file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #adhcd-;h4htm or #adhcd-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ d_/h_/c_/adhcd_/adhcd-;h_/#adhcd-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ d_/h_/c_/adhcd_/adhcd-;h4zip7 ,,the ,,whence ,,and ,,the ,,whither ,,of ,,man ,a ,brief ,history of ,his ,origin and ,development through ,conformity to ,environment ,being the ,morse ,lectures of #ahie by ,,john ,m4 ,,tyler ,professor of ,biology1 ,amherst ,college ,new ,york ,charles ,scribner's ,sons #ahif ,morse ,lectures #ahic--,,the ,,place ,,of ,,christ ,,in ,,modern ,,theology4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4,m4 ,fairbairn1 ,d4,d4 #hvo1 #b4ej #ahid--,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,japan4 ,by ,rev4 ,william ,elliot ,griffis1 ,d4,d4 #abmo1 #b4jj4 #ahie--,,the ,,whence ,,and ,,the ,,whither ,,of ,,man4 ,by ,professor ,john ,m4 ,tyler4 #abmo1 #a4ge4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,problem3 ,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,its ,,solution ,the question4--,the two theories of man's origin4--,the argument purely historical4--,means of tracing man's ancestry and history4--,classification4--,ontogenesis and ,phylogenesis4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,protozoa ,,to ,,worms3 ,,cells1 ,,tissues1 ,,and ,,organs ,amoeba3 ,its anatomy and physiology4--,development of the cell4--,hydra3 ,the development of digestive and reproductive organs1 and of tissues4--,forms intermediate between amoeba and hydra3 ,magosphra1 volvox4--,embryonic development4--,turbellaria3 ,appearance of a body wall1 of ganglion1 and nerve-cords4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,worms ,,to ,,vertebrates3 ,,skeleton ,,and ,,head ,worms and the development of organs4--,mollusks3 ,the external protective skeleton leads to degeneration or stagnation4--,annelids and arthropods3 ,the external locomotive skeleton leads to temporary rapid advance1 but fails of the goal4--,its disadvantages4--,vertebrates3 ,the internal locomotive skeleton leads to backbone and brain4--,reasons for their dominance4--,the primitive vertebrate4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,vertebrates3 ,,backbone ,,and ,,brain ,the advance of vertebrates from fish through amphibia and reptiles to mammals4--,the development of skeleton1 appendages1 circulatory and respiratory systems1 and brain4--,mammals3 ,the oviparous monotremata4--,marsupials4--,placental mammals4--,development of the placenta4--,primates4--,arboreal life and the development of the hand4--,comparison of man with the highest apes4--,recapitulation of the history of man's origin and development4--,the sequence of dominant functions4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,mental ,,development ,,and ,,its ,,sequence ,,of ,,functions ,mode of investigation4--,intellect4--,sense-perc eptions4--,association4 --,inference and understanding4--,rational intelligence4--,modes of mental or nervous action4--,reflex action1 unconscious and comparatively mechanical4--,instinctive action3 ,the actor is conscious1 but guided by heredity4--,intelligent action4--,the actor is conscious1 guided by intelligence resulting from experience or observation4--,the will stimulated by motives4--,appetites4--,fear and other prudential considerations4--,care for young and love of mates4--,the dawn of unselfishness4--,motives furnished by the rational intelligence3 ,truth1 right1 duty4--,recapitulation3 ,the will1 stimulated by ever higher motives1 is finally to be dominated by unselfishness and love of truth and righteousness4--,these rouse the only inappeasable hunger1 and are capable of indefinite development4--,strength of these motives4--,their complete dominance the goal of human development4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,natural ,,selection ,,and ,,environment ,the reversal of the sequence of functions leads to extermination1 degeneration1 or1 rarely1 to stagnation4--,natural selection becomes more unsparing as we go higher4--,extinction4--,severity of the struggle for life4--,environment one4--,but lower animals come into vital relation with but a small part of it4--,it consists of a myriad of forces1 which1 as acting on a given form1 may be considered as one grand resultant4--,environment is thus a power making at first for digestion and reproduction1 then for muscular strength and activity1 then for shrewdness1 finally for unselfishness and righteousness4--,an ultimate power1 not ourselves1 making for righteousness1 a personality4--,our knowledge of this personality may be valid1 even though very incomplete4--,religion4--,conformity to the spiritual in or behind environment is likeness to ,god4--,the conservative tendency in evolution4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conformity ,,to ,,environment ,human environment4--,the development of the family as the school of man's training4--,the family as the school of unselfishness and obedience4--,the family as the basis of social life4--,society as an aid to conformity to environment by increasing intelligence and training conscience4--,mental and moral heredity4--,personal magnetism4--,man's search for a king4--,the essence of ,christianity4--,conformity to environment gives future supremacy1 but often at the cost of present hardship4--,conformity as obedience to the laws of our being4--,environment best understood through the study of the human mind4--,productiveness and prospectiveness of vital capital4--,faith4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,man ,composed of atoms and molecules1 hence subject to chemical and physical laws4--,as a living being4--,as an animal4--,as a vertebrate4--,as a mammal4--,as a social being4--,as a personal and moral being4--,the conflict between the higher and the lower in man4--,as a religious being4--,as hero4--,he has not yet attained4--,future man4--,he will utilize all his powers1 duly subordinating the lower to the higher4--,the triumph of the common people4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,teachings ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,subject of the ,bible4--,man3 ,body1 intellect1 heart4--,god3 ,law1 sin1 and penalty4--,god manifested in ,christ4--,salvation1 the divine life permeating man--,faith4--,prayer4--,hope4--,the ,church4--,the battle4--,the victory4--,the crown4 ,,chapter ,x ,,present ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,evolution ,the struggle for existence4--,natural selection4--,correlation of organs4--,fortuitous variation4--,origin of the fittest4--,ngeli's theory3 ,initial tendency supreme4--,weismann and the ,neo-,darwinians3 ,natural selection omnipotent4--,the ,neo-,lamarckians4--,comparison of the ,neo-,darwinian and the ,neo-,lamarckian views4--,individuality the controlling power throughout the life of the organism4--,transmission of special effects of use and disuse4--,summary4 ,,chart ,,showing ,,sequence ,,of ,,attainments ,,and ,,of ,,dominant ,,functions ,,phylogenetic ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom ,,index ,,introduction ,in the year #ahfe ,professor ,samuel ,finley ,breese ,morse1 to whom the world is indebted for the application of the principles of electro-magnetism to telegraphy1 gave the sum of ten thousand dollars to ,union ,theological ,seminary to found a lectureship in memory of his father1 the ,rev4 ,jedediah ,morse1 ,d4,d41 theologian1 geographer1 and gazetteer4 ,the subject of the lectures was to have to do with ,the relations of the ,bible to any of the sciences4 ,the ten chapters of this book correspond to ten lectures1 eight of which were delivered as ,morse ,lectures at ,union ,theological ,seminary during the early spring of #ahie4 ,the first nine chapters appear in form and substance as they were given in the lectures1 except that ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,vii4 were condensed in one lecture4 ,chapter ,x4 is new1 and ,i have not hesitated to add a few paragraphs wherever the argument seemed especially to demand further evidence or illustration4 ,one of my friends1 reading the title of these lectures1 said3 ,of man's origin you know nothing1 of his future you know less4 ,i fear that many share his opinion1 although they might not express it so emphatically4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 to be in order to show that science is now competent to deal with this question2 not that she can give a final and conclusive answer1 but that we can reach results which are probably in the main correct4 ,we may grant very cheerfully that we can attain no demonstration2 the most that we can claim for our results will be a high degree of probability4 ,if our conclusions are very probably correct1 we shall do well to act according to them2 for all our actions in life are suited to meet the emergencies of a probable but uncertain course of events4 ,we take for granted the probable truth of the theory of evolution as stated by ,mr4 ,darwin1 and that it applies to man as really as to any lower animal4 ,at the same time it concerns our argument but little whether natural selection is omnipotent or of only secondary importance in evolution1 as long as it is a real factor1 or which theory of heredity or variation is the more probable4 ,if man has been evolved from simple living substance protoplasm1 by a process of evolution1 it will some day be possible to write a history of that process4 ,but have we yet sufficient knowledge to justify such an attempt8 ,before the history of any period can be written its events must have been accurately chronicled4 ,biological history can be written only when the successive stages of development and the attainments of each stage have been clearly perceived4 ,in other words1 the first prerequisite would seem to be a genealogical,a tree of the animal kingdom4 ,the means of tracing this genealogical tree are given in the first chapter1 and the results in the second1 third1 and fourth chapters of this book4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,phylogenetic ,chart1 p4 #caj4 ,now1 for some of the ancestral stages of man's development a very high degree of probability can be claimed4 ,one of man's earliest ancestors was almost certainly a unicellular animal4 ,a little later he very probably passed through a gastra stage4 ,he traversed fish1 amphibian1 and reptilian grades4 ,the oviparous monotreme and the marsupial almost certainly represent lower mammalian ancestral stages4 ,but what kind of fish1 what species of amphibian1 what form of reptiles most closely resembles the old ancestor8 ,how did each of these ancestors look8 ,i do not know4 ,it looks as if our ancestral tree were entirely uncertain and we were left without any foundation for history or argument4 ,but the history of the development of anatomical details1 however important and desirable1 is not the only history which can be written1 nor is it essential4 ,it would be interesting to know the size of brain1 girth of chest1 average stature1 and the features of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,but this is not the most important part of their history1 nor is it essential4 ,the great question is1 ,what did they contribute to human progress8 ,even if we cannot accurately portray the anatomical details of a single ancestral stage1 can we perhaps discover what function governed its life and was the aim of its existence8 ,did it live to eat1 or to move1 or to think8 ,if we cannot tell exactly how it looked1 can we tell what it lived for and what it contributed to the evolution of man8 ,now1 the sequence of dominant functions or aims in life can be traced with far more ease and safety1 not to say certainty1 than one of anatomical details4 ,the latter characterize small groups1 genera1 families1 or classes2 while the dominant function characterizes all animals of a given grade1 even those which through degeneration have reverted to this grade4 ,even if ,i cannot trace the exact path which leads to the mountain-top1 ,i may almost with certainty affirm that it leads from meadow and pasture through forest to bare rock1 and thence over snow and ice to the summit2 for each of these forms a zone encircling the mountain4 ,very similarly ,i find that1 whatever genealogical tree ,i adopt1 one sequence in the dominance of functions characterizes them all2 digestion is dominant before locomotion and locomotion before thought4 ,and it is hardly less than a physiological necessity that it should be so4 ,the plant can and does exist1 living almost purely for digestion and reproduction1 and the same is true of the lowest and most primitive animals4 ,a muscular system cannot develop and do its work until some sort of a digestive system has arisen to furnish nutriment1 any more than a steam-engine can run without fuel4 ,and a brain is of no use until muscle and sense-organs have appeared4 ,this sequence of dominant functions1,a of physiological dynasties1 would seem therefore to be a fact4 ,and our series of forms described in the second1 third1 and fourth chapters is merely a concrete illustration showing how this sequence may have been evolved4 ,the substitution of other terms in the anatomical series there described--amoeba1 volvox1 etc4--would not affect this result4 ,by a change in the form of our history we have eliminated to a large extent the sources of uncertainty and error4 ,and the dominant function of a group throws no little light on the details of its anatomy4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see condensed ,chart of ,development1 etc41 p4 #cji4 ,if we can be satisfied that ever higher functions have risen to dominance in the successive stages of animal and human development1 if we can further be convinced that the sequence is irreversible1 we shall be convinced that future man will be more and more completely controlled by the very highest powers or aims to which this sequence points4 ,otherwise we must disbelieve the continuity of history4 ,but the germs of the future are always concealed in the history of the present4 ,hence--pardon the reiteration--if we can once trace this sequence of dominant functions1 whose evolution has filled past ages1 we can safely foretell something at least of man's future development4 ,the argument and method is therefore purely historical4 ,here and there we will try to find why and how things had to be so4 ,but all such digressions are of small account compared with the fact that things were or are thus and so4 ,and a mistaken explanation will not invalidate the facts of history4 ,the subject of our history is the development1 not of a single human race nor of the movements of a century1 but the development of animal life through ages4 ,and even if our attempts to decipher a few pages here and there in the volumes of this vast biological history are not as successful as we could hope1 we must not allow ourselves to be discouraged from future efforts4 ,even if our translation is here and there at fault1 we must never forget the existence of the history4 ,some of the worst errors of biologists are due to their having forgotten that in the lower stages the germs of the higher must be present1 even though invisible to any microscope4 ,our study of the worm is inadequate and likely to mislead us1 unless we remember that a worm was the ancestor of man4 ,and a biologist who can tell us nothing about man is neglecting his fairest field4 ,conversely history and social science will rest on a firmer basis when their students recognize that many human laws and institutions are heirlooms1 the attainments1 or direct results of attainments1 of animals far below man4 ,we are just beginning to recognize that the study of zology is an essential prerequisite to1 and firm foundation for1 that of history1 social science1 philosophy1 and theology1 just as really as for medicine4 ,an adequate knowledge of any history demands more than the study of its last page4 ,the zologist has been remiss in not claiming his birthright1 and in this respect has sadly failed to follow the path pointed out by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,for palontology1 zology1 history1 social and political science1 and philosophy are really only parts of one great science1 of biology in the widest sense1 in distinction from the narrower sense in which it is now used to include zology and botany4 ,they form an organic unity in which no one part can be adequately understood without reference to the others4 ,you know nothing of even a constellation1 if you have studied only one of its stars4 ,much less can the study of a single organ or function give an adequate idea of the human body4 ,only when we have attained a biological history can we have any satisfactory conception of environment4 ,as we look about us in the world1 environment often seems to us to be a chaos of forces aiding or destroying good and bad1 fit and unfit1 alike4 ,but our history of animal and human progress shows us successive stages1 each a little higher than the preceding1 and surviving1 for a time at least1 because more completely conformed to environment4 ,if this be true1 and it must be true unless our theory of evolution be false1 higher forms are more completely conformed to their environment than lower2 and man has attained the most complete conformity of all4 ,our biological history is therefore a record of the results of successive efforts1 each attaining a little more complete conformity than the preceding4 ,from such a history we ought to be able to draw certain valid deductions concerning the general character and laws of our environment1 to discover the direction in which its forces are urging us1 and how man can more completely conform to it4 ,if man is a product of evolution1 his mental and moral1 just as really as his physical1 development must be the result of such a conformity4 ,the study of environment from this standpoint should throw some light on the validity of our moral and religious creeds and theories4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 not only justifiable1 but imperative to attempt such a study4 ,our argument is not directly concerned with modern theories of heredity1 or variation1 or with the omnipotence or secondary importance of natural selection4 ,and yet ,ngeli1 and especially ,weismann1 have had so marked an influence on modern thought that we cannot afford to neglect their theories4 ,we will briefly notice these in the closing chapter4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,problem3 ,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,its ,,solution ,the story of a human life can be told in very few words4 ,a youth of golden dreams and visions2 a few years of struggle or of neglected opportunities2 then retrospect and the end4 ,we come like water1 and like wind we go4 ,but how few of the visions are realized4 ,faust sums up the whole of life in the twice-repeated word versagen1 renounce1 and history tells a similar story4 ,terah died in ,haran2 ,abraham obtained but a grave in the land promised him and his children2 ,jacob1 cheated in marriage1 bitterly disappointed in his children1 died in exile1 leaving his descendants to become slaves in the land of ,egypt2 and ,moses1 their heroic deliverer1 died in the mountains of ,moab in sight of the land which he was forbidden to enter4 ,you may answer that it is no injury that the promise is too large1 the vision too grand1 to be fulfilled in the span of a single life1 but must become the heritage of a race4 ,but what has been the history of ,abraham's descendants8 ,a death-grapple for existence1 captivity1 and dispersion4 ,their national existence has long been lost4 ,was there ever a nation of grander promise than ,greece or ,rome8 ,but ,greece died of premature old age1 and ,rome of rottenness begotten of sin4 ,but each of them1 you will say1 left a priceless heritage to the immortal race4 ,but if ,greece and ,rome and a host of older nations1 of which ,history has often forgotten the very name1 have failed and died1 can anything but ultimate failure await the race8 ,is human history to prove a story told by an idiot1 or does it signify something8 ,is the great march of humanity1 which ,carlyle so vividly depicts1 from the inane to the inane1 or from ,god to ,god8 ,this is the sphinx question put to every thinking man1 and on his answer hangs his life4 ,for according to that answer1 he will either flinch and turn back1 or expend every drop of blood and grain of power in urging on the march4 ,to this question the ,bible gives a clear and emphatic answer4 ,god created man in his own image1 and then1 as if men might refuse to believe so astounding a statement1 it is repeated1 in the image of ,god created he him4 ,when1 and by what mode or process1 man was created we are not told4 ,his origin is condensed almost into a line1 his present and future occupy all the rest of the book4 ,whence we came is important only in so far as it teaches us humility and yet assures us that we may be ,godlike because we are ,his handiwork and children1 heirs of ,god and joint heirs with ,christ of a heavenly inheritance4 ,now has ,science any answer to this vital question8 ,perhaps4 ,but this much is certain2 it can foretell the future only from the past4 ,its answer to the question whither must be an inference from its knowledge as to whence we have come4 ,the ,bible looks mainly at the present and future2 ,science must at least begin with the study of the past4 ,the deciphering of man's past history is the great aim of ,biology1 and ultimately of all ,science4 ,for the question of ,man's past is only a part of a greater question1 the origin of all living species4 ,we may say broadly that concerning the origin of species two theories1 and only two1 seem possible4 ,the first theory is that every species is the result of an act of immediate creation4 ,and every true species1 however slightly it may differ from its nearest relative1 represents such a creative act1 and once created is practically unchangeable4 ,this is the theory of immutability of species4 ,according to the second theory all higher1 probably all present existing1 species are only mediately the result of a creative act4 ,the first living germ1 whenever and however created1 was infused with power to give birth to higher species4 ,of these and their descendants some would continue to advance1 others would degenerate4 ,each theory demands equally for its ultimate explanation a creative act2 the second as much as1 if not more than1 the first4 ,according to the first theory the creative power has been distributed over a series of acts1 according to the second theory it has been concentrated in one primal creation4 ,the second is the theory of the mutability of species1 or1 in general1 of evolution1 but not necessarily of ,darwinism alone4 ,the first theory is considered by many the more attractive and hopeful4 ,now a theory need not be attractive1 nor at first sight appear hopeful1 provided only it is true4 ,but let me call your attention to certain conclusions which1 as it appears to me1 are necessarily involved in it4 ,its central thought is the practical immutability of species4 ,each one of these lives its little span of time1 for species are usually comparatively short-lived1 grows possibly a very little better or worse1 and dies4 ,its progress has added nothing to the total of life2 its degeneration harmed no one1 hardly even itself2 it was doomed from the start4 ,progress there has been1 in a sense4 ,the ,creator has placed ever higher forms on the globe4 ,but all the progress lies in the gaps and distances between successive forms1 not in any advance made1 or victory won1 by the species or individual4 ,the most aspiring ape1 if ever there was such a being1 remains but an ape4 ,he must comfort himself with the thought that1 while he and his descendants can never gain an inch1 the gap between himself and the next higher form shall be far greater than that between himself and the lowest monkey4 ,and if this has been the history of thousands of other species1 why should it not be true of man also8 ,who can wonder that many who accept this theory doubt whether the world is growing any better1 or whether even man will ever be higher and better than he now is8 ,would it not be contrary to the whole course of past history1 if you can properly call such a record a history1 if he could advance at all8 ,now ,i have no wish to misrepresent this or any honestly accepted theory1 but it appears to me essentially hopeless1 a record not of the progress of life on the globe1 but of a succession of stagnations1 of deaths4 ,i can never understand why some very good and intelligent people still think that the theory of the immediate creation of each species does more honor to the ,creator and his creation than the theory of evolution4 ,evolution is a process1 not a force4 ,the power of the ,creator is equally demanded in both cases2 only it is differently distributed4 ,and evolution is the very highest proof of the wisdom and skill of the ,creator4 ,it elevates our views of the living beings1 must it not give a higher conception of ,him who formed them8 ,the plant in its first stages shows no trace of flowers1 but of leaves only4 ,later a branch or twig1 similar in structure to all the rest1 shortens4 ,the cells and tissues which in other twigs turn into green leaves here become the petals and other organs of the rose or violet4 ,let us suppose for a moment that every rose and violet required a special act of immediate creation1 would the springtime be as wonderful as now8 ,would the rose or violet be any more beautiful1 or are they any less flowers because developed out of that which might have remained a common branch8 ,the plant at least is glorified by the power to give rise to such beauty4 ,and is not the creation of the seed of a violet or rose something infinitely grander than the decking of a flowerless plant with newly created roses8 ,the attainment of the highest and most diversified beauty and utility with the fewest and simplest means is always the sign of what we call in man creative genius4 ,is not the same true of ,god8 ,i think you all feel the force of the argument here4 ,there were at one time no flowering plants4 ,the time came at last for their appearance4 ,which is the higher1 grander mode of producing them1 immediate creation of every flowering species1 or development of the flower out of the green leaves of some old club moss or similar form8 ,the latter seems to me at least by far the higher mode4 ,and to have created a ground-pine which could give rise to a rose seems far more difficult and greater than to have created both separately4 ,it requires more genius1 so to speak4 ,it gives us a far higher opinion of the ground-pine2 does it disgrace the rose8 ,we can look dispassionately at plants4 ,the rose is still and always a rose1 and the oak an oak1 whatever its origin4 ,and ,i believe that we shall all readily admit that evolution is here a theory which does the highest honor to the wisdom and power of the ,creator4 ,what if the animal kingdom is continually blossoming in ever higher forms8 ,does not the same reasoning hold true1 only with added force8 ,i firmly believe that we should all unhesitatingly answer1 yes1 could we but be assured that all men would everywhere and always believe that we1 men1 were the results of an immediate creative act4 ,but why do we so strenuously object to the application to ourselves of the theory of evolution8 ,one or two reasons are easily seen4 ,we have all of us a great deal of innate snobbery1 we would rather have been born great than to have won greatness by the most heroic struggle4 ,but is man any less a man for having arisen from something lower1 and being in a fair way to become something higher8 ,certainly not1 unless ,i am less a man for having once been a baby4 ,it is only when ,i am unusually cross and irritable that ,i object to being reminded of my infancy4 ,but a young child does not like to be reminded of it4 ,he is afraid that some one will take him for a baby still4 ,and the snob is always desperately afraid that some one will fail to notice what a high-born gentleman he is4 ,now man can relapse into something lower than a brute2 the only genuine brute is a degenerate man4 ,and we all recognize the strength of tendencies urging us downward4 ,is not this the often unrecognized kern of our eagerness for some mark or stamp that shall prove to all that we are no apes1 but men8 ,it is not the pure gold that needs the guinea stamp4 ,if we are men1 and as we become men1 we shall cease to fear the theory of evolution4 ,now this is not the only1 or perhaps the greatest1 objection which men feel or speak against the theory4 ,but ,i must believe that it has more weight with us than we are willing to admit4 ,but some say that the theory of immediate creation and immutability of species is the more natural and has always been accepted1 while the theory of evolution is new and very likely to be as short-lived as many another theory which has for a time fascinated men only to be forgotten or ridiculed4 ,but the idea of evolution is as old as ,hindu philosophy4 ,the old ,ionic natural philosophers were all evolutionists4 ,so ,aristophanes1 quoting from these or ,hesiod concerning the origin of things1 says3 ,chaos was and ,night1 and ,erebus black1 and wide ,tartarus4 ,no earth1 nor air nor sky was yet2 when1 in the vast bosom of ,erebus 7or chaotic darkness7 winged ,night brought forth first of all the egg1 from which in after revolving periods sprang ,eros 7,love7 the much desired1 glittering with golden wings2 and ,eros again1 in union with ,chaos1 produced the brood of the human race4 ,here the formative process is a birth1 not a creation2 it is evolution pure and simple4 ,according to the ancient view1 says ,professor ,lewis1 the present world was a growth2 it was born1 it came from something antecedent1 not merely as a cause but as its seed1 embryo or principium4 ,plato's world was a 'zoon1' a living thing1 a natural production4 ,furthermore1 to the ancient writers of the ,bible the idea of origin by birth from some antecedent form--and this is the essential idea of evolution--was perfectly natural4 ,they speak of the generations of the heavens and the earth as of the generations of the patriarchs4 ,the first book of the ,bible is still called ,genesis1 the book of births4 ,the writer of the ninetieth ,psalm says1 ,before the mountains were born1 or ever thou hadst brought to birth the earth and the world4 ,and what satisfactory meaning can you give to the words1 ,let the earth bring forth1 and the earth brought forth1 in immediate proximity to the words1 and ,god made1 unless while the ultimate source was ,god's creative power1 the immediate process of formation was one of evolution4 ,the ,bible is big and broad enough to include both ideas1 the human mind is prone to overestimate the one or the other4 ,traces1 at least1 of a similar mode of thought persisted by the ,greek ,fathers of the ,church1 and disappeared1 if ever1 with the predominance of ,latin theology4 ,to the oriental the idea of evolution is natural4 ,the earth is to him no inert1 resistant clod2 she brings forth of herself4 ,but our ancestors lived on a barren soil beneath a forbidding sky4 ,they were frozen in winter and parched in summer4 ,nature was to them no kind foster-mother1 but a cruel stepmother1 training them by stern discipline to battle with her and the world4 ,they peopled the earth with gnomes and cobolds and giants1 and their nymphs were the ,valkyre4 ,their ,god was ,thor1 of the thunderbolt and hammer1 and who yet lived in continual dread of the hostile powers of ,nature4 ,a ,norse prophet or prophetess standing beside ,elijah at ,horeb would have bowed down before the earthquake or the fire2 the oriental waited for the still small voice4 ,and we are heirs to a ,latin theology grafted on to the ,thor-worship of our pagan ancestors4 ,the idea of a ,nature producing beneficently and kindly at the word of a loving ,god is foreign to all our inherited modes of thought4 ,and our views of the heart of ,nature are about as correct as those of our ancestors were of ,god4 ,a little more of oriental tendencies of thought would harm neither our theology nor our life4 ,what1 then1 is the biblical idea of ,nature8 ,god speaks to the earth1 in the first chapter of ,genesis1 and the earth responds by giving birth to mountains and living beings4 ,it is evidently no mere lifeless1 inert clod1 but pulsating with life and responsive to the divine commands4 ,while yet a chaos it had been brooded over by the ,divine ,spirit4 ,it is like the great wheels within wheels1 with rings full of eyes round about1 which ,ezekiel saw in his vision by the river ,chebar4 ,when the living creatures went1 the wheels went by them2 and when the living creatures were lifted up from the earth1 the wheels were lifted up4 ,whithersoever the spirit was to go1 they went1 thither was their spirit to go2 and the wheels were lifted up over against them3 for the spirit of the living creatures 7or of life7 was in the wheels4 ,and above the living creatures was the firmament and the throne of ,god4 ,so ,nature may be material1 but it is material interpenetrated by the divine2 if you call it a fabric1 the woof may be material but the warp is ,god4 ,this view contains all the truth of materialism and pantheism1 and vastly more than they1 and it avoids their errors and omissions4 ,to the old metaphysical hypothesis of evolution ,mr4 ,darwin gave a scientific basis4 ,it had always been admitted that species were capable of slight variation and that this divergence might become hereditary and thus perhaps give rise to a variety of the parent species4 ,but it was denied that the variation could go on increasing indefinitely1 it seemed soon to reach a limit and stop4 ,early in the present century ,lamarck had attempted to prove that by the use and disuse of organs through a series of generations a great divergence might arise resulting in new species4 ,but the theory was crude1 capable at best of but limited application1 and fell before the arguments and authority of ,cuvier4 ,the times were not ripe for such a theory4 ,some fifty years later1 ,mr4 ,darwin called attention to the struggle for existence as a means of aggregating these slight modifications in a divergence sufficient to produce new species1 genera1 or families4 ,his argument may be very briefly stated as follows3 #a4 ,there is in ,nature a law of heredity2 like begets like4 #b4 ,the offspring is never exactly like the parent2 and the members of the second generation differ more or less from one another4 ,this is especially noticeable in domesticated plants and animals1 but no less true of wild forms4 ,if the parent is not exactly like the other members of the species1 some of its descendants will inherit its peculiarities enhanced1 others diminished4 #c4 ,every species tends to increase in geometrical progression4 ,but most species actually increase in number very slowly1 if at all4 ,now and then some insect or weed escapes from its enemies1 comes under favorable food conditions1 and multiplies with such rapidity that it threatens to ravage the country4 ,but as it multiplies it furnishes an abundance of food for the enemies which devour it1 or of food and place for the parasites in and upon it2 and they increase with at least equal rapidity4 ,hence while the vanguard increases prodigiously in numbers1 because it has outrun these enemies1 the rear is continually slaughtered4 ,and thus these plagues seem in successive generations to march across the continent4 ,and yet even they give but a faint idea of the reproductive powers of plants and animals4 ,the female fish produces often many thousands1 sometimes hundreds of thousands of eggs4 ,insects generally from a hundred to a thousand4 ,even birds1 slowly as they increase1 produce in a lifetime probably at least from twelve to twenty eggs4 ,now let us suppose that all these eggs developed1 and all the birds lived out their normal period of life1 and reproduced at the same rate4 ,after not many centuries there would not be standing room on the globe for the descendants of a single pair4 ,again1 of the one hundred eggs of an insect let us suppose that only sixty develop into the first larval1 caterpillar1 stage4 ,of these sixty1 the number of members of the species remaining constant1 only two will survive4 ,the other fifty-eight die--of starvation1 parasites1 or other enemies1 or from inclement weather4 ,now which two of all shall survive8 ,those naturally best able to escape their enemies or to resist unfavorable influences2 in a word1 those best suited to their conditions1 or1 to use ,mr4 ,darwin's words1 conformed to their environment4 ,now if any individual has varied so as to possess some peculiarity which enables it even in slight degree to better escape its enemies or to resist unfavorable conditions1 those of its descendants who inherit most markedly this peculiar quality or variation will be the most likely to escape1 those without it to perish4 ,if a form varies unfavorably1 becomes for instance more conspicuous to its enemies1 it will almost certainly perish4 ,thus favorable variations tend to increase and become more marked from generation to generation4 ,now it has always been known that breeders could produce a race of markedly peculiar form or characteristics by selecting the individuals possessing this quality in the highest degree and breeding only from these4 ,the breeder depends upon heredity1 variation1 and his selection of the individuals from which to breed4 ,similarly in nature new species have arisen through heredity1 variation1 and a selection according to the laws of nature of those varying in conformity with their environment4 ,and this ,mr4 ,darwin called natural1 in contrast with the breeder's artificial1 selection1 arising from the struggle for existence1 and resulting in what ,mr4 ,spencer has called the survival of the fittest4 ,let us take a single illustration4 ,many of the species of beetles on oceanic islands have very rudimentary wings1 or none at all1 and yet their nearest relatives are winged forms on some neighboring continent4 ,mr4 ,darwin would explain the origin of these evidently distinct wingless species as follows3 ,they are descended from winged ancestors blown or otherwise transported thither from the neighboring continent4 ,but beetles are slow and clumsy fliers1 and on these wind-swept islands those which flew most would be blown out to sea and drowned4 ,those which flew the least1 and these would include the individuals with more poorly developed wings1 would survive4 ,there would thus be a survival in every generation of a larger proportion of those having the poorest wings1 and destruction of those whose wings were strong1 or whose habits most active4 ,we have here a natural selection which must in time produce a species with rudimentary or aborted wings1 just as surely as a human breeder1 by artificial selection can produce such an animal as a pug or a poodle4 ,these1 like sin1 are a human device2 nature should not be held responsible for them4 ,but you may urge that the variation which would take place in a single generation would be1 as a rule1 too slight to be of any practical value to the animal1 and could not be fostered by natural selection until greatly enhanced by some other means4 ,let us think a moment4 ,if ten ordinary men run in a foot-race1 the two foremost may lead by several feet4 ,but if the number of runners be continually increased the finish will be ever closer until finally but an atom more wind or muscle or pluck would make all the difference between winning and losing the prize4 ,similarly the million or more young of any species of insect in a given area may be said to run a race of which the prize is life1 and the losing of which means literally death4 ,the competition is inconceivably severe4 ,how indefinitely slight will be the difference between the poorest of the #b1jjj or #bj1jjj survivors and the best of the more than #ijj1jjj which perish4 ,the very slightest favorable variation may make all the difference between life and sure death4 ,and yet these indefinitely slight variations continued and aggregated through ages would foot up an immense total divergence4 ,the chalk cliffs of ,england have been built up of microscopic shells4 ,i have tried to give you very briefly a sketch of the essential points of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of evolution4 ,but you should all read that marvel of patience1 industry1 clear insight1 close reasoning1 and grand honesty1 the ,origin of ,species4 ,i have no time to give the arguments in its favor or to attempt to meet the objections which may arise in your minds4 ,i ask you to believe only this much2 that the theory is accepted with practical unanimity by scientific men because it1 and it alone1 furnishes an explanation for the facts which they discover in their daily work4 ,and this is the strongest proof of the truth of any accepted theory4 ,inasmuch as it is accepted by all scientists and largely by the public1 it is certainly worth your while to know whether it has any bearing on the great moral and religious questions which you are considering4 ,and in these lectures ,i shall take for granted1 what some scientists still doubt1 that man also is a product of evolution4 ,for the weight of evidence in favor of this view is constantly increasing1 and seems already to strongly preponderate4 ,also ,i wish in these lectures to grant all that the most ardent evolutionist can possibly claim4 ,not that ,i would lower man's position1 but ,i have a continually increasing respect for the so-called lower animals4 ,now if the theory of evolution be true1 and really only on this condition1 life has had a history2 and human history began ages before man's actual appearance on the globe1 just as ,american history began to be fashioned by ,anglo-,saxons1 ,danes1 and ,normans before they set foot even in ,england4 ,we study history mainly to deduce its laws2 and that knowing them we may from the past forecast the future1 prepare for its emergencies1 and avoid or wisely meet1 its dangers4 ,and we rely on these laws of history because they are the embodiment of ages of human experience4 ,whatever be our system of philosophy we all practically rely on past experience and observation4 ,fire burns and water drowns4 ,this we know1 and this knowledge governs our daily lives1 whatever be our theories1 or even our ignorance1 of the laws of heat and respiration4 ,now human history is the embodiment of the experience of the race2 and we study it in the full confidence that1 if we can deduce its laws1 we can rely on racial experience certainly as safely as on that of the individual4 ,furthermore1 if we can discover certain great movements or currents of human action or progress moving steadily on through past centuries1 we have full confidence that these movements will continue in the future4 ,the study of history should make us seers4 ,but the line of human progress is like a mountain road1 veering and twisting1 and often appearing to turn back upon itself1 and having many by-roads1 which lead us astray4 ,if we know but a few miles of it we cannot tell whether it leads north or south or due west4 ,but if from any mountain-top we can gain a clear bird's-eye view of its whole course1 we easily distinguish the main road1 its turns become quite insignificant1 we see that it leads as directly as any engineering skill could locate it through the mountains to the fertile plains and rich harvests beyond4 ,now our knowledge of the history of man covers so brief a period that we can scarcely more than hazard a guess as to the trend of human progress4 ,many of the most promising social movements are like by-roads which1 at first less steep and difficult1 end sooner or later against impassable obstacles4 ,and even if there be a main line of march1 advance seems to alternate with retreat1 progress with retrogression4 ,to illustrate further1 the great waves rush onward only to fall back again1 and we can hardly tell whether the tide is flowing or ebbing4 ,yet already certain tendencies appear fairly clear4 ,governments tend to become democratic1 if we define democracy as any form of government in which the will of the people finds sovereign expression4 ,the tendency of society seems to be toward furnishing all its members equality of opportunity to make the most of their natural endowments4 ,but if we are convinced that these statements express even vaguely the tendency of human development in all its past history1 we are confident that these tendencies will continue in the future for a period somewhat proportional to their time of growth in the past4 ,if we are wise1 we try to make our own lives and actions1 and those of our fellows1 conform to and advance them4 ,otherwise our lives will be thrown away4 ,but if the theory of evolution be true1 human history is only the last page of the one history of all life4 ,if we are to gain any adequate1 true1 extensive view of human progress1 we must read more than this4 ,we must take into account the history of man when he was not yet man4 ,and if we believe in the future continuance of tendencies of a few centuries' growth1 we shall rest assured of the permanence of tendencies which have grown and strengthened through the ages4 ,our confidence in the results of historical study is therefore proportioned to the extent and thoroughness of the experience which they record1 and to the time during which these laws can be proven to have held good4 ,if ,i can make it even fairly probable that these laws1 on obedience to which human progress and success seem to depend1 are merely quoted from a grander code applicable to all life in all times1 your confidence in them will be even greater4 ,i trust ,i can prove to you that the animal kingdom has not drifted aimlessly at the mercy of every wind and tide and current of circumstance4 ,i hope to show that along one line it has from the beginning through the ages held a steady course straight onward1 and that deviation from this course has always led to failure or degeneration4 ,from so vast a history we may hope to deduce some of the great laws of true success in life4 ,furthermore1 if along this central line1 at the head of which man stands1 there always has been progress1 we cannot doubt that future progress will be as certain1 and perhaps far more rapid4 ,in all the struggle of life we shall have the sure hope of success and victory2 if not for ourselves still for those who shall come after us4 ,we are saved by hope4 ,and we may be confident that this hope will never make us ashamed4 ,finally1 even from our present knowledge of the past progress of life we shall hope to catch hints at least that man's only path to his destined goal is the straight and narrow road pointed out in the ,bible4 ,if in this we are even fairly successful we shall find a relation and bond between the ,bible and ,science worthy of all consideration4 ,and this is the only agreement which can ever satisfy us4 ,if ,i wished to bring before you a view of the development of man1 ,i should best choose individuals or families from various periods of human history from the earliest times down to the present4 ,i should try to tell you how they looked and lived4 ,but if anyone should attempt to condense into three lectures such a history of even one line of the human race1 you would probably think him insane4 ,even if he succeeded in giving a fairly clear view of the different stages1 the successive stages would be so remote from one another1 such vast changes would necessarily remain unnoticed or unexplained that you would hardly believe that they could have any genetic relation or belong to one developmental series4 ,but the history which ,i must attempt to condense for you is measured by ages1 and the successive terms of the series will be indefinitely more remote from each other than the life and thoughts of ,lincoln or ,washington from those of our most primitive ,aryan ancestor or of the rudest savage of the ,stone ,age4 ,the series must appear exceedingly disconnected4 ,systems of organs will apparently spring suddenly into existence1 and we shall have no time to trace their origin or earlier development4 ,even if we had an abundance of time many gaps would still remain2 for the forms1 which according to our theory must have occupied their place1 have long since disappeared and left no trace nor sign4 ,we have generally no conception at all of the amount of extermination and degeneration which have taken place in past ages4 ,i grant frankly that ,i do not believe that the forms which ,i have selected represent exactly the ancestors of man4 ,they have all been more or less modified4 ,i claim only that in the balance and relative development of their organic systems--muscular1 digestive1 nervous1 etc4--they give us a very fair idea of what our ancestor at each stage must have been4 ,but it is on this balance and relative development of the different systems1 that is1 whether an animal is more reproductive1 digestive1 or nervous1 that my argument will in the main be based4 ,but if the older ancestors have so generally disappeared1 and their surviving relatives have been so greatly modified1 how can we make even a shrewd guess at the ancestry of higher forms8 ,the genealogy of the animal kingdom has been really the study of centuries1 although the earlier zologists did not know that this was to be the result of their labors4 ,the first work of the naturalist was necessarily to classify the plants and animals which he found1 and catalogue and tabulate them so that they might be easily recognized1 and that later discovered forms might readily find a place in the system4 ,hypotheses and theories were looked upon with suspicion4 ,even ,linnus1 says ,romanes1 was express in his limitations of true scientific work in natural history to the collecting and arranging of species of plants and animals4 ,the question1 ,what is it8 came first2 then1 ,how did it come to be what it is8 ,we are just awakening to the question1 ,why this progressive system of forms1 and what does it all mean8 ,let us experiment a little in forming our own classification of a few vertebrates4 ,we see a bat flying through the air4 ,we mistake it for a bird4 ,but a glance at it shows that it is a mammal4 ,it is covered with hair4 ,it has fore and hind legs4 ,its wings are membranes stretched between the fingers and along the sides of the body4 ,it has teeth4 ,it suckles its young4 ,in all these respects it differs from birds4 ,it differs from mammals only in its wings4 ,but we remember that flying squirrels have a membrane stretching along the sides of the body and serving as a parachute1 though not as wings4 ,we naturally consider the wings as a sort of after-thought superinduced on the mammalian structure4 ,we do not hesitate to call it a mammal4 ,the whale makes us more trouble2 it certainly looks remarkably like a fish4 ,but the fin of its tail is horizontal1 not vertical4 ,its front flippers differ altogether from the corresponding fins of fish2 their bones are the same as those occurring in the forelegs of mammals1 only shorter and more crowded together4 ,later we find that it has lungs1 and a heart with four chambers instead of only two1 as in fish4 ,the vertebr of its backbone are not biconcave1 but flat in front and behind4 ,and1 finally1 we discover that it suckles its young4 ,it1 too1 is in all its deep-seated characteristics a mammal4 ,it is fish-like only in characteristics which it might easily have acquired in adaptation to its aquatic life4 ,and there are other aquatic mammals1 like the seals1 in which these characteristics are much less marked4 ,their adaptation has evidently not gone so far4 ,now the first attempts resulted in artificial classifications1 much like our grouping of bats with birds and whales with fish4 ,all animals1 like coral animals and starfishes1 whose similar parts were arranged in lines radiating from a centre1 were united as radiates1 however much they might differ in internal structure and grade of organization4 ,but this radiate structure proved again to be largely a matter of adaptation4 ,practically all animals having a heavy calcareous shell were grouped with the snails and oysters as mollusks4 ,but the barnacle did not fit well with other mollusks4 ,its shell was entirely different4 ,it had several pairs of legs2 and no mollusk has legs4 ,the barnacle is evidently a sessile crab or better crustacean4 ,its molluscan characteristics were only skin-deep1 evidently an adaptation to a mode of life like that of mollusks4 ,the old artificial systems were based too much on merely external characteristics1 the results of adaptation4 ,when the internal anatomy had been thoroughly studied their groups had to be rearranged4 ,reptiles and amphibia were at first united in one class because of their resemblance in external form4 ,our common salamanders look so much like lizards that they generally pass by this name4 ,but the young salamander1 like all amphibia1 breathes by gills1 its skeleton differs greatly from1 and is far weaker than1 that of the lizard1 and there are important differences in the circulatory and other systems4 ,moreover1 practically all amphibia differ from all reptiles in these respects4 ,evidently the fact that the alligator and many snakes and turtles 7of which neither the young nor the embryos ever breathe by gills7 live almost entirely in the water1 is no better reason for classifying these with amphibia than to call a whale a fish1 and not a mammal1 because of its form and aquatic life4 ,when the comparative anatomy of fish1 amphibia1 and reptiles had been carefully studied it was evident that the amphibia stood far nearer the fish in general structure1 while the higher reptiles closely approached birds4 ,then it was noticed that our common fish formed a fairly well-defined group1 but that the ganoids1 including the sturgeons1 gar-pikes1 and some others1 had at least traces of amphibian characteristics4 ,such generalized forms1 with the characteristics of the class less sharply marked1 were usually by common consent placed at the bottom of the class4 ,and this suited well their general structure1 while in particular characteristics they were often more highly organized than higher groups of the same class4 ,the palontologist found that the oldest fossil forms belonged to these generalized groups1 and that more highly specialized forms--that is1 those in which the special class distinctions were more sharply and universally marked--were of later geological origin4 ,thus the oldest fish were most like our present ganoids and sharks1 though differing much from both4 ,our common teleost fish1 like perch and cod1 appeared much later4 ,the oldest bird1 the archopteryx1 had a long tail like that of a lizard1 and teeth2 and thus stood in many respects almost midway between birds and reptiles4 ,and most of the earliest forms were comprehensive1 uniting the characteristics of two or more later groups4 ,thus as the classification became more natural1 based on a careful comparison of the whole anatomy of the animals1 its order was found to coincide in general with that of geological succession4 ,then the zologist began to ask and investigate how the animal grew in the egg and attained its definite form4 ,and this study of embryology brought to light many new and interesting facts4 ,agassiz especially emphasized and maintained the universality of the fact that there was a remarkable parallelism between embryos of later forms and adults of old or fossil groups4 ,the embryos of higher forms1 he said1 pass through and beyond certain stages of structure1 which are permanent in lower and older members of the same group4 ,you remember that the fin on the tail of a fish is as a rule bilobed4 ,now the backbone of a perch or cod ends at a point in the end of the tail opposite the angle between the two lobes1 without extending out into either of them4 ,in the shark it extends almost to the end of the upper lobe4 ,now we have seen that sharks and ganoids are older than cod4 ,in the embryo of the cod or perch the backbone has1 at an early stage1 the same position as in the shark or ganoid2 only at a later stage does it attain its definite position4 ,so ,agassiz says the young lepidosteus 7a ganoid fish71 long after it is hatched1 exhibits in the form of its tail characters thus far known only among the fossil fishes of the ,devonian period4 ,the embryology of turtles throws light upon the fossil chelonians4 ,it is already known that the embryonic changes of frogs and toads coincide with what is known of their succession in past ages4 ,the characteristics of extinct genera of mammals exhibit everywhere indications that their living representatives in early life resemble them more than they do their own parents4 ,a minute comparison of a young elephant with any mastodon will show this most fully1 not only in the peculiarities of their teeth1 but even in the proportion of their limbs1 their toes1 etc4 ,it may therefore be considered as a general fact that the phases of development of all living animals correspond to the order of succession of their extinct representatives in past geological times4 ,the above statements are quoted almost word for word from ,professor ,agassiz's ,essay on ,classification4 ,the larv of barnacles and other more degraded parasitic crustacea are almost exactly like those of ,crustacea in general4 ,the embryos of birds have a long tail containing almost or quite as many vertebr as that of archopteryx4 ,but most of these never reach their full development but are absorbed into the pelvis1 or into the ploughshare bone supporting the tail feathers4 ,thus older forms may be said to have retained throughout life a condition only embryonic in their higher relatives4 ,and the natural classification gave the order not only of geological succession but also of stages of embryonic development4 ,thus the system of classification improved continually1 although more and more intermediate forms1 like archopteryx1 were discovered1 and certain aberrant groups could find no permanent resting-place4 ,but why should the generalized comprehensive forms stand at the bottom rather than the top of the systematic arrangement of their classes8 ,why should the system of classification coincide with the order of geologic occurrence1 and this with the series of embryonic stages8 ,above all1 why should the embryos of bird and perch form their tails by such a roundabout method8 ,why should the embryo of the bird have the tail of a lizard8 ,no one could give any satisfactory explanation1 although the facts were undoubted4 ,mr4 ,darwin's theory was the one impulse needed to crystallize these disconnected facts into one comprehensible whole4 ,the connecting link was everywhere common descent1 difference was due to the continual variation and divergence of their ancestors4 ,the classification1 which all were seeking1 was really the ancestral tree of the animal kingdom4 ,forms more generalized should be placed lower down on the ancestral tree1 and must have had an earlier geological occurrence because they represented more nearly the ancestors of the higher4 ,but this explains also the facts of embryonic development4 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin's theory all the species of higher animals have developed from unicellular ancestors4 ,it had long been known that all higher forms start in life as single cells1 egg and spermatozoon4 ,and these1 fused in the process of fertilization1 form still a single cell4 ,and when this single cell proceeds through successive embryonic stages to develop into an adult individual it naturally1 through force of hereditary habit1 so to speak1 treads the same path which its ancestors followed from the unicellular condition to their present point of development4 ,thus higher forms should be expected to show traces of their early ancestry in their embryonic life4 ,older and lower adult forms should represent persistent embryonic stages of higher4 ,it could not well be otherwise4 ,but the path which the embryo has to follow from the egg to the adult form is continually lengthening as life advances ever higher4 ,from egg to sponge is1 comparatively speaking1 but a step2 it is a long march from the egg to the earthworm2 and the vertebrate embryo makes a vast journey4 ,but embryonic life is and must remain short4 ,hence in higher forms the ancestral stages will often be slurred over and very incompletely represented4 ,and the embryo may1 and often does1 shorten the path by short-cuts impossible to its original ancestor4 ,still it will in general hold true1 and may be recognized as a law of vast importance1 that any individual during his embryonic life repeats very briefly the different stages through which his ancestors have passed in their development since the beginning of life4 ,or1 briefly stated1 ontogenesis1 or the embryonic development of the individual1 is a brief recapitulation of phylogenesis1 or the ancestral development of the phylum or group4 ,the illustration and proof of this law is the work of the embryologist4 ,we have time to draw only one or two illustrations from the embryonic development of birds4 ,we have already seen that the embryonic bird has the long tail of his reptilian ancestor4 ,in early embryonic life it has gill-slits leading from the pharynx to the outside of the neck like those through which the water passes in the respiration of fish4 ,the ,eustachian tube and the canal of the external ear of man1 separated only by the drum1 are nothing but such an old persistent gill-slit4 ,no gills ever develop in these1 but the great arteries run to them1 and indeed to all parts of the embryo1 on almost precisely the same general plan as in the adult fish4 ,only later is the definite avian circulation gradually acquired4 ,this law is even more strikingly illustrated in the embryonic development of the vertebral column and skull1 if we had time to trace their development4 ,and the development of the excretory system points to an ancestor far more primitive than even the fish4 ,our embryonic development is one of the very strongest evidences of our lowly origin4 ,thus we have three sources of information for the study of animal genealogy4 ,first1 the comparative anatomy of all the different groups of animals2 second1 their comparative embryology2 and third1 their palontological history4 ,each source has its difficulties or defects4 ,but taken all together they give us a genealogical tree which is in the main points correct1 though here and there very defective and doubtful in detail4 ,the points in which we are left most in doubt in regard to each ancestor are its modes of life and locomotion1 and body form4 ,but these may temporarily vary considerably without affecting to any great extent the general plan of structure and the line of development of the most important deep-seated organs4 ,i have chosen a line composed of forms taken from the comparative anatomical series4 ,all such present existing forms have probably been modified during the lapse of ages4 ,but ,i shall try to tell you when they have diverged noticeably from the structure of the primitive ancestor of the corresponding stage4 ,it is much safer for us to study concrete1 actual forms than imaginary ones1 however real may have been the former existence of the latter4 ,and1 after all1 their lateral divergence is of small account compared with the great upward and onward march of life1 to the right and left of which they have remained stationary or retrograded somewhat1 like the tribes which remained on the other side of ,jordan and never entered the ,promised ,land4 ,to recapitulate3 ,our question is the ,whence and the ,whither of man4 ,to this question the ,bible gives a clear and definite answer4 ,can ,science also give an answer1 and is this in the main in accord with the answer of ,scripture8 ,science can answer the question only by the historical method of tracing the history of life in the past and observing the goal toward which it tends4 ,if the evolution theory be true1 the record of human achievement and progress forms only one short chapter in the history of the ages4 ,if from the records of man's little span of life on the globe we can deduce laws of history on whose truth we can rely1 with how much greater confidence and certainty may we rely on laws which have governed all life since its earliest appearance8--always provided that such can be found4 ,our first effort must therefore be to trace the great line of development through a few of its most characteristic stages from the simplest living beings up to man4 ,this will be our work in the three succeeding lectures4 ,and to these ,i must ask you to bring a large store of patience4 ,anatomical details are at best dry and uninteresting4 ,but these dry facts of anatomy form the foundation on which all our arguments and hopes must rest4 ,but if you will think long and carefully even of anatomical facts1 you will see in and behind them something more and grander than they4 ,you will catch glimpses of the divinity of ,nature4 ,most of us travel threescore years and ten stone-blind in a world of marvellous beauty4 ,why does the artist see so much more in every fence-corner and on every hill-side than we1 set face to face with the grandest landscapes8 ,primarily1 ,i believe1 because he is sympathetic1 and looks on ,nature as a comrade as near and dear as any human sister and companion4 ,as ,professor ,huxley has said1 they get on rarely together4 ,she speaks to the artist2 to us she is dumb1 and ought to be1 for we are boorishly careless of her and her teachings4 ,nature1 to be known1 must be loved4 ,and though you have all the knowledge of a von ,humboldt1 and do not love her1 you will never understand her or her teachings4 ,you will go through life with her1 and yet parted from her as by an adamantine wall4 ,i do not suppose that the author of the book of ,job had ever studied geology1 or mineralogy1 or biology1 but read him1 and see whether this old prince of scientific heroes had loved1 and understood1 and caught the spirit of ,nature4 ,and what a grand1 free spirit it was1 and what a giant it made of him4 ,i do not believe that ,paul ever had a special course of anatomy or botany4 ,but if he had not pondered long and lovingly on the structure of his body1 and the germination of the seed1 he never could have written the twelfth and fifteenth chapters of the first letter to the ,corinthians4 ,and time fails to speak of ,david and all the writers of the ,psalms1 and of those heroic souls misnamed the ,minor ,prophets4 ,study the teachings of our ,lord4 ,how he must have considered the lilies of the field1 and that such a tiny seed as that of the mustard could have produced so great an herb1 and noticed and thought on the thorns and the tares and the wheat1 and watched the sparrows1 and pondered and wondered how the birds were fed4 ,all his teaching was drawn from ,nature4 ,and all the study in the world could never have taught him what he knew1 if it had not been a loving and appreciative study4 ,there is one strange and interesting passage in ,john's ,gospel1 xv4 #a3 ,i am the true vine4 ,my father used to tell us that the ,greek word ,greek3 althin1 rendered true1 is usually employed of the genuine in distinction from the counterfeit1 the reality in distinction from the shadow and image4 ,is not this perhaps the clew to our ,lord's use of natural imagery8 ,nature was always the presentation to his senses of the divine thought and purpose4 ,he studied the words of the ancient ,scripture1 he found the same words and teachings clearly and concretely embodied in the processes of ,nature4 ,the interpretation of the ,parable of the ,sower was no mere play of fancy to him2 it was the genuine and fundamental truth1 deeper and more real than the existence of the sower1 the soil1 and the seed4 ,the spiritual truth was the substance2 the tangible soil and seed really only the shadow4 ,and thus all ,nature was to him divine4 ,we all of us need to offer the prayer of the blind man1 ,lord1 that our eyes may be opened4 ,let us learn1 too1 from the old heathen giant1 ,antus1 who1 after every defeat and fall1 rose strengthened and vivified from contact with his mother ,earth4 ,you will experience in life many a desperate struggle1 many a hard fall4 ,there is at such times nothing in the world so strengthening1 healing1 and life-giving as the thoughts and encouragements which ,nature pours into the hearts and minds of her loving disciples4 ,she will set you on your feet again1 infused with new life1 filled with an unconquerable spirit1 with unfaltering courage1 and an iron will to fight once more and win4 ,in every battle her inspiring words will ring in your ears1 and she will never fail you4 ,we may not see her deepest realities1 her rarest treasures of thought and wisdom2 but if we will listen lovingly for her voice1 we may be assured that she will speak to us many a word of cheer and encouragement1 of warning and exhortation4 ,for1 to paraphrase the language of the nineteenth ,psalm1 ,she has no speech nor language1 her voice is not heard4 ,but her rule is gone out throughout all the earth1 and her words to the end of the world4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,protozoa ,,to ,,worms3 ,,cells1 ,,tissues1 ,,and ,,organs ,the first and lowest form in our ancestral series is the amoeba1 a little fresh-water animal from #a_/ejj to #a_/ajjj of an inch in diameter4 ,under the microscope it looks like a little drop of mucilage4 ,this semifluid1 mucilaginous substance is the ,protoplasm4 ,its outer portion is clear and transparent1 its inner more granular4 ,in the inner portion is a little spheroidal body1 the nucleus4 ,this is certainly of great importance in the life of the animal2 but just what it does1 or what is its relation to the surrounding protoplasm we do not yet know4 ,there is also a little cavity around which the protoplasm has drawn back1 and on which it will soon close in again1 so that it pulsates like a heart4 ,it is continually taking in water from the body1 or the outside1 and driving it out again1 and thus aids in respiration and excretion4 ,the animal has no organs in the proper sense of the word1 and yet it has the rudiments of all the functions which we possess4 ,a little projection of the outer1 clearer layer of protoplasm1 a pseudopodium1 appears2 into this the whole animal may flow and thus advance a step1 or the projection may be withdrawn4 ,and this power of change of form is a lower grade of the contractility of our muscular cells4 ,prick it with a needle and it contracts4 ,it recognizes its food even at a microscopic distance2 it appears therefore to feel and perceive4 ,perhaps we might say that it has a mind and will of its own4 ,it is safer to say that it is irritable1 that is1 it reacts to stimuli too feeble to be regarded as the cause of its reaction4 ,it engulfs microscopic plants1 and digests them in the internal protoplasm by the aid of an acid secretion4 ,it breathes oxygen1 and excretes carbonic acid and urea1 through its whole body surface4 ,its mode of gaining the energy which it manifests is therefore apparently like our own1 by combustion of food material4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,amoeba ,,proteus4 ,,hertwig1 ,,from ,,leidy4 ek1 ectosarc2 en1 endosarc2 ,n1 food particles2 n1 nucleus2 cv1 contractile vesicle4 ,it grows and reaches a certain size1 then constricts itself in the middle and divides into two4 ,the old amoeba has divided into two young ones1 and there is no parent left to die1 and death1 except by violence1 does not occur4 ,but this absence of death in other rather distant relatives of the amoeba1 and probably in the amoeba itself1 holds true only provided that1 after a series of self-divisions1 reproduction takes place after another mode4 ,two rather small and weak individuals fuse together in one animal of renewed vigor1 which soon divides into two larger and stronger descendants4 ,we have here evidently a process corresponding to the fertilization of the egg in higher animals2 yet there is no egg1 spermatozoon1 or sex4 ,it is a little mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus1 and corresponds1 therefore1 to one of the cells1 most closely to the egg-cell or spermatozoon of higher animals4 ,if every living being is descended from a single cell1 the fertilized egg1 it is not hard to believe that all higher animals are descended from an ancestor having the general structure or lack of structure of the amoeba4 ,but is the amoeba really structureless8 ,probably it has an exceedingly complex structure1 but our microscopes and technique are still too imperfect to show more than traces of it4 ,says ,hertwig3 ,protoplasm is not a single chemical substance1 however complicated1 but a mixture of many substances1 which we must picture to ourselves as finest particles united in a wonderfully complicated structure4 ,truly protoplasm is1 to borrow ,mephistopheles' expression concerning blood1 a quite peculiar juice4 ,and the complexity of the nucleus is far more evident than that of the protoplasm4 ,is protoplasm itself the result of a long development8 ,if so1 out of what and how did it develop8 ,we cannot even guess4 ,but the beginning of life may1 apparently must1 have been indefinitely farther back than the simplest now existing form4 ,the study of the amoeba cannot fail to raise a host of questions in the mind of any thoughtful man4 ,as we have here the animal reduced1 so to speak1 to lowest terms1 it may be well to examine a little more closely into its physiology and compare it briefly with our own4 ,the amoeba eats food as we do1 but the food is digested directly in the internal protoplasm instead of in a stomach2 and once digested it diffuses to all parts of the cell2 here it is built up into compounds of a more complex structure1 and forms an integral part of the animal body4 ,the dead food particle has been transformed into living protoplasm1 the continually repeated miracle of life4 ,but it does not remain long in this condition4 ,in contact with the oxygen from the air it is soon oxidized1 burned up to furnish the energy necessary for the motion and irritability of the body4 ,we are all of us low-temperature engines4 ,the digestive function exists in all animals merely to bring the food into a soluble1 diffusible form1 so that it can pass to all parts of the body and be used for fuel or growth4 ,in our body a circulatory system is necessary to carry food and oxygen to the cells and to remove their waste4 ,for most of our cells lie at a distance from the stomach1 lungs1 and kidney4 ,but in a small animal the circulatory system is often unnecessary and fails4 ,breathing and excretion take place through the whole surface of the body4 ,the body of the frog is devoid of scales1 so that the blood is separated from the surrounding water only by a thin membrane1 and it breathes and excretes to a certain extent in the same way4 ,but another factor has to be considered4 ,if we double each dimension of our amoeba1 we shall increase its surface four times1 its mass eight-fold4 ,now the power of absorbing oxygen and excreting waste is evidently proportional to the excretory and respiratory surface1 and much the same is true of digestion4 ,but the amount of oxygen required1 and of waste to be removed is proportional to the mass2 for every particle of protoplasm requires food and oxygen1 and produces waste4 ,the particles of protoplasm in our new1 larger amoeba can therefore receive only half as much oxygen as before1 and rid themselves of their waste only half as fast4 ,there is danger of what in our bodies would be called suffocation and blood-poisoning4 ,the amoeba having attained a certain size meets this emergency by dividing into two small individuals1 the division is a physical adaptation4 ,but the many-celled animal cannot do this2 it must keep its cells together4 ,it gains the additional surface by folding and plaiting4 ,and the complicated internal structure of higher animals is in its last analysis such a folding and plaiting in order to maintain the proper ratio between the exposed surface of the cells and their mass4 ,and each cell in our bodies lives in one sense its own individual life1 only bathed in the lymph and receiving from it its food and oxygen instead of taking it from the water4 ,but in another sense the cells of our body live an entirely different life1 for they form a community4 ,division of labor has taken place between them1 they are interdependent1 correlated with one another1 subject therefore to the laws of the whole community or organism4 ,there are many respects in which it is impossible to compare ,robinson ,crusoe with a workman in a huge watch factory2 yet they are both men4 ,both the amoeba and we live in the closest relation to our environment1 and conformity to it is evidently necessary3 life has been defined as the adjustment of internal relations to external conditions4 ,we continually take food1 use it for energy and growth1 and return the simpler waste compounds4 ,we are all of us1 as ,professor ,huxley has said1 whirlpools on the surface of ,nature2 when the whirl of exchange of particles ceases we die4 ,we have seen that the fusion of two amoeb results in a new rejuvenated individual4 ,why is a mixture of two protoplasms better than one8 ,we can frame hypotheses2 we know nothing about it4 ,what of the mind of the amoeba8 ,a host of questions throng upon us and we can answer no one of them4 ,all the great questions concerning life confront us here in the lowest term of the animal series1 and appear as insoluble as in the highest4 ,our second ancestral form is also a fresh-water animal1 the hydra4 ,this is a little1 vase-shaped animal1 which usually lives attached to grass-stems or sticks1 but has the power to free itself and hang on the surface of the water or to slowly creep on the bottom4 ,the mouth is at the top of the vase1 and the simple1 undivided cavity within the vase is the digestive cavity4 ,around the mouth is a ring of from four to ten hollow tentacles1 whose cavities communicate freely underneath with the digestive cavity4 ,not only is food taken in at the mouth1 but indigestible material is thrown out here4 ,the animal may thus be compared to a nearly cylindrical sack with a circle of tubes attached to it above4 ,the body consists of two layers of cells1 the ectoderm on the outside and the entoderm lining the digestive cavity4 ,between these two is a structureless1 elastic membrane1 which tends to keep the body moderately expanded4 ,the food is captured by the tentacles2 but digestion takes place only partially in the digestive cavity1 for each surrounding cell engulfs small particles of food and digests them within itself4 ,the entodermal cells behave in this respect much like a colony of amoeb4 ,the cells of both layers have at their bases long muscular fibrils1 those of the ectodermal cells running longitudinally1 those of the entoderm transversely4 ,the animal can thus contract its body in both directions1 or1 if the body contain water and the transverse muscles are contracted1 the pressure of the water lengthens the body and tends to extend the tentacles4 ,on the outside of the elastic membrane1 just beneath the ectoderm1 is a plexus or cobweb of nervous cells and fibrils4 ,as in every nervous system1 three elements are here to be found4 #a4 ,an afferent or sensory nerve-fibril1 which under adequate stimulus is set in vibration by some cell of the epidermis or ectoderm1 which is therefore called a sensory cell4 #b4 ,a central or ganglion cell1 which receives the sensory impulse1 translates it into consciousness1 and is the seat of whatever powers of perception1 thought1 or will the animal possesses4 ,this also gives rise to the efferent or motor impulses1 which are conveyed by 7#c7 a motor fibril to the corresponding muscle1 exciting its contraction4 ,but there are also nerve-fibrils connecting the different ganglion cells1 so that they may act in unison4 ,in the higher animals we shall find these central or ganglion cells condensed in one or a few masses or ganglia4 ,but here they are scattered over the whole surface of the elastic supporting membrane4 ,the reproductive organs for the production of eggs and spermatozoa form little protuberances on the outside of the body below the tentacles4 ,but hydra reproduces mostly by budding2 new individuals growing out of the side of the old one1 like branches from the trunk of a tree1 but afterward breaking free and leading an independent life4 ,there are special forms of cells besides those described2 nettle cells for capturing food1 interstitial cells1 etc41 but these do not concern us4 ,the distance from the single-celled amoeba to hydra is vast1 probably really greater than that between any other successive terms of our series4 ,it may therefore be useful to consider one or two intermediate forms and the parallel embryonic stages of higher animals1 and to see how the higher many-celled animal originates from the unicellular stage4 ,the amoeba is an illustration of a great kingdom of similar1 practically unicellular forms1 which have played no unimportant part in the geological history of the globe4 ,these are the protozoa4 ,they include1 first of all1 the foraminifera1 which usually have shells composed of carbonate of lime4 ,these shells1 settling to the bottom of the ocean1 have accumulated in vast beds1 and when compacted and raised above the surface1 form chalk1 limestone1 or marble1 according to the degree and mode of their hardening4 ,the protozoa include also the flagellata1 a great1 very poorly defined mass of forms occupying the boundary between the plant and animal kingdoms4 ,they are usually unicellular1 and their protoplasm is surrounded by a thin1 structureless membrane4 ,this prevents their putting out pseudopodia as organs of motion4 ,instead of these they have at one end of the ovoid or pear-shaped body a long1 whiplash-like process or thread1 a flagellum1 and by swinging this they propel themselves through the water4 ,these flagellata seem to have a rather marked tendency to form colonies4 ,the first individual gives rise to others by division4 ,but the division is not complete2 the new individuals remain connected by the undivided rear end of the body4 ,and such a colony may come to contain a large number of individuals4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,magosph,,ra ,,planula4 ,,lang1 ,,from ,,haeckel4 ,such a colony is represented by magosphra4 ,this is a microscopic globular form1 discovered by ,professor ,haeckel on the coast of ,norway4 ,it consists of a large number of conical or pear-shaped individual cells1 whose apices are turned toward the centre of the sphere4 ,the cells are cemented together by a mucilaginous substance4 ,around their exposed larger ends1 which form the surface of the sphere1 are rows of flagella1 by whose united action the colony rolls through the water4 ,after a time each individual absorbs its flagella1 the colony is broken up1 the different individuals settle to the bottom1 and each gives rise by division to a new colony4 ,this group of cells may be considered as a colony or as an individual4 ,each term is defensible4 ,volvox is also a spheroidal organism1 composed often of a very large number of flagellated cells4 ,but it differs from magosphra in certain important respects4 ,in the first place its cells have chlorophyl1 the green coloring matter of plants4 ,it lives therefore on unorganized fluid nourishment1 carbon dioxide1 nitrates1 etc4 ,it is a plant4 ,but certain characteristics render it probable that it once lived on solid food and was therefore an animal4 ,for where almost the sole difference between plants and animals is in the fluid or solid character of their food1 a change from the one form into the other is not as difficult or improbable as one might naturally think4 ,and plants and animals are here so near together1 and travelling by roads so nearly parallel1 that1 even if volvox never was an animal1 it might still serve very well to illustrate a stage through which animals must have passed4 ,the cells of volvox do not form a solid mass1 but have arranged themselves in a single layer on the outer surface of the sphere4 ,for a time1 under favorable circumstances1 volvox reproduces very much like magosphra1 and each cell can give rise to a new1 many-celled individual4 ,but after a time1 especially under unfavorable circumstances1 a new mode of reproduction appears4 ,certain cells withdraw from the outer layer into the interior of the colony4 ,here they are nourished by the other cells and develop into true reproductive elements1 eggs and spermatozoa4 ,fertilization1 that is1 the union of egg and spermatozoon1 or mainly of their nuclei1 takes place2 and the fertilized egg develops into a new organism4 ,but the other cells1 which have been all the time nourishing these1 seem now to lack nutriment1 strength1 or vitality to give rise to a new colony4 ,they die4 ,we find thus in volvox division of labor and corresponding difference of structure or differentiation2 certain cells retain the power of fusing with other corresponding cells1 and thus of rejuvenescence and of giving rise to a new organism4 ,and these cells1 forming a series through all generations1 are evidently immortal like the protozoa4 ,natural death cannot touch them4 ,these are the reproductive cells4 ,the other cells nourish and transport them and carry on the work of excretion and respiration4 ,these latter correspond practically to our whole body4 ,we call them somatic cells4 ,in volvox they are entirely subservient to1 and exist for1 the reproductive cells1 and die when they have completed their service of these4 ,the body is here only a vehicle for ova4 ,furthermore1 in volvox there has arisen such an interdependence of cells that we can no longer speak of it as a colony4 ,the colony has become an individual by division of labor and the resulting differentiation in structure4 ,but hydra gives us but a poor idea of the coelenterata1 to which kingdom it belongs4 ,the higher coelenterata have nearly or quite all the tissues of higher animals--muscular1 connective1 glandular1 etc4 ,and by tissues we mean groups of cells modified in form and structure for the performance of a special work or function4 ,the protozoa developed the cell for all time to come1 the coelenterata developed the tissues which still compose our bodies4 ,but they had them mainly in a diffuse form4 ,a sort of digestive and reproductive system they did possess4 ,but the work of arranging these tissues and condensing them into compact organs was to be done by the next higher group1 the worms4 ,let us now take a glance at certain stages of embryonic development which correspond to these earliest ancestral forms4 ,we should expect some such correspondence from the fact already stated that the embryonic development of the individual is a brief recapitulation of the ancestral development of the species or larger group4 ,the egg of the lowest vertebrate1 amphioxus1 shows these changes in a simple and apparently primitive form4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,immature ,,egg-,,shell ,,from ,,ovary ,,of ,,echinoderm4 ,,hatschek1 ,,from ,,hertwig4 ,the fertilized egg of any animal consists of a single cell1 a little mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus and surrounded by a structureless membrane4 ,the egg is globular4 ,the nucleus undergoes certain very peculiar1 still but little understood1 changes and divides into two4 ,the protoplasm also soon divides into two masses clustering each around its own nucleus4 ,the plane of division will be marked around the outside by a circular furrow1 but the cells will still remain united by a large part of the membrane which bounds their adjacent1 newly formed1 internal faces4 ,let us suppose that the egg lay so that the first plane of division was vertical and extending north and south4 ,each cell or half of the egg will divide into two precisely as before4 ,the new plane of division will be vertical1 but extending east and west4 ,each plane passes through the centre of the egg1 and the four cells are of the same form and size1 like much-rounded quarters of an orange4 ,the third plane will lie horizontal or equatorial1 and will divide each of these quarters into an upper and lower octant4 ,the cells keep on dividing rapidly1 the eight form sixteen1 then thirty-two1 etc4 ,the sharp angle by which the cells met at the centre has become rounded off1 and has left a little space1 the segmentation cavity1 filled with fluid in the middle of the embryo4 ,the cells continue to press or be crowded away from the centre and form a layer one cell deep on the surface of the sphere4 ,this embryo1 resembling a hollow rubber ball filled with fluid1 is called a blastosphere4 ,it corresponds in structure with the fully developed volvox1 except1 of course1 in lacking reproductive cells4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,gastrula4 ,,hatschek1 ,,from ,,hertwig4 ,outer layer is the ectoderm2 inner layer1 the entoderm2 internal cavity1 the archenteron2 mouth of cavity1 blastopore4 ,if the rubber ball has a hole in it so that ,i can squeeze out the water1 ,i can thrust the one-half into the other1 and change the ball into a double-walled cup4 ,a similar change takes place in the embryo4 ,the cells of the lower half of the blastosphere are slightly larger than those of the upper half4 ,this lower hemisphere flattens and then thrusts itself1 or is invaginated1 into the upper hemisphere of smaller cells and forms its lining4 ,this cup-shaped embryo is called the gastrula4 ,the cup deepens somewhat and becomes ovoid4 ,take a boiled egg1 make a hole in the smaller end and remove the yolk1 and you have a passable model of a gastrula4 ,the shell corresponds to the ectoderm or outer layer of smaller cells2 the layer of white represents the entoderm or lining of larger cells4 ,the space occupied by the yolk corresponds to the archenteron or primitive digestive cavity2 and the opening at the end to the primitive mouth or blastopore4 ,ectoderm and entoderm unite around the mouth4 ,both the blastosphere and gastrula often swim freely by flagella4 ,you can hardly have failed to notice how closely the gastrula corresponds to a hydra1 and many facts lead us to believe that the still earlier ancestor of the hydra was free swimming1 and that the tentacles are a later development correlated with its adult sessile life4 ,yet we must not forget that the hydra is even now not quite sessile1 it moves somewhat4 ,and our ancestor was almost certainly a free swimming gastra1 or hypothetical form corresponding in form and structure to the gastrula4 ,the ancestor of man never settled down lazily into a sessile life4 ,but how is an adult worm or vertebrate formed out of such a gastrula8 ,to answer this would require a course of lectures on embryology4 ,but certain changes interest us4 ,between the ectoderm and entoderm of the gastrula1 in the space occupied by the supporting membrane of hydra1 a new layer of cells1 the mesoderm1 appears4 ,this has been produced by the rapid growth and reproduction of certain cells of the entoderm which have migrated1 so to speak1 into this new position4 ,in higher forms it becomes of continually greater importance1 until finally nearly all the organs of the body develop from it4 ,in our bodies only the lining of the mid-intestine and of its glands has arisen from the entoderm4 ,and only the epidermis1 or outer layer of our skin1 and the nervous system and parts of our sense-organs have arisen from the ectoderm4 ,but our mid-intestine is still the greatly elongated archenteron of the gastrula4 ,we may therefore compare the hydra or gastrula to a little portion of the lining of the human mid-intestine covered with a little flake of epidermis4 ,this much the hydra has attained4 ,but our bones and muscles and blood-vessels all come from the mesoderm by folding1 plaiting1 and channelling1 and division of labor resulting in differentiation of structure4 ,of all true mesodermal structures the hydra has actually none1 but in the ectodermal and entodermal cells he has the potentiality of them all4 ,we must now try to discover how these potentialities became actualities in higher forms4 ,the third stage in our ancestral series is the turbellarian4 ,this is a little1 flat1 oval worm1 varying greatly in size in different species1 and found both in fresh and salt water4 ,some would deny that this worm belonged in our series at all4 ,but1 while doubtless considerably modified1 it has still retained many characteristics almost certainly possessed by our primitive bilateral ancestor4 ,the different parts of hydra were arranged like those of most flowers1 around one main vertical axis2 it was thus radiate in structure1 having neither front nor rear1 right nor left side4 ,but our little turbellaria1 while still without a head1 has one end which goes first and can be called the front end4 ,the upper or dorsal surface is usually more colored with pigment cells than the lower or ventral surface1 on which is the mouth4 ,it has also a right and left side4 ,it is thus bilateral4 ,the gastra swam by cilia1 little eyelash-like processes which urge the animal forward like a myriad of microscopic oars4 ,in our bodies they are sometimes used to keep up a current1 e4g41 to remove foreign particles from the lungs4 ,the turbellaria is still covered with cilia1 probably an inheritance from the gastra2 for1 while in smaller forms they may still be the principal means of locomotion1 in larger ones the muscles are beginning to assume this function and the animal moves by writhing4 ,the bilateral symmetry has arisen in connection with this mode of locomotion and is thus a mark of important progress4 ,in the turbellaria we find for the first time a true body-wall distinct from underlying organs4 ,the outer layer of this is a ciliated epithelium or layer of cells4 ,under this an elastic membrane may occur4 ,then come true body muscles1 running transversely1 longitudinally and dorso-ventrally4 ,between the external transverse and the internal longitudinal layers we often find two muscular layers whose fibres run diagonally4 ,the body is well provided with muscles1 but their arrangement is still far from economical or effective4 ,within the body-wall is the parenchym4 ,this is a spongy mass of connectile tissue in which the other organs are embedded4 ,the mouth lies in the middle1 or near the front of the ventral surface4 ,the intestine varies in form1 but is provided with its own layers of longitudinal and transverse muscles1 and usually has paired pouches extending out from it into the body parenchym4 ,these seem to distribute the dissolved nutriment2 hence the whole cavity is still often called a gastro-vascular cavity as serving both digestion and circulation4 ,there is no anal opening1 but indigestible material is still cast out through the mouth4 ,the animal can gain sufficient oxygen to supply its muscles and nerves1 which are the principal seats of combustion1 through the external surface4 ,it has1 therefore1 no special respiratory organs4 ,but the waste matter of the muscles cannot escape so easily1 for these are becoming deeper seated4 ,hence we find an excretory system consisting of two tubes with many branches in the parenchym1 and discharging at the rear end of the body4 ,this again is a sign that the muscles are becoming more important1 for the excretory system is needed mainly to remove their waste4 ,these tubes maybe only greatly enlarged glands of the skin4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,,turbellarian4 ,,lang4 va and ha1 front and rear branches of gastro-vascular cavity2 ph1 pharynx4 ,the dark oval with fine branches represents the nervous system4 ,the nervous system consists of a plexus of fibres and cells1 the cells originating impulses and the fibres conveying them4 ,but this much was present in hydra also4 ,here the front end of the body goes foremost and is continually coming in contact with new conditions4 ,here the lookout for food and danger must be kept4 ,hence1 as a result of constant exercise1 or selection1 or both1 the nerve-plexus has thickened at this point into a little compact mass of cells and fibres called a ganglion4 ,and because this ganglion throughout higher forms usually lies over the oesophagus1 it is called the supra-oesophogeal ganglion4 ,this is the first faint and dim prophecy of a brain1 and it sends its nerves to the front end of the body4 ,but there run from it to the rear end of the body four to eight nerve-cords1 consisting of bundles of nerve-threads like our nerves1 but overlaid with a coating of ganglion cells capable of originating impulses4 ,these cords are1 therefore1 like the plexus from which they have condensed1 both nerves and centres2 differentiation has not gone so far as at the front of the body4 ,sense organs are still very rudimentary4 ,special cells of the skin have been modified into neuro-epithelial cells1 having sensory hairs protruding from them and nerve-fibrils running from their bases4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,turbellarian4 ,,hatschek1 ,,from ,,jijima4 e1 external skin2 rm1 lateral muscles2 la and li1 longitudinal muscles2 mdv1 dorso-ventral muscles2 pa1 parenchyma2 h1 testicle2 ov1 oviduct2 dt1 yolk-gland2 n1 ventral nerve2 i1 gastro-vascular cavity4 ,in a very few turbellaria we find otolith vesicles4 ,these are little sacks in the skin1 lined with neuro-epithelial cells and having in the middle a little concretion of carbonate of lime hung on rather a stiffer hair1 like a clapper in a bell4 ,such organs serve in higher animals as organs of hearing1 for the sensory hairs are set in vibration by the sound-waves4 ,it is quite as probable that they here serve as organs for feeling the slightest vibrations in the surrounding water1 and thus giving warning of approaching food or danger4 ,the animal has also eyes1 and these may be very numerous4 ,they are not able to form images of external objects1 but only of perceiving light and the direction of its source4 ,a little group of these eyes lies directly over the brain1 near the front end of the body2 the others are distributed around the front or nearly the whole margin of the body4 ,the turbellaria1 doubtless1 have the sense of smell1 although we can discover no special olfactory organ4 ,this sense would seem to be as old as protoplasm itself4 ,this distribution of the eyes around a large portion of the margin1 and certain other characteristics of the adult structure and of the embryonic development1 are very interesting1 as giving hints of the development of the turbellaria from some radiate ancestor4 ,the mouth is in a most unfavorable position1 in or near the middle of the body1 rarely at the front end1 as the animal has to swim over its food before it can grasp it4 ,the animal only slowly rids itself of old disadvantageous form and structure and adapts itself completely to a higher mode of life4 ,by far the most highly developed system in the body is the reproductive4 ,it is doubtful whether any animal1 except1 perhaps1 the mollusk1 has as complicated and highly developed reproductive organs4 ,by markedly higher forms they certainly grow simpler4 ,and here we must notice certain general considerations4 ,we found that reproduction in the amoeba could be defined as growth beyond the limit normal to the individual4 ,this form of growth benefits especially the species4 ,the needs and expenses of the individual will therefore first be met and then the balance be devoted to reproduction4 ,now the income of the animal is proportional to its surface1 its expense to its mass1 and activity4 ,and the ratio of surface to mass is most favorable in the smallest animals4,a ,hence1 smaller animals1 as a rule1 increase faster than larger ones2 and this is only one illustration of the fact that great size in an animal is anything but an unmixed advantage to its possessor4 ,but muscles and nerves are the most expensive systems2 here most of the food is burned up4 ,hence energetic animals have a small balance remaining4 ,now the turbellarian is small and sluggish1 with a fair digestive system4 ,with a great amount of nutriment at its disposal the reproductive system came rapidly to a high development1 and relatively to other organs stands higher than it almost ever will again4 ,footnote ,a3 ,cf4 p4 #ce4 ,it is only fair to state that good authorities hold that so primitive an animal could not originally have had so highly developed a system1 and that this characteristic must be acquired1 not ancestral4 ,that certain portions of it may be later developments may be not only possible but probable4 ,but anyone who has carefully studied the different groups of worms1 will1 ,i think1 readily grant that in the stage of these flat worms reproduction was the dominant function1 which had most nearly attained its possible height of development4 ,from this time on the muscular and nervous systems were to claim an ever-increasing share of the nutriment1 and the balance for reproduction is to grow smaller4 ,at the close of this lecture ,i wish to describe very briefly a hypothetical form4 ,it no longer exists2 perhaps it never did4 ,but many facts of embryology and comparative anatomy point to such a form as a very possible ancestor of all forms higher than flat worms1 viz41 mollusks1 arthropods1 and vertebrates4 ,it was probably rather long and cylindrical1 resembling a small and short earthworm in shape4 ,the skin may have been much like that of turbellaria4 ,within this the muscles run in only two-directions--longitudinally and transversely4 ,between these and the intestine is a cavity--the perivisceral cavity--like that of our own bodies1 but filled with a nutritive fluid like our lymph4 ,this cavity seems to have developed by the expansion and cutting off of the paired lateral outgrowths of the digestive system of some old flat worm4 ,but other modes of development are quite possible4 ,the intestine has now an anal opening at or near the rear end of the body4 ,the food moves only from front to rear1 and reaches each part always in a certain condition4 ,digestion proper and absorption have been distributed to different cells1 and the work is better done4 ,three portions can be readily distinguished3 fore-intestine with the mouth1 mid-intestine1 as the seat of digestion and absorption1 and hind-intestine1 or rectum1 with the anal opening4 ,the front and hind-intestine are lined with infolded outer skin4 ,the nervous system consists of a supra-oesophageal ganglion with four posterior nerve-cords--one dorsal1 two lateral1 and one 7or perhaps two7 ventral4 ,there were probably also remains of the old plexus1 but this is fast disappearing4 ,the excretory system consists of a pair of tubes discharging through the sides of the body-wall1 and having each a ciliated1 funnel-shaped opening in the perivisceral cavity4 ,these have received the name of nephridia4 ,through these also the eggs and spermatozoa are discharged4 ,the reproductive organs are modified patches of the peritoneum1 or lining of the perivisceral cavity4 ,the number of muscles or muscular layers has been reduced in this animal4 ,but such a reduction in the number of like parts in any animal is a sign of progress4 ,and the longitudinal muscles have increased in size and strength1 and the animal moves by writhing4 ,such a worm has the general plan of the body of the higher forms fairly well1 though rudely1 sketched4 ,many improvements will come1 and details be added4 ,but the rudiments of the trunk of even our own bodies are already visible4 ,head1 in any proper sense of the term1 and skeleton are still lacking2 they remain to be developed4 ,and yet1 taking the most hopeful view possible concerning the animal kingdom1 its prospects of attaining anything very lofty seem at this point poor4 ,its highest representative is a headless trunk1 without skeleton or legs4 ,it has no brain in any proper sense of the word1 its sense-organs are feeble2 it moves by writhing4 ,its life is devoted to digestion and reproduction4 ,whatever higher organs it has are subsidiary to these lower functions4 ,and yet it has taken ages on ages to develop this much4 ,if this is the highest visible result of ages on ages of development1 what hope is there for the future8 ,can such a thing be the ancestor of a thinking1 moral1 religious person1 like man8 ,that is not first which is spiritual1 but that which is natural 7animal1 sensuous72 and afterward that which is spiritual4 ,first1 in order of time1 must come the body1 and then the mind and spirit shall be enthroned in it4 ,the little knot of nervous material which forms the supra-oesophageal ganglion is so small that it might easily escape our notice2 but it is the promise of an infinite future4 ,the atom of nervous power shall increase until it subdues and dominates the whole mass4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,worms ,,to ,,vertebrates3 ,,skeleton ,,and ,,head ,in tracing the genealogy of any ,american family it is often difficult or impossible to say whether a certain branch is descended from ,john ,oldworthy or his cousin or second cousin4 ,in the latter cases to find the common ancestor we must go back to the grandfather or great-grandfather4 ,the same difficulty1 but greatly enhanced1 meets us when we try to make a genealogical tree of the animal kingdom4 ,thus it seems altogether probable that all higher forms are descended from an ancestor of the same general structure and grade of organization as the turbellaria1 although probably free swimming1 and hence with somewhat different form and development1 especially of the muscular system4 ,it seems to me altogether probable that all1 except possibly ,mollusca1 are descended from a common ancestor closely resembling the schematic worm last described4 ,some would1 however1 maintain that they diverged rather earlier than even the turbellaria2 others after the schematic worm1 if such ever existed4 ,as far as our argument is concerned it makes little difference which of these views we adopt4 ,from our turbellaria1 or possibly from some even more primitive ancestor1 many lines diverged4 ,and this was to be expected4 ,the coelenterata1 as we saw in hydra1 had developed rude digestive and reproductive systems4 ,the higher groups of this kingdom had developed all1 or nearly all1 the tissues used in building the bodies of higher animals--muscular1 reproductive1 connectile1 glandular1 nervous1 etc4 ,but these are mostly very diffuse4 ,the muscular fibrils of a jelly-fish are mostly isolated or parallel in bands1 rarely in compact well-defined bundles4 ,the tissues have generally not yet been moulded into compact masses of definite form4 ,there are as yet very few structures to which we can give the name of organs4 ,to form organs and group them in a body of compact definite form was the work pre-eminently of worms4 ,the material for the building was ready1 but the architecture of the bilateral animal was not even sketched4 ,and different worms were their own architects1 untrammelled by convention or heredity1 hence they built very different1 sometimes almost fantastic1 structures4 ,we must remember1 too1 the great age of this group4 ,they are present in highly modified forms in the very oldest palozoic strata1 and probably therefore came into existence as the first traces of continental areas were beginning to rise above the primeval ocean4 ,they are literally older than the hills4 ,they were exposed to a host of rapidly changing conditions1 very different in different areas4 ,this prepares us for the fact that the worms represent a stage in animal life corresponding fairly well to the ,tower of ,babel in biblical history4 ,the animal kingdom seems almost to explode into a host of fragments4 ,our genealogical tree fairly bristles with branches1 but the branches do not seem to form any regular whorls or spirals4 ,few of them have developed into more than feeble growths4 ,they now contain generally but few species4 ,many of them are largely or entirely parasitic1 and in connection with this mode of life have undergone modifications and degeneration which make it exceedingly difficult to decipher their descent or relationships4 ,four of these branches have reached great prominence in numbers and importance4 ,one or two others were formerly equally numerous and have since become almost extinct2 so the brachiopoda1 which have been almost entirely replaced by mollusks4 ,the same may very possibly be true of others4 ,for of the amount of extinction of larger groups we have generally but an exceedingly faint conception4 ,indeed in this respect the worms have been well compared to the relics which fill the shelves of one of our grandmother's china-closets4 ,the four great branches are the echinoderms1 mollusks1 articulates1 and vertebrates4 ,the echinoderms1 including starfishes1 sea-urchins1 and others straggled early from the great army4 ,we know as yet almost nothing of their history2 when deciphered it will be as strange as any romance4 ,the vertebrates are of course the most important line1 as including the ancestors of man4 ,but we must take a little glance at mollusks1 including our clams1 snails1 and cuttle-fishes2 and at the articulates1 including annelids and culminating in insects4 ,the molluscan and articulate lines1 though divergent1 are of great importance to us as throwing a certain amount of light on vertebrate development2 and still more as showing how a certain line of development may seem1 and at first really be1 advantageous1 and still lead to degeneration1 or at best to but partial success4 ,when we compare the forms which represent fairly well the direction of development of these three lines1 a snail or a clam with an insect and a fish1 we find clearly1 ,i think1 that the fundamental anatomical difference lies in the skeleton2 and that this resulted from1 and almost irrevocably fixed1 certain habits of life4 ,we may picture to ourselves the primitive ancestor of mollusks as a worm having the short and broad form of the turbellaria1 but much thicker or deeper vertically4 ,a fuller description can be found in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,art41 ,mollusca4 ,it was hemi-ovoid in form4 ,it had apparently the perivisceral cavity and nephridia of the schematic worm1 and a circulatory system4 ,in this latter respect it stood higher than any form which we have yet studied4 ,its nervous system also was rather more advanced4 ,it had apparently already taken to a creeping mode of life and the muscles of its ventral surface were strongly developed1 while its exposed and far less muscular dorsal surface was protected by a cap-like shell covering the most important internal organs4 ,but the integument of the whole dorsal surface was1 as is not uncommon in invertebrates1 hardening by the deposition of carbonate of lime in the integument4 ,and this in time increased to such an extent as to replace the primitive1 probably horny1 shell4 ,into the anatomy of this animal or of its descendants we have no time to enter1 for here we must be very brief4 ,we have already noticed that the most important viscera were lodged safely under the shell4 ,and as these increased in size or were crowded upward by the muscles of the creeping disk1 their portion of the body grew upward in the form of a visceral hump4 ,apparently the animal could not increase much in length and retain the advantage of the protection of the shell2 and the shell was the dominating structure4 ,it had entered upon a defensive campaign4 ,motion1 slow at the outset1 became more difficult1 and the protection of the shell therefore all the more necessary4 ,the shell increased in size and weight and motion became almost impossible4 ,the snail represents the average result of the experiment4 ,it can crawl1 but that is about all2 it is neither swift nor energetic4 ,even the earthworm can outcrawl it4 ,it has feelers and eyes1 and is thus better provided with sense-organs than almost any worm4 ,it has a supra-oesophageal ganglion of fair size4 ,the clams and oysters show even more clearly what we might call the logical results of molluscan structure4 ,they increased the shell until it formed two heavy valves hanging down on each side of the body and completely enclosing it4 ,they became almost sessile1 living generally buried in the mud and gaining their food1 consisting mostly of minute particles of organic matter1 by means of currents created by cilia covering the large curtain-like gills4 ,their muscular system disappeared except in the ploughshare-shaped foot used mostly for burrowing1 and in the muscles for closing the shell4 ,that portion of the body which corresponds to the head of the snail practically aborted with nearly all the sense-organs4 ,the nervous system degenerated and became reduced to a rudiment4 ,they had given up locomotion1 had withdrawn1 so to speak1 from the world2 all the sense they needed was just enough to distinguish the particles of food as they swept past the mouth in the current of water4 ,they have an abundance of food1 and wax fat4 ,the clam is so completely protected by his shell and the mud that he has little to fear from enemies4 ,they have increased and multiplied and filled the mud4 ,requiescat in pace4 ,but zology has its tragedies as well as human history4 ,let us turn to the development of a third molluscan line terminating in the cuttle-fishes4 ,the ancestors of these cephalopods1 although still possessed of a shell and a high visceral hump1 regained the swimming life4 ,first1 apparently1 by means of fins1 and then by a simple but very effective use of a current of water1 they acquired an often rapid locomotion4 ,the highest forms gave up the purely defensive campaign1 developed a powerful beak1 led a life like that of the old ,norse pirates1 and were for a time the rulers and terrors of the sea4 ,with their more rapid locomotion the supra-oesophageal ganglion reached a higher degree of development1 and it was served by sense-organs of great efficiency4 ,they reduced the external shell1 and succeeded1 in the highest forms1 of almost ridding themselves of this burden and encumbrance4 ,traces of it remain in the squids1 but transformed into an internal quill-like1 supporting1 not defensive1 skeleton4 ,they have retraced the downward steps of their ancestors as far as they could4 ,and the high development of their supra-oesophageal ganglion and sense-organs1 and their powerful jaws and arms1 or tentacles1 show to what good purpose they have struggled4 ,but the struggle was in vain1 as far as the supremacy of the animal kingdom was concerned4 ,their ancestors had taken a course which rendered it impossible for their descendants to reach the goal4 ,their progress became ever slower4 ,they were entirely and hopelessly beaten by the vertebrates4 ,they struggled hard1 but too late4 ,the history of mollusks is full of interest4 ,they show clearly how intimately nervous development is connected with the use of the locomotive organs4 ,the snail crept1 and slightly increased its nervous system and sense-organs4 ,the clam almost lost them in connection with its stationary life4 ,the cephalopods were exceedingly active1 developed1 therefore1 keen sense-organs and a very large and complicated supra-oesophagal ganglion1 which we might almost call a brain4 ,the articulate series consists of two groups of animals4 ,the higher group includes the crabs1 spiders1 thousand-legs1 and finally the insects1 and forms the kingdom of arthropoda4 ,the lower members are still usually reckoned as worms1 and are included under the annelids4 ,of these our common earthworm is a good example1 and near them belong the leeches4 ,but the marine annelids1 of which nereis1 or a clam-worm1 is a good example1 are more typical4 ,they are often quite large1 a foot or even more in length4 ,they are composed of many1 often several hundred1 rings or segments4 ,between these the body-wall is thin1 so that the segments move easily upon each other1 and thus the animal can creep or writhe4 ,these segments are very much alike except the first two and the last4 ,if we examine one from the middle of the body we shall find its structure very much like that of our schematic worm4 ,outside we find a very thin1 horny cuticle1 secreted by the layer of cells just beneath it1 the hypodermis4 ,beneath the skin we find a thin layer of transverse muscles1 and then four heavy bands of longitudinal muscles4 ,these latter have been grouped in the four quadrants1 a much more effective arrangement than the cylindrical layer of the schematic worm4 ,furthermore1 the animal has on each segment a pair of fin-like projections1 stiffened with bristles1 the parapodia4 ,these are moved by special muscles and form effective organs of creeping4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,eunice ,,limosa 7,,annelid74 ,,lang1 ,,from ,,ehlers4 ,front and hind end seen from dorsal surface4 fa1 fp1 fc1 feelers2 a1 eye2 k1 gill2 p1 parapodia2 ac1 anal cirri4 ,within the muscles is the perivisceral cavity1 and in its central axis the intestine1 segmented like the body-wall4 ,the reproductive organs are formed from patches of the lining of the perivisceral cavity1 and the reproductive elements1 when fully developed1 fall into the perivisceral fluid and are carried out by nephridia1 just such as we found in the schematic worm4 ,beside the perivisceral cavity and its fluid there is a special circulatory system4 ,this consists mainly of one long tube above the intestine and a second below1 with often several smaller parallel tubes4 ,transverse vessels run from these to all parts of the body4 ,the dorsal tube pulsates and thus acts as a heart4 ,the surface of the body no longer suffices to gather oxygen1 hence we find special feathery gills on the parapodia4 ,but these gills are merely expanded portions of the body wall1 arranged so as to offer the greatest possible amount of surface where the capillaries of the blood system can be almost immediately in contact with the surrounding water4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,body ,,segment ,,of ,,annelid4 ,,lang4 dp and vp1 dorsal and ventral halves of parapodia2 b and ac1 bristles2 k1 gill2 dc and vc1 feelers2 rm1 lateral muscles2 lm1 longitudinal muscles2 vd1 dorsal blood-vessel2 vo1 ventral blood-vessel2 bm1 ventral ganglion2 ov1 ovary2 tr1 opening of nephridium in the perivisceral cavity2 np1 tubular portion of nephridium4 ,the circles containing dots represent eggs floating in the perivisceral fluid4 ,the nervous system consists of a large supra-oesophageal ganglion in the first segment2 then of a chain of ganglia1 one to each segment1 on the ventral side of the body4 ,with one ganglion in each segment there is far more controlling1 perceptive1 ganglionic material than in lower worms4 ,furthermore the supra-oesophageal ganglion is relieved of a large part of the direct control of the muscles of each segment1 and is becoming more a centre of control and perception for the body as a whole4 ,it is more like our brain1 commander-in-chief1 the other ganglia constituting its staff4 ,the sense-organs have improved greatly4 ,there are tentacles and otolith vesicles as very delicate organs of feeling1 or possibly of hearing also4 ,but the annelids were probably the first animals to develop an eye capable of forming an image of external objects4 ,the importance of this organ in the pursuit of food or the escape from enemies can scarcely be over-estimated4 ,the lining of the mouth and pharynx can be protruded as a proboscis1 and drawn back by powerful muscles1 and is armed with two or more horny claws4 ,eyes and claws gave them a great advantage over their not quite blind but really visionless and comparatively defenceless neighbors1 and they must have wrought terrible extinction of lower and older forms4 ,but while we cannot over-estimate the importance of these eyes1 we can easily exaggerate their perfectness4 ,they were of short range1 fitted for seeing objects only a few inches distant1 and the image was very imperfect in detail4 ,but the plan or fundamental scheme of these eyes is correct and capable of indefinitely greater development than the organs of touch or smell1 perhaps greater even than the otolith vesicle4 ,and the reflex influence of the eye on the brain was the greatest advantage of all4 ,hitherto with feeble muscles and sense-organs it has hardly paid the animal to devote more material to building a larger brain4 ,it was better to build more muscle4 ,but now with stronger muscles at its command1 and better sense-organs to report to it1 every grain of added brain material is beginning to be worth ten devoted to muscle4 ,the muscular system will still continue to develop1 but the brain has begun an almost endless march of progress4 ,the eye becomes of continually increasing advantage and importance because it has a capable brain to use it2 and brain is a more and more profitable investment1 because it is served by an ever-improving eye4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,,myrmeleo ,,formicarius4 ,,ant-,,lion4 ,,hertwig1 ,,from ,,schmarda4 #a1 adult2 #b1 larva2 #c1 cocoon4 ,the annelid had hit upon a most advantageous line of development1 which led ultimately to the insect4 ,the study of the insect will show us clearly the advantages and defects of the annelid plan4 ,first of all1 the insect1 like the mollusk1 has an external skeleton4 ,but the skeleton of the mollusk was purely protective1 a hindrance to locomotion4 ,that of the insect is still somewhat protective1 but is mainly1 almost purely1 locomotive4 ,it is never allowed to become so heavy as to interfere with locomotion4 ,in the second place1 the insect has three body regions1 having each its own special functions or work4 ,and one of these is a head4 ,the annelid had two anterior segments differing from those of the rest of the body2 these may1 perhaps1 be considered as the foreshadowings of a structure not yet realized2 they can only by courtesy be called a head4 ,thirdly1 the insect has legs4 ,the annelid had fin-like parapodia1 approaching the legs of insects about as closely as the fins of a fish approach the legs of a mammal4 ,the reproductive and digestive systems1 while somewhat improved1 are not very markedly higher than those of annelids4 ,the excretory system has more work to perform and reaches a rather higher development4 ,but in these organs there is no great or striking change2 the time for marked and rapid development of the digestive and reproductive systems has gone by4 ,material can be more profitably invested in brain or muscle4 ,air is carried to all parts of the body by a special system of air-sacks and tubes4 ,this is a very advantageous structure for small animals with an external skeleton4 ,in very large animals1 or where the skeleton is internal1 it would hardly be practicable2 the risk of compression of the tubes at some point1 and of thus cutting off the air-supply of some portion of the body1 would be altogether too great4 ,the circulatory system is very poor4 ,it consists practically only of a heart1 which drives the blood in an irregular circulation between the other organs of the body much as with a syringe you might keep up a system of currents in a bowl of water4 ,but the rapidity of the flow of the blood in our bodies is mainly to furnish a supply of oxygen to the organs4 ,a tea-spoonful of blood can carry a fair amount of dissolved solid nutriment like sugar1 it can carry at each round but a very little gas like oxygen4 ,hence the blood must make its rounds rapidly1 carrying but a little oxygen at each circuit4 ,but in the insect the blood conveys only the dissolved solid nutriment1 the food2 hence a comparatively irregular circulation answers all purposes4 ,the skeleton is a thickening of the horny cuticle of the annelid on the surface of each segment4 ,the horny cylinder surrounding each segment is composed of several pieces1 and on the abdomen these are united by flexible1 infolded membranes4 ,this allows the increase in the size of the segment corresponding to the varying size of the digestive and reproductive systems4 ,in this part of the body the skeletal ring of each segment is joined to that of the segments before and behind it in the same manner4 ,but in other parts of the body we shall find the skeletal pieces of each segment and the rings of successive segments fused in one plate of mail4 ,the legs are the parapodia of annelids carried to a vastly higher development4 ,they are slender and jointed1 and yet often very powerful4 ,a large portion of the muscular system of the body is attached to these appendages4 ,but the insect has also jaws4 ,the annelid had teeth or claws attached to the proboscis4 ,but true jaws are something quite different4 ,they always develop by modifying some other organ4 ,in the insect they are modified legs4 ,this is shown first by their embryonic development4 ,but the king- or horseshoe-crab has still no true jaws1 but uses the upper joints of its legs for chewing4 ,there are primitively three pairs of jaws of various forms for the different kinds of food of different species or higher groups4 ,but some of them may disappear and the others be greatly modified into awls for piercing1 or a tube for sucking honey4 ,into the wonderful transformations of these modified legs we cannot enter4 ,the muscles are no longer arranged to form a sack as in annelids4 ,transverse muscles1 running parallel to the unyielding plates of chitin or horn could accomplish nothing4 ,they have largely disappeared4 ,the work of locomotion has been transferred from the trunk to the legs4 ,the abdomen of the insect is as clearly composed of distinct segments as the body of the annelid4 ,of these there are perhaps typically eleven4 ,the thorax is composed of three segments1 distinct in the lowest forms1 fused in the highest4 ,this fusion of segments in the thorax of the highest forms furnishes a very firm framework for the attachment of wings and muscles4 ,these wings are a new development1 and how they arose is still a question4 ,but they give the insect the capability of exceedingly rapid locomotion4 ,the three pairs of jaws1 modified legs1 in the rear half of the head show that this portion is composed of three segments4 ,for only one pair of legs is ever developed on a single segment4 ,embryology has shown that the portion of the head in front of the mouth is also composed of three segments4 ,possibly between the pr- and post-oral portions still another segment should be included1 making a total of seven in the head4 ,the head has thus been formed by drawing forward segments from the trunk1 and fusing them successively with the first or primitive head segment4 ,this is difficult to conceive of in the fully developed insect1 where the boundary between head and thorax is very sharp4 ,but the ancestors of insects looked more like thousand-legs or centipedes1 and here head and thorax are much less distinct4 ,but in the annelid the mouth is on the second segment2 here it is on the fourth4 ,it has evidently travelled backward4 ,that the mouth of an animal can migrate seems at first impossible1 but if we had time to examine the embryology of annelids and insects1 it would no longer appear inconceivable or improbable4 ,and its backward migration brought it among the legs which were grasping and chewing the food4 ,and in vertebrates the mouth has changed its position1 though not in exactly the same way4 ,our present mouth is probably not at all the mouth of the primitive ancestor of vertebrates4 ,thus in the insect three segments have fused around the mouth1 and three1 possibly four1 in front of it4 ,this makes a head worthy of the name4 ,the ganglia of the three post-oral segments1 which bear the jaws1 have fused in one compound ganglion innervating the mouth and jaws4 ,those of the three pr-oral segments have fused to form a brain4 ,eyes are well developed1 giving images sometimes accurate in detail1 sometimes very rude4 ,ears are not uncommon4 ,the sense of smell is often keen4 ,perhaps the greatest advance of the insect is its adaptation to land life4 ,this gives it a larger supply of oxygen than any aquatic animal could ever obtain4 ,this itself stimulates every function1 and all the work of the body goes on more energetically4 ,then the heat produced is conducted off far less rapidly than in aquatic forms4 ,water is a good conductor of heat1 and nearly all aquatic animals are cold-blooded4 ,the few which are warm-blooded are protected by a thick layer of non-conducting fat4 ,in all land animals1 even when cold-blooded1 the work of the different systems is aided by the longer retention of the heat in the body4 ,let us recapitulate4 ,the schematic worm had a body composed of two concentric tubes4 ,the outer was composed of the muscles of the body covered by the protective integument4 ,the inner tube was the alimentary canal with its special muscles4 ,between these two was the perivisceral cavity1 filled with nutritive fluid1 lymph1 and furnishing a safe lodging-place for the more delicate viscera4 ,it represented fairly the trunk of higher animals4 ,the annelid added segmentation1 and thus greater freedom of motion by the parapodia4 ,but the segments were still practically alike4 ,in the insect division of labor took place1 that is1 each group of segments was allotted its own special work2 and these groups of segments were modified in structure to best suit the performance of this part of the work of the body4 ,the abdomen was least modified and its eleven segments were devoted to digestion1 reproduction1 and excretion--the old vegetative functions4 ,three segments were united in the thorax2 all their energy was turned to locomotion1 and the insect became thus an exceedingly active1 swift animal4 ,the third body-region1 the head1 includes six segments1 of which three surrounded the mouth and furnished the jaws1 while two more were crowded or drawn forward in order that their ganglia might be added to the old supraoesophageal ganglion and form a brain4 ,it is interesting to note that a form1 peripatus1 still exists which stands almost midway between annelids and insects and has only four segments in the head4 ,the formation of the head was thus a gradual process1 one segment being added after another4 ,in the turbellaria the dominant functions were digestion and reproduction1 and their organs composed almost the whole body4 ,here only eleven segments at most are devoted to these functions1 and nine in head and thorax to locomotion and brain4 ,head and thorax have increased steadily in importance1 while the abdomen has decreased as steadily in number of segments4 ,and the brain is increasing thus rapidly because there are now muscles and sense-organs of sufficient power to make such a brain of value4 ,and this brain perceives not only objects and qualities1 but invisible relations between these1 and this is an advance amounting to a revolution4 ,it remembers1 and uses its recollections4 ,it is capable of learning a little by experience and observation4 ,the ,a1 ,b1 ,c of thinking was probably learned long before the insect's time1 and the bee shows a fair amount of intelligence4 ,the line of development which the insect followed was comparatively easy and its course probably rapid4 ,certain crustacea1 aquatic arthropoda1 are among the oldest fossils1 and it is possible that insects lived on the land before the first fish swam in the sea4 ,they had fine structure and powers2 and yet during the later geologic periods they have scarcely advanced a step1 and are now apparently at a standstill4 ,they ran splendidly for a time1 and then fell out of the race4 ,what hindered and stopped them8 ,one vital defect in their whole plan of organization is evident4 ,the external skeleton is admirably suited to animals of small size1 but only to these4 ,in larger animals living on land it would have to be made so heavy as to be unwieldy and no longer economical4 ,their mode of breathing also is fitted only for animals of small size having an external skeleton4 ,whatever may be our explanation the fact remains that insects are always small4 ,this is in itself a disadvantage4 ,very small animals cannot keep up a constant high temperature unless the surrounding air is warm1 for their radiating surface is too large in comparison with their heat-producing mass4 ,at the first approach of even cool weather they become chilled and sluggish1 and must hibernate or die4 ,they are conformed to but a limited range of environment in temperature4 ,but small size is1 as a rule1 accompanied by an even greater disadvantage4 ,it seems to be almost always correlated with short life4 ,why this is so1 or how1 we do not know4 ,there are exceptions2 a crow lives as long as a man2 or would1 if allowed to4 ,but1 as a rule1 the length of an animal's days is roughly proportional to the size of its body4 ,and the insect is1 as a rule1 very short-lived4 ,it lives for a few days or weeks1 or even months1 but rarely outlasts the year4 ,it has time to learn but little by experience4 ,the same experience must be passed1 the same emergency arise and be met1 over and over again during the lifetime of the same individual if the animal is to learn thereby4 ,and intelligence is based upon experience4 ,hence insects can and do possess but a low grade of intelligence4 ,but instinct is in many cases habit fixed by heredity and improved by selection4 ,the rapid recurrence of successive generations was exceedingly favorable to the development of instincts1 but very unfavorable to intelligence4 ,insects are instinctive1 the highest vertebrates intelligent4 ,the future can never belong to a tiny animal governed by instincts4 ,mollusks and insects have both failed to reach the goal2 another plan of structure than theirs must be sought if the animal kingdom is to have a future4 ,the future belonged to the vertebrate4 ,to begin with less characteristic organs the digestive system is much like that of the annelid or schematic worm1 but with greatly increased glandular and absorptive surfaces4 ,the present mouth of nearly all vertebrates is probably not primitive4 ,it is almost certainly one of the gill-slits of some old ancestor of fish1 such as now are used to discharge the water which is used for respiration4 ,the jaws are modified branchial arches or the cartilaginous or bony rods which in our present fish support the fringe of gills4 ,these have formed a pair of exceedingly effective and powerful jaws4 ,the reproductive system holds still to the old type and shows little if any improvement4 ,the excretory organs1 kidneys1 are composed primitively of nephridial tubes like those of the schematic worm or annelid1 but immensely increased in number1 modified1 and improved in certain very important particulars4 ,the muscles in simplest forms are composed of heavy longitudinal bands1 especially developed toward the dorsal surface of the body to the right and left of the axial skeleton4 ,locomotion was produced by lashing the tail right and left1 as still in fish4 ,there is improvement in all these organs1 except perhaps the reproductive1 but nothing very new or striking4 ,the great improvement from this time on was not to be sought in the vegetative organs1 or even directly to any great extent in muscles4 ,the new and characteristic organ was not the vertebral column1 or series of vertebr1 or backbone1 from which the kingdom has derived its name4 ,this was a later production4 ,the primitive skeleton was the notochord1 still appearing in the embryos of all vertebrates and persisting throughout life in fish4 ,this is an elastic rod of cartilage1 lying just beneath the spinal marrow or nerve-cord1 which runs backward from the brain4 ,the nerve-centres are therefore here all dorsal1 and the notochord or skeleton lies between these and the digestive or alimentary canal4 ,the skeleton of the clam or snail is purely protective and a hindrance to locomotion4 ,that of the insect is almost purely locomotive1 but external1 that of the vertebrate purely locomotive and internal4 ,it does not lie outside even of the nervous system1 although this system especially required1 and was worthy of1 protection4 ,it does not protect even the brain2 the skull of vertebrates is an after-thought4 ,it is almost the deepest seated of all organs4 ,but lying in the central axis of the body it furnishes the very best possible attachment for muscles4 ,around this primitive notochord was a layer of connectile tissue which later gave rise to the vertebr forming our backbone4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,axial ,,skeleton ,,of ,,petromyzon4 ,,hertwig1 ,,from ,,hiedersheim4 ,,ss1 skeletogenous layer2 ,ob1 ,ub1 dorsal and ventral processes of ,,ss2 ,c1 notochord2 ,cs1 sheath of notochord2 ,ee1 elastic external layer of sheath2 ,f1 fatty tissue2 ,m1 spinal marrow2 ,p1 sheath of ,m4 ,the nervous system on the dorsal surface of the notochord consists of the brain in the head and the spinal marrow running down the back4 ,the brain of all except the very lowest vertebrates consists of four portions3 #a4 ,the cerebrum1 or cerebral lobes1 or simply forebrain1 the seat of consciousness1 thought1 and will1 and from which no nerves proceed4 ,whether the primitive vertebrate had any cerebrum is still uncertain4 #b4 ,the mid-brain1 which sends nerves to the eyes1 and in this respect reminds us of the brain of insects4 ,its anterior portion appears from embryology to be very primitive4 #c4 ,the small brain1 or cerebellum1 which in all higher forms is the centre for co-ordination of the motions of the body4 #d4 ,the medulla1 which controls especially the internal organs4 ,the spinal marrow1 or that portion of the nervous system which lies outside of the head1 is at the same time a great nerve-trunk and a centre for reflex action of the muscles of the body4 ,but the development of these distinct portions and the division of labor between them must have been a long and gradual process4 ,we have every reason to believe that here1 as in insects1 the head has been formed by annexation of segments from the rump and the fusion of their nervous matter with that of the brain4 ,but here1 instead of only three segments1 from nine to fourteen have been fused in the head to furnish the material for the brain4 ,notochord and backbone may be the most striking and apparent characteristic of vertebrates1 but their predominant characteristic is brain4 ,on this system they lavished material1 giving it from three to four times as much as any lower or earlier group had done4 ,they very early set apart the cerebral lobes to be the commander-in-chief and centre of control for all other nerve-centres4 ,to this all report1 and from it all directly or indirectly receive orders4 ,it can say to every other organ in the body1 ,starve that ,i may live4 ,it is the seat of thought and will4 ,the other portions of the brain report to it what they have gathered of vision or sound2 it explains the vision or song or parable4 ,it is relieved as far as possible from all lower and routine work that it may think and remember and govern4 ,the vertebrate built for mind1 not neglecting the body4 ,every trait of vertebrates is a promise of a great future4 ,its internal skeleton gives it the possibility of large size4 ,this gave it in time the victory in the struggle with its competitors1 as to whether it should eat or be eaten4 ,it is vigorous and powerful1 for all its organs are at the best4 ,it gives the possibility of later1 on land1 becoming warm-blooded1 i4e41 of maintaining a constant high temperature4 ,it is thus resistant to climate and hardship4 ,in time its descendants will face the arctic winter as well as the heat of the tropics4 ,but it has started on the road which leads to mind4 ,the greater size is correlated with longer life4 ,the lessons of experience come to it over and over again1 and it can and must learn them4 ,it is the intelligent1 remembering1 thinking type4 ,the insect had begun to peer into the world of invisible and intangible relations1 the vertebrate will some day see them4 ,this much is prophecied in his very structure4 ,he must be heir to an indefinite future4 99 99 99 99 99 ,you have probably noticed that the vertebrate differs greatly from all his predecessors4 ,the gulf between him and them is indeed wide and deep4 ,his origin and ancestry are yet far from certain4 ,but an attempt to decipher his past history1 though it may lead to no sure conclusions1 will yet be of use to us4 ,practically all aquatic vertebrates lead a swimming life1 neither sessile nor creeping4 ,the embryonic development of our appendages leads to the same conclusion4 ,we must never forget that the embryonic development of the individual recapitulates briefly the history of the development of the race4 ,now the legs and arms1 or fore- and hind-legs1 of higher vertebrates and the corresponding paired fins of fish develop in the embryo as portions of a long ridge extending from front to rear of the side of the body4 ,this justifies the inference that the primitive vertebrate ancestor had a pair of long fins running along the sides of the body1 but bending slightly downward toward the rear so as to meet one another and continue as a single caudal fin behind the anal opening4 ,such fins1 like the feathers of an arrow1 could be useful only to keep the animal on an even keel as it was forced through the water by the lateral sweeps of the tail4 ,they would have been useless for creeping4 ,but there is another piece of evidence that he was a free swimming form4 ,all vertebrates breathe by gills or lungs1 and these are modified portions of the digestive system1 of the walls of the oesophagus1 from which even the lung is an embryonic outgrowth4 ,now practically all invertebrates breathe through modified portions of the integument or outer surface of the body1 and their gills are merely expansions of this4 ,in the annelid they are projections of the parapodia1 in the mollusk expansions of the skin1 where the foot or creeping sole joins the body4 ,why did the vertebrate take a new and strange1 and1 at first sight1 disadvantageous mode of breathing8 ,there must have been some good reason for this4 ,the most natural explanation would seem to be that he had no projections on his outer surface which could develop into gills1 and farther1 that he could not afford to have any4 ,now projections on the lower portion of the sides of the body would be an advantage in creeping1 but a hindrance in any such mode of swimming as we have described1 or indeed in any mode of writhing through the water4 ,furthermore1 if he lived1 not a creeping life on the bottom1 but swimming in the water above1 he would have to live almost entirely on microscopic animals and embryos2 and these would be most easily captured by a current of water brought in at the mouth4 ,the whole branchial apparatus in its simplest forms would seem to be an apparatus for sifting out the microscopic particles of food and only later a purely respiratory apparatus4 ,moreover1 we have seen that the parapodia of annelids naturally point to the development of an external skeleton1 for their muscles are already a part of the external body-wall and attached to the already existing horny cuticle4 ,the logical goal of their development was the insect4 ,now ,i do not wish to conceal from you that many good zologists believe that the vertebrate is descended from annelids2 but for this and other reasons such a descent appears to me very improbable4 ,it would seem far more natural to derive the vertebrate from some free swimming form like the schematic worm1 whose largest nerve-cord lay on the dorsal surface because its branches ran to heavy muscles much used in swimming4 ,later the other nerve-cords degenerated1 for such a degeneration of nerve-cords is not at all impossible or improbable4 ,no thoroughfare is often written across paths previously followed by blood or nervous impulses1 when other paths have been found more economical or effective4 ,but where did the notochord come from8 ,i do not know4 ,it always forms in the embryo out of the entoderm or layer which becomes the lining of the intestine4 ,now this is a very peculiar origin for cartilage1 and the notochord is a very strange cartilage even if we have not made a mistake in calling it cartilage at all4 ,my best guess would be that it is simply a thickened portion of the upper median surface of the intestine to keep the balls of digesting nutriment or other hard particles in the intestine from grinding against the nerve-cord as they are crowded along in the process of digestion4 ,once started its elasticity would be a great aid in swimming4 ,professor ,brooks has called attention to the fact that the higher a group stands in development1 the longer its ancestors have maintained a swimming life4 ,thus we have noticed that the sponges were the first to settle2 then a little later the mass of the coelenterates followed their example4 ,but the etenophora1 the nearest relatives of bilateral animals1 have remained free swimming4 ,then the flat worms and mollusks took to a creeping mode of life1 while the annelids and vertebrates still swam4 ,then the annelids settled to the bottom and crept1 and all their descendants remained creeping forms4 ,the vertebrates alone remained swimming1 and probably neither they nor their descendants ever crept until they emerged on the land1 or as amphibia were preparing for land life4 ,if this be true1 it is a fact worthy of our most careful consideration4 ,the swimming life would appear to be neither as easy nor as economical as the creeping4 ,it is certainly hard to believe that food would not have been obtained with less effort and in greater abundance at the bottom than in the water above4 ,the swimming life gave rise to higher and stronger forms2 but did its maintenance give immediate advantage in the struggle for existence8 ,this is an exceedingly interesting and important question1 and demands most careful consideration4 ,but we shall be better prepared to answer it in a future lecture4 ,the period of development of mollusks1 articulates1 and vertebrates1 is really one4 ,they developed to a certain extent contemporaneously4 ,the development of vertebrates was slow1 and they were the last to appear on the stage of geological history4 ,you must all have noticed that development1 during this period1 takes on a much more hopeful form than during that described in the last chapter4 ,then digestion and reproduction were dominant4 ,now muscle is of the greatest importance4 ,if this fails of development1 as in mollusks1 the group is doomed to degeneration or at best stagnation4 ,but we have seen the dawn of a still higher function4 ,in insects and vertebrates the brain is becoming of importance1 and absorbing more and more material4 ,this is the promise of something vastly higher and better4 ,better sense-organs are appearing1 fitted to aid in a wider perception of more distant objects4 ,the vertebrate has discovered the right path2 though a long journey still lies before it4 ,the night is far spent1 the day is at hand4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,vertebrates3 ,,backbone ,,and ,,brain ,in tracing man's ancestry from fish upward we ought properly to describe three or four fish1 an amphibian1 a reptile1 and then take up the series of mammalian ancestors4 ,but we have not sufficient time for so extended a study1 and a simpler method may answer our purpose fairly well4 ,let us fix our attention on the few organs which still show the capacity of marked development1 and follow each one of these rapidly in its upward course4 ,we must remember that there are changes in the vegetative organs4 ,the digestive and excretory systems improve4 ,but this improvement is not for the sake of these vegetative functions4 ,brain and muscle demand vastly more fuel1 and produce vastly more waste which must be removed4 ,at almost the close of the series the reproductive system undergoes a modification which is almost revolutionary in its results4 ,but we shall find that this modification is necessitated by the smaller amount of material which can be spared for this function2 not by its increasing importance1 still less its dominance for its own worth4 ,the vertebrate is like an old ,roman2 everything is subordinated to mental and physical power4 ,he is the world conqueror4 ,the important changes from fish upward affect the following organs3 #a4 ,the skeleton4 ,a light1 solid framework must be developed for the body4 #b4 ,the appendages start as fins1 and end as the legs and arms of man4 #c4 ,the circulatory and respiratory systems developed so as to carry with the utmost rapidity and certainty fuel and oxygen to the muscular and nervous high-pressure engines4 ,or1 to change the figure1 they are the roads along which supplies and munitions can be carried to the army suddenly mobilized at any point on the frontier4 #d4 ,above all1 the brain1 especially the cerebrum1 the crown and goal of vertebrate structure4 ,the improvement is now practically altogether in the animal organs of locomotion and thought4 ,still1 among these animal organs1 the lower systems will lead in point of time4 ,the brain must to a certain extent wait for the skeleton4 #a4 ,the skeleton4 ,the axial skeleton consists1 in the lowest fish1 of the notochord1 a cylindrical unsegmented rod of cartilage running nearly the length of the body4 ,this is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue1 at first merely membranous1 later becoming cartilaginous or gristly4 ,pieces of cartilage extend upward over the spinal marrow1 and downward around the great aortic artery1 forming the neural and hmal arches4 ,these unite with the masses of cartilage surrounding the notochord to form cartilaginous vertebr1 which may be stiffened by an infiltration of carbonate of lime4 ,the vertebral column of sharks has reached this stage4 ,then the cartilaginous vertebr ossify and form a true backbone4 ,i have described the process as if it were very simple4 ,but only the student of comparative osteology can have any conception of the number of experiments which were tried in different groups before the definite mode of forming a bony vertebra was attained4 ,at the same time the skull was developing in a somewhat similar manner4 ,but the skull is far more complex in origin and undergoes far more numerous and important changes than the simpler vertebral column4 ,into its history we have no time to enter4 ,and what shall we say of bone itself as a mere material or tissue1 with its admirable lightness1 compactness1 and flawlessness4 ,and every bone in our body is a triumph of engineering architecture4 ,no engineer could better recognize the direction of strain and stress1 and arrange his rods and columns1 arches and buttresses1 to suitably meet them1 than these problems are solved in the long bone of our thigh4 ,and they must be lengthened while the child is leaping upon them4 ,an engineer is justly proud if he can rebuild or lengthen a bridge without delaying the passage of a single train4 ,but what would he say if you asked him to rebuild a locomotive1 while it was running even twenty miles an hour8 ,and yet a similar problem had to be solved in our bodies4 ,but the vertebral column is not perfected by fish4 ,the vertebr with few exceptions are hollow in front and behind1 biconcave2 and between each two vertebr there is a large cavity still occupied by the notochord4 ,thus these vertebr join one another by their edges1 like two shallow wine-glasses placed rim to rim4 ,only gradually is the notochord crowded out so that the vertebr join by their whole adjacent surfaces4 ,even in highest forms1 for the sake of mobility1 they are united by washer-like disks of cartilage4 ,biconcave vertebr persisted through the oldest amphibia1 reptiles1 and birds4 ,but finally a firm backbone and skull were attained4 #b4 ,the appendages4 ,of these we can say but little4 ,the fish has oar-like fins1 attached to the body by a joint1 but themselves unjointed4 ,by the amphibia legs1 with the same regions as our own and with five toes1 have already appeared4 ,the development of the leg out of the fin is one of the most difficult and least understood problems of vertebrate comparative anatomy4 ,the legs are at first weak and scarcely capable of supporting the body4 ,only gradually do they strengthen into the fore- and hind-legs of mammals1 or into the legs and wings of birds and old flying reptiles4 #c4 ,changes in the circulatory and respiratory systems4 ,the fish lives altogether in the water and breathes by gills1 but the dipnoi among fishes breathes by lungs as well as gills4 ,as long as respiration takes place by gills alone1 the circulation is simple2 the blood flows from the heart to the gills1 and thence directly all over the body2 the oxygenated blood from the gills does not return directly to the heart4 ,but the blood from the lungs does return to the heart2 and there at first mixes in the ventricle with the impure blood which has returned from the rest of the body4 ,gradually a partition arises in the ventricle1 dividing it into a right and left half4 ,thus the two circulations of the venous blood to the lungs1 and of the oxygenated blood over the body1 are more and more separated until1 in higher reptiles1 they become entirely distinct4 ,as the animal came on land and breathed the air1 more completely oxygenated blood was carried to the organs1 and their activity was greatly heightened4 ,as more and more heat was produced by the combustion in muscular and nervous tissues1 and less was lost by conduction1 the temperature of the body rose1 and in birds and mammals becomes constant several degrees above the highest summer temperature of the surrounding air4 ,the changes in the brain affect mainly the large and small brain4 ,the cerebellum increases with the greater locomotive powers of the animal4 ,but its development is evidently limited4 ,the large brain1 or cerebrum1 is in fish hardly as heavy as the mid-brain2 in amphibia the reverse is true4 ,in higher recent reptiles the cerebrum would somewhat outweigh all the other portions of the brain put together4 ,in mammals it extends upward and backward1 has already in lower forms overspread the mid-brain1 and is beginning to cover the small brain4 ,but this was not so in the earliest mammals4 ,here the cerebrum was small1 more like that of reptiles4 ,but during the tertiary period the large brain began to increase with marvellous rapidity4 ,it was very late in arriving at the period of rapid development1 but it kept on after all the other organs of the body had settled down into comparative rest1 perhaps retrogression4 ,we have given thus a rapid sketch in outline of the changes in the most characteristic systems between fish and mammals4 ,some of the changes which took place in mammals were along the same lines1 but one at least is so new and unexpected that this highest class demands more careful and detailed examination4 ,the mammal is a vertebrate4 ,hence all its organs are at their best4 ,but mammals stand1 all things considered1 at the head of vertebrates4 ,the skeleton is firm and compact4 ,the muscles are beautifully moulded and fitted to the skeleton so as to produce the greatest effect with the least mass and weight of tissue4 ,the sense-organs are keen1 and the eye and ear especially delicate1 and fitted for perception at long range4 ,yet in all these respects they are surpassed by birds4 ,as a mere anatomical machine the bird always seems to me superior to the mammal4 ,it is not easy to see why it failed1 as it has1 to reach the goal of possibility of indefinite development and dominance in the animal world4 ,why he stopped short of the higher brain development ,i cannot tell4 ,the fact remains that the mammal is pre-eminent in brain power1 and that this gave him the supremacy4 ,but mammals came very late to the throne1 and the probability of their ever gaining it must for ages have appeared very doubtful4 ,they seem to have been a fairly old group with a very slow early development4 ,reptiles especially1 and even birds1 were far more precocious than these slower and weaker forms which crept along the earth4 ,but reptiles and birds1 like many other precocious children1 soon reached the limit of their development4 ,they had muscle1 the mammal brain and nerve2 the mammal had the staying power and the future4 ,bitter and discouraging must have been the struggle of these feeble early mammals with their larger1 swifter1 and more powerful1 reptilian relatives4 ,and yet1 perhaps1 by this very struggle the mammal was trained to shrewdness and endurance4 ,the primitive mammals laid eggs like reptiles or birds4 ,only two genera1 echidna and platypus1 survive to bear witness of these old oviparous groups1 and these only in ,new ,zealand4 ,these retain several old reptilian characteristics4 ,their lower position is shown also by the fact that the temperature of their bodies is1 at least1 ten degrees ,fahrenheit below that of higher mammals4 ,one of these carries the egg in a pouch on the ventral surface2 the other1 living largely in water1 deposits its eggs in a nest in a burrow in the side of the bank of the stream4 ,after these came the marsupials4 ,in these the eggs develop in a sort of uterus2 but there is no placenta1 in the sense of an organic connection between the embryo and the uterus of the mother4 ,the young are at birth exceedingly small and feeble4 ,the adult giant ,kangaroo weighs over one hundred pounds2 the young are at birth not as large as your thumb4 ,they are placed by the mother in a marsupial pouch on her ventral surface1 and here nourished till able to care for themselves4 ,pardon a moment's digression4 ,the marsupials1 except the opossum1 are confined to ,australia1 and the oviparous mammals1 or monotremes1 to ,new ,zealand4 ,formerly the marsupials1 at least1 ranged all over ,europe and ,asia1 for we have indisputable evidence in their fossil remains4 ,but they have survived only in this isolated area1 and here apparently only because their isolation preserved them from the competition with higher forms4 ,if the ,australian continent had not been thus early cut off from all the rest of the world1 the only trace of both these lower groups would have been the opossum in ,america and certain peculiarities in the development of the egg in higher mammals4 ,this shows us how much weight should be assigned to the formerly popular argument of the missing links4 ,the wonder is not that so many links are missing1 but that any of these primitive forms have come down to us4 ,for we see here another proof of the fearful extermination of lower forms during the progress of life on the globe4 ,it seems as if the intermediate forms were less common among these most recent animals than among the older types4 ,this may not be true1 for it is not easy to compare the gap between two mammals with that between two worms or insects1 and mistakes are very easily made4 ,but it seems as if extermination had done its work more ruthlessly among these highest forms than among their humbler and lower ancestors4 ,i would not lay much weight on such an opinion2 but1 if true1 it has a meaning and is worthy of study4 ,in higher1 true1 placental mammals the period of pregnancy is much longer1 and the young are born in a far higher stage of development1 or rather1 growth4 ,the stage of growth at which the young are born differs markedly in different groups4 ,a new-born kitten is a much feebler1 less developed being than a new-born calf4 ,an embryonic appendage1 the allantois1 used in reptiles and birds for respiration1 has here been turned to another purpose4 ,it lays itself against the walls of the uterus1 uterine projections interlock with those which it puts forth1 and the blood of the mother circulates through a host of capillaries separated from those of the blood system of the embryo only by the thinnest membrane4 ,this is the placenta1 developed1 in part from the allantois of the embryo1 in part from the uterus of the mother4 ,it is not a new organ1 but an old one turned to better and fuller use4 ,in these closely associated systems of blood-vessels1 nutriment and oxygen diffuse from the blood of the mother into that of the embryo1 and thus rapid growth is assured4 ,the importance and far-reaching effect of this new modification in the old reproductive system cannot be over-estimated4 ,the internal intra-uterine development of the young1 and the mammalian habit of suckling them1 far more than any other factors1 have made man what he is4 ,some explanation must be sought for such a fact4 ,we have already seen that any animal devotes to reproduction the balance between income and expenditure of nutriment4 ,now1 the digestive system is here well developed1 and the income is large4 ,but we have already noticed that1 as animals grow larger1 the ratio between the digestive surface and the mass to be supported grows continually smaller4 ,on account of size alone the mammal has but a small balance4 ,but the amount of expenditure is proportional to the mass and activity of the muscular and nervous systems4 ,and the mammal is1 and from the beginning had to be1 an exceedingly active1 energetic1 and nervous animal4 ,the income has increased1 but the expenses have far outrun the increase4 ,the mammal can devote but little to reproduction4 ,moreover1 it requires a large amount of material to form a mammalian egg1 such as that of the monotreme4 ,it requires indefinitely more nutriment to build a mammal than a worm1 for the former is not only larger and more perfect at birth2 it is also vastly more complicated4 ,the embryonic journey has1 so to speak1 lengthened out immensely4 ,one monotreme egg represents more economy and saving than a thousand eggs of a worm4 ,moreover1 where the individuals are longer lived and the generations follow one another at longer intervals1 the number of favorable variations and the possibility of conformity to environment through these is greatly lessened4 ,in such a group it is of the utmost importance that every egg should develop2 the destruction of a single one is a real and important loss to the species4 ,it is not enough to produce such an egg2 it must be most scrupulously guarded4 ,even the egg of the platypus is deposited in a nest in a hole in the bank1 and the female ,echidna carries the egg in a marsupial pouch until it develops4 ,notice further that among certain species of fish1 amphibia1 and reptiles1 the females carry the eggs in the body until the embryos or young are fairly developed4 ,viviparous forms are unknown by birds1 probably because this mode of development is incompatible with flight1 their dominant characteristic4 ,putting these facts together1 what more probable than that certain primitive egg-laying mammals should have carried the eggs as long as possible in the uterus4 ,the embryo under these conditions would be better nourished by a secretion of the uterine glands than by a very large amount of yolk4 ,the yolk would diminish and the egg decrease in size1 and thus the marsupial mode of development would have resulted4 ,and1 given the marsupial mode of development and an embryo possessing an allantois1 it is almost a physiological necessity that in some forms at least a placenta should develop4 ,that the placenta has resulted from some such process of evolution is proven by its different stages of development in different orders of mammals4 ,and even the feeblest attachment of the allantois of the embryo to the wall of the uterus would be of the greatest advantage to the species4 ,this is not the whole explanation2 other factors still undiscovered were undoubtedly concerned4 ,but even this shows us that the internal development of the young and the habit of suckling them was a logical result of mammalian structure and position4 ,the grand results of this change we shall trace farther on4 ,the changes from the lower true mammals to the apes are of great interest1 but we can notice only one or two of the more important4 ,the prosimii1 or half apes1 including the lemurs1 are nearly all arboreal forms4 ,perhaps they were driven to this life by their more powerful competitors4 ,the arboreal life developed the fingers and toes1 and most of these end1 not with a claw1 but with a nail4 ,the little group has much diversity of structure1 and at present finds its home mainly in ,madagascar2 though in earlier times apparently occurring all over the globe4 ,the brain is more highly developed than in the average mammal1 but far inferior to that of the apes4 ,they have a fairly opposable thumb4 ,the highest mammals are the primates4 ,their characteristics are the following3 ,fingers and toes all armed with nails1 the eyes comparatively near together and fully enclosed in a bony case4 ,the cerebrum with well-developed furrows covers the other portions of the brain4 ,there is but one pair of milk-glands1 and these on the breast4 ,the differences between hand and foot become most strongly marked by the anthropoid apes4 ,these have become accustomed to an upright gait in their climbing2 hence the feet are used for supporting the body and the hands for grasping4 ,both thumb and great toe are opposable2 but the foot is a true foot1 and the hand a true hand1 in anatomical structure4 ,the face1 hands1 and feet have mainly lost the covering of hair4 ,they have no tail1 or rather its rudiments are concealed beneath the skin4 ,these include the gibbon1 the orang1 the gorilla1 and the chimpanzee4 ,we can sum up the few attainments of mammals in a line4 ,the lower forms attained the placental mode of embryonic development2 the higher attained upright gait1 hands and feet1 and a great increase of brain4 ,anatomically considered these were but trifles1 but the addition of these trifles revolutionized life on the globe4 ,the principal anatomical differences between man and the anthropoid ape are the following3 ,man is a strictly erect animal4 ,the foot of the ape is less fitted for walking on the ground1 where he usually goes on all fours4 ,the skull is almost balanced on the condyles by which it articulates with the neck1 and has but slight tendency to tip forward4 ,the facial portion1 nose and jaws1 is less developed and retracted beneath the larger cranium or brain-case4 ,this has greatly changed the appearance of the head4 ,protruding jaws and chin1 even when combined with large cranium and brain1 always give man the appearance of brutality and low intelligence4 ,the pelvis is broad and comparatively shallow4 ,the legs1 especially the thighs1 are long4 ,the foot is long and strong1 and rests its lower surface1 not merely the outer margin as in apes1 on the ground4 ,the elastic arch of the instep must be excepted in the above description1 and adds lightness and swiftness to his otherwise slow gait4 ,the great toe is short and generally not opposable4 ,the muscles of the leg are heavy and the knee-joint has a very broad articulating surface4 ,but the great result of man's erect posture is that the hand is set free from the work of locomotion1 and has become a delicate tactile and tool-using organ4 ,the importance of this change we cannot over-estimate4 ,the hand was the servant of the brain for trying all experiments4 ,had not our arboreal ancestors developed the hand for us we could never have invented tools nor used them if invented4 ,and its reflex influence in developing the brain has been enormous4 ,the arm is shorter and the hand smaller4 ,the brain is absolutely and relatively large1 and its surface greatly convoluted4 ,this gives place for a large amount of gray matter1 whose functions are perception1 thought1 and will4 ,for this gray matter forms a layer on the outside of the brain4 ,thus1 even anatomically1 man differs from the anthropoid apes4 ,his whole structure is moulded to and by the higher mental powers1 so that he is the ,anthropos of the old ,greek philosophers1 the being who turns his face upward4 ,yet in all these anatomical respects some of the apes differ less from him than from the lower apes or half apes4 ,and every one of these can easily be explained as the result of progressive development and modification4 ,whoever will deny the possibility or probability of man's development from some lower form must argue on psychological1 not on anatomical1 grounds2 and it grows clearer every day that even the former but poorly justify such a denial4 ,but it is interesting to note that no one ape most closely approaches man in all anatomical respects4 ,thus among the anthropoids the orang is perhaps most similar to man in cerebral structure1 the chimpanzee in form of skull1 the gorilla in feet and hands4 ,no evolutionist would claim that any existing ape represents the ancestor of man4 ,the anthropoids represent very probably the culmination of at least three distinct lines of development4 ,but we must remember that in early tertiary times apes occurred all over ,europe1 and probably ,asia1 many degrees farther north than now4 ,in those days1 as later1 the fauna and flora of northern climates were superior in vigor and height of development to that of ,africa or ,australia4 ,it is thus1 to say the least1 not at all improbable that there existed in those times apes considerably1 if not far1 superior to any surviving forms4 ,whether the palontologist will find for us remains of such anthropoids is still to be seen4 ,but you will naturally ask1 ,is there not1 after all1 a vast difference between the brain of man and that of the ape8 ,let us examine this question as fully as our very brief time will allow4 ,considerable emphasis used to be laid on the facial angle between a line drawn parallel to the base of the skull and one obliquely vertical touching the teeth and most prominent portion of the forehead4 ,now this angle is in man very large--from seventy-five to eighty-five degrees1 or even more1 and rarely falling below sixty-five degrees4 ,but this angle depends largely on the protrusion of the jaws1 and varies greatly in species of animals showing much the same grade of intelligence4 ,in some not especially intelligent ,south ,american monkeys the facial angle amounts to about sixty-five degrees4 ,in this respect the skull of a chimpanzee reminds us of a human skull of small cranial capacity and large jaws1 in which the cranium has been pressed back and the jaws crowded forward and slightly upward4 ,the weight of the brain in proportion to that of the body has been considered as of great importance1 and within certain limits this is undoubtedly correct4 ,thus1 according to ,leuret1 the weight of the brain is to that of the whole body3 ,in fish1 #a3e1ffh2 in reptiles1 #a3a1cbj2 in birds1 #a3bab2 in mammals1 #a3ahf4 ,these figures give the averages of large numbers of observations and have a certain amount of value4 ,but within the same class the ratio varies extraordinarily4 ,thus the weight of the brain is to that of the whole body3 ,in the elephant1 #a3ejj2 in the largest dogs1 #a3cje2 in the cat1 #a3aef2 in the rat1 #a3gf2 in the chimpanzee1 #a3ej2 in man1 #a3cf2 in the field-mouse1 #a3ca2 in the goldfinch1 #a3bd4 ,from this series it is evident that the relative weight of the brain is no index of the intelligence of the animal4 ,indeed if the brain were purely an organ of mind1 there is no reason that it should be any larger in an elephant than in a mouse1 provided they had the same mental capacity4 ,as animals grow larger the weight of the brain1 relatively to that of the body1 decreases1 and considering the size of man it is remarkable that it should form so large a fraction of his weight4 ,still the fraction in the chimpanzee is not so much smaller4 ,it is still possible that this fraction is above the normal for the chimpanzee1 for some of the observations may have been taken on animals which had died of consumption or some other wasting disease4 ,i have not been able to find whether this possibility of error has been scrupulously avoided4 ,a fair idea of the size of the brain may be obtained by measuring the cranial capacity4 ,this varies in man from almost one-hundred cubic inches to less than seventy4 ,in the gorilla its average is perhaps thirty1 in the orang and chimpanzee rather less1 about twenty-eight4 ,this is certainly a vast difference1 especially when we remember that the gorilla far exceeds man in weight4 ,le ,bon tells us that of a series of skulls forty-five per cent1 of the ,australian had a cranial capacity of #a1bjj to #a1cjj c4c41 while #df4g per cent4 of modern ,parisian skulls showed a capacity of between #a1ejj and #a1fjj c4c4 ,the skull of the gorilla contains about five hundred and seventy cubic centimetres4 ,broca found that the cranial capacity of #aae ,parisian skulls1 of probably the higher classes from the twelfth century1 averaged about #a1dbf cubic centimetres1 while ninety of those of the poorer classes of the nineteenth century averaged about #a1dhd4 ,his observations seemed to prove that there has been a steady increase in ,parisian cranial capacity from the twelfth to the nineteenth century4 ,turning to the actual weight of the brain1 that of ,cuvier weighed #fd4e ounces1 and a few cases of weights exceeding #fe ounces have been recorded4 ,the lowest limit of weight in a normal human brain has not yet been accurately determined4 ,from #cd to #ca ounces have been assigned by different writers4 ,the brain of a ,bush woman was computed by ,marshall at #ca4e ounces1 and weights of even #ca ounces have been recorded without any note to show that the possessors were especially lacking in intelligence4 ,as ,professor ,huxley says in his ,man's ,place in ,nature1 a little book which ,i cannot too highly recommend to you all1 ,it may be doubted whether a healthy human adult brain ever weighed less than #ca or #cb ounces1 or that the heaviest gorilla brain has ever exceeded #bj ounces4 ,the difference in weight of brain between the highest and the lowest men is far greater1 both relatively and absolutely1 than that between the lowest man and the highest ape4 ,the latter1 as has been seen1 is represented by #ab ounces of cerebral substance absolutely1 or by #cb3bj relatively4 ,but as the largest recorded human brain weighed between #fe and #ff ounces1 the former difference is represented by #cc ounces absolutely1 or by #fe3cb relatively4 ,but there is another characteristic of the brain which seems to bear a close relation to the degree of intelligence4 ,the surface of the human brain is not smooth but covered with convolutions1 with alternating grooves or sulci1 which vastly increase its surface and thus make room for more gray matter4 ,says ,gratiolett3 ,on comparing a series of human and simian brains we are immediately struck with the analogy exhibited in the cerebral forms in all these creatures4 ,there is a cerebral form peculiar to man and the apes2 and so in the cerebral convolutions1 wherever they appear1 there is a general unity of arrangement1 a plan1 the type of which is common to all these creatures4 ,professor ,huxley says3 ,it is most remarkable that1 as soon as all the principal sulci appear1 the pattern according to which they are arranged is identical with the corresponding sulci in man4 ,the surface of the brain of the monkey exhibits a sort of skeleton map of man's1 and in the man-like apes the details become more and more filled in1 until it is only in minor characters that the chimpanzee's or orang's brain can be structurally distinguished from man's4 ,the facts of anatomy1 at least1 are all against us4 ,struggle as we may1 be as snobbish as we will1 we cannot shake off these poor relations of ours4 ,our adult anatomy at once betrays our ancestry1 if we attempt to deny it4 ,read the first chapter of that remarkable book by ,professor ,drummond on the ,ascent of ,man1 the chapter on the ascent of the body1 and the second chapter on the scaffolding left in the body4 ,the tips of our ears and our rudimentary ear muscles1 the hair on hand and arm1 and the little plica semilunaris1 or rudimentary third eyelid in the inner angle of our eyes1 the vermiform appendage of the intestine1 the coracoid process on our shoulder-blades1 the atlas vertebra of our necks--to say nothing of the coccyx at the other end of the backbone--many malformations1 and a host of minor characteristics all refute our denial4 ,if we appeal from adult anatomy to embryology the case becomes all the worse for us4 ,our ear is lodged in the gill-slit of a fish1 our jaws are branchial arches1 our hyoid bone the rudiment of this system of bones supporting the gills4 ,our circulation begins as a veritable fish circulation2 our earliest skeleton is a notochord2 ,meckel's cartilage1 from which our lower jaw and the bones of our middle ear develop1 is a whole genealogical tree of disagreeable ancestors4 ,our glandula thyreoidea has1 according to good authorities1 an origin so slimy that it should never be mentioned in polite society4 ,the origin of our kidneys appears decidedly vermian4 ,time fails me to read merely the name of the witnesses which could be summoned from our own bodies to witness against us4 ,even if the testimony of some of these witnesses is not as strong as many think1 and we have misunderstood several of them1 they are too numerous and their stories hang too well together not to impress an intelligent and impartial jury4 ,but what if it is all true8 ,what if1 as some think1 our millionth cousin1 the tiger or cat1 is anatomically a better mammal than ,i8 ,his teeth and claws and magnificent muscles are of small value compared with man's mental power4 ,what a comedy that man should work so hard to prove that his chief glory is his opposable thumb1 or a few ounces of brain matter6 ,man's glory is his mind and will1 his reason and moral powers1 his vision of1 and communion with1 ,god4 ,and supposing it be true1 as ,i believe it is true1 that the animal has the germ of these also1 does that cloud my mind or obscure my vision or weaken my action8 ,it bids me only strive the harder to be worthy of the noble ancestors who have raised me to my higher level and on whose buried shoulders ,i stand4 ,whatever may have been our origin1 whoever our ancestors1 we are men4 ,then let us play the man4 ,if we will but play our part as well as our old ancestors played theirs1 if we will but walk and act according to our light one-half as heroically and well as they groped in the darkness1 we need not worry about the future4 ,that will be assured4 ,says ,professor ,huxley3 ,man now stands as on a mountain-top far above the level of his humble fellows1 and transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting here and there a ray from the infinite source of truth4 ,and thoughtful man1 once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional prejudice1 will find in the lowly stock whence man has sprung the best evidence of the splendor of his capacities1 and will discern in his long progress through the past a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment of a nobler future4 ,we have sketched hastily and in rude outline the anatomical structure of the successive stages of man's ancestry2 let us now1 in a very brief recapitulation1 condense this chronicle into a historical record of progress4 ,we began with the amoeba4 ,this could not have been the beginning4 ,in all its structure it tells us of something earlier and far simpler1 but what this earlier ancestor was we do not know4 ,rather more highly organized relatives of the amoeba1 the flagellata1 have produced a membrane1 and swim by means of vibratile1 whiplash-like flagella4 ,we must emphasize that these little animals correspond in all essential respects to the cells of our bodies2 they are unicellular animals4 ,and the cell once developed remains essentially the same structure1 modified only in details1 throughout higher animals4 ,and these unicellular animals have the rudiments of all our functions4 ,their protoplasm and functions seem to differ from those of higher animals only in degree1 not in kind4 ,and the more we consider both these facts the more remarkable and suggestive do they become4 ,cells with membranes can unite in colonies capable of division of labor and differentiation4 ,and magosphra is just such a little spheroidal colony4 ,but the cells are still all alike1 each one performs all functions equally well4 ,but in volvox division of labor and differentiation of structure have taken place4 ,certain cells have become purely reproductive1 while the rest gather nutriment for these1 but are at the same time sensitive and locomotive1 excretory and respiratory4 ,the first function to have cells specially devoted to it is the reproductive2 this is a function absolutely necessary for the maintenance of the species4 ,for the nutritive cells die when they have brought the reproductive cells to their full development4 ,these few nutritive cells represent the body of all higher animals in contrast with the reproductive elements4 ,and with the development of a body1 death1 as a normal process1 enters the world4 ,the dominant function is here evidently the reproductive1 and the whole body is subservient to this4 ,in hydra the union and differentiation of cells is carried further4 ,but the cells are still much alike and only slowly lose their own individuality in that of the whole animal4 ,this is shown in the fact that each entodermal cell digests its own particles of food1 although the nutriment once digested diffuses to all parts of the body4 ,also almost any part of the animal containing both ectoderm and entoderm can be cut off and will develop into a new animal4 ,but beside the reproductive cells and tissues hydra has developed a very simple digestive system1 in which the newly caught food at least macerates and begins to be dissolved4 ,this is the second essential function4 ,the animal can1 and the plant as a rule does1 exist with only the lowest rudiments of anything like nervous or muscular power2 but no species can exist without good powers of digestion and reproduction4 ,these essential organs must first develop and the higher must wait4 ,and the inner1 digestive1 layer of cells persists in our bodies as the lining of the mid-intestine4 ,we compared hydra therefore to a little patch of the lining of our intestine covered with a flake of epidermis2 only these layers in hydra possess powers lost to the corresponding cells of our bodies in the process of differentiation4 ,notice1 please1 that when cell or organ has once been developed it persists1 as a rule1 modified1 but not lost4 ,nature's experiments are not in vain2 her progress is very slow but sure4 ,but hydra has also the promise of better things1 traces of muscular and nervous tissue4 ,there are still no compact muscles1 like our own1 much less ganglion or brain or nerve-centre of individuality4 ,the tissues are diffuse1 but they are the materials out of which the organs of higher animals will crystallize1 so to speak4 ,notice also that these higher muscles and nerves are here entirely subservient to1 and exist for1 digestion and reproduction4 ,in the turbellaria the reproductive system has reached a very high grade of development4 ,it is a complex and beautifully constructed organ4 ,the digestive system has also vastly improved2 it has its own muscular layers1 and often some means of grasping food4 ,but it is slower in reaching its full development than the reproductive system4 ,but all the muscles are no longer attached to the stomach2 they are beginning to assert their independence1 and1 in a rude way1 to build a body-wall4 ,but they are in many layers1 and run in almost all directions4 ,some of these layers will disappear1 but the most important ones1 consisting of longitudinal and transverse fibres1 will persist in higher forms4 ,locomotion by means of these muscles is slowly coming into prominence4 ,they are no longer merely slaves of digestion4 ,but a muscular fibril contracts only under the stimulus of a nervous impulse4 ,more nerve-cells are necessary to control these more numerous muscular fibrils4 ,the animal now moves with one end foremost1 and that end first comes in contact with food1 hindrances1 or injurious surroundings4 ,here the sensory cells of feeling and their nerve fibrils multiply4 ,remember that these neuro-epithelial sensory cells are suited to respond not merely to pressure1 but to a variety of the stimuli1 chemical1 molecular1 and of vibration1 which excite our organs of smell1 taste1 and hearing4 ,such organs and the directive eyes appear mainly at this anterior end4 ,but a ganglion cell sends an impulse to a muscle because it has received one along a sensory nerve from one or more of these sensory cells4 ,hence the ganglion cells will increase in number4 ,the old cobweb-like plexus condenses into a little knot1 the supra-oesophageal ganglion4 ,this ganglion cannot do much1 if any1 thinking2 it is rather a steering organ to control the muscles and guide the animal4 ,it is the servant of the locomotive system4 ,yet it is the beginning of the brain of higher animals1 and probably still persists as an infinitesimal portion of our human brain4 ,and all this is the prophecy of a head soon to be developed4 ,an excretory system has appeared to carry off the waste of the muscles and nerves4 ,in the schematic worm and annelid the reproductive system is simpler1 though perhaps equally effective4 ,it takes the excess of nutriment of the body4 ,the muscular system has taken the form of a sack composed of longitudinal and transverse fibres4 ,the perivisceral cavity1 formed perhaps by cutting off and enlarging the lateral pouches of the turbellarian digestive system1 serves as a very simple but serviceable circulatory system4 ,but in the annelid and all higher forms a special system of tubes has developed to carry the nutriment1 and usually oxygen also1 needed to keep up the combustion required to furnish the energy in these active organs4 ,the digestive system has attained its definite form with the appearance of an anal opening and the accompanying division of labor and differentiation into fore-1 mid-1 and hind-intestine4 ,the digestive and reproductive systems have thus nearly attained their final form4 ,from the higher worms upward the digestive system will improve greatly4 ,its lining will fold and flex and vastly increase the digestive and absorptive surfaces4 ,the layer of cells which now secrete the digestive fluids will in part be replaced by massive glands4 ,far better means of grasping food than the horny teeth of annelids will yet appear4 ,but all these changes are inconsiderable compared with the vast advance made by the muscular and nervous systems4 ,reproduction and digestion are losing their supremacy in the animal body4 ,their advance and improvement will require but little further attention4 ,in the annelid especially1 and to some extent in the schematic worm1 the supra-oesophageal ganglion is relieved in part of the direct control of the muscular fibrils and has become an organ of perception and the seat of government of lower nervous centres4 ,in all higher forms it innervates directly only the principal sense-organs of the head4 ,and at this stage the light-perceiving directive eye has developed into a form-perceiving1 eidoscopic organ4 ,the eye was short of range and its images were perhaps rude and imperfect1 but it was a visual eye and had vast possibilities4 ,the animal is taking cognizance of ever more subtle elements in its environment4 ,perhaps it is not too much to say that the eidoscopic eye first awakened the slumbering animal mind1 for its reflex effect upon the supra-oesophageal ganglion cannot be over-estimated4 ,the animal will very soon begin to think4 ,between the turbellarian and the annelid many aberrant lines diverged4 ,some of these attained a comparatively high level and then seemed to meet insuperable obstacles1 while others came to an end or turned downward very early4 ,three of these demanded attention1 those leading to mollusks1 insects1 and vertebrates4 ,and it is interesting to notice that the fundamental difference between these three lines was the skeleton1 or perhaps we ought to say it was the habit of life which led to the development of such a skeleton4 ,the mollusk took to a sluggish1 creeping mode of life1 under an external purely protective skeleton2 the insect to a creeping mode of life1 with an external but almost purely locomotive skeleton2 the vertebrate kept on swimming and developed an internal locomotive skeleton4 ,and it must already have become clear to you that the destiny of these different lines was fixed not so much directly by the skeleton itself as by its reflex effect in moulding the muscular1 and ultimately the nervous1 system4 ,the insects formed their skeleton by thickening the horny cuticle of the annelid4 ,they transformed the annelid parapodia into legs and developed wings4 ,they attained life in the air4 ,they devoted the muscles of the body largely to the extremities and gained swift locomotion4 ,they have a fair circulatory and an excellent respiratory system4 ,best of all1 they developed a head and a brain by fusing the three anterior ganglia of the body4 ,the insect could and does think4 ,such a structure ought to lead to great and high results4 ,but actually their possibilities were very limited4 ,they have not progressed markedly during the last geological period4 ,their external skeleton was easily attained and brought speedy advantages1 which for a time placed them far above all competitors4 ,but it limited their size and length of life and opportunities1 and finally their intelligence4 ,they remained largely the slaves of instinct4 ,they followed an attractive and exceedingly promising path1 but it led to the bottom of a cliff1 not to the summit4 ,the mollusks1 clams1 and snails took an easier1 down-hill road4 ,they formed a shell1 and it developed large enough to cover them4 ,it hampered and almost destroyed locomotion and reduced nerve to a minimum4 ,but nerves are nothing but a nuisance anyhow4 ,and why should they move8 ,food was plenty down in the mud1 and if danger threatened1 they withdrew into the shell4 ,they stayed down in the mud and let the world go its way4 ,if grievously afflicted by a parasite they produced a pearl--to save themselves from further discomfort4 ,they developed just enough muscle and nervous system to close the shell or drag it a little way2 that was all4 ,digestion and reproduction retained the supremacy4 ,they were fruitful and multiplied1 and produced hosts of other clams and snails4 ,the present was enough for them and they had that4 ,for if the winner in the struggle for existence is the one who gains the most food1 the most entire protection against discomfort1 danger from enemies or unfavorable surroundings1 and the most fruitful and rapid reproduction--and these are all good--then the clam is the highest product of evolution4 ,it never has been surpassed--,i venture to say it never can be--except possibly by the tape-worms4 ,i can never help thinking with what contempt these primitive oysters1 if they had had brains enough1 would have looked down upon the toiling1 struggling1 discontented1 fighting1 aspiring primitive vertebrates4 ,how they would have wondered why ,god allowed such disagreeable1 disturbing1 unconventional creatures to exist1 and thanked him that he had made the world for them1 and heaven too1 if there be such a place for mollusks4 ,their road led to the ,slough of ,contentment4 ,but even in molluscan history there was a tragic chapter4 ,the squids and cuttle-fishes regained the swimming life1 and in their latest forms gave up the protective shell4 ,but its former presence had so modified their structure that any great advance was impossible4 ,it was too late4 ,the sins of the fathers were visited upon the children in the thousandth generation4 ,the vertebrate developed an internal skeleton4 ,this was necessarily a slow growth1 and the type came late to supremacy4 ,the longitudinal muscles are arranged in heavy bands on each side of the back1 and the animal swims rapidly4 ,the sense-organs are keen4 ,the brain contains the ganglia of several or many segments and is highly differentiated4 ,it has a special centre of perception1 thought1 and will2 it is an organ of mind4 ,the vertebrate has the physical and mental advantages of large size4 ,first the definite form and mode of developing a vertebra is attained4 ,then the vertebral column is perfected4 ,the fins are modified into legs4 ,the lungs increase in size and the heart becomes double4 ,the animal emerges on land2 and1 with a better supply of oxygen and less loss of heat1 all the functions are performed with the highest possible efficiency4 ,first1 apparently1 amphibia1 then reptiles1 and finally mammals of enormous size and strength appeared4 ,it looked as if the earth were to be an arena where gigantic beasts fought a never-ending battle of brute force4 ,but these great brutes reproduced slowly1 had therefore little power of adaptation1 were fitted to special conditions1 and when the conditions changed they disappeared4 ,the bird tried once more the experiment of developing the locomotive powers to the highest possible extent4 ,it became a flying machine1 and every organ was moulded to suit this life4 ,every ounce of spare weight was thrown aside1 the muscles were wonderfully arranged and of the highest possible efficiency4 ,the body temperature is higher than that of mammals4 ,the whole organization is a physiological high-pressure engine4 ,the sense-organs are perhaps the finest and keenest in the whole animal kingdom4 ,the brain is inferior only to that of mammals4 ,the experiment could not have been tried under more favorable conditions2 it was not a failure1 it certainly was not a success when compared with that of mammals4 ,the possibilities of every system except one had been practically exhausted4 ,only brain development remained as the last hope of success4 ,here was an untried line1 and the mammals followed it4 ,during the short tertiary period the brain in many of their genera seems to have increased tenfold4 ,by the arboreal life of the highest forms the hand is developed as the instrument of the thinking brain4 ,the battle is beginning to become one of wits1 and the crown will soon pass from the strongest to the shrewdest4 ,mind1 not muscle1 much less digestion or reproduction1 is the goal of the animal kingdom4 ,and we shall see later that the mammalian mode of reproduction and of care of the young led to an almost purely mental and moral advance4 ,for these could have but one logical outcome1 family life4 ,and the family is the foundation of society4 ,and family and social life have been the school in which man has been compelled to learn the moral lessons1 the application of which has made him what he is4 ,you must all1 ,i think1 have noticed that the different systems of organs succeed one another in a certain definite order2 and that each stage from the lowest to the highest is characterized by the predominance of a certain function or group of functions4 ,this sequence of functions is not a deduction but a fact4 ,place side by side all possible genealogical trees of the animal kingdom1 whether founded on comparative anatomy1 embryology1 palontology1 or all combined4 ,they will all disclose this sequence of functions arranged in the same order4 ,let me call your attention to the fact that this order is not due to chance1 but rests upon a physiological basis4 ,we might almost claim that if the evolution of man from the single cell be granted1 no other order of their occurrence is possible4 ,the protozoa are mostly1 though not purely1 nutritive and reproductive4 ,these functions are essential to the existence of the species4 ,naturally in the early protozoan colonies1 and in forms like hydra1 these functions predominated4 ,but mere digestive tissue is not enough for digestion4 ,muscles are needed to draw the food to the mouth1 to keep the digestive sack in contact with it1 and for other purposes4 ,a little higher they are used to enable the animal to go in search of its food4 ,they are still1 however1 more or less entirely subservient to digestion4 ,but in the highest worms we are beginning to see signs that muscles are predominating in the body2 and we feel that1 while mutually helpful1 the digestive system exists for the muscles1 and these latter are becoming the aim of development4 ,from worms upward there is a marked advance in physical activity and strength4 ,the muscles thicken and are arranged in heavier bands4 ,skeleton and locomotive appendages and jaws follow in insects and vertebrates4 ,the direct battle of animal against animal1 and of strength opposed to strength or activity1 becomes ever sharper4 ,the strongest and most active are selected and survive4 ,and yet this is not the whole truth4 ,some power of perception is possessed by every animal4 ,but until muscles had developed the nervous system could be of but little practical value4 ,knowledge of even a great emergency is of little use1 if ,i can do nothing about it4 ,but when the muscles appeared1 nerves and ganglion cells were necessary to stimulate and control them4 ,and this highest system holds for a long time a position subordinate to that of the lower muscular organ4 ,its development seems at first sight extraordinarily slow4 ,only in insects and vertebrates has it become a centre of instinct and thought4 ,through the sense-organs it is gaining an ever clearer1 deeper1 and wider knowledge of its environment4 ,first it is affected only by the lower stimuli of touch1 taste1 and smell4 ,then with the development of ear and eye it takes cognizance of ever subtler forces and movements4 ,memory comes into activity very early4 ,the animal begins to learn by experience4 ,the brain is becoming not merely a steering but a thinking organ4 ,more and more nervous material is crowded into it and detailed for its work4 ,wits and shrewdness are beginning to count for something in the battle4 ,not only the animal with the strongest muscles1 but the one with the best brain survives4 ,and thus at last the brain began to develop with a rapidity as remarkable as its long delay4 ,thus each higher function is called into activity by the next lower1 serves this at first1 and only later attains its supremacy4 ,and yet the advance of the different functions is not altogether successive4 ,muscle and nerve do not wait for digestion and reproduction to show signs of halting before they begin to advance4 ,they all advance at once4 ,but the progress of reproduction and digestion is most rapid at first1 and it appears as if they would outrun the others4 ,but in the ascending series the others follow after1 and soon overtake and pass by them4 ,and these lower functions1 when out-marched1 do not lag behind1 but keep in touch with the others1 forming the rear-guard and supply-train of the army4 ,and notice that each organ holds the predominance about as long as it shows the power of rapid improvement4 ,the length of its reign is pretty closely proportional to its capacity of development4 ,the digestive system reaches that limit early1 the muscular system is capable of indefinitely higher complexity1 as we see in our hand4 ,but the muscular system has nearly or quite reached its limit4 ,the body had seen its day of dominance before man arrived on the globe4 ,but where is the limit to man's mental or moral powers8 ,every upward step in knowledge1 wisdom1 and righteousness only opens our eyes to greater heights1 before unperceived and still to be attained4 ,these capacities1 even to our dim vision1 are evidently capable of an indefinite1 perhaps infinite1 development4 ,what1 as yet only partially developed1 faculty remains to supersede them8 ,as being capable of an endless development and without a rival1 may we not1 must we not1 consider them as ends in themselves8 ,they are evidently what we are here for4 ,everything points to a spiritual end in animal evolution4 ,the line of development is from the predominantly material to the predominance of the non-material4 ,not that the material is to be crowded out4 ,it is to reach its highest development in the service of the mind4 ,the body must be sustained and perfected1 but it is not the end4 ,the goal is mind1 the body is of subordinate importance4 ,but if this is true1 we must study carefully the development of mind in the animal4 ,the question presses upon us2 if there is a sequence of physical functions in animal development1 is there not perhaps also a sequence in the development of the mental faculties8 ,what is the crowning faculty of the human mind and how is its fuller development to be attained8 ,let us pass therefore to the question of mind in the animal kingdom4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,mental ,,development ,,and ,,its ,,sequence ,,of ,,functions ,we have sketched hastily the development of the human body4 ,this portion of our history is marked by the successive dominance of higher and higher functions4 ,it is a history treating of successive eras4 ,there is first the period of the dominance of reproduction and digestion1 purely vegetative functions1 characteristics of the plant just as truly as of the animal4 ,this period extends from the beginning of life up to the time when the annelid was the highest living form yet developed4 ,but in insects and lower vertebrates another system has risen to dominance4 ,this is muscle4 ,the vertebrate no longer devotes all1 or the larger part1 of its income to digestion and reproduction4 ,if it did1 it would degenerate or disappear4 ,the stomach and intestine are improved1 but only that they may furnish more abundant nutriment for building and supporting more powerful muscles better arranged4 ,the history of vertebrates is a record of the struggle for supremacy between successive groups of continually greater and better applied muscular power4 ,here strength and activity seem to be the goal of animal development1 and the prize falls to the strongest or most agile4 ,the earth is peopled by huge reptiles1 or mammals of enormous strength1 and by birds of exceeding swiftness4 ,this portion of our history covers the era of muscular activity4 ,but these huge brutes are mostly doomed to extinction1 and the bird fails of supremacy in the animal kingdom4 ,the race is not to the swift1 nor the battle to the strong4 ,all the time another system has been slowly developing4 ,the complicated nervous system has required ages for its construction and arrangement4 ,only in the highest mammals does the brain assert its right to supremacy4 ,but once established on its throne the brain reigns supreme2 its right is challenged by no other organ4 ,the possibilities of all the other organs1 as supreme rulers1 have been exhausted4 ,each one has been thoroughly tested1 and its inadequacy proven beyond doubt by actual experiment4 ,these formerly supreme lower organs must serve the higher4 ,the age of man's existence on the globe is1 and must remain1 the era of mind4 ,for the mind alone has an inexhaustible store of possibilities4 ,the development of all these systems is simultaneous4 ,from the very beginning all the functions have been represented1 all the systems have been gradually advancing4 ,hydra has a nervous system just as really as man4 ,it has no brain1 but it has the potentiality and promise of one1 and is taking the necessary steps toward its attainment4 ,but while the development of all is simultaneous1 their culmination and supremacy is successive1 first stomach and muscle1 then brain and mind4 ,that was not first which is spiritual1 but that which is natural2 and afterward that which is spiritual4 ,but now that the mind has once become supreme1 man must live and work chiefly for its higher development4 ,thus alone is progress possible4 ,but the word mind calls up before us a long list of powers4 ,and the questions arise1 ,is one mode and line of mental action just as much the goal of man's development as another8 ,is man to cultivate the appetite for food and sense gratification just as much as the hunger for righteousness8 ,or is appetite in the mind like digestion in the body1 a function1 necessary indeed and once dominant1 but no longer fitted for supreme control8 ,is there in the development of the mental powers or functions just as really a sequence of dominance as in that of the bodily functions8 ,are there older and lower powers and modes of action1 which1 though once supreme1 must now be rigidly kept down in their proper lower place8 ,are there lower motives1 for which the very laws of evolution forbid us to live1 just as truly as they forbid a man's living for stomach or brute strength instead of brain and mind8 ,are these lower powers merely the foundation on which the higher motives and powers are to rise in their transcendent glory8 ,this is the question which we now must face1 and it is of vital importance4 ,we have come to one of the most important and difficult subjects of zology4 ,let us distinctly recognize that it is not our task to explain the origin of mind1 or even of a single mental faculty4 ,i shall take for granted what many of you will not admit1 that the germs of all man's highest mental powers are present undeveloped in the mind1 if you will call it so1 of the amoeba4 ,the limits of this course of lectures have required us to choose between alternatives1 either to attempt to prove the truth of the theory of evolution1 or taking this for granted1 to attempt to find its bearings on our moral and religious beliefs4 ,i have chosen the latter course1 and here1 as elsewhere1 will abide by it4 ,i should not have followed such a course if ,i did not thoroughly believe that man also1 in mind as well as body1 is the product of evolution4 ,but this is no reason for your accepting these views4 ,you are asked only to judge impartially of the tendencies of the theory4 ,we take for granted1 ,i repeat1 that all man's mental faculties are germinally1 potentially1 present in protoplasm2 we seek the history of their development4 ,we must remember1 further1 that the science of animal or comparative psychology is yet in its infancy4 ,even reliable facts are only slowly being sifted and recorded in sufficient numbers to make deductions at all safe4 ,and even of these facts different writers give very different explanations4 ,as ,mr4 ,romanes has well said1 ,all our knowledge of mental faculties1 other than our own1 really consists of an inferential interpretation of bodily activities--this interpretation being founded on our subjective knowledge of our own mental activities4 ,by inference we project1 as it were1 the human pattern of our own mental chromograph on what is to us the otherwise blank screen of another mind4 ,the value and clearness of our inferences will be proportional to the similarity of the animal to ourselves4 ,thus we can educate many of our higher mammals by a system of rewards and punishments1 and we seem therefore to have good reason to believe that fear and joy1 anger and desire1 certain powers of perception and inference1 are in their minds similar to our own4 ,but fear in a fish is certainly a much dimmer apprehension of danger than in us1 even if it deserves the name of apprehension4 ,and the mental state which we call alarm in a fly or any lower animal is very difficult to clearly imagine or at all express in terms of our own mind4 ,some investigators have made the mistake of projecting into the animal mind all our emotions and complicated trains of thought4 ,thus ,schwammerdam apparently credits the snail with remorse for the commission of excesses4 ,others go to the other extreme and make animals hardly more than mindless automata4 ,we are warned1 therefore1 by our very mode of study1 to be cautious1 not too absolutely sure of our results1 nor indignant at others who may take a very different view4 ,and yet by moving cautiously and accepting only what seems fairly clear and evident we may arrive at very valuable and tolerably sure results4 ,the human mind1 and the animal mind apparently1 manifests itself in three states or functions4 ,these are intelligence1 the realm of knowledge2 susceptibility1 the realm or state of feelings or emotions2 will1 the power or state of choice4 ,let us trace first the development of intelligence or the intellect in the animal4 ,let us try to discover what kinds of knowledge are successively attained and the mode and sequence of their attainment4 ,hydra appears to be conscious of its food4 ,it recognizes it partially by touch1 perhaps also by feeling the waves caused by its approach4 ,it seems also to recognize food at a little distance by a power comparable to our sense of smell4 ,stronger impacts cause it to contract4 ,it neither sees nor hears2 it probably does little or no thinking4 ,its knowledge is therefore limited to the recognition of objects either in contact with1 or but slightly removed from1 itself4 ,and its recognition of the objects is very dim and incomplete1 obtained through the sense of touch and smell4 ,a little higher in the animal world a rude ear has developed1 first as a very delicate organ for feeling the waves caused by approaching food or enemies2 only later as an organ of hearing4 ,meanwhile the eye has been developing1 to perceive the subtle ether vibrations4 ,the eye of the turbellaria distinguishes only light from darkness1 that of the annelid is a true visual organ4 ,now the brain can begin to perceive the shape of objects at a little distance4 ,touch and smell1 hearing1 sight2 such is sequence of sense perceptions4 ,the sense-organs respond to continually more delicate and subtle impacts1 and cover an ever-widening range of more and more distant objects4 ,up to this point intelligence has hardly included more than sense-perceptions4 ,but these sense-perceptions have been all the time spurring the mind to begin a higher work4 ,at first it is conscious merely of objects1 and its main effort is to gain a clearer and clearer perception of these4 ,now it is led to undertake1 so to speak1 the work of a sense-organ of a higher grade4 ,it begins to directly see invisible relations just as truly as through the eye it has perceived light4 ,first perhaps it perceives that certain perceptions and experiences1 agreeable or disagreeable1 occur in a certain sequence4 ,it begins to associate these4 ,it learns thus to recognize the premonitory symptoms of nature's favor or disfavor1 and thus gains food or avoids dangers4 ,the bee learns to associate accessible nectar with a certain spot on the flower marked by bright dots or lines1 honey-guides1 and the chimpanzee that when a hen cackles there is an egg in the nest4 ,but association is only the first lesson2 inference and understanding follow4 ,the child at kindergarten receives a few blocks4 ,it admires and plays with them4 ,then it is taught to notice their form4 ,after a time it arranges them in groups and learns the first elements of number4 ,but when it has advanced to higher mathematics1 the blocks1 or figures on the blackboard1 become only symbols or means of illustrating the great theorems and propositions of that science4 ,thus the animal has begun in the kindergarten way to dimly perceive that there are real1 though intangible and invisible1 relations between objects4 ,but what is all human science but the clearer vision1 and farther search into1 and tracing of these same relations8 ,and what is all advance of knowledge but a perception of ever subtler relations8 ,what is even the knowledge of right but the perception of the subtlest and deepest and widest relations of man to his environment8 ,the animal seems to be steadily advancing along the path toward the perception of abstract truth1 though man alone really attains it4 ,and the higher power of association and inference which we call understanding1 aided by memory1 results in the power of learning by experience1 so characteristic of higher vertebrates4 ,the hunted bird or mammal very quickly becomes wary4 ,a new trap catches more than a better old one until the animals have learned to understand it1 and young animals are trapped more easily than old4 ,cases showing the limitations of mammalian intelligence are interesting in this connection4 ,a cat which wished to look out and find the cause of a noise outside1 when all the windows were closed by wooden blinds1 jumped upon a stand and looked into a mirror4 ,her inference as to the general use of glass was correct2 all its uses had not yet come within the range of her experience4 ,a monkey used to stop a hole in the side of a cage with straw4 ,the keeper1 to tease him1 used to pull this out4 ,but one day the monkey tugged at a nail in the side of his cage until he had pulled it out1 and thrust it into the hole4 ,but when it was pushed back he fell into a rage4 ,his inference that the nail-head could not be pulled through was entirely correct2 he had failed to foresee that it could be pushed back4 ,many such instances have probably come within the range of your observation1 if you have noticed them4 ,but many of the facts which ,mr4 ,romanes gives us concerning the intelligence of monkeys1 apes1 and baboons would not disgrace the intelligence of children or men4 ,mr4 ,romanes relates the following account of a little capuchin monkey from ,brazil3 ,to-day he obtained possession of a hearth-brush1 one of the kind which has the handle screwed into the brush4 ,he soon found the way to unscrew the handle1 and having done that he immediately began to try to find out the way to screw it in again4 ,this he in time accomplished4 ,at first he put the wrong end of the handle into the hole1 but turned it round and round the right way for screwing4 ,finding it did not hold he turned the other end of the handle and carefully stuck it into the hole1 and began again to turn it the right way4 ,it was of course a difficult feat for him to perform1 for he required both his hands in order to screw it in1 and the long bristles of the brush prevented it from remaining steady or with the right side up4 ,he held the brush with his hind hand1 but even so it was very difficult for him to get the first turn of the screw to fit into the thread2 he worked at it1 however1 with the most unwearying perseverance until he got the first turn of the screw to catch1 and he then quickly turned it round and round until it was screwed up to the end4 ,the most remarkable thing was1 that however often he was disappointed in the beginning1 he never was induced to try turning the handle the wrong way2 he always screwed it from right to left4 ,as soon as he had accomplished his wish he unscrewed it again1 and then screwed it in again the second time rather more easily than the first1 and so on many times4 ,when he had become by practice tolerably perfect in screwing and unscrewing1 he gave it up and took to some other amusement4 ,one remarkable thing is that he should take so much trouble to do that which is no material benefit to him4 ,the desire to accomplish a chosen task seems a sufficient inducement to lead him to take any amount of trouble4 ,this seems a very human feeling1 such as is not shown1 ,i believe1 by any other animal4 ,it is not the desire of praise1 as he never notices people looking on2 it is simply the desire to achieve an object for the sake of achieving an object1 and he never rests nor allows his attention to be distracted until it is done4444 ,as my sister once observed while we were watching him conducting some of his researches1 in oblivion to his food and all his other surroundings--',when a monkey behaves like this it is no wonder that man is a scientific animal6',a ,footnote ,a3 ,romanes3 ,animal ,intelligence1 pp4 #dij1 #dih4 ,in the highest mammals we find also different degrees of attention and concentration of thought and observation4 ,this difference can easily be noticed in young hunting dogs4 ,a trainer of monkeys said that he could easily select those which could most easily be taught1 by noticing in the first lesson whether he could easily gain and hold their attention4 ,this was easy with some1 while others were diverted by every passing fly2 and the latter1 like heedless students1 made but slow progress4 ,it is interesting to notice that one of the perceptions which we class among the highest is apparently developed comparatively early4 ,i refer to the sthetic perception of the beautiful4 ,now1 the perception of beauty is generally considered as not very far below or removed from the perception of truth and right4 ,but some insects and birds apparently possess this perception and the corresponding emotion in no low degree4 ,the colors of flowers seem to exist mainly for the attraction of insects to insure cross-fertilization1 and certain insects seem to prefer certain colors4 ,but you may say that these afford merely sense gratification like that which green affords to our eyes or sugar to our tastes4 ,but does not the grouping of colors in the flower appeal to some sthetic standard in the mind of the insect8 ,what of the tail of the peacock8 ,its iridescent rings and eyes evidently appeal to something in the mind of the female4 ,do form and grouping minister to pure sense gratification8 ,what of the song of the thrush8 ,does not the orderly and harmonious arrangement of notes and cadences appeal to some standard of order of arrangement1 and hence idea of harmony1 in the mind of the bird's mate8 ,now1 ,i grant you readily that the ,a ,b ,c of this training is mere sense gratification at the sight of bright colors4 ,most insects and birds have probably not advanced much beyond this first lesson4 ,savages have generally stopped there or reverted to it4 ,but any appreciation of form and harmonious arrangement of cadence and colors seems to me at least to demand some perception which we must call sthetic1 or dangerously near it4 ,but here you must judge carefully for yourselves lest you be misled4 ,for remember1 please1 that those schemes of psychology farthest removed from1 and least readily reconcilable to1 the theory of evolution maintain that perception of beauty is the work of the rational faculty1 which also perceives truth and right in much the same way that it perceives and recognizes beauty4 ,if the animal has the sthetic perception1 it has the faculty which1 at the next higher stage of development1 will perceive1 and recognize as such1 both truth and right4 ,we are considering no unimportant question2 for on our answer to this depends our answer to questions of far greater importance4 ,does it look as if the animal had begun to learn the first rudiments of the great science of rights1 of his own rights and those of others8 ,this is an exceedingly difficult question1 though often answered unhesitatingly in the negative4 ,but what of the division of territory by the dogs in oriental cities1 a division evidently depending upon something outside of mere brute strength and power to maintain1 and their respect of boundaries8 ,the female is allowed1 ,i am told by an eye-witness long resident in ,constantinople1 to distribute her puppies in unoccupied spots through the city without interference4 ,but when she has once located them1 she is not allowed to return and visit them1 or pass that way again4 ,so the account by ,dr4 ,washburn of platoons of dogs coming in turn1 and peaceably1 to feed on a dead donkey in the streets of ,constantinople1 would seem to be most naturally explained by some dim recognition of rights4 ,rook communities have not received the attention and investigation which they deserve1 but their actions are certainly worthy of attention4 ,concerning the sense of ownership in dogs and other mammals opinions differ1 and yet many facts are most naturally explained on such a supposition4 ,just one more question in this connection1 for we are in the borderland or twilightland where it is much safer to ask questions than to attempt to answer them4 ,how do you explain the instinctive fear of man on the part of wild and fierce animals8 ,they certainly do not quail before his brute strength1 for a blow at such a time breaks the charm and insures an attack4 ,they quail before his eye and look4 ,is not this the answering of a personality in the animal to the personality in man2 a recognition of something deeper than bone and muscle8 ,and may not1 as ,mr4 ,darwin has urged1 this fear in the presence of a higher personality be the dim foreshadowing of an awe which promises indefinitely better things8 ,is1 after all1 the attachment of a dog to his master something far deeper than an appetite for bones or pats1 or a fear of kicks8 ,a host of other and similar questions throng upon us here1 to no one of which we can give a definite answer4 ,we need more investigation1 more light4 ,we must not rest contented with old prejudices or accept with too great certainty new explanations4 ,the questions are worthy of careful and patient investigation4 ,the study of comparative anatomy has thrown a flood of light on the structure and working of the human body in health and disease4 ,we shall never fully understand the mind of man until we know more of the working of the mind of the animal4 ,it would seem to be clear that there is a sequence of dominance in the faculties of the intellect4 ,first1 the only means of acquiring knowledge is through sense-perception4 ,but memory dawns far down in the animal kingdom4 ,and thus the animal begins to associate past experience with present objects4 ,the bee remembers the gaining of honey in the past1 associated with the color of the flower which she now sees1 and knows that honey is to be attained again4 ,thus in time association leads to inference1 and understanding has dawned4 ,but the highest faculty of the intellect is the rational intelligence1 which perceives beauty1 truth1 and goodness4 ,this is the last to develop4 ,traces of its working may be perhaps discovered below man1 but only in man does it become dominant4 ,through it ,i perceive my rights and duties1 and come to the consciousness of my own personality as a moral agent4 ,this tells me of the relation of my own personality to other persons and things4 ,and these are evidently the most important objects of human study4 ,the attainment of this knowledge and the development of this faculty are evidently the goal of human intellectual development4 ,this it is which has insured progress and raised man ever higher above the brutes4 ,before we can proceed to the study of the will we must clearly recognize and define certain modes of mental and nervous action1 which sooner or later manifest themselves in muscular activity4 ,for1 while certain of our bodily activities are clearly voluntary1 others take place wholly1 or in part independently1 of the individual will4 ,between these different modes of bodily action we must distinguish as clearly as may be possible4 #a4 ,reflex ,action4 ,i touch something cold or hot in the dark1 suddenly and unexpectedly4 ,i draw back my hand involuntarily and before ,i have perceived the sensation of cold or heat4 ,you tell me to keep my eyes open while you make a sudden pass at them with your hand4 ,i try hard to do so1 but my eyes shut for all that4 ,i shut them unconsciously and against my own will4 ,i say1 ,they shut of themselves4 ,now1 this is not true1 but the explanation is not difficult4 ,these and similar actions are entirely possible1 although the continuity between spinal marrow and brain may have been so interrupted by some accident that sensation in the reflexly active part fails altogether4 ,a bird flaps its wings after its head is cut off1 and yet the seat of consciousness and will is certainly in the brain4 ,a patient with a broken back1 and paralyzed in his legs1 will draw up his feet if they are tickled1 although he is entirely unable to move them by any effort of his will and has no consciousness of the irritation4 ,the physiological action is in this case clear4 ,the vibration of the nerve caused by the tickling travels from the foot to the appropriate centre in the spinal marrow1 and here gives rise to1 or is switched off as1 a motor impulse travelling back to the muscles of the leg1 causing them to contract4 ,in the injured patient the nervous impulse cannot reach the brain1 the seat of consciousness1 and hence this is not awakened4 ,normally consciousness does result in a majority of such cases1 but only after the beginning or completion of the appropriate action4 ,yet the movements of our internal organs1 intestine and heart1 go on continually1 and in health we remain entirely unconscious of their action4 ,but reflex actions may be anything but simple4 ,we walk and talk1 and write or play the piano without ever thinking of a single muscle or organ4 ,yet we had once to learn with much effort to take each step or frame each letter4 ,thus actions1 originally conscious and intended1 easily become reflex2 often repeated the brain leaves their control to the lower centres4 ,we often say1 ,i did not intend to do that2 ,i could not help it4 ,we forget that this excuse is our worst condemnation4 ,it is a confession that we have allowed or encouraged a habit to wear a groove from which the wheels of our life cannot escape4 ,the essential characteristic of reflex action is therefore that from beginning to completion it goes on independently of consciousness4 #b4 ,instinct4 ,this is a much-abused word4 ,it is frequently applied to all the mental actions of animals without much thought or care as to its meaning4 ,let us gain a definition from the study of a typical case lest we use the word as a cloak for ignorance or negligent thoughtlessness4 ,watch a spider building its wonderful geometrical web4 ,the web is a work of art1 and every motion of the spider beautifully adapted to its purpose4 ,but the spider is not therefore necessarily an artist4 ,let us see of how much the spider is probably conscious1 remembering that our best judgment is but an inference4 ,we have good reason to believe that she is conscious of the stimulus to action1 hunger4 ,she may be1 probably is1 conscious of the end to be attained--to catch a fly for her dinner4 ,she seems conscious of what she is doing4 ,in all these respects this differs from reflex action4 ,but she is probably unconscious of the exact fitness of the means to the end4 ,we do not believe that she has adopted the geometrical pattern1 because she has discovered or calculated that this will make the closest and largest net for the smallest outlay of labor and material4 ,furthermore the young spider builds practically as good a web as the old one4 ,she has inherited the power1 not developed or gained it by experience or observation4 ,and all the members of the species have inherited it in much the same degree of perfection4 ,concerning the origin of instincts there are several theories4 ,some instincts would seem to be the result of non-intelligent1 perhaps unconscious1 habits becoming fixed by heredity and improved by natural selection2 others would appear to be modifications of actions originally due to intelligence4 ,instinct is therefore characterized by consciousness of the stimulus to act1 of the means and end1 without the knowledge of the exact adaptation of means to end4 ,it is hereditary and characterizes species or large groups4 #c4 ,intelligent ,action4 ,you come in cold and sit down before an open fire4 ,you push the brands together to make the fire burn4 ,applying once more the criterion of consciousness to this action we notice that you are conscious of the stimulus to act1 of the steps of the action1 and of the end to be attained1 exactly as in instinctive action4 ,but finally1 and this is the essential characteristic of intelligent action1 you are aware to a certain extent of the fitness of the means to the attainment of the end4 ,this piece of knowledge you had to acquire for yourself4 ,erasmus ,darwin defined a fool as a man who had never tried an experiment4 ,experience and observation1 not heredity1 are the sources of intelligence4 ,intelligence is power to think1 and a man may be very learned--for do we not have learned pigs8--and yet have very little real intelligence4 ,hence this is possessed by different individuals in very varying degrees4 ,we may now briefly compare these three kinds of nervous action4 ,reflex action is involuntary and unconscious4 ,the actor may1 and usually does1 become conscious of the action after it has been commenced or completed1 but this is not at all necessary or universal4 ,instinctive action is to a certain extent voluntary and conscious4 ,the actor is conscious of the stimulus1 the means and mode1 and the end or purpose of the action4 ,of the exact fitness or adaptation of the means to the end the actor is unconscious4 ,intelligent action is conscious and voluntary4 ,the actor is conscious of the stimulus to act1 of the means and mode1 and to a certain extent of the adaptation of the means to the end4 ,this last item of knowledge1 lacking in instinctive action1 is acquired by experience or observation4 ,reflex action may be regarded as a comparatively mechanical1 though often very complex1 process2 the reflex ganglia appear to be hardly more than switch-boards4 ,there is stimulus of the sense-organs1 and thus what ,mr4 ,romanes has called unfelt sensation1 unfelt as far as the completion of the action is concerned4 ,but in instinct the sensation no longer remains unfelt2 perception is necessary1 consciousness plays a part4 ,and this consciousness is a vastly more subtle element1 differing as much apparently from the vibration of brain1 or nervous1 molecules as the ,geni from the rubbing of ,aladdin's lamp1 to borrow an illustration4 ,but this element of consciousness is one which it is exceedingly difficult to detect in our analysis1 and yet upon it our classification and the psychic position of an animal must to a great extent depend4 ,the amoeba contracts when pricked1 jelly-fishes swim toward the light1 the earthworm1 alarmed by the tread of your foot1 withdraws into its hole4 ,are these and similar actions reflex or instinctive8 ,a grain of consciousness preceding an action which before has been reflex changes it into instinct4 ,mr4 ,romanes1 probably correctly1 regards them as purely reflex4 ,we must1 ,i think1 believe that these actions result in consciousness even in the lowest forms4 ,the selection and attainment of food certainly looks like conscious action4 ,probably all nerve-cells or nervous material were originally1 even in the lowest forms1 dimly conscious2 then by division of labor some became purely conductive1 others more highly perceptive4 ,the important thing for us to remember in our present ignorance is not to be dogmatic4 ,furthermore1 the gain of a grain of consciousness of the adaptation of certain means to special ends changes instinctive action into intelligent1 and its loss may reverse the process4 ,fortunately we have found that in so far as actions1 even instinctive1 are modified by experience1 they are becoming to that extent intelligent4 ,this criterion of intelligence seems easily applied4 ,but this profiting by experience must manifest itself within the lifetime of the individual1 or in lines outside of circumstances to which its ordinary instincts are adapted1 or we may give to individual intelligence the credit due really to natural selection4 ,we must be cautious in our judgments4 ,these reflex actions are performed independently of consciousness or will4 ,consciousness may1 probably does1 attend the selection and grasping of food2 but most of the actions of the body will go on better without its interference4 ,it is not yet sufficiently developed1 or1 so to speak1 wise enough to be intrusted with much control of the animal4 ,among higher worms cases of instinct seem proven4 ,traces of it will almost certainly be yet found much lower down4 ,fresh-water mussels migrate into deeper water at the approach of cold weather4 ,and if the clam has instincts1 there is no reason why the turbellaria should not also possess them4 ,but all higher powers develop gradually1 and their beginnings usually elude our search4 ,along the line leading from annelids to insects instinct is becoming dominant4 ,a supraoesophageal ganglion has developed1 and has been relieved of most of the direct control of the muscles4 ,very good sense-organs are also present4 ,from this time on consciousness becomes clearer1 and the brain is beginning to assert its right to at least know what is going on in the body1 and to have something to say about it4 ,still1 as long as the actions remain purely instinctive the brain1 while conscious1 is governed by heredity4 ,the animal does as its ancestors always have4 ,it does not occur to it to ask why it should do thus or otherwise1 or whether other means would be better fitted to the end in view4 ,it acts exactly like most of the members of our great political and theological parties4 ,and until the animal has a better brain this is its best course and is favored by natural selection4 ,but the hand of even the best dead ancestors cannot always be allowed to hold the helm4 ,the brain is still enlarging1 the sense-organs bring in fuller and more definite reports of a wider environment4 ,greater freedom of action by means of a stronger locomotive system is bringing continually new and varied experiences4 ,and if1 as in vertebrates1 longer life be added1 frequent repetition of the experience deepens the impression4 ,slowly1 as if tentatively1 the animal begins to modify some of its instincts1 at first only in slight details1 or to adopt new lines of action not included in its old instincts1 but suited to the new emergencies4 ,this is the dawn of intelligence4 ,its beginnings still remain undiscovered4 ,mr4 ,darwin believes that traces of it can be found in earthworms and other annelids4 ,he also tells us that oysters taken from a depth never uncovered by the sea1 and transported inland1 open their shells1 lose the contained water1 and die2 but that left in reservoirs1 where they are occasionally left uncovered for a short time1 they learn to keep their shells shut1 and live for a much longer time when removed from the water4 ,if oysters can learn by experience1 lower worms probably can do the same4 ,certain experiments made on sea-anemones1 actin animals a little more highly organized than hydra1 demand repetition under careful observation4,a ,the observer placed on one of the tentacles of a sea-anemone a bit of paper which had been dipped in beef-juice4 ,it was seized and carried to the mouth and here discarded4 ,this tentacle after one or two experiments refused to have anything more to do with it4 ,but other tentacles could be successively cheated4 ,the nerve-cells governing each tentacle appear to have been able to learn by experience1 but each group in the diffuse nervous system had to learn separately4 ,the dawn of this much of intelligence far down in the animal kingdom would not be surprising1 for the selection and grasping of food has always involved higher mental power than most of the actions of these lowest animals4 ,memory goes far down in the animal kingdom4 ,perhaps1 as ,professor ,haeckel has urged1 it is an ultimate mental property of protoplasm4 ,and the memory of past experience would continually tend to modify habit or instinct4 ,footnote ,a3 ,these experiments have been continued with most interesting and valuable results by ,dr4 ,g4,h4 ,parker1 of ,harvard ,university4 ,it is unsafe1 therefore1 to say just where intelligence begins4 ,at a certain point we find dim traces of it2 below that we have failed to find them4 ,but that they will not be found1 we dare not affirm4 ,in the highest insects instinct predominates1 but marks of intelligence are fairly abundant4 ,ants and wasps modify their habits to suit emergencies which instinct alone could hardly cope with4 ,bees learn to use grafting wax instead of propolis to stop the chinks in their hives1 and soon cease to store up honey in a warm climate4 ,our knowledge of vertebrate psychology is not yet sufficient to give a history of the struggle for supremacy between instinct and intelligence1 between inherited tendency and the consciousness of the individual4 ,but the outcome is evident2 intelligence prevails1 instinct wanes4 ,the actions of the young may be purely instinctive2 it is better that they should be4 ,but instinct in the adult is more and more modified by intelligence gained by experience4 ,there is perhaps no more characteristic instinct than the habit of nest-building in birds4 ,and yet there are numerous instances where the structure and position of nests have been completely changed to suit new circumstances4 ,and the view that this habit is a pure instinct1 unmodified by intelligence1 has been disproved by ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,but while size of brain1 keenness of sense-organs1 and length of life may be rightly emphasized as the most important elements in the development of vertebrate intelligence1 the importance of the appendages should never be forgotten4 ,cats seem to have acquired certain accomplishments--opening doors1 ringing door-bells1 etc4--never attained by the more intelligent dog1 mainly because of the greater mobility and better powers of grasping of the forepaws4 ,the elephant has its trunk and the ape its hand4 ,the power of handling and the increased size of the brain aided each other in a common advance4 ,the teachableness of mammals is also a sign of high intelligence4 ,the young are often taught by the parent1 a dim foreshadowing of the human family relation4 ,and we notice this capacity in domestic animals because of its practical value to man4 ,and here1 too1 we notice the difference between individuals1 which fails in instinct4 ,all spiders of the same species build and hunt alike1 although differences caused by the moulding influence of intelligence will probably be here discovered4 ,but among individual dogs and horses we find all degrees of intelligence from absolute stupidity to high intelligence4 ,and many mammals are slandered grievously by man4 ,the pig is not stupid1 far from it4 ,still only in man does intelligence reign supreme and clearly show its innate powers4 ,but even in man certain realms1 like those of the internal organs1 are rarely invaded by consciousness1 but are normally left to the control of reflex action4 ,these actions go on better without the interference of consciousness4 ,but other lines of action are relegated as rapidly as possible to the same control4 ,we learn to walk by a conscious effort to take each step2 afterward we take each step automatically1 and think only whither we wish to go4 ,we learn by conscious effort to talk and write1 to sing1 or play the piano4 ,afterward we frame each letter or note automatically1 and think only of the idea and its expression4 ,so also in our moral and spiritual nature4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,mr4 ,james ,freeman ,clarke has stated this better than ,i can4 ,we may state the law thus3 ',any habitual course of conduct changes voluntary actions into automatic or involuntary 7i4e41 reflex7 actions4' ,by practice man forms habits1 and habitual action is automatic action1 requiring no exercise of will except at the beginning of the series of acts4 ,the law of association does the rest4 ,as voluntary acts are transformed into automatic1 the will is set free to devote itself to higher efforts and larger attainments4 ,after telling the truth a while by an effort1 we tell the truth naturally1 necessarily1 automatically4 ,after giving to good objects for a while from principle1 we give as a matter of course4 ,honesty becomes automatic2 self-control becomes automatic4 ,we rule over our spirit1 repress ill-temper1 keep down bad feelings1 first by an effort1 afterwards as a matter of course4 ,possibly these virtues really become incarnate in the bodily organization4 ,possibly goodness is made flesh and becomes consolidate in the fibres of the brain4 ,vices1 beginning in the soul1 seem to become at last bodily diseases2 why may not virtues follow the same law8 ,if it were not for some such law of accumulation as this1 the work of life would have to be begun forever anew4 ,formation of character would be impossible4 ,we should be incapable of progress1 our whole strength being always employed in battling with our first enemies1 learning evermore anew our earliest lessons4 ,but by our present constitution he who has taken one step can take another1 and life may become a perpetual advance from good to better4 ,and the highest graces of all--,faith1 ,hope1 and ,love--obey the same law4 ,see ,james ,freeman ,clarke1 ,every-,day ,religion1 p4 #abb4 ,there has been therefore in the successive forms and stages of animal life a clear sequence of dominant nervous actions4 ,the actions of all animals below the annelid are mainly reflex or automatic1 unconscious and involuntary4 ,but in insects and lower vertebrates the highest actions at least are instinctive4 ,consciousness plays a continually more important part4 ,still the actions are controlled by hereditary tendency far more than by the will of the individual4 ,but in man instinct has been almost entirely replaced by conscious1 voluntary1 intelligent action4 ,and yet in man1 as rapidly as possible1 actions which at first require conscious effort become1 through repetition and habit1 reflex and automatic4 ,all our conscious effort and the energy of the will1 being no longer required for these oft-repeated actions1 are set free for higher attainments4 ,the territory which had to be conquered by hard battles has become an integral part of the realm4 ,it now hardly requires even a garrison1 but has become a source of supplies for a new advance and march of conquest4 ,but all this time we have been talking about action and have not given a thought to the will4 ,and we have spoken as if conscious perception and intelligence directly controlled will and action4 ,but this is of course incorrect4 ,will is practically power of choice4 ,you ask me whether ,i prefer this or that1 and ,i answer perhaps that ,i do not care4 ,until ,i care ,i shall never choose4 ,the perception must arouse some feeling1 if it is to result in choice4 ,i see a diamond in the road and think it is merely a piece of glass4 ,i do not stop4 ,but as ,i am passing on2 ,i remember that there was a remarkable brilliancy in its flash4 ,it must have been1 after all1 a gem4 ,my feelings are aroused4 ,how proud ,i shall feel to wear it4 ,or how much money ,i can get for it4 ,or how glad the owner will be when it is returned to her4 ,i turn back and search eagerly4 ,perception is necessary1 but it is only the first step4 ,the perception must excite some feeling1 if choice or exertion of the will is to follow4 ,this is a truism4 ,now reflex action takes place independently of consciousness or will4 ,instinctive action may be voluntary1 but it is1 after all1 not so much the result of individual purpose as of hereditary tendency4 ,is there then no will in the animal until it has become intelligent8 ,i think there has been a sort of voluntary action all the time4 ,even the amoeba selects or chooses1 if ,i may use the word1 its food among the sand grains4 ,and the will is stimulated to act by the appetite4 ,hunger is the first teacher4 ,and how did appetite develop8 ,why does the animal hunger for just the food suited to its digestion and needs8 ,we do not know4 ,and the reproductive appetite soon follows4 ,one of these results from the condition of the digestive1 the other from that of the reproductive1 cells or protoplasm4 ,these appetites are due to some condition in a part of the organism and can be felt4 ,they are in a sense not of the mind but of the body4 ,and the response to them on the part of the mind is in some respects almost comparable to reflex action4 ,but the mode of the response is1 to a certain extent at least1 within the control of consciousness4 ,they train and spur the will as pure reflex action never could4 ,but the will is as yet hardly more than the expression of these appetites4 ,it expresses not so much its own decision as that of the stomach4 ,it is the body's slave and mouthpiece4 ,and once again it is best and safest for the animal that it should be so4 ,and these appetites are at first comparatively feeble4 ,there is but little muscle or nerve and but little food is required4 ,but these continually strengthen and spur the will harder and more frequently4 ,and the will stirs up the weary and flagging muscles4 ,the will may be a poor slave and the appetites hard taskmasters4 ,but under their stern discipline it is growing stronger and more completely subjugating the body4 ,better slavery to hard taskmasters than rottenness from inertia4 ,the first requirement is power1 activity1 and then this power can be directed to ever higher ends4 ,you cannot steer the vessel until she has sails or an engine2 with no way on she will not mind the helm1 she only drifts4 ,but the condition of the animal at this stage certainly looks very unpromising4 ,can the will emancipate itself from appetite and control it8 ,or is it to remain the slave of the body8 ,in time an emotion appears which marks the influence not directly of the body but of the individual consciousness4 ,this is fear2 it is for the body1 but not1 like hunger1 directly of it4 ,it arises in the mind4 ,it results from experience and memory4 ,the first animal which feared took a long step upward4 ,but when and where was the dawn of fear8 ,i touch a sea-anemone and it contracts4 ,has it felt fear8 ,i think not4 ,the action certainly may be purely reflex4 ,natural selection1 not mind1 deserves the credit of that action4 ,but ,i am sure that the cat fears the dog1 or the dog the cat1 as the case may be4 ,i have little or no doubt that the bird fears the cat4 ,i am inclined to believe that the insect fears the bird and the spider the wasp4 ,but does the highest worm fear8 ,i do not know4 ,i do not see how there can have been any fear until there was a nerve-centre highly enough developed to remember past experiences of danger and fair sense-organs to report the present risk4 ,other emotions soon follow4 ,anger appears early4 ,the order of appearance of these emotions or motives ,i shall not attempt to give to you4 ,indeed this is to us of relatively slight importance4 ,the important point to notice is that a host of these have appeared in mammals and birds1 and that each one of these is a new spur to the will4 ,and the will of a horse or dog1 to say nothing of a pig1 is by no means feeble4 ,and these are slowly emancipating the animal from the tyranny of appetite4 ,but how slow the progress is6 ,has the emancipation yet become complete in man8 ,i need not answer4 ,the will has in part1 at least1 escaped from abject slavery to appetite2 it sometimes rises superior to fear4 ,but it is evidently self-centred4 ,the animal may have forgotten the claims of his dead ancestors1 he is certainly fully alive to his own interests4 ,can he even partially rise superior to prudential considerations1 as he has to some extent to the claims of appetite8 ,is it possible to develop the unselfish out of the purely selfish8 ,and if so1 how is this to be accomplished8 ,it is not accomplished in the animal2 it is but very incompletely accomplished in man4 ,it will be accomplished one day4 ,in action1 at least1 the animal is not purely selfish4 ,as ,mr4 ,drummond has shown1 reproduction1 that old function and first to gain an organ1 is not primarily for the benefit of self1 but for the species4 ,and not only the storing up of material in the egg1 but care for the young after birth1 is found in some fish and insects1 and increases from fish upward4 ,i readily grant you that this in its beginnings may be purely instinctive1 and that not a particle of genuine affection for the young may as yet be present in the mind of the parent4 ,but beneficial habits may1 under the fostering care of selection1 develop into instincts4 ,the animal may at first be unconscious of these1 and yet they may grow continually stronger4 ,but one day the animal awakens to its actions1 and from that time on what had been done blindly and unconsciously is continued consciously1 intelligently1 and from set purpose4 ,this story is repeated over and over again in the history of the animal-kingdom4 ,the care for the young once started as an instinct1 affection will follow from the very association of parent with young4 ,certainly in birds and mammals there seems to be a very genuine love of the parents for their young4 ,this is at first short lived1 and the young are and have to be driven away1 often by harsh treatment1 to shift for themselves4 ,but while it lasts it certainly seems entirely real and genuine4 ,and how strong it is4 ,a bear robbed of her whelps is no meaningless expression4 ,and even the weak and timid bird or mammal becomes strong and fierce in defence of her young4 ,in the presence of this emotion appetite and fear are alike forgotten4 ,but this affection or love once started does not remain limited to parent and offspring4 ,mammals1 especially the higher forms1 are social4 ,they frequently go in herds and troops1 and appear to have a genuine affection for each other4 ,you all know how in herds of cattle or wild horses the males form a circle around the females and young at the approach of wolves4 ,a troop of orangs were surprised by dogs at a little distance from their shelter4 ,the old male orangs formed a ring and beat off the dogs until the females and young could escape1 and then retreated4 ,but as they were now in comparative safety a cry came from one young one1 who had been unable to keep up in the scramble over the rocks1 and was left on a bowlder surrounded by the dogs4 ,then one old orang turned back1 fought his way through the dogs1 tucked the little fellow under one arm1 fought his way out with the other1 and brought the young one to safety4 ,i call that old orang a hero1 but ,i am prejudiced and may easily be mistaken4 ,in a cage in a ,european zological garden there were kept together a little ,american monkey and a large baboon of which the former was greatly afraid4 ,the keeper1 to whom the little monkey was strongly attached1 was one day attacked and thrown down by the baboon and in danger of being killed4 ,then the little monkey ran to his help1 and bit and beat his tyrant companion until he allowed the keeper to escape4 ,we are all proud that the little monkey was an ,american4 ,instances of disinterested actions are so common among dogs and horses that farther illustrations are entirely unnecessary4 ,and disinterested action is limited to fewer cases because the environment is rarely suited to its development in the animal world4 ,but do you answer that the affection of the dog is never really disinterested1 but a very refined form of selfishness4 ,possibly4 ,but it were to be greatly desired that selfishness would more frequently take that same refined form among men4 ,but ,i cannot see how selfishness can ever become so refined as to lead an animal to die of grief over its master's grave4 ,and if refined selfishness were all1 ,i for one cannot help believing that the dog would long ago have been asleep on a full stomach before the kitchen fire4 ,has no attempt been made to prove that all human actions are due to selfishness more or less refined8 ,it is very unwise to apply tests and use arguments concerning animals which1 if applied with equal strictness to human conduct1 would prove human society irrational and purely selfish4 ,mammals may be self-centred4 ,but the highest forms have set their faces away from self and toward the non-self2 some have at least started on the road which leads to unselfishness4 ,and man is governed to a certain extent by prudential considerations4 ,if he entirely disregarded these he would not be wise4 ,but the development of the rational faculty has brought before his mind a series of motives higher than these1 which are slowly but surely superseding them4 ,truth1 right1 and duty are motives of a different order4 ,with regard to these there can be no question of profit or loss4 ,here the mind cannot stop to ask1 ,will it pay8 ,self must be left out of account4 ,when duty whispers low1 ,thou must1 ,the soul replies1 ,i can4 ,and thus man rises above appetite1 above prudential considerations1 and becomes a free and moral agent4 ,and family and social life bring him into new relations1 press home upon him new duties and responsibilities1 every one of which is a new motive compelling him to rise above self4 ,and thus the unselfish1 altruistic emotions have made man what he is1 and are in him1 ever advancing toward their future supremacy4 ,but some one will say1 ,this is a very pretty theory2 it is not history4 ,but the perception of truth and right is certainly a fact1 the result of ages of development4 ,and the very highest which the intellect can perceive is bound to become the controlling motive of the will4 ,it always has been so4 ,it must be so1 if evolution is not to be purely degeneration4 ,thus only has man become what he is4 ,and the voice of the people demanding truth and justice1 whenever and wherever they see them1 is the voice of ,god promising the future triumph of righteousness4 ,for it is proof positive that man's face is resolutely set toward these1 as his ancestors have always marched steadily toward that which was the highest possible attainment4 ,we find thus that there is a sequence in the motives which control the will4 ,the first and lowest motives are the appetites1 and here the will is the mouthpiece of the bodily organs4 ,then fear and a host of other prudential considerations appear4 ,the lowest of these tend purely to the gratification of the senses or to the avoidance of bodily discomfort4 ,but they originate in the mind1 and that is a great gain4 ,but the higher prudential considerations take into account something higher than mere bodily comfort or discomfort4 ,approbation and disapprobation are motives which weigh heavily with the higher mammals4 ,the lower prudential considerations are purely selfish4 ,the higher ones1 which stimulate to action for fellow-animals or men1 show at least the dawn of unselfishness4 ,and the altruistic motives1 which stimulate to action for the happiness and welfare of others1 predominate in1 and are characteristic of1 man4 ,the human will is slowly rising above the dominance of selfishness4 ,with the dawn of the rational perception of truth1 right1 and duty1 the very highest motives begin to gain control4 ,and the will becomes more and more powerful as the motives become higher4 ,it is almost a mis-use of language to speak of the will of a slave of appetite4 ,he is governed by the body1 not at all by the mind4 ,the man who is governed by prudential considerations1 and is always asking1 ,will it pay8 is the incarnation of fickleness1 instability1 and feebleness4 ,the apparent strength of the selfish will is usually a hollow sham4 ,but truth1 right1 and love are motives stronger than death4 ,and the will1 dominated by these1 gives the body to be burned4 ,the man of the future will have an iron will1 because he will keep these highest motives constantly before his mind4 ,in the preceding lectures we have traced the sequence of functions and have found that brain and mind1 not digestion and muscle1 are the goal of animal development4 ,in this lecture we have attempted to trace a corresponding series of functions in the realm of mind4 ,we have found1 ,i think1 that there has been an orderly and logical development of perceptions1 modes of action1 and finally of motives in the animal mind4 ,let us now briefly review this history and see whether it throws any light on the path of man's future progress4 ,most of the sensory cells of the animal minister at first to reflex action1 and there is thus little true perception4 ,the stimuli which have called forth the reflex action may result afterward in consciousness2 but until brain and muscle have reached a higher grade1 this could be of but slight benefit to the animal4 ,perception and consciousness are exercised mainly in the recognition and attainment of food4 ,when the animal begins to show fear1 we may feel tolerably certain that it has been conscious of past experience of danger and remembers these experiences4 ,but the sense-organs are all the time improving1 whether as servants of conscious perception or of reflex action1 and the development of the higher sense-organs1 especially of the eyes1 has called forth a higher development of the brain4 ,the brain continually develops both through constant exercise and through natural selection4 ,through the higher and more delicate sense-organs it perceives a continually wider range of more subtile elements in its environment4 ,and the higher the sense-organ the more directly and purely does it minister to consciousness4 ,the eye1 when capable of forming an image1 is almost never concerned in a purely reflex action4 ,from the constant recurrence of perceptions and experiences in a constant order the animal begins to associate these1 and when he has perceived the one to expect the other4 ,out of this grows1 in time1 inference and understanding4 ,the mind is beginning to turn its attention not merely to objects and qualities1 but to perceive relations4 ,and thus it has taken the first step toward the perception of abstract truth4 ,and if it has the sthetic perception and can perceive beauty1 we have every reason to believe that the same faculty will one day perceive truth and right4 ,but on the purely animal plane of existence these powers could be of but little service1 and we can expect to find them developed only very slightly and under peculiar surroundings4 ,and in this connection it is interesting to notice the great results of man's training and education in the dog4 ,for the wolf and the jackal1 the dog's nearest relatives1 if not his actual ancestors1 are not especially intelligent mammals4 ,compared with them the dog is a sage and a saint4 ,the earliest form of action is the reflex4 ,this is independent of both consciousness and will4 ,the only conscious voluntary action of the animal is limited mainly or entirely to the recognition and attainment of food4 ,the motive for the exertion of the will is the appetite1 and the will is the slave or mouthpiece of the body4 ,far higher than this is the stage of instinct4 ,here the animal is conscious of its actions and new motives begin to appear4 ,but the animal is guided by tendencies inherited from its ancestors4 ,the will has1 so to speak1 advisory power2 it is by no means supreme4 ,but with a wider and deeper knowledge of its environment1 with the memory of past experiences1 carried by the higher locomotive powers into new surroundings1 brought face to face with new emergencies outside of the range of its old instincts1 it is compelled to try some experiments of its own4 ,it begins to modify these instincts1 and in time altogether does away with many of them4 ,it has risen a little above its old abject slavery to the appetites1 it is slowly throwing off the bondage to heredity4 ,new emotions or motives have arisen appealing directly to the individual will4 ,the heir has been long enough under guardians and regents1 it assumes the government and can rightly say1 ,l'tat1 c'est moi4 ,but a greater problem confronts it2 can it rise above self8 ,the animal often seems absolutely selfish4 ,can the unselfish be developed out of the selfish8 ,this seems at first sight impossible4 ,and the first lessons are so easy1 the first steps so short1 that we do not notice them4 ,reproduction comes to the aid of mind4 ,the young are born more and more immature4 ,they begin to receive the care of the parent4 ,the love of the parent for the young is at first short lived and feeble4 ,but it is the genuine article1 and1 like the mustard-seed planted in good soil1 must grow4 ,it strengthens and deepens4 ,soon it begins to widen also4 ,social life1 very rude and imperfect1 appears4 ,and the members of this social group support1 help1 and defend one another4 ,and doing for one another and helping each other1 however slightly and imperfectly1 strengthens their affection for one another4 ,the animal is still selfish1 so is man frequently1 but it is in a fair way to become unselfish1 and this is all we can reasonably expect of it4 ,for these are vast revolutions from reflex action to instinct1 and from instinct to the reign of the individual will1 and from appetite to selfishness on the ground of higher motives1 and from immediate gratification to prudential considerations4 ,and the crowning change of all is from selfishness to love4 ,and each one of them takes time4 ,remember that the ,old ,testament history is the record of how ,god taught one little people that there is but one ,god1 ,jehovah4 ,think of the struggles1 defeats1 and captivities which the ,israelites had to undergo before they learned this lesson1 and even then only a fraction of the people ever learned it at all4 ,as the prophet foretold1 so it came to pass4 ,though ,israel was as the sand by the sea-shore1 but a remnant was saved4 ,but while we seek to do full justice to the animal1 let us not underestimate the vast differences between it and man4 ,the true evolutionist takes no low view of man's present actual attainments2 in his possibilities he has a larger faith than that of the disbeliever in evolution4 ,in intelligence and thought1 in will power and freedom of choice1 in one word1 in all that makes up character and personality1 man is immeasurably superior to the animal4 ,these powers raise him to a new plane of being1 give him an indefinitely higher and broader life1 and his appearance marks a new era4 ,he alone is a moral1 responsible being1 to a certain extent the former of his own destiny and recorder of his doom1 if he fails4 ,this gives to all his actions a peculiar stamp of a dignity only his4 ,what he is and is to be we must attempt to trace in another lecture4 ,but to one or two characteristic results of his progress we must call attention here4 ,the principal subject of man's study is not so much the things which surround him as his relation to them and theirs to each other4 ,his environment has become really one1 not so much one of tangible and visible objects as of invisible relations4 ,and these will demand endless investigation4 ,the more he studies them the more wonderful do they become4 ,the vein broadens and grows indefinitely richer the deeper he searches into it4 ,we find thus the purpose of the intellect2 it is to study environment4 ,and now a little about motives4 ,the animal begins with appetite1 and some animals and men never get any farther4 ,and yet how easily this appetite for food is satiated6 ,we all remember our experiences as children around the ,thanksgiving or ,christmas table4 ,what a disappointment it was to us to find how soon our appetite had forsaken us1 and that we had lost the power of enjoying the delicacies which we had most anticipated4 ,and over-indulgence often brought sad results and was followed by a period of penitential fasting4 ,and the appetites for sense gratification must always lead to this result4 ,they not only crave things which perish with the using2 temporarily at least1 often permanently1 the appetite itself perishes with the gratification4 ,but what of the appetite1 if you will pardon the expression1 for truth and right8 ,all attainment only strengthens it2 and1 instead of enslaving1 it makes men ever more free4 ,and yet what a power there is in the appetite for truth and righteousness8 ,in obedience to it man gives his body to be burned1 or pours out his life-blood drop by drop for its attainment1 and rejoices in the sacrifice4 ,there are victims to appetite3 there are only martyrs to truth4 ,this soul hunger for truth and right1 growing more intense as the soul is filled with the object of desire1 is the only one capable of indefinite development and dominance of the will4 ,this must be and is the mental goal of animal development1 if man has a future corresponding in length at all to his past4 ,otherwise the history of life becomes a story told by an idiot4 ,for its satisfaction is the only one which never causes satiety1 and of which over-indulgence is impossible4 ,all others lead only to a slough of despond1 or the deeper and more treacherous slough of contentment1 beyond which rise no delectable mountains or golden city4 ,and now in closing let me call your attention to one thought of practical vital importance4 ,according to the theory which we have agreed to adopt1 higher species have arisen through a process of natural selection1 those species surviving which are best conformed to their environment4 ,and this applies to man as well as to lower animals4 ,all knowledge is in man1 therefore1 primarily1 a means by which he may conform to environment1 survive1 and progress4 ,but conformity includes more than mere knowledge of environment4 ,a man might have all knowledge1 and yet refuse to conform2 and then his knowledge could not save him from destruction4 ,for conformity alone gives survival4 ,conformity in man requires an effort of the will4 ,it is intelligent1 but it is also voluntary action4 ,and knowledge is a necessary means of conformity because through it we see how we may conform1 and because it furnishes the motives which stimulate the will to the necessary effort4 ,now1 that faculty of the intellect which is dominant in man1 and which has raised him immeasurably above the animal1 and made him man1 is the rational intelligence4 ,if there is any such thing as a law of history or as continuity in evolution1 man's future progress must depend upon his clearer vision and recognition of the perceptions of this faculty4 ,through it man perceives beauty1 truth1 and goodness1 and attains knowledge of himself as a person and moral agent1 and recognizes his rights and duties4 ,of all this the animal is and remains unconscious2 indeed he is not yet a moral being and person in any proper sense of the word4 ,inasmuch as the rational perception is the dominant faculty in man1 it must perceive the lines along which he is to conform4 ,truth1 right1 and duty must be his watchwords4 ,these are to be the rules and motives of all his actions4 ,he cannot live for the body1 but for something higher1 the mind4 ,this was proven before man appeared on the globe4 ,he is to be a mental1 intelligent being4 ,but he is not to be governed by appetite or mere prudential considerations4 ,these are animal1 not human motives4 ,these are not to be disregarded any more than digestion can be safely disregarded by man4 ,but they are not to be his chief motives4 ,he must subordinate these to the higher motives furnished by right and duty4 ,man is not merely a mental but a moral being4 ,if he sinks below this plane of life he is not following the path marked out for him in all his past development4 ,in order to progress1 the higher vertebrate had to subordinate everything to mental development4 ,in order to become man it had to develop the rational intelligence4 ,in order to become higher man1 present man must subordinate everything to moral development4 ,this is the great law of animal and human development clearly revealed in the sequence of physical and mental functions4 ,must man be a religious being also8 ,this question we must try to answer in a future lecture4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,natural ,,selection ,,and ,,environment ,i have attempted to show that animal development has not been an aimless drifting4 ,functions developed and organs arose and were perfected in a certain order4 ,first the purely vegetative organs appeared1 and the animal lived for digestion and reproduction2 then came muscle and it brought with it nerve4 ,but these were not enough2 the brain had all the time been gradually improving1 and now it becomes the dominant function to which all others are subordinated4 ,the experiment was fairly tried4 ,mere digestion and reproduction are carried to about the highest perfection which can be expected of them in worms and mollusks4 ,the bird tried what could be done with digestion ministering to locomotion guided by the very keenest sense-organs and controlled by no mean brain4 ,even this experiment was not a success4 ,but one organ remained1 the brain1 and on its mental possibilities depend the future of the animal kingdom4 ,vegetative organs and muscle have been tried and found wanting4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see chart1 p4 #caj4 ,we have followed hastily the development of mind4 ,the mind began its career as the servant of digestion1 recognizing and aiding to attain food4 ,action is at first mainly reflex4 ,but conscious perception plays an ever more important part4 ,the animal is at first guided by natural selection through the survival of the most suitable reflex actions1 then by inherited tendencies1 finally by its own conscious intelligence and will4 ,the first motives are the appetites1 but these are succeeded by ever higher motives as the perceptions become clearer and more subtile relations in environment are taken into account4 ,governed first purely by appetites1 the will is ever more influenced by prudential considerations1 and finally shows well-developed natural affections4 ,it has set its face toward unselfishness4 ,digestion and muscle1 as well as mind1 have persisted in man4 ,he is not1 cannot be1 disembodied spirit4 ,and in his mental life reflex action and instinct1 appetite and prudence1 are still of great importance4 ,but the higher and supreme development of these powers could never have resulted in man4 ,they might alone have produced a superior animal1 never man4 ,his mammalian structure found its logical and natural goal in family and social life4 ,and even the lowest goal of family life is incompatible with pure selfishness1 and as family life advanced to an ever higher grade it became the school of unselfishness and love4 ,and social life had a similar effect4 ,moreover1 man as a social being early began to learn that he could claim something from his fellows1 and that he owed something to them4 ,if he refused to help others1 they would refuse to help him4 ,this was his first1 very rude lesson in rights and duties4 ,love1 duty1 and right have ever since been the watchwords of his development and progress4 ,we have not yet considered1 and must for the present disregard1 the value and efficiency of religion in aiding his advance4 ,at present we emphasize only the historical fact that man has not become what he is by a higher development of the body1 nor by giving free rein to appetite1 nor yet by making the dictates of selfish prudence supreme4 ,and if there is any such thing as continuity in history1 such modes and aims of life1 if now followed1 would surely only brutalize him and plunge him headlong in degeneration4 ,he must live for right1 truth1 love1 and duty4 ,in just so far as he makes any other aim in life supreme1 or allows it to even rival these1 he is sinking into brutality4 ,this is the clear1 unmistakable verdict of history1 and we shall do well to heed it4 ,but granting all that can be claimed for this sequence1 have not the lower forms whose anatomy we have sketched--worm1 fish1 and bird--halted at various points along this line of march8 ,yet they have evidently survived4 ,and if they have found safe resting-places1 cannot higher forms turn back and join them8 ,in other words1 is not degeneration easier than advance and just as safe8 ,what is the result if an animal tries to return to a lower plane of life or refuses to take the next upward step8 ,generally extermination4 ,the very classification of worms in a number of small isolated groups1 which must once have been connected by a host of intermediate forms1 is indisputable proof of most terrible extermination4 ,they did not go forward1 and the survivors are but an infinitesimal fraction of those which perished4 ,let us take an illustration where palontology can help us4 ,the earth was at one time covered with marsupial mammals4 ,some advanced into placental forms4 ,the great mass remained behind4 ,and outside of ,australia the opossums are the only survivors of them all4 ,and this is only one example where a thousand could be given4 ,place is not long reserved for mere cumberers of the ground4 ,there are so few exceptions to this statement that we might almost call it a law of biology4 ,let us see how it fares with an animal which retreats to a lower plane of life4 ,a worm1 rather than seek its own food1 becomes a parasite4 ,it degenerates1 but still is easily recognized as a worm4 ,a crustacean tries the same experiment1 though living outside of its host instead of in it4 ,it sinks to a place even lower1 if possible1 than that of the parasitic worm4 ,a locomotive form becomes sessile4 ,it loses most of its muscles and the larger part of its nervous system2 and even the digestive system1 which it has made the goal of its existence1 is inferior to that of its locomotive ancestors and relatives4 ,but to the vertebrate these lowest depths of stagnation and degeneration are1 as a rule1 impossible4 ,from true fish upward parasitism and sessile life are practically impossible4 ,here stagnation and degeneration mean1 as a rule1 extinction4 ,of all the relatives of vertebrates back to worms only the very aberrant lines of amphioxus and of the tunicata remain4 ,of the rest not a single survivor has yet been discovered4 ,and yet what hosts of species must have peopled the sea4 ,the primitive round-mouthed fishes have practically disappeared4 ,the ganoids survive in a few species out of thousands4 ,the amphibia of the carboniferous and the next period and the reptiles of the mesozoic have disappeared2 only a few feeble degenerate remnants persist4 ,and this was necessarily so4 ,each advancing form crowded hardest on those which occupied the same place and sought the same food1 that is1 the members of the same species4 ,and the first to suffer from its competition were its own brethren4 ,death1 rarely commuted into life imprisonment1 is the verdict pronounced on all forms which will not advance4 ,and does not the same law of advance or extinction apply to man8 ,what is the record of successive civilizations but its verification8 ,notice once more that as we ascend in the scale of development natural selection selects more unsparingly and the path to life narrows4 ,it is a very easy matter for the lowest forms to get food4 ,indeed the plant sits still and its food comes to it4 ,and the battle of brute force can be fought in a multitude of ways--by mere strength1 by activity1 by offensive or defensive armor1 or even by running into the mud and skulking4 ,it is harder to gain knowledge1 and yet many roads lead to an education4 ,colleges are by no means the only seats of education4 ,and many totally uneducated men have college diplomas4 ,and life is1 after all1 the great university1 and here the sluggard fails and the plucky man with the poor fit often carries off the honors4 ,but where shall wisdom be found8 ,and where is the place of understanding8 ,the gold and the crystal cannot equal it3 ,and the exchange of it shall not be for jewels of fine gold4 ,no mention shall be made of corals or of pearls3 ,for the price of wisdom is above rubies4 ,and when it comes to righteousness there is only one right1 and everything else is wrong4 ,wide is the gate and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction1 and many there be that go in thereat3 ,because strait is the gate and narrow is the way which leadeth unto life1 and few there be that find it4 ,therefore strive to enter in at the strait gate4 ,and remember that strive means wrestle like one of the athletes in the old ,olympic games4 ,i saw also that the ,interpreter took ,christian again by the hand and led him into a pleasant place1 where was built a stately palace beautiful to behold2 at the sight of which ,christian was greatly delighted4 ,he saw also1 upon the top thereof1 certain persons walking1 who were clothed all in gold4 ,then said ,christian1 ,may we go in thither8 ,then the ,interpreter took him and led him up toward the door of the palace2 and1 behold1 at the door stood a great company of men1 as desirous to go in1 but durst not4 ,there also sat a man at a little distance from the door at a table-side1 to take the name of him that should enter therein2 he saw also that in the door-way stood many men in armour1 to keep it1 being resolved to do to the men that would enter what hurt and mischief they could4 ,now was ,christian somewhat in amaze4 ,at last1 when every man started back for fear of the armed men1 ,christian saw a man of a very stout countenance come up to the man that sat there to write1 saying1 ,set down my name1 ,sir2 the which when he had done1 he saw the man draw his sword1 and put an helmet upon his head1 and rush toward the door upon the armed men1 who laid upon him with deadly force2 but the man1 not at all discouraged1 fell to cutting and hacking most fiercely4 ,so after he had received and given many wounds to those that attempted to keep him out1 he cut his way through them all1 and pressed forward into the palace1 at which there was a pleasant voice heard from those that were within1 even of those that walked upon the top of the palace saying3 ',come in1 come in2 ,eternal glory thou shalt win4' ,so he went in1 and was clothed in such garments as they4 ,then ,christian smiled1 and said1 ,i think verily ,i know the meaning of this4--,bunyan's1 ,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #dd4 ,if you wish to climb the ,matterhorn many paths lead up the lower slopes1 and a stumble here may cost you only a sprain4 ,and ,i suppose that several paths lead to the base of the cone4 ,but thence to the summit there is but one path1 and a misstep means death4 ,pardon these quotations and illustrations4 ,they are my only means of at all adequately presenting to you a scientific man's conception of the meaning of the struggle for life4 ,the laws of evolution are written in blood and bear the death penalty4 ,for ,life is not as idle ore1 ,but iron dug from central gloom1 ,and heated hot with burning fears1 ,and dipt in baths of hissing tears1 ,and battered with the shocks of doom ,to shape and use4 ,there would seem therefore to be going on a process of natural selection4 ,natural selection seems to select more unsparingly and the struggle for life--or even existence--to grow fiercer as we advance from lower forms to higher in the animal kingdom4 ,but the theory which we have agreed to accept teaches us that these survivors are those which or who have conformed to their environment and that they have survived because of their conformity4 ,and what do we mean by environment8 ,and does not man modify his environment8 ,certainly he changes by irrigation a desert into a garden4 ,he carries water against its tendency to the hill-top4 ,but he has learned to do this only by studying the laws which govern the motions of fluids and rigorously obeying them4 ,he must carry his water in strong pipes and take it from some higher point1 or must use heat or some means to furnish the force to drive it to the higher point4 ,he cannot change a single iota of the law1 and gains control of the elements only by obedience to their laws4 ,electricity is man's best servant as long as he respects its laws1 but it kills him who disobeys them4 ,but does not man make his own surroundings in social life8 ,he merely enters upon a new mode of life2 and if this new mode be in conformity with the eternal forces and laws of environment man prospers in this new mode of life and conforms still more closely4 ,there is1 indeed1 but one environment1 but the lower animal comes in contact with1 and is affected by1 but a small portion of its elements4 ,form and color were in the world before the animal had developed an eye1 but up to this time these could have but little effect on animal life4 ,light vibrations were present in ether long before the animal by responding to them made them any part of its own true environment4 ,there is vastly more in environment than man has yet discovered1 and he will discover these elements only by obedience to their laws4 ,environment includes ultimately all the forces and elements which go to make up our world or universe4 ,it is an exceedingly general term4 ,i might say that under the environment of certain wheels1 springs1 and spindles1 which we call a ,jacquard loom1 silk threads become a ribbon worthy of a queen4 ,is ,nature and environment only a huge divine loom to weave man and something higher yet8 ,one great difference is evident4 ,under normal conditions the silk must become a ribbon4 ,but protoplasm can fail to conform and become waste4 ,environment is a very hard word to define1 and our views concerning it may differ4 ,one thing1 however1 seems to me clear and evident4 ,if each successive stage in the ascending series is selected or survives on account of its conformity to environment there must be some element or power1 something or somewhat in environment specially corresponding in some way to1 or suited to drawing out1 the characteristic of this ascending stage on account of which it survives4 ,the forces and elements of environment make and work against those at each stage who wander from the right path1 and for those who follow it4 ,and thus natural selection arises as the total result of the combined working of all these forces4 ,they all unite in one resultant working along a certain line1 and natural selection is the effect of this resultant4 ,in the stage represented by hydra the forces of environment combine in a resultant which works for digestion and reproduction and the best development of their organs4 ,but as the animal changes he comes into a new relation or occupies a new position in respect to these forces4 ,new elements in the old environment are beginning to press upon him4 ,and the resultant changes accordingly4 ,he may be compared to a steamer at sea which raises a sail4 ,the wind has been blowing for hours1 but the sail gives it a new hold on the ship4 ,steam and wind now combine in a new resultant of forces4 ,from worms upward environment manifests itself through natural selection as a power working for muscular force and brute strength or activity4 ,but soon natural selection ceases to select on the ground of brute force4 ,after a time environment proves to be a power making for shrewdness4 ,and when the mammal has appeared the resultant of the forces of environment impels more and more toward unselfishness1 and when man has appeared environment proves to be a power1 not ourselves1 that makes for righteousness4 ,but what shall we say of an environment which unmasks itself at last as a power making for intelligence1 unselfishness1 and righteousness8 ,someone may answer it is a host of chemical and physical forces bringing about very high ends4 ,that is very true1 but is it the whole truth8 ,the thinking man must ask1 ,how did it come about1 and why is it that all these forces work together for such high moral and intelligent ends8 ,we face1 therefore1 the question1 ,can an environment which proves finally and ultimately to be a power not ourselves making for righteousness and unselfishness be purely material and mechanical8 ,or must there be in or behind it something spiritual8 ,shall we best call environment1 in its highest manifestation1 it or him8 ,the old argument of ,socrates1 as on the last day of his life he sits discoursing with his friends1 still holds good4 ,he is discussing the same old question1 whether there is anything more than force1 material1 mechanism in the world4 ,he says that one might assign as the cause why ,i am sitting here that my body is composed of bones and muscles2 that the bones are solid and separate1 and that the muscles can be contracted and extended1 and are all inclosed in the flesh and skin2 and that the bones1 being jointed1 can be drawn by the muscles1 and so ,i can move my legs as you see2 and that this is the reason why ,i am sitting here4 ,but by the dog1 these bones and muscles would long ago have carried me to ,megara or ,booetia1 moved by my opinion of what was best1 if ,i had not thought it more right and honorable to submit to the sentence pronounced by the state than to run away from it4 ,to call such things causes is absurd4 ,for there is a great difference between the cause and that without which the cause would not produce its effect4 ,if there is no intelligence or love of truth in the cause1 how can there be anything higher in the effect8 ,and if ,socrates had been only bone and muscle1 he ought to have run away4 ,our problem stands somewhat as follows3 ,we have given protoplasm1 a strange substance of marvellous capacities1 which we call functions1 and possessing a power of developing into beings of ever higher grades of organization4 ,environment proves to be a combination of forces working for the higher development of functions in a certain orderly sequence4 ,and every lower function in the ascending line demands the development of the next higher4 ,digestion demands muscle1 and muscle nerve1 and nerve brain4 ,we shall soon see that mammalian structure had to culminate in the family1 and the family demands unselfishness and obedience4 ,environment therefore proves from the beginning to have been unceasingly working for the highest end2 never1 even temporarily1 merely for the lower4 ,for we have seen that environment works most unsparingly against those who1 having taken certain of the steps in the ascending path1 fail to continue therein4 ,but in order to attain this highest end for which it has always been working1 an immense number of subsidiary ends have had to be attained4 ,these are not merely digestion and brain1 but a host of others3 e4g41 in vertebrates1 vertebr of the right substance1 position1 form1 arrangement1 and union4 ,and in the ascending line1 for whose highest forms it has continually worked1 the difficulties of attaining each subsidiary end have been successively solved1 and through this host of subsidiary ends the animal kingdom has advanced straight to its goal of intelligence and righteousness4 ,now the whole process is a grand argument for design4 ,but ,i would not emphasize the process so much as the end attained4 ,this especially1 when attained by conformity to that environment1 demands more than mere mindless atoms in or behind that environment4 ,can we call the ultimate power which makes for righteousness it8 ,can we call it less than ,him1 in whom we live and move and have our being8 ,the history of life is a grand drama4 ,paradise ,lost and ,shakespeare's plays are but fragments of it4 ,but without intelligence they could never have been composed2 without a choice of means and ends they could never have been placed upon the stage4 ,does the plot of this grander drama of evolution demand no intelligence in its ultimate cause and producer8 ,is the succession of steps1 each succeeding the other in such order as to lead to truth and right and continual progress toward a spiritual goal1 is this plot possible without a great composer who has seen the end from the beginning8 ,could it ever have been executed upon the stage of the world1 and perhaps of the universe1 without an executing will8 ,now ,i freely grant you that this is no mathematical demonstration4 ,natural science does not deal in demonstrations1 it rests upon the doctrine of probabilities2 just as we have to order our whole lives according to this doctrine4 ,its solution of a problem is never the only conceivable answer1 but the one which best fits and explains all the facts and meets the fewest objections4 ,the arguments for the existence of a personal ,god are far stronger than those in favor of any theory of evolution4 ,but we very rightly test the former arguments1 indefinitely more rigidly and severely1 just because our very life hangs on them4 ,on the other hand1 we should not reject them as useless1 because they are not of an entirely different kind from those on which all the actions and beliefs of our common daily life are based4 ,there is a scepticism which is merely a credulity of negations4 ,this also we should avoid4 ,we have considered a few of the reasons for thinking that1 with the material1 there must be something spiritual in environment1 that if the woof is material the warp is ,god4 ,here we need not delay long4 ,blank atheism seems to be at present unpopular and generally regarded as unscientific4 ,the so-called philosophic materialism of the present day seems to be in general far nearer to pantheism than to the old form of materialism which recognized only atoms and mechanism4 ,atheism as a power to deform the lives of men has1 for the present1 lost its hold1 and even agnosticism is respectful4 ,the materialism against which we have to struggle is not that of the school1 but of the shop1 of society1 of life4 ,there are comparatively few now who avow a system of philosophy making mindless atoms their first cause4 ,but there is a far grosser1 more deadly materialism of the heart and will4 ,it sits unrebuked in the front pews of our churches and controls alike church and parish1 caucus and legislature4 ,it calls on us all to fall down and worship1 promising the world if we obey1 the cross if we refuse4 ,and we bow to it2 and that is all it asks1 for a nod on our part makes us its slaves4 ,it is the idolatry of money1 position1 shrewdness1 learning--in one word1 of success4 ,it takes all the strength out of our morality1 loyalty and obedience to ,god out of our religion1 and makes cowards and liars of us1 who should be heroes4 ,it makes our religion a byword with honest unbelievers4 ,and if they are honest scientific minds1 waiting for evidence of the practical value of our religion1 why should they believe1 when we live so successfully down to the religion which we would scorn to openly profess8 ,our fathers may have been narrow or straight-laced2 they were not cross-eyed from trying to keep one eye on ,god and the other on the main chance4 ,what is the use of whispering1 ,lord1 ,lord1 ,sundays1 if we shout1 ,oh1 ,baal1 hear us1 all the rest of the week4 ,let us at least be honest1 and if ,baal be god1 follow him1 and avow it4 ,and worst1 and most hideous1 of all1 we are not so much hypocrites as self-deceived4 ,let us not forget the old ,greek doctrine of ,ate1 goddess of judicial blindness1 sent down only upon those who were living the unpardonable sin of indifference4 ,but supposing that there is in environment something more and other than material1 can we possibly know anything about it8 ,i am in a boat near the mouth of a river4 ,the boat is tossed by the waves1 driven by currents of wind1 and now and then temporarily turned by eddies4 ,i seem to look out upon a chaos of apparently conflicting forces4 ,but all the time the wind and tide are sweeping me homeward4 ,now the wind1 which sometimes indeed does shift1 and the great tidal wave are steadily bearing me in a certain direction1 though wave and eddy and gust may often make this appear doubtful to me4 ,so1 underneath all waves and eddies of environment1 there is a great tidal wave1 bearing man steadily onward2 and ,i gain a certain amount of valid knowledge of environment from the direction in which it is bearing me4 ,let us change the illustration4 ,man survives as all his ancestors have survived before him1 through conformity to environment4 ,environment has therefore during ages past been continually making impressions upon him4 ,and he can draw valid inferences concerning the one power1 which must underlie the apparent host of forces of environment1 from the impressions which these have left upon the structure of his mind and character4 ,by studying himself he gains valid knowledge of what is deepest in environment4 ,for man is the most completely and closely conformed thereto of all living beings4 ,but man is a religious being4 ,this is a fact which demands explanation just as much as bone and muscle4 ,now no evolutionist would believe that the eye could ever have developed without the stimulus of light acting upon the cells of the skin4 ,place the animal in darkness and the eye becomes rudimentary and disappears4 ,could a visual organ for seeing moral and religious truth have ever originated in the mind of man had there been no corresponding pulsation and thrill of a corresponding reality in environment8 ,is not the one development just as improbable or inconceivable as the other8 ,and this is the reason that1 when man awakened to himself and his own powers1 he knew that there was and must be a ,god4 ,pass over the earth1 says ,plutarch2 you may discover cities without walls1 without literature1 without monarchs1 without palaces and wealth2 where the theatre and the school are not known2 but no man ever saw a city without temples and gods1 where prayers and oaths and oracles and sacrifices were not used for obtaining pardon or averting evil4 ,given man and environment as they are1 and a belief in ,god is a necessary result4 ,but you may ask1 if we are to worship a personal ,god1 why might not a conscious and religious hydra1 with equal right1 worship an infinite stomach1 and the annelid a god of mere brute force8 ,there stands in ,florence a magnificent statue by ,michel ,angelo4 ,a human figure is only partially hewn out of the stone4 ,he never finished it4 ,if you could have seen the master hewing the chips with hasty1 impatient blows from the shapeless block1 you would have been tempted to say that he was but a stonecutter1 and but a hasty workman at that4 ,even now we do not know exactly what form and expression he would have given to the still unfinished head4 ,but no one can examine it and hesitate to pronounce it a grand work of a master-mind4 ,in any manifestly incomplete work you must judge the purpose and character and powers of the workman or artist by its highest possibilities1 just so far as you have any reason to believe that these possibilities will be realized4 ,you must look at the rudely outlined heroic human figure in the block of stone1 not at the rough unfinished pedestal1 if you would know ,michel ,angelo4 ,so in the hydra and the annelid you must look at the possibilities of the nervous system before you or he think that digestion and muscle are all4 ,once more the highest powers dawn far down in the animal kingdom4 ,there are traces of mind in the amoeba1 and of unselfishness in the lower mammals4 ,if there were a goal of human development higher and other than unselfishness1 wisdom1 and love1 we should have seen traces of it before this4 ,but have we found the faintest sign of any such8 ,moreover1 remember that a function continues to develop about as long as it shows the capacity for development4 ,and during that period environment is a power making for its higher development4 ,but is there any limit to the possible development of the three mental activities mentioned above8 ,i can see none4 ,then must we not expect that environment will always make for these8 ,and will environment ever manifest itself to man as the seat or instrument of a power possessing higher faculties other than these8 ,man must worship a personal ,god of wisdom1 unselfishness1 and love1 or cease to worship4 ,the latter alternative he never yet has been able to take1 and society survive under its domination4 ,so ,i at least am compelled to read the finding of biological history4 ,but let us grant for the sake of argument that man contains still undeveloped germs of faculties capable of perceiving and attaining something as much higher than wisdom and love as these are higher than brute force4 ,you will answer1 this is not only inconceivable1 it is impossible4 ,still let us grant the possibility4 ,we notice1 first of all1 that it is against the whole course of evolution that these faculties should be other than mental1 and what we class under powers pertaining to our personality4 ,for ages past evidently1 and no less really from the very beginning1 evolution has worked for the body only as a perfect vehicle of mind1 and for this as leading to will and character4 ,and human development has led1 and ever more tends1 as ,mr4 ,drummond has shown1 to the arrest1 though not the degeneration1 of the body4 ,it is to remain at the highest possible stage of efficiency as the servant of mind4 ,these higher powers will thus be mental and personal powers4 ,and how has any and every advance to higher capabilities been attained in the animal kingdom8 ,merely by the most active possible exercise of the next lower power4 ,this is proven by the sequence of physical and mental functions4 ,we shall attain1 therefore1 any higher mental capacities only by the continual practice of wisdom and love4 ,that is our only path to something higher1 if higher there shall ever be4 ,but if we find that the ,god of our environment is a ,god of something higher than love and righteousness1 will these cease to be characteristics of his nature and essence8 ,not at all4 ,i have learned1 perhaps1 to know my father as a plain citizen4 ,if ,i later find that he is a king and statesman1 with powers and mental capacities of which ,i have never dreamed1 do ,i therefore from that time cease to think of him as wise and kind and good8 ,not in the least4 ,i only trust his love and wisdom as guide of my little life all the more4 ,and shall not the same be true of ,god though he be king of all worlds and ages8 ,it becomes unwise and wrong to worship ,god as the ,god of might only when we have found that he is a ,god also of something higher and nobler1 of love2 and after we have perceived this fully and worship him as love1 we rest in the arms of his infinite power4 ,but now that the work has gone thus far1 we can see that all development must take place along personal1 spiritual lines2 and are compelled to believe in a spiritual cause who knew the end from the beginning4 ,and man's farther progress depends upon his conformity to this spiritual environment4 ,and what is conformity to the personal element in our environment but likeness to him8 ,this is my only possible mode of conformity to a person--to become like him in word1 action1 thought1 and purpose1 and finally in all my being4 ,very far from a close resemblance we still are4 ,but we are more like him than primitive man was2 and our descendants will resemble him far more closely than we4 ,and thus man1 conscious of his environment1 and that means capable of knowing something about ,god1 knows at least what ,god requires of him1 namely1 righteousness1 love1 and likeness to himself2 or1 as the old heathen seer expressed it1 to do justly1 love mercy1 and walk humbly before ,god4 ,man is and must be a religious being4 ,and he conforms consciously4 ,thus to be more like ,god he must know more about him1 and to know more about him he must become more like him4 ,the two go hand in hand1 and by mutual reaction strengthen each other4 ,i will not enter into the most important question of all1 whether we can ever really know a person unless we have some love for him4 ,the facts of evolution seem to me to admit of but one interpretation1 that of ,augustine3 ,thou hast formed me for thee1 ,o ,lord1 and my restless spirit finds no rest but in thee4 ,granted1 therefore1 a personal ,god in and behind environment1 however dimly perceived1 and conformity to environment means god-likeness2 for conformity to a person can mean nothing less than likeness to him4 ,some of you must1 all of you should1 have read ,professor ,huxley's ,address on ,education4 ,in it he says1 ,it is a very plain and elementary truth that the life1 the fortune1 and the happiness of every one of us1 and1 more or less1 of those who are connected with us1 do depend upon our knowing something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and complicated than chess4 ,it is a game which has been played for unknown ages1 every man and woman of us being one of the two players in a game of his or her own4 ,the chess-board is the world1 the pieces are the phenomena of the universe1 the rules of the game are what we call the laws of ,nature4 ,the player on the other side is hidden from us4 ,we know that his play is always fair1 just1 and patient4 ,but also we know1 to our cost1 that he never overlooks a mistake1 or makes the smallest allowance for ignorance4 ,to the man who plays well the highest stakes are paid with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the strong shows delight in strength4 ,and one who plays ill is checkmated--without haste1 but without remorse4 ,my metaphor1 he continues1 will remind some of you of the famous picture in which ,retzsch has depicted ,satan playing at chess with man for his soul4 ,substitute for the mocking fiend in that picture a calm1 strong angel1 who is playing for love1 as we say1 and would rather lose than win--and ,i should accept it as an image of human life4#a ,footnote #a3 ,huxley3 ,lay ,sermons and ,addresses1 p4 #ca4 ,this is a marvellous illustration1 and in general as true as it is beautiful and grand4 ,but that calm1 strong angel who is playing for love1 as we say1 and would rather lose than win1 is certainly a very strange antagonist4 ,is it1 after all1 possible that our clear-eyed scientific man has altogether misunderstood the game8 ,is not the calm1 strong angel more probably our partner8 ,certainly very many things point that way4 ,and who are our antagonists8 ,look within yourself and you will always find at least a pair ready to take a hand against you1 to say nothing of the possibilities of environment4 ,rex regis rebellis4 ,our partner is trying by every method1 except perhaps by talking across the board1 to teach us the laws and methods of this great game4 ,and calls and signals are always allowable4 ,the game is not finished in one hand2 he gives us a second and third1 and repeats the signals1 and never misleads4 ,only when we carelessly or obstinately refuse to learn1 and wilfully lose the game beyond all hope1 does he leave us to meet our losses as best we may4 ,let us carry the illustration a step farther4 ,who knows that the game was1 or could be1 at first taught without talking across the board8 ,i can find nothing in science to compel such a belief1 many things render it improbable4 ,grant a personality in environment to which personality in man is to conform and gain likeness4 ,environment can act on the digestive and muscular systems through mere material4 ,but how can personality in environment act on personality in man except by personal contact or by symbols easy of comprehension according to its own laws8 ,some method of attaining acquaintance at least we should certainly expect4 ,but some of you may ask1 ,how can any theory of evolution guarantee that anything of the present shall survive in the future8 ,it is continually changing and destroying former types4 ,the old order of everything changes and passes away1 giving place to the new4 ,but is this the whole truth8 ,evolution is a radical process1 but we must never forget that it is also1 and at the same time1 exceedingly conservative4 ,the cell was the first invention of the animal kingdom1 and all higher animals are and must be cellular in structure4 ,our tissues were formed ages on ages ago2 they have all persisted4 ,most of our organs are as old as worms4 ,all these are very old1 older than the mountains1 and yet ,i cannot doubt that they must last as long as man exists4 ,indeed1 while ,nature is wonderfully inventive of new structures1 her conservatism in holding on to old ones is still more remarkable4 ,in the ascending line of development she tries an experiment once exceedingly thorough1 and then the question is solved for all time4 ,for she always takes time enough to try the experiment exhaustively4 ,it took ages to find how to build a spinal column or brain1 but when the experiment was finished she had reason to be1 and was1 satisfied4 ,and if this is true of bodily organs we should expect that the same law would hold good when the animal development gradually passes over into the spiritual4 ,and what is human history but the record of moral and religious experiments1 and their success or failure according as the experimenters conformed to the laws of the spiritual forces with which they had to do8 ,we need not fear that our old fundamental beliefs will be lost4 ,their very age shows that they have been thoroughly tested in the great experiment of human history and found sure4 ,modified they may be2 they will be used for higher purposes and the building of better characters than ours4 ,they will not be lost or discarded4 ,we too often think of nature as building like man1 with huge scaffoldings1 which must later be torn down and destroyed4 ,but in the forest the only scaffolding is the heart of oak4 ,we have seen that the sequence of functions in animal development has culminated in man's rational1 moral nature4 ,he alone has the clear perception of the reality of right1 truth1 and duty4 ,the pursuit of these has made him what he is4 ,his advance1 if there is any continuity in history1 depends upon his making these the ruling motives and aims of his life4 ,he must continually grow in righteousness and unselfishness1 if he is not to degenerate and give place to some other product of evolution4 ,moreover1 as these moral faculties are capable of indefinite1 if not infinite1 development1 they must dominate his life through a future of indefinite duration4 ,for the length of the period of dominance of a function has always been proportional to the capacity of that function for future development4 ,these can never1 so far as we can see1 be superseded1 for no rival to them can be discovered4 ,we have found in them the culmination of the sequence of functions4 ,we have attempted to show in this lecture that reversal of this grand sequence has always led to degeneration1 or1 in higher forms1 far more frequently1 to extinction4 ,as we ascend1 natural selection works more1 rather than less1 unsparingly4 ,and as advance depends upon conformity to environment1 and as the highest forms must be regarded as therefore most completely conformed1 we gain our most adequate knowledge of environment when we study it as working especially for these4 ,for these have been from the very beginning its far-off1 chief aim and goal4 ,viewed from this standpoint1 environment proves to be a host of interacting forces uniting in a resultant power1 not ourselves1 that makes for righteousness1 and unselfishness4 ,inasmuch as man's rational moral nature1 his personality1 is the result of the last and longest step toward and in conformity to environment1 these powers correspond to that which is at the same time highest1 and deepest1 and most fundamental in that environment4 ,this power which makes for righteousness is therefore to be regarded as personal and spiritual rather than material4 ,it is ,god immanent in nature4 ,and it is mainly to this personal and spiritual element in his environment that man is in the future to more completely conform4 ,conformity to this element in man's environment does not so much result in life as it is life2 failure to conform is death4 ,and the pressure of environment upon man1 compelling him to choose between life through conformity and non-conformity with death1 can be most naturally and adequately explained as the expression of his will4 ,we know what he requires of us4 ,our knowledge of him is very incomplete1 but may be valid as far as it extends4 ,and it would seem to be valid1 for it has been tested by ages of experiment4 ,the results of this grand experiment have been summed up in man's fundamental religious beliefs4 ,and farther knowledge will be gained by more complete obedience to the requirements already known4 ,the evidence1 that these fundamental religious beliefs will persist1 is of the same character as that upon which rests our belief in the persistence of cells and tissues4 ,the one is rooted in the structure of our minds2 the other1 in the structure of our bodies4 ,but1 after all1 only will can act upon will1 and personality upon personality4 ,it remains for us to examine how man was compelled by his very structure to develop a new element in his environment1 conformed indeed to the laws of his old environment1 but better fitted to draw out the moral and spiritual side of his nature4 ,and in connection with this study we may hope to gain some new light on the laws of conformity4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conformity ,,to ,,environment ,we are too prone to think that soil and climate1 hill-side or plain1 mountain and shore1 temperature and rainfall1 constitute the sole or the most important elements in human environment4 ,every one of these elements is doubtless important4 ,frost1 drought1 or barrenness of soil may make a region a desert1 or dwarf the development of its inhabitants4 ,mountaineer1 and the dweller on the plain1 and the fisherman on the shore of the ocean develop different traits through the influence of their surroundings4 ,in too warm a climate the human race loses its mental and moral vigor and degenerates4 ,this is undeniable4 ,but1 though one soil and climate and set of physical surroundings may be more conducive than another to the development of heroism1 truthfulness1 unselfishness1 and righteousness1 no one is essential to their production or sure to give rise to them4 ,moral and religious character is a feature of man's personality1 and our personality is moulded mainly by the men and women with whom we associate4 ,a man is not only known by the company which he keeps2 he is usually fashioned by and conforms to it4 ,as ,president ,seelye has well said1 ,the only motive which can move a will is either a will itself1 or something into which a will enters4 ,it is not a thought1 but only a sentiment1 a deed1 or a person1 by which we become truly inspired4 ,it is not the intellect1 but the heart and will1 through which and by which we are controlled4 ,it is not the precepts of life1 but life itself1 by which alone we are begotten and born unto life4 ,now1 there are two ways in which living power1 personal power1 the power of a will1 may enter a soul and give it life2 the one is when ,god's will works upon us1 and the other when our wills work upon one another4 ,god's will may directly penetrate ours1 enabling us to will and to do of his good pleasure2 and our own wills1 thus inspired1 may be the torch to kindle other wills with the same inspiration4 ,it is in only one of these two ways that a human soul can be truly inspired2 and1 without a true inspiration1 no amount of instruction1 whether in duty1 or life1 or anything else1 will change a single moral propensity4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,seelye3 ,christian ,missions1 p4 #aed4 ,even though a ,lincoln may rise above his hereditary position or his surroundings1 they are the school in which he is trained2 the gymnasium in which his mental and moral fibre is strengthened4 ,family and social life form thus the element of man's environment by which he is mostly moulded1 and to which he most naturally and completely conforms4 ,let us therefore briefly trace the origin of this new element of man's environment1 and then notice the effect upon him of conformity to its laws1 and see whither these would lead him4 ,we have already seen that intra-uterine development of the young was being carried ever farther by mammals1 and we found one explanation of this in the fact that each mammalian egg represented a large amount of nutriment1 and that the mammal had very little material to spare for reproduction4 ,very possibly1 too1 the newly hatched mammals were exposed to even more numerous and greater dangers than the young of birds4 ,even among lower mammals the young is feeble at birth4 ,but the human infant is absolutely helpless4 ,and the centre of its helplessness is its brain4 ,its eyes and ears are comparatively perfect1 but its perceptions are very dim4 ,its muscles are all present1 but it must very slowly and gradually learn to use them4 ,its language is but a cry1 its few actions reflex4 ,the new-born kitten may be just as helpless1 but in a few weeks it will run and play and hunt1 and after a few months can care for itself4 ,not so the child4 ,it must be cared for during months and years before it can be given independence4 ,its brain is so marvellously complex that it is finished as a thinking and willing and muscle-controlling mechanism only long after birth4 ,this means a period of infancy during which the young clings helplessly to the mother1 who is its natural protector4 ,and during this period the mother and young have to be cared for and protected by the male4 ,and the period of infancy and the protection of the female and young are just as truly1 though in far less degree1 characteristic of the highest apes as of man4 ,i can give you only this very condensed and incomplete abstract of ,mr4 ,john ,fiske's argument2 you must read it for yourself in his ,destiny of ,man4 ,and as he has there shown1 this can have but one result1 and that is the family life of man4 ,and we may yet very possibly have to acknowledge that family life of a very low grade is just as truly characteristic of the higher apes as of lower man4 ,and thus the family life of man is the physiological result of1 and rooted in1 mammalian structure4 ,and the benefits of family life are too great and numerous to even enumerate4 ,first of all the family is the school of unselfishness4 ,all the love of the parent is drawn out for the helpless and dependent child1 and grows as the parent works and thinks for it4 ,and the child returns a fraction of his parents' love4 ,within the close bond of the family the struggle for place and opportunity is replaced by mutual helpfulness2 and this doing and burden-bearing with and for each other is a constant exercise in the practice of love4 ,and with out this mutual love and helpfulness the family cannot exist4 ,and slowly man begins to apply the lessons learned in the family to other relations with partners1 neighbors1 and friends4 ,slowly he discovers that an entirely selfish life defeats its own ends4 ,a voice within him tells him continually that love is better than selfishness and ministering better than being ministered unto4 ,it dawns upon him that it is against the nature of things that other people should be so selfish and grasping2 a few begin to apply the moral to themselves1 and a few of these to act accordingly4 ,and what a change the few steps which man has taken in this direction have wrought in his life4 ,says ,professor ,huxley3 ,in place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint1 in place of thrusting aside or treading down all competitors1 it requires that the individual shall not merely respect1 but shall help his fellows2 its influence is directed not so much to the survival of the fittest as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive4 ,it repudiates the gladiatoral theory of existence4 ,it is a vast change from the gladiatorial theory to that of mutual helpfulness4 ,call it a revolution1 if you will4 ,revolutions are not unheard of in the history of the animal kingdom any more than in human history4 ,we have seen1 first1 digestion and reproduction on the throne of animal organization1 then muscle1 and finally brain4 ,each of these changes is in one sense a revolution4 ,a little before the summer solstice the earth is whizzing away from the sun2 a few weeks later it is whizzing with equal rapidity in almost the opposite direction4 ,in the very nature of things it could not be otherwise4 ,but so silently and gradually does it come about that we never feel the reversal of the engine2 indeed the engine has not been reversed at all4 ,very similar is the change of the struggle of brute against brute to that of man for man4 ,indeed human development seems now to be almost at such a solstice where the power that makes for love is almost exhausted in opposing the tendency toward selfishness4 ,we shall not always stay at the solstice2 soon we shall make more rapid progress4 ,and unselfishness like the family relation is firmly rooted in mammalian structure4 ,and man owes almost everything to family life4 ,first the child gains the advantage of the parent's experience4 ,he is educated by the parent4 ,in a few formative and receptive years he gains from the parent the results of centuries of human experience4 ,the process is thus cumulative1 the investment bears compound interest4 ,and yet this is peculiar to man only in degree4 ,have you never watched a cat train her kittens8 ,and the education of the child in the savage family is very incomplete4 ,the family is the first and fundamental of all higher social and political unities4 ,and without the persistence of the family the larger social unit would become an inert mass4 ,all the individual ambition1 all desire for family advancement1 must be retained as still a motive for energetic advance4 ,and all the training which social life can give reaches the individual most effectively1 or solely1 through the family4 ,society without the family would be like an army without company or regimental organization4 ,thus the very existence1 not only of training in love and mutual helpfulness1 but even of society itself as a mere organization1 depends upon the existence and improvement of family life4 ,and as so much depended upon and resulted from it1 it could not but be fostered and improved by natural selection4 ,the tribe or race with the best family life has apparently survived4 ,but all social animals have some means of communicating very simple thoughts or perceptions4 ,the simplest illustrations of this are the calls and warning cries of mammals and birds4 ,it is not impossible that the higher mammals have something worthy of the name of language4 ,but man alone1 with his better brain and better anatomical structure of throat and mouth1 and the closer interdependence with his fellows1 has attained to articulate speech4 ,and this again has become the bond to a still closer union4 ,now our only question is1 ,how does social life enable and aid man to conform to environment8 ,we are interested not so much in his happiness as in his progress4 ,it helps and improves the body by giving him a better and more constant supply of more suitable food1 and better protection from inclemency of the weather1 and in many other ways4 ,baths and gymnasia are built1 and medical science prolongs life4 ,yet make the items as many as you can1 and what a long list of disadvantages to man physically you must set over against these4 ,many of these evils will doubtless disappear as society becomes better organized1 but some will always remain to plague us4 ,we pamper or abuse our stomachs1 and dyspepsia results4 ,we live in hot-houses1 and a host of diseases are fostered by them4 ,indeed it would be hard to count up the diseases for which social life is directly or indirectly responsible4 ,social life becomes more and more complicated1 and our nervous systems cannot bear the strain4 ,medical science saves alive thousands who would otherwise die1 and these grow up to bear children as weak as themselves4 ,we are looking now at the physical side alone2 and from this standpoint the survival of the invalid is a sore evil4 ,now society will and must become healthier2 we shall not always abuse our bodies as sinfully as we now do4 ,still1 viewed from the standpoint of the body alone1 the best1 as it seems to me1 which we can claim1 is that social life does no more harm than good4 ,what has social life done for man intellectually8 ,much4 ,it gives him schools and colleges4 ,but are our systems of education an unmixed good8 ,how many of our schools and colleges are places where men are stuffed with facts until they have no time nor inclination to think8 ,they may turn out learned men2 do they produce thinkers8 ,and how about the spread of knowledge8 ,is it not a spread of information8 ,and most of what goes forth from the press is not worthy of even that name1 or is information which a man had better be without4 ,we are proud of being a nation of readers4 ,and reading is good1 if a man thinks about what he reads2 otherwise it is like undigested food in the stomach1 an injury and a curse4 ,a dyspeptic gourmand is helped by cutting down his rations4 ,in our mental disease we need the same course of treatment4 ,let us read fewer books and papers and think more about what we do read4 ,society may foster original thinking2 it is none the less opposed to it4 ,yon ,cassius has a lean and hungry look1 ,he thinks too much2 such men are dangerous4 ,this is the motto of all great parties in ,church and ,state4 ,still social life has undoubtedly fostered thought4 ,we think vastly more and better than primitive man2 still we have much to learn4 ,society puts the experience of centuries at the service of every individual4 ,poor and unsatisfactory as are our modes of education1 they are a great blessing intellectually and will become more helpful4 ,and1 after all1 the friction of mind against mind in social life--provided social intercourse is this1 and not the commingling of two vacua--is a continual education of inestimable advantage4 ,and all these advantages would without language have been absolutely impossible4 ,intellectually our debt to society is inestimable4 ,and how does social life aid man morally8 ,i cannot help believing that primitive society was the first school of the human conscience4 ,it was a rude school1 but it taught man some grand lessons4 ,the primitive clan would seem to have existed as a rude army for the defence of its members and for offensive operations against enemies4 ,individual responsibility on the part of its members was slight for offences against individuals of other clans1 or against the gods4 ,for any such offence of one of its members the whole clan was held1 or held itself1 largely responsible4 ,if one man sinned1 the clan suffered4 ,it could not therefore afford to pardon wilful disobedience to regulations made by it or its leaders4 ,its very existence depended on this strict discipline4 ,and much the same stern discipline has to be maintained in our modern armies or they become utterly worthless4 ,furthermore1 man1 as a social being1 is very ready to accept the estimate of his actions placed upon them by his fellows4 ,it is not easy to resist public opinion now4 ,the tie of class or professional feeling is a tremendous power for good and evil4 ,it must have been almost irresistible in that primitive army1 which summarily outlawed or killed the obstinately disobedient4 ,but all obedience was lauded and rewarded4 ,it had to be so4 ,and if the tribe was worthy to survive1 because its regulations were better than those of its rivals1 or perhaps as nearly just and right as were well possible1 it was altogether best and right it should be so4 ,the voice of the people was1 in a very rude1 stammering way1 the voice of ,god4 ,and those who survived became more and more obedient1 and found themselves1 when disobedient1 feeling debased1 and mean1 and unworthy1 as their fellows considered them4 ,and all this feeling tended to develop a conscience in the individual answering to the estimates and regulations of the community4 ,and remember that the primitive religion is a tribal religion4 ,the gods felt toward a man just as his neighbors did4 ,a public opinion of this sort is irresistible1 and a man's conscience and estimate of himself and his actions must conform to it4 ,but you may say a man may grant that this opinion is in a sense irresistible1 and find himself very miserable and unhappy under its condemnation4 ,but he would not feel remorse2 this is a very different feeling4 ,possibly it may be4 ,i am not so sure4 ,but what ,i am interested in maintaining is that the condemnation of one's fellow-men puts more vividly before one's eyes1 and emphasizes1 the condemnation of one's own self4 ,it may often be a necessary step in self-conviction4 ,and what is most important1 even in our own case1 the condemnation of our fellows often brings with it self-condemnation4 ,try the experiment1 as you will some day1 of following a course of action which you feel fairly confident is right1 but which all your neighbors think is foolish and wrong4 ,see if you do not feel twinges within you which you must examine very closely to distinguish from twinges of conscience4 ,if you do not1 ,i see but one explanation--you are conscious that ,god is with you1 and content with this majority4 ,but in the case of primitive man ,god was always on the side of one's tribe4 ,now this does not explain the origin of man's conception of right2 it presupposes such a conception in some dim form4 ,i do not now know why right is right or beauty beautiful4 ,i only know they are so4 ,where or when either of these perceptions dawned ,i do not know4 ,but1 given some such dim perception1 ,i believe that primitive human society gave it its iron grip on every fibre of man's nature4 ,before the animal could safely be allowed to govern itself intelligently it had to serve a long apprenticeship to reflex action and instinct4 ,and man's moral nature had to undergo a similar apprenticeship to tribal regulation and tribal conscience4 ,only slowly was instinct modified and replaced by intelligent action4 ,and how this old tribal conscience persists4 ,often for good1 although there it were better replaced by an individual conscience working for right4 ,but how slowly you and ,i learn that there is a higher responsibility than to party or class4 ,how often my vote and action are controlled1 not by my own conscience1 but by the opinion of my fellows1 or the feeling that1 if my party suffers defeat1 ,god's work will suffer at the hands of my opponents4 ,and what is all this but the survival in a very degenerate form of the old tribal conscience of primitive man8 ,and he knew1 and could know1 nothing better3 ,i can and do4 ,but society slowly works for unselfishness4 ,the love learned in the family manifests itself in ever-widening circles2 it must do so if it is the genuine article4 ,it works for neighbors and friends1 then for the poor and helpless of the community4 ,then it spreads to other communities and nations4 ,for genuine love recognizes no bounds of time or place4 ,slowly we learn that we are our brother's keepers1 and that the brotherhood cannot stop short of the human race4 ,goodness and kindness radiate from one1 perhaps unknown1 member of the community to his fellows1 and thence all over the world4 ,and the world is the better for his one action4 ,primitive society was thus the best possible school of conscience2 and the family and it are the great school of unselfishness4 ,but society is even more and better than this4 ,it is the medium through which thought1 power1 and moral and religious life can spring from man to man4 ,this is its last and culminating advantage3 it is that for which society really exists4 ,for1 in the close bonds of family and social life1 a new possibility of development has arisen based upon articulate speech4 ,we might almost call it a new form of heredity1 independent of all blood-relationship4 ,progress in anatomical structure in the animal kingdom was slow1 because any improvement could be transmitted only to the direct descendants of its original possessor4 ,but in all matters pertaining to or based upon mind1 a new invention1 or idea1 or system becomes the property of him who can best appreciate it4 ,the torch is always handed on to the swiftest runner4 ,thus ,socrates is the true father of ,plato1 and ,plato of ,aristotle4 ,whoever can best understand and appreciate and enter into the spirit of ,socrates and ,plato becomes heir to their thoughts and interprets them to us4 ,and the thought of one man enriches all races and times4 ,but a great teacher like ,socrates is not merely an intellectual power4 ,probe a little deeper1 surgeon1 said the ,french soldier1 and you'll find the emperor4 ,napoleon may have impressed himself on the soldier's intellect2 he had enthroned himself in his heart4 ,slave1 said the old ,roman1 ,marius1 to the barbarian who had been sent into the dungeon to despatch him1 slave1 wouldst thou kill ,cains ,marius8 ,and the barbarian1 though backed by all the power of ,rome1 is said to have fled in dismay4 ,why did he run away8 ,i do not know4 ,i only know that ,i should have done the same4 ,one more instance4 ,some thirty years ago the northern army was fleeing1 a disorganized mob1 toward ,winchester4 ,early had fallen upon them suddenly in the gray of the morning1 and1 while one corps still held its ground1 the rest of the army was melting away in panic4 ,then a little red-faced trooper came tearing down the line shouting1 ,face the other way boys2 face the other way4 ,and those panic-stricken men turned and rolled an irresistible avalanche of heroes upon the ,confederate lines4 ,what made them turn about8 ,it was something which ,i can neither define nor analyze--the personal power of ,sheridan4 ,it is the secret of every great leader of men4 ,now ,sheridan had imparted more than information to these men4 ,is it too much to say that he put himself into them8 ,from such men power streams out like electricity from a huge dynamo4 ,now society furnishes the medium through which such a man can act4 ,you have all met such men1 though probably not more than one or two of them4 ,but one such man is a host4 ,they may be men of few words4 ,but their very presence and look calls out all that is good in you2 and while you are with them evil loses its power4 ,says the gay and licentious ,alcibiades1 in ,plato's ,banquet concerning ,socrates3 ,when ,i heard ,pericles or any other great orator1 ,i was entertained and delighted1 and ,i felt that he had spoken well4 ,but no mortal speech has ever excited in my mind such emotions as are excited by this magician4 ,whenever ,i hear him1 ,i am1 as it were1 charmed and fettered4 ,my heart leaps like an inspired ,corybant4 ,my inmost soul is stung by his words as by the bite of a serpent4 ,it is indignant at its own rude and ignoble character4 ,i often weep tears of regret and think how vain and inglorious is the life ,i lead4 ,nor am ,i the only one that weeps like a child and despairs of himself4 ,many others are affected in the same way4 ,these men are the real kings4 ,their power for good1 and sometimes for evil1 is inestimable4 ,and the great advantage of social life1 as a means of conforming to environment1 is the medium which it furnishes to conduct the power of such men4 ,man's last effort toward conformity to environment1 the struggle for existence in its last most real form1 is the life and death grapple between good and evil4 ,for here good and evil1 righteousness and sin1 come face to face in spiritual form2 we wrestle not with flesh and blood4 ,life is more than a game of chess or whist2 it is a great battle2 every man must1 and does1 take sides2 he must fight or die4 ,and the real kings of society are1 as a rule1 on the side of truth1 and aid its triumph4 ,for one essential condition of such leadership is the power to inspire confidence in the love of the king for his willing subject4 ,a suspicion of selfish aims in the leader breaks this bond4 ,the hero must be self-forgetful4 ,this is one reason for man's hero-worship1 and the magnetic1 dominant power of the hero4 ,but evil is essentially selfish and can gain and hold this kingship only as long as it can deceive4 ,and these kings live forever4 ,dynasties and empires disappear1 but ,socrates and ,plato1 ,luther and ,huss1 ,cromwell and ,lincoln1 rule an ever-widening kingdom of ever more loyal subjects4 ,and society will have leaders2 men may set up whatever form of government they will1 they are always searching for a king4 ,and this is no sign of weakness or credulity4 ,man's desire for leadership is only another proof of the vast future which he knows is before him1 and into which he longs to be guided4 ,the wiser a man is1 the more he desires to be taught2 the nobler he becomes1 the more whole-souled is the homage which he pays to the noblest4 ,is it a sign of weakness or ignorance in students1 of adult age and ripe manhood1 to flock to some great university to hear the wisdom and catch the inspiration of some great master8 ,when ,jackson fell ,lee exclaimed1 ,i have lost my right arm4 ,was ,jackson any the less for being the right arm to deal1 as only he could1 the crushing blows planned by the great strategist8 ,but is not man to be independent and free8 ,certainly4 ,but he gains freedom from the petty tyranny of robber-baron or boss1 and from the very pettiest tyranny of all1 the service of self1 only as he finds and enlists under the king4 ,serve self and it will plunge you in1 and drag you through1 the ditch1 till your own clothes abhor you4 ,you are free to choose your teacher and guide and example4 ,but choose you will and must4 ,i am not propounding theories2 ,i am telling you facts4 ,whether for better or worse man always does and will choose because he must4 ,look about you1 look into yourselves4 ,have you no hero whom you admire and strive to resemble8 no teacher to whom you listen8 ,you must and do have your example and teacher4 ,is he teaching you to conform to environment1 or leading you to be ground in pieces by its forces all arrayed against you8 ,the ,carpenter of ,nazareth stood before ,pilate4 ,and ,pilate said unto him1 ,art thou a king then8 ,jesus answered1 ,thou sayest that ,i am a king4 ,to this end was ,i born1 and for this cause came ,i into the world1 that ,i should bear witness unto the truth4 ,every one that is of the truth heareth my voice4 ,and ,pilate would not wait for the answer to his question1 ,what is truth8 and the ,jews chose ,barabbas4 ,would you and ,i have acted differently8 ,the answer of our ,lord to ,pilate contains the essence of ,christianity4 ,you a king1 says ,pilate in astonishment2 where is your power to enforce your authority8 ,and our ,lord's answer seems to me to mean substantially this3 ,roman legions shall suffer defeat1 rout1 and extermination2 and ,roman power shall cease to terrify4 ,all its might must decay4 ,but everyone that is of the truth shall attach himself to me with a love which will brave rack and stake4 ,all your power cannot give a grain of new life4 ,i can and will infuse my own divine life1 my own divine self1 into men4 ,and this new life is invincible1 immortal1 all-conquering4 ,i have infused myself into a few fishermen1 and they will infuse me into a host of other men4 ,thus ,i will transfigure into my own character every man in the world1 who is of the truth1 and therefore will hear my voice4 ,all the power of ,rome cannot prevent it1 and whatever opposes it must go down before it4 ,christianity is the contagion of a divine life4 ,society is the medium through which it could and was to work4 ,greece had prepared the language necessary for its spread4 ,roman power had built its highways and levelled all obstructions4 ,a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump4 ,not by might1 nor by power1 but by my ,spirit1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,but1 you will object1 the grandest kings have had1 as a rule1 the fewest loyal subjects4 ,the prophets and seers are stoned4 ,elijah stands alone on ,carmel and opposed to him are more than a thousand prophets of ,baal1 with court and king at their head4 ,heroism does not pay1 and heroes are few4 ,right is always in a hopeless minority4 ,let us look into this matter carefully1 for the objection1 even if overstated1 certainly contains a large amount of truth4 ,let us go back to two forms having much the same grade of organization3 both worms4 ,one of them sets out to become a vertebrate1 building an internal skeleton4 ,the other forms an external skeleton and becomes a crab4 ,to form its skeleton the crab had only to thicken the cuticle already present in the annelid4 ,it had to modify the already existing parapodia and their muscles1 changing them to legs4 ,the external skeleton gave from the start a double advantage--protection and better locomotion4 ,every grain of thickening aided the animal in the struggle for existence in both these ways4 ,the very fact that the skeleton was external may have rendered it more liable to variation1 because it was thus exposed to continual stimuli4 ,and the best were rapidly sifted out by ,natural ,selection4 ,the change and development went on with comparative rapidity4 ,in the mollusk the change was apparently still more easy and the development still more rapid4 ,but the development of an internal skeleton was more difficult and slower4 ,it was of no use for the protection of the animal1 and only gradually did it become of much service in locomotion4 ,being deep-seated it very possibly changed all the more slowly4 ,furthermore1 a cartilaginous rod1 like the notochord1 even fully developed1 hardly enabled the animal to fight directly with the mail-clad crab4 ,the internal skeleton had to become far more highly developed before its great advantages1 and freedom from disadvantages1 became apparent4 ,the mollusk and crab were working a mine rich in surface deposits although soon exhausted4 ,the vertebrate lead was poor at the surface1 and only later showed its inexhaustible richness4 ,it looked as if the vertebrate were making a very poor speculation4 ,whether this explanation be true or not1 a glance at a chart1 showing the geological succession of occurrence of the different kingdoms1 proves that in the oldest palozoic periods there were well-developed cuttlefish and crabs before there were any vertebrates worthy of the name4 ,if any were present1 their skeleton was purely cartilaginous and not preserved4 ,i think we may go farther1 although in this latter consideration we may very possibly be mistaken4 ,we have already seen that the progress made by any animal may be measured more or less accurately by the length of time during which its ancestors maintained a swimming life4 ,the ancestors of the coelenterates settled to the bottom first4 ,then successively those of flatworms1 mollusks1 annelids1 and crabs4 ,all this time the ancestors of vertebrates were swimming in the water above4 ,food was probably more abundant1 certainly more easily and economically obtained by a creeping life1 on the bottom4 ,but thither the vertebrate could not go4 ,there his mail-clad competitors were too strong for him4 ,those which settled and tried to compete in this sort of life perished4 ,we may have to except the ascidia1 but they paid for their success by the loss of nearly all their vertebrate characteristics4 ,the future progress of vertebrates depended upon their continual activity in the swimming life4 ,and they were forced by their environment to maintain this4 ,otherwise they might1 probably would1 never have attained their present height of organization4 ,certainly at this time you would have found it hard to believe that the victory was to fall to these weaker and smaller vertebrates4 ,let us come down to a later period4 ,reptiles1 mammals1 and birds are struggling for supremacy4 ,of the power and diversity of form of these old reptiles we have generally no adequate conception4 ,the forms now living are but feeble remnants4 ,there were huge sea-serpents1 and forms like our present crocodiles1 but far more powerful4 ,others apparently resembled in form and habit the herbivorous and carnivorous mammals of to-day4 ,others strode or leaped on two legs4 ,and still others flew like bats or birds4 ,they were terrible forms1 with coats of mail and powerful jaws and teeth4 ,and they were active and swift4 ,when we look at them we see that the vertebrate1 though slow in gaining the lead1 is sure to hold it4 ,the internal skeleton gave fewer advantages at the start2 its greatest superiority had lain in future possibilities4 ,but which vertebrate is heir to the future8 ,it would have been a hard choice between reptile and bird4 ,i feel sure that ,i1 for one1 should not have selected the mammal1 a small1 feeble being1 hiding in holes and ledges1 and continually hard put to it to escape becoming a mouthful for some huge reptile4 ,and yet the persecution1 the impossibility of contending by brute strength1 may have forced the mammal into the line of brain-building and placental development4 ,the early development of mammals appears to have been slow4 ,palontology proves that they were long surpassed by reptiles and birds4 ,but the little mammal had the future4 ,the battle was to go against the strong4 ,once again4 ,the arboreal life of higher mammals would seem to be most easily explained by the view that they were driven to it by stronger carnivorous mammals having possession of the ground4 ,brain was good1 for it planned escape from enemies4 ,but it did not give its possessor immediate victory over muscle1 tooth1 and claw in the tiger4 ,that was to come far later with the invention of traps and guns4 ,brain gave its possessor a sure hold of the future1 and just enough of the present to enable it to survive by a hard struggle4 ,and the same appears to have been true of primitive man4 ,thus all man's ancestors have had to lead a life of continual struggle against overwhelming odds and of seeming defeat4 ,it was a life of hardship1 if not of positive suffering4 ,the organ which was to give them future supremacy1 whether it was backbone1 placenta1 or brain1 could in its earlier stages aid them only to a hardly won survival4 ,the present apparently1 and really as far as freedom from discomfort and danger is concerned1 always belongs to forms hopelessly doomed to degeneration or stagnation4 ,crabs1 not primitive vertebrates1 were masters of the good things of the sea2 and1 in later times1 reptiles1 not mammals1 of those of the land4 ,any progressive form has to choose between the present and the future4 ,it cannot grasp both4 ,i am not propounding to you any metaphysical theories1 but plain1 dry1 hard facts of palontology2 explain them as you will4 ,and here we must add our last word about conformity to environment2 and it is a most important consideration4 ,conformity to environment is not such an adaptation as will confer upon an animal the greatest immunity from discomfort or danger1 or will enable it to gain the greatest amount of food and place1 and produce the largest number of offspring4 ,indeed1 if you will add one element to those mentioned above1 namely1 that all these shall be attained with the least amount of effort1 they insure degeneration beyond a doubt4 ,this is the conformity of the bivalve mollusk4 ,the clam has abundance of food1 enormous powers of reproduction1 almost perfect protection against enemies1 and lives a life of almost absolute freedom from discomfort1 and the clam is really lower than most worms4 ,if an animal is to progress1 it must keep such a conformity ever secondary to a still more important element1 namely1 conformity or obedience to the laws of its own structure and being4 ,this second element the mollusk and every creeping stage neglected1 and the result of this neglect was stagnation or degeneration4 ,activity was essential to progress from the very structure and laws of development of the animal1 while a great abundance of food was not4 ,a life of ease1 for the same reason1 necessarily results in degeneration4 ,but you will ask1 ,what becomes of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of evolution1 if obedience to the laws of individual being is more important than conformity to external conditions8 ,both are evidently necessary1 and they are not so different as they may seem at first sight4 ,they are really one and the same4 ,bringing out the best and highest there is in us1 is the only true conformity to that which is deepest and surest and most enduring in our environment4 ,that in environment which makes for digestion is almost palpable and tangible1 that which makes for activity less so perhaps2 but that which makes for brain and truth and right is intangible and invisible4 ,we easily fail to notice it2 and1 unless we take a careful view of the course of development in the highest forms of life1 we may be inclined to deny its existence4 ,but it is surely there1 if man is a product of evolution4 ,each successive stage of animal life is not the preceding stage on a higher plane1 but the preceding stage modified in conformity to the environment of that from which it has just arisen4 ,says ,professor ,hertwig,a3 ,during the process of organic development the external is continually becoming an integral part of the individual4 ,the germ is continually growing and changing at the expense of surrounding conditions4 ,every stage thus contains the result of a host of reactions to a ruder and older portion of environment4 ,and the higher we go the more has the original protoplasm and structure been modified as the result of these reactions4 ,footnote ,a3 ,hertwig3 ,zeit- und ,streitfragen1 p4 #hb4 ,we have seen clearly that environment must be studied through its effect upon living beings4 ,viewed from any other standpoint it appears to be a myriad1 almost a chaos1 of interacting1 apparently conflicting1 forces4 ,the resultant of some of these is shown by the animal at any stage of its development4 ,and as the animal advances1 the resultant determining its new line1 or stage1 of advance1 includes new forces1 to which it has only lately become sensitive4 ,and thus the human mind1 as the last and highest product of evolution1 mirrors most adequately the resultant of all its forces4 ,if we would know environment we must study ourselves1 not atoms alone1 nor rocks1 nor worms4 ,extremely sensitive photographic plates1 after long exposure1 have proven the existence of stars so dim and far-off as to be invisible to the best telescopes4 ,man's mind is just such a sensitive plate2 it is the only valid representation of environment4 ,the truth would appear to be that the law is present in environment1 but hard to read2 but it is stamped upon our structure and being so deeply and plainly that the dullest of us cannot fail to read it4 ,we learned the fact of gravitation the first time that we fell down in learning to walk1 long afterward we learned that its law guided earth and moon4 ,and it is the presence of this law within us1 and our own knowledge that we are conscious of it1 that makes man without excuse4 ,but conformity to that which is deepest in environment often1 always1 demands non-conformity to some of the most palpable of surrounding conditions4 ,there is no better statement of the ultimate law of conformity than the words of ,paul3 ,be not conformed to this world2 but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind1 that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of ,god4 ,and this difference is exactly what ,i have been trying to put before you4 ,the mollusk conformed1 but the vertebrate conformed in a very different way1 and was transformed1 metamorphosed1 to translate the ,greek word literally1 into something higher4 ,and let us not forget that man conforms consciously and voluntarily1 if at all2 he is able to read in himself and environment the law to which lower forms have been compelled unconsciously to conform4 ,these facts merely illustrate a great law of life4 ,no man's eye1 much less hand1 can grasp the whole of the present and at the same time the future4 ,rather what we usually call present advantage is not advantage at all1 but the first step in degeneration4 ,if one will be rich in old age he must deny himself some gratifications in youth2 his present reward is his self-control4 ,if a man will climb higher than his fellows he must expect to be sometimes solitary2 his reward is the ever-widening view1 though the path be rougher and the air more biting than in their lower altitude4 ,if he point to heights yet to attain1 the majority will disbelieve him or say1 ,our present height was good enough for our ancestors1 it is good enough for us4 ,why sacrifice a good thing and make yourself ridiculous scrambling after what in the end may prove unattainable8 ,if you discover new truths you will certainly be called a subverter of old ones4 ,and this is entirely natural4 ,the upward path was never intended to be easy4 ,read the ,gorgias of ,plato1 and let us listen to the closing words of ,socrates in that dialogue3 ,and so1 bidding farewell to those things which most men account honors1 and looking onward to the truth1 ,i shall earnestly endeavor to grow1 so far as may be1 in goodness1 and thus live1 and thus1 when the time comes1 die4 ,and1 to the best of my power1 ,i exhort all other men also2 and you especially1 in my turn1 ,i exhort to this life and contest1 which is1 ,i protest1 far above all contests here4 ,you must remember that ,callicles has been taunting ,socrates with his lack of worldly wisdom and the certainty that in any court of justice he would be absolutely helpless because of his lack of knowledge of the rhetorician's art3 ,this way then we will follow1 and we will call upon all other men to do the same1 not that which you believe in and call upon me to follow2 for that way1 ,callicles1 is worth nothing4 ,and ,socrates met the end which he expected3 death at the hands of his fellow-citizens4 ,and here perhaps a little glimmer of light is thrown into one of the darkest corners of human experience4 ,the wise old author of ,ecclesiastes writes3 ,there is a just man that perisheth in his righteousness2 and there is a wicked man that prolongeth his life in his wickedness4 ,there is a vanity which is done upon the earth1 that there be just men unto whom it happeneth according to the work of the wicked2 again1 there be wicked men to whom it happeneth according to the work of the righteous3 ,i said that this also is vanity4 ,i returned and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift1 nor the battle to the strong1 neither yet bread to the wise1 nor yet riches to men of understanding1 nor yet favor to men of skill2 but time and chance happeneth to them all 7,eccles4 viii4 #ad2 ix4 #aa74 ,it is this element of chance that threatens to make a mockery of effort1 and sometimes seems to make life but a travesty4 ,the terrible feature of ,tennyson's description of ,arthur's last1 dim battle in the west is not the crash of battle-axe on shattered helm1 but the all-engulfing mist4 ,perhaps this is all intended to teach us that riches and favor1 and even bread1 are not the essentials of life1 and that failure to attain these is not such ruin as we often think4 ,but no man ever struggled for wisdom1 righteousness1 unselfishness1 and heroism without attaining them2 even though the more he attained the more dissatisfied he became with all previous attainment4 ,and if our slight attainments in wisdom and knowledge always brought wealth and favor1 we might rest satisfied with the latter1 instead of clearly recognizing that wisdom must be its own reward4 ,uncertainty and deprivation are the best and only training for a hero1 not sure reward paid in popular plaudits4 ,political economists speak of the productiveness and prospectiveness of capital4 ,we may well borrow these terms1 using them in a somewhat modified sense4 ,in our sense capital is productive in so far as it gives an immediate return2 it is prospective in proportion as the return is expected largely in the future4 ,a pocket may yield an immediate very large return of gold nuggets at a very slight expense of labor and appliances1 but it is soon exhausted4 ,in a mine the ore may be poor near the surface1 but grow richer as the shaft deepens2 the vein is narrow above1 but widens below4 ,the returns are at first small1 its inexhaustible richness becomes apparent only after considerable time and labor4 ,the value of the pocket is purely productive1 that of the mine largely or purely prospective4 ,indeed it may be opened at a loss4 ,but even a rich mine may be worked purely for its productive value2 it may be skinned4 ,let us apply this thought to the development of a species2 although what is true of the species will generally be true of the individual also1 for the development of the two is1 in the main1 parallel4 ,in the animal all functions are to a certain extent productive1 and all directly or indirectly prospective4 ,when we examine the sequence of functions we cannot but notice how largely their value is prospective4 ,as long as a lower function is rising to supremacy in the animal1 it appears to be retained purely for its productive value2 thus digestion in hydra or gastra4 ,but after a time animals appeared which had some muscle and nerve4 ,and1 by the process of natural selection1 those animals which used digestion as an end for its productive value became food for1 and gave place to1 those using it as a means of supporting muscle and nerve of greater prospective value4 ,and similarly1 those animals which used muscle1 or even mind1 productively gave place to others using these prospectively4 ,in other words1 the functions and capacities of any animal1 the extent of its conformity to environment1 may be regarded as its capital4 ,the animal may use this capital productively or prospectively4 ,it may spend its income1 and more too2 it may increase its capital4 ,now social capital will always fall sooner or later to those communities whose members use it most prospectively1 who are willing to forego1 to quite an extent1 present enjoyment1 and look for future return4 ,the same is true of all development4 ,sessile forms and mollusks1 and1 in a less degree1 crabs and reptiles1 worked for immediate return4 ,they are like extravagant heirs who draw on their capital and sooner or later come to poverty4 ,the primitive vertebrate1 the mammal1 and the other ancestors of man used their capital prospectively1 and it increased1 as if at compound interest4 ,the spendthrift appears at first sight to have the greatest enjoyment in life1 the rising business man works hard and foregoes much4 ,i believe that the latter is really by far the happier of the two4 ,but1 if you can spend only a day or two in a city1 and your examination is superficial1 you may easily make the mistake of considering the spendthrift as the most successful man in the community4 ,so1 in our brief visit to the world in times past1 we picked out the crab1 the reptile1 and the carnivore as its rising members4 ,once more1 capital can be spent very quickly2 to use it prospectively requires time4 ,this is a truism2 but it does no harm to call attention to truisms which have been neglected4 ,organs and powers of great prospective value are slow and difficult of development4 ,if their increase is to be at all rapid1 they must start early4 ,if their development and culture is deferred1 there will be little or no advance1 but probably degeneration4 ,extravagance grows rapidly and soon becomes irresistible2 habits of saving must be formed early4 ,the same is true of the development of all other virtues4 ,there is in the child an orderly sequence of development of mental traits4 ,while these powers are in their earlier1 so to speak embryonic1 stages of development1 they can be fostered and increased or retarded4 ,they are still plastic4 ,very early in a child's life acquisitiveness shows itself2 he begins to say ,i1 and mine1 and desires things to be his very own4 ,and this can be fostered so that the child will grow up a covetous machine4 ,or he may be taught to share with others4 ,not so much later1 while the child is still in the lower grades of his school life1 comes the period of moral development4 ,if1 during this period1 these powers are fostered and cultivated1 they may1 and probably will1 be dominant throughout his life4 ,and herein lies the dignity and glory of the unappreciated1 underpaid1 and overworked teachers of our lower schools1 that they have the opportunity to cultivate these moral powers of the child during these most critical years of his life4 ,repression or neglect here works life-long and irreparable harm4 ,the young man goes out into the world4 ,here practical men continually instruct him by precept upon precept1 line upon line1 that he cannot afford to be generous until he has acquired wealth2 that he must first win success for himself1 and that he can then help others4 ,and1 unless his character is like pasture-grown oak1 he follows and improves upon their teachings4 ,he reverses the sequence of functions4 ,he puts acquisitiveness first and right and sterling honesty and unselfishness second4 ,for a score or more of years he labors4 ,at first he honestly intends to build up a strong character and a generous nature just as soon as he can afford to2 but for the present he cannot afford it4 ,if he is to succeed1 he must do as others do and walk in the beaten track4 ,he wins wealth and position1 or learning and fame4 ,he now has the ability and means to help others1 but he no longer cares to do so4 ,loyalty to truth1 sterling honesty--the genuine1 not the conventional counterfeit--unselfishness1 in one word1 character1 these are plants of slow growth4 ,they require cultivation by habit through long years4 ,in his case they have become aborted and incapable of rejuvenescence4 ,but his rudiment of a moral nature feels twinges of remorse4 ,he ought not to have reversed the sequence of functions1 and he knows it4 ,but he cannot retrace his steps4 ,he made the development of character impossible when he made wealth his first and chief aim4 ,if he has a million dollars he tries to insure his soul by leaving in his will one-tenth to build a church1 or1 possibly1 one-half for foreign missions4 ,in the latter case he will be held up as a shining example to all the youth of the land1 and the churches will ring with his praises4 ,but what has been the effect of his life on the moral1 social capital of the community8 ,is the world better or worse for his life8 ,he has all his life been disseminating the germs of a soul-blight more infectious and deadly than any bodily disease4 ,if he has made learning or fame his chief aim1 he probably has not the money to buy soul-insurance4 ,he takes refuge in agnosticism1 like an ostrich in a bush4 ,his agnosticism is in his will2 he does not wish to see4 ,or its cause is atrophy1 through disuse1 of moral vision4 ,he cannot see4 ,there are agnostics of quite another stamp1 whom we must respect and honor for their sterling honesty and high character1 though we may have little respect for their philosophical tenets4 ,but how much has our scholar advanced the morality of the community8 ,he has probably done even more harm than the business man1 who is a mere covetous machine4 ,the practical man has reversed the sequence of functions4 ,character is1 and must be1 first2 and wealth1 learning1 power1 and fame are the materials1 often exceedingly refractory1 which it must subjugate to its growth and use4 ,and this subjugation is anything but easy4 ,the reversal of the sequence results in a moral degradation and poverty indefinitely more dangerous to the community than the slums of our great cities4 ,for these may be controlled and cleansed2 but the moral slum floods our legislatures and positions of honor and trust1 and invades the churches4 ,the mental and moral water-supply of the community is loaded with disease-germs4 ,the social wealth of a community is the sum total of the wealth of its individual members4 ,and a community is truly wealthy only when this wealth is1 to a certain extent1 diffused4 ,if there is any truth in our argument that the sequence of functions culminates in righteousness and unselfishness1 the real social wealth of a community consists in its moral character1 not in its money1 or even in its intelligence4 ,we may rest assured that character1 resulting in industry and economy1 will bring sufficient means of subsistence1 so that all its members will be fed and housed and clothed4 ,and art and culture1 of the most ennobling and inspiring sort1 will surely follow4 ,and even if such literature failed as largely composes our present fin-de-sicle garbage-heap1 we would not regret its absence4 ,that community will and must survive in which the largest proportion of members make the accumulation of character their chief and first aim4 ,and to this community every rival must in time yield its place and power1 and all its acquisitions4 ,and in every advancing community the position of any class or profession will in time be determined by its moral wealth4 ,but this moral wealth is intangible4 ,the rewards and penalties of moral law easily escape notice in our hasty and superficial study of life4 ,the ,god immanent in our environment often seems to hide himself4 ,the altar of ,jehovah is fallen down1 and ,baal's temples are crowded with loud-mouthed worshippers4 ,the bribes of present enjoyment and of immediate success loom up before us1 and we doubt if any other success is possible4 ,but the law of progress1 even now so dimly discernible in environment1 is written in our minds in letters of fire4 ,for we have already seen that environment can be understood only by tracing its effects in the development of life4 ,what is best and highest in us is the record of the working of what is best and highest in environment4 ,and the personal ,god so dimly seen in environment is revealed in man's soul4 ,man must study himself1 if he is to know what environment requires of him4 ,and if the knowledge of himself and of the laws of his being is the highest knowledge1 is not the vision of1 and struggle toward1 higher attainments1 not yet realized and hence necessarily foreseen1 the only mode of farther progress8 ,and what is this pursuit of1 and devotion to1 ideals not yet realized and but dimly foreseen1 if it is not ,faith1 the substance of things hoped for1 and evidence of things not seen8 ,by it alone can man obtain a good report4 ,man must walk by faith1 not by sight4 ,for the things which are seen are temporal1 but the things which are not seen are eternal4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,man ,in ,kingsley's fascinating historical romance1 ,raphael ,aben-,ezra says to ,hypatia1 ,is it not possible that we have been so busy discussing what the philosopher should be1 that we have forgotten that he must first of all be a man8 ,this truth we too often forget4 ,no statesman1 philosopher1 least of all teacher1 can be truly great who is not1 first of all1 and above all1 a great man4 ,and in our study of man are we not prone to forget that he stands in certain very definite and close relations with surrounding nature8 ,man has been the object of so much special study1 his position1 owing to his higher moral and mental power1 is so unique that he has often been regarded not only as a special creation1 but as created to occupy a position not only unique1 but also exceptional1 above many of the very laws of nature1 and not bound by them4 ,many speak and write of him as if it were his chief glory and prerogative to be as far removed as possible1 not only from the animal1 but even from the whole realm of nature4 ,the mistake of making him an exception arises1 after all1 not so much from too high a conception of man1 at least of his possibilities1 as from too low a view of nature4 ,but however this view may have arisen1 it is one-sided and mistaken4 ,man certainly has a place in ,nature--not above it4 ,if he is the goal toward which the ascending series of living forms has continually tended1 he is a part of the series--the real goal lies far above him4 ,pascal says1 ,it is dangerous to show a man too clearly how closely he resembles the brute without showing him at the same time his greatness4 ,it is equally dangerous to impress upon him his greatness without his lowliness4 ,it is still more dangerous to leave him in ignorance of both4 ,but it is of great advantage to point out to him both characteristics side by side4 ,a great ,german thinker began his work on the human soul with a discussion of the law of gravitation4 ,all study of man must begin with the study of the atom4 ,man's life we have seen to be the aggregate of the work of all the cells of his body4 ,but the protoplasm which composes his cells is a chemical compound1 and hence subject to all the laws of all the atoms of which it is composed4 ,and its molecules1 or the smallest mechanically separable compounds of these atoms1 are arranged and related according to the laws of physics1 so as to permit or produce the play of certain forces which are always the result of atomic or molecular combination4 ,every motive or thought demands the combustion of a certain amount of material which has been already assimilated in the microscopic cellular laboratories of our body4 ,every vital activity is manifested at least through chemical and physical forces4 ,and the elements of the fuel for our engines we receive through plants from the inorganic world4 ,for the plant1 as we have seen1 stores up as potential energy in its compounds the actual energy of the sun's rays4 ,and thus man lives and thinks by energy1 obtained originally from the sun4 ,but man not only consumes food and fuel4 ,the complicated protoplasm is continually wearing out and being replaced4 ,every cell in our bodies is a centre toward which particles of material stream to be assimilated and form for a time a part of the living substance1 and then to be cast out again as dead matter4 ,our very existence depends upon this continual change4 ,there is synthesis of simple substances into more complex compounds1 and then analysis of these complex compounds into simpler1 and from this latter process results the energy manifested in every vital action4 ,we are all whirlpools on the surface of nature2 when the whirling ceases we disappear4 ,man1 like every other living being1 exists in a condition of constant interchange with surrounding nature2 he is rooted in innumerable ways in the inorganic world4 ,and because of these close relations the great characteristic of living beings is the necessity and power of conformity to environment4 ,hence a very common definition of life is the continual adjustment of internal relations to external relations or conditions4 ,to a very slight extent man can rise superior to certain of the ruder elements of his surroundings1 but he gains this victory only by learning and following the laws of the very environment which he succeeds in subjecting to himself4 ,indeed his higher development and finer build bring him into touch with an indefinitely wider range of surroundings than even the lower animal4 ,forces1 conditions1 and relations which never enter the sphere of life of lower forms1 crowd and press upon him and he cannot escape them4 ,his higher position1 instead of freeing him from dependence upon environment and subjection to law1 makes him thus more sensitive1 as well as more capable of exact conformity to an environment of almost infinite complexity2 and more sure of absolute ruin1 if ignorant1 negligent1 or disobedient4 ,the words of the ,german poet are literally true3 ,nach ehernen1 eisernen1 grossen ,gesetzen1 ,mssen wir alle unseres ,daseins ,kreise vollenden4 ,but man is an animal4 ,and the principal characteristic of an animal is that it eats a certain amount of solid food4 ,the plant lives on fluid nutriment1 and this comes to it by the process of diffusion in every drop of water and breath of air4 ,the acquisition of food requires no effort1 and the plant makes none4 ,it has therefore always remained stationary and almost insensible4 ,not taking the first step it has never taken any of the higher ones4 ,but solid food would not1 as a rule1 come to the animal--though stationary and sessile animals are not uncommon in the water--he must go in search of it4 ,this called into play the powers of locomotion and perception4 ,and in the sequence of function we have seen digestion calling for the development of muscle2 and muscle1 of nerve and brain4 ,and the brain became the organ of mind4 ,man as a mere animal is necessarily active and energetic2 otherwise he stagnates and degenerates4 ,labor is a curse1 but work a blessing2 and man's best work1 of every kind1 is done in the friction of life1 not in ease and quiet4 ,man is1 further1 a being composed of cells1 tissues1 and organs1 which were successively developed for him by the lower animal kingdoms4 ,the old view1 that man was the microcosm1 had in it a certain amount of every important truth4 ,we need to be continually reminded of our indebtedness in a thousand ways to the lowest and most insignificant forms of life4 ,man is a vertebrate animal4 ,this means that he has a locomotive1 not protective1 skeleton1 composed of cartilage--a tough1 elastic1 organic material1 hardened1 as a rule1 by the deposition of mineral salts1 mainly phosphate of lime1 in exceedingly fine particles1 so as to form a homogeneous1 flawless1 elastic1 tough1 light1 and unyielding skeleton1 held together by firm ligaments4 ,the skeleton is internal1 and this fact1 as we have seen1 gives the possibility of large size4 ,and size is in itself no unimportant factor4 ,professor ,lotze maintains that without man's size and strength1 agriculture and the working of metals1 and thus all civilization1 would have been impossible4 ,but we have already seen that there is an extreme of size1 e4g41 in the elephant1 which makes its possessor clumsy1 able to exist only where there are large amounts of food in limited areas1 slow to reproduce1 and lacking in adaptability4 ,this extreme also is avoided in man2 in this1 as in many other particulars1 he holds the golden mean4 ,but we have also seen that large size is1 as a rule1 correlated with long life and great opportunity for experience and observation4 ,and these are the foundations of intelligence4 ,hence the deliverance of the higher vertebrate1 and especially of man1 from any iron-bound subjection to instinct4 ,and here another question of vital importance meets us4 ,is man's life at present as long as it should or can be8 ,the question is exceedingly difficult1 but a negative answer seems more probable4 ,we cannot but hope that1 with a better knowledge of our physical structure1 a clearer vision of the dangers to which we are exposed1 more study of the laws of physiology1 heredity1 and of our environment1 and above all1 less reckless disregard of these in a mad pursuit of pleasure1 wealth1 and position1 man's period of mature1 healthy1 and best activity may be lengthened1 perhaps1 even a score of years4 ,the mitigation of hurry and worry alone1 the two great curses of our ,american civilization1 might postpone the collapse of our nervous systems longer than we even dream4 ,and if we could add even five years to the working life of our statesmen1 scholars1 and discoverers1 the work of these last five years1 with the advantage of all previously acquired knowledge and experience1 might be of more value than that of their whole previous life4 ,human advance could not but be greatly1 or even vastly1 accelerated4 ,moreover1 we have seen that the history of vertebrates is really the history of the development of the cerebrum1 forebrain or large brain1 as we call it in man4 ,this is the seat in man of consciousness1 thought1 and will4 ,this portion as a distinct and new lobe first appears in lowest vertebrates1 increases steadily in size from class to class1 reaches its most rapid development by mammals1 and its culmination in man4 ,during the tertiary period--the last of the great geological periods--the brain in many groups of mammals increased in size1 both absolutely and relatively1 eight to tenfold4 ,dr4 ,holmes says1 that the education of a child should begin a century or two before its birth2 man really began his mental education at least as early as the appearance of vertebrate life4 ,but man is a mammal4 ,this means that every organ is at its best4 ,the digestive system1 while making but a small part of the weight of the body1 and built mainly on the old plan1 is wonderfully perfect in its microscopic details4 ,the muscles are heavy and powerful1 arranged with the weight near the axis of the body1 and replaced near the ends of the appendages by light1 tough sinews4 ,the higher mammal is this compact1 light1 and agile4 ,the skeleton is strong1 and the levers of the appendages are fitted to give rapidity of motion even at the expense of strength4 ,and this again is possible only because of the high development and strength of the muscles4 ,moreover1 the highest mammals are largely arboreal1 and in connection with this habit have changed the foreleg into an arm and hand4 ,the latter became the servant of the brain and gave the possibility of using tools4 ,but increase in size and activity1 and the expense of producing each new individual1 led to the adoption of placental development4 ,and the mammal is so complex1 the road from the egg to the fully developed young is so long1 that a long period of gestation is necessary4 ,and even at birth the brain1 especially of man1 is anything but complete4 ,hence the necessity of the mammalian habit of suckling and caring for the young4 ,and this feebleness and dependence of the young had begun far below man to draw out maternal tenderness and affection4 ,and the mammalian mode of reproduction and care of young led to a more marked difference and interdependence between the sexes4 ,the result of this is man's family life1 as ,mr4 ,john ,fiske has shown so beautifully in that fascinating monograph1 ,the ,destiny of ,man4 ,and family life once introduced becomes the foundation and bulwark of all civilization1 morality1 and religion4 ,far down in the mammalian series1 before the development of the family1 maternal education has become prominent1 and the young begins life1 benefited by the experiences of the parent4 ,how much more efficient is this in family life4 ,but1 furthermore1 the family is perhaps the first1 certainly the most important1 of those higher unities in which men are bound together4 ,social life of a sort undoubtedly existed1 before man1 among birds1 insects1 and lower mammals4 ,the community was often defective or incomplete in unity1 or existed under such limitations that it could not show its best results1 but that it was of vast benefit from an even higher than mere physical standpoint1 no one will1 ,i think1 deny4 ,but with the family a new era of education and social life began4 ,first of all1 the struggle for existence is thereby greatly modified and mitigated4 ,this crowding out and trampling down of the weaker by the stronger is transferred1 to a certain extent1 from the individual to the family and1 in great degree1 from the family to larger and larger social units4 ,for within the limits of the family competition tends to be replaced by mutual helpfulness1 and not only are the loneliness and horror of the struggle between isolated individuals banished1 but1 what is vastly more1 the family becomes the school of unselfishness and love4 ,and what has thus become true of the single family1 and groups of nearly related families1 is slowly being realized in the larger units of communities and states4 ,for1 as families and communities are just as really organisms as are the individual men and women1 whose soundness depends upon the healthy activity of every organ1 so there is a survival1 first of families1 then of communities and rival civilizations1 in proportion to their unity and soundness in every part4 ,for on account of the close bonds of family and social life1 and in connection with the development of articulate speech1 a new kind of heredity1 so to speak1 arises1 of vast importance for both good and evil4 ,this mental and moral heredity1 over-leaping all boundaries of blood and natural kinship1 spreads light and good influence or an immoral contagion through the community4 ,and thus1 in sheer self-defence1 society passes laws setting limits to the oppression of the poor and weak1 lest1 degraded and brutalized1 they become breeding centres of physical and moral disease in the community4 ,the positive lesson that the surest mode of self-defence is the elevation of these submerged classes1 we are just beginning to learn and apply4 ,by the ever-increasing acceleration of the development the gap between man and the lower animal widens with wonderful rapidity4 ,of course it is only in man1 and higher man1 that these last and highest results of mammalian structure appear4 ,but that1 far removed as they are1 they are the results of mammalian and vertebrate characteristics cannot1 ,i think1 be well denied4 ,and this is only one of innumerably possible illustrations of the fact that all our most highly prized institutions are rooted far back in our ancestry1 often ineradicably in the very organs of our bodies4 ,and thus evolution1 which many view only from its radical side--and it has a radical side--is really the conservative bulwark of all that is essentially worth possessing in the past4 ,but every factor in man's development tends toward intellectual and spiritual development4 ,man's vast increase of brain2 his finely balanced body2 his upright gait2 setting his hands free from the work of locomotion that they might become the skilful servants of the mind2 finally1 articulate speech and social1 and1 above all1 family1 life1 all tended in this same direction4 ,and this makes the great difficulty in assigning man his proper place in our systems of classification4 ,our zological classifications depend upon anatomical characteristics2 and anatomically man belongs among the order primates4 ,but mental and moral values cannot be expressed in terms of anatomy1 any more than we can speak of an idea of so many horse-power1 and hence worth three or four ancestral dollars4 ,hence1 while from the zological standpoint man is a primate1 and while he is very probably descended from one of these1 he has gradually risen above them mentally and spiritually1 so that he stands as far above them as they above the lowest worm4 ,and this leads us to the consideration of man1 not merely as a mammal1 but as ,anthropos1 ,homo sapiens1 although he often degenerates into ,simia destructor4 ,from what has just been said man's pre-eminence cannot consist in any anatomical characteristic1 even of the brain--much less of thumb1 forefinger1 hand1 or foot4 ,but man's mental and moral characteristics 7even though germs of these may be present in the animal71 whether differing in degree or kind from theirs1 raise his life to a totally different plane4 ,he lives in an environment of which the lower animal is as unconscious and ignorant as we of a fourth dimension of space4 ,he has the knowledge of abstract truth and goodness1 of certain standards outside of mere appetite and desire1 and feels and acknowledges1 however dimly1 the requirement and the ability to conform his life to these standards4 ,he alone can say ,i ought1 and answer ,i can and will4 ,and hence man alone actually lives in an environment of the laws of reason1 responsibility1 and personality4 ,whatever germs of these higher powers the animal possesses are means to material ends1 to the physical life of the animal4 ,in man the long and slow evolution has ended in revolution1 the material and physical have been dethroned1 and truth and goodness reign supreme as ends in themselves4 ,but1 you may object1 this definition of man may be true ideally1 certainly it is not true actually4 ,where are the high ideals of truth and goodness in the savage8 and are these the supreme ends of even the average ,american of to-day8 ,but allowing all weight to this objection1 does it not remain true that a being who never says ,i ought1 who acknowledges and manifests no responsibility1 to whom goodness does not appeal1 and in whom these feelings cannot be awakened1 is either not yet or no longer man8 ,but far more than this1 if the character of the individual is to be judged by his tendency more than his present condition1 by the way in which he is going more than his momentary position1 is not the race to be judged and defined by a tendency1 gradually though very slowly becoming realized1 and a goal1 toward which it looks and which it is surely attaining1 rather than by its present realization8 ,as we rise higher in the animal kingdom the characteristics of the successive higher groups are more and more slow of attainment and difficult of realization1 just because of their grander possibilities4 ,and this is true and important above all in the case of man4 ,his possibilities are beyond our powers of conception1 for1 if you will1 man is yet only larval man4 ,we have followed the sequence of functions to its culmination in a mind completely dominated by righteousness and unselfishness1 however far above our present attainments this goal may be4 ,we have found that all attempts to reverse this sequence end in death or degeneration4 ,failure to advance1 especially in higher forms1 results in extinction or retrogression4 ,we cannot stand still4 ,each higher step is longer and more important than any preceding2 each last step is essential to life4 ,righteousness in the will is the last step essential to man's progress4 ,and if a sound mind in a sound body is important or necessary1 a sound will1 resolutely set on right1 is absolutely essential4 ,failure to attain this is ruin4 ,and man can to a great extent place himself so that his surroundings shall aid him to take this last1 essential1 upward step4 ,he does this by the choice of his associates4 ,if he associates himself with men who are tending upward1 he will rise ever higher4 ,if he choose the opposite kind of associates he must sink into ever deeper degradation2 he has thereby chosen death4 ,for his associates1 once chosen1 make him like themselves4 ,and thus natural selection makes for the survival of those men who resolutely choose life4 ,and thoughtless or careless failure to choose is ruin4 ,the man has preferred degradation2 it is only right that he should have it to satiety4 ,but man is not1 and never can be1 pure spirit4 ,he may let the ape and tiger die1 but he must always retain the animal with its natural appetites4 ,moreover1 his higher mental capacities increase their power4 ,memory recalls past gratifications as it never does to the animal2 imagination paints before him vivid pictures of similar future enjoyments1 and mental keenness and strength of will tell him that they can all be his4 ,but if he yields himself a slave to these appetites1 if he seeks to be an animal rather than a spiritual being1 he becomes not an animal but a brute2 and the only genuine brute is a degenerate man4 ,and thus after conquering the world man's very structure compels him to join battle with himself4 ,for here1 as everywhere else1 to attempt to go backward to a plane of life once passed is to surely degenerate4 ,the time when the prize of pre-eminence could be won by mere physical superiority was passed before man had a history4 ,physical superiority must be maintained1 and every advance in art and science1 considered here as ministering to man's physical comfort1 is advantageous just so far as these allow man freedom and aid to pursue the mental and moral line which is the only true path left open to him4 ,but when even these are allowed to minister only to the animal1 or to tempt to luxurious ease and indifference to any higher aims1 in a word1 in so far as they fail to minister to mental and moral advancement1 they are in great danger of becoming1 if they have not already become1 a curse rather than a blessing4 ,and we all know that this has been proven over and over again in human history4 ,families1 cities1 and nations rot1 mainly because they cannot resist the seductions of an overwhelming material prosperity4 ,a man says to his soul1 ,take thine ease1 eat1 drink and be merry1 and to that man scripture and science say1 with equal emphasis1 ,thou fool6 ,every upward step in attainment of the comforts of life1 of art and science1 brings man into new fields not of careless enjoyment but of struggle4 ,they swarm with new enemies and temptations before unknown4 ,the new attainments are not unalloyed blessings1 they are merely opportunities for victory or defeat4 ,the uncertain battle is only shifted to a little higher plane4 ,man has increased the forces at his command only to meet stronger opposing hosts4 ,and retreat is impossible4 ,man remains a spiritual being only on condition that he resolutely and vigilantly purposes to be so4 ,to lag behind in this spiritual path is death4 ,and the epitaph of nations and individuals is the record of their defeat in this struggle to be masters and not slaves of their material and intellectual attainments4 ,greece1 the most intellectual of all nations of all times1 died in mental senility of moral paralysis4 ,of ,socrates's and ,plato's following after truth nothing remained but the gossipy curiosity of a second childhood1 living only to tell or to hear some new thing4 ,and the schools of philosophy were closed because they had nothing to tell which was worth the knowing or hearing4 ,all the wealth of the world was poured into ,rome1 the home of ,stoic philosophy1 and it was smothered1 and died in rottenness under its material prosperity4 ,a family1 race1 or nation starts out fresh in its youthful physical and mental vigor and strict obedience to moral law and in its faith in ,god4 ,for these reasons it survives in the struggle for existence4 ,it grows in extent and power1 in intelligence and wealth4 ,but with this increase in wealth and power comes a deadening of the mind to the claims of moral law1 and an idolatrous worship of material prosperity4 ,the new generation looks upon the stern morality and industry and self-control of its ancestors as straight-laced and narrow4 ,morality may not be unfashionable1 but any stern rebuke of immorality is not conventional4 ,strong moral earnestness and whole-souled loyalty to truth are not in good form4 ,wealth and social position become the chief ends of men's efforts1 and1 to buy these1 unselfishness and truth and self-respect are bartered away4 ,luxury1 enervation1 and effeminacy are rife1 and snobbery follows close behind them4 ,the ancestral vigor1 the insight to recognize great moral principles1 and the power to gladly hazard all in their defence have disappeared in a mist of indifference1 which beclouds the eyes and benumbs all the powers4 ,the race of giants is dwindling into dwarfs4 ,they say1 when the time comes1 we will rouse ourselves and be like our fathers4 ,and the crisis comes1 but they are not equal to it4 ,the nation has long enough cumbered the ground1 it has already died by suicide and must now give place to a race and civilization which has some aim in1 and hence right to1 existence1 and which is of some use to itself and others4 ,if we would learn by observation1 and not by sad experience1 we must remember that man is above all1 and must be a religious being conforming to the personality of the ,god manifested in his environment4 ,can you find anywhere a more profound or scientific philosophy of history than that of ,paul in the first chapter of ,romans8 ,for the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen1 being perceived through the things that are made1 even his everlasting power and divinity2 so that they are without excuse3 because that1 knowing ,god1 they glorified him not as ,god1 neither gave thanks2 but became vain in their reasonings and their senseless heart was darkened4 ,professing themselves to be wise1 they became fools4 ,and even as they refused to have ,god in their knowledge1 ,god gave them up to a reprobate mind1 to do those things which are not fitting2 being filled with all unrighteousness4,a ,and then follows the dark picture1 from which we revolt but which the ancient historians themselves justify4 ,footnote ,a3 ,romans i4 #bj-bb1 #bh4 ,on the ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel at ,rome is ,michel ,angelo's marvellous painting of the creation of ,adam4 ,a human figure of magnificent strength is half-rising from its recumbent posture1 as if just awakening to consciousness1 and is reaching out its hand to touch the outstretched finger of ,god4 ,the human being became and becomes man when1 and in proportion as1 he puts himself in touch with ,god1 and is inspired with the divine life4 ,the lower animal conformed mainly to the material in environment1 man conforms consciously to the spiritual and personal4 ,any science of human history that does not acknowledge man's relation to a personal ,god is fatally incomplete2 for it has missed the goal of man's development and the chief means of his farther advance4 ,and a religion which does not emphasize this is worse than a broken reed4 ,it is a mirage of the desert1 toward which thirsty souls run only to die unsatisfied4 ,man can never overcome in this battle with the allurements of material prosperity and with the pride and selfishness of intellect1 except as he is interpenetrated and permeated with ,god1 any more than we can move or think1 unless our blood is charged with the oxygen of the air4 ,it is not enough that man have ,god in his intellectual creed2 he must have him in his heart and will1 in every fibre of his personality1 in every thought and action of life4 ,otherwise his defeat and ruin are sure4 ,three fatal heresies are abroad to-day3 #a4 ,man's chief end is avoidance of pain and discomfort1 in one word1 happiness2 and ,god is somehow bound to surfeit man with this4 ,and this is the chief end of a mollusk4 #b4 ,man's chief end is material prosperity and social position4 #c4 ,man's chief end is intellect1 knowledge4 ,each one of these three ends1 while good in a subordinate place1 will surely ruin man if made his chief end4 ,for they leave out of account conformity to environment4 ,man's chief end is to glorify ,god and enjoy him for ever4 ,and just as the plant glorifies the sun by turning to1 and being permeated and vivified and built up by1 the warmth and light of its rays1 similarly man must glorify ,god4 ,this is the religion of conformity to environment3 man working out his salvation because ,god works in him4 ,thus1 and thus only1 shall man overcome the allurements of these lower endowments and receive the rewards of him that overcometh4 ,thus prosperity and adversity1 success and failure1 continually test a man4 ,if he can rise superior to these1 can subjugate them and make them subserve his moral progress1 he survives2 if he is mastered by them1 he perishes4 ,through these does natural selection mainly work to find and train great souls4 ,they are the threads of the sieve of destiny4 ,in this struggle man must fight against overwhelming odds1 and the cost of victory is dear4 ,he must be prepared1 like ,socrates1 to bid farewell to those things which most men count honors1 and look onward to the truth4 ,he appears to the world at large1 often to himself1 eminently unpractical4 ,the majority against his view and vote will usually be overwhelming4 ,truth is a stern goddess1 and she will often bid him draw sword and stand against his nearest and dearest friends4 ,the issue will often appear to him exceeding doubtful4 ,the grander the truth for which he is fighting1 the greater the need of its defence and enforcement1 the greater the probability that he will never live to see its triumph4 ,the hero must be a man of gigantic faith4 ,but all his ancestors have had to make a similar choice and to fight a similar battle4 ,the upward path was intended to be exceedingly hard4 ,this is a law of biology4 ,why this is so ,i may not know4 ,i only know that no better and surer way could have been discovered to train a race of heroes4 ,for no man ever becomes a hero who has not learned to battle with the world and himself4 ,does it not look as if ,god loved a heroic soul as much as men worship one1 and as if he intended that man should attain to it8 ,man was born and bred in hardship that he might be a hero4 ,careless seems the great avenger2 history's pages but record ,one death-grapple in the darkness 'twixt old systems and the word2 ,truth forever on the scaffold1 ,wrong forever on the throne1 ,yet that scaffold sways the future1 and behind the dim unknown ,standeth ,god within the shadow1 keeping watch above his own4 ,then to side with ,truth is noble when we share her wretched crust1 ,ere her cause bring fame and profit1 and 'tis prosperous to be just2 ,then it is the brave man chooses1 while the coward stands aside1 ,doubting in his abject spirit1 till his ,lord is crucified1 ,and the multitude make virtue of the faith they had denied4 ,the ,crown ,prince of ,prussia has less spending money than many a young fellow in ,berlin4 ,he is trained to economy1 industry1 self-control4 ,he is to learn something better than habits of luxury1 to rule himself1 and thus later the ,german ,empire4 ,the children of a great captain1 themselves to be soldiers1 must endure hardness like good soldiers4 ,and man is to fight his way to a throne4 ,but his powers are still in their infancy and the goal far above him4 ,what he is to become you and ,i can hardly appreciate4 ,first of all1 the body will become finer1 fitted for nobler ends4 ,it will not be allowed to degenerate4 ,it may become less fitted for the rough work1 which can be done by machinery2 it will be all the better for higher uses4 ,it is to be transformed1 transfigured4 ,the eye may not see so far1 it will be better fitted for perceiving all the beauties of art and nature4 ,it will become a better means of expressing personality1 as our personality becomes more fit to be seen4 ,it is continually gaining a speech of its own4 ,and will not the ear become more delicate1 a better instrument for responding to the finest harmonies1 and better gateway to our highest feelings8 ,we may not have so many molar teeth for chewing food1 but may not our mouths become ever finer instruments for speech and song8 ,in other words1 the body is to be transfigured by the mind and become its worthy servant and representative4 ,as we learn to live for something better than food and clothes1 and cease to pamper the body1 it will become better and healthier4 ,science will stamp out many diseases1 and we shall learn to prevent others by right living4 ,and what a change in our moral and religious life will be made by good health4 ,what a cheerful courage and hope it will give4 ,man will become more intelligent4 ,he will learn the laws of heredity and of life in general4 ,he will see deeper into the relations of things4 ,he will recognize in himself and his environment the laws of progress4 ,he will clearly discern great moral truths1 where we but dimly see lights and shadows4 ,but while we would not underestimate the value and necessity of growth in knowledge1 we must as clearly recognize that the intellect is not the centre and essence of man's being4 ,knowledge1 while the surest form of wealth of which no one can rob us1 and the best as the stepping-stone to the highest well-being1 is like wealth in one respect3 it is not character and can be used for good or evil4 ,if my neighbor uses his greater knowledge as a means of overreaching us all1 it injures us and ruins him4 ,our emotions1 and this is but another word for our motives1 stand far nearer to the centre of life2 for they control our conduct and directly determine what we are4 ,knowledge of environment is good1 but of what real and permanent use is such knowledge without conformity8 ,our real weakness is not our ignorance2 we know the good1 but lack the will and purpose to live it out4 ,and this is because the thought of truth and goodness excites no such strength of feeling as that of some lower gratification4 ,we cannot perhaps overrate the value of intellect2 we certainly underrate the value of emotion and feeling4 ,knowledge puffeth up1 love buildeth4 ,it does not require great intellect1 it does require intense feeling to be a hero4 ,we slander the emotions by calling people emotional because they are always talking about their feelings2 but deep feeling is always silent4 ,it is not fashionable to feel deeply1 and we are dwarfed by this conventionality4 ,we have almost ceased to wonder1 and hence we have almost ceased to learn2 for the wise old ,greeks knew that wonder is the mother of wisdom4 ,the man of the future will probably be a man of strong appetites1 for he will be healthy2 he will be prudent1 because wise2 but he will hold his appetites well in leash4 ,he will trample upon mere prudential considerations at the call of truth or right4 ,for in him these highest motives will be absolute monarchs1 and they are the only motives which can enable a man to face rack and stake without flinching4 ,he will be a hero because he feels intensely4 ,in other words1 he will be a man of gigantic will1 because he has a great heart4 ,and in the man of the future all these powers will be not only highly developed2 they will be rightly proportioned and duly subordinated4 ,he will be a well-balanced man4 ,but how few complete men we now see4 ,we see the strong will without the clear intellect to guide it2 the gush of feeling either directed toward low ends or evaporating in sentiment2 the clear head with the cold heart4 ,the high development of one mental power seems to draw away all strength and vitality from the rest4 ,how rarely do we find the strong will guided by the keen intellect toward the highest aims clearly discerned4 ,memory and imagination must always play their part in the joy set before us4 ,but in addition to all these1 the white heat of feeling1 of which man alone is capable1 is necessary for his grandest efforts4 ,such a being would be a man born to be a king4 ,and there will be a race of such men4 ,and we must play the man that they may be raised upon our buried shoulders4 ,and they will tower above us1 as the seers of old in ,judea1 ,athens1 ,india1 and ,rome towered above their indolent1 luxurious1 blind1 and material contemporaries4 ,and with all their accelerated development1 infinite possibilities will still stretch beyond the reach of their imagination4 ,for men follow duty1 never overtake4 ,but all our analyses are unsatisfactory4 ,in the history of any great people there is a period when they seem to rise above themselves4 ,they have the strength of giants1 and accomplish things before and since impossible4 ,we sometimes ascribe these results to the exuberant vitality of the race at this time2 and their life is large and grand4 ,such was ,england under ,elizabeth4 ,think of her soldiers and explorers1 her statesmen and poets4 ,there were giants in those days4 ,what a healthy1 hearty enjoyment they showed in all their work1 and with what ease was the impossible accomplished4 ,the greater the hardships to be borne or odds to be faced1 the greater the joy in overcoming them4 ,they sailed out to give battle to the superior power of ,spain1 not at the command1 but by the permission1 of their queen2 often without even this4 ,and what a vigor and vitality there is in the literature of this period4 ,life is worth living1 and studying1 and describing4 ,they see the world directly as it is2 not some distorted picture of it1 seen by an unhealthy mind and drawn by a feeble hand4 ,the world is ever new and fresh to them because they see it through young1 clear eyes4 ,were they giants or are we dwarfed8 ,which of the two lives is normal8 ,they used all their faculties and utilized all their powers4 ,do we8 ,the only force or product which we are willing to see wasted is the highest mental and moral power4 ,our engines and turbine wheels utilize the last ounce of pressure of the steam or water4 ,the manufacturers pay high wages to hands who can tend machines run at the highest possible speed4 ,the profits of modern business come largely from the utilization of force or products formerly wasted4 ,but how far do we utilize the highest faculties of the mind1 which have to do with character1 the crowning glory of human development8 ,are we not eminently penny-wise and pound-foolish8 ,a ship which uses only its donkey-engines1 and does nothing but take in and get out cargo is a dismantled hulk4 ,a captain who thinks only of cargo1 and engines1 and the length of the daily run1 but who takes no observations and consults no chart1 will make land only to run upon rocks4 ,are we not too much like such dismantled hulks1 or ships sailing with priceless cargoes but with mad captains8 ,but we have not yet seen the worst results of this waste of our highest powers4 ,the sessile animal1 which lives mainly for digestion1 does not attain as good digestive organs as his more active neighbor1 who subordinates digestion to muscle4 ,lower powers reach their highest development only in proportion as they are strictly subordinated to higher4 ,this may be called a law of biology4 ,and our lower mental powers fail of their highest development and capacity mainly because of the lack of this subordination4 ,but a disused organ is very likely to become a seat of disease and to thus enfeeble or destroy the whole body4 ,and this disease effects the most complete ruin when its seat is in the highest organs4 ,dyspepsia is bad enough1 but mania or idiocy is infinitely worse4 ,and our moral powers are always enfeebled1 and often diseased1 from lack of strong exercise4 ,and some blind guides1 seeing only the disease1 cry out for the extirpation of the whole faculty1 as some physicians are said to propose the removal of the vermiform appendage in children4 ,similarly might the drunkard argue against the value of brain1 because it aches after a debauch4 ,our work is hard labor1 and we gain no enjoyment in the use of our mental powers2 for the enjoyment of any activity is proportional to the height and glory of the purpose for which it is employed4 ,as long as we are content to use only our lower mental faculties and to gain low ends1 our use of even these will be feeble and ineffectual1 and our lives will be poor1 weak1 and unhappy4 ,but future man will subordinate these lower powers to the higher4 ,he will utilize all that there is in him4 ,and his efficiency must be vastly greater than ours4 ,and finally1 and most important1 these men will be all-powerful1 because they have so conformed to environment that all its forces combine to work with them4 ,england under ,elizabeth seemed to rise above itself4 ,think of ,holland1 under ,william the ,silent1 defying all the power of ,spain4 ,look at ,bohemia1 under ,ziska1 a handful of peasants joining battle with and defeating ,germany and ,austria combined4 ,think of ,cromwell and his ,ironsides1 before whom ,europe trembled4 ,these men were not merely giants1 they were heroes4 ,and the essence of heroism is self-forgetfulness4 ,the last thought of ,william the ,silent was not for himself1 but for his poor people4 ,and those rugged ,ironsides1 fighting with their hands and praying with their hearts1 smote with light good-will and irresistibly1 because they struck for truth and freedom1 for right and ,god4 ,these are motives of incalculable strength1 and they transfigure a man and raise him above his surroundings and even himself4 ,the man becomes heroic and godlike1 and when possessed by these motives he has clasped hands with ,god4 ,he is inspired and infused with the divine power and life4 ,such a man has no time nor care to think of himself4 ,to him it matters little whether he lives to see the triumph of his cause1 provided he can hasten it4 ,though victory be in the future1 it is sure2 and the joy of battle for so sure and grand a triumph is present reward enough4 ,his very faith removes mountains and turns to night armies of the aliens4 ,for heroism begets faith1 just as surely as faith begets heroism4 ,where there is no vision the people perish4 ,when the member of ,congress can see nothing higher than spoils of office1 nothing larger than a silver dollar1 you should not criticise the poor man if his oratorical efforts do not move an audience like the sayings of ,webster1 ,lincoln1 or ,phillips4 ,future man will be heroic and divine1 because he will live in an atmosphere of truth and right and ,god1 and will be consciously inspired by these divine1 omnipotent motives4 ,but who will compose this future race8 ,we cannot tell4 ,and yet the attempt to answer the question may open our eyes to truth of great practical importance4 ,it would seem to be a fact that the offspring of a cross between different races of the same species is as a rule more vigorous than that of either pure race4 ,human history seems to show the same result4 ,the ,english race is a mixture of ,celts1 ,anglo-,saxons1 ,danes1 and ,normans1 with a sprinkling of other races4 ,and a new fusion of a great number of most diverse strains is rapidly going on in the newly populated portions of ,america and in ,australia4 ,the mixture contains thus far almost purely occidental races4 ,it will in future almost certainly contain oriental also4 ,for the races of ,india1 ,japan1 and even ,china1 are no farther from us to-day than the ancestors of many of our occidental fellow-citizens were a century ago4 ,racial prejudices1 however strong1 weaken rapidly through intercourse and better acquaintance4 ,one of the grandest and least perceived results of missionary work is the preparation for this great fusion4 ,many races will undoubtedly go down before the advance of civilization and have no share in the future4 ,progress seems to be limited to the inhabitants of temperate zones2 and even here the weaker may be crowded out before the stronger rather than absorbed by them4 ,but many whom we now despise may have a larger inheritance in the future than we4 ,god is clearly showing us that we should not count any man1 much less any nation1 common or unclean4 ,and the laws of evolution give us a firm confidence that no good attained by any race or civilization will fail to be preserved in the future4 ,the forms which seem to us at any one time the highest are as a rule not the ancestors of the race of the future4 ,these highest forms are too much specialized1 and thus fitted to a narrow range of space1 time1 and general conditions2 when these change they pass away4 ,specialization is doubly dangerous when it follows a wrong line4 ,but whenever it is carried far enough to lead to a one-sided development1 it narrows the possibility of future advance2 for it neglects or crowds out or prevents the development of other powers essential to life4 ,the mollusk neglected nerve and muscle4 ,but the scholar may1 and often does1 cultivate the brain at the expense of the rest of the body until he and his descendants suffer1 and the family becomes extinct4 ,the young men of the nobility of wealth1 birth1 and fashion usually marry heiresses1 if they can4 ,but only in families of enormous wealth can there be more than one or two heiresses in the same generation4 ,she has very probably inherited a portion of her wealth from one or more extinct branches of the family4 ,moreover1 not to speak of other factors1 the labor and anxiety which have been essential to the accumulation and preservation of these great fortunes1 or the mode of life which has accompanied their use or abuse1 tend to diminish the number of children4 ,heiresses to very large fortunes usually therefore belong to families which are tending to sterility4 ,and this has very probably been no unimportant factor in the extinction of noble families4 ,a sound body contains many organs1 all of which must be sound4 ,and in a sound mind there is an even greater number of faculties1 all of which must be kept at a high grade of efficiency4 ,man is a marvellously complex being1 and more in danger of a narrow and one-sided development than any lower animal4 ,and it is very easy for a certain grade or class of society1 or for a whole race1 to become so specialized1 by the cultivation of only one set of faculties as to altogether prevent its giving birth to a complete humanity4 ,along certain broad lines the ,greeks and ,romans attained results never since equalled4 ,but their neglect of other1 even more important1 powers and attainments1 especially the moral and religious1 doomed them to a speedy decay4 ,the rude northern races were on the whole better and nobler1 and became heirs to ,greek art and letters1 and to ,roman law4 ,and this is another illustration of the advantage or necessity of the fusion of races4 ,to answer the question1 ,which stratum or class in the community or world at large is heir to the future8 we must seek the one which is still to a large extent generalized4 ,it must be maintaining1 in a sound body1 a steady1 even if slow1 advance of all the mental powers4 ,it will not be remarkable for the high development or lack of any quality or power2 it must have a fair amount of all of them well correlated4 ,it must be well balanced1 good all around1 as we say4 ,and this class is evidently neither the highest nor the lowest in the community1 but the common people1 whom ,god must have loved1 because he made so many of them4 ,they have1 as a rule1 fair-sized or large families4 ,their bodies are kept sound and vigorous by manual labor4 ,they are compelled to think on all sorts of questions and to solve them as best they can4 ,they have a healthy balance of mental faculties1 even if they are not very learned or artistic4 ,they are kept temperate because they cannot afford many luxuries4 ,their healthy life prevents an undue craving for them4 ,they help one another and cultivate unselfishness4 ,the good old word1 neighbor1 means something to them4 ,they have a sturdy morality1 and you can always rely upon them in great moral crises4 ,they are patriotic and public-spirited2 they have not so many1 or so enslaving1 selfish interests4 ,they have always been trained to self-sacrifice and the endurance of hardship2 and heroism is natural to them4 ,they have a strong will1 cultivated by the battle of daily life4 ,and among them religion never loses its hold4 ,but what of our tendencies to specialization in education and business8 ,are these wrong and injurious8 ,specialization1 like great wealth1 is a great danger and a fearful test of character4 ,it tends to narrowness4 ,if you will know everything about something1 you must make a great effort to know something about1 and have some interest in1 everything4 ,the great scholar is often anything but the large-minded1 whole-souled man which he might have become4 ,he has allowed himself to become absorbed in1 and fettered by1 his specialty until he can see and enjoy nothing outside of it4 ,there is no selfishness like that of learning4 ,we can accomplish nothing unless we concentrate our efforts upon a comparatively narrow line of work4 ,but this does not necessitate that our views should be narrow or our aims low4 ,teufelsdrckh may live on a narrow lane2 but his thoughts1 starting along the narrow lane1 lead him over the whole world4 ,the narrowness of our horizon is due to our near-sightedness4 ,but the only absolutely safe specialization is the highest possible development of our moral and religious powers4 ,for their cultivation only enlarges and strengthens all the other powers of body and mind4 ,but1 you will object1 does religion always broaden8 ,yes4 ,that which narrows is the base alloy of superstition4 ,but a religion which finds its goal and end in conformity to environment1 character1 and godlikeness can only broaden4 ,but there is the so-called breadth of the shallow mind which attempts to find room at the same time for things which are mutually exclusive4 ,god and ,baal1 right and wrong1 honesty and lying1 selfishness and love1 these are mutually exclusive4 ,you cannot find room in your mind for both members of the pair at the same time4 ,you must choose4 ,and1 when you have chosen1 abide by your choice4 ,a ladleful of thin dough fallen on the floor is very broad4 ,but its breadth is due to lack of consistency4 ,better narrowness than such breadth4 ,but while individual specialization may be safe for the individual1 and beneficial to the race1 the race which is to inherit the future must remain unspecialized4 ,it must not sacrifice future possibilities to present rapidity of advance4 ,and the common people are advancing safely1 slowly1 but surely4 ,wealth and learning become of permanent prospective and real value only when they are invested in the masses4 ,they are the final depositaries of all wealth--material1 intellectual1 moral1 and religious4 ,whatever1 and only that which1 becomes a part of their life becomes thereby endowed with immortality4 ,will we invest freely or will we wait to have that which we call our own wrested from us8 ,if we refuse it to our own kin and nation1 it will surely fall to foreigners4 ,god made great men to help little ones4 ,the city of ,god on earth is being slowly builded by the hands of selfish men4 ,but the builders are becoming continually more unselfish and righteous1 and as they become better and purer its walls rise the more rapidly4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,teachings ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,we have studied the teachings of science concerning man and his environment1 let us turn now to the teachings of the ,bible4 ,and though eight chapters have been devoted to the teachings of science1 and only one to the teachings of the ,bible1 it is not because ,i underestimate the importance of the latter4 ,it is more difficult to clearly discover just what are the teachings of ,nature in science4 ,the lesson is written in a language foreign to most of us1 and one requiring careful study2 and yet once deciphered it is clear4 ,science attains the laws of ,nature by the study of animal and human history4 ,but this record is a history of continually closer conformity to environment on the part of all advancing forms4 ,the animal kingdom is the clay which is turned1 as ,job says1 to the seal of environment1 and it makes little difference whether we study the seal or the impression2 we shall read the same sentence4 ,environment has stamped its laws on the very structure of man's body and mind4 ,and the old biblical writers read these laws1 guided by ,god's ,spirit1 in their own hearts1 and in those of their neighbors1 and in their national history1 as the record of ,god's working1 and gave us concrete examples of the results of obedience and disobedience4 ,hence the teaching of the ,bible is always clear and unmistakable4 ,the ,bible treats of three subjects--,nature1 ,man1 and ,god--and the relations of each of these to the others4 ,i have tried to present to you in the first chapter the biblical conception of ,nature and its relation to ,god4 ,in its relation to man it is his manifestation to us1 and1 in its widest sense1 the sum of the means and modes through which he develops1 aids1 and educates us4 ,and in this conception ,i find science to be strictly in accord with scripture4 ,now what is the scriptural idea of man8 ,man interests us especially in three aspects4 ,he is a corporeal being2 he is an intellectual being2 he is a moral being1 with feelings1 will1 and personality4 ,man's body4 ,plato considered the body as a source of evil and a hindrance to all higher life4 ,and ,plato was by no means alone in this4 ,the ,bible takes a very different view4 ,neglect of the body is always rebuked4 ,the only place1 so far as ,i can find1 where the body is called vile is where it is compared with the glorious body into which it is to be transformed4 ,your bodies1 writes ,paul to the ,corinthians1 are members of ,christ1 temples of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,but the ,bible teaches that the body is to be the servant1 not the ruler1 of the spirit4 ,i keep under my body1 and bring it into subjection1 continues ,paul4 ,here again science is strictly in accord with scripture4 ,man is an intellectual being4 ,i need not quote the praises of knowledge in the ,old ,testament4 ,they must be fresh in your mind4 ,but the practical ,peter writes1 giving all diligence add to your faith virtue2 and to virtue knowledge4 ,and ,paul prays that the love of the ,ephesians may abound more and more in knowledge and in all judgment4 ,but the important knowledge is the knowledge of ,god1 and of ,jesus ,christ1 our ,lord and ,master4 ,and similarly science emphasizes that the chief end of all knowledge is that we should know the environment to which we are to conform4 ,knowledge is useful to strengthen and clarify the mind1 that it may see and conform to truth and ,god3 and if it fails to become a means to conformity1 it has failed of the chief1 and practically the only1 end for which it was intended4 ,we are to come in the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the ,son of ,god1 unto a perfect man1 unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of ,christ4 ,but knowledge which only puffs up and distracts the mind from the great aims and ends which it should serve is rebuked with equal emphasis by the ,bible and by science4 ,i would not claim that we have set too high a value upon knowledge1 perhaps we cannot2 but there is something far higher on which we are inclined to set far too low a value4 ,this is righteousness and love2 and true wisdom is knowledge permeated1 vivified1 and transfigured by devotion to these higher ends4 ,and in this highest realm of the mind feeling and will rule conjointly4 ,love is a feeling which always will and must find its way to activity through the will1 and it is an activity of the will roused by the very deepest feeling1 inspired by a worthy object4 ,if you try to divorce them1 both die4 ,hence ,paul can say1 ,though ,i speak with the tongues of men and of angels1 and though ,i have the gift of prophecy1 and understand all mysteries and all knowledge2 and though ,i have all faith1 so that ,i could remove mountains1 and have not love1 ,i am nothing4 ,and ,john goes1 if possible1 even farther and says1 ,every one that loveth is born of ,god1 and knoweth ,god4 ,he that loveth not1 knoweth not ,god2 for ,god is love4 ,and this sort of love bears and believes and hopes and endures1 and never fails4 ,and for this reason the ,bible lays such tremendous emphasis on the heart1 not as the centre of emotion alone1 but as the seat of will as well4 ,and science points to the same end1 though she sees it afar off4 ,and what of ,god8 ,god is a ,spirit1 ,creator1 ,author1 and ,finisher of all things1 and filling all4 ,but while omnipotent1 omnipresent1 and omniscient1 these are not the characteristics emphasized in the ,bible4 ,he is righteous4 ,shall not the judge of all the earth do right8 is the grand question of the father of the faithful4 ,and when ,moses prays ,god to show him his glory1 ,god answers1 ,i will make all my goodness pass before thee4 ,he is the refuge of ,israel1 the everlasting arms underneath them1 pitying them as a father pitieth his children4 ,and in the ,new ,testament we are bidden to pray to our ,father1 who is love1 and whose temple is the heart of whosoever will receive him4 ,truly a very personal being4 ,now the ,bible rises here indefinitely above anything that mere natural science can describe4 ,but can the ultimate ,power1 not ourselves1 which makes for righteousness and unselfishness1 of whose presence in environment science assures us1 be ever better described than by these words concerning the ,father of our spirits8 ,and an infinitely wise1 good1 and loving being will have fixed modes of working2 for with him is no variableness1 neither shadow of turning4 ,thus only can man trust and know him4 ,the old ,stoic philosopher tells us everything has two handles1 and can be carried by one of them1 but not by the other4 ,so with ,god's laws4 ,many seem to look upon them as a hindrance and limitation to him in carrying out his righteous and loving will toward man4 ,but they are really the modes or means of his working1 which he uses with such regularity and consistency that we can always rely upon them and him4 ,the pure river of the water of life proceedeth from the throne of ,god and of the ,lamb4 ,if ,i am lying ill waiting anxiously for the physician ,i can think of this great city as a mass of blocks of houses separating him from me4 ,but the houses have been arranged in blocks so as to leave free streets1 along which he can travel the more quickly4 ,and ,god's laws are not blocks1 but thoroughfares1 planned that the angels of his mercy may fly swiftly to our aid4 ,we are prone to forget that these laws are expressly made for your and my benefit1 as well as that of all beings1 that we may be righteous and unselfish4 ,and this is one ground of the apostle's faith that all things work together for good to them that love ,god4 ,and in the ,apocalypse the earth helps the woman4 ,it must be so4 ,but what if you or ,i try to block the thoroughfare8 ,what would happen to us if we tried to stop bare-handed the current of a huge dynamo1 or to hold back the torrent of ,niagara8 ,nothing but death can result4 ,and what if ,i stem myself against the river of the water of life1 proceeding from the throne of ,god1 and try to turn it aside or hold it back from men perishing of thirst8 ,and that is just what sin is1 even if done carelessly or thoughtlessly2 for men have no right to be careless and thoughtless about some things4 ,the wages of sin is death2 physical death for breaking physical law1 and spiritual death for breaking spiritual law4 ,how can it be otherwise8 ,the wages are fairly earned4 ,the hardest doctrine for a scientific man to believe is that there can be any forgiveness of such sin as the heedless1 ungrateful breaking of such wise and beneficent laws of a loving ,father4 ,and yet my earthly father has had to forgive me a host of times during my boyhood4 ,perhaps ,i can hope the same from ,god2 ,i take his word for it4 ,but if you or ,i think that it is safe to trifle with ,god's laws1 we are terribly mistaken4 ,the ,lord proclaimed himself to ,moses as ,the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin1 and that will by no means clear the guilty2 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 and upon the children's children1 unto the third and to the fourth generation4 ,but someone will say1 ,this is terrible4 ,it is terrible2 but the question is1 ,does the ,bible speak the truth about nature8 ,is nature a fairy godmother1 or does she bring men up with sternness and inflict suffering upon the innocent children1 if necessary1 lest they copy after their sinful parents8 ,do the children of the defaulter and drunkard and debauchee suffer because of the sins of their father1 or do they not8 ,if the blessings won by parental virtue go down to the thousandth generation1 must not the evil consequences of sin go down to the third or fourth8 ,that we are not under the law1 but under grace1 does not mean1 as some seem to think1 that it is safe to sin4 ,otherwise the forgiveness of ,god becomes the lowest form of indulgence slanderously attributed to the ,church of ,rome4 ,we gain freedom from law as well as penalty only by obedience4 ,the artist can safely forget the laws and rules of his art only when by long obedience and practice he obeys them unconsciously4 ,we seem to be threatened with a belief that ,god will never punish sin in one who has professed ,christianity4 ,this view cheapens sin and makes pardon worthless1 it takes the iron out of the blood1 and the backbone out of all our religion and ethics4 ,it ruins ,christians and disgraces ,christianity4 ,we sometimes seem to think that our nation or church or denomination is so important to the carrying on of ,god's work that he cannot afford to let any evil befall us1 whatever we may do or be4 ,hear this1 ,i pray you1 ye heads of the house of ,jacob1 and princes of the house of ,israel1 that abhor judgment and pervert all equity4 ,they build up ,zion with blood1 and ,jerusalem with iniquity4 ,the heads thereof judge for reward1 and the priests thereof teach for hire1 and the prophets thereof divine for money3 yet will they lean upon the ,lord and say1 ,is not the ,lord among us8 none evil can come upon us4 ,therefore shall ,zion for your sake be ploughed as a field1 and ,jerusalem shall become heaps1 and the mountain of the house as the high places of the forest4 ,that was plain preaching1 and the people did not like it4 ,they would not like it any better to-day2 it would come too near the truth4 ,but others seem to think that ,god is too kind1 not to say good-natured1 to allow his children to suffer for their sins4 ,this is part of a creed1 unconsciously very widely held to-day1 that comfort1 not character1 is the chief end of life4 ,now if ,god is too kind to allow his children to suffer some of the natural consequences of sin1 he is not a really kind and loving father1 he is spoiling his children4 ,salvation is soundness1 sanity1 health2 just as holiness is wholeness1 escape from the disease1 and not merely from the consequences of sin4 ,a physician1 unless a quack1 never promises relief from a deep-seated disease without any pain or discomfort4 ,and if the disease is the result of indulgence1 he warns us that relapse into indulgence will bring a worse recurrence of the pain4 ,perhaps1 after all1 ,socrates was not so far from right when he maintained that if a man had sinned the best and only thing for him is to suffer for it4 ,god the ,lord will speak peace unto his people1 and to his saints3 but let them not turn again to folly4 ,and our ,lord says1 ,think not that ,i am come to destroy the law or the prophets2 ,i am not come to destroy1 but to fulfil4 ,for verily ,i say unto you1 ,till heaven and earth pass1 one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law till all be fulfilled4 ,for ,i say unto you1 ,that except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the scribes and ,pharisees1 ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of heaven4 ,if we would be great in the kingdom of heaven we must do and teach the commandments4 ,one of the best lessons that the clergy can learn from science is that law and penalty are not things of the past4 ,they are eternal facts2 and if so1 ought sometimes to be at least mentioned from the pulpit as well as remembered in the pew4 ,but if ,god is a person striving to communicate with man1 and if man is a person intended to conform to environment by becoming like ,god1 what is more probable from the scientific stand-point than that ,god should seek and find some means of making himself clearly known to man in some personal way8 ,i do not see how any scientific man who believes in a personal ,god can avoid asking this question4 ,and is there any more natural solution of the question than that given in the ,bible8 ,god was in ,christ reconciling the world to himself4 ,god1 who spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets1 hath in these last days spoken unto us by his son4 ,philip says1 ,lord1 show us the ,father and it sufficeth us4 ,jesus saith unto him1 ,have ,i been so long time with you1 and dost thou not know me1 ,philip8 he that hath seen me hath seen the ,father2 how sayest thou shew us the ,father8 ,believest thou not that ,i am in the ,father and the ,father in me8 the words that ,i say unto you ,i speak not from myself3 but the ,father abiding in me doeth his works4 ,and this is the condemnation1 that light is come into the world1 and men loved darkness rather than light1 because their deeds were evil4 ,something more is needed than light4 ,we need more light and knowledge of our duty2 we need vastly more the will-power to do it4 ,i know how ,i ought to live2 ,i do not live thus4 ,what ,i need is not a teacher1 but power to become a son of ,god4 ,i delight in the law of ,god after the inward man3 but ,i see a different law in my members1 warring against the law of my mind1 and bringing me into captivity under the law of sin which is in my members4 ,o wretched man that ,i am6 who shall deliver me out of the body of this death8 ,this is the terrible question4 ,how is it to be answered8 ,let us remember our illustration of the change wrought in that panic-stricken army before ,winchester by the appearance of ,sheridan4 ,what these men needed was not information4 ,no plan of battle reported as sure of success by trustworthy and competent witnesses1 and forwarded from the greatest leader could have stayed that rout4 ,what they needed was ,sheridan and the magnetic power of his personality4 ,this is the strange power of all great leaders of men1 whether orators1 statesmen1 or generals4 ,it is intellect acting on and through intellect1 but it is also vastly more2 it is will acting on will4 ,the leader does not merely instruct others1 he inspires them1 puts himself into them1 and makes them heroes like himself4 ,now something like this1 but vastly grander and deeper1 seems to me to have been the work of our ,lord4 ,read ,john's gospel and see how it is interpenetrated with the idea of the new life to be gained by contact with our ,lord1 and how this forms the foundation of his hope and claim to give men this new life by drawing them to himself4 ,and ,peter says that it was impossible for the ,prince of ,life to be holden of death1 for he was the centre and source from which not only new thoughts and purposes1 but new will and life was to stream out into the souls of men4 ,this power of our ,lord may have been miraculous and supernatural in degree2 ,i feel assured that it was not unnatural in kind and mode of action4 ,and here1 young men1 pardon a personal word about your preaching4 ,you will need to preach many sermons of warning against1 and denunciation of1 sin2 many of instruction in duty4 ,the ,bible is a store-house of instruction and men need it1 and you must make it clear to them4 ,all this is good and necessary1 but it is not enough4 ,learn from the experience of the greatest preacher1 perhaps1 who ever lived4 ,paul1 the greatest philosopher of ancient times1 came to ,athens4 ,you can well imagine how he had waited and longed for the opportunity to speak in this home of philosophy and intellectual life4 ,now he was to speak1 not to uncultured barbarians1 but to men who could understand and appreciate his best thoughts4 ,he preached in ,athens the grandest sermon1 as far as argument is concerned1 ever uttered4 ,i doubt if ever a sermon of ,paul's accomplished less4 ,he could not even rouse a healthy opposition4 ,the idea of a new god1 ,jesus1 and a new goddess1 the ,resurrection1 rather tickled the ,athenian fancy4 ,he left them1 and1 in deep dejection1 went down to ,corinth4 ,there he determined to know only ,christ and him crucified1 and thus preaching in material1 vicious ,corinth he founded a church4 ,some of you will go through the same experience4 ,you will preach to cultured and intelligent audiences1 and they will listen courteously and eagerly as long as you tell them something new1 and do not ask them to do anything4 ,the only possible way of reaching ,athenian intellect or ,corinthian materialism and vice is by preaching ,christ1 the power of ,god and the wisdom of ,god4 ,and you will reach more ,corinthians than ,athenians4 ,you may preach sermons full of the grandest philosophy and theology1 and of the highest1 most exact1 science2 you may chain men by your logic1 thrill them by your rhetoric1 and move them to tears by your eloquence1 and they will go home as dead and cold as they came4 ,what they need is power1 life4 ,but preach ,christ and him crucified--not merely dead two thousand years ago--but risen and alive for evermore1 and with us to the end of the world1 the grandest1 most heroic1 divinest helper who ever stood by a man1 one all-powerful to help and who never forsakes1 and every one of your hearers who is not dead to truth will catch the life1 and go home alive and not alone4 ,so long as we preach a dead ,christ we shall have a dead church1 as hopeless as the apostles were before the resurrection4 ,but now is ,christ risen from the dead1 alive for evermore4 ,see how ,paul and ,peter and ,john1 and doubtless all the others1 talked with him and he with them1 after he was taken from them1 and you have found the secret of their power1 and of that of all the great ,christian heroes and martyrs who could truly say1 ,lord ,jesus1 we understand each other4 ,better yet1 prove by experience that it is possible for every one of us4 ,and our ,lord and ,master is the connecting link between ,god and man1 through whom ,god's own ,holy ,spirit is poured like a mighty flood into the hearts and lives of men1 transfiguring them and filling them with the divine power4 ,this is the biblical idea of ,christianity2 man1 through ,christ1 flooded and permeated and interpenetrated with the ,holy ,spirit of ,god4 ,and thus ,paul is dead and yet alive1 but fully possessed and dominated by the spirit of ,christ4 ,alive as never before1 and yet his every thought1 word1 and deed is really that of his great leader4 ,can you talk of self-denial to such a ,christian8 ,he had forgotten that such a man as ,saul of ,tarsus or ,paul ever existed2 he lives only in his ,master's work1 and is transfigured by it4 ,this1 and nothing less1 is ,christianity1 and this is the very highest and grandest heroism4 ,paul conquers ,europe single-handed1 alone he stands before ,csar's tribunal1 and yet he is never alone2 and from the gloom of the ,mammertine dungeon he sends back a shout of triumph4 ,and ,peter walks steadily1 cheerfully1 and unflinchingly1 in the footsteps of his ,master to share his cross4 ,let us1 before leaving this topic1 notice carefully just what religion1 and especially ,christianity1 is not4 #a4 ,it is not merely opinion or intellectual belief in a creed4 ,this may be good1 or even necessary1 but it is not religion4 ,thou believest that there is one ,god2 thou doest well3 the devils also believe and tremble4 ,we speak with pride1 sometimes1 of our puissant ,christendom1 so industrious1 so intelligent1 so moral1 with its ubiquitous commerce1 its adorning arts1 its halls of learning1 its happy firesides1 and its noble charities4 ,and yet what is our vaunted ,christendom but a vast assemblage of believing but disobedient men8 ,said ,william ,law to ,john ,wesley1 ,the head can as easily amuse itself with a living and justifying faith in the blood of ,jesus as with any other notion4 ,the most sacred duty may degenerate into a dogma1 asking only to be believed4 ,i go1 sir1 answered the son in the parable1 but went not4 #b4 ,it is not mere feeling4 ,it is neither hope of heaven's joy1 nor fear of hell's misery4 ,it may rightly include these1 but it is vastly more and higher4 ,it is neither ecstasy nor remorse4 ,the most resolutely impenitent sinner can shout ,hallelujah1 and ,woe is me1 as loudly as any saint4 ,now feeling is of vast importance4 ,it stands close to the will and stimulates it1 but it is not conformity4 ,the will must be aroused to a robust life4 #c4 ,christianity is these and a great deal more4 ,mere belief would make religion a mere theology4 ,mere emotion would make it mere excitement4 ,the true divine idea of it is a life2 doing his will1 not indolently sighing to do it1 and then lamenting that we do it not2 but the thing itself in actual achievement1 from day to day1 from month to month1 from year to year4 ,thus religion rises on us in its own imperial majesty4 ,it is no mere delight of the understanding in the doctrines of our faith2 no mere excitement of the sensibilities1 now harrowed by fear1 and now jubilant in hope2 but a warfare and a work1 a warfare against sin1 and a work with ,god4 ,religion is not an entertainment1 but a service4 ,we are to set before us the perfect standard1 and then struggle to shape our lives to it4 ,personal sanctity must be made a business of4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,this page is mainly a series of quotations from ,dr4 ,r4,d4 ,hitchcock's sermon on ,religion1 the ,doing of ,god's ,will4 ,a little more than thirty years ago a regiment was sent home from the ,army of the ,potomac to enforce the draft after the riots in this city4 ,some of you may picture to yourselves a thousand men with silk banners and gold lace and bright uniforms1 resplendent in the sunshine4 ,you could not make a worse mistake4 ,first in that gray early morning came two old flags1 so torn by shot and shell that there was hardly enough left of them to tell whether the ,state flag was that of ,massachusetts or ,virginia4 ,and behind these came scant three hundred men4 ,all the rest were sleeping between ,washington and ,richmond1 some on almost every battle-field4 ,the uniforms were old and faded from sun and rain4 ,only gun-barrel and bayonet were bright4 ,and the men were scarred and tired and foot-sore1 haggard from hard fighting and long1 swift marches4 ,for these men had been trained to be hurried back and forth behind the long line of battle1 that they might be hurled into it wherever the need was greatest4 ,i do not suppose that one of them could have delivered a fourth-of-,july oration on ,patriotism4 ,they were trained not to talk1 but to obey orders4 ,but they had stood in the bloody angle at ,spottsylvania all day and all night2 and in the gray dawn of the next morning1 when strength and courage are always at ebb1 faint and exhausted1 their last cartridge shot away1 had sprung forward at the command of their colonel to make a last desperate1 forlorn defence with the bayonet against the advancing enemy4 ,numbers do not count against men like these4 ,what made them such invincible heroes8 ,it was mainly the resolute will and long training to obey orders4 ,a ,christian should never forget that he is a soldier in the army of the ,lord of ,hosts2 that enlistment is easy and quickly accomplished2 but that the training is long1 and that he must learn1 above all1 to endure hardness4 ,and so1 my brothers1 ,i beg of you to preach a heroic ,christianity1 for if there ever was a heroic religion it is ours4 ,if you offer merely free transportation to a future heaven of delight on flowery beds of ease1 you will enlist only the coward and the sluggard4 ,but everyone who has a drop of strong old ,norse blood in his veins will prefer a heathen ,valhalla1 though builded in hell1 to such a heaven4 ,and his ,norse instincts will be nearer truth than your counterfeit of a debased ,christianity4 ,but preach the city of ,god's righteousness on earth and now among men1 and call on every heroic soul to take sides with ,god against sin within himself and the evil and misery all around him4 ,there is an almost infinite amount of strength1 endurance1 and heroism in this slow-witted but long-winded human race waiting to leap up at the appeal to fight once more and win a victory after repeated defeats before the sun goes down4 ,appeal to this and point to the great captain of our salvation made perfect through sufferings1 and every man that is of the truth will hear in your voice the call of the ,master and ,king4 ,you will not be disappointed1 but among the publicans and fishermen of ,america you will find heroic souls1 who will leave all to follow1 as faithfully and unflinchingly as those from the shores of ,galilee4 ,and what of faith8 ,faith is the personal attachment of a soul to such a leader4 ,fortunately the ,bible contains a scientific monograph on this subject4 ,i refer1 of course1 to the eleventh chapter of the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,and the whole result is summed up in a few words of the thirteenth verse4 ,the great heroes1 like ,enoch1 ,noah1 and ,abraham1 saw the promises afar off1 and were persuaded of them1 and embraced them1 and confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on the earth4 ,they saw the promises afar off1 dimly1 on the horizon of their mental vision2 as one looks into the distance and cannot tell whether what he sees be cloud or mountain4 ,and until they could make up their minds that there was some substance in the vision1 they did not embrace it4 ,they were not credulous4 ,neither were they carelessly or heedlessly sure that there was and could be nothing in the vision but mist and fancy4 ,they recognized that on their decision of the question hung the life of which they meant to make the very most4 ,they looked again and again1 and kept thinking about it4 ,thus they became and were persuaded of them4 ,and most people stop here with a merely intellectual faith in their heads1 and very little in their hearts and lives4 ,not so these old heroes2 they were not so purely and coldly intellectual that they could not do anything4 ,they embraced them4 ,they said1 that is exactly what ,i want and need1 and ,i'll have it1 if it costs me my life4 ,now a promise is always conditional2 if you want one thing1 you must give up something else4 ,it involves a choice between alternatives2 you can have either one freely1 you cannot have both4 ,it was to them as to ,christ on the exceeding high mountain1 ,god or the world2 ,god with the cross1 or the world with ,satan thrown in4 ,and the same alternative confronts us4 ,moses could be a good ,jew or a good ,egyptian4 ,most of us1 while resolved to be excellent ,jews at heart1 would have said nothing about it1 but remained sons of ,pharaoh's daughter in order to benefit the ,jews by our influence in our lofty station4 ,we should have become miserable hybrids with all the vices and weaknesses of both races1 but with none of the virtues of either4 ,and for all that we should ever have done the ,jews might have rotted in ,egyptian bondage4 ,enlargement and deliverance would have arisen to the ,jews from some other place2 but we and our father's house would have been destroyed4 ,by faith ,moses refused to be called the son of ,pharaoh's daughter1 choosing rather to suffer affliction with the children of ,god1 etc4 ,and certainly he did suffer for it4 ,they embraced the promises with their whole hearts4 ,they were stoned and sawn asunder rather than give them up4 ,and what was the effect on their characters8 ,having counted the cost1 and being perfectly willing to accept any loss or pain for the sake of these promises1 and hence inspired by them1 they became sublime heroes4 ,through faith they subdued kingdoms1 wrought righteousness1 obtained promises1 stopped the mouths of lions1 quenched the violence of fire1 escaped the edge of the sword1 out of weakness were made strong1 waxed valiant in fight1 turned to flight the armies of the aliens4 ,and others had trials of cruel mockings and scourgings1 yea1 moreover of bonds and imprisonment3 they wandered about in sheepskins and in goatskins2 being destitute1 afflicted1 tormented4 ,of whom the world was not worthy4 ,that is a faith worth having1 and it is as sound philosophy as it is scripture4 ,these all died in faith1 not having received the promises4 ,did they receive nothing8 ,moses and ,elijah1 ,gideon and ,barak gained power and heroism greater than we can conceive of4 ,surely that was enough4 ,but they did not get the whole of the promise1 or even the best of it4 ,and the simple reason was that ,god cannot make a promise small enough to be completely fulfilled to a man in his earthly life4 ,he gets enough to make him a king1 but this does not begin to exhaust the promise4 ,it is inexhaustible4 ,this is the experience of anyone who will faithfully try it4 ,and this experience is the grandest argument for immortality4 ,therefore1 giving all diligence1 add to your faith virtue 7,greek3 aret1 strength71 and to virtue knowledge1 and to knowledge temperance 7,greek3 enkrateia1 self-control71 and to temperance patience 7,greek3 hypomen1 endurance71 and to patience godliness1 and to godliness brotherly kindness1 and to brotherly kindness charity 7love74 ,and what of prayer8 ,how can it be answered in a universe of law8 ,we certainly could have no confidence that our prayers could or would be answered if ours were not a universe of law4 ,god's laws are1 as we have seen1 his modes of working out his great plan4 ,and the last and highest unfolding of ,god's plan is the development of man4 ,and man is to become conformed to his environment1 and conformity of man's highest powers to his environment is likeness to ,god4 ,the laws of nature1 then1 are in ultimate analysis and highest aim the different steps in ,god's plan of man's salvation from the disease of sin1 not merely or mainly from its consequences1 and his attainment of holiness4 ,for this is the only true and sound manhood4 ,salvation is spiritual health1 resulting also in health of body and of mind4 ,if ,god's laws are his modes of carrying out his plan for godlikeness in man1 then they are so thought out as to be the means of helping me to every real good4 ,the ,bible declares explicitly that the aim of prayer is not to inform ,god of our needs4 ,for he knows them already4 ,it is not to change ,god's purpose1 for he is unchangeable1 and we should rejoice in this4 ,we are to pray for our daily bread2 we are to pray for the sick2 and1 if best for them and consistent with ,god's plan1 they shall recover4 ,elijah prayed for drought and prayed for rain1 and was answered4 ,and ,abraham's prayer would have saved ,sodom1 had there been ten righteous men in the city4 ,men ought alway to pray and not to faint4 ,more things are wrought by prayer ,than this world dreams of4 ,wherefore let thy voice ,rise like a fountain for me night and day4 ,for what are men better than sheep or goats ,that nourish a blind life within the brain1 ,if1 knowing ,god1 they lift not hands of prayer ,both for themselves and those who call them friend8 ,for so the whole round earth is every way ,bound by gold chains about the feet of ,god4 ,but could not all these things be brought about without a single prayer8 ,not according to the plan of man's education which ,god has adopted4 ,whether he could well have made a plan by which material blessings could have been bestowed upon men who do not ask for them1 ,i do not know4 ,the ravens and all animals are fed without a single prayer1 for they are not fitted or intended to hold communion with ,god4 ,but a prayerless race of men has never been fed long2 it has soon ceased to exist4 ,god's plan of salvation and ordering of the universe involves prayer as a means of blessing and good things as an answer to prayer4 ,god says1 ,i make you a co-worker with me4 ,i will help you in everything2 but you must call on me for help1 or you will forget that ,i am the source of your help and strength1 and thus having lost your communion with me will die4 ,when ,jeshurun waxed fat he kicked4 ,this is the oft-repeated story of the ,old ,testament and of all history4 ,and thus1 while material blessings are given in answer to prayer1 these are not the chief end for which prayer is to be offered4 ,prayer is a means of conformity to environment1 of godlikeness4 ,how do you become like a friend8 ,of course by associating and talking with him4 ,and why does it help you to associate with a hero8 ,simply because you cannot be with him without being inspired with his heroism4 ,and so while ,i may pray for bread and clothes and opportunities1 and ,god will give me these or something better2 ,i will1 if wise1 pray for purity1 courage1 moral power1 heroism1 and holiness4 ,and ,i know that these will stream from his soul into mine like a great river4 ,and so ,i may pray for bread and be denied2 for hunger1 with some higher good1 may be far better for me than a full stomach4 ,but if ,i pray for any spiritual gift1 which will make me godlike1 and on which as an heir of ,god ,i have a rightful claim1 every law and force in ,god's universe is a means to answer that prayer4 ,and best of all1 if ,i pray for the gift of ,god's ,spirit1 that is the prayer which the whole world of environment has been framed to answer4 ,but this ,i can never have unless ,i hunger for it4 ,i can never have it to use as a means of gaining some lower good which ,i worship more than ,god4 ,god will not and cannot lend himself to any such idolatry4 ,i must be willing to give up anything and everything else for its attainment4 ,otherwise the answer to the prayer would ruin me4 ,i cannot grasp the higher while using both hands to grasp the lower4 ,thus religion is the interpenetration and permeation of my personality by that of ,god4 ,and prayer is the communion by which this permeation becomes possible4 ,and faith is the vision of these possibilities1 the being persuaded by them1 and the resolute purpose to attain them4 ,and faith in ,christ is confiding communion with him and obedience to his commands that his divine life may flow over into me and dominate mine4 ,and common-sense1 and the more refined common-sense which we call science1 can show me no other means to the attainment of that godlikeness which is the only true conformity to environment4 ,and1 holding such a belief and faith1 we must be hopeful4 ,and only next in importance to faith and love stands hope4 ,the hero must be hopeful4 ,and when times look dark about you1 and they sometimes will1 you must still hope4 ,o it is hard to work for ,god1 ,to rise and take his part ,upon the battle-field of earth1 ,and not sometimes lose heart6 ,o there is less to try our faith ,in our mysterious creed1 ,than in the godless look of earth ,in these our hours of need4 ,ill masters good2 good seems to change ,to ill with greatest ease2 ,and1 worst of all1 the good with good ,is at cross purposes4 ,workman of ,god6 ,o lose not heart1 ,but learn what ,god is like2 ,and in the darkest battle-field ,thou shalt know where to strike4 ,muse on his justice1 downcast soul6 ,muse1 and take better heart2 ,back with thine angel to the field1 ,good luck shall crown thy part6 ,for right is right1 since ,god is ,god2 ,and right the day must win2 ,to doubt would be disloyalty1 ,to falter would be sin4 ,hope on1 be strong and of a good courage4 ,for in the dark hours others will lean on you to catch your hope and courage4 ,to many a poor discouraged soul you must be a hiding-place from the wind and a covert from the tempest2 as rivers of water in a dry place1 as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land4 ,every power and force in the universe of environment makes for the ultimate triumph of truth and right4 ,defeat is impossible4 ,one man with ,god on his side is the majority that carries the day4 ',we are but two1' said ,abu ,bakr to ,mohammed as they were flying hunted from ,mecca to ,medina4 ',nay2' answered ,mohammed1 'we are three2 ,god is with us4' ,and not only the race will triumph and regain the ,paradise lost4 ,the city of ,god shall surely be with men1 and ,god will dwell with them and in them4 ,but you and ,i can and shall triumph too4 ,we are prone to feel that the individual man is too insignificant a being to be the object of ,god's care and forethought4 ,but we should not forget that it is the individual who conforms1 and that the higher and nobler race is to be attained through the elevation of individuals1 one after another4 ,god deals with races and nations as such4 ,but his laws and promises are made almost entirely for the individuals of which these larger units are concerned4 ,but there is another standpoint from which we may gain a helpful view of the matter4 ,i may be the meanest citizen of my native state1 and my father may leave me heir of only a few acres of rocky land4 ,but1 if my title is good1 every power in the state is pledged to put me in possession of my inheritance4 ,they who would rob me may be strong2 but the state will call out every able-bodied man1 and pour out every dollar in its treasury before it will allow me to be defrauded of my legal rights4 ,and it must do this for me1 its meanest citizen1 else there is no government1 but anarchy1 and oppression1 and the rule of the strongest4 ,and we all recognize that this is but right and necessary1 and would be ashamed of our state and government were it not literally true4 ,if ,i travel in distant lands1 my passport is the sign that all the power of these ,united ,states is pledged to protect me from injustice4 ,think of the sensitiveness of governments to any wrong done to their private citizens4 ,england went to war with ,abyssinia to protect and deliver two ,englishmen4 ,and shall ,god do less8 ,can he do less8 ,if it is only just and right and necessary for earthly governments to thus care for their citizens1 shall not the ruler and judge of all the earth do right8 ,now you and ,i are commanded to be heirs of ,god1 to attain to likeness to him4 ,this is therefore our legal right1 guaranteed by him1 for every command of ,god is really a promise4 ,and he will exhaust every power in the universe before he allows anything to prevent us from gaining our legal rights1 provided only that we are earnest in claiming them4 ,but if ,i alienate my rights to my inheritance1 the commonwealth cannot help me4 ,if ,i renounce my citizenship1 the government of the ,united ,states can no longer protect me4 ,and so ,i can alienate my right to the tree of life1 and to entrance into the city1 and ,i can forfeit my heirship to all that ,god would give me4 ,for ,i am persuaded that neither death1 nor life1 nor angels1 nor principalities1 nor things present1 nor things to come1 nor powers1 nor height1 nor depth1 nor any other creation1 shall be able to separate us from the love of ,god1 which is in ,christ ,jesus our ,lord4 ,but ,i can alienate and make void every promise and title1 if ,i will or if ,i do not care4 ,this is the unique glory1 and awfulness of the human will4 ,and we know that to them that love ,god all things work together for good4 ,if ,god is for us who is against us8 ,it must be so if ,god's laws are his modes of aiding men to conform to environment4 ,and what of the church8 ,is it anything else or other than a means of aiding man to conform to environment8 ,if it fails of this1 can it be any longer the church of ,god8 ,the church is a means1 not an end4 ,and it is a means of godlikeness in man4 ,some would make it a social club4 ,the bond of union between its members is their common grade of wealth1 social position1 or intellectual attainments4 ,and this idea of the church has deeper root in the minds of us all than we think4 ,i can imagine a far better club than one formed and framed on this principle1 but it is difficult for me to imagine a worse counterfeit of a church4 ,others make it a source of intellectual delectation1 and the means of hearing one or two striking sermons each week4 ,such a church will conduce to the intelligence of its members1 and may be rather more1 though probably less1 useful than the old ,new ,england ,lyceum lecture system4 ,such a church is of about as much practical value to the world at large as some consultations of physicians are to their patients4 ,the doctors have a most interesting discussion1 but the patient dies1 and the nature of the disease is discovered at the autopsy4 ,others still would make of the church a great railroad system1 over which sleeping-cars run from the ,city of ,destruction1 with a coupon good to admit one to the ,golden ,city at the other end4 ,the coaches are luxurious and the road-bed smooth4 ,the ,slough of ,despond has been filled1 the ,valley of ,humiliation bridged at its narrowest point1 and the ,delectable ,mountains tunnelled4 ,but scoffers say that most of the passengers make full use of the unlimited stop-over privileges allowed at ,vanity ,fair4 ,the ,bible would seem to give the impression that the church is the army of the ,lord of ,hosts1 a disciplined army of hardy1 heroic souls1 each soldier aiding his fellow in working out the salvation which ,god is working in him4 ,and it joins battle fiercely and fearlessly with every form of sin and misery1 counting not the odds against it4 ,and the ,salvation ,army seems to me to have conceived and realized to a great extent just what at least one corps in this grand army can and should be4 ,and you and ,i can learn many a lesson from them4 ,the church is the body of which ,christ is the head1 and you and ,i are members in particular4 ,let us see to it that we are not the weak spot in the body1 crippling and maiming the whole4 ,the church is the city of ,god among men1 and we are its citizens1 bound by its laws1 loyal servants of the ,great ,king1 sworn to obey his commands and enlarge his kingdom1 and repel all the assaults of his adversaries4 ,thus the ,bible seems to me to depict the church of ,god4 ,but what if the army contains a multitude of men who will not obey orders or submit to discipline8 or if the city be overwhelmed with a mass of aliens1 who see in its laws and institutions mainly means of selfish individual advantage8 ,responsibility1 not privilege1 is the foundation of strong character in both men and institutions4 ,there was a good grain of truth in the old ,scotch minister's remark1 that they had had a blessed work of grace in his church2 they had not taken anybody in1 but a lot had gone out4 ,there are plenty of churches of ,laodicea to-day4 ,may you be delivered from them4 ,but1 thank ,god1 there are also churches of ,philadelphia and ,smyrna4 ,may you be pastors of one of the latter4 ,it will not pay you a very large salary1 for ,demas has gone to the church of ,laodicea1 because the minister of the church of ,smyrna was not orthodox1 or not sufficiently spiritually minded--meaning thereby that he rebuked the sins of actual living men in general1 and of ,demas in particular--or preached politics1 and did not mind his business4 ,and your church may be small4 ,for many of the congregation have gone to the church around the other corner1 which is mainly a cluster of associations1 having excellent names1 and useful for almost every purpose except building up a manly1 rugged1 heroic1 godlike character4 ,the minister there1 they will tell you1 preaches delightful sermons4 ,they make you feel so good4 ,he annihilates pantheism1 and his denunciations of materialism are eloquent in the extreme4 ,but his incarnations of materialism are ,huxley and ,darwin1 and to the uncharitable he seems to almost carefully avoid any language which might seem to reflect upon the dollar- and place-worship of some of the occupants of his front pews4 ,now1 ,i am not here to defend ,mr4 ,huxley or ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,withstand them to the face wherever they are to be blamed4 ,and for some utterances they are undoubtedly to be blamed1 honest souls as they were4 ,but ,i for one cannot help feeling that there is among the dwellers in ,jerusalem a materialism of the heart which is indefinitely worse than any intellectual heresy4 ,when you hit at the one heresy strike hard at the other also4 ,many will have left your little church of ,smyrna4 ,it had to be so4 ,for the divine sifting process1 which is natural selection on its highest plane1 has not ceased to work4 ,it must and shall still go on2 it cannot be otherwise4 ,has the great principle ceased to be true in modern history that though the number of the children of ,israel be as the sand of the sea1 a remnant shall be saved8 ,but do not be discouraged4 ,preach ,christ and a heroic ,christianity4 ,do not be afraid to demand great things of your people4 ,remember that ,ananias was encouraged to go to ,paul because the ,lord would show ,paul how great things he should suffer for the name of ,jesus4 ,this is what appeals to the heroic in every man1 and we do not make nearly enough use of it4 ,and the heroic ,christ and his heroic ,christianity will draw every heroic soul in the community to himself4 ,they may not be very heroic looking4 ,you may be in some hill town in old ,massachusetts ,nurse of heroes4 ,pardon me1 ,i do not intend to be invidious4 ,heroism is cosmopolitan4 ,one of the pillars of your church may be the school-teacher of the little red school-house at the fork of the roads1 in the yard ornamented with alders1 mulleins1 and sumachs4 ,she boards around1 and is clad in anything but silks and sealskins4 ,but she trains well her band of hardy little fellows1 who will later fear the multitude as little as they now mind the ,berkshire winds4 ,and from the pittance she receives for training these rebellious urchins into heroic men she is supporting an old mother somewhere1 or helping a brother to an education4 ,and your deacon will be some farmer1 perhaps uncouth in appearance and rough of dress1 and certainly blunt in his scanty speech4 ,he'll not flatter you nor your sermons2 and until you've lived with him for years you will not know what a great heart there is in that rugged frame1 and what wealth of affection in that silent hand-shake4 ,and there is his wife4 ,she is round and ample1 and certainly does not look especially solemn or pious4 ,she is aunt and mother to the whole community1 the joy of all the children1 nurse of the sick1 and comfort of the dying4 ,she is doing the work of ten at home1 and of a host in the village4 ,and your right-hand man is great ,onesiphorus from the mill down in the valley1 fighting an uphill battle to keep the wolf from the door1 while he and his wife deny themselves everything1 that their flock of children may have better training for fighting ,god's battles than they ever enjoyed4 ,i cannot describe these men and women4 ,if you have lived with them1 you will need no description1 and would resent the inadequacy of mine4 ,if you have never had the good fortune to live with them1 it is impossible to make you see them as they are4 ,when you once have thoroughly known them1 language will fail you to do them justice1 and you will prefer to be silent rather than slander them by inadequate portrayal4 ,they are at first sight not attractive-looking4 ,if you stand outside and look at them from a distance their lives will appear to you very humdrum and prosaic4 ,but remember that for almost thirty years our ,lord lived just such a life in ,nazareth1 making ploughs and yokes2 and then1 when the younger brothers and sisters were able to care for themselves1 snatched three years from supporting a peasant family in ,galilee to redeem a world4 ,and who was ,peter but a rough1 hardy fisherman8 ,now a ,paul1 trained at the feet of ,gamaliel1 was also needed2 and the twelve did not come from the lowest ranks of society4 ,but they were honest1 industrious1 practical1 courageous1 hardy1 common people4 ,and single-handed they went out to conquer empires4 ,and they succeeded through the power of ,god in them4 ,who knows the possibilities of your little church in the hilltown of ,smyrna8 ,these men and women are the pickets of ,god's great host4 ,they are scattered up and down our land1 fighting alone the great battle1 unknown of men and sometimes thinking that they must be forgotten of ,god4 ,and the picket's lonely post is what tries a man's courage and strength4 ,take your example from ,paul's epistle4 ,greet ,phebe1 the schoolmistress1 and ,aquila and ,priscilla on their rocky farm on the mountain-side1 and greet the burden-bearing ,onesiphorus4 ,and give them ,god's greeting and encouragement1 for he sends it to them through you4 ,show them the heroism which there is in their humdrum lives2 and cheer them in the efforts1 of whose grandeur they are all unconscious4 ,bid them be strong and of a very good courage4 ,for in the character of these people there is the granite of the eternal hills1 and in their hearts should be the sunshine of ,god4 ,do not be ashamed of your congregation4 ,their dimes or dollars may look pitifully small and few on the collector's plate2 only ,god sees the real immensity of the gift in the self-denial which it has cost4 ,your people will take sides with the cause of right1 while it is still unpopular4 ,they have furnished the moral backbone and unswerving integrity of many of your great business houses in this city to-day4 ,from those families will go forth the men whom the good will trust and the evil fear4 ,the power for good proceeding from your church will be like the floods which ,ezekiel saw pouring out from beneath the threshold of the ,lord's house4 ,for these common people1 whom ,god must have loved because he made so many of them1 are the true heirs to the future4 ,and wealth and culture1 art and learning1 are to burn like torches to light their march4 ,finally1 my young brothers1 do not be bitterly disappointed if you are not popular preachers4 ,do not let too many people go to sleep under your preaching1 even if one young man did go to sleep under one of ,paul's sermons4 ,but if now and then someone is angry at what you have said1 do not worry too much over it4 ,preach the truth in love4 ,if ,elijah and ,john the ,baptist1 and ,peter and ,paul1 were to preach to-day ,i doubt greatly whether they would be popular preachers4 ,i cannot find that they ever were so4 ,they would probably be peripatetic candidates1 until someone supported them as independent evangelists4 ,after their death we would rear them great monuments1 and then devote ourselves to railing at ,timothy because he was not more like what we imagine ,paul was4 ,even ,socrates found that he must bid farewell to what men count honors1 if he would follow after truth4 ,you may have the same experience4 ,you will have to champion many an unpopular cause1 and your people will not like it4 ,they will say you lack tact4 ,now ,paul was a man of infinite tact4 ,witness his sermon on ,mars' ,hill4 ,but if his letters to the church in ,corinth were addressed to most modern churches1 they would soon set out in search of a pastor of greater adaptability4 ,if you play the man1 and fight the good fight of faith1 ,i do not see how you can always avoid hitting somebody on the other side4 ,and he will pull you down if he can2 and will probably succeed in sometimes making your life very uncomfortable4 ,remember the teaching of scripture and science1 that the upward path was never intended to be easy4 ,the scriptural passages to this effect you can find all through the gospels and epistles1 and ,i need not quote them to you4 ,i will1 however1 tell you honestly that many are of the opinion that these passages are now obsolete1 being applicable only to the first centuries1 or to especially critical times in the history of the church4 ,i cannot share that view1 but1 lest ,i seem too old-fashioned1 will merely quote the ringing words of our own ,dr4 ,hitchcock1 that no man ever enters heaven save on his shield4 ,and allow me to quote in the same connection the testimony of that prince of scientists1 ,professor ,huxley1 in his lecture on ,evolution and ,ethics3 ,if we may permit ourselves a larger hope of abatement of the essential evil of the world than was possible to those who1 in the infancy of exact knowledge1 faced the problem of existence more than a score of centuries ago1 ,i deem it an essential condition of the realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life4 ,we have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race1 when good and evil could be met with the same 'frolic welcome2' the attempts to escape from evil1 whether ,indian or ,greek1 have ended in flight from the battle-field2 it remains to us to throw aside the youthful over-confidence and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage4 ,we are grown men1 and must play the man 444 'strong in will ,to strive1 to seek1 to find1 and not to yield1' cherishing the good that falls in our way and bearing the evil in and around us1 with stout heart set on diminishing it4 ,so far we all may strive in one faith toward one hope3 ',it may be that the gulfs will wash us down1 ,it may be we shall touch the ,happy ,isles4 444 but something ere the end1 ,some work of noble note may yet be done4' ,we must be strong and of a very good courage4 ,while the avoidance of pain and discomfort1 or even happiness1 cannot be the proper end of life1 it is not a world of misery or an essentially and hopelessly evil world4 ,there is plenty of misery in the world1 and we cannot deny it4 ,neither can we deny that ,god has put us in the world to relieve misery1 and that until we have made every effort and strained every nerve as we have never yet done1 we1 and not ,god1 are largely responsible for it4 ,but behind misery stand selfishness and sin as its cause4 ,and here we must not parley but fight4 ,and the hosts of evil are organized and mighty4 ,the sons of this world are for their own generation wiser than the sons of light4 ,and we shall never overcome them by adopting their means4 ,but we can and shall surely overcome4 ,for he that is with us is more than they that be with them4 ,the skirmishes are frequently disastrous to us1 but the great battles all go one way4 ,and we long for the glory of him that overcometh4 ,but the victor's song can come only after the battle1 and be sung only by those who have overcome4 ,and we would not have it otherwise if we could4 ,the closing words of ,dr4 ,hitchcock's last sermon are the following3 ,it is one of the revelations of scripture that we are to judge the angels1 sitting above them on the shining heights4 ,it may well be so4 ,those angels are the imperial guard1 doing easy duty at home4 ,we are the tenth legion1 marching in from the swamps and forests of the far-off frontier1 scarred and battered1 but victorious over death and sin4 ,,chapter ,x ,,present ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,evolution ,in all our study we have taken for granted the truth of the theory of evolution4 ,if you are not already persuaded of this by the writings of ,darwin1 ,wallace1 and many others1 no words or arguments of mine would convince you4 ,we have used as the foundation of our argument only the fundamental propositions of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory4 ,but while all evolutionists accept these propositions they differ more or less in the weight or efficiency which they assign to each4 ,in a sum in multiplication you may gain the same product by using different factors2 but if the product is to be constant1 if you halve one factor1 you must double another4 ,evolution is a product of many factors4 ,one evolutionist lays more1 another less1 emphasis on natural selection1 according as he assigns less or more efficiency to other forces or processes4 ,furthermore1 evolutionists differ widely in questions of detail1 and some of these subsidiary questions are of great practical importance and interest4 ,it may be useful1 therefore1 to review these propositions in the light of the facts which we have gathered1 and to see how they are interpreted1 and what emphasis is laid on each by different thinkers4 ,the fundamental fact on which ,mr4 ,darwin's theory rests is the struggle for existence4 ,life is not something to be idly enjoyed1 but a prize to be won2 the world is not a play-ground1 but an arena4 ,and the severity of the struggle can scarcely be overrated4 ,only one or two of a host of runners reach the goal1 the others die along the course4 ,concerning this there can be no doubt1 and there is little room for difference of interpretation4 ,the struggle may take the form of a literal battle between two individuals1 or of the individual with inclemency of climate or other destructive agents4 ,more usually it is a competition1 no more noticeable and no less real than that between merchants or manufacturers in the same line of trade4 ,the weeds in our gardens compete with the flowers for food1 light1 and place1 and crowd them out unless prevented by man4 ,and when the weeds alone remain1 they crowd on each other until only a few of the hardiest and most vigorous survive4 ,and flowers1 by their nectar1 color1 and odor1 compete for the visits of insects1 which insure cross-fertilization4 ,and fruits are frequently or usually the inducements by which plants compete for the aid of animals in the dissemination of their seeds4 ,so there is everywhere competition and struggle2 many fail and perish1 few succeed and survive4 ,in a foot-race it is often very difficult to name the winner4 ,muscle alone does not win1 not even good heart and lungs4 ,good judgment1 patience1 coolness1 courage1 many mental and moral qualities1 are essential to the successful athlete4 ,so in the struggle for life4 ,the race is not always to the swift1 nor the battle to the strong4 ,the total of points which wins this grand prize is the aggregate of many items1 some of which appear to us very insignificant4 ,hence1 when we ask1 ,who will survive8 the answer is necessarily vague4 ,mr4 ,darwin's answer is1 ,those best conformed to their environment2 and ,mr4 ,spencer's statement of the survival of the fittest means the same thing4 ,the judges who pronounce and execute the verdict of death1 or award the prize of life1 are the forces and conditions of environment4 ,we have already considered the meaning of this word4 ,many of its forces and conditions are still unknown1 or but very imperfectly understood4 ,but known or unknown1 visible or invisible1 the result of their united action is the extinction or degradation of these individuals which deviate from certain fairly well-marked lines of development4 ,we must keep clearly before our minds the fact that the world of living beings makes up by far the most important part of the environment of any individual plant or animal4 ,two plants may be equally well suited to the soil and climate of any region2 but if one have a scanty development of root or leaf1 or is for any reason more liable to attacks from insects or germs1 other things being equal1 it will in time be crowded out by its competitor4 ,worms are eaten by lower vertebrates1 and these by higher4 ,an animal's environment1 like that of a merchant or manufacturer1 is very largely a matter of the ability and methods of its competitors4 ,and man1 compelled to live in society1 makes that part of the environment by which he is most largely moulded4 ,this process of extinction ,mr4 ,darwin has called natural selection4 ,natural selection is not a force1 but a process1 resulting from the combined action of the forces of environment4 ,it is not a cause in any proper sense of the word1 but a result of a myriad of interacting forces4 ,the combination of these forces in a process of natural selection leading directly to a moral and spiritual goal demands an explanation in some ultimate cause4 ,this explanation we have already tried to find4 ,it is a process of extinction4 ,it favors the fittest1 but only by leaving them to enjoy the food and place formerly claimed1 or still furnished1 by the less fit4 ,in any advancing group1 as the less fit are crowded out1 and the better fitted gain more place and food and more rapid increase1 the whole species becomes on an average better conformed4 ,more abundant nourishment and increased vigor seem also to be accompanied by increased variation4 ,and by the extinction of the less fit the probability is increased that more fit individuals will pair with one another and give rise to even fitter offspring1 possessing perhaps new and still more valuable variations4 ,but if1 of a group of weaker forms1 those alone survive which adopt a parasitic life1 those which in adult life move the least will survive and reproduce2 there will result the survival of the least muscular and nervous4 ,this degeneration will continue until the species has sunken into equilibrium1 so to speak1 with its surroundings4 ,here natural selection works for degeneration4 ,sessile animals have had a similar history4 ,but these parasitic and sessile forms had already been hopelessly distanced in the race for life4 ,their presence cannot impede the leaders2 indeed their survival is necessary to directly or indirectly furnish food for the better conformed4 ,in the animal and plant world there is abundant room and advantage at the top4 ,once more1 natural selection works as a rule for the survival of individuals1 only indirectly for that of organs composing1 or of species including1 these individuals4 ,it may work for the development of a trait or structure which1 while of no immediate advantage to the individual1 increases the probability of its rearing a larger number of fitter offspring4 ,thus defence of the young by birds may be a disadvantage to the parent1 but this is more than counterbalanced in the life of the species by the number of young coming to maturity and inheriting the trait4 ,even here natural selection favors the survival of the trait indirectly by sparing the descendants of the individual possessing it4 ,natural selection may always work on and through individuals without always working for their sole and selfish advantage4 ,in human society we find the selection of families1 societies1 nations1 and civilizations going on1 but mainly as the result of the survival of the fittest individuals4 ,there may very probably be a struggle for existence between organs or cells in the body of each individual4 ,the amount of nutriment in the body is a more or less fixed quantity2 and if one organ seizes more than its fair share1 others may or must diminish for lack4 ,but the limit to this usurpation must apparently be set by the crowding out of those individuals in which it is carried too far4 ,natural selection1 so to speak1 leaves the individual responsible for the distribution of the nutriment among the organs1 and spares or destroys the individual as this usurpation proves for its advantage or disadvantage4 ,it makes its verdict much as the judges at a great poultry or dog show count the series of points1 giving each one of them a certain value on a certain scale1 and then award the prize to the individual having the highest aggregate on the whole series4 ,any such illustration is very liable to mislead2 ,i wish to emphasize that fitness to survive is determined by the aggregate of the qualities of an individual4 ,but an animal having one organ of great value or capacity may thus carry off the prize1 even though its other organs deserve a much lower mark4 ,this is the case with man4 ,in almost every respect1 except in brain and hand1 he is surpassed by the carnivora1 the cat1 for example4 ,but muscle may be marked1 in making up the aggregate1 on a scale of #ejj1 and brain on a scale of #e1jjj1 or perhaps of #ej1jjj4 ,a very slight difference in brain capacity outweighs a great superiority in muscle in the struggle between man and the carnivora1 or between man and man4 ,the scale on which an organ is marked will be proportional to its usefulness under the conditions given at a given time4 ,during the period of development of worms and lower vertebrates much muscle with a little brain was more useful than more brain with less muscle4 ,hence1 as a rule1 the more muscular survived2 the brain increasing slowly1 at first apparently largely because of its correlation with muscle and sense-organs4 ,at a later date muscle1 tooth1 and claw were more useful on the ground2 brain and hand in the trees4 ,hence carnivora ruled the ground1 and certain arboreal apes became continually more anthropoid4 ,at a later date brain became more useful even on the ground1 and was marked on a higher scale1 because it could invent traps and weapons against which muscle was of little avail4 ,just at present brain is of use to1 and valued by1 a large portion of society in proportion to its efficiency in making and selfishly spending money4 ,but slowly and surely it is becoming of use as an organ of thought1 for the sake of the truth which it can discover and incarnate4 ,natural selection works thus apparently for the survival of the individuals possessing in the aggregate the most complete conformity to environment4 ,let us now imagine that an animal is so constructed as to be capable of variation along several disadvantageous or neutral lines1 and along only one which is advantageous4 ,the development would of course proceed along the advantageous line4 ,let us farther imagine that to the descendants of this individual two1 and only two1 advantageous lines of variations are allowed by its structure4 ,then natural selection would probably favor the decidedly advantageous line1 if such there were4 ,but as long as the structure of the animal allows variation along only a few lines1 the two advantageous variations would1 according to the law of probabilities1 frequently occur in the same individual4 ,the eggs and spermatozoa of two such individuals might not infrequently unite1 and thus in time the two characteristics be inherited by a large fraction of the species4 ,and now let me quote from ,mr4 ,spencer3 ,but in proportion as the life grows complex--in proportion as a healthy existence cannot be secured by a large endowment of some one power1 but demands many powers2 in the same proportion do there arise obstacles to the increase of any particular power1 by 'the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life4' ,as fast as the faculties are multiplied1 so fast does it become possible for the several members of a species to have various kinds of superiorities over one another4 ,while one saves its life by higher speed1 another does the like by clearer vision1 another by keener scent1 another by quicker hearing1 another by greater strength1 another by unusual power of enduring cold or hunger1 another by special sagacity1 another by special timidity1 another by special courage2 and others by other bodily and mental attributes4 ,now it is unquestionably true that1 other things equal1 each of these attributes1 giving its possessor an extra chance of life1 is likely to be transmitted to posterity4 ,but there seems no reason to suppose that it will be increased in subsequent generations by natural selection4 ,that it may be thus increased1 the individuals not possessing more than average endowments of it must be more frequently killed off than individuals highly endowed with it2 and this can happen only when the attribute is one of greater importance1 for the time being1 than most of the other attributes4 ,if those members of the species which have but ordinary shares of it1 nevertheless survive by virtue of other superiorities which they severally possess1 then it is not easy to see how this particular attribute can be developed by natural selection in subsequent generations4 ,the probability seems rather to be that1 by gamogenesis1 this extra endowment will1 on the average1 be diminished in posterity--just serving in the long run to compensate the deficient endowments of other individuals whose special powers lie in other directions1 and so to keep up the normal structure of the species4 ,the working out of the process is here somewhat difficult to follow2 but it appears to me that as fast as the number of bodily and mental faculties increases1 and as fast as the maintenance of life comes to depend less on the amount of any one1 and more on the combined action of all1 so fast does the production of specialties of character by natural selection alone become difficult4 ,particularly does this seem to be so with a species so multitudinous in its powers as mankind1 and above all does it seem to be so with such of the human powers as have but minor shares in aiding the struggle for life--the sthetic faculties for example4--,spencer1 ,principles of ,biology1 #aff4 ,can thus natural selection1 acting upon fortuitous variations1 be the sole guiding process concerned in progress8 ,must there not be some combining power to produce the higher individuals which are prerequisites to the working of natural selection8 ,we are considering the efficiency of natural selection in enhancing useful variations through a series of generations4 ,let us return to the distinction between productiveness and prospectiveness of social capital4 ,applied to variations productiveness means immediate advantage1 prospectiveness the greater future and permanent returns4 ,now all persisting variations must1 in animals below man1 apparently be somewhat productive1 else they would not continue1 much less increase4 ,now the immediate return from prospective variations is often smaller than from productive4 ,it looks at first as if productive variations would always be preserved by natural selection1 and that prospective variations would not long advance4 ,yet in the muscular system variations valuable largely for their future value are neither few nor unimportant4 ,how can the brain in its infancy develop until it gains supremacy over muscle1 or muscle have done the same with digestion8 ,now a partial explanation of this is to be found in the correlation of organs4 ,this is therefore a factor of vast importance in progress through evolution4 ,progress in any one line demands correlated changes in many organs4 ,thus in the advance of annelids to insects the muscular system increases in relative bulk1 and absolutely in complexity4 ,but a change or increase in the muscle must be accompanied by corresponding changes in the motor-nerve fibrils2 and these again would be useless unless accompanied by increased complexity and more or less readjustment of the cells and fibrils of the nerve-centres4 ,and all these additions to1 and readjustments of1 the nerve-centres must take place without any disturbance of the other necessary adjustments already attained4 ,this is no simple problem4 ,we will here neglect the fact that many other changes are going on simultaneously4 ,legs are being formed or moulded into jaws1 the anterior segments are fusing into a head1 and their ganglia into a brain2 an external skeleton is developing4 ,furthermore the increase of the muscular and nervous systems must be accompanied by increased powers of digestion1 respiration1 and excretion4 ,practically the whole body is being recast4 ,we insist only on the necessity of simultaneous and parallel changes in muscles1 nerves1 and nerve-centres2 though what is true of these is true1 in greater or less degree1 of all the other organs4 ,you may answer that this is to be explained by the law of correlation of organs2 that when changes in one organ demand corresponding changes in another1 these two change similarly and more or less at the same time and rate4 ,but this is evidently not an explanation but a restatement of the fact4 ,the question remains1 ,what makes the organs vary simultaneously so as to always correspond to each other8 ,the whole series of changes must to some extent be effected at once and in the same individual1 if it is to be preserved by natural selection4 ,fortuitous variations here and there along the line of the series are of little or no avail4 ,that the whole series of variations should happen to occur in one animal is altogether against the law of probabilities2 if the favorable variation occurs in only a part of the series it remains useless until the corresponding variation has taken place in the other terms4 ,and while the variation is thus awaiting its completion1 so to speak1 it is useless1 and cannot be fostered by natural selection4 ,evolution by means of fortuitous variations1 combined and controlled only through natural selection1 seems to me at least impossible2 and this view is1 ,i think1 steadily gaining ground4 ,natural selection1 while a real and very important factor in evolution1 cannot be its sole and exclusive explanation4 ,it presupposes other factors1 which we as yet but dimly perceive4 ,and this does not impeach the validity of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory any more than ,newton's theory of gravitation is impeached by the fact that it offers no explanation as to why the apple falls or how bodies attract one another4 ,for natural selection explains the survival1 but not the origin1 of the fittest4 ,given a species or other group composed of more and less fit individuals and the fittest will survive4 ,how does it come about that there are any more and less fit individuals8 ,this brings us to the consideration of the subject of variation4 ,let us begin with a simple case of change in the adult body4 ,the workman grasps his tools day after day1 and his hands become horny4 ,the skin has evidently thickened1 somewhat as on the soles of the feet4 ,this is no mere mechanical result of pressure alone4 ,continuous pressure would produce the opposite result4 ,but under the stimulus of intermittent pressure the capillaries1 or smallest blood vessels1 furnish more nutriment to the cells composing the lowest layer of the outer skin or epidermis4 ,these cells1 being better nourished1 reproduce by division more rapidly1 and the epidermis1 becoming composed of a greater number of layers of cells1 thickens4 ,the outer-most layers1 being farthest from the blood supply1 dry up and are packed together into a horny mass4 ,if ,i go out into the sunshine ,i become tanned4 ,this again is not a direct and purely chemical or physical result of the sun's rays1 but these have stimulated the cells of the skin to undergo certain modifications4 ,any change in the living body under changed conditions is not passive1 but an active reaction to a stimulus furnished by the surroundings4 ,the same stimulus may excite very different reactions in different individuals or species4 ,early in this century a farmer1 ,seth ,wright1 found among his lambs a young ram with short legs and long body4 ,the farmer kept the ram1 reasoning that his short legs would prevent him from leading the flock over the farm-walls and fences4 ,from this ram was descended the breed of ancon1 or otter1 sheep4 ,now the stimulus which had excited this variation must have been applied early in embryonic life1 or perhaps during the formation or maturing of the germ-cells themselves4 ,such a variation we call a congenital variation4 ,these cases are merely illustrations of the general truth that in every variation there are two factors concerned3 the living being with its constitution and inherent tendencies and the external stimulus4 ,the courses of the different balls in a charge of grape-shot1 hurled from a cannon1 are evidently due to two sets of forces--#a1 their initial energy and the direction of their aim2 #b1 the deflecting power of resisting objects or forces--or the different balls might roll with great velocity down a precipitous mountain-side4 ,in the first case velocity and direction of course would be determined largely by initial impulse2 in the second1 by the attraction of the earth and by the inequalities of its surface4 ,in evolution1 environment1 roughly speaking1 corresponds to these deflecting or attracting external objects or forces2 inherent tendencies to initial impulse4 ,if we lay great weight on initial tendencies1 inherent in protoplasm from the very beginning1 we shall probably lay less stress on natural selection as a guiding1 directing process4 ,the great botanist1 ,ngeli1 has propounded a most ingenious and elaborate theory of evolution1 as dependent mainly on inherent initial tendency4 ,we can notice only one or two of its salient points4 ,all development is1 according to his view1 due to a tendency in the primitive living substance toward more complete division of labor and greater complexity4 ,this tendency1 which he calls progression1 or the tendency toward perfection1 is the result of the chemical and molecular structure of the formative controlling protoplasm 7idioplasm7 of the body1 and is transmitted with other parental traits from generation to generation4 ,and structural complexity thus increases like money at compound interest4 ,development is a process of unfolding or of realization of the possibilities of this tendency under the stimulus of surrounding influences4 ,environment plays an essential part in his system4 ,but only such changes are transmissible to future generations as have resulted from modifications arising in the idioplasm4 ,descendants of plants which have varied under changed conditions revert1 as a rule1 to the old type1 when returned to the old surroundings4 ,and in the animal world effects of use and disuse are1 according to his view1 not transmissible4 ,natural selection plays a very subordinate part4 ,it is purely destructive4 ,given an infinity of place and nourishment--do away1 that is1 with all struggle and selection--and the living world would have advanced1 purely by the force of the progressive tendency1 just as far as it now has2 only there would have survived an indefinite number of intermediate forms4 ,it would have differed from our present living world as the milky way does from the starry firmament4 ,he compares the plant kingdom to a great1 luxurious tree1 branching from its very base1 whose twigs would represent the present stage of our different species4 ,left to itself it would put out a chaos of innumerable branches4 ,natural selection1 like a gardener1 prunes the tree into shape4 ,children might imagine that the gardener caused the growth2 but the tree would have been broader and have branched more luxuriantly if left to itself4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,ngeli1 ,theorie der ,abstammungslehre1 p4 #ah2 also pp4 #ab1 #aah1 #bhe4 ,every species must vary perpetually4 ,now this proposition is apparently not in accord with fact2 for some have remained unchanged during immense periods4 ,and natural selection1 by removing the less fit1 certainly appears to contribute to progress by raising the average of the species4 ,the theory seems extreme and one-sided4 ,and yet it has done great service by calling in question the all-sufficiency of natural selection and the modifying power of environment1 and by emphasizing1 probably overmuch1 the importance of initial inherent tendency1 whose value has been entirely neglected by many evolutionists4 ,lack of space compels us to leave unnoticed most of the exceedingly valuable suggestions of ,ngeli's brilliant work4 ,it is still less possible to do any justice in a few words to ,weismann's theory4 ,into its various modifications1 as it has grown from year to year1 we have no time to enter4 ,and we must confine ourselves to his views of variation and heredity4 ,in studying protozoa we noticed that they reproduced by fission1 each adult individual dividing into two young ones4 ,there is therefore no old parent left to die4 ,natural death does not occur here1 only death by violence or unfavorable conditions4 ,the protozoa are immortal1 not in the sense of the endless persistence of the individual1 but of the absence of death4 ,heredity is here easily comprehensible1 for one-half1 or less frequently a smaller fraction1 of the substance of the parent goes to form the new individual4 ,there is direct continuity of substance from generation to generation4 ,but in volvox a change has taken place4 ,the fertilized egg-cell1 formed by the union of egg and spermatozoon1 is a single cell1 like the individual resulting from the conjugation or fusion of two protozoa4 ,but in the many-celled individual1 which develops out of the fertilized egg1 there are two kinds of cells4 #a4 ,there are other egg-cells1 like the first1 each one of which can1 under favorable conditions1 develop into a multicellular individual like the parent4 ,and the germ-cells 7eggs and spermatozoa7 of volvox are immortal like the protozoa4 ,but1 #b1 there are nutritive1 somatic cells1 which nourish and transport the germ-cells1 and after their discharge die4 ,these somatic cells1 being mortal1 differ altogether from the germ-cells and the protozoa4 ,the protoplasm must differ in chemical1 or molecular1 or other structure in the two cases1 and we distinguish the germ-plasm of the germ-cells1 resembling in certain respects ,ngeli's idioplasm1 from somatoplasm1 which performs most of the functions of the cell4 ,the somatoplasm arises from1 and hence must be regarded as a modification of1 the germ-plasm4 ,the germ-plasm can increase indefinitely in the lapse of generations1 increase of the somatoplasm is limited4 ,when a new individual develops1 a certain portion of the germ-plasm of the egg is set aside and remains unchanged in structure4 ,this1 increasing in quantity1 forms the reproductive elements for the next generation4 ,the germ-plasm1 which does not form the whole of each reproductive element1 but only a part of the nucleus1 is thus an exceedingly stable substance4 ,and there is a just as real continuity of germ-plasm through successive generations of volvox1 or of any higher plants or animals1 as in successive generations of protozoa4 ,in certain plants there is an underground stem or rootstock1 which grows perennially1 and each year produces a plant from a bud at its end4 ,this underground rootstock would represent the continuous germ-plasm of successive generations2 the plants which yearly arise from it would represent the successive generations of adult individuals1 composed mainly of somatoplasm4 ,or we may imagine a long chain1 with a pendant attached to each tenth or one-hundredth link4 ,the links of the chain would represent the series of generations of germ-cells2 the pendants1 the adults of successive generations4 ,but any leaf of begonia can be made to develop into a new plant1 giving rise to germ-cells4 ,here there must be scattered through the leaves of the plant small portions of germ-plasm1 which generally remain dormant1 and only under special conditions increase and give rise to germ-cells4 ,a large part of the germ-plasm of the fertilized egg is used to give rise to the somatoplasm composing the different systems of the embryo and adult4 ,weismann's explanation of this change of germ-plasm into somatoplasm is very ingenious1 and depends upon his theory of the structure of the germ-plasm2 and this latter theory forms the basis of his theory of evolution4 ,it would take too long to state his theory of the structure of germ-plasm1 but an illustration may present fairly clear all that is of special importance to us4 ,the molecules of germ-plasm are grouped in units1 and these in an ascending series of units of continually increasing complexity1 until at last we find the highest unit represented in the nucleus of the germ-cell4 ,this grouping of molecules in units of increasing complexity is like the grouping of the men of an army in companies1 regiments1 brigades1 divisions1 etc4 ,to form the somatoplasm of the different tissues of the body1 this complicated organization breaks up1 as the egg divides1 into an ever-increasing number of cells4 ,first1 so to speak1 the corps separate to preside over the formation of different body regions4 ,then the different divisions1 brigades1 and regiments1 composing each next higher unit1 separate1 being detailed to form ever smaller portions of the body4 ,the process of changing germ-plasm into somatoplasm is one of disintegration4 ,the germ-plasm contains representatives of the whole army2 a somatic cell only representatives of one special arm of a special training4 ,germ-plasm in the egg is like ,humpty-,dumpty on the wall2 somatoplasm1 like ,humpty-,dumpty after his great fall4 ,i use these rude illustrations to make clear one point3 ,germ-plasm can easily change into somatoplasm1 but somatoplasm once formed can never be reconverted into germ-plasm1 any more than the fallen hero of the nursery rhyme could ever be restored4 ,the germ-plasm is1 according to ,weismann1 a very peculiar1 complex1 stable substance1 continuous from generation to generation since the first appearance of life on the globe4 ,it is in the body of the parent1 but scarcely of it4 ,its relation to the body is like that of a plant to the soil or of a parasite to its host4 ,it receives from the body practically only transport and nourishment4 ,it is like a self-perpetuating1 close corporation2 and the somatoplasm has no means of either controlling it or of gaining representation in it4 ,says ,weismann,a3 ,the germ-cells are contained in the organism1 and the external influences which affect them are intimately connected with the state of the organism in which they lie hid4 ,if it be well nourished1 the germ-cells will have abundant nutriment2 and1 conversely1 if it be weak and sickly1 the germ-cells will be arrested in their growth4 ,it is even possible that the effects of these influences may be more specialized2 that is to say1 they may act only upon certain parts of the germ-cells4 ,but this is indeed very different from believing that the changes of the organism which result from external stimuli can be transmitted to the germ-cells and will redevelop in the next generation at the same time as that at which they arose in the parent1 and in the same part of the organism4 ,footnote ,a3 ,essays upon ,heredity1 p4 #aje4 ,but if the germ-plasm has this constitution and relation to the rest of the body1 how is any variation possible8 ,different individuals of any species have slightly different congenital tendencies4 ,hence in the act of fertilization two germ-plasms of slightly different structure and tendency are mingled4 ,the mingling of the two produces a germ-plasm and individual differing from both of the parents4 ,thus1 according to ,weismann's earlier view1 the origin of variation was to be sought in sexual reproduction through the mingling of slightly different germ-plasms4 ,but how did these two germ-plasms come to be different8 ,how was the variation started8 ,to explain this ,weismann went back to the unicellular protozoa4 ,these animals are undoubtedly influenced by environment and vary under its stimuli4 ,here the variations were stamped upon the germ-plasm1 and the commingling of these variously stamped germ-plasms has resulted in all the variations of higher animals4 ,of late ,weismann has modified and greatly improved this portion of his theory4 ,he now accepts the view that external influences may act upon the germ-plasm not only in protozoa but also in all higher animals4 ,variation is thus due to the action or stimulus of external influences1 supplemented by sexual reproduction4 ,but the very constitution of the germ-plasm and its relation to the body absolutely forbids the transmission of acquired somatic characteristics and of the special effects of use and disuse4 ,muscular activity promotes general health1 and might thus conduce to better-nourished germ-cells and to more vigorous and therefore athletic descendants4 ,the exercise of the muscles might possibly cause such a condition of the blood that the portion of the germ-plasm representing the muscular system of the next generation might be especially nourished or stimulated4 ,thus an athletic parent might produce more athletic children4 ,but let us imagine twin brothers of equal muscular development4 ,one from childhood on exercises the lower half of his body2 the other1 the upper4 ,both take the same amount of exercise1 and have perhaps equal muscular development1 but located in different halves of the body4 ,now it is hard to conceive that it can make any difference in the nourishing or stimulating influence of the blood1 whether the muscular activity resides in one half of the body or the other4 ,the children might be exactly alike4 ,one man drives the pen1 a second plays the piano1 and a third wields a light hammer4 ,all three use different muscles of the hand and arm4 ,how can this use of special muscles stamp itself upon the germ-cells in such a way that the offspring will have these special muscles enlarged8 ,granting that external influences of environment and bodily condition may effect the germ-cells2 granting even that some of the most general effects of use and disuse might be transmitted1 what warrant have we for believing that the special acquired characteristic can be transmitted8 ,weismann answers1 ,none at all4 ,the somatoplasm can only in the most general way affect the self-perpetuating1 close corporation of the germ-plasm4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,weismann1 ,essays1 p4 #bhf4 ,there is thus1 according to ,weismann1 nothing to direct variation to certain organs1 or to guide and combine the variations of these organs along certain lines1 except natural selection4 ,to a certain extent variation may be limited by the very structure of the animal4 ,but within these limits there are wide ranges where one variation is apparently just as likely to occur as another4 ,within these wide limits variation appears to be fortuitous4 ,natural selection must wait until the individuals appear in which these variations occur already correlated1 and then seize upon these individuals4 ,it is apparently the only guiding1 directing force4 ,linear variation1 that is1 a variation advancing continuously along one or very few straight lines1 would appear to be impossible4 ,in ,ngeli's theory initial tendency is overwhelmingly dominant2 in ,weismann's1 natural selection is almighty4 ,weismann's followers have received the name of ,neo-,darwinians4 ,the so-called ,neo-,lamarckian school believes in the transmissibility of acquired characteristics1 and of at least particular effects of use and disuse4 ,the one theory is neither more nor less ,darwinian than the other4 ,for while ,darwin emphasized natural selection1 he accepted to a certain extent the transmission of special effects of use and disuse4 ,a special theory of heredity1 pangenesis1 has been accepted by many of the ,neo-,lamarckian school4 ,the theory of pangenesis1 as propounded by ,mr4 ,darwin1 may be very briefly stated as follows3 ,the cells in all parts of the body are continually throwing off germinal particles1 or gemmules4 ,these become scattered through the body1 grow1 and multiply by division4 ,on account of mutual attraction they unite in the reproductive glands to form eggs or spermatozoa4 ,the germ-cells are thus the bearers of heredity because they contain samples1 so to speak1 of all the organs of the body4 ,in heredity1 according to ,weismann's theory1 the egg is the centre of control1 the continuous germ-plasm the source of all transmitted changes2 according to ,darwin's theory1 the body is the source1 and the egg is derived in great part at least from it4 ,if you put to the two the time-honored question1 ,which is first1 the owl or the egg8 ,weismann would announce1 with emphasis1 ,the egg2 ,darwin would say1 ,the owl4 ,one proposition is the converse of the other1 and most facts accord almost equally well with both theories4 ,in any family1 devoted for generations to literary or artistic pursuits1 the children show1 as a rule1 an aptitude for such pursuits not manifested by those of other families4 ,according to the ,neo-,lamarckian view1 this inherited aptitude is to a certain extent the result of the constant exercise of these faculties through a series of generations4 ,the active efforts and voluntary disposition of the parents have given an increased predisposition to the child4 ,quite the reverse1 says ,weismann1 the increase of an organ in the course of generations does not depend upon the summation of exercise taken during single lives1 but upon the summation of more favorable predispositions in the germ4 ,an organism cannot acquire anything unless it already possesses the predisposition to acquire it4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,weismann1 ,essays1 pp4 #he and #aga4 ,we may accept or deny this last statement1 but it is evident that facts like these1 and indeed the origin of most or all characteristics involving use or disuse1 may be explained almost equally well by either theory4 ,but as far as the transmission of effects of somatic changes is concerned1 if protozoa undergo special modifications under the influence of external conditions1 will not the germ-cells undergo special modification under the influence of changes in the somatoplasm which forms their immediate environment8 ,we must never forget the close relationship between all the cells of the body1 and how slight a change in the body or its surroundings may conduce to sterility or fertility4 ,such isolation and independence in the body1 on the part of the germ-cells1 is opposed to all that we know of the organic unity of the body1 whose cells have arisen by the differentiation of1 and division of labor between1 cells primitively alike4 ,the facts of bud-variation1 of changes in the parent stock due to grafting1 and others1 of which ,mr4 ,darwin has given a summary in the eleventh chapter of the first volume of his ,plants and ,animals under ,domestication1 have never been adequately explained by ,weismann in accordance with his theory4 ,he has perhaps succeeded in parrying their force by showing that some such explanation is conceivable2 they still point strongly against him4 ,wilson has good reason for his steadily growing conviction that the cell is not a self-regulating mechanism in itself1 that no cell is isolated1 and that ,weismann's fundamental proposition is false4 ,but1 granting the force of these criticisms1 the question still remains1 ,is the special effect of use or disuse transmissible8 ,would the blacksmith's son have a stronger right arm8 #a4 ,the isolation and independence of the germ-cells1 which ,weismann postulates as opposing this1 can hardly be as great as he thinks4 #b4 ,it is in his view impossible to conceive how these acquired characteristics can in any way reach and affect the germ-cells in such a manner as to reappear in the next generation4 #c4 ,all variations can be explained by his own theory without such transmission4 ,why then believe that acquired characteristics can in some inconceivable way affect the germ-cells so as to reappear in the next generation1 as long as all the facts can be explained in a more simple and easily conceivable manner8 ,as to his second argument1 ,i would readily acknowledge that it is at present difficult or impossible for me to conceive how any cell can act upon another1 except through the nutrient or other fluids which it can produce4 ,but though ,i cannot conceive how one cell can affect another1 ,i may be compelled to believe that it does so4 ,and this ,weismann readily acknowledges4 ,driesch changed by pressure the relative position of the cells of a very young embryo1 so that those which in a normal embryo would have produced one organ were now compelled1 if used at all1 to form quite a different one4 ,and yet these displaced cells formed the organ required of cells normally occupying this new position1 not the one for which they were normally intended4 ,and the organ which they would have builded in a normal embryo was now formed by other cells transferred to their rightful place4 ,what made them thus change8 ,not change of substance or structure1 for the slight pressure could hardly have modified this4 ,not change of nutriment4 ,the only visible or easily conceivable change was in position relative to other cells of the embryo4 ,let us in imagination simplify ,driesch's experiment1 for the sake of gaining a clearer view of its meaning4 ,in a certain embryo at an early stage are certain cells whose descendants should form the lining of the intestine and be used in the adult for digestion4 ,a second set of cells should form muscle endowed mainly with contractility4 ,when these two sets of cells1 or some of them1 exchange positions in the embryo1 they exchange lines of development4 ,the first set now form muscle1 the second digestive tissue4 ,the only change has been in their relative positions4 ,driesch maintains1 therefore1 that the goal of development in any embryonic cell is determined not by structure or nutriment but by position4 ,and this would seem to be true of the cells of the earliest embryonic stages4 ,certain other experiments point in the same direction4 ,cut a hydra into equal halves and each half will form a complete animal4 ,the lower half forms a new top1 with mouth and tentacles2 the upper half1 a new base4 ,cut the other hydra a hair's-breadth farther up4 ,the same layer of cells which in the first animal formed the lower exposed surface of the upper half now forms the upper exposed surface of the lower half4 ,and with this change of position it has changed its line of development2 it will now give rise to a new upper half1 not a base as before4 ,the same experiment can be tried on certain worms with similar results1 only head and tail differ far more than top and base of hydra4 ,difference in the position of cells has made vast difference in their line of development4 ,now in both embryo and adult there must be some directing influence guiding these cells4 ,what is it8 ,an army is more than a mob of individuals2 it is individuals plus organization1 discipline1 authority4 ,a republic is not square miles of territory and thousands or millions of inhabitants4 ,it is these plus organization1 central government4 ,webster claimed that the central government was1 and had to be1 before the states4 ,the organism cannot exist without its parts2 it has a very real existence in and through them4 ,it can coerce them4 ,the state may be an abstraction1 but it is one against which it is usually fatal to rebel1 and which can say to a citizen1 ,go and be hanged1 and he straightway mounts the scaffold4 ,now these are analogies and prove nothing4 ,but in so far as they throw light on the essential idea of an organism1 they may aid us in gaining a right view of our cell republic4 ,says ,whitman in a very interesting article on the ,inadequacy of the ,cell-,theory3 ,that organization precedes cell-formation and regulates it1 rather than the reverse1 is a conclusion that forces itself upon us from many sides4 ,the structure which we see in a cell-mosaic is something superadded to organization1 not itself the foundation of organization4 ,comparative embryology reminds us at every turn that the organism dominates cell-formation1 using for the same purpose one1 several1 or many cells1 massing its material and directing its movements1 and shaping its organs as if cells did not exist1 or as if they existed only in complete subordination to its will1 if ,i may so speak4 ,the organization of the egg is carried forward to the adult as an unbroken physiological unity1 or individuality1 through all modifications and transformations4 ,and ,wilson1 ,whitman1 ,hertwig1 and others urge that the organism as a whole controls the formative processes going on in each part of the embryo4 ,and many years ago ,huxley wrote1 ,they 7the cells7 are no more the producers of the vital phenomena than the shells scattered along the sea-beach are the instruments by which the gravitative force of the moon acts upon the ocean4 ,like these1 the cells mark only where the vital tides have been1 and how they have acted4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see articles by ,whitman and ,wilson1 ,journal of ,morphology1 vol4 viii41 pp4 #fdi1 #fjg1 etc4 ,interaction of cells can help us but little4 ,for how can neighboring cells direct others placed in a new position8 ,the expression1 if not positively misleading and untrue1 is at the best only a restatement of fact4 ,it certainly offers no explanation4 ,flood-tide is not due to the interaction of particles of water1 though this may influence the form of the waves4 ,the centre of control is therefore not to be sought in individual cells1 whether germ-cells or somatic1 but in the organism4 ,and it is the whole organism1 one and indivisible1 which controls in germ1 embryo1 and adult1 in egg and owl4 ,this individuality1 or whatever you will call it1 impresses itself upon developing somatic cells1 moulding them into appropriate organs1 and upon germ-cells in process of formation1 moulding them so that they may continue its sway4 ,the muscle1 modified by use or disuse1 is a better expression of the individuality of its possessor1 and the same individuality moulds similarly and simultaneously the germ-cells4 ,both are different expressions or manifestations of the same individuality4 ,only slowly does the individuality mould the muscles and nerves of the adult body to its use4 ,still more slow may be the moulding of the still more refractory germ-plasm1 if such there be4 ,but the moulding process goes on parallel in the two cases4 ,but ,weismann's argument rests not merely upon any difficulty or impossibility of the transmissibility of acquired characteristics4 ,his argument is rather that all facts can be better explained by his theory without postulating or accepting such transmission1 cases of which have never been absolutely proven4 ,but the question is not whether his theory offers a possible explanation of the facts1 but whether it is the most probable explanation of all the facts4 ,no one would deny1 ,i think1 that the continuity of the germ-plasm offers the best and most natural explanation of heredity2 and that variations could be produced by the influence on the germ-plasm of external conditions seems entirely probable4 ,but when we consider the aggregation of these variations in a process of evolution1 his theory seems unsatisfactory4 ,we have already seen that what we commonly call a variation involves not one change1 but a series of changes1 each term of which is necessary4 ,muscle1 nerve1 and ganglion must all vary simultaneously and correspondingly4 ,correlation and combination are just as essential as variation4 ,and evolution often demands the disappearance of less fit structures just as much as the advance of the fittest4 ,says ,osborne1 ,it is misleading to base our theory of evolution and heredity solely upon entire organs2 in the hand and foot we have numerous cases of muscles in close contiguity1 one steadily developing1 the other degenerating4 ,weismann offers the explanation that if the average amount of food which an animal can assimilate every day remains constant for a considerable time1 it follows that a strong influx toward one organ must be accompanied by a drain upon others1 and this tendency will increase1 from generation to generation1 in proportion to the development of the growing organ1 which is favored by natural selection in its increased blood-supply1 etc42 while the operation of natural selection has also determined the organ which can bear a corresponding loss without detriment to the organism as a whole4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,weismann1 ,essays1 p4 #hh4 ,here again natural selection of individuals1 not the diminished supply of nutriment1 has to determine which of many muscles shall be poorly fed and which favored4 ,but natural selection can favor special organs only indirectly through the individuals which possess such organs4 ,variation is fortuitous1 and there is nothing1 except natural selection1 to combine or direct them4 ,and1 ,i think1 we have already seen that any theory which neglects or excludes such directing and combining agencies must be unsatisfactory and inadequate4 ,weismann has promised us an explanation of correlation of variation in accordance with his theory2 and if such an explanation can be made1 it would remove one of the strongest objections4 ,but for the present the objection has very great weight4 ,furthermore1 as ,osborne has insisted1 linear variations1 or variations proceeding along certain single and well-marked lines1 would seem inexplicable by1 if not fatal to1 ,weismann's theory4 ,and yet ,osborne1 ,cope1 and others have shown that the teeth of mammals have developed steadily along well-marked lines4 ,they have apparently not resulted at all by selection from a host of fortuitous variations4 ,says ,osborne in his ,cartwright ,lectures,a3 ,it is evident that use and disuse characterize all the centres of evolution2 that changes of structure are slowly following on changes of function or habit4 ,in eight independent regions of evolution in the human body there are upward of twenty developing organs1 upward of thirty degenerating organs4 ,now this parallelism1 through a long series of generations1 between the evolution of organs1 their advance or degeneration1 and the use or disuse of these same organs1 that is1 of the habits of the individual1 is certainly of great significance4 ,it must have an explanation2 and the most natural one would seem to be the transmission of the effects of use and disuse4 ,footnote ,a3 ,american ,naturalist1 vols4 xxv4 and xxvi4 ,on the whole ,osborne's verdict would seem just3 ,the ,neo-,lamarckian theory fails to explain heredity1 ,weismann's theory does not explain evolution4 ,but1 if the effects of use and disuse are transmitted1 correlation of variation is to be expected4 ,muscle1 nerve1 and ganglion all vary in correlation because they are all used together and in like degree4 ,evolution and degeneration of muscles in hand and foot go on side by side1 because some are used and some are disused4 ,centres of use and disuse must be centres of evolution4 ,and there would be as many distinct centres of evolution in different parts of the body as there were centres of use and disuse4 ,and between these centres there might be no correlation except that of use and disuse4 ,brain1 muscles1 and jaws would develop simultaneously in the ancestors of insects4 ,and the effects of use and disuse1 transmitted through a series of generations1 would be cumulative4 ,the species advances rapidly because all its members have in general the same habits2 the same parts are advancing or degenerating1 although at different rates1 in all its individuals4 ,an animal having an organ highly developed is far less likely to pair with one having a lower development of the same organ4 ,the ,neo-,lamarckian theory supplies thus what is lacking in the ,neo-,darwinian4 ,in lower forms1 like hydra1 of simple structure and comparatively few possibilities of variation1 natural selection is dominant4 ,in higher forms1 like vertebrates1 and especially in man1 it is of decidedly subordinate value as a promoter of evolution4 ,for man1 as we have seen1 is a marvellously complex being4 ,the great difficulty in his case is not so much to quickly gain new and favorable variations as to keep all the organs and powers of the body steadily advancing side by side4 ,natural selection has in man the important but subordinate position of the judge in a criminal court1 to pronounce the death verdict on the hopeless and incorrigible4 ,both ,neo-,darwinians and ,neo-,lamarckians have erred in being too exclusively mechanical in their theories4 ,it is the main business of the scientific man to discover and study mechanisms4 ,but he must remember that mechanism does not produce force1 it only transmits it4 ,if he maintains that he has nothing to do with anything outside of mechanism1 that the invisible and imponderable force lies outside of his domain1 he has handed over to metaphysics the fairest and richest portion of his realm4 ,in our fear of being metaphysical we have swung to another extreme1 and have lost sight of valuable truth which lay at the bottom of the old vitalistic theories4 ,cells1 tissues1 and organs are but channels along which the flood of life-force flows4 ,boveri has well said1 ,there is too much intelligence 7,verstand7 in nature for any purely mechanical theory to be possible4 ,each theory contains important truth4 ,ngeli's view of the importance of initial tendencies1 inherent in the original living substance1 is too often undervalued4 ,my own conviction1 at least1 is steadily strengthening that1 without some such original tendency or aim1 evolution would never have reached its present culmination in man4 ,his error lies in emphasizing this factor too exclusively4 ,the fundamental proposition of ,weismann's theory1 that heredity is due to continuity of germ-plasm1 seems to contain important truth4 ,but we need not therefore accept his theory of a germ-plasm so isolated and independent as to be beyond control or influence by the habits of the body4 ,the importance of use and disuse1 and the transmissibility of their effects1 would seem to supply a factor essential to evolution4 ,weismann has done good service in emphasizing the stability of the germ-plasm4 ,evolution is always slow1 and1 for that very reason1 sure4 ,if these conclusions are correct1 they have an important practical bearing4 ,struggle and effort are essential to progress4 ,not inborn talent alone1 but the use which one makes of it1 counts in evolution4 ,the effects of use and disuse are cumulative4 ,the hard-fought battle of past generations becomes an easy victory in the present1 just because of the strength acquired and handed down from the past struggle4 ,persistent variation toward evil is in time weeded out by natural selection4 ,and1 while evil remains in the world1 we are to lay up stores of strength for ourselves and our descendants by sturdily fighting it4 ,but the effects of right living through a hundred generations are not overcome by the criminal life of one or two4 ,evil surroundings weigh more in producing criminals than heredity1 and their children are not irreclaimable4 ,the struggles and victories of each one of us encourage the rest4 ,there is1 to borrow ,mr4 ,huxley's language1 not only a survival of the fittest1 but a fitting of as many as possible to survive4 ,and in the midst of the hardest struggle there is the peace which comes from the assurance of a glorious triumph4 ,condensed ,chart of ,development of the ,main ,line of the ,animal ,kingdom leading to ,man4 ,,organs ,,most ,,rapidly ,,phylogenetic ,,approaching ,,advancing ,,series4 ,,new ,,attainments4 ,,culmination4 ,,organs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,amoeba4 ,cell4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,volvox4 ,somatic and reproductive ,reproductive4 cells ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,hydra4 ,simple reproductive organs4 ,reproductive4 ,gastro vascular cavity4 7,tissues74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,turbellaria4 ,d ,complex reproductive ,reproductive4 ,digestive4 e ,organs4 ,supra-oes4 v ,ganglion and cords4 e ,sense organs4 l ,body wall4ns4 o p ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,annelid4 ,o ,perivisceral ,cavity4 r ,intestine4 ,circulatory g system4 ,nephridia4 a ,visual eyes4 n s ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,primitive ,notochord4 ,fins4 ,vertebrate4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,fish4 ,backbone 7incomplete74 ,digestive4 ,muscles4 ,paired ,fins4 ,jaws from ,branchial ,arches4 ,simple heart4 ,air ,bladder4 ,brain4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,amphibian4 ,legs4 ,lungs4 ,cerebrum ,muscles4 increases from this form on4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,reptile4 ,double heart4 ,muscles and appendages4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,lower ,constant high temperature ,muscles and ,placental ,placenta4 ,muscle4 appendages4 ,mammals4 ---------------------------------------- - -------------- ,ape4 ,erect posture4 ,hand4 ,large ,brain4 cerebrum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,man4 ,very large cerebrum4 ,,brain4 ,personality4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,table continued below ,,dominant ,,mental ,,dominant 7,,or ,,nervous7 ,,sequence ,,of ,,sequence ,,of ,,environment ,,function4 ,,action4 ,,perceptions4 ,,motives4 ,,makes ,,for4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,a ,touch4 ,smell4 ,hunger4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,v,reproduction4 ,touch4 ,smell4 ,hunger4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,h,reproduction4 ,reflex4 ,touch4 ,smell4 ,hunger4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,reproduction4 ,reflex4 ,touch4 ,smell4 ,hunger4 ,t ,rapid ---------------------------------------- -----------------reproduction ,digestion ,reflex4 ,touch4 ,hunger4 and good ,a ,muscular4 ,smell4 digestion4 n ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,p ,digestion ,instinct4 8 ,v ,muscular4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,digestion ,instinct4 ,hearing4 ,f ,muscular4 ,sight4 ---------------------------------------- --,fear and ,a ,digestion ,instinct4 ,hearing4 other ,strength and m ,muscular4 ,sight4 prudential activity4 considerations4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,r ,muscular4 ,instinct4 8 ,hearing4 ,sight4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,l ,muscular4 ,instinct 8 8 ,hearing4 ,p ,sight4 ,m ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,muscular4 ,intelligence4 ,mental 8 ,a ,nervous4 ,perception4 7,shrewdness87 p ,understanding4 e ,association4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,mind499 ,intelligence4 ,reason499 ,love of man4 ,shrewdness4 ,m ,truth4 ,righteousness a ,right499 and n unelfishness99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ 99 ,apparently capable of indefinite development4 ,,phylogenetic ,,chart ,,of ,,principal ,,types ,,of ,,animal ,,life4 ,man4 _/ ,apes4 _/ _/ ,lower ,placental ,mammals4 ,marsupial ,mammals4 ,oviparous ,mammals4 _/,birds4 _/ _/ _/,reptiles4 _/ ,ampibia4 _/ ,insect4 _/,fish4 _/ _/ _/,mollusca4 _/ _/ ,annelid4------ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,schematic ,worm4 _/ _/ _/ _/,turbellaria4 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,hydra4 _/ _/ _/ _/ _/,volvox4 _/ _/ ,magosphaera4 _/ _/ _/,amoeba4 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,phylogenetic ,,chart ,,of ,,principal ,,types ,,of ,,animal ,,life4 ,,index ,amoeba1 #cb ,annelids1 #fa1 #ajc ,apes1 anthropoid1 #ia ,appetites1 #acg ,arthropoda1 #fa ,articulata1 #fa ,beauty1 perception of1 #aba ,bible1 #bda ,blastosphere1 #dd ,brain1 #fd1 #ajh2 of insects1 #fi2 vertebrates1 #ge1 #he2 man1 #if4 ,see also ,ganglion ,cell1 #cd1 #cf ,child1 mental development of1 #bjd ,christianity1 #aib1 #bej1 #beb ,church1 #bfe ,circulatory system1 worms1 #fb2 insects1 #ff2 vertebrates1 #hd ,classification1 #bj ,coelenterata1 #db1 #ee ,conformity to environment1 #aej1 #agj1 #agg1 #aig1 #bdc1 #bei1 #bfe ,conscience1 #ahd ,correlation of organs1 #bhd ,darwinism1 #aj ,degeneration1 #aee1 #bgi ,digestion1 #cji2 amoeba1 #cc2 hydra1 #cg2 worms1 #dg1 #eb2 insects1 #ff2 vertebrates1 #gc1 #ha ,ear1 #ej1 #fd ,echinoderms1 #eg ,ectoderm1 #cg1 #dd ,egg1 #dc ,embryology1 #dc ,emotions1 #acf1 #bcj1 #cji ,entoderm1 #cg1 #dd ,environment1 #aeh1 #cji2 ,god immanent in1 #afa1 #age2 mirrored in human mind1 #aii ,evolution1 #c2 conservative1 #agc ,excretion1 amoeba1 #cc2 worms1 #dh1 #ec2 vertebrates1 #gc1 #ha ,faith1 #bji1 #bef ,family1 #ahj2 origin of1 ,cf4 #hh1 #agh1 #bag2 results of1 #aha ,flagellata1 #ci ,ganglion1 supra-oesophageal1 #di1 #ed2 annelids1 #fd4 ,see ,brain ,gastra1 #de ,gastrula1 #dd ,god1 #bdd2 knowable1 #afg ,head1 insect1 #fh2 vertebrate1 #ge ,heredity1 mental and moral1 #ahh ,heroism1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bbg ,history1 #ae ,hope1 #bfb ,huxley 7quoted71 #ii1 #aga1 #bgc ,hydra1 #cg ,insects1 #fe1 #aje ,instinct1 #abg1 #aca ,intellect1 #aag1 #abd ,intelligence1 #aag ,intelligent action1 #abh1 #acb ,jaws1 insects1 #fg2 vertebrates1 #gc ,knowledge1 value of1 #aej1 #bbi1 #bdb ,law1 ,divine1 #bde ,locomotion and nervous development1 #fa4 ,see also ,muscular ,system ,love1 #aci1 #ahj1 #bdc ,magosphra1 #dj ,mammals1 #he1 #ib2 oviparous1 #hf2 marsupial1 #hg2 placental1 #hh2 temporarily surpassed by reptiles1 #aie ,man1 #baj1 #bai2 anatomical characteristics1 #ib2 mental and moral characteristics1 #ii1 #aab1 #adg1 #aej1 #bai1 #bdb2 relation to nature1 #baj2 animal1 #bac2 moral1 #bbj2 religious1 #bbd2 hero1 #bbg2 future1 #bbh1 #bca ,materialism1 #afe ,mesoderm1 #de ,mind1 #aae1 #add2 amoeba1 #cc ,mollusks1 #eh1 #ajf ,motives1 #acf1 #adh2 sequence of1 #adc ,muscular system1 #cji2 hydra1 #ch2 worms1 #fb2 insects1 #fh2 vertebrates1 #gc1 #ajh1 #baf ,ngeli1 #bhh ,natural selection1 #ab1 #aeb1 #bgh ,nature1 #i1 #bh ,neo-,darwinians and ,neo-,lamarckians1 #bif ,nervous system1 #ajb2 hydra1 #ch2 turbellaria1 #dh2 mollusks1 #ei2 annelids1 #fc2 insects1 #fi2 vertebrates1 #gd ,notochord1 #gd1 #gi ,ontogenesis1 #bf ,phylogenesis1 #bf1 #ajj1 #caj ,placenta1 #hh ,prayer1 #bei ,primates1 #ia ,productiveness and prospectiveness1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bjb ,protoplasm1 #cb1 #cd ,protozoa1 #ci ,reflex action1 #abe1 #ace1 #adf ,religion1 #aff1 #bbd1 #bfb ,reproduction1 #cji2 amoeba1 #cb1 #ce2 hydra1 #ch2 magosphra1 #dj2 volvox1 #da2 turbellaria1 #ej2 annelids1 #fb2 insects1 #ff2 vertebrates1 #gc4 ,see also ,size and ,surface and ,mass ,respiration1 amoeba1 #ce2 worms1 #dh1 #fc2 insects1 #ff2 vertebrates1 #gg1 #hd ,sequence of functions1 #hj1 #aji1 #agd1 #cji2 condensed history of1 #ajj1 #aeb1 #bba2 reversal of1 #aed1 #bje ,sexual reproduction1 #cc1 #cg1 #da ,sin1 #bde ,size1 #ce1 #ea1 #gb1 #gf1 #hi1 #bad ,skeleton1 #eh1 #gd2 mollusks1 #ei2 insects1 #fe1 #fg1 #ga2 vertebrates1 #gd1 #hb ,social life1 #ahb1 #bag ,socrates1 #afa1 #ahi1 #bjj ,specialization1 #bcf1 #bci ,struggle for existence1 #aa1 #aeh1 #bgg2 mitigation of1 #bag ,surface and mass1 #ce1 #ej ,tissues1 #db ,turbellaria1 #df1 #ajb ,vertebrates1 #gc1 #ha1 #ajg2 primitive1 #gg ,volvox1 #dj ,weismann1 #bij ,will1 #acf ,worms1 #ef2 schematic1 #eb 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,morse ,lectures for #ahie ,,the ,,whence ,,and ,,whither ,,of ,,man ,a ,,brief ,,history ,,of ,,man',s ,,origin ,,and ,,development1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,his ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,capacities ,,through ,,conformity ,,to ,,environment ,by ,,john ,m4 ,,tyler ,professor of ,biology1 ,amherst ,college #abmo1 #a4ge 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1 ,,publishers 99 99 99 99 99 ,this work is a solidification of some new matter with the substance of the ten ,morse ,lectures delivered at ,union ,theological ,seminary in the spring of #ahie4 ,professor ,tyler aims to trace the development of man from the simple living substance to his position at present1 paying attention to incidental facts merely as incidental and contributory4 ,he keeps always in view the successive accomplishments of life as they appear in the person of accepted general truth1 rather than in the guise of the facts of progress4 ,he begins by saying3 ,we take for granted the probable truth of the theory of evolution as stated by ,mr4 ,darwin1 and that it applies to man as really as to any lower animal4 ,he assumes that an acceptable historian of biology must possess a genealogical tree of the animal kingdom1 and adds that a knowledge of the sequence of dominant functions or physiological dynasties1 is quite as necessary to his inquiry as a history of the development of anatomical details4 ,since the germs of the future are always concealed in the history of the present1 he claims that if we can trace this sequence of dominant functions1 whose evolution has filled past ages1 we can safely foretell something1 at least1 of man's future development4 ,the possibility of making false trails1 at times1 should not deter the investigator2 for what he would establish is not the history of a single human race1 nor of the movements of a century1 but an understanding of the development of animal life through ages4 ,and only1 says ,professor ,tyler1 when we have a biological history can we have any satisfactory conception of environment4 ,the book concludes with a brief notice of the modern theories of heredity and variation advanced by ,nageli and ,weismann4 ,the ,morse ,lectures for #ahid ,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,japan ,,from ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,history ,,to ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,m,,iji ,by ,,william ,,elliot ,,griffis1 ,d4,d4 ,formerly of the ,imperial ,university of ,tokio2 ,author of ,the ,mikado's ,empire and ,corea1 the ,hermit ,nation #abmo1 #b4jj ,the book is excellent throughout1 and indispensable to the religious student4--,the ,atlantic ,monthly4 ,to any one desiring a knowledge of the development and ethical status of the ,east1 this book will prove of the utmost assistance1 and ,dr4 ,griffis may be thanked for throwing a still greater charm about the ,land of the ,rising ,sun4--,the ,churchman4 ,already an acknowledged authority on ,japanese questions1 ,dr4 ,griffis in this volume gives to an appreciative public1 what we risk calling his most valuable contribution to the literature this profoundly interesting nation has evoked4--,the ,evangelist4 444 ,the fine quality of ,dr4 ,griffis' works4 ,his book is fresh and original1 and may be depended on as material for scientific use4444 ,it may safely be said that it is the best general account of the religions of ,japan that has appeared in the ,english language1 and for any but the special student it is the best we know of in any tongue4--,the ,critic4 ,the ,morse ,lectures for #ahic ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,christ ,,in ,,modern ,,theology ,by ,a4,m4 ,,fairbairn1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,principal of ,mansfield ,college1 ,oxford2 ,gifford ,lecturer in the ,university of ,aberdeen2 ,late ,morse ,lecturer in ,union ,seminary1 ,new ,york1 and ,lyman ,beecher ,lecturer in ,yale ,university #hvo1 #b4ej ,one of the most valuable and comprehensive contributions to theology that has been made during this generation4--,london ,spectator4 ,the knowledge1 ability1 and liberality of the author unite to make the work interesting and valuable4--,the ,dial4 ,it is very high1 but thoroughly deserved1 praise to say that it is worthy of its great theme4--,the ,critical ,review4 ,the volume reveals ,dr4 ,fairbairn as a clear and vigorous thinker1 who knows how to be bold without being too bold4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,suggestive1 stimulating1 and a harbinger of the future catholic theology4--,boston ,literary ,world4 ,it is a book abounding in fine and philosophical thoughts1 and deeply sympathetic with the most earnest religious thinking of the time4--,the ,critic4 ,if the object of a book of theology is to stir up the heart and mind with strong1 clear thinking on divine things1 no book1 certainly1 of the present season surpasses ,dr4 ,fairbairn's4--,the ,outlook4 ,an important contribution to theological literature4--,london ,times4 ,the work shows a keen insight into the relations of truth combined with a rare power of accurate judgment4--,new ,york ,observer4 ,beyond question this is one of the most signally valuable books of the season4--,the ,advance1 ,chicago4 ,the ,ely ,lectures for #ahia ,,oriental ,,religions ,,and ,,christianity ,a ,,course ,,of ,,lectures ,,delivered ,,before ,,the ,,students ,,of ,,union ,,theological ,,seminary1 ,,new ,,york ,by ,,frank ,f4 ,,ellewood1 ,d4,d4 ,secretary of the ,board of ,foreign ,missions of the ,presbyterian ,church1 ,u4,s4,a42 ,lecturer on ,comparative ,religion in the ,university of the ,city of ,new ,york #abmo1 #a4ge ,the volume is not only valuable1 it is interesting2 it not only gives information1 but it stimulates thought4--,evangelist4 ,thoroughly ,christian in spirit4444 ,there is a compactness about it which makes it full of information and suggestion4--,christian ,inquirer4 ,the author has read widely1 reflected carefully1 and written ably4--,congregationalist4 ,it is a book which we can most heartily commend to every pastor and to every intelligent student1 of the work which the ,church is called to do in the world4--,the ,missionary4 ,an able work4--,boston ,transcript4 ,a more instructive book has not been issued for years4--,new ,york ,observer4 ,a noteworthy contribution to ,christian polemics4--,boston ,beacon4 ,the special value of this volume is in its careful differentiation of the schools of religionists in the ,east and the distinct points of antagonism on the very fundamental ideas of ,oriental religions toward the religion of ,jesus4--,outlook4 ,we wish this book might be read by all missionaries and by all ,christians at home4--,presbyterian and ,reformed ,review4 ,the ,ely ,lectures for #ahij ,,the ,,evidence ,,of ,,christian ,,experience ,by ,,lewis ,,french ,,stearns ,professor of ,christian ,theology in ,bangor ,theological ,seminary #abmo1 #b4jj ,the tone and spirit which pervade them are worthy of the theme1 and the style is excellent4 ,there is nothing of either cant or pedantry in the treatment4 ,there is simplicity1 directness1 and freshness of manner which strongly win and hold the reader4--,chicago ,advance4 ,we have read them with a growing admiration for the ability1 strength1 and completeness displayed in the argument4 ,it is a book which should be circulated not only in theological circles1 but among young men of reflective disposition who are beset by the so-called 'scientific' attacks upon the foundations of the ,christian faith4--,christian ,intelligencer4 ,the style is a model of clearness even where the reasoning is deep4--,christian ,inquirer4 ,his presentation of the certainty1 reality1 and scientific character of the facts in a ,christian consciousness is very strong4--,the ,lutheran4 ,an important contribution to the library of apologetics4--,living ,church4 7,p4,e47 ,a good and useful work4--,the ,churchman4 7,p4,e47 ,the work is searching1 careful1 strong1 and sound4--,chautauquan4 ,as thorough and logical as it is spiritual4--,congregationalist4 ,a timely and apropos contribution to the defenses of ,christianity4--,interior4