       
wanted4 ,why should the adroit ,porphyry
 attempt to work up a few mere scraps of
 resemblance from the life of           
,pythagoras1 when all he had to do was  

to lay his hand upon familiar legends   
which afforded an abundance of the very 
thing in demand8  ,again1 it is to be   
remembered that ,christianity has always
 been restrictive and opposed to        
admixtures with other systems4 ,it      
repelled the ,neo-,platonism of         
,alexandria1 and it fought for two or   
three centuries against ,gnosticism1    
,manichaeism1 and similar heresies3 and 
the assumption1 in the face of all this1
 that the ,christian ,church went out of
 its way to copy ,indian ,buddhism1 must
 be due either to gross ignorance or to 
reckless misrepresentation4 ,on the     
other hand1 it is in accordance with the
 very genius of ,buddhism to borrow4 ,it
 has absorbed every indigenous          
superstition and entered into           
partnership with every local religious  
system1 from the ,devil ,worship of     
,burmah and ,ceylon to the ,taouism of  
,china and the ,shinto of ,japan4 ,in   
its long-continued contact with         
,christianity it has changed from the   

original atheism of ,gautama to various 
forms of theism1 and in some of its     
sects1 at least1 from a stanch          
insistance on self-help alone to an     
out-and-out doctrine of salvation by    
faith4 ,this is true of the ,shin and   
,yodo sects of ,japan4 ,from recognizing
 no ,god at all at first1 ,buddhism had1
 by the seventh century ,a4,d41 a       
veritable ,trinity1 with attributes     
resembling those of the ,triune ,god of 
the ,christians1 and by the tenth       
century it had five trinities with ,one 
,supreme ,adi-,buddha over them all4    
,everyone may judge for himself whether 
these later interpolations of the system
 were borrowed from the ,new ,testament 
,trinity1 which had been proclaimed     
through all the ,east ten centuries     
before4 ,buddhism is still absorbing    
foreign elements through the aid of its 
various apologists4 ,sir ,edwin ,arnold 
has greatly added to the force of its   
legend by the ,christian phrases and    
,christian conceptions which he has read

 into it4 ,toward the close of the      
,light of ,asia he also introduces into 
the ,buddha's sermon at ,kapilavastu the
 teachings of ,herbert ,spencer and     
others of our own time4  ,but altogether
 the most stupendous improbability lies 
against the whole assumption that       
,christ and his followers based their   
essential doctrines on the teachings of 
the ,buddha4 ,the early ,buddhism was   
atheistic3 this is the common verdict of
 ,davids1 ,childers1 ,sir ,monier       
,williams1 ,kellogg1 and many others4   
,the ,buddha declared that without cause
 and unknown is the life of man in this 
world1 and he recognized no higher being
 to whom he owed reverence4 ,the        
,buddhist ,catechism1 by ,subhadra1     
shows that modern ,buddhism has no      
recognition of ,god4  ,it says 7page    
#eh73 ,buddhism teaches the reign of    
perfect goodness and wisdom without a   
personal ,god1 continuance of           
individuality without an immortal soul1 
eternal happiness without a local       

heaven1 the way of salvation without a  
vicarious saviour1 redemption worked out
 by each one himself without any        
prayers1 sacrifices1 and penances1      
without the ministry of ordained        
priests1 without the intercession of    
saints1 without divine mercy4 ,and then1
 by way of authentication1 it adds3     
,these1 and many others which have      
become the fundamental doctrines of the 
,buddhist religion1 were recognized by  
the ,buddha in the night of his         
enlightenment under the ,boddhi-tree4   
,and yet we are told that this is the   
system which ,christ and his followers  
copied4 ,compare this passage with the  
,lord's ,prayer1 or with the discourse  
upon the lilies1 and its lesson of trust
 in ,god the ,father of all6 ,i appeal  
not merely to ,christian men1 but to any
 man who has brains and common-sense1   
was there ever so preposterous an       
attempt to establish an identity of     
doctrines8  ,but what is the evidence   
found in the legends themselves8        

,several leading ,oriental scholars1 and
 men not at all biased in favor of      
,christianity1 have carefully examined  
the subject1 and have decided that there
 is no connection whatever4 ,professor  
,seydel1 of ,leipsic1 who has given the 
most scientific plea for the so-called  
coincidences1 of which he claims there  
are fifty-one1 has classified them as3  
#a1 ,those which may have been merely   
accidental1 having arisen from similar  
causes1 and not necessarily implying any
 borrowing on either side2 #b1 those    
which seem to have been borrowed from   
the one narrative or the other2 and #c1 
those which he thinks were clearly      
copied by the ,christian writers4 ,in   
this last class he names but five out of
 fifty-one4  ,kuenen1 who has little    
bias in favor of ,christianity1 and who 
has made a very thorough examination of 
,seydel's parallels1 has completely     
refuted these five4#ie ,and speaking of 
the whole question he says3 ,i think we 
may safely affirm that we must abstain  

from assigning to ,buddhism the smallest
 direct influence on the origin of      
,christianity4 ,he also says of similar 
theories of de ,bunsen3 ,a single       
instance is enough to teach us that     
inventive fancy plays the chief part in 
them4#if  ,rhys ,davids1 whom           
,subhadra's ,buddhist ,catechism        
approves as the chief exponent of       
,buddhism1 says on the same subject3 ,i 
can find no evidence of any actual or   
direct communication of these ideas     
common to ,buddhism and ,christianity   
from the ,east to the ,west4 ,oldenberg 
denies their early date1 and ,beal      
denies them an ,indian origin of any    
date4   ,contrasts between ,buddhism and
 ,christianity4  ,rhys ,davids has      
pointed out the fact that1 while        
,buddhism in some points is more nearly 
allied to ,christianity than any other  
system1 yet in others it is the farthest
 possible from it in its spirit and its 
tendency4 ,if we strike out those       
ethical principles which1 to a large    

extent1 are the common heritage of      
mankind1 revealed in the understanding  
and the conscience1 we shall find in    
what remains an almost total contrariety
 to the ,christian faith4 ,to give a few
 examples only4  #a4 ,christ taught the 
existence and glory of ,god as ,supreme1
 the ,creator and ,father1 the righteous
 ,judge4 ,his supreme mission to        
reconcile all men to ,god was the       
key-note of all ,his ministry4 ,by ,his 
teaching the hearts of men are lifted up
 above all earthly conceptions to the   
worship of infinite purity1 and to the  
comforting assurance of more than a     
father's care and love4 ,buddhism1 on   
the contrary1 knows nothing of ,god1    
offers no heavenly incentive1 no divine 
help4 ,leading scholars are agreed that1
 whatever it may be now1 the original   
orthodox ,buddhism was essentially      
atheistic4 ,it despised the idea of     
divine help1 and taught men to rely upon
 themselves4 ,while1 therefore1         
,buddhism never rose above the level of 

earthly resources1 and contemplated only
 lower orders of being1 ,christianity   
begins with ,god as supreme1 to be      
worshipped and loved with all the heart1
 mind1 and strength1 while our neighbors
 are to be loved as ourselves4  #b4     
,christ represented ,himself as having  
pre-existed from the foundation of the  
world1 as having been equal with ,god in
 the glory of heaven1 all of which ,he  
resigned that ,he might enter upon the  
humiliation of our earthly state1 and   
raise us up to eternal life4 ,he        
distinctly claimed oneness and equality 
with the ,father4 ,buddha claimed no    
such antecedent glory2 he spoke of      
himself as a man merely2 the whole aim  
of his teaching was to show in himself  
what every man might accomplish4 ,later 
legends ascribe to him a sort of        
pre-existence1 in which five hundred and
 thirty successive lives were passed1   
sometimes as a man1 sometimes as a god1 
many times as an animal4 ,but even these
 claims were not made by ,buddha        

himself--except so far as was implied by
 the common doctrine of transmigration4 
,furthermore1 in relation to the alleged
 pre-existences1 according to strict    
,buddhist doctrine it was not really he 
who had gone before1 it was only a      
,kharma or character that had exchanged 
hands many times before it could be     
taken up by the real and conscious      
,buddha born upon the earth4 ,still     
further1 even after the beginning of his
 earthly life he lived for many years in
 what1 according to his own teaching1   
was heinous sin1 all of which is fatal  
to the theory of pre-existent holiness4 
#c4 ,christ is a real ,saviour2 ,his    
atonement claimed to be a complete      
ransom from the penalty of sin1 and by  
,his teaching and example1 and by the   
power of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,he         
overcomes the power of sin itself1      
transforming the soul into ,his own     
image4 ,buddha1 on the other hand1 did  
not claim to achieve salvation for any  
except himself1 though ,mr4 ,arnold and 

others constantly use such terms as help
 and salvation4 ,nothing of the kind is 
claimed by the early ,buddhist          
doctrines2 they plainly declare that    
purity and impurity belong to one's     
self1 and that no one can purify        
another4  #d4 ,christ emphatically      
declared ,himself a helper1 even in this
 life3 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor 
and are heavy laden1 and ,i will give   
you rest4 ,he promised also to send his 
,spirit as a comforter1 as a supporter  
of his disciples' faith1 as a guide and 
teacher1 at all times caring for their  
need2 in whatever exigency his grace    
would be sufficient for them4 ,on the   
contrary1 ,buddha taught his followers  
that no power in heaven or earth could  
help them2 the victory must be their    
own4 ,how can we hope to amend a life1  
says ,bishop ,carpenter1 which is       
radically bad1 by the aid of a system   
which teaches that man's highest aim    
should be to escape from life8 ,all that
 has been said against the ascetic and  

non-worldly attitude of ,christianity   
might be urged with additional force    
against ,buddhism4 ,it is full of the   
strong1 sweet1 pathetic compassion which
 looks upon life with eyes full of      
tears1 but only to turn them away from  
it again1 as from an unsolved and       
insoluble riddle4 ,and he substantiates 
his position by quoting ,reville and    
,oldenberg4 ,reville reaches this       
similar conclusion3 ,buddhism1 born on  
the domain of polytheism1 has fought    
against it1 not by rising above nature  
in subordinating it to a single         
sovereign spirit1 but by reproving      
nature in principle1 and condemning life
 itself as an evil and a misfortune4    
,buddhism does not measure itself       
against this or that abuse1 does not    
further the development or reformation  
of society1 either directly or          
indirectly1 for the very simple reason  
that it turns away from the world on    
principle4  ,oldenberg1 one of the most 
thorough of ,pali scholars1 says3 ,for  

the lower order of the people1 for those
 born to toil in manual labor1 hardened 
by the struggle for existence1 the      
announcement of the connection of misery
 with all forms of existence was not    
made1 nor was the dialectic of the law  
of the painful concatenation of causes  
and effects calculated to satisfy 'the  
poor in spirit4' ',to the wise belongeth
 this law1' it is said1 'not to the     
foolish4' ,very unlike the work of that 
,man who 'suffered little children to   
come unto ,him1 for of such is the      
kingdom of ,god4' ,for children1 and    
those who are like children1 the arms of
 ,buddha are not opened4  #e4 ,christ   
and his disciples set before men the    
highest motives of life4 ,the great end 
of man was to love ,god supremely1 and  
one's neighbor as himself4 ,every true  
disciple was to consider himself an     
almoner and dispenser of the divine     
goodness to his race4 ,it was this that 
inspired the sublime devotion of ,paul  
and of thousands since his time4 ,it is 

the secret principle of all the noblest 
deeds of men4 ,gautama had no such high 
and unselfish aim4 ,he found no         
inspiring motive above the level of     
humanity4 ,his system concentrates all  
thought and effort on one's own         
life--virtually on the attainment of    
utter indifference to all things else4  
,the early zeal of ,gautama and his     
followers in preaching to their         
fellow-men was inconsistent with the    
plain doctrines taught at a later day4  
,if in any case there were those who1   
like ,paul1 burned with desire to save  
their fellow-men1 all we can say is1    
they were better than their creed4 ,such
 was the spirit of the ,gospel1 rather  
than the idle and useless torpor of the 
,buddhist order4 ,here1 according to    
,buddhists1 says ,spence ,hardy1 is a   
mere code of proprieties1 an occasional 
opiate1 a plan for being free from      
discomfort1 a system for personal       
profit4 ,buddhism certainly taught the  
repression of human activity and        

influence4 ,instead of saying1 ,let your
 light so shine before men that they1   
seeing your good works1 may glorify your
 ,father who is in heaven1 or ,work     
while the day lasts1 it said1 ,if thou  
keepest thyself silent as a broken gong1
 thou hast attained ,nirvana4 ,to wander
 about like the rhinoceros alone1 was   
enjoined as the pathway of true wisdom4 
#f4 ,christ taught that life1 though    
attended with fearful alternatives1 is a
 glorious birthright1 with boundless    
possibilities and promise of good to    
ourselves and others4 ,buddhism makes   
life an evil which it is the supreme end
 of man to conquer and cut off from the 
disaster of re-birth4 ,christianity     
opens a path of usefulness1 holiness1   
and happiness in this life1 and a career
 of triumph and glory in the endless    
ages to come4 ,both ,buddhism and       
,hinduism are worse than other          
pessimistic systems in their fearful law
 of entailment through countless        
transmigrations1 each of which must be a

 struggle4  #g4 ,christ1 according to   
the ,new ,testament1 ever liveth to make
 intercession for us1 and the ,holy     
,spirit represents ,him constantly as an
 ever-living power in the world1 to     
regenerate1 save1 and bless4 ,but       
,buddha is dead1 and his very existence 
is a thing of the past4 ,only traditions
 and the influence of his example can   
help men in the struggle of life4 ,said 
,buddha to his disciples3 ,as a flame   
blown by violence goes out and cannot be
 reckoned1 even so a ,buddha delivered  
from name and body disappears and cannot
 be reckoned as existing4 ,again1 he    
said to his ,order1 ,mendicants1 that   
which binds the ,teacher 7himself7 is   
cut off1 but his body still remains4    
,while this body shall remain he will be
 seen by gods and men1 but after the    
termination of life1 upon the           
dissolution of the body1 neither gods   
nor men shall see him4  #h4 ,christ     
taught the sacredness of the human body4
 ,know ye not that your body is the     

temple of the ,holy ,ghost which is in  
you8 said ,his great ,apostle4 ,but     
,buddhism says3 ,as men deposit filth   
upon a dungheap and depart regretting   
nothing1 wanting nothing1 so will ,i    
depart leaving this body filled with    
vile vapors4 ,christ and ,his disciples 
taught the triumphant resurrection of   
the body in spiritual form and purity   
after ,his own image4 ,the ,buddhist    
forsakes utterly and forever the        
deserted1 cast-off mortality1 while     
still he looks only for another         
habitation equally mortal and           
corruptible1 and possibly that of a     
lower animal4 ,thus1 through all these  
lines of contrast1 and many others that 
might be named1 there appear light and  
life and blessedness on the one hand1   
and gloom and desolation on the other4  
,the gloomy nature of ,buddhism is well 
expressed in ,hardy's ,legends and      
,theories of ,buddhism as follows3 ,the 
system of ,buddhism is humiliating1     
cheerless1 man-marring1 soul-crushing4  

,it tells me that ,i am not a reality1  
that ,i have no soul4 ,it tells me that 
there is no unalloyed happiness1 no     
plenitude of enjoyment1 no perfect      
unbroken peace in the possession of any 
being whatever1 from the highest to the 
lowest1 in any world4 ,it tells me that 
,i may live myriads of millions of ages1
 and that not in any of those ages1 nor 
in any portion of any age1 can ,i be    
free from apprehension as to the future1
 until ,i attain to a state of          
unconsciousness2 and that in order to   
arrive at this consummation ,i must turn
 away from all that is pleasant1 or     
lovely1 or instructive1 or elevating1 or
 sublime4 ,it tells me by voices ever   
repeated1 like the ceaseless sound of   
the sea-wave on the shore1 that ,i shall
 be subject to sorrow1 impermanence1 and
 unreality so long as ,i exist1 and yet 
that ,i cannot cease to exist1 nor for  
countless ages to come1 as ,i can only  
attain nirvana in the time of a ,supreme
 ,buddha4 ,in my distress ,i ask for the

 sympathy of an all-wise and            
all-powerful friend4 ,but ,i am mocked  
instead by the semblance of relief1 and 
am told to look to ,buddha1 who has     
ceased to exist2 to the ,dharma that    
never was in existence1 and to the      
,sangha1 the members of which are real  
existences1 but like myself are         
partakers of sorrow and sin4  ,how shall
 we measure the contrast between all    
this and the ecstacies of ,christian    
hope1 which in various forms are        
expressed in the ,epistles of ,paul2 the
 expected crown of righteousness1 the   
eternal weight of glory2 heirship with  
,christ in an endless inheritance2 the  
house not made with hands2 the ,general 
,assembly of the first born8 ,even in   
the midst of earthly sorrows and        
persecutions he could say1 ,nay1 in all 
things we are more than conquerors      
through ,him that loved us4 ,for ,i am  
persuaded that neither death1 nor life1 
nor angels1 nor principalities1 nor     
powers1 nor things present1 nor things  

to come1 nor height1 nor depth1 nor any 
other creature1 shall be able to        
separate us from the love of ,god which 
is in ,christ ,jesus1 our ,lord4        
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #hj3 ,it is by  
no means certain that ,buddha's         
followers1 in carrying out his system1  
have not lapsed into the old notions of 
merit-making asceticism to greater or   
less extent1 and have become virtually  
very much like the torpid and useless   
fakirs of the old ,hinduism4  ,footnote 
#ha3 ,the ,jataka legends of ,ceylon1   
dating in their present form about #ejj 
,a4,d41 greatly enlarge the proportions 
of this ,northern legend1 making the    
elephant over seven thousand miles high1
 and widening out the surrounding army  
to one hundred and sixty four miles4    
,footnote #hb3 ,of the ,romantic ,legend
 found in ,nepaul1 ,beall's translation 
is probably the best4  ,footnote #hc3   
,see ,appendix of ,origin and ,growth of
 ,religion as illustrated in ,buddhism4 
,footnote #hd3 ,see ,buddhism1 pp4      

#aaj-aae4  ,footnote #he3 ,buddhism1 p4 
#aad4  ,footnote #hf3 ,pp4 #bfe-bhe4    
,footnote #hg3 ,it is the boast of the  
author of ,esoteric ,buddhism1 that     
strange mixture of ,western spiritualism
 with ,oriental mysticism1 that his     
system despises the tame goody1 goody   
spirit of ,christianity1 and deals with 
the endless growth of mind4  ,footnote  
#hh3 ,light of ,asia4  ,footnote #hi3   
,mr4 ,sinnett1 in his ,esoteric         
,buddhism1 expressed the idea that it   
was high time that the crudities of     
spiritualism should be corrected by the 
more philosophic occultism of the ,east4
  ,footnote #ij3 ,the points of contact 
between ,buddhism and certain forms of  
,western thought have been ably treated 
by ,professor ,s4,h4 ,kellogg1 in the   
,light of ,asia and ,light of the       
,world4  ,footnote #ia3 ,a recent tract 
has appeared1 entitled ,theosophy the   
,religion of ,jesus4  ,footnote #ib3    
,cited by ,professor ,kellogg4          
,footnote #ic3 ,professor ,t4,w4 ,rhys  

,davids1 in his introduction to         
,buddhism1 enumerates the following     
sources of knowledge concerning the     
early ,buddhism3  #a4 ,the ,lalita      
,vistara1 a ,sanscrit work of the       
,northern ,buddhists full of extravagant
 fictions concerning the early portion  
of ,gautama's life4 ,davids compares it 
to ,milton's ,paradise ,regained1 as a  
source of history1 and claims that      
although parts of it were translated    
into ,chinese in the first century of   
our era1 there is no proof of its       
existence in its present form earlier   
than the sixth century ,a4,d4  #b4 ,two 
,thibetan versions1 based chiefly on the
 ,lalita ,vistara4  #c4 ,the ,romantic  
,legend1 from the ,sanscrit of the      
,northern ,buddhists1 translated into   
,chinese in the sixth century ,a4,d42   
,english version by ,beal published in  
#ahge4 ,this also is an extravagant     
poem4 ,this and the ,lalita ,vistara    
embrace most of the alleged parallels to
 the ,life of ,christ4  #d4 ,the        

original ,pali text of the ,commentary  
on the ,jatakas1 written in ,ceylon     
probably about the fifth century of our 
era4 ,davids considers its account down 
to the time of ,gautama's return to     
,kapilavastu1 the best authority we     
have4 ,it contains word for word almost 
the whole of the life of ,gautama given 
by ,turnour1 from a commentary on the   
,buddhavansa1 which is the account of   
the ,buddhas contained in the second    
,pitaka4  #e4 ,an account taken by      
,spence ,hardy from ,cingalese books of 
a comparatively modern date4  #f4 ,an   
,english translation by ,bigandet of a  
,burmese account1 which was itself a    
translation of unknown date made from a 
,pali version4  #g4 ,an account of the  
death of ,gautama1 given in ,pali and   
said to be the oldest of all the        
sources4 ,it is full of wonders created 
by the fancy of the unknown author1 but 
differs widely from the fancy sketches  
of the ,lalita ,vistara of the ,north4  
#h4 ,a translation by ,mr4 ,alabaster of

 a ,siamese account4 ,it does not claim 
to be exact4  ,footnote #id3 ,t4,w4     
,rhys ,davids illustrates the           
worthlessness of poetic narrations as   
grounds of argument by quoting from     
,milton's ,paradise ,regained this mere 
fancy sketch of the accompaniments of   
,christ's temptation3            ,and   
either tropic now    ',gan thunder and  
both ends of heaven2 the clouds    ,from
 many a horrid rift abortive poured     
,fierce rain with lightning mixed1 water
 with fire    ,in ruin reconciled2 nor  
slept the winds    ,within their stony  
caves1 but rush'd abroad    ,from the   
four hinges of the world1 and fell      
,on the vex'd wilderness2 whose tallest 
pines    ,tho' rooted deep as high and  
sturdiest oaks1    ,bowed their stiff   
necks1 loaden with stormy blasts    ,or 
torn up sheer4 ,ill wast ,thou shrouded 
then1    ,o patient ,son of ,god1 yet   
stood'st alone    ,unshaken6 nor yet    
staid the terror there2    ,infernal    
ghosts and hellish furies round         

,environed ,thee2 some howl'd1 some     
yell'd1 some shriek'd1    ,some bent at 
,thee their fiery darts1 while ,thou    
,sat'st unappall'd in calm and sinless  
peace4                                  
,book iv4  ,footnote #ie3 ,see ,national
 ,religion and ,universal ,religion1 p4 
#cfb4  ,footnote #if3 ,hibbert          
,lectures1 #ahhb4     ,,lecture ,,vi4   
,,mohammedanism ,,past ,,and ,,present  
,it has been the fate of every great    
religious teacher to have his memory    
enveloped in a haze of posthumous myths4
 ,even the ,gospel history was          
embellished with marvellous apocryphal  
legends of the childhood of ,christ4    
,buddhism very soon began to be         
overgrown with a truly ,indian          
luxuriance of fables1 miracles1 and     
pre-existent histories extending through
 five hundred past transmigrations4 ,in 
like manner1 the followers of ,mohammed 
traced the history of their prophet and 
of their sacred city back to the time of
 ,adam4 ,and ,mohammedan legends were   

not a slow and natural growth1 as in the
 case of most other faiths4 ,there was a
 set purpose in producing them without  
much delay4 ,the conquests of ,islam    
over the ,eastern empires had been very 
rapid4 ,the success of ,mohammed's cause
 and creed had exceeded the expectations
 of his most sanguine followers4 ,in the
 first half of the seventh century--nay1
 between the years #fcj and #fch        
,a4,d4--,jerusalem1 ,damascus1 and      
,aleppo had fallen before the arms of   
,omar and his lieutenant ,khaled the    
,invincible1 and in #fci ,egypt was     
added to the realm of the ,khalifs4     
,persia was conquered in ,a4,d4 #fdj4   
,it seemed scarcely possible that       
achievements so brilliant could have    
been the work of a mere unlettered ,arab
 and his brave but unpretentious        
successors4 ,the personnel of the       
prophet must be raised to an adequate   
proportion to such a history4 ,special  
requisition was made therefore for      
incidents4 ,the devout fancy of the     

faithful was taxed for the picturesque  
and marvellous2 and the system which    
,mohammed taught1 and the very place in 
which he was born1 must needs be raised 
to a supernatural dignity and           
importance4 ,accordingly1 the history of
 the prophet was traced back to the     
creation of the world1 when ,god was    
said to have imparted to a certain small
 portion of earthy dust a mysterious    
spark of light4 ,when ,adam was formed  
this particular luminous dust appeared  
in his forehead1 and from him it passed 
in a direct line to ,abraham4 ,from     
,abraham it descended1 not to ,isaac1   
but to ,ishmael2 and this was the cause 
of ,sarah's jealousy and the secret of  
all ,abraham's domestic troubles4 ,of   
course1 this bright spark of heavenly   
effulgence reappearing on the brow of   
each lineal progenitor1 was designed    
ultimately for ,mohammed1 in whom it    
shone forth with tenfold brightness4    
,there is real historic evidence of the 
fact that the ,vale of ,mecca had for a 

long time been regarded as sacred       
ground4 ,it was a sort of forest or     
extensive grove1 a place for holding    
treaties among the tribes1 a common     
ground of truce and a refuge from the   
avenger4 ,it was also a place for       
holding annual fairs1 for public        
harangues1 and the competitive          
recitation of ballads and other poems4  
,but all this1 however creditable to the
 culture of the ,arab tribes1 was not   
sufficient for the purposes of ,islam4  
,the ,kaaba1 which had been a rude      
heathen temple1 was raised to the       
dignity of a shrine of the true ,god1 or
 rather it was restored1 for it was said
 to have been built by ,adam after a    
divine pattern4 ,the story was this3 ,at
 the time of the ,fall1 ,adam and ,eve  
had somehow become separated4 ,adam had 
wandered away to ,ceylon1 where a       
mountain peak still bears his name4 ,but
 having been divinely summoned to ,mecca
 to erect this first of earthly temples1
 he unexpectedly found ,eve residing    

upon a hill near the city1 and          
thenceforward the ,valley of ,mecca     
became their paradise regained4 ,at the 
time of the ,deluge the ,kaaba was      
buried in mud1 and for centuries        
afterward it was overgrown with trees4  
,when ,hagar and her son ,ishmael were  
driven out from the household of        
,abraham1 they wandered by chance to    
this very spot1 desolate and forsaken4  
,while ,hagar was diligently searching  
for water1 more anxious to save the life
 of her son than her own1 ,ishmael1     
boy-like1 sat poking the sand with his  
heel2 when1 behold1 a spring of water   
bubbled up in his footprint4 ,and this  
was none other than the sacred well     
,zemzem1 whose brackish waters are still
 eagerly sought by every ,moslem        
pilgrim4 ,as ,ishmael grew to manhood   
and established his home in the sacred  
city1 ,abraham was summoned to join him1
 that they together might rebuild the   
,kaaba4 ,but in the succeeding          
generations apostacy again brought ruin 

upon the place1 although the heathen    
,koreish still performed sacred rites   
there--especially that of sevenfold     
processions around the sacred stone4    
,this blackened object1 supposed to be  
an aerolite which fell ages ago1 is     
still regarded as sacred1 and the       
sevenfold circuits of ,mohammedan       
pilgrims take the place of the ancient  
heathen rites4  ,laying aside these     
crude legends1 and confining our        
attention to probable history1 ,i can   
only hope1 in the compass of a single   
lecture1 to barely touch upon a series  
of prominent points without any very    
careful regard to logical order4 ,this  
will perhaps insure the greatest        
clearness as well as the best economy of
 time4 ,and first1 we will glance at the
 personal history of ,mohammed--a       
history1 it should be remembered1 which 
was not committed to writing till two   
hundred years after the prophet's death1
 and which depends wholly on the        
enthusiastic traditions of his          

followers4 ,born in the year #efa       
,a4,d41 of a recently widowed mother1 he
 appears to have been from the first a  
victim of epilepsy1 or some kindred     
affection whose paroxysms had much to do
 with his subsequent experiences and his
 success4 ,the various tribes of ,arabia
 were mostly given to a form of         
polytheistic idolatry in which1 however1
 the conception of a monotheistic       
supremacy was still recognized4 ,most   
scholars1 including ,renan1 insist on   
ascribing to the ,arabians1 in common   
with all other ,shemitic races1 a       
worship of one ,god as ,supreme1 though 
the ,arabian ,allah1 like the ,baal of  
,canaan and ,phoenicia1 was supposed to 
be attended by numerous inferior        
deities4 ,though ,islam undoubtedly     
borrowed the staple of its truths from  
the ,old ,testament1 yet there was a    
short confession strikingly resembling  
the modern creed of to-day1 which had   
been upon the lips of many generations  
of ,arabians before ,mohammed's time4   

,thus it ran3 ,i dedicate myself to thy 
service1 ,o ,allah4 ,thou hast no       
companion except the companion of whom  
thou art master and of whatever is his4 
,a society known as the ,hanifs existed 
at the time of ,mohammed's early        
manhood1 and we know not how long       
before1 whose aim was to bring back     
their countrymen from the degrading     
worship and cruel practices of          
heathenism to the purity of monotheistic
 worship4 ,the old faith had been       
reinforced in the minds of the more     
intelligent ,arabs by the truths learned
 from ,jewish exiles1 who1 as early as  
the ,babylonish captivity1 had found    
refuge in ,arabia2 and it is a striking 
fact that the four ,hanif leaders whom  
the young ,mohammed found on joining    
their society1 were pleading for the    
restoration of the faith of ,abraham4   
,all these leaders refused to follow his
 standard when he began to claim        
supremacy as a prophet2 three of them   
were finally led to ,christianity1 and  

the fourth died in a sort of quandary   
between the ,christian faith and ,islam4
 ,the first two1 ,waraka and ,othman1   
were cousins of ,mohammed's wife1 and   
the third1 ,obadulla1 was his own       
cousin4 ,zaid1 the last of the four1    
presents to us a very pathetic picture4 
,he lived and died in perplexity4       
,banished from ,mecca by those who      
feared his conscientious censorship1 he 
lived by himself on a neighboring       
hillside1 an earnest seeker after truth 
to the last2 and he died with the prayer
 on his lips1 ,o ,god1 if ,i knew what  
form of worship is most pleasing to     
thee1 so would ,i serve thee1 but ,i    
know it not4 ,it is to the credit of    
,mohammed that he cherished a profound  
respect for this man4 ,i will pray for  
him1 he said2 in the ,resurrection he   
also will gather a church around him4#ig
  ,in spite of his maladies and the     
general delicacy of his nervous         
organization1 ,mohammed evinced in early
 youth a degree of energy and           

intellectual capacity which augured well
 for his future success in some         
important sphere4 ,fortune also favored 
him in many ways4 ,his success as       
manager of the commercial caravans of a 
wealthy widow led to his acceptance as  
her husband4 ,she was fourteen years his
 senior1 but she seems to have entirely 
won his affections and to have proved   
indispensable1 not only as a patroness1 
but as a wise and faithful counsellor4  
,so long as she lived she was the good  
spirit who called forth his better      
nature1 and kept him from those low     
impulses which subsequently wrought the 
ruin of his character1 even in the midst
 of his successes4 ,on the one hand1 it 
is an argument in favor of the sincerity
 of ,mohammed's prophetic claims1 that  
this good and true woman was the first  
to believe in him as a prophet of ,god2 
but1 on the other hand1 we must remember
 that she was a loving wife1 and that   
that charity which thinketh no evil is  
sometimes utterly blind to evil when    

found in this tender relation4  ,we have
 no reason to doubt that ,mohammed was a
 sincere ,hanif4 ,having means and      
leisure for study1 and being of a bright
 and thoughtful mind1 he doubtless      
entered with enthusiasm into the work of
 reforming the idolatrous customs of his
 countrymen4 ,from this high standpoint1
 and free from superstitious fear of a  
heathen priesthood1 he was prepared to  
estimate in their true enormity the     
degrading rites which he everywhere     
witnessed under the abused name of      
religion4 ,that hatred of idolatry which
 became the main spring of his          
subsequent success1 was thus nourished  
and strengthened as an honest and       
abiding sentiment4 ,he was1 moreover1 of
 a contemplative--we may say1 of a      
religious--turn of mind4 ,his maladies  
gave him a tinge of melancholy1 and1    
like the ,buddha1 he showed a           
characteristic thoughtfulness bordering 
upon the morbid4 ,becoming more and more
 a reformer1 he followed the example of 

many other reformers by withdrawing at  
stated times to a place of solitude for 
meditation2 at least such is the        
statement of his followers1 though there
 are evidences that he took his family  
with him1 and that he may have been     
seeking refuge from the heat4 ,however  
this may have been1 the place chosen was
 a neighboring cave1 in whose cool shade
 he not only spent the heated hours of  
the day1 but sometimes a succession of  
days and nights4  ,perhaps the          
confinement increased the violence of   
his convulsions1 and the vividness and  
power of the strange phantasmagorias    
which during his paroxysms passed       
through his mind4 ,it was from one of   
these terrible attacks that his alleged 
call to the prophetic office was dated4 
,the prevailing theories of his time    
ascribed all such experiences to the    
influence of supernatural spirits1      
either good or evil1 and the sufferer   
was left to the alternative of assuming 
either that he had received messages    

from heaven1 or that he had been a      
victim of the devil4 ,after a night of  
greater suffering and more thrilling    
visions than he had ever experienced    
before1 ,mohammed chose the more        
favorable interpretation1 and announced 
to his sympathizing wife ,kadijah that  
he had received from ,gabriel a solemn  
call to become the ,prophet of ,god4    
,there has been endless discussion as to
 how far he may have been self-deceived 
in making this claim1 and how far he may
 have been guilty of conscious          
imposture4 ,speculation is useless1     
since on the one hand we cannot judge a 
man of that age and that race by the    
rigid standards of our own times2 and on
 the other1 we are forbidden to form a  
too favorable judgment by the subsequent
 developments of ,mohammed's character  
and life1 in regard to which no other   
interpretation than that of conscious   
fraud seems possible4#ih  ,aside from   
the previous development and influence  
of a monotheistic reform1 and the       

favoring circumstance of a fortunate    
marriage1 he found his way prepared by  
the truths which had been made known in 
,arabia by both ,jews and ,christians4  
,the ,jews had fled to the ,arabian     
,peninsula from the various conquerors  
who had laid waste ,jerusalem and       
overrun the territories of the ,ten     
,tribes4 ,at a later day1 many          
,christians had also found an asylum    
there from the persecutions of hostile  
bishops and emperors4 ,sir ,william     
,muir has shown how largely the         
teachings of the ,koran are grounded    
upon those of the ,old and ,new         
,testaments4#ii ,all that is best in    
,mohammedanism is clearly borrowed from 
,judaism and ,christianity4 ,mohammed   
was illiterate and never claimed        
originality4 ,indeed1 he plead his      
illiteracy as a proof of direct         
inspiration4 ,a far better explanation  
would be found in the knowledge derived 
from inspired records1 penned long      
before and under different names4  ,the 

prophet was fortunate not only in the   
possession of truths thus indirectly    
received1 but in the fact that both     
,jews and ,christians had lapsed from a 
fair representation of the creeds which 
they professed4 ,the ,jews in ,arabia   
had lost the true spirit of their sacred
 scriptures1 and were following their   
own perverted traditions rather than the
 oracles of ,god4 ,they had lost the    
vitality and power of the truths        
revealed to their fathers1 and were     
destitute of moral earnestness and all  
spiritual life4 ,on the other hand1 the 
,christian sects had fallen into low    
superstitions and virtual idolatry4 ,the
 ,trinity1 as they represented it1 gave 
to ,mohammed the impression that the    
,virgin ,mary1 ,mother of ,god1 was one 
of the three persons of the ,trinity1   
and that the promise of the coming      
,paraclete might very plausibly be      
appropriated by himself4#ajj ,the       
prevailing worship of pictures1 images1 
and relics appeared in his vision as    

truly idolatrous as the polytheism of   
the heathen ,koreish4 ,it was clear to  
him that there was a call for some      
zealous iconoclast to rise up and       
deliver his country from idolatry4 ,the 
whole situation seemed auspicious4      
,arabia was ripe for a sweeping         
reformation4 ,it appears strange to us1 
at this late day1 that the churches of  
,christendom1 even down to the seventh  
century1 should have failed to          
christianize ,arabia1 though they had   
carried the ,gospel even to ,spain and  
to ,britain on the west1 and to ,india  
and ,china on the east4 ,if they had    
imagined that the deserts of the        
,peninsula were not sufficiently        
important to demand attention1 they     
certainly learned their mistake2 for now
 the sad day of reckoning had come1 when
 swarms of fanatics should issue from   
those deserts like locusts1 and overrun 
their ,christian communities1 humble    
their bishops1 appropriate their sacred 
temples1 and reduce their despairing    

people to the alternatives of apostacy1 
tribute1 slavery1 or the sword4  ,it    
seems equally strange that the great    
empires which had carried their         
conquests so far on every hand had      
neglected to conquer ,arabia4 ,it was1  
indeed1 comparatively isolated2 it      
certainly did not lie in the common     
paths of the conquerors2 doubtless it   
appeared barren1 and by no means a      
tempting prize2 and withal it was a     
difficult field for a successful        
campaign4 ,but from whatever reason1 the
 tribes of ,arabia had never been       
conquered4 ,various expeditions had won 
temporary successes1 but the proud ,arab
 could boast that his country had never 
been brought into permanent             
subjection4#aja ,meanwhile the heredity 
of a thousand years had strengthened the
 valor of the ,arab warrior4 ,he was    
accustomed to the saddle from his very  
infancy2 he was almost a part of his    
horse4 ,he was trained to the use of    
arms as a robber1 when not engaged in   

tribal wars4 ,his whole activity1 his   
all-absorbing interest1 was in hostile  
forays4 ,he knew no fear2 he had no     
scruples4 ,he had been taught to feel   
that1 as a son of ,ishmael every man's  
hand was turned against him1 and of     
simple right his hand might be turned   
against every man4  ,nor was this all4  
,the surrounding nations1 east and west1
 had long been accustomed to employ     
these sons of the desert as mercenary   
soldiers4 ,they had all had a hand in   
training them for their terrible work1  
by imparting to them a knowledge of     
their respective countries1 their       
resources1 their modes of warfare1 and  
their points of weakness4 ,how many     
nations have thus paved the way to their
 own destruction by calling in allies1  
who finally became their masters6#ajb   
,on ,mohammed's part1 there is no       
evidence that at the outset he          
contemplated a military career4 ,at     
first a reformer1 then a prophet1 he was
 driven to arms in self-defence against 

his persecutors1 and he was fortunate in
 being able to profit by a certain      
jealousy which existed between the rival
 cities of ,mecca and ,medina4 ,fleeing 
from ,mecca with only one follower1 ,abu
 ,bekr1 leaving the faithful ,ali to    
arrange his affairs while he and his    
companion were hidden in a cave1 he     
found on reaching ,medina a more        
favorable reception4 ,he soon gathered a
 following1 which enabled him to gain a 
truce from the ,meccans for ten years2  
and when they on their part violated the
 truce1 he was able to march upon their 
city with a force which defied all      
possible resistance1 and he entered     
,mecca in triumph4 ,medina had been won 
partly by the supposed credentials of   
the prophet1 but mainly by jealousy of  
the rival city4 ,mecca yielded to a     
superior force of arms1 but in the end  
became the honored capital and shrine of
 ,islam4  ,from this time the career of 
,mohammed was wholly changed4 ,he was   
now an ambitious conqueror1 and here as 

before1 the question how far he may have
 sincerely interpreted his remarkable   
fortune as a call of ,god to subdue the 
idolatrous nations1 must remain for the 
present unsettled4 ,possibly further    
light may be thrown upon it as we       
proceed4 ,let us consider some of the   
changes which appear in the development 
of this man's character4 ,if we set out 
with that high ideal which would seem to
 be demanded as a characteristic of a   
great religious teacher1 and certainly  
of one claiming to be a prophet of ,god1
 we ought to expect that his character  
would steadily improve in all purity1   
humanity1 truthfulness1 charity1 and    
godlikeness4 ,the test of character lies
 in its trend4 ,if the founder of a     
religion has not grown nobler and better
 under the operation of his own system1 
that fact is the strongest possible     
condemnation of the system4 ,a good man 
generally feels that he can afford to be
 magnanimous and pitiful in proportion  
to his victories and his success4 ,but  

,mohammed became relentless as his power
 increased4 ,he had at first endeavored 
to win the ,arabian ,jews to his        
standard4 ,he had adopted their prophets
 and much of the ,old ,testament        
teachings2 he had insisted upon the     
virtual identity of the two religions4  
,but having failed in his overtures1 and
 meanwhile having gained superior power1
 he waged against them the most savage  
persecution4 ,on one occasion he ordered
 the massacre of a surrendered garrison 
of six hundred ,jewish soldiers4 ,at    
another time he put to the most inhuman 
torture a leader who had opposed his    
cause2 in repeated instances he         
instigated the crime of                 
assassination4#ajc ,in early life he had
 been engaged in a peaceful caravan     
trade1 and all his influence had been   
cast in favor of universal security as  
against the predatory habits of the     
heathen ,arabs2 but on coming to power  
he himself resorted to robbery to enrich
 his exchequer4 ,sales mentions         

twenty-seven of these predatory         
expeditions against caravans1 in which  
,mohammed was personally present4#ajd   
,the biographers of his early life      
represent him as a man of a natural     
kindness of disposition1 and a sensitive
 temperament almost bordering on        
timidity4 ,though not particularly      
genial1 he was fond of children1 and had
 at first1 as his recorded utterances   
show1 frequent impulses of pity and     
magnanimity4 ,but he became hardened as 
success crowned his career4 ,the        
temperateness which characterized his   
early pleadings and remonstrances with  
those who differed from him1 gave place 
to bitter anathemas2 and there was      
rooted in his personal character that   
relentless bigotry which has been the   
key-note of the most intolerant system  
known upon the earth4  ,a still more    
marked change occurred in the increasing
 sensuality of ,mohammed4 ,such lenient 
apologists as ,e4 ,bosworth ,smith and  
,canon ,taylor have applied their most  

skilful upholstery to the defects of his
 scandalous morals4 ,mr4 ,smith has even
 undertaken to palliate his             
appropriation of another man's wife1 and
 the blasphemy of his pretended         
revelation in which he made ,god justify
 his passion4#aje ,these authors base   
their chief apologies upon comparisons  
between ,mohammed and the worse         
depravity of the heathen ,arabs1 or they
 balance accounts with some of his      
acknowledged virtues4  ,but the case    
baffles all such advocacy4 ,the real    
question is1 what was the drift of the  
prophet's character8 ,what was the      
influence of his professed principles on
 his own life8 ,it cannot be denied that
 his moral trend was downward4 ,if we   
credit the traditions of his own        
followers1 he had lived a virtuous life 
as the husband of one wife1#ajf and that
 for many years4 ,but after the death of
 ,kadijah he entered upon a career of   
polygamy in violation of his own law4   
,he had fixed the limit for all ,moslems

 at four lawful wives2 and in spite of  
the arguments of ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1  
we must regard it as a most damning     
after-thought that made the first and   
only exception to accommodate his own   
weakness4 ,by that act he placed himself
 beyond the help of all sophistry1 and  
took his true place in the sober        
judgment of mankind4 ,and by a law which
 is as unerring as the law of           
gravitation1 he became more and more    
sensual as age advanced4 ,at the time of
 his death he was the husband of eleven 
wives4 ,we are not favored with a list  
of his concubines3#ajg we only know that
 his system placed no limit upon the    
number4#ajh ,now1 if a prophet claiming 
direct inspiration could break his own  
inspired laws for his personal          
accommodation2 if1 when found guilty of 
adultery1 he could compel his friend and
 follower to divorce his wife that he   
might take her2 if upon each violation  
of purity and decency he did not shrink 
from the blasphemy of claiming a special

 revelation which made ,god the abettor 
of his vices1 and even represented ,him 
as reproving and threatening his wives  
for their just complaints--if all this  
does not stamp a man as a reckless      
impostor1 what further turpitude is     
required8  ,at the same time it is      
evident that constant discrimination is 
demanded in judging of the character of 
,mohammed4 ,it is not necessary to      
assume that he was wholly depraved at   
first1 or to deny that for a time he was
 the good husband that he is represented
 to have been1 or that he was a sincere 
and enthusiastic reformer1 or even that 
he may have interpreted some of his     
early hallucinations as mysterious      
messages from heaven4 ,at various times 
in his life he doubtless displayed noble
 sentiments and performed generous acts4
 ,but when we find him dictating divine 
communications with deliberate purpose  
for the most villainous objects1 when we
 find the messages of ,gabriel timed and
 graded to suit the exigencies of his   

growing ambition1 or the demands of his 
worst passions1 we are forced to a      
preponderating condemnation4 ,the       
,mohammed of the later years is a       
remorseless tyrant when occasion        
requires1 and at all times the slave of 
unbridled lust4 ,refined and cultivated 
,mohammedan ladies--,i speak from       
testimony that is very direct--do not   
hesitate to condemn the degrading morals
 of their prophet1 and to contrast him  
with the spotless purity of ,jesus2 but 
then1 they add1 ,god used him for a     
great purpose1 and gave him the most    
exalted honor among men4 ,alas6 it is   
the old argument so often employed in   
many lands4 ,success1 great intellect1  
grand achievements gild all moral       
deformity1 and win the connivance of    
dazzled minds4 ,in this case1 however1  
it is not a hero or a statesman1 but an 
alleged prophet of ,god1 that is on     
trial4  ,it is a question difficult to  
decide1 how far ,mohammed made          
,mohammedanism1 and how far the system  

moulded him4 ,the action of cause and   
effect was mutual1 and under this       
interaction both the character and the  
system were slow growths4 ,the ,koran   
was composed in detached fragments      
suited to different stages of           
development1 different degrees and kinds
 of success1 different demands of       
personal impulse or changes of conduct4 
,the ,suras1 without any claim to       
logical connection1 were written down by
 an amanuensis on bits of parchment1 or 
pieces of wood or leather1 and even on  
the shoulder-bones of sheep4 ,and they  
were each the expression of ,mohammed's 
particular mood at the time1 and each   
entered in some degree into his         
character from that time forth4 ,the man
 and the book grew together1 the system1
 through all its history1 fairly        
represents the example of the man and   
the teaching of the book4  ,let us next 
consider the historic character and     
influence of the system of ,islam4 ,in  
forming just conclusions as to the real 

influence of ,mohammedanism1 a judicial 
fairness is necessary4 ,in the first    
place1 we must guard against the hasty  
and sweeping judgments which are too    
often indulged in by zealous            
,christians2 and on the other hand1 we  
must certainly challenge the exaggerated
 statements of enthusiastic apologists4 
,it is erroneous to assert that ,islam  
has never encouraged education1 that it 
has invariably been adverse to all      
progress1 that it knows nothing but the 
,koran1 or that ,omar1 in ordering the  
destruction of the ,alexandrian library1
 is the only historical exponent of the 
system4 ,such statements are full of    
partial truths1 but they are also       
mingled with patent errors4  ,the ,arab 
races in their original home were       
naturally inclined to the encouragement 
of letters1 particularly of poetry1 and 
,mohammed himself1 though he had never  
been taught even to read1 much less to  
write1 took special pains to encourage  
learning4 ,teach your children poetry1  

he said2 it opens the mind1 lends grace 
to wisdom1 and makes the heroic virtues 
hereditary4#aji ,according to ,sprenger1
 he gave liberty to every prisoner who  
taught twelve boys of ,mecca to write4  
,the ,abbasside princes of a later day  
offered most generous prizes for        
superior excellence in poetry1 and      
,bagdad1 ,damascus1 ,alexandria1        
,bassora1 and ,samarcand were noted for 
their universities4#aaj ,cordova and    
,seville were able to lend their light  
to the infant university of ,oxford4    
,the fine arts of sculpture and painting
 were condemned by the early caliphs1   
doubtless on account of the idolatrous  
tendencies which they were supposed to  
foster2 but medicine1 philosophy1       
mathematics1 chemistry1 and astronomy   
were especially developed1 and that at a
 time when the nations of ,europe were  
mostly in darkness4#aaa ,yet it cannot  
be denied that on the whole the         
influence of ,islam has been hostile to 
learning and to civilization4#aab ,the  

world will never forget that by the     
burning of the great library of         
,alexandria the rich legacy which the   
old world had bequeathed to the new was 
destroyed4 ,by its occupation of ,egypt 
and ,constantinople1 and thus cutting   
off the most important channels of      
communication1 the ,mohammedan power    
became largely responsible for the long 
eclipse of ,europe during the ,middle   
,ages4  ,moreover1 when zealous         
advocates of the system contrast the    
barbarism of ,richard ,coeur de ,lion   
with the culture and humanity of        
,saladin1 they seem to forget that the  
race of ,richard had but just emerged   
from the savagery of the ,northmen1     
while ,saladin and his race had not only
 inherited the high moral culture of    
,judaism and ,christianity1 but had     
virtually monopolized it4 ,it was       
chiefly by the wars of the ,crusaders   
that ,western ,europe became acquainted 
with the civilization of the ,orient4   
,instead of ignoring the advantages     

which the ,east had over the ,west at   
that period1 it would be more just to   
inquire what comparative improvements of
 their respective opportunities have    
been made by ,western ,christianity and 
,eastern ,mohammedanism since that time4
 ,it would be an interesting task1 for  
example1 to start with the period of    
,saladin and ,coeur de ,lion1 and       
impartially trace on the one hand the   
influence of ,christianity as it moulded
 the savage conquerors of the ,roman    
,empire1 and from such rude materials   
built up the great ,christian nations of
 the nineteenth century2 and on the     
other hand1 follow the banner of the    
,crescent through all the lands where it
 has borne sway3 ,persia1 ,arabia1      
,northern ,india1 ,egypt1 the ,barbary  
,states1 ,east ,africa1 and the ,soudan1
 and then draw an unbiased conclusion as
 to which system1 as a system1 has done 
more to spread general enlightenment1   
foster the sentiments of kindness and   
philanthropy1 promote human liberty1    

advance civilization1 increase and      
elevate populations1 promote the purity 
and happiness of the family and the     
home1 and raise the standards of ethics 
and true religion among mankind4#aac    
,one of the brilliant dynasties of      
,mohammedan history was that of the     
,moors of ,spain4 ,we can never cease to
 admire their encouragement of arts and 
their beautiful architecture1 but is it 
quite certain that all this was a direct
 fruit of ,islam8 ,the suggestion that  
it may have been partly due to contact  
with the ,gothic elements which the     
,moors vanquished1 finds support in the 
fact that nothing of the kind appeared  
on the opposite coast of ,africa4 ,and  
while the ,mohammedan ,empire in ,india 
has left the most exquisite             
architectural structures in the world1  
it is well known that they were the work
 of ,european architects4  ,but in      
considering the influence which ,islam  
has exerted on the whole1 lack of time  
compels me to limit our survey to       

,africa1 except as other lands may be   
referred to incidentally4#aad ,that the 
first ,african conquests1 extending from
 ,egypt to ,morocco1 were simple warlike
 invasions in which the sword was the   
only instrument of propagandism1 no one 
will deny4 ,but it is contended that in 
later centuries a great work has been   
accomplished in ,western ,soudan1 and is
 still being accomplished1 by missionary
 effort and the general advance of a    
wholesome civilization4  ,any fair      
estimate of ,mohammedan influence must  
take account of the elements which it   
found in ,northern ,africa at the time  
of its conquests4 ,the states which     
border on the ,mediterranean had once   
been powerful and comparatively         
enlightened4 ,they had been populous and
 prosperous4 ,the ,phoenician colony in 
,carthage had grown to be no mean rival 
of ,rome's military power4 ,egypt had   
been a great centre of learning1 not    
only in the most ancient times1 but     
especially after the building of        

,alexandria4 ,more western lands1 like  
,numidia and ,mauritania1 had been      
peopled by noble races4  ,after the     
introduction of ,christianity1          
,alexandria became the bright focus into
 which the religions and philosophies of
 the world poured their concentrated    
light4 ,some of the greatest of the     
,christian fathers1 like ,augustine1    
,tertullian1 and ,cyprian1 were         
,africans4 ,the foundations of ,latin   
,christianity were laid by these men4   
,the ,bishopric of ,hippo was a model   
for all time in deep and intelligent    
devotion4 ,the grace and strength1 the  
sublime and all-conquering faith of     
,monica1 and others like her1 furnished 
a pattern for all ,christian womanhood  
and motherhood4  ,i do not forget that  
before the time of the ,mohammedan      
invasion the ,vandals had done their    
work of devastation1 or that the        
,african ,church had been woefully      
weakened and rent by wild heresies and  
schisms1 or that the defection of the   

,monophysite or ,coptic ,church of      
,egypt was one of the influences which  
facilitated the ,mohammedan success4    
,but making due allowance for all this1 
vandalism and schism could not have     
destroyed so soon the ancient           
civilization or sapped the strength of  
the ,north ,african races4 ,the process 
which has permanently reduced so many   
once populous cities and villages to    
deserts1 and left large portions of the 
,barbary ,states with only the moldering
 ruins of their former greatness1 has   
been a gradual one4 ,for centuries after
 the ,arab conquest those states were   
virtually shut off from communication   
with ,europe1 and for at least three    
centuries more1 say from #aejj down to  
the generation which immediately        
preceded our own1 they were known       
chiefly by the piracies which they      
carried on against the commerce of all  
maritime nations4 ,even the ,government 
of the ,united ,states was compelled to 
pay a million of dollars for the ransom 

of captured ,american seamen1 and it    
paid it not to private corsairs1 but to 
the ,mohammedan governments by which    
those piracies were subsidized1 as a    
means of supplying the public exchequer4
 ,these large amounts were recovered    
only when our navy1 in co-operation with
 that of ,england1 extirpated the ,riff 
piracies by bombarding the ,moslem      
ports4 ,the vaunted civilizations of the
 ,north ,african states would have been 
supported by wholesale marauding to this
 day1 had not their piratical fleets    
been thus summarily swept from the seas 
by other powers4  ,if ,egypt has shown a
 higher degree of advancement it has    
been due to her peculiar geographical   
position1 to the inexhaustible fertility
 of the ,delta1 and1 most of all1 to the
 infusion of foreign life and energy    
into the management of her affairs4     
,ambitious adventurers1 like the        
,albanian ,mehamet ,ali1 have risen to  
power and have made ,egypt what she is1 
or rather what she was before the more  

recent intervention of the ,european    
powers4 ,even ,canon ,taylor admits that
 for centuries it has been necessary to 
import more vigorous foreign blood for  
the administration of ,egyptian         
affairs4#aae  ,it will be admitted that 
,mohammedan conquests have been made in 
mediaeval times1 and down to our own    
age1 in ,central ,africa1 and that along
 the southern borders of ,sahara a      
cordon of more or less prosperous states
 has been established2 also1 that the   
civilization of those states contrasts  
favorably with the savagery of the      
cannibal tribes with which they have    
come in contact4 ,probably the          
best--that is to say1 the least         
objectionable--exemplifications of      
,islam now to be found in the world are 
seen in some of the older states of     
,western ,soudan4 ,the ,mandingo of the 
central uplands furnished a better      
material than the unspeakable ,turk1 and
 it would not be quite fair to ascribe  
all his present virtues to the ,moslem  

rule4  ,but how have these conquests in 
,central ,africa been made8 ,the        
contention of the apologists for ,islam 
is that recently1 at least1 and probably
 more or less in the past1 a quiet      
missionary work has greatly extended    
monotheism1 temperance1 education1 and  
general comfort1 and that it has done   
more than all other influences for the  
permanent extinction of the slave trade6
 ,dr4 ,e4,w4 ,blyden1 in answer to the  
charge that ,mohammedan ,arabs are now1 
and long have been1 chiefly responsible 
for the horrors of that trade1 and that 
even when ,americans bought slaves for  
their plantations1 ,moslem raiders in   
the interior instigated the tribal      
quarrels which supplied the markets on  
the coast1 contends that the ,moslem    
conquests do most effectually destroy   
the trade1 since tribes which have      
become ,moslem can no longer be enslaved
 by ,moslems4#aaf ,it is a curious      
argument1 especially as it seems to     
ignore the fact that at the present time

 both the supply and the demand depend  
on ,mohammedan influence4  ,as to the   
means by which the ,soudanese ,states   
are now extending their power we may    
content ourselves with a mere reference 
to the operations of the late ,el ,mahdi
 in the ,east and the notorious ,samadu 
in the ,west4 ,their methods may be     
accepted as illustrations of a kind of  
tactics which have been employed for    
ages4 ,the career of ,el ,mahdi is      
already well known4 ,samadu was         
originally a prisoner1 captured while   
yet a boy in one of the tribal wars near
 the headwaters of the ,niger4 ,partly  
by intrigue and partly by the aid of his
 religious fanaticism he at length      
became sufficiently powerful to enslave 
his master4 ,soon afterward he          
proclaimed his divine mission1 and      
declared a ,jehad or holy war against   
all infidels4 ,thousands flocked to his 
banner1 influenced largely by the hope  
of booty2 and ere long1 to quote the    
language of a lay correspondent of the  

,london ,standard1 written in ,sierra   
,leone ,september #ah1 #ahhh1 he became 
the scourge of all the peaceable states 
on the right bank of the ,upper ,niger4 
,since #ahhb he has attempted to dispute
 the territorial claims of the ,french  
on the upper1 and of the ,english on the
 lower ,niger1 though without success4  
,but he has seemed to avenge his        
disappointment the more terribly on the 
native tribes4  ,the letter published in
 the ,standard gives an account of an   
official commission sent by the         
,governor of ,sierra ,leone to the      
headquarters of ,samadu in #ahhh1 and in
 describing the track of this ,western  
,mahdi in his approaches to the ,french 
territories it says3 ,the messengers    
report that every town and village      
through which they passed was in ruins1 
and that the road1 from the borders of  
,sulimania to ,herimakono1 was lined    
with human skeletons1 the remains of    
unfortunates who had been slain by      
,samadu's fanatical soldiery1 or had    

perished from starvation through the    
devastation of the surrounding country4 
,some of these poor wretches1 to judge  
from the horrible contortions of the    
skeletons1 had been attacked by vultures
 and beasts of prey while yet alive1 and
 when too near their lingering death to 
have sufficient strength to beat them   
off4 ,around the ruined towns were      
hundreds of doubled-up skeletons1 the   
remains of prisoners who1 bound hand and
 foot1 had been forced upon their knees1
 and their heads struck off4 ,keba1 the 
heroic ,bambara king1 is still resisting
 bravely1 but he has only one stronghold
 7,siaso7 left1 and the end cannot now  
be far off4  ,samadu's career in this   
direction having been arrested1 he next 
turned his attention toward the tribes  
under ,english protection on the        
southeast1 where1 unfortunately1 there  
was no power to take up the cause of    
humanity and arrest his progress4       
,before long he entirely overran and    
subjected ,kouranko1 ,limbah1           

,sulimania1 ,kono1 and ,kissi4 ,the most
 horrible atrocities were committed2    
peaceable agriculturists were slaughted 
in thousands1 and their women and       
children carried off into slavery4      
,falaba1 the celebrated capital of      
,sulimania1 and the great emporium for  
trade between ,sierra ,leone and the    
,niger1 was captured and destroyed2 and 
all the inhabitants of that district1   
whom every traveller1 from ,winwood     
,reade down to ,dr4 ,blyden1 has        
mentioned with praise for their industry
 and docility1 have been exterminated or
 carried off4 ,sulimania1 which was the 
garden of ,west ,africa1 has now become 
a howling wilderness4  ,and the writer  
adds3 ,the people of the ,states to the 
south of ,futa ,djallon are pagans1 and 
,samadu makes their religion a pretext  
for his outrages4 ,he is desirous1 he   
says1 of converting them to the ',true  
,faith1' and his modes of persuasion are
 murder and slavery4 ,what could be more
 horrible than the story just brought   

down by the messengers who were with    
,major ,festing8 ,miles of road strewn  
with human bones2 blackened ruins where 
were peaceful hamlets2 desolation and   
emptiness where were smiling            
plantations4 ,what has become of the    
tens of thousands of peaceful           
agriculturists1 their wives and their   
innocent children8 ,gone2 converted1    
after ,samadu's manner1 to the ',true   
,faith4' ,and thus the conversion of    
,west ,africa to ,islamism goes merrily 
on1 while dilettante scholars at home   
complacently discuss the question as to 
whether that faith or ,christianity is  
the more suitable for the ,negro2 and   
the ,british people1 dead to their      
generous instincts of old1 make no      
demand that such deeds of cruelty and   
horror shall be arrested with a strong  
hand4#aag  ,similar accounts of the     
,african propagandism of ,islam might be
 given in the very words of numerous    
travellers and explorers1 but one or two
 witnesses only shall be summoned to    

speak of the ,mohammedan dominion and   
civilization in ,east ,africa4          
,professor ,drummond1 in giving his     
impressions of ,zanzibar1 says3         
,oriental in its appearance1 ,mohammedan
 in its religion1 ,arabian in its       
morals1 a cesspool of wickedness1 it is 
a fit capital to the ,dark ,continent4  
,and it is the great emporium--not an   
obscure settlement1 but the consummate  
flower of ,east ,african civilization   
and boasting in the late ,sultan        
,bargash1 an unusually enlightened      
,moslem ruler4 ,of the interior and the 
ivory-slave trade pursued under the     
auspices of ,arab dominion the same     
author says3 ,arab encampments for      
carrying on a wholesale trade in this   
terrible commodity are now established  
all over the heart of ,africa4 ,they are
 usually connected with wealthy ,arab   
traders at ,zanzibar and other places on
 the coast1 and communication is kept up
 by caravans1 which pass at long        
intervals from one to the other4 ,being 

always large and well-supplied with the 
material of war1 these caravans have at 
their mercy the feeble and divided      
native tribes through which they pass1  
and their trail across the continent is 
darkened with every aggravation of      
tyranny and crime4 ,they come upon the  
scene suddenly2 they stay only long     
enough to secure their end1 and         
disappear only to return when a new crop
 has arisen which is worth the reaping4 
,sometimes these ,arab traders will     
actually settle for a year or two in the
 heart of some quiet community in the   
remote interior4 ,they pretend perfect  
friendship2 they molest no one2 they    
barter honestly4 ,they plant the seeds  
of their favorite vegetables and        
fruits--the ,arab always carries seeds  
with him--as if they meant to stay      
forever4 ,meantime they buy ivory1 tusk 
after tusk1 until great piles of it are 
buried beneath their huts1 and all their
 barter goods are gone4 ,then one day   
suddenly the inevitable quarrel is      

picked4 ,and then follows a wholesale   
massacre4 ,enough only are spared from  
the slaughter to carry the ivory to the 
coast2 the grass huts of the village are
 set on fire2 the ,arabs strike camp2   
and the slave march1 worse than death1  
begins4 ,the last act in the drama1 the 
slave march1 is the aspect of slavery   
which in the past has chiefly aroused   
the passions and the sympathy of the    
outside world1 but the greater evil is  
the demoralization and disintegration of
 communities by which it is necessarily 
preceded4 ,it is essential to the       
traffic that the region drained by the  
slaver should be kept in perpetual      
political ferment2 that1 in order to    
prevent combination1 chief should be    
pitted against chief1 and that the      
moment any tribe threatens to assume a  
dominating strength it should either be 
broken up by the instigation of         
rebellion among its dependencies or made
 a tool of at their expense4 ,the       
inter-relation of tribes is so intricate

 that it is impossible to exaggerate the
 effect of disturbing the equilibrium at
 even a single centre4 ,but1 like a     
river1 a slave caravan has to be fed by 
innumerable tributaries all along its   
course1 at first in order to gather a   
sufficient volume of human bodies for   
the start1 and afterward to replace the 
frightful loss by desertion1            
disablement1 and death4  ,next to       
,livingstone1 whose last pathetic appeal
 to the civilized world to heal the open
 sore of ,africa stands engraved in     
marble in ,westminster ,abbey1 no better
 witness can be summoned in regard to   
the slave trade and the influence of    
,islam generally in ,eastern and        
,central ,africa than ,henry ,m4        
,stanley4 ,from the time when he        
encountered the ,mohammedan             
propagandists at the ,court of ,uganda  
he has seen how intimately and vitally  
the faith and the traffic are everywhere
 united4 ,i give but a single passage   
from his ,congo ,free ,state1 page #add4

  ,we discovered that this horde of     
banditti--for in reality and without    
disguise they were nothing else--was    
under the leadership of several chiefs1 
but principally under ,karema and       
,kibunga4 ,they had started sixteen     
months previously from ,wane-,kirundu1  
about thirty miles below ,vinya ,njara4 
,for eleven months the band had been    
raiding successfully between the ,congo 
and the ,lubiranzi1 on the left bank4   
,they had then undertaken to perform the
 same cruel work between the ,biyerre   
and ,wane-,kirundu4 ,on looking at my   
map ,i find that such a territory within
 the area described would cover         
superficially #af1bjj square            
geographical miles on the left bank1 and
 #aj1ejj miles on the right1 all of     
which in statute mileage would be equal 
to #cd1gjj square miles1 just #b1jjj    
square miles greater than the island of 
,ireland1 inhabited by about #a1jjj1jjj 
people4  ,the band when it set out from 
,kirundu numbered #cjj fighting men1    

armed with flint-locks1 double-barrelled
 percussion guns1 and a few             
breech-loaders2 their followers1 or     
domestic slaves and women1 doubled this 
force4444 ,within the enclosure was a   
series of low sheds extending many lines
 deep from the immediate edge of the    
clay bank inland1 #ajj yards2 in length 
the camp was about #cjj yards4 ,at the  
landing-place below were #ed long       
canoes1 varying in carrying capacity4   
,each might convey from #aj to #ajj     
people4444 ,the first general           
impressions are that the camp is much   
too densely peopled for comfort4 ,there 
are rows upon rows of dark nakedness1   
relieved here and there by the white    
dresses of the captors4 ,there are lines
 or groups of naked forms--upright1     
standing1 or moving about listlessly2   
naked bodies are stretched under the    
sheds in all positions2 naked legs      
innumerable are seen in the perspective 
of prostrate sleepers2 there are        
countless naked children--many mere     

infants--forms of boyhood and girlhood1 
and occasionally a drove of absolutely  
naked old women bending under a basket  
of fuel1 or cassava tubers1 or bananas1 
who are driven through the moving groups
 by two or three musketeers4 ,on paying 
more attention to details1 ,i observe   
that mostly all are fettered2 youths    
with iron rings around their necks1     
through which a chain1 like one of our  
boat anchor-chains1 is rove1 securing   
the captives by twenties4 ,the children 
over ten are secured by these copper    
rings1 each ringed leg brought together 
by the central ring4  ,by a careful     
examination of statistics ,mr4 ,stanley 
estimates that counting the men killed  
in the raids and those who perish on the
 march or are slain because supposed to 
be worthless1 every #e1jjj slaves       
actually sold cost over #cj1jjj lives4  
,but there are ,arabs and ,arabs we are 
told4 ,the slave-dealers of ,east       
,africa and the barbarous chieftains who
 push their bloody conquests in ,western

 ,soudan are bad enough1 it is admitted1
 but they are exceptions4 ,yet we insist
 that they illustrate the very spirit of
 ,mohammed himself1 who authorized the  
taking of prisoners of war as slaves4   
,their plea is that they save the souls 
of those they capture2 many of these    
traders are ,mollahs--,pharisees of the 
,pharisees4 ,canon ,taylor1 ,dr4        
,blyden1 and others have given us       
glowing accounts of ,arab missionaries  
going about without purse or scrip1 and 
disseminating their religion by quietly 
teaching the ,koran2 but the venerable  
,bishop ,crowther1 who has spent his    
whole life in that part of ,africa where
 these conquests are supposed to be     
made1 declares that the real vocation of
 the quiet apostles of the ,koran is    
that of fetish peddlers4#aah ,if it be  
objected that this is the biased        
testimony of a ,christian missionary1 it
 may be backed by the explorer ,lander1 
who1 in speaking of this same class of  
men1 says3 ,these ,mollahs procure an   

easy subsistence by making fetishes or  
writing charms on bits of wood which are
 washed off carefully into a basin of   
water1 and drank with avidity by the    
credulous multitude4 ,and he adds3      
,those who profess the ,mohammedan faith
 among the negroes are as ignorant and  
superstitious as their idolatrous       
brethren2 nor does it appear that their 
having adopted a new creed has either   
improved their manners or bettered their
 condition in life4 ,dr4 ,schweinfurth  
also describes the ,mohammedan          
missionaries whom he found at ,khartoum 
as polluted with every abominable vice  
which the imagination of man can        
conceive of4 ,in answer to various      
statements which had been published in  
regard to the rapid missionary progress 
made by ,mohammedans in ,west ,central  
,africa1 ,bishop ,crowther wrote a      
letter to the ,church ,missionary       
,society at the beginning of #ahhh1     
giving the results of his own prolonged 
observation4 ,he describes the methods  

used as3  #a4 ,war upon the heathen     
tribes4 ,if the ,chief of a heathen     
tribe accepts the ,koran his people are 
at once counted as converts and he is   
received into favor1 and is thus        
prepared to become an instrument in     
conquering other tribes4 ,but on the    
refusal to accept the ,koran war is     
declared1 the destruction of their      
country is the consequence1 and horrible
 bloodshed4 ,the aged1 male and female1 
are massacred1 while the salable are led
 away as slaves4 ,one half of the slaves
 are reserved by the chief1 the other   
half is divided among the soldiers to   
encourage them to future raids4  #b4    
,another cause of large increase is     
polygamy4 ,for although but four lawful 
wives are allowed1 there is unlimited   
license for concubinage4  #c4 ,the sale 
of charms is so conducted as to prove   
not only a means of profit but a shrewd 
propaganda4 ,when childless women are   
furnished with these1 they are pledged1 
if successful1 to dedicate their        

children to ,islam4  ,and ,bishop       
,crowther verifies the statement made by
 others in reference to ,east ,africa1  
that the priests besides being          
charm-makers are traders both in general
 articles and more largely in           
slaves4#aai  ,we have only time to      
consider one question more1 viz41 ,what 
is the character of ,islam as we find it
 to-day1 and what are its prospects of  
development8 ,it is a characteristic of 
our age that no religion stands wholly  
alone and uninfluenced by others4 ,it is
 especially true that the systems of the
 ,east are all deeply affected by the   
higher ethics and purer religious       
conceptions borrowed from ,christianity4
 ,thus many ,mohammedans of our day1 and
 especially those living in close       
contact with our ,christian             
civilization1 are rising to higher      
conceptions of ,god and of religious    
truth than have been entertained by     
,moslems hitherto4 ,canon ,taylor1 in a 
little volume entitled ,leaves from an  

,egyptian ,note-,book1 has drawn a      
picture of ,islam which ,omar and       
,othman would hardly have recognized4   
,in the first place it should be        
remembered that1 as he confesses1 his   
reputation as a defender of ,mohammed   
and his system had gone before him to   
,cairo1 and that he was understood to be
 a seeker after facts favorable to his  
known views4 ,this opened the hearts of 
friendly ,pashas and served to bring out
 all the praises that they could bestow 
upon their own faith4 ,it appears       
accordingly that he was assured by them 
that polygamy is widely discarded and   
condemned by prominent ,moslems in such 
cities as ,cairo and ,alexandria1 that  
many leading men are highly intelligent 
and widely read1 that they profess      
belief in most of the doctrines held by 
the ,christian ,church1 that they       
receive the inspired testimony of the   
,old and ,new ,testaments--except in so 
far as they have been corrupted by      
,christian manipulation4 ,this          

exception1 however1 includes all that is
 at variance with the ,koran4 ,they     
advocate temperance and condemn the     
slave trade4 ,they encourage the general
 promotion of education1 and what seems 
to the credulous ,canon most remarkable 
of all is that they express deep regret 
that ,christians do not feel the same   
charity and fellowship toward ,moslems  
that they feel toward ,christians6      
,now1 making all due abatement for the  
couleur de rose which these easy-going  
and politic ,pashas may have employed   
with their ,english champion1 it is     
undoubtedly true that a class of        
,mohammedans are found in the great     
cosmopolitan cities of the ,levant who  
have come to recognize the spirit of the
 age in which they live4 ,many of them  
have been educated in ,europe2 they     
speak several languages2 they read the  
current literature2 they are ashamed of 
the old fanatical ,mohammedanism4       
,though they cherish a partisan interest
 in the recognized religion of their    

country1 their faith is really eclectic2
 it comes not from ,old ,mecca1 but is  
in part a product of the awakened       
thought of the nineteenth century4 ,but 
,canon ,taylor's great fallacy lies in  
trying to persuade himself and an       
intelligent ,christian public that this 
is ,islam4 ,he wearies himself in his   
attempts to square the modern ,cairo    
with the old1 and to trace the modern   
gentlemanly ,pasha1 whose faith at least
 sits lightly upon his soul1 as a       
legitimate descendant of the fanatical  
and licentious prophet of ,arabia4 ,when
 he strives to convince the world that  
because these courteous ,pashas feel    
kindly enough toward the ,canon of ,york
 and others like him1 therefore ,islam  
is and always has been a charitable and 
highly tolerant system1 he simply       
stultifies the whole testimony of       
history4 ,he tells us that his ,egyptian
 friends complain that whereas they     
regard us as brother-believers and      
accept our scriptures1 they are         

nevertheless denounced as infidels4 ,and
 they ask why should an eternal coldness
 reign in our hearts4  ,probably they   
are not acquainted with ,samadu of      
,western ,soudan and his methods of     
propagandism4 ,they have forgotten the  
career of ,el ,mahdi2 they are not      
familiar with the terrible oppression of
 the ,jews in ,morocco--with which even 
that in ,russia cannot compare2 they    
have not read the dark accounts of the  
extortion practised by the ,wahabees of 
,arabia1 even upon ,moslems of another  
sect on their pilgrimages to ,mecca1#abj
 nor do they seem to know that ,syrian  
converts from ,islam are now hiding in  
,egypt from the bloodthirsty ,moslems of
 ,beyrut4 ,finally1 he forgets that the 
very children are taught formulas of    
prayer in which they may compendiously  
curse ,jews and ,christians and all     
unbelievers4#aba  ,a more plausible case
 is made out by ,canon ,taylor1 ,dr4    
,blyden1 and others on the question of  
temperance4 ,it is true that ,moslems1  

as a rule1 are not hard drinkers4 ,men  
and races of men have their besetting   
sins4 ,drinking was not the special vice
 of the ,arabs4 ,their country was too  
arid2 but they had another vice of which
 ,mohammed was the chief exemplar4      
,canon ,taylor is doubtless correct also
 in the statement that the ,english     
protectorate in ,egypt has greatly      
increased the degree of intemperance1   
and that in this respect the presence of
 ,european races generally has been a   
curse4 ,certainly too much cannot be    
said in condemnation of the wholesale   
liquor trade carried on in ,africa by   
unscrupulous subjects of ,christian     
nations4 ,but it should be remembered   
that the whiskey of ,cairo and of the   
,west ,coast does not represent         
,christianity any more than the ,greek  
assassin or the ,italian pickpocket in  
,cairo represents ,islam4 ,christian    
philanthropists in ,europe and ,america 
are seeking to suppress the evil4 ,if   
,christian missionaries in ,west ,africa

 were selling rum as ,moslem ,mollahs   
are buying and selling slaves in        
,uganda1 if the ,bible authorized the   
system as the ,koran encourages slavery 
and concubinage1 as means of            
propagandism1 a parallel might be       
presented2 but the very reverse is true4
  ,as a rule ,nomadic races are not as  
greatly inclined to the use of ardent   
spirits as are the descendants of the   
ancient tribes of ,northern ,europe4    
,the difference is due to climate1      
temperament1 heredity1 and the amount of
 supply4 ,the ,koran discourages        
intemperance and so does the ,bible2    
both are disregarded when the means of  
gratification are abundant4  ,the       
,moguls of ,india were sots almost as a 
rule4 ,wealthy ,persian ,moslems are the
 chief purchasers of the native wines4  
,lander1 ,schweinfurth1 and even ,mungo 
,parke all speak of communities in      
,central ,africa as wholly given to     
intemperance4#abb ,egyptians even1      
according to ,canon ,taylor1 find the   

abundant supplies afforded by ,europeans
 too tempting for the restraints of the 
,koran4  ,one of the most significant   
indications that the sober judgment of  
all enlightened men favors the immense  
superiority of the ,christian faith over
 all ethnic systems is the fact that    
even those zealous apologists who have  
most plausibly defended the             
non-,christian religions have           
subsequently evinced some misgivings and
 have even become advocates of the      
superior light of ,christianity4 ,sir   
,edwin ,arnold1 seeing how seriously    
some ill-grounded ,christian people had 
interpreted ,the ,light of ,asia1 has   
since made amends by writing ,the ,light
 of the ,world4 ,and ,e4 ,bosworth      
,smith1 on reading the extravagant      
glorification given to ,islam by ,canon 
,isaac ,taylor1 whom he accuses of      
plagiarism and absurd exaggeration1 has 
come to the stand as a witness against  
his extreme views4 ,without             
acknowledging any important modification

 of his own former views he has greatly 
changed the place of emphasis4 ,he has  
not only recorded his condemnation of   
,canon ,taylor's extravagance but he has
 made a strong appeal for the           
transcendent superiority of the         
,christian faith as that alone which    
must finally regenerate ,africa and the 
world4 ,he has called public attention  
to the following pointed criticism of   
,canon ,taylor's plea for ,islam1 made  
by a gentleman long resident in         
,algeria1 and he has given it his own   
endorsement3 ,canon ,isaac ,taylor1 says
 the writer1 has constructed at the     
expense of ,christianity a rose-colored 
picture of ,islam1 by a process of      
comparison in which ,christianity is    
arraigned for failures in practice1 of  
which ,christendom is deeply and        
penitently conscious1 no account being  
taken of ,christian precept2 while      
,islam is judged by its better precepts 
only1 no account being taken of the     
frightful shortcomings in ,mohammedan   

practice1 even from the standard of the 
,koran4#abc ,no indictment ever carried 
its proofs more conspicuously on its    
face than this4  ,e4 ,bosworth ,smith's 
subsequent tribute to the relative      
superiority of the ,christian faith was 
given in an address before the ,fellows 
of ,zion's ,college1 ,february #ba1     
#ahhh4 ,i give his closing comparison   
entire2 also his eloquent appeal for    
,christian ,missions in ,africa4 ,the   
resemblances between the two ,creeds are
 indeed many and striking1 as ,i have   
implied throughout2 but1 if ,i may1 once
 more1 quote a few words which ,i have  
used elsewhere in dealing with this     
question1 the contrasts are even more   
striking than the resemblances4 ,the    
religion of ,christ contains whole      
fields of morality and whole realms of  
thought which are all but outside the   
religion of ,mohammed4 ,it opens        
humility1 purity of heart1 forgiveness  
of injuries1 sacrifice of self1 to man's
 moral nature2 it gives scope for       

toleration1 development1 boundless      
progress to his mind2 its motive power  
is stronger even as a friend is better  
than a king1 and love higher than       
obedience4 ,its realized ideals in the  
various paths of human greatness have   
been more commanding1 more many-sided1  
more holy1 as ,averroes is below        
,newton1 ,harun below ,alfred1 and ,ali 
below ,st4 ,paul4 ,finally1 the ideal   
life of all is far more elevating1 far  
more majestic1 far more inspiring1 even 
as the life of the founder of           
,mohammedanism is below the life of the 
,founder of ,christianity4  ,if1 then1  
we believe ,christianity to be truer and
 purer in itself than ,islam1 and than  
any other religion1 we must needs wish  
others to be partakers of it2 and the   
effort to propagate it is thrice        
blessed--it blesses him that offers1 no 
less than him who accepts it2 nay1 it   
often blesses him who accepts it not4   
,the last words of a dying friend are   
apt to linger in the chambers of the    

heart till the heart itself has ceased  
to beat2 and the last recorded words of 
the ,founder of ,christianity are not   
likely to pass from the memory of ,his  
,church till that ,church has done its  
work4 ,they are the marching orders of  
the ,christian army2 the consolation for
 every past and present failure2 the    
earnest and the warrant1 in some shape  
or other1 of ultimate success4 ,the     
value of a ,christian mission is not1   
therefore1 to be measured by the number 
of its converts4 ,the presence in a     
heathen or a ,muslim district of a      
single man who1 filled with the         
missionary spirit1 exhibits in his      
preaching and1 so far as may be1 in his 
life1 the self-denying and the          
,christian virtues1 who is charged with 
sympathy for those among whom his lot is
 cast1 who is patient of disappointment 
and of failure1 and of the sneers of the
 ignorant or the irreligious1 and who   
works steadily on with a single eye to  
the glory of ,god and the good of his   

fellow-men1 is1 of itself1 an influence 
for good1 and a centre from which it    
radiates1 wholly independent of the     
number of converts he is able to enlist4
 ,there is a vast number of such men    
engaged in mission work all over the    
world1 and our best ,indian statesmen1  
some of whom1 for obvious reasons1 have 
been hostile to direct proselytizing    
efforts1 are unanimous as to the        
quantity and quality of the services    
they render4  ,nothing1 therefore1 can  
be more shallow1 or more disingenuous1  
or more misleading1 than to attempt to  
disparage ,christian missions by pitting
 the bare number of converts whom they  
claim against the number of converts    
claimed by ,islam4 ,the numbers are1 of 
course1 enormously in favor of ,islam4  
,but does conversion mean the same1 or  
anything like the same1 thing in each8  
,is it in pari materia1 and if not1 is  
the comparison worth the paper on which 
it is written8 ,the submission to the   
rite of circumcision and the repetition 

of a confession of faith1 however noble 
and however elevating in its ultimate   
effect1 do not necessitate1 they do not 
even necessarily tend toward what a     
,christian means by a change of heart4  
,it is the characteristic of            
,mohammedanism to deal with batches and 
with masses4 ,it is the characteristic  
of ,christianity to speak straight to   
the individual conscience4  ,the        
conversion of a whole ,pagan community  
to ,islam need not imply more effort1   
more sincerity1 or more vital change1   
than the conversion of a single         
individual to ,christianity4 ,the       
,christianity accepted wholesale by     
,clovis and his fierce warriors1 in the 
flush of victory1 on the field of       
battle1 or by the ,russian peasants1    
when they were driven by the ,cossack   
whips into the ,dnieper1 and baptized   
there by force--these are truer         
parallels to the tribal conversions to  
,mohammedanism in ,africa at the present
 day4 ,and1 whatever may have been their

 beneficial effects in the march of the 
centuries1 they are not the             
,christianity of ,christ1 nor are they  
the methods or the objects at which a   
,christian missionary of the present day
 would dream of aiming4  ,a ,christian  
missionary could not thus bring over a  
,pagan or a ,muslim tribe to            
,christianity1 even if he would2 he     
ought not to try thus to bring them     
over1 even if he could4 ',missionary    
work1' as remarked by an able writer in 
the ,spectator the other day1 'is       
sowing1 not reaping1 and the sowing of a
 plant which is slow to bear4' ,at      
times1 the difficulties and             
discouragements may daunt the stoutest  
heart and the most living faith4 ,but   
,god is greater than our hearts and     
wider than our thoughts1 and1 if we are 
able to believe in ,him at all1 we must 
also believe that the ultimate triumph  
of ,christianity--and by ,christianity  
,i mean not the comparatively narrow    
creed of this or that particular        

,church1 but the ,divine ,spirit of its 
,founder1 that ,spirit which1 exactly in
 proportion as they are true to their   
name1 informs1 and animates1 and        
underlies1 and overlies them all--is not
 problematical1 but certain1 and in ,his
 good time1 across the lapse of ages1   
will prove to be1 not local but         
universal1 not partial but complete1 not
 evanescent but eternal4#abd            
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #ig3 ,sprenger's
 ,life of ,mohammed1 pp4 #dj1 #da4      
,footnote #ih3 ,it is a suspicious fact 
that the first chapter of the ,koran    
begins with protestations that it is a  
true revelation1 and with most terrible 
anathemas against all who doubt it4     
,this seems significant1 and contrasts  
strongly with the conscious truthfulness
 and simplicity of the ,gospel          
narrators4  ,footnote #ii3 ,nor have    
later defenders of the system failed to 
derive alleged proofs of their system   
from ,biblical sources4 ,mohammedan     
controversialists have urged some very  

specious and plausible arguments2 for   
example1 ,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ah1 promises 
that the ,lord shall raise up unto      
,israel a prophet from among their      
brethren4 ,but ,israel had no brethren  
but the sons of ,ishmael4 ,there was    
also promised a prophet like unto       
,moses2 but ,deut4 xxxiv4 declares that 
,there arose no ,prophet in ,israel like
 unto ,moses4  ,when ,john the ,baptist 
was asked whether he were the ,christ1  
or ,elijah1 or that prophet1 no other   
than ,mohammed could have been meant by 
that prophet4  ,footnote #ajj3 ,rev4    
,mr4 ,bruce1 missionary in ,persia1     
states that pictures of the ,father1 the
 ,son1 and ,mary are still seen in      
,eastern churches4--,church ,missionary 
,intelligencer1 ,january1 #ahhb4        
,footnote #aja3 ,sales1 in his          
,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section #ast1 
enumerates the great nations which have 
vainly attempted the conquest of        
,arabia1 from the ,assyrians down to the
 ,romans1 and he asserts that even the  

,turks have held only a nominal sway4   
,footnote #ajb3 ,china owes her present 
dynasty to the fact that the hardy      
,manchus were called in as mercenaries  
or as allies4  ,footnote #ajc3 ,dr4     
,koelle3 quoted in ,church ,missionary  
,intelligencer4  ,footnote #ajd3 ,sales3
 ,koran and ,preliminary ,discourse1    
,wherry's edition1 p4 #hi4 ,one of the  
chief religious duties under the ,koran 
was the giving of alms 7,zakat71 and    
under this euphonious name was included 
the tax by which ,mohammed maintained   
the force that enabled him to keep up   
his predatory raids on the caravans of  
his enemies4  ,footnote #aje3 ,mohammed 
and ,mohammedanism1 p4 #abc4  ,footnote 
#ajf3 ,dr4 ,koelle gravely questions    
this4  ,footnote #ajg3 ,one of the most 
wicked and disastrous of all ,mohammed's
 laws was that which allowed the free   
practice of capturing women and girls in
 war1 and retaining them as lawful      
chattels in the capacity of concubines4 
,it has been in all ages a base stimulus

 to the raids of the slave-hunter4 ,sir 
,william ,muir has justly said1 that so 
long as a free sanction to this great   
evil stands recorded on the pages of the
 ,koran1 ,mohammedans will never of     
their own accord cease to prosecute the 
slave-trade4  ,footnote #ajh3 ,according
 to ,dr4 ,koelle1 the number of women   
and children who fell to the prophet's  
share of captives at the time of his    
great slaughter of the surrendered      
,jewish soldiers1 was two hundred4      
,footnote #aji3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and 
,christ1 p4 #aab4  ,footnote #aaj3      
,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and ,christ4        
,footnote #aaa3 ,ibid1 p4 #aab4         
,footnote #aab3 ,says ,sir ,william     
,muir3 ,three radical evils flow from   
the faith1 in all ages and in every     
country1 and must continue to flow so   
long as the ,koran is the standard of   
belief4 ,first1 polygamy1 divorce1 and  
slavery are maintained and perpetuated1 
striking at the root of public morals1  
poisoning domestic life1 and            

disorganizing society4 ,second1 freedom 
of thought and private judgment in      
religion is crushed and annihilated4    
,the sword still is1 and must remain1   
the inevitable penalty for the denial of
 ,islam4 ,toleration is unknown4 ,third1
 a barrier has been interposed against  
the reception of ,christianity4 ,they   
labor under a miserable delusion who    
suppose that ,mohammedanism paves the   
way for a purer faith4 ,no system could 
have been devised with more consummate  
skill for shutting out the nations over 
which it has sway from the light of     
truth4 ,idolatrous ,arabia 7judging from
 the analogy of other nations7 might    
have been aroused to spiritual life and 
to the adoption of the faith of ,jesus4 
,mohammedan ,arabia is to the human eye 
sealed against the benign influences of 
the ,gospel4444 ,the sword of ,mohammed 
and the ,koran are the most stubborn    
enemies of civilization1 liberty1 and   
truth which the world has yet           
known4--,church ,missionary             

,intelligencer1 ,november1 #ahhe4       
,footnote #aac3 ,osborne1 in his ,islam 
under the ,arabs1 and ,marcus ,dodds1 in
 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and ,christ1 have  
emphasized the fact that ,islam1 however
 favorably it might compare with the    
,arabian heathenism which it overthrew1 
was wholly out of place in forcing its  
semi-barbarous cultus upon civilizations
 which were far above it4 ,it might be  
an advance upon the rudeness and cruelty
 of the ,koreish1 but the misfortune was
 that it stamped its stereotyped and    
unchanging principles and customs upon  
nations which were in advance of it even
 then1 and which1 but for its deadening 
influence1 might have made far greater  
progress in the centuries which         
followed4  ,its bigoted founder gave the
 ,koran as the sufficient guide for all 
time4 ,it arrested the world's progress 
as far as its power extended4 ,very     
different was the spirit of ,judaism4   
,it distinctly disclaimed both finality 
and completeness4 ,every part of the    

,mosaic religion had a forward look1 and
 was designed to leave the mind in an   
attitude of expectation4                
,mohammedanism1 in claiming to be the   
one religion for all men and all time1  
is convicted of absurdity and imposture 
by its failures2 by the retrograde which
 marks its whole history in ,western    
,asia4 ,as a universal religion it has  
been tried and found wanting4  ,footnote
 #aad3 ,it has been claimed that the    
spread of ,mohammedanism in ,india is   
far more rapid than that of             
,christianity4 ,if this were true in    
point of fact1 it would be significant2 
for ,india under ,british rule furnishes
 a fair field for such a contest4 ,but  
it so happens that there1 where ,islam  
holds no sword of conquest1 and no      
arbitrary power to compel the faith of  
men1 its growth is very slow1 it only   
keeps pace with the general increase of 
the population4 ,it cannot compare with 
the advancement of ,christianity4 ,i    
subjoin an extract from ,sir ,w4        

,hunter's paper in the ,nineteenth      
,century for ,july1 #ahhh3  ,the        
official census1 notwithstanding its    
obscurities of classification and the   
disturbing effects of the famine of     
#ahgg1 attests the rapid increase of the
 ,christian population4 ,so far as these
 disturbing influences allow of an      
inference for all ,british ,india1 the  
normal rate of increase among the       
general population was about #h per     
cent1 from #ahgb to #ahha1 while the    
actual rate of the ,christian population
 was over #cj per cent4 ,but1 taking the
 lieutenant-governorship of ,bengal as  
the greatest province outside the famine
 area of #ahgg1 and for whose           
population1 amounting to one-third of   
the whole of ,british ,india1 really    
comparable statistics exist1 the census 
results are clear4 ,the general         
population increased in the nine years  
preceding #ahha at the rate of #aj4hi   
per cent41 the ,mohammedans at the rate 
of #aj4if per cent41 the ,hindus at some

 undetermined rate below #ac4fd per     
cent41 ,christians of all races at the  
rate of #dj4ga per cent41 and the native
 ,christians at the rate of #fd4jg per  
cent4  ,footnote #aae3 ,leaves from an  
,egyptian ,note-book4  ,footnote #aaf3  
,christianity1 ,islam1 and the ,negro   
,race1 p4 #bda4  ,footnote #aag3 ,for   
the full text of the letter to the      
,standard1 see ,church ,missionary      
,intelligencer1 ,december1 #ahhh4       
,footnote #aah3 ,church ,missionary     
,intelligencer1 #ahhg1 p4 #fec4         
,footnote #aai3 ,see ,church ,missionary
 ,intelligencer1 ,april1 #ahhh4         
,footnote #abj3 ,over against ,canon    
,taylor's glowing accounts of this broad
 and gentle charity we may place the    
testimony of ,palgrave in regard to the 
remorseless rapacity practised by the   
,wahabees upon the ,shiyaees of ,persia 
while passing through their territory in
 their pilgrimages to a common shrine4  
,he tells us that forty gold tomans were
 fixed as the claim of the ,wahabee     

treasury on every ,persian pilgrim for  
his passage through ,r'ad1 and forty    
more for a safe conduct through the rest
 of the empire--eighty in all4444       
,every local governor on the way would  
naturally enough take the hint1 and     
strive not to let the 'enemies of ,god' 
7for this is the sole title given by    
,wahabees to all except themselves7 go  
by without spoiling them more or        
less4444  ,so that1 all counted up1 the 
legal and necessary dues levied on every
 ,persian ,shiyaee while traversing     
,central ,arabia1 and under ,wahabee    
guidance and protection1 amounted1 ,i   
found1 to about one hundred and fifty   
gold tomans1 equalling nearly sixty     
pounds sterling1 ,english1 no light     
expenditure for a ,persian1 and no      
despicable gain to an                   
,arab4--,palgrave's ,central and        
,eastern ,africa1 p4 #afa4  ,footnote   
#aba3 ,dodds3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and   
,christ1 p4 #aah4  ,footnote #abb3      
,church ,missionary ,intelligencer1     

,november1 #ahhg4  ,footnote #abc3      
,church ,missionary ,intelligencer1     
,february1 #ahhh1 p4 #ff4  ,footnote    
#abd3 ,church ,missionary               
,intelligencer1 ,april1 #ahhh4          
,,lecture ,,vii4  ,,the ,,traces ,,of ,a
 ,,primitive ,,monotheism   ,there are  
two conflicting theories now in vogue in
 regard to the origin of religion4 ,the 
first is that of ,christian theists as  
taught in the ,old and ,new ,testament  
,scriptures1 viz41 that the human race  
in its first ancestry1 and again in the 
few survivors of the ,deluge1 possessed 
the knowledge of the true ,god4 ,it is  
not necessary to suppose that they had a
 full and mature conception of ,him1 or 
that that conception excluded the idea  
of other gods4 ,no one would maintain   
that ,adam or ,noah comprehended the    
nature of the ,infinite as it has been  
revealed in the history of ,god's       
dealings with men in later times4 ,but  
from their simple worship of one ,god   
their descendants came gradually to     

worship various visible objects with    
which they associated their             
blessings--the sun as the source of     
warmth and vitality1 the rain as        
imparting a quickening power to the     
earth1 the spirits of ancestors to whom 
they looked with a special awe1 and     
finally a great variety of created      
things instead of the invisible         
,creator4 ,the other theory is that man1
 as we now behold him1 has been         
developed from lower forms of animal    
life1 rising first to the state of a    
mere human animal1 but gradually        
acquiring intellect1 conscience1 and    
finally a soul2--that ethics and        
religion have been developed from       
instinct by social contact1 especially  
by ties of family and the tribal        
relation2 that altruism which began with
 the instinctive care of parents for    
their offspring1 rose to the higher     
domain of religion and began to         
recognize the claims of deity2 that     
,god1 if there be a ,god1 never revealed

 himself to man by any preternatural    
means1 but that great souls1 like       
,moses1 ,isaiah1 and ,plato1 by their   
higher and clearer insight1 have gained 
loftier views of deity than others1 and 
as prophets and teachers have made known
 their inspirations to their fellow-men4
 ,gradually they have formed rituals and
 elaborated philosophies1 adding such   
supernatural elements as the ignorant   
fancy of the masses was supposed to     
demand4  ,according to this theory1     
religions1 like everything else1 have   
grown up from simple germs3 and it is   
only in the later stages of his         
development that man can be said to be a
 religious being4 ,while an animal      
merely1 and for a time even after he had
 attained to a rude and savage manhood1 
a life of selfish passion and marauding 
was justifiable1 since only thus could  
the survival of the fittest be secured  
and the advancement of the race         
attained4#abe ,it is fair to say that   
there are various shades of the theory  

here presented--some materialistic1 some
 theistic1 others having a qualified    
theism1 and still others practically    
agnostic4 ,some even who claim to be    
,christians regard the various religions
 of men as so many stages in the divine 
education of the race--all being under  
the direct guidance of ,god1 and all    
designed to lead ultimately to          
,christianity which is the goal4  ,that 
,god has overruled all things1 even the 
errors and wickedness of men1 for some  
wise object will not be denied2 that ,he
 has implanted in the human             
understanding many correct conceptions  
of ethical truth1 so that noble         
principles are found in the teachings of
 all religious systems2 that ,god is the
 author of all truth and all right      
impulses1 even in heathen minds1 is     
readily admitted4 ,but that ,he has     
directly planned and chosen the         
non-,christian religions on the         
principle that half-truths and perverted
 truths and the direct opposites of the 

truth1 were best adapted to certain     
stages of development--in other words1  
that ,he has causatively led any nation 
into error and consequent destruction as
 a means of preparing for subsequent    
generations something higher and better1
 we cannot admit4 ,the logic of such a  
conclusion would lead to a remorseless  
fatalism4 ,everything would depend on   
the age and the environment in which    
one's lot were cast4 ,we cannot believe 
that fetishism and idolatry have been   
,god's kindergarten method of training  
the human race for the higher and more  
spiritual service of ,his kingdom4      
,turning from the testimony of the      
,scriptures on the one hand and the a   
priori assumptions of evolution on the  
other1 what is the witness of the actual
 history of religions8 ,have they shown 
an upward or a downward development8 ,do
 they appear to have risen from         
polytheism toward simpler and more      
spiritual forms1 or have simple forms   
been ramified into polytheism8#abf ,if  

we shall be able to establish clear     
evidence that monotheistic or even      
henotheistic types of faith existed     
among all1 or nearly all1 the races at  
the dawn of history1 a very important   
point will have been gained4 ,the late  
,dr4 ,henry ,b4 ,smith1 after a careful 
perusal of ,ebrard's elaborate          
presentation of the religions of the    
ancient and the modern world1 and his   
clear proofs that they had at first been
 invariably monotheistic and had        
gradually lapsed into ramified forms of 
polytheism1 says in his review of       
,ebrard's work3 ,we do not know where to
 find a more weighty reply to the       
assumptions and theories of those       
writers who persist in claiming1        
according to the approved hypothesis of 
a merely naturalistic evolution1 that   
the primitive state of mankind was the  
lowest and most debased form of         
polytheistic idolatry1 and that the     
higher religions have been developed out
 of these base rudiments4 ,dr4 ,ebrard  

shows conclusively that the facts all   
lead to another conclusion1 that gross  
idolatry is a degeneration of mankind   
from antecedent and purer forms of      
religious worship4444 ,he first treats  
of the civilized nations of antiquity1  
the ,aryan and ,indian religions1 the   
,vedas1 the ,indra period of ,brahmanism
 and ,buddhism2 then of the religion of 
the ,iranians1 the ,avesta of the       
,parsees2 next of the ,greeks and       
,romans1 the ,egyptians1 the            
,canaanites1 and the heathen ,semitic   
forms of worship1 including the         
,phoenicians1 ,assyrians1 and           
,babylonians4 ,his second division is   
devoted to the half-civilized and savage
 races in the ,north and ,west of       
,europe1 in ,asia and ,polynesia        
7,tartars1 ,mongols1 ,malays1 and       
,cushites72 then the races of ,america1 
including a minute examination of the   
relations of the different races here to
 the ,mongols1 ,japanese1 and old       
,chinese immigrations4#abg  ,ebrard     

himself1 in summing up the results of   
these prolonged investigations1 says3   
,we have nowhere been able to discover  
the least trace of any forward and      
upward movement from fetichism to       
polytheism1 and from that again to a    
gradually advancing knowledge of the one
 ,god2 but1 on the contrary1 we have    
found among all the peoples of the      
heathen world a most decided tendency to
 sink from an earlier and relatively    
purer knowledge of ,god toward something
 lower4#abh  ,if these conclusions1     
reached by ,ebrard and endorsed by the  
scholarly ,dr4 ,henry ,b4 ,smith1 are   
correct1 they are of great importance2  
they bring to the stand the witness of  
the false religions themselves upon an  
issue in which historic testimony as    
distinguished from mere theories is in  
special demand in our time4 ,of similar 
import are the well-considered words of 
,professor ,naville1 in the first of his
 lectures on modern atheism4#abi ,he    
says3 ,almost all pagans seem to have   

had a glimpse of the divine unity over  
the multiplicity of their idols1 and of 
the rays of the divine holiness across  
the saturnalia of their ,olympi4 ,it was
 a ,greek 7,cleanthus7 who wrote these  
words3 ',nothing is accomplished on the 
earth without ,thee1 ,o ,god1 save the  
deeds which the wicked perpetrate in    
their folly4' ,it was in a theatre at   
,athens1 that the chorus of a tragedy   
sang1 more than two thousand years ago3 
',may destiny aid me to preserve1       
unsullied1 the purity of my words1 and  
of all my actions1 according to those   
sublime laws which1 brought forth in the
 celestial heights1 have the raven alone
 for their father1 to which the race of 
mortals did not give birth and which    
oblivion shall never entomb4 ,in them is
 a supreme ,god1 and one who waxes not  
old4' ,it would be easy to multiply     
quotations of this order and to show1 in
 the documents of ,grecian and ,roman   
civilization1 numerous traces of the    
knowledge of the only and holy ,god4    

,with much careful discrimination1 ,dr4 
,william ,a4,p4 ,martin1 of the ,peking 
,university1 has said3 ,it is customary 
with a certain school to represent      
religion as altogether the fruit of an  
intellectual process4 ,it had its birth1
 say they1 in ignorance1 is modified by 
every stage in the progress of          
knowledge1 and expires when the light of
 philosophy reaches its noon-day4 ,the  
fetish gives place to a personification 
of the powers of nature1 and this poetic
 pantheon is1 in time1 superseded by the
 high idea of unity in nature expressed 
by monotheism4 ,this theory has the     
merit of verisimilitude4 ,it indicates  
what might be the process if man were   
left to make his own religion2 but it   
has the misfortune to be at variance    
with facts4 ,a wide survey of the       
history of civilized nations 7and the   
history of others is beyond reach7 shows
 that the actual process undergone by   
the human mind in its religious         
development is precisely opposite to    

that which this theory supposes2 in a   
word1 that man was not left to construct
 his own creed1 but that his blundering 
logic has always been active in its     
attempts to corrupt and obscure a divine
 original4 ,the connection subsisting   
between the religious systems of ancient
 and distant countries presents many a  
problem difficult of solution4 ,indeed1 
their mythologies and religious rites   
are generally so distinct as to admit   
the hypothesis of an independent origin2
 but the simplicity of their earliest   
beliefs exhibits an unmistakable        
resemblance1 suggestive of a common     
source4  ,china1 ,india1 ,egypt1 and    
,greece all agree in the monotheistic   
type of their early religion4 ,the      
,orphic hymns1 long before the advent of
 the popular divinities1 celebrated the 
,pantheos1 the ,universal ,god4 ,the    
odes compiled by ,confucius testify to  
the early worship of ,shangte1 the      
,supreme ,euler4 ,the ,vedas speak of   
'one unknown true ,being1 all-present1  

all-powerful2 the ,creator1 ,preserver1 
and ,destroyer of the universe4' ,and in
 ,egypt1 as late as the time of         
,plutarch1 there were still vestiges of 
a monotheistic worship4 ',the other     
,egyptians1' he says1 'all made         
offerings at the tombs of the sacred    
beasts2 but the inhabitants of the      
,thebaid stood alone in making no such  
offerings1 not regarding as a god       
anything that can die1 and acknowledging
 no god but one1 whom they call ,kneph1 
who had no birth1 and can have no death4
 ,abraham1 in his wanderings1 found the 
,god of his fathers known and honored in
 ,salem1 in ,gerar1 and in ,memphis2    
while at a later day ,jethro1 in        
,midian1 and ,balaam1 in ,mesopotamia1  
were witnesses that the knowledge of    
,jehovah was not yet extinct in those   
countries4'#acj  ,professor ,max        
,mueller speaks in a similar strain of  
the lapse of mankind from earlier and   
simpler types of faith to low and       
manifold superstitions3 ,whenever we can

 trace back a religion to its first     
beginning1 says the distinguished       
,oxford professor1 we find it free from 
many of the blemishes that offend us in 
its later phases4 ,the founders of the  
ancient religions of the world1 as far  
as we can judge1 were minds of a high   
stamp1 full of noble aspirations1       
yearning for truth1 devoted to the      
welfare of their neighbors1 examples of 
purity and unselfishness4 ,what they    
desired to found upon earth was but     
seldom realized1 and their sayings1 if  
preserved in their original form1       
offered often a strange contrast to the 
practice of those who profess to be     
their disciples4 ,as soon as a religion 
is established1 and more particularly   
when it has become the religion of a    
powerful state1 the foreign and worldly 
elements encroach more and more on the  
original foundation1 and human interests
 mar the simplicity and purity of the   
plan which the founder had conceived in 
his own heart and matured in his        

communings with his ,god4#aca  ,but in  
pursuing our subject we should clearly  
determine the real question before us4  
,how much may we expect to prove from   
the early history of the non-,christian 
systems8 ,not certainly that all nations
 once received a knowledge of the ,old  
,testament revelation1 as some have     
claimed1 nor that all races possessed at
 the beginning of their several historic
 periods one and the same monotheistic  
faith4 ,we cannot prove from            
non-scriptural sources that their       
varying monotheistic conceptions sprang 
from a common belief4 ,we cannot prove  
either the supernatural revelation which
 ,professor ,max ,mueller emphatically  
rejects1 nor the identity of the        
well-nigh universal henotheisms which he
 professes to believe4 ,we cannot prove 
that the worship of one ,god as supreme 
did not coexist with a sort of worship  
of inferior deities or ministering      
spirits4 ,almost as a rule1 the worship 
of ancestors1 or spirits1 or rulers1 or 

the powers of nature1 or even totems and
 fetishes has been rendered as          
subordinate to the worship of the one   
supreme deity who created and upholds   
all things4 ,even the monotheism of     
,judaism and of ,christianity has been  
attended with the belief in angels and  
the worship of intercessory saints1 to  
say nothing of the many superstitions   
which prevail among the more ignorant   
classes4 ,we shall only attempt to show 
that monotheism1 in the sense of        
worshipping one ,god as supreme1 is     
found in nearly all the early teachings 
of the world4 ,that these crude faiths  
are one in the origin is only           
presumable1 if we leave the testimony of
 the ,bible out of the account4  ,when  
on a summer afternoon we see great      
shafts of light arising and spreading   
fan-shaped from behind a cloud which    
lies along the western horizon1 we have 
a strong presumption that they all      
spring from one great luminary toward   
which they converge1 although that      

luminary is hidden from our view4 ,so   
tracing the convergence of heathen      
faiths with respect to one original     
monotheism1 back to the point where the 
prehistoric obscurity begins1 we may on 
the same principle say that all the     
evidence in the case1 and it is not     
small1 points toward a common origin for
 the early religious conceptions of     
mankind4  ,professor ,robert ,flint1 in 
his scholarly article on theism in ,the 
,britannica1 seems to discard the idea  
that the first religion of mankind was  
monotheism2 but a careful study of his  
position will show that he has in view  
those conceptions of monotheism which   
are common to us1 or1 as he expresses   
it1 monotheism in the ordinary or proper
 sense of the term1 monotheism properly 
so called1 monotheism which excludes    
polytheism1 etc4 ,moreover1 he maintains
 that we cannot1 from historical        
sources1 learn what conceptions men     
first had of ,god4 ,even when speaking  
of the ,old ,testament record1 he says3 

,these chapters 7of ,genesis71 although 
they plainly teach monotheism and       
represent the ,god whose words and acts 
are recorded in the ,bible as no mere   
national ,god1 but the only true ,god1  
they do not teach what is alone in the  
question--that there was a primitive    
monotheism1 a monotheism revealed and   
known from the beginning4 ,they give no 
warrant to the common assumption that   
,god revealed monotheism to ,adam1      
,noah1 and others before the ,flood1 and
 that the traces of monotheistic beliefs
 and tendencies in heathendom are       
derivable from the tradition of this    
primitive and antediluvian monotheism4  
,the one true ,god is represented as    
making himself known by particular words
 and in particular ways to ,adam1 but is
 nowhere said to have taught him that   
,he only was ,god4 ,it is plain that    
,professor ,flint is here dealing with a
 conception of monotheism which is      
exclusive of all other gods4 ,and his   
view is undoubtedly correct1 so far as  

,adam was concerned4 ,there was no more 
need of teaching him that his ,god was  
the only ,god1 than that ,eve was the   
only woman4 ,with ,noah the case is not 
so plain4 ,he doubtless worshipped ,god 
amid the surroundings of polytheistic   
heathenism4 ,enoch probably had a       
similar environment1 and there is no    
good reason for supposing that their    
monotheism may not have been as         
exclusive as that of ,abraham4 ,but with
 respect to the ,gentile nations1 the   
dim traces of this monism or henotheism 
which ,professor ,flint seems to accord 
to ,adam and to ,noah1 is all that we   
are contending for1 and all that is     
necessary to the argument of this       
lecture4 ,we may even admit that heathen
 deities may sometimes have been called 
by different names while the one source 
of power was intended4 ,different names 
seem to have been employed to represent 
different manifestations of the one ,god
 of the ,old ,testament according to    
,his varied relations toward ,his       

people4 ,there are those who deny this  
polyonomy1 as ,max ,mueller has called  
it1 and who maintain that the names in  
the earliest ,veda represented distinct 
deities2 but1 by similar reasoning1     
,professor ,tiele and others insist that
 three different ,hebrew ,gods1         
according to their respective names1    
were worshipped in successive periods of
 the ,jewish history4 ,it seems quite   
possible1 therefore1 that a too         
restrictive definition of monotheism may
 prove too much1 by opening the way for 
a claim that even the ,jewish and       
,christian faith1 with its old          
,testament names of ,god1 its angels1   
its theophanies1 and its fully developed
 trinity1 is not strictly monotheistic4 
,for our present purpose1 traces of the 
worship of one supreme ,god--call it    
monotheism or henotheism--is all that is
 required4  ,with these limitations and 
qualifications in view1 let us turn to  
the history of some of the leading      
non-,christian faiths4 ,looking first to

 ,india1 we find in the #abith hymn of  
the ,rig ,veda1 a passage which not only
 presents the conception of one only    
supreme and self-existing ,being1 but at
 the same time bears significant        
resemblance to our own account of the   
creation from chaos4 ,it reads thus3    
,in the beginning there was neither     
naught nor aught1     ,then there was   
neither atmosphere nor sky above1       
,there was neither death nor            
immortality1     ,there was neither day 
nor night1 nor light1 nor darkness1     
,only the ,,existent ,,one breathed     
calmly self-contained4     ,naught else 
but ,he was there1 naught else above1   
beyond4     ,then first came darkness   
hid in darkness1 gloom in gloom2        
,next all was water1 chaos indiscrete1  
,in which ,,one lay void1 shrouded in   
nothingness4#acb  ,in the #abast hymn of
 the same ,veda occurs a passage which  
seems to resemble the opening of the    
,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,it reads thus1  
as translated by ,sir ,monier ,williams3

       ,him let us praise1 the golden   
child that was ,in the beginning1 who   
was born the ,lord1 ,who made the earth 
and formed the sky4  ,the one born ,lord
 reminds us of the ,new ,testament      
expression1 the only begotten ,son4     
,both were in the beginning2 both were  
the creators of the world4 ,while there 
is much that is mysterious in these     
references1 the idea of oneness and     
supremacy is too plain to be mistaken4  
,professor ,max ,mueller has well       
expressed this fact when he said3 ,there
 is a monotheism which precedes         
polytheism in the ,veda2 and even in the
 invocation of their 7inferior7 gods1   
the remembrance of a ,god1 one and      
infinite1 breaks through the mist of an 
idolatrous phraseology like the blue sky
 that is hidden by passing clouds4#acc  
,these monotheistic conceptions appear  
to have been common to the ,aryans      
before their removal from their early   
home near the sources of the ,oxus1 and 
we shall see further on that in one form

 or another they survived among all     
branches of the migrating race4 ,the    
same distinguished scholar traces the   
early existence of monotheism in a      
series of brief and rapid references to 
nearly all the scattered ,aryans not    
only1 but also to the ,turanians on the 
,north and ,east1 to the ,tungusic1     
,mongolic1 ,tartaric1 and ,finnic       
tribes4 ,everywhere1 he says1 we find a 
worship of nature1 and the spirits of   
the departed1 but behind it all there   
rises a belief in some higher power     
called by different names1 who is ,maker
 and ,protector of the world1 and who   
always resides in heaven4#acd ,he also  
speaks of an ancient ,african faith     
which1 together with its worship of     
reptiles and of ancestors1 showed a     
vague hope of a future life1 and a not  
altogether faded reminiscence of a      
supreme ,god1 which certainly implies a 
previous knowledge4#ace  ,the same      
prevalence of one supreme worship rising
 above all idolatry he traces among the 

various tribes of the ,pacific ,islands4
 ,his generalizations are only second to
 those of ,ebrard4 ,although he rejects 
the theory of a supernatural revelation1
 yet stronger language could hardly be  
used than that which he employs in proof
 of a universal monotheistic faith4#acf 
,nowhere1 he says1 do we find stronger  
arguments against idolatry1 nowhere has 
the unity of ,god been upheld more      
strenuously against the errors of       
polytheism1 than by some of the ancient 
sages of ,india4 ,even in the oldest of 
the sacred books1 the ,rig ,veda1       
composed three or four thousand years   
ago1 where we find hymns addressed to   
the different deities of the sky1 the   
air1 the earth1 the rivers1 the protest 
of the human heart against many gods    
breaks forth from time to time with no  
uncertain sound4 ,professor ,mueller's  
whole position is pretty clearly stated 
in his first lecture on ,the ,science of
 ,religion1 in which he protests against
 the idea that ,god once gave to man a  

preternatural revelation concerning     
,himself2 and yet he gives in this same 
lecture this striking testimony to the  
doctrine of an early and prevailing     
monotheistic faith3  ,is it not         
something worth knowing1 he says1 worth 
knowing even to us after the lapse of   
four or five thousand years1 that before
 the separation of the ,aryan race1     
before the existence of ,sanskrit1      
,greek1 or ,latin1 before the gods of   
the ,veda had been worshipped1 and      
before there was a sanctuary of ,zeus   
among the sacred oaks of ,dodona1 one   
,supreme deity had been found1 had been 
named1 had been invoked by the ancestors
 of our race1 and had been invoked by a 
name which has never been excelled by   
any other name8 ,and again1 on the same 
subject1 he says3 ,if a critical        
examination of the ancient language of  
the ,jews leads to no worse results than
 those which have followed from a       
careful interpretation of the petrified 
language of ancient ,india and ,greece1 

we need not fear2 we shall be gainers1  
not losers4 ,like an old precious medal1
 the ancient religion1 after the rust of
 ages has been removed1 will come out in
 all its purity and brightness2 and the 
image which it discloses will be the    
image of the ,father1 the ,father of all
 the nations upon earth2 and the        
superscription1 when we can read it     
again1 will be1 not only in ,judea1 but 
in the languages of all the races of the
 world1 the ,word of ,god1 revealed     
where alone it can be revealed--revealed
 in the heart of man4#acg  ,the late    
,professor ,banergea1 of ,calcutta1 in a
 publication entitled ,the ,aryan       
,witness1 not only maintained the       
existence of monotheism in the early    
,vedas1 but with his rare knowledge of  
,sanskrit and kindred tongues1 he       
gathered from ,iranian as well as ,hindu
 sources many evidences of a monotheism 
common to all ,aryans4 ,his conclusions 
derive special value from the fact that 
he was a high caste ,hindu1 and was not 

only well versed in the sacred language1
 but was perfectly familiar with ,hindu 
traditions and modes of thought4 ,he was
 as well qualified to judge of early    
,hinduism as ,paul was of ,judaism1 and 
for the same reason4 ,and from his      
,hindu standpoint1 as a ,pharisee of the
 ,pharisees1 though afterward a         
,christian convert1 he did not hesitate 
to declare his belief1 not only that the
 early ,vedic faith was monotheistic1   
but that it contained traces of that    
true revelation1 once made to men4#ach  
,in the same line we find the testimony 
of the various types of revived         
,aryanism of our own times4 ,the ,brahmo
 ,somaj1 the ,arya ,somaj1 and other    
similar organizations1 are not only all 
monotheistic1 but they declare that     
monotheism was the religion of the early
 ,vedas4 ,and many other ,hindu reforms1
 some of them going as far back as the  
twelfth century1 have been so many      
returns to monotheism4 ,a recent ,arya  
catechism published by ,ganeshi1 asserts

 in its first article that there is one 
only ,god1 omnipotent1 infinite1 and    
eternal4 ,it proceeds to show that the  
,vedas present but one1 and that when   
hymns were addressed to ,agni1 ,vayu1   
,indra1 etc41 it was only a use of      
different names for one and the same    
,being4#aci  ,it represents ,god as     
having all the attributes of supreme    
,deity4 ,he created the world by ,his   
direct power and for the revelation of  
,his glory to ,his creatures4 ,man1     
according to the ,aryas1 came not by    
evolution nor by any of the processes   
known to ,hindu philosophy1 but by      
direct creation from existing atoms4    
,in all this it is easy to see that much
 has been borrowed from the ,christian  
conception of ,god's character and      
attributes1 but the value of this ,aryan
 testimony lies in the fact that it     
claims for the ancient ,vedas a clear   
and positive monotheism4  ,if we consult
 the sacred books of ,china1 we shall   
find there also many traces of an       

ancient faith which antedates both      
,confucianism and ,taouism4 ,the golden 
age of the past to which all ,chinese   
sages look with reverence1 was the      
dynasty of ,yao and ,shun1 which was    
eighteen centuries earlier than the     
period of ,confucius and ,laotze4 ,the  
records of the ,shu-king which          
,confucius compiled1 and from which     
unfortunately his agnosticism excluded  
nearly all its original references to   
religion1 nevertheless retain a full    
account of certain sacred rites         
performed by ,shun on his accession to  
the full imperial power4 ,in those rites
 the worship of ,one ,god as supreme is 
distinctly set forth as a customary     
service1 thereby implying that it was   
already long established4 ,separate     
mention is also made of offerings to    
inferior deities1 as if these were      
honored at his own special instance4 ,it
 is unquestionably true that in ,china1 
and indeed in all lands1 there sprang up
 almost from the first a tendency to    

worship1 or at least to fear1 unseen    
spirits4 ,this tendency has coexisted   
with all religions of the world--even   
with the ,old ,testament cult--even with
 ,christianity4 ,to the excited         
imaginations of men1 especially the     
ignorant classes1 the world has always  
been a haunted world1 and just in       
proportion as the light of true religion
 has become dim1 countless hordes of    
ghosts and demons have appeared4 ,when  
,confucius arose this gross animism had 
almost monopolized the worship of his   
countrymen1 and universal corruption    
bore sway4 ,he was not an original      
thinker1 but only a compiler of the     
ancient wisdom1 and in his selections   
from the traditions of the ancients1 he 
compiled those things only which served 
his great purpose of building up1 from  
the relations of family and kindred1 the
 complete pyramid of a well-ordered     
state in which the ,emperor should hold 
to his subjects the place of deity4 ,if 
such honor to a mortal seemed           

extravagant1 yet in his view a wise     
emperor was far worthier of reverence   
than the imaginary ghosts of the popular
 superstitions4 ,yet1 even ,confucius   
could not quite succeed in banishing the
 idea of divine help1 nor could he      
destroy that higher and most venerable  
worship which has ever survived amid all
 the corruptions of polytheism4         
,professor ,legge1 of ,oxford1 has      
claimed1 from what he regards as valid  
linguistic proofs1 that at a still      
earlier period than the dynasty of ,yao 
and ,shun there existed in ,china the   
worship of one ,god4 ,he says3 ,five    
thousand years ago the ,chinese were    
monotheists--not henotheists1 but       
monotheists--though he adds that even   
then there was a constant struggle with 
nature-worship and divination4#adj  ,the
 same high authority cites a remarkable 
prayer of an ,emperor of the ,ming      
dynasty 7#aech ,a4,d47 to show that in  
spite of the agnosticism and reticence  
of ,confucius1 ,shangte has been        

worshipped in the centuries which have  
followed his time4 ,the prayer is very  
significant as showing how the ,one     
,supreme ,god stands related to the     
subordinate gods which polytheism has   
introduced4 ,the ,emperor was about to  
decree a slight change in the name of   
,shangte to be used in the imperial     
worship4 ,he first addressed the spirits
 of the hills1 the rivers1 and the seas1
 asking them to intercede for him with  
,shangte4 ,we will trouble you1 said he1
 on our behalf to exert your spiritual  
power and to display your vigorous      
efficacy1 communicating our poor desires
 to ,shangte1 and praying him graciously
 to grant us his acceptance and regard1 
and to be pleased with the title which  
we shall reverently present4 ,but very  
different was the language used when he 
came to address ,shangte himself4 ,of   
old1 in the beginning1 he began1--,of   
old in the beginning1 there was the     
great chaos without form1 and dark4 ,the
 five elements had not begun to revolve 

nor the sun and moon to shine4 ,in the  
midst thereof there presented itself    
neither form nor sound4 ,thou1 ,o       
spiritual ,sovereign6 earnest forth in  
thy presidency1 and first didst divide  
the grosser parts from the purer4 ,thou 
madest heaven3 ,thou madest earth3 ,thou
 madest man4 ,all things got their being
 with their producing power4 ,o ,te6    
when ,thou hadst opened the course for  
the inactive and active forces of matter
 to operate1 thy making work went on4   
,thou didst produce1 ,o ,spirit6 the sun
 and moon and five planets1 and pure and
 beautiful was their light4 ,the vault  
of heaven was spread out like a curtain1
 and the square earth supported all on  
it1 and all creatures were happy4 ,i1   
thy servant1 presume reverently to thank
 ,thee4 ,farther on he says3 ,all the   
numerous tribes of animated beings are  
indebted to ,thy favor for their being4 
,men and creatures are emparadised in   
,thy love4 ,all living things are       
indebted to ,thy goodness4 ,but who     

knows whence his blessings come to him8 
,it is ,thou1 ,o ,lord6 who art the     
parent of all things4#ada  ,surely this 
prayer humbly offered by a monarch would
 not be greatly out of place among the  
,psalms of ,david4 ,its description of  
the primeval chaos strikingly resembles 
that which ,i have quoted from the ,rig 
,veda1 and both resemble that of the    
,mosaic record4 ,if the language used   
does not present the clear conception of
 one ,god1 the ,creator and the         
,upholder of all things1 and a supreme  
and personal ,sovereign over kings and  
even gods1 then language has no meaning4
 ,the monotheistic conception of the    
second petition is as distinct from the 
polytheism of the first1 as any prayer  
to ,jehovah is from a ,roman ,catholic's
 prayer for the intercession of the     
saints2 and there is no stronger        
argument in the one case against        
monotheism than in the other4 ,dr4      
,legge asserts that both in the         
,shu-king and in the ,shiking1 ,te1 or  

,shangte1 appears as a personal being   
ruling in heaven and in earth1 the      
author of man's moral nature1 the       
governor among the nations1 the rewarder
 of the good and the punisher of the    
evil4#adb ,there are proofs that        
,confucius1 though in his position with 
respect to ,god he fell short of the    
doctrine of the ancient sages1 yet      
believed in the existence of ,shangte as
 a personal being4 ,when in old age he  
had finished his writings1 he laid them 
on an altar upon a certain hill-top1 and
 kneeling before the altar he returned  
thanks that he had been spared to       
complete his work4#adc ,max ,mueller    
says of him3 ,it is clear from many     
passages that with ,confucius1 ,tien1 or
 the ,spirit of ,heaven1 was the supreme
 deity1 and that he looked upon the     
other gods of the people--the spirits of
 the air1 the mountains1 and the        
rivers1#add and the spirits of the      
departed1 very much with the same       
feeling with which ,socrates regarded   

the mythological deities of ,greece4#ade
  ,but there remains to this day a      
remarkable evidence of the worship of   
the supreme ,god1 ,shangte1 as he was   
worshipped in the days of the ,emperor  
,shun1 #bcef ,b4,c4 ,it is found in the 
great ,temple of ,heaven at ,peking4    
,dr4 ,martin and ,professors ,legge and 
,douglas all insist that the sacrifices 
there celebrated are relics of the      
ancient worship of a supreme ,god4      
,china is full of the traces of         
polytheism2 the land swarms with        
,taouist deities of all names and       
functions1 with ,confucian and ancestral
 tablets1 and with ,buddhist temples and
 dagobas2 but within the sacred         
enclosure of this temple no symbol of   
heathenism appears4 ,of the ,august     
,imperial service ,dr4 ,martin thus     
eloquently speaks3#adf ,within the gates
 of the southern division of the        
capital1 and surrounded by a sacred     
grove so extensive that the silence of  
its deep shades is never broken by the  

noise of the busy world around it1      
stands the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,it      
consists of a single tower1 whose tiling
 of resplendent azure is intended to    
represent the form and color of the     
aerial vault4 ,it contains no image2 but
 on a marble altar a bullock is offered 
once a year as a burnt sacrifice1 while 
the monarch of the empire prostrates    
himself in adoration of the ,spirit of  
the ,universe4 ,this is the high place  
of ,chinese devotion1 and the thoughtful
 visitor feels that he ought to tread   
its courts with unsandalled feet1 for no
 vulgar idolatry has entered here4 ,this
 mountain-top still stands above the    
waves of corruption1 and on this        
solitary altar there still rests a faint
 ray of its primeval faith4 ,the tablet 
which represents the invisible deity is 
inscribed with the name ,shangte1 the   
,supreme ,ruler1 and as we contemplate  
the ,majesty of the ,empire before it1  
while the smoke ascends from his burning
 sacrifice1 our thoughts are            

irresistably carried back to the time   
when the ,king of ,salem officiated as  
priest of the ,most ,high ,god4 ,there  
is1 he adds1 no need of extended        
argument to establish the fact that the 
early ,chinese were by no means         
destitute of the knowledge of the true  
,god4 ,dr4 ,legge1 the learned          
translator of the ,chinese classics1    
shares so fully the views here          
expressed1 that he actually put his     
shoes from off his feet before ascending
 the great altar1 feeling that amidst   
all the mists and darkness of the       
national superstition1 a trace of the   
glory of the ,infinite ,jehovah still   
lingered there4 ,and in many a          
discussion since he has firmly          
maintained that that is in a dim way an 
altar of the true and living ,god4      
,laotze1 like ,confucius1 was agnostic2 
yet he could not wholly rid himself of  
the influence of the ancient faith4 ,his
 conception of ,taou1 or ,reason1 was   
rationalistic1 certainly1 yet he        

invested it with all the attributes of  
personality1 as the word ,wisdom is     
sometimes used in the ,old ,testament4  
,he spoke of it as ,the ,infinite       
,supreme1 ,the ,first ,beginning1 and   
,the ,great ,original4 ,dr4 ,medhurst   
has translated from the ,taou ,teh ,king
 this striking ,taouist prayer3 ,o thou 
perfectly honored ,one of heaven and    
earth1 the rock1 the origin of myriad   
energies1 the great manager of boundless
 kalpas1 do ,thou enlighten my spiritual
 conceptions4 ,within and without the   
three worlds1 the ,logos1 or divine     
,taou1 is alone honorable1 embodying in 
himself a golden light4 ,may he         
overspread and illumine my person4 ,he  
whom we cannot see with the eye1 or hear
 with the ear1 who embraces and includes
 heaven and earth1 may he nourish and   
support the multitudes of living beings4
  ,if we turn to the religion of the    
,iranian or ,persian branch of the      
,aryan family1 we find among them also  
the traces of a primitive monotheism2   

and that it was not borrowed from       
,semitic sources1 through the           
descendants of ,abraham or others1      
,ebrard has shown clearly in the second 
volume of his ,apologetics4 ,max        
,mueller also maintains the identity of 
the ,iranian faith with that of the     
,indo-,aryans4 ,the very first notices  
of the religion of the ,avesta represent
 it as monotheistic4 ,ahura ,mazda1 even
 when opposed by ,ahriman1 is supreme1  
and in the oldest hymns or gathas of the
 ,yasna1 ,ahriman does not appear2 there
 are references to evil beings1 but they
 have no formidable head2 ,persian      
dualism1 therefore1 was of later growth4
 ,zoroaster1 whom ,monier ,williams     
assigns to the close of the sixth       
century ,b4,c41#adg speaks of himself as
 a reformer sent to re-establish the    
pure worship of ,ahura1 and ,haug       
considers the conception of ,ahura      
identical with that of ,jehovah4 ,high  
on a rocky precipice at ,behistun1      
,rawlinson has deciphered an inscription

 claiming to have been ordered by       
,darius ,hystaspes1 who lived #ejj      
,b4,c41 which is as clearly monotheistic
 as the ,song of ,moses4 ,the ,vendidad1
 which ,rawlinson supposes to have been 
composed #hjj years ,b4,c41 is full of  
references to minor gods1 but ,ahura is 
always supreme4 ,the modern ,parsees of 
,bombay claim to be monotheistic1 and   
declare that such has been the faith of 
their fathers from the beginning4  ,a   
,parsee catechism published in ,bombay  
twenty-five years ago reads thus3 ,we   
believe in only one ,god1 and do not    
believe in any besides ,him4444 ,he is  
the ,god who created the heavens1 the   
earth1 the angels1 the stars1 the sun1  
the moon1 the fire1 the water1 444 and  
all things of the worlds2 that ,god we  
believe in1 ,him we invoke1 ,him we     
adore4 ,and lest this should be supposed
 to be a modern faith1 the confession   
further declares that ,this is the      
religion which the true prophet         
,zurthust1 or ,zoroaster1 brought from  

,god4  ,the ,shintoists of ,japan1      
according to their sacred book1 the     
,kojiki1 believe in one self-existent   
and supreme ,god1 from whom others      
emanated4 ,from two of these1 male and  
female1 sprang the ,goddess of the ,sun1
 and from her the royal line of the     
,mikados4 ,there was no creation1 but   
the two active emanations stirred up the
 eternally existing chaos1 till from it 
came forth the teeming world of animal  
and vegetable life4  ,it has often been 
asserted that tribes of men are found   
who have no conception of ,god4 ,the    
author of ,two ,years in the ,jungle    
declares that the ,hill ,dyaks of       
,borneo are without the slightest notion
 of a divine being4 ,but a ,government  
officer1 who for two years was the guest
 of ,rajah ,brooke1 succeeded after long
 delay in gaining a key to the religion 
of these ,dyaks4 ,he gives the name of  
one ,supreme being among subordinate    
gods1 and describes minutely the forms  
of worship4 ,professor ,max ,mueller1   

while referring to this same            
often-repeated allegation as having been
 applied to the aborigines of           
,australia1 cites one of ,sir ,hercules 
,robinson's ,reports on ,new ,south     
,wales1 which contains this description 
of the singular faith of one of the     
lowest of the interior tribes3#adh      
,first a being is mentioned who is      
supreme and whose name signifies the    
maker or cutter-out1 and who is         
therefore worshipped as the great author
 of all things4 ,but as this supreme god
 is supposed to be inscrutable and far  
removed1 a second deity is named1 who is
 the revealer of the first and his      
mediator in all the affairs of men4#adi 
,rev4 ,a4,c4 ,good1 now a missionary    
among the cannibal tribes of ,west      
,africa1 stated in the ,presbyterian    
,general ,assembly at ,saratoga in ,may1
 #ahij1 that with all the fetishes and  
superstitions known among the tribes on 
the ,ogovie1 if a man is asked who made 
him1 he points to the sky and utters the

 name of an unknown being who created   
all things4#aej ,when ,tschoop1 the     
stalwart ,mohican chief1 came to the    
,moravians to ask that a missionary     
might be sent to his people1 he said3   
,do not send us a man to tell us that   
there is a ,god--we all know that2 or   
that we are sinners--we all know that2  
but send one to tell us about           
salvation4#aea ,even ,buddhism has not  
remained true to the atheism of its     
founder4 ,a ,thibetan ,lama said to     
,abbe ,huc3 ,you must not confound      
religious truths with the superstitions 
of the vulgar4 ,the ,tartars prostrate  
themselves before whatever they see1 but
 there is one only ,sovereign of the    
universe1 the creator of all things1    
alike without beginning and without end4
  ,but what is the testimony of the     
great dead religions of the past with   
respect to a primitive monotheism8 ,it  
is admitted that the later developments 
of the old ,egyptian faith were         
polytheistic4 ,but it has generally been

 conceded that as we approach the       
earliest notices of that faith1         
monotheistic features more and more     
prevail4 ,this position is contested by 
,miss ,amelia ,b4 ,edwards and others1  
who lean toward the development theory4 
,miss ,edwards declares that the        
earliest faith of ,egypt was mere       
totemism1 while on the other hand       
,ebrard1 gathering up the results of the
 researches of ,lepsius1 ,ebers1        
,brugsch1 and ,emanuel de ,rouge1       
deduces what seem to be clear evidences 
of an early ,egyptian monotheism4 ,he   
quotes ,manetho1 who declares that for  
the first nine thousand years the god   
,ptah ruled alone2 there was no other4  
,according to inscriptions quoted by ,de
 ,rouge1 the ,egyptians in the primitive
 period worshipped the one being who    
truly lives1 who has made all things1   
and who alone has not been made4 ,this  
one ,god was known in different parts of
 ,egypt under different names1 which    
only in later times came to stand for   

distinct beings4 ,a text which belongs  
to a period fifteen hundred years before
 ,moses says3  ,he has made all that is2
 thou alone art1 the millions owe their 
being to thee2 he is the ,lord of all   
that which is1 and of that which is not4
 ,a papyrus now in ,paris1 dating #bcjj 
,b4,c41 contains quotations from two    
much older records1 one a writing of the
 time of ,king ,suffern1 about #cejj    
,b4,c41 which says3 ,the operation of   
,god is a thing which cannot be         
understood4 ,the other1 from a writing  
of ,ptah ,hotep1 about #cjjj ,b4,c41    
reads3 ,this is the command of the ,god 
of creation1 the peaceable may come and 
issue orders4444 ,the eating of bread is
 in conformity with the ordinance of    
,god2 can one forget that his blessing  
rests thereupon8444 ,if thou art a      
prudent man teach thy son the love of   
,god4#aeb  ,professor ,ernest ,naville1 
in speaking of this same subject in a   
course of popular lectures in ,geneva1  
said3 ,listen now to a voice which has  

come forth actually from the recesses of
 the sepulchre3 it reaches us from      
ancient ,egypt4  ,in ,egypt1 as you     
know1 the degradation of the religious  
idea was in popular practice complete4  
,but under the confused accents of      
superstition the science of our age is  
succeeding in catching from afar the    
vibrations of a sublime utterance4 ,in  
the coffins of a large number of mummies
 have been discovered rolls of papyrus  
containing a sacred text which is called
 ',the ,book of the ,dead4' ,here is the
 translation of some fragments which    
appear to date from a very remote epoch4
 ,it is ,god who speaks thus3 ',i am the
 ,most ,holy1 the ,creator of all that  
replenishes the earth1 and of the earth 
itself1 the habitation of mortals4 ,i am
 the ,prince of the infinite ages4 ,i am
 the ,great and ,mighty ,god1 the ,most 
,high1 shining in the midst of the      
careering stars and of the armies which 
praise me above thy head4444 ,it is ,i  
who chastise the evil-doers and the     

persecutors of ,godly men4 ,i discover  
and confound the liars4 ,i am the       
all-seeing ,avenger1 444 the ,guardian  
of my laws in the land of the           
righteous4' ,these words are found      
mingled in the text1 from which ,i      
extract them1 with allusions to inferior
 deities2 and it must be acknowledged   
that the translation of the ancient     
documents of ,egypt is uncertain enough2
 still this uncertainty does not appear 
to extend to the general sense and      
bearing of the recent discoveries of our
 savans4#aec  ,professor ,flint as      
against ,cudworth1 ,ebrard1 ,gladstone1 
and others1 maintains that the ,egyptian
 religion at the very dawn of its       
history had certain great gods1 though  
he adds that there were not so many as  
in later times4 ,ancestor worship1 but  
not so developed as in later times1 and 
animal worship1 but very little of it   
compared with later times4 ,on the other
 hand1 as against ,professor ,tiele1    
,miss ,amelia ,b4 ,edwards1 and others1 

he says3 ,for the opinion that its lower
 elements were older than the higher    
there is not a particle of properly     
historical evidence1 not a trace in the 
inscriptions of mere propitiation of    
ancestors or of belief in the absolute  
divinity of kings or animals2 on the    
contrary ancestors are always found     
propitiated through prayer to some of   
the great gods2 kings worshipped as     
emanations and images of the sun god and
 the divine animals adored as divine    
symbols and incarnations4  ,among the   
,greeks there are few traces of         
monotheism1 but we have reason for this 
in the fact that their earliest         
literature dates from so late a period4 
,it began with ,homer not earlier than  
#fjj ,b4,c41 and direct accounts of the 
religion of the ,greeks are not traced  
beyond #efj ,b4,c4 ,but ,welcker1 whose 
examinations have been exhaustive1 has1 
in the opinion of ,max ,mueller1 fairly 
established the primitive monotheism of 
the ,greeks4 ,mueller says3 ,when we    

ascend with him to the most distant     
heights of ,greek history the idea of   
,god as the supreme being stands before 
us as a simple fact4 ,next to this      
adoration of ,one ,god the father of men
 we find in ,greece a worship of nature4
 ,the powers of nature1 originally      
worshipped as such1 were afterward      
changed into a family of gods1 of which 
,zeus became the king and father4 ,the  
third phase is what is generally called 
,greek mythology2 but it was preceded in
 time1 or at least rendered possible in 
thought1 by the two prior conceptions1 a
 belief in a supreme ,god and a worship 
of the powers of nature4444 ,the divine 
character of ,zeus1 as distinguished    
from his mythological character1 is most
 carefully brought out by ,welcker4 ,he 
avails himself of all the discoveries of
 comparative philology in order to show 
more clearly how the same idea which    
found expression in the ancient         
religions of the ,brahmans1 the ,sclavs1
 and the ,germans had been preserved    

under the same simple1 clear1 and       
sublime name by the original settlers of
 ,hellas4#aed  ,the same high authority 
traces in his own linguistic studies the
 important fact that all branches of the
 ,aryan race preserve the same name for 
the ,supreme ,being1 while they show    
great ramification and variation in the 
names of their subordinate gods4 ,if1   
therefore1 the ,indo-,aryans give       
evidence of a monotheistic faith at the 
time of their dispersion1 there is an a 
priori presumption for the monotheism of
 the ,greeks4 ,herodotus1 says          
,professor ,rawlinson1 speaks of ,god as
 if he had never heard of polytheism4   
,the testimony of the ,greek poets shows
 that beneath the prevailing polytheism 
there remained an underlying conception 
of monotheistic supremacy4 ,professor   
,rawlinson quotes from an ,orphic poem  
the words3         ,ares is war1 peace  
,soft ,aphrodite1 wine that ,god has    
made    ,is ,dionysius1 ,themis is the  
right    ,men render to each4 ,apollo1  

too1    ,and ,phoebus and ,a,eschlepius1
 who doth heal    ,diseases1 are the    
sun4 ,all these are one4  ,max ,mueller 
traces to this same element of          
monotheism the real greatness and power 
of the ,hellenic race when he says3     
,what was it1 then1 that preserved in   
their hearts 7the ,greeks71 in spite    
even of the feuds of tribes and the     
jealousies of states1 the deep feeling  
of that ideal unity which constitutes a 
people8 ,it was their primitive         
religion2 it was a dim recollection of  
the common allegiance they owed from    
time immemorial to the great father of  
gods and men2 it was their belief in the
 old ,zeus of ,dodona in the            
,pan-,hellenic ,zeus4#aee ,there is1 in 
truth1 but one1 says ,sophocles1 one    
only ,god1 who made both heaven and     
long-extended earth and bright-faced    
swell of seas and force of winds4       
,xenophanes says3 ',mongst gods and men 
there is one mightiest ,god not mortal  
or in form or thought4 ,entire he sees  

and understands1 and without labor      
governs all by mind4 ,aratus1 whom ,paul
 quotes1#aef says3 ,with ,zeus began we2
 let no mortal voice of men leave ,zeus 
unpraised4 ,zeus fills the heavens1 the 
streets1 the marts4 ,everywhere we live 
in ,zeus4 ,zeus fills the sea1 the      
shores1 the harbors4 ,we are his        
offspring1 too4 ,the reference made by  
,paul evidently implies that this ,zeus 
was a dim conception of the one true    
,god4  ,that all branches of the        
,semitic race were monotheistic we may  
call not only ,ebrard and ,mueller1 but 
,renan1 to witness4 ,according to       
,renan1 evidences that the monotheism of
 the ,semitic races was of a very early 
origin1 appears in the fact that all    
their names for deity--,el1 ,elohim1    
,ilu1 ,baal1 ,bel1 ,adonai1 ,shaddai1   
and ,allah--denote one being and that   
supreme4 ,these names have resisted all 
changes1 and doubtless extend as far    
back as the ,semitic language or the    
,semitic race4 ,max ,mueller1 in        

speaking of the early faith of the      
,arabs1 says3 ,long before ,mohammed the
 primitive intuition of ,god made itself
 felt in ,arabia2 and he quotes this    
ancient ,arabian prayer3 ,i dedicate    
myself to thy service1 ,o ,allah4 ,thou 
hast no companion1 except the companion 
of whom thou art master absolute1 and of
 whatever is his4 ,the book of ,job and 
the story of ,balaam indicate the       
prevalence of an early monotheism beyond
 the pale of the ,abrahamic church4 ,in 
the records of the kings of ,assyria and
 ,babylonia there is a conspicuous      
polytheism1 yet it is significant that  
each king worshipped one ,god only4 ,and
 this fact suggests1 as a wide          
generalization1 that political and      
dynastic jealousies had their influence 
in multiplying the names and            
differentiating the attributes of       
ancient deities4 ,this was notably the  
case in ancient ,egypt1 where each      
invasion and each change of dynasty led 
to a new adjustment of the ,egyptian    

,pantheon4  ,rome had many gods1 but    
,jupiter was supreme4 ,herodotus says of
 the ,scythians1 that they had eight    
gods1 but one was supreme1 like ,zeus4  
,the ,northmen1 according to ,dr4       
,dascent1 had one supreme god known as  
the ,all-fader4 ,the ,druids1 though    
worshipping various subordinate deities1
 believed in ,one who was supreme--the  
creator of all things and the soul of   
all things4 ,though conceived of in a   
,pantheistic sense1 ,he was personal and
 exerted a moral control1 as is shown by
 the famous triad3 ,fear ,god2 be just  
to all men2 die for your country4 ,in   
the highest and purest period of the old
 ,mexican faith we read of the ,tezcucan
 monarch ,nezahualcoyotl1 who said3     
,these idols of wood and stone can      
neither hear nor feel2 much less could  
they make the heavens and the earth1 and
 man who is the lord of it4 ,these must 
be the work of the all-powerful unknown 
,god1 the ,creator of the universe1 on  
whom alone ,i must rely for consolation 

and support4#aeg ,the ,incas of ,peru   
also1 though sun-worshippers1 believed  
in a supreme creator who made the sun4  
,the oldest of their temples was reared 
to the supreme god ,virachoca4 ,and one 
of the greatest ,incas has left his     
declared belief that there must be above
 the sun a greater and more powerful    
ruler1 at whose behest the sun pursues  
his daily and untiring round4#aeh  ,it  
has been assumed throughout this        
lecture1 that instead of an advance in  
the religions of men1 there has         
everywhere been decline4 ,our proofs of 
this are not theoretic but historic4 ,as
 an example1 all writers are agreed1 ,i 
believe1 that during the historic period
 the religion of the ,egyptians steadily
 deteriorated until ,christianity and   
,mohammedanism superseded it4 ,in strong
 contrast with the lofty and ennobling  
prayer which we have quoted from an     
ancient ,egyptian record1 is the        
degradation of the later worship4 ,on a 
column at ,heliopolis1 belonging to the 

fourth century before ,christ1 is       
inscribed this petition3 ,o thou white  
cat1 thy head is the head of the sun    
god1 thy nose is the nose of ,thoth1 of 
the exceeding great love of ,hemopolis4 
,the whole prayer is on this low level4 
,clement1 of ,alexandria1 after         
describing the great beauty of an       
,egyptian temple1 proceeds to say3 ,the 
innermost sanctuary is concealed by a   
curtain wrought in gold1 which the      
priest draws aside1 and there is seen a 
cat1 or a crocodile1 or a serpent1 which
 wriggles on a purple cover4#aei  ,that 
the religions of ,india have degenerated
 is equally clear4 ,the fact that all   
the medieval and modern reforms look    
back for their ideals to the earlier and
 purer ,aryan faith1 might of itself    
afford sufficient proof of this1 but we 
have also abundant evidence which is    
direct4 ,in the ,rig ,veda there is     
little polytheism1 and no idolatry4     
,there is no doctrine of caste1 no base 
worship of ,siva with the foul          

enormities of ,saktism4#afj ,in the most
 ancient times there was no doctrine of 
transmigration1 nor any notion that     
human life is an evil to be overcome by 
self-mortification4 ,woman was          
comparatively free from the oppressions 
which she suffered in the later periods4
 ,infanticide had not then been         
sanctioned and enjoined by religious    
authority1 and widow burning and the    
religious murders of the ,thugs were    
unknown4 ,and yet so deeply were these  
evils rooted at the beginning of the    
,british rule in ,india1 that the joint 
influence of ,christian instruction and 
,governmental authority for a whole     
century has not been sufficient to      
overcome them4  ,buddhism in the first  
two or three centuries had much to      
commend it4 ,king ,ashoka left monuments
 of practical beneficence and           
philanthropy which have survived to this
 day4 ,but countless legends soon sprang
 up to mar the simplicity of ,gautama's 
ethics4 ,corruptions crept in4          

,compromises were made with popular     
superstitions and with ,hindu           
,saktism4#afa ,the monastic orders sank 
into corruption1 and by the ninth       
century of our era the system had been  
wholly swept from ,india4 ,the ,buddhism
 of ,ceylon was planted first by the    
devout son and daughter of a king1 and  
for a time was characterized by great   
purity and devotion4 ,but now it exists 
only in name1 and a prominent missionary
 of the country declared1 in the ,london
 ,missionary ,conference of #ahhh1 that 
nine-tenths of the ,cingalese were      
worshippers of serpents or of           
spirits4#afb ,the prevailing ,buddhism  
in ,thibet1 from the eighth to the tenth
 century1 was an admixture with ,saktism
 and superstition4 ,where the system has
 survived in any good degree of         
strength1 it has been due either to     
government support or to an alliance    
with other religions4 ,the history of   
,taouism has shown a still worse        
deterioration4 ,laotze1 though          

impracticable as a reformer1 was a      
profound philosopher4 ,his teachings set
 forth a lofty moral code4 ,superstition
 he abominated4 ,his ideas of deity were
 cold and rationalistic1 but they were  
pure and lofty4 ,but the modern ,taouism
 is a medley of wild and degrading      
superstitions4 ,according to its        
theodicy all nature is haunted4 ,the    
ignorant masses are enthralled by the   
fear of ghosts1 and all progress is     
paralyzed by the nightmare of fung      
shuay4 ,had not ,taouism been balanced  
by the sturdy common-sense ethics of    
,confucianism1 the ,chinese might have  
become a race of savages4#afc  ,the     
decline of ,mohammedanism from the      
sublime fanaticism of ,abu ,bekr and the
 intellectual aspirations of ,haroun ,al
 ,raschid1 to the senseless imbecility  
of the modern ,turk1 is too patent to   
need argument4 ,the worm of destruction 
was left in the system by the vices of  
,mohammed himself2 and from the higher  
level of his early followers it has not 

only deteriorated1 but it has dragged   
down everything else with it4 ,it has   
destroyed the family1 because it has    
degraded woman4 ,it has separated her   
immeasurably from the status of dignity 
and honor which she enjoyed under the   
influence of the early ,christian       
church1 and it has robbed her of even   
that freedom which was accorded to her  
by heathen ,rome4 ,one need only look at
 ,northern ,africa1 the land of ,cyprian
 and ,origen1 of ,augustine and the     
saintly ,monica1 to see what ,islam has 
done4 ,and even the later centuries have
 brought no relief4 ,prosperous lands   
have been rendered desolate and sterile1
 and all progress has been paralyzed4   
,in the history of the ,greek religion  
it is granted that there were periods of
 advancement4 ,the times of the fully   
developed ,apollo worship showed vast   
improvement over previous periods1 but  
even ,professor ,tiele virtually admits 
that this was owing to the importation  
of foreign influences4 ,it was not due  

to any natural process of evolution2 and
 it was followed by hopeless corruption 
and decline4 ,the last days of both     
,greece and ,rome were degenerate and   
full of depression and despair4  ,it is 
not contended that no revivals or       
reforms are possible in heathenism4     
,there have been many of these1 but with
 all allowance for spasmodic efforts1   
the general drift has been always       
downward4#afd ,there is a natural       
disposition among men to multiply       
objects of worship4 ,herbert ,spencer's 
principle1 that development proceeds    
from the homogeneous to the             
heterogeneous1 is certainly true of the 
religions of the world2 but his other   
principle1 that development proceeds    
from the incoherent to the coherent1    
does not apply4 ,incoherency and moral  
chaos mark the trend of all man-made    
faiths4 ,the universal tendency to      
deterioration is well summed up as      
follows by ,professor ,naville3  ,traces
 are found almost everywhere in the     

midst of idolatrous superstitions1 of a 
religion comparatively pure and often   
stamped with a lofty morality4 ,paganism
 is not a simple fact2 it offers to view
 in the same bed two currents 7like the 
,arve and the ,arveiron7--the one pure1 
the other impure4 ,what is the relation 
between these two currents8 444 ,did    
humanity begin with a coarse fetishism1 
and thence rise by slow degrees to      
higher conceptions8 ,do the traces of a 
comparatively pure monotheism first show
 themselves in the recent periods of    
idolatry8 ,contemporary science inclines
 more and more to answer in the         
negative4 ,it is in the most ancient    
historical ground that the laborious    
investigators of the past meet with the 
most elevated ideas of religion4 ,cut to
 the ground a young and vigorous        
beech-tree1 and come back a few years   
afterward4 ,in place of the tree cut    
down you will find coppice-wood2 the sap
 which nourished a single trunk has been
 divided among a multitude of shoots4   

,this comparison expresses well enough  
the opinion which tends to prevail among
 our savants on the subject of the      
historical development of religions4    
,the idea of one ,god is at the         
roots--it is primitive2 polytheism is   
derivative4#afe  ,we have thus far drawn
 our proofs of man's polytheistic       
tendencies from the history of the      
non-,christian religions4 ,in proof of  
the same general tendency we now turn to
 the history of the ,israelites1 the    
chosen people of ,god4 ,we may properly 
appeal to the ,bible as history1        
especially when showing idolatrous      
tendencies even under the full blaze of 
the truth4 ,in spite of the supernatural
 revelation which they claimed to       
possess--notwithstanding all their      
instructions1 warnings1 promises1       
deliverances1 divinely aided            
conquests--they relapsed into idolatry  
again and again4 ,ere they had reached  
the land of promise they had begun to   
make images of the gods of ,egypt4 ,they

 made constant compromises and alliances
 with the ,canaanites1 and not even     
severe judgments could withhold them    
from this downward drift4 ,their wisest 
king was demoralized by heathen         
marriages1 and his successors openly    
patronized the heathen shrines4 ,the    
abominations of ,baal worship and the   
nameless vices of ,sodom were practised 
under the very shadow of the            
,temple4#aff ,judgments followed upon   
this miserable degeneracy4 ,prophets    
were sent with repeated warnings1 and   
many were slain for their faithful      
messages4 ,tribe after tribe was borne  
into captivity1 the ,temple was         
destroyed1 and at last the nation was   
virtually broken up and scattered       
abroad4  ,there was indeed a true       
development in the church of ,god from  
the ,abrahamic period to the ,apostolic 
day4 ,there was a rising from a narrow  
national spirit to one which embraced   
the whole brotherhood of man1 from type 
and prophecy to fulfilment1 from the    

sins that were winked at1 to a purer    
ethic and the perfect law of love2 but  
these results came not by natural       
evolution--far enough from it4 ,they    
were wrought out not by man1 but we     
might almost say1 in spite of man4      
,divine interpositions were all that    
saved ,judaism from a total wreck1 even 
as the national unity was destroyed4 ,a 
new ,dispensation was introduced1 a     
,divine ,redeemer and an ,omnipotent    
,spirit were the forces which saved the 
world from a second universal apostasy4 
,we come nearer still to the church of  
,god for proofs of man's inherent       
tendency to polytheism4 ,even under the 
new ,dispensation we have seen the      
church sink into virtual idolatry4      
,within six centuries from the time of  
,christ and ,his apostles there had been
 a sad lapse into what seemed the       
worship of images1 pictures1 and relics1
 and a faith in holy places and the     
bones of saints4 ,what ,mohammed saw1 or
 thought he saw1 was a ,christian       

idolatry scarcely better than that of   
the ,arabian ,koreish4 ,and1 as if by   
the judgment of ,god1 the churches of   
the ,east were swept with a destruction 
like that which had been visited upon   
the ,ten ,tribes4 ,in the ,christianity 
of to-day1 viewed as a whole1 how strong
 is the tendency to turn from the pure  
spiritual conception of ,god to some    
more objective trust--a saint1 a relic1 
a ritual1 an ordinance4 ,in the old     
churches of the ,east or on the         
,continent of ,europe1 how much of      
virtual idolatry is there even now8 ,it 
is only another form of the tendency in 
man to seek out many devices--to find   
visible objects of trust--to try new    
panaceas for the ailments of the        
soul--to multiply unto himself gods to  
help his weakness4 ,this is just what   
has been done in all ages and among all 
races of the world4 ,this explains      
polytheism4 ,man's religious nature is a
 vine1 and ,god is its only proper      
support4 ,once fallen from that support1

 it creeps and grovels in all directions
 and over all false supports4  ,we have 
not resorted to ,divine revelation for  
proofs except as history4 ,but our      
conclusions drawn from heathen sources  
bring us directly1 as one face answereth
 to another face in a glass1 to the     
plain teachings of ,paul and other      
inspired writers1 who tell us that the  
human race was once possessed of the    
knowledge of ,one ,supreme ,god1 but    
that men apostatized from ,him1         
preferring to worship the creature      
rather than the ,creator4 ,there are no 
traces of an upward evolution toward    
clearer knowledge and purer lives1      
except by the operation of outward      
causes1 but there are many proofs that  
men's hearts have become darkened and   
their moral nature more and more        
depraved4 ,in all lands there have been 
those who seemed to gain some glimpses  
of truth1 and whose teachings were far  
above the average sentiment and         
character of their times1 but they have 

either been discarded like ,socrates and
 the prophets of ,israel1 or they have  
obtained a following only for a time and
 their precepts have fallen into        
neglect4 ,it has been well said that no 
race of men live up to their religion1  
however imperfect it may be4 ,they first
 disregard it1 and then at length       
degrade it1 to suit their apostate      
character4  ,paul's estimate of heathen 
character was that of a man who1 aside  
from his direct inspiration1 spoke from 
a wide range of observation4 ,he was a  
philosopher by education1 and he lived  
in an age and amid national surroundings
 which afforded the broadest knowledge  
of men1 of customs1 of religious faiths1
 of institutions4 ,trained as a ,jew1   
dealing constantly with the most        
enlightened heathen1 persecuting the    
,christians1 and then espousing their   
cause1 his preparation for a broad1     
calm1 and unerring judgment of the      
character of the ,gentile nations was   
complete2 and his one emphatic verdict  

was apostasy4   ,,footnotes3  ,footnote 
#abe3 ,fiske3 ,the ,destiny of ,man1 pp4
 #gh-hj4  ,footnote #abf3 ,we do not    
care to enter the field of pre-historic 
speculation where the evolution of      
religion from totemism or fetishism     
claims to find its chief support4 ,we   
are considering only the traditional    
development of the ancient faiths of    
man4  ,footnote #abg3 ,introduction to  
,christian ,theology1 ,appendix1 pp4    
#aff1 #afg4  ,footnote #abh3 ,ebrard's  
,apologetics1 vols4 ii4 and iii4        
,footnote #abi3 ,modern ,atheism1 p4    
#ac4  ,footnote #acj3 ,the ,chinese1 pp4
 #afc1 #afd4  ,footnote #aca3 ,chips    
from a ,german ,workshop1 vol4 i41 p4   
#bc4  ,footnote #acb3 ,professor        
,banergea 7see ,indian ,antiquary1      
,february1 #ahge7 thinks that this      
,hindu account of creation shows traces 
of the common revelation made to        
mankind4  ,footnote #acc3 ,science of   
,religion1 p4 #ii4  ,footnote #acd3     
,science of ,religion1 p4 #hh4          

,footnote #ace3 ,the ancient relics of  
,african faith are rapidly disappearing 
at the approach of ,mohammedan and      
,christian missionaries2 but what has   
been preserved of it1 chiefly through   
the exertions of learned missionaries1  
is full of interest to the student of   
religion1 with its strange worship of   
snakes and ancestors1 its vague hope of 
a future life1 and its not altogether   
faded reminiscence of a ,supreme ,god1  
the ,father of the black as well as of  
the white man4--,science of ,religion1  
p4 #ci4  ,footnote #acf3 ,while he      
maintains that the idea of ,god must    
have preceded that of gods1 as the      
plural always implies the singular1 he  
yet claims very justly that the         
exclusive conception of monotheism as   
against polytheism could hardly have    
existed4 ,men simply thought of ,god as 
,god1 as a child thinks of its father1  
and does not even raise the question of 
a second4--,see ,chips from a ,german   
,workshop1 vol4 i41 p4 #cdi4  ,footnote 

#acg3 ,st4 ,augustine1 in quoting       
,cyprian1 shows that the fathers of the 
,church looked upon ,plato as a         
monotheist4 ,the passage is as follows3 
,for when he 7,cyprian7 speaks of the   
,magians1 he says that the chief among  
them1 ,hostanes1 maintains that the true
 ,god is invisible1 and that true angels
 sit at ,his throne2 and that ,plato    
agrees with this and believes in one    
,god1 considering the others to be      
demons2 and that ,hermes ,trismegistus  
also speaks of one ,god1 and confesses  
that ,he is incomprehensible4 ,angus41  
,de ,baptismo contra ,donat41 ,lib4     
,,vi41 ,cap4 ,,xliv4  ,footnote #ach3   
,the ,aryan ,witness1 passim4  ,footnote
 #aci3 ,aristotle said1 ,god1 though ,he
 is one1 has many names1 because ,he is 
called according to the states into     
which ,he always enters anew4  ,footnote
 #adj3 ,the ,religions of ,china1 p4    
#af4  ,footnote #ada3 ,the ,religions of
 ,china1 p4 #di4  ,footnote #adb3 ,in   
the year #afjj the ,emperor of ,china   

declared in an edict that the ,chinese  
should adore1 not the material heavens1 
but the ,master of heaven4--,cardinal   
,gibbons3 ,our ,christian ,heritage4    
,footnote #adc3 ,martin3 ,the ,chinese1 
p4 #ajf4  ,footnote #add3 ,it has been  
related by ,rev4 ,hudson ,taylor that   
the fishermen of the ,fukien ,province1 
when a storm arises1 pray to the goddess
 of the sea2 but when that does not     
avail they throw all the idols aside and
 pray to the ,great-grandfather in      
,heaven4 ,father is a great conception  
to the ,chinese mind4 ,great-grandfather
 is higher still1 and stands to them for
 the ,supreme4  ,footnote #ade3 ,science
 of ,religion1 p4 #hf4  ,footnote #adf3 
,the ,chinese1 p4 #ii4  ,footnote #adg3 
,other writers contend that he was      
probably contemporaneous with ,abraham4 
,still others think ,zoroaster a general
 name for great prophets4 ,darmestetter 
inclines to this view4  ,footnote #adh3 
,chips from a ,german ,workshop4        
,footnote #adi3 ,archbishop ,vaughn1 of 

,sydney1 emphatically declares that the 
aborigines of ,australia believe in a   
,supreme ,being4  ,footnote #aej3 ,rev4 
,mr4 ,johnson1 of ,lagos1 has expressed 
a belief that the pagan tribes of ,west 
,africa were monotheists before the     
incursion of the ,mohammedans4 ,rev4    
,alfred ,marling1 of ,gaboon1 bears the 
same testimony of the ,fans4  ,footnote 
#aea3 ,rev4 ,a4,c4 ,thompson1 ,d4,d4    
,the ,moravians4  ,one of the early     
converts from among the ,ojibwas1 said  
to the missionary1 ,rev4 ,s4,g4 ,wright3
 ,a great deal of your preaching ,i     
readily understand1 especially what you 
say about our real characters4 ,we      
,indians all know that it is wrong to   
lie1 to steal1 to be dishonest1 to      
slander1 to be covetous1 and we always  
know that the ,great ,spirit hates all  
these things4 ,all this we knew before  
we ever saw the white man4 ,i knew these
 things when ,i was a little boy4 ,we   
did not1 however1 know the way of pardon
 for these sins4 ,in our religion there 

is nothing said by the wise men about   
pardon4 ,we knew nothing of the ,lord   
,jesus ,christ as a ,saviour4  ,footnote
 #aeb3 ,professor ,tiele1 of ,leyden1   
asserts that ,it is altogether erroneous
 to regard the ,egyptian religion as the
 polytheistic degeneration of a         
prehistoric monotheism4 ,it was         
polytheistic from the beginning4 ,but on
 one of the oldest of ,egyptian         
monuments is found this hymn1 which is  
quoted by ,cardinal ,gibbons in ,our    
,christian ,inheritance3     ,hail to   
thee1 say all creatures2 444    ,the    
gods adore thy majesty1    ,the spirits 
thou has made exalt thee1    ,rejoicing 
before the feet of their begetter4      
,they cry out welcome to thee1          
,father of the fathers of all the gods1 
,who raises the heavens1 who fixes the  
earth2    ,we worship thy spirit who    
alone hast made us1    ,we whom thou    
hast made thank thee that thou hast     
given us birth1    ,we give to thee     
praises for thy mercy toward us4        

,footnote #aec3 ,modern ,atheism1 p4    
#ac4  ,footnote #aed3 ,chips from a     
,german ,workshop1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #adf1  
#adg4  ,footnote #aee3 ,science of      
,religion1 ,lecture ,,iii41 p4 #eg4     
,footnote #aef3 ,acts xvii4 #bh4        
,footnote #aeg3 ,prescott's ,conquest of
 ,mexico4  ,footnote #aeh3 ,reville in  
his ,hibbert ,lectures on ,mexican and  
,peruvian religions asserts that        
polytheism existed from the beginning1  
but our contention is that ,one ,god was
 supreme and created the sun4  ,footnote
 #aei3 ,de ,pressense3 ,the ,ancient    
,world and ,christianity4  ,footnote    
#afj3 ,bournouf found the ,tantras so   
obscene that he refused to translate    
them4  ,footnote #afa3 ,t4 ,rhys        
,davids3 ,buddhism1 p4 #bjh4  ,footnote 
#afb3 ,report of ,missionary            
,conference1 vol4 i1 p4 #gj4  ,footnote 
#afc3 ,buddhism1 in the ,britannica4    
,footnote #afd3 ,rev4 ,s4,g4 ,wright1   
long a missionary among the ,american   
,indians1 says3 ,during the forty-six   

years in which ,i have been laboring    
among the ,ojibway ,indians1 ,i have    
been more and more impressed with the   
evidence1 showing itself in their       
language1 that at some former time they 
have been in possession of much higher  
ideas of ,god's attributes1 and of what 
constitutes true happiness1 immortality1
 and virtue1 as well as of the nature of
 the ,devil and his influence in the    
world1 than those which they now        
possess4 ,the thing which early in our  
experience surprised us1 and which has  
not ceased to impress us1 is1 that1 with
 their present low conceptions of       
spiritual things1 they could have chosen
 so lofty and spiritual a word for the  
,deity4 ,the only satisfactory          
explanation seems to be that1 at an     
early period of their history1 they had 
higher and more correct ideas concerning
 ,god than those which they now possess1
 and that these have become1 as the     
geologists would say1 fossilized in     
their forms of speech1 and so           

preserved4--,bibliotheca ,sacra1        
,october1 #ahhi4  ,footnote #afe3       
,modern ,atheism1 p4 #aj4  ,footnote    
#aff3 ,i4 ,kings1 xiv41 and ,,ii4       
,kings1 xxiii4     ,,lecture ,,viii4    
,,indirect ,,tributes ,,of ,,heathen    
,,systems ,,to ,,the ,,doctrines ,,of   
,,the ,,bible   ,i am to speak of       
certain indirect tributes borne by the  
non-,christian religions to the         
doctrines of ,christianity4 ,one such   
tribute of great value we have already  
considered in the prevalence of early   
monotheism1 so far corroborating the    
scriptural account of man's first       
estate1 and affording many proofs which 
corroborate the scriptural doctrine of  
human apostasy4 ,others of the same     
general bearing will now be considered4 
,the history of man's origin1 the       
strange traditions of his fall by       
transgression and his banishment from   
,eden1 of the conflict of good with evil
 represented by a serpent1 of the       
,deluge and the dispersion of the human 

race1 have all been the subjects of     
ridicule by anti-,christian             
writers3--though by turns they have     
recognized these same facts and have    
used them as proofs that ,christianity  
had borrowed them from old myths4 ,the  
idea of sacrifice1 or atonement1 of     
,divine incarnation1 of a trinity1 of   
mediation1 of a salvation by faith      
instead of one's own merits1 have been  
represented as unphilosophical1 and     
therefore improbable in the nature of   
the case4  ,it becomes an important     
question1 therefore1 whether other      
religions of mankind show similar       
traditions1 however widely they have    
dwelt apart1 and however diversified    
their languages1 literatures1 and       
institutions may have been in other     
respects4 ,and it is also an important  
question1 whether even under heathen    
systems1 the consciousness of sin and   
the deepest moral yearnings of men have 
found expression along the very lines   
which are represented by the ,christian 

doctrines of grace4 ,to these questions 
we now address ourselves4 ,what are the 
lessons of the various ethnic           
traditions8 ,and how are we to account  
for their striking similarities8 ,the   
most obvious theory is1 that a common   
origin must be assigned to them1 that   
they are dim reminiscences of a real    
knowledge once clear and distinct4 ,the 
fact that with their essential unity    
they differ from each other and differ  
from our ,scriptural record1 seems to   
rather strengthen the theory that       
all--our own included--have been handed 
down from the pre-,mosaic times--ours   
being divinely edited by an inspired and
 infallible author4 ,their differences  
are such as might have been expected    
from separate transmissions1            
independently made4  ,we have1 first of 
all1 the various traditions of the      
,creation4 ,in most heathen races there 
have appeared1 in their later stages1   
grave and grotesque cosmogonies2 and a  
too common impression is1 that these    

represent the real teachings of their   
sacred books or their earliest          
traditions4 ,but when one enters upon a 
careful study of the non-,christian     
religions1 and traces them back to their
 sources1 he finds more rational        
accounts of the ,creation and the order 
of nature1 and sees striking points of  
resemblance to the ,mosaic record4 ,the 
story of ,genesis represents the        
,beginning as formless1 chaotic1 and    
dark4 ,the ,spirit of ,god moved upon   
the face of the waters4 ,the heavens and
 the earth were separated4 ,light       
appeared long before the sun and moon   
were visible1 and the day and night were
 clearly defined4 ,creation proceeded in
 a certain order from vegetable to      
animal life1 and from lower animals to  
higher1 and last of all man appeared4   
,in heathen systems we find fragments of
 this traditional account1 and1 as a    
rule1 they are more or less clear in    
proportion to their nearness to1 or     
departure from1 the great cradle of the 

human race4#afg ,thus ,professor        
,rawlinson quotes from an ,assyrian     
account of the creation1 as found upon  
the clay tablets discovered in the      
palace of ,assur-bani-pal1 a description
 of formlessness1 emptiness1 and        
darkness on the deep--of a separation   
between the earth and sky--and of the   
light as preceding the appearance of the
 sun4 ,that account also places the     
creation of animals before that of man1 
whom it represents as being formed of   
the dust of the earth1 and as receiving 
a divine effluence from the             
,creator4#afh ,according to an ,etruscan
 saga quoted by ,suidas1 ,god created   
the world in six periods of #a1jjj years
 each4 ,in the first1 the heavens and   
the earth2 in the second1 the firmament2
 in the third1 the seas2 in the fourth1 
the sun1 moon1 and stars2 in the fifth1 
the beasts of the land1 the air1 and the
 sea2 in the sixth1 man4 ,according to a
 passage in the ,persian ,avesta1 the   
supreme ,ormazd created the visible     

world by his word in six periods or     
thousands of years3 in the first1 the   
heavens with the stars2 in the second1  
the water and the clouds2 in the third1 
the earth and the mountains2 in the     
fourth1 the trees and the plants2 in the
 fifth1 the beasts which sprang from the
 primeval beast2 in the sixth1 man4#afi 
,as we get farther away from the        
supposed early home of the race1 the    
traditions become more fragmentary and  
indistinct4 ,the ,rig ,veda1 ,mandala1  
x41 #abi1 tells us that3       ,in the  
beginning there was neither naught nor  
aught2 ,there was      neither day nor  
night nor light nor darkness2 ,only the 
,,existent ,,one      breathed calmly4  
,next came darkness1 gloom on gloom4    
,next all was      water--chaos         
indiscrete4#agj  ,strikingly similar is 
the language quoted in a former lecture 
from the prayer of a ,chinese emperor of
 the ,ming ,dynasty4 ,it runs thus3 ,of 
old1 in the beginning1 there was the    
great chaos without form and dark4 ,the 

five elements had not begun to revolve1 
nor the sun and moon to shine4 ,in the  
midst thereof there presented itself    
neither form nor sound4 ,thou1 ,o       
,spiritual ,sovereign1 didst divide the 
grosser parts from the purer4 ,thou     
madest heaven3 ,thou madest earth3 ,thou
 madest man4  ,there is a possibility   
that these conceptions may have come    
from ,christian sources instead of      
primitive ,chinese traditions1 possibly 
from early ,nestorian missionaries1     
though this is scarcely probable1 as    
,chinese emperors have been slow to     
introduce foreign conceptions into their
 august temple service to ,shangte2 its 
chief glory lies in its antiquity and   
its purely national character4 ,buddhism
 had already been in ,china more than a 
thousand years1 and these prayers are   
far enough from its teachings4 ,may we  
not believe that the ideas here         
expressed had always existed in the     
minds of the more devout rulers of the  
empire8 ,in similar language1 the ,edda 

of the ,icelandic ,northmen describes   
the primeval chaos4  ,thus3     ',twas  
the morning of time     ,when yet naught
 was1     ,nor sand nor sea was there1  
,nor cooling streams4     ,earth was not
 formed     ,nor heaven above4     ,a   
yawning gap was there     ,and grass    
nowhere4  ,not unlike these conceptions 
of the ,beginning is that which         
,morenhout found in a song of the       
,tahitans1 and which ran thus3     ,he  
was2 ,toaroa was his name1     ,he      
existed in space2 no earth1 no heaven1  
no men4  ,m4 ,goussin adds the further  
translation3 ,toaroa1 the ,great        
,orderer1 is the origin of the earth3 he
 has no father1 no posterity4#aga ,the  
tradition of the ,odshis1 a negro tribe 
on the ,african ,gold ,coast1 represents
 the creation as having been completed  
in six days4 ,god created first the     
woman2 then the man2 then the animals2  
then the trees and plants2 and lastly   
the rocks4 ,god created nothing on the  
seventh day4 ,he only gave men ,his     

commandments4 ,the reversal of the order
 here only confirms the supposition that
 it is an original tradition4 ,we find  
everywhere on the ,western ,hemisphere1 
north and south1 plain recognition of   
the creation of the world by one        
,supreme ,god1 though the order is not  
given4 ,how shall we account for the    
similarities above indicated1 except on 
the supposition of a common and a very  
ancient source8  ,still more striking   
are the various traditions of the ,fall 
of man by sin4 ,in the ,british ,museum 
there is a very old ,babylonian seal    
which bears the figures of a man and a  
woman stretching out their hands toward 
a fruit-tree1 while behind the woman    
lurks a serpent4 ,a fragment bearing an 
inscription represents a tree of life as
 guarded on all sides by a sword4       
,another inscription describes a        
delectable region surrounded by four    
rivers4 ,professors ,rawlinson and      
,delitzsch both regard this as a        
reference to the ,garden of ,eden4  ,the

 ,hindu legends1 says ,hardwick1 are    
agreed in representing man as one of the
 last products of creative wisdom1 as   
the master-work of ,god2 and also in    
extolling the first race of men as pure 
and upright1 innocent and happy4 ,the   
beings who were thus created by ,brahma 
are all said to have been endowed with  
righteousness and perfect faith2 they   
abode wherever they pleased1 unchecked  
by any impediment2 their hearts were    
free from guile2 they were pure1 made   
free from toil by observance of sacred  
institutes4 ,in their sanctified minds  
,hari dwelt2 and they were filled with  
perfect wisdom by which they            
contemplated the glory of ,vishnu4  ,the
 first men were1 accordingly1 the best4 
,the ,krita age1 the 'age of truth1' the
 reign of purity1 in which mankind1 as  
it came forth from the ,creator1 was not
 divided into numerous conflicting      
orders1 and in which the different      
faculties of man all worked harmoniously
 together1 was a thought that lay too   

near the human heart to be uprooted by  
the ills and inequalities of actual     
life4 ,in this the ,hindu sided         
altogether with the ,hebrew1 and as     
flatly contradicted the unworthy        
speculations of the modern philosopher1 
who would fain persuade us that human   
beings have not issued from one single  
pair1 and also1 that the primitive type 
of men is scarcely separable from that  
of ordinary animals4444#agb  ,spence    
,hardy1 in speaking on this subject1    
describes a ,buddhist legend of ,ceylon 
which represents the original           
inhabitants of the world as having been 
once spotlessly pure1 and as dwelling in
 ethereal bodies which moved at will    
through space4 ,they had no need of sun 
or moon4 ,they lived in perfect         
happiness and peace till1 at last1 one  
of their number tasted of a strange     
substance which he found lying on the   
surface of the earth4 ,he induced others
 to eat also1 whereupon all knew good   
and evil1 and their high estate was     

lost4 ,they now had perpetual need of   
food1 which only made them more gross   
and earthly4 ,wickedness abounded1 and  
they were in darkness4 ,assembling      
together1 they fashioned for themselves 
a sun1 but after a few hours it fell    
below the horizon1 and they were        
compelled to create a moon4#agc ,an old 
,mongolian legend represents the first  
man as having transgressed by eating a  
pistache nut4 ,as a punishment1 he and  
all his posterity came under the power  
of sin and death1 and were subjected to 
toil and suffering4#agd ,a tradition of 
the ,african ,odshis1 already named1    
relates that formerly ,god was very near
 to men4 ,but a woman1 who had been     
pounding banana fruit in a mortar1      
inadvertently entering ,his presence    
with a pestle in her hands1 aroused ,his
 anger1 and ,he withdrew into the high  
heavens and listened to men no more4    
,six rainless years brought famine and  
distress1 whereupon they besought ,him  
to send one of ,his counsellors who     

should be their daysman1 and should     
undertake their cause and care for them4
 ,god sent his chief minister1 with a   
promise that ,he would give rain and    
sunshine1 and ,he directed that ,his    
rainbow should appear in the sky4#age   
,the inhabitants of ,tahiti have a      
tradition of a fall which is very       
striking2 and ,humboldt1 after careful  
study1 reached the conclusion that it   
had not been derived through any        
communication with ,christian lands1 but
 was an old native legend4 ,the ,karens 
of ,burmah had a story of an early      
temptation of their ancestors by an evil
 being and their consequent apostasy4   
,many other races who have no definite  
tradition of this kind have still some  
vague notion of a golden age in the     
past4 ,there has been everywhere a      
mournful and pathetic sense of something
 lost1 of degeneracy from better days   
gone by1 of ,divine displeasure and     
forfeited favor4 ,the baffled gropings  
of all false religions seem to have been

 so many devices to regain some         
squandered heritage of the past4 ,all   
this is strikingly true of ,china4      
,still more clear and wellnigh universal
 are the traditions of a flood4 ,the    
,hindu ,brahmanas and the ,mahabharata  
of a later age present legends of a     
deluge which strikingly resemble the    
story of ,genesis4 ,vishnu incarnate in 
a fish warned a great sage of a coming  
flood and directed him to build an ark4 
,a ship was built and the sage with     
seven others entered4 ,attached to the  
horn of the fish the ship was towed over
 the waters to a high mountain top4#agf 
,the ,chinese also have a story of a    
flood1 though it is not given in much   
detail4 ,the ,iranian tradition is very 
fragmentary and seems to confound the   
survivor with the first man of the      
creation4 ,yima1 the ,noah of the story1
 was warned by the beginning of a great 
winter rain1 by which the waters were   
raised #ai1jjj feet4 ,yima was commanded
 to prepare a place of safety for a     

number of chosen men1 birds1 and beasts4
 ,it was to be three stories high1 and  
to be furnished with a high door and    
window1 but whether it was a ship or a  
refuge on the mountain top does not     
appear4 ,the same tradition speaks of   
,eden and of a serpent1 but the account 
is suddenly cut short4#agg  ,the ,greek 
traditions of a flood varied according  
to the different branches of the ,greek 
nation4 ,the ,arcadians traced their    
origin to ,dardanus1 who was preserved  
from the great flood in a skin-covered  
boat4 ,the ,pelasgians held the         
tradition of ,deucalion and his wife1   
who were saved in a ship which was      
grounded on the summit of ,pindus4 ,as  
the water receded they sent out a dove  
to search for land4 ,the ,assyrian      
account1 which was found a few years ago
 on a tablet in the palace of           
,assur-bani-pal1 claims to have been    
related as a matter of personal         
experience by ,sisit1 the ,chaldean     
,noah1 who was commanded to construct a 

ship #fjj cubits long1 into which he    
should enter with his family and his    
goods4 ,at the time appointed the earth 
became a waste4 ,the very gods in heaven
 fled from the fury of the tempest and  
huddled down in their refuge like       
affrighted dogs4 ,the race of men was   
swept away4 ,on the seventh day ,sisit  
opened a window and saw that the rain   
was stayed1 but the water was covered   
with floating corpses2 all men had      
become as clay4 ,the ship rested on a   
mountain top1 and ,sisit sent forth a   
dove1 a swallow1 and a raven4 ,the dove 
and the swallow returned1 but the raven 
was satisfied with the floating         
carcasses4 ,sisit went forth and offered
 sacrifice1 around which the gods       
hovered like flies4  ,professor         
,rawlinson thinks that these accounts   
and those given in ,genesis were both   
derived from the earlier traditions1 the
 ,assyrian version having been greatly  
corrupted4 ,the ,chaldean tradition is  
slightly different4 ,the ,noah of the   

,chaldeans was commanded in a dream not 
only to build a ship1 but to bury all   
important documents and so preserve the 
antediluvian history4 ,as the flood     
subsided he1 his family1 and his pilot  
were transferred to heaven1 but certain 
friends who were saved with them        
remained and peopled the earth4 ,among  
the ancient ,peruvians we find a        
tradition of a great deluge which swept 
the earth4 ,after it had passed1 the    
aged man ,wiracotscha rose out of ,lake 
,titicaca and his three sons issued from
 a cave and peopled the earth4#agh ,hugh
 ,miller and others have named many     
similar traditions4  ,the fact that in  
nearly every case those who were rescued
 from the flood immediately offered     
piacular sacrifices suggests the        
recognition in all human history of     
still another fundamental doctrine of   
,christianity1 the universal sense of   
sin4 ,this conviction was especially    
strong when the survivors of a ,divine  
judgment beheld the spectacle of a race 

swept away for their transgressions2 but
 there are abundant traces of it in all 
ages of the world4 ,the exceptions are  
found in those instances where false    
systems of philosophy have sophisticated
 the natural sense of guilt by          
destroying the consciousness of         
personality4 ,all races of men have     
shown a feeling of moral delinquency and
 a corresponding fear4 ,the late ,c4    
,loring ,brace1 in his work entitled    
,the ,unknown ,god1 quotes some striking
 penitential psalms or prayers offered  
by the ,akkadians of ,northern ,assyria 
four thousand years ago4  ,the          
deep-seated conviction of guilt which is
 indicated by the old religion of the   
,egyptians is well set forth by ,dr4    
,john ,wortabet1 of ,beyrut1 in a       
pamphlet entitled ,the ,temples and     
,tombs of ,thebes4 ,he says3 ,the       
immortality of the soul1 its rewards and
 punishments in the next world1 and its 
final salvation and return into the     
essence of the divinity were among the  

most cherished articles of the ,egyptian
 creed4 ,here 7in the tombs71 as on the 
papyri which contain the ',ritual of the
 ,dead1' are represented the passage of 
the soul through the nether world and   
its introduction into the ,judgment     
,hall1 where ,osiris1 the god of        
benevolence1 sits on a throne1 and with 
the assistance of forty-two assessors   
proceeds to examine the deceased4 ,his  
actions are weighed in a balance against
 truth in the presence of ,thoth1 the   
ibis-headed god of wisdom1 and if found 
wanting he is hounded out in the shape  
of an unclean animal by ,anubis1 the    
jackal-headed god of the infernal       
regions4 ,the soul then proceeds in a   
series of transmigrations into the      
bodies of animals and human beings and  
thus passes through a purgatorial       
process which entitles it to appear     
again before the judgment-seat of       
,osiris4 ,if found pure it is conveyed  
to ,aalu1 the ,elysian fields1 or the   
',pools of ,peace4' ,after three        

thousand years of sowing and reaping by 
cool waters it returns to its old body  
7the preserved mummy71 suffers another  
period of probation1 and is ultimately  
absorbed into the godhead4 ,one of the  
most impressive scenes in the whole     
series is that where the soul1 in the   
form of a mummified body1 stands before 
,osiris and the forty-two judges to be  
examined on the forty-two commandments  
of the ,egyptian religion4 ,bearing on  
its face the signs of solemnity and     
fear1 and carrying in its hand a        
feather1 the symbol of veracity1 it says
 among other things3 ',i have not       
blasphemed the gods1 ,i have defrauded  
no man1 ,i have not changed the measures
 of ,egypt1 ,i have not prevaricated at 
the courts of justice1 ,i have not lied1
 ,i have not stolen1 ,i have not        
committed adultery1 ,i have done no     
murder1 ,i have not been idle1 ,i have  
not been drunk1 ,i have not been cruel1 
,i have not famished my family1 ,i have 
not been a hypocrite1 ,i have not       

defiled my conscience for the sake of my
 superiors1 ,i have not smitten privily1
 ,i have lived on truth1 ,i have made it
 my delight to do what men command and  
the gods approve1 ,i have given bread to
 the hungry and drink to the thirsty and
 clothes to the naked1 my mouth and     
hands are pure4' ,now what strikes one  
with great force in this remarkable     
passage from the walls of the old       
sand-covered tombs is the wonderful     
scope and fulness with which the laws of
 right and wrong were stamped upon the  
,egyptian conscience4 ,there is here a  
recognition1 not only of the great evils
 which man shall not commit1 but also of
 many of those positive duties which his
 moral nature requires4 ,it matters not 
that these words are wholly exculpatory2
 they nevertheless recognize sin4  ,but 
perhaps no one has depicted man's sense 
of guilt and fear more eloquently than  
,dean ,stanley when speaking of the     
,egyptian ,sphinx4 ,proceeding upon the 
theory that that time-worn and          

mysterious relic is a couchant lion     
whose projecting paws were long since   
buried in the desert sands1 and         
following the tradition that an altar   
once stood before that mighty embodiment
 of power1 he graphically pictures the  
transient generations of men1 in all the
 sin and weakness of their frail        
humanity1 coming up with their offerings
 and their prayers between the paws of  
deity4 ,it is a grim spectacle1 but it  
emphasizes the sense of human guilt4    
,only the ,revealed ,word of ,god       
affords a complete and satisfactory     
explanation of the remarkable fact that 
the human race universally stand        
self-convicted of sin4  ,there is also a
 tribute to the truth of ,christianity  
in certain traces of a conception of    
,divine sacrifice for sin found in some 
of the early religious faiths of men4   
,all are familiar with the difference   
between the offerings of ,abel and those
 of ,cain--the former disclosing a faith
 in a higher expiation4 ,in like manner 

there appear mysterious references to a 
divine and vicarious sacrifice in the   
early ,vedas of ,india4 ,in the ,parusha
 ,sukta of the ,rig ,veda occurs this   
passage3 ,from him called ,parusha was  
born ,viraj1 and from ,viraj was        
,parusha produced1 whom gods made their 
oblation4 ,with ,parusha as a victim    
they performed a sacrifice4 ,manu says  
that ,parusha1 the first man1 was called
 ,brahma1 and was produced by emanation 
from the self-existent spirit4 ,brahma  
thus emanating1 was the first male1 or1 
as elsewhere called1 the born lord4 ,by 
him the world was made4 ,the idea is    
brought out still more strikingly in one
 of the ,brahmanas where the sacrifice  
is represented as voluntary and all     
availing4 ,surely1 says ,sir ,monier    
,williams1 in these mysterious allusions
 to the sacrifice of a representative   
man we may perceive traces of the       
original institution of sacrifice as a  
divinely appointed ordinance1 typical of
 the one great offering of the ,son of  

,god for the sins of the world4 ,the    
late ,professor ,banergea1 of ,calcutta1
 reaching the same conclusion1 says3 ,it
 is not easy to account for the genesis 
of these ideas in the ,veda1 of 'one    
born in the beginning ,lord of          
creatures1' offering himself a sacrifice
 for the benefit of deified mortals1    
except on the assumption that it is     
based upon the tradition of the ',lamb  
slain from the foundation of the world4'
  ,no doubt modern scepticism might be  
slow to acknowledge any such inference  
as this2 but as ,professor ,banergea was
 a high-caste ,hindu of great learning1 
and was well acquainted with the        
subtleties of ,hindu thought1 his       
opinion should have great weight4 ,and  
when we remember how easily scientific  
scepticism is satisfied with the        
faintest traces of whatever strengthens 
its theories--how thin are some of the  
generalizations of ,herbert             
,spencer--how very slight and fanciful  
are the resemblances of words which     

philologists often accept as            
indisputable proofs--how far-fetched are
 the inferences sometimes drawn from the
 appearance of half-decayed fossils as  
proofs and even demonstrations of the   
law of evolution--we need not be        
over-modest in setting forth these      
traces of an original divine element in 
the institution of typical sacrifices   
among men4  ,it is never safe to assume 
positively this or that meaning for a   
mysterious passage found in the sacred  
books of non-,christian systems1 but    
there are many things which seem at     
least to illustrate important precepts  
of the ,christian faith4 ,thus the slain
 ,osiris of the ,egyptians was said to  
enter into the sufferings of mortals4   
,having suffered the great wound1 so the
 record runs1 he was wounded in every   
other wound4 ,and we read in ,the ,book 
of the ,dead that when the ,lord of     
truth cleanses away defilement1 evil is 
joined to the deity that the truth may  
expel the evil4#agi ,this seems to      

denote an idea of vicarious             
righteousness4  ,the ,onondaga ,indians 
had a tradition that the celestial      
,hiawatha descended from heaven and     
dwelt among their ancestors1 and that   
upon the establishment of the ,league of
 the ,iroquois he was called by the     
,great ,spirit to sanctify that ,league 
by self-sacrifice4 ,as the ,indian      
council was about to open1 ,hiawatha was
 bowed with intense suffering1 which    
faintly reminds one of ,christ's agony  
in ,gethsemane4 ,he foresaw that his    
innocent and only child would be taken  
from him4 ,soon after a messenger from  
heaven smote her to the earth by his    
side4 ,then1 having drank this cup of   
sorrow1 he entered the council and      
guided its deliberations with superhuman
 wisdom4#ahj ,in citing this incident   
nothing more is intended than to call   
attention to some of the mysterious     
conceptions which seem to float dimly   
through the minds of the most savage    
races1 and which show at the very least 

that the idea of vicarious sacrifice is 
not strange to mankind1 but is often    
mysteriously connected with their       
greatest blessings4 ,the legend of      
,prometheus ,bound1 as we find it in the
 tragedies of ,a,eschylus1 is so graphic
 in its picture of vicarious suffering  
for the good of men that infidel writers
 have charged the story of the ,cross   
with plagiarism1 and have applied to    
,prometheus some of the expressions used
 in the fifty-third chapter of the      
,prophecy of ,isaiah4 ,we are often told
 that there is injustice in the very    
idea of vicarious suffering1 as involved
 in the ,christian doctrine of          
salvation1 or that the best instincts of
 a reasonable humanity revolt against   
it4 ,but such criticisms are            
sufficiently met by these analogies     
which we find among all nations4  ,let  
me next call attention to some of the   
predicted deliverers for whom the       
nations have been looking4 ,nothing     
found in the study of the religious     

history of mankind is more striking than
 the universality of a vague expectation
 of coming messiahs4 ,according to the  
teachings of ,hinduism there have been  
nine incarnations of ,vishnu1 of whom   
,buddha was admitted to be one4 ,but    
there is to be a tenth avatar who shall 
yet come at a time of great and         
universal wickedness1 and shall         
establish a kingdom of righteousness on 
the earth4 ,some years ago the ,rev4    
,dr4 ,john ,newton1 of ,lahore1 took    
advantage of this prediction and wrote a
 tract showing that the true deliverer  
and king of righteousness had already   
come in the person of ,jesus ,christ4   
,so striking seemed the fulfilment      
viewed from the ,hindu standpoint1 that 
some hundreds in the city of ,rampore   
were led to a faith in ,christ as an    
avatar of ,vishnu4  ,a remarkable       
illustration of a felt want of something
 brighter and more hopeful is seen in   
the legends and predictions of the      
,teutonic and ,norse religions4 ,the    

faiths of all the ,teutonic races were  
of the sternest character1 and it was   
such a cultus that made them the terror 
of ,europe4 ,they worshipped their grim 
deities in the congenial darkness of    
deep forest shades4 ,there was no joy1  
no sense of divine pity1 no peace4 ,they
 were conscious of deep and unutterable 
wants which were never met4 ,they       
yearned for a golden age and the coming 
of a deliverer4 ,baldr1 one of the sons 
of ,woden1 had passed away1 but prophecy
 promised that he should return to      
deliver mankind from sorrow and from    
death4 ,when the twilight of the gods   
should have passed away1 then amid      
prodigies and the crash and decay of a  
wicked world1 in glory and joy he should
 return1 and a glorious kingdom should  
be renewed4 ,or1 in the words of one of 
their own poets3     ,then unsown the   
swath shall flourish and back come      
,baldr2     ,with him ,hoder shall dwell
 in ,hropter's palace1     ,shrines of  
gods the great and holy1     ,there the 

just shall joy forever1           ,and  
in pleasure pass the ages4  ,the        
well-known prediction of the ,sibyl of  
,cumae bears testimony to the same      
expectation of mankind4 ,the genuine    
,sibylline ,oracles were in existence   
anterior to the birth of ,christ4       
,virgil died forty years before that    
event1 and the well-known eclogue       
,pollio is stated by him to be a        
transcript of the prophetic carmen of   
the ,sibyl of ,cumae4 ,but for the fact 
that it has a ,roman instead of a       
,jewish coloring1 it might almost seem  
,messianic4 ,the oracle speaks thus3    
,the last era1 the subject of the ,sibyl
 song of ,cumae1 has now arrived2 the   
great series of ages begins anew4 ,the  
virgin returns--returns the reign of    
,saturn4 ,the progeny from heaven now   
descends4 ,be thou propitious to the    
,infant ,boy by whom first the ,iron    
,age shall expire1 and the ,golden ,age 
over the whole world shall commence4    
,whilst thou1 ,o ,pollio1 art consul1   

this glory of our age shall be made     
manifest1 and the celestial months begin
 their revolutions4 ,under thy auspices 
whatever vestiges of our guilt remain1  
shall1 by being atoned for1 redeem the  
earth from fear forever4 ,he shall      
partake of the life of the gods4 ,he    
shall reign over a world in peace with  
his father's virtues4 ,the earth1 sweet 
boy1 as her first-fruits1 shall pour    
thee forth spontaneous flowers4 ,the    
serpent shall die3 the poisonous and    
deceptive tree shall die4 ,all things1  
heavens and earth and the regions of the
 sea1 rejoice at the advent of this age4
 ,the time is now at hand4#aha ,forty   
years later the ,christ appeared4       
,whether ,virgil had been influenced by 
,hebrew prophecy it is impossible to    
say4 ,it may be that the so-called      
,sibyl had caught something of the same 
hope which led the ,magi of the ,east to
 the cradle of the infant ,messiah1 but 
in any case the eclogue voiced a vague  
expectation which prevailed throughout  

the ,roman ,empire4  ,in modern as well 
as in ancient times nations and races   
have looked for deliverers or for some  
brighter hope4 ,missionaries found the  
,hawaiians dissatisfied and hopeless2   
their idols had been thrown away4 ,the  
,karens were waiting for the arrival of 
the messengers of the truth4 ,the       
,mexicans1 at the time of the ,spanish  
conquest1 were looking for a celestial  
benefactor4 ,the very last instance of  
an anxious looking for a deliverer is   
that which quite recently has so sadly  
misled our ,sioux ,indians4  ,mankind   
have longed not only for deliverers1 but
 also for mediators4 ,the central truth 
of the ,christian faith is its divine   
sympathy and help brought down into our 
human nature4 ,in other words1          
mediation--,god with man4 ,the faith of 
the ,hindus1 lacking this element1 was  
cold and remorseless4 ,siva1 the god of 
destruction1 and his hideous and        
blood-thirsty wives1 had become chief   
objects of worship1 only because        

destruction and death led to life again4
 ,but there was no divine help4 ,the    
gods were plied with sharp bargains in  
sacrifice and merit2 they were appeased2
 they were cajoled2 but there was no    
love4 ,but the time came when the felt  
want of men for something nearer and    
more sympathetic led to the doctrine of 
,vishnu's incarnations3 first grotesque 
deliverers in animal shapes1 but at     
length the genial and sympathetic       
,krishna4 ,he was not the highest model 
of character1 but he was human4 ,he had 
associated with the rustics and         
frolicked around their camp-fires4 ,he  
became ,arjuna's charioteer and rendered
 him counsel and help in that low       
disguise4 ,he was a sharer of burdens--a
 counsellor and friend4 ,and he became  
the most popular of all ,hindu deities4 
,the important point in all this is that
 this old system1 so self-sufficient and
 self-satisfied1 should have groped its 
way toward a divine sympathizer in human
 form1 a living and helpful god among   

men4 ,hinduism had not been wanting in  
anthropomorphisms3 it had imagined the  
presence of ,god in a thousand visible  
objects which rude men could appreciate4
 ,trees1 apes1 cattle1 crocodiles1 and  
serpents had been invested with an      
in-dwelling spirit1 but it had found no 
mediator4 ,men had been trying by all   
manner of devices to sublimate their    
souls1 and climb ,godward by their own  
self-mortification2 but they had        
realized no divine help4 ,to meet this  
want they developed a veritable doctrine
 of faith4 ,they had learned from       
,buddhism the great influence and power 
of one who could instruct and counsel   
and encourage4 ,some ,oriental scholars 
think that they had also learned many   
things from ,christian sources4#ahb     
,however that may be--from whatever     
source they had gained this             
suggestion--they found it to accord with
 the deepest wants of the human heart4  
,and the splendid tribute which that    
peculiar development bears to the great 

fundamental principles of the ,christian
 faith1 is all the more striking for the
 fact that it grew up in spite of the   
adamantine convervatism of a system1 all
 of whose teachings had been in a       
precisely opposite direction4 ,it was   
old ,hinduism coming out of its         
intrenchments to pay honor to the true  
way of eternal life4 ,probably the      
doctrine first sprang from a felt want1 
but was subsequently reinforced by      
,christian influences4  ,the late       
,professor ,banergea1 in his ,aryan     
,witness1 gives what must be regarded as
 at least a very plausible account of   
the last development of the so-called   
,krishna cult1 and of this doctrine of  
faith4 ,he thinks that it borrowed very 
much from western monotheists4 ,he      
quotes a passage from the ,narada       
,pancharata1 which represents a pious   
,brahman of the eighth century ,a4,d41  
as having been sent to the far          
northwest1 where white-faced monotheists
 would teach him a pure faith in the    

,supreme ,vishnu or ,krishna4 ,he quotes
 also1 from another and later authority1
 a dialogue in which this same ,brahman 
reproved ,vyasa for not having          
celebrated the praises of ,krishna as   
supreme4 ,this ,professor ,banergea     
regarded as proof that previously to the
 eighth century ,krishna has been       
worshipped only as a demigod4 ,but the  
whole drift of the old ,brahmanical     
doctrines had been toward sacrifice as a
 debt and credit system1 and that plan  
had failed4 ,it had impoverished the    
land and ruined the people1 and had     
brought no spiritual comfort4 ,men had  
found that they could not buy salvation4
  ,moreover1 ,buddhism and other forms  
of rationalistic philosophy1 after      
prolonged and thorough experiment1 had  
also failed4 ,the ,hindu race had found 
that as salvation could not be purchased
 with sacrifices1 neither could it be   
reasoned out by philosophy1 nor worked  
out by austerities4 ,it must come from a
 ,divine helper4 ,thus1 when ,narada had

 wearied himself with austerities--so we
 read in the ,narada ,pancharata--he    
heard a voice from heaven saying3 ,if   
,krishna is worshipped1 what is the use 
of austerities8 ,if ,krishna is not     
worshipped1 what is the use of          
austerities8 ,if ,krishna is within and 
without1 what is the use of austerities8
 ,if ,krishna is not within and without1
 what is the use of austerities8 ,stop1 
,o ,brahman2 why do you engage in       
austerities8 ,go quickly and get matured
 faith in ,krishna1 as described by the 
sect of ,vishnu who snaps the fetters of
 the world4 ,we are thus led1 says      
,professor ,banergea1 to the very       
genesis of the doctrine of faith in     
connection with ,hinduism4 ,and it was  
admittedly not an excogitation of the   
,brahmanical mind itself4 ,narada had   
brought it from the land of 'the        
whites1' where he got an insight into   
,vishnu as the ,saviour which was not   
attainable elsewhere4 ,and he then      
persuaded the author of one of the      

,puranas to recount the ,lord's acts--in
 other words1 the history of ,krishna1  
with the enforcement of faith in his    
divinity3 ,change the name1 says        
,banergea1 and it is almost ,christian  
doctrine4#ahc  ,it is an interesting    
fact that ,buddhism1 in its progress    
through the centuries1 has also wrought 
out a doctrine of faith by a similar    
process4 ,it began as a form of         
atheistic rationalism4 ,its most salient
 feature was staunch and avowed         
independence of all help from gods or   
men4 ,it emphasized in every way the    
self-sufficiency of one's own mind and  
will to work out emancipation4 ,but when
 ,buddha died no enlightened counsellor 
was left1 and another ,buddha could not 
be expected for four thousand years4    
,the multitudes of his disciples felt   
that1 theory or no theory1 there was an 
awful void4 ,the bald and bleak system  
could not stand on such a basis4 ,the   
human heart cried out for some divine   
helper1 some one to whom man could pray4

 ,fortunately there were supposed to be 
predestined ,buddhas4--,bodisats--then  
living in some of the heavens1 and as   
they were preparing themselves to become
 incarnate ,buddhas1 they must already  
be interested in human affairs1 and     
especially the ,maitreyeh1 who would    
appear on earth next in order4  ,so     
,buddhism1 in spite of its own most     
pronounced dogmas1 began to pray to an  
unseen being1 began to depend and trust1
 began to lay hold on divine sympathy1  
and look to heaven for help4 ,by the    
seventh century of our era the northern 
,buddhists1 whether influenced in part  
by the contact of ,christianity1 or not1
 had subsidized more than one of these  
coming ,buddhas4 ,they had a complete   
,trinity4 ,one person of this ,trinity1 
the everywhere present ,avolokitesvara1 
became the chief object of worship1 the 
divine helper on whom all dependence was
 placed4 ,this mythical being was really
 the ,god of northern ,buddhism in the  
,middle ,ages1 and is the popular       

sympathizer of all ,mongolian races to  
the present day4 ,in ,thibet he is      
supposed to be incarnate in the ,grand  
,lama4 ,in ,china he is incarnate in    
,quanyen1 the goddess of mercy4 ,with   
sailors she is the goddess of the sea4  
,in many temples she is invoked by the  
sick1 the halt1 the blind1 the          
impoverished4 ,her images are sometimes 
represented with a hundred arms to      
symbolize her omnipotence to save4 ,beal
 says of this1 as ,banergea says of the 
faith element of the ,krishna cult1 that
 it is wholly alien to the religion     
whose name it bears3 it is not          
,buddhism4 ,he thinks that it has been  
greatly affected by ,christian          
influences4  ,another mythical being who
 is worshipped as ,god in ,china and    
,japan1 is ,amitabba1 a ,dhyana or      
celestial ,buddha1 who in long kalpas of
 ,time has acquired merit enough for the
 whole world4 ,two of the twelve        
,buddhist sects of ,japan have abandoned
 every principle taught by ,gautama1    

except his ethics1 and have cast        
themselves upon the free grace of       
,amitabba4 ,they have exchanged the old 
atheism for theism4 ,they have given up 
all dependence on merit-making and      
self-help2 they now rely wholly on the  
infinite merit of another4 ,their       
religious duties are performed out of   
gratitude for a free salvation wrought  
out for them1 and no longer as the means
 of gaining heaven4 ,they live by a     
faith which works by love4 ,they expect 
at death an immediate transfer to a     
permanent heaven1 instead of a series of
 transmigrations4 ,their ,buddha is not 
dead1 but he ever liveth to receive into
 his heavenly realm all who accept his  
grace1 and to admit them to his divine  
fellowship forever4 ,by a direct and    
complete imputation they are made       
sharers in his righteousness1 and become
 joint heirs in his heavenly            
inheritance4 ,whatever the genesis of   
these strange cults which now prevail as
 the chief religious beliefs among the  

,mongolian races1 they are marvellously 
significant4 ,they have come almost to  
the very threshold of ,christianity4    
,what they need is the true ,saviour and
 not a myth1 a living faith and not an  
empty delusion4 ,nevertheless1 they     
prove that faith in a divine salvation  
is the only religion that can meet the  
wants of the human soul4  ,there is     
something very encouraging in these     
approaches toward the great doctrines of
 salvation4 ,i do not believe that these
 sects have come so near to the true    
,messiah without the influence of the   
,spirit of ,god1 and without more or    
less light from ,christian sources4 ,but
 partly they have been moved by those   
wants which ,hinduism and ,buddhism     
could not satisfy4 ,the principle of    
their faith is worthy of recognition1   
and the missionary should say as ,paul  
said3 ,whom ye ignorantly worship1 ,him 
declare ,i unto you4  ,it is a very     
significant fact that most of the       
,brahmo ,somajes of ,india have adopted 

,jesus ,christ as the greatest of the   
world's prophets4 ,chunder ,sen         
sometimes spoke of him as a devout      
,christian would speak4 ,the ,arya      
,somaj would not own ,his name1 but it  
has graced its ,hindu creed with many of
 ,his essential doctrines4 ,quite       
recently a new organ of the ,brahmo     
,somaj1 published at ,hyderabad1 has    
announced as its leading object1 to     
harmonize pure ,hinduism and pure       
,christianity1 with ,christ as the chief
 corner-stone4 ,in the exact words of   
this paper1 called ,the ,harmony1 its   
aim is to preach ,christ as the eternal 
,son of ,god1 as the ,logos in all      
prophets and saints before and after the
 incarnation1 as the incarnate1 perfect 
righteousness by whose obedience man is 
made righteous4444 ,christ is the       
reconciliation of man with man1 and of  
all men with ,god1 the harmony of       
humanity with humanity1 and of all      
humanity with ,divinity4 ,this          
prospectus condemns the average         

,christianity of foreigners in          
,india--the over-reaching1 beef-eating1 
beer-drinking ,anglo-,saxon type1 which 
despises the ,hindu ,scriptures and yet 
belies its own2 but it exalts the       
spotless and exalted ,christ and builds 
all the hopes of humanity upon ,him4    
,how will the mere philosopher explain  
this wonderful power of personality over
 men of all races1 if it be not ,divine8
  ,but perhaps the most remarkable      
tribute to the transcendent character of
 ,christ is seen in the fact that all   
sects of religionists1 the most         
fanatical and irrational1 seem to claim 
,him as in some sense their own4        
,mormonism1 even when plunging into the 
lowest depths of degradation1 has always
 claimed to rest on the redemption of   
,jesus ,christ4 ,mohammedanism--even the
 ,koran itself--has always acknowledged 
,christ as the only sinless prophet4    
,all the others1 from ,adam to          
,mohammed1 stand convicted of heinous   
offences1 and they will not reappear on 

earth2 while ,he who knew no sin shall1 
according to ,mohammedan prophecy1 yet  
come again to judge the earth4 ,the     
worshippers of ,krishna1 some of whom   
are found among us in this land1 claim  
,christ as one of the true avatars of   
,vishnu1 and heartily commend ,his      
character and ,his teachings4 ,our      
western ,buddhists are just now         
emphasizing the idea that ,christ was   
the sacred ,buddha of ,palestine1 that  
he studied and taught the eight-fold    
path1 became an arahat1 and attained    
,nirvana1 and that the ,christian       
,church has only misrepresented ,his    
transcendent wisdom and purity4 ,the    
ablest tract on ,theosophy that ,i have 
yet seen is entitled ,theosophy the     
,religion of ,jesus4  ,how marvellous is
 all this--that ,theosophists1 ,aryas1  
,brahmos1 ,buddhists1 ,moslems1 though  
they hate ,christianity and fight it to 
the death--still bow before the mild    
sceptre of ,christ4 ,as the central     
light of the diamond shines alike       

through every facet and angle1 so ,his  
doctrine and character are claimed as   
the glory of every creed4 ,many types of
 heathen faiths honor ,him1 and many    
schools of philosophic scepticism4 ,some
 of the noblest tributes to ,his        
unearthly purity have been given by men 
who rejected ,his divinity4 ,in spite of
 itself the most earnest thought of many
 races1 many systems1 many creeds1 has  
crystallized around ,him4 ,history has  
made ,him its moral centre1 the calendar
 of the nations begins with ,him1 and   
the anniversary of ,his birth is the    
festival of the civilized world4 ,the   
prediction that all nations should call 
,him blessed is already fulfilled4      
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #afg3 ,it is    
worthy of note that both the ,pentateuch
 and most heathen traditions agree1 as  
to the order or stages of creation1 with
 the geological record of modern        
science4  ,footnote #afh3 ,rawlinson3   
,ancient ,monarchies4  ,footnote #afi3  
,ebrard3 ,apologetics1 vol4 ii4         

,footnote #agj3 ,williams3 ,indian      
,wisdom1 p4 #bb4  ,footnote #aga3 ,de   
,quatrefages3 ,the ,human ,species1 p4  
#dij4  ,footnote #agb3 ,christ and      
,other ,masters1 p4 #bha4  ,footnote    
#agc3 ,manual of ,buddhism1 p4 #ff4     
,footnote #agd3 ,ebrard3 ,apologetics1  
vol4 ii4  ,footnote #age3 ,ibid4        
,footnote #agf3 ,indian ,wisdom1 pp4    
#cb1 #cic4  ,footnote #agg3 ,ebrard3    
,apologetics1 vol4 ii4  ,footnote #agh3 
,ebrard3 ,apologetics1 vol4 iii4        
,footnote #agi3 ,de ,pressense3 ,the    
,ancient ,world and ,christianity1 p4   
#hg4  ,footnote #ahj3 ,schoolcraft3     
,notes on the ,iroquois4  ,footnote     
#aha3 ,quoted by ,morgan in ,st4 ,paul  
in ,britain1 p4 #bc4  ,footnote #ahb3   
,the full development of the doctrine   
was not reached till far on in the      
,christian centuries4 ,hardwick3 ,christ
 and ,other ,masters1 p4 #bjd4          
,footnote #ahc3 ,aryan ,witness1 closing
 chapter4     ,,lecture ,,ix4  ,,ethical
 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,and

 ,,the ,,western ,,philosophies   ,it is
 not my purpose to discuss the          
comparative merits of philosophic       
systems1 but only to consider some      
practical bearings of philosophy1       
ancient and modern1 upon vital questions
 of morals and religion4 ,there has been
 no lack of speculation in the world4   
,for ages the most gifted minds have    
labored and struggled to solve the      
mysteries of the ,universe and of its   
,author4 ,but they have missed the      
all-important fact that with the heart1 
as well as with the intellect1 men are  
to be learners of the highest wisdom1   
and that they are to listen to the voice
 of ,god not only in nature1 but in the 
soul4  ,so the old questions1 still     
unsolved1 are ever asked anew4 ,the same
 wearying researches and the same       
confident assertions1 to be replaced by 
others equally confident1 are found both
 in the ancient and in the modern       
history of mankind4 ,by wisdom the      
present generation has come no nearer to

 finding out ,god than men of the       
remotest times4 ,the cheerless          
conclusion of agnosticism was reached in
 ,india twenty-four centuries ago1 and  
,confucius expressed it exactly when he 
said1 with reference to the future1 ,we 
do not know life2 how can we know death8
 ,this same dubious negation probably   
has the largest following of all types  
of unbelief in our time4 ,it is not     
atheism3 that1 to the great mass of men1
 is unthinkable2 it is easier to assume 
simply that we do not know4 ,yet almost 
every form of agnosticism1 ancient or   
modern1 claims to possess a vast amount 
of very positive knowledge4 ,speculative
 hypothesis never employed the language 
of dogmatic assurance so confidently as 
now4 ,even theosophic occultism speaks  
of itself as science4  ,that which      
strikes one first of all in the history 
of philosophy is the similarity between 
ancient and modern speculations upon the
 great mysteries of the world4  #a4     
,notice with what accord various earlier

 and later theories dispense with real  
and personal creatorship in the origin  
of the universe4 ,the atomic theory of  
creation is by no means a modern        
invention1 and so far as evolution is   
connected with that hypothesis1         
evolution is very old4 ,mr4 ,herbert    
,spencer states his theory thus3 ,first 
in the order of evolution is the        
formation of simple mechanical          
aggregates of atoms1 e4g41 molecules1   
spheres1 systems2 then the evolution of 
more complex aggregations or organisms3 
then the evolution of the highest       
product of organization1 thought2 and   
lastly1 the evolution of the complex    
relations which exist between thinking  
organisms1 or society with its          
regulative laws1 both civil and moral4  
,between these stages1 he tells us1     
there is no fixed line of               
demarcation4444 ,the passage from one to
 the other is continuous1 the transition
 from organization to thought being     
mediated by the nerve-system1 in the    

molecular changes of which are to be    
found the mechanical correlates and     
equivalents of all conscious processes4 
,it will be seen that this comprehensive
 statement is designed to cover1 if not 
the creation1 at least the creative     
processes of all things in the universe 
of matter and in the universe of        
thought4  ,mr4 ,spencer does not allude 
here to the question of a ,first ,cause 
back of the molecules and their         
movements1 though he is generally       
understood to admit that such a ,cause  
may exist4 ,he does not in express terms
 deny that at some stage in this        
development there may have been         
introduced a divine spark of immortal   
life direct from the ,creator's hand4   
,he even maintains that the conscious   
soul is not the product of a collocation
 of material particles1 but is in the   
deepest sense a ,divine effluence4#ahd  
,yet he seems to get on without any very
 necessary reliance upon such an        
intervention1 since the development from

 the atom to the civilized man is a     
continuous process1 and throughout the  
whole course from molecule to thought   
and moral and social law1 there are no  
lines of demarcation4 ,he leaves it for 
the believer in theistic evolution to   
show when and where and how the ,divine 
effluence is introduced4  ,similar to   
this was the theory which the ,hindu    
,kanada propounded more than two        
thousand years ago4 ,as translated and  
interpreted by ,colebrook1 ,kanada      
taught that two earthly atoms concurring
 by an unseen and peculiar virtue called
 adrishta1 or by the will of ,god1 or by
 time1 or by competent cause1 constitute
 a double atom of earth2 and by         
concourse of three binary atoms a       
tertiary atom is produced1 and by       
concourse of four triple atoms a        
quaternary1 and so on4#ahe ,thus the    
great earth is produced4 ,the system of 
,lucretius was much the same1 though    
neither ,lucretius nor ,spencer has     
recognized any such force as            

adrishta4#ahf  ,what seems to           
distinguish ,mr4 ,spencer's theory is   
the extension of this evolutionary      
process to mind and spirit in the       
development of thought and feeling4 ,he 
does not say that mind resides in the   
molecules1 but that their movements     
attend 7if they do not originate and    
control7 the operation of the mind4     
,professor ,leconte seems to go farther 
when he says that in animals            
brain-changes are in all cases the cause
 of psychical phenomena2 in man alone1  
and only in his higher activities1      
psychic changes precede and determine   
brain changes4#ahg ,we shall see farther
 on that ,mr4 ,spencer1 in his theory of
 intuition1 admits this same principle  
by logical inference1 and traces even   
man's highest faculties to brain or     
nerve changes in our ancestors4 ,kanada 
also held that mind1 instead of being a 
purely spiritual power1 is atomic or    
molecular1 and by logical deduction the 
mental activities must depend on the    

condition of the molecules4  ,ram       
,chandra ,bose1 in expounding ,kanada's 
theory1 says3 ,the general idea of mind 
is that which is subordinate to         
substance1 being also found in intimate 
relations in an atom1 and it is itself  
material4 ,the early ,buddhist          
philosophers also taught that physical  
elements are among the five skandas     
which constitute the phenomenal soul4   
,democritus and ,lucretius regarded the 
mind as atomic1 and the primal monad of 
,leibnitz was the living germ--smallest 
of things--which enters into all visible
 and invisible creations1 and which is  
itself all-potential2 it is a living    
microcosm2 it is an immortal soul4      
,these various theories are not         
parallels1 but they have striking       
similarities4 ,and ,i believe that      
,professor ,tyndall1 in his famous      
,belfast ,address1 virtually            
acknowledges ,lucretius as the father of
 the modern atomic theories4 ,whether   
,lucretius borrowed them from ,india1 we

 shall not stop to inquire1 but we may  
safely assert that modern philosophers1 
,german1 ,french or ,english1 have      
borrowed them from one or both4  ,it is 
not my purpose to discuss the truth or  
falsity of the atomic theory1 or the    
relation of mind to the movements of    
molecules in the brain2 ,i simply point 
out the fact that this is virtually an  
old hypothesis2 and ,i leave each one to
 judge how great a degree of light it   
has shed upon the path of human life in 
the ages of the past1 how far it availed
 to check the decline of ,greece and    
,rome1 and how much of real moral or    
intellectual force it has imparted to   
the ,hindu race4 ,the credulous masses  
of men should not be left to suppose    
that these are new speculations1 nor to 
imagine that that which has been so     
barren in the past can become a gospel  
of hope in the present and the future4  
,the constant tendency with young       
students of philosophy1 is to conclude  
that the hypotheses which they espouse  

with so much enthusiasm are new         
revelations in metaphysics and ethics as
 well as in physical science--compared  
with which the ,christian cultus of     
eighteen centuries is now effete and    
doomed4 ,it is well1 therefore1 to know 
that so far from these speculations     
having risen upon the ruins of          
,christianity1 ,christianity rose upon  
the ruins of these speculations as1 in  
modified forms1 they had been profoundly
 elaborated in the philosophies of      
,greece and ,rome4 ,lucretius was born a
 century before the ,christian era1 and 
,democritus1 whose disciple he became1  
lived earlier still4 ,kanada1 the       
atomist philosopher of ,india1 lived    
three centuries before ,democritus4 ,the
 early ,christian fathers were perfectly
 familiar with the theories of          
,lucretius4 ,we are indebted to ,jerome 
for many of the facts which we possess  
concerning him4 ,nearly all the great   
leaders of the church1 from ,origen to  
,ambrose1 had studied ,greek philosophy1

 some of them had been its devotees     
before their conversion to the          
,christian faith4 ,there is at least    
incidental evidence that the ,apostle   
,paul was versed in the current         
philosophy as well as in the poetry of  
,greece4  ,these great men--great in    
natural powers and in philosophic       
training--had seen just what the        
speculations of ,democritus1 ,lucretius1
 ,zeno1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 and          
,aristotle could do2 they had indeed    
undermined the low superstitions of     
their time1 but they had proved         
powerless to regenerate society1 or even
 relieve the individual pessimism and   
despair of men like ,seneca1 ,pliny1 or 
,marcus ,aurelius4 ,lucretius1 wholly or
 partially insane1 died by his own hand4
 ,the light of philosophy left the      
,roman ,empire1 as ,uhlhorn and others  
have clearly shown1 under the shadow of 
a general despair4 ,and it was in the   
midst of that gloom that the light of   
,christianity shone forth4 ,augustine1  

who had fathomed various systems and    
believed in them1 tells us that it was  
the philosophy which appeared in the    
writings and in the life of the ,apostle
 ,paul which finally wrought the great  
change in his career4 ,plato had done   
much2 ,paul and the ,cross of ,christ   
did infinitely more4  ,the development  
of higher forms of life from lower by   
natural selection1 as set forth by the  
late ,charles ,darwin1 has been supposed
 to be an entirely new system4 ,yet the 
,chinese claim to have held a theory of 
development which represents the        
mountains as having once been covered by
 the sea4 ,when the waters subsided     
small herbs sprang up1 which in the     
course of ages developed into trees4    
,worms and insects also appeared        
spontaneously1 like lice upon a living  
body2 and these after a long period     
became larger animals--beetles became   
tortoises2 worms1 serpents4 ,the mantis 
was developed into an ape1 and certain  
apes became at length hairless4 ,one of 

these by accident struck fire with a    
flint4 ,the cooking of food at length   
followed the use of fire1 and the apes1 
by being better nourished1 were finally 
changed into men4 ,whether this theory  
is ancient or modern1 it is eminently   
,chinese1 and it shows the natural      
tendency of men to ascribe the germs of 
life to spontaneous generation1 because 
they fail to see the ,great ,first      
,cause who produces them4 ,the one thing
 which is noticeable in nearly all human
 systems of religion and philosophy1 is 
that they have no clear and distinct    
idea of creatorship4 ,they are systems  
of evolution2 in one way or another they
 represent the world as having grown4   
,generally they assume the eternity of  
matter1 and often they are found to     
regard the present cosmos as only a     
certain stage in an endless circle of   
changes from life to death and from     
death to life4 ,the world rebuilds      
itself from the wreck and debris of     
former worlds4 ,it is quite consistent  

with many of these systems that there   
should be gods1 but as a rule they      
recognize no ,god4 ,while all races of  
men have shown traces of a belief in a  
,supreme ,creator and ,ruler far above  
their inferior deities1 yet their       
philosophers1 if they had any1 have     
sooner or later bowed ,him out4  #b4    
,most systems of philosophic            
speculation1 ancient and modern1 tend to
 weaken the sense of moral              
accountability4 ,first1 the atomic      
theory1 which we have just considered1  
leads to this result by the molecular1  
and therefore purely physical1 origin   
which it assigns to moral acts and      
conditions4 ,we have already alluded to 
,herbert ,spencer's theory of intuition4
 ,in the ,data of ,ethics1 page #abc1 he
 says3 ,i believe that the experiences  
of utility1 organized and consolidated  
through all past generations of the     
human race1 have been producing         
corresponding nervous modifications1    
which by continued transmission and     

accumulation have become in us certain  
faculties of moral intuition1 certain   
emotions corresponding to right and     
wrong conduct which have no apparent    
basis in the individual experiences of  
utility4  ,it appears from this         
statement that1 so far as we are        
concerned1 our moral intuitions are the 
results of nervous modifications1 if not
 in ourselves1 at least in our          
ancestors1 so that the controlling      
influence which rules1 and which ought  
to rule1 our conduct is a nervous1 and  
therefore a physical1 condition which we
 have inherited4 ,it follows1 therefore1
 that every man's conscience or         
inherited moral sense is bound by a     
necessity of his physical constitution4 
,and if this be so1 why is there not a  
wide door here opened for theories of   
moral insanity1 which might come at     
length to cast their shield over all    
forms and grades of crime8 ,it is easy  
to see that1 whatever theory of creation
 may be admitted as to the origin of the

 human soul1 this hypothesis rules out  
the idea of an original moral likeness  
of the human spirit to a ,supreme ,moral
 ,ruler of the universe1 in whom        
righteousness dwells as an eternal      
principle2 and it finds no higher source
 for what we call conscience than the   
accumulated experience of our ancestors4
  ,the materialistic view recently      
presented by ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley1 in  
an article entitled1 ,the ,physical     
,basis of ,mind--an article which seems 
to follow ,mr4 ,spencer very            
closely--would break down all moral     
responsibility4 ,his theory that true   
character depends upon what he calls the
 reflex action of the nerve-cells2 that 
acts of reason or conscience which have 
been put forth so many times that1 in a 
sense1 they perform themselves without  
any exercise of consciousness1 are the  
best2 that a man is an instinctive thief
 or liar1 or a born poet1 because the   
proper nervous structure has been fixed 
in his constitution by his ancestors2   

that any moral act1 so long as it is    
conscious1 is not ingrained in          
character1 and the more conscious it is1
 the more dubious it is2 and that virtue
 itself is not safely lodged until it   
has become a habit--in other words1 till
 it has become an automatic and         
unconscious operation of the            
nerve-cells1 such a doctrine1 in its    
extreme logical results1 destroys all   
voluntary and conscious loyalty to      
principle1 and renders man a mere       
automatic machine4  ,on the other hand  
,mr4 ,a4,r4 ,wallace1 in combating the  
theory that the moral sense in man is   
based on the utility experienced by our 
ancestors1 relates the following        
incident3 ,a number of prisoners taken  
during the ,santal insurrection were    
allowed to go free on parole1 to work at
 a certain spot for wages4 ,after some  
time cholera attacked them and they were
 obliged to leave1 but everyone of them 
returned and gave up his earnings to the
 guard4 ,two hundred savages with money 

in their girdles walked thirty miles    
back to prison rather than break their  
word4 ,my own experience with savages   
has furnished me with similar1 although 
less severely tested1 instances2 and we 
cannot avoid asking how it is that1 in  
these few cases 'experience of utility' 
have left such an overpowering          
impression1 while in others they have   
left none4444 ,the intuitional theory   
which ,i am now advocating explains this
 by the supposition that there is a     
feeling--a sense of right and wrong--in 
our nature antecedent to1 and           
independent of1 experiences of          
utility4#ahh  #c4 ,theories which       
confound the origin of man with that of 
brutes1 whether in the old doctrine of  
transmigration or in at least some of   
the theories of evolution1 involve a    
contradiction in man's ethical history4 
,the confusion shown in the ,buddhist   
,jatakas1 wherein ,buddha1 in the       
previous existences which prepared him  
for his great and holy mission1 was     

sometimes a saint and sometimes a       
gambler and a thief1 is scarcely        
greater1 from an ethical point of view1 
than that which evolution encounters in 
bridging the chasm between brute        
instinct and the lofty ethics of the    
perfected man4  ,the lower grades of    
animal life know no other law than the  
instinct which prompts them to devour   
the types which are lower still4 ,this  
destruction of the weaker by the        
stronger pervades the whole brute       
creation2 it is a life of violence      
throughout4 ,on the other hand1 all     
weaker creatures1 exposed to such       
ravages1 protect themselves universally 
by deception4 ,the grouse shields her   
young from hawks or other carnivora by  
running in the opposite direction1 with 
the assumed appearance of a broken wing4
 ,the flat fish1 to escape its mortal   
enemies1 lies upon the bottom of the    
stream1 scarcely distinguishable in     
color or appearance from the sand which 
constitutes its bed4 ,nature seems to   

aid and abet its falsehood by the very  
form which has been assigned to it4 ,and
 so also the gift of transparency helps 
the chameleon in seeming to be a part of
 the green plant1 or the brown bark1    
upon which it lies4 ,and ,professor     
,drummond1 in his interesting account of
 his ,african travels1 describes certain
 insects which render themselves        
indistinguishable either in color or in 
form from the branchings and exfoliation
 of certain grasses upon which they     
feed4 ,deception therefore becomes a    
chief resource of the weak1 while       
violence is that of the strong4 ,and    
those which are in the middle of the    
scale practise both4 ,there are still   
other animals which are invested with   
attributes of all that is meanest and   
most contemptible in character4 ,the sly
 and insinuating snake gliding          
noiselessly toward the victim of its    
envenomed sting--the spider which       
spreads forth its beautiful and alluring
 net1 sparkling with morning dew1 while 

it lurks in a secret corner1 ready to   
fall upon its luckless prey--the        
sneaking and repulsive hyena1 too       
cowardly to attack the strong and       
vigorous1 but waiting for the crippled1 
the helpless1 the sick1 and dying--if   
all these are in the school of          
preparation for that noble stage of     
manhood when truth and righteousness    
shall be its crown of glory1 then1 where
 is the turning-point8 ,where do        
violence1 meanness1 and deception       
gradually beam forth into benevolence   
and truth8     ,the spider kills the    
fly4 ,the wiser sphinx     ,stings the  
poor spider in the centre nerve1        
,which paralyzes only2 lays her eggs1   
,and buries with them with a loving care
     ,the spider1 powerless but still   
alive1     ,to warm them unto life1 and 
afterward     ,to serve as food among   
the little ones4     ,this is the lesson
 nature has to teach1     ',woe to the  
conquered1 victory to the strong4'      
,and so through all the ages1 step by   

step1     ,the stronger and the craftier
 replaced     ,the weaker1 and increased
 and multiplied4     ,and in the end the
 outcome of the strife     ,was man1 who
 had dominion over all1     ,and preyed 
on all things1 and the stronger man     
,trampled his weaker brother under foot4
  ,mr4 ,john ,fiske maintains that      
mankind1 during the previous bestial    
period1 were compelled like all other   
animals to maraud and destroy1 as a part
 of the plan of natural selection in    
securing the survival of the fittest2   
the victories of the strong over the    
weak were the steps and stages of the   
animal creation in its general          
advancement4 ,and he further states     
that1 even after man had entered upon   
the heritage of his manhood1 it was     
still for a time the true end of his    
being to maraud as before and to despoil
 all men whose weakness placed them in  
his power4 ,it was only thus that the   
steady improvement of the race could be 
secured2 and in that view it was man's  

duty to consult the dictates of         
selfishness and cruelty rather than     
those of kindness4 ,to use ,mr4 ,fiske's
 own words1 ,if we could put a moral    
interpretation upon events which        
antedated morality as we understand it1 
we should say it was their duty to      
fight2 and the reverence accorded to the
 chieftain who murdered most            
successfully in behalf of his clansmen  
was well deserved4#ahi  ,much to the    
same effect writes ,professor ,leconte4 
,in organic evolution the weak1 the     
sick1 the helpless1 the unfit in anyway1
 perish1 and ought to perish1 because   
this is the most efficient way of       
strengthening the blood or physical     
nature of the species1 and thus of      
carrying forward evolution4 ,in human   
evolution 7which occurs at an advanced  
stage7 the weak1 the helpless1 the sick1
 the old1 the unfit in anyway1 are      
sustained1 and ought to be sustained1   
because sympathy1 love1 pity1 strengthen
 the spirit and moral nature of the     

race4#aij ,there is this difference1    
however1 between this statement and that
 of ,mr4 ,fiske1 that it does not       
indicate at what point human evolution  
begins2 it does not expressly declare   
that the subject of evolution1 even     
after he has become a man1 is still for 
a time in duty bound to fight in the    
interest of selfishness and natural     
selection4 ,still he reverses the ought 
as he advances from organic to human    
evolution4  ,according to both authors1 
when1 in view of new environments and   
new social requirements1 it became more 
advantageous to each individual man that
 he should cease to maraud1 should learn
 to regard the rights of others1 should 
respect the family relation1 and        
subordinate his selfish interest to the 
general good2 then altruism dawned upon 
the world1 moral principle appeared1 and
 the angel of benevolence and love      
became enshrined in the human breast4   
,step by step this favored being1 the   
ideal of natural selection in all her   

plans1 advanced to a stage in which it  
became incumbent to even subordinate    
self to the good of others1 not only to 
spare the weak but to tenderly care for 
them1 and even to love those who have   
treated him with unkindness and abuse4  
,while in the early stages the law of   
life and progress had been the sacrifice
 of others for selfish good2 now the    
crowning glory consists in              
self-sacrifice for the good of all but  
self4  ,the logical result of this      
reasoning cannot escape the notice of   
any who carefully consider it4 ,if1 for 
any reason1 any community of human      
beings should decline in moral and      
intellectual character until they should
 finally reach the original state of    
savagery1 it would again become their   
duty to lay aside all high ethical      
claims as no longer suited to their     
condition4 ,the extraneous complications
 which had grown out of mere social     
order having passed away1 rectitude also
 would pass away2 benevolence1          

philanthropy1 humanity1 would be wholly 
out of place1 and however lovely        
,christian charity might appear from a  
sentimental point of view1 it would be  
ill adapted to that condition of        
society4 ,in such a state of things the 
strong and vigorous1 if sacrificing     
themselves to the weak1 would only      
perpetuate weakness1 and it would be    
their duty rather to extirpate them1 and
 by the survival only of the fittest to 
regain the higher civilization4 ,i state
 the case in all its naked deformity1   
because it shows the confusion and      
darkness of a world in which ,god is not
 the moral centre4  ,and here1 as       
already stated1 modern speculation joins
 hands with the old heathen systems4    
,according to ,hindu as well as         
,buddhist philosophy1 this retrograde   
process might not only carry civilized  
man back to savagery1 but might place   
him again in the category of brutes4 ,if
 tendencies control all things and have 
no limit1 why might they not remand the 

human being to lower and lower forms1   
until he should reach again the status  
of the mollusk8  ,now1 over against all 
the systems which make mind either a    
product or a phenomenon of matter1 we   
have the ,scriptural doctrine that man  
was created in the image of ,god4 ,this 
fact explains the differences which     
distinguish him from the beasts of the  
field2 for even in his lowest estate he 
is amenable to the principle of right   
and wrong4 ,paul taught1 in the first   
chapter of his ,epistle to the ,romans1 
that when men descend to the grade of   
beasts--and he shows that they may      
descend even below the dignity of       
beasts--so far from becoming exempt from
 moral claims1 they fall under increased
 condemnation4 ,the old ,hindu systems  
taught that there can be no release from
 the consequences of evil acts4 ,they   
traced them from one rebirth to another 
in kharma1 as modern speculation traces 
them physically in heredity4 ,the one   
saw no relief except in the changes of  

endless transmigrations1 the other finds
 it only in the gradual readjustment of 
the nerve-cells4 ,but we know by        
observation and experience that the     
spiritual power of the ,holy ,ghost can 
transform character at once4 ,no fact in
 the history of ,christianity is more   
firmly or more widely established than  
this4 ,the nerve-tissues to the contrary
 notwithstanding1 the human soul may be 
born again4 ,the persecuting ,saul may  
become at once a chief apostle4 ,the    
blasphemer1 the sot1 the debauchee1 the 
murderer1 may be transformed to a meek  
and sincere ,christian4 ,millions of the
 heathen1 with thousands of years of    
savage and bestial heredity behind them1
 have become pure and loyal disciples of
 the spotless ,redeemer4 ,the fierce    
heathen ,africaner1 as well as the      
dissolute ,jerry ,mc,cauley1 have       
illustrated this transforming power4    
,professor ,huxley and others1 in our   
time1 are trying to elaborate some basis
 of ethics independently of religion4   

,but1 as a matter of fact1 these very   
men are living on conventional moral    
promptings and restraints derived from  
the ,bible4 ,the best basis of morals   
yet known is that of ,christianity1 and 
it is from its high and ennobling cultus
 that even the enemies of the truth are 
deriving their highest inspiration4 ,mr4
 ,goldwin ,smith1 in an able article    
published in the ,forum of ,april1      
#ahia1 on the question1 ,will ,morality 
,survive ,faith8 shows at least that the
 best ethics which the world now has are
 the outcome of religious belief and of 
,christian belief1 and he leads the     
minds of his readers to gravely doubt   
whether a gospel of agnostic evolution  
could ever produce those forces of moral
 prompting and restraint which the      
centuries of ,christianity have         
developed4 ,he does not hesitate to     
assert that those who hold and advocate 
the modern anti-theistic speculations   
are themselves living upon the influence
 of a ,christian cultus which has       

survived their faith4 ,a true test of   
their principles could only be made when
 a generation should appear upon which  
no influence of ,christian parents still
 remained1 and in a society in which    
,christian sentiment no longer          
survived4#aia ,it may be said that the  
truth must be received without regard to
 the results which may follow4 ,this is 
admitted1 but the same cannot be said of
 theories4 ,if there is perfect harmony 
between all truths in the physical and  
the moral world1 then all these should  
have their influence in reaching final  
conclusions4  #d4 ,the philosophies1    
ancient and modern1 have agreed in      
lowering the common estimate of man as  
man2 they have exerted an influence the 
opposite of that in which the ,new      
,testament pleads for a common and an   
exalted brotherhood of the race4        
,hinduism raised the ,brahman almost to 
the dignity of the gods1 and debased the
 ,sudra to a grade but a little higher  
than the brute4 ,buddha declared that   

his teachings were for the wise1 and not
 for the simple4 ,the philosophers of   
,greece and ,rome1 even the best of     
them1 regarded the helot and the slave  
as of an inferior grade of beings--even 
though occasionally a slave by his      
superior force rose to a high degree4   
,in like manner the whole tendency of   
modern evolution is to degrade the      
dignity and sacredness of humanity4 ,it 
is searching for missing links2 it      
measures the skulls of degraded races   
for proofs of its theories4 ,it has     
travellers and adventurers on the       
lookout for tribes who have no          
conception of ,god1 and no religious    
rites2 it searches caves and dredges    
lakes for historical traces of man when 
he had but recently learned to stand    
upright upon his hind legs4 ,the lower  
the types that can be found1 the more   
valuable are they for the purposes      
required4 ,all this tends to the        
dishonoring of the inferior types of    
men4 ,wherever ,christianity had changed

 the old estimates of the philosophers1 
and had led to the nobler sentiment that
 ,god had made of one blood all nations 
and races1 and had stamped ,his own     
image on them all1 and even redeemed    
them all by the sacrifice of ,his ,son1 
the speculations of sceptical biology   
have in a measure counteracted its      
benign influence4 ,they have fostered   
the contempt of various classes for a   
dark skin or an inferior civilization4  
,they indirectly encourage those who1   
with little merit of their own1 speak   
contemptuously of the ,buck ,indian1 the
 ,nigger1 the ,heathen ,chinee4 ,they   
encourage the hoodlum1 and so far as    
they have any influence1 give an implied
 sanction to much unrighteous           
legislation4  ,even ,peschel1 who will  
not be suspected of any bias toward     
,christianity1 has said on this subject3
 ,this dark side of the life of         
uncivilized nations has induced         
barbarous and inhuman settlers in       
transoceanic regions to assume as their 

own a right to cultivate as their own   
the inheritance of the aborigines1 and  
to extol the murder of races as a       
triumph of civilization4 ,other writers1
 led away by ,darwinian dogmas1 fancied 
that they had discovered populations    
which had1 as it were1 remained in a    
former animal condition for the         
instruction of our times4 ,and he adds3 
,thus in the words of a ',history of    
,creation1' in the taste now prevalent1 
'in ,southern ,asia and the ,east of    
,africa men live in hordes1 mostly      
climbing trees and eating fruit1        
unacquainted with fire1 and using no    
weapons but stones and clubs1 after the 
manner of the higher apes4' ,it can be  
shown1 he continues1 that these         
statements are derived from the writings
 of a learned scholar of ,bonn on the   
condition of savage nations1 the facts  
of which are based either on the        
depositions of an ,african slave of the 
,doko tribe1 a dwarfish people in the   
south of ,shoa1 or on the assertions of 

,bengalese planters1 or perhaps on the  
observations of a sporting adventurer1  
that a mother and daughter1 and at      
another time a man and woman1 were found
 in ,india in a semi-animal condition4  
,on the other hand1 not only have       
neither nations1 nor even hordes1 in an 
ape-like condition ever been encountered
 by any trustworthy traveller of modern 
times1 but even those races which in the
 first superficial descriptions were    
ranked far below our grade of           
civilization have1 on nearer            
acquaintance1 been placed much nearer   
the civilized nations4 ,no portion of   
the human race has yet been discovered  
which does not possess a more or less   
rich vocabulary1 rules of language1     
artificially pointed weapons1 and       
various implements1 as well as the art  
of kindling fire4#aib  ,the assertion   
has been made again and again that races
 are found which are possessed of no    
knowledge or conception of ,deity1 but  
this assumption has been thoroughly     

refuted by ,max ,mueller and many       
others4  ,there is a very general       
assumption abroad in the world that     
bigotry and even bias of judgment belong
 exclusively to the advocates of        
religious truth1 and that the teachers  
of agnostic science are1 in the nature  
of the case1 impartial and therefore    
authoritative4 ,but the generalizations 
which have been massed by non-,christian
 anthropologists and sociologists are   
often gleaned and culled under the      
strongest subserviency to some favorite 
hypothesis1 and that on the most        
superficial observation and from the    
most unreliable authorities4 ,de        
,quatrefages1 an anthropologist of      
profound learning1 and certainly with no
 predilections for ,christian theism1 in
 speaking of the alleged evidences given
 by ,sir ,john ,lubbock and             
,saint-,hilaire to show that many races 
of men have been found destitute of any 
conception of ,deity1 says3 ,when the   
writers against whom ,i am now arguing  

have to choose between two evidences1   
the one attesting1 and the other        
denying1 the existence of religious     
belief in a population1 it is always the
 latter which they seem to think should 
be accepted4 ,more often than not1 they 
do not even mention the contrary        
evidences1 however definite1 however    
authentic they may be4 ,now1 it is      
evidently much easier not to see than to
 discover that which may be in so many  
ways rendered inappreciable to our eyes4
 ,when a traveller states that he has   
proved the existence of religious       
sentiments in a population which by     
others has been declared destitute of   
them1 when he gives precise details upon
 such a delicate question1 he has       
unquestionably at least probability in  
his favor4 ,i see nothing to authorize  
this rejection of positive evidence and 
unconditional acceptance of negative    
evidence4 ,this1 however1 is too often  
the case4 ,i might justify this         
imputation by taking one by one almost  

all the examples of so-called atheist   
populations pointed out by different    
authors4#aic ,de ,quatrefages then      
proceeds to show how1 with respect to   
,american tribes1 ,robertson is quoted  
while ,d',orbigny is passed in silence1 
even though he has by the testimony of  
many authors disproved the statements of
 ,robertson2 how ,baegert's negative and
 sweeping statements in regard to the   
,california tribes are accepted1 while  
the very specific testimony of ,de      
,mofras in regard both to the fact and  
to the nature of their worship is       
rejected4 ,in relation to the           
,mincopies1 ,mouat 7negative7 is adopted
 against ,symes and ,day4 ,the          
,hottentots are adjudged atheistic on   
the testimony of ,le ,vaillant1 in spite
 of the united witness of ,kolben1      
,saar1 ,tachard1 ,boeving1 and          
,campbell4 ,the ,kaffirs are declared to
 be destitute of religion on the        
statements of ,burchel1 while           
,livingstone and ,cazalis have given    

clear accounts of the religion of the   
different ,kaffir tribes4  ,in a similar
 manner ,professor ,flint1 of           
,edinburgh1 arraigns ,sir ,john ,lubbock
 and certain other advocates of the     
atheistic theory concerning savage      
tribes1 for the partiality of their     
selection of testimony and for the      
superficial evidence which they accept  
when favorable to their theories4 ,after
 reviewing ,lubbock's wholesale         
quotations concerning the ,indian tribes
 of ,brazil1 he says1 ,these are ,sir   
,john ,lubbock's instances from ,south  
,american tribes4 ,but ,i find that they
 are all either erroneous or            
insufficiently established4 ,and he     
gives many counter-proofs4 ,it will     
never do1 he says1 to believe such      
sweeping statements--sweeping           
negatives--merely because they happen to
 be printed4 ,farther on he adds3 ,but  
,i think that he 7,lubbock7 might have  
told us that ,humboldt1 whose travels in
 ,south ,america were so extensive1     

whose explorations were so varied1      
scientific1 and successful1 and who     
certainly was uninfluenced by           
traditional theological beliefs1 found  
no tribes and peoples without a         
religion2 and that ,prince ,max von     
,neuwied tells us that in all his many  
and wide wanderings in ,brazil he had   
found no tribes the members of which did
 not give manifest signs of religious   
feelings4  ,in the appendix of the book 
from which these extracts are made1     
,professor ,flint says3 ,no one1 ,i     
think1 who has not a theory to maintain 
can consider the circumstances in which 
most of the ,brazilian ,indian tribes   
are placed without coming to the        
conclusion that they must have sunk from
 a higher intellectual and religious    
level4  ,i have dwelt at length upon    
these arraignments of the careless and  
biased utterances of supposed           
scientists1 because it is so much the   
fashion of our times to support certain 
theories of anthropology by massing the 

supposed evidences of man's degradation 
found1 even now1 in the environments of 
savage life4 ,many readers1 apparently  
dazed by the vast accumulation of       
indiscriminate and heterogeneous        
statements which they have no time to   
examine1 yield an easy and blind assent1
 based either on the supposed wisdom of 
the writer or upon the fact that so many
 others believe1 and they imagine that  
no little courage is required on their  
part to risk the loss of intellectual   
caste4 ,a vast amount of the thinking of
 our age1 although it claims to be      
scientific1 is really a matter of simple
 faith--faith in the opinions and dicta 
of distinguished leaders4 ,and under    
such circumstances1 is it not our       
privilege and our duty as ,christian men
 to at least challenge and              
cross-question those theories which     
depress and dishonor our common humanity
 before we yield them our assent8  ,the 
majority of scientists now so           
confidently assume the certain          

derivation of man from lower orders of  
life1 that1 as ,max ,mueller has        
expressed it1 their intolerance greets  
with a perfect howl of derision a man   
like ,virchow1 who dares to declare that
 proof of man's derivation from animals 
is still wanting4 ,nevertheless         
,virchow1 himself an evolutionist1      
maintains his ground1 as the following  
passage quoted some months since from   
,the ,london ,tablet will show3  ,some  
sensation has been caused at the recent 
,anthropological ,congress in ,vienna by
 the speech of the great ,berlin        
biologist1 ,professor ,virchow4 ,about a
 year ago ,virchow1 on a similar        
occasion1 made a severe attack on the   
,darwinian position1 and this year he is
 similarly outspoken4 ,we make the      
following extracts from his long address
 to the ,congress3  ',twenty years ago1 
when we met at ,innspruck1 it was       
precisely the moment when the ,darwinian
 theory had made its first victorious   
mark throughout the world4 ,my friend   

,vogt at once rushed into the ranks of  
the champions of this doctrine4 ,we have
 since sought in vain for the           
intermediate stages which were supposed 
to connect man with the apes2 the       
proto-man1 the pro-anthropos is not yet 
discovered4 ,for anthropological science
 the pro-anthropos is not even a subject
 of discussion4 ,the anthropologist may1
 perhaps1 see him in a dream1 but as    
soon as he awakes he cannot say that he 
has made any approach toward him4 ,at   
that time in ,innspruck the prospect    
was1 apparently1 that the course of     
descent from ape to man would be        
reconstructed all at once1 but now we   
cannot even prove the descent of the    
separate races from one another4#aid ,at
 this moment we are able to say that    
among the peoples of antiquity no single
 one was any nearer to the apes than we 
are4 ,at this moment ,i can affirm that 
there is not upon earth any absolutely  
unknown race of men4 ,the least known of
 all are the peoples of the central     

mountainous districts of the ,malay     
peninsula1 but otherwise we know the    
people of ,terra del ,fuego quite as    
well as the ,eskimo1 ,bashkirs1         
,polynesians1 and ,lapps4 ,nay6 we know 
more of many of these races than we do  
of certain ,european tribes4 ,i need    
only mention the ,albanians4 ,every     
living race is still human2 no single   
one has yet been found that we can      
designate as ,simian or quasi-,simian4  
,even when in certain ones phenomena    
appear which are characteristic of the  
apes--e4g41 the peculiar ape-like       
projections of the skull in certain     
races--still we cannot on that account  
alone say that these men are ape-like4  
,as regards the ,lake dwellings1 ,i have
 been able to submit to comparative     
examination nearly every single skull   
that has been found4 ,the result has    
been that we have certainly met with    
opposite characteristics among various  
races2 but of all these there is not one
 that lies outside of the boundaries of 

our present population4 ,it can thus be 
positively demonstrated that in the     
course of five thousand years no change 
of type worthy of mention has taken     
place4 ,if you ask me whether the first 
man were white or black1 ,i can only say
 ,i don't know4'  ,professor ,virchow   
thus summed up the question as to what  
anthropological science during the last 
forty years has gained1 and whether1 as 
many contend1 it has gone forward or    
backward4  ',twenty years ago the       
leaders of our science asserted that    
they knew many things which1 as a matter
 of fact1 they did not know4 ,nowadays  
we know what we know4 ,i can only reckon
 up our account in so far as to say that
 we have made no debts2 that is1 we have
 made no loan from hypotheses2 we are in
 no danger of seeing that which we know 
over-turned in the course of the next   
moment4 ,we have levelled the ground so 
that the coming generation may make     
abundant use of the material at their   
disposition4 ,as an attainable objective

 of the next twenty years1 we must look 
to the anthropology of the ,european    
nationalities4'  #e4 ,another           
demoralizing type of speculation which  
has exerted a wide influence in many    
ages and on many nations is pantheism4  
,by abdicating the place and function of
 the conscious ego1 by making all things
 mere specialized expressions of        
infinite ,deity1 and yet failing to     
grasp any clear conception of what is   
meant by ,deity1 men have gradually     
destroyed that sense of moral           
responsibility which the most savage    
show to have been a common heritage4 ,it
 is not among the lowest and most simple
 races that missionaries find the       
greatest degree of obtuseness and       
insensibility with respect to sin2 it is
 among populations like those of ,india1
 where the natural promptings of        
conscience have been sophisticated by   
philosophic theories4 ,the old          
,vedantism1 by representing all things  
as mere phenomenal expressions of       

infinite ,brahm1 tended necessarily to  
destroy all sense of personal           
responsibility4 ,the abdication of the  
personal ego is an easy way of shifting 
the burden of guilt4 ,the late ,naryan  
,sheshadri declared that one thing which
 led him to renounce ,hinduism was the  
fact that1 when he came to trace its    
underlying principles to their last     
logical result he saw no ground of moral
 responsibility left4 ,it plunged him   
into an abyss of intellectual and moral 
darkness without chart or compass4 ,it  
paralyzed conscience and moral          
sensibility4  ,it is equally impossible 
to reason ourselves into any            
consciousness of merit or demerit1 if we
 are moved only by some vague law of    
nature whose behest1 as described by    
,mr4 ,buckle1 we cannot resist1 whose   
operations within us we cannot discern1 
and whose drift or tendency we cannot   
foresee4 ,it makes little difference    
whether we build our faith upon the god 
of pantheism or upon the unknowable but 

impersonal force which is supposed to   
move the world1 which operates in the   
same ways upon all grades of existence  
from the archangel to the mote in the   
sunbeam1 which moves the molecules of   
the human brain only as it stirs the    
globules of sap in the tree or plant4   
,it is difficult to see how1 upon any   
such hypothesis1 we are any more        
responsible for our volitions and       
affections than we are for our          
heart-beats or respirations4 ,and yet we
 are conscious of responsibility in the 
one case and not in the other4          
,consciousness comes in with tremendous 
force at just this point1 all theories  
and speculations to the contrary        
notwithstanding4 ,and we dare not       
disregard its testimony or its claims4  
,we know that we are morally            
responsible4  #f4 ,many philosophic     
systems1 ancient and modern1 have tended
 to fill the world with gloomy          
pessimism4 ,pessimism is very old and   
very widespread4 ,schopenhauer          

acknowledges his indebtedness to        
,gautama for much of the philosophy     
which is known by his name4 ,in         
,hinduism and ,buddhism1 as well as in  
the teachings of the ,german pessimists1
 the natural complainings of the human  
heart are organized into philosophical  
systems4 ,there is in all human nature  
quite enough of querulousness against   
the unequal allotments of ,providence1  
but all these systems inculcate and     
foster that discontent by the sanctions 
of philosophy4 ,the whole assumption of 
,the ,light of ,asia is that the power  
that upholds and governs the world is a 
hard master1 from whose leash we should 
escape if we can by annihilating our    
powers and faculties1 and abdicating our
 conscious being2 that the world and the
 entire constitution of things are all  
wrong2 that misery is everywhere in the 
ascendant1 and that man and beast can   
only make common cause against the      
tyranny of a reckless fate1 and cry out 
with common voice for some sympathizing 

benefactor who can pity and deliver4    
,there is no hint that sin has wrought  
the evil4 ,man is not so much a sinner  
as the victim of a hard lot2 he is      
unfortunate1 and it is the world that is
 wrong4 ,therefore the true end of life 
is to get rid of the recurrence of life4
  ,in much of our modern agnosticism    
there is the same dark outlook1 and     
agnosticism naturally joins hands with  
pessimism4 ,dr4 ,noah ,porter1 in one of
 the series of ,present-,day ,tracts1   
has shown it to be a doctrine of        
despair4 ,a well-known lecturer who has 
loudly declaimed against what he        
considers the remorseless character of  
the ,old ,testament1 has acknowledged   
that it is not more cruel than nature2  
that in the actual world about us we    
find the same dark mystery1 the weak    
perishing before the strong1 the wicked 
prosperous1 the just oppressed1 and the 
innocent given as a prey to the guilty2 
and his conclusion is that deism is no  
more defensible than ,christianity4 ,his

 pessimistic estimate of the actual     
world drives him to a disbelief in a    
personal ,god4  ,we do not ignore the   
sad facts of life2 even the ,christian  
is often saddened by the mysteries which
 he cannot explain4 ,bishop ,j4 ,boyd   
,carpenter1 in speaking of the sad and  
cheerless spirit of ,buddhism1 has said3
 ,there are moments in which we are all 
,buddhists2 when life has disappointed  
us1 when weariness is upon us1 when the 
keen anguish born of the sight of human 
suffering appals and benumbs us1 when we
 are frozen to terror1 and our manhood  
flies at the sight of the ,medusa-like  
head of the world's unappeased and      
unappeasable agony2 then we too are torn
 by the paroxysm of anguish2 we would   
flee to the ,nirvana of oblivion and    
unconsciousness1 turning our back upon  
what we cannot alleviate1 and longing to
 lay down the burden of life1 and to    
escape from that which has become       
insupportable4#aie ,but these are only  
the dark and seemingly forsaken hours in

 which men sit in despair beneath the   
juniper-tree and imagine that all the   
world has gone wrong4 ,the juniper-tree 
in ,christianity is the exception2 the  
,bo-tree of ,buddhism1 with the same    
despondent estimate1 is the rule4 ,no   
divine message came to show the ,buddha 
a brighter side4 ,and the agnostic stops
 his ears that no voice of cheer may be 
heard4 ,the whole philosophy of         
,buddhism and of modern agnosticism is  
pessimistic4 ,the word and ,spirit of   
,god do not deny the sad facts of human 
life in a world of sin1 but they enable 
the ,christian to triumph over them1 and
 even to rejoice in tribulation4  #g4   
,and this leads to one more common      
feature of all false systems1 their     
fatalism4 ,among the exaggerated claims 
which are made for heathen religions in 
our day1 it is alleged that they rest   
upon a more humane philosophy than      
appears in the grim fatalism of our     
,christian theology1 especially that of 
the ,calvinistic type4 ,without entering

 upon any defence of ,christian         
doctrines of one type or another1 it    
would be easy to show that fatalism1    
complete and unmitigated1 is at the     
foundation of all ,oriental religion and
 philosophy1 all ancient or modern      
pantheism1 and most of the various types
 of agnosticism4 ,while this has been   
the point at which all infidel systems  
have assailed the ,christian faith1 it  
has nevertheless been the goal which    
they have all reached by their own      
speculations4 ,they have differed from  
,christianity in that their             
predestinating1 determining force1      
instead of being qualified by any play  
of free-will1 or any feasible plan of   
ultimate and superabounding good1 has   
been a real fatalism1 changeless1       
hopeless1 remorseless4 ,that the distaff
 of the ,fates1 and the ruthless sceptre
 of the ,erinnys1 entered in full force 
into all the religions of the ,greeks   
and ,romans1 scarcely needs to be       
affirmed4 ,they controlled all human    

affairs1 and even the gods were subject 
to them4 ,the ,sagas of the ,northmen   
also were full of fatalism1 and that    
principle still survives in the         
folk-lore and common superstitions of   
all ,scandinavian1 ,teutonic1 and       
,celtic races4  ,the fatalism of the    
,hindus is plainly stated in the ,code  
of ,manu1 which declares that1 in order 
to distinguish actions1 he 7the creator7
 separated merit from demerit4 ,to      
whatever course of action the ,lord     
appointed each kind of being1 that alone
 it has spontaneously adopted in each   
succeeding creation4 ,whatever he has   
assigned to each at the first creation1 
noxiousness or harmlessness1 gentleness 
or ferocity1 virtue or sin1 truth or    
falsehood1 that clings to it4#aif ,the  
same doctrine is put in still more      
offensive form when it is declared that 
,manu 7here used in the sense of        
creator7 allotted to woman a love of her
 bed1 of her seat1 of ornament1 also    
impure desires1 wrath1 dishonesty1 and  

bad conduct4#aig ,there would be some   
relief from this horrible doctrine if in
 subsequent chapters of ,manu there were
 kindly tokens of grace1 or sympathy for
 woman1 or any light of hope here or    
hereafter2 but the whole teaching and   
spirit of the ,code rests as an iron    
yoke upon womanhood1 and it is largely a
 result of this high authority that the 
female sex has for ages been subjected  
to the most cruel tyranny and           
degradation4 ,it might well be said     
that1 in spite of the horrors of        
infanticide1 the most merciful element  
of ,hinduism with respect to woman is   
the custom by which so large a          
proportion of female children have been 
destroyed at birth4 ,the same fatalistic
 principles affect all ranks and        
conditions of ,hindu society4 ,the poor 
,sudra is not only low-born and         
degraded1 but he is immovably fixed in  
his degradation4 ,he is cut off from all
 hope or aspiration2 he cannot rise from
 the thraldom of his fate4 ,in the      

,bhagavad ,gita1 ,krishna declares to   
,arjuna that it is     ,better to do the
 duty of one's caste     ,though bad or 
ill performed1 and fraught with evil1   
,than undertake the business of another1
     ,however good it be4  ,thus even   
the laws of right and wrong are         
subordinate to the fatality of caste1   
and all aspiration is paralyzed4  ,on   
the other hand1 it has been acknowledged
 repeatedly that the sternest type of   
,puritan theology1 as a moral and       
political force1 is full of inspiration2
 it does not deaden the soul2 it        
stimulates the action of free-will2 its 
moral earnestness has been a great power
 in molding national destinies4 ,mr4    
,bancroft has not hesitated to declare  
that the great charters of human liberty
 are largely due to its strong          
conception of a divine and              
all-controlling purpose4 ,even ,matthew 
,arnold admitted that its stern ,hebraic
 culture1 as he called it1 had wrought  
some of the grandest achievements of    

history4 ,but ,hindu fatalists1 noble   
,aryans as they were at first1 have been
 conquered by every race of invaders    
that has chosen to assail them4 ,and no 
better result could have been expected  
from a philosophy whose summum bonum is 
the renunciation of life as not worth   
living1 and the loss of all personality 
by absorption into the ,one supreme     
existence4  ,buddhism does not present  
the same fatalistic theory of creation  
as ,brahminism1 but it introduces even a
 more aggravated fatalism into human    
life4 ,both alike load down the         
newly-born with burdens of guilt and    
consequent suffering transmitted from   
previous existences4 ,but in the case of
 ,buddhism there is no identity between 
the sinner1 who incurred the guilt1 and 
the recipient of the evil kharma1 which 
demands punishment4 ,every man comes    
into the world entangled in the moral   
bankruptcy of some one who has gone     
before1 he knows not who nor where4     
,there is no consciousness of identity1 

no remembrance1 no possible sense of    
guilt1 or notion of responsibility4 ,it 
is not the same soul that suffers1 for  
in either case there is no soul2 there  
is only a bundle of so-called           
skandhas--certain faculties of mind and 
body newly combined whose interaction   
produces thought and emotion4 ,yet there
 is conscious suffering4 ,scoffers have 
long pointed with indignation at the    
,christian doctrine that a child        
inherits a moral bias from his parents1 
but nowadays evolutionists carry the law
 of heredity to an extreme which no     
hyper-,calvinist ever thought of1 and   
many cavillers at original sin have     
become eloquent in their praises of     
,buddhism1 which handicaps each child   
with the accumulated demerit of         
pre-existent beings with whom he had no 
connection whatever4#aih ,the ,christian
 doctrine imputes punishable guilt only 
so far as each one's free choice makes  
the sin his own3 the dying infant who   
has no choice is saved by grace2 but    

upon every ,buddhist1 however           
short-lived1 there rests an heir-loom of
 destiny which countless transmigrations
 cannot discharge4  ,in ,mohammedanism  
the doctrine of fate--clear1 express1   
and emphatic--is fully set forth4 ,the  
,koran resorts to no euphemism or       
circumlocution in declaring it4 ,thus1  
in ,sura lxxiv4 #c1 #d1 we read3 ,thus  
doth ,god cause to err whom he pleases1 
and directeth whom he pleases4 ,again1  
,sura xx4 #d1 says3 ,the fate of every  
man have we bound round his neck4 ,as is
 well known1 fatalism as a practical    
doctrine of life has passed into all    
,mohammedan society4 ,kismet 7it is     
fated7 is the exclamation of despair    
with which a ,moslem succumbs to        
adversity and often dies without an     
effort to recover4 ,in times of         
pestilence missionaries in ,syria have  
sometimes found whole villages paralyzed
 with despair4 ,yielding to the fatalism
 of their creed1 the poor mountaineers  
have abandoned all means of cure and    

resigned themselves to their fate4 ,the 
same fatal paralysis has affected all   
liberty of thought1 all inventiveness   
and enterprise1 all reform of evils1 all
 higher aspiration of the oppressed     
people4  ,with the lower forms of       
religious belief1 fetishism1 animism1   
serpent worship1 demon worship1 the case
 is still worse4 ,the only deities that 
are practically recognized in these rude
 faiths are generally supposed to be    
malevolent beings1 who have not only    
fixed an evil fate upon men1 but whose  
active and continued function it is to  
torment them4 ,though there is a        
lingering belief in a ,supreme ,being   
who created all things1 yet he is far   
off and incomprehensible4 ,he has left  
his creatures in the hands of inferior  
deities1 at whose mercy they pass a     
miserable existence4 ,looking at the    
dark facts of life and having no        
revelation of a merciful ,god they form 
their estimates of ,deity from their    
trials1 hardships1 fears1 and they are  

filled with dread2 all their religious  
rites have been devised for appeasing   
the powers that dominate and distress   
the world4 ,and yet a pronounced        
agnostic has asked us to believe that   
even this wide-spread horror1 this      
universal nightmare of heathen          
superstition1 is more humane than the   
,calvinistic creed4  ,if we inquire into
 the tendency of all types of ancient or
 modern pantheism in this particular    
phase1 we shall find them1 without      
exception1 fatalistic4 ,they not merely 
make ,god the author of sin--they make  
,him the sinner4 ,our misdeeds are not  
our acts1 but ,god's4 ,thus the vaunted 
,bhagavad ,gita1 uniting the ,sankhyan  
and the ,vedanta philosophies1 makes    
,krishna say to ,arjuna3 ,all actions   
are incessantly performed by operation  
of the qualities of ,prakriti 7the      
self-existing ,essence74 ,deluded by the
 thought of individuality1 the soul     
vainly believes itself to be the doer4  
,the soul1 existing from eternity1      

devoid of qualities1 imperishable1      
abiding in the body1 acts not1 nor is by
 any act polluted4 ,he who sees that    
actions are performed by ,prakriti      
alone1 and that the soul is not an      
actor1 perceives the truth4#aii ,such is
 ,hindu pantheism4 ,yet this most       
inconsistent system charges man with    
guilt4 ,it represents his inexorable    
fate as pursuing him through endless    
transmigrations1 holding over him the   
lash of retribution1 while it exacts the
 very last farthing4 ,still1 from first 
to last1 it is not he that acts1 but    
some fractional part of the ,one only   
,existence which fills all space4  ,the 
philosophy of ,spinoza was quite as     
fatalistic as the ,hindu ,vedanta4 ,he  
taught1 according to ,schwegler1 that   
,the finite has no independent existence
 in itself3 it exists because the       
unrestrained productive energy of the   
7infinite7 ,substance spontaneously     
produced an infinite variety of         
particular forms4 ,it has1 however1 no  

proper reality2 it exists only in and   
through the ,substance4 ,finite things  
are the most external1 the last1 the    
most subordinate forms of existence into
 which the universal life is            
specialized1 and they manifest their    
finitude in that they are without       
resistance1 subject to the infinite     
chain of causality which binds the      
world4 ,the divine ,substance works     
freely according to the inner essence of
 its own nature2 individuals1 however1  
are not free1 but are subject to the    
influence of those things with which    
they come into contact4 ,it follows from
 these metaphysical grounds1 ,schwegler 
continues1 that what is called free-will
 cannot be admitted4 ,for1 since man is 
only a mode1 he1 like any other mode1   
stands in an endless series of          
conditioning causes1 and no free-will   
can1 therefore1 be predicated of him4   
,further on he adds3 ,evil1 or sin1 is1 
therefore1 only relative and not        
positive1 for nothing happens against   

,god's will4 ,it is only a simple       
negation or deprivation1 which only     
seems to be a reality in our            
representation4#bjj ,the late ,samuel   
,johnson1 in his chapter on ,the        
,morality and ,piety of ,pantheism1     
undertakes to defend both the ,vedantic 
and the ,spinozan philosophy by pointing
 out a distinction between an external  
compulsion and an inner force which     
merges us in the ,infinite4 ,though both
 are equally efficient as to the result1
 and both are inconsistent with         
individual freedom1 yet real fate is    
only that which is external4444 ,while  
destiny or fate in the sense of absolute
 external compulsion would certainly be 
destructive1 not only of moral          
responsibility but of personality       
itself1 yet religion or science without 
fate is radically unsound4 ,again he    
adds3 ,we cannot separate perfection and
 fate4 ,deity whose sway is not destiny 
is not venerable1 nor even reliable4 ,it
 would be a purpose that did not round  

the universe1 a love that could not     
preserve it4 ,theism without fate is a  
kind of atheism1 and a self-dominated   
atheism4 ,but holding justice to be the 
true necessity or fate1 is properly     
theism1 though it refuses the name4#bja 
,the reasoning here reminds one of the  
conclusions of a still more recent      
writer1 who while condemning what he    
considers the fatalism of ,calvinistic  
theology1 still asserts that its logic  
leaves no alternative but the denial of 
a personal ,god4 ,and an early ,buddhist
 philosopher has left a fragment which  
gives the very same reason for          
agnosticism4 ,thus he says3 ,if the     
world was made by ,god 7,isvara7 there  
should be no such thing as sorrow or    
calamity1 nor doing wrong1 nor doing    
right2 for all1 both pure and impure1   
deeds must come from ,isvara4444 ,if he 
makes without a purpose he is like a    
suckling child1 or with a purpose1 he is
 not complete4 ,sorrow and joy spring up
 in all that lives2 these1 at least1 are

 not alike the works of ,isvara1 for if 
he causes love and joy he must himself  
have love and hate4 ,but if he loves and
 hates1 he is not rightly called        
self-existent4 ',twere equal1 then1 the 
doing right or doing wrong4 ,there      
should be no reward of works2 the works 
themselves being his1 then all things   
are the same to him1 the maker4  ,this  
was a ,buddhist's answer to the ,hindu  
pantheism1 and there follows a reply    
also to the ,oriental dualism which     
attempted to solve the difficulty by    
assigning two great first causes1 one   
good and the other evil4 ,nay1 says this
 ,buddhist philosopher1 if you say there
 is another cause beside this ,isvara1  
then he is not the end or sum of all1   
and therefore all that lives may1 after 
all1 be uncreated1 and so you see the   
thought of ,isvara is overthrown4#bjb   
,thus the same problems of existence    
have taxed human speculation in all     
lands and all ages4 ,the same           
perplexities have arisen1 and the same  

cavils and complaints4  ,there is an    
important sense in which all forms of   
materialism are fatalistic in their     
relation to moral responsibility4 ,james
 ,buechner assures us that what is      
called man's soul or mind is now almost 
universally conceded as equivalent to a 
function of the substance of the brain4 
,walter ,bagehot1 like ,maudsley1       
suggests that the newly born child has  
his destiny inscribed on his nervous    
tissues4#bjc ,mr4 ,buckle assures us    
that certain underlying but indefinable 
laws of society1 as indicated by        
statistics1 control human action        
irrespective of choice or moral         
responsibility4 ,even accidents1 the    
averages of forgetfulness or neglect1   
are the subjects of computation4 ,to    
support his position he cites the       
averages of suicides1 or the number of  
letters deposited yearly in a given     
post-office1 the superscription of which
 has been forgotten4 ,thus1 underlying  
all human activity there is an unknown  

force1 a vague something--call it       
,deity1 or call it ,fate--which controls
 human affairs irresistibly4  ,it would 
be amusing1 if it were not sad1 to see  
what devices and what names have been   
resorted to in order to get rid of a    
personal ,god4 ,the ,hindu ,sankhyans   
ascribed all things to the ,eternally   
,existing ,essence4 ,the ,greek         
,atomists called it an ,inconceivable   
,necessity2 ,anaxagoras1 ,the           
,world-forming ,intelligence2 ,hegel1   
,absolute ,idea2 ,spinoza1 ,absolute    
,substance2 ,schopenhauer1 ,unconscious 
,will4 ,spencer finds only ,the         
,unknowable2 ,darwin's virtual ,creator 
is ,natural ,selection2 ,matthew ,arnold
 recognize a ,stream of ,tendency not   
our own which makes for righteousness4  
,nothing can be more melancholy than    
this dreary waste of human speculation1 
this weary and bootless search after the
 secret of the universe4 ,at the same   
time a deaf ear is turned to those      
voices of nature and revelation which   

speak of a benevolent ,creator4 ,but the
 point to which ,i call particular      
attention in this connection is1 that   
these vague terms1 whatever else they   
may mean1 imply in each case some law of
 necessity which moulds the world4 ,they
 are only the names of the ,fates whom  
all philosophies have set over us4 ,if  
we have been correct in tracing an      
element of fatalism through all the     
heathen faiths1 and all ancient and     
modern philosophies1 how is it that the 
whole army of unbelief concentrate their
 assailments against divine sovereignty 
in the ,word of ,god1 and yet are ready 
to laud and approve these systems which 
exhibit the same things in greater      
degree and without mitigation8  ,that   
which differentiates ,christianity is   
the fact that1 while it does represent  
,god as the originator and controller of
 all things1 it yet respects the freedom
 of the human will1 which ,mohammedanism
 does not1 which ,hinduism does not1    
which ancient or modern ,buddhism does  

not1 which ,materialism does not4 ,not  
only the ,word of ,god but our own      
reason tells us that the ,creator of    
this world must have proceeded upon a   
definite and all-embracing plan2 and yet
 at the same time1 not only the ,word of
 ,god1 but our own consciousness1 tells 
us that we are free to act according to 
our own will4 ,how these things are to  
be reconciled we know not1 simply       
because we are finite and ,god is       
infinite4 ,i once stood before the great
 snowy range of the ,himalayas1 whose   
lofty peaks rose twenty-five thousand   
feet above the sea4 ,none could see how 
those gigantic masses stood related to  
each other1 simply because no mortal    
ever has explored1 or ever can explore1 
their awful and unapproachable recesses4
  ,so with many great truths concerning 
the being1 attributes1 and works of     
,god4 ,one may say that ,god            
predetermined and then foresaw what ,he 
had ordained2 another that ,he foresaw  
and then resolved to effect what he had 

foreseen4 ,neither is correct1 or at    
least neither can know that he is       
correct4 ,god is not subject to our     
conditions of time and space4 ,it is    
impossible that ,he1 whose knowledge and
 will encompass all things1 should be   
affected by our notions of order and    
sequence2 there is with ,him no before  
and after4 ,the whole universe1 with all
 its farthest extended history1 stood   
before ,him from all eternity as one    
conception and as one purpose2 and the  
conception and the purpose were one4    
,the too frequent mistake of human      
formulas is that they undertake to      
reason out infinite mysteries on our low
 anthropomorphic lines1 one in one      
extreme and another in another4 ,we     
cannot fit the ways of ,god to the      
measure of our logic or our metaphysics4
 ,what we have to do with many things is
 simply to believe and trust and        
wait4#bjd ,on the other hand1 there are 
many things of a practical nature which 
,god has made very plain4 ,he has       

brought them down to us4 ,the whole     
scheme of grace is an adaptation of the 
mysteries of the ,godhead to our        
knowledge1 faith1 obedience1 and love4  
,and this leads directly to the chief   
differential which ,christianity        
presents in contrast with the fatalisms 
of false systems1 viz41 that while sin  
and death abound1 as all must see1 the  
,gospel alone reveals a superabounding  
grace4 ,it is enough for us that the    
whole scheme is one of ,redemption1 that
 the ,lamb was slain from the foundation
 of the world--nay1 that ,he made the   
world1 and made it for an infinitely    
benevolent purpose4 ,if dark mysteries  
appear in the ,word or in the world1 we 
are to view them in the light of        
,calvary1 and wait till we can see as we
 are seen2 for this world is ,christ's1 
and will surely subserve ,his ends1     
which are those of infinite compassion4 
,our position1 therefore1 as before the 
abettors of heathen or agnostic         
philosophy1 is impregnable3 the fatalism

 is all theirs1 the union of sovereign  
power with infinite love is ours4 ,we   
have reason as well as they4 ,we realize
 the facts and mysteries of life as     
fully as they1 but are not embittered by
 them4 ,we see nothing to be gained by  
putting out the light we have4 ,we      
prefer faith to pessimism1 incarnate    
love to the tyranny of unconscious will4
   ,,footnotes3  ,footnote #ahd3 ,quoted
 in ,fiske's ,destiny of ,man1 p4 #aag4 
,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,indian ,wisdom1 p4
 #hb4  ,footnote #ahf3 ,what ,kanada    
meant by adrishta was a sort of habit of
 matter derived from its past           
combinations in a previous cosmos1 one  
or more4 ,the rod which has been bent   
will bend again1 and so matter which has
 once been combined will unite again4   
,footnote #ahg3 ,evolution and its      
,relation to ,religious ,thought1 p4    
#cbg4  ,footnote #ahh3 ,on ,natural     
,selection1 p4 #cec4  ,footnote #ahi3   
,the ,destiny of ,man1 p4 #hj4          
,footnote #aij3 ,evolution and its      

,relation to ,religious ,thought1 p4    
#hh4  ,footnote #aia3 ,some of ,goldwin 
,smith's utterances are such as these3  
,if morality has been based on religion 
there must be reason to fear that the   
foundation being removed the            
superstructure will fall4 ,that it has  
rested on religion so far as the great  
majority are concerned will hardly be   
doubted4 444 ,the presence of this      
theistic sanction has been especially   
apparent in all acts and lives of all   
heroic self-sacrifice and self-devotion4
 444 ,all moral philosophers whose      
philosophy has been practically         
effective1 from ,socrates down1 have    
been religious4 ,many have tried to find
 an independent basis but have not been 
successful--at least have not arrived at
 any agreement4 444 ,thucydides ascribed
 the fall of ,greece to the fall of     
religion4 ,machiavelianism followed the 
fall of the ,catholic faith4 444 ,into  
the void left by religion came spiritual
 charlatanry and physical superstition1 

such as the arts of the hierophant of   
,isis1 the soothsayer1 the              
astrologer--significant precursors of   
our modern mediums4 444 ,conscience as a
 mere evolution of tribal experience may
 have importance1 but it can have no    
authority1 and ',nature' is an unmeaning
 word without an ,author of nature--or  
rather it is a philosophic name for     
,god4 444 ,evolution is not moral1 nor  
can morality be educed from it4 ,it     
proclaims as its law the survival of the
 fittest1 and the only proof of fitness 
is survival4 444 ,we must remember that 
whatever may be our philosophic school  
we are still living under the influence 
of theism1 and most of us under         
,christianity4 ,there is no saying how  
much of ,christianity still lingers in  
the theories of agnostics4 444 ,the     
generation after the next may perhaps   
see agnosticism1 moral as well as       
religious1 tried on a clear field4      
,these utterances are weighty1 though   
detached4 ,we only raise a doubt whether

 the generation after the next will see 
agnosticism tried on a clear field4 ,on 
the contrary1 it will be surrounded as  
now1 and more and more1 by ,christian   
influences1 and will still depend on    
those influences to save it from the sad
 results of its own teachings4          
,footnote #aib3 ,the ,races of ,man1 pp4
 #acg1 #ach4  ,footnote #aic3 ,the      
,human ,species1 p4 #dgh4  ,footnote    
#aid3 ,mr4 ,john ,fiske declares that   
man is descended from the catarrhine    
apes4--,destiny of ,man1 p4 #ai4        
,professor ,le ,conte maintains that no 
existing animal could ever be developed 
into man4 ,he traces all existing       
species up from a common stock1 of which
 man is the head4 ,the common line of   
ancestors are all extinct4--,evolution  
in ,relation to ,religious ,thought1 p4 
#ij4  ,footnote #aie3 ,the ,permanent   
,elements in ,religion1 p4 #aed         
,footnote #aif3 ,book ,,ii41 #ac4       
,footnote #aig3 ,book ,,ix41 #ag4       
,footnote #aih3 ,development by heredity

 and the ,buddhist doctrine of          
transmigration1 though both fatalistic1 
reach that result in different ways2    
they are1 in fact1 contradictory4       
,character1 according to ,buddhism1 is  
inherited not from parents3 it follows  
the line of affinity4  ,footnote #aii3  
,indian ,wisdom1 p4 #aeb4  ,footnote    
#bjj3 ,history of ,philosophy1 pp4 #bbj1
 #bba4  ,footnote #bja3 ,oriental       
,religions--,india4 ,part ,,ii41 p4 #dd4
  ,footnote #bjb3 ,beal1 ,buddhism in   
,china1 p4 #ahj4  ,footnote #bjc3       
,physics and ,politics4  ,footnote #bjd3
 ,probably no more significant change   
awaits the theology of the future than  
the recognition of this province of the 
unknown1 and the cessation of           
controversy as to matters that come     
within it1 and therefore admit of no    
dogmatic settlement4--,tulloch's        
,religious ,thought in ,britain1 p4 #bd4
     ,,lecture ,x4  ,,the ,,divine      
,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,christian      
,,faith4   ,we have in previous lectures

 instituted brief and partial           
comparisons between ,christianity and   
particular faiths of the ,east1 but ,i  
now propose a general comparative       
survey4  ,never before has the          
,christian ,faith been so boldly        
challenged to show cause for its supreme
 and exclusive claims as in our time4   
,the early ,christians encountered      
something of the same kind3 it seemed   
very preposterous to the proud ,roman   
that an obscure sect1 coming out of     
despised ,nazareth1 should refuse to    
place a statue of its deified ,founder  
within the ,pantheon1 in the goodly     
company of renowned gods from every part
 of the ,roman ,empire2 but it did so   
refuse and gave its reasons1 and it     
ultimately carried its point4 ,it gained
 the ,pantheon and ,rome itself for     
,christ alone4 ,he was proclaimed as the
 ,one ,redeemer of the world1 and this  
claim has been maintained from that day 
to this4 ,there can be no diversity1    
said ,his followers1 for there is no    

other name given under heaven among men 
whereby we must be saved4 ,the very     
genius of ,christianity means supremacy 
and monopoly1 for the reason that it is 
divine and ,god cannot be divided       
against ,himself4 ,but in our time the  
whole world is brought very closely     
together4 ,the religions of men1 like   
their social customs and political      
institutions1 are placed in contact and 
comparison4 ,the enemies of the         
,christian faith here1 in ,western      
lands1 naturally make the most of any   
possible alliances with other systems   
supposed to antagonize ,christianity2   
while a multitude of others1 having no  
particular interest in any religion1 and
 rather priding themselves upon a broad 
charity which is but a courteous name   
for indifference1 are demanding with a  
superior air that fair play shall be    
shown to all religions alike4 ,the      
,church is therefore called upon to     
defend her unique position and the      
promulgation of her message to mankind4 

,why does she refuse to admit the       
validity of other religions1 and why    
send her missionaries over the earth to 
turn the non-,christian races from those
 faiths which are their heritage by     
birth1 and in which they honestly put   
their trust8 ,why not respect everywhere
 that noblest of all man's instincts    
which prompts him to inquire after ,god1
 who hath made of one blood all nations 
that dwell upon the earth8 ,if the old  
,hindu pantheism of the ,bhagavad ,gita 
taught that the worshippers of other    
gods were only worshipping the ,one     
,supreme ,vishnu unawares2 if ,buddhism 
forbids its followers to assert that    
theirs is the only religion1 or even    
that it is the best religion2#bje is it 
not time that ,christians should emulate
 this noble charity8  ,this plausible   
plea is urged with such force and       
volume1 it is so backed by the current  
literature and the secular newspaper    
press that it cannot be ignored4 ,the   
time has come when the ,church must not 

only be able to give a reason for the   
faith she professes1 but must assign    
reasons why her faith should supplant   
every other4 ,i am aware that many are  
insisting that her true course is to be 
found in an intensive zeal in the       
promulgation of her own doctrines       
without regard to any other4 ,preach the
 ,gospel1 it is said1 whether men will  
hear or whether they forbear4 ,but it   
must be borne in mind that ,paul's more 
intelligent method was to strive as one 
who would win1 and not as they who beat 
the air4 ,the ,salvation ,army will     
reach a certain class with their mere   
unlettered zeal4 ,the men who purposely 
read only ,one ,book1 but read that on  
their knees1 doubtless have an important
 work to do1 but the ,church as a whole 
cannot go back to the time when devout  
zealots sneered at the idea of an       
educated ministry4 ,the conflict of     
truth and error must be waged           
intelligently4 ,there are sufficient    
reasons for claiming a divine supremacy 

for the ,gospel over all heathen faiths1
 and the sooner we thoroughly understand
 the difference1 the more wisely and    
successfully shall we accomplish our    
work4  ,wherein1 then1 consists the     
unique supremacy of the ,christian      
faith8  #a4 ,it alone offers a real     
salvation4 ,we are not speaking of      
ethics1 or conceptions of ,god1 or      
methods of race culture1 but of that one
 element which heals the wounds of      
acknowledged sin and reconciles men to  
,god4 ,and this is found in             
,christianity alone4 ,there is no divine
 help in any other4 ,systems of         
speculation1 theories of the universe1  
and of our relation to the ,infinite are
 found in all sacred books of the ,east4
 ,there are lofty ethical teachings     
gathered from the lips of many masters1 
and records of patient research1        
cheerful endurance of ascetic rigors1   
and the voluntary encounter of martyrs' 
deaths4 ,and one cannot but be impressed
 by this spectacle of earnest struggles 

in men of every land and every age to   
find some way of peace4 ,but in none of 
the ethnic religions has there been     
revealed a divine and heaven-wrought    
salvation4 ,they have all begun and     
ended with human merit and human effort4
 ,broken cisterns have everywhere taken 
the place of the ,one ,fountain of      
,eternal ,life4 ,though all these       
systems recognize the sin and misery of 
the world1 and carry their estimate of  
them to the length of downright         
pessimism1 they have discovered no eye  
that could pity and no arm that could   
bring salvation4 ,in the silence and    
gloom of the world's history only one   
voice has said1 ,lo1 ,i come6 in the    
volume of the ,book it is written of me4
 ,and although men have in all ages     
striven to rid themselves of sin by     
self-mortification1 and even mutilation1
 yet the ever-recurring question1 ,who  
shall deliver me from the body of this  
death8 was never answered till ,paul    
answered it in his rapturous            

acknowledgment of victory through the   
righteousness of ,christ4 ,mohammed     
never claimed to be a saviour or even an
 intercessor4 ,he was the sword of ,god 
against idolators1 and the ambassador of
 ,god to believers2 but beyond the      
promise of a sensuous heaven1 he offered
 no salvation4 ,he had no remedy for    
sin--except that in his own case he     
claimed a special revelation of clemency
 and indulgence4 ,many a wholesome truth
 derived from the ,old ,testament       
scriptures was promulgated to the       
faithful1 but self-righteousness1 and   
especially valor in ,mohammedan         
conquest1 was offered as the key to     
paradise4#bjf  ,doubtless we should view
 the false systems with discrimination4 
,like the sublime philosophy of ,plato1 
,mohammedanism does teach an exalted    
idea of ,god1 and there is1 accordingly1
 a dignity and reverence in its forms of
 worship4 ,i once witnessed a very      
imposing spectacle in the great mosque  
at ,delhi1 on the ,moslem ,sabbath4     

,several hundred ,indian ,mohammedans   
were repeating their prayers in concert4
 ,they were in their best attire1 and   
fresh from their ablutions1 and their   
concerted genuflections1 the subdued    
murmur of their many voices1 and the    
general solemnity of their demeanor1    
rendered the whole service most         
impressive4 ,it contrasted strongly with
 the spectacle which ,i witnessed a     
little later in the temple of ,siva1 in 
,benares4 ,the unspeakable worship of   
the linga1 the scattering of rice and   
flowers and the pouring of libations    
before this symbol2 the hanging of      
garlands on the horns of sacred bulls1  
and that by women2 the rushing to and   
fro1 tracking the filth of the sacred   
stables into the trodden ooze of rice   
and flowers which covered the temple    
pavements2 the drawing and sipping of   
water from the adjacent cesspool1 known 
as the sacred well2 the shouting and    
striking of bells1 and the general      
frenzy of the people--all this could be 

considered as nothing short of wild and 
depraved orgies4 ,if we must choose1    
give us ,islam1 whether in contrast with
 the ,siva worship of ,india or with the
 tyranny of the witch doctors of        
interior ,africa4  ,yet1 ,i repeat1     
,islam has no salvation1 no scheme of   
grace1 no great ,physician4 ,in visiting
 any ,mohammedan country one is         
impressed with this one defect1 the want
 of a ,mediator4 ,i once stood in the   
central hall of an imposing mansion in  
,damascus1 around the frieze of which   
were described1 in ,arabic letters of   
gold1 ,the ,hundred ,names of ,allah4   
,they were interpreted to me by a friend
 as setting forth the lofty attributes  
of ,god--for example1 ,the ,infinite1   
,the ,eternal1 ,the ,creator1 ,the      
,all-,seeing1 ,the ,merciful1 ,the      
,just4 ,no one could help being         
impressed by these inspiring names4     
,they were the common heritage of       
,judaism and ,christianity before ,islam
 adopted them1 and they are well        

calculated to fill the soul with        
reverence and awe4 ,but there is another
 class of names which were predicted by 
,judaism and rejoiced in by             
,christianity1 but which ,islam rejects2
 for example1 ,messiah1 ,immanuel1 or   
,god with us1 ,the ,son of ,god1 ,the   
,son of ,man1 ,the ,redeemer1 ,the      
,elder ,brother4 ,in a word1 ,islam has 
nothing to fill the breach between a    
holy and just ,god and the              
conscience-smitten souls of men4 ,these 
honored names of ,allah are as sublime  
as the snow-peaks of the ,himalayas and 
as inaccessible4 ,how can we attain unto
 them8 ,without a ,daysman how shall we 
bridge the abyss that lies between8     
,even ,israel plead for ,moses to speak 
to them in place of the ,infinite1 and  
they voiced a felt want of all human    
hearts4  ,yet no religious system but   
,christianity reveals a ,mediator4      
,there is in other faiths no such       
conception as the fatherhood of ,god4   
,though such names as ,dyauspater1      

,zeuspiter or ,jupiter1 and others      
bearing the import of father are        
sometimes found1 yet they imply only a  
common source1 as the sun is the source 
of life4 ,they lack the elements of love
 and fostering care4 ,there can be no   
real fatherhood and no spirit of        
adoption except through union with the  
,son of ,god4 ,the idea that re-birth   
and remission of sin may be followed by 
adoption and heirship1 and joint        
heirship with the ,son of the ,infinite1
 belongs to the ,christian faith alone2 
and the hope and inspiration of such a  
heritage1 seen in contrast with the     
endless and disheartening prospects of  
countless transmigrations1 are beyond   
the power of language to describe4 ,it  
was with infinite reason that ,paul was 
taught to regard his work among the     
,gentiles as a rescue or a deliverance  
from darkness unto light1 and from the  
power of ,satan unto ,god1 and it was a 
priceless boon which enabled him to     
offer at once the full remission of sins

 and a part in the glorious inheritance 
revealed through faith in ,christ4      
,mere ethical knowledge cannot comfort  
the human soul4 ,contrast the gloom of  
,marcus ,aurelius with the joy of ,david
 in ,psalm cxix42 and ,seneca1 also1    
with all his discernment1 and his       
eloquent presentation of beautiful      
precepts1 was one of the saddest1       
darkest characters of ,roman history4   
,he was the man who schemed with        
,catiline1 and who at the same time that
 he wrote epigrams urged ,nero onward   
with flattery and encouragement to his  
most infamous vices and his boldest     
crimes4 ,knowledge of ethical maxims and
 the power of expressing them1          
therefore1 is one thing1 religion is    
another4 ,religion is a device1 human or
 divine1 for raising up men by a real or
 a supposed supernatural aid4 ,it ought 
to reveal ,god as a helper and a        
,saviour4 ,it ought to be a provision of
 grace by which the ,just can yet be a  
justifier of them that are weak and     

wounded by sin4 ,the ethical systems of 
the heathen world corroborate the       
,scriptural diagnosis of man's character
 and condition1 but they fail as        
prescriptions4 ,so far as divine help   
and regenerative power are concerned1   
they leave the race helpless still4     
,christianity is a system of faith in a 
moral as well as in an intellectual     
sense4 ,it inculcates a spirit of       
loving1 filial trust instead of a       
querulous self-righteousness which      
virtually chides the unknown ,ruler of  
the universe4 ,according to ,the ,light 
of ,asia when the ,buddha preached at   
,kapilavastu there were assembled men   
and devils1 beasts and birds1 all       
victims alike of the cruel fate that    
ruled the world4 ,existence was an evil 
and only the ,buddha could be found to  
pity4 ,but that pity offered no hope    
except in the destruction of hope1 and  
the destruction of all desire1 all      
aspiration1 even all feeling2 while     
,christianity offers a hope which maketh

 not ashamed1 even an immortal          
inheritance4#bjg ,hinduism also1 like   
,islam and ,buddhism1 lacks every       
element of divine salvation4 ,it is     
wholly a thing of merit4 ,the infinite  
,brahm is said to be void of attributes 
of all kinds4 ,no anthropomorphic       
conception can be predicated of him4    
,the three ,gods of the ,trimurti are   
cold and distant--though for ,vishnu in 
his alleged incarnation of ,krishna1 a  
sympathetic nature was claimed at a     
later day--borrowed1 some say1 from     
,buddhism1 or1 according to others1 from
 ,christianity4 ,in the ,hindu saint all
 spiritual power in this life is the    
merit power of ascetic austerities1 all 
hope for the future world lies in the   
cleansing efficacy of endless           
transmigrations of which the goal is    
absorption into deity4  ,but the        
difficulty with both ,buddhism and      
,hinduism is that transmigration cannot 
regenerate4 ,it is only a vague         
postponement of the moral issues of the 

soul4 ,there is recognized no future    
intervention that can effect a change in
 the downward drift1 and why should a   
thousand existences prove better than   
one8 ,according to a law of physics     
known as the persistence of force1 a    
body once set in motion will never stop 
unless through the intervention of some 
other resisting force4 ,and this is     
strikingly true of moral character and  
the well-known power and momentum of    
habit4 ,who shall change the leopard's  
spots or deflect the fatal drift of a   
human soul8 ,remorselessly these        
,oriental systems exact from ,kharma the
 uttermost farthing4 ,they emphasize the
 fact that according to the sowing shall
 be the reaping1 and that in no part of 
the universe can ill desert escape its  
awards4 ,even if change were possible1  
therefore1 how shall the old score be   
settled8 ,what help1 what rescue can    
mere infinitude of time afford1 though  
the transmigrations should number tens  
of thousands8 ,there is no hint that any

 pitying eye of ,god or devil looks upon
 the struggle1 or any arm is stretched  
forth to raise up the crippled and      
helpless soul4 ,time is the only        
,saviour--time so vast1 so vague1 so    
distant1 that the mind cannot follows   
its cycles or trace the relations of    
cause and effect4  ,in contrast with all
 this1 ,christianity bids the ,hindu    
ascetic cease from his                  
self-mortification and become himself a 
herald of ,glad ,tidings4 ,it invites   
the hook-swinger to renounce his useless
 torture and accept the availing        
sacrifice of ,him who hung upon the     
,cross4 ,it relieves woman from the     
power of ,satan1 as exercised in those  
cruel disabilities which false systems  
have imposed upon her1 and assigns her a
 place of honor in the kingdom of ,god4 
,the world has not done scoffing at the 
idea of a vicarious sacrifice for the   
sins of men1 and yet it has advanced so 
far that its best thinkers1 even without
 any religious bias1 are agreed that the

 principle of self-sacrifice is the very
 highest element of character that man  
can aspire to4 ,and this is tantamount  
to an acknowledgment that the great     
principle which the ,cross illustrates1 
and on which the salvation of the race  
is made to rest1 is the crowning glory  
of all ethics and must be therefore the 
germinal principle of all true religion4
  ,christianity with its doctrine of    
voluntary ,divine ,sacrifice was no     
after-thought4 ,paul speaks of it as the
 mystery which hath been hid from ages  
and from generations but now is made    
manifest4 ,it was the one great mystery 
which angels had desired to look into   
and for which the whole world had waited
 in travail and expectation4 ,christ was
 the ,lamb slain from the foundation of 
the world1 and the entire world-history 
has proceeded under an economy of grace4
 ,and ,i repeat1 its fundamental        
principle of sacrifice1 exemplified as  
it has been through the ,christian      
centuries1 has won the recognition even 

of those who were not themselves the    
followers of ,christ4 ,the history of   
self-sacrifice during the last eighteen 
hundred years1 says ,lecky1 has been    
mainly the history of the action of     
,christianity upon the world4 ,ignorance
 and error have no doubt often directed 
the heroic spirit into wrong channels1  
and sometimes even made it a cause of   
great evil to mankind2 but it is the    
moral type and beauty1 the enlarged     
conception and persuasive power of the  
,christian faith that have chiefly      
called it into being2 and it is by their
 influence alone that it can be         
permanently maintained4#bjh ,speaking of
 the same principle ,carlyle says3 ,it  
is only with renunciation that life1    
properly speaking1 can be said to       
begin4444 ,in a valiant suffering for   
others1 not in a slothful making others 
suffer for us1 did nobleness ever lie4  
,and ,george ,sand in still stronger    
terms has said1 ,there is but one sole  
virtue in the world--the ,eternal       

,sacrifice of self4  ,while we ponder   
these testimonies coming from such      
witnesses we remember how the ,great    
,apostle traces this wonder-working     
principle back to its ,divine ,source1  
and from that ,source down into all the 
commonest walks of life when he says1   
,let this mind be in you which was also 
in ,christ1 who1 being in the form of   
,god1 thought it not robbery to be equal
 with ,god2 but made himself of no      
reputation1 and took on ,him the form of
 a servant1 and was made in the likeness
 of men3 and being found in fashion as a
 man1 he humbled himself1 and became    
obedient unto death1 even the death of  
the ,cross4 ,or when he reminds the     
,corinthians that1 though ,christ was   
rich1 yet for their sake ,he became     
poor1 that they through ,his poverty    
might be rich4  ,in all the ,oriental   
systems there is nothing like this1     
either as a divine source of            
all-availing help and rescue1 or as a   
celestial spring of human action4 ,it is

 through this communicable grace that   
,christ becomes the ,way1 the ,truth1   
the ,life4 ,well might ,augustine say   
that while the philosophy of ,plato led 
him to lofty conceptions of ,god1 it    
could not show him how to approach ,him 
or be reconciled unto ,him4 ,for it is  
one thing1 he says1 from the mountain's 
shaggy top to see the land of peace and 
to find no way thither2 and in vain to  
essay through ways impossible1 opposed  
and beset by fugitives and deserters1   
under their captain the lion and the    
dragon2 and another to keep on the way  
that leads thither guarded by the host  
of the heavenly ,general1 where they    
spoil not that have deserted the        
heavenly army2 for they avoid it as very
 torment4 ,these things did wonderfully 
sink into my bowels when ,i read that   
least of ,thy ,apostles1 and had        
meditated upon ,thy works and trembled  
exceedingly4 ,while ,christianity is    
wholly unique in providing an objective 
,salvation instead of attempting to work

 out perfection from beggarly elements  
within the soul itself1 as all heathen  
systems do1 and as all our modern       
schemes of mere ethical culture do1 it  
at the same time implants in the heart  
the most fruitful germs of subjective   
spiritual life4 ,its superior           
transformation of human character1 as   
compared with all other cults1 is not   
only a matter of doctrine but also a    
matter of history4 ,it is acknowledged  
that ,christianity has wrought most     
powerfully of all faiths in taming      
savage races as well as individual men1 
in moulding higher civilizations and    
inspiring sentiments of humanity and    
brotherly love4 ,christ1 says one of the
 ,bampton ,lecturers1 is the ,light that
 broods over all history4444 ,all that  
there is upon earth of beauty1 truth1   
and goodness1 all that distinguishes the
 civilized man from the savage is this  
gift4 ,and if it be asked how the leaven
 of ,christ's influence has pervaded all
 society1 the answer is that the work is

 presided over by a divine and          
omnipotent ,spirit who represents       
,christ1 who carries out what ,he began1
 who by a direct and transforming power 
renews and enlightens and prompts the   
soul4  ,christianity1 then1 is not a    
record1 a history of what was said and  
done eighteen centuries ago3 it is not a
 body of doctrines and precepts3 it is  
the living power of ,god in the soul of 
man4 ,the written ,word is the sword of 
this ,divine ,spirit4 ,the renewed soul 
is begotten of the ,spirit and it is    
instinct with the indwelling of the     
,spirit4 ,no other system makes any     
claim to such an influence as that of   
the ,holy ,ghost4 ,sacred books1 written
 systems of law or ethics would all     
prove a dead letter--the ,bible itself1 
as well as the ,veda1 would be a dead   
letter but for the co-operation of this 
,divine ,spirit4 ,sacred ,scriptures    
might be venerated1 they would not be   
obeyed4 ,the dead heart must be         
quickened and renewed and only          

,christianity reveals the ,transforming 
,power4 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say unto    
thee1 ,except a man be born again he    
cannot see the ,kingdom of ,god4        
,instantaneous renewal of the character 
and the life is not even claimed by     
other faiths2 there is in them nothing  
like the conversion of ,saul of ,tarsus1
 or that of thousands of others well    
known in the history of ,christian      
experience4 ,there are no such changes  
in men who1 from having led lives of    
profligacy and irreligion1 have turned  
at once into paths of                   
righteousness--have tamed their wild    
propensities and submitted themselves to
 the gentle law of love4 ,but under     
,christian influence we have seen       
,africaner the savage transformed to a  
tractable1 humane1 and loving disciple4 
,we have seen the wild and bloodthirsty 
,koord subdued and made as a little     
child4 ,we have seen the cannibal ,king 
,thokambo1 of ,fiji1 turned from his    
cruelty to a simple1 childlike faith1   

and made to prefer the good of his      
people to the glory of a powerless      
sceptre4 ,whole races1 like the         
,northmen1 have been tamed from savagery
 and made peaceable and earnest         
followers of ,christ4 ,in our own time  
it has been said of a missionary in the 
,south ,pacific ,islands1 that when he  
arrived on his field there were no      
,christians1 and when he closed his     
labors there were no heathen4  ,the     
religion of ,gautama has won whole      
tribes of men1 ,hinduism and            
,mohammedanism are even now winning     
converts from fetish-worshipping races1 
but1 so far as ,i know1 none of these   
faiths have ever made converts except   
either by war or by the presentation of 
such motives as might appeal to the     
natural heart of man2 there has been no 
spiritual transformation4 ,if it be said
 that the ,buddhist ,nirvana and the    
,hindu doctrine of final absorption     
cannot attract the natural heart1 the   
ready answer is that ,nirvana and       

absorption are not the real inspiration 
of their respective systems4 ,they are  
so far removed into the dim future as to
 exert no practical influence on the    
great mass of men4 ,the future estate   
that is really expected and desired is a
 happy ideal transmigration1 and perhaps
 many of them2 and the chief felicity of
 the ,hindu is that no particular estate
 is prescribed4 ,while the ,christian is
 promised a heaven to which the natural 
heart does not aspire1 the ,hindu may   
imagine and prefigure his own heaven4   
,his next life may be as carnal as the  
celestial hunting-ground of the ,indian 
or the promised paradise of the ,moslem4
 ,it may be only the air-castle of a    
day-dreamer4 ,there is no moral         
transformation4 ,there is no expulsive  
power of a new and higher aspiration4   
,old things have not passed away2       
nothing has become new4  ,but the grace 
of ,god in ,christ claims to work an    
entire change in the desires and        
aspirations of the heart by the power of

 the ,holy ,ghost4 ,paul found the men  
of ,ephesus highly civilized in a sense1
 but dead in trespasses and sins1       
walking according to the course of this 
world1 and having their conversation in 
the lusts of the flesh4 ,but ,god by    
,his ,spirit so quickened them that they
 were able to understand and appreciate 
one of the most spiritual of all his    
,epistles4 ,he addressed them as new    
creatures1 as ,god's workmanship1       
created in ,christ ,jesus unto good     
works4  ,as has already been noticed1   
all theories of moral transformation    
found in heathen systems require time4  
,the process is carried on by intensive 
and long-continued thought1 or by       
gradual accumulations of merit4 ,only   
the ,buddha was enlightened per         
sallum1#bji so to speak4 ,and quite in  
accord with this view are those modern  
forms of materialism which maintain that
 mental and moral habits consist in     
gradual impressions made in the         
molecules of the nerve-tissues--that    

these impressions come at length to     
determine our acts without the necessity
 of either purpose or conscious         
recognition1 and that only when right   
action becomes thus involuntary can     
character strictly be said to exist4#baj
 ,but such theories certainly do not    
harmonize with the known facts of       
,christian conversion already alluded   
to4 ,we do not refuse to recognize a    
certain degree of truth hidden in these 
speculations4 ,we are aware that        
continued thought or emotion promotes a 
certain habit1 and that in the          
,christian life such habit becomes an   
element of strength4 ,we also admit that
 high and pure thought and emotion stamp
 themselves at length upon our physical 
nature1 and appear in the very          
expression of the countenance1 but when 
we look for the transforming impulse    
that can begin and sustain such habitual
 exercises in spite of the natural      
sinfulness and corruption which all     
systems admit1 we find it only in the   

,christian doctrine of the new birth by 
the power of the ,holy ,ghost4  ,on     
these two doctrines of a ,divine        
,vicarious ,sacrifice and of the        
transforming power of a ,divine ,spirit 
we might rest our case4 ,it should be   
sufficient to show1 first1 that         
,christianity alone provides a divine   
salvation in which ,god is made sin for 
us2 and second1 that its power alone1   
though objective1 works in us the only  
effectual subjective transformation by a
 direct influence from on high4 ,but    
there are many other points of contrast 
in which the transcendent character of  
,christianity appears4  ,first1 an      
important differential lies in the      
completeness of the ,divine personality 
of ,jesus4 ,buddhism1 ,confucianism1 and
 ,mohammedanism1 were strongly supported
 by the personality of their founders4  
,we also cheerfully accord to such men  
as ,socrates and ,plato great personal  
influence4 ,they have impressed         
themselves upon the millions of mankind 

more deeply than statesmen1 or          
potentates1 or conquerors2 but not one  
of these presents to us a complete and  
rounded character1 judged even from a   
human stand-point4 ,mohammed utterly    
failed on the ethical side4#baa ,his    
life was so marred by coarse sensuality1
 weak effeminacy1 heartless cruelty1    
unblushing hypocrisy1 and heaven-defying
 blasphemy1 that but for his stupendous 
achievements1 and his sublime and       
persistent self-assertion1 he would long
 since have been buried beneath the     
contempt of mankind4#bab ,confucius     
appears to have been above reproach in  
morals1 and that amid universal         
profligacy2 but he was cold in          
temperament1 unsympathetic1 and         
slavishly utilitarian in his teachings4 
,his ethics lacked symmetry and just    
proportion4 ,the five relations which   
constituted his ethico-political system 
were everything4 ,they were made the    
basis of inexorable social customs which
 sacrificed some of the tenderest and   

noblest promptings of the human heart4  
,confucius mourned the death of his     
mother1 for filial respect was a part of
 his system1 but for his dying wife     
there is no evidence of grief or regret1
 and when his son mourned the death of  
his wife the philosopher reproved him4  
,in all things he reasoned upward toward
 the throne2 his grand aim was to build 
up an ideal state4 ,he therefore        
magnified reverence for parents and all 
ancestors even to the verge of idolatry1
 but he utterly failed in that symmetry 
in which ,paul makes the duties of      
parents and children mutual4 ,under his 
system a father might exercise his      
caprice almost to the power of life or  
death1 and a ,chinese mother-in-law is  
proverbially a tyrant4 ,the beautiful   
sympathy of ,christ1 shown in blessing  
little children and in drawing lessons  
from their simple trust1 would have been
 utterly out of place in the great sage 
of ,china4 ,confucius seems to have     
troubled himself but slightly1 if at    

all1 about the wants of the poor and the
 suffering2 he taught no doctrine of    
self-sacrifice for the ignorant and the 
unworthy4 ,his ideal of the superior man
 would have been tarnished by that      
contact with the lowly and degraded     
which was the glory of the ,christ4 ,and
 when his cotemporary1 ,laotze1 taught  
the duty of doing good1 even to enemies1
 he repudiated the principle as uncalled
 for in the relative duties which should
 govern mankind4#bac  ,with respect to  
personality1 probably a higher claim has
 been made for ,gautama than for either 
of the characters who have been named4  
,sir ,edwin ,arnold1 in his preface to  
the ,light of ,asia1 has assigned to him
 a virtual sinlessness1 and such is     
doubtless the character which his       
followers would claim for him4 ,but as a
 model for the great masses of men      
,gautama was very far from perfection4  
,he had little of the genial sunlight of
 humanity2 in every fibre of his nature 
he was a recluse2 his views of life were

 pessimistic2 he had no glad tidings for
 the sorrowing2 no encouragement for the
 weary and the heavy laden4#bad ,his    
agnosticism was ill adapted to the      
irrepressible wants of mankind1 for they
 must place their trust in a higher     
power1 real or imagined4#bae ,but while 
he cast a cloud over the being of ,god  
he drove his despairing countrymen to   
the worship of serpents and evil        
spirits4 ,in ,ceylon1 which is par      
eminence an orthodox ,buddhist country1 
ninety per cent4 of the population are  
said to be devil worshippers1 and the   
devil jugglers are patronized even by   
the ,buddhist monks4#baf ,as the        
philosophy of ,gautama was above the    
comprehension of the common people1 so  
his example was also above their reach4 
,it utterly lacked the element of trust1
 and involved the very destruction of   
society4 ,to wander apart like a        
rhinoceros and be silent as a broken    
gong might be practicable for a chosen  
few1 if only self were to be considered1

 but silence and isolation are not      
worthy ideals in a world of mutual      
dependence and where all life's         
blessings are enhanced by the ministries
 of the strong to the necessities of the
 weak4 ,infinitely higher was the       
example of ,him who said1 ,my ,father   
worketh hitherto1 and ,i work2 and who  
accordingly exhorted his disciples to   
work while the day lasts4 ,christ prayed
 not that they should be taken out of   
the world1 but that they should be kept 
from the evil4  ,again the ,buddha's    
life furnished but a poor example in the
 domestic duties4 ,his abandonment of   
his wife and child cannot be justified  
upon any sound theory of life4 ,whatever
 may be said of the merits of celibacy  
in those who are under no marriage vows1
 the abandonment of sacred relations    
once formed must be considered a crime  
against all society4 ,as ,mohammed's    
example of impurity has cast a blight   
over all ,moslem lands1 so ,gautama's   
withdrawal from his home has borne1 and 

is still bearing1 its evil fruit4 ,in   
,burmah it is common for a ,buddhist who
 desires a change of wives to abandon   
his family for the sacred life of a     
monastery1 where1 if he remains but a   
single month1 he sunders the old        
relation and is at liberty to form a new
 one4 ,good men are disgusted1 but there
 is the example of the ,blessed ,one6   
,it will be admitted that in comparison 
with ,hinduism the ,buddhist ethics     
advanced woman to a higher social       
condition1 but when modern apologists   
compare ,gautama with ,christ there are 
many contrasts which cannot be          
disguised4  ,in some respects ,socrates 
stands highest among great philosophers4
 ,mohammed's career cost him nothing but
 gained for him everything that man's   
earthly nature could desire4 ,gautama   
made only a temporary sacrifice2 he     
changed lower indulgences for honor and 
renown1 and died at a ripe old age      
surrounded by loving friends4 ,but      
,socrates resolutely and calmly suffered

 martyrdom for his principles4 ,the     
sublime dignity and self-control of his 
dying hours will never cease to win the 
admiration of mankind2 yet ,socrates was
 by no means a complete character4 ,he  
died unto himself merely4 ,he left no   
gospel of peace to humanity4 ,his       
influence1 however pure1 could not1 and 
in fact did not1 become a diffusive and 
transforming leaven1 either in his own  
or in any subsequent generation4 ,the   
late ,matthew ,arnold has said1 ,the    
radical difference between ,jesus and   
,socrates is that such a conception as  
,paul's 7conception of faith7 would1 if 
applied to ,socrates1 be out of place   
and ineffective4 ,socrates inspired     
boundless friendship and esteem1 but the
 inspiration of reason and conscience is
 the one inspiration which comes from   
him and which impels us to live         
righteously as he did4 ,a penetrating   
enthusiasm of love1 sympathy1 pity1     
adoration1 reinforcing the inspiration  
of reason and duty does not belong to   

,socrates4 ,with ,jesus it is different4
 ,on this point it is needless to argue3
 history has proved4 ,in the midst of   
errors the most prosaic1 the most       
immoral1 the most unscriptural1         
concerning ,god1 ,christ1 and           
righteousness1 the immense emotion of   
love and sympathy inspired by the person
 and character of ,jesus has had to work
 almost by itself alone for             
righteousness1 but it has worked        
wonders4#bag  ,this tribute to the      
completeness and power of ,christ's     
personality is calculated to remind one 
of a memorable chapter in the well-known
 work of the late ,dr4 ,horace          
,bushnell1 entitled1 ,nature and the    
,supernatural4 ,with a wonderful power  
it portrays ,christ as rising above the 
plane of merely human characters--as    
belonging to no age or race or stage of 
civilization--as transcendent not in    
some of the virtues1 but in them all--as
 never subject to prejudice1 or the     
impulse of passion1 never losing that   

perfect poise which it has been         
impossible for the greatest of men to   
achieve--as possessed of a mysterious   
magnetism which carried conviction to   
,his hearers even when claiming to be   
one with the ,infinite--as inspiring    
thousands with a love which has led them
 to give their lives for ,his cause4#bah
  ,i have often thought that one of the 
most striking evidences of the divine   
reality of the ,christian faith is found
 in the reflection of ,christ's         
personality in the character and life of
 the apostle ,paul4#bai ,no one can     
doubt that ,paul was a real historic    
personage1 that from having been a      
strict and influential ,jew he became a 
follower of ,jesus and gave himself to  
,his service with a sublime devotion2   
that he sealed the sincerity of his     
belief by a life of marvellous          
self-denial4 ,he had no motive for      
acting a false part at such cost2 on the
 contrary1 an unmistakable genuineness  
is stamped upon his whole career4 ,how  

shall we explain that career8 ,where    
else in the world's history have we seen
 a gifted and experienced man1 full of  
strong and repellant prejudices1 so     
stamped and penetrated by the           
personality of another8  ,on what theory
 can we account for such a change in    
such a life1 except that his own story  
of his conversion was strictly true1    
that he had felt in his inmost soul a   
power so overwhelming as to sweep away  
his prejudices1 humble his pride1 arm   
him against the derision of his former  
friends1 and prepare him for inevitable 
persecution and for the martyr death of 
which he was forewarned8 ,so vivid were 
his impressions of this divine          
personality that it seemed almost to    
absorb his own4 ,christ1 though ,he had 
ascended1 was still with him as a living
 presence4 ,all his inspiration1 all his
 strength came from ,him4 ,his plans and
 purposes centred in his ,divine        
,master1 and his only ambition was to be
 found well-pleasing in his sight4 ,he  

saw all types and prophecies fulfilled  
in ,him as the ,son of ,god1 the fulness
 of ,his glory1 and the express image of
 ,his person4 ,paul never indulged in   
any similes by which to express the     
glory of heaven2 it was enough that we  
should be like ,christ and be with ,him 
where ,he is4  ,the writings of all the 
apostles differ from the books of other 
religions in the fact that their        
doctrines1 precepts1 and exhortations   
are so centred in their divine ,teacher 
and ,saviour4 ,buddha's disciples       
continued to quote their ,master1 but   
,buddha was dead4 ,theoretically not    
even his immortal soul survived4 ,he had
 declared that when his bodily life     
should cease there would be nothing left
 of which it could be said ,i am4  ,but 
to the vivid and realizing faith of     
,christ's followers ,he is still their  
living ,head1 their ,intercessor1 their 
,guide4 ,his resurrection is the warrant
 of their future life4 ,he has gone     
before and will come again to receive   

,his own4 ,christianity is ,christ3 all 
believers are members of ,his mystic    
body3 the ,church is ,his bride4 ,he is 
the ,alpha and the ,omega of the world's
 history4 ,in the contemplation of ,his 
personality as the chief among ten      
thousand ,his people are changed into   
,his image as from glory to glory4 ,the 
ground of salvation in ,christianity is 
not in a church1 nor a body of          
doctrines1 not even in the teachings of 
the ,master3 it is in ,christ ,himself  
as a humiliated sacrifice and a         
triumphant ,saviour4  ,second1 the      
religion of the ,bible differs from     
every other in its completeness and     
scope--its adaptation to all the duties 
and experiences of life and to all races
 and all conditions of men4 ,it alone is
 able to meet all the deep and manifold 
wants of mankind4 ,hardwick has very    
aptly pointed out a contrast in this    
respect between the faith of ,abraham   
and that of the early ,indo-,aryan      
chiefs as portrayed in the ,rig ,veda4  

,the pressing wants of humanity         
necessitate a faith that is of the      
nature of a heartfelt trust4 ,no other  
can be regarded as strictly religious4  
,now ,abraham's faith was something more
 than a speculation or a creed4 ,it was 
an all-embracing confidence in ,god4 ,he
 had an abiding sense of ,his presence  
and he confided in ,him as his constant 
guide1 defender1 and friend4 ,his       
family1 his flocks1 his relations to the
 hostile tribes who surrounded him1 the 
promised possession of the land to which
 he journeyed--all these were matters   
which he left in the hands of an unseen 
but ever-faithful friend4 ,his was a    
practical faith--a real and complete    
venture1 and it involved gratitude and  
loyalty and love4 ,abraham's childhood  
had been spent in the home of an        
idolatrous father2 for ,shemite as well 
as ,aryan had departed from the worship 
of the true ,god4 ,in ,chaldea1 as in   
,india1 men had come to worship the sun 
and moon and the forces of nature4 ,but 

while the ,hindu wandered ever farther  
away from ,jehovah1 ,abraham restored   
the faith which his ancestors had lost4 
,he had no recourse to ,indra or        
,varuna1 he sought no help from devas or
 departed spirits4 ,he looked to ,god   
alone1 for he had heard a voice saying1 
,i am the ,almighty ,god1 walk before me
 and be thou perfect4#bbj ,under the    
inspiration of such a summons ,abraham  
became the father of the faithful4 ,he  
was the representative and exemplar of  
real and practical faith1 not only to   
the ,hebrew race but to all mankind4 ,he
 staked his all upon a promise which he 
regarded as divine and therefore sure4  
,he believed in the ,lord and ,he       
counted it to him for righteousness4 ,he
 left home and country and ventured     
among hostile tribes in an assured      
confidence that he should gain a        
possession1 though empty-handed1 and a  
countless posterity1 though yet         
childless1 and that all this would be   
granted him not for his own glory1 but  

that all nations might be blest in him4 
,and this subordination of self and this
 uplifting of his soul to a sublime hope
 rendered him patient when fulfilment   
seemed postponed1 and strong against    
temptation when spoils and emoluments   
were offered him2 for in some sense1    
vague perhaps1 he foresaw a ,messiah and
 a ,kingdom of ,righteousness1 and he   
was girded with confidence to the last1 
though he died without the sight4  ,we  
look in vain for anything to be compared
 with this in the ,vedic literature1    
still less in that of the period of     
,brahmanical sacerdotalism1 or in the   
still later speculations of the         
philosophic schools4 ,real ,hinduism is 
wanting in the element of trust4 ,its   
only faith is a belief1 a theory1 a     
speculation4 ,it receives nothing and   
expects nothing as a free gift of ,god4 
,sacrificial rites survived in the early
 ,vedic period1 but they had lost all   
prophetic significance4 ,they terminated
 in themselves and rested upon their own

 value4 ,there was no remembered promise
 and no expectation of any specific     
fulfilment4 ,the ,hindu gained simply   
what he bought with his merit or his    
offerings1 and he had no greater sense  
of gratitude to deity than to the       
tradesman of whom he made a purchase in 
the bazaar4 ,there are1 indeed1 traces  
in some of the earliest ,vedic hymns of 
a feeling of dependence upon superior   
powers1 yet the ,brahmanical priesthood 
taught men that he who was rich enough  
to offer a sacrifice of a hundred horses
 might bankrupt heaven1 and by his      
simple right of purchase even rob ,indra
 of his throne4#bba ,as stated in a     
previous lecture1 so far was this system
 from the faith which works by love that
 even demons1 by costly sacrifices might
 dispute the supremacy of the universe4 
,there is an equally significant        
contrast between the legislation of     
,moses and that of ,manu4 ,the life and 
experience of the former are interwoven 
with his statutes4 ,they are illustrated

 with references to actual events in the
 history of the people4 ,the blessings1 
the trials1 the punishments1 the        
victories1 the defeats of ,israel enter 
into the texture of the whole ,mosaic   
record3 it is full of sympathetic       
feeling2 it takes hold on the actual    
life of men and therefore is able to    
reform and elevate them4 ,it brings not 
only ,moses1 but ,jehovah ,himself into 
personal sympathy with the people4 ,but 
,manu presents statutes only4 ,many of  
these are wholesome as laws1 but they   
are destitute of tenderness or          
compassion4 ,no indication is given of  
the author's own experience1 and we are 
left in doubt whether there were not    
many authors to whom the general name of
 ,manu was applied4 ,there is no        
inculcation of gratitude and love to    
,god1 or any hint of ,his love to men4  
,no prayer1 no song1 no confession of   
dependence1 no tribute of praise1 no    
record of trembling1 yet trustful1      
experience4 ,it is all cold1 lifeless   

precept and prohibition1 with threats of
 punishment here and hereafter4         
,religious exaction is most strict1 but 
there are few religious privileges      
except for ,brahmans1 and these they    
possess by divine birthright4 ,no       
particular favor is asked from any being
 in heaven or on earth4  ,with respect  
to this same element of personal trust1 
and real1 heartfelt experience1 contrast
 ,david also with any author whose name 
is given in ,hindu literature4 ,he was  
full of humanity1 large-hearted1 loving1
 grateful1 and though stained by sin1   
yet he was so penitent and humble and   
tender that he was said to be a man     
after ,god's own heart4 ,he was a       
successful warrior and a great king1 but
 he held all his honor and his power as 
a divine gift and for the ,divine glory4
 ,compare the #aaith ,psalm with the    
,upanishads1 or with any of the six     
schools of philosophy4 ,the one deals   
with moral precepts and spiritual       
aspirations1 all the others with subtle 

theories of creation or problems of the 
universe4 ,the one is the outflowing of 
joyous experience found in obedience to 
,god's moral law1 and only out of the   
heart could such a psalm have been      
written4 ,the law of ,god had become not
 a barrier or a hamper1 but a delight4  
,evidently ,david had found a religion  
which filled every avenue and met every 
want of his whole being4  ,again1 only  
the religion of ,christ brings man into 
his proper relation of penitence and    
humility before ,god4 ,it is necessary  
to the very conception of reconciliation
 to a higher and purer being that       
wrong-doing shall be confessed4 ,all the
 leading faiths of the world have       
traditions of the fall of man from a    
higher and holier estate1 and most of   
them--notably ,hinduism1 ,buddhism1     
ancient ,druidism1 and the ,druse       
religion of ,mount ,lebanon--declare    
that the fall was the result of pride   
and rebellion of spirit4 ,and of        
necessity the wrong1 if it cannot be    

undone1 must at least be confessed4     
,self-justification is perpetuation4    
,the offender must lay aside his false  
estimate of self and admit the justice  
whose claims he has violated4 ,even in  
the ordinary intercourse of men this    
principle is universally recognized4    
,there can be no reconciliation without 
either actual reparation or at least a  
frank acknowledgment4 ,governmental     
pardon always implies repentance and    
promised reform1 and between individuals
 a due concession to violated principle 
is deemed the dictate of the truest     
honor4 ,how can there be reconciliation 
to ,god1 then1 without repentance and   
humiliation8 ,of what value can heathen 
asceticism and merit-making be while the
 heart is still barred and buttressed   
with self-righteousness8 ,the longer a  
man approaches the ,holiness of ,deity  
with the offerings of his own           
self-consequence the greater does the   
enormity of his offence become and the  
wider the breach which he attempts to   

close4  ,even if he could render a      
perfect obedience and service for the   
future1 he could never overtake the old 
unsettled score4 ,the prodigal cannot   
recover the squandered estate or wipe   
out the record of folly and sin1 and if 
there be no resource of free remission  
on the one hand1 and no deep and genuine
 repentance on the other1 there can be  
no possible adjustment4 ,the universal  
judgment and conscience of men so       
decide4 ,philosophers may present this  
method and that of moral culture and    
assimilation to the character of the    
,infinite1 but practically all men will 
approve the philosophy taught in        
,christ's touching parable of the       
,prodigal ,son4 ,the beauty1 the force1 
the propriety of its principles strike  
the human understanding1 whether of the 
sage or of the savage1 like a flash of  
sunlight1 and no human heart can fail to
 be touched by its lessons4 ,yet where  
in all the wide waste of heathen faiths 
or philosophies is there anything which 

even remotely resembles the story of the
 ,prodigal8 ,where is the system in     
which such an incident and such a lesson
 would not be wholly out of place8  ,in 
that ancient book of the ,egyptian      
religion known as ,the ,book of the     
,dead1 the souls of the departed when   
arraigned before the throne of ,osiris  
are represented as all joining in one   
refrain of self-exculpation1 uttering   
such pleas as these3 ,i have not        
offended or caused others to offend4 ,i 
have not snared ducks illegally on the  
,nile4 ,i have not used false weights or
 measures4 ,i have not defrauded my     
neighbor by unjustly opening the sluices
 upon my own land6 ,any sense of the    
inward character of sin or any          
conception of wrong attitudes of mind or
 heart toward ,god is utterly wanting4  
,it is simply the plea of not guilty1   
which even the most hardened culprit may
 make in court4 ,in one of the ,vedic   
hymns to ,varuna there is something     
which looks like confession of sin1 but 

it really ends in palliation4 ,it was   
not our doing1 ,o ,varuna1 it was       
necessity2 an intoxicating draught1     
passion1 dice1 thoughtlessness4 ,the old
 is there to mislead the young4 ,even   
sleep brings unrighteousness4 ,and the  
remission sought for is not one         
involving a change of character but only
 release from an external bond4 ,absolve
 us from the sins of our fathers and    
from those which we committed with our  
own bodies4 ,release ,vasishtha1 ,o     
,king1 like a thief who has feasted on  
stolen oxen4 ,release him like a calf   
from the rope4#bbb  ,in the ,penitential
 ,psalms of the ancient ,akkadians1 who 
inhabited ,northern ,assyria in the     
times of ,abraham1 and who may have     
retained something of that true faith   
from which ,abraham's father had        
declined1 we find a nearer approach to  
true penitence1 but that also lacks the 
inner sense of sin and seeks merely an  
exemption from punishments4  ,only in   
the ,old and ,new ,testaments is sin    

recognized as of the nature of personal 
guilt4 ,accordingly1 ,christianity alone
 recognizes the fact that right thoughts
 and motives and a worthy character are 
the gifts of ,god4 ,cicero has truly    
remarked#bbc that men justly thank ,god 
for external blessings1 but never for   
virtue1 or talent1 or character4 ,all   
that is regarded as their own4 ,and such
 is the conceit of human                
self-righteousness in all man-made      
religions1 whether ,hindu or ,greek1    
ancient or modern4 ,philosophy is in its
 very nature haughty and aristocratic4  
,even ,plato betrays this element4 ,it  
is only the ,christian apostle that is  
heard to say1 with heartfelt emotion1   
,by the grace of ,god ,i am what ,i am4 
,the ,buddha declared that he recognized
 no being in any world to whom he owed  
any special reverence2 and especially in
 his later years1 when his disciples had
 come to look upon him as in a sense    
divine1 he regarded himself as the      
highest of all intelligences on the     

earth or in the various heavens4 ,such  
assumptions in both ,buddha and         
,confucius will explain the fact that   
for ages both have been virtually       
worshipped4 ,at fifteen1 said           
,confucius1 ,i had my mind bent on      
learning4 ,at thirty ,i stood firm4 ,at 
forty ,i had no doubt4 ,at fifty ,i knew
 the decrees of ,heaven4 ,at sixty my   
ear was an obedient organ for the       
reception of truth4 ,at seventy ,i could
 follow what my heart desired without   
transgressing what was right4#bbd ,yet  
neither of these great teachers claimed 
to be a divine ,saviour4 ,they were     
simply exemplars2 their                 
self-righteousness was supposed to be   
attainable by all4  ,i cannot do better 
in this connection than point out a     
striking contrast in the recorded       
experiences of two well-known historic  
characters4 ,islam honors ,david1 ,king 
of ,israel1 and accords him a place     
among its accredited prophets4 ,both    
,david and ,mohammed were guilty of     

adultery under circumstances of peculiar
 aggravation4 ,mohammed covered his     
offence by a blasphemous pretence of    
special revelations from ,god1          
justifying his crime and chiding him for
 such qualms of conscience as he had4   
,david lay in dust and ashes while he   
bemoaned not only the consequences of   
his sin and the breach of justice toward
 his neighbor1 but also the deep        
spiritual offence of his act4 ,against  
,thee1 and ,thee only1 ,o ,god1 have ,i 
sinned1 and done this evil in ,thy      
sight4 ,profoundest penitence on the one
 hand and ,heaven-daring blasphemy on   
the other1 the ,bible and the ,koran    
being witnesses6  ,another marked       
distinction is seen in the moral purity 
of the ,christian ,scriptures as        
contrasted with the so-called sacred    
books of all other religions4 ,that     
which is simply human will naturally be 
expected to show the moral taint of     
lapsed humanity4 ,the waters cannot rise
 higher than the fountain-head1 nor can 

one gather figs from thistles4 ,in our  
social intercourse with men we sooner or
 later find out their true moral level4 
,and so in what is written1 the exact   
grade of the author will surely appear4 
,and it is by this very test that we can
 with tolerable accuracy distinguish the
 human from the divine in religious     
records4 ,it is not difficult to        
determine what is from heaven and what  
is of the earth4  ,no enlightened reader
 of ,greek mythology can proceed far    
without discovering that he is dealing  
with the prurient and often lascivious  
imaginings of semi-barbarous poets4 ,he 
finds the poetry and the art of ,greece 
both reflecting the character of a      
passionate people1 bred under a southern
 sun and in an extremely sensuous age4  
,if he ventures into the lowest depths  
of the popular religious literature of  
,greece or ,rome1 or ancient ,egypt or  
,phoenicia1 he finds unspeakable vice   
enshrined among the mysteries of        
religion1 and corruptions which an age  

of refinement refuses to translate or   
depict abound on every hand4 ,or apply  
the same test to the literature of      
,hinduism1 even in its earliest and     
purest stages4 ,the sacred ,vedas1 which
 are supposed to have been breathed into
 the souls of ancient rishis by direct  
divine effluence1 are tainted here and  
there by debasing human elements1 and   
that not incidentally but as the very   
soul of the ,hindu system4 ,for example1
 when the ,vedic hymns promise as future
 rewards the lowest sensual             
indulgences#bbe none can doubt the      
earthly source of their inspiration4 ,as
 for the ,upanishads1 which are regarded
 as ,sruti or inspired1 ,professor ,max 
,mueller1 in his ,introduction to the   
first volume of ,the ,sacred ,books of  
the ,east1 virtually admits the         
impropriety of translating them for     
,english readers without expurgation4   
,mr4 ,ram ,chandra ,bose1 of ,lucknow1  
declares himself unable1 for the same   
reason1 to give a full and unabridged   

account of the ancient ,hindu           
sacrifices4#bbf ,the later literatures  
of the ,puranas and the ,tantras are    
lower still4 ,anti-,christian           
,orientalists have so generally conveyed
 the popular impression that their      
culled and expurgated translations were 
fair representations of ,hindu          
literature that ,wilson finally felt    
called upon in the interest of truth and
 honesty to lift the veil from some of  
the later revelations of the ,puranas1  
and it is sufficient to say that the    
,greek mythology is fairly outdone by   
the alleged and repeated escapades of   
the chief ,hindu deities4  ,the         
traditions of all ancient religions     
found on either hemisphere1 and the     
usages observed among savage tribes of  
to-day all conform to the same low moral
 gauge4 ,all are as deplorably human as 
the degraded peoples who devised them4  
,in ,mexico and ,peru1 as well as in    
,egypt and in ,babylonia1 base human    
passion was mingled with the highest    

teachings of religion4#bbg ,buddhism has
 generally been considered an exception 
to this general rule1 and it will be    
confessed that its influence has been   
vastly higher than that of the old      
,hinduism1 or the religions of ,canaan1 
or ,greece1 or ,rome1 and immeasurably  
higher in morals than that of ,islam2   
yet even ,buddhism has been colored by  
its ,european advocates with far too    
roseate a hue4 ,sir ,edwin ,arnold was  
not the first biographer of ,gautama to 
glorify incidentally the seductive      
influences of his ,indian harem1 and to 
leave on too many minds the impression  
that1 after all1 the luxurious palace of
 ,sidartha was more attractive than the 
beggars' bowl of the enlightened        
,tathagata4 ,the ,bishop of ,colombo1 in
 an able article on ,buddhism1 arraigns 
the apologetic translators of           
,buddhistic literature for having given 
to the world an altogether erroneous    
impression of the moral purity of the   
,sacred ,books of ,ceylon4#bbh  ,the    

vaunted claim that the early ,buddhist  
records1 and especially the early rock  
inscriptions found in caves1 are pure1  
whatever corruptions may have crept into
 more modern manuscripts1 is well met by
 letters from a recent traveller1 which 
speak of certain ,buddhist inscriptions 
so questionable in character that they  
cannot be translated or described4#bbi  
,it is scarcely necessary for me to     
speak of the base appeal to man's low   
passions found in the ,koran4 ,it is    
only necessary to trace its unmistakable
 influence in the moral degeneracy of   
,mohammedan populations in all lands and
 all ages--destroying the sacredness of 
the home1 degrading woman1 engendering  
unnatural vices1 and poisoning all      
society from generation to generation4  
,it is indeed a hard task for its       
apologists1 by any kind of literary     
veneering to cover the moral deformity  
and the blasphemous wickedness which1   
side by side with acknowledged          
excellences1 mar the pages of the       

,koran4 ,the soiled finger-marks of the 
sensual ,arab everywhere defile them4   
,like the blood of ,banquo1 they defy   
all ocean's waters to wash them out4 ,it
 was easy enough for ,mohammed to copy  
many exalted truths from ,judaism and   
,christianity1 and no candid mind will  
deny that there are many noble precepts 
in the ,koran2 but after all has been   
said1 its ruling spirit is base4 ,even  
its promised heaven is demoralizing4 ,it
 is characteristically a human book1 and
 very low in the ethical scale at that4 
,let us now turn to the ,bible2 let us  
remember that the ,old ,testament       
represents those early centuries when   
the people of ,israel were surrounded by
 the corruptions of ,baal worship1 which
 transcended the grovelling wickedness  
of all other heathen systems1 ancient or
 modern4 ,let us bear in mind the kind  
of training which the nation had        
received amid the corruptions of ,egypt1
 all rendered more effective for evil by
 their degrading bondage2 and with all  

these disadvantages in view1 let us     
search everywhere1 from ,genesis to     
,malachi1 and see if there be one       
prurient utterance1 one sanction for1 or
 even connivance at1 impurity in all    
those records1 written by men in        
different lands and ages1 men           
representing all social grades1 all     
vocations in life1 and chosen from among
 all varieties of association4 ,who will
 deny that these men appear to have been
 raised by some unaccountable power to a
 common level of moral purity which was 
above their age1 their social standards1
 their natural impulses1 or any of the  
highest human influences which could    
have been exerted upon them8  ,they were
 often called to deal plainly with moral
 evils4 ,they record instances of       
grievous dereliction1 in some cases the 
writers were themselves the offenders4  
,but there is always reproof4 ,the story
 always has a salutary moral4 ,sin is   
always shown to be a losing game1 a     
sowing to the wind and a reaping of the 

whirlwind4 ,it is either followed by    
severe judgments1 or it is repented of  
with a contrition which bows even a     
great monarch in dust and ashes4  ,the  
books of the ,new ,testament were also  
written in an age of great moral        
corruption4 ,judaism was virtually dead2
 the current religion in the ,holy ,city
 was a sad perversion of the truth4     
,hypocrisy sat in high places when ,john
 ,baptist came with his protest and his 
rebukes4 ,the ,herods1 who held the     
sceptres of provincial authority1 were  
either base time-servers1 or worse1 they
 were monsters of lust and depravity4   
,in the far-off capitals of the dominant
 heathen races vice had attained its    
full fruitage and was already going to  
seed and consequent decay4 ,athens1     
,corinth1 ,ephesus1 and ,antioch were   
steeped in iniquity1 while the emperors 
who wielded the sceptre of the ,roman   
empire were hastening the ruin of the   
existing civilization4 ,it was in such  
an age and amid such surroundings that  

the ,gospels and the ,epistles came     
forth as the lotus springs1 pure and    
radiant from the foul and fetid         
quagmire4 ,what could have produced     
them8 ,the widely accepted rule that    
religions are the products of their     
environments is surely at fault here4   
,neither in the natural impulses of a   
dozen ,judean fishermen and peasants1   
nor in the bigoted breast of ,saul of   
,tarsus1 could these unique and sublime 
conceptions have found their genesis4   
,they are manifestly divine4 ,how       
exalted is the portraiture of the       
,christ6 ,what human skill could have   
depicted a character which no ideal of  
our best modern culture can equal8  ,in 
all the ,new ,testament there are none  
but the highest and purest ethical      
teachings1 and even the most poetical   
descriptions of heaven are free from any
 faintest tinge of human folly4 ,the    
,apocalypse is full of images which     
appeal to the senses1 but there is      
nothing which does not minister to the  

most rigid purity2 while the            
representations which ,paul makes of    
eternal felicity are strictly and       
conspicuously spiritual and elevating4  
,everywhere1 from ,matthew to           
,revelations1 it is the pure in heart   
who shall see ,god1 and the inducement  
held out is to be pure because ,he is   
pure4 ,and although the gift of eternal 
life is a free gift1 yet it affords no  
excuse for laxity4 ,the sixth chapter of
 the ,epistle to the ,romans is a       
remonstrance against all presumption in 
those that are under grace4 ,reckon ye  
yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin1  
but alive unto ,god through our ,lord   
,jesus ,christ4 ,let not sin therefore  
rule in your mortal body that ye should 
obey it in the lusts thereof4 ,neither  
yield ye your members as instruments of 
unrighteousness unto sin1 but yield     
yourselves unto ,god as those that are  
alive from the dead4#bcj ,the religion  
of the ,new ,testament is a spiritual   
religion1 the resurrection body is a    

spiritual body2 heaven is not an ,indian
 hunting-ground1 nor a ,vikings         
,valhalla of shield-clad warriors1 nor a
 ,moslem harem4 ,it is a spiritual      
abode1 and its companionships are with  
,god and the ,lamb1 with the church of  
the first-born and of saints made       
perfect4 ,now1 all that we can say of   
these lofty and pure conceptions is that
 flesh and blood never revealed them4   
,they are divine4 ,they are out of the  
range of our native humanity2 they are  
not the things that human nature        
desires1 and it is only by the high     
culture of transforming grace that human
 aspirations are raised to their level4 
,in conclusion1 there are many points in
 which ,christianity asserts its unique 
supremacy over all other systems of     
which there is time but for the briefest
 mention4 ,it presents to man the only  
cultus which can have universal         
adaptation4 ,christ only1 belongs to all
 ages and all races4 ,buddha is but an  
,asiatic1 ,mohammed is an ,arab and     

belongs only to the ,east4 ,the religion
 or philosophy of ,confucius has never  
found adaptation to any but ,mongolian  
races2 his social and political pyramid 
would crumble in contact with republican
 institutions4 ,on the other hand1 the  
religion of ,christ is not only adapted 
to all races1 but it aims at their union
 in one great brotherhood4 ,again1      
,christianity alone presents the true   
relation between ,divine help and human 
effort4 ,it does not invest marred and  
crippled human nature with a false and  
impossible independence1 neither does it
 crush it4 ,whenever heathen systems    
have taught a salvation by faith they   
have lost sight of moral obligation4    
,weitbrecht and others state this as a  
fact with the ,hindu doctrine of ,bakti 
7faith7 adopted in the later centuries2 
,de ,quatrefages asserts the same of the
 ,tahitans4 ,but the faith of the ,new  
,testament everywhere supposes a ,divine
 and effectual co-operation4 ,work out  
your own salvation with fear and        

trembling1 for it is ,god that worketh  
in you to will and to do of ,his good   
pleasure4 ,it bids men serve not as     
hirelings1 but as sons and heirs2 it    
stimulates hope without engendering     
pride2 it administers discipline1 but   
with a father's love2 it teaches that   
trials are not judgments1 but wholesome 
lessons4 ,of all religions it alone     
inculcates a rational and consoling     
doctrine of ,providence4 ,it declares   
that to the righteous death is not      
destruction1 but a sleep in peace and   
hope4 ,it bids the ,christian lay off   
his cares and worries--in all things    
making his requests known unto ,god with
 thanksgivings2 and yet it enjoins him  
not to rest in sloth1 but to aspire     
after all that is pure and true and     
honorable and lovely and of good report 
in human life and conduct4 ,it saves him
 from sin not by the stifling and       
atrophy of any ,god-given power1 but by 
the expulsive influence of new          
affections2 it bids him be pure even as 

,god is pure4  ,there is in the brief   
epistle of ,paul to ,titus a passage    
which in a single sentence sets forth   
the way of salvation in its fulness4 ,it
 traces redemption to the grace of ,god1
 and it makes it a free provision for   
all men2 yet it insists upon carefulness
 and sobriety4 ,salvation is shown to   
begin now in the laying aside of all sin
 and the living of a godly life4        
,meanwhile it cheers the soul with      
expectation that ,christ shall dwell    
with the redeemed in triumph1 as ,he    
once came in humiliation1 and it keeps  
ever in mind the great truth that ,his  
mission is not merely to secure for man 
future exemptions and possessions1 but  
to build up character--character that   
shall continue to rise and expand       
forever4  ,for the grace of ,god that   
bringeth salvation hath appeared to all 
men1 teaching us that1 denying          
ungodliness and worldly lusts1 we should
 live soberly1 righteously1 and godly1  
in this present world2 looking for that 

blessed hope1 and the glorious appearing
 of the great ,god and our ,saviour     
,jesus ,christ2 who gave ,himself for us
 that ,he might redeem us from all      
iniquity1 and purify unto ,himself a    
peculiar people zealous of good works4  
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #bje3 ,holy     
,bible and ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 
p4 #ab4  ,footnote #bjf3 ,mohammed was  
once asked whether he trusted in his own
 merit or in the mercy of ,god1 and he  
answered1 ,the mercy of ,god4 ,but the  
whole drift of his teaching belied this 
one pious utterance4  ,footnote #bjg3   
,of the terrible darkness and           
bewilderment into which benighted races 
are often found ,schoolcraft furnishes  
this graphic and painful picture in the 
condition of the ,iroquois3  ,their     
notions of a deity1 founded apparently  
on some dreamy tradition of original    
truth1 are so subtile and divisible1 and
 establish so heterogeneous a connection
 between spirit and matter of all       
imaginable forms1 that popular belief   

seems to have wholly confounded the     
possible with the impossible1 the       
natural with the supernatural4 ,action1 
so far as respects cause and effect1    
takes the widest and wildest range1     
through the agency of good or evil      
influences1 which are put in motion     
alike for noble or ignoble ends--alike  
by men1 beasts1 devils1 or gods4 ,seeing
 something mysterious and wonderful1 he 
believes all things mysterious and      
wonderful2 and he is afloat without     
shore or compass1 on the wildest sea of 
superstition and necromancy4 ,he sees a 
god in every phenomenon1 and fears a    
sorcerer in every enemy4 ,life1 under   
such a system of polytheism and wild    
belief1 is a constant scene of fears and
 alarms4 ,fear is the predominating     
passion1 and he is ready1 wherever he   
goes1 to sacrifice at any altar1 be the 
supposed deity ever so grotesque4 ,he   
relates just what he believes1 and      
unluckily he believes everything that   
can possibly be told4 ,a beast1 or a    

bird1 or a man1 or a god1 or a devil1 a 
stone1 a serpent1 or a wizard1 a wind1  
or a sound1 or a ray of light--these are
 so many causes of action1 which the    
meanest and lowest of the series may put
 in motion1 but which shall in his      
theology and philosophy vibrate along   
the mysterious chain through the        
uppermost1 and life or death may at any 
moment be the reward or the             
penalty4--,notes on the ,iroquois1 p4   
#bfc4  ,footnote #bjh3 ,history of      
,rationalism4  ,footnote #bji3 ,and even
 the ,buddha had spent six years in     
self-mortification and in the diligent  
search for what he regarded as the true 
wisdom4  ,footnote #baj3 ,henry         
,maudsley1 in ,the ,arena of ,april1    
#ahia4  ,footnote #baa3 ,barren         
,mohammedanism has been in all the      
higher and more tender virtues1 because 
its noble morality and its pure theism  
have been united with no living         
example4--,lecky1 ,history of ,morals1  
vol4 ii41 p4 #aj4  ,footnote #bab3 ,the 

most intelligent ,mohammedans1 as we    
have shown in a former lecture1 admit   
the moral blemishes of his character as 
compared with the purity of ,jesus and  
only revere him as the instrument of a  
great ,divine purpose4 ,his only element
 of greatness was success4 ,even the    
,koran convicts him of what the world   
must regard as heinous sin1 and presents
 ,jesus as the only sinless prophet4    
,footnote #bac3 ,douglass1 ,confucianism
 and ,taouism4  ,footnote #bad3 ,the    
apologists of ,buddhism have made much  
of the story of a distressed young      
mother who came to the ,master bearing  
in her arms the dead body of her        
first-born--hoping for some comfort or  
help4 ,he bade her bring him some       
mustard seed found in a home where no   
child had died4 ,after a wearisome but  
vain search he only reminded her of the 
universality of death4 ,no hope of a    
future life and a glad recovery of the  
lost was given4 ,as an illustration of  
,buddhism the example is a good one4    

,footnote #bae3 ,men wanted a ,father in
 heaven1 who should take account of     
their efforts and assure them a         
recompense4 ,men wanted a future of     
righteousness1 in which the earth should
 belong to the feeble and the poor2 they
 wanted the assurance that human        
suffering is not all loss1 but that     
beyond this sad horizon1 dimmed by      
tears1 are happy plains where sorrow    
shall one day find its                  
consolation4--,renan1 ,hibbert          
,lectures1 p4 #db4  ,footnote #baf3 ,see
 report of ,missionary ,conference1     
,london1 #ahhh1 vol4 i41 p4 #gj4        
,footnote #bag3 ,st4 ,paul and          
,protestantism1 p4 #gi1 quoted by       
,bishop ,carpenter4  ,footnote #bah3 ,it
 is hardly necessary to remind the      
reader of the well-known tribute which  
,napoleon1 in his conversations with his
 friends on the island of ,st4 ,helena1 
paid to the transcendent personality of 
,christ4 ,he drew a graphic contrast    
between the so-called glory which had   

been won by great conquerors like       
,alexander1 ,caesar1 and himself1 and   
that mysterious and all-mastering power 
which in all lands and all ages         
continues to attach itself to the       
person1 the name1 the memory of ,christ1
 for whom1 after eighteen centuries of  
time1 millions of men would sacrifice   
their lives4  ,footnote #bai3 ,augustine
 appears to have been greatly moved by  
the life as well as by the writings of  
,paul4 ,in an account given of his      
conversion to his friend ,romanianus1 he
 says1 ,so then stumbling1 hurrying1    
hesitating1 ,i seized the apostle ,paul1
 'for never1' said ,i1 'could they have 
wrought such things1 or lived as it is  
plain they did live1 if their writings  
and arguments were opposed to this so   
high a good4'--,confessions1 ,bk4 vii41 
xxi41 note4  ,footnote #bbj3 ,genesis1  
xvii4 #a4  ,footnote #bba3 ,the doctrine
 of human merit-making was carried to   
such an extreme under the ,brahmanical  
system that the gods became afraid of   

its power4 ,they sometimes found it     
necessary to send apsaras 7nymphs71     
wives of genii1 to tempt the most holy  
ascetics1 lest their austerities and    
their merit should proceed too          
far4--,see ,article ,brahmanism1 in the 
,britannica4  ,footnote #bbb3 ,mueller1 
,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 vol4   
i41 p4 #dj4  ,footnote #bbc3 ,de ,nat4  
,deorum1 iii41 #cf4  ,footnote #bbd3    
,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 p4     
#cjd4  ,footnote #bbe3 ,see ,murdock's  
,vedic ,religion1 p4 #eg4  ,footnote    
#bbf3 ,hindu ,philosophy4  ,footnote    
#bbg3 ,the most sacred of human victims 
offered by the ,aztecs were prepared by 
a month of unbridled lust4 ,see         
,prescott's ,conquest4  ,footnote #bbh3 
,nineteenth ,century1 ,july1 #ahhh4     
,footnote #bbi3 ,letters of ,rev4       
,pentecost in ,the ,christian at ,work1 
#ahia4  ,footnote #bcj3 ,the same       
principles are set forth with great     
emphasis in ,isaiah1 ,chap4 iii4        
,,appendix  ,,books ,,of ,,reference    

,the books relating directly or         
indirectly to the wide range of topics  
discussed in the following lectures are 
too numerous for citation here2 but     
there are some which are so essential to
 a thorough knowledge of comparative    
religion and comparative philosophy1    
that a special acknowledgment is due4   
,the ,sacred ,books of the ,east are    
indispensable to one who would catch the
 real spirit of the ,oriental religions4
 ,the translations from ,hindu1         
,buddhist1 ,mohammedan1 ,confucian1 and 
,zoroastrian literatures1 by ,max       
,mueller1 ,rhys ,davids1 ,oldenberg1    
,fausboll1 ,palmer1 ,darmesteter1       
,mills1 ,legge1 ,buhler1 ,west1 ,beal1  
and other able scholars1 are invaluable4
 ,the various other works of ,max       
,mueller1 ,the ,science of ,religion1   
,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 ,the   
,origin and ,growth of ,religion1       
,physical ,religion1 etc41 fill an      
important place in all study of these   
subjects4  ,indian ,wisdom1 by ,sir     

,monier ,williams1 is the most          
comprehensive1 and in many ways the     
best1 of all compends of ,hindu religion
 and philosophy4 ,his abridged work1    
,hinduism1 and the larger volume        
entitled ,brahmanism and ,hinduism1 are 
also valuable4 ,r4,c4 ,bose has given to
 the public an able treatise entitled   
,hindu ,philosophy4 ,other books on     
,hinduism to which more or less         
reference is made1 are3 ,the ,vedic     
,religion1 by ,mc,donald2 ,india and the
 ,indians1 by ,duff2 ,the ,life and     
,letters of ,colbrooke2 ,the ,bhagavad  
,gita1 as translated by ,chatterji2 ,the
 ,vishnu ,puranas1 by ,wilson2 ,the     
,ramayana1 by ,griffiths2 ,brahmoism1 by
 ,bose2 ,the ,oriental ,christ1 by      
,mozoomdar2 ,christianity and ,hindu    
,philosophy1 by ,ballantyne4  ,among the
 ablest books on ,buddhism are3         
,buddhism2 ,the ,growth of ,religion as 
illustrated by ,buddhism1 and the able  
article on the same subject in the      
,britannica--all by ,rhys ,davids4      

,buddha3 ,his ,life1 ,character1 and    
,order1 by ,professor ,oldenberg1 is a  
scarcely less important contribution to 
,buddhist literature4 ,the ,light of    
,asia1 by ,sir ,edwin ,arnold1 has done 
more than any other work to interest    
,western nations in the legends of      
,gautama2 perhaps no other ,oriental    
character has been more successfully    
popularized4 ,of the many efforts to    
correct the misleading impressions given
 by this fanciful but really poetic     
story1 ,the ,light of ,asia and the     
,light of the ,world1 by ,dr4 ,s4,h4    
,kellogg1 is probably the ablest4 ,dr4  
,edkins1 in ,chinese ,buddhism1 and     
,professor ,beal1 in ,buddhism in       
,china1 have very successfully shown the
 characteristics of the ,chinese types  
of the system4 ,spence ,hardy1 in his   
,manual of ,buddhism1 has rendered a    
similar service in relation to the      
,buddhism of ,ceylon1 while ,bigandet   
has set forth that of ,burmah1 and      
,alabaster that of ,siam4 ,sir ,monier  

,williams1 in his more recent work1     
,buddhism1 has done much to counteract  
the fashionable tendency of most        
,orientalists to idealize the ,buddhist 
system4  ,other works relating to       
,buddhism are1 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and  
,christ1 by ,dodds2 ,buddhism 7,modern71
 by ,subhadra2 and ,esoteric ,buddhism1 
by ,sinnett4 ,maurice1 ,bishop          
,carpenter1 ,brace1 the ,bishop of      
,colombo1 ,martin1 and many others have 
ably discussed the subject4  ,of all    
works on ,mohammedanism1 ,sale's        
translation of the ,koran1 with a       
,preliminary ,discourse1 is the most    
comprehensive and important4 ,sprenger's
 ,life of ,mohammed1 from ,original     
,sources1 is perhaps next in rank4      
,islam and ,mahomet1 by ,samuel         
,johnson2 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism1 
by ,e4 ,bosworth ,smith2 ,christianity1 
,islam1 and the ,negro ,race1 by ,e4,w4 
,blyden2 and ,leaves from an ,egyptian  
,note-book1 by ,canon ,isaac ,taylor1   
are among the principal apologies for   

,islam4 ,gibbon's fifth volume of the   
,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire
 has at least done ample justice to the 
glory of the ,mohammedan conquest4  ,of 
those who have ably controverted the    
claims of ,islam1 the late ,dr4         
,pfander1 of ,northern ,india1 will     
perhaps hold the first rank4 ,of the    
three ,moulvies who were selected to    
meet him in public discussion1 two are  
said to have been converted to          
,christianity by his arguments4 ,the    
concessions of the ,koran to the truths 
of the ,old and ,new ,testaments have   
been ably pointed out by ,sir ,william  
,muir in ,the ,koran1 and ,dr4 ,e4,m4   
,wherry1 in his ,commentary1 has        
established the striking fact1 that of  
all the prophets named in the ,koran1   
including ,mohammed1 ,jesus alone is    
represented as sinless4 ,the modern     
apologists of ,mohammed and his system  
have been well answered by ,knox in     
current numbers of the ,church          
,missionary ,intelligencer4 ,other works

 upon the subject are ,islam1 by        
,stobart2 ,islam as a ,missionary       
,religion1 by ,haines2 ,essays on       
,eastern ,questions1 by ,palgrave4 ,sir 
,william ,muir's ,history of the        
,caliphate is an important and recent   
work4  ,confucianism and ,taouism may be
 fairly understood1 even by those who   
have not the time for a careful study of
 ,legge's translations of the ,chinese  
classics1 by reference to the following 
works3 ,china and the ,chinese1 by      
,medhurst2 ,the ,religions of ,china1 by
 ,legge2 ,the ,chinese1 by ,martin2     
,confucianism and ,taouism1 by          
,douglass2 ,religion in ,china1 by      
,edkins4 ,the late ,samuel ,johnson1 in 
his ,oriental ,religions1 has devoted a 
large volume to the religions of ,china1
 principally to the ethics and political
 economy of the ,confucian system2 and  
,james ,freeman ,clark has given        
considerable attention to ,confucianism 
as one of ,the ,ten ,great ,religions4  
,zoroastrianism is ably treated by      

,darmesteter in the ,introduction to his
 translation of the ,zend ,avesta4      
,instructive lectures on the religion   
and literature of ,persia may be found  
in the first volume of ,max ,mueller's  
,chips from a ,german ,workshop2 also in
 ,the ,religion of the ,iranians1 found 
in ,ebrard's ,apologetics1 vol4 ii4     
,west's and ,darmesteter's translations 
of ,pahlavi ,texts1 in the ,sacred      
,books of the ,east1 are also           
suggestive4  ,in the following          
discussions1 relating broadly to the    
ancient as well as the modern religions 
and philosophies of the world1 and their
 contrasts to ,christian truth1         
reference is made directly or indirectly
 to the following works3 ,christ and    
,other ,masters1 by ,hardwick2 ,the     
,ancient ,world and ,christianity1 by   
,edward de ,pressense2 ,the ,religions  
of the ,world1 by ,maurice2 ,the ,aryan 
,witness1 by ,banergea2 ,the ,unknown   
,god1 by ,brace2 ,the ,permanent        
,elements in ,religion1 by ,boyd        

,carpenter2 ,oriental and ,linguistic   
,studies1 by ,a4,d4 ,whitney2 ,the      
,doomed ,religions1 by ,reid2 ,the ,idea
 of ,god1 by ,fiske2 ,the ,destiny of   
,man1 by ,fiske2 ,the ,races of ,man1 by
 ,peschel2 ,introduction to the         
,philosophy of ,religion1 by ,caird2    
,national ,religions and ,universal     
,religions1 by ,kuenen2 ,some ,elements 
of ,religion1 by ,liddon2 ,outlines of  
the ,history of ,ancient ,religions1 by 
,tiele2 ,the ,philosophy of ,religion1  
by ,pfleiderer2 ,our ,christian         
,heritage1 by ,cardinal ,gibbons2       
,hulsean ,lectures1 #ahde-f1 by ,trench2
 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhj1 by ,renan2  
,origins of ,english ,history1 by       
,elton2 ,st4 ,paul in ,britain          
7,druidism71 by ,morgan2 ,fossil ,men   
and their ,modern ,representatives1 by  
,dawson2 ,modern ,ideas of ,evolution1  
by ,dawson2 ,marcus ,aurelius1 by       
,renan2 ,epictetus1 ,bonn's ,library2   
,confessions1 by ,st4 ,augustine2       
,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 by 

,tiele2 ,lucretius1 ,bonn's ,library2   
,lives of the ,fathers1 by ,farrar2 ,the
 ,vikings of ,western ,christendom1 by  
,keary2 ,principles of ,sociology1 by   
,spencer2 ,the ,descent of ,man1 by     
,darwin2 ,evolution and ,its ,relation  
to ,christian ,thought1 by ,le ,conte2  
,history of ,european ,morals1 by       
,lecky2 ,the ,kojiki 7,sacred ,books of 
,shinto71 ,chamberlain's translation2   
,the ,witness of ,history to ,christ1 by
 ,farrar2 ,anti-,theistic ,theories1 by 
,flint2 ,the ,human ,species1 by ,de    
,quatrefages4